Studies in Jain Literature

Author(s): V M Kulkarni
Publisher: Shardaben Chimanbhai Educational Research Centre
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001868/1

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Shresthi Kasturbhai Lalbhai Series-2
1785

Studies in Jain Literature
The Collected Papers Contributed by Prof. V. M. Kulkarni
500
Shresthi Kasturbhai Lalbhai Smarak Nidhi
Ahmedabad.

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About the work
The major characteristics of Dr. V. M. Kulkarni's work can be summarised as:
For the first time Prakrit poetry has been evaluated in the light of known theories of aesthetics and its substantial contribution is competently assessed by a competent authority. For the first time Abhinavabhāratī Ch. VII, which was till recently believed by eminent scholars to have been lost, has been recovered. For the first time abundant fresh light has been shed on Sarvasena's Harivijaya, the earliest known Prakrit epic, (now lost), which has been highly appreciated by leading literary critics. For the first time the full significance of Sättvikabhāvas has been fully explained in his characteristic style.
For the first time Hemacandra has been evaluated from an impartial point of view which a fair-minded scholar alone can do. For the first time in Prakrit Verses in Sanskrit Works on Poetics the great importance of restoring Prakrit verses has been emphasised by reconstructing over 1600 corrupt verses from a score of major works on Alamkaraśāstra.
The supreme importance of Kāvyānusāsana, Natyadarpana and Kalpalatäviveka for restoring corrupt passages by scores from works on poetics has been brought for the first time to the notice of scholars.
000
fon International

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STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE (The Collected Papers Contributed by Prof. V. M. Kulkarni)
नम्र सूचन इस ग्रन्थ के अभ्यास का कार्य पूर्ण होते ही नियत
समयावधि में शीघ्र वापस करने की कृपा करें. जिससे अन्य वाचकगण इसका उपयोग कर सकें.

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SHRESTHI KASTURBHAI LALBHAI COLLECTED RESEARCH - ARTICLES SERIES
VOLUME-2
General Editor Jitendra B. Shah

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Studies in Jain Literature
(The Collected Papers Contributed by Prof. V. M. Kulkarni )
Shresthi Kasturbhai Lalbhai Smarak Nidhi
C/o. Sharadaben Chimanbhai Educational Research Centre
'Darshan' Opp. Ranakpur Society Shahibaug Ahmedabad-380 004 (Gujarat State) INDIA

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Studies in Jain Literature
(The Collected Papers Contributed by Prof. V. M. Kulkarni)
Published by J. B. Shah
Shresthi Kasturbhai Lalbhai Smarak Nidhi
C/o. Sharadaben Chimanbhai Educational Research Centre 'Darshan' Opp. Ranakpur Society Shahibaug Ahmedabad-380 004 (Gujarat State) INDIA PHONE: 079-2868739. FAX: 079-2862026 e-mail: sambodhi@ad1.vsnl.net.in Website: www.scerc.org
Shresthi Kasturbhai Lalbhai Smarak Nidhi
First Edition : 2001
Copies 500
Price Rs. 680/
Printer
Navprabhat Printing Press Near Old Novelty Cinema, Ghee-kanta, Ahmedabad. Phone 5508631

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Dedicated
to
The Late Dr. A. N. Upadhye
The Late Prof. Dalsukh D. Malvania
The Late Dr. H. C. Bhayani
and
Dr. A. M. Ghatage

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Publisher's Note
We feel happy to publish this second Volume in the series of the Research Articles' Volumes. It contains papers, articles, and related material earlier contributed by Prof. V. M. Kulkarni to various research journals as well as felicitation volumes. These embody the results of his researches in Prakrit and Jaina literature. These were then well received by the scholarly world : Hence the publication of their collection is well-justified and deservedly in place.
Collecting these articles had proven a rather cumbersome task, as the material was scattered through various journals etcetera and published at different periods. When, however, some four years ago, Prof. M. A. Dhaky and I visited him in Mumbai and requested him to provide us the copies of his earlier articles for publishing them in a compact and comprehensive Volume, to our delight, his response was positive. He subsequently sent to us the total material. In the beginning, we had not considered the scheme of instituting a Series of such volumes. But later we gave more serious thought and began working in that direction. Now, it has been planned to publish the volumes of collected research articles and papers by renowned scholars on Indological / Jainological topics, in a definite regularly published Series. The purpose behind instituting this Series is to make available the published writings of eminent scholars in those fields.
We are indeed grateful to Prof. Kulkarani for according his consent to our proposal. We would next like to thank our type-setters-Shri Akhilesh Mishra and Purviben Shah—for preparing the manuscript of this Volume. We also wish to thank Shri Naranbhai Patel, our proof-reader, and Shri Chandraprakashbhai, Administrator of the Centre, for the efficient assistance both of them extended. We likewise are indebted to Su. Śri Manjulaben Joshi in preparing this volume.
We hope that the scholarly world of the concerned field of studies will find this Volume useful as a reference work and for further researches.
Ahmedabad
2001
J. B. Shah
OOO

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PREFACE
The present volume is a collection of essays, research articles and critical reviews in the branches of Jain Literature relating to Dharma, Purānas, poetry and poetics (Alamkāraśāstra). The work consists of two parts. Part I pertains to Dharma and Purānas and part II to non-religious (or secular) literature. It is now for the discerning readers and critics to judge their worth. I will feel amply rewarded if they derive satisfaction by reading these writings which I wrote during the last five decades. I take this opportunity to express my grateful thanks to all those authorities, directors of Research Institute/ Centres, and editors of Oriental Research Journals for giving me permission to include in the present volume the several essays (introductions), research articles and reviews first published by them.
I extend my warm thanks to Dr. Jitendra B. Shah, Director, Sharadaben Chimanbhai Educational Research Centre, Ahmedabad, but for whose and pressing requests during the last three-four years I would not have exerted myself in collecting and duly arranging and editing these writings spread over fifty years. In fact I must thank him doubly for accepting this work for publication by Sharadaben Chimanbhai Educational Research Centre, Ahmedabad. I express my heartfelt thanks to my friends, Dr. G. S. Bedagkar, Prof. Dalsukhbhai Malvania, Dr. H. C. Bhayani who took keen interest in my work, alas ! they are no more. I sincerely thank Mrs. Mrudula Joshi for editorial assistance and for taking pains to prepare the Indexes, and Mrs. S. R. Vaswani, erstwhile Dy. Librarian of the Asiatic Society of Bombay for making books readily available to me whenever asked for.
I appreciate the services rendered by-Vikram Makwana and Chirag Shah for Data-entry and Typesetting, Naranbhai Patel and Chandraprakash Shah for proofreading, Akhilesh Mishra for final typesetting and butter-prints, and the Navbharat Printing Press. Mumbai
V. M. Kulkarni 26 March, 2001.

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BY THE SAME AUTHOR
(1944)
(1964)
(1965) (1969)
(1980) (1983) (1986)
(1988)
SAMARĀICCAKAHĀ OF HARIBHADRASŪRI (BHAVA-II) (WITH INTRODUCTION, FULL TRANSLATION AND NOTES) KĀVYĀNUŚĀSANA OF ACĀRYA HEMACANDRA (IN COLLABORATION) JAYADEVA'S GĪTAGOVINDA
WITH A HITHERTO UNPUBLISHED KING MANANKA'S COMMENTARY • ŚRNGĀRĀRNAVACANDRIKĀ OF VIJAYAVARNI • AN ANTHOLOGY OF JAIN TEXTS
(SAHITYA AKADEMY, NEW DELHI) • STUDIES IN SANSKRIT SĀHITYA-ŚĀSTRA
SOME ASPECTS OF THE RASA THEORY (ED.) PRAKRIT VERSES IN SANSKRIT WORKS ON POETICS (VOL. I : TEXT) PRAKRIT VERSES IN SANSKRIT WORKS ON POETICS (VOL. II : TRANSLATION) (WITH INTRODUCTION, GLOSSARY AND NOTES)
PRAŠAMARATI-PRAKARANA OF VACAKA ŚRIMAD UMĀSVĀTI (ED.) • THE STORY OF RĀMA IN JAIN LITERATURE • MORE STUDIES IN SANSKRIT SĀHITYA-ŚĀSTRA • FIVE CRITICAL ARTICLES IN MARATHI ON POETICS AND POETRY • BHOJA AND THE HARIVIJAYA OF SARVASENA • A TREASURY OF JAIN TALES (ED.) • USĀNIRUDDHAM OF RAMAPĀNIVADA
(SECOND ENLARGED EDITION) • OUTLINE OF ABHINAVAGUPTA'S AESTHETICS • NATYAŚĀSTRA WITH THE COMMENTARY OF ABHINAVAGUPTA
(IN COLLABORATION, SECOND REVISED EDITION) • ABHINAVABHĀRATI TEXT : RESTORED (IN PRESS)
(1990) (1991) (1990) (1993) (1993)
(1994)
(1996) (1998)
(2001)

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FIRST PUBLICATION
1. CHARACTER OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY : The Story of Rāma in Jain Literature; Saraswati
Pustak Bhandar, Ahmedabad, 1990.
2. SOME ASPECTS OF PAÜMACARIYA : Based on Thesis - "The Story of Rāma in Jain
Literature", 1952. 3. ORIGIN OF THE STORY OF RÃMA IN JAIN LITERATURE : JOI, Baroda, 1959, Vol. XI,
No. 2 and No. 3, Baroda, 1960.
4. DEVELOPMENT OF THE STORY OF RĀMA IN JAIN LITERATURE : JOI, Baroda, 1959,
Vol. XI, No. 2 and No. 3, 1960.
5. VALMĪKI RĀMĀYANA AND JAIN RĀMĀYANAS : STUDY IN INTERACTION*
6. IMPACT OF RĀMĀYANA ON JAIN LITERATURE* 7. UTTARĀDHYAYANASŪTRA ON BRAHMANISM : All India Seminar on Jain Canonical
Literature, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, 1986. 8. BHAGAVADGĪTĀ AND UTTARADHYAYANASŪTRA : A COMPARATIVE ASPECT*
9. VEDA AND JAIN TEXTS* 10. SACRIFICE IN THE JAIN TRADITION : UGC Seminar, University of Bombay, 1986. 11. JAIN VIEW OF CREATION : Seminar on Myths of Creation, University of Bombay, 1985, 12. SVABHĀVAVĀDA (NATURALISM) : A STUDY : Shri Mahavīra Jaina Vidyalaya, Golden
Jubilee Volume, Part I, Bombay, 1968.
13. ESCHATOLOGICAL IDEAS IN JAIN TRADITION* : Seminar at University of Bombay,
March 1992.
14. HARIBHADRASŪRI'S VIMŚATIVIMŚIKĀ : AN APPROACH : Dr. J. C. Jain Felicitation
Volume (Ed. Dr. N. N. Bhattacarya). 1994. 15. PAÑCASÚTRA : A STUDY : Introduction to "Pañcasūtrakam of Cirantanācārya”, B. L.
Institute, Delhi, 1986.

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XII
16. THE SOURCE OF PRAKRIT LANGUAGES : Journal, University of Bombay, Arts no. Vol.
XLI, No. 77, 1972.
17. THE STORY OF KING VASU IN JAIN LITERATURE : H. G. Shastri Felicitation Volume,
1994.
18. TYPES OF STORIES IN SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT LITERATURE WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO DHARMA-KATHA IN JAIN LITERATURE :
19. NANDISUTTAM AND ANUOGADDĀRĀM : Ed. by Muniśri Punyavijaya and Pt. A. M.
Bhojaka, Pub. Mahāvīra Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay; Reviewed in Sambodhi, Vol. 2, No.
4, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1974. 20. STUDIES IN EARLY JAINISM : By J. C. Jain, Pub. Navrang Booksellers, New Delhi,
1992; Reviewed in JASB, Vols. 64-66, Bombay, 1993. 21. AYARANGA: PADHAMA SUTA-KHANDHA, PADHAMA AJJHAYANA : Ed. K. R. Chandra,
Prakrit Jaina Vidyā Vikāsa Fund, Ahmedabad; JASB, Vol. 73, Bombay, 1998. 22. ISIBHĀSIYĀIM KĀ PRAKRIT-SANSKRIT SABDAKOŚA : Ed. K. R. Chandra, Prakrit Text
Society, Ahmedabad; Reviewed in JASB, Vol. 74, Bombay, 2000. 23. RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE JAINAS : By Virchand Gandhi, Ed. Nagin J.
Shah, Pub. Lalit C. Shah, Jain International, Ahmedabad; Reviewed in JASB, Vols. 67
68, Bombay, 1994. 24. HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE ALAMKĀRA AND RASA TRADITIONS : Pub. in
Sambodhi (Special Issue), Vol. 15, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1990.
25. SOURCES OF HEMACANDRA'S KAVYANUSĀSANA : JOI, Baroda, Vol. XIV, No. 2,
Baroda, 1964.
26. HEMACANDRA ON SĀTTVIKABHĀVAS : Seminar on Ācārya Hemacandra, Pub. in
Sambodhi (Special Number), Vol. 15, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1990. 27. DUAL NATURE OF SÄTTVIKABHĀVAS : JOI, Baroda, Vol. 38, Nos. 1-2, Baroda, 1990.
28. HEMACANDRA : AN ASSESSMENT : UGC Seminar, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad,
1990.
29. SOMEŚVARA BHATTA AND HEMACANDRĀCĀRYA : Bulletin, C. G. Vidyabhavan, Nos.
8, 9, Surat, 1961-62.
30. KALPALATĀVIVEKA : A STUDY : JOI, Baroda, Vol. XVIII, No. 4, Baroda, 1969.
31. KALPALATĀVIVEKA ON ABHINAVABHARATI : JOI, Baroda, Vol. XXI (No. 4), Baroda,
1972.

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XIII
32. KALPALATĀVIVEKA ON BHAMAHA'S KAVYALAMKĀRA (Chapter V, vv. 5-10): Varanasi
Session, The Fifth World Sanskrit Conference, 1981; Pub. in “Studies in Sanskrit Sähitya
Šāstra”, B. L. Institute of Indology, Patan (now Delhi), 1983. 33. FRESH LIGHT ON BHÄMAHA-VIVARANA : Sambodhi, Vol. 1, No. 1, L. D. Institute of
Indology, Ahmedabad, 1972. 34. ABHINAVABHARATI CH. VII RECOVERED : JOI, Baroda, Vol. XX, No. 3, Baroda, 1971.
35. ŚRNGĀRĀRNAVACANDRIKĀ OF VIJAYAVARNI : Introduction to Śrngārārnavacandrikā
of Vijayavarni; Pub. Bharatiya Jñänapitha, Delhi, 1969.
36. DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION : MM. Dr. P. V. Kane Memorial Lecture for
1990, Pub. in JASB, Vol. 37. JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS : Pub. in
"Contribution of Jainism to Indian Culture", Motilal Banarsidass, Varanasi, 1975.
38. JAIN AESTHETIC CONCEPTS : Seminar on “Jain Culture and Performing Arts"; Pub.in
Jain Culture and Performing Arts, NCPA, Bombay, 1990.
39. THE JAIN VIEW OF AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE : JOI, Baroda, Vol. XXIV, No. 1-2,
Baroda, 1974.
40. SOME UNCONVENTIONAL VIEWS ON RASA 41. SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT MAHĀKĀVYAS* 42. HARIVIJAYA OF SARVASENA : Annals, BORI, (Diamond Jubilee Volume), Pune, 1977
78; Revised and Enlarged edition, Saraswati Pustak Bhandar, Ahmedabad, 1991.
43. SAMARĀICCAKAHĀ (BHAVA -II) OF HARIBHADRASŪRI : A STUDY : Pub. Bharat Book
Stall, Kolhapur, 1944.
44. MALLIKĀMAKARANDA BY RĀMACANDRA : Introduction to "Mallikämakaranda", Ed.
Muni Sri Punyavijayaji, Pub. L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1983.
45. PRAKRIT VERSES IN SANSKRIT WORKS ON POETICS : Introduction to "Prakrit Verses
in Sanskrit Works on Poetics", Vol. II, B. L. Institute of Indology, Delhi, 1990.
46. A BRIEF SURVEY OF JAIN LITERATURE (IN PRAKRIT AND SANSKRIT LANGUAGES):
Introduction to “An Anthology of Jain Texts", Sahitya Akademi, New Delhi, 1980. 47. INDIAN NARRATIVE LITERATURE : A STUDY : Introduction to "A Treasury of Jain
Tales"; Pub. Sharadaben Chimanbhai Educational Research Centre, Ahmedabad, 1994.
48. JINESVARASŪRI'S GÄHÄRAYANAKOSA : Sambodhi, Vol. 6, No. 3-4, Ahmedabad, 1977
78.

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XIV
49. TARAYANA (TARAGANA): AN ANTHOLOGY OF BAPPABHATTI: Ed. H. C. Bhayani, Pub. Prakrit Text Society, Ahmedabad, 1987; Reviewed in Sambodhi, Vol.
50. INDOLOGICAL STUDIES-1 By H. C. Bhayani, Pub. Parshva Prakashan, Ahmedabad, 1993; Reviewed in JASB, Vol. 72, Bombay, 1997.
51. INDOLOGICAL STUDIES II: By H. C. Bhayani, Pub. Parshva Publication, Ahmedabad, 1998; Reviewed in JASB, Vol. 74, Bombay, 2000.
52. SAPTASATİSARA WITH BHĀVADĪPIKĀ Ed. A. N. Upadhye, Shivaji University, Kolhapur, 1970; Reviewed in Journal, University of Bombay, Arts No. Vol. XL, No. 76, Bombay, 1971.
53. WOMEN IN ANCIENT INDIAN TALES: By J. C. Jain and M. Walter, Mittal Publications, Delhi, 1987; Reviewed in JASB, Bombay, 1991.
54. VIDYAṢTAKAM: By Munishri Niyam Sagarji, Pradeep Cutpiece, Madhya Pradesh; 1994; Reviewed in JASB, Vol. 71, Bombay, 1997.
55. APPENDIX: HARIVIJAYA OF SARVASENA (Revised, tentative and free translation) : First published by Saraswati Pustak Bhandar, Ahmedabad, 1991.
[Note Articles marked with asterisks (") are unpublished, though they were read at seminars.]

ᄆᄆᄆ

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CONTENTS
106 112
123
1. CHARACTER OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY 2. SOME ASPECTS OF PAÜMACARIYA 3. ORIGIN OF THE STORY OF RĀMA IN JAIN LITERATURE 4. DEVELOPMENT OF THE STORY OF RĂMA IN JAIN LITERATURE 5. VĀLMIKI RĀMĀYAŅA AND JAIN RĀMĀYAŅAS : STUDY IN INTERACTION 6. IMPACT OF RAMAYANA ON JAIN LITERATURE 7. UTTARĀDHYAYANASŪTRA ON BRAHMANISM 8. BHAGAVADGĪTĀ AND UTTARĀDHYAYANASŪTRA : A COMPARATIVE ASPECT 9. VEDA AND JAIN TEXTS 10. SACRIFICE IN THE JAIN TRADITION 11. JAIN VIEW OF CREATION 12. SVABHĀVAVĀDA (NATURALISM) : A STUDY 13. ESCHATOLOGICAL IDEAS IN JAIN TRADITION 14. HARIBHADRASŪRI'S VI MŚATIVI MŚIKĀ : AN APPROACH 15. PANCASŪTRA : A STUDY 16. THE SOURCE OF PRAKRIT LANGUAGES 17. THE STORY OF KING VASU IN JAIN LITERATURE 18. TYPES OF STORIES IN SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT LITERATURE WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO DHARMA-KATHÃ IN JAIN LITERATURE 19. NANDISUTTAM AND AŅUOGADDÄRÄIM 20. STUDIES IN EARLY JAINISM (SELECTED RESEARCH ARTICLES) 21. AYĀRANGA : PADHAMA SUTA-KHANDHA, PADHAMA AJJHAYAŅA
(ĀCĀRĀNGA : PRATHAMA ŚRUTA-SKANDHA, PRATHAMA ADHYAYANA) 22. ISIBHASIYĀIM KA PRAKRIT-SANSKRIT SABDAKOŚA 23. RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE JAINAS 24. HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE ALAMKÄRA AND RASA TRADITIONS 25. SOURCES OF HEMACANDRA’S KÄVYĀNUŚĀSANA
127
131
148
152
155
163
169
172
175
177 179
192

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XVI
200
207
223 230 237 251 262
271
276
26. HEMACANDRA ON SĀTTVIKABHĀVAS 27. DUAL NATURE OF SÄTTVIKABHAVAS 28. HEMACANDRA : AN ASSESSMENT 29. SOMEŚVARA BHATTA AND HEMACANDRĀCĀRYA 30. KALPALATĀVIVEKA : A STUDY 31. KALPALATĀVIVEKA ON ABHINAVABHARATI 32. KALPALATĀVIVEKA ON BHAMAHA'S KAVYALAMKARA (Chapter V.vv 5-10) 33. FRESH LIGHT ON BHĀMAHA-VIVARANA 34. ABHINAVABHARATI CH. VII RECOVERED 35. SRNGĀRĀRŅAVACANDRIKA (ALAMKĀRASAMGRAHA) OF VIJAYAVARNI 36. DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 37. JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 38. JAIN AESTHETIC CONCEPTS 39. THE JAIN VIEW OF AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE 40. SOME UNCONVENTIONAL VIEWS ON RASA 41. SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT MAHAKAVYAS 42. HARIVIJAYA OF SARVASENA
TEXT : Part 1
283
295
313 331
342 347 354 363
369
TEXT : Part II
377
397
417
453
496 521
541
43. SAMARĀICCAKAHĀ (BHAVA-II) OF HARIBHADRASŪRI : A STUDY 44. MALLIKAMAKARANDA [By Ramacandra) 45. PRAKRIT VERSES IN SANSKRIT WORKS ON POETICS 46. A BRIEF SURVEY OF JAIN LITERATURE
(IN PRAKRIT AND SANSKRIT LANGUAGES) 47. INDIAN NARRATIVE LITERATURE : A STUDY 48. JINEŚVARASŪRI’S GĀHĀRAYAŅAKOSA 49. TĀRĀYANA (Tārāgaña) : An Anthology of Bappabhatti 50. INDOLOGICAL STUDIES-I 51. INDOLOGICAL STUDIES-II 52. SAPTAŚATĪSĀRA WITH BHÄVADIPIKA 53. WOMEN IN ANCIENT INDIAN TALES 54. VIDYAŞTAKAM
APPENDIX
(HARIVIJAYA OF SARVASENA) (Tentative and free) Translation 55. AUTHORS' INDEX 56. INDEX OF WORKS
556 561
563 565 567 569 571
585
593

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CHARACTER OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY
1. RELIGION AND MYTHOLOGY
Religion and mythology are always intimately connected with each other. "Works on mythology clothe with flesh and blood, the bony framework of spiritual truths and ethical code as set forth in sacred literature. Without such a body of flesh and bone, the mere life-force of the sacred texts cannot function with effect. It is of course, equally true that without such life-force the mere mass of flesh and bone will decay." The Purānas popularize the truths taught in the sacred books by presenting them in relation to individual men and women and to the events of their lives. They explain, illustrate and inculcate the moral principles stated in them. 2. THE DEFINITION OF MAHĀ-PURĀŅA
Jinasena, the author of the Adi-Purāna, says: "I shall describe the narrative of 63 ancient persons, viz., the (24) Tīrthakaras, the (12) Cakravartins, (9) Baladevas, (9) Ardha-Cakravartins (i. e., Vasudevas) and their enemies (i. e., Prativāsudevas). The word Purāna meant 'old or ancient narrative'. It is called 'great' because it relates to the great (personages), or because it is narrated by the great (Tirthakaras, Ganadharas or Ācāryas) or because it teaches (the way to) supreme bliss. Other learned men say that it is called Purāna because it originates with an old poet and it is called great because of its intrinsic greatness. The great rșis called it a Mahāpurāņa as it relates to great men and teaches (the way to) supreme bliss." And he adds that "the Mahā-Purāna is regarded 'Ārsa' because it was composed by rsis, 'Sūkta' as it expounds truth and 'Dharma-śāstra' as it declares Dharma. It is also looked upon as Itihāsa, Itivrtta, or Aitihya or Amnāya as it contains many stories about 'Iti-h-āsa' (--so it has been' i. e., 'traditional history')2. Thus according to Jinasena, Purāna and Itihāsa are synonymous terms. A Tippaņa-Kāra of Puspadanta's Mahāpurāņa, however, makes a distinction between the two, saying that Itihāsa means the narrative of a single individual while Purāņa means the narratives of 63 great men of the

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2
Jain faith'. The Kautiliya-Arthaśästra (I. 5) in its definition of Itihasa enumerates 'Purana' and 'Itivṛtta' as belonging to the content of Itihasa. As Itivṛtta can only mean a 'historical event', Purana probably means 'mythological and legendary lore'.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
3. THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY
It is believed that Jainism is comparatively of a later origin. Jain works speak of 24 Tirthakaras. A majority of eminent scholars, however, accept that Mahavira and Pārsvanatha (and Neminatha too, according to a few,) were historical personages and they consider the rest of the Tirthakaras to be mythical figures. Jainism received great impetus under Mahavira's religious leadership. A few centuries after the Nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jains felt the necessity of having their own mythology which would provide an excellent means for reaching popular thought and propagating their own views, ideals and doctrines. To meet the requirement the religious teachers and masters of Jainism invented myths, accepted popular legends with necessary modifications and borrowed the most. popular stories from the Hindu Mythology-adapting them so as to make them suitable vehicles to convey the truths of their own religion, philosophy and ethics. Jain Mythology centres in the personalities of sixty three great figures. The material for their lives is found partly in the Kalpa-sutra and, in its basic elements, in the Tiloyapannatti and Avaśyakabhäṣya. These lives have assumed a definite pattern, though the extent of details and poetic descriptions etc., differ from author to author. The names of all the Tirthakaras are handed down with a multitude of details. "Yet the minutiae are precisely the same for each with changes of name and place, and with variation as to the details of complexion. and stature, as well as the designations of the attendant spirits, who are a Yakṣa and a Yakṣini, of the ganadhara (leader of disciples), and of the Arya (first) woman convert)." A minor alteration here and there is remarkable: thus the 20th Tirthakara, Muni Suvrata and twenty-second, Aristanemi3 are said to have been of the Harivamsa, and not like all the others, of the Ikṣvāku family; such alterations we find in a few cases regarding the place where some Tirthakaras attained Mokṣa or perfect knowledge or the posture at the time of final release. But for the most part the Jain narratives include precisely the same miracles in regard to the birth and other events in the lives of the Tirthakaras.
The Jain tradition traces the origin of the Puränas to Lord Mahavira himself and provides a succession of teachers through who they were handed. down, some of whom cannot be said to be historical personages. The traditions. as recorded in the different Puranas of the Svetämbaras and the Digambaras

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CHARACTER OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY
differ considerably and are conflicting. It is possible that the origin is traced to Mahāvīra in order to invest the Purāņa concerned with sanctity and authorityin the present state of our knowledge we cannot summarily brush aside their claim that they were given in the Pūrva texts which are irretrievably lost to usbut this much we can say that 'strings of names' (Nāmāvali), such as are found in the Tiloyapannatti, were contained in the Pūrvas and their oral exposition from his teacher was received by Vimala Sūri who composed the earliest extant Jain epic-Purana--the Pauma-cariya-written according to his own statement 530 years after the Nirvāṇa of Mahāvīra.
Modern scholars like Jacobi, Glasenapp and Winternitz hold that the mythology of the Jains is to a great extent derivative. The Mahābhārata attributed to Vyāsa and the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki—these two epics of the Hindus were very popular and had made a deep impression on the lives of millions of people in the land. Again some of the oldest Purānas, which tradition attributes to Vyāsa, must have been widely prevalent in those days. Especially the exploits of Rāma and of Krsna were such as made the Hindus look upon them as the Avatāras of God Visnu. The Jain writers, coming later, may have wished to make a popular appeal to rival the influence of Brahmanical works on the masses and therefore could not ignore the great heroes-Rāma and Krsna--and their lives. It was thus natural for the Jains to adopt the Rāma story and the Krsna-legend and to give them a Jain background and atmosphere.
Besides adopting the legends of Rāma and Krsna they incorporated a large number of popular legends in their mythology in order to propagate Jain virtues. These legends have their counterparts in Hindu and Buddhist literature : e. g., the well-known legends of Bharata, Sagara--the descent of Gangā and the destruction of 60000 sons of Sagara-Brahmadatta, Śrenika and Rsyaśrnga. They also introduced a number of purely Jain legends in their mythology. To this category belong the biographies of the first 22 Tīrthakaras (for the last two are historical ones), of some of the Cakravartins and some of the 27 heroes (Baladevas etc.). Not only the Tirthakaras themselves but other holy men too have been glorified in their works by the Jains, e. g. Śālibhadra, a famous legendary hero, Jivandhara, who is celebrated first in the Uttarapurāna and then in many later works in Sanskrit and Tamil, Yasodhara, Karakandu, Nāgakumāra and Śrīpāla. Thus we have the Jain Mythology built up out of considerable borrowings from the Hindu epics and mythology, popular legends from the common stock of Indian literature and pure Jain legends created to give Jainism a background of ancient tradition and to propagate Jain virtues of Ahimsā, Satya, etc.

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4. THE SIXTYTHREE GREAT FIGURES OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY
Sixtythree salākāpuruṣas: As, already remarked it is mainly the lives of the sixtythree excellent men (salākāpuruṣas) that form the subjectmatter of Jain mythology. These prominent personages are classified into five groups: (i) 24 Tīrthakaras, (ii) 12 Cakravartins-sovereign rulers of the world, (iii) 9 Baladevas, (iv) 9 Vasudevas and (v) 9 Prativasudevas.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
Now let us first give a clear idea as to what these words signify. The word śalākāpuruṣa is taken to mean by all as 'Pravarapurusa', 'Uttamapuruṣa' or 'mahāpuruṣa" i.e., great or eminent or prominent personages. But how the word came to be equated with mahāpuruṣa is not properly explained by any writer. The commentary on Abhidhānacintāmaṇi III. 364 explains thus: 'salākāpuruṣāḥ puruşeşu jātarekha ityarthāḥ', meaning thereby probably-"Those who are marked, characterised, distinguished (by 'mukti') from amongst the people at large". Śalākā means, 'a small bamboo stick' which a Buddhist monk used as an identity badge. Śalākāpuruşa would probably mean "legitimised, characterised men" so that salākāpuruṣa and lakṣaṇapuruşa are synonymous. Abhidhanarajendra, however, explains the term differently. The interpretation of the word as 'Men characterised by mukti-liberation' seems to be more correct. Another meaning may be suggested here. In ancient days lines were drawn for counting 'number'. So salākāpuruṣas were those distinguished men whose number would be counted by drawing lines.
The word Tirthakara or Tirthamkara means 'saviour', 'spiritual guide', 'one who shows the way to cross the ocean of worldly existence', or to follow tradition, one who establishes the four-fold order of the Jains consisting of (i) 'Sadhu', (ii) Sādhvī, (iii) Śrāvaka and (iv) Śrāvikā. The two words, viz. Jina and Arhat are often used as synonyms of Tirthakara. Jina means "one who subduing love or hatred towards samsara, has been liberated" and Arhat--one who deserves to be honoured and worshippd (by even Indra and other gods etc.). Tirthakaras are the prophets of Jainism, they promulgate dharma and by their precept and example help their followers to attain mukti.
The word cakravartin or cakrin means 'one who rules over the six Khandas of Bharatavarṣa'. He possesses a wondours cakra (disc) whereby he is called a 'cakrin'. Dr. Ghatage gives the explanatory gloss as :
"The classical Indian idea of a Cakravartin is that of a universal monarch, a paramount ruler. Vedic literature knows the word Sam-rāt but Cakravartin comes into vogue only in the later parts of the epics. In the popular literature such rulers are also assigned to the Vidyadharas, semi-divine beings,

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CHARACTER OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY
as in the case of Naravāhanadatta, the son of Udayana and the hero of the Brhat-Kathā. The original meaning appears to be a king, whose chariot-wheel meets no obstacle in his conquests.
With the Buddhists the Cakravartin got associated with a disc, a jewel, which precedes him and procures for him success. He represents the secular authority as the Buddha does the spiritual power. It is said of Buddha '14 tafad'. The Jain idea of a Cakravartin is similar and he is said to win 14 ratnas, including the cakra disc. These ideas are all developments from the popular identification of the cakra with the disc in the hand of Visnu, a solar symbol. There are twelve such universal monarchs in Jain Mythology. They have further created the category of Bharatārdha-cakravartins who rule only half the Bharata country, and who are having the nine Vāsudevas with them.
Scholars have explained the word a n different ways. Wilson considered it to mean 'one who abides in (alla) a large territory called a 'Kern takes afis to mean adefa who rules'. Senart regards him to be one who owns a चक्रवाल while Jacobi thinks that चक्र here stands for the political term मण्डल."
The word Baladeva (also Balabhadra) or Haladhara or Halin is used for the elder step-brother of Nārāyaṇa or Vāsudeva, who is a mighty human king ruling over three parts of the earth. For example, in the story of Räma, Padma (another name of Rāma) is the Baladeva and Laksmana is the Nārāyaṇa or Vasudeva; and Rāvana who is antagonistic to Vāsudeva is called Prativasudeva.
According to one tradition there are 54 great men only, as it does not count the Prativāsudevas in the list of Uttamapurusas'. This tradition is recorded in the Samavāyārgasūtra and Sīlācārya too speaks of 54 great men.
It is to be noted that all these 63 salākāpurusas are "great men” and are bereft of any divine element. In the Hindu Mythology Nārāyana is an epithet of Visnu Krsna and Balabhadra or Baladeva (or Balarāma) is the name of the elder brother of Krsna, Nārāyaṇa is the supreme God and Baladeva too is sometimes regarded as an incarnation of the serpent sesa and sometimes as the eighth incarnation of Visnu. And so also the Hindus regard Rāma as the Nārāyana and Laksmana as the incarnation of Ananta (the serpent Sesa). Now the Jains agree with the Hindus in regarding Krsna as Nārāyana and Balarama as Bala they however, invert their order in the case of Rāma and Lakşmaņa whom they regard as Baladeva and Nārāyana respectively. It appears they deliberately introduced this change for the sake of uniformity-for in the case of Balarāma and Krsna the elder brother is Baladeva and the younger one Nārāyana and it is not unlikely that the name 'Rāma' was to some extent responsible for his being

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regarded as Baladeva.
With these preliminary remarks we now take up a detailed consideration of these five groups of great men of Jainism :
The Twenty-four Tirthakaras : Besides the 24 Tirthankaras belonging to the present age, Jain Mythology takes account also of a past and future age and to each of the aeons are assigned 24 Tirthakaras. And further, they are said to be born in ten different regions of Jain cosmography such as Bharata-Ksetra, Haimavata-Ksetra and the like. Thus we have in all 720 Tirthakaras. The 24 of the present aeon are, however, described with great details. Their biographies follow a uniform pattern. The lives of the two famous Tīrthakaras-Pārsva and Mahāvīra are described in Jain works with a wealth of detail and in the case of others only remarkable events are recorded. As a rule, in the case of each Tirthakara, the following particulars are mentioned.
(1) The previous births, (2) the name of the heavenly region from which he descends, (3) his parents' names, (4) birth-place, (5) 'Nakşatra' or the Zodiacal sign of his birth, (6) his height, (7) his colour, (8) his age, (9) the tree under which he obtains Kevala or perfect knowledge, (10) his place of Nirvāna, (11) the number of his ganadharas or chief disciples, and of sädhus, sādhvīs, śrāvakas and śrāvikās, (12) the yaksa and yakṣiṇī that wait upon him, (13) the interval between him and his predecessor and (14) the periods of time during which he lived as a householder, etc., and the date of his Nirvana. The names of 24 Tirthakaras are :
1. Rşabha, 2. Ajita 3. Sambhava, 4. Abhinandana, 5. Sumati, 6. Padmaprabha, 7. Supārsva, 8. Candraprabha, 9. Puspadanta, 10. Šītala, 11. Śreyāṁsa, 12. Vasupujya, 13. Vimala, 14. Ananta, 15. Dharmanātha, 16. Sāntinātha, 17. Kunthu, 18. Aranātha, 19. Malli, 20. Muni Suvrata, 21. Naminātha, 22. Nemi (or Aristanemi), 23. Pārsva and 24. Mahāvīra. Excepting the last two (or three) who are historical persons, others are from the sphere of Jain Mythology.
The twelve Cakravartins are the sovereign rulers over six parts of the Bharata country. Like the biographies of the Tīrthakaras, those of the Cakravartins too follow a uniform pattern. As a reward of the good Karman done in the previous births or as a result of ‘Nidāna' (an evil resolution to utilise the merit of one's penance to get the desired object in the next life) they are born as Cakravartins in the dynasty of the Iksvāku, etc. They expand their empire on the strength of their superior valour. They are handsome mighty heroes; defeating their enemies they rule over the Bharata country—when gods descend
from heaven, they bestow encomium on them and coronate them as “Emperor”.

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They rule for a very long time over the country-enjoying pleasures in the company of women and the glory due to an Emperor. What is extraordinary about them is their possession of 14 'ratnas' and 9 'nidhis? The ratnas or gems are : 1. Cakra (disc), 2. Danda (a staff), 3. Khadga (sword), 4. Chatra (Parasol) 5. Carma (Marvellous hide), 6. Mani (jewel), 7. Käkini and 8. Senāpati, 9. Grhapati, 10. Vārdhakī, 11. Purohita, 12. Gaja (Elephant) 13. Aśva (Horse) and 14. Strī (woman). The 'nidhis', which they possess, are, according to some, a work treating of nine lores while according to others, treasures kept in Caskets. Their names are : 1. Naisarpa (mansion), 2. Panduka (food-grains), 3. Pingalaka (ornaments), 4. Sarvārathaka (14 jewels), 5. Mahāpadma (other jewels), 6. Kāla (astrology), 7. Mahākāla (mines of metals and gems). 8. Mānavaka (the art of war) and 9. Sankha (Poetry, dramatic sciences and music). We do not get an exact idea about the nature of 9 'nidhis'.
The names of the twelve Cakravartins are :
1. Bharata, 2. Sagara, 3. Maghavan, 4. Sanatkumāra, 5. Śāntinātha, 6. Kunthunātha, 7. Ara(ha)nātha, 8. Subhauma, 9. Padmanābha, 10. Harisena, 11. Jayasena and 12. Brahmadatta.
Of these, the names of Bharata, Sagara, Maghavan and Brahmadatta are celebrated in Hindu Epics and Purānas.
The 9 Baladevas, 9 Väsudevas and 9 Prativāsudevas : Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prativāsudeva are great heroes, born as contemporaries. Baladeva and Vāsudeva are step-brothers and Prativasudeva is antagonistic to complexion of Baladeva is white and he wears blue garment. His banner is emblazoned with a palm-tree. He possesses four Āyudhas : 1. Dhanus (Bow), 2. Gadā (Mace), 3. Musala (Pestle) and, 4. Hala (Plough). According to Digambara tradition he has all these except the first for which they substitute “Ratnamālā'. His birth is indicated by four dreams which his mother sees.
Väsudeva, also called Närāyana or Visnu, is the younger step-brother of Baladeva. He plays a very active role in the narrative and may be looked upon as the hero of the story. It is he who finally kills the Prativāsudeva. He is rather hot-tempered whereas his elder step-brother is very pious and gentle by nature. His is a dark complexion and he wears a yellow garment. He bears on his chest the sign of Srivatsa. He possesses a white parasol and chowries and his banner is marked with the figure of 'eagle'. He possesses seven Āyudhas : 1. a Pāñcajanya conch, 2. Sudarśana (Disc), 3. Kaumodaki-mace, 4. Sārnga bow, 5. Nandaka sword, 6. Vanamālā, a garland of wild flowers and, 7. Kaustubha jewel. According to the Digambara tradition he possesses all the seven except the

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last two for which they substitute Danda and Sakti. From the number of Ayudhas and also from the number of dreams-7 according to the Svetambaras and 5 according to the Digambaras-which appear to his mother and announce his birth, it can be seen that the Jains represent him to be more powerful than his elder step-brother.
Prativasudeva is a mighty hero, no doubt, but he is portrayed as a tyrant. His birth is announced by 1-4 dreams, dreamt by his mother. Baladeva and Vasudeva are deeply attached to each other and for one reason or the other the two entertain hostility to the Prativäsudeva, who is an Ardha-Cakrin-one who rules three parts of the earth. In the war it is Vasudeva who kills the Prativasudeva; the latter after death, sinks into hell as a result of his sinful deeds. Vasudeva then becomes an Ardha-Cakrin, enjoys the pleasures of kingdom for a long time and after death goes to hell as a result of 'himsa' that he has committed in war etc., and to counteract which he has not performed tapas after entering the ascetic order. After, the death of Vasudeva, Baladeva finds no joy in Samsara, enters the ascetic order, practises austerities and finally obtains heaven or attains to Nirvana.
The names of these heroes are :
Baladeva
Väsudeva
Triprsta
Dviprsta
1. Vijaya
2.
Acala
3. Dharmaprabha or Bhadra
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
4. Suprabha
5.
Sudarsana
6. Ananda
7. Nandana
8.
Padma (Ráma)
9. (Bala-) Rāma
Svayambhu
Purusottama
Puruṣasimha
Pundarika
Datta Lakṣmaṇa Krsna
From amongst these heroes we note that some are glorified in the Hindu Mythology and the Epics, e.g., the 8th and the 9th sets of Baladevas, Vasudevas and Prativasudevas. Thus these 63 great men form the backbone, as it were, of Jain Mythology. From the schematic treatment of the lives of these heroes we note that the Jain Mythology has all the appearance of a purely constructed system'. At the same time it must be admitted that the heroes of the Rāmāyaṇa and of Kṛṣṇa-story may not have been absolutely fictitious characters. Reputed and

Prativasudeva
Ašvagriva
Tāraka
Meraka
Madhu-Kaitabha
Nisumbha
Balin
Prahlada
Rāvana
Jarasandha

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9
eminent scholars of the Hindu Epic and Purānas do hold that Rāma, Kṛṣṇna etc., may have lived as actual human beings.
5. THE EXTENT OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY
The narrative literature of the Jains is very vast in extent and varied in scope. The Purāņas, the Mahā-Purāņas, and the 'Caritras' together form one of its main types'. They are written in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Apabhramśa. They treat of the biographies of the 63 Eminent Men (salākāpurusas) that is to say the 24 Tīrthakaras and their contemporaries, the 12 Cakravartins or rulers of the world and the 27 heroes-9 Baladevas, 9 Vasudevas and 9 Prativasudevas of antiquity. These works are usually called 'Puranas' by the Digambaras while 'Caritras' by the the Svetambaras. The Maha-Purana contains the lives of all the 63 prominent personalities, whereas a Purāna or Carita generally deals with the life of a single Jina or some other hero 10. The number of these works is very large and a few of them are very wide in their scope, while others confine themselves to narrow limits.
Winternitz, in his History of Indian Literature", briefly reviews the wellknown Digambara Purāņas (Padma-Harivamsa-, Trisastilakṣaṇa-, Maha- and Uttara-Purāṇa) and Svetambara Caritas like Hemacandra's Trisaṣṭi-Śalākāpurusa-Carita. The Jains adopted almost all the favourite popular themes from Brahmanical and general Indian Literature to offer their coreligionists all that they could find elsewhere too. They also created poems of their own, which were to serve the Jain Community as a substitute for the great epics Rāmāyaṇa and Mahabharata.
6. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY.
Besides the lives of the sixty three great figures the Purāņas expound various topics such as the 'Anaditva' of the universe, the origin of different races, genealogies and accounts of kings, the duties of a Śrāvaka and of a Śramaṇa, philosophy, ethics, metaphysics, criticism of the cult of animal sacrifice and of the priestly religion. No single work treats of all these subjects but, taken collectively, they may justly be described as a popular encyclopaedia of Jainism representing all phases, religious, philosophical, historical, and cultural. The Purānas claim to expound also the four subjects which comprise all human endeavour-Dharma (righteousness), Artha (wealth), Kāma (love) and Mokṣa (liberation) 12. Certain Purāṇas claim to give a 'history of the world' and present at the same time an encyclopaedia of all that is edifying to the pious Jain and that is worthy of his study. Thus, for example, the Adi-Purāṇa describes the Samskaras 13, which accompany the life of an individual from conception to
Stud.-2

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death, the interpretation of dreams14, and short treatises on town planning and the duties of the warrior15 and the art of governing (Nīti) 16_besides ornate descriptions of cities, mountains, rivers and the like in accordance with the rules laid down by Alaṁkārikas for a Mahākāvya. The same Ādi-Purāna mentions eight topics or subjects which a Purāna ought to deal with : (i) the universe (Loka), (ii) the country with its mountains, sea etc., (Deśa), (iii) the city or capital (Pura), (iv) Kingdom (Rājyam), (v) the life of a Jina which acts as a ford to cross the ocean of Samsāra (Tīrtha), (vi) giving of alms and donations and austerities (Dāna-tapas), (vii) the four conditions of existence such as hells etc., and (viii) the fruit of 'punya' and 'pāpa', the highest reward being ‘moksa’?. 7. A COMPARISON WITH THE HINDU EPICS AND PURĀŅAS
The Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana and some of the oldest Puranas are undoubtedly older than the Jain Purānas. And these served the Jains as a model—though not a perfect one-in composing their epics about Rāma, Krsna and Purānas of the 63 prominent personalities. Broadly speaking the Jain Purānas and the Hindu Epics and Puranas treat of a large number of common subjects including biographies of Rāma, Krsna, origin of the universe, dissolution and recreation of the universe, the divisions of time assigned to Manus (Kulakaras), ancient royal genealogies, and accounts of persons mentioned therein; religious instruction, the four Purusārthas, viz., Dharma, Artha, Kāma and Moksa, the Tīrthas and the benefits which they confer on pilgrims, medicine, architecture, astrology, grammar, the rights and duties of a king, gnomic sayings both on morality and on worldly wisdom and the like.
The method of presentation adopted by the Jains is the same as that of the Hindus. The legends of the Tirthakaras and others are presented in the style of ornate epic following the compilers of the Hindu Purānas. Each Purāna is constructed as a discourse delivered by some person of authority to one or more hearers 18 : the subjects are expounded, often in the form of question and answer and not always methodically : and into the narration are woven stories and discourses uttered by other persons. These Purānas are mainly in verse. Like the Hindu Epics and Purānas which afford us insight into all aspects and phases of mediaeval Hinduism, the Jain Purānas too constitute a popular encyclopaedia of mediaeval Jainism-religious, philosophical, historical, social and cultural. 8. THE DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY
The Hindus have got besides the 18 Purānas proper, an equal number of secondary works of the same class called Upapurānas, the Jains have nothing to
correspond to these Upapurāņas. While the Hindu Purānas are primarily an

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CHARACTER OF JAIN MYTHOLOGY
11
extension, amplification and illustration of the spiritual truths stated in the Vedas in the form of injunctions and commands, the Jain Purānas criticise and condemn the Vedic cult of animal sacrifice and the priestly religion, and amplify and illustrate the Jain ethics, the duties of a Jain householder, and of a Jain monk; in unequivocal words they condemn the incredible legends and doings of the Hindu Puranic deities; they illustrate the inexorable law of Karman that governs everyone's destiny and there is no place for any god bestowing favours and meting out punishments. There are, however, a few stories and incidents in which semidivine or heavenly (to be distinguished from the liberated) beings come to the rescue of Jain devout souls at crucial moments in their life. Exceptional sanctity is bestowed on life and Ahimsa is the highest moral principle guiding all human affairs. Śramanic ideology is always kept in the forefront. Tirthakaras and munis are introduced who give discourses on Jain ethics, dogmatics and philosophy, preach the worthlessness of worldly pleasures and inculcate love for liberation. The principal heroes and important personages are shown to have accepted the duties of a Jain householder or entered the ascetic order and in the end attaining to heaven or liberation. Whereas the heroes of the Hindu epics move in an entirely Brahmanical atmosphere in the Jain Purāņas the dharma preached by the Jinas is everywhere very much to the fore. No doubt the Hindu epics and Purāņas speak of belief in transmigration and refer to past births but in the Jain epics and Purāṇas the past and future lives of the heroes are told with a great wealth of detail. Whereas the epics and the Purāņas of the Hindus regard Rāma and Krsna as human beings who walked the earth veiling their supreme divine glory-incarnations of God Visnu and glorify the trinity of Brahma, Visņu and Mahesa and many other deities, the Jain Purāņas rid the stories of their divine elements-to them Rāma and Kṛṣṇa are no divine incarnations and gods such as Indra etc., do not shine prominently in their mythology. It is the 63 salākāpurusas that are celebrated in the Jain epics and Purānas. These salākāpurusas include the Tirthakaras whom the Jains venerate and worship as the Hindus do their gods-theoretically the Jains refuse to recognise gods and although their Jinas bear the appearance of deities on account of the irresistible Brahmanical influence, the Jinas are still bereft of the power of creation and destruction of the universe, of punishment or forgiveness of sins. Although all the Vedic gods do not retain their prominent position in the Brahmanical Epics and Purāņas still a few of them such as Indra, Agni, Varuna, the Surya etc., hold important positions. The Jain Purāņas do refer to a few Vedic deities such as Indra, Varuna etc., but they do not occupy places of supreme importance-they are subordinated to the great Tirthakaras. Some of the godlings mentioned in the Rgveda are termed as a class of Vyantaras and given comparatively greater prominence.

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Notes and References : 1. तीर्थेशामपि चक्रेशां हलिनामर्धचक्रिणाम् । त्रिषष्टिलक्षणं वक्ष्ये पुराणं तद्विषामपि ॥
पुरातनं पुराणं स्यात् तन्महन्महदाश्रयात् । महद्भिरुपदिष्टत्वात् महाश्रेयोऽनुशासनात् ।। कवि पुराणमाश्रित्य प्रसृतत्वात् पुराणता । महत्त्वं स्वमहिम्नैव तस्येत्यन्यैर्निरुच्यते ॥
महापुरुषसम्बन्धि महाभ्युदयशासनम् । महापुराणमाम्नातमत एतन्महर्षिभिः ।।_Jinasena. Adipurana I. 20-23 2. ऋषिप्रणीतमाएं स्यात् सूक्तं सूनृतशासनात् । धर्मानुशासनाच्चेदं धर्मशास्त्रमिति स्मृतम् । इतिहास इतीष्टं तद् इति हासीदिति श्रुतेः । इतिवृत्तमथैतिह्यमाम्नायञ्चामनन्ति तत् ।।
-Jinasena. Ibid I. 24-25 3. Puspadanta–Mahāpurāņa Vol. I, P. 9.
The definitions of Purāna found in the Hindu Purānas may be noted here : सर्गश्च प्रतिसर्गश्च वंशो मन्वन्तराणि च । वंशानुचरितं चैवं पुराणं पञ्चलक्षणम् ॥ The Brahmavaivartapurāņa, however, says that the five laksanas are only for the Upapuranas, while Mahapuranas ("the great Puranas") have "ten laksanas" including “praise of Visnu and the gods individually". The Bhāgavatapurāņa likewise mentions
"ten laksanas" of the Purana in two places (II. 10.1 and XII. 7.8 ff.) 4. Jacobi. Winternitz, Glasenapp, to mention a few only. 5. The word 3fe-occurs in Rgveda 1, 89. 6, but it has nothing to do with the Jain
Tirthakara. 6. For example of the title of Śīlācārya's work—“Caupannamahäpurisacariya" or the word
Uttamapurisa' used in this connection in the Samavāyānga. 7. Winternitz (Hist. of Indian Lit. Vol. II, p. 505) translates it as "which form as it were
lines of demarcation among the monks". 8. कस्यचिद् वस्तुनोऽनेकभेदज्ञापनार्थं कोष्ठकरेखासु २४ तीर्थकराः १२ चक्रिणः ९ बलदेवाः ९ वासुदेवाः ९
प्रतिवासुदेवाश्चेति त्रयष्षष्टि शलाकापुरुषाः । 9. See Dr. Upadhye's Introduction to Brhatkathākośa and Winternitz's History of Indian
Literature Vol.II. 10. For example, the Adipurāņa of Jinasena or the Trişastiśalākāpuruşacarita of
Hemacandra and Pārsvanāthacaritra of Bhāvadeva Sūri. 11. Vol. II. pp. 486-519. 12. see, e.g., Pc. 118.111 13. Chs. 38-40. 14. Ch. 41. 15. Ch. 16 16. Ch. 42 17. J. M. P. 4. 3. 18. e.g., Gautama expounds the Paümacariya to king Srenika on his request.
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Corresponding to the great epic of Välmīki-Rāmāyaṇa in Sanskrit the Jains have a number of Rāmāyaṇas composed in Prakrit, Sanskrit and Apabhraṁśa languages. The earliest among these is the Prakrit epic Paümacariya (Pc) (Padmacarita). Padma is the name of Rama in this epic. It is written by Vimalasūri (Vimala) in the Prakrit called Jain Māhārāṣṭrī by modern scholars. Scholars like H. Jacobi place it in the third century A. D. or somewhat later. In this brief account light is thrown on some of its aspects :
(i) Its form: A Purāņa
The narrative literature of the Jains is vast in extent and varied in scope1. It is generally divided into four broad categories as follows: (a) the Purāņas and the Mahapurānas, (b) the Caritras, Kathās and Akhyānas, (c) the Prabandhas and (d) the Kathākośas. We are here concerned with the first category only as the work under study calls itself a Purāņa (I. 32, CXVIII.III). The term Purāṇa originally meant nothing but 'Purāṇam Akhyanam', i. e., 'old narrative'. Then in the course of time it came to denote 'a species of literature' comprising works of religious and didactic contents in which were collected ancient traditions of the creation, the deeds of the gods, heroes, saints, and distant ancestors of the human race, the beginnings of the famous royal families and so on. The term Purana is defined in Hindu literature as follows'2:
A Purāņa treats of five subjects (1) Sarga, 'Creation', (2) Pratisarga, 'recreation', i. e., the periodical annihilation and renewal of the worlds, (3) Vamsa, 'account of the genealogy', viz, of the gods and the Rsis, (4) Manvantaras, 'Epochs between the Manus'-the great periods, each of which has a Manu or primal ancestor of the human race, and (5) Vaṁśānucarita, 'the history of the dynasties whose origin is traced back to the Sun (solar dynasty) and the Moon (lunar dynasty)'. The Brahmavaivartapuraṇa, however, says that the five 'lakṣaṇas' are only for the 'Puranas' and the 'Upapurāņas', while the Mahāpurāṇas (the great Purāņas) have ten lakṣaṇas' including praise of Viṣṇu

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and the gods individually3. Vimala does not define either Purana or a Mahāpurāṇa. Among the Jain authors, Jinasena is probably the first to define Purāṇa and Mahāpurāṇa. Says he : "I shall describe the narrative of sixty-three ancient persons. viz., the (24) Tīrthamkaras, the (12) Cakravartins, (9) Baladevas, (9) Ardha-Cakravartins (i.e., Vasudevas), and their (9) enemies (i.e., Prativasudevas). The word Purāņa means 'old or ancient narrative'. It is called 'great' because it concerns the great (figures), or because it is narrated by the great (Tirthamkaras, Gaṇadharas, Acāryas) or because it teaches the way to supreme bliss. Other learned scholars say that it is called Purana because it originates with an old poet and it is called great because of its intrinsic greatness. The great Rsis called it a Mahāpurāņa as it relates to great men and teaches the way to the highest bliss4. Further he adds that the "Mahāpurāṇa" is regarded as Ārṣa because it was composed by Rṣis, 'Sukta' because it expounds truth and 'Dharmaśāstra' because it declares Dharma. It is also looked upon as Itihasa, Itivṛtta, or Aitihya or Amnaya as it contains many stories about 'Iti-haasa' (-'so it happened', i. e., 'traditional history')".5
J
Thus according to Jinasena Purāņa and Itihāsa are synonymous terms. The Tippanakāra of Puspadanta's Mahāpurāṇa, makes however, a distinction between the two, saying that Itihäsa means the narrative of a single individual while Purāṇa means the narratives of sixty-three great men of the Jain faith'. In its definition of Itihasa Kautilīya Arthaśāstra (1.5) enumerates Purāņa and Itivṛtta as belonging to the content of Itihasa. As Itivṛtta can only mean 'a historical event' Purāṇa probably means 'mythological legendary lore'.

The Hindu definition of Purāṇa (or Mahāpurāṇa) is applicable only partly to the work of Vimala. He speaks of seven Adhikāras (subjects, topics) as constituting his Paümacariya, viz., (1) The eternal nature of the Universe which was never, created, (2) the origin of the dynasties, (3) Rāma's departure to the forest, (4) War between Rāma and Rāvaṇa, (5) The birth of Lava and Ankuśa, (6) the liberation from worldly existence, and (7) The various existences (past as well as future) etc. Out of these seven topics, Räma's departure to the forest, the war between Rāma and Ravana and the birth of Lava and Kuśa (Ankuśa) are peculiar to a Rāma Carita or Purāṇa. The remaining four topics are some of the general features distinguishing Jain Purāņas. A study of the contents of the Paümacariya reveals that it describes, though briefly, the lives of the Tīrthamkaras Rṣabha, Ajitanatha, Munisuvrata and Mahāvīra, and of the soveregin rulers Bharata, Sagara and Harisena, besides mentioning the names of the sixty three great figures, their places of birth, their parents, their span of life, their respective trees, places of liberation, etc. It describes also the fourteen

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Kulakaras, the Kalpa-Vrkṣas the duties of a Jain monk, the horrors of hell, the joys of heavenly worlds, the jina-pūjā, the jinābhiṣeka, the jinavandanabhakti, the origin of the four castes, the condemnation of Vedic sacrifice and of the Brāhmaṇas, the dreadful consequences of killing and of the eating of meat. Most of these topics are generally found to be dealt with in all the Jain Purāņas. None of the definitions of a Purana or Mahāpurāna given above covers fully these various topics. The Adipurana attempts to cover some of these topics when it lays down that a Purana ought to deal with the eight topics or subjects given below:
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(1) The universe, (2) the country with its mountains, sea etc., (3) the city or capital, (4) the kingdom, (5) the life of a Jina which acts as a ford for crossing the ocean of samsara, (6) liberality, munificence and austerities, (7) the four conditions of existence such as hells, etc., and (8) the fruit of Punya and Papa (meritorious deeds and sinful deeds)".
Although the Paümacariya is undoubtedly a Purāṇa, it answers some of the salient features of a mahākāvya. The subject-matter is the lives of great figures of antiquity. The work is composed in Cantos (uddeśa, samuddeśa or parvan); it is chiefly in the Arya metre but as the definition of an epic requires, the concluding stanzas of each canto are composed in a variety of metres. He interweaves his name (nāmamudra) in the closing verse of every canto. It contains many descriptions of towns, mountains, seasons, the rising and setting of the sun and moon, water-sports, love-sports, separation, marriage, battles and the triumphs of the hero. It is embellished with figures of speech such as Upamā, Rūpaka, Utprekṣā, Arthāntaranyāsa, etc. in the poetic portion of the work. The principal sentiment is that of renunciation and quietude, although in some cantos the sentiments of Śṛngāra, Vīra, Karuna, Hasya, Bībhatsa and Adbhuta, are portrayed. The style of the work is, on the whole, fluent and in descriptive passages only reveals long compounds. In short, the Paümacariya may be rightly and justly described as partly exhibiting the features of a Purana and partly of a mahākāvya. A modern scholar describes it as a 'Dharmakavya'. (ii) THE TITLE PAÜMACARIYA
The present work is known as Paümacariya. The poet mentions this title in his work, not always but frequently10. The title means 'The Life of Padma' (another name for Rama). Rāma was so called because he was 'Paümuppaladalaccho' (possessed of eyes as the petals of a lotus) and "Viyasiya-vara-paumasarisamuham' (having a face like an excellent blooming lotus)". In the course of the work the poet often refers to Paüma as Rāma, Rāhava, Rāmadeva, Sīri, Halahara, etc. It is, therefore, obvious that the various names Rāhavacariya,

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Rāmacariya and Halaharacariya used in the work stand for the Paümacariya and by no stretch of imagination can we ever speak that the Rāhavacariya was a work quite different from the Paümacariya of Vimala. Professor K. H. Dhruva, however, appears to have advanced this highly fanciful hypothesis of two separate works called Rāhavacariya and Paümacariya 2 to suit his late dating of Paümacariya based on grounds of late' metres and modern' Prakrit.
No doubt, the poem deals with the life-story of Rāma, but it also deals with the life of Laksmana and Rāvana at great length. That is Vimala presents to his readers the lives of three of the great figures (viz., the 8th Baladeva, Nārāyana or Vāsudeva, and Pratinārāyana or Prati-vāsudeva). Although Laksmana and Rāvana are with Rāma, salākā-purusas, they are spiritually inferior to him for he alone at the end of his life here attains Nirvana and the other two sink in hell. This consideration might have weighed with the poet when he named his work as Paümacariya. In the popular story of Rāma, he being the first and foremost hero, the work is naturally named after him (e.g, the Ramayana); and it is not unlikely that this factor too might have influenced the poet in calling his poem Paümacariya. As the date of the Padmapurana of the Hindus is not known definitely we cannot say that this name Padmapurana might have influenced Vimala in naming his Purāna dealing with the life of Rāma. (iii) THE EXTENT OF THE PAÜMACARIYA
The Paümacariya is divided into 118 chapters or cantos, the first thirtyfive of which are called Uddeśas (Uddeśakas, or occasionally Samuddeśakas) and the rest Parvans13. In the extent of individual cantos there is great disparity : the shortest is the 60th canto with nine stanzas only and the longest is the eighth with 286 stanzas. Comparatively speaking, the cantos in the first half of the poem are longer whereas those in the second half are shorter. The total number of stanzas comprising the work is 865124. (iv) VIMALA'S AIM IN WRITING THE PAÜMACARIYA
Vimala holds that the Rāmāyana stories (of the Hindu poets) are most certainly lies; he thinks that the absurdities which are related regarding the life of Rāma, Rāvana, Kumbhakarna and others are not worthy of belief, and that the poets who composed Rāmāyana were liers. Through the mouth of Śrenika and Gautama the poet gives expression to all this :
"How is it possible that the great Räksasa heroes, though very strong, were killed by the Vanaras (monkeys)? It is reported in the popular scriptures

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that all the Räkṣasas led by Ravana used to eat meat and drink blood and marrow, and that Ravana's brother Kumbhakarna used to sleep for six months without a break; even though his body would be crushed by big elephants and his ears filled with potfuls of oil he would not wake up; he would not hear the sound of drums beaten near him nor would he get up from his bed if the period of six months was not over 1 When he got up, being overpowered with fierce hunger he would devour whatever would be near him at the time, such as elephants and buffaloes. Having filled his belly by devouring gods, men, elephants and the like he would again go to bed for another six months...". Again, it is said that Indra, when defeated in battle by Ravana, was bound in chains and taken to Lanka. How can anyone take Indra captive-Indra who rules over Jambudvipa with its gods and men? One would be reduced to heaps of ashes at the mere thought of attacking him, who has Airävata, the elephantjewel and Vajra, the thunderbolt at his command ! At that rate we might as well affirm that the lion is overcome by the deer, the elephant by the dog! Further, it is reported that Rama during his sojourn in the forest killed a (wondrous) golden deer and that (at Kişkindhä) Räma treacherously killed Välin in order to oblige (his ally) Sugrīva and win (Su-) Tärä for him (Sugriva). It is also said that the Vanaras constructed a bridge across the ocean."16
It is with a view to removing all such absurdities, inconsistencies and incredible elements found in the popular Rämāyaṇa stories that Vimala undertakes the composition of the Paümacariya. It is the poet's intention to present faithfully the life of Rāma as was proclaimed by Lord Mahāvīra himself17. That the poet is intent on the propagation of the teachings of the Jinas is evident to every reader of the Purana or Carita. In the concluding portion of his work Vimala exhorts his readers (or hearers) to practise the Dharma as expounded by the Jinas:
बहुएण किं व कीरइ, अव्वो भणियव्वएण लोयम्मि । एकपयम्मि वि बुज्झह रमह सया जिणवरमयम्मि ॥ जिणसासणाणुरत्ता होऊणं कुणह उत्तमं धम्मं ।
जेण अविग्धं पावह, बलदेवाई गया जत्थ ॥CXVII. 112-113
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It is thus very clear that Vimala aims mainly at propagation of Jain Dharma through his Paümacariya.
(V) VIMALA'S CONCEPTION OF RAKSASAS AND VÄNARAS
Vimala's conception of Räkṣasas and Vanaras is markedly different from that of Valmiki. The Räkṣasas are not man-eating demons with fearful and hideous appearances. Nor are the Vänaras animals having long tails living on
Stud.-3

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fruits etc., and using their nails and teeth as their weapons. They are, in reality, a race of the Vidyadharas, "A class of beings endowed with many supernatural qualities, if not human beings in the correct sense of the term. Beastly and uncouth behaviour and appearances are not therein attributed to them. On the other hand, they are depicted as having been highly civilized, who, far from killing and devouring all animals that they could obtain, strictly adhered to the vow of Ahimsā."18 The dynasty of Vidyadharas at Lankā came to be called Räksasas after the great and celebrated Vidyadhara hero named Rāksasa !9. The author gives also another explanation as to why the Vidyadharas were Räksasas :
रक्खंति रक्खसा खलु, दीवा पुण्णेण रक्खिया जेण । auj faz cerrui. Tan pa | --V. 257
The Vidyadharas of Kiskindhipura received the name of Vänaras because of their custom of wearing the pictures of monkeys as symbols or totems on their banners and crowns20.
This conception of Vimala about the Rāksasas and the Vānaras is born of the growing spirit of rationalism of his age. The fanciful and highly exaggerated poetic descriptions of the Rāksasas and the Vānaras given in the popular Rāmāyana stories were unacceptable to Vimala, a champion of rationalism. He, therefore, portrays the Raksasas and the Vanaras as Vidyadharas, possessed of supernatural powers and are thus, capable of the heroic exploits attributed to them. He gives a realistic interpretation of the epithet of Răvana when he writes : Rāvana's mother hangs around his neck a wondrous necklace of Ratnas, in which his face is reflected nine times, hence his epithet of Dasamukha "The man with ten faces” (VII 95-96):
............... सो जणणीएँ पिणद्धो, कंठे बालस्स वरहारो ।। रयणकिरणेसु एत्तो मुहाइ नव निययवयणसरिसाई ।
हारे दिट्ठाइँ फुडं, तेण फुडं दहमुहो नामं ॥ (vi) CHARACTERISATION IN PAÜMACARIYA
Vālmīki's Rāmāyana is generally regarded as one of the most beautiful and moving of all stories in literature. One very important factor contributing to its greatness and beauty is its unique characterization. The story of Rāma presented by Vimala agrees only partly with Vālmīki's Rāmāyana and considerably differs from it on account of the many omissions, additions and modifications effected by him. These changes powerfully affect the

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characterization in Paümacariya. Consideration of space prevents us from undertaking here a review of the characters of the important men and women that play a conspicuous part in the story. We rest content by pointing only to some of the more noteworthy aspects of the characterization in Paümacariya. Vimala's aim at elevating his character is very obvious. According to Vālmīki's Rāmāyana, Kaikeyi is a selfish, greedy and intriguing woman. Rāma kills Vālin treacherously and is guilty of killing Sambūka. Rāvana is a tyrant, an oppressor of mankind violently obstructing sacrifices, and he abducts women. Vālin is a usurper, and unlawfully takes possession of his brother's wife and kingdom. Vimala takes a very sympathetic view of these characters and attempts to clear them of blame. He represents Kaikeyi as a mother par excellence who is prepared to let her husband accept asceticism but desperately tries to retain her loving son. She does not demand Rāma's exile. Valin, a mighty Vidyadhara hero, though capable of inflicting a crushing defeat on Rāvana, voluntarily appoints Sugrīva to the throne and himself becomes a monk. This account acquits Vālin of the shameful charge of living with his brother's wife, and Rāma of the charge of treacherously slaying Vălin, who had done no harm to him. Laksmana kills Sambūka by accident and this exonerates Rāma completely from the guilt of slaying a man who, though a sūdra, was a tapasvin. Rāvana is a pious and devout Jain. He restores ruined Jain shrines. As far as possible he avoids himsā, whenever he has to fight. In his world-conquest he is shown to have subdued his enemies whom he later on sets free and restores to them their kingdoms. His only weakness is his passion for Sītā. Vimala is probably the first poet to represent Rāvana as a hero eminently suited to a great tragic play of the western type. The poet presents Kumbhakarna and other Rāksasa heroes as very pious souls devoid of all the ugly and ferocious traits attributed to them in Vālmīki's Rāmāyana. Another remarkable aspect of the characterization in the Paümacariya is to be seen in the large number of wives of some principal characters. According to Vimala, Rāma, Laksmana and Hanumat had 8000, 16000 and 1000 wives respectively. Sagara and Harişeņa, two sovereign rulers had each 64000 wives. Rāvana at a time had married 6000 wives. Vimala probably believed that the greater the number of wives a person has, the greater is his glory ! According to Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa Rāma was devoted and faithful to his only wife Sītā. Laksmana was married to Urmilā only and Hanumat was celibate. One more noteworthy aspect of the characterisation in the Paümacariya is that all the principal characters in the Paümacariya barring Laksmana (and Rāvana) are pious Jain laymen who retire from the world at the end and become Jain monks and attain to liberation or heaven. Laksmana is shown to have sunk into hell after death for having failed to adopt Jain Dharma. Kaikeyi,

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Sītā etc., become Jain nuns. Again, in Vālmīki's Rāmāyana Rāma is the central figure but in the Paümacariya Laksmana plays a leading part. It is he, not Rāma, who kills Rāvaņa. (vii) VIMALA : AS POET
Vimala calls his work a "Purāna" in the introduction (Canto I. 32) and at the end (Canto CXVIII. 111). His real aim is edification and instruction. He is full of burning enthusiasm for the Jain faith. He writes with an eye to the liberation of mankind by means of Jainism. He delights in singing the glory and greatness of Jainism. The Paümacariya is to him only a means to propagate the doctrines of his faith. He is primarily a preacher and only secondarily a poet, Naturally, he touches on the various aspects of Jain ethics, philosophy, dogma, mythology, cosmography, the dreadful consequences of killing and of the eating of flesh, the gruesome torments of hell, the worthlessness of this worldy existence, the denigration of women, the doctrine of Karma, the past and future births of various characters figuring in the narrative, and thus renders his work open to the charge of “the extreme difficulty in making anything picturesque out of the dry and scholastic Jain tenets and the somewhat narrow views of life prevalent in Jain circles” (A History of Sanskrit Literature, Keith, p. 295) or that it is "of the type of respectable dullness or that "it does not attain the level of literature". Jacobi observes that "it (the Paümacariya) has very little poetic value". This observation of Jacobi is true only so far as this portion of the work is concerned. It is, however, extremely unfair to Vimala to condemn the whole work as poetically worthless.
It is equally unjust to Vimala to institute any comparison between him and Vālmīki, the Ādikavi whose Rāmāyana is a popular epic and ornate poetry at the same time. It is idle to compare him with Kālidāsa, Bhäravi or Māgha. Their mahākāvyas are chiefly meant to give pleasure, whereas the Purānas like the present one are mainly intended to serve the purpose of instruction. A close and careful study of the Paümacariya shows that we cannot claim for Vimala rich poetical genius of high descriptive powers. It is, indeed, very difficult to point to any single canto in the whole work which is poetically of high merit. We, however, come across many pretty and beautiful descriptions of towns, rivers, mountains, seasons, water-sports, love-scenes, etc. in the work which demonstrate that Vimala is capable of some moderately good poetry. The attention of readers is particularly drawn to the descriptions of the water-sports at Canto X.36-44, of the rainy season at Canto XI. 119, of the evening at Canto XVI.46-54, of Sītā at Canto XXVI. 98-102, of old age at Canto XXIX. 21-28, of the

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winter season at Canto XXXI. 41-47, of the Vanara warriors visiting the marble palace of wondrous beauty at Canto LXVIII. 5-15, of the fire-flames produced on the occasion of Sītā's fire-ordeal at Canto CII. 7-12, and of the cremation ground at Canto CV. 52-61. These descriptions will bear out the statement made above regarding Vimala's poetic abilities. Vimala shows his high proficiency in the expression of pithy observations on life, religion and morals. He ever and ever again flings at the reader beautiful subhāṣitas touching various aspects of human life. Only a few of them may be referred to here : Canto I. 17-27 dealing with various limbs of the human body : Canto IV. 26, 50, LXXV. 18, LXXXVI, 60, CIII. 52, 72, CVIII. 38 CXIII. 71, CXVII. 42 dealing with dharma' : III. 46-47 with dana'; CII. 177 with knowledge, XII. 81; LXII.22, LXV. 30, LXXIII. 17 with good men; XXXV. 66 with the importance of wealth; III. 123-125, LXXVII-15, CV1.4142 with the nature of worldly existence; LXXVII.13, CV.39-40, CX.11 with the karma doctrine; CIII. 73, CVI. 38, CVII. 31, CXVIII. 107 with the pleasures of senses; LXXIII. 14, and CVIII. 25 with Death; LXXXXIV. 80-84 with the lot of a servant; and XVII. 33-34, LXIX.39, LXXXXIII. 35-36 with women.
Vimala, now and then, sprinkles his narrative with subhāṣitas. (i) fé quotusta, 7 fras & HERZU21 1 -1--13b (ii) oreon Ji fagets are a realus Pēts aut XII. 101b (iii) Tg Frech a TÈ ! 7 11540 TE Tutup22 1-XXX. 35 (iv) Thrreta Fe, ETS PHOTed Fru Flerei fo XLVII. 5 (v) a falatot, T45 gust am fagpi23 F-LII. 138b (vi) For Faureret atat, faucis fa g frugte 1-LXX. 27 (vii) féfs Thema ATES, Tell fasteia I-LXXI. 54 (viii) Hvides paifa aufot24 |--LXXV. 1 (ix) F H fa che fuefare TUULHfUUTET ET525 --LXXVII. 42a (x) for giftit, open ruiten ari 6915 1-XCIV. 80 (xi) सव्वस्स वि कोउयं सरिसं । -C. 53d (xii) JE PA TE 941 Heal26 --CV. 106d (xiii) Frita HRU127 —CVI. 26a He uses a few proverbial and colloquial expressions occasionally : (i) न य गेहम्मि पलिते, कूवो खण्णइ सुतूरमाणेहिं ।

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धाहाविए ण दम्मइ, आसो च्चिय तक्खणं चेव28 |-V. 249 (पज्जलियम्मि य भवणे, कुवतलायस्स खणणमारम्भो ।
अहिणा दट्ठस्स जए, को कालो मंतजवणंमि ||-LXXXVI. 60) (ii) ....वेज्जनरिंदाण मित्तपुरिसाणं । आहाणओ य लोए, एयाणं फुडं कहेयव्वं ||-XII. 17 (iii) किं वा तुसेसु कीरइ, तंदुलसारम्मि संगहिए ।-XII. 138 (iv) दुसहं हवइ समक्खं चिय उब्भवे जणवयस्स ।
गयवेयणं तु पच्छा, जणम्मि एसा सुई भमई ॥-XXVI. 239 (v) तो दहरहस्स नाम, पियरस्स फुडं न गेण्हामि । -LXXXVI. 9 (vi) को सयलजणस्स इहं करेइ मुहबंधणं पुरिसो । –XCIV. 70b (vii) वीरपुरिसाण भोज्जा, वसुहा कि एत्थ विद्धेहिं ।—XCVIII. 22 (viii) रयणं तु पुहइमोल्लं, दिन्नं चिय सागमुट्ठीए । — CIII. 110 (ix) असमिक्खियकारीणं पुरिसाणं एत्थ पावहिययाणं ।
सयमेव कयं कम्मं, परितावयरं हवइ पच्छा29 ॥—CX. 11 (x) सलिले मंथिज्जंते सुट्ठ वि न य होइ नवणीयं ।
सिकयाए पीलियाए, कुत्तो च्चिय जायए तेल्लं ||-CXIII. 33 (xi) वालग्गकोडिमेत्तं, दोसं पेच्छसि परस्स अइसिग्छ ।
मंदरमेत्तं पि तुमं, न य पेच्छसि अत्तणो दोसं० ।-CXIII. 40 (xii) सरिसा सरिसेसु सया, रज्जंति सुई जणे एसा । —CXII. 41b
He is very fond of paraphrasing proper names for example, Bhānukarna= Bhanu-Śravana, Ghana-vāhanaMegha-vähana, Ākhandalabhūti=Indra-bhūti, Vajrakarna=Kulisa-Sravana, etc.
He uses a very large number of Deśī words with a view to making Prakrit more readily intelligible to the common people. As the work was of a religious and propagandistic nature and meant for a large number of readers and the
masses (lokabhogya'), he did not hesitate to use the non-Prakritic forms and idioms-so-called vulgarisms from the popular speech of his days-Apabhramsa. He is very fond of onomatopoeic words too.
The figures of speech which are commonly met with in this work are Upamā and Rūpaka. Some other figures which we come across in the work are Utprekṣā, Atiśayokti, and Arthāntaranyāsa. Anuprāsa and Yamaka are found to be rarely used. Vimala, no doubt, delineates the sentiments in the narration of the principal story and in the romantic episodes that he has added. The fact, however, remains that his supreme interest lies in the development of vairāgya

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SOME ASPECTS OF PAÜMACARIYA
that leads the various characters in the story to the renunciation of worldly life and acceptance of Jain order.
Vimala's style is lucid and fluent and, wherever necessary, forceful. The Purana portion of the work, although otherwise important, makes extremely dull reading, but the style of this portion of the work too is quite simple and easy. In the course of his narration when he chooses to give poetic descriptions we come across comparatively long compounds but they are not difficult to understand.
Vimala devotes 106 pages out of a total of 335 pages to narrating the background of the principal narrative. This certainly detracts from his merit as a story-teller. He increases the bulk of the story by adding many legendary stories and romantic episodes; some of these, e.g., the episodes of Bhamandala and Vitasugrīva, are indeed quite beautiful. He claims at the end of his work that his Paümacariya is 'visuddha-laliyakkharaheūjuttam' and akkhāṇesu vivihesu nibaddha-attham'. This claim is partially just and legitimate as the language of the work is not pure and chaste but shows many unprakritic forms and idioms. Jacobi rightly observes that the work "is very fluently written, in an easy epic style". Uddyotanasūri pays a handsome tribute to Vimala as follows:
जारिसयं विमलंको विमलं को तारिसं लहइ अत्थं ।
अमयमइयं च सरसं सरसं चिय पाइयं जस्स || – Kuvalayamālā
This high compliment Vimala richly deserves.
23
Notes and References:
1. See Winternitz History of Indian Literature, Vol. II (pp. 475 onwards); Dr. A. N. Upadhye Introduction to Bṛhatkathākośa (pp. 17-30).
2. सर्गश्च प्रतिसर्गश्च वंशो मन्वन्तराणि च ।
gafa yai-Matsyapurāna LXV. 63.
3. एतद्रूपपुराणानां लक्षणञ्च विदुर्बुधाः ।
महताञ्च पुराणानां लक्षणं कथयामि ते ॥ सृष्टिश्चापि विसृष्टिश्चेत् स्थितिस्तेषाञ्च पालनम् । कर्मणां वासना वार्ता चामूनाञ्च क्रमेण च ॥ वर्णनं प्रलयानाञ्च मोक्षस्य च निरूपणम् । उत्कीर्तनं हरेरेव देवानाञ्च पृथक् पृथक् ॥ दशाधिकं लक्षणञ्च महतां परिकीर्तितम् संख्यानञ्च पुराणानां निबोध कथयामि ते ॥
Śrīmad-Bhāgavata-Mahāpurāṇa likewise mentions the ten topics of Mahāpurāṇa as

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follows : अत्र सर्गो विसर्गश्च स्थानं पोषणमूतयः । मन्वन्तरेशानुकथा निरोधो मुक्तिराश्रयः ।।-Skandha II, Adhyaya 10, v. 1 and सर्गोऽस्याथ विसर्गश्च वृत्ती रक्षान्तराणि च । वंशो वंशानुचरितं संस्था हेतुरपाश्रयः ॥ दशभिर्लक्षणैर्युक्तं पुराणं तद्विदो विदुः ।
केचित्पञ्चविधं ब्रह्मन् महदल्पव्यवस्थया ।-Skandha XII, Adhyaya 7. V. 9.10. 4. तीर्थेशामपि चकेशां हलिनामर्धचक्रिणाम्। त्रिषष्टिलक्षणं वक्ष्ये पुराणं तदिद्वषामपि । पुरातनं पुराणं स्यात् तन्महन्महदाश्रयात् । महद्भिरुपदिष्टत्वात् महाश्रेयोऽनुशासनात् ॥ कवि पुराणमाश्रित्य प्रसृतत्वात् पुराणता । महत्त्वं स्वमहिम्नैव तस्येत्यन्यनिरुच्यते ।। महापुरुषसम्बन्धि महाभ्युदयशासनम् ।
महापुराणमाम्नातमत एतन्महर्षिभिः ॥ -Adipurana I-20-23. 5. ऋषिप्रणीतमाएं स्यात् सूक्तं सुनृतशासनात् ।
धर्मानुशासनाच्चेदं धर्मशास्त्रमिति स्मृतम् ॥ इतिहास इतीष्टं तद् इति हासीदिति श्रुतेः ।
इतिवृत्तमथैतिह्यमाम्नायञ्चामनन्ति तत् ॥ -Adipurana 1-24-25. 6. पुराणमितिहासाख्यं यत्प्रोवाच गणाधिपः । -Adipurana I. 26a. 7. See Puspadanta's Mahapurana (edited by Dr. P. L. Vaidya) Vol. I (p. 9). 8. ठिइवंससमुप्पत्ती पत्थाणरणं लवंकुसुप्पत्ती ।
निव्वाणमणेयभवा, सत्त पुराणेत्थ अहिगारा ॥ 9. लोको देशः पुरं राज्यं तीर्थं दानतपोऽन्वयम् ।
पुराणेष्वष्टधाख्येयं गतयः फलमित्यपि ॥ In the article called Jain-Purāna (Jain Siddhānta Bhāskara, Vol. VIII, part I, p.4, June 1941) Pandit K. Bhujabali Shastri mentions the eight topics of a Jain Purāna according to the view of Pampa, a great Kannada poet : (१) लोकाकार-कथन (२) देशनिवेशोपदेश (३) नगरसम्पत्परिवर्णन (४) राज्यरमणीयकाख्यान (५) तीर्थमहिमासमर्थन (६) चतुर्गतिस्वरूपनिरूपण (७) तपोदानविधानवर्णन (८) तत्फलप्राप्तिप्रकटन
It is very obvious that Pampa's source is Jinasena. 10. .....चरियं वोच्छामि पउमचरियं....। (I. 8)
को वण्णिऊण तीरइ नीसेसं पउमचरियसंबंधं । (I. 9) अह पउमचरियतुंगे, वीरमहागयवरेण निम्मविए । (I. 29) सुत्ताणुसार-सरसं रइयं गाहाहि पायडफुडत्थं । विमलेण पउमचरियं संखेवेणं निसामेह ।। (I.31) पउमस्स चेट्ठियमिणं.... (I, 33) एयं अट्ठमरामदेवचरियं (I, 90)

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पउमचरियंमि एत्तो (II, 105) पउमचरियं महायस, अहयं इच्छामि परिफुडं सोउं । (III, 8) ....महइमहापुरिसाण य चरियं च जहक्कम सुणसु । (III, 17) एयं राहवचरियं पुरिसो जो पढइ सुणइ भावियकरणो । (CIII, 175) एयं हलहरचरियं निययं जो पढइ सुद्धभावेणं । (CXVIII, 93) दुब्भासियाई....। नासंति पउमकित्तणकहाएँ दूरं समत्थाई । (GXVIII, 97) एयं रामारविंदचरियं तु सुयं समत्थं, नासेइ दुग्गइपहं...। (CXVIII, 101) एयं वीरजिणेण रामचरियं सिट्टे महत्थं पुरा । (CXVIII, 102) ....इमं चरियं (CXVIII, 103) एयं राहवचरियं.... I (CXVIII, 104)
...रइयं राहवचरियं.... I (CXVIII, 118) 11. अवराइया कयाई, गुरुभारा सोहणे तिहिमुहुत्ते ।
पुत्तं चेव पसूया, वियसियवरपउमसरिसमुहं ॥ जम्मूसवो महंतो तस्स कओ दसरहेण तुडेणं । नामं च विरइयं से, पउमो पउमुप्पलदलच्छो । -(XXV. 7-8.) From these stanzas embodying the circumstance or factor responsible for the name Paüma it will be evident to the readers that the following statment of Dr. Jyotiprasad Jain is erroneous : महाराजा रामचन्द्र का मुनि अवस्था का नाम पद्म था, अतः जैन परंपरा में रामकथा का पद्मचरित या पद्मपुराण नाम ही रूढ हुआ।
-(Vimalarya Aura Unaka Paumacariyam, p. 438). 12. See Introduction (pp. 7-8) to Paumacariyam (Cha. 27 and 28), edited by Sri S. C.
Upadhyāya. 13. Why the poet uses two words for 'a chapter' or 'a canto' and not one consistently we
cannot say. 14. The upodghata to the Bhavanagar edition gives the total number to be approximately
9000 stanzas (Asanna-nava-sahasra-sloka-pramitam). Pandit Premi states the total number of verses, to be 10000 Anustup Slokas (Jain Sahitya Aura Itihāsa, p. 89 of the revised edition). Professors Gore and Laddu remark in their edition that the poem
contains more than 9000 stanzas. This statement needs to be corrected. 15. अलियं पि सव्वमेयं, उववत्तिविरुद्धपच्चयगुणेहिं।
न य सद्दहंति पुरिसा, हवंति जे पंडिया लोए ।। -II 117. 16. Cf. Canto II. 105-107, III. 8-15 (and VII.58-60). 17. तो भणइ गणहरिंदो, सुणेहि नरवसह दिन्नकण्णमणो ।
जह केवलीण सिटुं अहमवि तुम्हं परिकहेमि । न य रक्खसो ति भण्णइ, दसाणणो णेय आमिसाहारो ।
अलियं ति सव्वमेयं, भणंति जं कुकइणो मूढा ॥-III. 14-15. 18. "Tradition about Vanaras and Raksasas"-Chakravarti C. in I. H. Q. Vol. I (1925). 19. See V. 251-252 Stud.-4

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20. जं जस्स हवइ निययं नरस्स लोगम्मि लक्खणावयवं ।
तं तस्स होइ नाम, गुणेहि गुणषच्चयनिमित्तं ॥ ख़ग्गेण खसाधारी धषुहेबाधणुधरो पडेण पडी । आसेण आसवारो हत्थारोहो. स हत्थीणं ॥ इक्खूण य इक्खागो जाओ विज्जाहराण विज्जाए । तह वाणराण वंसो, वाणरचिंधेण निव्वडिओ ॥ वाणरचिंधेण इमे, छत्ताइनिवेसिया कई जेण ।
विज्जाहरा जणेणं वुच्चंति हु वाणरा तेणं ।। -VI. 86-89. 21. Cf. मणौ वज्रसमुत्कीर्णे सूत्रस्येवास्ति मे गतिः । -Raghu. I. 13b. 22. Cf. गतं न शोच्यम् । 23. Cf. विनाशकाले विपरीतबुद्धिः । 24. Cf. मरणान्तानि वैराणि । —Ramayana, VI. c 112 v. 25. . 25. Cf. गृहं तु गृहिणीं विना कान्तारादतिरिच्यते । 26. Cf. यथा राजा तथा प्रजा । 27. Cf. जातस्य वि ध्रुवो मृत्युः । -Bhagavadgita. II. 27a. 28. Cf. संदीप्ते भवने तु कुपखननं प्रत्युद्यमः कीदृशः । --Bhartrhari, Vairazyasataka. 75 29.Cf. अतिरभसकतानां कर्मणामाविपत्तेर्भवति हृदयदाही शल्यतुल्यो विपाकः । Bhartrhari, Nitisataka, 95 cd. 30. Cf. खलः सर्षपमात्राणि परच्छिद्राणि पश्यति ।
आत्मनो बिल्वमात्राणि पश्यन्नपि न पश्यति ॥ -Bhārata I. 3069.
000

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ORIGIN OF THE STORY OF RĀMA IN JAIN LITERATURE
I. THE DIFFERENT JAIN FORMS OF THE STORY OF RĀMA : THEIR
INTERRELATION
Among the various Jain adaptations of the Rāma legend Vimala's Paümacariya stands, chronologically speaking, first. The study of the different Jain Rāmāyaṇas clearly reveals that Ravişeņa, Svayambhū, śīlācārya, Bhadreśvara, Hemacandra and Dhaneśvara, follow Vimala. Ravisena does not state that his Padmapurāna is based on Vimala's Paümacariya. A comparative study of the two versions establishes firmly that Ravisena is heavily indebted to Vimala. Svayambhū expressly states to have followed Ravisena in composing his Paümacariya. At the end of his version of the Rāma story Silācārya states : "Thus is narrated in brief the life history of Rāma and Laksmana which is described at length in works like the Paümacariya”. From this statement it follows that he has used Vimala's work in preparing his abridged version. Bhadreśvara does not indicate his source but the study of his Rāmāyana version proves beyond any shadow of doubt that he adopts the story of Rāma as given by Vimala and frequently also borrows phrases and lines from him. Hemacandra does not care to mention his source for his two Rāmāyana versions-one found in his Yogaśästra-svopajña-vrtti and the other in his Trisastiśalākāpurusacarita. We have already established by undertaking a comparative study that Hemacandra has based his version mainly on Vimala. Dhaneśvara's version too closely follows the tradition represented by Vimala. Incidentally, we also find that Devavijaya himself says that he is following Hemacandra. Meghavijaya's Laghu-Trişasti is an abridged version of Hemacandra's Trisastiśalākāpurusacarita.
Guņabhadra's version which is largely dependent on Vālmīki contains some features which have their parallels in the Daśaratha-Jātaka and the version of Sanghadāsa, and some traits peculiar to the Jaina forms of the Rāma legend, and this conglomeration of different elements gives Guņabhadra's version a new

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28
look and form. It is, therefore, generally regarded-and rightly too, for it has many important divergences with the Paümacariya-as forming another independent version. Puspadanta although he does not expressly state so, follows Gunabhadra. Krsnadāsa is another writer who follows him. From the number of authors, who follow Vimala, it is evident that his tradition is highly popular among the Jains.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
The versions of Sanghadāsa and Hariṣena, however, are more related to the Rāmāyaṇa of Välmiki or the Rāmopākhyāna of the Mahabharata than to the version of either Vimala or Gunabhadra.
The different works noticed in the Jinaratnakośa but not studied here probably do not contain any new features but reproduce, with some variations, one or the other of the versions treated here. It would not be correct to designate the schools of Vimala and Gunabhadra as Svetämbara and Digambara, for some Digambara writers too follow the so-called Svetambara version of Vimala. The three groups of Jaina Rāmāyaṇas may conveniently be represented in a tabular form as given on the next page.
II. THE ORIGIN OF THE RĀMA STORY IN JAIN LITERATURE
I. The Problem
With regard to this problem of the origin of the Rama story in Jain literature three logically possible answers suggest themselves; the story of Rama in Jain literature (i) preserves an independent tradition anterior to that of Vālmīki, (ii) is derivative in nature being borrowed from the Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa or the Hindu Rāmāyaṇa in general with suitable changes, (iii) partly preserves some features of the very ancient tradition prior to that of Valmiki and partly borrows some features of the Valmiki Rāmāyaṇa on account of their vast popularity among the masses. For this purpose it is necessary to investigate the oldest Jaina tradition preserved in the Paümacariya. According to the statement of the poet himself it was composed in 530 A. V. (4 A. D. if we accept the traditional date (527 B. C.) of Mahavira's Nirvana, or 64 A. D. according to Dr. Jacobi's date (467 B. C.) of Mahavira's Nirvana). The researches of modern scholars lead us to believe that Vimala cannot be assigned to a later date than second century A. D. Whatever date we choose to accept, the fact remains that the Paumacariya is the earliest extant Jain form of the story of Räma. Let us now see what this earliest poet of Jain Rāmāyaṇa has to say regarding the origin of the story of Rama.

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ORIGIN OF THE STORY OF RĀMA IN JAIN LITERATURE
29
2. The tradition regarding the Origin of the Paümacariya
(as recorded by Vimala Sūri himself is as follows :)
The Paümacariya was in the form of a list of names and was handed down in regular succession from teacher to his disciplel. It was first told by Lord Mahāvīra to Indrabhūti Gautama who retold it to his disciple. It became known to generations of people through a succession of 'Sādhus'2. Rāhu was his grand
JAIN RĀMĀYAŅAS
(School of Vimala) Paüma-Cariya-(Pk.) about 3rd century A. D. or somewhat later
Sanghadāsa's version, Pk. (School of Gunabhadra) (not later than 609 A. D.) Uttara-Purāna (Sk., 678 A. D.) Harisena's version, Sk. (931-32A. D.) closest to Vālmīki's
Sk.
Apbh.
Sk.
Apbh. 1. Pk Caüpanna- 1. Padma-Purāna of +Paüma-Cariu Punyacandro- Maha-Purāna
mahäpurisa- Ravişeņa (678 of Svayambhu daya Purāņa of Puşpadanta cariya of Silā- A. D.)
(8th ceentury of Krsnadāsa (965 A. D.) cārya (868)
A. D. ?) (16th century A. D.) 2. Dharma
A. D.) 2. "Dhūtākhyāna Pariksa of
of Haribhadra Amitagati (750 A. D.) (1014 A. D.)
3. Yogaśāstra3. Kahāvali of svopajñavrtti
Bhadreśvara of Hemacan(11th century dra A. D.)
4. Trisastiśalākā Key: + Not published. puruşacarita
Casual treatment of of Hemacan
a few fanciful legends. dra (1160-72)
Sk. Sanskrit. A. D.)
Pk. Prakrit. 5. Satruñjaya Mā
Apbh. Apabhramsa. hātmya of Dhaneśvara (14th century)
teacher and Vijaya was his teacher. He composed this epic, 530 years after the

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Nirvana of Lord Mahāvīra, having heard (from his guru) the lives of Nārāyana and Baladeva as were given in the Pūrvas.
Scrutiny of this tradition : It is difficult to accept this tradition as founded on facts. It is probably true that the poet had before him a Nămāvali and known its elucidation from his teacher. But that the story was first told by Lord Mahāvīra himself is difficult to believe. For in the Jain Canon we do not find the story of Rāma recorded anywhere, although the story of Krsna who lived centuries after Räma-according to the statement of the Jain writers themselves--occurs in Antagadadasão4. It is not likely that such a well-known story which admirably illustrates the disastrous consequences of passion for another's wife should find no place in their sacred works. Again, it is very probable that the story of Rāma was not sufficiently popular in the days of Mahāvīra and hence he may not have made use of that story for religious purpose. This surmise is strengthened by the fact that the story of Rāma was popularised by Vālmīki in the 3rd century B.C. Although it is said that the lives of Nārāyana and Baladeva were given in the Purva texts, we unfortunately are not in a position to verify the truth of the statements as these Purva texts are irretrievably lost. Again the traditions recorded by different poets in their Purānas dealing with the lives of 63 heroes are conflicting. Even the later poets of Jain Rāmāyanas (such as Hemacandra) do not appear to have taken this tradition of Vimala seriously. Otherwise how could they effect modifications in the principal narrative which Mahāvīra is said to have told to his pupils ? They would have then remained contented with merely adding poetic descriptions of cities, towns etc., without tampering with the principal narrative of Rāma believed to have been delivered by Mahāvīra. It appears that the poet traces the origin of the story to Lord Mahāvīra in order just to invest it with authority and sanctity and the statement that the lives were given in the Purva-texts is just intended to induce devout readers to accept the truth of the story when, he found it necessary to give the followers of Jain faith a worthy substitute for the enormously popular epic of Vālmīki. That Vimalasuri is considerably indebted to Vālmīki and that his Rāmāyaṇa was used by him when he composed his own work is quite obvious.
3. The Version of Rāma story attacked by Vimalasūri
The author of the Paümacariya does not specifically mention the name of the poet and the name of his work which, according to him, is full of inconsistencies and lies and absurdities, and to replace which he himself undertakes to narrate the true life of Rāma. But the various points of doubt he

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has raised clearly point to the fact that he has in mind Valmiki's Rāmāyaṇa. The questions or doubts that presume some versions of Rāmāyaṇa and the corresponding passages from the Ramayana of Valmiki which give rise to these doubts are set forth as follows :
(a) How the great Rākṣasas, though very strong, were killed by the Vanarasmonkeys? 2. 105
31
How that mighty hero of the Rākṣasas, viz. Rāvaṇa, was defeated by the Vanaras, who are 'tiryak'-lower animals ? 3.9
Vālmīki Rāmāyaṇa does represent the Vanaras as lower animals, e.g., Yuddhakaṇḍa Book VI (Canto 4, vv. 63-67) speaks of their 'Kilakila' cries and lashing of their tails, and Sundarakāṇḍa Book V (Canto 53, vv. 5-8) speaks of the tail of Hanumat-the Vanara hero; and Book V (Canto 10, v.55) clearly brings out that he belonged to the monkeyrace: "He struck on the ground his tail, kissed his own tail, rejoiced, jumped about, sang, ran about, went up the pillars and fell down, thus showing in many ways that he belonged to the monkey race".
Rāvana's defeat was due to the valour of Vanara chiefs and Vanara army no less than to the valour of Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa. This is evident from the description of single combats and battles as given in the Yuddhakāṇḍa. It tells us that Sugrīva killed three of the biggest giants of Rāvana's side viz., Kumbha, Virūpākṣa and Mahodara. Hanumat brought down Ravana's son, Akṣa, and among the most important Rākṣasas he killed were Devantaka, Triśiras and Nikumbha. Nala, Nīla, Angada and other great heroes have also many exploits to their credit. In fact, excepting Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa and Vibhīṣaṇa with his four counsellors, the whole of the army led by them against the Rākṣasas consisted of lower animals who ultimately caused the downfall of Rāvana.
(b) It is reported in the popular scriptures that all the Rākṣasas led by Rāvana used to eat and drink meat, blood and marrow.
Sundarakāṇḍa (V. Canto 5, v. 11 f) tells us of Hanūmat's visit to Rāvana's Banquet hall where he found various kinds of birds' and beasts' flesh kept ready for Ravana's consumption, and cups of wine. In the Aranyakāṇḍa (III. Canto 2 vv. 12-13), the Rākṣasa Virādha himself tells us that he used to seize a saint to make meal of him and that his lips would quaff the blood of Rama and Lakṣmaṇa. In Aranyakāṇḍa (III. Canto 19, vv. 19-20) we are told of Surpanakha's desire to drink the blood of Rama, Lakṣmaṇa and Sītā. Aranyakāṇḍa (iii. Canto 38, v.3) speaks of Mārīca as one given to eating the flesh

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of rşis. In the Sundarakānda (V. Canto 22, v. 9) Rāvana addresses Sītā as follows : "...if after two months' time you do not bend to your lover's will, my cooks shall mince your limbs and serve you for my morning meal”10. Uttarakānda (VII. Canto 10, 38-39) tells us that Kumbhakarna had eaten seven Apsarases and ten followers of Indra.
(C) It is reported that Rāvana's brother named Kumbhakarna used to sleep for
six months without a break; even though his body would be crushed by big elephants and his ears filled with potfuls of oil (he would not wake up), he would not hear the sound of drums beaten near him nor would he get up from his bed if the period of six months was not over! When he got up, being overpowered with fierce hunger he would devour whatever would be near to him at the time, such as elephants and buffaloes. Having filled his belly by devouring gods, men, elephants and the like he would again go to bed for another six months..."
This statement of Vimalasūri is based on Yuddhakānda. Canto 60, W. 23-64.
(d) It is said that Indra, when defeated in battle by Rāvana, was bound in chains
and taken to Lankā. How can anyone take Indra captive-Indra who rules over Jambūdvīpa with its gods and men ? (One would be reduced to heaps of ashes at the mere thought of attacking him, who has Airāvata the elephant-jewel and Vajra—the thunder-bolt at his command !) At that rate we might as well affirm that the lion is overcome by the deer, the elephant by the dog ! Pc. 2, 113-116.
How Indra was overpowered by Rāvana's son and taken captive to Lankā and then Brahma at the request of gods waited in deputation on Rāvana etc., is described in detail in Uttarakānda Cantos 29-30..
(e) It is reported that Rāma during his sojourn in the forest killed a (wondrous)
golden deer. Pc. 3, v. 10.
This incident of the golden deer is described at length by Vālmīki in the Aranyakanda, Cantos 43 and 44.
(f) It is said that Rāma treacherously killed Vālin in order to oblige (his ally)
Sugrīva and win Sutārā" for him (Sugrīva). Pc. 3, v. 10.
Rāma's alliance with Sugrīva and his killing of Vālin with the discharge of a single arrow from a covert position is described in the Kiskindhākānda, Cantos 8-26.

