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380 Speculations in the Medical Schools (CH. relation is established by inference?. Here Caraka points out that a hetu may be either perceived, inferred or found by analogy or from the scriptures, but, in whichever way it may be found, when it leads to knowledge, it is called a hetu. Thus, when I say, “The hill is fiery, because it smokes” (parvato vahnimān dhūmavattvāt), the smoke is the hetu, and it is directly perceived by the eye. But when I say, “He is ill, because he is of low digestion,” the hetu is not directly perceived, but is only inferred; for the fact of one's being in low digestion cannot be directly perceived. Again, when it is said, “Puruşa is eternal, because it is uncreated" (nityaḥ puruṣaḥ a-krtakatvāt), the uncreatedness (a-kytakatva) is the hetu, but it is neither perceived, nor inferred, but accepted from the testimony of the scriptures. Again, in the proposition, “His face is most beautiful, because it has been compared with the moon" (asya mukham kāntatamam candropamatvāt), the fact of being compared with the moon is the hetu and it is known by upamā”. Thus Caraka's definition of hetu does not really come into conflict with that of Gautama: he only says that a hetu may be discovered by any of the pramānas, and, by whichever pramāņa it may be discovered, it may be called a hetu, if it is invariably and unconditionally (a-vinā-bhāva) associated with the major term (sādhya) 3.
Caraka then proceeds to describe uttara, which is in purport the same as the jāti of the Nyāya-sūtras. When an opponent wants to prove a thesis on the basis of a similarity of the subject of the thesis with the hetu, attempts have to be made to upset the thesis by showing its dissimilarity to the hetu. Thus one may say that the feeling of cold in a man must be due to his being affected by snow, dews, or chilly air, because effects arise from causes similar to them; in reply it may be said that effects are dissimilar from their causes, since a burning fever may often be an effect of cold4.
udāharana-sādharmyāt sādhya-sādhanam hetuh tathā vaidharmyāt.
Nyāya-sūtra, 1. 1. 34, 35. 2 See Gangadhara's Jalpa-kalpa-taru, III. 8. 122.
3 hetus cāvinābhāva-linga-vacananı yady api, tathāpiha linga-pragrāhakāni pratyakşādi-pramāṇāny eva yathokta-hetu-mülatvena hetu-sabdenaha.
Cakrapāņi on Caraka, III. 8. 6. 25. 4 sādharmya-vaidharmyābhyām pratyavasthānam jātih. Nyāya-sūtra, 1. 2. 18. There are twenty-four kinds of this jāti, e.g. (1-2) sādharmya-vaidharmya-sama, (3-8) utkarşāpakarşa-varnyāvarnya-vikalpa-sādhya-sama, (9-10) prāpty-aprāptisama, (11-12) prasanga-pratidrstānta-sama, (13) anutpatti-sama, (14) samsayasama, (15) prakarana-sama, (16) ahetu-sama, (17) arthāpatti-sama, (18) avisesasama, (19) upapatti-sama, (20) upalabdhi-sama, (21) anupalabdhi-sama, (22) nityasama, (23) anitya-sama, (24) kārya-sama.
Sādharmya-vaid harmya-sama is that in which, when an argument is given on