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(g) It is said that the Vanaras constructed a bridge across the ocean ! Pc. 3,v. 12.
In the Yuddhakānda (VI. Canto 22) we are told by Vālmīki that Nala who inherited a share of his father's--Viśvakarman's celestial art and skill, with the aid of hosts of Vanaras, who uprooted mountains, rocks, etc., and overthrew them into the ocean, built a bridge of wondrous strength across the sea.
We thus find that the various doubts regarding the life of Rāma raised by Śrenika have full support in the passages of Rāmāyana of Vālmīki and we, therefore, arrive at the legitimate inference that Vimalasūri had in his mind at the time of composing his Paümacariya, the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki. 4. Vimalasuri's indebtedness to Vālmīki's Rāmāyana
Vimalasūri puts down Vālmīki as a liar and accuses him of presenting distorted and false account of Rāma's life, and undertakes to narrate the true biography of Rāma as handed down by unbroken traditiorr. A comparative study of his work with the Hindu epic, however, reveals, in spite of remarkable divergences, alterations, modifications and omissions, a profound influence of Vālmīki over Vimalasūri. He follows Vālmīki as far as the principal features of the story of Rāma are concerned : Rāma's wedding with Sītā. Bharata's appointment to the throne of Ayodhyā by Daśaratha, the exile into forest of Rāma, Laksmana and Sītā, the abduction of Sītā by Rāvana, the Rāksasa chief of Lankā; the sending of Hanūmat as a messenger to bring the tidings of Sītā after Rāma's alliance with Sugrīva, the fights with Rāvana and his downfall, the bringing home of Sītā, the scandal-mongering in which the citizens of Ayodhyā indulge, the repudiation of Sītā, and the lamentations of Rāma, the birth of twin sons to Sītā-these landmarks in the story of Rāma are common to both the epics, notwithstanding numerous divergences regarding the details. We point here to certain noteworthy 'minor things which are highly eloquent of Vālmīki's influence over Vimala Sūri : (a) Padma is the name of Rāma in the poem, yet the names Rāma, Rāghava,
Raghunātha occur very frequently. b) Srīsaila is the personal name of Hanūmat but the name Hanūmat is very
often met with in the poem. (c) Pavanāñjaya and Añjanāsundarī were, we are told, the names of
Hanumat's parents but later on the poet uses the names as Pavana and
Añjanā. (d) The names of Sītā's twin sons were Ananga-lavana and Madanāňkuša but
the names Lavana (or Lava) and Ankusa (which have close affinity with Stud.-5

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Lava and Kuśa of the Rāmāyana) are used frequently enough. (e) Bhānukarna is the name of Kumbhakarņa but the poet uses very often the
name Kumbhakarna. (f) Sutārā is the name of Tārā, the wife of Sugrīva, yet the name Tārā is more
often used. (g) Indra who, according to Vimalasūri, was the overlord of Vidyadharas and
not the chief among gods is often called 'Surendra', 'Surädhipati', 'Devendra' and 'Surapati' (see Cantos 12 and 13).
This one fact alone is a proof of the profound influence which Vālmīki's Rāmāyana has had on the author of the Paümacariya. (h) On a close comparison of verses which treat of the same subject we do not
find any remarkable verbal resemblance between the two epics although occasionally we come across rare subhasita-like lines that seem to be borrowed by Vimala from his predecessor, for example : (1) HUF fa... -
V. R. VI. 112.25 मरणंताइ हवंति वेराणि ।
Pc. C. 75.v.I. (2) Ecarta part à
E t hif a IV. R. VI. 131.107 Yerrent.... ga i des Etret PETETU.... Pc.C. 118. v. 94-95 (3) FATH JALAN and alfa antra: i V. R. VI. 131.112
MES TCH THU HAITI wa aliqui Pc. C. 118. v. 96 It is, however, clear that such striking resemblances between the two epics are very rare and that Vimala is not a slavish imitator of his predecessor in point of diction and style.
On the whole, Vimalasūri's work is profoundly influenı ed by the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki12.
5. Vimalasuri's aims in the Paümacariya
The poet holds that Rāmāyana stories are most certainly lies; he thinks that the absurdities which are related regarding the life of Rāma, Rāvana and others are not worthy of belief, and that the poets who composed Rāmāyana were liars. It is with a view to removing all the absurdities, anomalies, inconsistencies and incredible elements that the poet undertakes the composition of the present epic. It is the poet's intention to present faithfully the life of Rāma as was proclaimed by Lord Mahāvīra himself13. That the poet is intent on the propagation of the teachings of Lord Mahāvīra is evident to one who throws even a cursory glance at the epic. In the concluding portion of his epic, he exhorts his

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readers (or hearers) to practise the Dharma as expounded by the Jinas : रमह सया जिणवरमयम्मि ।
-118. 112. fueria EU 394 hi-118. 113. It is thus very clear that the poet aims mainly at propagation of Jain doctrines,
This will be further obvious if we bear in mind the changes and modifications made by Vimalasūri in the Rāma story as given by Vālmīki and analyse the motives which most probably inspired these changes. The changes effected by Vimalasūri give the story a totally different form and purpose. These changes, however, cannot be explained by assuming that Vimala has preserved any original and important traits of the Rāma legend anterior to the Vālmīki Rāmāyana.
For, Vālmīki's Rāmāyana presents the oldest version of the story of Rāma : "As an epic the Rāmāyana is very far removed from the Veda, and even the Rāma legend is only bound to Vedic literature by very slender threads.. Neither is there anything to indicate that songs of Rāma and Sītā already existed in the Vedic times."14 The story of Rāma and Sītā is to be found, for the first time, in the Ramopākhyāna—The Rāma episode--in the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki. Eminent scholars like Jacobi, Sukthankar and Winternitz hold, in spite of the objections of A. Ludwig and Hopkins, that the Rāma episode is an epitome of the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki, on the evidence of the numerous verbal agreements between the two poems, and other good reasons. 'It is probable', says Winternitz, 'that the original Rāmāyana was composed in the third century B. C. by Vālmīki on the basis of ancient ballads'16.
Now, there are some scholars of eminence who hold that the Ramayana of Vālmīki has for its source the story of Rāma as found in the Daśaratha Jātaka and a few other jātakas!?. But there are equally eminent scholars 18 who hold firmly to the opinion that the Dasaratha Jataka is not really older than the Rāmāyana but only a distorted version of the latter. According to Dr. Narasimhachar, it is difficult to decide the problem either way. The case put forth by Jacobi and others, however, appears to be nearer the truth.
In any case, the question of Daśaratha Jataka does not assume importance as the Jain Rāmāyanas do not show any appreciable acquaintance with the Rāma story as given by the Jatakas. And the earliest Jain version of Rāma story available to us belongs to first (or second century) A. D. That is, the Jain Rāmāyana falls centuries after the Ramayana of Vālmīki. In fact, Vimala is

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prompted to effect these changes in the Rāma story on account of motives more than one. These motives may be enumerated as follows:(a) Removing of exaggerated and incredible elements
In the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki we have an exaggerated account of the Rākşasas, Vānaras, Rksas and so on. For example, Rāvana had ten mouths and twenty hands. It is said that in spite of all efforts to wake up Kumbhakarna by loud noises, Kumbhakarņa used to sleep for half a year, and then after his awakening, would devour elephants etc. and would again slumber for half a year. Then again Indra, though he rules over gods and men, is said to have b taken captive to Lankā by Rāvana ! Then again it is said that the demon heroes in all their mighty strength were defeated by the monkeys ! Again how can the monkeys build a bridge across the sea by throwing the rocks, hills and trees uprooted by them? It is these and similar elements that are obviously absurd and exaggerated that Vimala deliberately removes from his story. (b) Realistic Interpretation
Some of the changes which Vimala brings about are due to his desire of giving realistic form to the story. For example, Rāvana is described by the Vālmīki Rāmāyana as a ten-headed monster-Dasagrīva or Daśānana or Dasamukha. According to Vimala, Rāvana's mother hangs around his neck a wondrous string of pearls, in which his face is reflected nine times, hence his epithet of Dasamukha "the man with ten faces”. This is obviously a realistic explanation of the epithets of Rāvana. Again, in the Vālmīki Rāmāyana the Vānaras are represented as animals having long tails and using their teeth and nails as weapons and living on fruit etc. According to Vimala, “On the monkey island there is the city of Kiskindhi-pura. The “Monkeys" (Vānaras) are in reality a race of Vidyādharas, which is so called because these Vidyādharas had monkeys by way of badges on the arches of gates, banners and the like.” This interpretation of the term 'Vanaras' is also realistic. Then again, about the Rāksasas : They are, in the Vālmīki Rāmāyana, represented as demons with fearful appearances, and devouring all kinds of animals including even human beings; according to Vimala the Rākşasas belonged to a race of the Vidyādharas, who, far from killing and devouring animals that they could obtain, strictly adhered to the vow of ahimsā. The Rāksasas were so called because one highsouled 'Raksasa' was born in that dynasty of the Vidyadharas19". This also is a realistic interpretation of the term Rāksasa. Sītā, in the Vālmīki Rāmāyana, comes forth out of the earth, here she is born of Videhā in the natural way. This too is an illustration of the realistic representation ! We can multiply such

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instances of realistic representation from Vimala's epic.
(c) Ridding the story of divine elements
Vālmīki Rāmāyana represents Rāma as a divine being, an incarnation of god Visnu. The story of Vedavatī in the Uttarakānda leads us to believe that Sītā was Laksmī, Bharata, Laksmana and Satrughna are Amśāvatāras of Visnu. The Vānaras, Rksas etc. too possess some divine element. Jainism does not admit of the supremacy of the trinity of Hindu gods. Naturally Vimala rids the story of Rāma of the divine elements. (d) Elevation :
According to the Vālmīki-Rāmāyana, Kaikeyi is a selfish, greedy and intriguing woman. Rāma kills Vālin treacherously and is guilty of killing Sambūka. Rāvana is a tyrant, an oppressor of mankind etc., violently obstructing sacrifices, and he abducts women. Vālin is a usurper, and unlawfully takes possession of his brother's wife and kingdom. Vimalasūri takes a very sympathetic view of these characters, and attempts to clear them of blame. He represents Kaikeyi as a mother par excellence who is prepared to let her husband accept asceticism but desperately tries to retain her loving son. She does not demand Rāma's exile. Välin, a mighty Vidyādhara hero, though capable of inflicting a crushing defeat on Ravana, voluntarily appoints Sugrīva to the throne and himself becomes a monk. This account acquits Vālin of the shameful charge of living with his brother's wife, and Rāma of the charge of treacherously slaying Vālin, who had done no harm to him. Laksmana kills Sambūka by accident and this exonerates Rāma completely from the guilt of slaying Tapasvin. Rāvana is a pious and devout Jain. He restores ruined Jain shrines. As far as possible he avoids 'hiṁsā' whenever he has to fight. In his worldconquest he is shown to have subdued his enemies whom he later on sets free and restores to them their kingdoms. His only weakness is his passion for Sītā !
Thus it will be seen that Vimala is very keen on elevating his characters.
(e) Purging the story of Rāma of its Brahmanical atmosphere :
In the Vālmīki Rāmāyana the heroes move in an entirely Brahmanical atmosphere. From the beginning to the end the poem breathes this atmosphere. Numerous Brahmanical legends and myths such as those of Vaśistha, Viśvāmitra, Agastya, Vedavatī, and so on, are inserted in the narrative. The performance of Aśvamedha sacrifice is described with approval. The main characters are represented as avatāras of the great Hindu god-Visnu. Vimalasuri, who is out "to give his co-religionists a complete substitute for the Hindu epic",

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cannot allow such atmosphere to colour his poem. He simply omits all these legends and avatāra-kathās that have no essential connection with the story of Rāma. In certain cases he modifies the legends to suit Jain atmosphere, e.g., the story of Sagara and his 60000 sons. He speaks of the Vedas and animal sacrifices but only to criticise them. (f) Creating of Jain atmosphere in its place :
Having purged the Rāma-story of its Brahmanical atmosphere, he sets himself to create Jain atmosphere by introducing various upākhyānas such as those of Vajrakarna, Kapila etc., which show the importance of Jainism, by adding at appropriate places the sermons of Jain munis, by explaining the duties of a Jain householder and a monk, by making the main characters of the stories devout followers of Jainism, by describing the existence of Jina shrines at almost all the places and their worship, eulogising the Tirthankaras etc., by giving the stories of the previous existences of the heroes as is done in all the narrative poems of the Jains, by describing Jain festivals such as Astāhnika-Pūjā, by emphasizing the Law of Karma and denouncing the entertaining of nidāna, by portraying the kings as pious Jains who in their old age retire from the world and become Jain monks, and so on. (g) Propagagation of the special doctrines of Jainism.
"The Rāmāyana in India is not—and never will be, let us hope-a dead mythology. It is full of the noblest examples of virtue and truth, of devotion and self-sacrifice. Its characters have been for centuries, and still are, living forces moulding the actions and aspirations of the men and women of India20". Now long before Vimala flourished, the Rāma story of Vālmīki was immensely popular. Vimala thought that this story would provide an excellent means for reaching the popular thought and propagating Jain views, ideals and doctrines. With this thought he modified the story of Rāma to suit the Jain view of life. Through this story he teaches the Jain ethics, especially emphasizing the doctrine of ahimsā, and recommends the reader to take up to asceticism as a sovereign remedy against all ills of saṁsāra. He exhorts his reader or hearer to keep moksa as his highest goal. He fully explains the working of the all-powerful and inexorable law of karma and illustrates it with a number of stories. He incidentally points out to us how nidāna, a special phase of the law of Karma, is a cause of bondage in this samsāra. He sings the glory of virtues like nonviolence, truthfulness etc., and depicts the evil consequences of harassing or molesting a Jain monk or nun. In one word, Vimala presses into service this popular story of Rāma for propagating the tenets of Jainism.

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The motives enumerated and illustrated above must have prompted Vimalasuri in effecting the various changes in the story of Rāma as detailed under the heads of omissions, additions and modifications.
(h) Consideration of some of the changes not covered by general discussion
With this general discussion about the motives behind these changes, we do not think it is necessary to account for each and every change introduced by Vimala. We may, however, account here for the striking ones among these changes not covered by the above general discussion :
Omissions :- Vimala omits the famous incident of 'golden deer', for Rāma, who is vratastha', cannot kill a deer. According to Vimala all the principal characters abstain from meat-eating and are pious Jains. The incidents of the Illusory Head of Rāma and the beheading of Māyā-Sītā are left out as they do not fit in with the elevated character of Răvana.
The fire-ordeal of Sītā at Lankā is omitted possibly for this reason that he did not like to show Sītă undergoing the same ordeal twice for establishing her purity and innocence, for in the later history of Rāma she undergoes one fireordeal. Or it may be that he is influenced by Rāmopākhyāna in the Mahābhārata, where there is no mention of any ordeal.
Instead of Anaranya's curse Vimala speaks of a prophecy predicted by an astrologer (Canto 23, w. 10-11).
The occasion for Nalakūbara's curse on Rāvana (viz., Rāvana's forcibly carrying away of Rambhā, who was proceeding to the house of her lover, Nalakūbara) : does not agree with the character of Rāvaņa as conceived by Vimala.
Vibhisana and Hanumat are gifted with immortality : According to Jainism not even gods are immortal.
Additions :- The pretty episode of Bhāmandala is a pure invention of Vimala. Laksmana's lifting of Kotisilā has a faint and distinct parallel in the Rāmāyana where Rāma cleaves with a single arrow seven palm trees standing in a row.
The account of Virādhita (the name has some similarity with Rāmāyana's Virādha !) is an innovation introduced by Vimala with poetic skill. The large number of wives of Rāma and Laksmana perhaps reflects the idea that the larger the number of queens, the greater would be the glory of that king ! And it is possible that in the days of Vimala it was a custom among Ksatriya kings to

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marry many women.
Modifications :- We have accounted for almost all the modifications in our general discussion. Kausalyā is called Aparājitā and Vimala is the first poet who so names her. Satrughna is born of Kaikeyi whereas in the Rāmāyana he is born of Sumitrā. Kharadūsana is one individual, according to Vimala, and the husband of Rāvana's sister--Candranakhā. This does not agree with Vālmīki's version, where Khara is Rāvana's brother and Dūşana, one of his generals; and Vidyutjihva is the name of the husband of Rāvana's sister. Indrajit and Meghavāhana are two different persons, both sons of Rāvana. According to Vālmīki, Meghanāda was later named Indrajit. The episode of Vita-Sugrīva is an invention by Vimala to bring together Rāma and Sugrīva.
(i) Vimala's conception of the Rāksasas and the Vānaras
This is markedly different from that of Vālmīki. "The Rāksasas are not man-eating demons with fearful and hideous appearances. Nor are the Vānaras animals having long tails, living on fruits etc., and using their nails and teeth as their weapons. They are in reality a race of the Vidyādharas, a class of beings endowed with many supernatural qualities, if not human beings in the correct sense of the term. Beastly and uncouth behaviours and appearances are not therein attributed to them. On the other hand, they are depicted as having been highly civilised, who, far from killing and devouring all animals that they could obtain, strictly adhered to the vow of ahimsa21The dynasty of Vidyadharas at Lankā came to be called Rāksasas after the celebrated and great Vidyadhara hero named Rāksasa. The Vidyādharas of Kiskindhipura received the name of Vānaras because of their custom of wearing the pictures of monkeys as symbols on their banners and crowns.
This conception of Vimala is born of the growing spirit of rationalism of his age. The fanciful and exaggerated poetic descriptions of the Rāksasas and the Vānaras given by the Vālmīki-Rāmāyana were unacceptable to Vimala, a champion of rationalism. He, therefore, portrays the Rāksasas and the Vānaras as Vidyādharas, possessed of supernatural powers and gives realistic interpretations of the appellations "Räksasa' and 'Vānara’ and of 'Rāvana's name Dasamukha.
These aims satisfactorily explain the changes effected by Vimala in the Rāma story of Vālmīki.
Apart, however, from any question of aims, there is one single episode which establishes beyond any shadow of doubt the fact that Vālmīki-Rāmāyaṇa

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is Vimala's source, and it is that of Indra's defeat by Rāvaņa.
At the end of Canto 2 Vimala says : "Indra, though he rules over gods and men, is said to have been taken captive to Lankā by Rāvana ! One will be reduced to a heap of ashes at the mere thought of him who has the best elephant -Airāvata and the unfailing weapon Thunderbolt. At that rate we might as well affirm that the lion is overcome by gazelle, the elephant by the dog. The Rāmāyana stories are most certainly lies."
Now Vimala in Canto 7 tells us of Indra, the Vidyadhara-chief. Here he describes Indra in such a way as to lead us to believe that he is another Indra (especially read his appointment of four Lokapālas, his elephant Airāvata, his minister Brhaspati, his weapon Vajra, his son Jayanta etc.). But this very Vimala when he describes the fight between Rāvana and Indra, employs so many times such words as 'Suravai', 'Surabhada', 'Surinda', 'Surabala', 'Surasenna', 'Sakko', 'Suranāho', 'Surāhivai', for Indra, the overlord of Vidyadharas. The use of the words Surendra etc. clearly demonstrates the truth of the remark made above that although Vimala professes to give the faithful story of Rāma as handed down by Jain tradition, in actual practice he reveals, though unconsciously, his source viz., Vālmīki-Rāmāyana. Otherwise how could he condemn in one breath the description of the defeat of the overlord of gods-Indra, and himself describe Indra-the Vidyadhara-chief as Surendra, Surādhipa and so on ? This description has misled even Dr. Winternitz who writes : Cantos XII and XIII tell of a fight between Rāvana and the God Indra (History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, p. 492).
We thus find that the origin of Vimala's Paümacariya which is the earliest Jain form of Rāma story (not later than the third or fourth century A. D.), is the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki.
6. Sen's view about an independent Southern legend of Rāvaņa
An interesting thesis is, however, advanced by Rai Saheb D. C. Sen regarding an independent Southern legend about Rāvana. This thesis has a bearing on our problem, and it becomes necessary to examine it
In his celebrated work called “The Bengali Rāmāyanas", Sen examines the material found in the Jātakas such as the Dasaratha Jātaka and the Jain Rāmāyana of Hemacandra and arrives at the conclusion that "there were two distinct legends-an early Northern Aryan legend about Rāma without any connection with the Rākşasas and the Vānaras and a Southern Dravidian legend in which Rāvana figures, independent of all touch with Rāma. These two distinct legends were at a very remote period of history, much earlier than the 4th
Stud.-6

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century B. C., when Vālmīki is said to have composed his epic, mixed by the ballad-mongers, who invented the story of the abduction of Sītā, or somehow linked the broken chain of a story of some princess who was abducted, fancying her to be Sītā, and thus bridged the gulf betwen the two legends now presented as a homogeneous story, and Vālmīki came latterly as the most eloquent exponent of this mixed story.” We confine our discussion to the so-called Southern Dravidian legend-especially the Jain Rāmāyana of Hemacandra.
Sen holds that "Hemacandra's version of Rāma's story, though comparatively modern, gives us a historical clue to the traditions that were extant in the Deccan in the olden times. At the time when this Jain Rāmāyana was written, Vālmīki's Epic was known and read all over India. So it is but natural that the story as given in the latter is found incorporated in the Jain work. But the striking feature of this book is the elaborate description to be found in it of the dynasties of Raksasas and apes. The story of Rāma is rather short. The descriptions of the Rāksasas and monkeys occupy a very considerable space, and many legends and stories about them are found in it which are not mentioned in the great epic. This shows that in the Dravidian traditions the Rāksasas and monkeys had a far greater hold on popular fancy than the story of Rāma himself. The character of Rāvana as given in this book rises to heights not scaled by the Rāvana of our national magnum opus. The tapasyā or the austerities...undergone by Rāvana show his high character and a majestic command over passions, worthy of a sage, which unmistakably prove him to be the real hero of the Dravidian legend.” Again, "the Jain Rāmāyana begins with the description of the Raksasas and monkeys and introduces Rāma only in the later chapters. This is quite unlike what we find in the great epic. The Rāmāyana, as a matter of course, should give the story of Rāma first. The supposition naturally grows strong that in Southern India the story of Rāvana and of the monkeys had been widely known, and the Northern legend was introduced, later on, as a supplementary story.” Further, Sen corroborates his stand by adducing evidence from the Lankāvatāra-Sūtra, a Buddhist text composed in the second or third century A. D. and the statement of Dharmakīrti who flourished in the 6th Century A. D.
We have quoted the words of Sen in extenso so that the reader should get a complete idea of Sen's view in the matter in his own words. 7. Sen's view regarding the Southern independent Rāvana legend examined
(a) The narrative method : Jain Rāmāyana begins with the description of the Rāksasas and Vānaras and introduces Rāma only in the later chapter; and

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moreover it gives an elaborate description of the dynasties of Raksasas and Vanaras and many stories and legends about them.
43
The Uttarakanda, although a later addition, was known to the author of Paümacariya, as we have already shown in the preceding section. The Uttarakanda is intended as a supplement and relates only events antecedent and subsequent to those described in the original poem. Thus the early history of Ravana with the Räkṣasa and Vänara families fills nearly forty cantos in the Uttarakanda and we have a full account of Ravana's wars with the gods and his conquest of Lanka, which all happened long before the action of the poem begins; and the latter Cantos continue the narrative of the hero Rama after his triumphant return to Ayodhya's kingdom and his coronation and the poem closes with his death and that of his brothers and the founding by their descendants of various kingdoms in different parts of India. Now what Vimalasuri does is that he opens his epic with the description of the universe etc., and the various dynasties of the Rākṣasas and the Vanaras, the world-conquest of Ravana, etc., with a view to furnishing the reader with the proper background and setting of the real story. This way of treatment will only facilitiate the understanding of the story by the reader. The narrative method of Vimalasūri follows the chronological method of representing the beginning first, then the middle and finally the end. In Uttarakanda we have events antecedent and subsequent to the main story. One might appreciate Vimala's way of unfolding the story but in itself it does not indicate that the Räkṣasas and Vänaras and their legends were widely known and that the Rama-story was added later on as a supplement only. We may also point out in this connection that the Rämopäkhyāna in the Mahabharata opens with an account of Ravana and his family, and the Vanaras. Vimala may have taken a hint from this opening in the Rāmopakhyāna.
(b) The elevated notion about the Vänaras and the Räkṣasas in the Jain Rāmāyaṇas: Vimalasūri represents the Räkṣas as and the Vanaras as a class of Vidyadharas and devout followers of Jainism; Rākṣasas are not man-eating demons and the Vänaras are not monkeys with tails, etc.
To this we answer as follows :
The descriptions of the Vänaras in the Välmiki Rāmāyaṇa are open to the charge of inconsistency. They are generally represented as semi-divine beings with preternatural powers living in houses and eating and drinking like men; sometimes as monkeys pure and simple, living in woods and eating fruits and roots. The highly exaggerated descriptions of ten-faced Rāvana, etc., are

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definitely inconsistent with other descriptions of Ravana where he is a Rākṣasa with one face and two arms, etc. So too there is sometimes allusion to the eating of human flesh and drinking of human blood by some Räkṣasas. But as a rule, leaving aside these exceptional instances of grossly exaggerated descriptions, the Raksasas as a class are not spoken of as cannibals.
Vimalasuri removing the inconsistencies and absurdities in the epic represents them as a class of Vidyadharas and adherents of Jainism. He was inspired probably by the legitimate purpose of representing the Jain faith as superior to the Brahmanical traditions by removing from the legend of Rama elements which the people may have found difficult to swallow.
(c) Ravana depicted as noble and grand: No doubt Rävaṇa is represented by Välmiki as an oppressor of gods and others; he is shown guilty of abducting Sitä; he is also depicted as interrupting the performance of sacrifices. But even according to Välmiki (or Vyasa) he is not evil incarnate. Välmiki (or rather the author of Uttarakāṇḍa) tells us how Ravana and his two brothers perform austere penance for thousands of years and obtain boons from the god Brahma. He is said to have been born in a celebrated Brahmin family. In spite of his serious weakness he did possess some commendable virtues. He misuses and misdirects his power and might.
Vimala, as we have already pointed out, looks upon Ravana as a Salākāpurusa a great man, according to Jain tradition; he conceives the character of Rāvana as the noblest man, a devout Jain and ideal king. His only defect is his passion for Sītā which brings about his death. Thus it will be seen that the elevation of Rākṣasa princes is no indication of Ravana's having been the hero of an independent legend. In fact, so far no legend of Rāvana independent of any connection with the story of Rama has come to light. Further, we have established that Vimala was acquainted with the Rāmāyaṇa of Välmiki and that his work is a special edition of the Hindu story brought out to serve the adherents of Jainism as a substitute for the highly popular Ramayana of Valmiki.
Thus the differences in the treatment of the character of Rävana, and in the general account of the Räkṣasa and the Vänara families, as between the Vālmiki Rāmāyaṇa and the Jain versions of the story, can all be explained as due to difference of purpose and emphasis. It is not necessary to assume the existence of an independent Rāvana legend as a hypothesis to explain these differences, unless there is independent evidence to prove the existence of such a legend. And therefore the view put forward by Sen that there was a Southern Dravidian independent Rävana legend cannot be accepted.

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3. The Digambara Version of Guņabhadra
Now, in connection with this problem of the origin of the Jain Rāmāyaṇas, the Digambara' version of Gunabhadra, deserves to be carefully investigated, for the two versions of Gunabhadra and Vimalasūri markedly differ from each other in regard to story element, characterisation, etc. Further, we may note that Vimala shows that Hanūmat, Sugrīva and Rāvana were relatives, that Hanūmat had helped Rāvana in his fight against Varuna etc., tells of the later history of Rāma'-introduces about a dozen upākhyānas, gives a detailed history of the dynasties of the Rākşasas and the Vānaras and the Iksvāku, narrates the account of Vālin and Sugrīva differently. It is but right then if we say that the two versions should be regarded as independent forms of the story of Rāma.
The first question that comes to mind about Gunabhadra's version is : “Why was it that Gunabhadra did not follow Ravisena, his Digambara predecessor ? Ravisena was a Digambara. We expect, therefore, Gunabhadra, a Digambara poet, to follow his predecessor. But our expectation is not fulfilled. As we have stated above, Gunabhadra's Rāma-story is vastly different from that of Vimalasuri (with whose story that of Ravisena almost perfectly agrees). So to find an answer to the question raised we may set forth the following logical possibilities : (i) Gunabhadra was not aware of the existence of the epics of Vimala and
Ravisena.
(ii) Even if he was aware of their existence he did not think the narrative
embodied therein to be good enough to be followed by him.
(ii) He gives the story as he found it in some work of a predecessor of his,
belonging to his Guru-Paramparā, which work is now lost to us.
(iv) He gives literary shape to the oral tradition as handed down by a line of
successive teachers of his Samgha.
(v) He gives shape to some local version that was then current.
Now let us examine these logical possibilities :
Gunabhadra flourished in the 9th century A. D. So it is not likely that he was not aware of the existence of the works of Vimala and/or Ravisena, or that he gave literary shape to local version. As he is a 'modern writer' compared with the eminent Hindu poets Vyāsa and Vālmīki and the Jain poet Vimala, their versions, with some slight variations, were widely known at the time of

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Gunabhadra. So alternatives (i) and (v) we may dismiss as improbable. Alternative (ii) also may be dismissed as improbable as a man of Gunabhadra's calibre cannot be accused of lack of balanced judgment. It is impossible to imagine that a writer coming at a sufficiently late stage in a literary tradition would invent highly extraordinary variations in an established legend, especially if the legend had a religious significance. Gunabhadra must, therefore, have had some authority for the version of the story that he gave. However, of the alternatives (iii) and (iv), it is difficult to say which is more probable. It is quite likely that he embodied in his Purana the story of Rama as it came to him through Acarya-Parampara. We have some reason to believe, however, that Gunabhadra may have been indebted to Kavi Paramesthi or Parameśvara. He is said to have composed a Purāna glorifying 63 salākāpuruṣas, celebrities of the Jain faith. Gunabhadra himself says that it was a gadya-katha and that it was used by Jinasena for Adi-Purana22. Jinasena calls it Vägartha-samgraha23. Now if Jinasena followed Kavi Parameśvara in composing his Adi-Purāņa it is not unlikely that Jinasena's pupil, who completed his teacher's unfinished MahāPurana by adding to it his Uttara-Purāṇa, too, based his Rama-story on that of Kavi Parameśvara24.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
Let us now turn to the views of Pt. Premi and Dr. Narasimhachar regarding the sources of Gunabhadra.
9. The relation of Gunabhadra's version with the Dasaratha Jātaka and the Adbhuta-Rāmāyaṇa
In his paper on "Padma-Carita Aura Paüma-Cariya" Pt. Premi suggests that Gunabhadra describes the birth of Sītā as Ravana's daughter after the AdbhutaRāmāyaṇa, whereas Kingship of Dasaratha over Vārāṇasī and the absence of the incidents such as Sītā's abandonment, the birth of Lava and Kuśa, the twin sons of Sītā, can be traced to the Buddhistic Jātaka25. Dr. Narasimhachar, referring to the elements in the story such as Sītā's birth, her abduction in the precincts of Vārāṇasī, the intensely ascetic nature ascribed to the character of Rāma, and the golden deer incident, remarks that "it seems to be a conglomeration of various legends pertaining to Rāma" and that "it has no unitary source" 26
Now let us examine this question of Gunabhadra's sources. Chronologically speaking Adbhuta-Rāmāyaṇa is very much later than Gunabhadra's Uttara-Purāna. Grierson remarks: "The Adbhuta Rāmāyaṇa is a comparatively modern work. It is distinctly śākta in character, exalting Sītā above Rama. It is also an attempt to introduce the terrible cult of Saiva Śaktism into the altogether alien soil of Vaisnavism." Adbhuta-Rāmāyaṇa is later than

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Adhyatma-Rāmāyaṇa (14th or 15th century). So it cannot be taken as a possible source of Gunab dra's Rama-story. Again, the way Sītā is born. according to the story of Adbhuta-Ramayana is indeed Adbhuta !
47
"Ravana in the course of his conquest comes to the Dandaka forest, summons the Rsis there to submit without resistance, and, with this demand, draws from each with the tip of an arrow a little blood, which he collects in a jar.
One he Rsis is Grtsamada, the father of a hundred sons. His wife has begged from him that she may have a daughter, and that this daughter may be Laksmi herself. In order to fulfil her desire, the Ṛsi has been day by day sprinkling with appropriate mantras, milk from a wisp of Kausa-grass into a jar, so that thereby it may become inhabited by Laksmi. He does this, as usual, on the morning of the day on which Rāvana appears, and, before the latter's arrival, goes out into the forest. It is in this same jar that Rāvana collects the Rṣis's blood. He takes it home with him, and gives it to his wife Mandodari to take care of, telling her that the blood in it is more poisonous than poison itself. She may on no account taste it, or give it to anyone to taste.
Rāvana again goes forth on his career of conquest and in Mount Mandara debauches the daughters of the gods etc. Mandodari, seeing them preferred to her, determines to kill herself. With this object, she drinks the contents of the jar Rsis's blood, which Rāvana has told her is a deadly poison. Instead of dying, she immediately becomes pregnant with Lakṣmi, who has been installed in the sprinkled milk by the power of Gṛtsamada's mantras.
When she finds herself pregnant in the absence of her husband, in fear of his reproaches she sets out for Kurukṣetra under pretence of making a pilgrimage. There, freeing herself from the foetus, she buries it in the ground and returns home, keeping the whole affair a secret.
Shortly afterwards Janaka comes to sacrifice at Kuruksetra. In order to prepare the ground for the sacrifice, he ploughs it with a golden plough, and while doing so turns up the foetus,-a girl child. Being warned by a voice from heaven, he adopts her and names her Sītā. After completing the sacrifice, he takes her home, and brings her up."
Lakṣmi (Sītā) is born as the daughter of Mandodari on account of a curse: "Nārada, while attending a concert in heaven, is hustled aside by Lakṣmi's attendants, who are conducting her to her seat. He promptly curses her to become incarnate as the daughter of a Raksasa."
This fantastic birth-story is greatly different from that given by

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Gunabhadra where Sītā is born of Mandodarī as the daughter of Rāvana. The Dasaratha Jātaka is definitely older than Gunabhadra's Uttara-Purana. But it is a distorted version of the story of Rāma as given in the Mahābhārata and the Vālmīki-Rāmāyana. So merely because the later history of Rāma is absent both in the Dasaratha Jätaka and Gunabhadra's version we cannot say that the former is the source of the latter. It is true the Jātaka speaks of Dasaratha as a ruler of Vārānası, and Gunabhadra represents him as shifting his capital from Vārāṇasī to Ayodhyā. But this is too slender a thread to connect the two stories. The Jātaka speaks of Rāma and Sītā, as brother and sister, staying in the Himalaya mountain for years together at Daśaratha's suggestion, and the marriage of Rāma and Sītā brother and sister ! All this is absent in the Jain version. So properly speaking we cannot point to Adbhuta-Rāmāyana and Dasaratha Jataka as Gunabhadra's source for his Rāma-story.
We might account for these divergences in a different way : The birth of Sītā is a mystery according to Vālmīki's Rāmāyana. The Jain poets wanted to give a realistic interpretation of her birth. Vimala straightway calls her the daughter of Janaka and Videhā born in a natural manner. Gunabhadra (or the Ācārya who first gave the version found in the Uttara-Purāna) makes Sītā the daughter of Rāvana and Mandodarī. He gives the reason why Sītā was abandoned by the parents and how Janaka and his wife Vasudhā come across this fondling ! This change introduced by the Jain poet has something dramatic about it. A father falling in love with his own daughter, being unaware of the fact that she is his own daughter is psychologically not improbable. And as far as we know, Sanghdāsa (not later than 609 A. D.) is the first poet to represent Sītā as Rāvana's daughter. It is not unlikely that this account of the birth of Sītā and the names of some of Rāvana's ancestors such as Sahasragrīva and others, have been taken over by Gunabhadra (or his predecessor whom he follows) from Sanghadāsa's version. A guess may be hazarded that Sanghadāsa possibly had in mind the story of Karna's birth when he relates the account of Sītā's birth. Karna is generally regarded as the son of a charioteer. The Mahābhārata story, however, goes that in reality he was begotten by Surya, the Sun-god, and Kunti, when the latter was as yet a maiden, in a miraculous manner, so that Kuntīs virginity was not violated. But after she had given birth to Karna, she was filled with shame, and put the boy out on the river in a little water-tight basket. There he was found by a charioteer, who brought him up. Karna is, therefore, really an elder brother to the Pandavas. The names Sahasragrīva and others as the ancestors of Rāvana were probably invented with a view to making the name Daśagrīva not sound utterly strange or fantastic.

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From this discussion it becomes evident that there is no ground to believe that the Dasaratha-Jataka and the Adbhuta-Rāmāyana were Gunabhadra's sources.
Let us now examine whether the version of Gunabhadra is entirely dependent on Vālmīki or contains an independent tradition. Guņabhadra shares with Vālmīki the following features : (i) Manimatī's curse on Răvana (corresponds with Vedavatīs). (ii) The names Daśānana, Kumbhakarna, Śūrpanakhā and Vibhīşaņa. (iii) The stratagem of golden stag. (iv) The slaying of Vālin. (v) Rāma's giving of his signet ring to Hanumat as an abhijñāna. (vi) Hanūmat's assuming the form of a bee (a cat, according to Vālmīki) on the
occasion of entering Lankā. (vii) Hanūmat's presenting himself (before Sītā) as a Vānara. (viii) Vibhīsana's alliance with Rāma. (ix) Hanūmat's (Anūmat, according to Gunabhadra) laying waste the grove
and setting Lankā ablaze. (x) Causing disturbance to Rāvana in his Vidyāsādhana. (xi) Cutting off the illusory head of Sītā and throwing it in front of Rāma. (xii) Depicting of Rāvana as 'adhama', 'khala', 'loka-kantaka', 'paradārāpahārin',
etc., and of Vibhīşana as dharmajña, prājña, etc.
Notwithstanding these common features Gunabhadra shows some important divergences from Vālmīki as regards : (i) The parentage of Lakṣmaṇa, Bharata, Śatrughna and the place of their
birth. (ii) Dasaratha's rule over Vārānasī. (iii) The birth of Sītä as the daughter of Rāvana and Mandodarī. (iv) The circumstances and conditions preceding the wedding of Rāma and
Sītā. The Court-intrigue by Kaikeyi for securing the throne for Bharata and Rāma's
exile (which is absent in Gunabhadra's version). (vi) Śūrpanakhā's visit to Sītā as Rāvana's dūti. (vii) Dasaratha's informing Rāma of Sītāpaharana. (viii) The later history of Rāma (which is almost wholly absent in Gunabhadra).
Stud.-7

(V)

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It is, therefore, right to conclude that Gunabhadra's version is largely dependent, if not entirely, on Vālmīki. The version of Gunabhadra gains a new look and form by the assimilation to the frame-work of the story as taken from Vālmīki's, of some novel features as listed above and of remarkable features from the Jain tradition, such as Rāma and Laksmana having a large number of wives as every Baladeva and Vāsudeva should have, their devotion to Jainism, renunciation of the world by Rāma, Sītā, Vibhīsana, Hanūmat, etc., and their acceptance of the monastic order, Lakşmaņa's sinking into hell, the representation of the Vānaras and the Rākşasas as Vidyādharas and followers of Jainism, and so on. Consequently, this Digambara version is generally regarded as an independent Jain form of the Rāma legend.
It is, however, obvious from the preceding discussion that Gunabhadra had always a purpose in view in introducing these changes and that like Vimalasūri, Gunabhadra too, took Vālmīki Rāmāyana as his starting point an important changes and modifications in the received legend to suit his aims, artistic, religious or ethical. The differences between the Vālmīki Rāmāyana and Gunabhadra's version cannot, therefore, be taken as a basis for arguing that Gunabhadra's version preserves any original features or traits of the legend as it flourished prior to Vālmīki, more faithfully than Vālmīki does. Such a hypothesis cannot be advanced except on the basis of independent evidence to prove the existence of a Rāma legend prior to Vālmīki and substantially different from the version as given by Vālmīki. There is no such independent evidence.
The versions of Sanghadāsa and Harisena are very near to the VālmīkiRāmāyana and are clearly based on it, excepting of course, quite a few Jain features. The versions of Vimala and Gunabhadra are typical of all the Jain forms of the Rāma legend. We, therefore, give here a brief outline of Rāma's story common to all the Jain forms:
10. Outline of the Räma-story common to all the Jain forms
There was a king called Daśaratha of the Ikşvāku family, who ruled over Ayodhyā. He was blessed with four princes called Rāma, Laksmana, Bharata and Satrughna. There was, at the time, a king named Janaka who ruled over Videha. He had a daughter by name Sītā. Janaka gave her in marriage to Rāma.
Now there was a mighty king called Rāvana who ruled over Lankā. He was fascinated by the wondrous beauty of that princess Sītā. He carried her off by force to Lankā. Rāma was stricken with profound sorrow at this misfortune.
There was a Vānara prince, Sugrīva, who was deprived of his rightful

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place in Kişkindhā. He sought Rama's alliance. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa helped Sugrīva regain the kingdom of Kişkindhā. Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa and the army of Sugrīva marched against Lanka; Vibhīṣaṇa, the righteous brother of Rāvana, did his best to persuade Rāvaṇa honourably to return Sītā to Rāma, but in vain. He deserted Rāvana and formed an alliance with Rāma. A terrible war was fought between the two hostile armies of Rama and Ravaṇa. Finally Rāvana was killed, Vibhīṣaṇa was made king of Lankā and Rāma was united with his lost queen.
After vindicating his honour, Rāma, with Lakṣmaṇa and Sītā, returned to Ayodhya, his capital. Rāma had 8,000 queeens among whom Sītā and three others were the principal ones. Lakṣmaṇa had 16,000 queens among whom Pṛthvisundari and others were the chief ones. Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa very deeply loved each other. After Lakṣmaṇa's death Rama became a monk, practised austerities, obtained perfect knowledge, and in due course attained to moksa, Lakṣmaṇa, as he did not accept the path laid down by the Jinas, sank into hell. Rāvana, for his lapse from the code of correct behaviour, had to go to hell. Both of them after passing through many births would attain to liberation. Sītā, after leading the life of an Aryikā, was born in heaven, but she too would in course of time obtain mokṣa.
According to the Jain versions, Rāma, Lakṣmaṇa and Rāvana are the 8th set of Baladeva, Vasudeva and Prativasudeva.
It is quite obvious that excepting the number of the queens of Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa, the killing of Rāvana by Lakṣmaṇa and the Jinistic conclusion this Rama story is basically and essentially the same as that found in the Hindu versions of Vyasa and Välmiki.
This investigation of the problem of the origin of Rāmāyaṇa in Jain literature clearly and unmistakably points to the only conclusion that the Jain forms of the story of Rama are derivative in character, that they are largely dependent on the Valmiki Rāmāyaṇa and that they do not preserve any features of the ancient ballads about Rāma which had gained currency through the bards before Välmiki gave them the literary shape and form of a unified poem in his widely known Rāmāyaṇa. It would not do to say that the Jain versions of Rāma legend preserve the true Rama story and it is Vālmīki who presents its distorted version. The reason for not accepting the Jain versions as truer to the original oral tradition than the Valmiki Rāmāyaṇa may briefly be stated as follows :(i) Chronologically the Jain versions are definitely later than the Hindu Rāmāyaṇa. The later a work in date of composition the less probable it is that the work embodies the original legend more truthfully.

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(ii) The traditions regarding the origin of the Rāma-story recorded by the Jains
in their works are conflicting. If the story of Rāma were told by Mahāvīra, it should have found a place in sacred works of the Jains. The story of Krsna is found in the canonical texts. It is not easy to explain the absence of the Rāma-story in the canon unless we hold that it was taken up later by the
Jain poets to popularize the Jain teachings. (iii) The Jain versions unmistakably point to the influence of Vālmīki Rāmāyana
(or The Rāmopākhyāna of the Mahābhārata). For example, Vimalasûri who criticizes the Hindu Rāmāyaṇa for representing the defeat of Indra, the overlord of the gods, at the hands of Rāvana when, in reality, Indra, the lord of Vidyadharas, was defeated, himself describes that Vidyadhara lord as 'suradhipa', 'surapati', etc., He uses personal names of heroes after Vālmīki
although he gives them different personal names. (iv) The tendency of the human mind to find fault with fanciful and highly
exaggerated and coloured descriptions as absurd and unreasonable found in the Jain works speaks of their ‘modernism'.
(v)
The Jain version idealizes the characters of Kaikeyī, Rāvana and Vālin. If their representation of these characters were more faithful to the original legend, it would be difficult to understand how Vālmīki could distort the idealism of the original, and give touches of realism in representing the part played by Kaikeyi in bringing about Rāma's exile, Rāma's slaying of Vālin in a manner unbefitting a superhuman hero. In view of Vālmīki's intense desire to idealize the character of Rāma and represent him as an ideal warrior, an ideal son, an ideal husband and an ideal king, it is difficult to understand Vālmīki's motives in slightly degrading the character of Rāma in the episode of his fight with Vālin, as also in some others such as his killing of Tāțaka and Khara, his rather unchivalrous treatment of Sūrpanakhā, etc., unless we assume that Vālmīki had felt compelled to retain these incidents because he found them as part of the popular tradition.
(vi) The divergences which the Jain Rāmāyanas show from the Vālmīki Rāmāyana
are easily accounted for, as proceeding from artistic, or religious or ethical motives thus dispensing with the hypothesis that the Jain versions preserve more faithfully the ancient Rāma-story that was prevalent prior to Vālmīki.
Establishing thus firmly that Vālmīki's Rāmāyana is the fountain source of the Jain versions of the story of Rāma we now turn to the development of the story of Rāma in Jain literature.

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Notes and References : 1. नामावलियनिबद्धं आयरियपरंपरागयं सव्वं ।
वोच्छामि पउमचरियं ।। अहाणुपुव्वि समासेण || - PC. I. 8. 2. एयं वीरजिणेण रामचरियं सिटुं महत्थं पुरा, पच्छाऽऽखंडलभूइणा उ कहियं सीसाण धम्मासयं । भूओ साहुपरंपराएँ सयलं लोए ठियं पायडं, एत्ताहे विमलेण सुत्तसहियं गाहानिबद्धं कयं ।।
-Canto 118, v. 102. 3. पञ्चेव य वाससया, दुसमाए तीसवरिससंजुत्ता ।
वीरे सिद्धिमुवगए, तओ निबद्धं इमं चरियं ॥ -Canto 118, v. 103. and, राहू नामायरिओ, ससमयपरसमयगहियसब्भावो । विजओ य तस्स सीसो, नाइलकुलवंसनंदियरो । सीसेण तस्स रइयं, राहवचरियं तु सूरिविमलेण ।
सोऊणं पुव्वगए, नारायणसीरिचरियाई ।। -Canto 118, v. 117-118. 4. Antagada-dasão, Varga III. The Nandi and the Anuyogadvārasūtra texts (forming part of
the Jain Canon) mention 'Bharata' and 'Rāmāyaṇa' but they refer to the great epics of
the Hindus and not to any Jain Mahābhārata, or Jain Rāmāyana. 5. Winternitz has discussed the age of Ramayana. He holds that "It is probable that the
original Rāmāyaṇa was composed in the 3rd century B. C. by Vālmīki on the basis of
ancient ballads". 6. We have many parallels in the Hindu literature : e.g., the author of Manusmrti (Chapter
I) traces its origin to the Creator; so too Bharata's Natyaśāstra (Chapter 1) finds divine origin. Such fictitious traditions are fabricated intentionally in order to show that these works possess divine authority. Vimalasūri, being a Jain, introduces a tradition representing Mahāvīra the Jina, as the expositor of the Rāma story and thus claims his
story to be a genuine account. 7. See the next article : “Development of the story of Rama in Jain Literature" 8. He only says : तह विवरीयपयत्थं, कईहि रामायणं रइयं । II. 116 Again पउमचरियं महायस, अहयं इच्छामि परिफुडं सोउं ।
उप्पाइया पसिद्धी, कुसत्थवादीहि विवरीया || III.8 and... अलियं ति सव्वमेयं, भणंति जं ककइणो मईमढा || III. 15
The reading in the text as given by Jacobi is 'कुकइणो(मि)मूढा' 9. See Canto 2. V. 105-117 and Canto 3. vw.8-13. 10. This threat in the same words occurs in Book III, Canto 56, v. 24-25. From such threats
which Rävaņa gives to Sītā in order to bend her to his passion we, however, may not
be justified in saying that Rāvana was a cannibal. 11. Sutārā is known in the Vālmīki's Rāmāyana as simply "Tārā'. 12. As the story of Vālmīki's Rāmāyana is well known these changes and modifications need
not be shown specifically.

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13. Through the mouth of king Śrenika and Gautama the poet gives expression to all this see Pc. Canto 2, vv. 116-117, canto 3, vv. 9-15. Also see Winternitz Hist. of Ind. Lit. Vol. II, p. 490.
54
14. Winternitz Hist. of Ind. Lit. Vol. I, p. 515.
15. Jacobi: Das Rāmāyaṇa, pp. 71ft.; Sukthankar: S. Memorial ed. pp. 387ff.; Winternitz: Hist. of Ind. Lit. Vol. I, p. 384; also Bulcke, Rāmāyaṇa, pp. 41-51.
16. Hist. of Ind. Lit. Vol. I. p. 517.
17. Weber: On the Rämäyana; Sen Bengali Rāmāyaṇa; Grierson J.R.A.S., 1922. 18. Jacobi, M. Monier-Williams, Vaidya C. V., Mahārāṣṭriya and also Bulcke.
19. Vimala tells us that Bhima-the räkṣasapati-bestowed the kingdom of Lanka on the Rākṣasa-island on Meghavahana a Vidyadhara. In his family were born Mahārākṣasa, Devarākṣasa, Aditya-räkṣasa, Rākṣasa... By mentioning these fabricated names he prepares the ground for us to accept his etymology of the word Raksasa. Curiously enough, the poem contains another interpretation of the name Räkṣasa : रक्खति रक्खसा खलु दिवा पुण्णेण रक्खिया जेण ।
तेणं चि खयराणं रक्खसनामं कयं लोए ॥ - V. 257
Uttara-kanda relates through Agastya that when Brahmã created the waters, he formed certain beings, some of whom received the name of Räkṣasas to guard them (Canto 5). 20. S. K. Belvalkar: Rama's Later History, Part I, p. LXiii.
21. "Tradition about Vanaras and Rākṣasas"-Chakravarti C. in I .H. Q. Vol. I (1925).
22. Kaviparmeśvaranigaditagadyakathā-mātṛkaṁ puroścaritaim
Up. Prasasti 17.
23. Sa pujyah...parameśvaraḥ
Vägarthasangraham... purāņaṁ Samagrahit.-Adi-Purana 1.60.
24. Cavundārāya (978 A. D.) in his Adipuräna declares that Mahapuräna was composed formerly (even before Jinasena and Gunabhadra) by Küci Bhattaraka and Śrinandi Muni. 25. See Jain Sahitya aura Itihasa, p. 280.
26. He suggests the sources possible, viz., Adbhuta-Rāmāyaṇa, Dasaratha Jataka and Valmiki-Rāmāyaṇa.
27. Raghavan, V.: "Music in the Adbhuta Rämäyana", Journal Music Academy, Vol. 16, pp.
66ff.
and
Grierson, G. A.: "On the Adbhuta Rāmāyaṇa", Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, Vol. IV. pp. 11 ff.

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RĀMA IN JAIN LITERATURE
(i) Paümacariya-a model for later poets : Although Vimala adopts the main story from Vālmīki-Rāmāyana, he gives it a Jain background and setting, invests it with Jain atmosphere, decorates it with the teachings of Jainism, humanises the divine characters, elevates the characters of Kaikeyi, Rāvana, Vālin etc., gives an altogether new interpretation of the terms 'Raksasas' and Vānaras', removes the incredible elements of the original poem and thereby succeeds in giving us quite a new Rāmāyaṇa. He sets in a way a model for all the later Jain poets to imitate. Let us survey the important Jain Rāmāyanas which were composed during a long period after Vimalasuri and note the contribution of these later poets to the story of Rāma.
(ii) The Vasudevahindi version (not later than 609 A. D.) : Sanghadāsa is, for his version, heavily indebted to the Hindu version represented by the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki/the Rāmopākhyāna of Vyāsa. Regarding many principal features of the story such as Manthara's role in the Court-intrigue, Daśaratha's death on account of grief for his son, Rāma's delegating of his authority to the Pādukās in all affairs of state, the Sürpanakhā episode, the golden stag, the slaying of Vālin, the great bridge built across the ocean, Vibhīsana's alliance with Rāma, and Rāma's coronation, he is in complete agreement with Vālmīki. He ends the story with Rāma's coronation—after the Ramopākhyāna of Vyāsa. And it may be noted, in passing, that he does not mention the specific period of years for Rāma's exile--in accordance with Vyāsa's version (Compare Vanaparvan, Adhyāya 277, v. 26). A few features of the Hindu version he gives in a modified form. For example, the circumstances in which Daśaratha grants two boons to Kaikeyi are narrated by him in a different way. This may be due to his endeavour to remove the supernatural element from the story. This inference is supported by the fact that throughout the story, Rāma etc. are, unlike as in the VālmīkiRāmāyana, portrayed as human heroes. Here possibly he was under the influence of Vimala, who rids the Rāmāyana of its divine elements. He has again

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drawn on the version represented by Vimala's Paümacariya while describing Satrughna as the son of Kaikeyī, and Rāvana's death at the hands of Laksmana.
His own contribution : Sanghadāsa's contribution to the development of the story of Rāma lies in his description of Mandodarī's marriage with Rāvana and of the birth of Sītā as Rāvana's daughter. It appears that Sanghadāsa introduced this innovation in order to explain away the mystery of Sītā's birth as we find it in the Hindu version. It may be noted here, in passing, that the genealogy of Rāvana as given by Sanghadāsa only partially agrees with their counter-parts in the Hindu version or the Paümacariya. Probably he invented the names of Rāvana's ancestors such as Sahasragrīva, Pañcaśatagrīva, Satagrīva, etc. with a view to making the name Daśagrīva not sound strange or fantastic
Sanghadāsa's influence is seen in the work of Guņabhadra, who borrows, with slight modification, this account of the birth of Sītā and some names of Rāvana's ancestors such as Sahasragrīva, Satagrīva, etc.
(iii) Padma-Purana of Ravisena (678 A. D.): It is merely a slightly extended recension of the Paümacariya in Sanskrit, agreeing with it in all essential points. Vimala was presumably a Svetāmbara author. Ravişena, who is himself a Digambara, while giving an enlarged edition of the Paümacariya which (presumably) is a śvetāmbara work, has introduced, wherever possible, Digambara traits, and removed the Svetāmbara features of the original poem.
Ravişeņa's contribution to the story of Rāma : It may be briefly summarised as follows :(a) The story is presented with a bold Digambara colouring. (b) Suprabhā is the fourth queen of Dasaratha and Satrughna is born of her. (c) The image of Janaka too is destroyed by Vibhīşaņa. (d) Vajrāvarta and Sagarāvarta are the two bows bent by Rāma and Lakşmaņa
on the occasion of Sītā-svayamvara. (e) Bharata's wife is called here Lokasundarī. (f) In the Ativīrya-Episode Rāma himself assumes the form of a dancing girl. (g) Hanūmat sides with the twins against Rāma. (h) It is god Mesa-Ketana who assists Sītā in her fire-ordeal.
(iv) Upadeśapada of Haribhadrasūri (700-770 A. D.): Haribhadrasūri alludes to the story of Rāma in one of the Sangraha-gāthās in his Upadeśapada.

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The gāthā embodying details of the story of Rāma runs as follows :
लक्खणरामे देवीहरणे सोगम्मि आलिहे चलणा ।
उवरि ण दिट्ठ जोगो अत्थित्तासासणे चेव ॥ From the peculiar method of summarising the essential details of the story of Rāma it is crystal clear that a story of Rāma containing these features already existed in an oral or written tradition; for without such traditional information the verse referred to above would not be quite intelligible. In his commentary on the Upadeśapada composed in V. S. 1174 Municandra adds a short story of Rāma in thirty verses to explain the Sangraha-gathā. His version agrees with that of Vimalasūri except in two details : (i) Municandra speaks of three principal queens of Daśaratha, viz., Kausalyā, Sumitrā and Kaikeyī, and their three sons, Rāma, Laksmana and Bharata respectively and (ii) he elucidates the picture motif alluded to in the gāthā.
The particular version which existed before and was utilised by Haribhadrasūri has not come down to us. The fact, however, remains that the credit of introducing the picture-motif in the story of Rāma for the first time goes to an unknown writer who must have flourished before Haribhadrasūri and not to Bhadreśvara as I had claimed elsewhere.
(v) Paümacariu of Svayambhūdeva (middle of the 8th century A. D. ?): Svayambhū himself states that he is presenting the story of Rāma as given by Ravişeņa. He, however, does not slavishly imitate his predecessor. He is perhaps the first Jain poet to divide the poem into Kāndas. Of his five Kandas four have titles common with Vālmīki's poem-only instead of Bālakānda he speaks of Vidyadharakānda. He does not have the two titles Aranya-kānda and Kiskindhakānda. He effects omissions, abridgements, additions and alterations with a to presenting the story in a more attractive and poetic form. His changes, however, do not relate to the principal story of Rāma but to such topics as Ksetravarnana, Kalavarnana, Purvabhavakathana, Upākhyānas and descriptions. His work certainly gains by these changes in its poetic value.
(vi) Caüppannamahāpurişacariya of śīlācārya (868 A. D.) : Śīlācārya declares : “Thus is narrated in brief the life-history of Rāma and Lakşmaņa, which is described at length in works like Paümacariya." From this statement of his it is obvious that Vimala's work was in his mind when he prepared this abridged version. He has, however, introduced some remarkable features from Vālmīki's version directly possibly because of their popularity in his days or indirectly through Sanghadāsa whose version always shares these features. These features include the golden stag incident and the Vālī-episode. It deserves Stud.-8

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our notice that Sīlācārya's Rāvana is after Valmiki's as he speaks of him in such terms as भुवणतावणो, 'बलवमकज्जायरणेण दूसिओ कलुसियचरित्तो' विज्जागव्विओ, खल and क्रूर.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
Vimala's Rāvana is nearly a perfect hero with one defect only, viz., his passion for Sītā.
Śīlācārya does not count the Prativasudevas, such as Rāvana, among the 'Uttama' or 'Mahā'-or 'Śalākā'-purusas. Naturally, the name Rāvana does not find place in the title.
Silācārya's Influence on Hemacandra ?
Winternitz observes in connection with Hemacandra's work"Trisaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacarita'-that the Cauppannamahāpurisacariya of Sīlācārya must be taken into consideration while investigating sources which Hemacandra drew upon for his poem (see pp. 505-506). As far as the version of Rāmāyaṇa is concerned, it can definitely be asserted that not Sīlācārya's but Vimalasūri's Paümacariya is Hemacandra's source.
(vii) Uttarapuraṇa of Gunabhadra (9th Century A. D.): Gunabhadra, who is a Digambara poet, presents Rama-story which is widely different from that of his Digambara predecessor. His version is largely dependent on the Hindu Rāmāyaṇa, borrows a few features from Sanghadāsa, speaks of Dasaratha's rule over Vārāṇasī for the first time, possibly after the Dasaratha Jātaka, and has some traits peculiar to Jain versions of Vimala and others. As a result of this conglomeration of features from various sources Gunabhadra's version gains quite a new look and form and naturally it is regarded as presenting. an independent tradition.
Gunabhadra's Contribution to the story of Rama: According to Gunabhadra, Vārāṇasī was originally the capital of Dasaratha, who migrated to Ayodhya (and made it his capital) after Sagara's family was completely annihilated; Janaka gave his daughter Sitä in marriage to Rāma who protected the sacrifice undertaken by him; Rāma, with Sītā and Lakṣmaṇa, went to Vārāṇasī, their old capital, in order to safeguard the interests of their subjects; at Narada's instigation, Rāvaṇa was enamoured of Sītā; Rāvaṇa sent Surpanakha, his sister, as a dūtī to Sītā; Laksmana fought against Välin and killed him; and finally, Ravana cut off the illusory head of Sītā and threw it before Rāma (this detail is borrowed from Välmiki).
Gunabhadra's influence over later writers: Gunabhadra's story, however, does not seem to be as popular as that of Vimala. We find his version given by Puspadanta only. On the authority of Dr. Narsimhachar we may add here that

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a Sanskrit work Punyacandrodaya Purana of Krsna (1528 A. D.) and two works in Kanarese, viz., Cāmundarāya-Purana (978 A. D.) and Punyāśrava-Katha-Sāra (1331 A. D.), present the version of Gunabhadra.
(viii) Brhat-Kathā-Kośa of Harisena (931-32 A. D.) : This Kośa contains two Rāmāyaṇa Kathānakas. Harisena, though a Jain (Digambara) gives a Rāmāyaṇa version, which is widely different from the Digambara (or Śvetāmbara) version of Gunabhadra (or Vimala) and represents a very brief abridgement of Valmiki's Rāmāyana. The first Kathānaka does not carry the story beyond the death of Rāvana and Rāma's becoming a sovereign ruler. This is how Rāmopākhyāna also ends. The only deviations are : Daśaratha has a fourth wife Suprajā (Sūprabhā of Ravişeņa) who gives birth to Satrughna; Kharadūṣaṇa is the husband of Sūrpanakhā (after Ravisena's account)-in the VālmīkiRāmāyana Khara is her brother and Dusana is the name of one of Rāvana's generals. At another place (v.27), however, Harisena mentions Khara and Dūsana as two individuals, which is confusing. In the second Kathanaka Sītā is shown to have become a nun, after her fire-ordeal, being initiated by Samyamasena.
(ix) Mahāpurāņa of Puspadanta (965 A. D.) : Puşpadanta's Rāmāyanastory is identical with that of Gunabhadra.
Puspadanta's contribution to the story of Rāma : He criticises the Rāmaversions of Vālmīki and Vyāsa–in the manner of Ravisena and Vimala, and adds to the list of incredible incidents and statements (found in the Rāmāyana of Vālmīki) as given by his predecessors, the following three :
(a) Indrajit, though a son of Rāvana, was older in age than Rāvana, his father. (b) Vibhīšana is a 'Cirañjīvin’. (c) The arms of Laksmana were long and unbending.
Further, he names Rāvana's sister as Candranakhā instead of Surpanakhā. Of course, Vimala and Ravisena too give her name as Candranakhā. But all this hardly means any real contribution to the story of Rāma as these changes do not help the progress or action of the story.
He has, however, we might say, contributed considerably towards the form of the story, which is made more poetic. If Gunabhadra's version is rather less poetic and more prosaic, Puspadanta's Rāmāyana is written in a grand poetic style. Unlike Guṇabhadra, he divides his Rāmāyana into eleven Sandhis or Cantos and gives them titles which are sufficiently eloquent of their respective

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subjectmatter.
(x) Kahāvali of Bhadreśvara (11th century A. D.) : Bhadreśvara's version of the Rāmāyana is based on the Paümacariya. For the motif of the picture of Rāvana drawn by Sītā which is not found in the Paümacariya, Bhadreśvara seems to be indebted to Haribhadrasūri.
Hemacandra adopts this highly important feature in the Rāma legend which he gives in the Trişastišalākāpuruşacarita.
(xi) Trişastiśalākāpuruşacarita of Hemacandra
(xii) Yogaśāstrasvopajñavrtti (12th century A. D.) : In spite of the fact that the two versions are by one and the same author, they betray some remarkable deviation which we have already noted. The Ys version is in general agreement with the Paümacariya; it shows acquaintance also with the Padmapurāna, and the version of Sanghadāsa.
(a) In his TSPC version (based on the Paümacariya and the Padmapurana) Hemacandra follows Vālmīki in relating the episode of the fight between Vālin and Rāvana and the latter's humiliation. .
(b) Daśaratha, after his marriage with Kaikeyi, does not return to Ayodhyā but goes to Rājagrha, conquers the king of Magadha, stays there, gets his family there, and lives there for a long time, out of fear of Rāvana. It is there that Rāma and Laksmana are born. And when he feels himself invincible on account of his powerful sons, he goes to Ayodhyā with his whole family; and it is at Ayodhyā that Bharata and Satrughna are born.
(c) Aparājitā dreams four dreams and Sumitrā seven which indicate the birth of two mighty sons.
(d) Khara was the husband of Candranakhā, and Dūsana and Triśiras were his younger brothers.
(e) Hemacandra speaks of four Mahādevīs of Rāma but does not refer to the larger number of 8,000 wives
(f) According to Hemacandra, Rāma goes in search of his wife whom he has repudiated. Not finding her, he believes her to be devoured by some wild beast. He goes home and performs her sraddha.
(xiii) Śatruñjayamāhātmya of Dhaneśvarasüri (14th century A. D.) : Dhaneśvara adds the episode of king Anaranya and the image of Pārsvanātha with a view to glorifying the power and grace of Pārsvanātha's image and the

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Satruñjaya mountain. Kaikeyi asks for the banishment of Rāma (and Laksmana too) in addition to her demand of the kingdom for her son Bharata. This is after Vālmīki's version, although there Laksmana is not mentioned in this connection. According to Dhaneśvara, the Vānaras do not interrupt Rāvana in his acquisition of Bahurūpā-vidyā. Again, we meet with a few unimportant changes-Aparājitā is called here Kausalyā, and Bhānukarna called Kumbhakarna (of course, after Vālmīki).
While condensing the story of Hemacandra (although the poet never states this) he has omitted many episodes, stories of previous births etc., as they have practically no significance for the course of the narrative.
(xiv) Punyacandrodayapurana of Krsnadāsa : Krsnadāsa wrote this Purāna in 1528 A. D. "Judged from the contents of the work as given by Rajendralal Mitra (Notices of Sanskrit MSS, Vol. VI, 70-74), it appears to belong to the tradition of Gunabhadra?."
(xv) Rāmacaritra of Devavijayaganin : In the year 1586 A. D. Devavijayaganin, a pupil of Rājavijayasūri, wrote a Rāmacaritra in prose. The author himself says that he is following Hemacandra's Rāmāyana. As the work is not published, it is not possible to say whether Devavijaya contributes towards the development of the story of Räma.
(xvi) Laghu-Trişasti of Meghavijaya Gunivara : Meghavijaya (17th century A. D.) composed his work after the famous Trisastiśaläkāpuruşacarita of Hemacandra. It is no more than an abridged edition of Hemacandra's Rāmāyana?.
After settling the problem of the origin of the Jain Rāmāyanas and tracing the development of the Rāma-story in Jain literature we now touch upon the question of the Jain influence on the later Hindu Rāmāyanas. The Purānas of the Hindus are of uncertain dates. Consequently, it is very difficult to trace the influence exerted by the Jains on the Hindu Purānas. On account of the difficulty of dates no strict proof is available whether the Jains have influenced the Hindu Purānas or vice versa. We, therefore, simply note the points which are common to the Jain Rāmāyaṇas and the Purānas of uncertain dates, and where we know certainly that the Hindu Purānas or works are later than the Jain versions concerned we treat these common traits as part of the Jain influence.
These points which are common to the Jain Rāmāyanas and later Hindu works or Purāņas of uncertain dates we set forth, for the sake of convenience, in a tabular form :

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JAIN INFLUENCE ON THE HINDU RĀMĀYAŅAS Sr. Particular feature Name of the Name/s of the Remarks No.
Jain author Hindu work/s 1. Bharata and Satrughna Vimalasuri Bhāvārtha-Rāmāyare uterine brothers
ana (16th century, (born of Kaikeyi)
Marāthi) 2. Dasaratha had four Ravişenācārya Padmapurāna (Pātā- Names of the wives (Aparājitā, Sumi
lakhanda)
queens are not trā, Kaikeyi and
identical. Suprabhā) 3. Rāma bent and strung Vimalasuri Nrsimha-Purāna, The Hindu works the bow in the presence
Bhāgavata Purāņa, are all later than of other princes who
Tamila Rāmāyana, Vimala's Paühad arrived there at
Telugu Rāmāyana, macariya. Mithilā to participate in
Maithili-Kalyana and the Sitāsvayaṁvara
Adhyātma-Rāmāyana
4. Sitä was born of Man-
dodari and Rāvana
Sanghadäsa (and Gunabhadra)
Vimalasuri
5. Bhāmandala and Sītā
were born as twins of Videhā and Janaka
Mahābhägavata (- The Hindu works Devi-) Purāņa, and are later than Jain Kashmiri Rāmāyaṇa. versions. Although Vālmīki These Purānas are speaks nowhere of assigned to the 4th Janaka's son,
and the 5th centuVisnupurāna and ries A. D. Vāyupurāņa speak of Bhānumān as Janaka's son.
Vimalasuri
Tamila Rāmāyana
6. Candranakhā (=Śūr
panakha) assumed the form of a lovely maiden and approached RāmaLaksmana (no dismemberment of her nose and
ears) 7. Rāvana himself cuts off
the illusory head of Sītā.
With greater de tails and some variation Kambana describes this episode.
Gunabhadra
Anandarāmāyana
Is later than Gunabhadra's work. The Hindu works
8. The motif : Sītā draws
Bhadreśvara
Bengali Rāmāyana,

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(and Hemacandra)
the picture of Rāvana at the direction of her co- wives--this picture is the cause of scandal against her.
Kashmiri Rāmāyana, are later than the Anandarāmāyana, Jain versions. etc.
Vimalasuri
9. The sons of Sītā fight
against Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa.
With a good deal of variation.
Kathāsaritsāgara, Ananda, UttaraRāmacarita, and Jaiminiya Aśvamedha
10 Laksmana kills sam- Vimalasuri Telugu Rāmāyana With some varibūka, the son of Śūr
and Anandarāmāy ation. panakha.
ana From the foregoing table it becomes evident that the Jain influence on the later Hindu Rāmāyanas is not very striking. The explanation for this lack of strong influence is probably to be sought in the wide gulf that existed between the two communities. The Jain poets and authors were, as a rule, conversant with the Hindu works both of sacred and secular character. The Hindu writers, on the contrary, may not have cared to read the Jain works in the belief that they were of inferior workmanship and probably in their intellectual arrogance thought that they had nothing to learn from their opponents and antagonists.
Before we close at this point let us say a word about the story of Rāma as adoptd by the Jains and the best Jain Rāmāyana. To a dispassionate reader it will appear that the Jains have taken over the story of Rāma as given by Vālmīki and made it their own. In doing so, however, they have lowered its ethical value. The story is rid of its deep human interest and dramatic value by removing the Court-intrigue. The story gives Rāma, who is universally known as intently and solely devoted to his only wife-Sītā, and Hanuman, who is described as an ideal Brahmacārin, a large number of wives. This feature of the story is undoubtedly repugnant to the popular mind. Further, according to this story, Lakşmaņa sinks into hell. The reader is not prepared to accept such a terrible end to the glorious career of Laksmana. The antagonism of the Jains to the cult of Vedic sacrifice and hiṁsā, the sense of superiority of the Brāhmaṇas and their superstitious beliefs is perfectly understandable. One, however, would have wished that in making the beautiful Rāma-story their own the Jain poets had been able to avoid reducing its human and ethical content.
Vālmīki is the 'Adikavi' and his Rāmāyana, the 'Adi-kāvya'. It is admittedly “one of the greatest epics that were ever composed by man”. It is one of the most

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beautiful and moving stories in world literature. It is sung "in words of matchless beauty. It is a story full of tenderest pathos and the most moving emotions”. It is a work that is "a popular epic and ornate poetry at the same time". This great epic is, no doubt, disfigured by additions and interpolations of numerous myths and legends, still it has a fairly unified form and continues to hold the rank of Ādi-kävya ! No Jain Rāmāyana, can bear comparison with Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa for its poetic value. In fact, none of the poets whether Hindu or Jain, equals Vālmīki, who remains thus unsurpassed. The Jain poets do not primarily aim at the kāvya style, though some of their works do possess poetic qualities. Bearing this in mind if we examine the Jain Rāmāyanas from the point of view of poetry, we find that Svayambhu and Puşpadanta stand out as poets
distinct poetic ability. They display the wealth of their poetic gift by giving us poetic ideas and flights of poetic fancy which are refreshingly original. Hemacandra stands next to them. His command of language, metre, and alaskāras and his descriptive skill are beyond question. However, the fact remains that there is an air of conventionality about his descriptions. Ācārya Ravisena impresses us by his profound scholarship but not poetry,
On the whole, we may conclude that the Jain Rāmāyanas, as a rule, are essentially Purānas. They are written not as kāvyas pure and simple but to glorify the Dharma of the Jinas and teach the people Jain doctrines and criticise the Brahmanical Dharma. It will, therefore, not be fair to the Jain poets to judge their works by the standard which we apply to the mahākāvyas like the Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, etc., and harshly criticize them on artistic grounds.
Notes and References : 1. Śrimatmuktikamala Jainamohanamālā, Puspam 19, Baroda, 1923. p. 84, gāthā no. 14.
I am obliged to Dr. J. C. Jain for drawing my attention to this reference through Dr.
Bulcke. 2. Dr. Narasimhachar, I.H.Q., Vol. XV. 3. The Dhurtākhyāna of Haribhadra casually treats of some legends from Rāmāyana, so
too Dharmapariksā of Amitagati. We may therefore ignore these works.
DOO

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Introductory The Natyaśästra of Bharata (c. third century A. D.) gives elaborate rules for the use of language by the characters. The use of Sanskrit is proper for Kings, Brāhmaṇas, generals, ministers and learned persons generally. The general rule for women and persons of inferior rank is the use of different types of Prakrit. The divergent use of Sanskrit and Prakrit in the same play, laid down by Bharata could be put down to the principle of naturalism or realism— simply to the copying of the actual practice in real life—without hindering mutual comprehension-the dialectic differences based on locality, sex and rank.
Bhoja (1015-1055-A. D.) in his Sarasvatikanṭhābharaṇa makes some interesting observations regarding the Sanskrit and Prakrit languages and when and where they were in use. Sanskrit alone, he feels, ought to be used in certain matters like the praise of deities, etc., Prakrit alone ought to be used in vividly depicting Reality in its subtle aspects. In a literary club story-teller must alternately use Sanskrit and Prakrit, as occasion demands; thus alone he would win great fame. The people of Lața country are haters of Sanskrit and find delight in Prakrit. The people of Gujarat find pleasure only in their own Apabhramśa. Every one spoke Prakrit and Prakrit alone during the reign of Āḍhyarāja (Śālivāhana) as in the times of Sahasanka Vikramaditya every one spoke Sanskrit and Sanskrit alone.
Prakrit literature has tremendously influenced Sanskrit poeticians in formulating and illustrating their theories of dhvani (Suggestion), vakrokti, rasa, rasābhāsa, etc. They cite more than three thousand Prakrit and Apabhraṁśa verses in the course of their illustrating various points of poetics. The practice of citing Prakrit verses in Sanskrit works on poetics calls for an explanation which is not far to seek. Notwithstanding the difference in language, the poeticians made no difference between Sanskrit and Prakrit literatures. They appreciated
Stud.-9

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both. Some of them wrote in both. The norms laid down in their works were equally applicable to both and, indeed, till recently to literatures even in our modern languages.
Occasionally, we find similarities of ideas among great poets. For example, Kālidāsa in his Kumarasambhava, VIII. 7 describes the timid shyness of the new-made bride, Parvati :
शूलिनः करतलद्वयेन सा संनिरुध्य नयने हृतांशुका ।
तस्य पश्यति ललाटलोचने मोघयत्नविधुरा रहस्यभूत् ॥ Hāla has the following gātha in his Gāthāsaptaśati (V.55) which deserves comparison with the above stanza.
रडकेलिहिअणिअंसणकरकिसलअरुद्धणअणजुअलस्स। रुद्दस्स तइअणअणं पव्वइपरिउंबिअं जअइ ।। [रतिकेलिहतनिवसनकरकिसलयरुद्धनयनयुगलस्य।
रुद्रस्य तृतीयनयनं पार्वतीपरिचुम्बितं जयति ॥ ] Translation : Victorious, i.e, very fortunate is the third eye of Rudra (i.e., Śiva) which was sealed/shut with a kiss by Pārvatī, while the pair of his normal eyes were covered by her with her sproutlike (tender) hands, when her garment/ clothing was stripped off by him (Rudra=Siva) in the course of amorous dalliance.
It would seem that the poet of the gāthā knew Kālidāsa’s verse since he has improved upon him.
Such stray similarities apart, Govardhana's Aryāsaptaśati deliberately attempts to imitate Hāla's Gathāsaptaśati. Jayadeva, who claims to be the chief of the kings of poets (Kavirājarāja), is believed to have been profoundly influenced in the use of rime (= rhyme) by Apabhramśa poems in which its use is regular. With these introductory remarks, we take up the topic of VālmikiRāmāyana and Jain Rāmāyaṇas : Study in Interaction.
No other work of Indian literature has enjoyed a greater popularity in India down to the present day than the Rāmāyaṇa of Vālmīki. The story of Rāma occurs in the Mahābhārata and a number of Purāņas. We have, further, the Adbhuta-Rāmāyaṇa Adhyātma-Rāmāyana and Ananda-Rāmāyana. Many eminent poets including Bhāsa, Kālidāsa, Bhavabhūti and Rajasekhara have again and again drawn upon this great epic and worked them up anew in their poems and plays.

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67
This amazing popularity of Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa deeply influenced Jain teachers and poets and inspired them to create poems of their own. Keeping the main features of the story of Rāma as given by Vālmīki intact they introduced many noteworthy changes having recourse to omissions, modifications and additions with a view to propagating the teachings of Mahāvīra. Many Jain poets created their Rāmāyanas during the period extending from the fourth century to the sixteenth century. The oldest of them is the Paümacariya of Vimalasūri (4th century A. D.). In the concluding portion of his poem he exhorts his readers or hearers to practise the dharma as expounded by the Jinas. In the very beginning he criticises the popular story of Rāma thus : “How is it possible that the mighty Rāksasa heroes were killed by the Vānaras (monkeys) ? And Rāvana and other Rākşasas, who were of noble descent, according to Jain faith, are described as meat-eaters ! Again, it is said that, in spite of all kinds of disturbances, Kumbhakarņa slept for six months and then after waking up, devoured elephants and the like and then again slept for six months. Then again it is said that Indra, the lord of gods and men was taken prisoner by Rāvaņa. If we believed this account we might as well believe that the lion was killed by a deer and the elephant by a dog! These Rāmāyana stories are certainly lies...They say that Rävana, the great Räksasa hero, was routed by Vānaras; that Rāma pierced a golden deer with his arrow, that he killed Vālin treacherously to favour Sugrīva and Tārā; that the Vānaras constructed a bridge across the great sea -- all these are surely absurdities".
Vimalasūri removes from the story of Rāma all such exaggerated and incredible elements. He offers in some cases realistic interpretations : Rā was called 'Daśamukha' as his face was reflected nine times in a wondrous string of gems around his neck; the Rāksasas were, in fact, Vidyadharas. They were called Rāksasas because one high-souled Rāksasa was born in that dynasty of Vidyādharas and also because of their guarding dvīpas' (islands); the Vānaras too were, really speaking, Vidyadharas but were called Vānaras because of their having Vănaras' as badges on the arches of gates, banners and the like. Sītā did not come forth out of the Earth but was born of Videhă in the natural way.
Vimalasuri rids the story of divine elements. Rāma and Sītā, for instance, were not incarnations of Visnu and Laksmī. He elevates the characters of Kaikeyī, Vālin and Rāvana. Kaikeyi was not a selfish, greedy and intriguing woman but a mother par excellence. He drops the slaying of Vālin at the hands of Rāma in a treacherous manner. He represents Rāvana as an ideal tragic hero, his passion for Sītā being his hamartia (and provides a most striking parellel with the Greek story of Oedipus.)

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Vimalasūri purges the story of Rāma of its Brahmanical atmosphere and creates in its place Jain atmosphere.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
He adopted or rather adapted the highly popular story of Rama with the thought that it would serve as an excellent means for reaching the people's heart and propagating Jain view of life, Jain doctrines and ideals of a householder and a monk, and more especially, their principle of ahimsa and karma.
Besides Paümacariya we have many other Jain versions. Some of them may be noticed here:
1. Vasudevahindi version of Sanghadāsa (not later than 609 A. D.). It is much closer to the Rāmāyaṇa of Valmiki. One of its most noteworthy features is that it describes Sītā as the daughter of Mandodari and Rāvana and provides a most striking parallel with the Greek story of Oedipus.
2. The Padmapurāna of Acarya Raviṣena (678 A. D.), a Digambara poet; his version is merely an extended recension, in Sanskrit, of Vimalasūri's Paümacariya.
3. Paümacariu of Svayambhu (middle of the 8th certury A. D.). It is in Apabhramsa. The author, according to his own statement, follows Acārya Raviṣena.
4. Cauppannamahāpurisacarīya of Sīlācārya (868 A. D.). The author mainly follows Paümacariya; he however adds two new episodes of the golden stag (kāñcanamṛga) and the slaying of Välin by Rama from the Valmiki Rāmāyaṇa because of their great popularity, perhaps.
5. Uttarapurāṇa of Gunabhadra (9th century A. D.). It is to be found in Parvan 68, and is in Sanskrit. Gunabhadra, although a Digambara Jain, does not follow Ravisena, his Digambara predecessor. His version is largely dependent on the Rāmāyaṇa of Valmiki. He speaks of Dasaratha's rule over Vārāṇasī and describes how Ravana, at the instigation of Nārada, was enamoured of
Sītā.
6. Brhatkathakośa of Hariṣena (931-32 A. D.). Though a Digambara Jain, he does not follow Raviṣeņa or Gunabhadra, his Digambara predecessors but presents just a brief abridgment of Valmiki's Rāmāyaṇa.
7. Mahāpurāna of Puspadanta (965 A. D.). Puspadanta follows the story of Rāma as given by Gunabhadra.
8. Kahavali of Bhadresvara (11th century A. D.): Bhadreśvara's version is based on the Paümacariya. He describes the episode of the picture of Rāvana drawn

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by Sītā which ends in her repudiation (or banishment into forest). He has perhaps adopted this motif from the Upadesapada of Haribhadrasüri (700770 A. D.)
9. Yogaśāstra-svopajña-vrtti
and
10. Trisastiśalākāpuruşacarita of Ācārya Hemacandra (12th the century A. D.)
These versions generally follow Paümacariya. 11. Šatruñjaya-Māhātmya of Dhaneśvara : He condenses, it would seem, the story as presented by Hemacandra.
There are a few more, rather unimportant, versions by Jain poets. There are also many narratives of Sītā recorded in Manuscript Catalogues. The pretty large number of the Jain versions of the story of Rāma attest to its popularity among the Jains.
Jain influence on the later Hindu Rāmāyaṇas :
The Purāņas of the Hindus are of uncertain dates. Consequently, it is very difficult to trace the influence of the Jain versions on the later Hindu Rāmāyanas. A few noteworthy similarities are : Bhāvārtha Rāmāyana (16th century), like Paümacariya, describes Bharata and Satrughna as the sons of Kaikeyī. Nrsimhapurāņa, Bhāgavatapurāņa and Adhyātma-Rāmāyana describe, like Paümacariya Rāma's bending and stringing the bow in the presence of other princes at the time of Sita-Svayamvara. Mahābhāgavatapurāna, like Vasudevahindi, describes Sītā as the daughter of Rāvana and Mandodarī. Vişnupurāņa and Väyupurāņa speak, like Paümacariya of Bhānumān (Bhāmandala) as Janaka's son. Bengali Rāmāyana and Ananda-Rāmāyana describe, like Kahāvalī, the episode of the picture of Rāvaņa drawn by Sītā. Ananda-Rāmāyana, like Paümacariya describes the slaying of sambūka at the hands of Laksmana.
This influence, however, is not that important.
Conclusion: The Jains, it would seem, have taken over the story of Rāma, as given by Vālmīki, and made it their own. No doubt they include, Rāma, Laksmana and Rāvana among their sixty-three (Salākāpuruṣas or “Eminent men". Some changes, however, which they have effected are extraordinary indeed ! In assigning many wives to Rāma and Hanūmān the Jain writers have probably upheld the popular notion that the might of a man is measured in terms of the women he possesses but in the process of working up such images

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of Rāma and Hanūmān they have dealt a severe blow to the Hindu reader who has always looked on Rāma as a pattern of the virtue of constancy in love for none but his own wife. And Hanümān can't be anything else but a brahmacārin. Further, the Jain versions describe Laksmana, the mighty hero, as sinking into hell ! The reader is not prepared to accept such a terrible end to the glorious career of Laksmana. The antagonism of the Jains to the cult of the Vedic sacrifice and hiṁsā, to the sense of superiority of the Brāhmanas--the Purohitas—and superstitious beliefs is perfectly understandable. One, however, would have wished that in making the beautiful story of Rāma as told by Vālmīki their own they had done a little less of their moral axe grinding ! Further, by eliminating the Kaikeyī intrigue they have divested the story of its deep human interest and dramatic value. Here they appear keen on mere moral propaganda.
None of the Hindu authors who flourished in between the fifth and sixteenth century, has taken note of the story of Rāma as presented by the Jain authors nor criticised them for changing the moral atmosphere of the Vālmīki story. Apparently they did not care to read the Jain versions in the belief that they were of inferior workmanship and simply ignored them.
Notes and References :
1. A History of Indian Literature, Volume II, by M. Winternitz, University of Calcutta. 2. Rāma-Kathā (Utpatti aura Vikāsa) (Hindi) by Bulcke C, Hindi Parişad Prakāśana,
Prayag Viśvavidyalaya, Prayag, 2nd edition, 1962. 3. The Sanskrit Drama, by A. B. Keith, Oxford University Press, Londen, 1964. 4. A History of Sanskrit Literature, by A. B. Keith, Oxford University Press, London, 1928. 5. Sri Rāmāyana- Samālocană by “Maharastriya", pub. by B. P. Thakar, "Ganesh Vishnu
Chiplunkar āņi Mandali”, Pune, 1927. 6. The Story of Rāma In Jain Literature, by V. M. Kulkarni, Sarasvati Pustak Bhandar, 112,
Hathikhana, Ratanpole, Ahmedabad-380001.
DO

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Vālmīki's Rāmāyana (VR) has exercised profound influence on literature of India for more than 2000 years. This literature covers Purānas, Poetry, Drama, Campū, Kathās, etc; it also covers the Jain and the Buddhist literature in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Apabhraíśa or modern Indian languages in its different stages. This paper confines itself to a very general study of the various Jain versions in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Apabhraṁsa languages vis-a-vis Vālmīki's Rāmāyana.
In the canonical literature of the Jains we do not find the story of Rāma recorded anywhere although the story of Krsna who lived centuries after Rāma, according to the Jains themselves, occurs in one of the sacred texts (Amtagadadasāo by name). The Nandi and the Anyogadvāra Sūtra texts which form part of the Jain Canon, mention Bhārata and Rāmāyana but they refer to the great epics of the Hindus and not to any Jain Mahābhārata or Rāmāyana.
Having regard to the tremendous popularity of VR, Vimalasūri most probably thought of writing a poem of his own, which was to serve his coreligionists as a complete substitute for the great epic-(Rāmāyaṇa). He named his poem as Paümacariya (Padmacarita) (4th Century A. D.) It partly agrees with VR. He claims that he has followed the Jain tradition in narrating Rāma's story.
1. In the Paümacariya Vimala pointedly refers to some of the absurd and incredible elements in the popular Rāma stories (he has in mind mainly Vālmīki's Rāmāyana) “How is it possible that the demon heroes were defeated by the Vānaras (monkeys) ? And, how is it that Rävana and other demons, nobly born, are described as meat-eaters? And again, how is it that Kumbhakarna is said to have slept for half a year in spite of all the disturbances and then after waking up devoured elephants and the like and again slept for half a year ? And once again how is it that Indra, who rules over gods and men is described to have been taken captive to Lańkā by Rāvana ? At that rate we might as well aver that the lion is overcome by the deer, the elephant by the dog. These Rāmāyana stories are nothing but white lies !1"

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Vimalasūri removes these 'absurd' and 'incredible elements and presents faithfully the life of Rāma as was proclaimed by Lord Mahāvīra. According to Vimala, on the Vānara-island there is the city of Kiskindhāpura. The Vānaras are in reality a race of Vidyādharas, which is so-called, because it has Vānaras (monkeys) by way of badges or symbols on the arches of gates, banners, etc. The Raksasas are not man-eating demons. They belong to a race of the Vidyadharas; they are not meat-eaters but adhere to the vow of ahimsă.
They are so called because one high-souled Rāksasa was born in that dynasty of the Vidyadharas or according to another etymological explanation, the Vidyādharas since they guarded the holy Rākşasa-islands were known as Rāksasas?.
Bhānukarna (Vālmīki's Vibhīsana), Rāvana and other Räksasa heroes are represented as pious and devout Jains. Rāvana restores ruined Jain shrines or temples and as far as possible he avoids hiṁsā whenever he has to fight. Vimala informs us that it was not Indra, the lord of gods, who was defeated by Rāvana but Indra, the lord of the Vidyādharas. Rāvana's mother hangs around his neck a wondrous string of nine pearls in which his face is reflected nine times, hence he gets the epithet “Dasamukha" (the man with ten faces)."
4) Vimala rids the story of divine elements. His Rāma and Sītă are not incarnations of Visnu and Laksmi respectively. He however elevates the various characters : His Kaikeyi is a mother par excellence. She is prepared to let her husband accept asceticism but desperately tries to retain her son. She does not demand Rāma's banishment to forest. Vālin, a mighty Vidyadhara hero, although capable of inflicting a crushing defeat on Rāvana, voluntarily appoints Sugrīva to the throne and himself becomes a monk. Thus, he frees Vālin of the shameful charge of living with his brother's wife, and Rāma of the charge of treacherously slaying Vālin. Laksmana kills sambūka by accident and this exonerates Rāma from the guilt of slaying a tapasvin.
Rāvana is portrayed as a tragic hero. His only weakness is his passion for Sītā. Sītā is described as born in a natural way from Videhā, the wife of king Janaka-and not come out of the earth as in the Rāmāyana. These are some of the noteworthy changes effected by Vimala in the VR. That he removes from the story of Rāmāyaṇa its Brahmanical atmosphere and creates in its place Jain atmosphere is perfectly understandable. For his chief aim is the promotion and propagation of the Jain faith. No doubt, Rāma, Laksmana and according to Jain Purānas, three of the sixty three salākāpurusas (uttamapurusas or mahāpurusas)-eminent or excellent or great personages. But it is

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really extraordinary that Lakṣmaṇa (who is called Vasudeva, and every Vasudeva of Jain Purāņas) is sent to hell for countless years for having failed to repent for the himsă committed by him. It is he who kills Rāvana, according to the Jain Puranas. These then are some of the radical, major changes introduced by Vimala in the story of Valmīki's Rāmāyaṇa.
2. Raviṣena's Padmacarita in Sanskrit is an enlarged edition of Vimala's Paümacariya. No remarkable changes do we come across in his version (678 A. D.).
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3. Sanghadāsa gives the story of Rāma in his Vasudevahindi (not later than A. D. 609). He is heavily indebted to Valmīki and Vyāsa for his version. He has however introduced one very drastic change. Rāvana, enchanted by Mandodari's wondrous beauty, marries her knowing full well that the first child of Mandodari is destined to bring about the destruction of the whole family. His idea is to desert the first born child and thus save his family and race. Later Mandodari gives birth to a daughter. She is put in a box full of jewels. Mandodari then asks a minister to take away the box and desert the baby. He takes that box to the park of Janaka. The ground there is being ploughed. The box is covered with a magic veil and kept in front of the plough. It is then reported to the king that the baby is sprung from a furrow. The baby is then handed over to Dhāriņī and is brought up by her as Sītā (one sprung from a furrow).
4. Guṇabhadra in his Uttarapurāṇa (c. 2nd half of the ninth century) deals with the story of Rāma. He introduces many changes in Valmiki's Rāmāyaṇa- Rāma story-by way of omissions, alterations and additions. Some of these may be noted here: He omits the account of Rama's banishment or exile into forest. Rāma and party go to Vārāṇasī, the old capital of Dasaratha, with his consent. It is there Rāvana abducts Sītā by the trickery or artifice of a golden deer. He at the instigation of Nārada is enamoured of Sītā of ravishing beauty and employs the stratagem of golden deer for abducting her. Like Sanghadāsa he too describes Sītā as Rāvana's daughter born of Mandodari. On account of evil portents at her birth Rāvana deserts the baby. She is found by Janaka and brought up by him and his wife Vasudha. Gunabhadra completely drops Rama's later history-the scandal regarding Sītā's purity, her abandonment into forest by Lakṣmaṇa, the shelter of Valmiki that she finds, the birth of twin children, their fight with Rāma etc., their union with their father Rāma and Sītā's fire ordeal are conspicuous by their absence. He most probably follows Sanghadāsa. 5. Sīlācārya treats of the story of Rama in his Caüppannamahāpurisa
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cariya (868 A. D.). He looks upon, as the title of his work indicates, 54 persons only as mahāpuruṣas (or śalākāpuruṣas)—great or eminent personages. He excludes nine Prativasudevas from the list of 63 salākā-purusas and regards only 54 as Mahāpurusas (or Śalākāpuruṣas). Naturally, he leaves out Rāvaṇa, the Prativasudeva, from the title of the narrative Rāma Lakkhanacariyam (The Narrative of Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa)". He describes Rāvana with such epithets : "Tormentor of the World', 'of impure character', 'conceited (or haughty) because of his vidya (learning)', 'wicked', 'cruel', etc. His narrative shares some features of Valmiki's Rāmāyaṇa and some, of Vimala's Paümacariya. He hardly introduces any innovation. There is nothing special or striking about his version.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
6. Puspadanta wrote his Mahāpurāṇa in Apabhramśa in 965 A. D. His version of the Rāma story is identical with that of Gunabhadra. At the beginning of his version he criticises the story of Rāma as presented by Vālmīki and Vyāsa in the form of doubts raised by king Śrenika: "Vyasa and Vālmīki have spread false notions about the great men figuring in the Rāmāyaṇa; thus for example we are told that (i) Rāvaṇa had ten heads, (ii) his son (Indrajit) was older in age than his father, (iii) Rāvaṇa, was a demon and not a human being, (iv) He had twenty eyes and twenty hands and that he worshipped god Śiva with his heads, (v) Rāvana was killed by the arrows of Rāma, (vi) The arms of Lakṣmaṇa were long and unbending, (vii) Vibhīṣaṇa is a cirañjivin and (ix) Kumbhakarna sleeps for six months and feels satisfied by eating one thousand buffaloes."
Most of these doubts were raised in Vimala's Paümacariya (and Raviṣena's Padmapurāṇa). Regarding the doubt that Vibhīṣaṇa is a cirañjīvin we have a passage in Vālmīki's Rāmāyaṇa (vii. 10 vv. 29-35) which describes how Vibhīṣaṇa asks for his boon that "even amid the greater calamities he may think only of righteousness..." The god Brahma grants his request, and in addition bestows the gift of immortality on him. But regarding the doubt that Indrajit, though a son of Rāvaṇa was older in age than Rāvaṇa, his own father, it has not been possible to trace its source in Välmīki's Rāmāyaṇa.
Amitagati in his Dharmaparīkṣā (c. 1014 A. D.) also criticises this absurd element which he describes at some length: Mandodari conceives at the contact of her father's semen, has her foetus restrained in the womb for seven thousand years and delivers Indrajit after being married to Rāvaṇa. Now it is not impossible that an oral tradition is being criticised here.
7. Dhanesvara in his Sanskrit epic, Śatruñjayamāhātmya, (C. 1100 A. D.) deals with the story of Rama (Canto IX). He generally follows Vimala but departs from him in some places: According to Dhaneśvara, Kaikeyī asks for the

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banishment of Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa for fourteen years, and he calls her Kūṭapeṭā 'a basket or bag of fraud or trick'. He describes the fight between Välin and Ravana and Ravana's humiliation at the hands of Välin. In introducing these changes he is obviously influenced by Valmiki's Rāmāyaṇa. His narrative is, however, on the whole an abridgment of Vimala's Paümacariya.
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8. Bhadresvara wrote his Kahāvali (Kathāvali, Sk) in the 12th century. It is in Prakrit prose and interspersed with verses. It describes the lives of 63 eminent or great men (mahāpurusas) and includes an account of the patriarchs who came after Mahāvīra. Bhadreśvara, generally speaking, follows Vimala. He however introduces two important and original features: A dream dreamt by Sītā indicates that she would give birth to two heroic sons. Sītā is very happy at this but her co-wives become jealous of her. They manoeuvre to get Rāvana's feet delineated by Sītā and try to poison Rāma's mind ears that Sītā still remembers Rāvana and as a proof of this show to him the picture of Ravaṇa drawn by Sītā. Rāma even after seeing that picture keeps silence and continues to attend to Sītā. The rivals of Sītā through maid-servants give publicity to the picture incident. Now Rāma in disguise moves about and comes to the park. There he himself hears the people reproaching him for accepting Sītā back whom Rāvana, being enamoured of her beauty, had abducted and taken home to Lanka. This picture motif, Rama's moving about in disguise and personally hearing the scandal about Sītā are newly introduced by Bhadreśvara in the story of Rāma.
9. Hemacandra (2nd half of the 12th century) in his Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpurușacarita, Parva VII, gives the story of Rama. His narrative generally follows Vimala's Paümacariya. He adds two noteworthy features:
(i) Välin fights with Rāvaṇa, overpowers him, puts him under his armpit and in that position he circumambulates the earth thus proving his superior strength. This incident he has adopted from Valmiki's Rāmāyaṇa.
(ii) The second noteworthy feature is about the picture motif. This motif he has adopted from Bhadreśvara's Kahāvalī. Incidentally, it may be stated that Hemacandra also relates "The Tale of Sītā and Ravana" very briefly and excluding the 'Uttararāmacarita' in his commentary on his own Yogaśastra. Some of the incidents narrated in this Kathanaka betray divergences when compared with the corresponding incidents in his Trisaṣṭiśaläkāpuruşacarita. But for the purpose of this paper these divergences need not be considered here. These Jain versions are of the nature of Purāṇa, and their authors, preachers rather than poets; whereas Rāmāyaṇa is the adi
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kāvya and Vālmīki, the ādi-kavi.
The Jain versions are decidedly much later. Having regard to its great popularity and hold on the public, the Jain authors use it as a vehicle for the promotion and propagation of their faith. The Jain versions agree in their main features with the Rāmāyaṇa. At the same time they introduce changes by way of additions, omissions, modifications and innovations. These changes are prompted with a desire either for removing incredible and absurd statements or offering realistic interpretations or ridding the story of divine elements or elevating characters like those of Kaikeyī, Välin, Rāvaṇa, etc.
Some changes, however, which they have effected are extra-ordinary indeed. In assigning many wives to Rāma and Hanuman the Jain writers have probably at the back of their mind the popular notion that the might of a man is measured in terms of the number of women he possesses but in the process of working up such images of Rama and Hanuman they have dealt a severe blow to the image of Rāma as a pattern of the virtue of constancy in love for none but his own wife. And Hanuman can't be anything else but an ideal brahmacarin. Further, the Jain versions describe Lakṣmaṇa, the mighty hero, as sinking into Hell. Readers are not psychologically prepared to accept such a terrible end to the glorious career of an exceptionally mighty hero like Lakṣmaṇa. The Jain writer's antagonism to the cult of the Vedic sacrifice and himsā, to the sense of superiority of the Brāhmaṇas-the Purohitas-and superstitious beliefs is perfectly understandable. One, however, would have wished that in making the beautiful story of Rama as told by Valmiki their own they had done a little less of their moral axe-grinding. Further, by eliminating the Kaikeyi intrigue they have divested the story of its deep human interest and dramatic value.
The heroes of Rāmāyaṇa move in an entirely Brahmanical or Vedic Hindu atmosphere whereas in the Jain versions the Jain dharma is everywhere very much to the fore. The kings are generally devout householders who retire from the world in their old age and become Jain monks. Sermons of Jain monks are often introduced.
They lay emphasis on the Jain doctrines of ahimsā, satya (truthfulness), the law of karma, the fruits of good and bad deeds, descriptions of the past lives of the heroes, the duties of a layman and a monk and the like.
In conclusion, we might say in spite of the Jain poets' claim that their Rāma story is based on tradition starting right from Lord Mahāvīra, the undeniable fact remains that while composing their versions Rāmāyaṇa was

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always before their mind's eye and they found its influence almost irresistible.
Addendum : Dr. H. C. Bhayani concludes his paper "The Prakrit and Apabhramśa Rāmāyanas" with these observations : "If a legend or narrative has to preserve its living and inspiring appeal and influence over centuries, it has got to be dynamic and responsive to the changes in the ideals, tastes, norms of behaviour, mores (? morals) and traditions of the people. Most of the numerous significant developments in the Rāma narrative throughout the more than two thousand years of its existence would find adequate explanation in the sociological, religious, cultural and ethical changes extending over that period."5
What Dr. Bhayani says is largely true.
Notes and References :
1. Pc. II w 105-117; 2. Pc. VI. v 74-to-78, as translated in Winternitz's History of Indian Literature, Vol II. p.
490 3. Pc. V.v. 257. 4. Pc. VII. v. 96-97. 5. (Indological Studies-H. C. Bhayani, publ. by Parshva Prakashan, Ahmedabad
380001, 1993, p. 194.)
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It is indeed difficult to settle questions such as 'whether Jain agama texts are earlier or later than the Upanisads and the Epics, the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavadgītā) and the Rāmāyaṇa, and the like." Instead of delving into matters relating to chronology the present paper confines itself to investigating into the attitude of Uttaradhyayanasutra, one of the sacred and valuable texts of the Jain agama, towards Brahmanism. Of the thirty-six lectures constituting this text only three lectures called Hariesijjam (Lecture XII), Ūsuyārijjaṁ (Lecture XIV) and Jannaijjam (Lecture XXV) deserve our special attention as they dwell upon some few noteworthy features of Brahmanism.
In the course of his dialogue with his two sons the Purohita, with a view to dissuading them from adopting ascetic life, sets forth before them the Brahmanical ideal :
"Those versed in the Vedas say that there will be no better world for men without sons.
My sons, after you have studied the Vedas, and fed the priests, after you have placed your own sons at the head of your house and after you have enjoyed life together with your wives, then you may depart to the woods as praiseworthy sages" (XIV. 8-9).
The sons spoke to him these words:
"The study of the Vedas will not save you2, the feeding of Brāhmaṇas will lead you from darkness to darkness, and birth of sons will not save you. Who will assent to what you said?
Pleasures bring only a moment's happiness but suffering for a very long time...they are an obstacle to the liberation from existence, and are a very mine of evils. While a man...seeks for wealth, he comes to old age and death. We will just now adopt Dharma. After adopting it we shall not be born again."
In short, this lecture (XIV) strongly recommends the ascetic ideal and pooh-poohs the Brahmanic ideal.

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Lecture XII (Harikeśa) paints Brāhmaṇa priests in dark colours: They are described as ignoble men (anarya), arrogant through pride of birth, slaughterers or killers of animals, men who did not subdue their senses, the unchaste / incelibate fools...those who are full of anger and pride, who kill, lie, steal, and own property, are Brāhmaṇas without pure birth and knowledge; they are very bad fields, (on which gifts sown do not grow up as merit): they are only the bearer of words, they do not understand their meaning although they have learnt the Vedas.
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In the Lecture about the true sacrifice (XXV. 18-19) too the Brāhmaṇas are criticised in these words: The ignorant priests pretend to know the sacrifice; their (so-called) Brahmanical excellence consists in (false) lore; they, resembling fire covered by ashes, shroud themselves in study and penance. He who is called by people a Brāhmaṇa and is worshipped like fire is no true Brāhmaṇa. Verses 19-29 from this Lecture portray an ideal (Jain) ascetic and call him alone a true Brāhmaṇa; and verses 31-34 from this very Lecture explain the true nature of a śramana, a Brāhmaṇa, a muni and a tapasa and the four varnas as follows:
"One does not become a śramana by the tonsure, nor a Brāhmaṇa by the sacred syllable, Om, nor a muni by living in the woods, nor a tapasa by wearing (clothes of) kusa grass and bark.
One becomes a śramana by equanimity, a Brāhmaṇa by celibacy, a muni by knowledge, and a tapasa by penance.
By one's actions one becomes a Brahmana, by one's actions one becomes a kṣatriya, by one's actions one becomes a vaiśya or by one's actions one becomes a śūdra."3
Harikeśa, the son of a śvapaka (=cāṇḍāla), who has adopted asceticism, criticises the Brāhmaṇas for tending the fire, seeking external purity by water, using kusa-grass, sacrificial poles, straw and wood, touching water in the evening and morning (on the occasion of saying prayers) thereby injuring living beings and committing sins. He indirectly criticises also bathing in a holy bathing-place (like Prayaga, a celebrated place of pilgrimage at the confluence of Ganga and Yamuna) with a view to washing away sins when he declares :
"The dharma is my pond, celibacy my holy bathing-place... there I bathe...and get rid of my impurities of sins4" (also hatred). (XII.46)
He lays stress on the great value of penance and makes light of birth in a high or exalted family. In fact, Harikeśa as well as Citra-Sambhūta legends illustrate how a śvapaka, detested by all people for being born in the lowest caste, by taking to asceticism reaches the highest place of perfection. These

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legends bear testimony to the fact that the Jain dharma does not believe in untouchability nor in caste-superiority.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
Finally, the Jain criticism of Vedic (animal) sacrifices: Jainism prescribes ahimsā (non-violence or non-injury to living beings) as the first and foremost of its five fundamental or basic vratas (vows). Every follower of Jainism must observe this vrata by abstaining from violence or injury to living beings, in thought, word or deed, together with its causal and permissive variations. With such a great emphasis on ahimsa, the attiude of Jainism towards sacrifices involving slaughter of animal is bound to be one of uncompromising dissent and bitter hostility. The Uttaradhyayana, the first müla-sūtra which is one of the most valuable portions of the Jain agama, on one occasion declares :
The binding of animals (to the sacrificial pole), all the Vedas, and sacrifices, being the causes of sin, cannot save the sinner; for his karmas are very powerful (XXV. 30).
In the Lecture on Harikeśa there is a passage interpreting a sacrifice spiritually which deserves special attention :
"He who is well fortified by the five samvaras (preventing by means of the samitis and guptis the asrava, the flowing in of the karma upon the soul), is not attached to this life, abandons his body (in the kayotsarga posture), who is pure and does not care for his body, in fact offers the best of sacrifices and as such wins the great victory.
Where is your fire, your fire-place, your sacrificial ladle? Where the dried cow-dung (used as fuel)? Without these things, what kind of priests can the monks be?
Penance is my fire; life my fire-place; right exertion is my sacrificial ladle; the body the dried cow-dung; karma is my fuel; self-control, right exertion and tranquility are the oblations, praised by sages, which I offer (XII. 42-44)."5 Taking a clue from these passages, many later Jain works dealing with dharma, mythology, philosophy and dharma kathas denounce bloody Vedic sacrifices at length using cogent arguments. Among such works Mallisena's Syādvadamañjarī is particularly noteworthy. Its discussion, however, lies outside the scope of the present paper. Some of these works including Syadvādamañjarī cite passages from Śruti, Śmrti, the Mahabharata, the Purānas, as well as the views of the Samkhyas, etc., in the course of their criticism of himsă, with approval. These passages leave no doubt that there was a strong body of opinion even in Brahmanism which revolted against himsā, even vaidha himsă (i. e. himsā

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prescribed in śāstras, such as animal-slaughter in a sacrifice). A. B. Dhruva maintains that "this trend of thought seems to have come down from times earlier than the rise of Jainism and Buddhism, mainly in the Bhakti and Jñāna schools as distinguished from the ritualistic school of Brahmanism."
The trend of thought against vaidha hirsā may have been present in the period preceding the times of Mahāvīra and Buddha. One may however add, without any fear of contradiction, that the strong criticism of the yajñiya himsā by the powerful advocates of ahimsä from the Jain and Buddhist circles must have exercised considerable influence and strengthened the trend of thought that was already there and contributed to some extent to the decline of the yajñiya hiṁsā.
The Uttarādhyayana-sūtra criticises the following aspects of Brahmanism :
(i) The ritualism or formalism or ceremonialism as against the selfcontrol and the virtuous life of the ascetics, and its advocates, the priests,
(ii) The animal sacrifice prescribd by the Vedas, (iii) Caste-system based on birth, (iv) Untouchability and
(v) Brahmanic belief that bathing at a holy bathing-place washes away one's sins.
In conclusion may I say : Although Jainism and Buddhism assail Brahmanism for enjoining bloody animal sacrifices, for creating the evil castesystem, for recognising untouchability, for entertaining superstitious beliefs like bathing in the river Gangā washes away sins', 'food offered to Brāhmaṇas (on the anniversary of the death of a relative in whose honour śrāddha is performed), reaches the particular dead relative (in heaven)', the birth of a son saves you from hell', etc., we must never lose sight of the most important fact that like Brahmanism and Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are and remain genuine products of the Indian mind and that they have considerably influenced Indian spiritual life. It is an indisputable fact that although Indian religions and their darśanas present a diversity of views, we can easily discern in them the common stamp of an Indian culture the unity of moral and spiritual outlook. When we compare and contrast these Indian religions with the foreign religions like Islam and Christianity, we at once realise how closely allied these Indian religions are. Every Darśana is moved to speculation by a sense of discomfort and disquiet at the existing order of things. These darśanas agree implicitly on the four āryasatyas (noble truths) discovered by Buddha : 1. There is suffering.
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2. There is a cause of suffering. 3. There is cessation of suffering. 4. There is a way to attain it. These darśanas also accept the law of karma which implies optimism and makes man the master of his own destiny. They also hold in common the view that ignorance of reality is the cause of our bondage and sufferings and liberation from these can be achieved only through knowledge of reality, continued meditation on the highest principle and a life of self-control (yoga and samyama); further, these darśanas accept the idea of liberation (moksa, mukti, nirvāna) as the highest goal or aim of life. Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism are the major constituents of Bhāratīya-dharma and Bhāratīyasamskrti and every Bhāratīya ought to be proud of this glorious heritage.
As researchers or investigators into truth we must take note of the attacks on the Vedas, the Brāhmanas, their ceremonialism or ritualism and their institutes of varna and jāti, the recognition of degrading untouchability, their superstitious beliefs, etc. and learn from their perceptive criticism, ignoring polemics but we must always and ever keep at the back of our mind the common thread of cultural unity and spiritualism that runs through these three great religions of Indian origin.
Notes and References : 1. According to some modern scholars Jainism and Buddhism represent a revolt against the
older religion of Brahmanism; the orthodox Jains themselves however assert that their religion is the oldest of all religions, and the religion of the Brāhmanas is merely a
degenerate form of it. 2. Cf. Traigunyavisayā vedā nistraigunyo bhavarjuna - Bhagavadgītā-II-45. 3. Cf. Cāturvarnyam mayā srstam gunakarmavibhāgaśaḥ 1 - Bhagavadgītā-IV-13
And, also Bhagavadgită-XVIII-41. 4. Cf. The author of Suyagadamga assails Brahmanical ritual thus : "If it were true that
perfection or liberation can be attained by ablutions with cold water, then fishes, tortoises and snakes would attain the highest perfections, and if water really washed away the evil deed, then it must needs wash away the good deed also. Brāhmanas assert that perfection or liberation is to be attained by the daily lighting of the fire; if this were true, smiths and artisans of a similar nature would attain the highest
sanctity. ---Süyagada VII-14-16, 18. 5. Cf. "Superior is wisdom-sacrifice (jñāna-yajña) to the sacrifice with objects (dravya
yajña), o harasser of thy foes. All action (karma) without exception, O son of Prthā, is comprehended (or culminates) in wisdom (jñāna).-Bhagavadgītā-IV.33. And, "Of offerings I am the offering of Japa”. (Yajñānām japa-yajño'smi)-Bhagavadgita-X. 25.
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BHAGAVADGĪTĀ AND UTTARĀDHYAYANASŪTRA : A COMPARATIVE ASPECT
Bhagavadgitā (BG) forms along with Upanisads and Brahma-sutras the famous prasthānatrayī sacred to the Vedic Hindus. Uttaradhyayanasūtra (Uttarā) forms part of Jain agama consisting of 45 sacred texts-sacred to the Śvetāmbara Jains. A comparative look at these two texts reveals the following facts:
(i) Barring a few verses which speak rather slightingly of the Vedas1 BG holds the Vedas in great reverence. Krsna, for instance, declares: "I am the holy Om, the three Vedas-the Ṛk, the Saman, and the Yajus also."2 Elsewhere Krsna while revealing some manifestations of his divine glory declares: 'Of the Vedas I am the Veda of songs'.3 But Uttara denounces Vedas as the causes of sins. In the famous dialogue between the Brahmanical Purohita (Bhṛgu) and his two sons who wish to turn monks, with a view to dissuading his sons Bhṛgu says: "Those versed in the Vedas say that there will be no better world for men without sons. My sons, after you have studied Vedas, and fed the priests, after you have placed your own sons at the head of your house, and after you have enjoyed life together with your wives, then you may depart to the woods as praiseworthy sages." The young men replied: "The study of the Vedas will not save you; the feeding of Brāhmaṇas will lead you from darkness to darkness, and the birth of sons will not save you... Pleasures bring only a moment's happiness, but suffering for a very long time, intense suffering, but slight happiness; they are an obstacle to the liberation from existence, and are a very mine of evils."4 Elsewhere the text says: "The binding of animals (to the sacrificial pole), all the Vedas, and sacrifices, being causes of sin, cannot save the sinner; for his works (or karma) are very powerful.""
(ii) BG describes the universe as God's creation. For example, Krsna says: "All this visible universe comes from my invisible Being... I am the source of all beings, I support them all.. At the end of the night of time all things return to

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my nature; and when the new day of time begins I bring them again into light. Thus through my nature I bring forth all creation, and this rolls round in the circles of time... I am the Father of this universe and even the Source of the Father. I am the Mother of this universe, and the creator of all..."
Uttarā describes the universe as uncreated, eternal, without a beginning and an end. It explicitly says : 1. Dharma, 2. Adharma, 3. Space, 4. Time, 5. Matter and, 6. Souls (are the six kinds of substances), they make up-constitutethis world, as has been taught by the Jinas who possess the best knowledge?.
(iii) BG assures the readers of the existence of God, his incarnations (avatāras, Krsna being the eighth avatāra of Lord Visnu) and also assures his devotees that they would reach him at the end of their life on earth and promises that women, vaisyas, as well as sūdras who may be pāpayonis (of sinful birth) when seek shelter in him attain to the Supreme Goal. Uttarā outright denies the existence of God and declares that the law of karma is inexorable-relentlessand nobody can escape the consequences of one's own deeds.
(iv) BG, as a rule, stands for traditional Vedic sacrifice-although on one or two occasions it praises the japa or jñāna-yajña as far superior to dravyayajña :
In the concluding chapter Krsna declares unequivocally : Works of sacrifice, gift and austerity should not be abandoned but should indeed be performed; for these three are works of purification in the case of the wise. But even these works should be performed without any attachment and expectation of a reward; this O Arjuna, is my firm and final opinion."10 In Ch.3 Krsna speaks with admiration/approval of the famous yajña-cakra-pravarntana-Setting in motion the wheel of yajña (lit. sacrifice)-the wheel of the world. Ch. 4. 28 enumerates dravya-yajña, tapo-yajña, yoga-yajña, svādhyāya-yajña and jñānayajña but makes no mention of japa-yajña. But Krsna while revealing some manifestations of his divine glory to Arjuna declares : "Of offerings (or prayers) I am the offering of japa (silent repetition) (or the prayer of silence)".
In Ch.4 while describing various kinds of sacrifice Krsna distinctly says: “Superior is the sacrifice of wisdom to the sacrifice with objects, O Arjuna (harasser of your foes) ! All work, without exception, O Arjūna (Pārtha—son of Prthā), culminates in wisdom-is comprehended in wisdom_" For wisdom is in truth the end of all holy work12.
It would seem that BG is definitely in favour of sacrifice of wisdom and it describes other traditional yajñas as a concession to tradition. In the days of

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BG most probably there was a strong body of opinion even amongst Vedic Hindus which revolted against dravyayajñas especially yajñas involving slaughtering of animals. Hence this commendation-praise-of jñānayajña.
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Uttară denounces Vedic sacrifices. The verse (Ch. 25. 30) cited above to illustrate the Jain attitude towards and attack on Vedas also illustrates the hostility of the Jains towards Vedic sacrifices. Jainism prescribes ahimsā (noninjury to living beings) as the first and foremost of the five mahāvratasfundamental or basic vows. Every follower of Jain dharma must observe this vow by abstaining from injury to living beings in thought, word or deed, together with its causal and permissive variations. With such emphasis on ahimsa, the Jain attitude towards dravyayajñas, especially sacrifices involving the slaughtering of animals, is found to be one of bitter hostility. The legend of Harikeśa (Ch. 12) is a splendid example of the Jain attitude towards Vedic sacrifice and incidentally towards untouchability. It may briefly be related here:
Near the river Gangā lived a caṇḍāla tribe. Harikeśa, belonged to this tribe. In the course of time he became a Jain monk. In the course of his vihara (wanderings) he once stayed in the Tinduga-grove near Vārāṇasī. Its presiding deity, a Yakṣa, became his ardent follower. One day Bhadrā, King Kausalika's daughter, came to the Yakṣa's shrine and paid homage to the idol. But seeing the dirty monk, she detested him. The Yakṣa to punish her for her want of respect for the holy monk, possessed her. No physician could cure her madness. The Yakṣa said, she would recover only if she were offered as bride to Harikeśa, the monk. The king agreed, Bhadra became sound as before and went to the monk to choose him as her husband. He of course refused her. She was then married by the king to his Purohita.
Once on his begging tour, he approaches the enclosure of the Purohita's Vedic sacrifice. The priests refuse him food. The Yakṣa intervenes on the monk's behalf, he scolds the Brāhmaṇas for their arrogance, calls them only the bearer of words of the Vedas. Thereupon many young people, instigated by the Brāhmaṇa priests, beat the sage with sticks. Bhadra then appears on the scene and appeases the angry youngsters telling them of his greatness as a holy monk who had refused to marry her. The Yakṣa's followers then remaining invisible beat severely the youngsters. Bhadrā speaks again, and asks them not to beat a monk on his begging tour and to save their life to prostrate themselves before the great monk. The Brahmana (together with his wife) requests the sage to forgive them. He offers him food. The monk accepts food after having fasted a whole month. The gods in heaven were delighted and praised the gift: "The

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value of penance has become visible, birth is of no value. Look at the holy monk Harikeśa, the son of a svapāka (cāndāla) whose power is so great."
The monk advises the Brāhmanas not to tend the fire (agnihotra) and not to seek external purity by water, not to use kuća grass, sacrificial poles, straw and wood, not to touch water in the evening and morning (while performing sandhyā) as thereby they injures living beings and commit sins. He then explains to them the nature of true sacrifice :
“Penance is the fire, life fireplace, right exertion sacrificial ladle, the body the dried cowdung, karma is fuel, self-control, right exertion and tranquillity are the oblations.
Dharma is the pond, celibacy holy bathing place. Making ablutions there one gets rid of sins (hatred)."13
This legend shows the Jains' hostility to Vedic sacrifice; it also shows how even a śvapāka--a candāla-belonging to the lowest caste becomes a Jain monk and can obtain moksa-liberation from the cycle of birth and death.
The story of Citra and Sambhūta, who were in one of their births cāņdālas, shows how Citra after he had practised the highest self-control reached the highest place of perfection. According to Jainism birth is of no value and even the so called śvapāka (or candāla) by practising dharma can obtain perfection. These legends of Harikeśa, citra and Sambhūta bear testimony to the fact that Jainism does not believe in untouchability nor in caste-superiority.
BG Ch. 4. 13 declares that the four varnas (caste) have been created by Me (īśvara) having regard to the distribution of gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas) and karma (actions, duties, functions, works). The four varnas are: 1. Brāhmana, 2. Ksatriya, 3. Vaiśya and 4. Śūdra. Their respective duties are set forth in Ch. 18. 42-44. From Ch. 9. 32-33 it would seem that among the four varnas Brāhmaṇas and Ksatriyas were privileged classes, they enjoyed special status and women, vaiśyas and śūdras had a lower status in society. Although in this context candālas or svapākas are not mentioned, they were simply looked down upon as outcaste. Uttară declares :
"One does not become a śramana by the tonsure, nor a Brāhmana by the sacred syllable Om, nor a muni by living in the woods, nor a tāpasa by wearing clothes of kusa grass and bark. One becomes a śramaņa by equanimity, a Brāhmana by chastity, a muni by knowledge, and a tāpasa by penance. By one's

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actions (karma) one becomes a Brāhmana, or a Kşatriya, or a Vaiśya, or a Śūdra."]4 In other words, caste is not based on birth nor birth confers on you superiority or inferiority.
In conclusion, may I say : Although Jainism and Buddhism assail Vedic Dharma for enjoining bloody animal sacrifices, for creating the evil caste system, for recognising untouchability, for entertaining superstitious beliefs like 'bathing in the river Gangā washes away sins', 'food offered to Brāhmanas (on the death anniversary of a relative in whose honour śrāddha is performed) reaches the particular dead relative (in heaven)', 'the birth of a son saves you from hell', etc. we must never lose sight of the most important fact that like Vedic Hinduism Jainism and Buddhism are and remain genuine products of the Indian mind and that they have considerably influenced Indian spiritual life. Although these Indian religions and their Darśanas present a diversity of views we can easily discern in them the common stamp of an Indian culture-the unity of moral and spiritual outlook. Every Darśana is moved to speculation by a sense of discomfort and disquiet at the existing order of things. These Darśanas agree implicitly on the four arya-satyas discovered by Buddha : 1. There is suffering, 2. There is a cause of suffering, 3. There is cessation of suffering, 4. There is a way to attain it. These Darśanas also accept the doctrine of karma which makes man the master of his own destiny. They also hold in common the view that ignorance of reality is the cause of our bondage and suffering and liberation from these can be achieved only through knowledge of reality, continued meditation on the highest principle and a life of self-control (yoga and samyama); further, these Darśanas accept the idea of liberation-moksa, mukti, nirvana as the highest goal of life. Vedic Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism are the major constituents of Bhāratīya Dharma and Bhāratīya Samskrti and every Bhāratīya ought to be proud of this glorious heritage.
Incidentally, attention is drawn here to the following passages in the BG and Bhagavatisútra, an ancient Jain canonical text.
In the Bhagavadgitā (Ch.II) Lord Krsna exhorts Arjuna, who is sorrowstricken and overcome with pity and refuses to fight against the Kauravas. Among other pleadings he makes an earnest appeal to him in these words :
"Having regard to your own duty also, you ought not to waver. For a ksatriya there exists no greater good than righteous fight. Blessed ksatriyas, o Son of Prthā, find such a battle as this, come of itself, an open gate to Heaven ... Slain you will attain Heaven, Victorious, you will enjoy the Earth. Therefore, O Son of Kunti, arise with the determination to fight15.

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The Bhagavatisutra, which forms, along with a few other texts, the earliest part of the Jain Canon criticises the view prevalent in the society in those days that "For warriors who fight their enemy on the battle-ground and meet a heroic death, the gate to Heaven is open and that heavenly nymphs choose them as their spouse and these and such other heroic warriors spend time happilyenjoying pleasures in their company.” It is only correct that the Bhagavatisūtra does not expressly or directly refer to the above passages in the Bhagavad-gitā. In the absence of definite date of composition of these two texts one cannot say that the Bhagavatisātra is attacking here (Sataka, uddesaka 9) the Bhagavadgitā.
-Gita 2. 42-46
Notes and References : 1. a) यामिमां पुष्पितां वाचं प्रवदन्त्यविपश्चितः ।
वेदवादरताः पार्थ नान्यदस्तीति वादिनः ॥ कामात्मानः स्वर्गपरा जन्मकर्मफलप्रदाम् । क्रियाविशेषबहुला भोगैश्वर्यगति प्रति ।। भोगैश्वर्यप्रसक्तानां तयापहृतचेतसाम् । व्यवसायात्मिका बुद्धिः समाधौ न विधीयते ॥ त्रैगुण्यविषया वेदा निस्वैगुण्यो भवार्जुन । निर्द्वन्द्वो नित्यसत्त्वस्थो निर्योगक्षेम आत्मवान् । यावानर्थ उदपाने सर्वतः संप्लुतोदके।
तावान् सर्वेषु वेदेषु ब्राह्मणस्य विजानतः ॥ b) विद्या मां सोमपाः पूतपापा
यज्ञैरिष्ट्वा स्वर्गतिं प्रार्थयन्ते । ते पुण्यमासाद्य सुरेन्द्रलोकमश्नन्ति दिव्यान् दिवि देवभोगान् ॥ ते तं भुक्त्वा स्वर्गलोकं विशालं क्षीणे पुण्ये मर्त्यलोकं विशन्ति । एवं त्रयीधर्ममनुप्रपन्ना
गतागतं कामकामा लभन्ते ॥ c) न वेदयज्ञाध्ययनैर्न दान
न च क्रियाभिर्न तपोभिरुग्रैः । एवंरूपः शक्य अहं नृलोके
द्रष्टुं त्वदन्येन कुरुप्रवीर ॥ नाहं वेदैन तपसा न दानेन न चेज्यया ।
शक्य एवंविधो द्रष्टुं दृष्टवानसि मां यथा । 2. पिताहमस्य जगतो माता धाता पितामहः ।
वेद्यं पवित्रमोंकार ऋक् साम यजुरेव च ॥ 3. वेदानां सामवेदोऽस्मि... 4. Uttara. Ch. 14.8-13.
-Gita 9. 20-21
-Gita XI. 48, 53
-Gita. 9. 17 -Gita. 10. 22

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5. Uttara. Ch. 25.30. 6. BG. Ch. 9. 4-17. 7. Uttarā. Ch. 28.7. 8. BG. Ch. 4. 5-8; Ch. 9. 32. 9. Kadāna kammāna na mokkha atthi | --Uttarā. 10. BG. 18. 5-7. 11. "यज्ञानां जपयज्ञोऽस्मि'. ।
-Gita 10. 25. 12. श्रेयान् द्रव्यमयाद् यज्ञाज्ज्ञानयज्ञः परंतप । सर्वं कर्माखिलं पार्थ ज्ञाने परिसमाप्यते ॥
-Gitā 4.33. 13. Cf. Uttarā 12.44, 45. 14. Cf. Uttarā. 15.31-33.
कहं चरे? कहं चिट्ठे? कहमासे? कहं सए? | कहं भुंजंतो भासंतो पावं कम्मं न बंधइ ? |
-Dasavaikalika v. 7. Cf. स्थितप्रज्ञस्य का भाषा समाधिस्थस्य केशव ।
स्थितधीः किं प्रभाषेत किमासीत व्रजेत किम् ॥ -Gita II 54. जयं चरे जयं चिट्रे जयमासे जयं सए। जयं भुजंते भासंतो पावं कम्मं न बंधइ ॥ सव्वभूयप्पभूयस्स सम्मं भूयाई पासओ । पिहियासवस्स दंतस्स पावं कम्मं न बंधइ ॥
-Daśavaikālika V. 8-9. Cf. योगयुक्तो विशुद्धात्मा विजितात्मा जितेन्द्रियः । सर्वभूतात्मभूतात्मा कुर्वनपि न लिप्यते ॥
-Gita V. 7. सर्वभूतस्थमात्मानं सर्वभूतानि चात्मनि । ईक्षते योगयुक्तात्मा सर्वत्र समदर्शनः ॥
--Gītā VI. 29. आत्मौपम्येन सर्वत्र समं पश्यति योऽर्जुन । सुखं वा यदि वा दुःखं स योगी परमो मतः ॥ -Gita VI. 32. भिक्षु - Dasavaikalika x. 5-7, 10-11, 14-21. भिक्षुवर्ग from धम्मपद (25th) 23 verses ब्राह्मण : Uttar XXV 20-29, 31-33, 35. धम्मपद २६ ब्राह्मण वर्ग आत्म-वर्ग धम्मपद १२ आत्मवर्ग गीता III. 17, VI 5-6.
पंडित वर्ग 15. स्वधर्ममपि चावेक्ष्य न विकम्पितुमर्हसि ।
धाद्धि युद्धाच्छ्रेयोऽन्यत् क्षत्रियस्य न विद्यते ॥ यदृच्छया चोपपत्रं स्वर्गद्वारमपावृतम् । सुखिनः क्षत्रियाः पार्थ लभन्ते युद्धमीदृशम् ॥ हतो वा प्राप्स्यसि स्वर्गं जित्वा वा भोक्ष्यसे महीम् । तस्मादुत्तिष्ठ कौन्तेय युद्धाय कृतनिश्चयः ॥
-Gita II. 31, 32, 37.
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Veda is the very bedrock of the Vedic Dharma. The Brāhmanas are its exponents and enjoy a special priviledged position in the Cāturvarnya system. Candalas are regarded as outcaste. Jain texts, sacred as well as profane, criticise Veda, Brāhamanas, the Vedic ideal of a grhastha and varnas based on birth and the degraded position assigned to śvapākas (cāndālas) as outcaste.
Uttarādhyayana, the first mūla-sútra, is one of the 45 sacred texts of the Svetāmbara Jains. The following three chapters of this work relating to Harikeśa (a svapāka who turns monk), Isukāra, a King and Yajña (a true sacrifice) deserve our special attention as they chiefly criticise Veda, Vedic ideal of a hosueholder, Brāhmanas and Varnas based on birth and Brāhmana's attitude towards śvapākas!
number of later works of great importance for the Jains like Vimalasūri's Paümacariya (Life of Padma, another name of Rāma), Padmapurāna of Ravişeņa, Sanghadāsa's Vasudevahindi (Adventures of Vasudeva), Mahāpurāna of Jinasena and Guņabhadra, Trișaștiśalākāpuruşacarita of Hemacandra relate the account of the origin of Vedic Sacrifice (of course from their point of view) with a few minor variations. My paper, referred to in f.n.no 1 below, deals with this topic at length. Wherever necessary, passages from these works are referred to and briefly discussed in this paper.
As ahimsā (non-injury, nonviolence) is the most fundamental vow of the Jains their criticism of yajñiya himsā is perfectly understandable. We should, however, note that there were sections among the Vedic Hindus who too were strong critics of slaughtering animals at the time of Vedic sacrifices : The followers of Paramarşi Kapila, the Samkhyas, say:
यूपं छित्त्वा पशून् हत्वा कृत्वा रुधिरकर्दमम् । यद्येवं गम्यते स्वर्गे नरके केन गम्यते ॥
—quoted in Māthara Vrtti on Samkhyakārikā

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(By cutting trees for sacrificial posts and by slaughtering animals and wading through their blood if you can go to heaven, kindly tell us how do we reach hell.)
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Devi Bhāgavata says that the Supreme took the form of the Buddha in order to put a stop to wrong sacrifices and prevent injury to animals : दुष्टयज्ञविघाताय पशुहिंसानिवृत्तये ।
बौद्धरूपं दधौ योऽसौ तस्मै देवाय ते नमः ॥
Animal sacrifices are found in the Vedas (inserted) by the dvijas (twiceborn) who are given to pleasures and relishing tastes. Non-injury is, verily the highest truth.
द्विजैर्भोगरतैर्वेदे दर्शितं हिंसनं पशोः ।
जिह्वास्वादपरैः कामम् अहिंसैव परा मता ॥
-S. Radhakrishnan The Principal Upanisads, Introduction, p. 50, f.n.1. Uttaradhyayana interprets sacrifice ethically :
"He who is well fortified by the five samvaras (preventing by means of the samitis and guptis the flowing in of the karma upon the soul) and is not attached to this life, who abandons his body, who is pure and does not care for his body, in fact, offers the best of sacrifices and as such, wins the great victory over the enemy of karmas." And, penance is my fire; life my fire-place; right exertion is my sacrificial ladle; the body the dried cow dung; karma is my fuel; self-control, right exertion and tranquillity are the oblations, praised by the sages, which I offer."2
In this connection we may note that the Upanisads too interpret sacrifices ethically. For example, the Bṛhadaranyaka Upanisad opens with an account of the horse sacrifice (aśvamedha) and interprets it as a meditative act in which the individual offers up the whole universe in place of the horse, and by the renunciation of the world attains spiritual autonomy in place of earthly sovereignty3. Bhagavadgītā too lauds japayajña: 'of sacrifices I am the sacrifice of mantra-repetitions and jñānayajña: 'superior is the sacrifice consisting in knowledge to the sacrifice of material objects, O tormentor of foes.' Manu thus interprets ethically the various yajñas: 'Learning and Teaching is brahmayajña, service of elders is pitryajña, honouring great and learned people is devayajña and entertaining guests is nryajña.
Regarding the Vedas Uttaradhyayana says: "The study of the Vedas will not save you' and 'all the Vedas and sacrifices being causes of sin cannot save

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the sinner; for his karmas are very powerful. In Paüma-cariya, Närada who, according to the text, is a Jain sage challenges the authority of the so-called Vedas and criticises the performance of animal sacrifices in the name of Dharma. According to him the true nature of sacrifice enjoined by the Vedas is ethical :
"Body is the altar, mind is the fire blazing with the ghee of knowledge and burning the sacrificial sticks of impurities produced from the tree of karma; anger, pride, deceit, greed, attachment, aversion and delusion are the animals to be sacrificed, along with the senses. Truth, forgiveness, non-injury are the sacrificial gift to Brāhmanas; right faith, knowledge, conduct, celibacy, etc., are the gods to be pleased. This is the sacrifice prescribed in the real Vedas by the Jinas. If it is performed with proper concentration and meditation, it yields the fruit—the most cherished nirvāņa (moksa, liberation). Those who perform sacrifices enjoined by the pseudo—Vedas by killing animals—being greedy of blood, fat, and flesh-those wicked ones like cruel, merciless or hard-hearted hunters sink, after death, into hell and continue to wander in the endless saṁsāra—the cycle of birth and death.”
Regarding the ethical interpretation of sacrifice, there is no room or could be no room for dispute as the Vedic Hindus too give such ethical interpretations. Here the point to be noted is that the word Veda, which has its own dignity, aura, grandeur and authority, the Jains are ready to use with reference to their own Āgama !
In Vasudevahindi (The Adventures of Vasudeva) there is a fantastic story regarding the origin of Atharva Veda and the birth of the author of Atharvaveda with its black magic :
Pippalāda, so the story relates, is born of Sulasā, a nun and Yājñavālkya, an ascetic. The parents desert the child (later known as Pippalāda) as soon as it is born. The child grows up to be an illustrious Vedic scholar-Pippalāda. On knowing the peculiar circumstances of his own birth he decides to take revenge upon his parents and invents Atharva Veda with its black magic. He severs the tongue of his father with a knife and reminds him of his crime-desertion of one's own child. He cuts him to pieces and offers his limbs as oblations in the sacrificial fire. He metes out a similar punishment to his mother as well.
This outrageous story is beneath contempt. Pippalāda is an ancient revered sage. To account for the black magic the Jain author seems to have fabricated this offensive and abusive story.

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In his Syādvādamañjarī Mallisena criticises Pūrvamīmāṁsā for its defence of yajñiya himsā and for its doctrine that the Veda is apauruseya. The point of yajñiya himsā has already been dealt with. Regarding the doctrine that the Veda is apauruşeya Mallisena says that the Veda is a heap of articulate sounds which demand a body with organs such as the palate, etc. and that language and its utterance can never be apauruseya and that every sentence has a certain tätparya (purport) which implies an author purusa-and is thus pauruseya.
In the two legends of King Nami and King Isukāra, Uttarādhyayana sets forth before us two models: one, of an ideal Vedic grhastha (householder) and two, of an ideal ascetic and establishes the superiority of the latter over the former. Considered dispassionately, however, it would seem that the Vedic ideal of a householder is very wholesome and in the interest of the society as a whole whereas the ascetic ideal is chiefly in the interest of an individual who seeks his own personal spiritual welfare.
Now, one very striking, interesting and unique phenomenon deserves our special attention. Although Jain texts, as a rule, criticise the Vedas, Ācārya Jinabhadra (c. 500-600 A. D.) is an exception. In vv 1549-2024, popularly known as Ganadharavāda, of his Višeşāvaśyakabhāsya, he cites a number of passages from Vedas, or rather Upanisads, which come at the end of the Vedas-which are sometimes also called the Vedas—with approval.
It is here necessary to give the background : Ganadharavāda deals with the conversion of Indrabhūti Gautama, Agnibhūti and nine other very learned Brāhmaṇas to Jainism. (They are later known as Ganadharas-chief disciples of Mahāvīra.) The topics discussed between Mahāvīra and Indrabhūti Gautama, etc., are: whether Jiva exists or not, whether karma exists or not and the like. These Brāhmaṇas with their hundreds of Brāhmana disciples are represented as highly influenced by the immense popularity of Mahāvīra and approach him with great curiosity. Seeing them Mahāvīra at once addresses them and reads their minds. He tells them about the doubts that trouble their minds regarding the existence or non-existence of jīva, karma, etc. He tells them that their doubts have their source in their failure to understand correctly the apparently contradictory Vedic passages. He offers their correct explanations; doubts are removed, and the clever Brāhmaṇas with their hundreds of disciples enter the order and become Mahävira's ardent followers. This is the frame-work of the whole Ganadharavāda.
By way of example a few sentences may be reproduced and discussed here; the sentences are :

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विज्ञानघन एवैतेभ्यो भूतेभ्यः समुत्थाय तान्येवानुविनश्यति न च प्रेत्य संज्ञाऽस्ति ।
Indrabhūti understood the passage as denying the existence of jīva (atman) and life after death and thus propounding materialism. Mahāvīra who knew better explains it resorting to vijñānavāda. Paṭa-vijñāna, ghaṭa-vijñāna, etc, arising from the bhūtas (objects pata, ghata, etc.) vanish away when pata, ghata, etc. vanish but as vijñāna-santati it ever continues to exist.
STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE
The traditional, and shall we say authentic, interpretation of this sentence as given by Sankarācārya is however, as follows:
"Arising from out of these elements one vanishes away into them. When he has departed there is no more knowledge."
The confusion arises due to the seeming contradiction that the Self is pure intelligence, and again, when one has departed there is no more knowledge. The same fire cannot be both hot and cold.
Śamkarācārya points out that Brahman, the pure intelligence, remains unchanged, that it does not pass out with the destruction of elements, but the individual due to avidya is overcome.
(ii) अस्तमिते आदित्ये याज्ञवल्क्य चन्द्रमस्यस्तमिते, शान्तेऽग्नौ, शान्तायां वाचि, किंज्योतिरेवायं पुरुष: ? आत्मज्योतिरेवायं सम्राडिति होवाच । -Com. on gāthā no-1598
In the course of debate between Indrabhūti (who later becomes the first Gaṇadhara) and Mahävīra, the latter asserts that even in the absence of elements knowledge exists and in support of his view he cites the above sentence from Veda (Upaniṣad): Bṛhadāraṇyaka (4.3.6). The sentence means :
When the Sun has set, O Yājñavalkya, and the moon has set, and the fire has gone out and speech has stopped, what light does a person here have? The self, indeed, is his light, O King, said he.
In this sentence puruşa means ātman and jyotiḥ means 'knowledge'. The purport of this sentence is: When all external light is gone out, there exists light in the self and light is nothing but knowledge. So knowledge is not the attribute or property of elements (bhūtas).
"This self is present in all the states of waking, dream and sleep. It is the light different from one's body and organs and illumines them though it is itself not illumined by anything else".
(iii) पुरुष एवेदं सर्वं यद्भूतं यच्च भव्यम्, उतामृतत्वस्येशानो यदन्नेनातिरोहति ।

-Rgveda 10. 90.2; Śvetāśvatara. 3.15

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VEDA AND JAIN TEXTS
95
In the course of debate with Indrabhūti Mahāvīra tells him that there are many Jivas (Jiva ätman). Indrabhuti points out to him that according to the Vedanta philosophy atman or soul is really one and in support of this statement he cites four Vedic/Upanisadic passages. One of them is the sentence under discussion. It occurs at Rgveda 10.90.2 as well as Svetāśvatara 3.15. It means:
"The Person is truly this whole world, whatever has been and whatever will be. He is also the lord of immortality, and whatever grows up by food." Now, you say there are many jivas or ätmans which goes against the Vedic passageVedic authority.
Mahāvīra replies that if the soul were one then it cannot at all be called, being all pervading like ākāśa (space), a doer, an enjoyer, a thinker or a samsärin (a mundane being). Further, if atman were one there would be no possibility of happiness. So it follows that there are many atmans and not only
one.
Elsewhere Mahāvīra explains this sentence in another way: "The purusa is praised here by resorting to atiśayokti-making an exaggerated statement not meant to be taken literally. Non-duality of purușa does not mean that there is no other thing in this world like karma (We have in the Bṛhadaranyaka, 4. 4.5, the following sentence: Punyah punyena karmaṇā bhavati, papaḥ päpena, i.e. one becomes virtuous by virtuous action, bad by bad action;-this proves the existence of karma outside Purusa who is described as one and only one pervading the entire world). He also adds:
The real purport of this Vedic sentence is: 'All ätmans are exactly alike. So one should not take pride in one's birth as Brähmana, etc., and should not look down upon others'.
Quite a few more sentences from the Upanisads are cited in the course of discussion and debate as authority by Acarya Jinabhadra. It would seem that he falls apart from other Jain writers in this respect.
To conclude, various Jain works both in Prakrit and Sanskrit attack the Veda and Vedic sacrifices. They even fabricate stories to discredit revered ancient sages like Pippalada and the Atharvaveda with its black magic. The Jain criticism against Vedic sacrifices involving slaughter of animals is fair and just, no doubt but very often they make misleading statements regarding Vedic sacrifices as very ably shown by Handiqui in his great work (Yaśastilaka And Indian Culture, Chapter XIV, especially). Acarya Jinabhadra, however, is, it would seem, a rare exception. He quotes Vedic (rather Upanisadic) passages to support the Jain

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96 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE views regarding atman, karma, moksa, and the like, and very often presents strikingly new interpretations of the passages from Upanisads cited by him. His Ganadharavada is indeed like an oasis in the midst of monotonous anti-Veda Jain literature. Notes and References : 1. For a detailed study see Sacrifice In India : Conception and Evolution, ed. by Dr. (Mrs.) Sindhu S. Dange, Viveka Publications, Aligarh, 1987, pp. 133-142 covering my paper, "Sacrifice in the Jain Tradition." 2. Ch. XII. 42-44. 3. S. Radhakrishnan : The Principal Upanisads. Introduction, pp. 49-50. 4. 'Yajnanam japayajno'smi' - X. 25.c 5. 'Sreyan dravyamayad yajnaj jnanayajnah paramtapa | IV.33-ab 6. adhyapanam brahma-yajnah pitr-yajnas tu tarpanam | homo daivo balir bhauto nr-yajno' tithi-pujanam || 000

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SACRIFICE IN THE JAIN TRADITION Sacrifice is a religious rite, a form of worship, in which an object is offered to a god or divinity in order to establish, maintain or restore a right relationship of man to the sacred power. The man who offers sacrifice firmly believes that the god, propitiated by his sacrifice, would satisfy his needs, avert possible misfortune and calamity. Now, sacrifices are of two kinds : bloodless and bloody. Jainism, which devotedly adheres to and strongly advocates the principle of ahimsa (nonviolence) in thought, word and deed is, naturally enough, opposed to all kinds of bloody sacrifices. It could have no objection, however, to bloodless sacrifices as they do not involve any animal-sacrifice. In the bloodless sacrifices life-giving substances such as milk, ghee, honey, water and the like are used as libations; and vegetable offerings include grains, leaves of sacred trees or plants, flowers and fruits. In the Jain form of worship, in keeping with the Hindu form of worship, flowers, fruits, leaves of sacred trees or plants and grains (cooked and uncooked) are included in the daily temple offerings. Now, regarding Jain attitude towards bloody sacrifices : Jainism prescribes ahimsa (non-violence or non-injury) as the first and foremost of its five fundamental or basic vratas (vows). Every follower of Jainism must observe this vrata by abstaining from violence or injury to living beings, in thought, word or deed, together with its causal and permissive variations. With such a great emphasis on ahimsa, the attitude of Jainism towards sacrifices involving slaughter of animal is bound to be one of uncompromising dissent and bitter hostility. The Uttaradhyayana, the first mula-sutra, which is one of the most valuable portions of the Jain Canon, on one occasion, declares : "The binding of animals (to the sacrificial pole), all the Vedas, and sacrifices, being the causes of sin cannot save the sinner, for his karmas are very powerful."? In the beautiful ballad of Harikesa, in a vivacious dialogue between a Stud.-13

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98 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE proud Brahmana and a monk of low-caste origin, the contrast is set forth between the formalism and ceremonialism of the priestly religion on the one hand, and the self-control and the virtuous life of the monks on the other. The following passage from this text, interpreting a sacrifice spiritually, deserves to be cited in this connections : "He who is well fortified by the five samvaras4 and is not attached to this life, who abandons his bodys, who is pure and does not care for his body, in fact, offers the best of sacrifices and as such, wins the great victory (over the enemy of Karma." "Where is your fire, your fire-place, your sacrificial ladle ? Where the dried cowdung (used as fuel) ? Without these things, what kind of priests can the monks be ?" "Penance is my fire; life my fire-place; right exertion is my sacrificial ladle; the body the dried cowdung; Karma is my fuel; self-control, right exertion and tranquillity are the oblations, praised by the sages, which I offer." Besides this canonical text-Uttaradhyayana--there are also other major Jain works dealing with religion, mythology, philosophy and romance, which denounce bloody Vedic sacrifices. Paumacariya is perhaps the first Jain work which relates the Jain version of the origin of animal-sacrifice. The account as given in Paumacariya is recounted with some minor variations, in later Svetambara and Digambara works. This account is as follows : Parvataka, prince Vasu of Ayodhya, and the Brahmana Narada---the three of them-studied under Ksirakadamba, the father of Parvataka. Once, when they were being taught by the guru, a flying monk said : "One of the four souls will sink into hell." Hearing these words the guru was alarmed. He sent away his pupils and himself turned a monk. His wife was distressed to hear this. Narada went to see and console her. Now, Prince Vasu was crowned king by his father who thereafter entered the ascetic order. Vasu had a divine crystal throne. Once there was a dispute between Narada and Parvataka about the meaning of aja in the sentence ajesu janno kayavvo. Narada explained the sentence to mean "Sacrifice must be made with ajas, i.e., barley-grains (corn three year old) which are abija, i.e. incapable of reproducing." Parvataka, however, told him that ajas undoubtedly mean "animals" (goats) and by slaughtering them sacrifice is performed. Narada asked him not to tell lies; for, lying leads to hell. Parvataka thereupon proposed that they should accept king Vasu as an authority as he was their fellow-student. Narada agreed. Parvataka then hurriedly sent his mother to king Vasu to ask him to take his side (against Narada). Next morning, Parvataka

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SACRIFICE IN THE JAIN TRADITION and Narada accompanied by men went to king Vasu. Narada sought his authoritative opinion regarding the point of dispute between him and Parvataka. King Vasu supported Parvataka's interpretation. That very moment King Vasu along with his divine crystal throne fell to the ground. Then he went to hell. Much ridiculed by the citizens, Parvataka practised blameworthy austerities and after death was born as Raksasa (demon). Remembering his past birth and ridicule and humiliation he decided to avenge himself; and, in the guise of a Brahmana, introduced animal sacrifices like Gomedha (involving the use of wine and incest with mother, sister and other near kindred), Pitrmedha, Matrmedha, Rajasuya, Asvamedha and Pasumedha. In these sacrifices the creatures with whose names those sacrifices begin (go-, pits-, asva-, pasu) are to be slaughtered; wine is to be drunk and flesh is to be eaten. There is no sin in it?. In the same Uddesa (Canto XI) Vimalasuri explains through Narada, a pious Jain, popularly known as devarsi, the true nature of sacrifice in accordance with arsaveda (holy, sacred, venerable Veda): "The body is the altar; the mind is the holy fire; this fire blazes up or burns brightly with the ghee of knowledge. This fire consumes or destroys completely the heap of sacrificial sticks of sins produced by the tree of karma." "Anger, pride, deceit, greed, attachment, hatred, and delusion-these passions, along with the senses, are the sacrificial animals which are to be killed. Truth, forgiveness, non-violence are the adequate sacrificial fee which is to be paid. Right faith, conduct, self-control, celibacy, etc., are the gods (to be propitiated)." "This is the true sacrifice as laid down in the venerable Vedas and expounded by the venerable Jinas. This sacrifice, when performed with complete contemplation or profound meditation, brings the reward, not heaven, but the highest nirvana (=moksa) liberation." "Those, however, who perform sacrifices by actually slaughtering animals go to hell just like hunters." It is not unlikely that Vimalasuri derived inspiration from the ballad of Harikesa in the Uttaradhyayana referred to above, who first interprets the sacrificial acts in the ethical sense. Of course, Vimalasuri's is an extended metaphor. The account of the origin of the Vedic animal-sacrifices is recounted with some variations in other texts also'. The account in these texts throws abundant light on the bitter hostility of the Jains towards the Brahmanas and their sastras

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100 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE prescribing animal-sacrifices. In his Yoga-sastra with svopajna (his own) commentary (Ch. II. 32-49) Hemacandra severely criticises animal-sacrifices and denounces Jaimini as Raksasa, and Smrtikaras too, for prescribing animalslaughter at sacrifices, use of meat at sacrifices to gods, in offerings and feasts connected with ancestor-worship and in the reception of guests. The episode of King Vasu-Uparicara is as old as the Mahabharata. It seems to have been incorporated in the above Jain account owing to the lesson of ahimsa conveyed by it, and provides a good example of Jain adaptation of popular Brahmanical stories. The original story of king Vasu-Uparicara is related in Mbh. (santi-parva, Chs. 335 ff). Incidentally, two stories, containing references to animal (and even human) sacrifices from the Jain narrative literature may be briefly related. Haribhadra (8th century A. D.) narrates in his Samaraiccakaha (Skt. Samaradityakatha) the story of king Yasodhara who because of his queen's faithlessness and approaching old age wishes to become a monk. In order to prepare his mother gently for his plan to become a monk he deliberately tells her of a dream in which he had become a monk. Now, with a view to averting the evil consequences of the dream, his mother advises him to disguise himself as a monk and sacrifice a number of animals to the family goddess (Kali). The king refuses to slaughter, but is prepared to make a compromise. He has a cock made of dough, and this fowl is beheaded in front of the image of the goddess, whereupon he eats the "meat" of the cock 10. Harisena in his Brhatkathakosa, Kathanaka No. 73, Somadevasuri in his Yasastilaka (Book IV) and Puspadanta in his Apabhramsa work called, Jasaharacariu (Skt. Yasodharacarita), relate the same story. Somadevasuri describing the story of King Maridatta in his Yasastilaka recounts : he has ascended the throne at an early age and is entirely given up to sensual pleasures. At the advice of Virabhairava, a Tantrika teacher, he prepares to offer a great sacrifice to his family goddess Candamaridevata, consisting of a pair of every living creature, including human beings possessing all auspicious physical characteristics. Then the servants drag in a youth and a maiden, a pair of ascetics whom they have selected for the human sacrifice. At the sight of them a change comes over the king. It occurs to him that these might be the twin children of his own sister, who were said to have renounced the world and entered the ascetic order. He asks these two ascetics to tell him their history, and it is revealed that they are indeed his relatives. The narrative ends with the conversion of King Maridatta and his farnily goddess to the Jain

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SACRIFICE IN THE JAIN TRADITION 101 dharma' After taking into account the criticism of Vedic animal-sacrifices that we come across in the Jain canonical, mythological and narrative literature we turn to the noteworthy Jain philosophical work, Syadvadamanjari, which systematically deals with the subject of slaughter of animals in the Vedic sacrifices for pleasing gods, guests and ancestors. Mallisenasuri's Syadvadamanjari is a commentary on the 32 verses of Hemacandra's Anyayogavyavacchedika, but is, at the same time, an independent philosophical work. It was written in 1292 A. D. A very able logician as he is, he first sets forth lucidly the prima facie view and then refutes it by advancing logical arguments. The whole discussion may briefly be summarised as follows: Animal-slaughter practised in the course of a sacrifice is justified on the ground that it is prescribed by the Vedas; and use of meat at sacrifices to gods, in offerings and feasts connected with ancestor-worship and in the reception of guests is approved of as it pleases them. Mallisena condemns himsa and points out that to say himsa is a dharmahetu is a contradiction in terms. Himsa is surely not an invariable antecedent of dharma; because, dharma, as you yourself admit, arises from tapas and similar practices. Himsa, therefore, is not a dharma-hetu, The Brahmana replies : We regard only a special kind of himsa--yajniya himsa--as dharama-hetu. The Siddhantin (Jain) asks : How is himsa a dharma-hetu ? The animals when you kill them surely die. We all hear their piteous cries when they are being slaughtered. There is absolutely no proof to assert that after death they go to heaven. The Brahmana might say that just as the Jains make an exception in the case of the himsa of insects, worms, reptiles, etc., which are inevitably killed in the act of constructing a Jain temple, so the follower of the Vedas makes an exception of the himsa involved in the Vedic sacrifice. The Siddhantin (Jain) meets this argument by pointing out that the himsa which takes place while constructing a temple is inevitable--moreover the service which a Jain temple renders to the devotees in making spiritual progress far outweighs the evil of the himsa. The himsa involved in a Vedic sacrifice is not a necessary evil for attaining heaven, which the sastras (sacred to you) admit can be attained by the practice of yama, niyama, and similar other practices. It is not so in the case of yajniya himsa. For equally a great merit can be secured

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102 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE by the practices mentioned above. If the Brahmana says that the animals slaughtered in the sacrifices get into heaven, the Siddhantin (Jain) asks, "who brings the news from heaven?" If the Brahmana answers, "here are our scriptures"; the Siddhantin (Jain) replies that the authority of the scriptures would be shown to be hollow. In the meantime he points out that if himsa can secure heaven, the streets leading to hell may be taken as closed--"hell will be a desert and heaven an over-populated city"-In other words, if the worst sin could bring heaven, it is better to declare an end to hell. Further, if the offering of a lower life at a sacrifice can secure heaven, why not make an offering of a higher life, say, of your father and mother to secure a still higher heaven? If the Brahmana says : So marvellous is the efficacy of the Vedic mantras pronounced on the victim that the result is heaven. The Siddhantin (Jain) replies: The Vedic mantras have been found inefficacious in the matter of marriage, many brides becoming widows in spite of the mantras promising a happy married life, and many other brides leading a happy married life even without these mantras pronouncd upon them. Finally Mallisena argues that language and its utterance can never be apauruseya and every sentence has a certain 'purport' which implies an author. Similarly the Vedas also must have an author. Again, logic demands that exceptions should relate to the same matter to which the general rule is applied. In the case of yajniya himsa exceptions are for the purpose of propitiating gods, guests and manes whereas the general rule ma himsyat sarva bhutani relates to avoiding sin and its evil consequences. Where is the necessity of propitiating them by himsa when other methods are available ? Mallisena's criticism of Jaimini (Purvamimamsa) and Manu, the smrtikara, is, it would seem, fair and just. After Mallisena's Syadvadamanjari we come across two later works which contain passages condemning yajniya himsa and himsa for the propitiation of manes and the reception of learned guests prescribed by the smrtis. These are Kumarapala-Prabandha of Jinamandanagani (pp. 44-49) and Prabodhacintamani of Jayasekharasuri (pp. 17-18) who wrote it in 1405 A. D. The passages from Sruti, Smrti, Mahabharata, Puranas as well as the view of the Samkhyas, etc. cited in some of the above mentioned works in the course of their criticism of himsa with approval leave no doubt that there was a strong current of opinion even in Brahmanism which revolted against himsa, even vaidha-himsa (i.e. himsa prescribed in sastras, such as animal-slaughter in a sacrifice). This trend of thought seems to have come down from times earlier than the rise of Jainism and Buddhism, mainly in the Bhakti and Jnana schools

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SACRIFICE IN THE JAIN TRADITION 103 as distinguished from the ritualistic school of Brahmanism12. The trend of thought against vaidha-himsa must have been present in the period preceding the times of Mahavira and Buddha. One may however add, without any fear of contradiction, that the strong criticism of the yajniya himsa by the powerful advocates of ahimsa from the Jain and Buddhist circles must have exercised some influence and strengthened the trend of thought that was already there and contributed to some extent to the decline of the yajniya himsa. Finally, it may not be out of place to refer to K.K. Handiqui's opinion that the Jains had no direct knowledge of Vedic literature, Vedic rites, and Vedic tradition and that their criticism is disfigured by gross exaggerations, misunderstanding and mis-statements. 13 Granted all this, the fact remains that their total opposition to yajniya-himsa in the name of Dharma was fully justified, on logical grounds, and, more than that, on a deeper sense of Dharma and greater awakening of the moral sense of the community as a whole14. Notes and References : 1. Medieval Jainism does not seem to have opposed the observance of local customs and practices (of the newly converted Jains. Somadevasuri observes in his Yasastilaka, Book VIII (959 A. D.)bat fe that TERHi milfont: qrifano: ... सर्व एव हि जैनानां प्रमाणं लौकिको विधिः / यत्र सम्यक्त्वहानिर्न यत्र न व्रतदूषणम् / / 2. Chapter XXV. 30- 40 Haden 3 og 2 4100140 न तं तायंति दुस्सीलं कम्माणि बलवंति हि // 3. Hariesijjam, chapter XII. 42-44 : सुसंवुडा पंचहि संवरेहिं इह जीवियं अणवकंखमाणा / वोसट्टकाइ सुइचत्तदेहा महाजयं जयइ जनसिटुं॥ के ते जोई के व ते जोइठाणे का ते सुया किंव ते कारिसंगं / एहा य ते कयरा संति भिक्खू कयरेण होमेण हुणासि जोइं // तवो जोई जीवो जोइठाणं जोगा सुया सरीरं कारिसंगं / कम्मेहा संजमजोगसंती होमं हुणामि इसिणं पसत्थं / / 4. Samvara is preventing by means of the samitis and guptis, the asrava or flowing in of the karma upon the soul. 5. This is the Kayotsarga, the posture of a man standing with all his limbs immovable by which he fortifies himself against sins, etc. 6. Vimalasuri's Paumacariya, Sanghadasagani's Vasudevahindi, Acarya Ravisena's Padmapurana, Mahakavi Puspadanta's Mahapurana (in Apabhramsa), Somadevasuri's Yasastilaka, Acarya Hemacandra's Trisastisalakapurusacaritra and Yogasastra with

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104 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE svopajna Vrtti (his own commentary) and Mallisenasuri's Syadvadamanjari. 7. Paumacariya, XI. 6-63; w. 40-43, which are as follows सोऊण तं कुसत्थं, पडिबुद्धा तावसा य विप्पा य / तस्स वयणेण जनं करेंति बहुजंतुसंबाहं / / गोमेह नामधेआ जन्ने पायाविया सुरा हवइ / भणइ अगम्मागमणं कायव्वं नत्थि दोसो स्थ // पिइमेह-माइमेहे रायसुरा आसमेहपसुमेहे / एएसु मारियव्वा सएसु नामेसु जे जीवा // जीवा मारेयव्वा आसवपाणं च होइ कायव्वं / मंसं च खाइयव्वं जन्नस्स विही हवइ एसो // 8. Paumacariya, op.cit., vv. 75-81...भणइ तओ नारओ मइपगब्भो / आरिसवेयाणुमयं कहेमि जन्नं निसामेहि / / वेइसरीरल्लीणो मणजलणो नाणघयसुपज्जलिओ। कम्मतरुसमुप्पन्नं मलसमिहासंचयं डहइ / / कोहो माणो माया लोभो रागो य दोस-मोहो य / पसवा हवंति एए हंतव्वा इंदिएहि समं / / सच्चं खमा अहिंसा दायव्वा दक्खिणा सुपज्जत्ता / दंसण-चरित्त-संजम-वंभाईया इमे देवा // एसो जिणेहि भणिओ जन्नो तच्चत्थवेयनिद्दिट्ठो / जोगविसेसेण कओ देइ फलं परमनिव्वाणं / / जे पुण करेंति जनं अणारिसं अलियवेवनिप्फण्णं / मारेऊण पसुगणे रुहिर-वसा-मसरस-लोला / ते पावकम्मकारी वाहा विव विद्दया निरणुकंपा। मरिऊण जंति निरयं अज्जेंति य दीहसंसारं / / 9. Vasudeva-hindi (Part I, Somasri-lambhaka) of Sanghadasagani (earlier than 610 A. D.), Padmapurana of Ravisena (678 A. D.) 'which is merely a slightly extended recension of Paumacariya in Sanskrit (Parva XI), Harivamsa-purana (17. 38ff.) of Jinasena I (783 A. D.), Brhatkathakosa (Narada-Parvatakathanaka, No. 76) of Harisena (931-32 A. D.), Yasastilaka (Book VII) of Somadevasuri (959 A. D.), Mahapurana (Sandhi LXIX. 23-34) (in Apabhramsa) of Puspadanta (965 A. D.) which is based on the Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra (9th century) and Trisastisalakapurusacaritra (Parva VII.2) of Hemacandra (1088-1172 A. D.). 10. Winternitz, M., A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, University of Calcutta, 1933, pp. 523-525. 11. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 534. 12. Dhruva, A. B., Syadvadamafijari, ed., Bombay, 1933, p. 338. 13. Handiqui, K. K., Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, 2nd edn., Sholapur, 1968, Chap. XIV. 14. (Note : In preparing this paper I have freely used the works mentioned below. I gratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to their authors, especially to A. B. Dhruva, the

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SACRIFICE IN THE JAIN TRADITION 105 editor of Syadvadamanjari). 1. Vimalasuri's Paumacariyam, Prakrit Text Society, Varanasi, 1962. 2. Vasudevahindi, prathama khandam, Sri Jaina Atmanandasabha, Bhavanagar, 1930. 3. Padmapurana of Ravisenacarya, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Kashi, 1958. 4. Harivamsapurana of Jinasenacarya, Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Kashi, 1962. 5. Mahapurana of Puspadanta, Vol. II, ed. P. L. Vaidya, Jaina Granthamala, Bombay, 1937 6. Yasastilaka of Somadevasuri, Kavyamala, Nirnaya Sagar Press, Bombay, 1916. 7. Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, K. K. Handiqui, Jaina Samskriti-Samrakshaka Sangha, 2nd edn., Sholapur, 1968. 8. Trisastisalakapurusacaritra of Acarya Hemacandra (Jaina Ramayana), Sri Jaina Dharmaprasaraka Sabha, Bhavnagar, 1906. 9. Yogasastram of Acarya Hemacandra with his own Vrtti, Part I, ed. Muni Jambuvijaya, Jain Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay, 1977. 10. Syadvadamanjari of Mallisena, ed. A. B. Dhruva, Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series, No. LXXXIII, Bombay, 1933. 11. Uttaradhyayanasutra, ed. Jarl Charpentier. 12. Sacred Books of the East Series, Vol. XLV. 13. A History of Indian Literature, M. Winternitz, Vol. II, University of Calcutta, 1933. 14. The Vasudevahindi, ed. Dr. J. C. Jain, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad. Stud.-14

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JAIN VIEW OF CREATION The desire to know the nature and origin of things is inborn. Man reflects on the phenomena around him. The explanations of the phenomena of Nature which suggest themselves to him constitute the early stage of mythology, generally called primitive mythology When we come to the Rgveda, however, we find that the hymns of creation represent advanced degree of thought. These hymns are not the products of primitive man but of some highly gifted poets of antiquity who are regarded as "seers". We come across a few majestic hymns of creation in the Rgveda. In one hymn the Vedic seer declares "In the primal age of the gods Being (Sat) was born of Non-Being (Asat)." In the famous Purusasukta the Vedic poet says that the world was formed from the different members of the body of the Virat-purusa?. In another splendid hymn noteworthy for depth of speculation, the Vedic poet says : "Then there was neither Sat (Aught, Being) nor Asat (Nought, Non-Being) there was before creation only darkness clouded over darknesswho truly knows---from whence this vast creation arose ?--Its lord in heaven alone knows it or perhaps he too knows not."3 The Brahmanas contain many legends about Prajapati creating the world. The Upanisads too contain creation-myths; but they are used to illustrate their fundamental philosophical doctrine of the all-pervading Brahman. Incidentally, we may note here that the Svetasvatara Upanisad when dealing with the problem of causation, lists the so-called first causes of the world : Kala (Time), Svabhava (Nature), Niyati (Destiny), Yadrccha (Accident, Chance, Mechanical or fortuitous combination of Elements), Bhutani (Elements) and (Pasama-?) Purusa (the Supreme-) Person. The Epics and the Puranas treat of the creation-myths at great length as cosmogony and secondary creations (the successive destructions and renovations of the world) form two of their five principal topics.5 This brief description of the myths of creation, as found in the Rgveda

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JAIN VIEW OF CREATION 107 and related literature of the Hindus is given here to serve as a necessary background to the Jain refutation of creation myths and the idea of God as creator, etc. The Carvakas outright reject the idea of God. According to them "The Material elements themselves have their own fixed nature (Svabhava). It is by the nature and law inherent in them that they combine together to form this world. There is thus no necessity for God." The Bauddha, the Mimamsa, the Samkhya and the Jain darsanas do not hold that the world was created at any point of time, and consequently, there is no place for a God in their systems. As we are here mainly concerned with the Jain view of God we takeup, by way of example, one reputed Jain writer, Mallisena, the author of Syadvadamanjari who deals with the problem of God. We very briefly treat of the prima facie view and its criticism by Mallisena. For a detailed discussion the reader is referred to the edition of Syadvadamanjarit, edited with Introduction, Notes and Appendices by A. B. Dhruva. God, according to the Nyayavaisesika school is (1) the creator or maker of the world; (2) one; (3) omnipresent and omniscient; (4) self-dependent; and (5) eternal. (1) Everything that is made requires an intelligent maker, e.g., a jar ; the earth, the mountains, etc., are effects and therefore they must have an intelligent maker whom we call Isvara or God. Mallisena criticises this anumana on two grounds : First, it is precluded by Direct Perception which bears witness to the fact that these things (the earth, the mountains, etc.) have no maker. Second, it is common knowledge that the making belongs to persons with a body; and isvara lacks in a physical body. (2) God is one. If there were many Gods (many masters of the world), there would be chaos and confusion in the whole world : but the world is one consistent whole. So, we conclude, God is one. Mallisena replies to this : Not necessarily so. For, many may co-operate to produce a single result e.g., the bees that make their hive. (3) Since His making takes place in all parts of the world, He must be supposed to be omnipresent and he must be also omniscient. If He is omnipresent, He, says Mallisena, absorbs everything into His own Self, leaving nothing to exist outside it. If He is omniscient, He knows, we suppose, even hell : and knowledge in his case being direct experience, He is to

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108 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE be supposed to experience hell. (4) He is self-dependent. Self-dependence is implied in the very notion of one who is the Lord of all. Mallisena replies to this : If He is independent, then why does He create a world so full of misery and inequalities unless He is wantonly cruel and unjust. If misery is a punishment for our bad acts and inequality is due to our varying Karma, the assumption of Karma will suffice to explain everything, and God will be superfluous. (5) He is eternal : for, a created God is a contradiction in terms. To this Mallisena replies : If he is eternal, He should be eternally active or eternally inactive. In the first alternative, His work would at no point be finished, and so nothing could be ever accomplished. In the second alternative nothing could even begin. Further, how could he have eternally conflicting natures viz., making and unmaking simultaneously ? The Jain thinkers thus stoutly deny the existence of God who creates, protects and destroys the world, and who rewards us for our good acts and punishes us for bad ones, and, thus, interferes with human life. Their conception of God is entirely different. God is only the highest, the noblest and the fullest manifestation of all the powers like perfect faith, knowledge, power and bliss (anantadarsana-jnana-virya-sukha), that lie latent in the soul of man. The Tirthamkaras (and the Siddhas) are the real gods of the Jains; for, they have conquered raga (attachment, love), dvesa (hatred), etc., are freed from all that is material and have attained perfect faith, knowledge, power and bliss. Just as the Jains refute the theory of creation by God, even so they refute the other so-called first causes of the wonderful variety and richness of the world like Sat, Asat, Kala, Svabhava, Niyati, Purvakta (Adrsta), Prajapati, etc., which have been referred to above.? After dealing with the Jain view of God let us turn to their description of the world : The world is one reality but it is not one homogeneous substance. Jain metaphysics divides the world into two everlasting, uncreated, co-existing but independent categories : the soul (jiva) and the non-soul (ajiva). The non-souls are sub-divided into five classes : matter (pudgala), space (akasa), the principle of motion or the fulcrum of motion (dharma), the principle of stationariness or the fulcrum of rest (adharma) and time (Kala). It may be noted that it is the Jain

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JAIN VIEW OF CREATION 109 metaphysics that postulates these two peculiar substances of dharma and adharma. Kala is in only a figurative sense a substance; it is devoid of extension. All other substances possess extension and are therefore called astikayas (magnitudes). Space is the locus of extension or of extended things. Out of the six substances matter (pudgala) is liable to integration and disintegration. The smallest parts of matter which cannot be further divided, being partless, are called atoms (anus). Two or more such atoms may combine together to form aggregates or compounds (samghata or skandha). Atoms and their products (aggregates or compounds) possess the four qualities of touch, taste, smell and colour. It is the quality of touch that brings about the atomic combination. The atomic aggregation is an automatic function resulting from the inherent or essential nature of atoms. The atomic theory of the Jains differs from that of the Naiyayikas in some important details; one very important difference is : the Jains hold that the atomic aggregation is an automatic function whereas the Naiyayikas assert that "Motion is first produced in the atoms as a result of God's will. This motion produces conjunction of two monads giving birth to a diad. Three diads or binary atoms make one tertiary. From this last is produced the quadrate, and so on, until the great masses of earth, and water, and light, and atmosphere are formed."8 The Jains define a substance as that which possesses gunas (qualities, essential unchanging characters) as well as paryayas (accidental, changing characters or modes or modifications). In so far as the essential characters of the ultimate substances are abiding, the world is nitya (eternal, or permanent) and in so far as the accidental characters undergo modification, the world is anitya (subject to a change). Since the six ultimate substances exhaust all namable and knowable objects and explain among themselves the whole world, there is no need of God or some other Agency to create them and bring them into existence. From the account given above it is clear that according to the Jains, the world made of six ultimate substances (dravyas), which are eternal and indestructible, is eternal, without beginning or end. The conditions or modes of these substances, however, constantly undergo changes. And it is time which helps substances to undergo these changes or modifications or modes. Incidentally, we may note here the Jain universal cycle--or eternally revolving wheel of Time. Each Kalpa (aeon) has two eras : the avasarpini (descending era), in which dharma (piety), truth, happiness, etc., go on decreasing until in the end chaos and confusion and misery reign over the earth; and the utsarpini

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110 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE (ascending era) in which there is an evergrowing evolution of dharma (piety), truth, happiness etc. Each of these two eras is sub-divided into six ages which have their distinguishing features fixed for them for ever. The Avasarpini consists of the following six ages : (1) Susama-susama; (2) Susama; (3) Susamaduhsama; (4) Duhsama-susama; (5) Duhsama and (6) Duhsama-duhsama. The six ages of the Utsarpini have the same names but they occur in the reverse order. The Avasarpini leads not to destruction but to the beginning of another Utsarpini. It is in the fourth age of the era that twenty-four Tirthamkaras are born. The last of them in the fourth age of the current cycle was Lord Mahavira. Although the Jains have no theory of the origin of the universe, they have their cosmography. We find its description in Umasvati's Tattvarthadhigamasutra (chapters III and IV), which is recognised as an authority by both the major sects of the Jains--the Svetambaras and the Digambaras. An outline of this account may be given as follows: Space (akasa), which is self-supported and the locus of extended things, is divided into two divisions : the universe (loka) and the non-universe (aloka). The non-universe is all void and devoid of dharma and adharma (principle of motion and of rest) and therefore impenetrable to anything. The universe is imagined as "three cups, of which the lowest is inverted and the uppermost meets at its circumference the middle one." The disk of the earth is in the lower part of the middle (madhyama). Below the disk of the earth are the seven lower regions (bhumis), one below the other, and these regions contain hells (narakas). "Above the seven regions of the hells is the disk of the earth, with its numerous continents in concentric circles separated by rings of oceans."l0 In the middle of the earth stands aloft Mount Meru. Immediately above the top of Meru twentysix heavenly regions (Vimanas) one above the other. (At the top of the universe (Lokakasa) reside the blessed perfected souls, siddhas. The detailed knowledge of the structure of the universe was believed to have been attained by contemplation.11 With the introduction of scientific astronomy and modern geography, the traditional cosmography--whether of the Hindus, the Bauddhas or the Jainshas almost lost its importance. Notes and References : 1. Rgveda X. 72. 2 2. Rgveda X. 90 esp. v.5

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JAIN VIEW OF CREATION 111 3. Rgveda X. 129.7 4. Svetasvatara Upanisad 1. 1-2. 5. Siva P. VII-1.41 = Vayu P. (Purva). 4. 10 = Matsya P. 53.64 Sargasca pratisargasca vamso manvantarani ca 1 Vamsanucaritam caiva puranam pancalaksanam || 6. Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series No. LXXXIII, 1933, Text. pp. 21-31, Introduction pp. LXXXVI-Xcii and Notes pp. 55-78. . 7. (i) Read Ganadharavada (Gathas 1641-43) and Introduction : pp. 113-118 in Gujarati by Pt. Dalsukhbhai Malvania, Published by Gujarat Vidya Sabha, 1952. (ii) Sanmati-Tarka (III.53)-Pandit Sukhlalji Sanghavi and Pandit Bechardasji Doshi, 1939 A. D. edn. (Published by Jain Shwetamber Education Board, 20, Pydhoni, Bombay3). (iii) Vimsati-Vimsika (II.18-19, IV.14)-Haribhadra-Suri, ed. and Pub. by K. V. Abhyankar, 1932 Sadashiv Peth, Poona-2. 8. Tarka-Samgraha of Annambhatta, Bombay Sanskrit Series No. LV, 1930 edition, p. 118. 9. Jacobi on Jain Cosmography (Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. IV, p. 161). 10. Ibid. 11. Tattvarthadhigamasutra IX.37.

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SVABHAVAVADA (NATURALISM) : A STUDY The Svetasvatara Upanisad' gives a list of first causes of the variety of the world according to some thinkers. This list includes Time, Nature, Destiny, Chance (accident), the Elements and Purusa. This paper will confine itself mainly to an investigation of the real nature of the doctrine of Svabhava (Naturalism as opposed to Accidentalism) by scrutinising available references to it in Sanskrit and Prakrit literature. In the commentary to the Svetasvatara Samkaracarya? explains svabhava as inherent nature of a thing, as, for instance, heat of fire. In the Buddhacarita3 Asvaghosa clearly sets forth the views of the supporters of Svabhavavada: ".... They teach that there is an essential force of nature at work in the continuance of activity, like the essential heat of fire and the essential liquidity of water. Some explain that good and evil and existence and non-existence originate by natural development (Svabhava); and since all this world originates by natural development, again therefore effort is vain. That the action of each sense is limited to its own class of object, that the qualities of being agreeable or disagreeable are to be found in the objects of the senses and that we are affected by old age and afflictions, in all that what room is there for effort ? Is it not purely a natural development ? The oblation devouring fire is stilled by water, and the flames cause water to dry up. The elements, separate by nature, group themselves together into bodies and, coalescing, constitute the world. That, when the individual enters the womb, he develops hands, feet, belly, back and head, and that his soul unites with that body, all this the doctors of this school attribute to natural development. Who fashions the sharpness of the thorn or the varied nature of beast and bird ? All this takes place by natural development. There is no such thing in this respect as action of our own will, a fortiori no possibility of effort."4 In the Nyayasutras Gautama states by way of Purvapaksa that things originate without any cause like the sharpness of thorns, Vatsyayana, in his

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SVABHAVAVADA (NATURALISM) : A STUDY 113 commentary to the Nyayasutra, explains the sutra by adding a few examples. In Mathara-vrtti to the samkhya-karika (v. 61), along with Isvara and Kala, Svabhava is mentioned as the cause of the world, of course, from others' point of view and dismissed as non-existent. In his commentary to the Samkhya-karika (v. 61) Gaudapada? writes : "Others say, Svabhava is cause of the world : By what (or whom) the swan is created white, the peacock of many colours ?"; that is, they are so naturally ... for Pradhana, from its universal creative power, is the cause of even Kala (Time); even Svabhava merges into it; and, therefore, neither Kala nor Svabhava is cause. Prakrti (=Pradhana) alone, therefore, is cause. Thus according to Gaudapada Svabhava merges into the all-embracing cause called Praksti. In the commentary to Brhatsamhita (Bhatta) Utpala writes : The world with its variety originates and gets destroyed through Svabhava alone and none else. They (Svabhavavadins) declare : "What fashions the sharpness of thorns, and the varied nature of beast and birds, the sweetness of sugar-cane and bitter taste of nimba ? All this comes about by Svabhava." It may be noted, in passing, that this verse bears close resemblance to Asvaghosa's verse cited above. In the Sarva-Siddhanta-Sangraha Samkaracarya briefly states the doctrine of Svabhava thus : "In consequence of the existence of pleasure and pain, merit and demerit should not be here in this connection) postulated by others. A man feels pleasure or pain by nature and there is no other cause for it. Who colours wonderfully the peacocks, or who makes the cuckoos COO so well ? There is in respect of these no cause other than nature." In his commentary10 to the Visesavasyakabhasya Maladhari Hemacandra quotes three verses giving the views of Svabhavavadins. "The supporters of the doctrines of Svabhava (nature, inner nature, natural development) teach that all things originate without any cause. They do not regard even 'sva' (own, itself) as cause. What makes the varied nature of lotuses and of thorns and the like ? What has fashioned the variegated plumage of peacocks ? Whatever is found in this world is all without cause and due to mere accident. Like the sharpness of thorns human happiness and grief come about by Svabhava only." In the course of his discussion about the Svabhavavada (Introduction to Stud.-15

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114 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Ganadharavada) Malvania quotes two verses' on Svabhavavada as well-known. "It is due to the all-controlling nature (Svabhava) that some things are ever-existing, some others ever non-existing and still some others varied in nature. Fire is hot, water is cool, wind is neither hot nor cool (by itselt). By whom or what came this variety ? We, therefore, conclude that all this came about by nature (Svabhava)". Of these two verses, the second is quoted in the Sarvadarsanasangraha12, which briefly puts the case of Svabhavavadins thus : But an opponent will say, if you thus do not allow adrsta, the various phenomena of the world become destitute of any cause. But we cannot accept this objection as valid, since these phenomena can all be produced spontaneously from the inherent nature of things. Thus it is said : "The fire is hot, the water cold, refreshing cool the breeze of morn; By whom came this variety ? From their own nature was it born." In his commentary13 to Uttaradhyayana Sutra (Agadadatta, v. 75) Devendra gives a verse in Prakrit hinting at Svabhavavada : "Who paints the peacock? Who provides the swans with their graceful gait ? Who infuses the sweet fragrance in lotuses and modesty in those who are born in noble familjes ?" In his commentary to Saddarsanasamuccaya 14 (st.50), as mentioned by Hiriyanna, Gunaratna quotes as the view of others : "Others again say: All the variety of this world is explained by its own nature and there is no karma whatever serving as its basis." In the Mahabharata 15" (santi-parvan) there are many references to the doctrine of Svabhava; this passage declares how everything comes about by Svabhάνα. The next passage 16 is from the same source describing the ultimate source of material universe. The Mahabharta records evidence, as pointed out by Hiriyanna"? in support of two opposite views--the ultimate source was conceived as one and as many. The Bhagavadgita 18 contains many passages which lend support to the doctrine of Svabhava. It is pressed into service to explain the difference in the duties of different castes; and its irresistible force is brought to the forefront now and again to persuade Arjuna to fight.

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SVABHAVAVADA (NATURALISM) : A STUDY 115 In the commentaryo to the Sutrakstanga silanka puts forward by way of the view of others the Svabhavavada to explain the variety of the world; the doctrine of Svabhava obviously dismisses the conception of punya and papa for explaining the variety of the universe. In his commentary on Prasnavyakarana Sutra Jnanavimala thus writes about this doctrine : "Some believe that the universe was produced by Svabhava and that everything comes about by Svabhava only." In his commentary20 on Prasnavyakarana Sutra Abhayadeva attempts to distinguish between Yadrccha and Svabhava. He explains all kinds of happiness and grief and every event taking place in the world as due to accident, mere chance. Svabhava he explains, after Asvaghosa, as 'natural development'. Siddhasena Divakara22, Haribhadra and later Jaina writers hold that to look upon any one out of many causes--Kala, Svabhava, Niyati, Karma, Purusakara-as the only cause is wrong and to regard them all as causes-some more important and some less important is the right belief. Before we take up passages refuting Svabhavavada, it is necessary to examine the interrelation between Yadrcchavada and Svabhavavada, and Ajivikism. YADRCCHAVADA AND SVABHAVAVADA Yadrcchavada is also known as Ahetu-Animitta-Akasmat-vada. Gautama and Vatsyayana (Nyayasutra Bhasya (iv. 1. 22)] give 'kantakataiksnya' as an illustration of Animittavada. This illustration has been highly popular with, and very often cited by Svabhavavadins in support of their doctrine. We would not, therefore, be wrong if we drew the conclusion that Gautama and Vatsyayana regarded these two doctrines as identical. Svetasvatara, Siddhasena Haribhadra and many later writers mention these two doctrines separately and distinguish between them. Hiriyanna23 very well brings out the distinction between these two doctrines : "While the one maintains that the world is a chaos and ascribes whatever order is seen in it to mere chance, the other recognizes that 'things are as their nature makes them.' While the former denies causation altogether, the latter acknowledges its universality, but only traces all changes to the thing itself to which they belong." SVABHAVAVADA : A SMALL SUB-SECT OF AJIVIKISM ? In the course of his exposition of the doctrine of Niyati Basham writes : "....Hence it appears that the Svabhavavadins agreed with the Niyativadins on the

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116 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE futility of human efforts. They were classed in the group of Akriyavadins, or those who did not believe in the utility or effectiveness of purusakara. It would seem that the Svabhavavadin differed from the Niyativadin in that, while the latter views the individual as determined by forces exterior to himself, for the former he was rigidly self-determined by his own somatic and psychic nature. These ideas have much in common and we suggest therefore that Svabhavavada was a small sub-sect of Ajivikism."24 Granting that "these ideas have much in common" we cannot persuade ourselves to accept Basham's suggestion for from all the references to Svabhavavada culled in this paper we find that it was intimately connected with Materialism or Carvakadarsana. It is much more allied to Carvakadarsana in as much as both deny a transmigrating soul, whereas Niyativada believes in an immortal soul. Further, in view of the fact that the Ajivikas ultimately merged with the Jains--which indicates that they had much in common--it would be more proper to regard svabhavavada as part and parcel of Materialism as has been done by tradition. SVABHAVAVADA DIALECTIC That the Svabhavavada must once have been well-known is evident from the numerous references to it in Sanskrit and Prakrit literature. No detailed exposition of it is to be found in any single treatise. The only account of this doctrine we have is in the prima facie argument or view (Purvapaksa) given in the works of its opponents for purposes of refutation. It is not improbable that the opponents ascribed to the Svabhavavadin's arguments which were easy of refutation. So we have to be cautious in judging the Svabhavavadin's powers of logical argument and dialectic skill. In the course of his commentary to Ganadharavada25 Jinabhadragani more than once mentions Svabhavavada and refutes it. He explains the variety of the world on the basis of the doctrine of karma, which is the cornerstone of Jaina philosophy. Silanka26, writing as an advocate of Niyativada, disposes of Svabhavavada as follows : "Moreover the causing of joy and sorrow cannot be ascribed to inherent character (Svabhava). For is this different from a man or the same as he ? If it is different it is not capable of causing the joy and sorrow which befall him, on account of that difference. Nor (if it is) the same (as he). For, if it were, it would be a mere man. "If happiness is experienced as a result of human activity there should be no difference in the reward (of equal exertion), nor should there be lack of reward when equal effort is exerted, whether by servants, merchants or

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SVABHAVAVADA (NATURALISM) : A STUDY 117 peasants, etc. Yet it is often seen that even when no means of livelihood such as service, etc., is followed, rich reward is obtained. So nothing is achieved by human effort." In the Nyayamanjari27 Jayanta dismisses this doctrine of Svabhava and establishes that of Adrsta or karma. Jayanta is well-known as a superb writer on Nyaya. This great logician, however, succumbs to the temptation of ascribing a manifestly weak argument to the Svabhavavadin, who argues : "The opening of a babe's mouth is spontaneous-natural like the blooming of a lotus bud." The Siddhantin refutes it saying that the blooming of a lotus bud is caused by the touch of the Sun's rays and that it is not spontaneous or natural. That the doctrine of Svabhava once enjoyed immense popularity and exerted great influence on the thinkers of those times would be patent to any impartial student of the Bhagavadgita. The Gita takes recourse to the doctrine of Svabhava in defending the difference in respective functions of the four different castes and emphatically asserts the inherent and irresistible strength of Svabhava. The Jains, no doubt, criticize this doctrine of Svabhava in their works of philosophical nature but this criticism applies to it only when Svabhava is presented as the only cause of the variety of the world. The Jains find a place for this doctrine under their wide umbrella of Syadvada or Anekanta. In this connection the attention of the readers is drawn to silanka's passages28, quoted below, accepting Svabhavavada. ADDENDUM In the Tattvasangraha of santaraksita with the Panjika (commentary) of Kamalasila who flourished in the first half of the eighth century A. D. we find an exposition as well as refutation of Svabhavika-jagadvada (w. 110-127). The three verses embodying the Svabhavavada, which are quoted by Maladhari Hemacandra, very well compare with the corresponding verses in the Tattvasangraha (w.110-112) and it is not unlikely that they are derived from a common source. Hemacandra reads rajivakantakadinam' in place of 'rajivakesaradinam; 'mayuracandrikadir' va in place of 'mayuracandrakadir va' -it is gratifying that the emendation in the text of Hemacandra that I have suggested above is supported by the text of the Tattvasangraha; the third verse although identical in thought-content differs in its expression. The verse of Hemacandra is already cited above. Here I quote the verse from the Tattvasangraha :

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118 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE यथैव कण्टकादीनां तैक्ष्ण्यादिकमहेतुकम् / कादाचित्कतया तद्वदुःखादीनामहेतुता // The refutation of Svabhavika-jagadvada by santaraksita may very briefly be summarised thus : "Thus filaments of the lotus, etc., have the seed, mud and water as the causes. Why then should we search for other causes which are not to be found ? If all things come about by 'svabhava' why should they appear at particular times and particular places only ? It is clear, therefore, that they have particular causes for their origin and development. The Svabhavika-jagadvada: thus stands refuted by pratyaksa-pramana itself." Notes and References : 1. कालः स्वभावो नियतिर्यदृच्छा भूतानि योनिः पुरुष इति चिन्त्या / संयोग एषां न त्वात्मभावादात्माप्यनीशः सुखदुःखहेतोः // स्वभावमेके कवयो वदन्ति कालं तथान्ये परिमुह्यमानाः / देवस्यैष महिमा तु लोके येनेदं भ्राम्यते ब्रह्मचक्रम् / / -Svetasvatara I. 2, VI.1 2. स्वभावो नाम पदार्थानां प्रतिनियता शक्तिः / अग्नेरौष्ण्यमिव / 3. अग्नेर्यथा ह्यौष्णमपां द्रवत्वं तद्वत्प्रवृत्तौ प्रकृति वदन्ति // केचित्स्वभावादिति वर्णयन्ति शुभाशुभं चैव भवाभवौ च / स्वाभाविकं सर्वमिदं च यस्मादतोऽपि मोघो भवति प्रयत्नः / / यदिन्द्रियाणां नियतः प्रचारः प्रियाप्रियत्वं विषयेषु चैव / संयुज्यते यज्जरयातिभिश्च कस्तत्र यत्नो ननु स स्वभावः // अद्भिर्हताश: शममभ्युपैति तेजांसि चापो गमयन्ति शोषम् / भिन्नानि भूतानि शरीरसंस्थान्यैक्यं च गत्वा जगदुद्वहन्ति / यत्पाणिपादोदरपृष्ठमूर्जा निवर्तते गर्भगतस्य भावः / यदात्मनस्तस्य च तेन योग: स्वाभाविकं तत्कथयन्ति तज्ज्ञाः // कः कण्टकस्य प्रकरोति तैक्ष्ण्यं विचित्रभावं मृगपक्षिणां वा / स्वभावतः सर्वमिदं प्रवृत्तं न कामकारोऽस्ति कुतः प्रयत्नः // --Buddhacarita IX. 5 4. Translation by E. H. Johnston, Calcutta, 1936. 5. अनिमित्ततो भावोत्पत्तिः कण्टकतैक्ष्ण्यादिदर्शनात् / अनिमित्ता शरीराद्युत्पत्तिः / कस्मात् / कण्टकतैक्ष्ण्यादिदर्शनात् / यथा कण्टकस्य तैक्ष्ण्यम्, पर्वतधातूनां चित्रता, ग्राव्णां श्लक्ष्णता, निनिमित्तं चोपादानवच्च दृष्टं तथा शरीरादिसर्गोऽपीति / --Nyayasutra-Bhasya IV. 1. 22 6. अपरे स्वभावमाहुः / स्वभावः कारणमिति / तथा हि येन शुक्लीकृता हंसाः शुकाश्च हरितीकृताः / मयूराश्चित्रिता येन स नो वृत्तिविधास्यति //

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SVABHAVAVADA (NATURALISM) : A STUDY 119 ...स्वभावो नाम न कश्चित्पदार्थोऽस्ति यतः प्रजानामुत्पत्तिसङ्गतिः स्यात् तस्माद्यो ब्रूते स्वभाव; कारणमिति तन्मिथ्या / -Mathara-vrtti to SK. 61 7. अपरे स्वभावकारणिकां ब्रुवते / केन शुक्लीकृता हंसा मयूरा केन चित्रिताः / स्वभावेनैवेति ।....कालस्यापि प्रधानमेव कारणम् / स्वभावोऽप्यत्रैव लीनः / तस्मात् कालो न कारणं नापि स्वभाव इति / तस्मात् प्रकृतिरेव कारणं न प्रकृतेः कारणान्तरमस्तीति / -Gaudapadabhasya to Samkhyakarika 61 8. अपरे अन्ये लौकायतिकाः स्वभावं जगतः कारणमाहुः / स्वभावादेव जगद्विचित्रमुत्पद्यते स्वभावतो विलयं याति / तथा च तद्वाक्यम् / कः कण्टकानां प्रकरोति तैक्ष्ण्यं विचित्रभावं मृगपक्षिणां च / माधुर्यमिक्षोः कटुतां च निम्बे स्वभावतः सर्वमिदं प्रवृत्तम् / --Bhattotpala's Commentary to Brhatsamhita 1.7 9. न कल्प्यौ सुखदुःखाभ्यां धर्माधर्मों परैरिह / स्वभावेन सुखी दुःखी जनोऽन्यन्नैव कारणम् // शिखिनश्चित्रयेत् को वा कोकिलान् कः प्रकूजयेत् / / स्वभावव्यतिरेकेण विद्यते नात्र कारणम् // -~-Sarvasiddhantasangraha II. 4-5 10. सर्वहेतुनिराशंसं भावानां जन्म वर्ण्यते / स्वभाववादिभिस्ते हि नाहुः स्वमपि कारणम् / / राजीवकण्टकादीनां वैचित्र्यं कः करोति हि / मयूरचन्द्रिकादिर्वा विचित्रः केन निर्मितः // कादाचित्कं यदवास्ति निःशेषं तदहेतुकम् / यथा कण्टकतैक्ष्ण्यादि तथा चैते सुखादयः // -Maladhari Hemacandra's Commentary to Ganadharavada II, v. 1963 Note : The text reads 'मयूरचन्द्रिकादिर्वा विचित्रः'. Shri Malvania renders it as "The plumage of the peacock is variegated and the moonlight is bright white..." (Ganadharavada (p. 45): Gujarat Vidyasabha, Ahmedabad). It appears to me, however, that the text originally must have read 'मयूरचन्द्रकादिर्वा विचित्र:'- *which reading eminently suits the context. 11. नित्यसत्त्वा भवन्त्यन्ये नित्यासत्त्वाश्च केचन / विचित्राः केचिदित्यत्र तत्स्वभावो नियामकः // . अग्निरुष्णो जलं शीतं समस्पर्शस्तथानिलः / केनेदं चित्रितं तस्मात् स्वभावात् तद्व्यवस्थितिः // -Quoted by Shri Malvania in his Introduction to Ganadharavada, p. 114 12. नन्वदृष्टानिष्टौ जगद्वैचित्र्यमाकस्मिकं स्यादिति चेत्- न तद् भद्रम् / स्वभावादेव तदुपपत्तेः / तदुक्तम् अग्निरुष्णो जलं शीतं समस्पर्शस्तथानिलः / केनेदं चित्रितं तस्मात्स्वभावात्तद्व्यवस्थितिः // --Sarvadarsanasangraha, Carvakadarsanam, p. 13. (BORI, Poona, ed. 1951) 13. को चित्तेइ मऊरं गई च को कुणइ रायहंसाणं / को कुवलयाण गंधं विणयं च कुलप्पसूयाणं // ---Sukhabodha-Laghuvrtti to Uttaradhyayanasutra (Agadadatta, v. 75)

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120 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 14. अन्ये पुनराहुः- मूलतः कर्मैव नास्ति, स्वभावसिद्धः सर्वोऽप्ययं जगत्प्रपञ्च इति / --Gunaratna's Commentary to Saddarsanasamuccaya (st.50) 15. हन्तीति मन्यते कश्चिन्न हन्तीत्यपि चापरः / स्वभावतस्तु नियतौ भूतानां प्रभवाप्ययौ / / पश्य प्रह्लाद भूतानामुत्पत्तिमनिमित्ततः / हासं वृद्धि विनाशं च न प्रहृष्ये न च व्यथे / स्वभावादेव संदृश्या वर्तमानाः प्रवृत्तयः / स्वभावनिरताः सर्वाः परितुष्येन केनचित् / / स्वभावभाविनो भावान् सर्वानेवेह निश्चयात् / बुध्यमानस्य दर्पो वा मानो वा किं करिष्यति / स्वभावाल्लभते प्रज्ञां शान्तिमेति स्वभावतः / स्वभावादेव तत्सर्वं यत्किञ्चिदनुपश्यसि // -Mbh, Santiparvan : 25, 16, 179. 10-11; 222. 27, 35 16. पृथिवी ज्योतिराकाशमापो वायुश्च पञ्चमः / एतद्योनीनि भूतानि तत्र का परिदेवना // केचित्पुरुषकारं तु प्राहुः कर्मसु मानवाः / दैवमित्यपरे विप्रा; स्वभावं भूतचिन्तकाः // विकारानेव यो वेद न वेद प्रकृति पराम् / तस्य स्तम्भो भवेद्वाल्यानास्ति स्तम्भोऽनुपश्यतः || प्रकृतौ च विकारे च न मे प्रीतिर्न च द्विषे / द्वेष्टारं च न पश्यामि यो मामद्य ममायते // -~-Mbh, Santiparvan : 224. 17; 232. 19; 222. 26, 31 17. Outlines of Indian philosophy, p. 105. 18 .....प्रकृतिस्त्वां नियोक्ष्यति / स्वभावजेन कौन्तेय निबद्धः स्वेन कर्मणा // कर्तुं नेच्छसि यन्मोहात् करिष्यस्यवशोऽपि तत् / कार्यते ह्यवशः कर्म सर्वः प्रकृतिजैर्गुणैः / / प्रकृति यान्ति भूतानि......... ...........स्वभावस्तु प्रवर्तते // -Bhagavadgita XVIII. 59-60; III. 5; III. 33, V. 14 19. तत्कथमेतज्जगद्वैचित्र्यं घटते?, तद्यथा-कश्चिदीश्वरोऽपरो दरिद्रोऽन्यः सुभगोऽपरो दुर्भगः सुखी दुःखी सुरूपो मन्दरूपो व्याधितो नीरोगीति, एवंप्रकारा च विचित्रता किंनिबन्धनेति ?, अत्रोच्यते, स्वभावात्, तथा हि- कुत्रचिच्छिलाशकले प्रतिमारूपं निष्पाद्यते, तच्च कुङ्कमागरुचम्दनादिविलेपनानुभोगमनुभवति धूपाद्यामोदं च, अन्यस्मिस्तु पाषाणखण्डे पादक्षालनादि क्रियते, न च तयोः पाषाणखण्डयोः शुभाशुभे स्तः, यदुदयात्स तादृग्विधावस्थाविशेष इत्येवं स्वभावाज्जगद्वैचित्र्यं / तथा चोक्तम् - कण्टकस्य च तीक्ष्णत्वं, मयूरस्य विचित्रता / वर्णाश्च ताम्रचूडानां, स्वभावेन भवन्ति हि // -Silanka's Commentary to Sutrakrtanga, folio 21 (a) 20. केचित् स्वभावभावितं जगद् मन्यन्ते स्वभावेनैव सर्व: संपद्यते / - Jnanavimala to Prasnavyakarana 7, fol. 29 (cited by Basham)

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SVABHAVAVADA (NATURALISM) : A STUDY 121 कः कण्टकानां प्रकरोति तैक्ष्ण्यं विचित्रभावं मृगपक्षिणां च / स्वभावतः सर्वमिदं प्रवृत्तं न कामचारोऽस्ति कुतः प्रयत्नः // -Gunaratna : Tarkarahasyadipika to Saddarsana samuccaya, p. 13 (cited by Basham) Note : Referring to this verse Basham writes : "Gunaratna quotes a verse which he attributes to the supporters of this doctrine." It will be evident by comparing this verse with Asvaghosa's (which is already quoted above) that barring slightly variant readings, it is the same as that of Asvaghosa. 21. अनभिसंधिपूविकार्थप्राप्तिर्यदृच्छा। अतर्कितोपस्थितमेव सर्वं चित्रं जनानां सुखदुःखजातम् / काकस्य तालेन यथाभिघातो न बुद्धिपूर्वोऽत्र वृथाभिमानः // सत्यं पिशाचाः स्म वने वसामो भेरी कराग्रैरपि न स्पृशामः / यदृच्छया सिद्ध्यति लोकयात्रा भेरी पिशाचाः परिताडयन्ति // स्वभावः पुनर्वस्तुत: स्वत एव तथा परिणतिभावः / "कः कण्टाकानाम्" इत्यादि / -Abhayadeva's Commentary to Prasnavyakarana Sutra 22. कालो सहाव णियई पुव्वकम्म पुरिसकारणेगंता / मिच्छत्तं तं चेव उ समासओ हुंति सम्मत्तं // 23. Outlines of Indian Philosophy, pp. 103-104. 24. History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas, p. 226. 25. होज्ज सहावो वत्थु निक्कारणया व वत्थुधम्मो वा / जह वत्थु णत्थि तओऽणुवलद्धीओ खपुष्पं व // अच्चतमणुवलद्धो वि अहतओ अत्थि नत्थि कि कम्मं / हेऊ व तदत्थिते जो णणु कम्मस्स वि स एव // कम्मस्स वाभिहाणं होज्ज सहावो ति होउ को दोसो। निच्चं व सो सभावो सरिसो एत्थं च को हेऊ / / सो मुत्तोऽमुत्तो वा जइ मुत्तो तो न सव्वहा सरिसो / परिणामओ पयं पिव न देहहेऊ जइ अमुत्तो // उवगरणाभावाओ न य हवइ सुहम्म सो अमुत्तो वि / कज्जस्स मुत्तिमत्ता सुहसंवित्तादिओ चेव // अहवा कारणउ च्चिय सभावओ तोवि सरिसया कत्तो / किमकारणओ न भवे विसरिसया कि व विच्छित्ती / / अहव सहावो धम्मो वत्थुस्स न सो वि सरिसओ निच्चं / उप्पायट्ठिइभंगा चित्ता जं वत्थुपज्जाया / कम्मस्स वि परिणामो सुहम्म धम्मो सपोग्गलमयस्स / हेऊ चित्तो जगओ होई सहावो त्ति को दोसो // --Ganadharavada W. 1786-1793 26. तथा स्वभावस्यापि सुखदुःखादिकर्तृत्वानुपपत्तिः / यतोऽसौ स्वभावः पुरुषाद् भिन्नोऽभिन्नो वा / यदि भिन्नो न पुरुषाश्रिते * सुखदुःखे कर्तुमलं तस्माद् भिन्नत्वादिति / नाप्यभिन्नः / अभेदे पुरुष एव स्यात् तस्य चाकर्तृत्वमुक्तमेव / --silanka's Commentary to Sutrakrtanga : folio 30 and 31 (a) Stud.-16

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122 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE यदि पुरुषकारकृतं सुखाद्यनुभूयेत ततः सेवकवणिक्कर्षकादीनां समाने पुरुषकारे सति फलप्राप्तिवैसदृश्यं फलाप्राप्तिश्च न भवेत् / कस्यचित्तु सेवादिव्यापाराभावेऽपि विशिष्टफलावाप्तिदृश्यत इति / अतो न पुरुषकारात् किञ्चिदासाद्यते / -Silanka's Commentary to Sutrakrtanga : folio 30 (b) and 31 (a) 27. ननु कमलमुकुलविकासादिवत्स्वाभाविकामेव शिशोर्मुखविकाशादिकार्यं स्यात्, स्वाभाविकं नाम किमुच्यते किमहेतुकमविज्ञातहेतुकमनियतहेतुकं वा / ..... न चायस्कान्तदृष्टान्तसमाश्रयेण स्वाभाविकमेतद्बालकस्य कुचकलशनिमित्तोपसर्पणमुति वक्तुमुचितमनन्तरमेव निरस्तत्वात् / -Jayanta's Nyayamanjari (Prameyaprakarana, pp. 41-42, KSS ed. 1936) 28. तथास्ति स्वभावोऽपि कारणत्वेनाशेषस्य जगतः, स्वो भावः स्वभाव इति कृत्वा तेन हि जीवाजीवभव्यत्वा भव्यत्वमूर्तत्वामूर्तत्वानां स्वस्वरूपानुविधानात् तथा धर्माधर्माकाशकालादीनां च गतिस्थित्यवगाहपरत्वादिस्वरूपादानादिति, तथा चोक्तम्-क: कण्टकानामित्यादि / -----Silanka's Commentary to Sutrakrtanga, folio 213 (b) 000

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ESCHATOLOGICAL IDEAS IN JAIN TRADITION Eschatology is "The doctrine of death, judgment, heaven and hell in Jainisim." The doctrine of karma is inevitably, inseparably and invariably connected with the doctrine of death, heaven, hell and salvation. Actions performed during the present state of existence are the causes of the future existence, and the present life is in its condition and duration, the result of the actions of the preceding one. There are four states of existence in this cycle of birth and death : (1) of gods (devagati), (2) of human beings (manujagati) (3) of non-human beings (tiryag-gati) and (4) of denizens of hell. In accordance with its own karma a soul migrates from one birth to another, from one state to another. Although samsara is anadi (without beginning ) a soul can put an end to it by completely destroying the eightfold karma and attain moksa-mukti,salvation, liberation. At the top of the universe (lokakasa) there is Siddhasila. The liberated soul settles down there permanently. Without visible shape, bodiless, but a dimension in space (immaterial) of 2/3 of that which he had had during his last hurnan existence he dwells there thence forward into all eternity enjoying the infinite, incomparable, indestructible and transcendental bliss of salvation. According to the Jains, the world is everlasting and imperishable, created by no God and governed by no Higher Being. It is subject only to its own laws and in spite of the change undergone by its component parts, remains in its essential character unchanged. In shape it is comparable to a symmetrically built man in whose lower extremities are to be found the hells, whose central portion of the body encloses the animal and the human world, and whose breast, neck and head are composed of the heavens of the gods. Above the world of the gods (to be likened to a lens, concave below and convex above) is the dwelling-place of the liberated souls. The entire world is surrounded by dense layers of air and water. Beyond this is the non-world (alokakasa)--the absolutely empty space. The world consists of six everlasting, imperishable dravyas--substances : 1. Jiva (soul), 2. pudgala (matter), 3. dharma (principle of motion), 4. adharma (principle of stationariness), 5. akasa (space) and, 6. kala (Time).

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124 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Jiva is distinguished from all other dravyas in that it possesses consciousness and intelligence. Pudgala exists in an infinite number of the most minute indivisible atoms. Each one of these possesses touch, taste, smell and colour. It is found in a gross (sthula) and in a subtle (suksma) form. Dharma makes motion possible like water to moving fish; and adharma is a passive cause of stationariness like a tree for a flying bird which intends to rest. Akasa is the receptacle of all things, but in itself is contained in nothing. The soul (jiva) in its perfect condition regains its innate qualities--ananta darsana, jnana, virya and sukha (infinite faith, knowledge, power and bliss). The soul in samsara when affected by passions (kasayas) like, anger, pride, deceit and greed attracts the fine particles of Pudgala (Matter) which bind the soul to samsara. This foreign element which enters the soul is designated by the Jains as karma. It does not here mean "deed, work", nor invisible, mystical force (adrsta) but a complexus of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which enters the soul and causes great changes in it. The karma according to Jainism is something material (paudgalam karma) which produces in the soul certain conditions. The soul is eternally infected by karmic matter; its union with karma has no beginning and, at every moment it gathers new matter. Through a series of special processes, the jiva must hinder the absorption of new karma and eliminate the karma already accumulated by tapas and nirjara (penance and shedding off or destruction). He then becomes free from all karma. Cleansed of all karma, the souls on leaving the body, will rise in straight line to the top of the universe, where the liberated souls reside for ever-Just as a pumpkin coated with clay sinks to the bottom of a tank or river but rises to the surface of the water when the clay has fallen off. If the soul is burdened with karma it will, on leaving the body, move in any direction to the place where it is to be reborn. The particular state of existence, duration of life, etc. of that soul, are governed by its own karma. The Jains do not believe in God who punishes you for your evil deeds or who rewards you for good deeds. The law of karma is inexorable : A man is the architect of his own fortune--they firmly believe. Whether he is to be born as a god in heaven or as a hellish being in the world of denizens or as a human being again or as a lower animal on earth entirely depends on his own karma. Incidentally, it may not be out of place to discuss briefly the Jain concept of nidana which is a dominant idea or motif in Jain story / narrative literature. It is originally a medical term which is explained as the disorder of the humours of the body (dhatus). Metaphorically, it means 'Bad karma' which upsets the

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ESCHATOLOGICAL IDEAS IN JAIN TRADITION 125 moral constitution of the Jiva concerned. It may be briefly explained thus : Nidana means bartering away one's austerities for sensual pleasures in a future birth, which are denied to him in the present one or for revenging oneself for insults or personal injuries in the subsequent births. Thus, for instance in Haribhadrasuri's Samaradityakatha (in Prakrit) nine different births of two souls, one of them was prince Gunasena and the other, his friend Agnisarma who was very ugly. The prince enjoyed fun at his cost; as a result of this he turned an ascetic, practised austerities. Through enmity towards the prince he resolved "If I have acquired merit by my austerities, may I then be born again and again to kill him in every one of his births." Accordingly the two were born in nine successive births as enemies--as father and son, husband and wife, and so on, and Agnisarma's soul was in every successive birth responsible for the death of Gunasena's. One more example of nidana may be noted : Regarding Draupadi's marriage to five Pandavas the Jain legend offers the following explanation : In one of her former births Draupadi was born as a girl with whom it was impossible to cohabit.. She became a nun but the desire for carnal or animal passion was there. When, therefore, she once happened to see a courtezan enjoying amorous pleasures in the company of five men in a park, she at once exclaimed : If I am to get any fruit for these austerities of mine, let me also enjoy these-such pleasures in my next birth." As a result she gets five husbands (Pandavas) in her next birth. This apart, the law of karma, according to the Jains, is inexorable. According to one's karma, good or bad one is born as a god in heaven or as a denizen of hell. Superhuman beings, according to the Jains, fall into two categories, the denizens of hell (narakas) and the gods (devas) A sub-division of the latter distinguishes good and bad gods-(daivi and asuri gati). The bad gods are also spoken of as kudevas. Demons would fall under the heads--narakas and kudevas, and ghosts, under that of kudevas. It must however be kept in mind that neither the state of a god nor that of a demon is permanent, but both have their fixed duration of life. It may extend to many 'sagaropamas'. The state which a soul may attain and his expanse of life depend on good or bad karma of the soul; at the end of the allotted time, the soul will be reborn in one or the other state in accordance with his karma. A god may be reborn as a hell-being but the latter will be reborn as an animal or a man only. The souls of those who have committed henious sins are on death removed to one of the seven nether worlds which contain different hells. There they have to undergo various tortures, and sufferings. They have also to suffer extreme heat,

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126 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE cold, intolerable stink and the horrid sounds which prevail in the hells. They can never quench their hunger or thirst. The denizens of hell do not die, however much they are mangled. They die at their allotted time after a miserable life, which may extend to 33 sagaropamas. There are four classes of gods : 1. Bhavanapati, 2. Vyantara, 3. Jyotiska and, 4. Vaimanika. Each of these four classes are further divided into various subclasses. The Bhavanapatis or Bhavanavasins include Asuras, Nagas and the like. They form the lowest class of gods. The Vyantara gods living in caves, mountains, etc. include Kimpurusas, Kinnaras, Gandharavas, Yaksas, Raksasas, Bhutas and Pisacas. The Jyotiska gods include the Sun, the Moon etc. The Vaimanika gods live in twelve heavens, one above the other, called Saudharma, Aisana, etc. and nine Graiveyakas, Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Sarvarthasiddha. It is to be understood that all these 26 heavens are one above the other. Above Sarvarthasiddha, at the top of the Universe is situated Isatpragbhara, the place where the souls resort on their liberation. The Uttaradhyayanasutra (chapter XXXVI) gives its description. It may briefly be given here. "Perfected souls reside on the top of the world; they leave their bodies here (below), and go there, on reaching perfection [The dimension of a perfected soul is two-thirds of the height which the individual had in his last existence). They have no visible form, they consist of life throughout, they are developed into knowledge and faith, and they possess paramount happiness which admits of no comparison. They have crossed the boundary of the samsara and reached the excellent state of perfection." As in Hindu mythology the asuras may be good or bad: The remaining classes of Bhavanavasins, Nagas, etc., seem to be demigods rather than demons. The Vyantaras include demons, goblins, ghosts and and spirits who live on, above, or below the earth. All of them occur almost identically in Hindu mythology. Generally speaking, the notions of the Jains on demons, ghosts, etc., are very much the same as those of the Hindus. And in spite of differences in their descriptions, their nomenclature, number, etc., the Jains are in agreement with the Hindus--as far as the basic ideas about heaven and hell are concerned. So also, both of them-the Hindus and the Jains are staunch believers in their general notions about Samsara, transmigration and final release from the cycle of rebirths. Although the Jain's concept of karma-karma paudgalamis peculiar, they both agree that karma is responsible for rebirth and wandering in samsara and that complete freedom from it leads to final release from samsara.

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HARIBHADRASURI'S VIMSATIVIMSIKA! : AN APPROACH Haribhadrasuri (700-770 A. D.) is a very versatile and voluminous author. Tradition credits him with the authorship of 1400 Prakaranas. This number is an exaggeration. According to the latest list and classification of his works, the total number of his available works is 39; 8 more are mentioned against his name in other works, and the number of works attributed to him but which are not definitely known to be his, comes to 26.2 This list and classification shows how Haribhadrasuri has tried various branches of literature. In the galaxy of writers, especially Prakrit writers, he is a star of the first magnitude. An eminent logician and philosopher, a master satirist, a witty critic, a consummate artist, a profound psychologist', a learned commentator, a finished story-teller, a poet of no mean order--these are diverse facets of his versatile genius. He wields a facile pen and displays command of language, both Sanskrit and Prakrit. His fame as yuga-pradhana chiefly rests on his literary activity for the cause of the Jains and Jainism. With this introduction we now turn to his brief but comprehensive work Vimsati-Vimsika (WV). The title : It may be rendered in English as Score of Sets of Twenties. The title is thus explained : Vimsatih slokah parimanam yasyah sa vinsatih Vimsatinam vimsatih yasyam sa vinsati-vimsika || This work is also known Vimsati-Vimsatika. This title is thus explained : Vimsatih vimsatayah yasyam sa vissati-vimsatih 1 Vimsati-vimsatireva vimsati-vimsatika 11 It is not unlikely that Haribhadrasuri was influenced by the titles of Buddhist texts in choosing titles for a few of his works. His titles Saddarsana

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128 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE samuccaya, sastravartasamuccaya remind us of the Buddhist works of Dinnaga and Asanga, Pramanasamuccaya and abhidharmasamuccaya, respectively; his works Dharmabindu and Yogabindu remind us of Dinnaga's Nyayabindu. The title of the present work reminds us of Vasubandhu's Vimsika and Trimsika. Regarding the two forms of the title, both are grammatically correct. Similar titles we come across in Brahmanical literature also. Simhasanadvatrimsika, "Thirty-two Stories about the Throne", and Vetala-pancavimsatika. "Twenty-five Stories of Vetala", are well known throughout the length and breadth of India. Its contents : Haribhadrasuri chooses to present to his readers the following twenty topics in twenty sets of Twenties. He lists these topics in the first Vimsika called Adhikara-Vimsika : (1) Adhikara-List of the Topics dealt with in WV; 2) LokanaditvaBeginninglessness of the world, 3) Kula-niti-lokadharma-Family traditions and popular customs of the country; 4) Carama-parivarta--the last existence preceding liberation; 5) Tat-bijadi-krama, The Seed, etc., of the Tree of Dharma; 6) Samyaktva-Description of Samyaktva (right faith) from the practical point of view; 7) Danavidhi-- The Mode of Charity (and its three kinds;) 8) PujavidhiThe Mode of Worship; 9) Sravakadharma-The Duties of a Householder; 10) Sravakapratima---The eleven observances of a householder; 11) YatidharmaThe Duties of a Monk; 12) Dvividhasiksa--Twofold Religious Instruction; 13) Bhiksavidhi--The Mode of Begging; 14) Tadantaraya--Unforeseen obstacles in the way of eating the alms; 15) Alocanavidhi--The Confessions of Faults; 16) Prayascittavidhi-Sinful Acts and Atonements; 17) Yogavidhana--The Mode of Yoga, 18) Kevalajnana-Perfect knowledge; 19) SiddhaVibhakti-Categories of liberated souls; and 20) Siddhasukha-Perfect Bliss of the liberated souls. This list of topics is comprehensive and covers some of the most important topics of Jainism. The work, therefore, although short, is comprehensive, and may rightly be described as a prakarana-grantha. The Nature of a prakarana-grantha : The dictionary gives the meanings of prakarana as (i) a subject, topic, (ii) a section, chapter or any smaller division of a work, (iii) a species of a drama with invented plot. These meanings are not relevant in the context of our book on hand. One definition of a prakarana runs as follows: Sastraikadesasambaddham, sastrakaryantare sthitam ahuh prakaranam nama granthabhedam vipascitah 11

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HARIBHADRASURI'S VIMSATIVIMSIKA: AN APPROACH 129 According to this definition, a work which aims at expounding some (important) tenet relating to a system of thought is called a prakaranagrantha. The two phrases in the first half of the above stanza amount to the same thing'Related to or dealing with a portion or section or part (ekadesa) of a sastra and 'based on one of the central topics in 'sastra' mean one and the same thing. In other words, this definition is not comprehensive, it applies to a book dealing with a portion or section or part of sastra. K. V. Abhyankar explains the term as "A work in which the treatment (of a sastra) is given in the form of topics, by arranging the original sutras or rules differently so that all the rules relating to a particular topic are found together", and cites Prakrlyakaumudi and Siddhanta-kaumudi as examples. This definition too is not applicable to the text in hand, strictly speaking. For there is no question of "arranging the sutras or rules differently" unless we enlarge the scope of the meaning of sutras to cover teachings set forth in source books and authoritative texts and commentaries on them. The name prakaranagrantha was most probably used to distinguish a work from the akaragrantha (Seminal Work or Source book). A prakaranagrantha is a systematically and topic-wise arranged samgraha-compendiumof the scattered and discursive teachings of its corresponding seminal or source work or works. In this sense, Arthasamgraha, Tarkasamgraha, Siddhantabindu based on Purva-Mimamsa, Nyaya-sutras and Vaisesikasutras and samkara Vedanta respectively are prakarana-granthas. In this sense, the Vimsati-Vimsika too is a prakarana-grantha based on sacred and authoritative Jain sutras, Niryukti, Bhasya and such other commentaries on them. Its Language The language of this text is Prakrit, to be more specific, Jain Maharastri--which is employed by all Svetambara writers in their Prakrit (prose and) verse and does not much differ from classical Maharastri. Its Structure and Style : The Vimsati-Vimsika obviously intends to supply a compendium of the principal teachings of Jainism in Twenty Sets of Twenties. In a sense these sets are quite independent of one another as each set deals with one topic only and is a complete unit by itself. But from another point of view, these sets may be looked upon as closely connected with each other as each preceding set anticipates the succeeding one. His self-imposed condition of completing one topic in 20 gathas only proves a handicap to him. Some of the gathas are too elliptical. The author combines brevity with accuracy all right but not with lucidity. Brevity is the soul of wit, no doubt, but brevity at the cost of intelligibility is not commendable. Occasionally, Haribhadrasuri errs too much Stud.-17

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130 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE on the side of brevity rendering the text of the gatha obscure. Of course it must be admitted that obscurity of sense is sometimes due to corrupt readings also. Long-felt need of a truly critical edition Unfortunately, there is no svopajna commentary on Vimsati-Vinsika, nor any commentary of a later commentator on it, with the only exception of Upadhyaya Yasovijayji's commentary on one of the twenty Vimsikas, namely Yoga-Vimsika. Prof. K. V. Abhyankar's edition is based on six different MSS, one printed edition of Yoga Vimsika and Pt. Sukhlalji's edition of Yoga-Vimsika with the commentary of Upadhyaya Yasovijayji on it. Prof. Abhyankar's edition contains Sanskrit-introduction, Sanskrit rendering of the gathas of the text, notes in English and an appendix. The editor observes at one place in the Sanskrit introduction that all the MSS bristle with many scribal errors and that he has not been able to explain the text at some places satisfactorily. The edition is good as far as it goes. But it is necessary to have another critical edition based on Prof. Abhyankar's edition and the corresponding relevant passages from the seminal works and other works of Haribhadrasuri himself, where parallel thoughts and themes are treated by him, and with fuller explanatory notes. Such as edition is, indeed, a desideratum. Notes and References : 1. Vimsati-Vimsika by Haribhadrasuri, ed. by K. V. Abhyankar, 981, Sadashiv Peth, Pune 2, 1932. 2. Samadarsi Acarya Haribhadra, by Pt. Sukhlalji Samghavi, Rajasthan Oriental Research Institute, Jodhpur, 1963. OD

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PANCASUTRA : A STUDY (i) The Author of Pancasutraka and his Date It is very striking and noteworthy that the oldest palm-leaf MSS of the text as well as all the MSS of Acarya Haribhadra's commentary make no mention whatsoever of the author of this text. The two paper MSS (C and D) however refer to its authorship thus : "Krtam cirantanacaryaih" (i. e., it is composed by ancient acaryas). The suggestion in some quarters that it is composed by an acarya with the name Cirantana does not deserve serious notice or attention. In his Introduction to the text Prof. A. N. Upadhye observes : "It is not possible to talk of individual authorship with regard to works like Pancasutra. The basic contents of this book are as old as Jainism. They are a literary heirloom preserved in the memory of Jain monks"? Professor K. V. Abhyankar cautiously remarks :"....the Pancasutra... is a small elegant treatise written by some old writer whose name has still remained unknown."3 Muniraj Shri Shilacandravijayaji is almost positive in believing that Acarya Haribhadra himself, must be the author of Pancasutraka4. Munishri Jambuvijayaji finds this view interesting but for lack of evidence does not support its. "The language of the post-canonical Jain works is partly Prakrit--the socalled Jaina Maharasti--and partly Sanskrit"6. The language of the known Prakrit works of Haribhadra is Jaina Maharastri whereas the present work is written in Ardhamagadhi prose; and this prose shares quite a few peculiarities of the diction and style of the canonical works. This fact suggests that Acarya Haribhadra was possibly not its author. It is not unlikely that the author of Pancasutra regarded the contents of the text as the property of the entire Jain Samgha and preferred to remain anonymous. It is also suggestive of its early date of composition. How early it is difficult to say. Since Haribhadra does not know who its author was we may not be far wrong in saying that it was composed about a century or so before Acarya Haribhadra flourished.

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132 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE (ii) Summary of Contents 1. Pancasutraka opens with a homage to the Arhats (Tirthamkaras) who thus expound their doctrine : "Here (in this world) the soul is eternal; and because of its association with karma since beginningless time, it wanders in this external samsara, which is full of misery, suffering, and grief. One can put an end to this samsara by adopting the right dharma (which consists of right faith, knowledge and conduct). One can obtain this dharma by annihilating sinful karmas; and these are destroyed by ripening (or fully developing) tathabhavyatva which is inherent in each individual. To ripen or fully develop this capability there are three means: (i) catuh sarana-gamana (taking the fourfold refuge, namely, that of the arhats, the siddhas, the sadhus and the (Jina) dharma. (ii) Duskrtagarha (Censuring one's evil deeds) and (iii) Sukrtasevana (Praising or approving of good deeds of others). One should cherish ideas and feelings like the following : "I am ignorant and sinful and subjected to delusion since eternity; I am ignorant of what is advantageous or disadvantageous to me. May I know it (through the grace of the Arhats etc.) and may I refrain from doing what is disadvantageous and practise only what is advantageous. With the conviction that it is to my advantage may I always and ever be of service to all beings". The inauspicious karmas of one, who reads or hears and reflects on the import of this sutra, are destroyed sand the auspicious karmas produce good results like a sovereign drug, when taken as per physician's prescription. -Destruction of sinful karmas and sowing the seed of dharmagunas (the anuvratas). 2. When a strong desire to adopt the anuvratas (partial renunciation of violence, etc.), meant for a sravaka (householder) rules one's heart, one should first reflect on their nature, their inherent goodness, their fruit accompanying one in one's next birth, their beneficence, their being the indirect cause of liberation, their being difficult to practise and also the dreadful consequences of violating them such as being subject to delusion, and other difficulties in the way of adopting them. One should, thereafter, adopt them in accordance with the prescribed rules and to the best of his abilities. These vows are : Partial renunciation or abstention from (i) injury to living beings (ii) telling lies (iii) theft (iv) sexuality and (v) possessing property. He should also adopt the three gunavratas : (i) dig-virati-limiting one's movements to a particular direction, east west, etc,; (ii) bhogopabhoga (or upabhogaparibhoga)parimana--setting a limit

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PANCASUTRA : A STUDY 133 as to articles of use, such as food, drink, clothing etc.; and (iii) anarthadandaviramana-refraining from all unvirtuous or unprofitable acts; and the four siksavratas: (i) Samayika-equanimity or inward peace obtained by desisting from all evil; (ii) desavakasika-limiting every day the distance to be traversed in that particular direction (to which one has limited one's movements under the vow of digvirati; (iii) Pausadhopavasa-observing fast on the 8th and the 14th day of each fortnight and on the full-moon day and the new-moon day (thus a Jain layman is asked to observe six fasts in a month.); and (iv) atithisamvibhaga-offering charities to guests (atithi) or to pious men of the Jain sect, such as monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen. After adopting these vows the sravaka should strive hard to practise them. He should always study and reflect on the doctrine of the Jinas. For the doctrine is the greatest antidote against the poison of delusion, water that extinguishes the fire of hatred (and other passions), medicine for the disease of karma and the wish-yielding tree which produces the fruit of liberation. He should avoid all evil things, contact with irreligious people, and all immoral habits acquired from the beginningless time. Compassionate to all beings, he should avoid whatever is disliked by men in general and is against the ways of the world. He should take to religious people who are his friends. He should observe the code of conduct prescribed for a householder, always and ever guarding the activities of his mind, body and speech. He should avoid all sinful activities. He should not even think of causing harm to others. He should make gifts, enjoy himself, keep retinue and make savings in proportion to his earnings. He should not torment his attendants but should be compassionate to them. He should develop, however, no sense of attachment to them. All the souls are separate from one another and the sense of ownership or mineness is the root cause of bondage. He should be circumspect in carrying out his duties as householder keeping all the while in mind his station in life, the family to which he belongs, the preceptor whose pupil he is, and the vows he has taken. He should think of his age and the duties that are proper for that age. He should reflect on the harsh realities of life : "The pleasures of the senses are worthless, transient and bitter or unpleasant in the end. Death is dreadful, all-destructive and strikes one at any time, and that it is irresistible, and that it leads to the cycle of birth and death again and again. The only remedy against Death is Dharma, which is all pure, practised by great personages, beneficial to one and all and the source of the highest happiness of liberation". --Reflecting on (the means of acquisition of) the sadhu-dharma (the stage of a monk)

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134 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 3. The sravaka who has deeply reflected on the stage of a monk, who is disgusted with samsara and who is intent on attaining liberation, should strive to enter the ascetic order without offending others, say, one's parents, Offending others (one's parents) is an obstacle in the way of entering the ascetic order. No good results from a wrong beginning. If the parents are not already enlightened, he should first try to enlighten them with the following arguments : "The life, which is successful both here and hereafter, is really praiseworthy. Karmas done in company yield the fruit in company. If we take to asceticism in comapany, we would not be separated from one another for many births to come. Otherwise, we would be separated from one another like the birds who frequent a tree and then fly away. Death is irresistible and inevitable. Human birth is as difficult to obtain as a gem fallen in an ocean. There are many other states of existence, no doubt, but they are full of sorrow clouded by delusion, end in misery and are not suited to the practice of Dharma. It is in human existence also that one can attain liberation. The state of liberation is fit to be attained as it is free from birth, old age, and death and as there is no separation from desired things nor union with undesired things; there is neither hunger nor thirst nor any other trouble or suffering. In that state the soul is totally, independent and free from the feelings of love, hatred, etc., and is full of peace and happiness and free from all kinds of trouble. Contrary to this state of liberation is the nature of samsara. It is unsteady, Even the so-called happy are unhappy; the existent is non-existent; and every thing is transient or unreal like a dream. Therefore one should not be attached to this samsara". If the parents refuse to be enlightened he should arrange for their maintenance. It is gratefulness indeed. Karuna (compassion) is the very mother (source) of the elevation (exaltation) of Dharma. He may, if need be, employ deceitful means to obtain the consent of his parents to enter the ascetic order. For, after all, following the Dharma, contributes to the welfare of all. If they refuse permission, he should desert them with a view to bringing the medicine of true belief (samyaktva) for them. They might, per chance, be saved. He should, however, give no offence to his parents--keeping in mind the glorious example of Lord Mahavira who did not enter the ascetic order during the life-time of his parents, who were very fond of him. He should, however, remember that any separation from the parents for a beneficial purpose or a good cause need not be understood as desertion, though it really is so. The cause however is more important when he sees the long-term benefit of his ascetic life.

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PANCASUTRA: A STUDY 135 Thus without causing pain to others he should first worship the Jinas, pay homage to the monks, give gifts to the needy, put on auspicious garments and at an auspicious hour enter the ascetic order in the presence of a good (spiritual) preceptor. He should scrupulously practise the rules of conduct prescribed for a monk and never violate them. -The Section on the Mode of accepting Ascetic Order 4. To a monk who seeks liberation, a clod of earth and gold are alike, a friend and a foe are the same. Such a monk becomes free from the sorrows resulting from attachment and enjoys happiness and peace of mind (resulting from non-attachment). He stays with his spiritual teacher. He is devoted to him, he is modest, knows the true nature of things and rightly believes that nothing else is more beneficial than a stay with his preceptor. He attentively studies the sacred texts and carefully observes various injunctions. He knows that if the religious injunctions studied by him are not observed, they are as good as not studied at all. The non-observance leads neither to liberation nor heaven; trangression leads, no doubt, to calamities but this transgression may be regarded as the remote means of liberation-as it forms the first step on its path. The monk observes the five samitis (carefulness in walking, speech, etc.) and the three guptis (restraint of body, mind and speech), together regarded as the eight mothers of the Doctrine. He knows that just as a child, deserting its mother perishes, even so a monk who repudiates these eight mothers, perishes. He knows very well that right conduct is like a safe island in this ocean of samsara : a lamp in the darkness of delusion. Without any delusion and any eagerness for attaining the fruit of liberation, he observes the rules of right conduct. Becoming purer and purer day by day he is released from sinful karmas. Thereafter with his mind all pure, he practises self-control and austerities and undistracted by troubles and suffering caused by hunger, thirst etc., and calmly facing the disturbances caused by celestial or supernatural beings, etc., he gets rid of karmas and experiences the joys of peace of the soul like a leper who has been restored to health through treatment. Knowing the mind of his preceptor, he acts up to it and thus honours him. 'One who accepts me from the bottom of one's heart also respects his preceptorthis is the teaching of the Lord. Any religious acts, performed without respect to his preceptor are really as good as not performed. Such acts, like the fasts, etc., observed by an unchaste woman, do not bring him the fruit of liberation but

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136 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE make him wander in this sarisara and therefore are condemned by the wise. Respect for one's preceptor is the surest means to attain liberation. The monk, who has the highest respect for his preceptor, never swerves from the right path to liberation. He comes to possess spiritual qualities and he excels even gods in respect of happiness. He swims against the current of this worldly life and as he observes thoroughly the duties of a monk he is called a yogin. In his next life such a monk is born in a good family, is endowed with a handsome form, etc., and all enjoyments are at his service; and at the end of that very life he shakes off all karmas and puts an end to all miseries and attains liberation. -Observance of Asceticism 5. The mumuksu strictly observing the rules of conduct for an ascetic, attains perfection, realises his true self. He is neither sound, nor colour,, nor odour, nor taste, nor touch (because of his siddha state he is absolutely free from these qualities of pudgala-matter). He exists eternally without a form-in a formless state. He is all bliss. This bliss of a siddha (a liberated soul) is absolute and independent of anything and everything else. He has absolutely no touch or contact even with space. It is the very nature of soul to rise upwards when completely freed from karmas and enjoy its innate and infinite (faith, knowledge, power and) bliss. This bliss cannot be compared with anything else. An idea of it, however, could be given by an illustration. The bliss or perfect happiness of a siddha, attained after conquering the internal enemies like attachment, hatred, etc. is infinitely greater than the happiness one gets when all of one's enemies are destroyed, diseases cured, the riches attained and the desires fulfilled. The perfect happiness of a siddha cannot be known to others just as the happiness of an ascetic cannot be known to a non-ascetic or as that of good health to a sick man. The soul, even if bound by karmas from the beginningless time, can be separated from them as gold from ore in accordance with the illustration of kancana and upala). The concepts of bondage and liberation are best--satisfactorily and logically-explained if they are related to the different states of the soul without bringing in the (Samkhya) concept of didrksa (desire to see). Again, karma is neither identical with the soul, nor is it imaginary; and liberation is not just the absence of worldly existence. It is not of the nature of the destruction of santana--like the blown out/extinguished flame of a lamp (as held by some followers of Buddha.) In brief, the perfect happiness enjoyed by a liberated soul is infinite. The

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PANCASUTRA : A STUDY 137 liberated souls--siddhas dwell at the top of the universe (lokakasa). Infinite liberated souls dwell in as much place as occupied by one siddha (liberated soul). The liberated soul, as soon as freed from the eightfold karmas rises upward to the top of the universe just as a gourd-fruit, with its eight layers of clay completely loosened rises to the surface from the river-bed. This doctrine of the Jinas is free of all defects and is appreciated by persons who do not attract karmas afresh and who follow the path of right conduct. Never should it be imparted to undeserving or unqualified persons. This instruction is issued with a view to favouring the undeserving or the unqualified in accordance with the illustration of Amakumbhodakanyasa (pouring water in an unbaked earthen jar). Just as water when poured in an unbaked jar destroys that jar even so the imparting of secret doctrine ruins the undeserving or unqualified. Not imparting it to them is, indeed, karuna (compassion) shown to them. -The Fruit of Asceticism (iii) The meaning of the word sutra A sutra is defined as स्वल्पाक्षरमसंदिग्धं सारवद्विश्वतोमुखम् / अस्तोभमनवद्यं च सूत्रं सूत्रविदो विदुः // "A statement in few words, free from doubt, conveying an inportant sense, having a universal application, free from padding and free from any error (grammatical or logical)". It is a short, concise aphorism used as an aid to memory. It contains only the most essential words-words which are absolutely necessary for conveying the intended sense. In course of time the word sutra was applied to a work containing such short, pithy aphorisms--a work treating of a particular subject in its entirety by means of such aphoristic mnemonic rules. In this sense the word is applied to scientific works as the Astadhyayi of Panini and the works dealing with the various philosophical systems. But the word sutrais also used in a rather loose and inexact sense. viz., that of "a short sentence" without any concern for word economy. It is in this sense that the word sutra is used in connection with the Pratisakhyas, Srauta-sutras (sutra works based on the sruti or the Vedas). Grhyasutras (sutra works containing directions for domestic rites and ceremonies) and Dharmasutras (sutra works dealing with sacred and secular law). In connection with the sacred texts of the Jains and the Bauddhas, however, the word sutra is used in the sense of simply a canonical work. "These Stud.-18

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138 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE works are sometimes found to be written in ordinary prose or sometimes in verse and nowhere does one suspect the slightest attempt made to secure brevity and conciseness of expression. They are usually written, especially in their prose parts, in a characteristically prolix and verbose style, full of tiresome repetition and aggregation of synonymous words in one and the same place and to express the selfsame idea." In view of their style they cannot lay claim to the title sutra. J. Charpentier in his introduction to his edition of the Uttaradhyayana-sutra (p 32) observes : "They (the Jains) doubtless adopted this name for their sacred writings more as a sort of formal counterpoise or set-off against Brahmanism, than, with a view to imitating the style and modes of expression of the Brahmanical sutra literature." The learned editors of Nandisuttam and Anuogaddaraim (Jaina-AgamaSeries No. 1) however, defend the use of the title sutra in connection with their sacred texts thus : ...."However, the Jainas have used the term sutra for their Agamas not because they are composed in the sutra style but because their aim has been the same as that of the Vedic sutra. The aim of the Vedic sutra literature has been to comprehend, in a nutshell, all the teachings pertaining to Vedic conduct. Similarly, the main object of the Agamas has been to comprehend, in a summary fashion, all the teachings of Lord Mahavira....When the varied gems or flowers are strung together they remain preserved, do not get scattered and are not lost. Similarly when the teachings regarding conduct are written down and given the form of a book they remain preserved for a long time. So, all these works deserve the term sutra. In this context the meaning of the term sutra is : "sutranat sutram' (i.e., those works that put the various ideas together are called sutras)....Again, the Jainas maintain that the meanings of one single sentence, grasped by different hearers, are innumerable in accordance with their innumerable capacities. As a sentence of the Agama has the power to suggest in various ways innumerable meanings, that sentence or a collection of those sentences could legitimately be termed sutra. In other words, the Jaina Agama is called sutra because it has the power to convey--to suggest various meanings. In this context the meaning of the term sutra is : 'sucanat-sutram (i.e., that which suggests various meanings is sutra)." (iv) The Title of the Text Pancasutraka The text in question is popularly known as Pancasutra? (the Sanskrit equivalent of Pamcasuttam. As pointed out by the Editor, two of the palm-leaf MSS (K and K1) refer to the title of this text as Pancasutra. The list of names of works, prepared in the 14th or 15th century (VS), and known by the name

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PANCASUTRA : A STUDY 139 Brhattippanika also knows this work by the name Pancasutra'. The two paper MSS (C and D) however, read the title as Pancasutraka. Acarya Haribhadra too refers to the work as Pancasutraka'. The Vrtti (commentary) on Acarya Haribhadra's Yogabindu although not svopajna is quite ancient. It also refers to this work as Pancasutraka 10. Upadhyaya Sri Yasovijayaji (17th century A.D.) in his Svopajna-Vrtti (commentary) on Dharmapariksa quotes a passage from this work with the introductory remark 'Pancasutryam apyuktam.'11 It is obvious that he knew this work by the name Pancasutri. It would thus seem that the present work had been known by three different names : (1) Pancasutra, (2) Pancasutraka!?, and (3) Pancasutril3. Acarya Haribhadra would like us to explain the title as follows : पापप्रतिघात-गुणबीजाधानसूत्रादीनि पञ्चसूत्राणि यस्मिन् प्रकरणे तत् पञ्चसूत्रम् / पञ्चसूत्रमेव पञ्चसूत्रकं Wouny 114 (v) The Structure of Pancasutraka The Pancasutraka is a short treatise of the spiritual guidance of Jain mumuksus. It is one whole work containing five sections closely knit together. Each and every section bears an apt title and each preceding section logically leads to the succeeding sections. These five sections form as it were a ladder leading to siddhi or moksa (liberation). The first section treats of the nature of samsara which abounds in misery and in which the soul, chained by karmas has been wandering since times immemorial. The soul can put an end to this samsara by practising the true dharma consisting of right faith, knowledge and conduct. One can attain this dharma by destroying one's sinful karmas; and these sinful karmas can be destroyed by cultivating tatha-bhavyatva (one's capacity for attaining liberation). This capacity can be achieved by three means : (i) Catuh saranagamana (seeking shelter in (1) the arhats, (2) the siddhas and (3) the sadhus and (4) the dharma preached by arhats). (ii) Duskstagarha (censuring one's misdeeds). (iii) Sukstasevana (praising or approving of good deeds of others). The section is therefore called : Papapratighatadharmagunabijadhanasutra : "The section dealing with the destruction of sinful deeds and the sowing of the seeds of religious vows (like Abstention from injury to living beings)." The second section then describes the five sthula (or anu)-vratas and recommends the mumuksu to adopt them, reflect on them, and put them into practice. In due course he cultivates an attitude of mind that is favourable to adopt diksa (initiation). This section is called, Sadhudharma-paribhavana

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140 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE sutra : "The section dealing with Reflection on the duties of a monk'. After reflecting on the duties of a monk the novice becomes totally disgusted with samsara. He should then obtain consent of his parents to enter the ascetic order; if he fails in his efforts to obtain their consent, he should make arrangements for their livelihood and leave them with the express aim of securing the antidote called dharma for disabusing the minds of his parents of moha (delusion) and cheerfully adopt the ascetic order at the hands of a worthy guru. The section is aptly called: Pravrajya-grahana-vidhi : "The mode of adopting the ascetic order." The next section deals with the strict observance of the duties of a monk including reverential attitude towards his spiritual guide and preceptor while receiving instruction and advice from him and his actual study of the scripture. The section is appropriately called Pravrajya-paripalana-sutra : "The section dealing with the observance of monastic life." The concluding section treats of the fruit of asceticism, viz., siddhi or moska (liberation) By his rigorous monastic life and strict observance of tapas (austerities) and samyama (self-restraint) he completely annihilates his former karmas and his soul flies upward to the top of the universe and permanently dwells there in peace enjoying eternal happiness or bliss. In accordance with the contents the section is rightly called : pravrajyaphalasutra : "The section dealing with the fruit of asceticism." This brief analysis of the contents would show how the author has carefully planned and arranged the different sections to constitute one wellorganised whole-one single work. (vi) The Style of Pancasutrakam The work is religio-philosophical in its nature. It would be therefore unfair to judge it as a literary work. Even then when we go through the text we are struck by some of the noteworthy features of its style. The whole work is written in Ardhamagadhi prose. Here and there the style is reminiscent of the style of the Jaina canonical prose. But on the whole it is refreshingly free from the glaring peculiarities that characterise the canonical prose. It is written in a didactic tone, no doubt, but not 'in a dry-as-dust, matter of fact, didactic tone. '16 The prose passages are not 'extremely prosaic'. They are not positively dry and uninteresting, and their style is not 'verbose. laboured and artificial.'17 A. N. Upadhye observes : "The whole work is written in Ardhamagadhi prose...Generally the text is easy but it becomes diffcult in the last two chapters where narration is intermixed with logical discussions."18 And about the treatment of the subjectmatter he says : "The treatment of subjectmatter in this work is a queer admixture of personal exclamations, appeals to the authority,

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PANCASUTRA : A STUDY 141 moral injunctions, aphoristic maxims, homely illustrations and their application, cryptic statements and arguments, and of short descriptions."19 As we read through this text we are struck by some literary excellences that lend a sort of beauty to this semi-religious and semi-philosophical treastise. In order to elucidate the various points pertaining to religion and philosophy the author makes effective use of some figures of speech and examples or illustrations. He is capable of epigrammatic brevity and writes brief, pointed, simple yet effective prose. We cite here below a few passages to illustrate our general observations regarding his style ; एवं सुहुममेयं, न तत्तओ इयरेण गम्मइ, जइसुहमिवाजइणा, आरुग्गसुहं व रोगिण त्ति विभासा / Here we have two apt similes to illustrate the point that none else than a liberated soul can truly realise the nature of the bliss of moksa just as one who is not a monk cannot realise the happiness of a monk or a person afflicted with disease cannot realise the happiness of good health. In the following passage we have an apt malopama : ___ सेवेज्ज धम्ममित्ते विहाणेणं, अंधो विय अणुकड्डगे, वाहिओ विव वेज्जे, दरिदो विय ईसरे, भीओ विय HENRI A sravaka should follow his dharma-mitras (senior colleagues) just as a blind man follows his 'leader', a sick person his physician, a poor man his master and a person placed in danger a great general. Here is an appropriate simile : ....farfen 3ffret cashrifin.../ The religious duties, performed by a monk, who does not respect his guru (spiritual teacher), are as good as not performed like the austerities etc. of an unchaste woman--which prove totally barren. Here we have a mala-rupaka : आणा हि मोहविसपरममंतो, जलं दोसाइजलणस्स, कम्मवाहिचिगिच्छासत्थं, कप्पपायवो सिवफलस्स / The Jaina agama is the supreme spell or incantation to quell the poison of delusion, the veritable water to put out the fire of hatred and the like, the science of medical treatment to cure the disease of karma, the wish-yielding tree that bears the fruit of moksa. Here we have another mala-rupaka : ...मोहतिमिरदीवे, रागामयवेज्जे, दोसाणल-जलनिही संवेगसिद्धिकरे हवइ अचिंतचिंतामणिकप्पे / The monk who practises asceticism sincerely is a veritable lamp that dispels the darkness of delusion, a physician who cures the disease of attachment, an ocean to extinguish the fire of hatred,...

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142 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Here we have a virodha (paradox) : एस चाए अचाए / अचाए चेव चाए / This desertion is indeed no desertion (as he deserts them--his parents-- with a view to securing their welfare). Not deserting them (the parents) would amount to desertion (as it would jeopardize their well-being). Here we have striking subhasitas : सव्वे जीवा पुढो पुढो ममत्तं बंधकारणं / All beings have their own individuality-Each being is different from all others. Self-interest (sense of mine) is the cause of bondage (to the cycle of birth and death). करुणा य धम्मप्पहाणजणणी जणम्मि / Karuna (Compassion) is the cause of the rise or prosperity of dharma. धम्माराहणं खु हियं सव्वसत्ताणं / Practising of the dharma contributes to the good of all beings. The author has introduced about a dozen jnatas or nyayas (nayas)examples or illustrations to elucidate the various points under discussion. A few of them may be noted here : एगरुक्खनिवासिसउणतुल्लं The perching of birds on one tree for the night and flying away the next morning--this illustration is introduced to explain the fact that union of beings ends in separation. अट्ठाणगिलाणोसहत्त्थचागनाय The example of deserting (one's parents) who have taken ill in an outof the way place in a forest with the intention of bringing medicine for them. The son who has intense desire to receive the diksa but whose parents try to dissuade him, deserts them for bringing the medicine of dharma for their benefit. आमकुंभोदगनासनाय The example of water, poured in a raw pot, destroying the pot itself. This illustration is cited to explain that the knowledge of Jain agama is not to be imparted to the unfit-unqualified as it would lead to their ruin. The author when he means can write brief, effective, forceful prose. We may cite here a passage or two by way of illustration :

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PANCASUTRA : A STUDY 143 ...न चिंतेज्ज परपीडं / न भावेज्ज दीणयं / न गच्छेज्ज हरिसं ....एवं न भासेज्ज अलियं, न फरुसं, न पेसुन्नं, नाणिबद्धं / हियमियभासगे सिया / एवं न हिंसेज्ज भूयाणि / न गिण्हेज्ज अदत्तं न निरिक्खेज्ज परदारं / ... "He should not think of causing pain to others. He should not feel dejected. He should not feel elated...Similarly, he should not speak a lie, nor harsh words, nor indulge in slander or backbiting nor speak incoherently. He should speak friendly or salutary words and measured words. Similarly he should not cause injury to living beings. He should not take what is not given. He should not look at another's wife'. ___ तहा जागरिज्ज धम्मजागरियाएको मम कालो किमेयस्स उचियं, असारा विसया नियमगामिणो विरसावसाणा / भीसणो मच्चू सव्वाभावकारी, अविनायागमणो, अणिवारणिज्जो,...धम्मो एयस्स ओसहं... परमाणंदहेऊ। "He should keep vigilant in the matters of dharma; what is now my age ? Is it proper at this age to adopt dharma ? Objects of senses are worthless; they are evanescent; they end in misery. Terrible Death destroys everything. He comes near you-approches you-stealthily. He is irresistible...Dharma is its antidote...is the source of supreme bliss'. In conclusion, the author presents the dignified subjectmatter of Pancasutraka in equally dignified style. (vii) The place of Pancasutraka in the post-canonical religious works of the Jains and the Jain community : This ancient treatise "has occupied a position of high esteem among the post-agama works on Jain religion."20 It has been regarded by tradition as a priceless jewel among the religious works of the Jains. The work is no doubt, small in extent, yet it succeeds in describing effectively the preliminary stage of sravaka-dharma that prepares for the intensified stage of sadhu-dharma which in its own way leads to the Mumuksu's cherished goal of moksa. The sravakas, sravikas, the sadhus and the sadhvis, especially belonging to the Svetambara sect, daily recite, if not all the five sutras, at least the first sutra. This sutra declares that "when it is properly recited, heard, and meditated upon, the inauspicious karmas are...destroyed and...auspicious karmas are attracted...begin to yield results and in due course lead to moksa". With this promise and hope held out, the Jains recite, hear and meditate upon this sutra. As pointed out by Muni Sri Jambuvijayaji the later works and commentaries of reputed Jain authors and commentators show an unmistakable influence of Pancasutraka. Thus Haribhadrasuri's Dharmabindu

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144 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE and Muni Candrasuri's Vrtti on it adopt some portions from Pancasutraka and its commentary. Acarya Hemacandra cites a passage21 from this work in his svopajna commentary on Yogasastra. Further, in his famous Vitaragastotra22 he beautifully summarises the first sutra. The noted commentator Malayagiri makes use of the introductory portion of the Pancasutraka-Vyakhya in his own commentary on Dharma-Samgrahani23. These references lead us to conclude that our text was current and popular in the eleventh and the twelfth centuries of the Vikrama era. Much later in the seventeenth century we find Upadhyaya Yasovijaya making liberal use of our text in his Dharmapariksasvopajnavstti24. The daily recitation of this Pancasutraka and its influence on later celebrated Jain authors and commentators speak volumes of its exalted place in post-canonical Jain works on religion and the Jain community. (viii) Acarya Haribhadra25, the commentator of Pancasutraka : In the 8th century (700-770 A.D.) there lived one of the most distinguished and prolific writers of the Jains, Acarya Haribhadra. He was born as the son of a Brahmana in Rajasthan and was well-versed in different branches of Vedic learning. After receiving the Jain-Diksa he mastered Prakrit languages and literature including Jain agama works. He thus combined in himself the Vedic and the Jain traditions and attained mastery over both Sanskrit and Prakrit. He wrote commentaries on agama-sutras as well as agama-bahya sutras (including the present treatise), Prakarana works and comprehensive philosophical texts, works dealing with yoga, kathas and stuti. He is said to have composed 1400 Prakaranas (systematic, sastriya treatises) ! This number is staggering, no doubt, but his extant works bear ample testimony to his versatile genius and encyclopaedic scholarship. "Haribhadra wrote both in Sanskrit and Prakrit. He was an eminent composer in verse and in prose, and also wrote systematic scientific treatises (Prakaranas) and comprehensive philosophical works. Probably, he was also the first to write commentaries to the Canon in Sanskrit... While utilising the ancient Prakrit commentaries he retained the narratives (Kathanakas) in their original Prakrit form."26 Compared to his predecessors and successors Acarya Haribhadra leaves a deep impression on our mind of his two remarkable qualities : his nonsectarian approach and attitude, and courteous and respectful attitude towards his adversaries. His fair and impartial attitude is very well reflected in his famous statement :

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PANCASUTRA : A STUDY 145 पक्षपातो न मे वीरे न द्वेषः कपिलादिषु / युक्तिमद्वचनं यस्य तस्य कार्यः परिग्रहः // Acarya Haribhadra's meeting with the Jaina sadhvi mahattara Yakini marked the turning point in his life and led to his entering the ascetic order. Out of a sense of gratefulness he thenceforth called himself the spiritual son of the great nun Yakini. It may be noted that got another name for himself, "bhavaviraha", out of his zest for moksa. (ix) Acarya Haribhadra's Pancasutraka-Vyakhya There are various kinds of expositions in Sanskrit and Prakrit literatures. Vyakhya, Vrtti, Paddhati, Varttika, Vivarana, Bhasya, Panjika, Nijjutti (SK niryukti), Curni, Avacuri, Samiksa are well known types of exposition, each and every one of them having characteristic features of its own. In his Kavyamimamsa Rajasekhara defines some of these kinds of exposition. The term 'Vyakhya' is thus defined : "अर्थस्य अप्रतीयमानस्य पर्यायाभिधानेन विभज्य प्रतिपादनं व्याख्या, शब्दस्यापि व्युत्पादनं व्याख्या / एवमेते द्वे व्याख्ये (तयोरर्थपरिज्ञानमेकस्याः कार्यम्, शब्दपरिज्ञानमेकस्याः / )"27 The religio-philosophical nature and antiquity of this short but important Pancasutraka attracted a scholar of Acarya Haribhadra's eminence and inspired him to write a commentary on it. He has not only put his finger on the stiff points and pointed out their exact meaning "which the ancient unknown author "seems to have intended but at places he has beautifully preserved the traditional explanations which obtained at his time. The commentary is small in compass but rich in meaning, and its style is lucid and graceful. In support of his explanations he cites passages from earlier works of Jaina agama and postagama Jaina works and from poetic works as well. Thus we have citations from Dasavaikalikasutra, Brhatsamgrahani, Nisithabhasya, Avasyakaniryukti, Visesavasyakabhasya, Avasyakasutra, Sravakaprajnapti, Bhagavatisutra, Oghaniryukti, Tattvartha, Prasamarati, and Asvaghosa's Saundarananda and Buddhacarita and from his own other works like Lokatattvanirnaya, Yogadrstisamuccaya and Yogabindu, Pancasaka, and Lalitavistara. There are quite a few citations which remain to be traced to their sources. These numerous citations attest to Acarya Haribhadra's wide reading and ability to use them on appropriate occasions. Acarya Haribhadra's Vyakhya, though learned, is not more erudite and diffcult than the text, but explains the text clearly and unambiguously. Stud.-19

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146 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Notes and References : 1. Vide this edition p. 79, f. n. 2, p. 81 f.n. 1. 2. Vide this edition p. 79, f. n. 2. 3. Introduction to Prof. Shah's edition p. 9. 4. Introduction to this edition; see the footnote to the discussion in Gujarati) about Author. 5. Introduction to this edition; see the discussion (in Gujarati) about Author. 6. M. Winternitz: A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, p. 475. The Tattvarthasutra, however, enumerates the three gunavratas and four Siksavratas somewhat differently; The three gunavratas are : (1) Digvirati, (2) Desavirati and (3) Anarthadandavirati; and the four Siksavratas are: (1) Samayika (2) Posadhopavasa (3) Upabhogaparibhoga-parimana and (4) Atithisamvibhaga. Inspite of this difference in the order of enumeration of these seven vratas, the fact remains that the nature of each and everyone of these seven vratas is the same according to the Jaina agama tradition described in the main body above and the Tattvartha tradition noticed in this footnote. * Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya edn., Bombay, 1968, pp. 12-13. 7. The printed edition, published by Sri Jaina Atmanand Sabha Bhavnagar, 1914 bears the title : चिरन्तनाचार्यकृतं पञ्चसूत्रम् The two editions of this text, prescribed for the B.A. Examinations of the University of Bombay for 1933 and 1934, are entitled Pancasuttam : (1) Ed. with Introduction and Notes by Prof. A.N. Upadhye and pub. by Dr. P. L. Vaidya, 12 Connaught Road, Poona No. 1, 1932 (2) Ed. with Sanskrit rendering, introduction, Notes and Translation in English by Prof. V. M. Shah and pub. by Gurjar Grantharatna Karyalaya, Gandhi Road, Ahmedabad, 1934, The edn. by Muniraj Rajasekharavijayaji, with translation in Gujarati and pub. by Bharatiya Pracya-tattva Prakasana Samiti, Pindawada (Rajasthan) bears the title Sri Pancasutra. 8. Vide,-(entry No. 75) 9. Vide the present edn., p.1, line 3, p. 24, 1. 19, p. 33, 1. 17, p. 44, 1. 16, p. 65, 1. 16, p. 80. 1. 18, p. 81, 1. 3 10. Vide the extract from the commentary on Yogabindu v. 179, cited in Pancaman Parisistam, p. 112 of the present edn. 11. Vide the extract cited in f. n. 3. on p. 18 of the present edn. 12. Cf. the titles Pancatantra and Pancatantraka. 13. Cf. the titles Astadhyayi, Caruhsutri, Dvadasadhyayi, etc. 14. Acarya Haribhadra, at the beginning of his commentary says: किमिदं पञ्चसूत्रकं नाम ? उच्यते-पापप्रतिघातगुणबीजाधानसूत्रादीनि, पञ्च सूत्राण्येव / प्रव्रज्याविधानादीनि पञ्च वस्तूनि यस्मिन् प्रकरणे तत् पञ्चवस्तु, पञ्चवस्त्वेव पञ्चवस्तुकं ग्रंथे यथाक्रमम...कीर्तयिष्यामि / -पञ्चवस्तुकप्रथमगाथास्वोपज्ञवृत्तौ 15. The commentator very well demonstrates how the five sections are closely interlinked

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PANCASUTRA : A STUDY 147 when he observes at the commencement of his Vyakhya : ...न हि प्रायः पापप्रतिघातेन गुणबीजाधानं विना तत्त्वतस्तच्छ्रद्धाभावप्ररोहः, न चासत्यस्मिन् साधुधर्मपरिभावना, न चापरिभावितसाधुधर्मस्य प्रव्रज्याग्रहणविधावधिकारः, न चाप्रतिपन्नस्तां तत्परिपालनाय यतते, न चापालने एतत्फलमाप्नोतीति प्रवचनसार एष सज्ज्ञानक्रियायोगात् / -p. 2.lines 2-5 Professor K. V. Abhyankar, in his Foreword to the edition of Pancasuttam by Prof V. M. Shah, pub. by Gurjar Grantharantna Karyalaya, Gandhi Road, Ahmedabad, 1934, observes thus : ... is a small elegant treatise... The book has occupied a position of high esteem among the post-Agama works on Jaina Religion. In the small treatise the author has given a cogent and logical presentation of the spiritual uplift of the pious individual in five chapters which mark the five successive steps of his spiritual progress. The presentation is fully logical although a little bit unmethodical and the expression is chaste and adequate although a little bit archaic at places. It is the semireligious character and antiquity of the book that attracted a great scholar like Haribhadrasuri to the book and inspired him to write a gloss on it." (Italics ours) 16. A History of Indian Literature, Vol II, University of Calcutta edition, 1933, p. 426. 17. The Dasavaikalikasutra : A Study by Prof M. V. Patwardhan, Willingdon College, Sangli, 1933. 18. The Pancasutram of an unknown ancient writer, edited with Introduction and Notes by A. N. Upadhye and pub. by Dr. P. L. Vaidya, 72, Connaught Road, Poona No.1, Introduction, p. 10. 19. Ibid, Introduction, p. 4. 20. Professor K. V. Abhyankar in his Foreword to Prof. V. M. Shah's edition. 21. feugru..ufacfifeet ferment --P. 29, 11, 16-17 22. Falandi gaand The Hand ECHTG471 नाथ त्वच्चरणौ यामि शरणं शरणोज्झितः / / Prakasa 17.1 and other verses, vide Appendix V. p, 111 (this edn.) 23. Vide this edn. f. n. Appendix V. p. 109 24. Vide this edn. p. 13, f. n. 4, p. 18 f. n. 3. 25. (i) M.Winternitz: A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, University of Calcutta edn. 1933, pp. 479, f. 485, 488, 507, 511, 519f, 522f, 526, 561 and 583f. (ii) Introduction to Samaraiccakaha ed by Dr. H. Jacobi and pub. by Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. (iii) Samadarsi Acarya Haribhadra (in Gujarati) by Pandit Sukhlal Sanghavi, pub. by Bombay University 1961. 26. A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, pp. 480-481. 27. Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1934 edn., p. 5. OOO

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THE SOURCE OF PRAKRIT LANGUAGES The Indian grammarians of Prakrit Languages regard Sanskrit as their prakrti--their basis or origin or source. I quote here a few passages from their works bearing on this subject : (i) प्रकृतिः संस्कृतं तत्र भवं प्राकृतमुच्यते / --प्राकृतसर्वस्व (ii) प्रकृतिः संस्कृतं तत्र भवं तत आगतं वा प्राकृतम् --सिद्धहैम व्याकरण (iii) प्रकृतिः संस्कृतं तत्रभवत्वात् प्राकृतं स्मृतम् / —प्राकृतचन्द्रिका (iv) प्रकृतेः संस्कृतायास्तु विकृतिः प्राकृता मता / —षड्भाषाचन्द्रिका (v) प्राकृतस्य तु सर्वमेव संस्कृतं योनिः / —प्राकृतसञ्जीवनी The explanation of the word Prakrti as Sanskrit, however, is not accepted by some scholars. They would like us to understand the word in the sense of the basis for a comparative study of these languages. They also point out that no Sanskrit lexicon records this "Sanskrit" meaning of the word : prakrti and that at least in the context of the Desya words this "Sanskrit" meaning does not fit in. They derive the word as follows : (1) प्रकृत्या स्वभावेन सिद्धं प्राकृतम् / -- "Self-existent." or (2) प्रकृतीनां साधारणजनानामिदं प्राकृतम् / "What belongs to the masses, the common people." This derivation finds strong support in the writings of some reputed scholars and poets : For ready reference I quote here these passages : प्राकृतसंस्कृतमागधपिशाचभाषाश्च शूरसेनी च / षष्ठोऽत्र भूरिभेदो देशविशेषादपभ्रंशः // ' - On this karika the comments of Namisadhu run as follows

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THE SOURCE OF PRAKRIT LANGUAGES 149 प्राकृत इति / सकलजगज्जन्तूनां व्याकरणादिभिरनाहितसंस्कारः सहजो वचनव्यापारः प्रकृतिः / तत्र भवं सैव वा प्राकृतम् / "आरिसवयणे सिद्धं देवाण अद्धमागहा वाणी" इत्यादिवचनाद्वा प्राक्पूर्वं कृतं प्राकृतं बालमहिलादिसुबोधं सकलभाषानिबन्धनभूतं वचनमुच्यते / मेघनिर्मुक्तजलमिवैकस्वरूपं तदेव च देशविशेषात् संस्कारकरणाच्च समासादितविशेषं सत् संस्कृताधुत्तरविभेदानाप्नोति / अत एव शास्त्रकृता प्राकृतमादौ निर्दिष्टं तदनु संस्कृतादीनि / पाणिन्यादिव्याकरणोदितशब्दलक्षणेन संस्करणात् संस्कृतमुच्यते / तथा प्राकृतभाषैव किञ्चिद्विशेषलक्षणान्मागधिका भण्यते / -Niranayasagar press edition, Bombay, 1909, p. 13. Vakpatiraja, in his poem, called "Gaudavaho", observes : सअलाओ इमं वाआ विसंति एत्तो य ऐति वाआओ। एंति समुदं च्चिअ णेति साअराओ च्चिअ जलाइं // (सकला इदं वाचो विशन्ति इतश्च निर्यन्ति वाचः / आयन्ति समुद्रमेव निर्यन्ति सागरादेव जलानि // ) In his play "Balaramayana" Rajasekhara writes : यद् योनिः किल संस्कृतस्य सुदृशां जिह्वासु यन्मोदते यत्र श्रोत्रपथावतारिणि, कटुर्भाषाक्षराणां रसः / गद्यं चूर्णपदं पदं रतिपतेस्तत्प्राकृतं यद् वच स्मॉल्लाटॉल्ललिताङ्गि पश्य नुदती दृष्टेनिमेषव्रतम् // Hemacandra, in his Kavyanusasana, writes thus : अकृत्रिमस्वादुपदां परमार्थाभिधायिनीम् / सर्वभाषापरिणतां जैनी वाचमुपास्महे / / and in the course of his Vrtti he says : ... अथवा अकृत्रिमाण्यसंस्कृतान्यत एव स्वादूनि मन्दधियामपि पेशलानि पदानि यस्यामिति विग्रहः / ....तथा सर्वेषां सुरनरतिरश्चां विचित्रासु भाषासु परिणतां तन्मयतां गतां सर्वभाषापरिणताम् / एकरूपापि हि भगवतोऽ र्धमागधीभाषा वारिदविमुक्तवारिवदाश्रयानुरूपतया परिणमति / यदाह- देवा दैवीं नरा नारी शबराश्च शाबरीम् / तिर्यञ्चोऽपि हि तैरश्ची मेनिरे भगवद्गिरम् // Mahavira Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1964 edn. pp 1-2. In short, according to the view of these writers, the Prakrit language is the root-language and that Sanskrit and other languages are derived from it. Now it needs to be seen whether this view stands a close scientific scrutiny : Modern grammarians and philologists firmly hold that the Prakrits form a connecting link between the Sanskrit language-both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit including the Epic idiom (OIA) and the Modern Indian languages (NIA) like Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Bengali etc. They concede the close connection

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150 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE and dependence of Prakrit on Sanskrit but remark "This, however, need not mean that the source (Prakrti) of these languages is Sanskrit." If the Prakrits, as described by the grammarians, are not descended from Sanskrit, wherefrom are they descended ? Have they descended from "primary parent Prakrits" that were earlier than Sanskrit or contemporaneous with Sanskrit, both being vernaculars of those days ? If we examine the vocabulary of the Prakrit language Maharastri from a comparative point of view we find that the tatsama(words identical in form with their Sanskrit equivalents) and the tadbhava (words arising from Sanskrit after undergoing some phonetic modifications) words nearly exhaust the Prakrit vocabulary. Only a few of them are of a different origin and are called Desi words. The origin of the Desi words is a problem. Some of them are obscure Sanskrit words changed beyond recognition, a few may have been borrowed from the Dravidian languages, and a few may have been Indo-Aryan words not retained in their refined form in Sanskrit. This fact of vocabulary, which is nearly identical, coupled with facts of grammar Prakrit grammar only tends to simplify and reduce the number of forms, tenses etc. would lead us to conclude that the Prakrits are derived from Sanskrit. This conclusion is supported by historical evidence too. R. G. Bhandarkar rightly observes that sometimes accidents in the history of a race, such as its coming in contact or being incorporated with another race, serve to transform its language within a short time. "It would seem that when the Aryas moved from abroad with their Bhasa into India and came in contact with native races and these races were closely incorporated into Aryan fold, these native races left their own tongue and learnt that of the more civilized Aryas and in learning it they corrupted it or developed it into Pali and the various Prakrits. They were, however, unable to get over certain peculiarities of their own language such as the short T and 311, the change of dentals to cerebrals and a few words of their language (which came to be known, later on, as Desi) for whom they had especial partiality and they introduced their usage in this newly acquired language." The minute directions about the use of certain Prakrit dialects in the case of certain persons laid down by Bharata in his Natyasastra were motivated to represent in the drama a state of things actually existing in the country. We could safely infer that a few centuries before and after Bharata composed his Natyasastra, the Prakrits were spoken languages along with the Sanskrit language with this difference that the Sanskrit was the vernacular of the higher

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THE SOURCE OF PRAKRIT LANGUAGES 151 or cultured class of the consolidated community whereas Prakrits were the vernaculars of the lower or uneducated classes of the community. The Sanskrit and the Prakrit languages thus existed side by side for some centuries and bore the same relation which we notice between high Marathi of the educated and cultured people of Poona and Bombay and the low Marathi of the lower or uneducated classes in these cities. In conclusion, it may be stated that the Prakrits, described by the grammarians, form the group of Middle Indian Languages. They are developed through corruption and many grammatical phenomena from Sanskrit by the then native races of India, who were closely incorporated into the fold of Aryas who had migrated to India with their own Bhasa and that some centuries prior to Bharata's Natyasastra and some centuries after it, these Prakrits were the vernaculars of the lower or uneducated classes who had given up their original tongue, and thus the view of some scholars that Prakrit was the earlier and ancient language and Sanskrit represents its refined form cannot be maintained. Notes and References : 1. Rudrata's Kavyalamkara II. 12, pub. Nirnaya Sagar Press, Mumbai, 1909 edn. 2. Ibid, p. 13. 3. Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja ed. N. G. Suru, pub. Prakrit Text Society, Ahmedabad-9, 1975, Gatha No. 93. 4. Kavyanusasana of Acarya Hemacandra, ed. by R. C. Parikh and V. M. Kulkarni, pub. Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Bombay, 1964, pp. 1-2. Ona

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THE STORY OF KING VASU IN JAIN LITERATURE The story of king Vasu is narrated, with some variations in details in early Jain works like Paumacariya (Sk. Padmacarita) of Vimalasuri (c. 4th century A. D.), Vasudevahindi (The Wanderings or adventures of Vasudeva) a magnificent Prakrit prose romance earlier than the seventh century, according to some scholars still much earlier, earlier even than the Paumacariya) of Sanghadasagani, Padmapurana of Ravisena (678 A. D.), Harivamsapurana of Jinasena I (783 A. D.), etc. All these works are far removed in time from the great national epic, Mahabharata in which this story of Uparicara Vasu occurs for the first time. "Vasu was a great king of the Satyayuga. He was also known as Uparicara. He was a disciple of Brhaspati and an ardent devotee of Narayana (Visnu). He used to worship the deity according to the tenets of the Satvata or Pancaratra darsana. An asvamedha performed by him was remarkable for the fact that no animals were killed in the sacrifice, the oblations being made with the produce of the forest. Once while travelling through the sky, he was asked to act as judge or umpire in a debate between the gods and sages. It was about the interpretation of the word aja in the Vedic statement that sacrifices should be performed with ajas. The gods maintained that word aja meant 'goats' while the sages held that it meant 'grains of corn'. Having first ascertained what opinion was entertained by each party, Vasu, moved by partiality for the gods, gave the decision in their favour, whereupon the sages cursed and condemned him to fall down from heaven and sink below the surface of the earth. The gods went to his hole and said that he should have the vasordhara 'the stream of Vasu' for his sustenance--as long as he remained there--the stream of Vasu, clarified butter poured for him by the priests as an oblation in sacrifices. Advised by gods Vasu continued to worship Visnu even in the nether regions. Through Visnu's favour Vasu regained his freedom and ascended to Brahmaloka". (Santiparva chs 335 ff). The story of Vasu is also referred to in the Anusasanaparva (6.34), where it is stated that he went to hell for speaking even a single falsehood.

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THE STORY OF KING VASU IN JAIN LITERATURE 153 Now, Vimalasuri relates the story of the king Vasu in the context of the origin of (Vedic) sacrifice. Ajita was the king of Ayodhya and Vasukumara was his son. Ksirakadamba was the priest (of the king). His wife's name was Svastimati and their son's name was Parvataka. This Parvataka and Narada, a young Brahmana (and prince Vasu) were the disciples of Ksirakadamba. One day he was expounding the teachings of the Aranyaka scriptures to his disciples when a kind-hearted monk, flying in the sky, out of compassion said "One of these four would go to hell." The priest heard this remark and felt frightened. He dismissed his disciples. Parvataka went home but the priest didn't. His wife felt very anxious. Next day Parvataka went out in his search; and he found him turned a monk. Svastimats was deeply grieved to hear this. Then Narada learning about the pathetic condition of Svastimati went to her and consoled her. At that time king Ajita (Jitari) placing Prince Vasu on his throne, himself turned a monk. Vasu's was a divine crystal throne. Once there arose a dispute between Parvataka and Narada regarding the interpretation of the word 'aja' in the text 'ajesu janno kayavvo'. Sacrifices should be made with ajas. Parvataka interpreted the word to mean 'aja pasu' a goat whereas Narada interpreted it to mean 'avijja (abijah) yavadikankuraparimuktah' grains three year old-that are sterile, infertile, unproductive. Both of them agreed that they should request their classmate Prince Vasu to act as umpire, and accepting his decision as final. Parvataka sent his mother to Prince Vasu to exert influence on him for announcing a decision in his favour. Next day Parvataka and Narada accompanied by people went to Vasu. Narada said to Vasu "O king Vasu, you are known as truth speaker-for the speaking of truth (satyavadin); So declare what was the interpretation according to our teacher Ksirakadamba". Vasu declared that Parvataka's interpretation was the right one. As soon as he made this false declaration Vasu, as he was seated on his crystal throne, went down (below the surface of the earth) --Vasu for his falsehood and support to killing of goats in sacrifices was born in the lowest seventh hell-the darkest one and the source of terrible tortures. People condemned Parvataka and Vasu as liars and honoured Narada then and there (as satyavadin). Condemned by people wicked Parvataka practised austerities and after death he was born as a raksasa. Remembering his former birth (as Parvataka) and condemnation by people he assumed the form of a Brahmana. Wearing sacred thread, with an umbrella, a kamandalu (water-jar) and a rosary of beads he began to think of and preach the killing of animals in Vedic sacrifices. Following his teaching hermits and Brahmanas started performing animal sacrifices. In 'gomedha' sacrifice he recommended the drinking of liquor, illicit intercourse Stud.-20

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154 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE with a woman (agamyagamana)-intercourse with forbiddein women (mother, sister). In sacrifices like pitrmedha, matrmedha, rajasuya, asvamedha and pasumedha beginning with the name of a living being or creature he enjoined the slaughter of that being or creature in the accompanying ritual. The procedure of a sacrifice thus involved the killing of a creature the drinking of intoxicating liquor (asavapana) and eating flesh (mamsa-bhaksana). The story of Vasu as stated in the beginning, is originally a Brahmanical legend. It is narrated with the express intention or purpose of describing the origin of (Vedic) sacrifice. The author of Paumacariya probably wants simultaneously to illustrate the supreme importance of their doctrine of ahimsa and the disastrous consequence of speaking even a single falsehood. Notwithstanding the changes effected by Vimalasuri in his narrative, he reproduces the core of the story, the debate between Parvataka and Narada regarding the interpretation of the word aja and Vasu's speaking a falsehood, without any change or modification. Jainism attaches highest importance to the doctrine of ahimsa. It is therefore very natural that Jain writers should strongly criticise killing of animals in Vedic sacrifices. It is also not surprising if they quote the views of certain Brahmanical thinkers, Samkhyas, Vedantins and Vyasa in support of their thesis that killing of animals even for the purpose of Vedic sacrifices is a grievous sin. For example : तथा च पठन्ति पारमर्षाः यूपं छित्त्वा पशून् हत्वा कृत्वा रुधिरकर्दमम् / यद्येवं गम्यते स्वर्गे नरके केन गम्यते // वेदान्तिका अप्याहु: . अन्धे तमसि मज्जामः पशुभिर्ये यजामहे / हिंसा नाम भवेद्धर्मो न भूतो न भविष्यति / K. K. Handiqui has shown in his work 'Yasastilaka And Indian Culture how Somadeva and other Jain authors have made misleading and erroneous statements regarding Vedic sacrifices!. Apart from this acrimonious aspect of the Jain adaptations of the Hindu tales, the Jain narrative literature is vast, varied and is of invaluable help for a critical and comparative study of the various legends, tales, and narratives in the Hindu, Jain and Buddhist narrative literatures--which reveal partial agreement and at the same time striking divergences among themselves. Notes and References : 1. Chapter XIV, pp. 377-390.

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TYPES OF STORIES IN SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT LITERATURE WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO DHARMA-KATHA IN JAIN LITERATURE (A) Katha and its types as given in Prakrit Works According to Sthananga-sutra', katha is threefold. 1. artha- 2. dharmaand 3. kama-katha whereas vikatha2 is fourfold : 1. stri- 2. bhakta- 3. desa- and 4. raja-katha. Each of these four is further sub-divided into four sub-types. Further on, Sutra 5693 declares that there are seven vikathas and adds to the above four types the following three vikathas. 5. mrdukarunika. 6. darsanabhedini and, 7. caritra-bhedini. Sthananga (Sutra 282) divides katha (or rather dharmakatha) into four sub-types. 1. aksepani, 2. viksepani, 3. samvegajanani (or Samvejani) and 4. nirvedajanani (or nirvedani). According to Vasudevahindia, the katha is twofold : 1. Carita (narrative based on tradition, biography) and 2. Kalpita (work of imagination, fiction invention). Carita is twofold, 1. narrative of life of a woman or man. Carita is : whatever is seen, heard or experienced with regard to the achievement in the field of the three ends of human life, dharma (virtue, sacred law or duty) 2. artha (wealth) and 3. kama (pleasure). But whatever is opposite of this, i.e., whatever is invented by the poet or story-teller and added to what has been told by the wise is called Kalpita. Men and women are known to be 1. uttama (exalted, excellent) 2. madhyama (middlemost) and, 3. nikrsta (low or vite or debased). Narratives based on their lives (Caritas) too are of the same kind. Haribhadrasuri in his Introduction (bhumika) to his own Samaradityakatha informs us that according to the view of the ancient acaryas the subjectmatter of a story may relate to (1) only divine characters or (2) divine and human characters together or (3) all human characters. A story in general could have four types :

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156 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 1. arthakatha--a story wherein wealth plays a predominant role. 2. kamakatha--a story wherein love plays a predominant role. 3. dharmakatha-a story wherein dharma (virtue, duty,) plays a predominant role, and 4. samkirna (or misra) katha--a story wherein artha, kama, dharma are mixed. Arthakatha is one which has wealth as its predominant subjectmatter and which deals with war-fare, sending of letters, agriculture, trading and mechanical arts, the use of alchemy, making of alloys, etc., the use of expedients like conciliation (sama), dissension (bheda), bribery (upapradana) and punishment (open attack) (danda). Kamakatha treats of beautiful forms, proficiency in arts, which has for its essence respectful reception and union accompanied with horripilation caused by love, and which describes the activities of (maiden messengers or) gobetweens, amours, amd propitiation, etc. Dharmakatha is one which has dharma (virtue, duty) for its principal theme, which treats of virtues like forgiveness, humility, straightforwardness, freedom from greed, self-control, truthfulness, purity, non-possession, celibacy, and other religious matters like the five lesser vows, etc. Samkirnakatha : (A mixed story) is one which deals with all the three human endsdharma, artha and kama, in sutras and kavyas and is told in public (while reciting Ramayana etc.) in Vedas (in the course of performing a sacrifice) and in Samaya (Tarangavati, etc.) and which is accompanied with illustrations and cause-effect relations. As distinguished from katha there is vikatha. It is so called because it is devoid of the distinguishing features of the katha (story) or beacuse it is opposed to the katha and deserves to be shunned (sutra 282). The four types of vikatha, as listed in Sthananga (sutra 282) are quite easy to follow, a story or talk about (1) women, their charms etc., (2) food- 'how delicious !' 'how tasty the food is l' etc. (3) (country, region or) place-how lovely' ! 'how beautiful it is !', etc. and (4) about the king or ruler of the land. The additional three, mentioned in Sthanarga, (sutra 569), mean : (5) a vikatha which is marked by tenderness and pity or compassion. (6) a vikatha which adversely affects one's right faith and (7) a vikatha which adversely affects one's right conduct.

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TYPES OF STORIES IN SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT.... 157 The Dasavaikalikasutra-niryukti (gatha no. 207) lists the following vikathas : 1. strikatha, 2 bhaktakatha, 3. rajakatha, 4. Corajanapada katha, 5. natanartakajallamustikakatha. The first three types have already been explained. 4. talk about a thief -'a thief was caught today', 'he was thus hurt or oppressed'; 'talk about a janapada--that a particular region or place is so lovely', etc., and 5. talk about an actor, dancer, or a person doing tight rope-walking, a rope dancer or a wrestler. Uddyotanasuri in his Kuvalayamala (779 A. D.) lists five types of stories : 1. sakalakatha, 2. khandakatha, 3. ullapakatha 4. parihasakatha and, 5. samkirnakatha. Sakalakatha (The entire story) follows its hero through a series of lives. The working out of actions and their results through several lives of the hero forms its subjectmatter. It is, as the name suggests, of very great length. Hemacandra gives Haribhadrasuri's Samaradityakatha (8th century) as its example.although Haribhadra himself says his is a dharmakatha. The Khandakatha ("short story') narrates an episode from a long narrative which is already known through some other work. Hemacandra gives Indumati as its example. This work however is not extant. Both these types of katha are known to be written in Prakrit only. The Ullapakatha deals with voyage or love between a young man and a young woman which demands adventures on their part. The Parihasa-katha is 'an amusing story' The samkirna-katha is one which is distinguished by the characteristics of all the types of katha, which is charming with its erotic sentiment (srngararasa), which has its various constituent parts well-knit and which delights (the readers) with the display of knowledge of various arts. Uddyotanasuri declares that this samkirnakatha is threefold : 1. dharma, 2. artha- and 3. kama-katha. The samkirnakatha is marked by all the distinguishing features and shows at the end the attainment of all three ends of human life. It deserves notice that as against the Dasavaikalika niryukti, which gives all the four dharmakatha, etc. as the four types of katha, the Kuvalayamala gives the three dharma-, artha- and kama-katha as the three kinds of the samkirnakatha. Like Haribhadrasuri Uddyotanasuri too gives the four sub-types of the dharmakatha and briefly yet lucidly explains them : Of the four sub-types, the first aksepani is pleasant or agreeable to the mind, the second viksepani unpleasant or disagreeable to the mind, the third samvega-janani is the mother of, that is the source or cause of right knowledge and the fourth nirvedajanani is the mother of, that is, the cause of vairagya, indifference to worldly objects and to life.

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158 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE (B) Katha and its varieties as given in Sanskrit works on poetics We are not interested here in main literary forms- akhyayika (Biography, e.g. Bana's Harsacarita), Katha (Novel, e.g. Bana's Kadambari) and Campu (a literary composition in mixed prose and verse, e.g., Trivikramabhatta's Nalacampu but in katha used in its general sense (a story). Some leave out of consideration the magnificent Brhatkatha which ranked beside the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as one of the great storehouses of Indian literary art. Bhoja in his Srngaraprakasa (Ch. XI) and Hemacandra, following him and Abhinavagupta, in his Kavyanusasana (Ch. VIII) speak of the following types of katha : 1. Upakhyana, 2. Akhyanaka (or Akhyana), 3. Nidarsana, 4. Pravahlika, 5. Manthulli (or Manthullika), 6. Manikulya, 7. Parikatha, 8. Khandakatha, 9. Upakatha, and 10. Sakalakatha (Bhoja does not mention it) Of these ten types, Upakhyana and Akhyana really belong to tradition (History-Itihasa). Since Bhoja and Hemacandra have mentioned them as types of Sravya Kavya (Katha), all these ten may briefly be treated here : 1. Upakhyana (an eposide) : That which occurs in the midst of a long literary composition and gives an account for enlightening someone else is called upakhyana--for example, the Nalopakhyana in the Mahabharata. 2. Akhyana : The upakhyana gets the name akhyana when a reciter (granthika) relates or narrates or expounds it by reciting, acting and singing. Govindakhyana is an example. 3. Nidarsana (which literally means 'illustration, example' or 'lesson') is didactic fiction either direct or couched in parable. It teaches throught the actions or behaviour of animals or of men what is proper or improper to be done. (It is predominantly in prose.) Its examples are the famous Panca-tantra, Dhurta-vita-samvada, Kuttanimata and the like. 4. Pravahlika is that composition which is presented in an assembly as a dialogue between two persons in a mixture of Sanskrit and Prakrit discussing the merits etc. of the hero (pradhana). Its example is Cetaka- which is not extant. 5. Manthulli (or Manthallika) is a ksudrakatha (short story) in Maharastri Prakrit as exemplified by two such stories (now lost), called Gorocana and Anangavati. The titles are possibly the names of their heroine. Or, it may be a humorous story making fun of priests, ministers and hermits who undertake something but do not succeed in carrying it out.

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TYPES OF STORIES IN SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT.... 159 6. Manikulya : is a story with mystery, the secret of which is revealed at the end. Its example is Matsyahasita (The laughter of a fish, or 'A laughing fish?) No work of this name is available or extant. 7. Parikatha : is a new type of story heard for the first time in Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka. In Parikatha there is just a narration of the story and no intention at all of depicting sentiment (rasa). Abhinavagupta defines it as follows : Parikatha is the narration of numerous anecdotes one after another in a variety of ways to inculcate one of the four purusarthas (ends of human life). Bhoja defines it in his Srngaraprakasa as follows : That is called Parikatha wherein experts in narrating stories compete in the art one after another desiring to outshine each other by narrating a story each. Its example is sudraka-katha, which however is not extant. According to Locana it may be in any language, according to Ratnesvara, Bhoja's commentator, it is in Prakrit. 8. Khandakatha : Anandavardhana informs us that the Khandakatha and the Sakalakatha are well-known in Prakrit literature and abound in Kulakas (Kulaka meaning a number of verses ranging from five to fifteen and the whole forming one sentence) thus suggesting that both of them are mixed in prose and verse. According to Bhoja and Hemacandra it is one episode from a very popular work retold separately or independently, e.g. Indumati. This work, however, is not extant. 9. Upakatha : Bhoja and following him, Hemacandra, define upakatha as follows : "An upakatha is what is very well-known by that name, a sub-story coming up in the middle of a main story." It thus resembles the upakhyana. Bhoja cites Citralekha as its example. It is not known whether Citralekha is a separate composition or a chapter or section of another work. The latter is probable, says Raghavan. 10. Sakalakatha : Abhinavagupta defines it as follows : The narrative which ends with the attainment of all the desired aims is to be known as Sakalakatha. Hemacandra holds that the well-known Samaradityakatha (original Prakrit name being Samaraiccakaha) is its example. We have already noted that Khandakatha and Sakalakatha are wellknown in Prakrit literatureimplying that they were written in Prakrit. After this detailed treatment of the types (and sub-types) of stories in Prakrit and Sanskrit literatures let us turn to the important topic of Dharmakatha in Jain Literature. There are quite a few dharmakathas in Jain Literature. It is not possible to treat of them in the limited space of this paper. We deal with one or two of the most famous dharmakathas and that too briefly

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160 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE and draw attention to the distinguishing features of this literary form which is handled by Jain poets for the propagation of their dharma and for the edification and spititual benefit of the adherents of Jainism. The earliest dharmakatha was Tarangavati by Padaliptasuri (c. 1st century A. D.). However, the original has not come down to us but only an early abridgement in 1643 Prakrit stanzas entitled Tarangalola. Its subjectmatter is briefly as follows : A sadhvi (nun), conspicuous for her beauty, tells her story. She was the beautiful daughter of a rich merchant. Once she sees a couple of ducks in a lotus pond and paints. For she remembers that in a former life she had been a duck like this and that out of love for her male duck killed by the hunter she had burned herself with him. She yearns for the husband of her former life and after a long time full of love's sorrow she finds him by the aid of a picture which she paints of the couple of ducks. Her man carries her off. While running away they are taken captive by robbers, and they are to be sacrificed to the goddess Kali. They are, however, rescued and the parents agree to their marriage. Soon after their wedding they meet a monk who delivers a religious sermon. Learning from him that he as hunter had killed the male duck in the former life, they are disgusted with samsara, renounce the world and become monk and nun. The romantic love story is very interesting even in its abridged form. It served as a prototype for Haribhadrasuri's famous dharmakatha called Samaradityakatha (second half of the 8th century A. D.). It narrates in nine successive births the story of two souls-a Prince Gunasena who was handsome and his friend Agnisarman who was very ugly. The prince enjoyed fun at his friend's cost. As a consequence of this he became an ascetic. In due course Prince Gunasena became the king, Once he met Agnisarman, repented for his past ill-treatment and invited him to take food at his place. He accepted the invitation. Thrice he went there, but Gunasena for some reason or the other could not receive him. Agnisarman misunderstood Gunasena. He was inflamed with fury and resolved "If I have acquired merit by my austerities, may I then be born again and again to kill him in every one of his births." Accordingly the souls of Prince Gunasena and his friend Agnisarman were born in nine successive births as enemies, although outwardly they were the father and the son, the mother and the daughter, the husband and his wife, etc. Ultimately the soul of Gunasena attains liberation and the soul of Agnisarman wanders in the endless cycle of birth and death. The central idea, the dominant motif underlying the long narrative and

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TYPES OF STORIES IN SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT.... 161 most of the tales inserted in it, is nidana. It is a term borrowed from medical science meaning the disorder of the humours of the body(dhatus)'. Metaphorically it means "bad karma' which upsets the moral constitution of the Jiva. It is mentioned as a kind of artadhyana : When somebody practises austerities in order to get something in another life which is denied to him in the present life it takes the form of bartering away one's austerities for sensual pleasures in a future birth (as a sovereign ruler for example) or for revenging oneself for insults or personal injuries in the subsequent births. Thus Agnisarman makes the dreadful resolve : "If I have acquired merit by keeping my vow, may I then be born again and again to kill him in every one of his births." This nidana on the part of Agnisarman underlies the whole narrative of the Samaradityakatha. The inexorable law of karma underlies the principal narrative as well as many inserted stories within the main narrative. Copious instructions on dharma (Jainism) are inserted in all convenient places. Generally speaking, the heroes and heroines-principal characters-after listening to religious sermons renounce the world and enter the Jain Order. Numerous tales, fairy tales and parables (e.g. the parable of the man in the well, otherwise known as madhu-bindu drstanta) are introduced in the course of sermons delivered by the Jain monks. The author, Haribhadrasuri, illustrates by stories, parables, fairy-tales how good deeds are rewarded by pleasures of heaven and bad deeds punished with tortures in hell or lower animal births. The Samaradityakatha "is evidently intended to illustrate the evil consequences of vices, sins and all transgressions of the Jain code of morals and to warn the reader or hearer of it against carelessness in conduct." (Dr. Jacobi). In Samaradityakatha we meet with some interesting tales, romantic love-stories, such as that of Sanatkumara and Vilasavati who are reunited after a long separation and after inexpressibly sorrowful adventures (Ship-wreck, etc.) The story of Dharana and Laksmi, too, is a pretty fairy-romance, full of adventures on land and sea, with many familiar fairy-tale motifs. We cannot help referring, in this connection, very briefly though, to another work, a dharmakatha par excellence by name Upamitibhavaprapanca Katha by Siddharsi. The literary form-dharmakatha or (religious narrative or novel or romance) reaches its culmination in this allegorical Sanskrit novel Upamitibhavaprapanca Katha "The narrative in which the manifoldness of existence is presented in parable or allegory." It was composed by Siddharsi in 906 A. D. Haribhadrasuri's Samaradityakatha served as a model for Siddharsi. It is an elaborate allegory worked out with much skill and care. The separate stories inserted in the main (allegorical) narrative are also in part allegories. "The poet Stud.-21

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162 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE distinguishes between two kinds of personages : "outward" companions of the hero, and "inward" companions. It is only the latter which are personifications, and they are indeed the main characters in the drama of mundane existence"samsara-nataka-which the poet intends to unfold before the pious hearer." That this poem enjoyed great popularity among the Jains is shown by the fact that only 100 years after its appearance extracts and abridgments were made from it. Winternitz has well observed : "All these works, be they stories in plain prose or in simple verse, or elaborate poems, novels or epics, are all essentially sermons. They are never intended for mere entertainment, but always serve the purpose of religious instruction and edification." The distinguishing features of the literary form, called dharmakatha, may be set forth as follows: (i) The poet traces the destinies of a hero and his opponent in numerous births. (ii) The doctrine of karma, especially its phase nidana, is the pivot-cardinal or central point. (iii) Religious sermons dwelling upon Jain ethics and the worthlessness of samsara are introduced in the narrative, finding the slightest opportunity. (iv) The principal characters, the hero, heroine and the like renounce, towards the end of the narrative, the world and enter Jain Order. (v) Interesting and charming narratives and stories, the Jain poets employ simply to attract the readers; but their chief aim is their instruction and edification. (vi) Denigration of worldly life and high praise of asceticism form an essential part of the narrative.* Notes and References : 1. Sthananga-sutra, adhyaya 3, Uddesaka-3, sutra- 194. 2. Ibid, adhyaya-4, Uddesaka-2, sutra-282. 3. Hafa ET377 49TISTI, A TET- 9. sfrenche, P. FILET, 3. Hotel, 8. Ph6, 4. f430 funt &. दंसणभेयणी 7. चरित्तभेयणी. 4. Vasudevhindi, lambha X, Bhavnagar, 1931, pp 208-209. 5. A History of Indian Literature by M. Winternitz, Vol.II (p 521) University of Calcutta, 1933. * I acknowledge with thanks my indebtedness to the authors of the following works on which I have freely drawn : H. Jacobi : Introduction to his edition of Samaraiccakaha, V. Raghavan : Bhoja's Srngaraprakasa, Madras, 1963, A. N. Upadhye : Introduction to his edition of Brhatkathakosa, M.Winternitz : A History of Indian Literature, Volume II, Calcutta, 1933.

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NANDISUTTAM AND ANUOGADDARAIM* The agamas are invaluable as religious scriptures to the Jains. But, in addition, they are a valuable source for the history of religious institutions in India and a complete picture of the composite Indian Culture. A very rich linguistic, socio-cultural and historical material lies embedded in them. Neglect of these texts leaves incomplete the picture of Indian culture portrayed only on the basis of the Pali canon and Sanskrit literature. One of the reasons for their neglect by modern scholars is the absence of a critical edition of all the Jain agamas based on modern, scientific methods of research. Such a critical edition is a desideratum. The task of preparing it, the text of which could lay claim to finality is highly complicated and really tough. The basic sutra texts of the Jain agama reveal inter-relations and cross contamination. The Prakrit languages present dialectal variations and the MSS, in hundreds, variant readings. The Jain sthaviras, when writing the sutra, curni, tika, vrtti etc., extensively quote passages from the old sutras and from their commentaries. Naturally, one comes across almost similar or completely identical passages in hundreds pertaining to the same subject. These passages reveal difference in interpretation of certain words due to different traditions of interpretation. Ancient and modern scholars have emended the readings without consulting MSS belonging to different groups and without taking into account the different traditions of interpretation. Copyists, not fully conversant with the old script, committed mistakes in copying the MSS written in old script and thus corrupted the text. Sometimes sectarian zeal is responsible for expunging passages from the text without MS evidence. Muni Punyavijaya, one of the three editors of the Nandisuttam and Anuyogaddarain (edited by Muni Punyavijaya, Pt. Dalsukh Malvania and Pt. Amritlal Mohanlal Bhojak) published as Jaina-Agama-Series No. 1 by Shri Mahavir Vidyalaya, Bombay-26, 1968, pp. 1-53+1-70 (in Gujarati+1-127 (in English) + 1-476 (List of Abbreviations, Tables of Contents, Texts and Appendices) Price : Rs. 40.00

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164 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE present edition, who devoted his entire life to the study of the Jain agamas and commentaries on them such as niryuktis, curnis, tikas, avacurnis, tippanakas, vrtti and bhasyas and possessed long experience in the field of critically editing Jain agama texts evolved principles of textual criticism to be followed in critically editing the texts in the Jaina-Agama-Series. These principles are : (i) Use of old palm-leaf MSS. (ii) Use of critically corrected commentaries on agamas such as curni, tika, avacuri, tippanaka etc. (iii) Use of quotations from the agamas and also from their commentaries. (iv) Comparision with the sutra-patha found in the other agamas. (v) Discerning wrong emendations made by commentators and / or by modern scholars. (vi) Discerning mistakes made by copyists. The editors, judiciously applying these principles present in this volume the critical text of Nandi and Anuyogadvara sutras which form the culika, as it were, to the entire sruta. It would seem strange that the editors begin with the end. But their explanation is quite convincing and satisfactory. The Nandi falls in the anga-bahya class. Normally, it should occupy a place subsequent to the angas. But on account of its extraordinary position in the whole body of the agama texts, it is placed first. It has secured the place of mangalacarana in the beginning of the study of agamas. So the editors too accord it the first place not only in this volume but in the entire series of the project. If the Nandi serves as a mangala, the Anuyogadvarasutra serves as a key to the understanding of the agamas. Naturally, these two texts form a pair; and rightly the editors open the series with them. The text of the Nandisutra is mainly based on eight MSS that are very old amongst the extant ones. In finalising the text the editors have made thorough use of the Curni, Haribhadra's Vitti, Malayagiri's Vitti, Sricandra's Tippana and also consulted the Dvadasaranayacakra, the Samavayangasutra and Abhayadeva's Vrtti on the Bhagavatisutra which abound in quotations and elucidation, etc, that have a bearing on the text of the Nandisutra. In the preparation of the critical edition of the Anuyogadvarasutra the editors have used ten different MSS, some representing the unabridged text and others the abridged text. The text of this edition is mainly based on the

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NANDISUTTAM AND ANUOGADDARAM 165 Cambay palm-leaf MS and gives readings which are in conformity with the Vrtti of Maladhari Hemacandra and represents the unabridged text (bshadvacana). From among the various useful appendices the two giving the alphabetical index of all the words occurring in the texts of the Nandisutra and the Anuyogadvarasutra as well in footnotes to them are of great importance. They give Sanskrit equivalents of each and every Prakrit word and indicate the desya words, indeclinables and adverbs by appropriate signs. It is for the first time that such all-comprehensive indexes of these agama texts have been prepared. These and similar indexes of the remaining agama texts will facilitate the task of preparing a complete and authentic dictionary of the agama texts. The editors when speaking about the present critical edition rightly lay emphasis on the task of making available correct and genuine readings, point out the deficiencies in the printed editions and expose, more in pain than in anger, the glaring defects in the so-called new commentaries of Ghasilalji and insist on the editor's prior equipment such as knowledge of tradition and history of agamas. They fully discuss (Intro p. 107) some important readings such as tesiyam, terasiyam (for vesiyas or vesitam, Sk vaisikam) in the Nandisutra (p. 29, 1.8) and Kavoyanam or Kanotanam (for Kayanam-Kaya or Kata is a desya word, meaning "Kavati-vahaka, or vivadhavahaka in Sk.) in the Anuyogadvarasutra (p. 73, 1.10) and they also throw fresh light on what is pasattha jhavana and what is apasattha Jhavana rightly criticising the corrupt readings in the printed editions of the Anuyogadvarasutra, and conclude how the preparation of a truly critical edition demands of its editor such qualities as tremendous patience, perseverance, keenness for exactitude, vigilance and sincerity in scrutinising different MSS, in collating variants and in understanding the textual explanations given by commentators. The critical edition is prefaced with a learned and masterly introduction treating of various topics such as the Jain agamas and the Vedas, sources of the angas, the Geographical Region of their composition, Language, Number, Classification, and Age of the agamas, Author of Nandisutra-Devavacaka, his Date, Anuyoga (Exposition), the Method of Exposition as demonstrated in the Anuyogadvara, the Jain, the Buddhistic and the Vedic Methods of Exposition, Life and Date of the author and the Date of the Anuyogadvara and, last but not the least, they treat of the rich socio

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166 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE cultural material found in the two texts. in their Introduction the editors clearly point out the difference between the Vedas on the one hand and the Buddhist Tripitakas and the Jain Agamas on the other. The former are sabda-pradhana whereas the latter are artha-pradhana. The Brahmanas have preserved not only the original words of the Vedas but their correct pronunciation also. The Jains have tried to preserve the meaning of the words concerned and not the original words of their Tirthamkaras. This is a fact none can deny. It would not, however, be correct to belittle the importance of words. If words are to be depreciated there is hardly any sense in undertaking a project like the present one and discussing the principles to be followed in critically editing the agama texts and collating scores and scores of copies of text and recording variant readings. It would only mean 'much ado about nothing.' On p. 39 the Anuyogadvarasutra is referred to as "the earliest among the commentaries on the Avasyaka', but on p. 45 we are told that 'it does not provide us with an exposition of the Avasyaka-sutra'. The suggestion of the editors that "Ghodamuham' and 'Nagasuhumam stand for asva-sastra and hasti-sastra respectively deserves consideration. In his paper "Identification of a Few Sastras mentioned in the Jaina Sutras" (JOI, Baroda, Vol. XVIII, 1968) Shri Anantlal Thakur identifies these two sastras with a work on erotics by Ghotakamukha and a work on the Science of Logic (Suksmonyayah) respectively. The English rendering of the Gujarati Introduction is quite satisfactory. It covers the entire Introduction except the topics entitled "Nandisutra-Anuyogadvara-sutrantargata Sanskritic Samagri" (Gujarati Introduction, pp. 52-70) which is summarised under the heading "Discussion on Certain Secondary Subjects" (pp. 72-76). The editors fight shy of discussing the example of Vridanaka-rasa as it refers to the ancient custom (prevalent in some parts of India) of taking the bridal garment (Vahu-potti=vadhunivasana=anandapata) from house to house with a view to declaring the bride's virginity and its being saluted to by the bride's father-in-law and mother-in-law. Acarya Haribhadra and Maladhari Hemacandra do not, however, hesitate to explain fully this gatha in their commentaries. We come across reference to such a bridal garment being carried from house to house in the Gathasaptasati (V. 57) also. The editors understand the verse illustrating hasya-rasa somewhat differently from the commentators referred to above. It is also possible to take the gatha as referring to the illicit love between the vadhu and her devara, especially in view of some gathas in the Gathasaptasati portraying such love between them. The editors rightly point

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NANDISUTTAM AND ANUOGADDARAM 167 out that the list of nine rasas in the Anuyogadvara-sutra substitutes vridanaka in place of the bhayanaka in the traditional list. Here it may further be pointed out that the Anuyogadvarasutra gives the pride of place to the vira and not to the srngara rasa as found in almost all the Sanskrit texts dealing with poetics. The explanation for this change by the author probably lies in the fact that the present work deals with the highest end, of human life, viz., moksa, and that it is attainable through heroic efforts in conquering the internal enemies (such as kama, krodha, etc). The definitions and the verses illustrating these nine rasas are such as are not to be met with in the treatises on the science of dramaturgy or poetics. Still further it may be pointed out here that the Anuyogadvara-sutra (3rd century A. D.) is the first among the available texts that speak of santarasa. It is, indeed, extraordinary that none of the Jain writers on dramaturgy/poetics cares to take note of these significant changes in their treatment of the topic of rasa. Incidentally, we may refer here to a few errors / misprints, although they are very minor, that have crept in through inadvertence : on p. 26, 1.12 (from below) we should read 'We' for 'l' as the Introduction is contributed by the three editors. On p. 35.1.11 (from below) we should read destroys for destroy. On p. 49, 1.4 we should read refuted and on the same page (L. 12) Sthavira). On p. 50, L. 16 we should read papat for patat. On p. 59, I. 10 we should read partially. On p. 71 f. n. 59a the Kanagasattari is referred to as 'this Sanskrit work. Strictly speaking, it is not erroneous. But the Prakrit title is apt to mislead. On p. 92, 1.12 (from below) we should read ucyante. In the English translation of the Gujarati Introduction (p. 107) Vaibesikam is given as the Sanskrit equivalent of vesiyam. It ought to have been Vaisikam. The appendices at the end meticulously record all the words in the texts as well as the footnotes. But rare omissions could be detected. For instance, mugundassa (p. 63, 1. 17) is not included in the Appendix (p. 415). Further, the Sanskrit meanings of a few words given in the Appendices hardly add to our knowledge. 'sastra-visesa', 'vrati-visesa', 'sutra-bheda', 'silpi-visesa', dhanya-mana-visesa', 'kalamana-visesa', etc., are some such instances. The reviewer ventures to suggest that a critical edition of an agama text should invariably be accompanied by its Sanskrit commentary. For even to an advanced student of Prakrit the glossary of Prakrit words along with their Sanskrit meanings would not prove quite useful. In its absence an English translation or translation in Hindi or any other Modern Indian Language with detailed notes is an absolute must for the understanding of the text. Another suggestion the reviewer would like to make : There should be

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168 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE separate volumes of the critically edited text accompanied by Introduction, Translation, Notes, etc., in English and in Modern Indian Languages adding English translation of Sampadakiya (Editors' Note) and of Prastavana (Introduction) to the Gujarati preface as is done here-although considerations of resources at hand and of economy might have influenced this decision of bringing out the present edition in its present form does not appeal to one's aesthetic sense. Finally, the volumes of critically edited texts of the Jaina agamas, should be, as far as practicable, brought out on uniform pattern. These suggestions apart, it is superfluous to add that the present edition is simply superb. Its printing is pleasing to the eye and get-up excellent. The editors deserve warmest congratulations for presenting to the world of scholars, especally scholars of Jainology, this splendid critical edition. 000

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STUDIES IN EARLY JAINISM (Selected Research Articles) The book under review is a collection of Dr. J. C. Jain's twenty-five research articles published from time to time in Indian and Foreign Oriental Journals. Of these, seven articles deal with one aspect or another of Vasudevahindi, a Jain Version of the lost Brhatkatha of Gunadhya; five, with Prakrit Jain Narrative Literature; four, with Jainism including Religion, Mythology and worship; three, with Ancient Indian Culture; and one article each deals with "Trade and Commerce in Ancient India." "The School of Sarvastivada from Jain Sources," "Prakrit in the Background of Hindi", "The Science of Prognostication : Nimittasastra", "Memorable Pilgrimage by Hieun Tsang--A Chinese Traveller" and finally, "The scope of Research in Jain Studies." The above analysis would show that the title does not quite fit the contents of the book. The title raises the expectation that the book mainly deals with Early Jainism in respect of theology, ethics, logic and philosophy (and seeds of the later principal schisms and sects) as compared with its canonical and post-canonical forms. There are only four articles which, properly speaking, treat of Early Jainism : 1. Early Jainism, 2. Two great Religions of Magadha, 3. The Role of Dharanendra in Jain Mythology and 4. Jain worship : A Critical View. A majority of the articles included in this book deal with Jain Narrative Literature. Dr. Jain is a renowned scholar of Prakrit and Jainism. He has been a Research Professor in the Department of Indology, University of Kiel and a Professor of Hindi in Peking. He is a reputed author. Numerous works on a variety of subjects are to his credit. The work under review is a valuable * STUDIES IN EARLY JAINISM, Jagdishchandra Jain, publ. by Mrs. Nirmal Singal for Navrang, Booksellers and publishers, RB-7, Inderpuri, New Delhi-110012, 1992, pp. 241, Rs. 280.00 Stud.-22

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170 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE contribution to Jain Studies, especially to a critical and comparative study of Prakrit tales in the context of their original source and migrations to other countries of the world. The research articles are free from sectarian bias and attest to his objective attitude and high regard for truth in conducting research. His articles are very informative and of absorbing interest to inquisitive readers and scholars-especially to such readers who are keen on universal story literature as well as Jain religion and culture. It is regrettable that the book has unfortunately numerous spelling mistakes and inaccuracies. A few of them are noted below : p. 4, line 11 'After' for 'altar'. p. 4, para. 2, line 7 (from below) 'Lightening' for 'lightning?. p. 7, para. 2 last line 'Indentical for 'identical'. p. 21, para. 2 (last lines) 'which can (be) only the BK'. p. 27, para. 4, line 6 'harsh' (hard)....-stange' (strange). p. 24, f.n., line 1.1 'peper' for 'paper'. p. 81, para. 3, line 6 behive' for beehive'. p. 81, line 8 'Woridly' for 'worldly' p. 83, para. 4, line 4 (from below) 'thew' for 'threw'. p. 84, line 1 'multilated' for 'mutilated.' p. 93, para 3, line 15, 'pursuade' for 'persuade'. line 19 'undergound' for 'underground.' p. 125, line 13 ...truth is many sides.' for...-many-sided.' p. 146, para 2. line 6 (from below) "(The Science of) deviation for devination'. p. 148, line 4 (from below) 'indiscrimate' for 'indiscriminate'. p. 155, para. 3, line 1 'has very title to do with' for 'little' p. 195, sub-heading 'unforgettful for 'unforgetful'. p. 198, last bu one para. line 4 'Scared Books' for 'Sacred Books.' p. 200, line 5 a renowened scholar for frenowned...' Occasionally carelessness is noticed in citing printed Sanskrit names or quotations. For example on p.182 we read : 'henceforth he should call himself Satyakama Jabala (her mother's name was Jabala)". This sentence given in

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STUDIES IN EARLY JAINISM 171 round brackets is simply meaningless. Saryakama's father's name is not known. His mother's name is Jabala. Satyakama therefore calls himself, on his mother's advice, as Satyakama Jabala. The name Jabala is metronymic and means 'born from Jabala', 'Jabala's son'. On p. 123 the author says : "In support of their view, Carvakas have quoted a passage from the Chandogya Upanisad." And on p. 127 under notes he cites the passage : 5 HEGECHTSTYTT... Ayrety.... 7 R Hallkira satilfeldig 4151062fy: (2.4.12). Now, the citation is not from Chandogya Upanisad but Brhadaranyaka Upanisad. Further the quotation is wrongly given. We should read the passage correctly as follows : CHEG514777448.... Atera...7 FRA crifa... In spite of such spelling/printing mistakes and inaccuracies, Dr. Jain's work is a welcome addition to studies on Jainism and Universal story literature. Ona

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AYARANGA : PADHAMA SUTA-KHANDHA, PADHAMA AJJHAYANA (ACARANGA : PRATHAMA SRUTA-SKANDHA, PRATHAMA ADHYAYANA)* Several works forming part of the Svetambara Jain Agama (Canon) inform us that Mahavira delivered his religious discourses in the Addhamagaha Bhasa (i. e., Ardhamagadhi language). He chose this language for his discourses as it was the spoken language of the people. It was so called, according to one view, because it was current in half of Magadha (modern Bihar) to which region, Mahavira himself belonged. According to another view, the language was so called because it shared some of the features of the dialects that were current in the adjoining regions. In other words, it was not wholly, but only partly Magadhi (ardham magadhyah). But the language of the Svetambara Jain canon which was finally fixed and reduced to writing at the conference of Valabhi under Devarddhi Ganin hardly shows characteristics common to Magadhi. On the contrary it shows surprisingly great affinity with Maharastri. Scholars of linguistics explain the transformation as an inevitable result of the powerful impact of the dominant literary Maharastri. It is a well known fact that from the days of Dandin's Kavyadarsa Maharastri has enjoyed the enviable status of prakrstas prakrtam"--the best among all Prakrit languages. The language of the canon which was undergoing changes slowly and imperceptibly during the very long period of 1000 years from the days of Mahavira, when it came in contact with literary Maharastri, after migration, it was very natural, that it should be highly influenced by the latter (the literary Maharastri) Muni Punyavijayaji has somewhat different explanation. The phonological changes in the readings of the text had not been due to a natural process but these changes in the spelling of the words have been brought about intentionally by the later Acaryas at different times or on account of losing * Ed. K. R. CHANDRA, Prakrit Jaina Vidya Vikasa Pund, Ahmedabad, 1998, pp. 327, Rs. 150.00

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AYARANGA : PADHAMA SUTA-KHANDHA, PADHAMA AJJHAYANA.... 173 contact with the original forms of the ancient Prakrit when the community of monks was unable to understand the original forms of the language (Ardhamagadhi) Acarya Abhayadeva, Acarya Malayagiri etc., found it necessary to change old forms into the new or younger forms and it is they who have transformed old forms. Whatever be the circumstances responsible for the changes, the fact remains that the original (Ardhamagadhi) language of the Svetambara Jain Canon is greatly influenced by the standard Maharastri Prakrit. Now, it is an admitted fact that the Jain Agama texts are not sabdapradhana but artha-pradhana. The Jains have tried to preserve the true meaning (artha) and not the original words (sabda) of Mahavira : अत्थं भासइ अरिहा सुत्तं गंथंति गणहरा णिउणं / (Mahavira promulgates the true meaning of scriptures in the course of his religious discourses, and his Ganadharas--immediate disciples or apostles (chief disciples) undertake the task of arranging them in the sutra-form--in the form of scriptures). If we remember this fact, we need not bother or worry too much about the nature of word forms--whether older or younger as both convey the original true meaning. Looked at from this point of view any attempt to restore old Ardhamagadhi would amount to a futile exercise. The above view is, it would seem, one-sided. The problem has another side too. From among the forty-five texts of the Jain agama some like the Acaranga, Sutrakrtanga are decidedly the oldest which retain older forms of the ancient Prakrit to a considerable extent. By adopting modern tools and methods of research and generally accepted principles of text editing we can fairly certainly hope to restore the ancient Prakrit-Ardhamagadhi-in which Mahavira spoke and his immediate disciples-the Ganadharas-tried to preserve his discourses Dr. K. R. Chandra, a veteran Prakrit scholar, has devoted a number of years to a study in depth of this problem of restoration of the ancient PrakritOld Ardhamagadhi-in which Mahavira gave his religious discourses and his Ganadharas embodied them. In the work under review Chandra presents, after carefully applying the principles of restoration evolved by him, the restored text of Ayaramga I. 1 by way of a sample demonstration. Chandra divides his work into the following six sections : Section I : consists of Introduction both in English and Hindi. (pp. 1-12)

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174 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Section II : presents comparison of the word-forms of the text of Acaranga with that of its various editions and manuscripts, other agama texts and older Prakrit texts. (pp. 15-72) Section III : gives restored text of Ayaramga I. 1, on the basis of available archaic word-forins. (pp. 75-156) Section IV : gives information about certain phonetic changes as seen in earlier and later word-forms. (pp. 157-166) Section V : gives a cornplete alphabetical Index of all the word-forms of the restored text. (pp. 167-195) Section VI : presents in parallel columns the restored text along with the corresponding texts of the earlier well-known editions. (pp. 199-269) At the end of this section (VI) H. Jacobi's text of the first chapter of Ayaramga is reproduced. Curious readers would find it instructive to compare Chandra's text with that of Jacobi (pp. 271-276). Then follows an Appendix presenting excerpts from the Reviews and Opinions on the linguistically reediting of the Acarangsutra and restoration of the original Ardhamagadhi language (pp. 277-327) In the beginning we meet with the opinions of Prof. Malvania, Prof. Bhayani, Prof. Ghatage and a few more scholars. We have finally the views of Muni Punyavijayji on the form of the original language of Jain Ardhamagadhi texts as it is found altered in the preserved MSS. (pp. xi-xiv). Dr. K. R. Chandra deserves warm congratulations for his brilliant piece of research. We earnestly hope he continues his work of editing the remaining part of Ayaramga on the same lines as followed in the present work. OOO

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ISIBHASIYAIM KA PRAKRIT-SANSKRIT SABDAKOSA* Isibhasiyaim (Sk. Rsibhasitani ) is a unique Jain canonical workunique because it contains the Sayings (bhasitani) of Sages (rsis), who did not, strictly speaking, belong to the Jain fold. This work attests to the catholicity and magnanimity of heart of the early Jain thinkers who collected the sayings of the Non-Jain rsis to form a canonical text. Incidentally, the text points to the existence of the common ethical thought in the various early religious sects. It is generally accepted that the forty-five texts which form the Jain Canon cannot have originated at one period of time. Scholars have distinguished between the earlier and later strata of the Jain Canon. Regarding the antiquity of Isibhasiyaim Dr. Walter Schubring observes : "That we have the old Isibhasiyaim before us cannot be doubted. Numerous indisputably genuine reminiscences in language and style link the work up with the Ayara, the Suyagada, the Uttarajjhaya and the Dasaveyaliya, the seniors of the canon". (Introduction to Isibhasiyaim, 1974 edn p. 2). The Jains use the word isi (rsi) in the sense of muni. In the present work, however, the word isi (muni) carries an additional or special meaning or idea of his being a pratyekabuddha (one who has attained or arrived at the highest knowledge by himself, understood the truth by his own efforts but does not preach it to others). The names of the Pratyekabuddhas include some names which figure in the Vedic and Buddhist literature. It is very desirable to conduct a linguistic study of the senior canonical works for discovering the archaic form of the Ardhamagadhi language. Dr. Chandra, an eminent scholar of Prakrit language and literature from Ahmedabad took upon himself this arduous task. He prepared the present exhaustive Prakrit-Sanskrit Word to Word Index of the Isibhasiyaim along with those of other senior texts of the Ardhamagadhi canon for the specific purpose of tracing the oldest Ardhamagadhi vocabulary and archaic morphological forms to serve as an aid to linguistically re-editing the oldest portion of the Jain * Prepared and Edited K. R. Chandra, published by Prakrit Text Society, Ahmedabad 380009. 1998, pp.140, Rs. 60.00

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176 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE canonical work Acaranga. For it is well known that the language of the Svetambara Jain canon, handed down to us is greatly influenced by Maharastri Prakrit. Dr. Chandra has taken great pains in preparing the Index under review. It is bound to be of great use to scholars working in the field of Indo-Aryan Linguistics. While going through this Index one notices a few misprints : P. 16 col 1 : adyamadhya (for adyamadhya) vasananam P. 63 col 2 : tivravahne for tivra-vahneh P. 109 col 1 : Saddhamava--for saddhamma-vakkadanam P. 112 col 2 : Valkala-Cirina for-cirina One comes across a few errors as well : P. 3 col 2 : adanie atavyam for marge. Note : 'adani magge'--Desi-sabda-samgraha 1.16 P. 7 col 2 : atthahae asthaghayam for astaghayam Note : atthaha adj [astagha].....athaha.....gambhira --PSM p.49, col 2 atthaha adj [des7] see atthaggha--PSM, p. 49, col.2 atthaggha adj [desi)....agadha, gambhira-PSM. p. 48. col 3 P. 123 col : Samvude--Samvrta samvudam-samvittam There is some confusion. samvuda is to be rendered into Sanskrit as samvrta. It conveys the meaning of 'restrained. cf PSM, P. 853 col 2. Samvrtta means became, happened'. p. 123 col 2 : The Prakrit expression samsara-kantaram is thrice rendered into Sanskrit as samsara-kantaram. It should be rendered in Sanskrit as 'samsara-kantaram'. These few misprints and errors hardly detract from the great merit of Dr. Chandra's painstaking, industrious and thorough work, the Index, under review. OOO

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RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE JAINAS World's Parliament of Religions was held at Chicago in 1893 A. D. V.R. Gandhi was an exponent of Jainism at this first Parliament. His lectures on Jainism and Jain Philosophy, delivered at this Parliament, were collected and published in two books entitled The Jaina Philosophy (1910 and 1924) and The Karma Philosophy (1913 and 1924). The present publication is a part of the Centenary Celebrations of that first Parliament. Dr. N. J. Shah, who is an eminent scholar of Jainism and Indian Philosophy, has from these lectures selected passages and arranged them in the present book in such a manner as to give a connected, consistent and systematic account of the Jain Philosophy and Religion. He has added at appropriate places headings and sub-headings to indicate the point under discussion. The present book* is divided into four parts . Part Chapter I deals with 'Cultural Environment' : antiquity of Indian civilization and the Vedas, social status of early Hindus, moral status of the Hindus' life, its object and laws according to Hindus, six systems of philosophy, essential principles of Hinduism and essentials of Buddhism and thus prepares the ground for a proper understanding and appreciation of the Jain Philosophy and Religion (pp. 3-39). Part II (consisting of Chapters 2 to 7) explains the essentials of Jain Philosophy. Chapter 2 presents bare outlines of the fundamentals of Jainism : nine principles, six substances, six kinds of living beings, four states of existence, transmigration, Karma and Jain ethics. Chapter 3 treats of the Jain conception of reality and knowledge. Chapter 4 treats of the Jain conception of soul. Chapter 5 deals with the Jain view of the universe, chapter 6, with the Jain view of God and Chapter 7 with Jain Symbolism (pp. 43-95). Part III (consisting of chapters 8 to 16) is devoted to the exposition of the unique Jain theory of karma. It treats of the nature of karma, relation between soul and karma, and eightfold classification of karma, the causes of karma, * RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE JAINAS, Virchand Gandhi, edited by Nagin J. Shah, published by Lalit C. Shah, Trustee, Jain International, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380014, 1993, pp. 232, Rs. 80/Stud.-23

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178 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE subdivisions of the eight types of karma : 1. Jnanavaraniya (knowledgeobscuring), 2. darsanavaraniya (faith-obscuring), 3. Vedaniya, 4. Mohaniya, 5. ayuh, 6. nama, 7. gotra, and 8. antaraya karma (pp. 99-142). Part IV (consisting of only one Chapter i.e., chapter 17) is devoted to the exposition of the 14 guna sthanas which represent various stages of spiritual development (pp. 145-228) Incidentally, it may be noted here that the position of the subject 'Sixth Stage of 'Development' and onwards (pp. 222-228), which was left unwritten by Gandhi owing to his ill-health, is completed by the editor, Dr N. J. Shah. The 'Contents' are prefaced with a useful Introduction (pp. 5-24) and a Table of Contents (pp. 25-32) by Dr. N. J. Shah, the editor. At the end is added an Appendix very briefly dealing with 'Contributions of Jainism to Literature and Progress'. (pp. 229-232) Part I reveals V. R. Gandhi's deep love for Indian culture. His treatment of the Panca-maha-yajnas (five great sacrifices), by performing which animal man becomes human is indeed very instructive. He points out that according to the Jain conception of reality both the substance (dravya) and its modes (paryayas) are real. He compares this view with that of Vedanta which regards Paryayas, modes as unreal. He deals with the method of analysis (nayavada) and synthesis (syadvada) of the Jains and answers Sankaracarya's criticism of Syadvada. He puts forward forceful and cogent arguments in favour of rebirth and transmigration. He explains the Jain view of God. The Jains do not believe in a God who is a creator of the world. According to them, a perfected soul is a God and there could be any number of such Gods. The Vedic Hindus, the Buddhists and the Jains agree on the conception that each karma (action) entails its fruit, it is the Jain thinkers however who have given deep thought to and studied it minutely from various points of view. They have developed the karma theory in all its aspects in their works dealing with the doctrine of karma. The conception of 14 Gunasthanas as expounded by the Jains, though appears new, has some parallel in the stages of spiritual development mentioned in the yoga system. The work under review reveals V. R. Gandhi's non-sectarian approach, his insight into the essentials of religion, his sound knowledge of other systems of Indian Philosophy, his close acquaintance with Western Philosophy and as stated earlier, his love for our culture. It is an excellent handbook of the Jain Religion and Philosophy. Dr. N. J. Shah, who has ably edited the work and prefaced it with his valuable Introduction deserves our warm congratulations for adding this splendid treatise, based on V. R. Gandhi's enlightening lectures, to the existing literature in English on Jain Religion and Philosophy.

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HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE ALAMKARA AND RASA TRADITIONS At the outset, I sincerely thank the authorities of the L. D. Institute of Indology for inviting me to deliver a lecture in Sri Hemacandra Navacatabdi Vyakhyanamala, organised under the auspicies of their Institute. Acarya Hemacandra, the polymath, is a precious gift of the Jain community of Medieval Gujarat to our country. He was a great man not only of his age but of all ages. He had profound knowledge of almost all branches of learning known to Medieval India and he himself contributed to them by writing authentic compendiums/works which won him the covetable title Kali-kala-sarvajna. I pay homage to the sacred memory of this great Jain polymath/savant. Now, I have been asked to speak on "Hemcandra's Treatment of the Alamkara and Rasa Traditions". With the late Prof. R. C. Parikh I edited Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana. This co-operative venture has a history. Prof. Parikh had just about that time brought out his critical edition of Mammata's Kavyaprakasa with the Samketa commentary of Somesvara Bhatta which was till then unpublished. Then I was working at the Gujarat College. He gave me a complimentary copy. When I glanced through the pages of the Samketa commentary, I noticed question-marks at a number of places indicating that those readings were corrupt. I was prompted by these question-marks to a comparative study and I wrote a review article correcting a large number of passages by identifying their sources, and gave it to Prof. Parikh for pre-view. He was highly impressed by that review article and within a few days he invited me to join him as co-editor in the task of bringing out a second revised edition of Hemcandra's Kavyanusasana and I am happy to state that our edition has been welcomed by scholars in the field as a standard edition. I fully utilised the opportunity provided by Prof. Parikh, studied critically and comprehensively the work and the fruit of this study was my paper "The Sources of Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana". This paper was greatly appreciated by an outstanding alamkarika from Bengal, Prof. Siva Prasad Bhattacarya, who had earlier

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180 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE published his paper on "Hemacandra and the Eleventh Century Poeticians of Kashmir" in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1957. Hemacandra and The alamkara tradition Let us begin with Hemacandra and the alamkara tradition. It appears that in ancient times kavya and natya (poems and plays) were looked upon as separate compartments. Poetics developed in distinction from dramaturgy. There were certainly predecessors of Bhamaha and Dandi whose works they have freely used but which are no longer extant. These alamkarikas--writers on poetics, literary thinkers in the course of their aesthetic investigation discovered that the prime source of beauty in kavya is the alamkaras. This discovery of theirs gave the name alamkarasastra to poetics, and the word alamkarika or alamkarakara for a writer on poetics. The word alamkara in its widest sense denotes saundarya or vakrokti or atisayokti (beauty, figurative speech or an extraordinary striking mode of expression). It is at the basis of each and every alamkara. It constitutes the very life of kavya (poetry). It distinguishes kavya from sastra (science) or ordinary everyday language of life (lokaprasiddhabhasavyavahara). It is a deviation from ordinary or natural mode of expressing things or facts of any sort in order to produce a certain striking effect (vicchitti or vaicitrya) or an imaginative turn of speech (bhangibhaniti). In this sense it applies to figures of speech because they beautify kavya. Dandi uses the term alaskara in the restricted sense of figures of speech and in the widest sense also to cover anything which lends beauty to the poem : काव्यशोभाकरान्धर्मानलंकारान् प्रचक्षते। a arafu fara menant soit bolatait agafa 11 - Kavyadarsa II. 1 and, यच्च सन्ध्यङ्ग-वृत्त्यङ्ग-लक्षणाद्यागमान्तरे / aforafta agunichaita 7: |--Kavyadarsa II. 367 Bhamaha, the greatest exponent of the alamkara tradition, insists on the alamkaras as the most essential feature of kavya. He emphatically declares : 7 colouf frete farifa afiangy 1 ---Kavyalamkara I. 13cd Not that these alamkarikas were not aware of the rasa theory but they gave the rasas 'a subordinate place from the point of view of the alamkarikas who held rasa or rasadi (dhvani) to be the soul of poetry.Bhamaha and others defined such alamkaras as rasavat, preyas etc., 'making rasas subordinate to alamkaras. Mammata defines poetry as

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HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE.... 181 तददोषौ शब्दार्थों सगुणावनलंकृती पुनः क्वपि / Jayadeva, the author of Candraloka, vehemently criticises Mammata for his definition of poetry which omits alamkaras. He bursts out : अङ्गीकरोति यः काव्ये शब्दार्थवनलंकृती / असौ न मन्यते कस्मादनुष्णमनलं कृती / We have the cause of the alamkaras in the poet's imagination (kavipratibha) and their effect is a definite fact, species of charm. Mammata's definition of alamkara in effect accepts this fact : वैचित्र्यं चालङ्कारः / Vaicitrya' or 'vicchitti' is a certain charm which gives an alamkara its being and value. Such charm does not permit of exact description as it is as infinite as the poet's imagination which produces it, but it is this which forms the basis of any alamkara and justifies our asserting that it is an alamkara differentiating it from other arts. Theoretically speaking, there is no limit to the number of alamkaras. What is after all an alamkara ? Anandavardhana says : 344511 fe afida ficari ya arsidor: 1 - Dhvanyaloka. p. 473 तत्र शब्दार्थवैचित्र्यप्रकारोऽनन्तः / -Locana, p. 25 अभिधानप्रकारविशेषा एव चालंकाराः / -Alarkarasarvasva, p. 9 Bhamaha and Dandi hardly made any distinction between gunas and alamkaras. Ruyyaka, the author of Alamkarasarvasva, rightly summarises the view of the exponents of the alamkara tradition in these words : इह हि तावद्भामहोद्भटप्रभृतयश्चिरन्तनालंकारकाराः प्रतीयमानमर्थं वाच्योपस्कारतयालंकारपक्षनिक्षिप्त मन्यन्ते ।....उद्भटादिभिस्तु गुणालंकाराणां प्रायशः साम्यमेव सूचितम् / ..... तदेवमलंकारा एव काव्ये प्रधानमिति प्राच्यानां मतम् / As against this alaskara tradition we have the Rasa or Rasadi-dhvani tradition. According to this tradition rasa (or rasadi) is the very essence, the very soul, of kavya (including natya). Rasa is pradhana, alamkarya and alamkaras adorn, or add to or heighten or enhance the beauty of the pradhana artha-the alamkarya rasa. Just as bracelets, etc., when worn on her person by a kamini (a lovely maiden) enhance her beauty and are called alamkaras even so upama, anuprasa, etc. the arthalamkaras and the sabdalamkaras when they heighten rasa, are called alamkaras. When defining alaskaras in a general way Hemacandra says: अङ्गाश्रिता अलङ्काराः -1.13 Hemacandra here echoes Dhvanyaloka II. 6 :

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182 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE तमर्थमवलम्बन्ते येऽङ्गिनं ते गुणाः स्मृताः / 37sil starosti Hotell stoechlicca! --Kavanusasana, p. 34 For the present discussion we leave out the sabdalamkaras like anuprasa, yamaka etc. and turn to Hemacandra's treatment of arthalamkaras. If Bharata speaks of four alamkaras, Mammata 61, Ruyyaka 75, Appayya Diksita defines and illustrates 125 alamkaras. The increase in number is easy to understand for, as we have already seen, they are the several striking modes of expressing ideas and their number could be infinite-ananta. Simultaneously with this tendency to increase the number of alamkaras there was the counter-tendency to reduce their number by rejecting the status of alamkaras to some alleged alamkaras. Bhamaha is the first alamkarika to deny this status to the alleged figure varta (Reportage) and the three figures Hetu, Suksma and Lesa. Incidentally, it may be noted that Dandi calls them "Vacamuttamabhusanam". But neither of them advances any reasons, either against or in favour of them. The real credit for reducing the number of alamkaras by critically examining their nature goes to Kuntaka. By this examination he rejects about twenty alamkaras. He judges them by three criteria-principles-standards : 1. alamkarantaratva or bhusanantarabhava, 2. sobha-sunyata and 3. alamkaryataya vibhusyatva. Hemacandra defines and illustrates twenty-nine arthalamkaras and rejects a very large number of alamkaras defined by his illustrious predecessors. The late lamented Prof. R. B. Athavale, a top-ranking alamkarika of the old Bombay State, in his Gujarati edition of Kavyanusasana (Adhyaya I, VI Arthalamkaras), (Balagovinda Prakashana, Ahmedabad, 1959) discusses this topic at length, It is not necessary to cover the same ground again here. But two points need to be briefly mentioned. Prof. Athavale in the relevant discussion does not refer to Hemacandra's indebtedness to Kuntaka's Vakroktijivita. Naturally enough, he could not have done it for the obvious reason that the full text of the work was not then available. The other point, however, needs some explanation. It is true that Prof. Athavale finds fault with Hemacandra for rejecting a good many well defined and illustrated alamkaras of his reputed predecessors. Now, we must not lose sight of the fact that the various alaskarikas right from Bhamaha to Jagannatha differ among themselves regarding the nature of certain alamkaras and whether they should be accepted or rejected. The reason behind this divergence of views is not far to seek. For the very concept of charm or beauty eludes a clear-cut and precise definition. Further, it is next to impossible to lay down precise quantum of charm for

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HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE.... 183 constituting a separate figure (vicchittivisesa) distinct from all the other accepted figures or of the slight difference of charm required for reckoning it as a subvariety of the concerned distinct figure. Further more, the concepts of aupamya (similarity), virodha (opposition, contradiction or incongruity), bheda (difference) and abheda (identity) are all relative as they admit of degrees or stages. Inherently, the two tendencies, one of multiplying the number of figures and the other, of reducing the number of these figures are quite natural and useful in their own way. As these eminent literary thinkers widely differ amongst themselves regarding the alleged figures, the question naturally arises whom we should follow as the authority. Jagannatha who 'was a poet of creative genius and who also possessed the faculty of aesthetic appreciation in an eminent degree' furnishes the answer to this question when he says more than once that in this matter sahrdayasmen of taste, competent, responsive, sensitive readers are the authority. This appeal to the sahrdayas implies that the apprehension of charm or beauty of a particular figure as distinct from other accepted figures depends as much on the poet's representation of a thing, situation or idea as on the temperament, training and poetic sensibility of the sahrdaya, such as Prof. Athavale. Now, we take up Hemacandra and the Rasa Tradition. Hemacandra and the Rasa Tradition The earliest treatise of the Rasa tradition is Bharata's Natyasastra, a compilation unquestionably from previous works that have been irretrievably lost. The early writers on poetics were aware of the employment and importance of rasas but they did not treat them as the most essential or vital elements in kavya. It was Anandavardhana, the author of Dhvanyaloka, an epoch-making work, who systematically dealt with the relation of rasas to kavya. Bharata unequivocally declared : 7 FE TEN ofergef: yarati Everything, every activity or action in drama is directed towards the creation of rasa. He set down the key-formula--the famous rasa sutra-for developing or producing rasa : विभावानुभावव्यभिचारिसंयोगाद्रसनिष्पत्तिः / The technical terms vibhava, anubhava, vyabhicaribhava, and rasa were deliberately invented to impress on the minds of spectators and readers that they relate to the world of drama (and by extension to the poetic universe)and not to the real world or everyday life where we use the terms like karana, karya, sahakari karana and bhava. Bharata explains these terms: Vibhavas are

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184 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE determinants. In the later classification they fall into two divisions alambana (fundamental) and uddipana (excitant) determinants. Alambana vibhavas comprise the nayika, the nayaka, for, without them there can be no development or creation of rasa in the audience-preksakas-spectators. Uddipana vibhavas are such conditions of place and time and circumstances as serve to foster rasa (sentiment), for example, the full moon, garden, the fragrant breeze, secluded place, etc.--all things which foster the sentiment of srngara when the emotion of love (rati) has already arisen. The anubhavas (consequents) are the external manifestations of the feeling, by which the actors suggest to the audience the feelings, the minds and hearts of the characters or persons of the drama, such as kataksas (sidelong glances); smita (smile), alingana (embrace) and the like. Bharata singles out eight anubhavas, sveda (perspiration), romanca (horripilation) etc., and designates them as sattvikabhavas (they are called sattvika as arising from a heart which is ready to appreciate the joys or sorrows of another (sattva). Bharata mentions (33) thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas transitory feelings like glani (weakness), sanka (apprehension), srama (fatigue or weariness), asuya (envy), cinta (worry), etc. They are called vyabhicaribhavas because they, like the waves appear on the surface of the sea for a while and submerge the next moment. They are like the gems woven in a thread--the sthayibhava and strengthen it. Bharata mentions eight such sthayibhavas (permanent emotions or feelings) rati(love), soka (sorrow), etc. When they are developed we get the eight corresponding rasas, ssrgara, karuna etc. Later writers add the ninth rasa called santa. Now, the rasasutra has been differently interpreted by four different commentators-Lollata, Sankuka, Nayaka and Abhinava and their views are known as utpattivada, anumitivada, bhuktivada and abhivyaktivada. The commentaries of the first three commentators are lost and we know about their views from the summaries of their expositions recorded by Abhinavagupta in his commentary Abhinavabharati. It is not possible to give an exposition of these views even briefly within the allotted time. Post-Abhinavagupta alamkarikas, with one or two exceptions, follow Abhinavagupta unquestioningly. The salient features of his exposition are : (i) Rasa is not produced in the character of the play, say Dusyanta nor inferred as existing in the nata(actor) who plays the role of Dusyanta, but it is suggested/manifested/revealed (abhivyakata) as the spectator, samajika, witnesses the play. The rasa is to be located in the spectator, Thus according to Abhinava rasa is to be located not in the character of the play, not in the actor but in the spectator himself.

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HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE.... 185 (ii) Sthayivilaksano rasah/--Rasa is altogether different from the permanent feeling or emotion; vasanas-latent impressions which man carries from birth to birth. This vasana or sthayibhava is inborn. It is aroused by vibhavas, anubhavas, etc., it is universalised/generalised and this generalised bhava the spectator enjoys by identifying himself or herself with the hero or heroine (of course, on the unconscious level). This enjoyment or relish of rasa continues so long as the vibhavas etc. are present. The sthayibhava when thus universalised and is attended by vibhavas, etc. gets the name/title rasa. When the vibhavas etc., disappear from view rasa ceases to exist. (iii) Rasa is alaukika - out of the ordinary, extra-worldly or non-worldly, different from its sthayibhava. Because of this alaukika nature, even the painful feelings of our everyday life like soka (sorrow), krodha (anger), bhaya (fear) and jugupsa (disgust) become pleasurable. All the eight (or nine) rasas are therefore anandarupa or sukhatmaka (pleasurable). Keith briefly summarises this view of Abhinavagupta in these words : "The sentiment thus excited is peculiar, in that it is essentially universal in character; it is common to all other trained spectators, and it has essentially no personal significance, A sentiment is thus something very different from an ordinary emotion; it is generic and disinterested, while an emotion is individual and immediately personal. An emotion again may be pleasant or painful, but a sentiment is marked by that impersonal joy, characteristic of the contemplation of the supreme being by the adept, a bliss which is absolutely without personal feeling." (The Sanskrit Drama p. 318). Finally, although rasa is alaukika and aprameya (which cannot be known by any of the pramanas--proofs--it does not mean rasa does not exist. For it is sva-samvedana-siddha--it is felt. In the course of his refutation of the rival theories of rasa Abhinavagupta briefly mentions the Samkhya-view which holds that rasa is sukhaduhkhatmaka- 'pleasant and painful. This view is not made clear. Whether each rasa is both pleasant and painful or some rasas are pleasant and some others painful. Abhinava however rejects it summarily out of hand. In his Kavanusasana Hemacandra reproduces the whole section from Abhinavabharati dealing with the exposition of the rasasutra and in unmistakable words declares that in regard to the doctrine of rasa he follows Acarya Abhinavagupta. It is very interesting to find that Hemacandra's close and devoted disciples, Ramacandra and Gunacandra, enunciate in their Natyadarpana that Stud.-24

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186 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE rasa is sukha-duhkhatmaka and thus provide an exception to the ancient rule "yathopadhyayam sisyah"; we have no means to know whether these disciples had discussed their view with Acarya Hemacandra and what the Acarya's reaction was. But for a spirited defence of their view with cogent arguments they have won praise from some modern writers on poetics. Another Jain scholar, Siddhicandragani, a contemporary of Jagannatha, in his commentary Kavyaprakasakhandana observes : "तदपेक्षया कामिनी-कुच-कलश-स्पर्श-चन्दनानुलेपनादिनेव नाट्यदर्शनकाव्यश्रवणाभ्यां सुखविशेषो जायते / स एव तु रस इति नवीनाः / " - 90 PE According to the view of the Ancients, the rasa is paramanandarupa. The Moderns (Navinah, including Siddhicandra himself, most probably,) however, say: "A Peculiar pleasure which arises on watching a dramatic performance or hearing the recitation of poetry is similar to the pleasure of anointing one's body with sandal-paste or of pressing the breasts of a young beautiful woman. This peculiar pleasure is itself rasa. In other words, the Moderns regard the aesthetic pleasure as on a par with ordinary pleasures of the senses as only (laukika) worldly. As a corollary to this view they hold that there are only four rasas : the erotic, the heroic, the comic and the marvellous; and they reject the claim of the pathetic, the furious, the terrifying and the disgusting to the title rasa!. From this description of the nature of rasa we can easily see how Siddhicandra, a Modern, has gone a step, rather far ahead in bringing rasa to the laukika level. The view expressed by the authors of the Natyadarpana and Kavyaprakasakhandana has not been taken note of by the followers of the Ancients. It is sometimes argued that Lollata, Dandi etc, held the view that rasa is sukhaduhkhatmaka. This much is, however, true that they hold that the sthayin when intensified to its zenith becomes rasa. Thus soka when intensified to its highest point becomes karuna rasa. But this does not mean that the spectators who witness a karunarasanirbhara play experience sorrow. We should make a distinction between the nature of experience the dramatist and the actor are trying to put across and the way the audience receive it through the medium of art-the poetic art of the dramatist and the art of acting of the actor renders any type of experience pleasurable. There is reason to believe that the ancient thinkers held that all rasas are pleasurable to the audience. But it is a separate topic and so we better leave it here. Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana and D. D. Kosambi's Criticism

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HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE.... 187 (Harvard University Press, 1957, p. xvii) D. D. Kosambi observes : "Every portion of the anthology is permeated by the theme of sex. Even in dealing with the gods, it is their night life which is most often treated. What may surprise the reader is that monastic scholars also enjoyed and perhaps wrote, such erotic poetry without the least sense of transgression or incongruity, without deviating from a puritanical doctrine and the ascetic life in any other way. The great Jain acarya Hemacandra quotes and comments upon many of our stanzas with the zest of any other theorist of Sanskrit poetry, finding nothing in the act unworthy of his high position in a celibate religious life of unquestioned purity. Nor is he alone in this. These people were connected with the court as preceptors to kings.. It follows that the type of poetry had become as much the fashion as the Sanskrit language among the ruling classes and their educated dependants. The conventions developed by professional poets suited kings like Harsa and Bhoja; so were taken over without thought of new departure by them as well as their pontiffs and abbots. In flavour, there is little to choose between the Buddhist Dharmakirti and his Saiva or Vaisnava colleagues." The charge of lack of originality and of plagiarism was levelled against Hemacandra in his life-time and he has met it in one of his subsequent works (Pramanamimamsa). We do not know if the kind of criticism passed by Kosambi had reached Hemacandra's ears and if he has answered it in any of his later works. We have however clear evidence of such criticism directed against Ramacandra, who was Hemacandra's very devoted and able disciple. Ramacandra mentions it and refutes it in his prologue to the play Mallikamakaranda. The relevant dialogue reads as follows : "Nata : (disdainfully) Sir, the munis are solely devoted to sama (peace or quietude) and they use their dignified speech solely for the exposition of dharma. It is certainly unworthy of them to write plays portraying the sentiments of srngara (love), hasya (laughter), vira (heroism) and the like. Sutradhara : O my worthy friend, now you speak things which betray that you do not have the cleverness of (even) a villager ! The whole world knows that sama is of the very essence to great monks and sages. Do not however, forget the fact that although gods are born in heaven they move about in all the three worlds." The suggstion is : Munis too should occasionally leave the high pedestal and come down on earth and write poems and plays and appreciate them when sung and staged. Just as the gods do not lose their godhead or divine nature

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188 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE simply because they move about in the three worlds, even so the munis who write poems and plays imbued with rasas like srngara, hasya etc., do not lose their monkhood. This reasoning is rather facile. The real point is that Hemacandra was preparing a critique on poeticsworking out an anatomy of poetry and for this purpose a rational, highly objective and disciplined mind was necessary. Where else can a mind receive such a training if not in the strict world of the (Jain) munis ? But to be a muni one doesn't have to cease to be human and it is a remarkable feature of Hemacandra's personality that the human qualities appear in him so sensitively alive in spite of his being a muni of great or high standing. Kosambi's criticism also suggests an act of impropriety. A muni should have considered erotic experience as unworthy even for the purposes of reading and study. Probably the idea is that such a perusal and continuous perusal at that may have an adverse effect on the mind of even a muni. This seems to be a poor view of the strength of the human mind. Virtue does not mean and should not mean running away from occasions of temptation but taking a firm stand to overcome them and discipline of a serious scholar should teach him to be detached enough. The writing of Kavyanusasana by a muni like Hemacandra could be accounted for this way too : a person can have an experience, say, that of anger, and can treat it as an object of his awareness; thus the duality of subject and object is, or at least, can be present, even when the object is a mental phenomenon.. A sadhaka (mumuksu) can experience the traces of past experience, awakened by the stimulus--(here, a play) and can treat the newly evoked experience as the object of his awareness. Two options are available here for him : (i) He can give up his attitude of subject and get immersed in the aroused emotion, or (ii) he can treat it as an object, to test his spiritual strength, the extent of his spiritual attainment. If he adopts the second option it need not obstruct his spiritual progress. A disciplined muni like Acarya Hemacandra could adopt the second option and read, appreciate and even write kavya portraying srngara, hasya and other rasas. There is absolutely no inherent contradiction between ascetic life and engaging in creative literary activities. Charge of plagiarism A modern writer on Sanskrit poetics has charged Hemacandra of plagiarism. In his own times too, it appears, he was charged with plagiarism. For when writing his Pramanamimamsa he takes note of this unjustified criticism

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HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE.... 189 and briefly answers it, basing his arguments on Jayantabhatta's famous Nyayamanjari which was composed about two centuries before Kavyanusasana. This relevant discussion, though somewhat long, deserves to be reproduced at least partially : "Before the advent of Aksapada who was there to establish the validity of the Vedas ? But it is a feeble objection. Who has interpreted the Vedas before Jaimini ? Who has given the analysis of words before Panini ? Who has made a study of metres before Pingala ? From the dawn of creation these sciences are in vogue on earth like the Vedas. (The so-called authors do not invent the sciences but) they treat the existent or old subjectmatters either in an elaborate manner or in an abridged form; and from that point of view only they are called their authors."2 In the same vein Hemacandra says : "These vidyas (sciences or disciplines) are without a beginning; they become new from the point of view of abridgment (samksepa) and/or detailed description (or amplification vistara) and are said to be composed by the concerned authors."3 Now, in Medieval India we find many writers of compendiums in alamkarasastra. The Kavyaprakasa of Mammata, the most important and most popular work on poetics is a compendium. It epitomizes all the important theories of poetics that were developed before him. Topics which were treated by his predecessors in different works were for the first time brought together and systematised by him in this work. The orderly and concise treatment of the main issues of poetics mark off his compendium from other compendiums as a splendid and marvellous achievement. The fact, however, remains that it is a compendium only and that it does not present any new theory or doctrine of poetics. Hemacandra on the other hand treats of the topics of his predecessors elaborately presenting them as far as possible in their own form instead of summarising or paraphrasing or describing in his own language. His capacity to select choicest passages from his authorities and to organise them into a homogeneous and organic whole is supreme. It is indeed surprising that such a scholarly, carefully designed and well organised work on poetics should have remained almost entirely unacknowledged. Hemacandra's invaluable services Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana is one of the authentic and most valuable sources for obtaining better or correct or original readings for scores and scores of passages in Abhinavabharati, Dhvanyalokalocana, Vakroktijivita,

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190 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Sarasvatikanthabharana, srngaraprakasa, Bhamahavivarana, etc., which have been judiciously used in its preparation. We may take up for consideration one of these source-books, utilised by Hemacandra, namely Abhinavabharati. The text of the Abhinavabharati, has been badly preserved in its manuscripts. The first editor of the text (The Natyasastra of Bharatamuni with the commentary Abhinavabharati, Chs. I-VII ed, by M. Ramakrishna Kavi, second edn., Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1956, p. 63) remarked : "...even if Abhinavagupta descended from Heaven and saw the MSS, he, would not easily restore his original readings." Hemacandra has preserved intact the ideas and the language of some of the long sections from Abhinavabharati on the key chapters of the Natyasastra, Rasadhyaya, the Bhavadhyaya, the Dasrupakavidhana and the Sandhyadhyaya by incorporating them in their original form without abridging them. Thus, for instance, the pretty long section of Abhinavabharati extending over fourteen pages of the Kavyanusasana (Ch. II, pp. 89-103) is preserved in toto by Hemacandra. At the end of the section he acknowledges his source in these words : इति श्रीमानभिनवगुप्ताचार्यः / एतन्मतमेव चास्माभिरुपजीवितम् / For all this we all owe a tremendous debt of gratitude to him. Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana, Ramacandra and Gunacandra's Natydarpana and Ambaprasada's Kalpalataviveka that have freely drawn on Abhinavabharati and Dhvanyalokalocana are of immense help in correcting the corrupt text as printed in the editions of Natyasastra with Abhinavabharati and Dhvanyalokalocana. I have published a series of articles all entitled "Abhinavabharati : Text Restored". I have also published two papers : "Abhinavabharati : Ch. VII Recovered" ? and "Kalpalataviveka on Abhinavabharati". Even a cursory glance at these papers will convince scholars of poetics of the invaluable help rendered by these Jain authors to our better understanding and appreciation of the greatest and the most valuable commentaries of Abhinavabharati and Dhvanyalokalocana, of the master-critic and aesthete, second only to Anandavardhana, the author of the epoch-making work Dhvanyaloka. Hemacandra does not claim any originality as regards discovering any new theory of poetics. He however claims originality in his method, manner, and treatment of the subjectmatter. And this claim is just and legitimate. I have done. I thank the authorities of the Institute once again for their kind invitation and I thank you all for patient hearing.

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HEMACANDRA'S TREATMENT OF THE.... 191 Notes and References : 1. नवीनास्तु शृङ्गार-वीर-हास्याद्भुत-संज्ञाश्चत्वार एव रसाः / करुणादीनां यथा न रसत्वं तथा वक्ष्यते ।...अथ करुणादीनां कथं न रसत्वमिति चेत्, उच्यते...यत्तु शोकादयोऽपि रत्यादिवत् स्वप्रकाशज्ञानसुखात्मका इति तदुन्मत्तप्रलपितम् / एवं भयातिशयवर्णनं तत्तद्व्यक्तीनां मार्दवप्रतिपादनाय / वस्तुतस्तु कविभिः स्वशक्तिप्रदर्शनार्थमेव-पद्यबन्धाबन्धादिनिर्माणवत् तत्र तत्र प्रवर्त्यत इति / पृ. 16-22 2. नन्वक्षपादात् पूर्वं कुतो वेदप्रामाण्यनिश्चय आसीत् / अत्यल्पमिदमुच्यते / जैमिनेः पूर्वं केन वेदार्थो व्याख्यातः / पाणिनेः पूर्व केन पदानि व्युत्पादितानि / पिङ्गलात् पूर्वं केन छन्दांसि रचितानि / आदिसर्गात् प्रभृति वेदवदिमा विद्याः प्रवृत्ताः / संक्षेप विस्तर-विवक्षया तु तांस्तांस्तत्र कर्तृनाचक्षते / 3. .....पाणिनि-पिङ्गल-कणादाक्षपादादिभ्योऽपि पूर्वे कानि किमीयानि वा व्याकरणादिसूत्राणीत्येतदपि पर्युनुयुक्क्ष्व / अनादय एवैता विद्याः संक्षेप-विस्तर-विवक्षया नवनवीभवन्ति तत्तत्कर्तृकाश्चोच्यन्ते /

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SOURCES OF HEMACANDRA'S KAVYANUSASANA nen Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana is a very fine textbook on alamkarasastra. It is remarkable for its free use of the illustrious alaskara works that preceded it, as well as for its wealth of illustrations. It is admittedly a lucid compendium of the subject of poetics as developed by previous writers, most prominent of them being Bharata, Dandi, Vamana, Rudrata, Rajasekhara (KM), Kuntaka Abhinavagupta (Abh. and Locana), Dhanamjaya-Dhanika, Mahimabhatta, Bhoja (SK and SP), Ksemendra, Mammata and Rucaka or Ruyyaka (Samketa). The following table would give the reader a very good idea of the principal sources utilized by Hemacandra in the preparation of his Kavyanusasana : Subject Kavyanusasana 'Principal Source/Sources' Kavyaprayojana Ch.I (pp. 3-6) KP. I. pp. 6-10; RS p. I; Locana I pp. 40-41 Kavyakarana (pp. 7-33) --Pratibha -pp. 5-6 KM IV. pp. 12-13 --Vyutpatti -pp. 7-13 Vamana 1-3; KM VIII (pp.35-41) and Kavik-V (pp. 17-20) -Abhyasa pp. 13-14 Vamana 1-3 -Siksa -Kavisamaya pp. 14-33 KM-XI-XIV --Sabdarthaharana S Kavyasvarupa pp. 33-42 KP.I. p. 13, p. 263, pp. 462-465, pp. 470-472 Dhv. and Locana pp. 223-234 pp. 42-87 Sabdarthasvarupa Dhv. and Locana pp. 74,78,137139, 167-169, 255-257, 271-276, 351-356 SP.VII (pp. 245-250) (pp. 47-57)

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SOURCES OF HEMACANDRA'S KAVYANUSASANA 193 In his Sr. Pra. (p. 708) Dr. Raghavan observes. : "Not only the Gathas and Sanskrt verses given as illustrations by Bhoja, but Bhoja's comments thereon are also reproduced completely by Hemacandra in his Kavyanusasana.... These six conditions (Abhinaya, Apadesa, etc.) and their illustrations are reproduced from the Sr. Pra." KP. V. (pp. 223-256) Rasalaksana pp. 65-66 Ch.II (pp. 88-105) --Pp. 88-89 ---pp. 89-105 (pp. 106-124) KP. IV-pp. 91-95 Abh.-(vol. I) pp. 272-287 Rasabhedas Sthayibhavas pp. 124-126 Abh. (vol. I) pp. 267, 304, 306-307, 314, 315, 324-326, 328, 329, 330, 333-339. Dhv. and Locana pp. 391-394 NS. VII and Abh. (Vol. 1) pp. 282-283 NS. VII and SK (V) and DR. (IV) with Avaloka NA. VII and SK. (V) Abh. (Vol.I) pp. 295-296; SK. (V) Vyabhicaribhavas pp. 126-144 Sattvikabhavas pp. 144-147 pp. 147-150 Rasabhasa and Bhavabhasa Kavyabhedas pp. 150-158 Dhv. and Locana (II) pp. 261, 263-264, 282-283, 495 KP.V W. 120 etc. Dosa-vivecana --Dosalaksana Ch.III (pp. 159-273) (pp. 159-161) -Rasadi-dosas (pp. 161-168) CP. Dhv. and Locana (pp. 8083) KP. VII. v. 321, 327, 330 Dhv. III (pp. 365-401) and KP. VII (pp. 450-460) DR. IV (p. 91) and Avaloka Dhv. III (pp. 361-364) Locana (pp. 342, 344) KP. VII. 60-62 (pp. 433-445) -Rasadosas (pp. 169-199) Stud.-25

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194 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE (pp. 173-176) (pp. 179-198) KM.(pp. 42-44), NS XVIII. 98-99 KM. XVII & XVIII (pp. 89-112) -Pada-dosas (pp. 199-201) SK I. 93 W 126-127 KP. VII V. 202 -Vakyadosas (pp. 201-226) -Ubhayadosas (pp. 226-261) Vamana II, ii, SK I, W. II. KP. VII and X. Vamana II, i. Dhv. (II) & Locana W. II; KP. VII Artha-dosas (pp. 261-273) Vamana. II ii; SK I W.II; KP, VII Dr. Raghavan's remarks on Hemacandra's treatment of Dosas are very apposite : ".... Chapter III of Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana is almost identical with chapter VII of Mammata's Kavyaprakasa. The number, nature and the illustrations of all the flaws are the same in the two books. In Hemacandra's own commentary on his work, Hemacandra has given additional matter drawn from Anandavardhana and Mahimabhatta under the heads of Rasadosas, Avimosta-vidheya and Prakrama and Krama Bhangas." (Sr. Pra. p. 246) Gunavivecana ch.IV(pp. 274 Mainly based on Ns. 294) XVII, KD; Vamana; and KP. (VIII) Dr. Raghavan's observations on Hemacandra's treatment of Gunas are very pertinent : "On Gunas Hemacandra is a follower of Anandavardhana and he draws upon Mammata and probably from Rajasekhara also... As regards the three Gunas, Hemacandra considers that Madhurya is of the highest degree in Vipralambha, a little less in Karuna and still less in santa. शान्तकरुणविप्रलम्भेषु सातिशयम् / "This is one of the views recorded later by Jagannatha..." Hemacandra's treatment of Gunas is noteworthy for his "reference to strange views on Gunas". One view holds that Ojas, Prasada, Madhurya, Samya and Audarya are the five Gunas (in the sense of Patha-dharmas). The other view is these five Gunas belong to certain metres. Hemacandra criticises both :

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SOURCES OF HEMACANDRA'S KAVYANUSASANA 195 Subject 'Kavyanusasana' 'Principal Source/Sources MUL Sabdalamkara varnana Ch. V (pp. 295-338) -pp. 298-314 Mainly based on the NS. XVII. KD, Rudrata, Devisataka with Kayyata's commentary; SK II and the KP (VIII, X) IX Rudrata, Devisataka, Kayyata's commentary, KD, Bharavi Rudrata (IV, V)and Devisataka, Kayyata's commentary NS XVII & Abh. (Vol. II) (pp. 385-392) -pp. 314-332 pp. 333-337 Arthalamkaravarnana Ch VI (pp. 339-405) Nayakadi-varnana Ch VII. (pp. 406-431) Mainly based on the works of Udbhata, Rudrata, Kuntaka, Mammata and to some extent on the SK and Locana Mainly based on the NS XXII and the Abh. (Vol III) DR(II) and Avaloka and a few verses from SK. Mainly based on the NS XVIII and the Abh. and SP (XI) Kavyakautuka, the NS XXIII and Abh. (on NS IV. 268) SP XI (pp. 469-480) Prabandhatmakakavyabheda Ch VIII (pp. 432-466) --Pp. 432-455 ---pp. 455-466 "The treatment of Sravyakavya in the VIIIth Chapter of the Kavyanusasana is completely a reproduction of the section on Gunas and Alamkaras of Prabandha as a whole and the definitions with examples of the types of Sravyakavya given by Bhoja in Chapters XI and XII of the Sr. Pra." (-Dr. Raghavan, Ss. Pra. p. 709). It is not clear why Dr. Raghavan mentions Chapter XII as Hemacandra's source for his treatment of Sravyakavya. Chapter XII "is devoted to the study of the structure and technique of drama" and has very little to do with sravyakavya. The reader is referred to su. Pra. pp. 403-404 where Dr. Raghavan critically examines and appreciates Hemacandra's treatment of Sravyakavya.

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196 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE P. 52 P. (Hemacandra and Rucaka : Note : Only a few identical passages are indicated below to prove Hemacandra's indebtedness to Rucaka or Ruyyaka) : Hemacandra Rucaka p. 5 (11 1-3) p. 77 (11 11-13, 1 22) p. 31 p. 154 (11 19-23) P. 40 P. 155 (1 12) P. 8 P. 178 (1 18) P. 225 (11 27-28) P. 74 P. 231 (11 6-8, 11 16-18) P. 238 (11 22-25) P. 47 P. 274 (1 7) 275 (1 8) PP. 204-205 P. 376 (11 9-11) P. 70 P. 388 (1 20) p. 69 p. 389 (11 2-6) p. 63 It is rarely that Hemacandra mentions his sources by name;1 but on many occasions when he happens to adopt even very long passages in either prose or verse from his predecessors' works he does not care to indicate their sources?. A few long passages in the Viveka?, although not found in any of the source-books mentioned above, do not appear, by virtue of their language and style, to be Hemacandra's. In many places we come across the expression Vayam tu brumah" or similar oness, which lead us to believe that the views prefaced with these expressions are Hemacandra's own, but the fact is that in many cases at least, Hemacandra only repeats his masters' views faithfully in their own words. There are scores and scores of passages, some of them pretty long, common to Somesvara's Samketa and Hemacandra's KS. R. C. Parikh holds that Hemacandra borrows these passages from Somesvara. I have shown in my paper published in the Bulletin of the Chunilal Gandhi Vidyabhavan, Surat (1961-62) that probably the borrowing is the other way?. In view of the uncertainty of the mutual relation between Hemacandra and Somesvara it will only be right to leave out Somesvara's Samketa while considering the present problem. Parikh and Dhruva consider Hemacandra's Ks to be unique in that it brings for the first time, Poetics and Dramatics within the compass of a single work. The work of Hemacandra, however, is not the first of its kind.

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SOURCES OF HEMACANDRA'S KAVYANUSASANA 197 Hemacandra takes the lead from Bhoja's SP which treats of both Poetics and Dramatics 10. The method of noting the sources of the illustrative verses and quotations in the KS adopted by the editor of the SMJV edition, although unexceptionable, is apt to lead one to believe that Hemacandra has drawn them directly from original sources but it is evident that in most cases Hemacandra has drawn them indirectly through the sources utilized by him in writing the KS. It is clear from what has been said above that Hemacandra's work does not constitute an original contribution to the subject. It is, however, not quite correct to describe the Kavyanusasana as a compilation exhibiting hardly any originality as Kanell does or to charge Hemacandra of plagiarism as De 12 does. Instead of briefly summarising or paraphrasing or describing in his own language the theories and doctrines of his predecessors too illustrious to be mentioned by name, if Hemacandra preferred to present them in their original form we need not find fault with him. Besides we cannot forget the fact that his writing was of a scientific nature and in scientific books such quotations are justified. We will only be betraying poverty of our imagination and scant respect for Hemacandra's intelligence if we were to insinuate that Hemacandra pretended that all the passages and excerpts which he quoted would pass as his own. The truth of the matter is that Hemacandra regards the masterpieces of his predecessors as the property of the entire world 13. Hemacandra is a man of 'pratibha' but his 'pratibha' is more of the 'bhavayitri and less of the 'karayitri type. His capacity to select choicest excerpts from his authorities and to organize them into a homogeneous and organic whole is supreme. Moreover, Hemacandra shows independence of thought and judgment in good many places, refusing to follow blindly his acknowledged authorities. To wit, he rejects, and on logical grounds too, three of the six Kavyaprayojanas given by Mammata (pp. 5-6); he differs with Mukulabhatta and Mammata for he holds that Laksana is based on Prayojana alone and not on Rudhi or Prayojana (p. 46). He differs with Mammata (p. 146) as he rejects Ubhayasaktimula-dhvani (p. 68) He rightly rejects the threefold classification of 'artha' into svatah sambhavi, Kavipraudhoktimatranispannasarirah and 'Kavinibaddhavaktrpraudhoktimatranispannasarirah', as found in the Dhv. (pp. 72-73) and the KP. (IV. 39-40). Hemacandra criticises Dhanika for describing Jimutavahana as Dhirodatta (vide KS p.123 II 19-21 and DR II. P. 37) if Mammata speaks of the eight kinds of Madhyama-kavya, Hemacandra holds that there are only three kinds of it (pp. 152-157). He seems to be hitting at Mammata when he remarks : "Etena nirvedasyamangalaprayatve' pi...tat pratiksiptam" (p. 121 II. 9-10). He differs with Mammata when he remarks "Ayam bhavah-yathanyaih pratikulavarnalaksano dosa uktah...tasya (p. 290 II.

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198 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 19-20). His treatment of the topic of Gunas (Ch. IV) is indeed remarkable, for its presentation and style invariably reminds us of Rajasekhara's KM. Although Hemacandra takes his cue from Kuntaka and his reasoning in reducing the number of Arthalamkaras is not always satisfactory nor convincing, the fact remains that his treatment of this topic is, to a good extent, novel. In a few places we find him combining passages from different sources skilfully into one organic whole-adding his own remarks in between. In this connection we may point to Viveka pp. 203-4, (I. 13-30) where he combines passages from the Vyaktiviveka and the Vakroktijivita, or Viveka p. 362 (I. 10 to p. 364) where he combines the vrtti of the Dhv. and Locana adding his own remarks in between. It would, therefore, seem that the criticism against Hemacandra's KS is not fair. It would be more correct to describe the KS as a good textbook lucidly setting forth various topics of Alamkarasastra in the very words of the masters and serving as a good introduction to the study of the well-known authorities 14. Notes and References : 1. For instance...iti srimanabhinavaguptacaryah (p. 103) 2. In regard to Hemacandra's source, the KM., it is sometimes argued the "The reason of not mentioning the name of Rajasekhara here might be that, in the view of Heracandra, Rajasekhara also might have taken this matter from some other author." This argument in defence of Hemacandra, if accepted as valid, would lead to disastrous conclusions. For by this reasoning all those excerpts from Mahimabhatta, Abhinavagupta, Kayyata and others would have to be considered as not their own-a conclusion which, on the very face of it, is absurd. 3. For instance, p. 155 (1.24) 156 (11 10-24); pp. 164 (1 24)--166. 4. For example, p. 110 (1, 24), p. 183 (1, 22), p. 217 (1,23), p. 337 (1.13). 5. To wit : p. 176 (II. 20-21), p. 178 (I. 14), p. 220 (lastline). 6. Kavyaprakasa (Part II), Rajasthana Puratana Granthamala, No. 47, Jodhpur. 7. In addition to the arguments set forth in my paper in favour of my thesis the following one may be stated : the treatment of sravya type of literature in the KS (and Somesvara's Samketa) is clearly based on Bhoja's SP (XI, pp. 469-480). The SP, however, does not mention Sakalakatha. Since Hemacandra adds its definition and example (the Samaradityakatha, a Jaina work) and Somesvara omits this example, it is reasonable to hold that Somesvara borrows not directly from Bhoja but from Hemacandra. 8. Introduction to Kavyanusasana (p. CCC XXV), (1st edn.) 9. Foreword to Kavyanusasana (p. 10), (1st edn.) 10. Bhoja's Srngaraprakasa by V. Raghavan : Detailed Notice of the Contents (Ch. V) 11. History of Sanskrit Poetics (1961 ed.), pp. 288-89.

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SOURCES OF HEMACANDRA'S KAVYANUSASANA 199 12. Studies in the History of Sanskrit poetics Vol. I (p. 203). 13. Vide Hemacandra's remarks at the opening of his Pramanamimamsa, he unambiguously and emphatically states; Anadaya evaita vidyah samksepa-vistara-vivaksaya navanavibhavanti, tattatkartrkasca ucyante. "It is interesting to note that even this statement of Hemacandra is based on Jayanta's Nyayamanjari. (p. 1 and 5). 14. The reader is referred to Shivaprasad Bhattacharya's Paper 'Hemacandra and the Eleventh Century Kashmir Poeticists" in the Journal of the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, Vol, XXIII 1957 No. 1. OOO

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HEMACANDRA ON SATTVIKABHAVAS Of all the chapters of Bharata's Natya-sastra the sixth Rasadhyaya and the seventh Bhavadhyaya are the key chapters. For, they deal with the most important elements of rasa and bhava (aesthetic or imaginative experience, and feelings or emotions) in drama. Bharata himself explicitly states 'without rasa no (dramatic) matter can arise." Rasas and bhavas being intimately connected, the bhavas too are equally important. There is clear evidence that verses on rasas and bhavas existed even prior to the Natyasastra.? Chapters on rasa and bhava frequently use technical terms like vibhava, anubhava, vyabhicaribhava, sthayibhava and sattvikabhava in the course of the exposition of the theories of rasa and bhava. Abhinavagupta in his commentary on the Natyasastra emphatically states that "in the everyday world there are no such things as vibhava, anubhava and the like. They are merely causes and effects." In other words they belong exclusively to the realm of art.3 Now, the sole intention behind the invention of this terminology is obviously to emphasize the point that the world of drama is different from the real world. And as Abhinavagupta observes in his commentary, in the theatre we live neither in the time nor in the space of the characters portrayed in the drama nor of the actors. Nothing "really happens" or "is affected" in a drama or on the stage as it happens in the real world; when this is not carefully understood something like the follwing happens : A well-known actress and an actor were to enact in a film a scene of an attempted rape. That the scene should appear as akrtrima (natural) as possible, the actress asked the villain to do his best and that she would resist his attempt with all her might. Later she told her friend that if the filming had gone on a couple of minutes longer she would have died of suffocation : In another film in a particular scene the actress was to be slapped. she asked the actor to give her a slap with all force so that it should appear 'natural'. When the actor actually slapped her, her ear-drum was damaged and her eye too.

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HEMACANDRA ON SATTVIKABHAVAS 201 These things belong to real life and not the world of drama. What the sensitive spectators expect of the actors and actresses is their supreme skill in acting and that they make the scenes appear real although they are fake. Their art lies in concealing art. Once an actor played the role of a villain so very well that one person from the audience rose in his seat, took out his 'Chappal and threw it at that actor. The actor however, smilingly took it as a tribute to his power of acting. The poor fellow who however threw in his anger the 'Chappal at the actor does not deserve to be called an ideal spectator. He failed to make the right distinction between reality and illusion. The poet, gifted with marvellous creative imagination--pratibha, and permeated with latent samskaras (impressions) of worldly love depicts the vibhavas, etc., through his play and the actor, trained and talented, presents the anubhavas in such a way as to bring the enjoyment of love to the level of an imaginative expression of love4. The terms 1. vibhava, 2. anubhava, 3. vyabhicaribhava correspond to karana, karya, sahakarikarana of our everyday life. The technical term sthayibhava (the permanent emotion running all through the play from the beginning to the end) corresponds to the related permanent emotion which is inborn with human beings. Bharata's categories of sthayibhavas, vyabhicaribhavas and sattvikabhavas, are not unalterably fixed. This is quite clear from a perusal of the texts. The technical term sattvikabhava however, is somewhat confounding and calls for a detailed exposition. A careful look at Bharata's treatment of karuna, vira and adbhuta would show that Bharata gives some of the sattvikabhavas as anubhavas and some others as vyabhicarins. This treatment implies that according to Bharata they partake of both characters--they are both vyabhicaribhavas and anubhavas. Abhinavagupta, Bharata's commentator, makes explicit what Bharata implies when he speaks of abhyantara (internal) and external (bahya) sattvikabhavas. The internal sattvikabhavas are sometimes not in excess (anudrikta); they are represented by using a fan etc., and if in excess they manifest themselves as perspiration etc., on one's person and hence are described by Bharata as of the nature of vyabhicarins. Further, Abhinavagupta draws our attention to the fact that Bharata mentions the sattvikabhavas as a separate class immediately after the vyabhicaribhavas and just before the 'catvaro'bhinayah' (the fourfold dramatic representation). Abhinayah mean anubhavas themselves. This fact leads to the reasonable conclusion that Bharata regards that the sattvikabhavas partake of Stud.-26

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202 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE the dual nature-they are vyabhicarins as well as anubhavas. Further on Abhinavagupta states that vibhavas like seasons, garlands, etc. and anubhavas, external manifestations of feelings like tears, etc., are exclusively of bodily or physical nature, and external and they can never be designated as bhavas--mental states. (cittavrttivisesa) and finally establishes : Tasmat sthayivyabhicarisattvika eva bhavah 1 (A. Bh. Vol. I, p. 343) (Therefore, the sthayins vyabhicarins and sattvikas alone are called bhavas-mental states). Now, about the word sattvika : Bharata after dealing with the sthayibhavas and vyabhicaribhavas treats of the sattvikas. He raises the objection : "Are the other mental states (sthayibhavas and vyabhicaribhavas) represented without sattva whence only these eight (stambha, sveda, etc.) are called sattvika"? and himself replies : sattva is something which arises from the mind. It emerges from the concentrated mind. It is essential in drama. Situations of happiness and misery need to be properly presented on the stage with the help of sattva so that they appear completely realistic to the spectators. This itself is the sattva in an actor : feigning to be in an unhappy or in a happy state he has to shed tears or display horripilation. And that is why these states (stambhha, sveda, etc.) are called sattvikabhavas." Abhinavagupta explains the term sattva as concentration of the mind (cittaikagryam). The authors of Natyadarpana who generally follow Abhinavagupta echo him when they say: "When the mind is attentive it is called sattva.. For if the mind be inattentive it is not possible for the actor to act out the sattvikabhavas like svarabheda (faltering voice), etc. In continuation of Abhinavagupta's discussion of the nature of sattva Hemacandra's discussion of the sattvikabhavas deserves to be taken up. In a footnote to my paper "Abhinavabharati, Ch. VII Recovered ?" I wrote "The discussion of this topic (sattva and sattvikabhavas) in the KAS (pp. 144-147) is possibly based on the portion in the A. Bh. on the Bhavadhyaya (now lost). This guess is hazarded on the strength of a few significant phrases common to the A. Bh. and the KAS8. The language, the style, the mode of presentation and the fact that Hemacandra freely adopts the whole section on rasa and passages after passages from Abhinavabharati on Dasarupakavidhana lead a careful student to believe that it is more likely than not that the whole discussion is taken over from the A.Bh. (on Ch. VII) now lost. The theoretical discussion in Alamkaracudamani may briefly be presented in the words of the late Professor M. V. Patwardhan as

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HEMACANDRA ON SATTVIKABHAVAS 203 follows: The word sattva means vital force (or energy) because of the etymology, viz. : the mind is lodged in it, and because vital force consists in an excess of sattva-guna and because of its inherent goodness (sattva=sadhutva). The sattvika-bhavas have their origin in sattva (in the vital force) and hence they are known by the name sattvika.' The sattvikabhavas are associated with the emotions such as rati (love) etc., which arise from Prana-bhumi--the bed-rock (bhumi) of the vital force. They are distinct from the physical effects such as tears, etc., which are extraneous (to the vital force) and which are nonsentient (? bodily, of physical nature) in their or form (jadarupa). They are produced only by the vibhavas associated as causes with the emotions or psychic states such as rati (love), etc. and are beyond the pale of aesthetic experience, and their presence (i.e. the presence of the internal sattyikabhavas) is intimated or suggested by their consequents. To explain : The psychic states, when they enter into the predominantly earth-allied element in the vital force give rise to stambha (the blocking of sensation, when they enter i.e. affect) the predominantly water-allied element in the vital force give rise to tears. But as tejas (heat) is intimately allied to the vital force either intensely (acutely) or in a feeble manner (mildly) and it gives rise to perspiration and paleness of the body (? face) it is spoken of in that way. Perspiration due to the infusion (of tejas) into the water-dominated element of the vital force, for example, is thus illustrated in the following stanza, cited in Viveka (p. 146) : "When in the course of gambling (with dice) for amusement (or diversion) her embrace was first won (as a wager) by her dear consort, and then, thereafter, the charming (delightful) offering of the lower lip (for being kissed) was won by her dear consort as wager, he again inquired of his beloved about the (next) wager to be put forward by her, she silently streched out (extended) her perspiring hand in order to throw (cast) the dice (sara-visaranayaraksa-utksepanaya), while her cheeks began to throb (quiver) because of the outburst of passion accumulated in her (mind) but held in check with a suppressed (inchoate) smile (santarhasa). But (physical) paleness or loss of colour due to the infusion of tejas into the waterdominated element of the vital force in a feeble manner is thus illustrated in the following stanza, cited in Viveka (p. 146) : "As that princess (Indumati) seeking to choose a consort for herself (from among the assembled kings) (simply) passed by the various kings successively (without making her choice of any one of them) each of them became pale (lost colour) just as when a flame (torch) passing successively in

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204 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE front of the mansions on the principal street in a city, each mansion became pale (and plunged in gloom)". When akasa (space) affects(anugraha) there arises pralaya (fainting). But when vayu (air) affects the vital force either slowly or swiftly or in a manner midway between the two, it becomes transformed in a triple way viz., horripilation, tremor or trembling and faltering voice. Faltering voice due to vayu (air) affecting the vital force swiftly is thus illustrated in the following stanza in Viveka (p. 146). "When Krsna went for Dvaraka, Radha, embracing the tender branch (lata) of the Vanjula tree (Asoka tree), bent down because of his jumping down from it (in the river Yamuna flowing near it) sang with such deep longing, her song turning into a loud wail and her throat so choked with profuse tears that the ducks swimming in the water began to cry plaintively (in sympathy)." Such is the view of those who are conversant with Bharata (i. e. with the Natyasastra of Bharata) 10 The final position is this : The external sattvikabhavas such as stupefaction, etc., are physical attributes and they operate as anubhavas suggesting the corresponding) internal sattvikabhavas and in reality they (ultimately) suggest emotions, psychic states such as 'love, world-weariness, etc. 11. These sattvikabhavas occur in connection with each one of the rasas and they do not possess even a slight trace of independence (autonomy) not even like the vyabhicaribhavas on the analogy of a king's servant engaged in his own marriage ceremony who is followed by the king (at the time of the marriage procession, i.e. in relation to his own servant the king occupies, for the time being, a position subordinate to that of his own servant.)12. The whole discussion may briefly be summarised as follows : The basic eight feelings are first felt by mind and later the mind allows or disallows them to be manifested physically through perspiration, or gooseflesh, or tears or pale complexion, etc. The fact to be noted is that all feelings are basically internal. They originate from human consciousness. They are in fact its vital part, hence termed as sattvika. Thus the whole section dealing with the theoretical knowledge about the sattvikabhavas and providing appropriate illustrations drawn from literature is remarkable for its originality and novelty. In the field of poetics it has been preserved for us by Hemacandra and Hemcandra alone. There is a solitary reference by Kumarasvamin, the author of Ratnapana, a commentary on Prataparudriya to the final position--the concluding lines (f.n. 11) which he

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HEMACANDRA ON SATTVIKABHAVAS 205 introduces with the words "उक्तं च आचार्यहेमचंद्रेण" / Kumarasvamin, it would seem, thinks that the whole section on sattvikabhavas is of Hemacandra himself. In conclusion, we should be grateful to Hemcandra who by his preference for eclectic writing has preserved for us the gold--the precious and best portions and passages from his illustrious predecessors and is of immense help in improving the corrupt readings from the texts of his source-books : Abhinavabharati, Dhvanyalokalocana, Vakroktijivita Srgiaraprakasa, etc., and contributes to knowledge. Notes and References : 1. न हि रसाते कश्चिदर्थः प्रवर्तते / -N. VI v. 31-V. 32 2. For instance, Bharata introduces the two verses VI. 32-33 with the words : अत्रानुवंश्यो श्लोकौ भवतः / The word anuvamsya means "traditional", "handed down as basic and authoritative". Read also P. V. Kane : The History of Sanskrit Poetics, Bombay, 1951 edn, pp. 16-17. 3. i) न हि लोके विभावानुभावादयः केचन भवन्ति / हेतुकार्यावस्थामात्रत्वाल्लोके तेषाम् / -A. Bh. Vol. I, p. 292 (ii) लोके विभावानुभावाभिनयादिव्यवहाराभावात् / -A. Bh. Vol. I on NS VI-71 (iii) लोके हि न कश्चिद् विभावादिव्यवहार इति भावः / -A. Bh. Vol. I on NS VI-36, 4th edn., p. 287. 4. कविहि लौकिकरतिवासनानुविद्धदस्तथा विभाववादीनाहरति नाट्यं चानुभावान् (नटश्चानुभावान् ?) यथा रत्यास्वादः शृङ्गारो भवति / 'आस्वादयितुरपि प्राक्कक्षायां रत्यवगम उपयोगी' इत्युक्तं प्राक् / -A. Bh. Vol. I (on NS p. 302), 4th edn, p. 296. 5. Bharata defines the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas treating them almost as if they were sthayibhavas, and some of the sthayibhavas are given as vyabhicaribhavas of other rasas. The sattvikabhavas, when the individual rasas are defined, are given as vyabhicaribhavas. 6. इह हि सत्त्वं नाम मनःप्रभवम् / तच्च समाहितमनस्त्वादुत्पद्यते / मनसः समाधौ सत्त्वनिष्पत्तिर्भवति / .... एतदेवास्य सत्त्वं यद् दुःखितेन सुखितेन वायुरोमाञ्चौ दर्शयितव्यौ इति कृत्वा सात्त्विका भावा इत्याभिव्याख्याता : / -NS VII, pp. 374-75 7. अवहितं मनः सत्त्वं तत्प्रयोजनं हेतुरस्येति सात्त्विकः / मनोऽनवधाने हि न शक्यन्त एव स्वरभेदादयो नटेन दर्शयितुम् / ___ ND, Baroda, 1959, edn, p. 169 8. Vide my book Studies in Sanskrit Sahitya-Sastra, B. L. Institute of Indology, Patan (North Gujarat), p. 77 9. सीदत्यस्मिन्मन इति व्युत्पत्तेः सत्त्वगुणोत्कर्षात् साधुत्वाच्च प्राणात्मत्वं वस्तु सत्त्वम्, तत्र भवाः सात्त्विकाः / भावा इति वर्तते / -Kavyanusasana, Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Bombay, 1964 edn, p. 144. 10. ते च प्राणभूमिप्रसृतरत्यादिसंवेदनवृत्तयो बाह्यजडरूपभौतिकनेत्रजलादिविलक्षणा विभावेन रत्यादिगतेनैवातिचर्वणा

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206 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE गोचरेणाहता अनुभावैश्च गम्यमाना भावा भवन्ति / तथा हि पृथ्वीभागप्रधाने प्राणे संक्रान्तश्चित्तवृत्तिगणः स्तम्भो विष्टम्भचेतनत्वम् / जलभागप्रधाने तु वाष्पः / तेजसस्तु प्राणनैकट्यादुभयथा तीव्रातीव्रत्वेन प्राणानुग्रह इति द्विधा स्वेदो वैवयं च... आकाशानुग्रहे गतचेतनत्वं प्रलयः / वायुस्वातन्त्र्ये तु तस्य मन्दमध्योत्कृष्टावेशात् त्रेधा रोमाञ्च-वेपथुस्वरभेदभावेन स्थितिरिति भरतविदः / -Ibid, pp. 144-146 11. बाह्यास्तु स्तम्भादयः शरीरधर्मा अनुभावाः / ते चान्तरालिकान् सात्त्विकभावान् गमयन्तः परमार्थतो रतिनिर्वेदादिगमका इति स्थितम् / __-Ibid, p. 147. 12. एते च सात्त्विकाः प्रतिरसं संभवन्तीति राजानुगतविवाहप्रवृत्तभृत्यन्यायेनापि व्याभिचारिवन्न स्वातन्त्र्यगन्धमपि भजन्ते. . . -Ibid, p. 147. 000

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DUAL NATURE OF SATTVIKABHAVAS* Of all the chapters in Bharata's Natyasastra the sixth and the seventh chapters, called Rasadhyaya and Bhavadhyaya respectively, are perhaps the most significant as they deal with rasa (sentiment, aesthetic experience) and bhava (emotion or feeling), which according to Bharata are the vital elements of a drama. The Bhavadhyaya treats of eight sthayi bhavas (permanent or dominant emotions), thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas (transitory feelings, accompanying emotions) and eight sattvikabhavas (involuntary states) which together make forty-nine bhavas. From Bharata's own treatment, it is, however, observed that the categories of bhavas are not unalterably fixed. For example, Bharata declares : The accompanying transitory feelings of the sentiment of love (srngara) are all vyabhicarins except laziness, violence and disgust (jugupsa). Now jugupsa, which is the sthayibhava (permanent emotion) of the sentiment of bibhatsa (the sentiment of horror or odium or disgust) is mentioned here as one of the vyabhicarins (transitory feelings) to be avoided when portraying the sentiment of srngara. This statement of Bharata implies that the so-called sthayibhavas can or could come as vyabhicaribhavas of some other rasas. Further the very fact that Bharata defines all the thirty three vyabhicaribhavas and treats them almost as if they were sthayibhavas in the seventh adhyaya indicates that the distinction between the two categories of emotions is rather slender. As regards the sattvika-bhavas Bharata gives them, when defining the individual rasas, as vyabhicaribhavas.? This fact once again shows that the categories of bhavas as sthayins, vyabhicarins and sattvikas are not very strict. In this paper, we confine our discussion to the dual nature of the sattvikabhavas only. While defining karuna, Bharata gives asrupata, mukhasosana smrti-lopa (which according to Abhinavagupta indicates stambha and pralaya) as some of its anubhavas; and stambha, vepathu, vaivarnya, asru, svarabheda as some of its vyabhicaribhavas>>. Again, while defining bhayanaka, Bharata gives pulaka,

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208 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE mukhavalvarnya, svarabheda as some of its anubhavas; and stambha, sveda. gadgada, romanca, vepathu, svarabheda, and vaivarnya, as some of its (vyabhicari) bhavas." Once again, while defining adbhuta Bharata gives romanca, asru sveda as some of its anubhavas; and stambha, asru, sveda, gadgada, romanca, pralaya as some of its (vyabhicari) bhavass. This treatment of the so-called sattvikabhavas unmistakably implies that according to Bharata, they partake of both characters (i.e., they are both vyabhicaribhavas and anubhavas). Abhinavagupta, Bharata's commentator, makes explicit what Bharata implies when he speaks of abhyantara (internal) and bahya (external) sattvikabhavas : (i) "Loss or change of colour, tears and faltering voice--these sattvikas are used here in the sense of internal feelings which have not manifested themselves externally. To explain : 'his throat is choked with tears but there are no tears in his eyes'. To show that tears, etc., depend on (i.e. partake character of) both vyabhicaribhava and abhineyatva (= abhinaya), Bharata has described them between the thirty-three) vyabhicaribhavas, and the (fourfold) abhinaya. This we have already said before (A. Bh. p. 268) and will say again in the seventh chapter ?" (ii) "Even in the absence of internal sattvikas, external perspiration, etc., are caused by swallowing poison or by fever, etc. In other words, perspiration, etc., are not invariably of the form or nature of mental states. The internal sattvikabhavas, when they are not in excess, are represented simply by using a fan, etc.; and if in excess, they manifest themselves as perspiration, etc., on one's person; and hence are described by Bharata as of the nature of vyabhicarins" (iii) "The words 'vak', etc. are used in the sense of their functions i.e. vacika abhinaya etc... They produce kavyartha which is connected with vacika, angika and sattvika abhinaya as karana. The vacika is of the form of speech; the angika consists of gestures of hands, feet, etc.; and the sattvika is of two kinds : internal and external."6 The fact that Bharata mentions the sattvikabhavas separately immediately after the vyabhicaribhavas and just before catvaro'bhinayah (fourfold dramatic representation) he ingeniously explains as follows : the sattvikas depend on (i.e. partake of) both characters, viz., vyabhicaribhava and abhinaya (acting or dramatic representation). That is precisely why they are described or classed separately.? For abhinayas' mean anubhavas themselves. 8 When commenting on the technical term bhava, Abhinavagupta says : by the word 'bhava' particular mental states alone are meant... The vibhavas like seasons, garlands, etc., and the external manifestations of feelings like tears, etc. (anubhavas), which are absolutely inanimate, cannot be designated or called by the term bhava (mental state)'. Citing this statement Raghavan observes : "They (tears, etc.) are bahya-anubhavas, physical manifestations and hence are jadas.

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DUAL NATURE OF SATTVIKABHAVAS 209 Abhinavagupta says that the sattvikas cannot be called bhavas at all strictly, though we speak of sattvikabhava. The name bhava primarily applies to mental states, the sthayins and the vyabhicarins". 10 This observation holds good as far as the bahya sattvika-bhavas (like tears, etc.,) are concerned. Abhinavagupta, however, recognises antara or abhyantara vaivarnya, asru, svarabheda, etc., also as vyabhicaribhavas. Thus, it is very clear that as far as Bharata and Abhinavagupta are concerned, they admit sattvikabhavas to be both vyabhicaribhavas and anubhavas. In other words, they hold that the sattvikabhavas have dual character. And immediately after two or three lines following the passage which Raghavan has cited, Abhinavagupta himself concludes: तस्मात् स्थायिव्यभिचारिसात्त्विका एव भावाः / Therefore sthayins, vyabhicarins and sattvikas alone deserve to be designated or called bhava". Now, immediately after dealing with eight sthayibhavas and thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas Bharata goes on to consider sattvikabhavas. He starts off with the following objection ; "Are the other mental states (sthayibhavas and vyabhicaribhavas) represented without sattva whence only these (to be described soon) are called sattvika" ? Reply : sattva is something which arises from the mind. It emerges or results from the concentrated mind. The sattvikabhava which is of the form of romanca (horripilation or goose-flesh), tears (asru) paleness or loss of colour (vaivarnya), etc., and is in accordance with its appropriate feeling, cannot be acted out by an absent-minded actor. The sattva is essential in drama as it is an imitation or reproduction or representation or re-enacting of what happens in everyday life or of human nature. To explain : situations of happiness and misery that are to be enacted on the stage should be properly presented with the help or on the strength of sattva so that they appear completely realistic. How can sorrow which consists in weeping be acted out on the stage by anyone who is not himself unhappy ? (who has no experience of unhappiness)? And how can happiness consisting in joy be acted out on the stage by any one who is not happy (by temperament)? This itself is the sattva in an actor : feigning to be in an unhappy or in a happy state, he has to shed tears and display horripilation respectively. And that is why these states are called sattvika-bhavas"? These are the eight sattvikabhavas : 1. paralysis, 2. perspiration, 3. horripilation, 4. faltering voice, 5. trembling, 6. loss of colour or paleness, 7. tears and, 8. fainting. Stud.-27

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210 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Abhinavagupta explains the term sattva as concentration of the mind (cittaikagryam). According to one commentator (tikakara) cited by Abhinavagupta, it means manas samadhanam, the same as cittaikagryam. In one context, he paraphrases sattva-samuttham as prayatnakrtam; in another context he explains it as what results from concentration of the mind (manassamadhanajam) and stresses the supreme importance of great effort (prayatna) for sattva (concentration of the mind) for natya (drama) rests or is founded on sattva. "Sattva is something invisible but serves as the basis of mental states by means of horripilation, tears, and other sattvika states displayed in accordance with the situations and sentiments." Compared with sattvika abhinaya the role of vacika and ongika abhinayas in drama is not so important, says Abhinavagupta. 12 It deserves our notice that the authors of natyadarpana, who generally follow Abhinavagupta, explain the term sattva after Abhinavagupta, though the words and expressions differ : When the mind is attentive it is called sattva. For if the mind be inattentive, it is not possible for the actor to act out the sattvikabhavas like svarabheda, etc."13 In continuation of this (Abhinavagupta's) discussion of the nature of sattva, Hemacandra's discussion of the sattvikas deserves to be taken up. For, it is surely enough based, to the best of our belief, 14 on the missing portion of the Abhinavabharati (ch. VII) dealing with the sattvikabhavas; the relevant portion from Kavyanusasana as translated into English by Prof. M. V. Patwardhan is given at the end of this paper as an Appendix to facilitate ready reference. In this paper, we confine ourselves to the main points of the discussion : Sattva means pranatmakam vastu (vital energy). It is so called because the mind dwells in it and because there is exuberance or predominance of sattvaguna in it and because it is characterised by intrinsic goodness. The sattvikabhavas arise from it. They are in the state of knowledge of rati, etc., which emerge from the prana-bhumi. (The idea is : the particular mental states like rati, etc., first appear as manifestations of consciousness. They then colour-by superimposing their own nature--the abhyantara (internal) pranas. In other words, flowing from their original mental state, they rest in the internal pranas without transforming themselves into external manifestations of feeling (anubhava) like paralysis (stambha), perspiration (sveda) etc.,). They are distinct from bodily or physical tears etc., which are external and inanimate (insentient or non-sentient) in their nature or form. They are produced by the same vibhavas which produce rati etc.; to put it differently, the vibhavas of the sthayins like rati, etc., and of the sattvikabhavas like stambha, sveda, etc. are the same. They are beyond the range of aesthetic experience or relish. They are, however,

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DUAL NATURE OF SATTVIKABHAVAS 211 suggested-their presence is conveyed--by their consequents, i.e. by their external manifestations. Although physical weakness (glani), laziness (alasya); fatigue (srama), stupor (murccha) etc., are devoid of alambana-visaya, still as they are caused by external factors, they are listed (or enumerated or counted) among vyabhicarins. The mental states like paralysis (stambha), etc. are, on the contrary, not caused by external factors, and hence they are called sattvikas. The external sattvikas paralysis (stambha), etc., are bodily or physical attributes (sarira-dharma) and therefore are called anubhavas. They first suggest their corresponding internal, sattvikabhavas but ultimately (really speaking or in reality) they suggest the mental states or emotions like love, world-weariness, etc. These sattvikabhavas occur in connection with each one of the sentiments (rasas). They do not enjoy even a slight trace of independence (or of occasional predominance)- not even like the vyabhicarins on the analogy of a king's servant engaged in his own marriage ceremony who is followed by the king (at the time of the marriage procession). (That is in relation to his own servant, the king occupies, for the time being, a position subordinate to that of his own servant). Dhananjaya, who closely follows Natyasastra, pointedly refers to the dual nature of the sattvikabhavas : पृथग्भावा भवन्त्यन्येऽनुभावत्वेऽपि सात्त्विकाः / Hralca uredite 9619971994 11 --DR IV.4 (b)-5 (a) i.e., the sattvikas, although they are of the nature of anubhavas, are bhavas other than sthayins (permanent emotions) and vyabhicarins (transitory feelings). For, they arise from sattva and it (sattva) means 'making the spectator's mind or heart realize the joys or sorrows of the character portrayed". It is the actor, who plays the role of Rama, etc., who, by the strength of his fourfold dramatic representation, makes the spectator apprehend clearly or experience almost directly the joys or sorrows the character (Rama) seems to have gone through. In the words of Keith : "The consequents are the external manifestation of feeling, by which the actors exhibit to the audience the minds and hearts of the persons of the drama... A special class is later made of those consequents, which are the involuntary product of sympathetic realization of the feeling of the person portrayed, and hence are called sattvika, as arising from a heart which is ready to appreciate the sorrows or joys of another (sattva)". 15 Raghavan explains sattva as follows : It is the making of our own hearts take the shape of what is presented in the poem or drama. This is sattva. This is how even rajasa and tamasa bhavas like anger and sorrow came to be sattvika. The

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212 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE samkhya term sattva is used in this context with a specialised meaning imported (injected) into it and equated with sattva well-known in dramaturgy as meaning "tanmayibhavana''16 At another place he observes : "Surely sattva means manas and as all bhavas are mental moods, they are all sattvikas. Sattvika also means from the point of view of the actor... those bhavas in the acting of which the actor had to enter into the mind and show. Though such acting is common to all bhavas, it is true most of the sattvikas, for a tear has to be shown by an actual tear and horripilation by horripilation"17 Visvanatha defines sattva thus : Sattva "is a certain inward disposition which spontaneously reveals the repose of one's soul where it does not interfere to modify the indication" and sattvikas as "Those changes in a human being are called 'involuntary or honest and spontaneous-which arise from sattva". These sattvikas differ from the anubhavas (consequents) in general only in their taking rise in sattva-just in the same way as the bull differs from the cattle (go-balivarda-nyayena);!in other words, the sattvikas are a special class of the anubhavas in general. Saradatanaya deals with the sattvikabhavas in his Bhavaprakasana. Kumarasvamin in his Ratnapana commentary on Prataparudriya takes note of his view along with those of others. Kumarasvamin's Ratnapana commentary is remarkable for its resume of a variety of interpretations of sattva, the source of the eight sattvika-bhavas. He specifically mentions Bhavaprakasa, Acarya Hemacandra, and Rasanirupana of Naraharisuri in the course of his exposition of the technical term sattva and the sattvika-bhavas. He is indebted to Dasarupakavaloka also for his explanation of sattva and the dual nature of sattvikabhavas. As already observed above, Hemacandra is almost certainly indebted to Abhinavagupta for his treatment of the sattvikabhavas. So Kumarasvamin may be said to be indebted to Abhinavagupta through Hemacandra. Abhinavagupta, Hemacandra and Kumarasvamin unambiguously state that the mental states such as love, world-weariness, etc. become transformed into (internal) sattvikabhavas, stambha, etc., owing to sympathetic realization; and that they are indicated by the external, insentient, physical and bodily consequents such as stambha, etc.; and that ultimately-in reality-just the mental states such as love, world-weariness, etc., are suggested by the external manifestations. Kumarasvamin records four different views regarding sattvikabhavas held by "some" (Kecit, Anye). The first view stated by him is identical with Acarya Hemacandra's (or rather Abhinavagupta's) view (cf. Kavyanusasana, pp.144-45).

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DUAL NATURE OF SATTVIKABHAVAS 213 According to the second view, sattva is a particular kind of strength or energy (bala) which is of the nature of making the spectators or audience realize vividly, without the aid of other bhavas (the vyabhicarins, transitory feelings) the particular rasa; and sattvikabhavas are those external manifestations of feellings which arise from that sattva. According to the third view, sattvikabhavas are stupefaction, etc. themselves, which though similar to anubhavas (consequents like sidelong glances, etc.) are called sattvikabhava on the analogy of words like pankaja, etc. These words althougth etymologically mean anything produced in mud', by convention mean only "a lotus'. The sattvikabhavas are the outcome of sattva, the manifestations of sattva but because of the predominance of the annamayakosa they convey external manifestations such as stupefaction, etc., through yoga-rudhi (etymology delimited by convention). According to the fourth view, the term sattvikabhavas is used to denote only the external manifestations of feelings like stupefaction, etc., because of its well-known usage in the alamkara-sastra (poetics) just as in the Vaisesika system of philosophy the word padartha is used to indicate the three categories out of seven, viz., dravya, guna and karma (substance, quality and Action respectively). Out of these conflicting views, Kumaraswamin has no special preference for anyone. According to Rasatarangini, 'sattva' means living body; and the sattvikas are its attributes i.e. the sattvikas are physical effects-stupefaction, etc. are physical effects and are called sattvikabhavas. The sthayibhavas and vyabhicaribhavas, being internal, are (of course) not physical effects.19. Rasaratnapradipika (p.10) says : Although these sattvikas in accordance with their possibility (yatha-sambhava) occur in one and all rasas, still disregarding their nature as vyabhicarins they are enumerated separately as sattvikabhavas since they originate in sattva alone. And that sattva means the extreme readiness of the actor's / spectator's heart to appreciate the sorrow (or joys) of another (the original character); and it arises from a (concentrated) mind.20 Prabhakara says in his Rasapradipa (p. 18): "The sattvikas are counted or included among anubhavas as they are the effects of rati (love), etc. They are described separately as they are produced from sattva, their invariable cause. It is defined as follows : In poetics, the mind, when it is not affected or contaminated or influenced by rajas and tamas (the other two constituent elements of prakrti) is called sattva. The sattvikabhavas are so called as they are able to produce or evoke rasa through their connection with it (sattva)". 21

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214 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE The explanation of sattva as jivaccharira given in Rasatarangini though novel is not in conformity with Bharata who very clearly and without any ambiguity whatsoever explains it with reference not to living body but to concentration of the mind, i.e., what results from such a concentration. (N.S. Ch. VII, pp. 374-75). Dr. J. L. Masson and Prof. M. V. Patwardhan observe in their Notes (Aesthetic Rapture, Vol.II, p. 63) : "Note Abhinava, p. 268 : sattvika vyabhicarivrttam abhinayavrttam copajivantiti prthagabhinayadibhyo ganitah. Abhinava's point seems to be that Bharata mentions them separately from the vyabhicaribhavas because they have a dual character : they are transitory (vyabhicari) and they depend on acting. But in so far as the vyabhicaribhavas belong to the actor, they are also dependent on abhinaya. Abhinava's explanation is thus not very convincing. Perhaps, Bharata has mentioned the sattvikabhavas separately because they are harder to feign. It is easy to imitate delight, but more difficult to make one's hair stand on end (romanca) either in fear or in pleasure". It is rather difficult to agree with the authors when they say "Abhinava's explanation is thus not very convincing." As Abhinava observes elsewhere (A. Bh. Ch. VI., p. 290) abhinaya anubhava eva', the sattvikas have a dual nature : they are transitory feelings, and at the same time, external manifestations of feeling. That is why a special class is made of the eight sattvikas, stupefaction, perspiration, horripilation, etc., "which are the involuntary product of sympathetic realisation of the feeling of the person portrayed, and hence are called sattvika, as arising from a heart which is ready to appreciate the sorrow or joys of another (sattva)."22 This nature helps us to distinguish very clearly these eight sattvikabhavas from the usual thirty-three transitory feelings and the other external manifestations of feeling. That the sattvikas are harder to feign, as they involve or demand complete concentration of the mind on the part of the actor/spectator, is very true and acceptable to one and all. The explanation given by Bharatiya Natyasastra (Marathi) as to why the anubhavas, stambha, sveda, etc., are called sattvikas may briefly be stated as follows: "In everyday life, we find that in appropriate circumstances and situations, the sthayins, rati (love) etc., are awakened quite naturally; and their corresponding physical effects become manifest to discerning people. But, an actor has to produce with great effort these artificial mental states by means of sympathetic realisation of the feelings of joys and sorrows in others. To distinguish these artificial mental states from the natural mental states of love, etc., they are given different names on the basis of the particularly prominent

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DUAL NATURE OF SATTVIKABHAVAS 215 anubhavas manifested on their awakening. The eight sthayins, rati, hasa, sokakrodha, utsaha, bhaya, jugupsa and vismaya may thus have been given the sattvika names : 1. pralaya, 2. svarabhanga, 3. asru, 4. vepathu, 5. sveda, 6. vaivarnya, 7. romanca and, 8. stambha. But later on there was utter confusion between these names of artificial sthayins and the anubhavas bearing these very names. Consequently, a doubt might have arisen whether they are anubhavas or bhavas." This explanation is ingenious no doubt but not convincing. If the names of the eight sattvikas were standing in the same order as we find in the case of the eight sthayins with reference to the eight rasas, the explanation offered by Bharatiya Natyasastra would have gained some worthwhile support from Bharata. Abhinavagupta's theory of internal and external sattvikabhavas involving the Samkhya and the Vedanta concepts of sattva (rajas and tamas), and the Kosas respectively is certainly novel and interesting. However, it does not seem to have found favour with later thinkers except Acarya Hemacandra, Naraharisuri23 and Kumarasvamin. May be, they found it unconvincing or unsatisfactory or regarded it as unimportant and unworthy of consideration24. Appendix (Note : Here is Prof. M. V. Patwardhan's translation of Acarya Hemachandra's sections in his Kavyanusasana (MJV edn. Bombay 1964) dealing with the topic of the sattvikabhavas : Now, he speaks of the sattvikabhavas). Sutra 79 : stupefaction (stambha), perspiration (sveda), horripilation (romanca), faltering voice (svarabheda, the same as svarabhanga), trembling (kampa, the same as vepathu), change of colour or paleness (vaivarnya), tears (asru) and fainting or loss of consciousness (pralaya)--these are the eight sattvikabhavas. Alamkaracudamani on the 'sutra : The word sattva means vital force (or energy) (elan vital), because of the etymology, viz, : The mind is lodged in it, and because vital force consists in an excess of sattva-guna and because of its inherent goodness (sattva=sadhutva). The sattvikabhavas have their origin (or existence) in sattva, i.e. in the vital force and hence they are known by the name sattvika. The sattvikabhavas are associated with the emotions (or psychic states) such as rati (love) etc., which arise (or emerge) from the bed-rock (bhumi) of the

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216 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE vital force. They are distinct from the physical effects such as tears, etc., which are extraneous (to the vital force), and which are non-sentient in their nature or form (jada-rupa). They are produced (@hrta) only by the vibhavas associated (as causes) with the psychic states, such as rati (love) etc. and are beyond the pale of aesthetic experience (aticarvanagocarena vibhavena), and their presence (i. e., the presence of (the internal) sattvikabhavas) is intimated (or suggested) by their consequents. To explain : The psychic states, when they enter into the predominantly earth-allied element in the vital force give rise to stambha-stupefaction, i. e. the blocking (inhibition) of sensation (cetana; cesta-physical movement); when they enter (i.e., affect) the predominantly water-allied element in the vital force give rise to tears. But as tejas (heat) is intimately allied to the vital force, either intensely (acutely) or in a feeble manner (mildy), and it gives rise to perspiration and paleness of the body and as it (tejas) is the cause of that (perspiration and paleness ?) therefore it is spoken in that way (tatha ? sense not clear). When akasa (space) affects (anugraha) (the vital force ), there arises pralaya fainting, loss of consciousness). But when vayu (air) affects the vital force ? vayusvatantrye ? obscure. We expect vayu-anugrahe on the analogy of tejasanugraha and akasanugraha as air (wind) affects, (becomes infused in (the vital force either slowly, swiftly or in a manner midway between the two, it becomes transformed in a triple way viz., horripilation, tremor or trembling and faltering voice. Such is the view of those conversant with Bharata (i.e. with the Natyasastra of Bharata). Viveka on the above cited passage, p. 144 : "The bed-rock of the vital force". The idea is as follows : The particular psychic states such as love, etc., first emerge into prominence as manifestations of consciousness. Then they affect (tinge) through the superimposition of their own natures the internal vital force. And this is not something that is incomprehensible. For instance, the infusion (or accession) first arises or manifests itself as something blazing up (or burning) (flushing, simmering) (emending the text 'Krodhavese antara jvalateva' to 'Krodhavesah antara jvalanniva'), and then perspiration follows (due to exasperation). With this very idea in his mind Banabhatta has said : First austerities drop down (i. e., become ineffective) and then the fluid of perspiration begins to ooze (from the body'* (Harsacarita, 1, p. 13). When a particular psychic state attains to (or reaches) such a phase in that manner, it is also observed in the world to be restrained (or inhibited) from reaching a climactic point in the form of visible physical effects (or

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DUAL NATURE OF SATTVIKABHAVAS 217 manifestations). For example : "The mind (heart) of the beloved one, prone to passion (love), as it becomes agitated (excited) at the sight of the moonlike face of her dear lover does not come to rest (i. e. does not become pacified), although the manifestation of physical effects such as perspiration has been restrained through (fear of) its being noticed by the elderly people (near about) (gurusamkama=gurusamkrama=gurujanadarsanabhaya [in the Viveka, p. 145, gurusamkama is explained as 'guru-visaye ma samkramit and hence I understand it to mean "It should not come to the notice of elderly people near about. Viveka, p. 145 : The heart (mind) of the beloved one being prone to an upsurge of passion at the sight of the face of) her dear lover, becomes agitated (or excited). And although the external physical effects of passion have been checked by her in order that they should not be noticed by elderly people (nearby), her heart (mind) does not become relaxed (restful) but is still full of agitation (restlessness (ksobhamaya) caused by sattvikabhavas such as internal perspiration, (tremor), etc. Further in the stanza there is suggested an illustration (nidarsanam (illustrating the situation directly expressed, i.e., this stanza suggests a simile or comparison). To explain : The turbulent (rai=rayin=vegavan= praksubdhah) ocean agitated up to its innermost depth (ahrdayam) at the sight of the moon possessing a pleasing face (orb), and though having its advancing inundating waves checked by the huge embankment (or reclining wall) (along the coast), it does not come to rest (i.e. does not cease to have rising waves). The word sagara has both the masculine and neuter genders in Sanskrit; or though it has only the masculine gender in Sanskrit, there is the mutation of its gender into the neuter gender) in Prakrit. Thus in this stanza, the feeling of love, while giving up its purely psychic nature, does not lead to external, physical (visible, palpable) effects (such as perspiration, tremor etc.), and so it is described or presented (here) (by the poet) as resting on the bed-rock of the vital force itself. Ratyadigatenaiveti-By only the vibhavas associated (as causes) with love, etc."--and not by any other vibhavas, for they are independent of proneness (or orientation) to particular external objects (sense not clear to me). Although glani, alasya, srama, murccha, etc. are devoid of alambanavisaya(?) still as they are caused by external factors they are enumerated (or enlisted) among the vyabhicaribhavas. The mental effects or psychical states such as stupefaction etc. are not caused by external factors and hence they are called sattvikas. Stambho vistabdha-cetanatvam iti--The mind becomes overpowered by joy, etc., and hence it does not move out to join the sense-organs, as it no longer Stud.-28

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218 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE presides over the sense-organs which are restricted only to the vague (hazy, synthetic) perception of external objects, this perception not being analytical (vikalpaparyantatagamana-rahita). For example : Thereafter even their natural agility vanished, like the flare of lamps depicted in pictures, while their lustre faded, the flame of their eyes ceased to stir, and their couage ebbed away". (Setubandha II. 45 as translated by K. K. Handiqui) Similarly the following stanza is an example of tears (baspa) caused by the infusion of tejas (heat) into the water-dominated element of the vital force. "Put a check on (restrain or stop) your continuously flowing (gushing) tears by resorting to mental firmness. On this way, where you are not able to notice its ups and downs, your foot-steps are being placed unevenly by you." Tivrativratveneti (intensely or in a feeble manner): Perspiration due to the infusion (of tejas) into the water-dominated element of the vital force is exemplified in the following stanza : "When in the course of gambling (with dice) for amusement (diversion) her embrace was first won (as a wager) by her dear consort, and then, thereafter, the charming (delightful offering of the lower lip (for being kissed) was won by her dear consort as a wager), he again inquired of his beloved about the (next) wager to be put forward by her, she silently streched out (extended) her perspiring hand in order to throw (cast) the dice (sara-visaranaya= aksautksepanaya), while her cheeks began to throb (quiver) because of the outburst of passion accumulated in her (mind) but held in check with a suppressed (inchoate) smile (santarhasa)". But when the water-dominated part of the vital force is penetrated by tejas in a feeble manner, there results paleness of the body (physical paleness or loss of colour), as in the following stanza : "As that princess (Indumati) seeking to choose a consort for herself (from among the assembled kings) (simply) passing by various kings successively (without fixing her choice on any one of them) each of them became pale (lost colour) just as when a flame (torch) passing successively in front of the mansions on the principal street in a city, each mansion became pale (and plunged in gloom)". -Raghu V1.67. Pralaya iti : Fainting (loss of consciousness) means the complete (prakarsena) absorption (or dissolution) of the faculties of the sense-organs into

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DUAL NATURE OF SATTVIKABHAVAS 219 w the vital force. For example Because of the swoon resulting from the severe impact (of the fire from Siva's frontal eye) which blocked up (arrested) the functioning of her senseorgans, Rati did not comprehend the nature and extent of the catastrophy that had overtaken her husband and because of this (ignorance on her part) a real favour was as it were done to her. --Kumarasambhava IV. 73. 'Tasya means 'pranasya'. (The infusion of) the vital force (by the mind element). 'Manda' iti. When the vital force becomes infused with slow-moving air, horripilation is the result. For example : "When my face was turned to his face, I turned my face down, and directed my glance at his feet; I closed my ears which were very eager to hear his speech; I concealed with my hands the perspiration on my cheeks breaking forth with horripilation. But, O my friends, what could I do when the seams of my bodice began to burst in a hundred places ? -Amarusataka. V.11. When the vital force is infused with air which is neither very slow-moving nor very fast-moving (but midway between the two) there is tremor (trembling or quivering of the body). For example : "Be not puffed up with pride because your cheek is shining with the design of a blossom-spray painted thereon by your consort with his own hand. Cannot, O my friend, other women too have similar designs (painted on their cheeks by their husbands themselves) if it were not for the fact that tremor of their cheeks posed an insurmountable obstacle ?" When the vital force is infused with very swift-moving air, faltering (or stammering) of the voice (chocking of the voice) is the result(takes place). For example : When Krsna (the enemy of the demon Madhu) left for Dvaraka, Radha embracing the tender branch (lata) of the Vanjula tree (Asoka tree), bent down because of hir jumping down from it in the river Yamuna flowing near it) sang with such deep longing, her song turning into a loud wail and her throat so choked with profuse tears that the ducks swimming in the water began to cry plaintively (in sympathy)." -First cited in the Locana on Dhvanyaloka 1.4. p. 147, 11 1-3 : The final position is this : The external sattvikabhavas such as stupefaction, etc., are physical attributes and they operate as anubhavas suggesting the corresponding) internal sattvikabhavas; and in reality they (ultimately) suggest psychic states such as love, world-weariness, etc.

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220 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE p. 147, 11 23-25 : Because these sattvikabhavas occur in connection with each one of the rasas and because they do not possess even a slight trace of independence (autonomy) not even like the vyabhicaribhavas on the analogy of a king's servant engaged in his own marriage ceremony who is followed by the king (at the time of the marriage procession; i. e., in relation to his own servant the king occupies, for the time being, a position subordinate to that of his own servant.) and because examples of the sattvikabhavas are easily available in literature) they have not been cited in the Vrtti (viz., Alamkaracudamani). Notes and References : * Journal of the Oriental Institute Vol. 38, Nos. 1-2, September-December, 1988, issue, pp. 91-106. 1. व्यभिचारिणश्चास्यालस्यौग्र्यजुगुप्सावाः / --NS VI. p. 306 Cf. "The point is that normally jugupsa is the sthayibhava of bibhatsa. It is not given in the list of the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas, but the very fact that Bharata says that it should not be used in love shows that he felt that it could be a vyabhicaribhava as well as a sthayibhava. He, therefore, felt that under certain circumstancs, ordinary vyabhicaribhavas could become sthayibhavas, and sthayibhavas could become vyabhicaribhavas." -Santarasa.. (p. 124, f.n.1) 2. For example (i) व्यभिचारिणश्चास्य (करुणस्य) निर्वेद... स्तम्भ-वेपथुवैवाश्रुस्वरभेदादयः / -NS VI. p. 317 (ii) भावाश्चास्य (भयानकस्य)...स्तम्भस्वेदगद्गदरोमाञ्चवेपथुस्वरभेदवैवर्ण्य...मरणादयः / --NS VI. p. 326. 3. तस्याश्रुपातपरिदेवनमुखशोषवैवर्ण्य.. स्मृतिलोपादिभिरनुभावैरभिनयः प्रयोक्तव्यः / __ व्यभिचारिणश्चास्य निर्वेद... स्तम्भ-वेपथु-वैवाश्रुस्वरभेदादयः / --NS VI. p. 317 4. तस्य प्रवेपित... पुलकमुखवैवर्ण्यस्वरभेदादिभिरनुभावैरभिनयः प्रयोक्तव्यः / भावाश्चास्य स्तम्भस्वेदगद्गदरोमाञ्चवेपथुस्वरभेदवैवर्ण्यमरणादयः / --N VI. p. 326 5. तस्य नयनविस्तार... रोमाञ्चाश्रुस्वेद... भ्रमणादिभिरनुभावैरभिनयः प्रयोक्तव्यः / भावाश्चास्य स्तम्भाश्रुस्वेदगद्गदरोमाञ्चावेग.. प्रलयादयः / ~-~NS VI. p. 330. 6. (6) वैवाश्रुस्वरभेदा अत्र बहिरुद्भित्र [? बहिरनुद्भिन्न) स्वभावाश्चित्तवृत्त्यात्मानो गृह्यन्ते / तथा हि वक्तारो भवन्ति 'अश्रुणा पूर्णोऽस्य कण्ठो न च नयनजलं दृष्टम्' इति / एते ह्यश्रुप्रभृतयो व्यभिचारित्वाभिनेयत्वोपजीवनायैव मध्ये निर्दिष्टा इत्यवोचाम वक्ष्यामश्च / तेन न पौनरुक्त्यम् / --A. Bh. VI. p. 318, Prof. Kangle's edn. (ii भावा इति व्यभिचारिणः / स्वेदादयो बाह्याः / आभ्यान्तराः सात्त्विका- (क)-भावोऽपि ? (?स्वेदादयो बाह्या आभ्यन्तरसात्त्विकाभावेऽपि विषस्पर्शज्वरादिना भवन्ति / ततोऽनैकान्तिकाः / आन्तरा अनुद्रिक्ता व्यजनग्रहणादिभिरुद्रिक्ताः / (? "ग्रहणादिभिः, उद्रिक्ता) बायैः स्वेदादिभिर्व्यक्ता व्यभिचारिरूपाः पठिताः / -A. Bh. VI. p. 321, Prof. Kangle's edn. p. 285 (iii) वागङ्गेति / वागादयस्तत्कर्मसु वर्तन्ते / तेन वर्णनात्मना वाचिकेन संनिवेशवलनादी (? दि)-- नाङ्गिकेनान्तर्बहिरात्मना सात्त्विकेन करणभूतेनोपेतान् सम्बद्धान् / .-A. Bh. VII. p. 343, Prof. Kangle's edn. p. 367

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DUAL NATURE OF SATTVIKABHAVAS 221 7. व्यभिचारित्वाभिनयत्वोपजीवका इति (तदनन्तरं) सात्त्विकाः ।....सात्त्विका व्यभिचारिवृत्तमभिनयवृत्तं चोपजीवन्तीति पृथगभिनयादिभ्यो गणिताः / -A. Bh. VI. p. 268, prof. Kangle's edn.p. 114 8. अभिनया अनुभावा एव / A. Bh. VI. p. 290 9. भावशब्देन तावच्चित्तवृत्तिविशेषा एव विवक्षिताः / ...ये त्वेते ऋतुमाल्यादयो विभावा बाह्याश्च बाष्पप्रभृतयोऽनुभावा एकान्तजडस्वभावाः ते न भावशब्दव्यपदेश्याः / -A. Bh. VII. p. 342 10. Bhoja's Srngara-prakasa, 1963 edn. (p. 448) 11. इह हि सत्त्वं नाम मन:प्रभवम् / तच्च समाहितमनस्त्वादुच्यते / मनसः समाधौ सत्त्वनिष्पत्तिर्भवति / तस्य च योऽसौ स्वभावो रोमाञ्चाश्रुवैवादिलक्षणो यथाभावोपगतः स न शक्योऽन्यमनसा कर्तुमिति / लोकस्वभावानुकरणत्वाच्च नाट्यस्य सत्त्वमीप्सितम् / ... एतदेवास्य सत्त्वं यत् दुःखितेन सुखितेन वाऽश्रुरोमाञ्चौ दर्शयितव्यौ इति कृत्वा सात्त्विका भावा इत्यभिव्याख्याताः / -NS VII, 374-75 12. सत्त्वं चित्तैकाग्र्यम् / -A. Bh. I. p. 346. सत्त्वं मनस्समाधानम्.. टीकाकारः / -A.Bh. I p.327 सत्त्वसमुत्थं प्रयत्नकृतम् / -A.Bh. I p. 328 सत्त्वं च मनस्समाधानजम् / -A. Bh. III p. 150 तस्माद् भूयसा प्रयत्नेन विना (न) सिद्ध्यतीति / ...सत्त्वस्य हि प्रयत्नाधिक्यमुपयोगीति वागङ्गयोरुपादानमलमेवेति .. अलमनेत (? न) / -~~-A. Bh. III p. 150 नाट्यं सत्त्वे प्रतिष्ठितम् / -NS XXII. 1. d. सत्त्वातिरिक्तोऽभिनयो ज्येष्ठ इत्यभिधीयते। --NS XXII. 2. ab अव्यक्तरूपं सत्त्वं हि विज्ञेयं भावसंश्रयम् / यथास्थानरसोपेतं रोमाञ्चास्रादिभिर्गुणैः / / -NS XXII. 3 सात्त्विकाभावे ह्यभिनयक्रियानामापि नोन्मीलति / अभिनयनं हि चित्तवृत्तिसाधारणता पत्तिप्राणसाक्षात्कारकल्पाध्यवसायसंपादनमिति / अत एवोक्तं सत्त्वे नाट्यं प्रतिष्ठितमिति / -A. Bh. III. p. 150. 13. अवहितं मनः सत्त्वं तत्प्रयोजनं हेतुरस्येति सात्त्विकः / मनोऽनवधाने हि न शक्यन्त एव स्वरभेदादयो नटेन दर्शयितुम् // -ND, Baroda, 1959 edn, p. 169 14. I had given expression to this belief in a footnote to my paper on Abhinavabharati : Chapter VII Recovered ? First published in Journal, Oriental Institute, Baroda, Vol. No XX, No. 3, March 1971. The various passages from Abhinavabharati (ch. VI and VII) cited above have strengthened my belief almost into conviction. 15. The Sanskrit Drama by A. B. Keith, Oxford University Press, 1964 edn, p. 315 16. Bhoja's Srngara Prakasa, Madras, 1963 edn, p. 484. 17. Ibid, p. 441 18. "सत्त्वं नाम स्वात्मविश्रामप्रकाशकारी कश्चनान्तरो धर्मः / विकाराः सत्त्वसम्भूताः सात्त्विका: परिकीर्तिताः / सत्त्वमात्रोद्भवत्वात्ते भिन्ना अप्यनुभावतः / - 'गोबलीवर्दन्यायेन' इति शेषः / / -Sahityadarapana III. 134-35. 19. ... अत्रेदं प्रतिभाति सत्त्वशब्दस्य प्राणिवाचकत्वात् / अत्र सत्त्वं जीवच्छरीरं तस्य धर्माः सात्त्विकाः / तथा च शारीरा भावाः स्तम्भादयः सात्त्विका भावा इत्यभिधीयन्ते / स्थायिनो व्यभिचारिणश्च भावा अन्तरतया न शरीरधर्मा...। -Rasatarangini, Section IV (Sattvikabhavanirupana) 20. यद्यपि एते यथासंभवं सर्वेषु रसेषु व्यभिचरन्ति तथापि व्यभिचारित्वमनादृत्य सत्त्वमात्रसंभवा भवन्ति इति सात्त्विका इति

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222 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE भिन्नतया गणिताः / तच्च सत्त्वं परगत [-सुख-] दुःखादिभावनायाम् अत्यन्तानुकूलान्त:करणत्वं मनःप्रभावः (? मनःप्रभवम् ) / तेन सत्वेन वृत्ताः सात्त्विकाः / _Rasaratnadipika, Section III (Vibhavanubhava-sattvika-laksana) 21. अनुभावलक्षणमाह धनिकः... सात्त्विकास्त्वेतदन्तर्गता एव / तेषामपि रत्यादिकार्यत्वात् / भिन्नतया प्रतिपादनं तु नियत-कारण- सत्त्व-जनितत्वात् / तल्लक्षणं तु.. रजस्तमोभ्यामस्पृष्टं मनः सत्त्वमिहोच्यते / निवृत्तयेऽस्य तद्योगात् प्रभवन्तीति सात्त्विकाः / इति / अस्य रसस्येति प्रकृतपरामर्शः / -Rasapradipa, Section II (Rasaviveka) 22. Keith : The Sanskrit Drama, 1964 edn, p. 315 23. एवं प्राचामालङ्कारिकाणामनेकधा पारिप्लवं वर्तते / ... विशेषान्तराणि नरहरिसूरिविरचिते रसनिरूपणे द्रष्टव्यानि / --Prataparudriya-Ratnapana (Madras, 1914 edn, p. 160) 24. For translation of the two passages by Prof. M. V. Patwardhan vide Appendix. * (P. 10) Cf. P. V. Kane (edn. p. 4) observes : "The austerities (performed by the angry man) are (first) dissolved, i.e., have to give way before the wave of passion. The angry man (then) perspires". -Kane's edn., Notes 000

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HEMACANDRA : AN ASSESSMENT A careful, critical and comparative study of Hemacandra's Karyanusasana shows that he has composed his Kavyanusasana incorporating the best and well known portions of the works of a number of his illustrious predecessors who wrote on Poetics (and Aesthetics) like Bharata, Anandavardhana, Rajasekhara, Abhinavagupta, Mahimbhatta Bhoja, Ksemendra and Mammata. He is an excellent judge of the whole range of scholarship on the subject, and knows the best authorities in the field. His work reveals that he is both a generalist and specialist rolled into one. This may sound paradoxical. In Sanskrit scholarship of the past as indeed in medical practice today we see a lot of significance being attached to the depth of knowledge of a specialist. In the field of poetics we find ancient authorities laying special emphasis on alamkara or vakrokti or riti or dhvani or rasa or aucitya. A poor student feels bewildered by their exclusive emphasis on their pet doctrines exactly as poor patient seeking opinion from the medical stalwart specialists today feels. In such a baffling situation to develop a right kind of understanding through proper perspective becomes almost impossible unless we go to the right guide and teacher. Hemacandra like his worthy predecessor Mammata is such an unfailing guide for most of the students on the subject. He is an ideal teacher with the right understanding of the whole of the field of knowledge of Poetics. He has the ability to place every thing in its own place and guide students on the correct path as our family physician, a reliable general practitioner does. With a view to meeting the needs of primary students of Sahityasastra he wrote a very lucid textbook called Alamkara-Cudamani comprising (i) the sutras : defining the various topics dealt with in it, (ii) the vritti : a prose commentary on the sutras explaining and sometimes supplimenting them, and (iii) the udaharanas : illustrations--these are stanzas mostly quoted either from the works of preceding writers on poetics or from those of renowned poets. And with a view to meeting the needs or requirements of advanced students, who aspire to attain mastery, of Sahityasastra he wrote a svopajna, his own

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224 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE commentary, called Viveka, on it incorporating the best and most well known portions of the works of previous writers on the subject. The way he chooses the passages and excerpts and the way he organises them in his two-graded scheme of study attest to his supreme wisdom, great critical faculty in selecting choicest excerpts and his marvellous power of organising them into a homogeneous and organic whole. His Karyanusasana may not be, in fact is not, distinguished by any great originality but it does display, like his other works, a truly encyclopaedic learning and enormous reading, and a practical approach without affecting the theoretical side. The method Hemacandra has adopted in writing his Kavyanusasana has preserved for us many significant and worthwhile passages of books that are irretrievably lost. By way of illustration some of these passages may be noted here and their significance briefly discussed : (a) Acarya Hemacandra adopts, with some additions and omissions. the whole section dealing with the nature of rasa from Abhinavabharati and acknowledges his indebtedness to Abhinavagupta : ...itt sriman abhinavaguptacaryah 1 Etan matameva casmabhirupajivitam! || In the above passage from Abhinavabharati when adopting it Hemacandra has omitted the example from Brahmana works? illustrating the concept of sadharanikarana (universalisation) and added in its place the following example : Samba worshipped the Sun-god and recovered his own health. Whoever worships the Sun recovers his health. Therefore I too worship the Sun for recovering my health."3 This universalization (sadhaanikarana) enables the spectator to participate mentally, to identify himself with the character that is being represented, and understand and undergo the experiences presented on the stage. From Hemacandra's acknowledgement at the end of the long passage "iti srimanabhinavaguptacaryah" it would seem that this passage too he has adopted from Abhinavagupta. It is, however not found either in his Abhinavabharati (on Rasadhyaya of the Natyasastra) or Locana, commentary on Dhvanyaloka. R. Gnoli conjectures that the three slokas about Samba are "no doubt taken from a work on poetics existing prior to A.G., perhaps the Hrdayadarpana of Bhatta Nayaka", (b) Another unique passage preserved by Hemacandra is about the dual nature of sattvikabhavas. The whole discussion about the sattvikabhavas

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HEMACANDRA : AN ASSESSMENT 225 (Kavyanusasana, pp. 144-147) is most probably borrowed by Hemacandra from the Abhinavabharati on the seventh chapter-Bhavadhyaya of Natyasastra which is now almost lost). Kumarasvamin in his commentary called Ratnapana on Prataparudriya4 cites a portion from his passage with the introductory remark : 'Tad uktam acarya-Hemacandrena". This remark would make us believe that the portion cited, is Hemacandra's own. But since Hemacandra adopts the whole section on rasa from Abhinavabharati, it is more likely than not, that the passage on bhava too he has adopted from the same source. Following Bharata and Abhinavagupta, Hemacandra holds that the sattvikabhavas are of dual character. They partake of the nature of both : the vyabhicarins and the anubhavas. The sattvikabhavas are of two kinds : internal and external. The external sattvikabhavas like stambha (stupefaction), sveda (perspiration), etc., are bodily or physical attributes and are jada or acetana (inanimate) and therefore are called anubhavas. These external sattvikabhavas first suggest their corresponding internal sattvikabhavas but ultimately they suggest the mental states or emotions like rati(love), nirveda (world-weariness). etc.5 (c) Discussion as to the nature and number of gunas : In chapter IV of his Kavyanusasana Hemacandra briefly states in his vrtti that gunas are three (only) and not five or ten : "trayo na tu dasa panca va" He then discusses at great lengh the ten sabdagunas and arthagunas set forth in their works by Bharata, Dandin and Vamana. He incidentally refers to Mangala's view also. V. Raghavan, in his encyclopaedic work, Bhoja's Srrgaraprakasa, surveys Hemacandra's treatment of gunas amd remarks that Hemacandra must have borrowed this critical discussion from Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa which is now lost to us except for its first chapter. I have pointed out in my paper. "The Sources of Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana," how Hemacandra's method has been eclectic and he borrows from his illustrious predecessors in preparing his excellent text book on Sanskrit poetics. In the process he does a valuble service of preserving for us much significant material. Here, for instance, the unique discussion on gunas, which is quite a halimark in Sanskrit poetics, Hemacandra has preserved for us from Rajasekhara's original voluminous work Kavyamimamsa (now lost). Just as Hemacandra has borrowed freely great portions from Rajasekhara's chapters dealing with poetic conventions, plagiarism and vyutpatti (proficiency, scholarship-arising from a close study of the world, the various sastras the works of earlier poets and such other works as Ramayana, Mahabharata, etc.) even so this critical discussion he Stud.-29

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226 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE must have borrowed from Rajasekhara. This conjecture is strongly supported by the way Hemacandra presents the subject and the style and diction he uses which is unmistakably Rajasekhara's. The critical survey of gunas incorporated by Hemacandra in his Viveka commentary is also remarkable for the reference to the two 'strange' or peculiar views : (i) ओजः प्रसाद-मधुरिमाणः साम्यमौदार्यं च पञ्चेत्यपरे / तथा हि यददर्शितविच्छेदं पठतामोजः, विच्छिद्य पदानि पठतां प्रसादः, आरोहावरोहतरङ्गिणि पाठे माधुर्यम्, ससौष्ठवमेव स्थानं पठतामौदार्यम्, अनुच्चनीचं पठतां साम्यमिति / तदिदमलीकं कल्पनातन्त्रम् / यद्विषयविभागेन पाठनियमः स कथं गुणनिमित्तमिति / (ii) छन्दोविशेषनिवेश्या गुणसंपत्तिरिति केचित् तथा हि स्रग्धरादिष्वोज... / इन्द्रवज्रोपेन्द्रवज्रादिषु प्रसादः....मन्दाक्रान्तादिषु माधुर्यं...शार्दूलादिषु समता...विषमवृत्तेष्वौदार्य...इन्द्रवज्रादिष्वप्रसादः मन्दाक्रान्तादिष्वमाधुर्यं...शार्दूलादिष्वसाम्यं...।' -Viveka pp. 287-288 These views are not met with in any of the extant works on poetics by Hemacandra's predecessors. From among his successors Manikyacandra, in his commentary Samketa on Kavyaprakasa (pp. 300-301; Mysore edn; 1922) has nearly reproduced the above text and Bhatta Somesvara in his Sanketa commentary on Kavyaprakasa Jodhpur edn. 1959, p. 208) indifferently reproduces the following lines : __ छन्दोविशेषविशेष्या गुणसंपत्तिरिति केचित् / तथा हि स्रग्धरादिष्वोजः इन्द्रवज्रादिषु समता विषमवृत्तेष्वौदार्य, तच्च सव्यभिचारम् / / Incidentally, it may be pointed out that Bharata lays down rules as to the use of particular metres in particular rasas and gives a general rule : शेषाणामर्थयोगेन छन्दः कार्य प्रयोक्तृभिः // -NS XVI W 114-119 These rules of Bharata recognise the intimate interrelation between metres and rasas. Abhinavagupta in his commentary on NS Ch. XIV, (pp. 24546) quotes the view of one Katyayana : यथोक्तं कात्यायनेन वीरस्य भुजदण्डानां वर्णने स्रग्धरा भवेत् / नायिकावर्णने कार्यं वसन्ततिलकादिकम् / / शार्दूललीला प्राच्येषु मन्दाक्रान्ता च दक्षिणे // इत्यादि In the light of Bharata's rules and Abhinavagupta's commentary there is scope to re-examine whether the second view 'छन्दोविशेषनिवेश्या गुणसंपत्ति:' has some merit. (d) Hemacandra's freely borrowing passages and whole sections from the

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HEMACANDRA : AN ASSESSMENT 227 works of his renowned predecessors helps us in another direction. These passages and sections serve as transcriptions of old manuscripts that were available to Hemacandra and enable us to restore corrupt passages from the works he has drawn upon.The text of Abhinavabharati (Natyasastra Ch. VI) bristles with corrupt readings. Hemacandra, who has freely drawn upon Abhinavabharati, especially on the four key chapters of the Natyasastra (Chs. VI, VII, XVIII and XIX dealing with rasa, bhava, dasarupaka and sandhisandhyangavikalpa respectively) is of immense help in restoring many passages. The editors of the Natyasastra, published in GOS, Baroda, have made use of, partially though, in restoring the text of Abhinavabharati, I too have corrected passages, small and big, by scores, and published them in a series of articles in the Journal, Oriental Institute, Baroda (and now included in my book : Studies in Sankrit Sahityasastra). By way of illustration here I restore two corrupt passages not covered in the series of papers referred to above. (i) The printed text of A.bh. (Vol. I, p. 344) reads : चित्तवृत्तय एवालौकिकाः वाचिकाद्यभिनयप्रक्रियारूढतया / स्वात्मानं लौकिकदशायामनास्वाद्यं कुर्वन्तीत्यतस्ता एव भावाः / This sentence as it stands, does not give any consistent meaning; in fact it is self-contradictory. For Abhinavagupta in his exposition of Santarasa remarks : यथा च कामादिषु समुचिताश्रितवृत्तयो इत्यादिशब्दवाच्याः कविनटव्यापारेणास्वाद्ययोग्यताप्रापणद्वारेण quifaecypalgaa: FTIGT ufa pra y tuicarea funt. - A.Bh. Vol. I. p. 333) The permanent emotions (of every day life) like love, etc. are rendered relishable through the activities of the poet and the actor (i.e. the drama created by the poet's creative imagination and its presention on the stage by the actors endowed with marvellous skills in the art of representation) and are transformed into the erotic sentiment, etc., with reference to the sensitive spectators. Now, how could Abhinavagupta contradict himself, and further, make such an absurd statement ? The whole controversy is not about the four permanent emotions of love, laughter, dynamic energy and wonder (of our everyday life) and the corresponding rasas (sentiments) of srngara, hasya, vira and adbhuta, which are admittedly pleasurable (anandarupa, sukhatmaka) but about how the permanent emotions of sorrow, anger, fear and disgust (of our everyday life) which are patently painful, when transformed into their corresponding rasas (sentiments) of karuna, raudra, bhayanaka and bibhatsa become pleasurable or enjoyable--become full of all pleasure ? Abhinavagupta's reply is that these wordly painful emotions become pleasurable or enjoyable

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228 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE through the activity of the poet's creative imagination and the talent and skill of the actor in the art of representation (abhinayakausala). When we bear in mind this position and read the sentence quoted above we are led to believe that the text here is defective and needs to be corrected. Here Hemacandra comes to our help who preserves the original reading intact when adopting the lines in his Kavyanusasana (p. 124, lines 9-11) : भावयन्ति चित्तवृत्तय एवालौकिकवाचिकाद्यभिनयप्रक्रियारूढतया स्वात्मानं लौकिकदशायामनास्वाद्यमप्यास्वाद्यं कुर्वन्ति (यद् वा भावयन्ति व्याप्नुवन्ति सामाजिकानां मन इति भावाः, स्थायिनो व्यभिचारिणश्च / ) A careful look at this text reveals that the copyist of the Manuscript of the NS has slurred or passed over the letters TEU through the presence of letters स्वाद्यं that follow them. (ii) The printed text of A. Bh. Vol. 1, p. 280 reads : सर्वथा तावदेषास्ति प्रतीतिरास्वादात्मा यस्यां रतिरेव भाति / ... तथैव चोपचयावस्थासु देशाद्यनियन्त्रणादनुकारोऽप्यस्तु / भावानुगामितया करणात् विषयसामग्यपि भवतु विज्ञानवादावलम्बनात् / सर्वथा रसनात्मकवीतविघ्नप्रतीतिग्राह्यो भाव एव रसः / Hemacandra (KAS, P. 99 lines 13-18) presents this passage with the following reading and punctuation marks which are far superior and yield happy and consistent meaning and therefore must be the original ones : सर्वथा तावदेषास्ति प्रतीतिरास्वादात्मा यस्यां रतिरेव भाति ।...एषैव चोपचयावस्थास्तु देशाद्यनियन्त्रणात् / अनुकारोऽप्यस्त्वनुगामितया करणात् / विषयसामग्यपि भवतु विज्ञानवादावलम्बनात् / The point which Abhinavagupta wants to emphasize, with all the force at his command is : rasa has for its essence asvada relish or enjoyment; it is a perception which is characterised by a generalised emotion, say, rati (love), this perception is entirely free from spatial, temporal and such other) conditions or limitations or specifications. This perception of (generalised) emotion, as it is free from spatial and other limitations, may be called a state of intensification (upacayavastha) as Bhatta Lollata does; or a reproduction (anukara)- a production which repeats or imitates or reenacts the emotion of the character, as Sankuka does; or a combination of different elements or factors (visayasamagri) as does a critic who subscribes to the Samkhya system, by following the doctrine of Idealism (Vijnanavada). In conclusion, Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana and other works of Jain

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HEMACANDRA : AN ASSESSMENT 229 writers like the Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra, two noted disciples of Hemacandra, Manikyacandra's Samketa commentary on Mammata's Kavyaprakasa, and Ambaprasada's Kalpalataviveka deserve to be studied very carefully as they are mines of gold preserving best portions of works from their famous predecessors and render invaluable help in restoring corrupt passages from the texts of the predecessors. Notes and References : 1. Kavyanusasana of Acarya Hemacandra, Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay 1964 edn. 2. The passage, cited in Abhinavabharati : यथा हि 'सत्रमासत' 'तामग्नौ प्रादात्' इत्यादावर्थितादिलक्षितस्याधिकारिणः प्रतिपत्तिमात्रादितिवृत्तप्ररोचितात प्रथमप्रवृत्तादनन्तरमधिकैवोपात्तकालतिरस्कारेण, आसै', 'प्रददानि' इत्यादिरूपा संक्रमणादि स्वभावा...प्रतिपत्तिः तथैव काव्यात्मकादपि शब्दादधिकारिणोऽधिकास्ति प्रतिपत्तिः / ---Rasa-bhava-vicara by Prof. Kangle, p. 154 3. आरोग्यमाप्तवान् शाम्बः स्तुत्वा देवमहर्पतिम् / स्यादर्थावगतिः पूर्वमित्यादिवचने यथा // ततश्चोपात्तकालादिन्यक्कारेणोपजायते / प्रतिपत्तुर्मनस्येवं प्रतिपत्तिर्न संशयः // यः कोऽपि भास्करं स्तौति स सर्वोऽप्यगदो भवेत् / तस्मादहमपि स्तौमि रोगनिर्मुक्तये रविम् // -KAS. p. 98 4. Prataprudriya of Vidyanatha with Ratnapana, Treplicane, Madras. 1914. p. 180. 5. The problem of "The Dual Nature of Sattvikabhavas is fully discussed by me in a separate paper. 6. "The Sources of Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana", Journal of Oriental Institute, Baroda. Vol. XIV No. 2. December 1964. now included in my book. Studies In Sanskrit Sahityasastra, pub. by B. L. Institute of Indology. Patan (North Gujarat) 1983 (pp. 149 154). 7. The reader is referred to V. Raghavan's Bhoja's Srngaraprakasa for a clear and complete appraisal. 8. Vide f.n. no. 6 supra. 000

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SOMESVARA BHATTA AND HEMACANDRACARYA Somesvara's relation to Hemacandra presents a knotty problem to the student of Sanskrit Poetics. Somesvara and Hemacandra use freely their predecessors in writing their Kavyadarsasamketal and Kavyanusasana? respectively. Even when we leave out all such parallelisms between the two works as are due to their common sources we still find numerous passages that are common to them. It is possible that some of them are taken from works which are now lost. There are, however, clear indications that one of the two has used the other. It is extremely difficult to decide who has borrowed from whom for want of direct, positive, and convincing evidence. With greatest reserve, therefore, I present the view that Somesvara probably knew Hemacandra and set forth the arguments in support of this view. The following table sets forth the parrallel passages between Somesvara and Hemacandra excepting those that are due to their common sources : Parallelisms in the Samketa of Somesvara and the Kavanusasana of Hemacandra (excepting, of course, such parallelisms as are due to their common sources). . Somesvara Hemacandra 1. p. 9 (11 27-29) p. 51 2. p. 23 (1 10) to p. 24 (1 10) pp. 155-56 3. p. 28 (1 20) to p. 29 (1 15) pp. 65-66 p. 34 (11 15-23) 5. p. 56 (1 27) to p. 57 (1 27) pp. 147-149 6. p. 89 (11 25-27) p. 154 7. p. 112 (11 17-23) p. 34 8. p. 123 (11 19-22) P. 236 9. p. 127 (11 21-25) pp. 246-47 P. 53

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SOMESVARA BHATTA AND HEMACANDRACARYA 231 p. 202 pp. 203-204 p. 212 p. 220 p. 264 pp. 269-70 p. 270 10. p. 136 (11 19-20) 11. p. 143 (1 24) to p. 144 (1 17) 12. p. 145 (11 21-24) 13. p. 150 (11 23-14) p. 151 (11 22-25) p. 158 (1 19) to p. 159 (1 13) 16. p. 159 (11 23-25) 17. p. 161 (1 25) to p. 162 (1 19) 18. p. 163 (11 25-27) 19. p. 164 (11 21-29) 20. p. 167 (11 22-28) 21. p. 169 (11 16-19) 22. p. 182 (11 20-24) 23. p. 193 (11 14-24) p. 198 (1 6) TO p. 201 (1 15) p. 201 (1 25) to p. 202 (1 19) 26. p. 209 (11 15-23) p. 211 (1 20) to p. 213 (1 7) 28. p. 218 (11 11-13) 29. p. 221 (1 18) to p. 222 (1 6) p. 226 (11 16-18) 31. p. 227 (11 15-25) 32. p. 235 (1 22) to p. 236 (1 10) 33. p. 240 (1 21) to p. 241 (1 14) 34. p. 243 (11 13-14) 35. p. 245 (11 22-25) 36. p. 249 (1 3) to 251 (1 17) 37. p. 253 (1 22) to p. 254 (1 27) 38. p. 259 (11 15-27) 39. p. 262 (11 12-28) 40. p. 264 (11 12-16; 11 22-25) p. 40 p. 262 p. 266 228 p. 238 p. 178 pp. 165-66 pp. 35-42 pp. 34-35 p. 290 pp. 455-466 p. 445 pp. 445, 446, 449 p. 297 pp. 296-97 p. 307 pp. 331-32 p. 329 p. 330 pp. 307, 308, 313, 322-24 pp. 340-41 pp. 343-44 pp. 345-46 pp. 339, 348

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232 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE p. 351 41. p. 266 (1 10) to p. 267 (1 13) p. 349, p. 348 42. p. 267 (11 22-26) p. 387 43. p. 268 (11 15-19) p. 350 44. p. 270 (1 25) to p. 271 (1 21) 45. p. 276 (11 22-28) p. 382 46. p. 277 (11 28-29) 379 47. p. 288 (1 9) to p. 289 (1 16) p. 357, 356 48. p. 292 (11 20-25) p. 383-84 49. p. 294 (11 13-14) p. 384 50. p. 298 (11 25-27) p. 384 p. 302 (11 11-27) pp. 379-381 p. 303 (11 13-15) 53. p. 304 (1 25) to p. 305 (1 25) pp. 377-78 p. 310 (11 19-25) p. 404 p. 319 (11 19-22) p. 397 56. p. 335 (11 25-29) pp. 404-405 57. p. 350 (11 6-16) pp. 238-239 58. p. 350 (11 17-24) Pp. 234-235 Let us consider a few remarkable parallelisms from those listed : p. 380 When we compare the two passages indicated by the number 11 we find that the passage in Somesvara is defective as the lines "3ta ja anta: 7 Dartai एकस्यैव शब्दस्यावृत्तिमन्तरेणानेकार्थप्रतिपादनसामर्थ्यासंभवात् / न चासावनिबन्धना शक्या कल्पयितुम् / " are left out by Somesvara or the scribe from the original passage found in the Vyaktiviveka4 from where Hemacandra borrows it. Hemacandra's long passage is made up of passages borrowed from Vyaktiviveka and Vakroktijivita. Somesvara's short passage appears to have been adopted from Hemacandra. The two passages numbered 37 contain one very significant detail. Hemacandra illustrates द्रव्येण उपमानोपमेययोर्भेदः by तीर्थकर इव गणधरः पूज्यः / Somesvara's illustration reads : शिव इव केशवः पूज्यः / These two examples are in conformity with the respective creed of the two authors. Barring these examples, the two passages are nearly, identical. This fact indicates that the passage with a suitable change has been lifted by one from the other.

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SOMESVARA BHATTA AND HEMACANDRACARYA 233 The two passages bearing number 41 are related in a way to a passage found in Namisadhu who is decidedly earlier than both of our writers. These passages deserve special attention. Let us set forth the three passages for a comparative study : Namisadhu : अथ यत्र साम्यमात्रे सति विनैवोपपत्त्या संभावना भवति न चोपमाव्यवहारस्तत्र कोऽलंकारः / यथा(१) यश्चाप्सरोविभ्रममण्डनानां संपादयित्रीं शिखरैर्बिभर्ति / बलाहकच्छेदविभक्तरागामकालसन्ध्यामिव धातुमत्ताम् // -Kumara, I.4 तथा (2) 'आवर्जिता किञ्चिदिव स्तनाभ्याम्' इत्यादिषु / -Kumara. III.54 अत्र ह्यकालसन्ध्यादीनां संभावने न काचिदुपपत्तिनिर्दिष्टा / न चाप्युपमाव्यवहारः / यतः सिद्धमुपमानं भवति / न वा काले सिद्धत्वम् / तथा यद्यर्थाश्रवणान्नाप्युत्पाद्योपमाव्यवहारः / न चाप्यतिशयोत्प्रेक्षासंभवोऽस्ति / अत्रोच्यते-उपमायामसंभव उत्प्रेक्षायां त्वनुपपत्तिरत उभयत्रापि लक्षणस्य न्यूनतायामुपमाभासो वा स्यादुत्प्रेक्षाभासो वा / एवम् (3) पृथिव्या इव मानदण्डः -~Kumara I 1 इत्यादावपि द्रष्टव्यम् / -On Rudrata VIII. 37 Somesvara : (1) अकालसन्ध्यामिव धातुमत्ताम् / -Kumara I. 4 (2) आवर्जिता किञ्चिदिव स्तनाभ्यां वासो वसाना तरुणार्करागम् / . सुजातपुष्पस्तबकावनम्रा संचारिणी पल्लविनी लतेव / / -Kumara III. 54 (3) अचिराभामिव [च]घनां ? (विघना) ज्योत्स्नामिव कुमुदबन्धुना विकलाम् / रतिमिव मन्मथरहितां श्रियमिव हरिवक्षसः पतिताम् // -Kuttanimata 258 (4) स्थितः पृथिव्या इव मानदण्डः / --Kumara I. 1 (5) हिरण्मयी साऽऽस [? साल-] लतेव जङ्गमा च्युता दिवः स्थास्नुरिवाचिरप्रभा / -Bhatti II. 47 (6) बालेन्दुवक्राण्यविकाशभावाद् बभुः पलाशान्यतिलोहितानि / सद्यो वसन्तेन समागतानां नखक्षतानीव वनस्थलीनाम् / / --Kumara. III. 29 इत्यादिषु उत्प्रेक्षैव / धातुमत्तादीनां हि प्रत्यक्षत एव अकालसन्ध्यादिसादृश्यमुपलभ्य अकाले सन्ध्या न भवतीति असंभाव्यमानवस्त्वध्यवसायस्य संभावना क्रियते / 'अकालसंध्यामिव' इति प्रत्यक्षोपलब्धौ च न युक्त्यन्तरं मार्गणीयम्, न तु उपमा, उपमानस्य असंभवात्, नाप्यसंभवोपमा, अस्माद् असंभाव्योपमेयदर्शने सति तस्याः प्रयोगात्,..... Stud.-30

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234 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Hemacandra : एवं च(१) हिरण्मयी साललतेव जङ्गमा च्युता दिवः स्थास्नुरिवाचिरप्रभा / शशाङ्ककान्तेरधिदेवताकृतिः सुता ददे तस्य सुताय मैथिली // -~-Bhatti. II. 47 (2) तथा-अकालसन्ध्यामिव धातुमत्ताम् / --Kumara. I. 4 (3) आवर्जिता किञ्चिदिव स्तनाभ्यां वासो वसाना तरुणार्करागम् / सुजातपुष्पस्तबकावनम्रा संचारिणी पल्लविनी लतेव // --Kumara. III. 54 (4) तथा-अचिराभामिव विघनां ज्योत्स्नामिव कुमुदबन्धुना विकलाम् / रतिमिव मन्मथरहितां श्रियमिव हरिवक्षसः पतिताम् // -Kuttanimata 258 (5) तथा-'स्थितः पृथिव्या इव मानदण्डः' / -Kumara. I. 1 इत्यादावुत्प्रेक्षाबुद्धिर्न विधेया / यद्यप्येषु स्वरूपतो विशेषणतश्चोपमानं कल्पितं तथाप्युपमैव / उपमानोपमेययोः साधर्म्यस्य तद्वाचकानां च प्रतीयमानत्वात् / -Kavyanusasana, p. 349 It is found on comparison that Namisadhu discusses three stanzas from the point of view of 'alamkara' present in them and concludes that they contain Upamabhasa or Utpreksabhasa. Hemacandra has quoted the three verses cited by Namisadhu and added two more verses and remarks that they should not be taken to contain Utpreksa but Upama and Upama alone. Somesvara cites all the five verses found in Hemacandra and adds the sixth one and emphatically asserts that they all contain Utpreksa and Utpreksa alone and not Upama. This comparative study of the three passages suggests that Somesvara is probably later than Hemacandra. The two passages, which are numbered 53, are of special interest. A comparison of the two passages clearly shows that Somesvara includes in his gloss the passage found in Hemacandra and another found in Ruyyaka's Alamkarasarvasvas. It appears likely that Somesvara may have combined the two passages from the two authors. If Hemacandra had before him Somesvara he would not have probably left out the beautiful passage from Alarkarasarvasva. The verse found in these passages numbered 55 is read differently by different writers : आयुघृतं नदी पुण्यं भयं चौरः सुखं प्रिया / वैरं द्यूतं गुरुर्ज्ञानं श्रेयो ब्राह्मणपूजनम् / / Namisadhu on Rudrata VII-83; Somesvara. Hemacandra reads the fourth quarter as श्रेयो ब्राह्मणभोजनम् / Manikyacandra reads it as follows :

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SOMESVARA BHATIA AND HEMACANDRACARYA 235 आयुर्घतं यशस्त्यागो भयं चौरः सुखं प्रिया / वैरं द्यूतं गुरुर्ज्ञानं श्रेयः सत्तीर्थसेवनम् // Hemacandra's change of reading in the fourth quarter might be deliberate but it is possible to explain that he introduced this change in the text provided by Namisadhu and not necessarily by, Somesvara. It is possible to take Somesvara's remark 'Tafa Uthaorgiafo gatal juara 741114 Ya Ta Hifacy allora, 38 TO START GGETUI GULI (p. 307) as pointing to Hemacandra's text vifaa ..3779Ch Taala | yuq ografa para elfu 7 1967 (pp. 402-403). The use of the dignified expression 'qui ' (p. 144) by Somesvara is, indeed very unusual. In Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana we come across this expression over a number of times. Everytime the expression is used we need not believe that the remark that follows is Hemacandra's own view.? At times we find that Hemacandra prefixes a remark borrowed from his predecessor with this or similar expression. This expression eminently suits the style of Hemacandra. Somesvara's use of the expression 'asi I 14:' once only, and that too, in the corresponding context found in Hemacandra who uses it in several other contexts also possibly points to Somesvara's borrowing from Hemacandra. Now, let us consider Hemacandra's relation to Ruchaka or Ruyyaka which would help us in deciding the interrelation between him and Somesvara. I have shown in a separate paper the indebtedness of Somesvara to Ruyyaka's Alarkarasarvasva by listing the parallel passages. Prof. R.C. Parikh has demonstrated Somesvara's indebtedness to Ruyyaka's Samketa in his learned introduction to the edition of Kavyaprakasa. It is thus firmly established that Somesvara is later than Ruyyaka whose Samketa and Alaskarasarvava he has used freely. On a comparison between Hemachandra's Kavyanusasana and Ruyyaka's Samketa we find that Hemachandra has used not only Kavyaprakasa but also Ruyyaka's Samketa on it. The parallelisms noted below are enough to prove that Hemacandra has used Ruyyaka's Samketa. 8 Hemacandra Rucaka 1. p. 77 (11 11-13, 1 22) p. 31 2. p. 154 (11 19-23) P. 40 3. p. 225 (11 23-26) p. 74 p. 376 (11 9-11) p. 70 5. p. 388 (1 23) 6. p. 389 (11 2-6) p. 63 ni w two P. 69

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236 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE On a careful scrutiny it is found that there is not a single passage common between Alamkarasarvasva and Kavyanusasana. A few verses which are common to them are found in earlier works such as Sarasvatikanthabharana, Kavyaprakasa, Rucaka's Samketa, etc. Considering the fact that Hemacandra freely draws upon his predecessors amd the Samketa commentary of his contemporary Ruyyaka but shows no acquaintance with his contemporary's Alamkarasarvasva one is inclined to believe that probably Hemacandra wrote his Kavyanusasana before Ruyyaka had composed his Alamkarasarvasva or at least before that work had reached him. Somesvara, who uses freely Ruyyaka's Samketa and Alamkarasarvasva as well, and reveals many similarities with Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana, probably, therefore, knew Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana. Notes and References : 1. Rajasthana Puratana Granthamala, edited by Prof. R. C. Parikh. 2. Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, edited by Prof. R. C. Parikh. 3. For the view that Somesvara is possibly earlier than Hemacandra, vide, Prof. R.C. Parikh's Introduction to the edition of Kavyaprakasa with Samketa. Part II, pp. 14-19. 4. Kashi Sanskrit Series Edition (1936) -page 334. 5. Nirnayasagara edition, 1939, vide p. 105, II 13-18. 6. p. 110, 183, 204, 217, 337, etc. 7. It deserves notice that the passage which follows the sentence azi 14:' is taken over from the Vyaktiviveka (pp. 259-60) and incorporated as his own by Hemacandra (see pp. 217-18). This practice of taking over the words from the original work and incorporating them among one's remarks was followed by very reputed authors. (Cf. Kane : History of Sanskrit Poetics, p. 169). 8. -Edited by Shivaprasada Bhattacharya, Calcutta Oriental Journal, Vol, II. Nos. 6 and 12.

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KALPALATAVIVEKA : A STUDY The publication of the Kalpalataviveka, a hitherto unpublished work on Sanskrit poetics, is a valuable addition to the existing literature on Sanskrit poetics. It is an Addendum to the Pallava which is a commentary on the Kalpalata. The author of the Kalpalata and Pallava, both of which are irretrievably lost, is, as first pointed out by Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, Ambaprasada, the Chief- minister of Siddharaja Jayasimha (1094-1143 A. D.). It has not so far been known whether the same author wrote this book or it is somebody else. His expressed aim is to explain whatever was passed over by the Pallava. But he has gone beyond this declared aim and has incorporated in his Addendum detailed portions dealing with Nrtta-natya, Dhvani, Prastara, 33 Bhavas, and the famous Rasa-sutra of Bharata from the standard works which together take about 160 printed pages, i.e. one half of the Addendum. The editors deserve to be congratulated on critically presenting the text based on three MSS. and adding useful Indexes at the end. Prof. Vora's Introduction, very elaborate, is highly useful in understanding and appreciating the elliptical passages in the text. His was, indeed, a very arduous task to trace the sources; for the text in many places gives only pratikas of Sanskrit karikas, Sanskrit and Prakrit illustrative verses, and of the gloss on them. Sometimes it gives synonyms or adds remarks by way of explanations or criticism. Some of these pratikas are not the words with which the karikas or the illustrative verses open. Naturally, Prof. Vora's task of tracing the sources became all the more difficult. It must be said to his credit that he has, to a great extent, accomplished his task with admirable success. Besides tracing the sources in the course of the topicwise survey of the contents of the four chapters on Dosa, Guna, sabdalamkara and arthalamkara he has critically and ably discussed the various topics of the authorship of the Kalpalata, its Age, the title of the work, the interrelation between the Kalpalata and the Kalpalataviveka, the scope of the Kalpalata, the Pallava and the Kalpalataviveka, the structure of the Kalpalata, the authorship of the Kalpalataviveka, the contribution and usefulness of the

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238 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Kalpalata and the Kalpalataviveka. He has rightly stated that the Kalpalataviveka is highly useful in understanding Bhamaha's Chapter on nyayanirnaya and that it offers very happy readings of some corrupt passages in the Abhinavabharati and the Locana. The Appendixes to the Kalpalataviveka leave out many Sanskrit and Prakrit illustrative verses, The primary/secondary sources of a good many illustrative verses and verses cited as authorities have not been indicated. In his Introduction Prof. Vora has traced many verses to their (secondary) sources. It would have been appropriate if he had supplemented the work of the editors by adding an Appendix towards the end of his Introduction. A separate Index of Prakrit verses with their Sanskrit chaya and primary and / or secondary sources would have proved a welcome feature of this edition. Prof. Vora could have considerably reduced the bulk of his Introduction by refraining from covering the ground already covered. He need not have explained at lengh the passages traced to their well-known sources. In a scholarly introduction meant for advanced students it would have been but proper if he had pointed out the passages only. It would have enhanced the value of this Introduction if he had discussed and shown how the present text helps us on the one hand to correct the corrupt passages in the source-books and how the sources on the other help us to correct, at some places, the text of the present work. A perusal of the text and the sources traced by Prof. Vora shows that one very important source, viz., Kuntaka's Vakroktijivita, of the present work has completely escaped his attention. Occasionally, one comes across erroneous statements in the Introduction, such as "When it (Pratijna) is established by a powerful means of proof one Dosa arises".--p. 68 "Nityah Sabdah Krtakatvat." Here the hetu being a product is not present in the similar case (akasa) and also in the dissimilar case (ghata)"--P. 70, f.n.1; P. 131, f.n.7. The illustrative quotation which the Kalpalataviveka refers to in this context is not a 59 Hitam qu --Kirata. X-34 but हिरण्मयी साललतेव जङ्गमा च्युता दिवः स्थास्नुरिवाचिरप्रभा / ARTICOnafa: ya GG pagare fecit 11 ---Bhatti II. 47. This is indisputably clear from the significant words used by the Kalpalataviveka : salalateva...sthasnuriva (P. 251, 11. 20-21) "(P. 264, 1.28) Dandi's ill.". It is not Dandi's but Vamana's illustration. "All the figures...are given after Vyaghata, Mammata's last sabdalaskara".--p 166. Vyaghata is not a sabdalaskara but an arthalamkara. "(P. 105, 1.12) Then follows a long long section... Viveka which has drawn

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KALPALATAVIVEKA : A STUDY 239 upon the Dhvanyaloka and the Locana, without adding anything original,-"--p. 112. The Kalpalataviveka has certaintly drawn upon the Dhvanyaloka and the Locana but it also has added in suitable contexts a large number of passages from Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana. On page 30 the Prakrit word Madaha is wrongly spelt as Mahada. In a few sentences we find wrong English usage : "No purpose is served by consigning Vatsa to Ujjayini".--. 63. "He then carried out this vow in a feat of anger."--p. 74." Thus Binna (? Bhinna)- marga and Purnasvara cannot co-exist, at the same time." ...though apartha by itself is a dosa, as is universably known."-p. 83...The latter is further divided into imaginable (bhavya) and conceptual or contemplable (vasaniya).....contemplable or conceptual."-p. 103. Bhavya and Vasaniya could be rendered in English as understandable and comprehensible. Prof. Vora has added a long list of corrections in the Corrigenda but still a large number of mistakes and misprints have remained unnoticed. Mistakes of spelling and misprints on such a scale really disfigure the work and positively annoy the reader. The Prakrit verses, cited in the Introduction (under footnotes, are presented rather poorly and carelessly. A few instances may here be cited : (P. 113, f.n. 3) TEU 37........ (Cf. Setu 1.56) (P. 113, f.n. 5) 15 ........ (Cf. Setu V. 19) (p. 139, f.n. 10) T Te... HTF (? K.P. X v. 471) (P. 140, f.n. 12) "Probably utrzy (p. 270, 1.22) is a misreading for it is एत्तिअ in S K.....". पत्तिय इति / प्रतीहि / is perfectly all right. (P. 141, f.n. 9) 1946.......(Cf. Setu I. 1) (p. 143, f.n. 3) UUEDO...... (Cf. Setu I. 3) (P. 144, f.n. 5) H 3446..... (Cf. Hemacandra-Prakrit Grammar 4.420) Prof. Vora's remark : "It should be Kavi in the text and not Kavi" is absolutely unwarranted. "Kavi" is perfectly all right in Apabharamsa. Hemacandra's text reads bhadu in place of bhidiya. Our text reads bhadi [iti] Kasyascit sambhodhanamidam l] and it appears to be a genuine reading. (P. 147. f. n. 1) GT S 37 (? 1737)........ ...... HAFT3TUT (? UPStuty) (P. 154, f. n. 2) ..... ......fa37 (? f437)....... (P. 156, f. n. 6) ....... Tuhfaq (? quai fa) Jura (? 03) (Cf. Saptasati II. 61) Occasionally, in tracing the passages to their sources, Prof, Vora is not

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240 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE quite precise in citing references but makes general observations which are not very helpful. The following is an instance in point : (P. 254, 1.20). "The varieties of Rupaka, viz., Vakya-rupaka and Samasa-rupaka, and their varieties and Subvarieties as given by Rudrata are discussed and some of the illustrations given by Rudrata and Nami are reviewed". However, I would like to say that these critical observations in no way detract the value and importance of Prof. Vora's learned introduction. That the Vakroktijivita is one of the sources drawn upon by the Kalpolata- viveka will be clear from the following table : Kalpalataviveka And Vakroktijivita Upama 1. विवक्षित......न सम्भवति / विवक्षित.....क्रियापदम् / / -~~-P. 241 lines 15-18 -III. 30-31 and Vrtti on these karikas 2. यान्त्या मुहुः .... .... .... P. 438 माञ्जिष्ठीकृत .... .... p. 438 इत्याकणित .... .... .... P. 439 रामेण .... .... .... P. 438 ---P. 242 lines 7-10 3. तद्वल्गुना .... .... .... P. 444 तद्वल्गुना...पद्मम् / / यदि...इह तु वाक्यैकत्वे नेत्यभिप्रायः / Note : There is loss of text after this stanza. --P. 242 11. 18-21 Probably it is preserved by Kalpalataviveka. 4. उभौ यदि...P. 242, I. 24 उभौ यदि...(from Sisu III, 8)-De, p. 201. -Vivesvara, p. 442, f.n. 1. Note : According to Dandi, Rudrata and Mammata, this verse would be an illustration of adbhutopama, utpadyopama and atisayokti respectively, Kuntaka takes it as an illustration of tulyayogita, Acarya Visvesvara, however, considers the verse to be out of context and relegates it to the footnotes. सौन्दर्यधारेति P. 242, 1. 26 सौन्दर्यसारावधि P. 444. 1. 9 तत्पूर्वानुभवे P. 243, 1, 2 तत्पूर्वानुभवे P. 444, 1,7 एवंविधम् P. 243, 1. 4 एवंविधम् P.445, 1. 1 Note : 'सौन्दर्यधार' is, probably, a scribal mistake for 'सौन्दर्यसारं'. 6. प्रत्येकम्...नियम... P. 243, 1.6 प्रत्येकं प्राधान्यात्, नियमानिश्चितेश्च रूपान्तर... P. 243, b. 7 ...रूपान्तर...उपमितिः 5.

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KALPALATAVIVEKA: A STUDY 241 उपमितिः P. 243, 1.9 -P. 446, lines 1-4 7. दर रइय ...P. 243, 1. 12 xxx यत्काव्यार्थ ...P. 243, 1. 14 यत्काव्यार्थ... -P. 443, lines 3-4. Note : The Prakrit verse opening with "dara raiya" is probably adopted from the Vakroktijivita. This surmise is based on the fact that there is loss of text just before yatkavyartha etc. and the present verse "dara raiya" occurs in the Kalpalataviveka just before "yatkavyartha". 8. सदयं बुभुजे P. 243, 1.20 सदयं बुभुजे- III.33. (V) 129 समुच्चितोपमोदाहरणम् P. 243, lines 20-21 भवति उपमितिः एषा चालङ्कृतिः समुचिता उपमा पूर्ववत् एव / P. 446 Note : (i) The reading 'samucita' (in the Vakroktijivita) is obviously wrong. It ought to be samuccita (Cf. Dandi's samuccayopama-II. 21) (ii) The verse, indicated by the Pratika ayam ranah (p. 243, 1. 21), is probably adopted from the Vakroktijivita. It follows the verse "sadayam bubhuje" in the Kalpalataviveka and the verse "sadayam bubhuje" in the Vakroktijivita is followed by marks showing loss of text. 9. खड्गप्रहारम् P. 244, lines 3-5 शस्त्रप्रहारं ददता-(III. 33. V. 133) Note : Dandi (II.356) reads sastradeg). The author possibly quotes from memory, hence the V.L. Khadgao. After this verse in the Vakroktijivita we have mark showing grantha-pata. Possibly, the Vrtti 'अत्र बहूनां भूभुजां... भवत्युपमितिरेवालंकृतिरिति' and the Prakrit illustration सिवे (? वि) णे वि (With the Vrtti facerat 34fafa: va sfat) that follows it formed a part of the text of the Vakroktijivita (now lost). Utpreksa 10. अत एव तदिवेति तदेवेति वा द्वाभ्यां तदिवेति तदेवेति वा द्वाभ्यां प्रकाराभ्याम् / प्रकाराभ्यां... -(p. 244, 1. 11) -Vrtti on III. 25-27 (p. 424) 11. बोधयन् इति बोधयन्नेव बोधयन्निववेत्यर्थः / अयं मन्दद्युतिर्भास्वान प्रतिगच्छति / ...मन्दद्युतिरित्यत्र....उपमायाः प्रतिपाद- उदयः पतनायेति श्रीमतो बोधयन् नरान् / कतां प्राप्नोतीत्यर्थः / The verse is followed by a mark indiP. 244, lines 14-19 cating granthapata. (p. 449-p. 450, 1.1) Note : Probably the Vstti is based on the portion following the verse ayam mandadyutih etc. in the Vakroktijivita which is now lost. Stud.-31

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242 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 12. तदिव इति सादृश्यपक्षे / तदेव इति तु सम्भावनानुमानेन सादृश्येनोभयेन वा / सम्भावनानुमानपक्षे योजनीयम् / तदिवेति तदेवेति... काल्पनिकम् इति -~-P. 252, lines 11-12 -III. 24-26 and the Vrtti on it (p. 422-425) especially, द्विविधं सादृश्यं संभवति वास्तविक काल्पनिकं च / ... 13. आपीड-इति आपीड... राशीभूतः-इति राशीभूतः... निर्मोक-इति निर्मोक... तिक्खारुणं तं इति...उभयसाधनेयमुत्प्रेक्षा / नीसासा इति...इयमप्युभयसाधनोत्प्रेक्षा / उत्फुल्ल-इति उत्फुल्ल... -P. 252, lines 15-26 -De, pp. 193-194 -Visvesvara, pp. 425-26 Note : De's observation on the two missing Prakrit verses is as follows : "The Vastavasadrsyodaharanam is a Prakrit verse which cannot be reconstructed from the MS. So is the Prakrit verse given as ubhayodaharana". (p. 193). The two Prakrit verses in the Kalpalataviveka, which illustrate ubhayasadhanotprekna are most probably the same two verses referred to by De in the quotation cited above. It must, however be conceded that according to De they are not both illustrations of ubhayasadhanotpreksa. (Samsaya=) Sasamdeha 14. रञ्जिता तु (? नु) इति / / रञ्जिता नु...(Kirāta IX.15) -P. 253, 1. 26 -P. 473, lines 2-3 निमीलद् इति / निमीलदा' (Kirata, VIII-53) -P. 253, 1. -27 -P. 473, lines 5-6 Dipaka 15. विच्छित्तेः कारणम् इति / वर्णनीयस्य प्रस्तावाधिकृतस्य पदार्थस्य विच्छित्तेः -P. 255, 1.5. उपशोभायाः कारणं निमित्तभूतम् / उपशोभाया निमित्तभूतं-P. 255, 1.5 -Vrtti on III. 19, p. 404, lines 1-2 Slesa 16. मालामुत्पल इति / मालामुत्पलकन्दलैः -P. 259, 1.11 -III, 34-v. 141 (p. 452, lines 2-5).

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KALPALATAVIVEKA : A STUDY 243 Aprastutaprasamsa 17. लावण्य इति / अत्र लावण्यसिन्धूत्पलशशि- साम्यसमाश्रयणात् वाक्यान्तर्भूतप्रस्तुत(? भूता-- प्रभृतयः पदार्थाः पदमात्राभिधेया अप्रस्तुता प्रस्तुत )पदार्थप्रशंसा / यथा-लावण्यसिन्धुरपरैव... उपवर्णिताः / --P. 264, lines 28-29 _ --P. 415, lines 1-3. छाया इति / अत्र तालेनेति पदार्थः सकल- साम्याश्रयणात् सकलवाक्यव्यापकप्रस्तुत(? 'व्यापका वाक्यव्यापकतया उपवर्णितः / / प्रस्तुत)पदार्थप्रशंसा / यथाछाया नात्मन एव... ...तालेन बाला वयम् // -P. 264, 1.29 to p. 265, 1.1 --P. 415, lines 4.8 Drstanta 18. वस्तुसाम्यम् इति / वस्तुसाम्यं समाश्रित्य...। दृष्टान्तनामालङ्कारः...॥ --P. 265, 1. 21 -III. 38 (p. 467) सरसिजमित्यत्र सरसिजमनुविद्धं... .....मण्डनं नाकृतीनाम् // -P. 265, 1. 23 (Sakuntala I-20)- P. 458, lines 1-5. Dipaka 19. चंकम्मति इति / चंकमंति अत्र कवयः प्राकरणिकाः स्फुटमेव दुक्खं वणे च कइणो प्रतीयन्ते / -P. 266, 1. 15 -P. 396, lines 3-4. कइकेसरी इति / कइकेसरी.. ... / अत्रापि कविकेसरी प्राकरणिकः / ... .... // -P. 266, lines 15-16 --P. 399, lines 7-8. 20. पक्तिसंस्थम् / एकं प्रकाशकं... ... केवलं पक्तिसंस्थं वा ... // -P. 267, 1.6 -III.18 (p. 398) दीपयत्यन्यत्तदन्यदिति / दीपयत्यन्यत्रान्यत् (?दीपयत्यन्यत्तदन्यदिति) इति -P. 267, 1.7 अन्यस्यातिशयोत्पादकत्वेन दीपकम् / यद्दीपितं तद्दीपकं कर्मभूतं तेषामिति अन्यत् कर्तृभूतं तत्कर्मभूतमन्यत्, कर्तृभूतं दीपयति, प्रकाशयति श्रियं इति दीपयति / अन्यदपि च कर्मभूतं तदप्यन्यद्दीपयतीति दीपकदीपकम् / क्षोणीमण्डलताः इति / अपरं कर्तृभूतम् / अचापलमिति / मण्डनं नृपतयस्तेषां श्रियोभूषणम् दीपयतीति सम्बन्धः / एनमेवाह-अन्यस्या- ताः शोभां गमयत्यचापलमिदं... ... शौर्यतिशय इति / अन्यस्य इति क्षोणीमण्डलस्य / क्रियालङ्कृतं दीपकम् इति नृपतयः / क्रौर्य इति क्रौर्यक्रिययालक्रियाम् / --P. 267, lines 8-11.

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244 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE [Note : The reading saurya, found in the Vakroktijivita, seems to be better.] -P. 400, lines 4-11. 21. यदि तद्दीपितं कर्तृभूतं स (? सा) इति / मदो जनयति प्रीति सानङ्ग मानभङ्गरम् / अन्यत् कर्मभूतम् / अनङ्गम् इति / तदपि स प्रियासङ्गमोत्कण्ठा...।। कर्तृभूतं स इति / अन्यत् कर्मभूतम्, प्रियासङ्गमोत्कण्ठामित्येवं दीपयति तदायं तृतीयः प्रकारो भवति / --P. 267. lines 11-13. (Bhamaha II-27)-P. 402, 1. 2. 22. यदि...रामस्य पाणिरसीति करुणा कुतस्ते..... हे हस्त दक्षिण... निर्भरगर्भखिन्नदेवीप्रवासनपटो रामस्य कर रामस्य पाणिरसिनिर्भर० स्त्व म्... सीताविवासनपटो करुणा कुतस्ते / / (Uttara-rama-carita II. 10) -p. 276, lines 19-21. -P. 462, lines 9-12. ...वचनीयताम् उच्यतां सः... ... ... . उच्यतां स वचनीयम्... ...नेश्वरे परुषता सखि साध्वी / आनयैनमनुनीय कथं वा विप्रियाणि जनयन्ननुनेयः.... -P. 276, lines 21-P. 277, 1.2. (Kirata IX-39) -P. 463, lines 2-3 किं गतेन न हि युक्तमुपैतुं... कि गतेन... कः प्रिये सुभगमानिनि मानः / -P. 277, lines 2-5 (Kirata IX-40)-P. 464, lines 1-2 हे पर्वतराज मया वियुक्ता रामात्र त्वया सर्वक्षितिभृतां नाथ...दृष्टा... ! रामा मया विरहिता त्वया // (Vikramorvasiya-IV-27) -P. 277, lines 6-7 -P. 464, lines 3-4. प्रधानार्थपरत्वेनप्रधानार्थपरत्वेन -P. 277, 1.9. -P. 465, lines 3-4 शब्दार्थद्वय इति शब्दार्थद्वयप्रकाशनम् -P. 277, 1.9 -P. 465, 1.6 युगपदर्थद्वयप्रकाशनलक्षणः युगपत्प्रदीपप्रकाशवदर्थद्वयप्रकाशनम् -P. 277, lines 11-12 -P. 465, 1.5. दृष्य Note : Kuntaka gives these four verses to illustrate his own definition of Sahokti. They are adopted by our author from Kuntaka and not from the original works. This is clear from the fact that they are cited in the same order as found in the Vakroktijivita.

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KALPALATAVIVEKA : A STUDY 245 23 "यत्रैकेनैव वाक्येन" इत्यादिलक्षणलक्षिता 'Kuntaka cites discusses and rejects या सहोक्तिः सैतस्य ग्रन्थकारस्यालङ्कारतया Bhamaha's definition and illustration संमता / या पुन महादिभिरुक्ता सा of Sahokti. He defines Sahokti as नालङ्कार इत्यर्थः / follows :यत्रैकेनैव वाक्येन वर्णनीयार्थसिद्धये / अर्थानां युगपदुक्तिः सा सहोक्तिः सतां मता / / -P. 277, lines 13-19 --III. 37, p. 461. Parivstti 24. एकस्य...पूर्वम्... विसृष्टरागादधरान्निवर्तितः...| यदेति...तद्रूपतया च... ......अक्षसूत्रप्रणयी......॥ These Pratikas are possibly based on the text of the Vakroktijivita This conjecture is supported by the Pratika which immediately follows : तस्य इति / अक्षसूत्रस्य / (Kumarasambhava V. 16) -P. 277, 1. 27. --P. 447, lines 5-6 (Discussion of) Rasavat 25. पक्षिपतिरेव रशना यस्या इति सम्बन्धः / तरङ्गभ्रूभङ्गा क्षुभितविहगश्रेणिरशना.... इयं नदी इति.....भावशब्देन समासे नदीभावेनेयं....परिणता // -P. 316, lines 5-7 (Vikramorvsiya. IV. 28) [Note : 'पक्षिपङ्क्तिः ' is obviously a --P. 350, lines 1-4 paraphrase of विहगश्रेणि...] 26. निश्चायक इति विनिहतेषु किं हास्येन... प्रोषितेषु च पतिषु प्रमदाजन... स्वप्नान्तेष्विति...प्रियतम... प्रवासविप्रलम्भस्य... बुद्ध्वा रोदिति रिक्तबाहुवलयस्तारं रिक्तबाहुवलयत्वरोदन... रिपुस्त्रीजनः // स्वप्नान्ते प्रियतमेषु -P. 361, lines 1-4. -P. 316, lines 12-16. कुतो विप्रलम्भस्य पृथक्त्वव्यपदेशगन्धो- कुतःप्रवासविप्रलम्भस्य ऽपीत्याह- -P. 316, I. 19 पृथग्व्यापारे रसगन्धोऽपि / -P. 364, 1.7 भवद्विनिहतवल्लभ... भवद्विनिहतवल्लभो.... -P. 316, 1 22. -P. 361. 1. 5. पर्यायोक्तन्यायन पर्यायोक्तान्यापदेशन्यायेन -P. 316, 1. 23. -P. 364. 1. 10 प्रेयोरूपः प्रधानभूतः ...प्रेयस: प्राधान्ये... -P. 316, 1.24 -P. 364, 1.8.

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246 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE अन्यो (? अन्या)पदेशन्यायेन पर्यायोक्तान्यापदेशन्यायेन -P. 316, 1. 25 -P. 364, last line-P. 365, 1.1. स्वरूपाद् इति स्वरूपादतिरिक्तस्य स्वरूपादतिरिक्तस्य परस्याप्रतिभासनात् / परस्याप्रतिभासनात् / ----P. 316, 1. 28 --P. 370, 1. 10 अलङ्कार्यश्चेद्रस: तदन्येन केनचिदलङ्करणेन यदि शृङ्गारादिरेव प्राधान्येन भवितव्यम् / वर्ण्यमानोऽलङ्कार्यस्तदन्येन केनचिदलङ्करणेन भवितव्यम् / -P. 316, lines 29-30 -P. 339, lines 1-2 उपोढरागेण... उपोढरागेण... --P. 317, 1.2 -P. 385, lines 3-4. स्वात्मनि क्रियाविरोधात् ...स्वात्मनि क्रियाविरोधात् -P. 317, 11. 3-4. -P. 371, 1.2. तत्तुल्यवृत्तान्ततया इति शेषस्य पुनस्तुल्यवृत्तान्तया -P. 317, 1. 7-8. -P. 388, lines 3-4. चलापानाम् इति चलापाङ्गां.... ......हतास्त्वं खलु कृती // -P. 317, 1.3 -P. 386, lines 3-6 कपोले पत्राली 'कपोले पत्राली' इत्यादौ / -P. 317, 1.3 ---P. 387, 1.3 संसृष्टिव्यपदेशःसङ्कव्यपदेशो न...संसृष्टिसङ्करव्यपदेशप्रसङ्गः वा प्रसजन्न प्रत्याख्यातुं शक्यते / प्रत्याख्येयतां प्रतिपद्यते / -P. 317, 1. 10 --P. 388, 1.5 स कविना..कामपि कमनीयतामधिरोपितः / ...कविना कामपि कमनीयतामधिरोपितः / -P. 317, lines 13-14 -P. 389, 1.5 Samsssti गजभुजङ्ग पल्लवमृदुः म्लानि.... नीता राजभुजङ्ग पल्लवमृदुनूनं... -P. 320, lines 2-3 --P. 477, lines 2-5. The sources of the Kalpalataviveka help us in correcting its text. The editors have done their best to present the text of the Kalpalataviveka as faithfully and carefully as possible. The text, however, needs to be corrected in many places. Some of the important and significant corrections are noted below for the benefit of readers : P. 23, 1. 16 P. 23, 1. 18 For रूपपति आहत [?] कामः Read भूतपति आहतवपुः कामः

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KALPALATAVIVEKA : A STUDY 247 P. 25, 1. 7. आतिष्ठ इति आचर... आतिष्ठ इति / आचर। P. 31, 1, 16 ससङ्कोच स सङ्कोच P. 31, 1. 23 देवधिष्ण्यमिव देव धिष्ण्यमिव P. 40, 1, 24 वाचो युक्तिः 'वाचोयुक्तिः P. 45, lines 12-13 'विचारेति प्रपञ्चः "विचारेऽतिप्रपञ्चः P. 47, 1. 1. प्रप्यक्षं प्रत्यक्षं P. 60, 1.7 शब्देऽविद्यमानत्वात् शब्दे विद्यमानत्वात् P. 72, 1. 22 शुभमरकत शुभमरकत. P. 87, 1, 12 बद्धा बद्ध्वा P. 87, 1. 25 तदुपजीव्यदोषो तदुपजीव्य दोषो P. 89, lines 22-26 The passage should be read as follows : इति...विलासलक्षणे...प्रयुक्तो [भरतमुनिना] नारायणकविना यथातत्त्वं नाधिगतार्थ इति, अधिकृतो ह्यत्र वीररस इति / एवं दोषोऽयमभिहितः / The text as it stands is apt to mislead readers. It is not Narayana but Bharata who has employed the word "ratibhoga" when defining Vilasa', one of the Angas of Pratimukha-Sandhi. Again, the two sentences given within inverted commas are not the two karikas (karika-dvaya) referred to. In fact, they are not karikas at all. The two Karikas meant here are : इतिवृत्तवशायातां...and सन्धिसन्ध्यङ्गघटनं...(Dhyanyāloka III. 11 and 12). This interpretation is based on Locana (p. 341 and p. 361). P. 96, 1. 2 and मा. भी: मा भैः 1.5 P. 107, 1.8 "नुष्ठानम् "नुत्थानम् P. 107, 1. 28 जायं तु जायन्तु P. 110, 1. 23 दशनरदन रदनदशन P. 111, 1.9 तृतीय एव स ध्वनि तृतीय एव रसध्वनि' P. 111, 1. 18 'निष्पन्द "निष्यन्द P. 117, 1. 9. ह्युद्याने (? ह्युच्यमाने स) हृदयादि वो ह्युद्यानेन्दूदयादि वो p. 119, 1.7 इत्थं स्थितिर्वरार्थाचेत्यादि / The footnote reads आद्येऽर्धे अनुप्रासो द्वितीयेऽर्थान्तरन्यासः / The whole verse, however, is nowhere given in the text. The full verse runs as follows :

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248 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE इत्थं स्थितिर्वरार्था चेन्मा कृथा व्यर्थमथिताम् / . रूपेण ते युवा सर्वः पादबद्धो हि किङ्करः // -Udbhata, P. 70 P. 119, lines 8-9 मैनमेवास्वसच्छायेति?ामैवमेवास्व (V.L. “स्थ) सच्छायेति The full verse runs as follows : मैवमेवास्थ सच्छायवर्णिकाचारुकर्णिका / अम्भोजिनीव चित्रस्था दृष्टिमात्रसुखप्रदा // -Udbhata, P. 70. P. 119, 11. 21-22 कमलायराण-मलिया कमलायरा ण मलिया P. 127, 1. 24 सीतामप्युपेक्षिका सीता मय्युपेक्षिका P. 160, 1. 24 मनोहरसुरम्यमन्मथदेवस्य मनोहरसुरस्य मन्मथदेवस्य P. 161, 1. 23 तैरसद्रुपायते तैरसद्रूपताप्यते P. 161, 1. 27 अंकपाली सहीए अंकपालीसहीए P. 164, 1. 11 हुमि अवहत्थियरे होइति हुमि अवहत्थियरेहो इति P. 165, 1. 4 'शोभितैकेन शोभिनैकेन P. 166, 1.4 कस्त्रातात् कस्त्राता P. 173, 1.4 कृष्यते / प्रकृष्यते च कृष्यते प्रकृष्यते च P. 174, 1. 6 दाहार्थं भोगिनं...शाव दाहार्थमुद्योगिनं...शव P. 176, 1.7 मा पुंसय [प्रोञ्छयस्व] # Friluferuit is the correct reading. P. 178, 1. 17 साधितुरित्यादावपि सा धेनुरित्यादावपि P. 183, 14 आक्षुण्णास्ते अक्षुण्णास्ते P. 183, lines 26 etc The Prakrit verse needs to be corrected and the Sanskrit gloss on it needs punctuation marks. P. 184, 1. 4. The Dhvanyaloka and the Locana (p. 479) present the text of this portion correctly. P. 186, 1. 1 सदेवं स देवं P. 187, 1. 14 पत्तायेति पत्ता य इति P. 190, lines 5-6 Note : The Danda after sthulam (1. 5) should be deleted. upodharageti is the Pratika of its illustration. For suksmamatam, we should read suksmam matam... P. 235, 1. 4 . तन्वी निमित्तम् तन्वीनिमित्तम् P. 238, 1.9 श्यामा लतेव श्यामालतेव P. 251, lines 20-21 एवोत्पेक्षा बुद्धि एवोत्प्रेक्षाबृद्धि [Cf. Hemacandra P. 349, 1, 20] P. 253, 1. 26 रञ्जिता तु रञ्जिता नु

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KALPALATAVIVEKA : A STUDY 249 P. 274, 1. 28 धवलत्वं सरलत्वं P. 275, 1. 24 भोगानिर्विवक्षोः भोगान् निर्विविक्षोः P. 277, 1, 1 सखिसाध्वीति सखि साध्वीति P. 278, 11. 5-6 अन्यथा कासादीनामपि अन्यथा आकाशादीनामपि P. 281, 1. 16 उभयापाश्रयः उभयाश्रयः cf. Nami on Rudrata VII. 77 P. 306, 1.7 स्थायिभावान्नसत्त्व स्थायिभावान् रसत्व P. 309, 1.8 अयोग्यता अयोग्यताP. 311, 1. 24 परिकल्प [?] परिकल्प्य P. 315, 1.3 निषेधः निष्पेषः Note : While reading the text I compared it to the sources drawn upon by the Kalpalataviveka and whenever I thought that the sources present happy readings I noted them. These corrections are based on the authority of the source-books. The text of the Kalpalataviveka helps us to restore some of the highly corrupt and unintelligible passages in the Locana and the Abhinavabharati drawn upon by it. A few instances may be given here : "devaditi lunahi"... (Locana p,. 147). This Apabhramsa verse is highly corrupt and unintelligible. It is also cited in the Abhinavabharati (On the Natya-Sastra, Ch. VI (p. 305, G.O.S. edition 1956); there too the text is unintelligible. Appendix I (P. 383) to that volume gives the readings in the MS. of the Dhvanyaloka which too is corrupt. The second half of this verse is correctly preserved in Somesvara's Samketa (p. 24). The Kalpalataviveka, however, for the first time, gives us the text of this verse in its correct form : दीवडि तेल्लु णाहि...(P. 123, lines 26-27) दीपके तैलं नास्ति पलम्, द्रम्मं गवेषितम् / लावण्योज्ज्वलाङ्गो गृहे प्रियतमः प्रविष्टः // ] The Locana, in the course of its exposition of the Dhvanyaloka II, 3, says : क्वचित्तु व्यभिचारिणः सन्धिरेव चर्वणास्पदम् / यथा-ओसुरु सुम्ठि आई...॥ (P. 176, 11 7-10). Now the first quarter of this Apabhramsa verse is corrupt and makes no sense. The 'Balapriyakara gives its Sanskrit Chaya as ईर्ष्याश्रुशोभिताया...(P. 176). He, however, honestly observes 'इति छायेति प्रतिभाति / ' The Kalpalataviveka borrows the treatment of Dhvani from the Dhvanyaloka and the Locana. In identical context it reads : क्वचिद् व्यभिचारिणोः सन्धिरेव चर्वणास्पदम् / यथा-उसुरुसुंभियाए इति / This reading and the explanation ऊसुंभियं तथा ऊसुरुसुंभियं रुद्धगलरोदनम्' recorded in the Desinamamala helps us to restore the passage : Stud.-32

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250 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE उसुरुसुंभियाए मुह चुंबिउ जेण / अमिअरसघोंटणु पडिजाणिउ तेण // [रुद्धगलं रुदत्याः मुखं चुम्बितं येन / अमृतरसघोटनं परिज्ञातं तेन // ] Namisadhu in the course of his commentary on Rudrata XI. 9 illustrates Gramyata. The printed text reads...पुरुषेषु शूद्रवर्जमनपाकादिको व्यवहार...काचाद्याभरणं च वेषः..तथा विद्यायां पण्डितेषु शस्त्रग्रहणपूर्वको व्यवहार:...The words in bold type do not present happy or satisfactory readings when we take into consideration the context. The Kalpalataviveka adopts this passage and presents appropriate readings : सु(?सू)द(doubtful)वर्जमन्ना०, काञ्च्यादिकं चाभरणं...पण्डितेष्वशास्त्रको व्यवहारः. The Abhinavabharati reads : आम्नायसिद्धे किमपूर्वमेतत्संविद्विकासेऽधिगतागमित्वम् / (Vol. I. p. 278) The Kalpalataviveka reads 'dhiganagamitvam' in place of (a) dhigatagamitvam in the printed text. In the light of the context we find the reading 'dhiganagamitvam' rather superior. 000

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON ABHINAVABHARATI The text of the Abhinavabharati (A. Bh.), the commentary by Abhinavagupta on Bharata's Natyasastra (NS) is corrupt and, therefore, obscure in many places. The commentary on the Sixth Adhyaya, though better preserved, than the commentaries on other chapters, has still a great deal of obscurity on account of corrupt readings. Many reputed scholars have tried their best to improve the commentary. The Aesthetic Experience According to Abhinavagupta by R. Gnoli and Aesthetic Rapture by Masson and Patwardhan are two of the recent works which have tried to render considerable help in understanding the Rasadhyaya, Chapter VI of Bharata's Ns and the A. Bh. on it. In a series of articles. I made attempts to restore the text of over ninety passages of the A. Bh. mainly with the help of Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana and the Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra both of whom have made liberal use of the A. Bh. in their works? The Kalpalataviveka (KLV) of an anonymous author has incorporated many long passages from the Dhvanyaloka (Dhv.) the Locana commentary on it and the A. Bh. I have shown in a separate paper, entitled "Abhinavabharati Ch. VII Recovered ?" how the KLV has preserved in toto a major portion of the A. Bh on Ch. VII. In this paper I am attempting to restore the text of A. Bh. Ch. VI with the help of the KLV which offers comments on some of its difficult passages, and renders them intelligible, and incidentally, I would correct a few misreadings in the KLV with the help of the A. Bh. 1. अन्यच्च स्थायिनां ये विभावादयोऽभिहितास्तैरेव योगे स्थायिनः स्फीता भवेयू रसा स्युरित्यर्थः / अयोगे तु स्थायिन एवेति किं रसावस्थापरपर्यायायां स्फीतदशायां पुनर्विभावादिप्रतिपादनेन / -KLV p. 303, 11 13-15 The text of the A. Bh. which is commented here upon, reads : Fremati 080poezi (Vol. I. p. 272 1.14) The reading 'Sthita' makes no sense. The KLV reading 'Sphita' which directly yields the sense 'in its intensified state is highly superior and, seems convincingly to be genuine. 2. arsata cfa i Brent yeasti

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252 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE विवृद्धात्माप्यगाधोऽपि दुरन्तोऽपि महानपि / एतद्वाक्यं कृत्यारावणे रामेण स्वशोकस्याभिधायकमुक्तं नाभिनयः / / - KLV p. 304, ii. 17-19 This passage confirms that the A. Bh. text cites only the second half of the verse. It further informs us that the verse expressing Rama's sorrow is drawn from the old Rama-play Krtyaravana (now lost). With reference to this verse R. Gnoli observes in a footnote : untraced source (Text, p. 4), unidentified stanza" (Translation, p. 30) 3. शोकेन कृतः इति / अस्योत्तरमर्द्धम् / हृदयस्फुटनभयार्ते रोदितुमभ्यर्थ्यते सचिवैः / इदं तापसवत्सराजे विनीतदेववाक्यमुदयनगतं शोकमभिदधाति नाभिनयः / -KLV p. 304, 11. 17-20 This passage corroborates the fact that the A. Bh. text cites only the first half of the verse. It further informs us that the verse, giving expression to Udayana's profound sorrow, and forming part of Vinitadeva's speech occurs in the play Tapasavatsaraja. With reference to this verse R. Gnoli observes in a footnote : ..... This stanza, whose source I have not succeeded in identifying. (Text, p. 4) Unidentified stanza (Translation, p. 30) In the printed text of the Tapasavatsaraja we read : (नेपथ्ये) देव समाश्वसिहि समाश्वसिहि, समस्ससदु समस्ससदु पिअवअस्सो / [समाश्वसतु समाश्वसतु प्रियवयस्यः ] विनीतभद्रः - (श्रुत्वा दृष्ट्वा च सकरुणम्) अये कथमागत एव देवः श्रावितश्च, तथा ह्ययम्शोकेन कृतस्तम्भस्तथा स्थितो येन वर्धिताकन्दैः / हृदयस्फुटनभयार्ते (रोदितु) मभ्यर्थितस्सचिवैः // अतिकरुणं च वर्तते तदितोऽपसृत्य कार्यशेष प्रतियोजयामि / -Act 11, p. 18 This stanza presents some variant readings : 1. श्रुत्वैष विधृतबाष्प:- Srigaraprakasa (Ch, XXXII) as quoted by the editor of the play in a f. n. on p. 19 शोकेन कृतः स्तम्भः; KLV P. 304, G. M. 2. -योऽनवस्थिताक्रन्दैः -G -योऽवस्थिताक्रन्दैः -M -येन वधिताक्रन्दैः -Hema. (as noted by R. Gnoli, Text. p-4) 3. -मभ्यर्थ्यते सचिवैः --Hema.; KLV

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON ABHINAVABHARATI 253 Gnoli's translation of the third "pada" (by his companions), who, filled with the fear that tears their hearts", however, altogether misses the point. The idea intended to be conveyed is the same as found in Bhavabhuti : पूरोत्पीडे तडागस्य परीवाह: प्रतिक्रिया / picha 7 EGZI Y A Erfall -Uttararamacarita III.29 [When a tank is flooded, an outlet is the only remedy (for preventing the banks from bursting). When agitated by sorrow the heart is sustained only by lamentation.]Rumanvan and Vasantaka (the Vidusaka) the minister and the friend respectively of King Udayana, the Hero, plead with him to take heart and bear the loss of Vasavadatta, his beloved wife (who is believed to be dead). They are extremely worried to find him paralysed by sorrow and standing motionless. They are overpowered by the fear that the King's heart might break if he did not give outlet to his overwhelming grief. They, therefore, increase their own lamentations and implore the king to weep and thus unburden his mind of the overpowering grief. 4. तस्यैव इति / स्थायिन एव / अस्मिन् इति / अस्मिन् नटेऽयं स्थायी / ---KLV, p. 305, 1.22 This forms a gloss on anta fe qenda 34f4744' fa Ah li ufayfa: -A. Bh. Vol I. p. 275, lines 12-13 Gnoli, however, renders the phrase in a contrary way : "That man (is) in this feeling." P. 38 Following the KLV, we may translate it as : "In this (actor) is (being realized) this primary emotion." 5.तदनुकारेऽपि च इति / तच्छब्देन रतिः परामृश्यते / अभ्युपगमोऽयम् अनुकरणरूपत्वादेव च नामान्तरं प्रवर्तत इति हि तत्रभवन्तः / ततश्च रत्यनुकारे कान्तवेषगत्यादयोऽप्यनुकार्याः / अनुकरणरूपत्वे च तेषां कृतानि नामान्तराणि यैस्ते व्यपदिश्यन्ते मुनिवचनेषु तावन्नोपलभ्यन्त इति भावः / - KLV p. 305, 11. 24-27 The text of the A. Bh., on which we have this comment, reads : तदनुकारेऽपि च क्व नामान्तरं कान्तवेषगत्यनुकरणादौ / -P. 276, 11. 6-7 R. Gnoli translates this sentence thus : And, if even that was a reproduction, then what would be the difference between it and the reproduction of the attire, the walk, etc., of the beloved ? He concedes in a footnote : Text and Translation both doubtful. --p. 41. f.n. 4 R. Gnoli takes kva namantaran to mean kva nama antaran whereas 'namantaram is, in this context, used to denote 'another name', 'a different name'.

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254 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Abhinavagupta himself uses this term precisely in this sense twice on the very next page; केवलमुपायवैलक्षण्यान्नामान्तरं प्रतिपद्यतां दर्शनानुमितिश्रुत्युपमितिप्रतिभानादिनामान्तरवत् / A. Bh. p. 277, 11. 8-9 The KLV interprets the line : 'For argument's sake we grant your point of view, viz, 'The Erotic sentiment is an imitation (anukarana) of the permanent mental state called rati. Now in this imitation of rati the dress, the gait etc., of the beloved become anukarya (things to be imitated). By virtue of their having the nature of anukarana they must have been given different names. But these socalled different names for the dress, the gait, etc., of the beloved are not to be found in the text of Bharata's NS. So your stand that Rasa is an imitation or reproduction (anukara, anukarana) of a sthayibhava such as rati etc., has no basis." This interpretation seems to be perfectly all right but for one inconvenient fact. It is true Bharata does not give different names to the imitation of dress, the gait, the speech, etc., of the beloved, he, however, gives a general name Lita : वागङ्गालङ्कारैः शिष्टैः प्रीतिप्रयोजितैर्मधुरैः / इष्टजनस्यानुकृतिर्लीला ज्ञेया प्रयोगज्ञैः // -NS XXII, 14 Abhinavagupta, however, has himself said in the present paragraph : कान्तवेषानुकारवद्धि न रामचेष्टितस्यानुकारः / -Vol I. p 276, 1.1 6. Fa fa 7722071741 ---KLV p. 306, 1 10 This comment comes in between ythifura 5179..f419TE I (=Y1H1fUTO utt.....fo HpTad A. Bh. Vol I, p. 276, 1. 17 and Th 7 urtea sfa i The present text of the A. Bh., however, does not have the reading tantra in the present context; it reads : rantai 7: unifad4244451fa TE FORTSATT I --Vol. I. p. 276, lines 17-18 Hemacandra, however, reads : यत्त्वन्यत्तत्प्रतीतिवैषम्यप्रसङ्गादि तत् कियदत्रोच्यताम् / Possibly the KLV might have read Ri f ad924. 7. Masson and Patwardhan observe : "On p. 274 (A. Bh. I) Abhinava begins his views, but it is not clear when they end....it is likely that this refers, not to Abhinavagupta, but a now lost commentary by Bhatta Tauta on the NS..." -Aesthetic Rapture, The following passage from the KLV is very eloquent on this point :

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON ABHINAVABHARATI 255 रसो न प्रतीयत इति / रसस्य प्रतीत्यभिव्यक्ती मुख्यतया, उत्पत्तिश्चोपचारेण भट्टतोतस्याभिमता / एष एव च पक्षो यथोपाध्यायं शिष्या इत्याचार्यस्य [अभिनवगुप्तस्य] अनुमतोऽत एव च प्रतीत्यादिव्यतिरिक्तश्च संसारे को भोग इत्यादिना तत्र तत्र रसस्य प्रतीत्यादिकमाचार्यः स्वयं व्यवस्थापयिष्यतीति शङ्ककादिमतनिरसनानन्तरमुपाध्यायमतं न प्रदर्शितम् / p. 306, 11. 10-14 According to the KLV, Abhinavagupta held the same views as those of Bhattatauta, his teacher. And that is why he does not separatly set forth the view of Bhattatauta after mentioning the views of Sankuka and others. Unless we have a definite clue as to a now lost commentary by Bhattatauta on the NS, it is safer to presume that Abhinavagupta quotes Bhattatauta's views and explanations of the NS from his memory or lecture-notes which he might have taken down when reading the text with him (Bhattatauta). Aesthetic Rapture Vol. II (Notes) 8. न चोत्साहादिमान् रामः स्मर्यतेऽननुभूतत्वादित्याह- न च तत्त्वतः इति / सरसता इति रसोपजनः / ---KLV, p. 306, lines 21-22 In explaining the view of Bhatta Nayaka and its criticism as presented in the A. Bh., (Vol., 1 pp. 276-77) the KLV very cleverly and rightly borrows sentences and phrases from an earlier version preserved by Abhinavagupta himself in his Locana (pp. 180-190). The A. Bh. reads : न च तद्वतो रामस्य स्मृतिः / अनुपलम्भत्वात् / -p. 276, 1. 5 (from below) The KLV reads tattvatah; so too, Hemacandra reads tattvato (p. 96 1. 13). The reading 'tadvatah' however suits the context. 9. The A. Bh. (Vol I, p. 277, 11. 1-2) reads : 'flash Ehafinn, Masson and Patwardhan observe : The phrase Nibidanijamohasantkatakarina on p. 277 of the A. Bh., Vol. I. is puzzling. Perhaps we must read sarikataniyrttikarina. "Gnoli accepts the reading of the Sarkatataniyaranakarina but remarks sarkatakarina. G.M. equally possible. (Text, p. 10, F.n. 8) He, however, does not explain how that reading would yield a satisfactory meaning, suited to the context. The fact that the correct reading must have been sankatatanivarana (or nivstti) karina is vouchsafed by Abhinavagupta's own text in the Locana where he reads : misfo 7 pot feed, 3rf I THET=245&aftafel.... . -P. 189. 10. रजस्तमोवैचित्र्यानुविद्धसत्त्वमयनिजचित्स्वभावनिर्वृतिविश्रान्तिलक्षणः / --KLV p. 307, 11. 4-5 The text of Hema. (p. 96 11. 22-23) and of the A. Bh. (p. 277, lines 3-4) too in the present context reads laksana. Dr. Raghavan's emendation (Bhoja's

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256 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Srngaraprakasa, p. 480) as vilaksana', therefore, seems uncalled for. 11. रसः इति / रसः स्यान्न तृतीया गतिरिति संबन्धः / --KLV p. 307, 1. 20. The A.Bh (Vol I, p. 277, 11. 9-10) reads : रस इति न तृतीया गतिरस्याम् / Hema (p. 97, 1. 8) too, reads : रस इति न तृतीया गतिः स्यात् / It is, therefore, clear that gatih syat is the genuine reading and not gatirasyam. 12. गुणानाम् इति / सत्त्वरजस्तमसाम् / . -~-KLV p. 307, 1. 24 This comment confirms the fact 'gunanam' is the genuine reading and that Hema) has added sattvadi before it by way of elucidation and expansion. 13. संसर्गादिः इति / ___-KLV p. 307 1. 24 From this pratika and the explanation that follows it would seem that the karika : संसर्गादिर्यथा शास्त्र एकत्वात् फलयोगतः / वाक्यार्थस्तद्वदेवात्र शृङ्गारादी रसो मतः // formed part of the text of the A.Bh and stood just before the karika Samalanakhya (khyaya) etc. (as found on p. 277) bhavasamyojana etc. (Gnoli's text p. 11). This inference is based on the fact that the KLV takes up immediately after the Pratika Samsargadih tadvisayah iti as the next Pratika for explanation and this latter pratika forms part of the A. Bh. line अनुभवेन च तद्विषय इति मन्तव्यम् / which is a comment of Abhinavagupta on the word anubhava occurring in the karika Bhavasamyojana, etc. 14. धिगनागमित्वम् इति / -KLV p. 308, 11. 4-5 The text of the A. Bh. (p. 278, 1.3), however, reads(a) dhigatagamitvam. The verse as it stands is highly obscure, Gnoli's translation (p. 51) of this verse is hardly satisfactory. Masson and Patawardhan frankly concede : "The first verse is corrupt and we cannot derive any satisfactory sense from it." Elsewhere they suggest that it is impossible to interpret it when they say : "We give the verse for anybody who wishes to attempt an interpretation." The following passage from the KLV throws fresh light on the text and the interpretation of this verse : न त्वेवम् (? नन्वेवम्) इति / न त्वेको (नन्वेको)ऽन्यथा व्याचष्टेऽपरोऽन्यथेतरश्चान्यथेत्येवं रसतत्त्वमलब्धप्रतिष्ठं कथमास्तामिति निविण्णप्रायस्य जिज्ञासोः प्रश्नः / कि कर्मः इति / निराम्नायं ना (? निराम्नायम् आ)द्यागमरहस्यं न कश्चिद्वत्तीति सजुगुप्समाचार्यस्योक्ति: धिगनागमित्वम् इति / तथा ह्यनागमज्ञो लोलटप्रभृतिः स्थाय्येव विभावानुभावादिभिरुपचितो रस इत्यादिना प्रकारेण किं न दूषयति / सर्वमप्यसङ्गतार्थ प्ररूपयतीत्यर्थः /

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON ABHINAVABHARATI 257 The reading 'Dhiganagamitvam, found in the KLV, is rather superior and eminently suits the context. The reading (a) dhigatagamitvam hardly goes well with amnayasiddhe in the first pada. With this reading the verse may tentatively be translated as follows : The true nature of rasa (rasatattva) being well-established or being wellknown through (Bharata's) tradition what is there new about it? In the upward march of knowledge the disregard of (Bharata's) tradition deserves to be condemned. Do not people like Lolata vitiate this doctrine of rasa going against the evident and precious hetu (viz. tradition) ? Certainly they do." Abhinavagupta is fond of using this expression 'Kimapurvametat. In the Locana (p. 188 1.5) he says kimetadapurvam. The statement of Abhinavagupta, which follows immediately after the introductory verse, supports this interpretation (what is new about it ?) : उक्तमेव मुनिना न त्वपूर्वं किञ्चित् / प्रतिपत्ति इति वाक्यार्थप्रतिपत्तिमात्रात् / 15. sfarca cfa i sfaqnin sferandref: i --KLV p. 308, 1.24 The text of A. Bh. (Vol. I. p. 278, 1. 3, from below) reads pratipattimatraditivratta; in a footnote the editor notes the variant readings : 'traditivra' ditrivst'. The reading itivstta, found in the KLV, appears to be genuine, although its sense itikartavyata appears to be very unusual. 16. त्रासकस्य इति मृगपोतकादेः / अपारमार्थिकत्वाद् इति / अत्र हेतुर्विशेषरूपत्वाभावादिति / -KLV p. 308, 11. 26-27 Gnoli's translation of this particular sentence appears to be incorrect when he says ...,"the actor, who (playing the role of the deer), frightens (the spectator) (trasaka....showing to be afraid) is unreal (aparamarthika)". Would it not be more correct to construe 'trasaka' (one who causes fear) with Dusyanta, who strikes terror in the heart of the deer ? 17. 94ra: cfa 1471411 --KLV p. 309, 1.2 (from below) The text of the A. Bh. (p. 282 1. 3) reads : तत्त्वज्ञानजनितनिर्वेदप्रायो विभावो मोक्षोपाय इति / Dr. Raghavan (p. 527 1.3) reconstructs the text as : ... Footcartsfa al teatre sfat i 18. 3Tyrant I sfa Bruffen fra 7144401 44faa I --KLV, p. 310, 11, 2-3 The text of the A. Bh. (Vol I. p. 282, 1.3, from below) reads Stud.-33

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258 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE अशक्तौ च ततो भीरुः किञ्चिदाजिजीषुरप्यनुचितवस्तु Dr. Raghavan notes the variant reading : M अज्जिजीपुरपिचित D जिगीषुरपिजित / -(p. 527, f.n. 17) From these variant readings we could reasonably infer that the MS of A. Bh., available to the author of the KLV must have had the reading : aparicita. 19. लीयेत इति नश्येत् / / -KLV, p. 312, 1. 11 The text of the A. Bh. (Vol. I, p. 295, 1. 12) reads : तत्स्पर्शे ह्यभिमानोऽस्या (स्य) विलीयत एव / Hema. (p. 149 1.16) reads : तत्स्पर्शे ह्यभिमानोऽस्य लीयेतैव / 20. तदाभासतायाम् इति / मोक्षविभावाभासतायाम् / प्रहसन इति / प्रहसनरूपकेण हि राजपुत्रादीनां सर्वपुरुषार्थेष्वनौचित्यत्यागविषया व्युत्पत्तिराधीयत इत्यर्थः / -KLV, p. 312, 11. 12-14 The text of the A. Bh. (Vol I, p. 296, 11. 8-9) reads : तदाभासतायां शान्ताभासो हास्य एव प्रहसनरूपस्य (रूपः।) अनौ (स्वानौ) चित्यत्यागः सर्वपुरुषार्थेषु व्युत्पाद्यः Dr. Raghavan reconstructs the text as follows :तदाभासतायां शान्ताभासो हास्य एव / प्रहसनरूपस्य अनौचित्यत्यागः सर्वपुरुषार्थेषु व्युत्पाद्यः / -p. 529 The KLV passage attests the correctness of Dr. Raghavan's reconstructed text and makes it easily intelligible. 21. शान्तस्यापि इति विषयविपरिवृत्त्याऽन्तुर्मुखतालाभेन सर्वरसानां शान्तप्राय एवास्वाद; केवलं वासनान्तरोपहित इति हि वक्ष्यते / -KLV, p. 313, 11. 1-2 The text of the A. Bh. (Vol I, p. 339, lines. 21-22) reads : तत्र सर्वरसानां शान्तप्राय एवास्वादो न विषयेभ्यो विपरिवृत्त्या / तन्मुख्यता / केवलं वासनान्तरोपहित इत्यस्य सर्वप्रकृतित्वाभिधानाय पूर्वमभिधानम् / Dr. Raghavan reconstructs this passage as follows : तत्र सर्वरसानां शान्तप्राय एवास्वादः विषयेभ्यो विपरिवृत्त्या / तन्मुख्यता लाभ: केवलं वासनान्तरोपहित इति / अत्र सर्वप्रकृतित्त्वाभिधानाय पूर्वमभिधानम् / --The Number of Rasas (1967 ed.) p. 115. Masson and Patwardhan translate it thus : In this connection, the aesthetic enjoyment of all rasas is similar to that of Santa, because it (i.e. this aesthetic enjoyment) is turned away from actual sense object contact. (Because we are particularly concerned with one rasa,

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON ABHINAVABHARATI 259 except that it is mixed with other latent mental impressions (Vasana) ? In a footnote they concede : 1. "We cannot arrive at a meaning for this sentence." Yes the sentence, as it stands, yields no satisfactory sense. But the text of the KLV helps us to restore the original reading; the keyword in the text of the KLV is antarmukhatalabhena (antarmukhata meaning introspection). Keeping in view the text of the A.Bh and the text as reconstructed by Dr. Raghavan we may now restore the original text : तत्र सर्वरसानां शान्तप्राय एवास्वादो विषयेभ्यो विपरिवृत्त्याऽन्तर्मुखतालाभात्, केवलं वासनान्तरोपहित इति / For this proposed restoration we find strong support in the A. Bh. itself. In this very section on Santarasa, when explaining the nature of the true relish of santa Abhinavagupta uses the expression antarmukhavasthabhedena : तत्त्वास्वादोऽस्य कीदृशः / उच्यते-उपरागदायिभिः उत्साहरत्यादिभिरुपरक्तं यदात्मस्वरूपं...निर्भासमानम् अन्तर्मुखावस्थाभेदेन लोकोत्तरानन्दानयनं [? लोकोत्तरानन्दधन तथाविधहृदयं विधत्त इति / -A. Bh. pp. 340-341 This passage and the variant reading (tanmukhyata) labhat, found in the two MSS M and G and recorded by Dr. Raghavan (The number of Rasas, P. 115, f.n. 2), leave absolutely no doubt as to the correctness of the proposed restoration of the text. 22. लीला इष्टस्यानुकृतिः / -KLV, p. 313, 1.17 This reading is quite significant compared to the tame and flat reading lilanasyanukritih found in the A. Bh. (Vol. I, p. 304, 11. 15-16). If the A. Bh. were to read istajanasyanukstin then it would have been a perfect reading for in the definition of Lila (NS XXII. 14) itself Bharata says: वागङ्गालङ्कारैः शिष्टैः प्रीतिप्रयोजितैर्मधुरैः / इष्टजनस्यानुकृतिर्लीला ज्ञेया प्रयोगज्ञैः / / 23. विप्रलम्भ इति / विप्रलम्भो विडम्बनं प्रसिद्धमिह तूपचारात्तदीयं फलं विरहात्मकं गृह्यते / तेन हि परस्परं रतिमतोऽत्र विडम्बनमस्ति / तेन विरहेण कृतः सुष्टुतमां पोषित इत्यर्थः / -KLV, p. 313, 11. 26-28. This passage when compared to the A. Bh. (p. 308, 11. 2-4) presents better readings. (They are shown in bold types in this passage.) 24. नन्वेकः स्थायीति का भूयिष्ठता इत्याह-षड्भेदाश्च इति / -KLV p. 314 11. 11-12 This quotation supports the Editor's emendation of the reading 3168 to (काऽस्य) भूयिष्ठता (p. 315 1.2)

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260 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 25. विक्रुष्ट इति विक्रुष्टः श्रवणकटुः / उपघात इति / उपघातः पुत्रादिमरणम् / ___-KLV, p. 314., 11. 17-18 The A. Bh., however, reads : vikrstam Sravanakatu (p. 316, 1-2); and, upaghato'gnyadimaranam (P. 318, 1.5) The editor notes the variant reading : ma. bha. atradikama (for agnyadima). This variant reading suggests that the reading found in the KLV (putradi) must have been the original reading in the MS of the A. Bh. that was before the KLV. ___26. ताडनं...भेदनं परस्परं मित्रादिवियोजनं, भावे ण्यतौ प्रहरणा नाम समन्ताद्धरणम् / सम्प्रहारेण रुधिराकर्षणमिति विग्रहः / . -KLV, p. 314 (last line), p. 315 (first two lines). The reading in the A. Bh. (p. 320, last line) : 'bhave nyadantau is incorrect. So too the reading of the KLV bhave nyatau'. The correct reading should be bhave lyudantah. 27. लोकोत्तरानन्दधनम् इति / एतदेकं हृदयस्य विशेषणम् / -KLV, p. 315 1. 23. The text of the A. Bh. (p. 341, 1.4) however reads : लोकोत्तरानन्दानय(न्दाय )नं तथाविधं हृदयं विधत्त इति / Dr. Raghavan reads : लोकोत्तरानन्दानयनं तथाविधहृदयं विधत्त इति / ---The Number of Rasas, p. 117 Apparently the reading, preserved in the KLV, seems to be original one. Incidentally, I may note that the A. Bh, text helps us to correct the wrong readings found in the KL.V. Some of them are pointed below : KLV A. Bh. (Vol. I) 1. तथा प्रति इति अस्येयमिति यो न संबन्धप्रतीत्यु- अथ सामाजिकस्य तथा प्रतीतियोग्याः क्रियन्त त्पादहेतवः[तुः ?] इत्येतदेवानुसन्धानमुच्यते... __ -P. 305, lines 21-22 -P. 275, 11. 11-12 In the light of the pertinent passage in the A. Bh. we ought to read the text of the KLV thus : तथा प्रतीति इति / अस्येयमिति येन संबन्धप्रतीत्युत्पादहेतवो(विभावाः) / KLV A. Bh. 2. नापि वास्तु इति तृतीयः पक्षः / तथाहि-अनुकरणरूपो रस इति यदुच्यते तत्कि -P. 305, 1.23 (1) सामाजिकप्रतीत्याभिप्रायेण उत (2) नटाभिप्रायेण किंवा The third alternative refers to vastu- (3) वस्तुवृत्तविवेचकव्याख्यातृबुद्धिसमवलम्बनेन vrttavivecaka etc. and is taken up for यथाहुर्व्याख्यातारः खल्वेवं विवेचयन्ति इति / अथ

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON ABHINAVABHARATT 261 consideration on p. 276 (lines 2-3). (4) भरतमुनिवचनानुसारेण / In the light of these two passages we must read the KLV text as __ -A. Bh. Vol.I, p. 274, lines. 1-4 "नापि वस्तु...." इति तृतीयः पक्षः / नापि वस्तुवृत्तानुसारेण तदनुकारत्वम् / -A. Bh. Vol. I. p. 276, 1.2 3. अस्यार्थ:-पदार्थवाच्यार्थो...नन्वर्थशब्दोऽभि तत्र च पदार्थवाक्यार्थी रसेष्वेव पर्यवस्यत...न धेयवाची / त्वर्थशब्दोऽभिधेयवाची / --P. 308, lines 12-13 -A. Bh.Vol. I, p. 343, lines 16-17 In view of the text in the A. Bh. we must correct the two words in the KLV text as vakyarthau na tvarthasabdo'bhidheyavaci 4. अलङ्कारः कटकादिः इष्टजनश्चैतद्वयमुत्तमत्व-- -- अलङ्कारः कटकादिः / इष्टजनः विदूषकादिः / एतसूचकम् / दुभयमुत्तमत्वसूचकम्। -p. 313, lines. 13-14 -A. Bh. Vol. I, p. 304, 1.9 We must underline the word istajanasca 5. The words vipriya, dehasya, cf : A. Bh. Vol. I, p. 318, p. 319 ayasanam Abhighata(p. 314) p. 320 patanam, pidanam chedanam bhedanam (p.315 1. 1) must be underlined as they are the Pratikas. 6. हस्त इति / हस्ताग्रयोरन्योन्यं निषेधः संघर्षणम् / हस्ताग्रयोरन्योन्यनिष्पेषः सङ्घर्षणम् / -p. 315, lines 3-4 -A. Bh. Vol. I, p. 321, lines 3-4 We must correct the reading from nisedhah to nispesah as nispesa (meaning rubbing ) suits the context. In spite of a few such wrong readings, it must be admitted on all hands that the KLV is highly important, among other things for a better understanding of the A. Bh. on the Rasadhyaya (and the Bhavadhyaya). Notes and References : 1. GOS No. XXXVI, Vol I, 1956 (vide pp. 22-23) 2. Vide Chapter No. 4 supra. 3. Journal of the Oriental Institute Vol XX, No. 3, March 1971

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON BHAMAHA'S KAVYALAMKARA (Chapter, V. w 5-10) These six verses of Bhamaha have baffled modern scholars, Pandits and commentators as regards their true import. A perusal of the English translation and Notes by P.V. Naganatha Sastry and the Sanskrit commentary Udyana of D. T. Tatacharya? would substantiate the above statement. Naganatha Sastry's attempt at a lucid exposition of Bhamaha's text is no doubt admirable and the Udyana commentary of Tatacharya goes a long way towards a better and more correct understanding and exposition of Bhamaha's difficult text. What Dr. P.V. Kane, however, wrote regarding the editions of Bhamaha's work holds good even today. He says : "Unfortunately all these printed editions are unsatisfactory. The mss material is meagre and the editions do not explain many knotty points, nor do they bring together all the various readings in Bhamaha's text as quoted in many works and the explanations of his verses by numerous writers from the days of Udbhata, the Dhvanyaloka and Locana onwards. A scholarly edition of Bhamaha's work is a great desideratum." In the present paper I confine myself to Bhamaha's apology for his treatment of Logic in his work on poetics and to a discussion and interpretation of the six karikas from his Nyayanirnaya (V. 510) dealing with the two pramanas-pratyaksa and anumana-with special reference to Kalpalataviveka," which was unfortunately not available to the pioneering scholars and Pandits who have taken great pains to interpret Bhamaha's work. One expects that a work on poetics should confine itself to an exposition and elucidation of the principles of literary criticism. Barring a few exceptions the works on Sanskrit poetics do not dwell upon an exposition of even the ten types of drama, which are regarded as the best among literary compositions It would therefore seem extraordinary that an ancient Alamkarika like Bhamaha should have thought fit to treat of Logic and Grammar in his treatise. One would have expected of Bhamaha to treat of the faults like Pratijna-hina, Hetuhina and

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON BHAMAHA'S KAVYALAMKARA 263 Drstanta-hina at the end of Chapter IV wherein the rest of the dosas listed together are treated of. He has gone out of the way in treating of the Buddhist logic and its refutation and of logic in relation to poetry in a separate independent chapter. Anticipating such criticism Bhamaha offers an apology in the first opening verses : . "I describe the faults pratijna-hina, hetu-hina, etc. I briefly describe them in accordance with Logic with a view to giving simply an idea of them. Generally the slow-witted or unintelligent shy away from sastras because of their difficulty. In order to persuade them to study the sastras, I present here a small collection of the logical topics.5 Granting that logic subserves poetry one might pertinently ask : "When the stream of poetry is all-embracing and is not partial to one or the other school why Bhamaha prefers the Buddhist logic for his treatment of the subject ?" Bhamaha answers this criticism thus : Indeed we aim at giving a mere direction or indication and not an exhaustive treatment of the whole subject of logic, variously treated by the various schools of thought. If the entire field of logic were to be covered it would lead to prolixity and voluminousness. We therefore restrict ourselves to giving a mere direction in regard to pramanas, etc. People take to the study of sastras if presented in poetic garb. Persons (children) who have first tasted honey take in, without much diffculty, bitter medicine. Although it is widely believed that the subjectmatter of the sastras and poetry widely differs the sage Bharata has rightly declared : "There is no work, no meaning, no logic, no art that does not subserve poetry. Oh, what a heavy burden the poet carries !" This defence, this justification for including the treatment of Logic in his work on poetics is, as far as it goes, all right. But logically it is not very sound, For by the same logic (viz., since Logic subserves poetry he has included its discussion in his work on poetics) he should have also treated of fine arts, such as, dance, drama, music, painting, sculpture and architecture in his Kavyalamkara since they too subserve the cause of poetry. Dr. V. Raghavan advocates the view that Logic and Grammar formed part of Pre-Bhamaha Alamkara works, Once I was inclined to hold this view. But on reconsideration I feel that if Logic and Grammar had formed part of PreBhamaha works there was no need for Bhamaha to preface his apology before commencing the treatment of Logic. Dr. G. T. Deshpande? would like us to believe with him that Bhamaha for the first time treated of these two important sastras in his Kavyalamkara with a view to placing alamkarasastra on the same footing as of these two important sastras as poetry was denounced and looked

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264 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE down upon with contempt and ridicule by orthodox Pandits in his days. This view, seems to be plausible. Now, we take up the second part of the present paper, viz., the interpretation of ths six karikas ('Nyayanirnaya', w 5-10): V5. सत्त्वादयः प्रमाणाभ्यां प्रत्यक्षमनुमा च ते / असाधारण सामान्य विषयत्वंतयोः किल / i) Naganatha Sastry translates the first quarter as follows: By Pramanas arise the ideas of Existence, etc. (p. 90) ii) Tatacharya comments on the quarter thus : प्रमाणाभ्यां सत्त्वादयः द्रव्य-गुणादयः पदार्थाः सिद्ध्यन्ति / मानाधीना हि मेयसिद्धिः / सत्त्वमिति वैयाकरणसंप्रदायवासनया द्रव्ये / पदार्थानां सत्त्वासत्त्वतुच्छत्वादीनि वा सत्त्वादय इत्युक्तानि / iii) The reading 'sattvadayah' deserves consideration. Bhamaha himself uses the word 'sandha' further on in the same chapter twice : सन्धादि साधनं सिद्ध्यै (? v. 32. c) and सन्धाऽभ्युपगमाद्विना (v. 45. b) Now, the Kalpalataviveka (KLV) reads : 'sandhadayah' in place of 'sattvadayah'. This reading perfectly suits the context as would be seen from the following passage in KLV : सन्धादय इति / प्रमाणमूला इति / तथाहि अग्निमान् पर्वत इति प्रतिज्ञायां पर्वतस्तावत् प्रत्यक्षेण निश्चीयते / अग्निसंबन्धस्तु तस्यानुमानात् प्रतीयत इति प्रतिज्ञायाः प्रत्यक्षानुमानमूलत्वम् / ....प्रतिज्ञाहेतूदाहरणानामनन्तरोदितेन न्यायेन प्रत्यक्षानुमानमूलत्वादेतदुक्तम् / प्रतिज्ञाहेतुदृष्टान्ताः प्रमाणमूला इति / - (p. 46 11, 1-16) So with the indisputably genuine reading supplied by KLV, we may translate the verse as follows : Pratijna, etc., established-proved to be correct (or otherwise) by means of the two proofs : the two proofs are Perception and Inference. The object (or sphere or area of operation) of Perception is asadharana (=visesa = svalaksana) while samanya forms the object of Inference. The word 'adayah in 'sandhadayah' obviously stands for Hetu and Drstanta as shown by KLV in the passage cited above. The use of the word 'kila' suggests, according to Tatacharya, that the doctrine of 'Pramanavyavastha' is not acceptable to Bhamaha (kilety anangikare 1). "According to the Buddhist view there are two different sources of

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON BHAMAHA'S KAVYALAMKARA 265 knowledge : 1. Perception and, 2. Inference. These two sources of knowledge have settled and clear limits (Pramanavyavastha), the one never acting in the sphere of the other. The opposite theory of the realists (the Vaisesikas and the Naiyayikas) receives the name of a mixture or duplication theory (Pramanasamplava), since according to that theory every object can be cognised in both ways either directly in sense-perception or indirectly in an inference. In other words, according to the Buddhist view, and what is cognised by inference can never be subject to cognition by the senses. Thus svalaksana (asadharana, visesa, ksana, paramartha-sat) or the only real object, the extreme particular, the thing in itself, is the province of perception and samanya (class, species, genus, universal) is the province of Inference. According to the realists (the Vaisesikas and the Naiyayikas), every object can be cognised in both ways either directly, e.g., when a fire is present in the ken and cognised by the sense of sight, it is a case of sense perception. When the same fire is beyond the ken and its existence is cognised only indirectly through the perception of its product, the smoke, through its mark, it is cognised indirectly by inference." V. 6 G 441 Gils effcfa gol कल्पनां नामजात्यादियोजना प्रतिजानते / / Naganatha Sastry emends the words 'tato' rthat to 'Sato' rthat' and in support of the emendation he says in his Notes :......... Thus in the definition of pratyaksa of the Bauddhas the epithet given is "Abhrantam". This means 'devoid of illusion'. What is devoid of illusion is what is real, i.e., Sadartha. So I have corrected the printed text from tato'rthai' into 'sato'rthat'. This emendation appears justifiable also from the use of the word 'sadarthalambanam' in the verse following'. (pp. 91-92), The emendation however is absolutely uncalled for. In this verse Bhamaha presents two definitions of Pratyaksa : one given by Dinnagas and the other by Vasubandhu.The KLV (p 47, 11 15-16) unambiguously and clearly says that the second definition is given by Vasubandhu : वैभाषिकमतानुसारि वसुबन्धूक्तलक्षणं प्रत्यक्षस्य दर्शयितुमाह ततोऽर्थादिति / / Elsewhere (p. 51 11 18-21) it informs us : वासुबन्धवेऽपि मार्गे इति वैभाषिकमत इत्यर्थः / तदेवं वैभाषिकसौत्रान्तिक-योगाचार-माध्यमिक-दर्शनेषु प्रत्यक्षलक्षणस्यानुपपत्तिरुक्ता / वैभाषिकदर्शने खलु "ततोऽर्थादिति केचन" इति प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम् / शिष्टेषु च दर्शनेषु "प्रत्यक्षं कल्पनापोढम्" इति तदुभयं निराकृतम् / So we may translate the karika as it is : According to some (Dinnaga and others) Perception is devoid of "kalpana"; according to some others (Vasubandhu Stud.-34

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266 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE amd his followers) Perception arises from that artha' (rupa etc., colour etc., which alone is real). 'Kalpana'; they maintain, means attributing of qualifications such as name, class (jati), etc. In his Pramanasamuccaya) (1.3) Dinnaga thus defines Perception : प्रत्यक्षं कल्पनापोढं नामजात्याद्यसंयुतम् / The Vrtti elucidates the definition as follows : यत्र ज्ञाने कल्पना नास्ति तत् प्रत्यक्षम् / अथ कल्पना च कीदृशी चेदाह-नामजात्यादियोजना / यदृच्छाशब्देषु नाम्ना विशिष्टोऽर्थ उच्यते डित्थ इति / जाति-शब्देषु जात्या गौरयमिति / गुण-शब्देषु गुणेन शुक्ल इति / क्रिया-शब्देषु क्रियया पाचक इति / द्रव्य-शब्देषु द्रव्येण दण्डी विषाणीति / अत्र संबन्धविशिष्टस्येति केचित् / अन्ये त्वर्थशून्यैः शब्दैरेव विशिष्टोऽर्थ इति / According to Dinnaga kalpana (yojana or samaropa) is five-fold : 1. name, 2. class, 3. quality, 4. action and 5. dravya (substance or a single thing or person). These may be illustrated as follows : (1) This is Dittha (Mr. So and So); (2) this is a cow or a bull; (3) this is white; (4) this is moving (calah), and (5) this is the possessor of a stick (dandi). According to Patanjali "There is a fourfold currency of words as instanced in Cow or Bull, White, Moving, Dittha" : गौः शुक्लश्चलो डित्थ इति "चतुष्टयी शब्दानां प्रवृत्तिः / " इति महाभाष्यकारः / The KLV (p. 47) comments on tato' rthat' as follows : ततो व्यपदेशनिमित्ताद् इति / व्यपदेशनिमित्तं रजत-विज्ञानस्य रजतम् / तेन हि तद् रजतविज्ञानं व्यपदिश्यते रजतस्येदं विज्ञानमिति / ततश्च व्यपदेशनिमित्ताद् रजताद् यद् रजतविज्ञानमुत्पन्नं तत्प्रत्यक्षम् / यस्य तु रजतविज्ञानस्य न व्यपदेशनिमित्ताद् रजतादुत्पादोऽपि तु शुक्तिकातस्तस्य न प्रत्यक्षता / V. 7. समारोप: किलतावान् सदालम्बनं च तत् / .जात्याद्यपोहे वृत्तिः क्व क्व विशेष: कुतश्च सः // Here, Bhamaha takes up the definition of perception, given by Dinnaga, for criticism and refutation. "So much or of such measure is indeed the wrong attribution" (Inputing name, etc., to a real thing (or object) is verily wrong attribution), and the perception has as its subject 'a real', 'reality'. If from the reality, jati, class etc., are excluded where could the perception operate ? (What remains of that reality on which the perception could operate ?) And where is

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON BHAMAHA'S KAVYALAMKARA 267 the visesa (-svalaksana) ? And how could you distinguish one svalaksana saya ghata' from another, say 'a pata' ? (We cannot account for the distinction between the two when both are vijnanas pure and simple.)" Here we have the refutation of the Sautrantikas, who accept visesa or svalaksana as an external existent (sat) from the point of view of the Yogacara School (or the Vijnanavadins). V 8. Gue a gent fH SI HI feet art ! अवस्तुकं चेद् वितथं प्रत्यक्षं तत्त्ववृत्ति हि // Naganatha Sastry (p. 92. V-8) reads 'na' in place of 'ca' in the first quarter. Tatacharya's text agrees with that of the Banaras edition. Naganatha Sastry understands by 'Sa' the vyakti whereas Tatacharya understands it to mean "Jati". These explanations are hardly convincing. Tatacharya might find support for his interpretation in the phrase "Jatyadyapohe" which occurs in the immediately preceding verse (No. 7). As the discussion centres round the proof 'perception' and its subject (visaya) asadharana (=visesa=svalaksana) there does not seem to be any scope for establishing the existence or non-existence of jati'. The text as it stands is indeed confounding. When we are faced with this obscure line the KLV comes to our help. It reads the line (p. 49 1 20) as follows : Tante a pena fater H [gres-] ritare: 1 Instead of emending 'buddha' to 'buddhi' as done by the Editors, if we emend it to 'buddhya', the line becomes intelligible : "With the exclusion of 'jati', etc., from the frupa, etc., (the object of cognition) there remains only 'tathata' (the true reality) and that reality does not become the object of cognition (buddhyagocarah=jnanagocarah)."10 The second half of this verse may be translated as follows : "Now, if this reality be only vijnana pure and simple, devoid of the perceiver (grahaka vijnanaamsa) and the perceived object (grahya vijnana-amsa), then it is futile (vitatham=asaram) or worthless for direct perception (pratyaksam) operates on what is real (a real object)." It is equally possible to interpret 'avastukam' as 'nirvastukam'-"sunyameva idam sarvam" i.e. 'void' or better still nissvabhavam' (without any nature, qualities). Even if avastukam' is thus interpreted, in accordance with the Sunyavada of the Madhyamikas, the same refutation (vitatham, pratyaksam,

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268 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE tattvavritti hi) holds good. V. 9 MEI-W162-976 fasthith HTTafsi fazla-45 (? HE-)HTEPUTC fagtaspa fachmytt This verse may be translated as follows : "If you say that perception / knowledge (vijnana) is made up of two parts, viz., the apprehending or cognising part (grahaka assa) and the apprehended or cognised part (grahya amsa) then, as these two parts, according to you (vijnanavadin), are alike as vijnana (pure and simple), you will have to admit that your visesa (or svalaksana) is simply unreal (or that the difference between them will simply be conceptual)." V. 10. 379fara tinatia pafat fra: 1 अन्यथा घटविज्ञानमन्येन व्यपदिश्यते // The first half of this verse elucidates here the definition of perception formulated by Vasubandhu (when he was an adherent of the Vaibhasika school) in his tract called Vada-vidhi. This definition 'Tato'rthat' has been already stated in verse No. 6 above. The verse may be translated as follows : "Sense-perception is that knowledge which is produced by the (pure) object itself", the colour, etc. (ʻtato' 'rthat utpannam jnanam); by this emphasis of "itself" the ultimately real object, (the mere efficiency of a point-instant); is meant" and not from any other object (resembling it, say, for instance, the knowledge of silver from conchshell). It is certainly a fault (wrong) that the knowledge of the subject, say ghata, (a jar) which is gained through rupa, etc., (colour etc.) should be designated by another name (say, ghata jnana). The remarks of TH Stcherbatsky are very apposite on this definition : "Vasubandhu apparently had produced two definitions. The first is the inserted in his Vadavidhi. It states that sense-perception is that cognition which is produced from the object itself. By this emphasis of "itself" the ultimately real object, the mere efficiency of a point-instant, is meant. This definition has been severely criticised by Dignaga, since it too closely resembles the first part of the definition of realists, "Produced from a contact between object and sense-organ", and is apt to be misinterpreted in a realistic sense. In a subsequent Vada-Vidhana Vasubandhu probably corrected his definition and made it consonant with the one of Dignaga, but since the work is lost, we cannot know it exactly". 11 In conclusion, we may note that the KLV throws a flood of light on the

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KALPALATAVIVEKA ON BHAMAHA'S KAVYALAMKARA 269 tough verses dealing with Logic and Epistemology. From the comments of the Kalpalataviveka Bhamaha's Pramanavimarsa". treatment of pramanas (Means of acquiring certain knowledge, proofs) we get the following definite information : i) Three schools of the Buddhists viz, the Sautrantikas, the Yogacara (-Vijnanavada) and the Madhyamika (Sunyavada), accept the following definition of Pratyaksa : taai to M4A1416H (Cf p. 47, 11 14-15, and p. 51, 11. 20-21) (This definition occurs in Dinnaga's Pramanasamuccaya 1.3) ii) The remaining school of the Buddhists, viz, the Vaibhasikas, accepts the following definition of Pratyaksa : adsefa (Ffa 29A) (Cf p. 47, 11 15-16 and p. 51, 1. 20) This definition is formulated by Vasubandhu. iii) Both these definitions of Pratyaksa are criticised and refuted by Bhamaha, (Cf p. 51, 11 20-21) iv) Bhamaha's criticism and refutation of the definition of Pratyaksa as given by Dinnaga, rests on the authority of Kanada and the like who lay down that savikalpa pratyaksa is a valid source of knowledge. (Cf. p. 50, 11 5-6) v) Bhamaha's treatment of the three members (and not five members as in Nyaya-Vaisesika school) of a syllogism indicates that in this regard he agrees with Dinnaga, the Buddhist Logician. The three members of the syllogism are pratijna, hetu and drstanta. They are accepted by him as authoritative and he quietly ignores the remaining two members (upanaya and vigamana) of the five membered syllogism of the Nyaya-Vaisesikas and indirectly rejects their claim to be authoritative. (Cf p. 46. 11 16-18) vi) Although Dharmakirti dispenses with the use of pratijna and speaks of only two-membered syllogism, Bhamaha speaks of the three members of the syllogism in accodance with Dinnaga. (Cf p. 46, 11 19-22) Notes and References : 1. Kavyalamkara of Bhamaha, Edited' with English Translation and Notes by P. V. Naganatha Sastry, Tanjore, Second Edition, by Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, Varanasi, Patana, 1970.

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270 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 2. Bhamaha's Kavyalamkara with Udyana Vsitti, By D. T. Tatacharya Tiruvadi, 1934. 3. The Sahityadarpana of Visvanatha Paricchedas I. II X, arthalarkaras with Exhaustive Notes and the History of Sanskrit Poetics, by P. V. Kane, Third edition, 1951. 4. Kalpalataviveka by an anonymous author, ed. by M. L. Nagar and Harishankar Sastry, with an English Introduction by Prof. P. R. Vora, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad 9, 1968. 5. One feels tempted to interpret the compound word-hetu-nyaya-lavoccayah', to mean a collection of (topics relating to logic from) the hetu-lava-(-Hetu-bindu) and Nyaya-lava (-Nyayabindu). Such an assertion on the part of Bhamaha would mean he is later than Dharmakirti. The second half of V. No. 28 is said to be an attack against Dharmakirti who holds that the enunciation of pratijna is not quite essential and that it can be dispensed with. The second half of V. 61 also is looked upon by some as containing a sly reference to (Dharma) Kirti. 6. Vide : Bhoja's srngaraprakasa by Dr. V. Raghavan, 1963 edn. p. 257, P. 723, etc. 7. Vide : "Bharatiya Sahitya sastra" (Marathi) 8. Dinnaga : Pramana-Samuccaya (1, 3) Mysore, University Publication, Mysore, 1930. 9. Vasubandhu : Vadavidhi. 10. I am indebted to Pandit Dalsukh D. Malvania for this emendation. 11. Vide : Buddhist Logic, Vol I pp 174-175. Incidentally, it may be mentioned here that there is no real difference between the meanings of the two titles-Vada-Vidhi and Vadavidhana. Could they point to one and the same text? o 30

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FRESH LIGHT ON BHAMAHA-VIVARANA Till recently Udbhata's commentary on the Kavyalamkara of Bhamaha, generally known as Bhamahavivarana (BV) was presumed to have been lost beyond recovery. In 1962, however, Gnoli published some fragments from this commentary'. Gnoli's identification of his publication with BV. was doubted by Dr. Raghavan?. In his paper on PunaruktavadabhasaDr. K. Krishnamoorthy came to the conclusion that the published fragments do represent the genuine Bhamahavivarana of Udbhata himself. The study of Kalpalataviveka" (KLV), however, throws some interesting light on this controversy, and goes a long way in support of Gnoli's claims. Numerous passages of the commentary published by Gnoli are, beyond any shadow of doubt, the source of numerous passages in KLV. They shed abundant light on some of the obscure, ambiguous and knotty verses in chapter V (Nyayanirnaya) of Bhamaha's Kavyalamkara. It borrows most of the passages from BV when treating of dosas. A good many of its pratikas, referring to Bhamaha's text, present variant readings from the printed texts. Some of them are convincingly genuine readings. The text of BV bristles with uncertain and doubtful readings; it is often mutilated as syllables, words, phrases and occasionally sentences are partly or entirely lost. I quote below about a dozen passages from KLV which throw light on and render the corresponding passages from BV intelligible. (1) Fr. 16 (a) lines 2-8: These lines which treat of anyartha dosa (Bhamaha 1. 40) could be restored with the help of the following passage from KLVS : ननु चैवं शब्दहीनेऽस्यान्तर्भावः / विषयान्तरप्रयोगेऽप्यपशब्दो भवति न केवलं लोपागमवर्णविकारादीनामयथाकरणे / तथा च "PAPUYTG4: progi: qual format" (alek19874 . 888 ] sfat dar faqat afa: पादविक्षेपे प्रसिद्धसम्बन्धः, अस्य च परिमोषप्रयुक्तावपशब्दतैव / अपशब्दस्य च स्वप्नेऽप्यप्रयोगादनित्यदोषमध्येऽस्य पाठो न संबद्ध इत्याह-...उपसर्गवशेनेत्यर्थः / ....वीत्त इति / "अच उपसर्गात्तः" [पाणिनि ७-४-४७]इति तत्त्वम् / विदत्तशब्दे तु न दृश्यते तत्वमिति विशब्दस्यात्र निपातत्वमिति सिद्धम् / विहृतं च इति

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272 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE विजहुरिति / विहरणं च तत् पादविक्षेपलक्षणायां क्रीडायां प्रसिद्धं न त्वपहरण इत्यर्थः / प्रसिद्धार्थः इति प्रसिद्धोऽर्थः पादविक्षेपलक्षणादि : / पृ. 7, पं. 20-28. . (2) Fr. 19 lines 5-8 : The commentator, when commenting on Bhamaha II. 8 treats of the figure Punarurktabhasas and distinguishes it from yamaka and Latanuprasa. The following extract from KLV is based on these lines of BV : अयमभिप्रायः सरूपाणां स्वरव्यञ्जनसमुदायानां विन्यासे पुनरुक्ताभासतैव संगच्छते, को ह्यनुन्मत्तः पुनरुक्तं ब्रयादिति / तत्र चार्थाभेदेऽपि तात्पर्यभेदश्चेत्तदा लाटीयोऽनुप्रासः उतार्थभेदस्ततो यमकालङ्कार इति कुतः पुनरुक्तदोषप्रसङ्गः, कथं च लाटानुप्रासपर्यनुयोग इति / पुनरुक्ताभासतापि शब्दसारूप्येऽर्थैकत्वनानात्वयोः शब्दसारूप्याभावेऽपि अर्थकत्वाभासे भवतीति त्रिविधा / अवान्तरभेदापेक्षया तु बहुप्रभेदा वक्ष्यते / अत एव च पुनरुक्ताभासेषु लाटीयोऽनुप्रासः, तदपवादद्वारेण च यमकालङ्कारश्च भवतीत्येतदेव वक्तुं न्याय्यमित्यर्थः ।-पृ. 186 पं. 24- पृ० 187 पं. 4. (3) Fr. 27 a lines 3-4 : In the context of Bhamaha II. 43 the commentator endeavours to show that the upamadosa called Hinata, is, really speaking, no defect at all. The following passage from KLV which is, no doubt, adopted from BV makes these lines intelligible to a great extent : वा यानि पदानि तान्युपमानोपमेयविशेषणभूतानि साधर्म्यवाचीनि कर्तव्यानि / तत्राद्यं पक्षमधिकृत्याह-सर्वं सर्वेण [भामह 2. 43 ] इति / ..... न च पक्षान्तरमस्तीति न हीनतालक्षणो दोष इत्यर्थः / / -पृ० 245, पं० २५-पृ० 246 पं० 9 Gnoli has correctly hit on the right reading vikalpadvaya in his f. n. 2 (p. 25). (4) Fr. 39(b) lines6-7 : Gnoli discusses this passage in his Introduction (p. XXXVI paragraph no. d) where he mentions this Fragment twice as fr. no.27, which is clearly an error. The topic, discussed here, is about the figure slesa (that is slista). A perusal of this entire fragment produces a strong impression that the commentator has introduced here a discussion of the famous doctrine 'Arthabhedena tavat sabda bhidyante.' For restoring these lines the following passages from (Hemacandra's) Kavyanusasana and Kalpalataviveka should prove useful : श्रुत्यैक्यग्रहणं लोकप्रतीतितुल्यत्वपरिग्रहार्थम् / तेन दन्त्यौष्ठ्यौष्ठ्यवकारबकारादिवर्णभेदे लघुप्रयत्नतरालघुप्रयत्नतरकृते च भेदे....यमकबन्धो न विरुध्यते / / -p. 299 lines 14 17. And, अयमाशयः ।...वाक्यान्तरप्रतिमा वा [V.L. वाक्यार्थान्तरप्रतिभा वा] इति / अलङ्कारान्तरपर्यवसायित्वेनालङ्कारान्तरप्रत्याशया संगृहीताऽप्युपक्रमावस्थायामलङ्कारान्तरस्याप्रतीतेर्वाक्यार्थान्तरप्रतिभा पृथगुपदर्शिता / p. 258 11 3-7 ____ The two lines of the fragment when restored would read as : यत्र तु शब्दानामत्यन्तसरूपाणामपि दन्त्यौष्ठ्यलघुप्रयत्नतरकृतो भेदोऽस्ति तत्र वाक्यार्थान्तरप्रतिभा / तथालङ्कारान्तरे वाक्यान्तरे वा प्रतिभोत्पद्यते /

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FRESH LIGHT ON BHAMAHA-VIVARANA 273 (5) Fr. 45 (b) 11 5-6 : The commentator intends this passage to serve as an introduction to Bhamaha V. 2. In a corresponding passage from KLV we have all the words of this fragement intact, which fact clearly indicates that the author of KLV has adopted the passage From BV. The passage runs as follows: ननु किमिति सुगतसिद्धान्तप्रमाणयोरेव विचारणम् / सर्वसिद्धान्तानुवर्तनपरो हि काव्यप्रवाहस्तेन कः पक्षपातो बौद्धसिद्धान्तं प्रतीत्याह-प्रायेण...(Bhamaha V. 2 ] -पृ० 45, पं० 8-9 (6) Fr. 47 (a) : The text of this fragment is, on the whole, quite intelligible. This fragment may, however, be read with profit along with KLV (pp. 57-59). A few expressions and lines of this Fr., however, need correction : 1 2 : शब्दाभिव्यक्ति xxx should be read as शब्दाभिव्यक्तिवादिनं प्रति अन्यतरसिद्ध 13 : should be read as साधयितुमिष्टो यो धर्मस्तदनुगमने यः सदृशः पक्षः स सपक्षः / तत्र च य: सन् स हेतुरित्यर्थः / 15 : सामान्यमिह संवृतिसद्धि नाभिप्रेतम् : this line should be corrected in the light of सामान्यमिह संवृतिबुद्धिरभिप्रेता1० / ___ 18 : Should be read as तं च दर्शयितुमाह-इति द्वयैकानुगतिव्यावृत्ती लक्ष्मसाधुता // V. 25 इति सा पूर्वोक्तया भङ्ग्या11 x [ (7) Fr. 50 (a) 11 2-3 : This passage is easy to restore with the help of the following passage from KLV : "सो अज्ञानो दोषः" इति / असिद्धत्वमित्यर्थः / ततो हि साध्यस्य ज्ञानं नास्ति / इमे दोषाः इति / इत्थमेव समासो युक्तः / ये पुनरज्ञानं च संशयज्ञानं च विपर्ययश्चेति समस्य तान् कुर्वन्तीत्यज्ञानसंशयज्ञान-विपर्ययकृत इति व्याचक्षते तेषामज्ञानस्य ज्ञानप्रागभावस्यानुत्पाद्यमानत्वात् तत्करणविरोध:12 | (8) Fr. 50 (a) 16 : The following passage from KLV13 throws some light on this line : ननूपमानमेवास्त्विति / उपमाने खलु बिम्बप्रतिबिम्बोपन्यासो दृष्टः / चन्द्र इव मुखमित्यत्र मुखस्य बिम्बता, चन्द्रस्य तु तत्प्रतिबिम्बत्वम् / दृष्टान्तेऽपि च "तनुरियं व विलोचनहारिणी" त्यादौ बिम्बप्रतिबिम्बभावो विद्यते, तत् कथमुपमायामन्तर्भावोऽस्य न स्यादित्यर्थः / (9) Fr. 50 (a) 17 : The following line from KLV14 should help us in restoring this line : उपमानोपमेयभावविवक्षा साम्यमिवादिप्रयोगश्च.....। क. ल. वि. पृ. 71 पं. 1 When restored it would read : साम्यमिवादिप्रयोगश्च / 'तदृष्टान्ते नास्ति' इति नोपमायामन्तर्भावोऽस्याशङ्कनीयः / (10) Fr. 50 (a) 18 : The following passage from KLV15 throws some light on this line : न चैवंविधं लक्षणं "तनुरियं व विलोचनहारिणी" इत्यादौ दृष्टान्ते विद्यते / तनुतापसयोर्यथाक्रम Stud.-35

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274 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE नवमालिकाकुशगुणाभ्यां सहोपमानोपमेयभावस्याशाब्दत्वात् / The line "तनुरियं...." forms a quarter of a stanza; possibly the stanza occurs in the poem Hayagrivavadha, now lost16. (11) F. 50 (a) lines 3-5 : These lines are easy to restore with the help of the following passage from KLV17 : किं पुन: कारणं साध्यसाधनोपन्यास उपमाने न क्रियते / मुखमिन्दुरिवेत्यत्रेति / एतदुक्तं भवति / उपमाने कुत्सितः साध्यसाधनोपन्यासः सहृदयहृदयहरणभ्रंशप्रसङ्गात् / यद्येवं क्रियते मुखमिदमाहलादकरं कान्तिविशेषातिशययोगादिन्दुरिवेति तदा क्लिष्टं काव्यं स्यात् / यथेदं वक्ष्यमाणमुदाहरणम् / एतदेव दर्शयति-तदाह इति / These numerous passages, which have their source in Udbhata's Commentary on The Kavyalamkara of Bhamaha clearly suggest that Bhamahavivarana itself must have been ready at hand for the author of KLV18. Finally, I refer to one passage from KLV which unambiguously corroborates this inference. The author of KLV (pp 70-71) comments at length on Bhamaha V. 56. In this comment we read : "तदुक्तम् इवादेरप्रतीतापि शब्दसंस्कारतः क्वचित् / उपमा गम्यतेऽन्यत्र केवलार्थनिबन्धना // इति / यत्त्वत्र विवरणकृता उपमानोपमेयभावविवक्षा साम्यमिवादिप्रयोगश्चेति त्रितयमुद्घोषितं तद बाहुल्याभिप्रायेण न तु लक्षणतया / ...." Now, the quotation "ivaderapratitapi" etc. is found introduced in his Laghuvrtti (p. 29, Banhatti's edition) by Pratiharenduraja with the words 'tadahuh'. The author of KLV identifies this quotation as originating from vivaranakrt, i. e. Udbhata, the author of (Bhamaha-) Vivarana and thus indicating that he must have had Bhamahavivarana in front of him. Notes and References : 1. Udbhata's commentary on the Kavyalamkara of Bhamaha, Roma, Istituto Italiano per ___II Medio Ed Estremo Oriente, 1962. 2. Presidential Address, The Twenty-first All India Oriental Conference, Srinagar, October, 1961 3. ""Punaruktavadabhasa and Genuineness of the published Fragments from Udbhata's Bhamatavivarana," The Journal of the Karnatak University VIII. 1964. 4. L. D. Series No. 17, Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandira, Ahmedabad-9.

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FRESH LIGHT ON BHAMAHA-VIVARANA 275 5. Vide p. 7 lines 17-28. 6. Read in this connection Prof. Krishnamoorthy's paper, mentioned in note 3 supra. 7. In the Sanketa commentary of Manikyacandra on Kavyaprakasa we have almost an identical passage in the same context. Probably they have adopted the quotation from a commom source and this source was possibly the Bhamahavivarana. 8. Vide KLV p. 57 1. 18. 9. Vide KLV p. 57 lines 21-22. 10. Vide KLV p. 57 1. 22. 11. Vide KLV p. 58 lines 23-24. 12. Vide KLV p. 70 lines 4-7. 13. Vide KLV p. 70 lines 8-11. 14. Vide KLV p. 71 1. 1. 15. Vide KLV P. 70 lines 18-19. 16. This surmise is based on the context supplied by KLV (p. 78 lines 5-13) : On a festive occasion Hayagriva sends his son to bring Narakasura with him. He goes to his capital but learns from the subjects of Narakasura's death at Krsna's hands, and his daughter's departure to forest on account of her bereavement. He then proceeds to meet her in the forest with a view to offering condolences to her; seeing her practising austerities he is struck with love and points out the great disparity between her tender youthful body fit for love's joy and her hard penance. But there is one serious difficulty which prevents us from making such a surmise. And it is the metre in which the two verses (i alfei...etc. and ii 7 aaf etc. on p. 78) are composed. The quarter, however, unmistakably, reveals the influence of Kalidasa (Kumarasambhava, canto v. 4). 17. p. 71 11. 9-12. 18. So it was also for Hemacandra who quotes some passages from it. For a contrary view, however, vide Kane's History of Sanskrit Poetics (p. 127, 1951 ed). 000

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ABHINAVABHARATI CH. VII RECOVERED The commentary Abhinavabharati (A. Bh.) on the Natyasastra (NS) has been lost from the fourth verse in Ch. VII to the end of Ch. VIII. The precise line from where the commentary has been lost is line 16 on page 347 (Vol. I) after the words ata eva. The editor has noted this in his footnote?. Every student of Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics feels very much the loss of this portion, especially the one that concerns the Bhavadhyaya (Ch. VII). In spite of vigorous efforts by scholars and researchers no MS of the A. Bh. containing the missing portion could be found. In this paper I propose to prove beyond cavil that the portion of the Kalpalataviveka? (KLV) from p. 286 1. 22 to p. 303 1. 3, dealing with the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas of the NS is a straight quotation of the major portion of the original A. Bh. on the Bhavadhyaya. As such the major portion of the lost Ch. VII has been restored and scholars should be happy to welcome it. The paragraph preceding the treatment of nirveda (KLV p. 286) probably explains the commentary of Abhinavagupta on the NS VII. 4-5 defining vibhava and anubhava respectively. The portion of the NS Ch. VII p. 348 to p. 356 just preceding "tatra nirvedo nama" and the portion which just follows the treatment of the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas from p. 374 to the end of this chapter have been ignored in the KLV. This omission could be explained in two different ways : (i) The author of the KLV says he would avoid repeating whatever has been already said in the Pallava". So perhaps he is silent on these topics in the KLV. (ii) The author of the KLV is most probably explaining here Bharata's famous rasasutra that might have been quoted in the Pallava in connection with the figure rasavat. For he explains the terms vibhava, anubhava and vyabhicaribhava and then proceeds to comment on the different views of different commentators of the rasasutra as presented in the A.Bh. So there was no occasion for him to deal with these topics.

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ABHINAVABHARATI CH. VII RECOVERED 277 Hemacandra, the joint authors of the Natya-darpana (ND) and the anonymous author of the KLV freely utilise the A. Bh, in writing their own works. A comparative study of their treatment of the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas would, therefore, help us in deciding whether the KLV preserves the original A. Bh. on this portion of Ch. VII. With this aim in view I note below in tabular form the identical or nearly identical or corresponding passages between the KAS and the KLV and the ND and the KLV respectively : Kavyanusasana' of Hemacandra Kalpalataviveka (अ) परस्मिन् यथा-समुद्रदत्तस्य नन्दयन्त्यामन्यानु- अत एव यान्यगतत्वेन शङ्का यथा समुद्रदत्तस्य रागशङ्का [पुष्पदूषितके"] दुर्योधनस्य वा नन्दयन्त्यामन्यानुरागशङ्का / दुर्योधनस्य वा भानुमत्यां, भानुमत्याम् (वेणी. 2) / -पृ० 134 सापीह शङ्कात्वेन परिगृहीतैव ।-पृ० 288 (आ) चिन्ता / सा च स्मृतेरन्या / ग्रसनाददनवत् चिन्तानुस्मृतेरन्यैव 1....सर्वधातूनां ह्यर्थोऽन्योन्यतो खेलनाद् गमनवच्च ।....सा च वितर्कात् भिद्यत एव / तथा हि खेल गताविति यद्यपि पठ्यते ततो वा वितर्क इति वितर्कात् पृथग्भवति तथापि सविलासगमनमेव विशिष्टं खेलनमिति प्रसिद्ध चिन्ता ।-पृ० 138 खे खेलगामीत्यादौ / ग्रसनं च...विशिष्टम् अदनं न तु अदनमात्रमेवमन्यत्रावधेयम् ।-पृ० 292 (इ) अकार्यकरणज्ञानादेज्डा ... ... 1-पृ० 130 व्रीडा नाम अकार्यकरणात्मिका....। अकार्यकरणशब्देन तज्ज्ञानमुच्यते ।-पृ० 293 (ई) .....चापलम् अविमृश्य कार्यकरणमिति अविमृश्यऽपर्यालोच्य कार्यकरणं चापलमिति यावत् ।यावत् / पृ० 134 पृ० 294 निद्रोद्भवमित्यनेन निद्राया एव गाढावस्था निद्रासमुत्थमित्यनेन निद्राया एव गाढावस्था सुप्तमिति... सुप्तमित्याह ।-पृ० 132 / / माह | पृ० 298 (ऊ) ... ...भ्रूविकारमुखरागादीनामाच्छादनकारिणी ___ .....तेषां भूविकारमुखरागादीनां संवरणमाच्छादनकारि चित्तवृत्तिरवहित्थमवहित्था वा / न बहिःस्थं यच्चित्तवृत्तिरूपं तदवहित्थं न बहिःस्थं चित्तं येनेति चित्तं येनेति पृषोदरादित्वात् ।-पृ० 133 निरुक्तं पृषोदरादित्वाच्च रूपमित्याहुः / पृ० 299 ...मृतेः प्रागवस्था मृतिः / साक्षान्मृतावनु यदि वा व्याधीनां...भावनमनेन व्याधिना न मे निवर्तिभावाभावात् / प्रागवस्थेति / तव्यमित्येवं रूपं चित्तं तदेव मरणमभिनीयमानमुच्यते / म्रियमाणावस्थैव अनेन व्याधिना स एव हि प्राणानां त्यागः / तेन म्रियमाणावस्थैव... मे न निवर्तितव्यमित्येवंविधचित्तवृत्तिरूपा / - अनुभावादेरभावात् ।-पृ० 301 (ऐ) सन्देहः किंस्विदित्युभयावलम्बी प्रत्ययः संशय-सन्देहः किञ्चिदि ? किंस्विदिात्युभयावलम्बी प्रत्ययः रूपः / विमर्शो विशेषप्रतीत्याकाङ्क्षात्मिका संशयरूपः। विमर्शो विशेषप्रतीत्याकाङ्क्षात्मिका इच्छा / इच्छा / बाधकप्रमाणेन पक्षान्तराभावप्रतीतिमात्रं बाधकप्रमाणेन पक्षान्तराभावप्रतीतिमात्रं विप्रत्ययः / विप्रतिपत्तिरित्याहुः / येभ्योऽनन्तरं भवितव्यता- विप्रतिपत्तिर्वा / एभ्योऽनन्तरं भवितव्यताप्रत्ययस्वभाव प्रत्ययस्वभाव: एकतरपक्षशैथिल्यदायी पक्षान्तर एकतरपक्षशैथिल्यदायी पक्षान्तरंतुल्यकक्ष्या? क्ष]-भावा[? पक्षान्तरं] तुल्यकक्षभावाच्च्यावयन्नुन्मग्नताम- च्च्यावयन् उन्मग्नतामन्यस्य दर्शयस्तर्कः / स च

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278 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE न्यस्य दर्शयँस्तर्कः / स च संशयात् पृथगेव। संशयात् पृथगेव संशयेन तत्त्वबुभुत्सादिरूपस्य विमर्शादः संदेहेन तत्त्वबुभुत्सादिरूपस्य विमर्शादेः स्वीकारेऽपि कविशिक्षार्थं भक्त्वा निरूपणम् / अन्ये स्वीकारेऽपि कविशिक्षार्थं भङ्ग्या [? भक्त्वा] तु धर्मिणि सन्देहो धर्मे तु विमर्शो भ्रान्तिज्ञानं निरूपणम् / अन्ये तु विप्रत्यय इत्याहुः ।-पृ० 302 "धर्मिणि संदेहो धर्मे तु विमर्शो भ्रान्तिज्ञानं विप्रतिपत्तिः" इत्याहुः ।-पृ० 142 (ओ) तेनान्येषामत्रैवान्तर्भावः / तद् यथा अन्येषां त्वत्रैवान्तर्भावः / तद् यथा दम्भस्यावहित्थे / दम्भस्यावहित्थे, उद्वेगस्य निर्वेदे, क्षुत्तृष्णादे उद्वेगस्य निर्वेदे / क्षुत्तृष्णादेर्लानौ / एवमन्यदप्यूग्लानौ / एवमन्यदप्यूह्यम् / अन्ये त्वाहुः ह्यम् / अपरे तु मन्यन्ते कः खलु चित्तवृत्तीर्गणयितुं --एतावत्स्वेव सहचारिषु अवस्थाविशेषेषु समर्थः / गणने वा...शोच्य [? शाक्य] शिक्षितप्रयोगे प्रदर्शितेषु स्थायी चर्वणायोग्यो चित्तचैत्तद्वयभेदेन वा...। तथा ह्येतावत्स्वेव सहचारिभवति ।-पृ० 129 प्ववस्थाविशेषेषु प्रयोगे प्रदर्शितेषु स्थायी चर्वणायोग्यो भवति ।-पृ० 302-03 The Natyadarpana The Kalpalataviveka (अ) श्रमस्य व्यभिचारित्वेऽप्यन्यव्यभिचारिणं प्रति खेद इति श्रमो विवक्षितस्तेन भावो भावान्तरे विभा विभावत्वे न दोषः ।-पृ० 164 वतां प्रतिपद्यत एवेति दर्शितम् ।-पृ० 291 (आ) ...सदृशदर्शनम् / आदिशब्दात् सदृशश्रवण ....सदृशस्य दर्शनम् श्रवणं वा / चिन्ता प्रणिधानम् / चिन्तन-संस्कार-रात्रिपश्चाद्भागनिद्रोच्छेद-प्रणि- अभ्यासः पुनः पुनः परिशीलनम्....पृ० 293 धान-पुन:पुन: परिशीलनपूर्वं दर्शनपाटवादेविभावस्य ग्रह: ।-पृ० 160 (इ) ज्ञानं विवेकज्ञानं बाहुश्रुत्यं वा / पृ० 160 विज्ञानं विवेकज्ञानं श्रुतविभवो बाहुश्रुत्यम्...| पृ० 293 (ई) कार्याज्ञानं नेत्राभ्यां पश्यतोऽपि श्रोत्राभ्यां ...चक्षुर्ध्यामपि पश्यतः श्रोत्राभ्यामपि श्रृण्वत इति शृण्वतोऽपि चेदानी किं कृत्यमित्यनिश्चयः / दर्शयन् मोहादस्याः स्वरूपान्तरं दर्शयति ।-पृ० 296 नेदं वैकल्याचैतन्यस्वभावमित्यपस्मारमोहाभ्यां भिन्नम् ।-पृ० 164 (उ) सुतं निद्राप्रकर्षोऽत्र...। प्रकर्षो गाढतमावस्था / ...निद्राया एव गाढावस्था सुप्तमिति दर्शयन्निद्राया स्वप्नस्य तात्कालिकविषयज्ञानस्य आयितं विषयेभ्यः उपरिरंसात्मकत्वं स्वरूपमाह-स्वप्नायितम् प्रतीति-र्यतस्तत् स्वप्नायितं प्रलपितम् / इति प्रलपनमिति लोके प्रसिद्धं स्वप्नादसाधारणतात्का-पृ० 161 लिकविषयज्ञानाद्भिनमेव / स्वप्नस्य अयितं प्रतीतिर्यतः ....... पृ० 298 (ऊ) अपकारिणि स्वयमपकरणाभिलाषः प्रतीकारेच्छा, अमर्ष इति / प्रतिकरणेच्छारूपोऽयं क्रोधादन्य एव / परस्यापकाराभावेऽपि परानर्थकरणाभिप्रायरूपः -पृ० 299 क्रोध इत्यनयोर्भेदः ।-पृ० 160 (ए) धाष्ट्यं प्रागल्भ्यम् ।...सर्वानुगतत्वख्यापनार्थं ...तेषां भ्रूविकारमुखरागादीनां संवरणमाच्छादनकारि धाष्टय प्रथममुपात्तम् / सभयादिरपि ह्यप्रगल्भो यच्चित्तवृत्तिरूपं तदवहित्थं न बहि:स्थं चित्तं येनेति

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ABHINAVABHARATI CH. VII RECOVERED 279 न शक्नोत्याकारं संवरीतुम् / विक्रिया भ्रू- निरुक्तं पृषोदरादित्वाच्च रूपमित्याहुः / प्रगल्भो ह्याकारं विकार-मुखरागादिका, तस्या रोधः संवरणम् / संवरीतुं जानातीति धाट्यग्रहणम्...तेन धाष्ट्य रोधकारकत्वेनोपचाराच्चित्तविशेषोऽपि रोधः, न सर्वविभावेष्वस्यानुयायीति मन्तव्यम् ।-पृ० 299 बहिःस्था चित्तवृत्तिरिति पृषोदरादित्वादवहित्था / -पृ० 164 (ऐ) चौर्यादिरूपाद् विभावाद् यद् राजादे धुण्यं चौर्यमुपलक्षणमकार्याणां तन्निमित्तं गृहीते जने राजानिर्दयत्वं तदौग्र्यम् ।-पृ० 162 दीनामौय्यं निर्दयत्वम् ।-पृ० 299 (ओ) प्रतिभानं मतिः... ... / नवनवोल्लेखशालिनी मतिरिति / अपूर्वप्रतिभानरूपा / ऊहापोहावन्वयव्यतिरेक प्रज्ञा प्रतिभानम् ।...तर्को [ऊहापोहौ"]विधि- प्रत्ययौ विधिनिषेधविषयौ वा संभावनाप्रत्ययौ / निषेधविषयौ संभावनाप्रत्ययान्वयव्यतिरेक- -पृ. 299 प्रत्ययौ वा / -पृ० 160 (औ) प्राणनिरोधरूपं तु मरणं न नाट्ये प्रयोज्यमिति तेन म्रियमाणावस्थैव चित्तवृत्तिरूपेह विवक्षिता न तु न तस्य विभावानुभावस्वरूपाणि प्रतिपाद्यन्त मृतावस्था / तत्रानुभावादेरभावात् ।-पृ० 301 इति ।-पृ० 161 (अं) चकिततोद्वेगकारी चमत्कारः / अनर्थसंभावनातः झटिति विधूननकारी चमत्कृतिस्वभावत्रासो भयात् सत्त्वभ्रंशो भयमित्यनयोर्भेदः ।-पृ० 163 पूर्वापरविचारपूर्वकादन्य एव ।-पृ० 301-302 These tables should lead us to the obvious inference that the authors of these works draw on a common source and to a further inference that their common source could not have been anything else than the A. Bh. on the Bhavadhyaya (NS Ch. VII) which treats of the eight sthayibhavas, the thirtythree vyabhicaribhavas, and the eight sattvikabhavas. There is another fact, obvious to all, that the authors of the Kas and the ND, do not reproduce the definitions of the forty-nine bhavas, as they are found in the NS, but adapt them and that they do not fully borrow the comments in the A. Bh. on them but pick up only such phrases and significant lines from them as they think to be useful for a clear exposition. On the other hand, the author of the KLV reproduces verbatim the definitions of the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas in the same order as found in the NS and he also gives fuller comments which agree in parts with the corresponding lines in the Kas and the ND as shown above. From this fact we may therefore, draw a further inference that these fuller passages, presenting comments on thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas, found in the KLV represent the original portion of the A. Bh, on the Bhavadhyaya. That the author of the KLV borrows this whole section from the A. Bh. should not surprise us if we remembered that elsewhere too in his work he has borrowed long sections from the NS and the A. Bh. (Vide pp 33-40, and pp. 101-104) and from the Dhvanyaloka and the Locana commentary of Abhinavagupta on it (vide pp. 105-186).

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280 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE This conclusion finds strong support in the similarity of language, style, diction and the method of exposition found in this portion and the rest of the A. Bh. It is generally true that such a similarity, especially when we speak of post-Panini Sanskrit writers, is no safe or sure criterion of an author's identity. In the present case however, one could safely rely on this consideration. If this portion of the commentary from the KLV were to be printed as the A. Bh. on the Bhavadhyaya no one would ever have dreamt of doubting its genuineness. So complete, so perfect is the similarity, even identity. The references in this portion to the views of Srisankukati, Kecitiz, Ghantuka3, (? Ghantaka), Tikakara14, Bhattatotals, Kavikulacakravarti16. Anye17, Canakyacarya18, Aparely, Tarkika, Samkhya and Socya (? Sakya) are such as could come only in the Abhinavabharati. Apart from these considerations, there is an unassailable piece of internal evidence which conclusively and decisively proves that this portion in the KLV preserves the major portion of the A. Bh. on the Bhavadhyaya (NS Ch. VII) and it is this : In the course of his discussion whether the nirveda is the sthayi of santarasa Abhinavagupta says as follows: यत्तु व्यभिचारिख्याख्यानावसरे वक्ष्यते तच्चिरकालविभ्रमविप्रलब्धस्योपादेयत्वनिवृत्तये / यत् सम्यग्ज्ञानम्यथा-'वृथा दुग्धोऽनड्वांस्स्तनभरनता गौरिति परं (? चिरं) परिष्वक्तो षण्ढो युवतिरिति लावण्यरहितः / कृता वैडूर्याशा विकचकिरणे काचशकले मया मूढेन त्वां कृपणमगुणज्ञं प्रणमता // ' इति तन्निर्वेदस्य खेदरूपस्य भावत्वेन / एतच्च तत्रैव वक्ष्यामः / 20 Now, this promised description of nirveda is found in this portion of the KLV : निर्वेद इति दारिद्रयव्याध्यादिकारणजन्यो रुदितनिःश्वसितादीनां कारणं मनोविकारो दुःखरूपो भावविशेषः / शेषेष्वप्येवं विवृतिः / तत्त्वज्ञानं चिरं भ्रान्त्या गुणितहानोपादानादिप्रबन्धस्य भ्रमनिवृत्तौ सत्यां धिङ् मां वृथा भ्रान्तमिति निर्वेदं जनयति / यथा वृथा दुग्धोऽनड्वान् स्तनभरनता गौरिति चिरं परिष्वक्तः शण्ढो युवतिरिति लावण्यरहितः / कृता वैडूर्याशा विकचकिरणे काचशकले मया मूढेन त्वां कृपणमगुणशं प्रणमत (? ता) // 21 On the strength of this evidence 22 alone we could, without any hesitation whatsoever, assert that the KLV (pp. 286-303) preserves a major portion of the A. Bh. on the Bhavadhyaya (NS Ch. VII) which is presumed by Indologists as lost.

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ABHINAVABHARATI CH. VII RECOVERED 281 Notes and References : 1. GOS, Second Revised Edition, Vol I, Baroda, 1956. 2. एतस्मात्प्रभृति नवमाध्यायपर्यन्तं व्याख्या नोपलब्धा / Dr. J. L. Masson and Prof. M. V. Patwardhan observe in their recent work, santarasa and Abhinavagupta's Philosophy of Aesthetics (1969) : "All of the seventh Chapter of the Abhinavabharati but the very beginning has been lost, which is a great misfortune, since Abhinava refers to it frequently. It must have been a large and important section of the A. Bh." (p. 120 f. n. 2) 3. L. D. Series No-17, Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Bharatiya Sanskriti Vidyamandira, Ahmedabad 9, 1968. 4. One may reasonably surmise that the Kalpalata or the Pallava commentary on the Kalpalata must have quoted NS VII. 4-5 and used the A. Bh. on it for explaining the terms vibhava and anubhava occurring in Bharata's rasasutra; and the author of the KLV is explaining here what is durbodha (Unintelligible) in the Pallava commentary (vide infra f. n. 5). This surmise is based on a few significant words in this paragraph of the KLV : 'Asrayah' (p. 286. 1. 12) which occurs in NS VII. 7 and Vagadyabhinayasahita (vibhavyante) (P. 286 11. 13-14) which occurs in the A. Bh on it (p. 347 1.14) and "Vagangopangasamyuktah' the V. L. for Sakhopangasamyuktah) in NS VII. 5. I have not been able to trace the pratikas 'Pratitihetavah' (p. 286. 1.13), 'Anubhavan' (p. 286. 1. 16), and "Yena' (p. 236. 1.19) as they are most probably parts of the author's own comments in elucidation of the Kalpalata text (now lost). 5. Vide the opening verse of the KLV : यत् पल्लवे न विवृतं दुर्बोधं मन्दबुद्धिभिश्चापि / क्रियते कल्पलतायां तस्य विवेकोऽयमतिसुगमः // 6. Second Revised edition, Sri Mahavira Jaina Vaidyalaya, Bombay, 1964. 7. That this incident to be portrayed in this play is vouchsafed by Abhinavabharati : एतदेवाभिमन्यमानेन पुष्पदूषितकेऽशोकदत्तादिशब्दाकर्णनेन समुद्रदत्तस्य शङ्का योपनिबद्धा सा न दोषाय निर्वहणान्तोपयोगिनी हि नन्दयन्तीनिर्वासनं तस्याश्च गृहान्तरावस्था / ... न तेन ब्रह्मयश:स्वामियशः खण्डितं...../ अभिनवभारती (अध्याय 18) पृ० 432. 8. The reading you makes no sense. Probably it is a scribal error for STIRI, Vide f. n. 9 infra. 9. Revised Second Edition, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1959. 10. The printed text leaves out this term. The context, however, demands that we must have this reading to make the sentence intelligible. 11. Brisau...fa 215000:JEH I p. 295. 12. 267952 7 oferta FTTIGHOL I p. 296. 13. progra4KICI Tafa stucco: [?] I p. 298. 14. ferri faontaifa Ferzifalchre sfa alcholohru: 1 p. 300. Stud.-36

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282 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 15. भट्टतोतस्तु...... p. 300. उक्तं च भट्टतोतेन / p. 302. 16. एतदेव हि प्रतिजागरितं कविकुलचक्रवर्तिना "तिष्ठेत् कोपवशात्" (विक्रमोर्वशीय 4.2) इत्यादिना / p. 300. 17. अन्ये तु धर्मिणि सन्देहो धर्मे तु विमर्शो भ्रान्तिज्ञानं विप्रत्यय इत्याहुः / p. 302. 18. तथा च-दैवमचिन्त्यं पुरुषकारस्तु चिन्त्य इति वदन् चाणक्याचार्यस्तर्कपूर्वकमेव समस्तं व्यवहारमाह | p. 302. 19. अपरे तु मन्यन्ते कः खलु चित्तवृत्तीर्गणयितुं समर्थः / गणने वा तार्किकतर्कितात्मगुणनवकेन वा सांख्यसंख्यातबुद्धिधर्माष्टकविपर्ययादिप्रत्ययचतुष्टयेन वा शोच्या? शाक्य]शिक्षितचित्तचैत्तद्वयभेदेन वा सर्वसंग्रहे किमियता 1 p. 302. In passing, it may be noted that the term firet in the present context makes no sense. This is a scribal error for pic which reading eminently suits the context. Abhinava elsewhere speaks of शाक्याचार्य (राहुल). Vide A. Bh. XXII p. 164. 20. A. Bh. Ch VI pp. 334-335. 21. KLV, p. 287. 22. There are two more statements of Abhinavagupta promising to discuss the matter at lengh in his commentary on the 'Bhavadhyaya': (i) चित्रपुस्ताद्यपि च नाट्यस्यैवार्थभागाभिष्यन्दो यथा सर्गबन्धादि शब्दभागाभिष्यन्दः / एतच्च 'योऽर्थो हृदयसंवादी' (ना. शा. 7-10 [? 7-7]) इत्यत्र वितत्य वक्ष्यामः / -(A. Bh. Ch VI, p. 291) (ii) यत्रापि व्यभिचारिणि व्यभिचार्यन्तरं संभाव्यते...एतच्च 'यथा नरेन्द्र (नाट्यशास्त्र, 7-10 [? 7-7 वृत्ति; पृ० 349] इत्यत्र वक्ष्यामः / -A. Bh. Ch. VII, p. 345 The KLV, however does not treat of these two passages from the NS. Naturally, we cannot verify if the KLV has presented these promised discussions. Again, in the A. Bh. on NS Ch. XXXII pp. 152-153 Abhinavagupta states that the nature of sattva has been explained at great length in the Bhavadhyaya (and Rasadhyaya). This portion, dealing with sattva and sattvikabhavas, however, does not find place in the KLV, probably it was dealt with in the Kalpalatapallava. The discussion of this topic in the Kas (pp. 144-147) is possibly based on this portion in the A.Bh.. on the Bhavadhyaya, now lost. This guess is hazarded on the strength of a few significant phrases common to the A. Bh. and the Kas. Compare for instance : इह चित्तवृत्तिरेव संवेदनभूमौ संक्रान्ता देहमपि व्याप्नोति / सैव च सत्त्वमित्युच्यते / तत्र चाव्यक्तं यत् संवित्प्राणभूमिद्वयानिपतितं यत् सत्त्वं तत् भावाध्यायसंश्रयत्वेनैव विज्ञेयम् / -A. Bh. III. 22 p. 152 संवेदनरूपात् प्रसृतं यत् सत्त्वं तद् विचारितम् / अन्यत् तु देहधर्मत्वेनैव स्थितं सात्त्विकम् / -A. Bh. 22 p. 153 and ते (सात्त्विकभावाः) च प्राणभूमिप्रसृतरत्यादिसंवेदनवृत्तयो......! -Kas, p. 144 000

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SRNGARARNAVACANDRIKA (ALAMKARASAMGRAHA) OF VIJAYAVARNI INTRODUCTION 1. CRITICAL APPARATUS Srngararnavacandrika (SC) of Vijayavarni is being published for the first time from the only available MS. Dr. A. N. Upadhye to whose efforts I owe this MS. could not get any other MS. of Vijayavarni's work perhaps it does not exist. This MS. on which the text is based, is in the Jaina Siddhanta Bhavana, Arrah, (Bihar). In Prasastisamgraha* Pt. K. Bhujabali Sastri describes it : Manuscript No. 231 Srngaranavacandrika Kha Author : Vijayavarni Subject : Alamkara (Poetics) Language : Sanskrit Length : 8.5" (21.6 cm); Breadth 7" (17.8 cm) Condition : Good; Manuscript : Paper manuscript; No. of lines per folio about 11, No. of letters per line : 20 to 22. The MS. opens thus : श्रृङ्गारार्णवचन्द्रिक अलंकार श्री अनन्तनाथाय नमः / / निविघ्नमस्तु / / जयति संसिद्धकाव्यालापपद्माकरेयं and ends with ...श्रवणबेलुगुलक्षेत्रनिवासि. बि. विजयचन्द्रेण जैनक्षत्रियेण इदं ग्रंथं समाप्त लेखीति. मंगलमहा ।।श्री।। Generally speaking, the condition of the MS is good but, occasionally, we are faced with lacunae in it. Wherever possible I have filled up these gaps. I have corrected scribal errors; and the readings, about which I felt doubtful, I have

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284 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE noted in the footnotes. In some cases I have corrected the readings by referring to the passages in the books used by the author. I have spared no pains in presenting the text of SC as faithfully as was possible in the circumstances. 2. THE PERSONAL HISTORY OF VIJAYAVARNI Nothing is known about the personal history of Vijayavarni beyond what he has himself told us in the prasasti and the puspika to his work : he was a disciple of Munindra Vijayakirti, a devout adherent of the doctrine of Syadvada, propounded by the great Jinas. In the course of a literary discourse he was once asked by King Kamiraja of Bangavadi to explain the various aspects of poetics. At the King's request he composed Alamkarasamgraha called Srngararnavacandrika (SC). This work, while elucidating the different topics in poetics, sings the glory of King Kamiraja through the examples with which he illustrates the different points. In the introduction to his work he particularly refers to the poetry of Karnata poets like Gunavarman. This reference would lead us to believe that he had himself studied their poetry. A perusal of the sc would reveal that he had studied the standard works on poetics namely, those of Dandi, Bhoja, Dhanamjaya, Mammata and the like, Vijayavarni was in personal association with king Kamiraja. Naturally, his date depends on that of King Kamiraja. 3. DATE OF KING KAMIRAJA In his Prasasti the author gives the geneology of his patron; and according to Pt. Bhujabali Sastri and Dr. Nemicandra Sastri, our author's information does not conflict with historical facts. Viranarasimha ruled at Bangavadi (1157 A. D.). He had a brother called Pandyaraja. Candrasekhara, the son of Viranarasimha, came to the throne in A. D. 1208, and his younger brother Pandyappa, in A D. 1224. Vitthaladevi, their sister, was appointed regent in A. D. 1239. Then her son, called Kamiraja, came to the throne in A. D. 12645. Our author wrote his SCs at the request of this King Kamiraja (name is spelt as Kamaraya, Kamiraya and Kamiraya in the MS) Vijayavarni must have, therefore, composed his SC in the last quarter of the thirteenth century (A. D.). A comparative study of the nearly common or corresponding passages between SC and Prataparudrayasobhusana(PRY), and SC and Alamkarasamgraha, however, raises doubts regarding the date of composition of Vijayavarni's work. Dr. Kane assigns PRY to the first quarter of the fourteenth century. Pandit Balkrishnamurti assigns Amstanandayogin to the thirteenth century whereas C. Kuhnan Raja assigns him to the beginning of the second half

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SRNGARARNAVACANDRIKA (ALAMKARASAMGRAHA) OF VIJAYAVARNI 285 of the fourteenth century. The date of Amotanandayogin remains thus uncertain. A comparative study instituted by me leads me to believe that Vijayavarni has much common with PRY and Alamkarasamgraha for the treatment of a few topics. In the present state of our knowledge the question of Vijayavarni's date evades definite determination, and it is but right to keep it open till definite and conclusive evidence comes forth. 4. VIJAYAVARNI'S POETRY In the introduction to his SC Vijavavarni refers to himself as Kavisaktibhasura" and as "Kavisvara'and to his own work in glowing terms. For his karikas he is deeply indebted to authoritative works on poetics and he expressly states, on a few occasions, that he has followed 'Purva-Sastra'. The illustrations and introductory stanzas are, however, his own. A few of these illustrations would appear to have been modelled on those found in his authorities. Considering his verses it is difficult to admit his claim to high poetic power or to the title "Kavisvara'. His poetry is rather pedestrian and highly conventional. There is hardly anything which enlivens his SC. His slokas are easy to understand. At handling elaborate metres he is not so adept. He is guilty at a number of places of the metrical defect called yatibhanga. He profusely uses expletives. Occasionally, we come across similies which are strikinglo; but the work, as a whole, has value rather for its subjectmatter than for its literary merit. 5. THE TITLE OF THE PRESENT WORK In the course of his introductionll to the present work the author tells us that at the request of King Kamiraja he composed Alamkarasamgraha called SC. The colophon 12 refers to the title as 'srngararnavacandrika-namni, alamkarasamgrahe...". From these references it is crystal clear that the author gives 'Alamkarasamgraha' as the general name to the work and SC as the distinguishing appellation. The name 'Alamkarasamgraha' consists of two words : (1) alamkara and (2) samgraha. The word alamkara stands here obviously not in its restricted sense of figures of speech but in its wider sense denoting all such factors as word and sense that should find place in poetry, rasa, bhava, guna, vrtti, riti, sayya, paka, alamkaras and dosas (which a poet should avoid in his composition), in short, Sanskrit poetics. Samgraha primarily means a collection but here it signifies compendium 13 or a brief exposition. Alamkarasamgraha therefore means : A compendium or a brief exposition of Sanskrit poetics 14', and metaphorically, the work dealing with it. According to some, samgraha comprises three parts, namely, uddesa (simple enumeration), laksana (definition) and pariksa (examination or

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286 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE exposition). The present work contains all the three. The title SC is made up of three words : 1. songara, 2. arnava and 3. candrika. The word srngara denotes one of the eight or nine rasas bearing that name; arnava means an ocean; and candrika moonlight. The whole title, therefore, means : 'Moonlight to the ocean of Srngara's. The word candrika 16 at the end of compounds means elucidation or throwing light on the subject treated. The author compares his work with candrika-moonlight, which is so very lovely and delightful, and thereby suggests that it is a delight to read and study his work which is (implicitly claimed to be) so lucid in its method of composition and style. The title inay also be explained as : "The work imparting special knowledge about poetics covering srngara-rasa and allied topics."17 The work does not prominently treat of sungara nor the author has anything new to say regarding songara as Bhoja had in his Srigaraprakasa. The reason why srngara finds a place in the title is probably this : Srngara rasa is regarded as the prince among sentiments (rasaraja). When this very essential and vital topic of poetics is mentioned in the title, it automatically follows that other, comparatively less important, topics of poetics are implied by it or covered under it. 6. A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE CONTENTS OF SC The work opens with a homage to Lord Jina, and goes on to describe some of predecessors of King Kamiraja, the patron. The first chapter 18 mainly deals with consequences ascribed to initial letters of any composition and to the metrical feet employed in it. The second chapter19 enumerates seven groups of poets and deals with fourfold sense and fourfold power of word. The third chapter20 deals with Rasa, Bhava and their varieties with illustrations of each and every type. The fourth chapter21 is a study of the types of hero and heroine and their friends and messengers and their rivals. The fifth chapter22 treats of ten Gunas. The sixth chapter23 makes a study of Riti and its kinds. The seventh chapter24 deals with Vitti and its varieties. The eighth chapter25, which is the shortest of all, deals with the concepts

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SRNGARARNAVACANDRIKA (ALAMKARASAMGRAHA) OF VIJAYAVARNI 287 sayya of and paka. The ninth chapter26, which is the longest of all deals with Arthalaskaras. Lastly, the tenth chapter27 treats of Dosas in a poetic composition and also of circumstances when they cease to be so. 7. SOURCES OF THE SC A striking feature of this work is that all the examples given as illustrations of the different points, are composed by Vijayavarni himself and go to glorify King Kamiraja. In this respect it resembles Vidyadhara's Ekavali (12851325 A. D.) Vidyanatha's PRY (1300-1325 A. D.) As the work is composed in the decadent period of Sanskrit Literature and as it deals with a scientific subject, poetics, on which authoritative treatises of masterminds were already in existence, it would not be fair on one's part to expect any originality or contribution to poetics from Vijayavarni. Occasionally, he clearly states that his descriptions are in accordance with earlier authorities 28. A perusal of his work reveals that he had carefully studied the authorities on poetics. The matter relating to the predictive character of the initial letters and metrical feet, which the author treats of in Chapter I, is generally described in works on metrics. Some early works on metrics are irretrievably lost but a few passages from such works are preserved in the works of later writers where they are quoted, perhaps directly from the original sources but mostly they appear at second hand, quoted from some writer who quotes them. Thus some slokas are quoted by Narayanabhatta in his commentary on Vrttaratnakara with the introductory remark : taduktam Bhamahena29. These slokas inform us of Varnaphala and Ganaphala. It is very doubtful if this Bhamaha is the same man who wrote Kavyalarkara. Narayanabhatta also quotes some passages describing the deities of Ganas and auspicious or inauspicious character of the initial Ganas with the introductory remark : अन्यैस्तु देवताफलस्वरूपाण्येषामुक्तानिIt is the authors of Alaskarsangraha and SC who have introduced this topic in works on poetics. In Chapter II the author gives a sevenfold classification of poets based on their taste or aptitude for a particular type of literary composition. This classification is somewhat different from the eightfold classification of poets given for the first time by Rajasekhara in his Kavyamimamsa 30. Whereas Rajasekhara names the groups of poets and adds stanzas to illustrate the type of literary composition of each one of them, Vijayavarni gives a definition of each one of the groups of poets but does not

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288 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE illustrate the types of their literary composition--SC and Alamkarasangraha, however, agree in their classification and definition of groups of poets leading to the conclusion that one of them must have borrowed from the other31. in the same chapter the author treats of the fourfold sense of words : 1. Mukhyartha with its four kinds ((i) Jati (ii) Kriya (iii) Guna and (iv) Dravya) 2. Laksyartha, 3. Gaunartha and 4. Vyangyartha, and the fourfold power of words : 1. Abhidha 2. Laksana (with its three kinds : (i) Jahati (ii) Ajahati and (iii) Jahatyajahati) 3. Gauni and 4. Vyanjana. It is the Mimamsakas who look upon Gauni as a separate power of words32. This whole discussion is, generally speaking, based on Kavyaprakasa (Ullasas II and III). In Chapter III the author deals with Rasa and Bhava and their divisions. He treats of nine Sthayibhavas, nine Rasas, Vibhavas (Alambana and Uddipana), Anubhavas, eight Sattvikabhavas and thirty three Vyabhicari (Sancari) bhavas, and such details about Rasas as the primary and the derivative Rasas, (their inter relations), their harmonies and conflicts, their colours (Varna) and their presiding deities (Adhidevata). He clearly acknowledges his indebtedness to ancient or earlier authorities on the subject33. A study of his definitions of technical terms relating to Rasa-Bhava and the like corroborates his statement. Two points, however, deserve special mention : his description of the different factors relating to santa rasa is typically Jain34 and is original; another remarkable point is that the author mentions Para-Brahma as the presiding deity of Srngara. In his celebrated commentary35 on Natyasastra Abhinavagupta writes : वीरो महेन्द्रदेवः स्यात् बुद्धः शान्तोऽब्जजोऽद्भुतः / इति शान्तवादिनः केचित् पठन्ति / बुद्धो जिनः परोपकारैकपरः प्रबुद्धो वा / From this statement it is clear that the author had not Abhinavabharati before him but some other text where Para-Brahman has been mentioned as its presiding deity. No early work on Alamkarasastra which would be regarded as standard and well-known makes any reference to Para-Brahman as its presiding deity. Dr. Raghavan states that "the Alankarasarvasva of Harsopadhyaya (?), written for one Gopaladeva, makes the supreme spirit, Para-Brahman, as the Devata of santa36. We, however, do not know the exact date of this work which would have enabled us to determine the interrelation between these two works. Alamkarasamgraha of Amstanandayogin speaks of Para-Brahman as the presiding deity of santarasa. There is a close agreement between Sc of Vijayavarni and Alamkarasamgraha of Amstanandayogin in their treatment of some common topics from poetics37. The dates of these two works as proposed

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SkNGARARNAVACANDRIKA (ALAMKARASAMGRAHA) OF VIJAYAVARNI 289 by scholars 38 do not, however, permit us to state categorically that Vijayavarni has drawn upon Amstanandayogin's work. 'In Chapter IV the author deals with characters : the hero, the heroine and their types, the rivals of the hero and the Dutis. A comparative study of this chapter and the second Prakasa of Dasarupaka reveals that Vijayavarni is heavily indebted to Dhanamjaya in his treatment of the characters 39. He differs with Dhanamjaya on three points : 1. Dhanamjaya speaks of three friends (Sahayas) of the hero 40 : 1. Pighamarda (Patakanayaka), 2. Vita, and 3. Vidusaka : Vijayavarni adds the fourth Nagarika41 to the list. 2. Dhanamjaya mentions three types of heroines42 : 1. Sviya (=Svastri or Svakiya), 2 Anya (=Anyastri or Parakiya) and 3. Sadharana stri (Sadharana). Vijayavarni makes them four 43 by adding one more type viz. Anudha. He, however, says that according to one view, Anudha is parakiya only and hence there are three types of heroines only. 3. In Dhanamjaya's view if absence is due to death the love sentiment cannot be present44. Vijayavarni advocates the view that Karunatmakavipralambha can be present if one of the two, (the lover and his beloved) passes away and the other laments his or her deaths. Now, Vidyanatha 4 also speaks of four Sahayas of the hero but his list has Сeta and no Nagarika. Rudrata47 and Dhanamjaya48 speak of two types of Parakiya or Anyastri : Kanyaka and Anyodha, Vijayavarni mentions Parakiya and Anudha (=Kanyaka) separately and makes four types of heroines. Of course, he is fully aware of the views of Rudrata and Dhanamjaya that Anudha (=Kanyaka), too is regarded as not one's own (Parakiya). Finally, in setting forth the four kinds of Vipralambhasrngara he has followed Rudrata49. In Chapter V the author treats of Gunas. A careful and comparative study of the definitions of these ten Gunas with those given in the Kavyadarsa reveals that Vijayavarni closely followed Dandiso, and occasionally Vamanasi. Vijayavarni paraphrases Dandi's definitions52. In Chapter VI the author treats of Riti and its four kinds : 1. Vaidarbhi 2. Gaudi, 3. Pancali, and 4. Lati. It is Rudrata53 who for the first time added Lati to the three well-known Ritis set forth by Vamana. Agnipurana54 and Jayadeva's Candralokas too speak of these four Ritis. In Bhoja's Sarasvatikanthabharana56 the Ritis number six with the addition of Avantika and Magadhi. Stud.-37

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290 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE The definition of Riti given by the author is in agreement with the one set forth by Vidyanatha in his PRYS7. Vidyanatha, however, speaks of three Ritis only, omitting Lati as has been done by Mammata. The definitions of the four Ritis as laid down in SC58 and Alamkarasangraha are in close agreement. The definitions of the three Ritis are partly in agreement with those of Vamana59. In Chapter VII the author treats of six Vrttis-1. Kaisiki, 2. Arabhati, 3. Bharati, 4. Sattvati, 5. Madhyama Kaisiki and 6. Madhyama Arabhati. These six Vrttis are first dealt with by Bhoja in his Sarasvatikanthabharana, but as Sabdalamkaras (Chapter II. 34-38) and after him by Vidyanatha in his PRY (Kavyaprakarana, pp. 57-63). Vijayavarni's treatment of this topic bears remarkable resemblance to that of Vidyanatha's60. In chapter VIII we find an exposition of the conception of Sayya and Paka. No doubt, the conception of Paka is found in Vamana's Kavyalamkarasutra-vrtti and Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa, but the striking thing is that the definitions of Sayya and Paka as given by Vijayavarni are in close agreement with the corresponding ones in Vidyanatha's PRY :61 पदानामानुगुण्यं वान्योन्यमित्रत्वमुच्यते / / यत् सा शय्या कलाशास्त्रनिपुणैर्विदुषां वरैः / / -VIII. 2 Cf. 9 TERI YIRIRST gpzifa Freztat ...अत्र पदविनिमयासहिष्णुत्वाद् बन्धस्य पदानुगुण्यरूपा शय्या / --PRY p. 67 आलम्ब्य शब्दमर्थस्य द्राक् प्रतीतिर्यतोऽजनि / स द्राक्षापाक इत्युक्तो बहिरन्तःस्फुरद्रसः / / आलम्ब्य शब्दमर्थस्य द्राक्प्रतीतिर्यतो न हि / स नालिकेरपाकः स्यादन्तर्गण्ड (? गूढ ) रसोदयः // -VIII. 6-7 द्राक्षापाकः स कथितो बहिरन्तःस्फुरद्रसः / स नारिकेलपाकः स्यादन्तYढरसोदयः / / -PRY pp. 67-69 In Chapter IX the author gives an exposition of 47 Arthalamkaras. Of these, he defines the first 33 Arthalamkaras, including 33 divisions of Upama and 20 divisions of Ruppaka, after Dandi's Kavyadarsa62. The rest of the Arthalamkaras are possibly defined by the author keeping in view Rudrata's Aryas dealing with them. In Chapter X the author treats of Kavyadosas viz; Pada-dosas, Vakyadosas, Artha-dosas and Rasa-dosas, and also describes the circumstances in

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SkNGARARNAVACANDRIKA (ALAMKARASAMGRAHA) OF VIJAYAVARNI 291 which the Dosas cease to be so. His treatment of Kavya-dosas clearly reveals his considerable indebtedness to Mammata63 who treats of the Dosas in his Kavyaprakasa (Ullasa VII). Mammata has utilised earlier writers on this topic and added new Dosas which he himself has discovered. Vijayavarni follows Mammata's classification of Dosas in toto. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In conclusion, I acknowledge my deep indebtedness to Dr. A. N. Upadhye, M. A., D. Litt., Dean, Faculty of Arts, Shivaji University Kolhapur, at whose suggestion this work of editing SC from a single manuscript was entrusted to me. It is he who gave me the MS and requested me to edit this work. He has all along been taking kindly interest in the progress of my work and its publication. I can never adequately express in words what I owe to Pandit Balacharya Khuperkar Shastri who has taken keen interest in this work and made valuable suggestions for emending the text as correctly as possible. It was, indeed, my proud privilege to spend hours together with him discussing matters relating to Sanskrit poetics in general and the text in particular. I offer my warmest thanks to my friend Professor G. S. Bedagkar, who kindly went through the Introduction and made valuable suggestions to improve it. However, for whatever imperfections still left in the work, I am entirely responsible. The Author acknowledges his indebtedness to the Shivaji University, Kolhapur, for the grant-in-aid received by him from the University towards the cost of Publication of this book. Notes and References : * Pages 73-76; published by Nirmal Kumar Jaina, Secretary, Jaina Siddhanta Bhavana Arrah. 1942. 1. इति परमजिनेन्द्रवदनचन्दिरविनिर्गतस्याद्वादचन्द्रिकाचकोरविजयकीर्तिमुनीन्द्रचरणाब्जचञ्चरीकविजयवर्णिविरचिते श्रीवीरनरसिंहकामिराजवङ्गनरेन्द्रशरदिन्दुसंनिभकीर्तिप्रकाशके.... 2. स राजा काव्यगोष्ठीषु सभाजनविभूषितः / 314cfecite 25 fansif Y a 11 I. 19 It appears, Vijayavarni was also known as Dvitiya. 3. Vide footnote No. 1, supra. 4. Tuahifanicenahi gratiaa: 1 amifandi dan Thangailu II I. 7. 5. Vide Prasasti-samgraha (pp. 76-78) edited by Pt. K. Bhujbali Sastri, Arrah, 1942 and a Triat trent out grosforgath by Dr. Nemicandra Sastri in Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Part XXIII, Kirana I, Dec. 1963.

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292 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 6. Vide infra, Sources of SC. 7. I. 19. 8. I. 26. 9. I. 23-28. 10. III. I, IX. 62. 11. इत्थं नृपप्रार्थितेन मयालङ्कारसंग्रहः / -क्रियते सूरिणा नाम्ना शृङ्गारार्णवचन्द्रिका || I. 22. 12. Vide colophon at the end of Chapters I, II, IX and x : विजयवर्णिविरचिते शृङ्गारार्णवचन्द्रिकानाम्नि अलङ्कारसंग्रहे... 13. संग्रह: संचित्य ग्रहणं स्वीकारः संचयनमित्यर्थः / अथवा संक्षेपेण स्वरूपकथनम् / 14. अलङ्काराणां संग्रहः संक्षेपेण स्वरूपकथनमित्यर्थः / 15. शृङ्गारोऽर्णव एव तस्य चन्द्रिका प्रकाशिका इत्यर्थः / 16. The words कौमुदी and चन्द्रिका convey this sense when they stand at the end of compounds. Compare the titles : तर्ककौमुदी, वैयाकरणसिद्धान्तकौमुदी, सांख्यतत्त्वकौमुदी etc. and रसचन्द्रिका, काव्यचन्द्रिका, नाटकचन्द्रिका, अलङ्कारचन्द्रिका, चमत्कारचन्द्रिका, etc. 17. शृङ्गारोऽर्णव एव तस्य चन्द्रिकेव (उच्छूनयती-वर्धयन्ती) चन्द्रिका / शृङ्गाररसादिसाहित्यशास्त्रविषयकं विशिष्टं ज्ञानं बोधयन्तीत्यर्थः / 18. Chapter I (vv 1-63) : Varnaganaphala-nirmaya. 19. Chapter II (vv 1-42) : Kavyagata-sabdartha-niscaya 20. Chapter III (w 1-130) : Rasabhavaniscaya 21. Chapter IV (w 1-163) : Nayakabhedaniscaya 22. Chapter V (wv 1-31) : Dasagunaniscaya 23. Chapter VI (vv 1-17) : Ritiniscaya 24. Chapter VII (vv 1-16) : Vrttiniscaya 25. Chapter VIII (vv 1-10) : Sayya-paka-niscaya 26. Chapter IX (w 1-310) : Alamkaraniscaya 27. Chapter x (vv 1-197) : Dosaguna-niscaya 28. अतः अतो कारणतोऽस्माभिरुच्यते रसलक्षणम् / पूर्वशास्त्रानुसारेण भावभेदविशेषितम् / / III. 2 अतो गुणाः प्रकीर्त्यन्ते पूर्वशास्त्रानुसारतः / कामिराय नराधीश श्रूयतां भवताधुना || V. 3 अन्ये विकल्पा द्रष्टव्या आक्षेपाणां विचक्षणैः / मया शास्त्रानुसारेण दिग्मानं संप्रदर्शितम् / / IX 174 29. Vide appendix-C. 30. Vide Appendix-C 31. Vide Appendix-D 32. गौणीवृत्तिलक्षणातो भिन्नेति प्रभाकराः / Ratnapana (p. 44). Vidyanatha, however, emphatically says : गौणवृत्तिरपि लक्षणाप्रभेद एव | Prataprudrayasobhasana (pp. 44-45)

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SZNGARARNAVACANDRIKA (ALAMKARASAMGRAHA) OF VIJAYAVARNI 293 33. अतः कारणतोऽस्माभिरुच्यते रसलक्षणम् / पूर्वशास्त्रानुसारेण भावभेदविशेषितम् // --SC. III 3. 34. III 109-112. 35. Abhinavabharati Vol I. p. 299. 36. The Number of Rasas (p. 50). The Adyar Library, Adyar, 1940. 37. See Appendix-D. 38. For the date of Vijayavarni vide pages 2 and 3 supra. For the date of Amrtanandayogin, vide Introduction to Alamkarasangraha (pp iv to vi) edited by Pandita Balakrishnamurti, Sri Venkatesvara Oriental Institute, Tirupati (1950) and Introduction to Alamkarasangraha (pp. XXXVIII-XLIII) edited by V. Krishnamacharya and K. Ramachandra Sarma (The Adyar-Library Series No. 70, 1949). 39. Vide Appendix-C. 40. Dasarupaka II, w 8-9 (ab). 41. Sc IV. vw 29-32. 42. Dasarupaka II, v 15 (ab) and vv20 (cd)-22 (ab). 43. SC IV, vw 43-59. 44. Dasarupaka IV, w 50-51 (ab) and vw 57-68. 45. SC IV, v 103 and v 110 46. Prataparudrayasobhusana, Kavyaprakarana, v 40. 47. परकीया तु द्वेधा कन्योढा चेति ते हि जायेते / - Kavyalamkara XII-30 (ab) 48. अन्यस्त्री कन्यकोढाच...। --Dasarupaka II-20 (c) 49. अथ विप्रलम्भनामा शृङ्गारोऽयं चतुर्विधो भवति / प्रथमानुरागमानप्रवासकरुणात्मकत्वेन // -Kavyalamkara XIV-1 and, करुणः स विप्रलम्भो यत्रान्यतरो म्रियेत् नायकयोः / यदि वा मृतकल्पः स्यात्तत्रान्यस्तद्गतं प्रलपेत् / / -- Kavyalamkara XIV-34 50. Vijayavarni's statement : एते दशगुणाः प्रोक्ता दश प्राणाश्च भाषिताः / ---V-5(ab) Unmistakably reminds us of Dandis इति वैदर्भमार्गस्य प्राणा दश गुणाः स्मृताः / -Kavyadarsa 42 (ab) 51. Cf. अथवा पदबन्धस्योज्ज्वलत्वं कान्तिरुच्यते / -V-16 (ab) and औज्ज्वल्यं कान्तिः / 3, 1. 25 बन्धस्योज्ज्वलत्वं नाम यदसौ कान्तिरिति / -- Kavyalamkarasutravitti 52. I give here only two examples : (i) Cf. श्रुतिचेतोद्वयानन्दकारिणां कोमलात्मनाम् / ___वर्णानां रचनान्यासः सौकुमार्य निरूप्यते ||-V.6 and, अनिष्ठुराक्षरप्रायं सुकुमारमिहेष्यते / बन्धशैथिल्यदोषोऽपि दर्शित: सर्वकोमले // सुकुमारतयैवैतदारोहति सतां मनः / -Kavyadarsa I, 69-71

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294 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE V. 15 (ii) Cf. ilfcholeifsfq 2791 ale : 1 सा कान्तिरुदिता सद्भिः कलागमविशारदैः and कान्त सर्वजगत्कान्तं लौकिकार्थानतिकमात् / तच्च वार्ताभिधानेषु वर्णनास्वपि दृश्यते / / --Kavyadarsa 1. 85 53. Rudraca II. 3-6. Vamana distinguishes Ritis on the basis of qualities (Gunas) present whereas Rudrata distinguishes them on the basis of the use of compounds. Vijayavarni clearly says that Ritis are based on the qualities possessed by words. In his definitions of Ritis, however, he follows these two principles. 54. Chapter 340, vv. 1-4. Dr. Raghavan corrects the text of the the fourth stanza (vide Some Concepts of Alamkarasastra, p. 180, f. n. 1) 55. Mayukha VI. 21-22 56. Pariccheda II, Karikas 2-3 57. Cf. Ofaath JuullYGHETEN HATI -PRY p. 63 and माधुर्यादिगुणोपेतपदानां घटनात्मिका / --Srngararnavacandrika V1-3. Vidyanatha's definition is, however, based on Vamana's Sutras 1, 2, 7-8. 58. Chapter VI, v.v 5-7, 9, 11 and 13 and Chapter V. w. 9-12. 59. Kavyalamkarasutravrtti 1-2. 11-13. 60. Vide Appendix-C 61. If it were accepted that Vijayavarni modelled his definitions of Sayya and Paka on those of Vidyanatha we would have to reconsider the date of composition of SC. 62. Vide Appendix-C. 63. Vide Appendix-C. IDO

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION (Discovery of hitherto unknown works through restoration of corrupt passages on Sanskrit Poetics) I began my work on the emendation of the texts way back in 1960. It was a lucky accident, I should think. Professor R. C. Parikh, Director, B. J. Institute of learning and Research, Ahmedabad gave me a copy of his latest publicationhis edition of Kavyaprakasa, the speciality of which was that, it contained the hitherto unpublished Samketa commentary of Somesvara Bhatta. He also asked me whether I would write a review of it. I glanced through it but soon enough I had to prepare myself for a long spell of hard work. The Samketa commentary contained a number of question marks : much of its text was corrupt. I thought that I should take it on myself to set the passages right. But how ? This question did not frighten me. I thought out a plan : I could get the original texts from where the writer of the Samketa commentary could possibly have drawn his material by looking up the books on the topics to which the passages in the Samketa referred-these books comprised : Bharata's Natyasastra, Abhinavgupta's commentary on it Natyavedavivrti, better known as Abhinavabharati, Dhanamjaya's Dasarupaka with Dhanika's commentary Avaloka, on it, Vamana's Kavyalamkarasutrani, Rudrata's Kavyalamkara with Namisadhu's Tippana on it, Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka with Abhinavagupta's Locana commentary on it, Rajasekhara's Kavyamimamsa, Mukulabhatta's Abhidhavsttimatrka, Mahimabhatta's Vyaktiviveka and Ruyyaka's Alamkarasarvasva with Jayaratha's commentary called Vimarsini. So, began a big hunt and the subsequent comparative study of the text in the Samketa and the original versions that were located in some of the source books mentioned above. Scores and scores of passages, small and large were common between the Samketa commentary on the one hand and the above source works on the other. The comparative tables facilitated the task of restoring the corrupt

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296 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE passages to their original form; and they also revealed how the commentator very often bodily lifted the passages from his sources, at times adopted them and occasionally combined passages of different authorities or of the same authority found at different places in that work. I then wrote a review article and gave it to Prof. Parikh for preview-later it was published in the Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda in 1961. This is how I set up an anti-corruption Bureau which is still functioning. Prof. Parikh was obviously impressed, for, within a couple of weeks, he invited me to join him as co-editor in bringing out a second revised edition of Acarya Hemacandra's voluminous work, Kavyanusasana. I availed of this opportunity, carefully went through almost all the sources of Hemacandra, recorded all significant variants from these sources in the footnotes and traced a large number of illustrations to their primary or secondary sources. This edition has been welcomed by scholars as a standard edition. Now, Sanskrit alamkarikas (poeticians) quote as illustrations, with a view to explaining various points of Poetics, passages in verse or prose from Sanskrit, Prakrit or Apabhramsa works. A number of works from which they cited illustrations are no longer extant. Consequently, the learned editors, when confronted with corrupt readings or passages, in the absence of the source books, contented themselves by planting question marks (in brackets) immediately after the corrupt readings, or showing lacunae (missing portions, small or big gaps) by three dots or simply reproducing the corrupt passages as found in the manuscripts, the jumbling of verses or groups of verses as mere prose passages. They, as a rule, added Sanskrit chaya below the Prakrit (or Apabhramsa) passage. In some cases it is noticed that the chaya did not agree with the Prakrit text, often partly and on occasions wholly. In the footnotes the editors simply remarked durbodha or aspasta or avisada iyam gatha, and thus expressed their helplessness in rendering the Prakrit gatha intelligible. Owing to want of sufficient knowledge of Prakrit and Apabhramsa languages, some perpetrated ludicrous blunders while translating these verses into English or modern Indian languages. The following noteworthy works, either text-books or commentaries, are disfigured by corrupt readings and passages : Abhinavagupta's commentary on Bharata's and his commentary on Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka called Locana, Kuntaka's Vakroktijivita(VJ), Bhoja's Srrgaraprakasa and Sarasvatikanthabharana with the commentaries of Ratnesvara and Jagaddhara, Somesvara's commentary Samketa on Mammata's Kavyaprakasa, Ruyyaka's Sahityamimamsa and Alamkarasarvasva

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 297 with the commentary of Jayaratha, called Vimarsini, and Sobhakaramitra's Alamkara-Ratnakara(Ratnakara). If the text, whether Sanskrit, Prakrit or Apabhramsa, is not restored to its original form, the verse remains obscure and the very purpose of explaining or making clear by examples the points of Poetics is defeated. Of all the works, the A.Bh., the VJ, the srngaraprakasa, the Sarasvatikanthabharana(SK) with its commentaries, the Sahityamimamsa, the Vimarsini, and the Ratnakara pose a real challenge to one's critical ability, scholarship, patience and industry, for a very large majority of Prakrit and Apabhramsa passages are presented in these works in a very corrupt and confounding form--some of them are indeed corrupt beyond recognition. I think it is the duty of modern research scholars to present the text of the corrupt passages in their correct or original form. These corrupt passages from works on Alamkara haunted me all along. I decided to do my best to restore them to their correct form. During several years past I endeavoured to restore the corrupt passages in the above works. In restoring many corrupt readings and passages the following three works have rendered invaluable services: Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana(Kas), Ramacandra and Gunacandra's Natyadarpana(ND) and Ambaprasada's Kalpalataviveka(KLV). The authors of these three works have freely drawn on A. Bh., Dhvanyalokalocana, VJ, SK, Srrgaraprakasa, etc. Hemacandra has preserved intact the ideas and the language of some of the long sections from Abhinavabharati on the key chapters of the Natyasastra, the Rasadhyaya (Ch. VI), the Bhavadhyaya (Ch. VII), the Dasarupakavidhana (Ch. XVIII) and the Samdhyadhyaya (Ch. XIX) by incorporating them in their original form without abridging them or paraphrasing them in his own language. Ramacandra and Gunacandra too have freely used A.Bh. on almost every page in the course of their treatment of the various dramatic topics. Ambaprasada too has incorporated many long passages from the Dhvanyaloka, the Locana commentary on it and the A.Bh. (on Ch. VI and Ch. VII) in his KLV. These works are of supreme importance, especially from the point of view of restoring corrupt passages and readings because their authors had access to more reliable or correct manuscripts than we now possess. We may consider here, by way of example, the case of A.Bh. Its text has been badly preserved in its available manuscripts. The first editor of Bharata's Natyasastra along with the commentary Abhinavabharati, Ramakrishna Kavi, remarked : "...even if Abhinavagupta were to descend from Heaven and see the MSS, it would not be easy for him to restore his original text." Stud.-38

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298 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE With the help of the above texts which preserve sentences, paragraphs and sometimes even long sections of the original text of the A. Bh. I wrote and published a series of articles entitled "Abhinavabharati : Text Restored". I also wrote and published a number of papers restoring scores and scores of corrupt Prakrit verses from Alamkara works, disfigured by corrupt passages, that are mentioned above. In restoring the corrupt verses / passages through my own experience I evolved the following principles of emendation : (i) First of all, to hunt the source of the corrupt passage. If the source is traced the emendation becomes universally acceptable. (ii) If the source is irretrievably lost, to try to find if the passage under consideration is cited in any other work on Poetics or Metrics or Grammar. (iii) If it is not so traced, to try to find if the verse in question is included in a later anthology, or any other poetic work by way of quotation. (iv) If by chance the corrupt verse is found quoted at two or more places in one and the same work, to reconstruct it by comparing the corrupt texts at the different places. (v) If no internal or external evidence be available, to take into consideration the immediate context and emend the text in consonance with the metre and the general or overall purport. (vi) To take into consideration parallel ideas found in other works in Sanskrit or Prakrit and emend the text accordingly. (vii) To take special care that the emended text is as far as possible very akin to the printed letters or words in the corrupt verse/passage. (viii) Failing all these alternatives, to emend the text, by using one's (creative) imagination (pratibha) keeping in mind the immediate and the larger context, the metre and the tenor of the concerned verse. (ix) To take particular care that the proposed emendation keeps arbitrariness to the minimum. (x) To consult, wherever possible, the manuscripts on which the printed text is based; if the editor of the printed text has read a word or quarter of a verse or part of it wrongly, the consulting of manuscripts may help one to recover the correct reading.

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 299 For my work of restoration, however, I consulted printed editions only. I felt the need of consulting manuscripts only in the case of srngaraprakasa. I understand a new edition of Bhoja's Srrgaraprakasa with V. Raghavan's own Sanskrit commentary is published in the Harvard Oriental Series. On a perusal of this edition we would know how far the editor has succeeded in restoring the corrupt verses and passages, both in Prakrit and Apabhramsa. I would have liked to discuss in detail a few corrupt passages and their restoration by me. Being afraid of boring you with such a discussion, I thought of drawing your attention to two of my works which embody these restored verses and passages : (i) Studies In Sanskrit Sahitya Sastra, and (ii) Prakrit Verses In Sanskrit Works on Poetics in two volumes, Vol. I : Text and Vol. II : Translation (with Introduction, Glossary and Notes). This evening I discuss, rather refer in a general way to, just a few of them to give you some idea. I am fully aware that the subject of restoration of corrupt passages and reading is dry, dull, tedious and patience-wearing. But even in this work when you trace after a long search the original source of a corrupt passage or reading you feel thrilled. This thrill, this joy is the greatest reward the hard work involved fetches. When the work leads you to the discovery of an invaluable text or a portion of it, hitherto believed to have been lost, for example, the Abhinavabharati on the Bhavadhyaya (Natyasastra Ch. VII.) helps you to shed new light on an epoch-making work like Sarvsena's Harivijaya, which has been irretrievably lost, your joy is all the greater. It is like landing on the source of the Nile. 1) In the course of his commentary on Rudrata's Kavyalamkara (XI. 36) Namisadhu observes : . अत्र च वास्तवादीनां चतुर्णामपि ये सहोक्त्यादयः प्रभेदा उक्तास्ते बाहुल्यतो न पुनरेतावन्त एव / उक्तं न हुघटु इताणअवही नयने दीसंति कहवि पुणरूत्ता / जे वि सनापियआणं अत्था वा सुकइवाणीए / ततो यावन्तो हृदयावर्जका अर्थप्रकारास्तावन्तोऽलंकाराः / Now, the Prakrit gatha, as presented here by the editor of the printed text, is on the face of it corrupt, and hardly yields any satisfactory sense. Namisadhu asserts here that the sub-varieties, the Sahokti alamkara, etc, of the four main varieties vastava, aupamya, atisaya and slesa, that are dealt with in the text, are only illustrative and not exhaustive. In support of this statement he has cited the Prakrit gatha. But the gatha is quite corrupt. In the

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300 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE course of search for its source, we find Anandavardhana, the greatest Sanskrit critic, citing it from his own poetic work, Visamabanalila, towards the end of his Dhvanyaloka : दर्शितमेव चैतद्विषमबाणलीलायाम् ण अ ताण घडइ ओही ण अ ते दीसंति कहवि पुणरुत्ता / जे विब्भमा पिआणं अत्था वा सुकइवाणीणं / / [न च तेषां घटतेऽवधिः न च ते दृश्यन्ते कथमपि पुनरुक्ताः / ये विभ्रमाः प्रियाणामर्था वा सुकविवाणीनाम् // ] -Dhvanyaloka (IV.7) Vrtti) Translation : "There is no end to the flirtatious ways of the beloved and similarly no end of variations in the expression of good poets; there can be no repetition in either." Namisadhu concludes : ततो यावन्तो हृदयावर्जका अर्थप्रकारास्तावन्तोऽलंकाराः / (There are as many alamkaras, figures of speech, as there are charming ideas.) 2) In his Dhvanyaloka, (I. 16) Anandavardhana categorically states : Words which signify by popular usage meanings other than their etymologial meanings (as, for example, the word lavanya---its etymological or original meaning is saltiness, from lavana meaning salt-whereas by common usage it signifies 'loveliness' or 'beauty') do not become instances of suggestion-dhvani. In the course of his commentary on the karika Abhinavagupta cites the following passage : ननु 'देवडिति लुणाहि पलुम्मिगमिज्वालवणुज्वलं गुनरिफेल्लपरण्य' (!) Ramasaraka in his Balapriya commentary (Praudhalocanatippani) remarks : . पुस्तके दृश्यमानाया 'देवडित्यादिगाथाया ग्रन्थेषु तत्र तत्राक्षरभेदा दृश्यन्ते / अतश्चास्याः स्वरूपं छायां च निश्चेतुं न शक्नोमि / सहदया निश्चिन्वन्तु / -p. 147. The text of the passage given above from the Locana is highly corrupt. It is also cited in the Abhinavabharati (Ch. VI., P-305, GOS edn. 1956) there too the text is very corrupt. Appendix I (p. 383) to that Volume I of the Natyasastra gives the readings in the manuscript of the Dhvanyaloka which too are very corrupt. The second half of this verse is correctly preserved in Somesvara's Samketa (p. 24). The Kalpalataviveka of Ambaprasada, however, for the first time gives us the text in its correct form : दीवडी तेल्लु णाहि पलु द्रम्मि (? द्रम्मु) गमिट्ठा (? गविट्ठा) / लावण्णुज्जलंगु घरि ढोल्लु पइट्ठा / /

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 301 [दीपके तैलं नास्ति पलं (पलमात्र), द्रम्मं गवेषितम् / लावण्योज्ज्वलाङ्गो गृहे प्रियतमः प्रविष्टः // ] (Note : द्रम्मु-द्रम्म (a drachama, a word derived from the Greek drachama) is the Marathi dama', cf. damadi' too, Pala is a measure for fluid. 'Pala' may be compared with 'Pali' in Marathi). Translation : There was not a drop of oil in the lamp. nor could I find even a farthing in the house. Exactly at this time came in my lover, his body resplendent with its beauty. The suggested meaning here is : The bright and beautiful face of the lover gave light to (the room, or rather) brightened all the quarters. So there was no need of a lamp. 3. Anandavardhana holds the view that the literal meaning and the suggested meaning are apprehended almost simultaneously--if the suggested meaning be rasa or bhava or rasabhasa, bhavabhasa, etc., and if it shines with prominence then we have the very soul of suggestion (Dhvanyaloka II 3. vrtti). Abhinavagupta in his Locana on this karika observes : in some cases the two conjointed transitory emotions (bhavasamdhi) become the object of relish. As an example he quotes the verse : ओसुरुसुम्ठि आई मुहु कम्बिउ जेण / अमिअरसघोण्ठाणं पडिजाणिउ तेण / / The Balapriya commentary gives its Sanskrit chaya as follows : ईर्ष्याश्रुशोभिताया मुखं चुम्बितं येन / अमृतरसनिगरणानां तृप्तिर्जाता तेन / / This chaya gives the overall meaning all right. The earlier part of the first half of the (Apabhramsa) text is very corrupt. It needs to be corrected keeping in view the reading उसुरुसुंभियाए (cited as pratika in Kalpalataviveka (p. 127, 1. 17) and the following statement in Hemacandra's Desisabdasamgraha (p. 55) : ऊसुंभिय-ऊसुरुसुंभिया य रुद्धगलरुण्णम्मि / (ऊसुंभियं तथा ऊसुरुसुंभियं रुद्धगलं रोदनम् / ) We may, therefore, restore the Apabhramsa passage as follows : ऊसुरुसुंभिआए मुहु चुम्बिउ जेण / अमिअरसघोंटाणं पडिजाणिउ तेण // (रुद्धगलं रुदत्या मुखं चुम्बितं येन / अमृतरसगण्डूषाणां परिज्ञातं तेन / )

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302 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Translation : He alone has tasted nectar-even a mouthful of it--who has kissed the mouth of his sweetheart when she could not weep aloud, being choked with tears. 4. The Abhinavabharati on the Natyasastra (Ch XXII verse 210)2 has the following corrupt passage : अत्र तु वृद्धपशुव्यो (पशवो?) वदन्ति मासपसूआ....(षण) मास गम्भिणी एकदिअहज्जरमुहे...। The editor in a footnote adds : अपूर्णा चास्फुटार्थेयं गाथा कोक्कोकवचनस्य मूलं स्यात् / यथा रङ्गादिश्रान्तदेहा चिरविरहवती मासमात्रप्रसूता गर्भालस्या न नव्यज्वरयुततनुका त्यक्तमानप्रसन्ना / स्नाता पुष्पावसाने नवरतिसमये मेघकाले वसन्ते प्रायः संपन्नरागा मृगशिशुनयना स्वल्पसाध्या रते स्यात् / / -अनङ्गरङ्ग 4.36 The reading 'वृद्धपशुव्यो (पशवो ?) is very doubtful. The corrupt gatha मासपसूआ etc. is, however, to be identified with the following gatha from Hala's Gathasaptasati (III. 59) : (बहो: कालात् पूर्णधनदानेन तोषयन्तं धनिकभुजङ्गं प्रति कामशास्त्ररहस्योपदेशेन निजनिर्मायतां सूचयन्ती सहैव नर्तनकर्मीणां स्वदुहितरं प्रति तं साभिलाषं कुर्वती च वृद्धा वेश्यामाता आह-) मासपसूअं छम्मासगब्भिणि एक्कदिअहजरिअं च / रंगुत्तिण्णं च पिअं पुत्तअ कामंतओ होहि // (मासप्रसूतां षण्मासगर्भिणीमेकदिवसज्वरितां च / रङ्गोत्तीर्णां च प्रियां पुत्रक कामयमानो भव // ) Translation : 0, dear boy, direct your sexul / lustful desire towards the woman, who has given birth to her child a month back, or who has been pregnant for six months, or who has had fever for one day, or who has finished her dance or performance on the stage. 5. Bhoja asserts in his Sarasvatikanthabharana (Ch.I.123) : यदा तीव्रप्रयत्नेन संयोगादेरगौरवम् / न च्छन्दोभङ्ग इत्याहुस्तदा दोषाय सूरयः // Ratnesvara in his commentary on this karika quotes the following two lines : धवलाइं गलेत्ति धवलेहि अणञ्जणसामलेहि णिसालआए। णक्खत्तकुसुमाइं णहअलाओ ओसरइ / / -p. 121 These two lines, though printed in the form of a verse, do not yield any

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 303 consistent meaning. The point under discussion is : under a particular circumstance chandobhanga (offending against metre) ceases to be a flaw. As the topic falls under prosody, I thought it wise to consult Hemacandra's Chando'nusasana (Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1961, edn.). To my delight, I found Hemacandra citing the following two gathas with the introductory remark : पदान्ते वर्तमानौ एकार-ओकारौ प्राकृतभाषायां वा ह्रस्वौ भवतः / यथापच्चूसगयवरूम्मूलिआएँ उड्डीण-ससि-विहंगाए / धवलाईंगलंति निसालयाएँ नक्खत्त-कुसुमाइं // उअ पोम्मरायमरगयसंवलिआ णहयलाओं ओअर (v.1. ओसरइ ) / णहसिरिकंठब्भट्ठ व्व कंठिआ कीररिंछोली || [प्रत्यूषगजवरोन्मूलितायाः उड्डीन-शशी-विहंगायाः / धवलानि गलन्ति निशालतायाः नक्षत्र-कुसुमानि / / पश्य पद्मराग-मरकत-संवलिता नभस्तलादवतरति / नभः श्रीकण्ठभ्रष्टेव कण्ठिका शुकपङ्क्तिः // ] The words, in bold type in the corrupt passage, are common to the two gathas cited above. So from the mixing up of different verses we can easily identify these two gathas that were intended by Ratnesvara as illustrations. The first verse occurs in Lilavai (verse 1091). The second verse occurs in the Gathasaptasati (I. 75). Still, however, the two padas धवलेहि अणंजणसामलेहि from the medley passage remain unaccounted for or untraced. When we turn to Svayambhucchandah, another work on prosody, the whole problem of this jumbled text is solved, Svayambhu cites three verses to illustrate three different rules of Prakrit Prosody : (i) हिआरो बिंदुजुओ पावसाणम्मि लहू / छइल्लाण जहा [हिकारो बिन्दुयुतः पदावसाने लघुः / विदग्धानां यथा -] धवलेहि अणंजणसामलेहि पेरंत-तणुअ-तणुएहि / णिद्वाएत्तिउवेंदो, गअणिद्दएहि अच्छाहि // [धवलाभ्यामनञ्जनश्यामलाभ्यां पर्यन्ततनुकतनुकैः / (निद्रायते उपेन्द्रो गतनिद्राभ्यामक्षिभ्याम् // )]- गाथादिविधि 1-2 (ii) एआरो सुद्धो पावसाणम्मि लहू / वम्मउत्त(? स्स) जहा [एकारः शुद्धः पदावसाने लघुः / वर्मपुत्रस्य यथा -- पच्चूस-गअवर...(as cited above) (iii) ओआरो सुद्धो पआवसाणम्मि लहू अ / पालित्तस्स जहा [ओकार: शुद्धः पदावसाने लघुश्च / पादलिप्तस्य यथा- ] उअ पोम्मराअमरगअ...(as cited above)

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304 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Ratnesvara's text may be written as follows : "धवले हि अणंजणसामलेहि","धवलाइं गलंति णिसालआएँ णक्खत्तकुसुमाइं", and "णहअलाओ ओअरइ / ओसरइ." These three gathas may be translated as follows : (i) Upendra (Krsna, Visnu) is sleepy, his sparkling eyes, (naturally) dark even without collyrium, are drooping drowsily like the half closed eyes of an elephant. (ii) At the daybreak, a mighty elephant uprooted the night-creeper, the moon-bird flew off and the white constellations, the flowers, dropped (in panic). (iii) Lo, behold, there comes down from the firmament a line of parrots, as if a necklace with rubies and emeralds has dropped from the neck of the Sky Beauty. 6. Kuntaka cites in his Vakroktijivita a Prakrit passage as an example of suggested Utpsreka. The text of this passage is highly corrupt and it is given as running prose : प्रवाण चल विज्जु य दुलि राइआसु खनअन्ति मे अआसो उवाण उरुलिसद्वयमि हिळिआसुक जिल्लइ विरहए / (?) Dr. H. C. Bhayani, in his paper', has sugggested the following reconstruction: पवणेण चलं विज्जु-चडुलिअं राइआसु पुलअंति मेहअं / सोऊण अ ओरल्लिसद्दअं महिलिआसु कलिज्जइ विरहओ (?) The Sanskrit chaya : पवनेन चलं विद्युत्-प्रज्वलित-पूलकं रात्रिषु पश्यन्ति मेघम् / श्रुत्वा च दीर्घगम्भीर-गर्जित-शब्दं महिलासु कल्यते विरहः / / Kalpalataviveka (p. 75), however, seems to have preserved the original text : घेत्तुआण चलविज्जुचडुलियं राइआसु पुलयंति मेहया / सोउआण ओरल्लिसद्दयं महिलियाण का जियइ विरहए / [गृहीत्वा चलद्विद्युत्-प्रदीपं रात्रिषु प्रलोकयन्ति मेघाः / श्रुत्वा (दीर्घगम्भीर) मेघध्वनि स्त्रीणां का जीवति विरहे / / ] [ Note : It is creditable to Dr. Bhayani that his reconstruction hits upon

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 305 quite a few words in the original.] Translation : With the help of the lamp of tremulous lightning the clouds see during the nights if any of the ladies separated from their beloveds still continue to live even after hearing the loud thundering noise. 7) In Srngarraprakasa (Vol. III p. 800), Bhoja cites a Prakrit gatha as an example of gita-nimittah naimittikanuragah. Its text is somewhat corrupt : केणा चि अज्ज गोसे कप्पिवणे वल्लहं म्हरंतेण / अंहमअणसराहअहिअअवणप्फोडणं गीअं / / I reconstructed the text as follows : केणावि अज्ज गोसे कप्पिवणे (? अंबवणे) वल्लहं भरतेण / 6-73701-HTE37-f83737-qu-isuj 1731 11 [केनापि अद्य प्रभाते आम्रवने वल्लभं स्मरता / G:HE-467-PRIET-664-90- te a ll] After the text was printed I realised that the second half of the gatha is metrically defective. I should have read either 'F83737-qu' or 'qu- Gui'. But my two emendations of कप्पिवणे to अंबवणे and अहं to दूसह were quite arbitrary. But when the translation was being printed, by chance I came across the original gatha : अज्ज सहि केण गोसे कं पि मणे वल्लहं भरतेण (पा० भे० म्हरंतेण) / अम्हं मअणसराहअ-हिअअ-व्वणफोडणं (पा० भे० हिअअ-वण-प्फोडणं) गीअं॥ [अद्य सखि केन प्रभाते कामपि मन्ये वल्लभां स्मरता / 3AHGARRIES-EG4-797-Pac 1a 11] . --Gathasaptasati IV. 81 Translation : Early this morning, my friend, some one sang a song remembering, methinks, his sweetheart and that tore up all the wounds caused to my heart by Madana's arrows. The method of comparative study that I followed for restoration of the corrupt readings and passages in the works on Sanskrit Poetics paid rich dividends. It led to the discovery of (i) a major portion of Abhinavabharati, on Ch. VII, the Bhavadhyaya which was believed till yesterday to have been lost, and (ii) considerable portion of Sarvasena's Harivijaya which also was believed to have been lost altogether. Let us first take up for discussion the discovery of (i) Abhinavabharati (Ch. VII). Abhinavagupta is the greatest name in Sanskrit literary criticism. His two famous commentaries, one, Abhinavabharati on Bharata's Natyasastra and two, Locana on Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka, are regarded as their Bible or Stud.-39

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306 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE more appropriately the Vedas by most of his successors and even modern scholars working in the field of Sanskrit Poetics and Aesthetics. Of all the chapters in the voluminous Natyasastra the most important are the sixth (on rasa), the seventh (on bhava), the eighteenth (on dasarupa) and the nineteenth (on samdhis). The Abhinavabharati on these chapters too is equally important. The loss of Abhinavabharati Ch. VII was naturally very much felt by all scholars working in the field of Poetics and Aesthetics. To wit : Dr. J. L. Masson and Prof. M. V. Patwardhan observe in their recent work Santarasa and Abhinavagupta's Philosophy of Aesthetics (1969) : "All of the seventh chapter of the Abhinavabharati but the very beginning has been lost, which is a great misfortune, since Abhinava refers to it frequently. It must have been a large and important section of the A.Bh." (p. 120, f. n. 2) I wrote two papers : (i) 'Abhinavabharati Ch. VII Recovered'? and (ii) "Hemacandra on Satrvikabhavas.' In the first paper I have instituted a detailed comparison between the Kavanusasana of Hemacandra and the Kalpalataviveka and also between the Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra and the Kalpalataviveka. These comparisons lead us to the obvious inference that the authors of these works draw on a common source and to a further inference that their common source could not have been anything else than the Abhinavabharati on the Bhavadhyaya (Natyasastra Ch. VII), Further, the authors of Kavyanusasana and Natyadarpana do not reproduce the definitions of the forty-nine bhavas as they are found in the Natyasastra but adopt them and that they do not fully borrow the comments in the Abhinavabharati on them but pick up only such phrases and significant lines from them as they think to be useful for a clear exposition. On the other hand, the author of the Kalpalataviveka reproduces verbatim the definitions of the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas in the same order as found in the Natyasastra and also he gives fuller comments which agree in parts with the corresponding portion in the Kavyanusasana and the Natyadarpana. From this fact we may draw a further inference that these fuller passages, presenting comments on the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas, found in the Kalpalataviveka represent the original portion of the Abhinavabharati. That the author of the Kalpalataviveka borrows this long, whole section from the Abhinavabharati should not surprise us if we remembered that elsewhere too in his work he has borrowed long sections from the Natyasastra and the Abhinavabharati and from the Dhvanyaloka and the Locana commentary on it. This conclusion finds strong support in the similarity of language, style. diction and the method of exposition found in this portion and the rest of the

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 307 Abhinavabharati. If this portion of the commentary from the Kalpalataviveka were to be printed as the Abhinavabharati on the Bhavadhyaya no one would ever have dreamt of doubting its genuineness. So complete, so perfect is the similarity, even identity. In addition, I have shown how the promised discussion of nirveda referred to in the treatment of the Santarasa (Ch. VI) is found in this portion of the Kalpalataviveka. On the basis of all these arguments I have established that the Kalpalataviveka (pp. 286-303) preserves a major portion of the Abhinavabharati on the Bhavadhyaya. In another paper, "Hemacandra on Satrvikabhavas", I have shown how Hemacandra in his Kavyanusasana (pp. 144-147) has preserved the section of Sattvikabhavas (dealing with the theroretical aspect of the Sattvikabhavas and citing verses to illustrate each and everyone of them) from the Abhinavabharati Ch VII. This portion on Sattvikabhavas and the long section on the thirty three vyabhicaribhavas preserved in the Kalpalataviveka together preserve most of the Abhinavabharati on Bhavadhyaya. Abhinavagupta is a sahrdayasiromani, He selects carefully best examples from first-rate poetic works like Setubandha, Sakuntala, Raghuvamsa, Amarusataka, etc. I have not been able to trace three of the examples to their source. I quote here one of them : आश्लेषे प्रथम क्रमादथ जिते हृद्येऽधरस्यार्पणे केलिद्यूतविधौ पणं प्रियतमे कान्तां पुनः पृच्छति / सान्तर्हासनिरुद्धसंभृतरसोद्भेदस्फुरद्गण्डया तूष्णीं शारविशारणाय निहितः स्वेदाम्बुगर्भः करः।। [Perspiration (sveda) due to the infusion (of tejas) into the waterdominated element of the vital force is exemplified in the following stanza :) At a game of dice with which they amused themselves she first wagered a close embrace which her lover won. The second was a kiss of her nether lip which also he won. Now when he asked what the third wager would be, perspiration broke on her hand as she prepared to throw the dice; her cheeks quivered as the rush of passion filled her bosom and her mouth tightened in suppressed smile. Only four verses from Bhoja's Sarasvatikanthabharana were, according to Raghavan", identifiable as Sarvasena's from his Harivijaya, now lost. In the course of restoration I noticed that, at least forty verses, some of them are repetitions, are definitely identifiable and nearly a century of verses as probably identifiable as Sarvasena's from his Harivijaya. Leaving aside probably identifiable verses and piecing together all the

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308 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE available items of knowledge from the identifiable verses and taking into account the discussions by critics, viz, Anandavardhana. Kuntaka, Abhinavagupta, Bhoja and Hemacandra, we get a good deal of information about the theme of Sarvasena's Harivijaya, its structure, language, style and poetic merits and its place in artistic epics : The Harivijaya of Sarvasena (4th century A. D.) The Title : The title means "The Victory of Hari (Krsna)', The object of Hari in the present epic is to carry off the Celestial Parijata tree from Indra's heaven. He marched against Indra with a view to securing the desired objectthe Parijata tree, the rise of the hero in the form of the conquest of the enemy (Indra) who himself surrendered and allowed him to carry the Parijata tree for Satyabhama. The Contents of the epic : Hari offers the Parijata manjari (given to him by Narada who had brought it from Indra's heavenly Nandana garden) to his beloved Rukmini, Although Satyabhama and the other wives of Hari (Jambavati, etc.) were hurt, Satyabhama alone showed her anger and jealousy-her feelings reflected her deep and abiding love for Hari. The rays of the moon, blended with the lustre of the sparkling Kaustubha gem, which should normally have increased her joy, actually aggravated her agony and made it just unbearable (because of Hari's offence--who offered the heavenly Parijata manjari to Rukmini but called on her empty-handed). When Hari met her, she sarcastically remarked : You have favoured Rukmini with a bunch of Parijata flowers from Heaven and me with your kind visit. Both your women should be satisfied with the equally distributed favours." Hari replied : "You are hurt, I know, because I gave the celestial Parijata flowers to Rukmini. But if I were to bring back the very flowers to gratify you it wouldn't be in keeping with my love for you, my delicate one, nor with my offence. I will soon get you the celestial Parijata tree itself, its leaves moist with spray of the rut of Airavata, its flowers along with the bees greedily sucking the nectar of their honey." At this Satyabhama's heart was overpowered with joy. And owing to the excitement thus caused, tears gathered in her eyes, and in spite of her attempts to suppress them, they still rolled down and fell on the back of Hari who was lying prostrate at her feet". Hari then appeased whatever little anger still was there in her heart by his conciliatory gesture, viz., falling prostrate at her feet--the feet of his beloved Satyabhama whose heart was still half-closed against him." "Her face promises to beam out any time now--the shades of displeasure are receding, a glow of joy is gradually spreading and the mixture of the two contrasting moods is increasing the beauty

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 309 of her face." Now when Hari marched against Indra in order to secure the celestial Parijata tree, Satyabhama, although she had seen (known) his valour, was distressed at the great calamity she feared out of great love for him, and felt extremely anxious. Satyabhama was increasingly full of regret for having brought about separation from Hari and blamed herself for it. "As the night advanced Hari, who has been separated from his beloved, saw the moon rising high in the sky as an impending calamity and as the god of love threatening with his bow". The next day Hari first sent his charioteer Satyaka (or Satyaki) as envoy to Indra. Satyaka addressed Indra in these words : "You prize friendship with Hari, O Indra, and yet you are reluctant to part with Parijata, the jewel (i.e. best) among trees. Give up this show of naivety and honour the desire of the Yadavas". Indra rejected Satyaka's advice. (Hari then fought with Indra. (Fearing total rout, Indra surrendered and allowed Hari to take the Parijata tree with him to the Earth)]. Hari achieved what Satyabhama had desired and came back home safe and sound. " 'Here he comes--this announcement of her maids Satyabhama only heard but, even though he was close to her, she didn't see him as her eyes were dimmed by tears". "At the sight of Hari, Satyabhama's heart leaped with joy, and her eyes, filled to the brim with happiness wandered all over with pleasure; both joy and happiness spread on her face an expression of unique grace", Satyabhama's eyes, tremulous like a swarm of black bees, although her heart was enchanted by the fragrance of flowers first rested on her beloved Hari and only then on that celestial Parijata tree. "Look here at this your own excellent tree"--when her dear husband uttered these words, indicative of his profound love for her, immense satisfaction found free scope and spread over her whole body." That very residence of hers (i. e. of Satyabhama) with the celestial Parijata tree planted at its entrance, and full of the decorative arrangement of its flowers, and with attendants plunged in joy, now looked quite different-exceptionally and uniquely beautiful." "With a view to giving his beloved, Satyabhama, the rapture of sexual union far exceeding wildest of her desires, Hari, with a smile on his face and with both of his hands holding his mukuta (crown) in its place, fell at her feet." Rukmini felt highly flattered by her dear husband's visit to her which quite thrilled her and gave immense pleasure although she had reason to feel displeased with him who still showed on him the signs of dalliance with her rival

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310 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE (Satyabhama). Besides the valuable information collected above from the clearly identifiable skandhakas as Sarvasena's from his Harivijaya, Bhoja? and, following him, Hemacandra8 gives us a good deal of information about the contents of Sarvasena's Harivijaya : It was marked by the word 'Utsaha' (energy) occurring at the end of each asvasaka (chapter) and indicating the intention of the author (svabhipraya). It contained description of a city, seasons, the sunset, the hero, his mount (garutmat-Garuda), his envoy to Indra (Satyaka), Satyaki's visit to Indra (for securing the Parijata tree peacefullly), his march against Indra for carrying off the Parijata tree, his victory over his enemy (Indra, the king of the gods) who is forced to surrender after a great fight, a drinking party (madhupana) in a literary club (gosthi-gsha), the removal of Satyabhama's jealous anger (by securing for her the Parijata tree from the Nandana garden after defeating Indra in the fierce fight.) Its Structure or Technique : From the point of view of form, Sarvasena's epic is written throughout in one metre called skandhaka consisting of two equal halves of thirty-two(32) (12+20) matras. Its older name is aryagiti. The work is divided into asvasakas (and not into sargas as in the Sanskrit Mahakavya). Its Language : According to Bhoja, the Setubandha etc. are composed in pure Prakrit. Hemacandra follows Bhoja : the Setubandha, etc., are composed in Prakrit. This Prakrit bhasa is later known as Maharastri. Its Style : Kuntaka, the author of the Vakroktijivita chooses Sarvasena along with Kalidasa, as representative of the Sukumara marga (delicate style). which is natural, fresh, simple in its scantily adorned beauty, dominated by emotion, and spontaneously lyrical. This Sukumara marga is nothing but the old Vaidarbhi style. Its literary evaluation : From discussions by the critics, Anandavardhana (and Abhinavagupta), Kuntaka, Bhoja and Hemacandra, we see that Sarvasena's Harivijaya was an epoch-making work. As a classical Prakrit (Maharastri mahakavya) it was long famous. As Kalidasa's plays eclipsed Bhasa's plays, even so, it would seem, Pravarasena's Setubandha eclipsed Sarvasena's Harivijaya. Hemacandra criticises Sarvasena for inserting a disproportionated lengthy description of the ocean out of his inordinate love for composing alliterative (galitaka) verses, and that too in a situation of Vipralambha Srngara---when

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DISCOVERY THROUGH RESTORATION 311 Hari is marching against Indra to secure the celestial Parijata tree with a view to placating Satyabhama's jealous anger. Dandin in his Avantisundari (verse 12 at the beginning) refers to King Sarvasena and his epic poem Harivijaya. This reference must have been made out of admiration, no doubt. Anandavardhana admires Sarvasena, along with Kalidasa, for effecting changes in the story adopted from the Itihasas to suit the intended rasa8. Abhinavagupta adds in his Locana commentary that the incidents of the wedding of Aja, etc., described in the epic, Raghuvamsa, were invented by Kalidasa which were not found in the Itihasas; and the emotive motivation of placating the jealous anger of Satyabhama by securing the Parijata tree from Indra's garden, and centering the entire story round the rivalry of the two wives of HariSatyabhama and Rukmini--was invented by Sarvasena in his Harivijaya, although not found in the Itihasas. This change in the emphasis is poetically effective; it makes the poem humanly appealing and emotionally rich, Anandavardhana's remark about Sarvasena's originality and genius with specific reference to this motifkantanunayanangatvena parijataharanadi, as explained by Abhinavagupta, shows how he discusses the whole epic from the standpoint of how the author deals with the rasa, which constitutes the very life--forms the very essence-of the epic. This then is a brief account of my work of restoration of many corrupt readings, verses and passages from the works on Sanskrit Poetics, and of the discovery of invaluable portions of Abhinavabharati of Abhinavagupta and Harivijaya of Sarvasena through restoration. I have done. I thank you all for giving me a patient hearing. Notes and References : 1. Cf. The Natyasastra of Bharatamuni with the commentary Abhinavabharati, Chs. I-VII, edited by M. Ramakrishna Kavi, 2nd edn, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1956, p. 63. 2. 3fed area Filhosfe an : 114dUai corel #1444014 11 -- Natyasastra XXII. 10 3. Restoration of the text of some corrupt... citations.. in Kuntaka's Vakroktijivita, Journal, Asiatic Society of Bombay, Volumes 52-53, 1981, P. 53. 4. Bhoja's Srngara Prakasa by Dr. V. Raghavan, Punarvasu, 7 Sri Krishnapuram Street, Madras--14, P. 825, See also : Indian Kavya Literature, Volume Three, A. K. Warder, The Early Medieval Period, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi 1977, PP. 62-63.

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312 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 5. Maharaja Bhojaraja's Srngaraprakasa, Second Volume, ed. by the Yatiraja Swamy of ___Melcote and G. R. Josyer, Mysore-4, 1963, pp. 474-476. 6. Kavyanusasana of Acarya Hemacandra, ed. by R. C. Parikh and V. M. Kulkarni, Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1964, pp. 458-462. 7. एवं सहजसौकुमार्यसुभगानि कालिदाससर्वसेनादीनां काव्यानि दृश्यन्ते / -Dharwad edn. p. 66. 8. इतिवृत्तवशायातां कथञ्चिद् रसाननुगुणां स्थितिं त्यक्त्वा पुनरुत्प्रेक्ष्याप्यन्तराभीष्टरसोचितकथोन्नयो विधेयः / यथा ___ कालिदासप्रबन्धेषु / यथा च सर्वसेनविरचिते हरिविजये। -Dhvanyaloka (III.11) Vrtti, pp/335-336. 9. रघुवंशे अजादीनां राज्ञां विवाहादिवर्णनं नेतिहासेषु निरूपितम् / हरिविजये कान्तानुनयनाङ्गत्वेन पारिजातहरणादि निरूपितमितिहासेष्वदृष्टमपि / -Locana, p. 335) 000

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS Winternitz observes at one place! : "The Jains have extended their activities beyond the sphere of their own religious literature to a far greater extent than the Buddhists have done, and they have memorable achievements in the secular sciences to their credit, in philosophy, grammar, lexicography, poetics, mathematics, astronomy and astrology, and even in the science of politics. In one way or other there is always some connection even of these "profane" works with religion. In South India the Jains have also rendered services in developing the Dravidian languages, Tamil and Telugu, and especially the Kanarese literary language. They have, besides, written a considerable amount in Gujarati, Hindi and Marwari. Thus we see that they occupy no mean position in the history of Indian literature and Indian thought." Now, the present paper confines itself to an examination of this view with particular reference to the Jain contribution to poetics and aesthetics. Soon we will be undertaking a brief review of the published Jain works on alamkara sastra but before that we take note of the widely known work, Kavanusasana of Acarya Hemacandra who has been extolled as Kalikalasarvajna. Standard works on the history of Sanskrit poetics and Sanskrit literature make critical references to this work and devalue it. I quote from the works of Kane, De and Keith in support of this statement. Kane remarks : "The Kavyanusasana is a compilation and exhibits hardly any originality. It borrows wholesale from the Kavyamimamsa of Rajasekhara, the Kavyaprakasa, the Dhvanyaloka and from Abhinavagupta's works"?. De observes : "His (Hemacandra's) dependence on earlier works is so close as to amount at times to almost slavish imitation or plagiarism."3 And, "It (Kavyanusasana) is like most of Hemacandra's other productions, more or less an industrious compilation displaying its author's encyclopaedic erudition, but hardly constituting an Stud.-40

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314 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE original contribution to the subjects."4 Finally, Keith remarks : "In the contemporary of Mammata, Hemacandra, we find a placid borrowing from Mammata, Abhinavagupta, Rajasekhara, the Vakroktijivita, and so on. His Kavyanusasana, with the Viveka by himself is destitute of originality, but contains a section on dramaturgy." I have quoted these three eminent scholars to draw your special attention to what they think of Hemacandra's work, perhaps the best among all the Jain works on poetics. And it follows that they regard other Jain works on poetics "even less valuable". The approach of these eminent scholars to the Jain works, especially to Acarya Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana, is wrong and their criticism unfair, unjust and unsympathetic. In my paper "The Sources of Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana."6 I have shown in detail how Hemacandra's work does not constitute an original contribution to the subject, and observed : "It is, however, not quite correct to describe the Kavyanusasana as a compilation exhibiting hardly any originality as Kane does or to charge Hemacandra of plagiarism as De does. Instead of briefly summarising or paraphrasing or describing in his own language the theories and doctrines of his predecessors too illustrious to be mentioned by name, if Hemacandra preferred to present them in their original form we need not find fault with him. Besides we cannot forget the fact that his writing was of a scientific nature and in such scientific books such quotations are justified. We will only be betraying poverty of our imagination and scant respect for Hemacandra's intelligence if we were to insinuate that Hemacandra pretended that all the passages and excerpts which he quoted would pass as his own. The truth of the matter is that Hemacandra regards the masterpieces of his predecessors as the property of the entire world. Hemacandra is a man of pratibha but his pratibha is more of the bhavayitri and less of the karayitri type. His capacity to select choicest excerpts from his authorities and to organise them into a homogeneous and organic whole is supreme. It would, therefore, seem that the criticism against Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana is not fair. It would be more correct to describe the Kas as a good text-book lucidly setting forth various topics of Alamkarasastra in the very words of the masters and serving as a good introduction to the study of the well-known authorities."? This approach and point of view adopted in the above-mentioned paper is, to my mind the right one8. We now briefly review the published Jain works relating to poetics. (1) The old passage in Prakrit in Anuyogadvarasutra' (third century A. D.

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 315 or latest the fifth century A. D.) : This passage speaks of nine rasas in poetry. They are : "The heroic (vira), the erotic (srngara), the wondrous (adbhuta), the furious (raudra), the bashful (vridanaka), the disgusting (bibhatsa), the comic (hasya), the pathetic (karuna) and the tranquil or the calm or the quiet (prasanta = santa). This enumeration of rasas is markedly different from Bharata's well-known list in three respects. One, it opens with vira and not with srngara. Two, it does not mention bhayanaka but speaks of a new rasa called vridanaka. And three, it gives nine rasas, instead of eight, by adding an altogether new one, namely, prasanta. According to the commentator Maladhari Hemacandra (end of the 11th century and early part of the 12th) vira is mentioned first because it is the noblest and foremost of rasas and the vira meant here is danavira and tapovira (and not yuddhavira which is vitiated by paropaghata (destruction of others); and that bhayanaka is included under raudrarasa and hence not mentioned separately. And to the addition of prasanta (=santa) he did not feel the necessity of giving any explanation most probably because the modified version of Bharata's text enumerating nine rasas was already well known. Now, the question arises whether this whole passage in Prakrit dealing with nine rasas of poetry is adopted from an earlier independent text in Prakrit on alamkara or the redactor of the text Anuogaddaraim has himself composed and added it or it is still a later interpolation. As regards the existence of an independent Prakrit text on alamakara prior to Anuyogadvarasutra there is no clear evidence. The possibility of interpolation cannot be entirely ruled out in the case of a text that provides examples of numbered objects. If, however, there existed any such ancient text on alamkara in Prakrit it passes one's comprehension why none of the Jain authors on alamkarasastra cares to refer to this work or the passage adopted from it by their sacred text. The puzzle remains unsolved. (2) Alaskaradarpana in Prakrit, consisting of 134 slokas (to be precise gathas) is devoted to the treatment of poetic figures. The name of its author is not known. Catalogue of Sanskrit And Prakrit Manuscripts, Jesalmer Collection gives a description of a manuscript of this work and reproduces a few gathas that occur at the beginning and at the end of the work?. It is hardly a work of value or importance. (3) Hari's work on alamkarasastra ? Namisadhu in his Tippana (Commentary) on Rudrata's Kavyalamkara (II. 19) quotes a gatha with the introductory remark :

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316 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Tatha hyastau (vrttayah) harinoktah | Yatha : Mahuram parusam komalamojjassim nitthuram ca laliyam ca Gambhiram samannam ca attha bhanii u nayavva ||| Hari speaks of eight yrttis of anuprasa. They are as follows : 1. sweet (madhura), 2. harsh (parusa) 3. gentle (komala), 4. vigorous (ojasvi), 5. jarring (nisthura), 6. graceful (lalita), 7. deep (gambhira) and, 8. common or miscellaneous (samanya). Now Kane, in his Index of authors and works on Sanskrit Poetics' (1951 edn, p. 422) makes the following statement : "Hari mentioned by Namisadhu on Rudrata's Kavyalamkara II.19 as a writer on Poetics in Prakrit." (italics mine). De too observes : "It is interesting to note that Nami quotes a Prakrit verse from one Hari (ii) presumably a writer on Poetics, which mentions eight yrttis instead of five of Rudrata."12 V. Raghavan, however, writes in his work, Bhoja's Srngaraprakasa (1963 edn, p. 821) : "The verse (mentioning eight varieties of anuprasa) is evidently from the preliminary part of the opening chapter of some Prakrit poem by one Hari." (Italics mine). The nature of the quotation is such as to allow Kane and De on the one hand, and Raghavan on the other to draw their respective inferences as to its source-whether it was a work on Prakrit poetics or poem. In the absence of any supporting evidence it would be wrong on one's part to accept or reject either inference. Some noteworthy Jain commentaries (4) Kavyalamkara-Tippana 13 by Namisadhu : Nami, known as Nami-sadhu or Nami-pandita was a svetambara Jain and pupil of Salibhadra. He composed his commentary in Samvat 1125=1069 A. D. He 'deserves more than a passing notice. He is an early writer. He followed older commentators as he himself says : purvamahamativiracitavsttyanusarena kimapi racayami.' His commentary, though generally concise and to the point contains many quotations. (5) Kavyaprakasa-Sanketa :14 Manikyacandra, a Jain author of Gujarat wrote his commentary called Sanketa on the famous Kavyaprakasa. It is dated in Samvat 1216-1159-60 A. D. "Among the numerous commentaries those of Manikyacandra, Somesvara, Sarasvati-tirtha and Jayanta deserve special mention as being amongst the earliest ones."

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 317 (6) Kavyaprakasakhandana 15 : by Siddhicandragani (1587-1666 A. D.). The author's intention was to write a critical exposition and to distinguish it from mere expositions he calls it Kavyaprakasakhandana. On more than sixty occasions Siddhicandragani differs with Mammata. Thus he criticises Mammata's definition of poetry, varieties of poetry, the nature and number of rasas, etc. His criticism is bold and refreshing. Treatises in Sanskrit on Alamkarasastra (7) The Vagbhatalamkara of Vagbhata 16 (the first half of the 12th century A. D. ) with the commentary of Simhadevagani : Vagbhata is perhaps the first Jain author to write a treatise on Sanskrit Poetics. His work is divided into five paricchedas (Chapters) and it contains 260 verses. Most of these verses are in the anustubh metre. He treats of the same topics usually covered in a treatise on poetics. He speaks of four figures of word (Citra, Vakrokti, Anuprasa and Yamaka) and thirty-five figures of sense and two styles (Vaidarbhi and Gaudiya). The examples cited in the work are the author's own. The popularity of this work could be judged from the number of commentaries on it. No commentaries on Hemacandra's or Vagbhata's Kavyanusasana are known. But the Vagbhatalamkara is fortunate in this respect. De has recorded information about eight commentaries on this work. The commentaries of Simhadeva Gani and Jinavardhana Suri are better known. (8) The Kavyanusasana"? of Hemacandra (between 1136 to 1143 A. D.): The Kavyanusasana with its vrtti called Alamkara-cudamani and its commentary, called, Viveka, composed by Hemacandra--the author himself, is a fine book in eight chapters comprehending the following topics (i) the purpose (prayojana) of poetry, its cause (hetu) viz. pratibha, the aids to pratibha, viz., vyutpatti and abhyasa, definition of poetry; the nature of sabda and artha, meanings--the denoted, indicated and suggested meanings. (ii) The rasa and its factors sthayi vyabhicari and sattvikabhavas. (iii) The dosas (defects) of pada, vakya, artha and rasa (iv) The gunas which are three, madhurya, ojas and prasada and the letters which help to produce them. (v) six figures of word. Twenty-nine figures of sense, (vii) The characteristics and kinds of nayaka and nayika. (viii) Division of kavya into preksya and sravya, and their sub-divisions and their characteristics. Hemacandra lucidiy sets forth these topics very often in the very words of the authorities on Alamkarasastra that preceded him and thus his work serves as a very good introduction to the study of the authoritative texts used by him. It is rather unfair to Hemacandra to describe his work as a compilation exhibiting hardly any originality as Kane does or to charge him of

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318 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE plagiarism as De does. A close study of the Kas reveals that Hemacandra shows independence of thought and judgment in good many places refusing to follow blindly his acknowledged authorities. It is, however, incorrect to call Hemacandra's Kas unique because it brings for the first time poetics and dramatics within the compass of a single work. For it is not the first of its kind. Hemacandra takes the lead from Bhoja's Srngaraprakasa which treats of both poetics and dramatics. Again, it is to be remembered that Hemacandra's treatment of dramatics is scanty. It is probably for this reason that his two pupils Ramacandra and Gunacandra undertook writing their Natyadarpana which gives a comprehensive treatment of this science of dramatics. . (9) Kalpalata and its Pallava (and Viveka) 18 of Ambaprasada (c. 1136 A. D.) : The text Kalpalata and its vitti Pallava are as yet not discovered. Kalpalata and its svopajna (auto) commentary Pallava are the composition of Ambaprasada, who was, most probably, a Jain. Whether Viveka was also composed by him or by some other author is not as yet definitely known. Possibly, this Viveka is the composition of a Jain author. This Viveka commentary forms a supplement to the Pallava commentary. Although it is a supplement and sub-commentary it is highly important in many respects : It presents correctlly a couple of Prakrit and Apabhramsa verses which were otherwise extremely corrupt and obscure. It preserves a large portion of the Abhinavabharati ch. VII, which was regarded as lost for ever by scholars working in the field. It helps a good deal in restoring corrupt readings in Abhinavabharati and Locana. It preserves about a hundred pratikas of the Vakrokti-jivita mostly related to Chapter III and presents authentic explanations. It throws fresh light on Bhamahavivarana (Udbhata's commentary on Bhamaha's Kavyalamkara) which was presumed to have been lost beyond recovery. It supports Gnoli's identification of his publication of some fragments from this commentary with Bhamahavivarana It also helps to restore some of the corrupt readings in the voluminous srngaraprakasa publisherd from Mysore in four volumes. (10) The Natyadarpana 19 of Ramacandra and Gunacandra (c. 1125 to 1172 A. D.) : This is a very important work dealing with the science of dramatics. Unfortunately it is less known but deserves to be known better. It treats of almost all the topics of dramaturgy which a playwright ought to know. The authors of the ND critically studied all the literature on dramaturgy that was available to them. They made full use of the works of their predecessors but whenever and wherever they disagreed, they boldly criticised them and set forth

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 319 their own views. Their exposition of the theory of rasa (aesthetic experience) which markedly differs from that of his illustrious predecessors such as Abhinavagupta is noteworthy from this point of view. The ND notes anonymously the views of other authorities, some of which are no longer extant. It is rich in illustrations drawn from various plays of great merit, some of them are now lost to us. It is, therefore, valuable from the standpoint of literary history as well. Its long quotations proved of great help in reconstructing the lost play Devicandragupta and they are of great historical value. Its style is simple and lucid and exposition brief yet clear. It bears comparison with the Dasarupaka of Dhananjaya (with Dhanika's Avaloka), the most popular work on dramaturgy, nay, it surpasses it in many respects. (11) The Alamkaramahodadhi20 of Narendraprabhasuri (first half of the 13th century A. D.) : This work on Sanskrit Poetics was composed at the request of Vastupala (d. 1242 A. D.). It is divided into 8 tarangas (Chapters.) It contains 304 karikas and 982 illustrative stanzas. The author himself wrote a commentary on this his own work. He does not lay any claim to originality but frankly admits that it is a compilation based on works of his predecessors in the field of poetics. नास्ति प्राच्यैरलङ्कारकारैराविष्कृतं न यत् / opfaert 169: FRHEYECH 11 Introductory v.no 21, p.3 A study of this work shows that the work is primarily based on the work of his distinguished predecessors, for instance, Anandavardhana, Kuntaka, Bhoja, Mammata, Hemacandra and the like. It is, no doubt, an industrious and intelligent compilation and the treatment of the topics is at once lucid. (12) The srngararnavacandrika21 of Vijayavarni (last quarter of the 13th century A. D.) : The author was a Digambara Jain. He composed this work at the request of king Kamiraya of Bangawadi (Karnataka). It is divided into ten paricchedas (chapters). Chapter I mainly deals with consequences ascribed to initial letters of any composition and to the metrical feet empoyed in it. Chapter II enumerates seven groups of poetry and deals with fourfold sense and fourfold power of word Chapter III treats of rasa and bhava. Chapter IV gives a study of the types of hero and heroine and their friends, messengers and rivals. Chapter V treats of ten Gunas. Chapter VI makes a study of Riti and its kinds. Chapter VII deals with Vrtti and its varieties. Chapter VIII, which is the shortest of all, deals with the concepts of sayya and paka. Chapter IX which is the longest of all deals with Artnalamkaras. Chapter X treats of dosas in a poetic composition and also of circumstances when they cease to be so. In the course of his exposition

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320 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE of various topics of poetics the author sings the glory of king Kamiraja. Vijayavarni, generally follows the authorities on poetics (Purvasastra or sastra). The author of Alamkara-sangraha and this author for the first time introduce the topic of varna-phala and gana-phala in works on poetics. Vijayavarni has drawn on the Kavyadarsa, Kavyalamkara(of Rudrata), the Dasarupaka, the Kavyaprakasa and the Prataparudrayaso-bhusana. The verses, illustrative of various points of poetics, are his own. It has to be said, however, that their literary merit is not up to mark. (13-14) The Alamkaracintamani22 (and srngaramanjari) of Ajitasena (1420 A. D.) : He was a Digambara Jain; this work of his is divided into five paricchedas (chapters) The first chapter treats of kavisiksa ("education of the poet", "instruction of the aspiring poet in the devices of the craft."). It sets forth in great detail various instructions for an aspiring poet, the eight topics to be described in a mahakavya (epic-poem) and various poetic conventions. The second chapter treats of the citralaskara (with its 42 varieties), one of the kinds of sabdalamkara (figures of word). The third chapter treats of the remaining three kinds of figures of word-vakrokti, anuprasa and yamaka (with its eleven varieties). The fourth chapter treats of 72 arthalamkaras and the last chapter deals with rasadi (rasa, riti, sabdasakti vrttis, gunas, dosas and the types of hero and heroine. Srrigaramanjari is possibly (or rather probably) from the same Ajitasena, the author of Alamkaracintamani. It was written at the instance of a Jain Apupa prince of the lunar race, named Raya or Kamiraya for his instruction. It consists of three chapters and 128 stanzas dealing with (I) dosas (2) ten gunas of Vamana and (3) ten arthalaskaras. The work has not been published so far. (15) The Kavyanusasana23 of Vagbhata (c. 14th century A. D.): This work (with its vrtti, Alamkaratilaka, by the author himself), like Hemacandra's work of the same name, is written in the form of prose sutras. Siksa-works (16) The Kavi-siksa of Jayamangala (end of the 11th Century and first half of the 12th Century A. D.) : The author was a Jain who wrote at the time of Jayasimha Siddharaja (1094-1143 A. D.) and was thus a contemporary of Hemacandra. The work has not been published so far. (17) The Kavya-siksa 24 (also known as Kavi-siksa) of Acarya Vinayacandra (about 1250 A. D.): is divided into six paricchedas (chapters) : 1. Siksa, 2. Kriya-nirnaya, 3. Loka-kausalya, 4. Bija-vyavarnana, 5.

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 321 Anekarthasabdasamgraha and 6. Rasa-bhava-nirupanapariccheda. The first chapter deals with certain siksas instructions) for the composition of kavya (poetry), for example, conventions about describing things which are not actually found in certain place as being present there, not describing some things as existing even when in reality they do exist, artificial restrictions on the existence of things; use of expletives, conventions regarding metres, colours, and topics which should be described in an epic poem, The second chapter deals with kriya-nirnaya 'correct forms of verbs' and exposition of numerous verbs with their roots, meanings and ganas. The third chapter makes the reader conversant with the various ways of the world. This chapter lists entities numbering one, two, three, etc. (ekadi-padartha-ganana) terms of collective nouns and some select abhanakas, sayings, in Sanskrit and Prakrit and examples to illustrate acquaintance or familiarity (paricaya) with various sastras, and standards of comparison (upama-padani). The fourth chapter deals with the description of bijas of various topics, Jina, Hara, Brahma, Hari and so on. The fifth chapter deals with homonymns (anekarthasabdas) arranged according to different principles. Last chapter deals with the characteristic features of rasas and bhavas. This work is a lucid and comprehensive treatise on Kavya-siksa and very useful for an aspiring poet. (18) Kavitarahasya or Kavyakalpalata25 of Arisimha and Amaracandra (Middle of the 13th Century A. D.) : These two Svetambara Jain authors are notable in Sanskrit poetics for this work on the composition of verses and its commentary entitled Kavisiksa-vrtti. This work was composed in part by Arisimha and completed by Amaracandra who also wrote the commentary. The Kavyakalpalata consists of four Pratanas, (Chapters) viz, : 1. Chandah-siddhi, 2. Sabda-siddhi, 3. Slesa-siddhi and 4. Artha-siddhi. The first chapter deals with prosody. It consists of sections on (i) the construction of the anustubh metre, (ii) enumeration of the principal metres, conversion of one metre into another, caesura (yati) (iii) use of expletive particles and words for filling up the verse, (iv) argumentation, pointed sayings, subjects of laudation or vituperation etc. and (v) subjects for descriptive poetry, how to describe the King, his ministers, the prince, the army, battle and hunting as well as a city, a village, a garden, a lake and so forth; enumeration of poetic conventions (varnya-sthiti). The second chapter treats of etymology, derived meanings of compounds, denoted, indicated and suggested meanings, etc. The third chapter deals with play on words of various kinds. The last chapter is devoted to the construction of similes, ellipsis and similar figures. Stud.-41 -

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322 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE (19) The Kavi-Kalpalata of Devesvara (c. beginning of the 14th century A. D.) : This work is "directly modelled on the Kavyakalpalata with considerable plagiarism of passages in extenso." General Evaluation of the Jain works on Sanskrit Poetics We must not lose sight of the fact, when we judge the works, that they belong to the period of decline and decadence and that the creative period was over since long before. It is idle on our part to expect of the authors, whether Jain or non-Jain, (belonging to the decadence period) any new poetic theories. The writers' creative period had already propounded the various doctrines of rasa, alamkara, riti, dhvani, vakrokti and aucitya and there was hardly any scope to set forth a new doctrine of poetics. We must judge these works not by applying the test of originality and novelty of thought as they hardly lay claim to originality. Rather we must judge them as text-books presenting a rare collection of fine passages in earlier works for they are primarily intended as text-books, or as manuals of poetics to guide the aspiring poet in his profession, their primary object being Kavi-siksa-instruction of the aspiring poet in the devices of the craft. When they are judged from the correct stand-point we realise that they are not trash or insignificant and that they serve very well the purpose of text-books or of siksa-granthas as the case may be. Although these Jain authors and commentators in a sense do not contribute anything new to our knowledge they do, in another sense, contribute to our knowledge in that they have preserved long paragraphs, passages, chapters from the original far-famed works they drew on such as Bhamahavivarana, Dhvanyaloka, Vakroktijivita, Abhinavabharati, Locana, etc; and adopted passages have proved of invaluable help in restoring many corrupt passages and recovering lost passages and chapters. Jain Contribution To Aesthetics : Introductory Aesthetics or the inquiry into the character of beauty (Saundaryasastra) is a regular part of philosophy in the West. In India, it does not form part of philosophy. The study of aesthetics was carried on here by a distinct class of thinkers alamkarikas (literary critics) who were not professional philosophers. Naturally, they nowhere systematically discuss in their works the essential characteristics of art in general, or of the fine arts in particular. They deal mainly with beauty in creative literature, only in one of the fine arts. They do not explicitly or emphatically speak of the distinction between the "Fine Arts" and the "Lesser" or "Mechanical" Arts-those which minister to the enjoyment of man, and those which minister to his needs. Nor do they speak of "Arts of the

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 323 Eye" and the "Arts of the Ear". Nor do they venture upon a definition of Art, applicable to all the (Fine) Arts. They merely attempt definition of one of the Fine Arts, namely Poetry (kavya or creative literature as such) and investigate into the sources of literary beauty. Finally, they arrive at the conception of rasa as the first and foremost source of Beauty in Literature. Modern scholars like M.Hiriyanna say "... the numerous works in Sanskrit on poetics furnish adequate data for constructing a theory of fine art in general." And, "The conception of rasa is general and furnishes the criterion by which the worth of all forms of fine art may be judged 26." Some other scholars however hold that in the context of other fine arts the term rasa is used by metaphorical extension only and the rasa theory is not applicable to other fine arts. Be that as it may, let us revert to aesthetic inquiry carried on by the alamkarikas in relation to the fine art of kavya (Poetry including the Drama). Two stages in the growth of Sanskrit literary criticism In the growth of Sanskrit literary criticism we discern two distinct stages, The first stage is represented by the early alamkarikas and the second by Anandarvadhana and his followers. The early alamkarikas hold that in kavya it is the alamkara that enjoys the pride of place. They fail to notice the central essence of kavya as their attention is concentrated on its body--the outward expression or externals of kavya, viz., sabda and artha. It is Anandavardhana the Dhvanikara-who completely revolutionized the Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics by his novel theory that dhvani (suggestion) is the soul. (the very essence) of kavya. Pratibha is the cause of poetry. It renders the poet's creation unique. And to appreciate and enjoy the poet's unique creation a sahrdaya (a sensitive and sympathetic spectator or reader) is needed. The poet and the sahrdaya are gifted with pratibha. In the realm of kavya pratibha enjoys the place of supremacy. Whatever is touched by the magic wand (power) of pratibha becomes alaukika (unique) and a source of beauty. Mere dhvani is not a source of beauty, the dhvani itself must be charming. There is no charm in such expressions as simho batuh (The boy is a lion) or gangayam ghosah' (there is a hamlet on Ganga.) just as there is no beauty in the bald vakrata of a dog's tail (but the vakrata of the crescent moon is incomparably beautiful). The traditional views of rasa Now, the traditionally accepted view of rasa is stated out in Abhinavagupta's Abhinavabharati on the Natyasastra and Locana commentary on Dhvanyaloka. Its distinguishing features are : Rasa is totally different from an ordinary emotion. It is generic

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324 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE universal i.e. common to all other sahrdayas while an emotion is individual and immediately personal. Rasa is always pleasurable but an emotion may be pleasant or painful. Rasa is not created as the result of the denotation-the way joy is produced when (a man hears the words), "A son has been born to you" nor does it come about through laksana; nor it is created as a result of perception, inference or recollection. It cannot exist without vibhavas, etc. but these are not in the normal sense causes; an effect can exist when its causes have disappeared but rasa exists only while the vibhavas etc., last. Rasa is something alaukika (supernatural or supernormal, transcendental, unique, sui generis). It is marked by unselfishness-selflessness- a forgetting, though temporary, of one's private self-individuality and by a unique kind of delight. Its essence consists exclusively in aesthetic pleasure (carvyamanataikasara). As in the case of a taste like madhurya--sweetness there is no knowing of rasa apart from directly experiencing it (asvadya-manata-pranataya bhanti); rasa is felt, therefore it exists. Rasa is parabrahmasvada-sahodara (similar to the enjoyment of the Absolute or Ultimate Reality, but not identical), Rasa is manifested or suggested by the vibhavas etc., in their idealised or generalised form. Rasa is marked by restful joy. We have deliberately set forth in some detail the view of rasa set out in Abhinavagupta precisely because it has been accepted in toto by the polymathwho is known as Kalikalasarvajna-the Jain scholar Acarya Hemacandra in his Kavyanusasana :--tena sadharanibhutaratih srngarah-iti srimanabhinavaguptacaryah | Etanmatameva casmabhirupajivitamiti (p. 103). Now, chronologically speaking, the "nava kavva-rasa pannatta" passage in Anuyogadvarasutra is the oldest one. We have absolutely no clue to know the author's view as to the laukika or alaukika nature of rasa and its sukhatmakata or sukhaduhkhatmakata. The senior Vagbhata who preceded Hemacandra, it would seem, regards that sthayibhava itself, when fully developed by the vibhavas etc., becomes rasa. This view is in agreement with the view of Lollata and differs from Abhinavagupta's sthayivilaksano rasah--"Rasa is very different from the permanent emotion." Namisadhu, while commenting on Rudrata (Ch, XII. 3), explains the line : 'sfa H R 7: Ha' as follows : इति शब्दः एवंप्रकारार्थः / एवंप्रकारा अन्येऽपि भावा रतिनिर्वेदस्तम्भादयः सर्वेऽपि रसा बोद्धव्याः / If Rudrata extends rasatva to nirvedadi i.e. to all the cittavsttis and primarily to the vyabhicarins, Namisadhu extends rasatva to sattvikabhavas also (which are, though called bhavas, physical manifestations). He follows, it would

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 325 seem, Bhoja in this respect27. From amongst the rest of the Jain commentators on poetics and writers on poetics all excepting Siddhicandragani (the author of Kavyaprakasakhandana) and Ramacandra and Gunacandra (the authors of Natyadarpana) have nothing new to say about the nature of rasa28. They follow, as a rule the standard works on Sanskrit poetics, like Mammata's Kavyaprakasa. . The credit of presenting graphically and vigorously the view that all the rasas are not pleasurable, but some alone are pleasurable and some others painful, goes to Ramacandra and Gunacandra29. They were disciples of Acarya Hemacandra, the author of Kavyanusasana. They, however, do not agree with their master, for whom they have great reverence, as to the nature of rasa and set forth cogently their own view which may be termed as sukha-duhkhatmavada (according to which some rasas are pleasurable and some painful) as opposed to Kevalanandavada according to which all rasas are pleasurable. According to the Natyadarpana30, 1. srngara, 2. hasya, 3. vira, 4. adbhuta and, 5. santa are pleasurable whereas 1. karuna, 2. raudra, 3. bibhatsa and, 4. bhayanaka are painful. They say : the view that all rasas are pleasurable goes against experience. The karuna, raudra, etc. when presented on the stage or in poetry cause indescribable pain to the spectators or sensitive readers. They experience camatkara, only at the end of rasasvada due to the poet's divine pratibha and actor's skill in presentation. Persons (like Abhinavagupta) dupedcarried away--by this camatkara, regard the karuna, raudra etc. as pleasurable although in reality they are painful31. Attracted by this aesthetic experience of grief etc., spectators feel like going to plays in which karuna is present. Poets and playwrights compose poems and plays which consist in pleasure and pain in accordance with this worldly life itself which consists in both pleasure and pain. Witnessing of tragic events on the stage never produces pleasure. If the representation of tragic events be pleasurable then the representation itself will have to be called misrepresentation32. The Natyadarpana holds that the sthayibhava itself, when developed by vibhavas and vyabhicaribhavas and manifested by anubhavas is to be called rasa. This view of the nature of rasa is identical with the utpattivada or pusti-vada of Lollata (and Dandi), and most probably with Bharata's own view of rasa as found in the Natyasastra. For Bharata explicitly says: Sthayibhavansca rasatvam upanesyamah | --NS, Vol. I, Ch. VI, p. 299

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326 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE and, sthayyeva tu raso bhavet | --NS, Vol. I, Ch.VI.p. 379 Further, Bharata's description of a sensitive spectator corroborates this above statement : "A true spectator at drama is he who, when the character is happy becomes himself happy, when the character is in sorrow is himself in sorrow, and when the character is depressed becomes himself depressed." Thus it would seem that the authors of the ND, in contrast to their own revered Acarya Hemacandra who follows Abhinavagupta, word for word, as regards the nature of rasa, regard, following Bharata, Lollata, Dandi etc., rasa as laukika and therefore, sukhaduhkhatmaka. Here, we may note, in passing, that the authors of the ND do not subscribe to the misrananda-vada of rasa alluded to in their work by Dhanika and Jagannatha, when they speak of its being sukha-duhkhatmaka ! They clearly state that five rasas are sukhatmaka and four, duhkhatmaka. Regarding the location of rasa they differ with Lollata. They hold that rasa is present in the hero (say, Rama, Dusyanta, etc.), in the spectator, and some times in the actor also. Siddhicandragani's view of rasa is more radical. He very probably sets out his own view under the guise of 'iti navinah' or "navinastu" : According to him, the aesthetic pleasure or rapture is just like ordinary pleasures of sense, that arise, for instance, from pressing plump breasts of a beautiful young lady or from applying cool sandal paste to our bodies33. Rasa is thus laukika Rasa, by its very nature, being pleasurable he holds that there are only four rasas : 1. srngara, 2. vira, 3. hasya and, 4. adbhuta. He rejects the claim of karuna, raudra, bibhatsa, bhayanaka and santa to the title of rasa34. The whole discussion of this topic is marked by originality logical reasoning and freshness of outlook and deserves to be read in the original35. Siddhicandra goes a step, and a very big step indeed, further than Ramacandra and Gunacandra in holding that there are four rasas only. The description of Aja-vilapa, or santa or of bhayatisaya is aimed at showing the intensity of love towards Indumati, his beloved wife, or complete detachment or world-weariness of mumuksus or the tenderness or softness of a particular individual, respectively. In fact, however, poets undertake to describe such incidents, events or situations only to demonstrate their own descriptive power or the richness of their own imaginative faculty36. This survey would show that there is nothing peculiarly Jain about their view of the nature of rasa. Along with other writers on poetics they take rasas to be laukika or alaukika, sukha-duhkhatmaka or sukhatmaka only. A "Moderner" like Siddhicandragani disregards tradition and holds that there are

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 327 four rasas only. It is, however, very surprising, if not shocking, that none of these Jain authors and commentators takes congnisance of the "nava-kavva-rasa pannatta" passage found in their sacred text., the Anuyogadvarasutra. In conclusion, I should like to say that the Jain contribution to the Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics is noteworthy, especially when we remember that almost all these Jain works have been composed during the period of decline and decadence. A few of them, like Acarya Hemacandra, (Ramacandra and Gunacandra) adopt the finest passages or lines from the standard works or early authorities on alamkara and organise them into good text-books. A few others choose to write commentaries on the far-famed Kavyaprakasa. Manikyacandra's commentary Kavyaprakasasamketa enjoys reputation and authority as one of the early and authentic commentaries. Still a few others devote their attention to writing convenient hand-books or manuals with a view to providing instruction to the aspiring poet in the devices of the craft. The Kavyakalpalatavrtti of Arisimha and Amaracandra is a typical or model siksagrantha. Authors like Ramacandra and Gunacandra who wrote the Natyadarpana and a 'moderner' like Siddhicandragani who wrote Kavyaprakasakhandana set out their novel theories regarding the nature of rasa--whether it is laukika or alaukika, whether it is sukhatmaka or sukhaduhkhatmaka, whether their number is limited to eight or nine or whether there are as many rasas as there are cittavrttis or bhavas including the sattvikabhavas (which are, in fact, physical manifestations) and spring on us a pleasant surprise by their fresh outlook and logical reasoning in the face of stalwarts--intellectual giants like Abhinavagupta. By adopting passages long and short from early authorities and preserving them in their original form they have proved themselves of invaluable help in restoring the corrupt text of highly important works like Abhinavabharati, Locana. Bhoja's srngaraprakasa, Kuntaka's Vakroktijivita, etc. Notes and References : 1. A History of Indian Literature, Vol. II, Calcutta, 1933, pp. 594-595. 2. The Sahityadarpana of Visvanatha and The History of Sanskrit Poetics by P. V. Kane, third edition, Bombay 1951, p. 217. 3. History of Sanskrit Poetics In Two Volumes, Second Revised Edition, Calcutta, 1960, Vol. I, p. 189, f. n. 1. 4. Ibid, p. 190. 5. A History of Sanskrit Literature by A. B. Keith, Oxford, 1928, pp. 395-396.

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328 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE 6. Studies In Sanskrit Sahitya-Sastra, pub. by B. L. Institute of Indology, Patan (North Gujarat), 1983, pp. 149-154. 7. Ibid, pp. 153-154. 8. Cf Dr. Raghavan : Bhoja's Srrgaraprakasa, Third revised and enlarged edition, Madras, 1978, p. 237 f. n. I : ... "Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana which is a rare collection of all the fine passages in all the earlier works." And, Ibid, p. 687 :... "Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana is a work embodying in itself the best portions of the works of many preceding writers like Bharata, Anandavardhana, Abhinavagupta (Locana and Abhinavabharati), Mahimabhatta and Ksemendra." 9. Nandisuttam and the Anuyogaddaraim, Jaina-agama series No. 1., Sri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1968, pp. 121-124. 10. Compiled by Muni Shri Punyavijayji, L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-9, Serial No. 326-2, p. 138. 11. Ibid, the following three gathas out of six, reproduced in the Catalogue expressly inform us that the work deals with only figures of speech : सव्वाइं कव्वाइं सव्वाई जेण होंति भव्वाई। तमलंकारं भणिमोऽलंकारं कुकवि-कव्वाणं // अच्चंतसुंदरं पि हु निरलंकारं जणम्मि कीरंतं / कामिणिमुहं व कव्वं होइ पसण्णं पि विच्छाअं / ता जाणिऊण णिउणं लक्खिज्जह बहुविहे अलंकारे / जेहिं अलंकरिआई बहुमण्णिजंति कव्वाई // 12. History of Sanskrit Poetics, Calcutta, 1960 edn, Vol. I, p. 93. 13. Edited in the Kavyamala Series (No. 2) with the Tippana of Namisadhu, Bombay, 1909. 14. Edition with the text (i) By Vasudeva Abhyankar, Anandasrama press, Poona 1921; (ii) by R. Sharma Sastry, Mysore, 1922. 15. Edited by Prof. R. C. Parikh and pub. in Singhi Jain Granthamala (No. 40,) Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1953. 16. Ed. by Sivadatta and K. P. Parab (with Simhadevagani's commentary) "Nirnaya Sagar" Press, Bombay, 1895. 17. Second revised edition by R. C. Parikh and V. M. Kulkarni, pub. by Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1964. 18. L. D. Series No. 17, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-380 009, 1968. 19. Revised Second Edition by Pt. L. B. Gandhi, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1959. 20. Ed. by Pt. L. B. Gandhi, Gaekward's Oriental Series, Baroda, 1942. 21: Manikachandra D. Jaina Granthamala : No. 50, ed. by V. M. Kulkarni, pub. by Bharatiya Jnanapitha Sales Office : 3620/21 Netaji Subhash Marg, Delhi-6, 1969. 22. Edited by Dr. Nemi Chandra Shastri, Bharatiya Jnanpitha Publication, publication office : Durgakunda Road, Varanasi - 221 005, 1973. It may be noted that there was a lot of confusion about the name of its author and his age which is now cleared by Dr. K. Krishnamoorthy. Vide his paper "The Date of Ajita Alamkaracintamani" included

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JAIN CONTRIBUTION TO SANSKRIT POETICS AND AESTHETICS 329 by him in his own vol. Essays In Sanskrit Criticism, pub. by Karnataka University, Dharwad, 1974, pp. 307-310. 23. Published in Kavyamala Series, No. 43, "Nirnaya-sagar" press, Bombay. 1915. 24. Edited By Dr. H. G. Shastri, L. D. series No. 3, L. D. Institute of Indology., Ahmedabad 380 009, 1964. 25. Printed in Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series. Benares, 1931. 26. Art Experience By M. Hiriyanna, Kavyaiaya Publishers Mysore, 1954, p. 2, and p. 64. 27. Vide Bhoja's Srrigaraprakasa by Dr. Raghavan, 1978 edition, (p. 432) and Sarasvatikanthabharana, (ch V,) (p. 722) N. S. edn, Bombay, 1934. 28. Incidentally, it may be noted that Ajitasena, the author of Alamkaracintamani, introduces the technical terms of Jain philosophy, namely, inanavaraniya (karma), viryantaraya (karma) and their ksayopasama, and mohaniya (karma) in defining Sthayibhava : क्षयोपशमने ज्ञानावृतिवीर्यान्तराययोः / इन्द्रियानिन्द्रियैर्जीवे त्विन्द्रियज्ञानमुद्भवेत् // 1 // तेन संवेद्यमानो यो मोहनीयसमुद्भवः / रसाभिव्यञ्जकः स्थायिभावश्चिवृत्तिपर्ययः / / 2 / / ___-अलंङ्कारचिन्तामणौ पञ्चमे परिच्छेदे 29. Abhinavagupta refers to the Samkhya view of rasa (that it is sukha-duhkha-svabhava) in his Abhinavabharati (Chapter VI p. 270, 4th edn). येन त्वभ्यधायि-सुखदुःखजननशक्तियुक्ता विषयसामग्री बायैव साङ्ख्यदृशा सुखदुःखस्वभावा रसः / Vide also, Dr. Raghavan : The Number of Rasas, The Adyar Library And Research Centre, Adyar, Madras 600 022, 1979, (Ch.VII). The fact, however, remains that it is Ramacandra and Gunacandra who for the first time forcefully and elaborately set forth this view. 30. तत्रेष्टविभावादिप्रथितस्वरूपसम्पत्तयः शृङ्गार-हास्य-वीराद्भुत-शान्ता पञ्च सुखात्मानोऽपरे पुनरनिष्टविभावाद्युप नीतात्मानः करुणरौद्रबीभत्स-भयानकाश्चत्वारो दुःखात्मानः / यत् पुनः सर्वरसानां सुखात्मकत्वमुच्यते, तत् प्रतीत (?प्रतीति-बाधितम्) / --Natyadarpana, GOS edn, Baroda, 1959, p. 141. 31. भयानको बीभत्सः करुणो रौद्रो वा रसास्वादवतामनाख्येयां कामपि क्लेशदशामुपनयति / अत एव भयानकादिभिरुद्विजते समाजः / न नाम सुखास्वादादुद्वेगो घटते / यत् पुनरेभिरपि चमत्कारो दृश्यते, स रसास्वादविरामे सति यथावस्थितवस्तुप्रदर्शकेन कवि-नट-शक्ति-कौशलेन / विस्मयन्ते हि शिरच्छेदकारिणाऽपि प्रहार-कुशलेन वैरिणा शौण्डीरमानिनः / p. 141. 32. अन्ये च सर्वाङ्गाह्लादकेन कविनटशक्ति-जन्मना चमत्कारेण विप्रलब्धाः परात्मरूपतां दुःखात्मकेष्वपि करुणादिषु सुमेधसः प्रतिजानते / एतदास्वादलोल्येन प्रेक्षका अपि एतेषु प्रवर्तन्ते / कवयस्तु सुखदुःखात्मकसंसारानुरूप्येण रामादिचरितं निबध्नन्तः सुखदुःखरसानुविद्धमेव ग्रनन्ति ....अपि च सीताया हरणं द्रौपद्याः कचाम्बराकर्षणं.... अभिनीयमानं सहृदयानां को नाम सुखास्वादः ? / ....यदि चानुकरणे सुखात्मानः स्युर्न सम्यगनुकरणं स्यात्, विपरीतत्वेन भासनात्... 33. ....इति प्राचां निष्कर्षः / तदपेक्षया कामिनीकुचकलशस्पर्शचन्दनानुलेपनादिनेव नाट्यदर्शन-काव्यश्रवणाभ्यां सुखविशेषो जायते / स एव तु रस इति नवीनाः / -- Kavyaprakasakhandana p. 16 34. इष्टनाशादिभिश्चेतोवैक्लव्यं शोक उच्यते / Stud.-42

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330 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE तथा रौद्रशक्त्या तु जनितं वैक्लव्यं मनसो भयम् / दोषेक्षणादिभिर्गर्दा जुगुप्सेति निगद्यते / तथातत्त्वज्ञानाद् यदीादेनिर्वेदः स्वावमाननम् / इत्यादिनियुक्तशोकादिप्रवृत्तिकानां करुणादीनां रसत्वनिषेधात् / यत्तु शोकादयोऽपि रत्यादिवत् स्वप्रकाशज्ञानसुखात्मका इति तदुन्मत्तप्रलपितम् / -Ibid p. 21 35. Ibid, p. 16 and pp. 21-22. 36. ननु कथमजविलापादिकं कविभिर्वर्ण्यत इति चेत्, उच्यते-तेषां अजमहीपति-प्रभृतीनां स्वस्वप्रियानुराग प्रकर्षप्रतिपत्त्यर्थम् / . . .एवं शान्तस्यापि वर्णनं मुमुक्षूणां वैराग्यातिशयप्रतिपत्तये / एवं भयातिशयवर्णनं तत्तद्व्यक्तीनां मार्दव. . . प्रतिपादनाय / वस्तुतस्तु कविभिः स्वशक्तिप्रदर्शनार्थमेव पद्मबन्धाबन्धादिनिर्माणवत् तत्र तत्र प्रवर्त्यत इति / --Ibid, p.22 000

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JAIN AESTHETIC CONCEPTS Jhalakikar', the learned Sanskrit commentator of Kavyaprakasa informs us that the four commentators, Bhatta Lollata, Srisankuka, Bhatta Nayaka and Abhinavagupta have explained the Bharata-sutra (rasasutra) in accordance with the four systems of philosophy, Mimamsa, Nyaya, Samkhya and Alamkara, respectively. Professor Hiriyanna observes in one of his essays : "When the predominance of rasa came to be insisted upon as indispensable to artistic excellence, many of the systems of philosophy applied their own fundamental principles to its interpretation so that in course of time there came to be more than one theory of rasa", and elucidates these theories according to two of the chief systems, viz. Vedanta and Samkhya and sums up the essential differences between the Vedanta and the Samkhya aesthetics". In keeping with this usage one may speak of Jain aesthetics and Jain aesthetic concepts. On a closer study one would, however, find that it is somewhat misleading to stamp an alamkarika as a Samkhya or Naiyayika or Vedantin or Mimamsaka simply on the basis of the fundamental principles or technical terms of a particular system of philosophy employed by him in the course of his interpretation of the rasasutra. Bhatta Nayaka, for instance uses the Samkhya technical terms moha, sattvodreka, rajas and tamas and bhoga but at the same time compares this bhoga (characterised by a resting on one's own consciousness which is pervaded by beatitude and light) with the tasting of the supreme Brahman (parabrahmasvadasavidha), a phrase met with in Vedanta-darsana. On the basis of this slender evidence it would be simply incorrect to label Bhatta Nayaka either as a Samkhya or a Vedantin. In fact elsewhere Abhinavagupta himself gives him the title of 'Mimamsakagranih4. Acarya Hemacandra, perhaps the greatest Jain acarya of medieval India, adopts the entire commentary of Abhinavagupta on the rasasutra and declares that his authority (or source) is Acarya Abhinavagupta-who is a 'Mahamahesvara'. It would be seen from what has been said that there is no such thing as Hindu or Jain or Buddhist Aesthetics. Of course we have some works on poetics and aesthetics by Jain writers:

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332 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE Vagbhata-I (Vagbhatalamkara, 1st half of 12th century A. D.), Acarya Hemacandra (Kavyanusasana lst half of 12th century A. D.), Maladhari Narendraprabha (Alamkaramahodadhi, 1st half of the 13th century A. D.). Vagbhata (II) (Kavyanusasana, 14th century A. D.) and Vijayavarni (Srngararnavacandrika, last quarter of the 13th century A. D. ?). These Jain writers accept, generally speaking, all the aesthetic concepts of alamkara, vakrokti, gura, riti, aucitya, rasa, dhvani and the like, as conceived and formulated by master alamkarikas like Bharata, Bhamaha, Dandin, Vamana, Anandavardhana, Bhoja, Kuntaka, Mammata and others, and presented in their celebrated works. They hardly have anything new to say about these concepts or add any new concepts. They have nothing new to say even about the central aesthetic concept of rasa. But there are two other Jain works which are noteworthy for their views about rasa and problems related to it. The first is Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra, the two remarkable disciples of Acarya Hemacandra, and the second, Kavyaprakasakhandana, a commentary on Kavyaprakasa of Mammata, composed by Siddhicandragani, contemporary of Panditaraja Jagannatha (17th century A. D.). These two writers depart from the beaten path regarding the nature of rasa and problems related to it. They indeed break fresh ground and their views strike the reader as novel. It is proposed to deal in this paper with their novel views. In the course of his commentary on the rasasutra Abhinavagupta briefly deals with the Samkhya view of rasa. According to the Samkhyas rasa is of dual nature--of amphibian nature-of the nature of pleasure or pain. But it is the Natyadarpana which for the first time divides the sentiments (rasas) into two distinct groups : 1. Those which are pleasurable (srngara, hasya, vira, adbhuta and santa--the erotic, the comic, the heroic, the marvellous and the quietist) and those that are painful or unpleasurable (karuna, raudra, bibhatsa and bhayanaka--the sentiment of pathos, the furious sentiment, the disgusting sentiment and the terrifying sentiment) and gives a reasoned exposition of this dual nature of rasa. It takes intensified permanent emotion (sthayi bhava), which is of the nature of pleasure or pain, to be rasa. (See karika III. 7); and in the vivarana (commentary) that follows sets forth arguments in support of the dual nature of rasa : To say that all rasas are pleasurable is against experience. The sentiment of bhayanaka etc. even when presented through poetic description or represented on the stage through fourfold abhinaya (acting) cause indescribable pain to the sahrdayas-sensitive and responsive readers or spectators, in factuality ! That is why people simply shudder when they witness plays depicting sentiments like the terrifying; shuddering and relish of pleasure

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JAIN AESTHETIC CONCEPTS 333 ill go together. The camatkara (peculiar delight) experienced by the spectators at the end of the performance of tragic scenes is, however, simply due to the genius or creative imagination of the poet and the high skill of the actors in presenting things faithfully. The proud are wonderstruck at the sight of an enemy who cuts off the head at one stroke. The wise (alamkarikas like Abhinavagupta), deceived or misled by this all-delightful camatkara caused by the display of the poet's genius and the extraordinary skill of actors, regard even these unpleasurable or painful karuna and other rasas as highly pleasurable?. Spectators too, eager to taste this camatkara, turn up to witness plays depicting Karuna and other painful rasas. Poets portraying the life of Rama etc : depict it as intermingled with joy and sorrow in accordance with the actual human life which is mixture of both. Again, pleasures become all the more enjoyable when accompained by sorrow like the sweetness of a beverage with a hot ingredient like chilly added to it. Tragic events such as the abduction of Sita, Duhsasana dragging Draupadi by her hair and attempting to disrobe her, Hariscandra's serving a Candala as a slave, the death of Rohitasva, Laksmana's being hit by a sakti--a kind of missile-Aghoraghanta's attempt to kill Malati (in the play Malati-Madhava) when represented on the stage can never cause delight in the hearts of the sensitive and sympathetic spectators (sahrdayas). Again, the emotions of sorrow and other (painful) feelings in the original character cause lamentation, shedding of tears, etc., and are therefore undoubtedly painful. If through imitation by actors these painful feelings are said to become pleasurable, it is obvious that the actor's art is very deficient as it represents things falsely-in their perverted form. The apparent relish of pleasure by one when a tragic event is being described or staged is really speaking the relish of pain. An unhappy person alone feels joy or satisfaction on hearing tragic news and is distressed on hearing good news. Thus karuna and other painful rasas produce sorrow and nothing but sorrow. The seat of rasa is the original character; the spectator, the hearer or the poet himself. Generally speaking, an actor does not experience the aesthetic delight, but it is not an absolute or invariable rule that he never experiences rasa. For example, a harlot who, through avarice or cupidity enters into amorous dalliance for the pleasure of others, may at times herself experiene great delight; a singer singing to delight others at times himself experiences great delight. Similarly an actor while playing the role of a character may at times be completely absorbed by that role and experience rasa'. It is quite clear from the very definition of rasa, given by the Natyadarpana (III 7.), that it holds, like Lollata, that rasa is laukika (as in

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334 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE actuality). It holds rasa to be alaukika only in the sense that the vibhavas as depicted in a play or poem are not real. In the case of a real man and real woman the rasa is apprehended vividly because its vibhavas are actually present; and it is on account of this actuality that the vyabhicarins and anubhavas produced by rasa are clearly perceptible. In the case of a spectator or an actor however the rasa is apprehended only indistinctly for the vibhavas portrayed in a play or a poem do not have real existence. Consequently the vyabhicarins and the anubhavas too which follow rasa are not clearly perceptible. That is why the rasa, apprehended in a spectator is called alaukika (not of actuality, nonworldly, supranormal) 10. It would seem from the above that the authors of the Natyadarpana, strongly differ with Abhinavagupta on two points regarding rasa. Abhinavagupta holds all the eight (nine, including santa) rasas to be pleasurable (anandarupa) whereas these authors speak of two distinct groups of rasa : (1) srngaradi (the erotic and others), which are pleasurable and (2) karunadi (pathos and others), which are unpleasurable or painful. Abhinavagupta locates rasa primarily in the spectator (or hearer) whereas these locate rasa in the original character, the spectator (or the hearer), the poet and at times even the actor And now as regards Siddhicandra's view : Siddhicandra, a contemporary of Jagannatha, first explains the experience of paramananda, the supreme joy of rasa, according to the doctrine of the Vedantinsll. His use of terms like ratyadyavacchinnam (caitanyam), "bhagnavaranam (caitanyam)." strongly remind us of Jagannatha's explanation of rasa as ratyadyavacchinna bhagnavarana cideva rasah in his Rasagangadhara2As compared with it, a peculiar pleasure which arises on watching a dramatic performance or hearing the recitation of poetry is similar to the pleasure of anointing one's body with sandal-paste or of pressing the breasts of a young beautiful woman is itself rasa--this is the view of the moderns (navinah) who belong to the 17th century13. In other words, the navinas (possibly, including the author himself) regard the aesthetic pleasure as on a par with ordinary pleasures of the sense-as only laukika(worldly). As a corollary to this view they hold that there are only four rasas; the erotic, the heroic, the comic and the marvellous; and reject the claim of the pathetic, the furious, the terrifying and the disgusting to the title of rasas 14. The pathos (karuna) and others, arising from sorrow (soka) etc., although are revealed with cit (or caitanya)-consciousness consisting of delight, they cannot be called rasa since

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JAIN AESTHETIC CONCEPTS 335 the sthayi amsa (part) is opposed to the state of rasa. Again, if you argue that they, being revealed by alaukika vibhavas, etc., deserve to be called rasa like the pleasurable bites inflicted in the course of love game, our reply is 'No'. For following this line of argument you will have to call mental distress caused by hunger, thirst, etc., as new or different rasas. The bites in the course of sexual enjoyment remove the pain caused by overpowering passion and give a sense of relief as when a burden is taken off one's shoulders. But to say that sorrow (soka) etc., like love (rati) etc., consists of (lead to) light, knowledge and joy is simply a madman's prattles. Further in 'Aja-vilapa (Aja's Lament) etc., because of varnaniyatanmayibhavana 'identifying one's self with the event or situation portrayed', how could there arise the aesthetic joy similar to brahmananda ? In the disgusting (bibhatsa rasa) which describes vividly flesh, pus, etc., the reader or spectator does not vomit or spit is itself a matter of surprise; how could it produce rasa consisting of supreme joy ? It may be granted that the santa somehow deserves the title rasa with reference to persons who have given up completely all vasanas (various instincts) but certainly not with reference to sensualists as it (the santa) involves abstention from all pleasures of the senses. The heroic and the furious do not differ as their vibhavas bear resemblance. Regarding danavira, etc., the poet's chief intention is to describe the supreme generosity, greatness, etc. of the hero. The poets describe 'The Lament of Aja' for pointing out the profound love of Aja, towards Indumati his beloved queen. So too the santa is described to demonstrate the intense sense of world-weariness of mumuksus (persons desirous of liberation). So too the terrifying in order to illustrate the tenderness of heart of the heroes concerned. In fact (to tell the truth), poets depict these/various situations to demonstrate the richness of their pratibha (creative imagination) in the same way as they write Padma-bandha (artificial composition in which the words are arranged in the form of a lotus flower). etc16. This point of view that "rasa is laukika, is made up of pleasure and pain, and that it in no way differs from other pleasures of the senses", however did not find able advocates among the alaskarikas and was thrown into background, if not completely eclipsed by the writings of Abhinavagupta, Mammata, Hemacandra, Visvanatha and Jagannatha. Althought the Jain writers do not make any significant or original contribution to the subject of Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics they deserve our gratitude on grounds more than one : They incorporate almost word for word, passages after passages, large and important sections from standard and authoritative works of master minds and preserve them intact and help us

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336 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE immensely in restoring the corrupt and hence obscure text of Abhinavabharati (about which the first editor, Ramakrishna Kavi remarked : "...even if Abhinavagupta descended from Heaven and saw the Mss. he would not easily restore his original reading") 17 and Locana, the two unique commentaries on Bharata's Natyasastra and Anandavardhana's Dhvanyaloka respectively by Abhinavagupta, the greatest authority in Sanskrit literary criticism and aesthetics. These works are the sources of many aesthetic ideas, concepts and famous comparisons of later alamkara literature. They preserve important passages and sections from authoritative works on alamkara which are now irretrievably lost. The commentaries of Jain authors utilise earlier works and elucidate the text and help us a good deal to understand better the original works on alamkara that they comment upon. Most noteworthy works which belong to the above categories are Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana, Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra, Kalpalataviveka of Ambaprasada (?), Namisadhu's Tippana (commentary) on Rudrata's Kavyalamkara, Manikyacandra's commentary Samketa on Kavyaprakasa and Gunaratnagani's Saradipika, another commentary on Kavyaprakasa. Though Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana does not constitute an original contribution to the subject it is not quite correct to describe it as a compilation exhibiting hardly any originality as Kanel does or to charge Hemacandra of plagiarism as Del' does or to label it as 'siksa-grantha' as De, again, does. Instead of briefly summarising or paraphrasing or describing in his own words the theories and doctrines of his great predecessors too illustrious to be mentioned by name, if Hemacandra preferred to present them in their original form we need not find fault with him. Besides we cannot forget the fact that his writing was of a sastriya (scientific) nature and in scientific books such quotations are justified. We will only be betraying poverty of our imagination and scant respect for Hemacandra's intelligence if we were to insinuate that Hemacandra pretended that all the passages and sections which he quoted would pass as his own. The truth of the matter is that Hemacandra regards the masterpieces of his worthy predecessors as the property of the entire world. He is a man of pratibha (creative imagination) but his pratibha is more of bhavayitri (appreciative) and less of the karayitri (creative) type. His capacity to select choicest passages from his authorities and to organise them into a homogeneous and organic whole is supreme. Moreover, Hemacandra shows independence of thought and judgement in good many places, refusing to follow blindly his acknowledged authorities. Hemacandra adopts the entire long section or Abhinavabharati on the famous rasasutra of Bharata. He also adopts explanations of Bharata's

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JAIN AESTHETIC CONCEPTS 337 Dasarupakadhyaya from Abhinavabharati. He also freely incorporates passages after passages from his authorities as shown in my paper "The Sources of Hemacandra's Kavyanusasana."20 If the sections and explanations from Abhinavabharati were not preserved intact by incorporating them in his Kavyanusasana, it would have been next to impossible to restore the corrupt text of Abhinavabharati on the key rasasutra. Next to the Rasadhyaya of Natyasastra, the Bhavadhyaya is all important. The commentary Abhinavabharati on it has been lost. Every student of Sanskrit poetics and aesthetics feels very much the loss of this portion. As late as 1969 A. D. Dr. J. L. Masson and Prof. M. V. Patwardhan observe in their recent work santarasa and Abhinavagupta's Philosophy of Aesthetics "All of the seventh chapter of the Abhinavabharati but the very beginning has been lost, which is a great misfortune, since Abhinava refers to it frequently. It must have been a large and important section of the A. Bh." (p. 120 f.n.2). In my paper "Abhinavabharati CH.VII Recovered ?" I have shown decisively how the portion of the Kalpalataviveka from p. 286, line 22 to p. 303, line 3, dealing with the thirty-three vyabhicaribhavas of the Natyasastra is a straight quotation of the major portion of the original Abhinavabharati on the Bhavadhyaya21. Kalpalataviveka of Ambaprasada, Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra and Kavyanusasana of Hemacandra have been of great use in recovering the original readings of Abhinavabharati and Locana as well. Again, Hemacandra's treatment of gunas is noteworthy : "On gunas Hemacandra is a follower of Anandavardhana and he draws upon Mammata and probably on Rajasekhara also....As regards the three gunas, Hemacandra considers that. madhurya is of the highest degree in vipralambha, a little less in karuna and still less in santa... This is one of the views recorded later by Jagannatha." It is noteworthy for "his reference of strange views on gunas." One view holds that ojas, prasada, madhurya, samya and audarya are the five gunas (in the sense of the pathadharmas). The other view is these five gunas belong to certain metres." Hemacandra criticises both. What is remarkable is his reference to strange views on gunas which are not mentioned elsewhere by any alamkarika. Hemacandra's Kavanusasana and Ambaprasada's Kalpalataviveka shed abundant light on the vexed problem whether Gnoli's claim that his publication, Udbhata's commentary on the Kavyalamkara of Bhamaha22, really represents some fragments of the "lost" Bhamahavivarana. These two texts contain passages which support Gnoli's identification. Again, Kalpalataviveka lucidly explains the six verses of Bhamaha (Kavyalamkara V. 5-10) which have baffled modern scholars, Pandits and commentators alike. In a paper "Kalpalataviveka on Bhamaha's Kavyalamkara Stud.-43

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338 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE (Chapter V w.5-10)23" I have shown how Kalpalataviveka throws a flood of light on the tough verses dealing with Logic and Epistemology. As poets the Jains have also contributed their share to the literature of the Drama24. Muni Ramacandra, a well-known disciple of Acarya Hemacandra wrote a number of plays. It may not be exaggeration to describe him as Bhasa of medieval India. Some years ago I had occasion to read his delightful play of a prakarana type called Mallikamakaranda25. A common man is puzzled to find a muni, who has renounced the world, depicting scenes of love between young men and women and describing approvingly the charms of young beautiful damsels. It also seems that some people professing to guard jealously the dignity and high position of munis, especially Jain munis must have severely criticised Ramacandra for writing plays dealing with srrgara and hasya (the erotic and the comic) sentiments. For peace or quietitude is of the essence of munis and these sentiments are harmful to maintain and develop the attitude of quietitude. Ramacandra defends himself against this criticism thus ; "The whole world knows that sama (peace of quietitude) is of the very essence of munis. (Don't you however forget the fact that) although gods are born in heaven they move about in all the three worlds." The suggestion is : Munis too should occasionally leave the high pedestal and come down on earth and should write plays and appreciate them when staged. Just as the gods do not lose their divine nature simply because they move about in the three worlds even so the munis who write plays and aesthetically appreciate them do not lose their sageness or monkhood. Ramacandra on occasions expresses his views about beauty : तं चिय परमत्थेणं रमणिज्जं जत्थ हिययवीसामो / हरिसंति असोयलया जेणं पायप्पहारेहिं // (तदेव परमार्थेन रमणीयं यत्र हृदयविश्रामः / हृष्यन्ति अशोकलता: येन पादप्रहारैः // ) इति च्छाया // This aesthetic concept strongly reminds us of Abhinavagupta's hrdayavisranti or carurupam visrantisthanam (Beautiful means that which gives rise to aesthetic repose). यद् यस्य नाभिरुचितं न तत्र तस्य स्पृहा मनोज्ञेऽपि / रमणीयेऽपि सुधांशौ न नाम काम: सरोजिन्याः // "Whatever one does not like, one has no eager desire or longing for it even if it be beautiful. The lotus-plant has indeed no longing for even the beautiful moon." Ramacandra has, of course, adopted this verse from Bhartrhari's Srrgarasataka.

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JAIN AESTHETIC CONCEPTS 339 Finally a word or two about Prakrit examples in Sanskrit works on alamkara : Sanskrit thinkers introduce about 2500 Prakrit verses in their works by way of examples. The principal reason behind such a large number of Prakrit citations is that these thinkers (alamkarikas) make no difference between Sanskrit and Prakrit literatures. They appreciated both--some of them wrote in both the languages. The norms laid down in their works were equally applicable to both and, indeed till recently to literatures even in our modern languages. The Prakrit text of inany verses is, in many places, corrupt or shows small or big gaps and in some cases it is so hopelessly corrupt that it becomes obscure. The Prakrit languages and literatures have been especially preserved by the Jain. I am glad to state that Prakrit Verses in Sanskrit Works on Poetics : A Critical Edition, prepared by me is recently published. I have done my best to present the Prakrit text of these verses as correctly and faithfully as humanly possible. In some quarters it is alleged that these Prakrit verses are full of obscenity. The alamkarikas have defined in their works what constitutes the fault of obscenity. Use of words which give rise to feelings of shame, of disgust or convey the sense of inauspiciousness--such words are taboo in cultured and polite society--is condemned by them as obscene. They have, with their sharp intellect, recorded and denounced as obscene even particular combinations of letters giving rise to words meaning the names of private parts of the human body. So there is no question of defending obscenity. These Prakrit verses fall into two groups : those which are highly erotic and those which portray illicit or clandestine or adulterous love. We must clearly distinguish between the erotic and the obscene. The writings of great poets, both Sanskrit and Prakrit, are highly erotic and artistic. To brand them obscene, as impatient critics do, would mean putting these great works out of the reach of the sensitive sahrdayas, We must not mistake the highly erotic for the obscene. Indian tradition treats the joys of love and the relations between the two sexes in a frank manner. The explanation for the citing of the second group of verses could be given as follows : The height of pure love is said to exist in relations with other men's wives or unmarried girls. Naturally, poets, Sanskrit as well as Prakrit, composed verses portraying Caurya-rata and the alamkarikas quoted such verses as specimens of dhvani-kavya refusing to be impressed by considerations of morality. In other words, alamkarikas show a very sensitive understanding of the aesthetics. Their approach to it is strictly a-moral. What they object to is not immorality but whatever is bad in aesthetic taste. To their

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340 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE minds eroticism was not bad in taste; aesthetically it was most appealing to them. Notes and References : 1. इदं हि भरतसूत्रं तट्टीकाकृद्भिर्भट्टलोल्लट-श्रीशंङ्कक-भट्टनायक- अभिनवगुप्तपादैश्चतुर्भिः क्रमेण मीमांसान्यायसाङ्ख्य___अलङ्कारमतरीत्या चतुर्धा व्याख्यातम् / -Kavyaprakasa, BOR Institute, Poona, 1950, edn., p. 87 2. Art Experience by M. Hiriyanna, Kavyalaya Publishers, Mysore, 1954, p. 7. 3. Ibid, pp 15-16. 4. See Introduction to The Aesthetic Experience According To Abhinavagupta (p.xx, f.n. 1) by R. Gnoli, Varanasi (1968) edn. (Chowkhambha Sanskrit Studies Vol. LXII). In the Dhvanyalokalocana (Kashi Sanskrit Series, Banaras 1940 edn., p. 173) Abhinavagupta censures Bhatta Nayaka thus "Such discussions are all right in Mimamsa but have no place in poetry". He makes such a remark about Bhatta Nayaka in Abhinavabharati (Vol. III p. 309) : Kevalam jaiminir anusrtah. 5. Incidentally, it may be noted that Anuyogadvarasutra, a sacred work of the Svetarbara Jains, which claims to be old (before third century A. D.) contains a Prakrit passage on nine kavya-rasas. The list omits 'bhayanaka and substitutes in its place 'vridanaka'. Further, it gives the pride of place to vira and not to srngara. It is surprising, if not shocking that all Jain writers on poetics and aesthetics completely ignore this passage giving an additional proof that aesthetics is not necessarily related to any religion or system of philosophy. 6. यत् पुनरेभिरपि चमत्कारो दृश्यते, स रसास्वादविरामे सति यथावस्थितवस्तुप्रदर्शकेन कविनटशक्तिकौशलेन / -Natyadarpana III. p. 141. 7. विस्मयन्ते हि शिरश्छेदकारिणाऽपि प्रहारकुशलेन वैरिणा शौण्डीरमानिनः / अनेनैव च सर्वाङ्गाहलादकेन __ कविनटशक्तिजन्मना चमत्कारेण विप्रलब्धाः परमानन्दरूपता दुःखात्मकेष्वपि करुणादिषु सुमेधसः प्रतिजानते / / -Ibid, p. 141. 8. तथाऽनुकार्यगताश्च करुणादयः परिदेवितानुकार्यत्वात् (? परिदेवितादिकार्यत्वात्) तावद् दुःखात्मका एव / यदि वानुकरणे सुखात्मानः स्युर्न सम्यगनुसरणं स्यात्, विपरीतत्वेन भासनात् / इति / -Natyadarpana, p. 142. 9. ... न च नटस्य रसो न भवतीत्येकान्तः / पण्यस्त्रियो हि धनलोभेन पररत्यर्थं रतादि विपञ्चयन्त्यः कदाचित् स्वयमपि परां रतिमनुभवन्ति / गायनाश्च परं रञ्जयन्तः कदाचित् स्वयमपि रज्यन्ते / एवं नटोऽपि रामादिगतं विप्रलम्भाधनुकुर्वाण: कदाचित् तन्मयीभावमुपयात्येवेति / -Ibid, p. 142. 10. ...सुखदुःखात्मा लोकस्य नटस्य काव्यश्रोत्रानुसन्धात्रोः प्रेक्षकस्य च रसः / केवलं मुख्यस्त्रीपुंसयोः स्पष्टेनैव रूपेण रसो विभावानां परमार्थसत्त्वादत एव व्यभिचारिणोऽनुभावाश्च रसजन्याः तत्र स्पष्टरूपाः / अन्यत्र तु प्रेक्षकादौ ध्यामलेनैव रूपेण विभावानामपरमार्थसतामेव काव्यादिना दर्शनात् / अत एव व्यभिचारिणोऽनुभावाश्च रसानुसारेणास्पष्टा एव / अत एव प्रेक्षकादिगतो रसो लोकोत्तर इत्युच्यते / -~-Ibid, p. 143. 11. Kavyaprakasakhandana (p. 16) Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1953 A. D. 12. Kavyamala 12. "Nirnaya-Sagar" edn. 1939, p. 27 13. तदपेक्षया कामिनीकुचकलशस्पर्शचन्दनानुलेपनादिनेव नाट्यदर्शन-काव्यश्रवणाभ्यां सुखविशेषो जायते / स एव तु रस इति नवीनाः / -Kavyaprakasakhandana, p.16.

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JAIN AESTHETIC CONCEPTS 341 14. नवीनास्तु शृङ्गार-वीर-हास्याद्भुतसंज्ञाश्चत्वार एव रसाः / करुणादीनां यथा न रसत्वं तथा वक्ष्यते / -Ibid, p.16. 15. यत्तु शोकादयोऽपि रत्यादिवत् स्वप्रकाशज्ञानसुखात्मका इति तदुन्मत्तप्रलपितम् / Kavyaprakasakhandana, p. 21. 16. atenta afafy: Farif yerfarefita sanifcfauluara na tayarfa sfat -Ibid., p. 22. 17. Natyasastra of Bharatamuni (GOS. No. xxxvi), Vol., I, 1956 edn. Baroda, Preface to the First Edition, p. 63. -18. History of Sanskrit Poetics, 1961 edn., pp. 288-89. 19. Studies in the History of Sanskrit Poetics, Vol.I, p. 203. 20. Journal, Oriental Institute, Baroda, Vol. xiv, No. 2, December 1964. 21. Journal, Oriental Institute, Baroda, Vol. xx No. 3, March, 1971. 22. Roma, Institute Italiano per II, Medio Ed Estremo Oriente, 1962. 23. Pub. in my Studies in Sanskrit Sahitya-Sastra (pp. 123-129), B. L. Institute of Indology, Patan (N. Gujarat). 24. A History of Indian Literature by M.Winternitz, Vol. II University of Calcutta, 1933 (pp. 546-548). 25. Pub. by L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-9, 1983. 000

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THE JAIN VIEW OF AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE It is indeed absurd to speak of a Science such as Aesthetics as Hindu or Buddhist or Jain. A careful examination of the views of different writers about rasa, however, reveals that they are influenced by their own schools of thought or darsanas. The view of Bhatta Lollata, which is classsed as one of the production (utpatti) of rasa, is regarded as that of the Mimamsa school; and the view of Srisankuka which interprets the manifestation of rasa as a process of inference (anumiti) is regarded as that of the Naiyayika school. Bhatta Nayaka's view of rasa, termed as bhuktivada shows influence both of the Samkhya and the Mimamsa darsanas. Finally, Abhinavagupta's exposition of the theory of rasa is deeply influenced by the Vedanta school of thought as well as Kashmir Saivism (Pratyabhijnadarsana). In view of these facts it would be interesting to examine the Jain authors' writings on rasa and see whether they reveal any influence of Jain school of thought. The Jain text, the Anuyogadvarasutral, which claims to be old (before third century A. D. ?) contains a Prakrit passage on nine kavya rasas. It is not easy to decide whether this passage is taken from an early independent Prakrit text on Alamkarasastra or whether it is composed by the author himself keeping in view Sanskrit texts on dramaturgy or poetics. No such early Prakrit work on poetics is so far known. It is not unlikely that the author himself added this passage. It is, however, noteworthy that the usual order of rasas is not followed here. The list notes the rasas in the following order : 1. vira, 2. srngara, 3. adbhuta, 4. raudra, 5. vridanaka, 6. bibhatsa, 7. hasa, 8. karuna and, 9. prasanta. The definitions and the verses illustrating these nine rasas are such as are not to be met with in the treatises on the science of dramaturgy or poetics. It deserves notice that bhayanaka is not included in the list. In its place we have vridanaka(with vrila or lajja as its sthayibhava). The commentator informs us that bhayanaka is included under raudra. Futher, it is

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THE JAIN VIEW OF AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE 343 vira and not srngara that is given the pride of place, This change appears significant. As the author belongs to Jain monastic order we can well appreciate this change of emphasis. The inclusion of prasanta rasa in the list tends to suggest a much later date for this text, at least for this portion of the text, Again, it is to be noted that this passage does not indicate at all whether the author considered some of these rasas as pleasurable and some others painful or whether all rasas are pleasurable. From amongst the Jain writers on Alamkarasastra proper Vagbhata I, Acarya Hemacandra, Maladhari Narendraprabha, Vagbhata (II) and Vijayavarni, who wrote Vagbhatalamkara (1st half of 12th century A. D.), Kavyanusasana (1st half of 12th century A. D.), Alamkaramahodadhi, (1st half of 13th century A. D.), Kavyanusasana, (14th century A. D.) and Srngararnavacandrika (last quarter of the 13th century A. D. ?) respectively, have nothing new to say about rasa. They follow, as a rule, the standard works on poetics. Acarya Hemacandra expressly states that he bases his view of rasa upon that of Abhinavagupta". The credit of presenting graphically and vigorously the view that all rasas are not pleasurable but some alone are pleasurable and some painful, goes to Ramacandra and Gunacandra, the joint Jain authors of the Natyadarpana (latter half of the 12th century A. D.) They were pupils of Acarya Hemacandra, the author of Kavyanusasana. They however, do not agree with their master, for whom they have great reverence, as to the nature of rasa and set forth cogently their own view which may be termed as sukhaduhkhatmavada as opposed to Kevalanandavada according to which all rasas are always pleasurable. According to the Natyadarpana3 1. srngara, 2. hasya, 3. vira, 4. adbhuta and, 5. santa are pleasurable whereas 1. karuna, 2. raudra, 3. bibhatsa and, 4. bhayanaka are painful. They say : the view that all rasas are pleasurable goes against experience. The karuna, raudra, etc. when presented on the stage or in poetry cause indescribable pain to the spectators or sensitive readers. They experience camatkara, only at the end of rasasvada due to the poet's pratibha and actors' skill of presentation. Persons (like Abhinavagupta) duped-carried away--by this camatkara, regard the karuna, raudra, etc. as pleasurable although in reality they are painful. Attracted by this aesthetic experience of grief etc., spectators feel like going to plays in which karuna is present. Poets and playwrights compose poems and plays which consist in pleasure and pain in accordance with this worldly life itself which consists in both pleasure and pain. Witnessing of tragic events on the stage never produces pleasure, If the representation of tragic events be pleasurable then the representation itself will

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344 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE have to be called misrepresentation. The Natyadarpana holds that the sthayibhava itself, when developed by vibhavas and vyabhicaribhavas, and manifested by anubhavas is to be called rasa. This view of the nature of rasa is identical with the utpattivada or pustivada of Lollata (and Dandin), and most probably with Bharata's own view of rasa as found in the Natyasastra. For Bharata explicitly says : Sthayibhavansca rasatvam upanesyamah | -NS, Vol. I, Ch. VI, p. 299 and sthayyeva tu raso bhavet -Ns, Vol. I, Ch. VI. p. 379 Further Bharata's description of a sensitive spectator corroborates this above statement : "A true spectator at a drama is he who, when the character is happy becomes himself happy, when the character is in sorrow is himself in sorrow, and when the character is depressed becomes himself depressed:"4 Thus it would seem that the authors of the ND, in contrast to their own revered Acarya Hemacandra who follows Abhinavagupta, word for word, as regards the nature of rasa regard, following Bharata, Lollata, Dandin etc., rasa as laukika and therefore, sukhaduhkhatmaka. Here we inay note, in passing, that the authors of the ND do not subscribe to the misrananda-vadas of rasa alluded to in their work by Dhanika and Jagannatha, when they speak of its being sukha-duhkhatmaka ! They clearly state that five rasas are sukhatmaka and four, dukhatmaka. Regarding the location of rasa they differ with Lollata. They hold that rasa is present in the hero (say, Rama, Dusyanta, etc.), in the spectator, and some times in the actor also. From amongst the Jaina commentators on poetics a few deserve notice here. Namisadhu (1069 A. D.), the able commentator of Rudrata's Kavyalamkara looks upon rasas as innate gunas, like saundarya, of kavya; and asserts that there is not a single state of mind which when intensified or fully developed does not become rasa. Bharata speaks of eight or nine rasas only as they appeal to the sensitive spectators and are abundantly found in literature Manikyacandra's Sanketa (1160 A. D.), Kavyaprakasakhandana of Siddhicandragani (1587-1666 A. D.) Saradipika of Gunaratnagani (17th century A. D.) are the commentaries on Mammata's famous Kavyaprakasa. Of these commentators, Siddhicandragani deserves special mention here. He very probably gives his own view under the guise of "iti navinah" or "navinas tu".

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THE JAIN VIEW OF AESTHETIC EXPERIENCE 345 According to him, the aesthetic pleasure or rapture is just like ordinary pleasures of sense, that arise, for instance, from pressing plump breasts of a beautiful young lady or from applying cool sandal paste to our bodies. Rasa is thus laukika and not alaukika. Rasa, by its very nature, being pleasurable he holds that there are only four rasas : 1. srngara 2. vira 3. hasya and 4. adbhuta. He rejects the claim of karuna, raudra, bibhatsa, and bhayanaka to the title of rasa?. The whole discussion of this topic is marked by originality, logical reasoning and freshness of outlook and deserves to be read in the originale. Siddhicandragani goes a step, and a very big step indeed, further than Ramacandra and Gunacandra in holding that there are four rasas only. The description of Aja-vilapa, or of santa or of bhayatisaya is aimed at showing the intensity of love towards Indumati, his beloved wife, or complete detachment or world-weariness of mumuksus or the tenderness or softness of a particular individual, respectively. In fact, however, poets undertake to describe such incidents, events or situations only to demonstrate their own descriptive power or the richness of their own imaginative faculty. This survey would show that there is nothing peculiarly Jain about their view of the nature of rasa. Along with other writers on poetics they take rasas to be laukika or alaukika, sukha-duhkhatmaka or sukhatmaka only. A "Moderner" like Siddhicandragani disregards tradition and holds that there are four rasas only. It is, however, very surprising, if not shocking, that none of these Jain authors and commentators takes cognizance of the "nava-kavva-rasa pannatta passage found in their sacred text, viz., the Anuyogadvarasutra. Notes and References : 1. Nandisuttam and the Anuogaddaraim, Jaina-Agama series No. 1. Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1968. pp. 121-124. 2. ...साधारणीभावना च विभावादिभिरिति श्रीमानभिनवगुप्ताचार्यः / एतन्मतमेव चास्माभिरुपजीवितमिति / -Kavyanusasana (p. 103) (Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay 2nd revised edition, Bombay, 1964.) 3. तत्रेष्टविभावादिप्रथितस्वरूपसंपत्तयः शृङ्गार-हास्य-वीराद्भुत-शान्ताः पञ्च सुखात्मानोऽपरे पुनरनिष्टविभावाद्युप नीतात्मानः करुणरौद्र-बीभत्स-भयानकाश्चत्वारो दुःखात्मानः / यत् पुनः सर्वरसानां सुखात्मकत्वमुच्यते, तत् प्रतीत (? fa) antical -p. 141 (GOS, Baroda, 1959 edition) 4. poe afghafa rilas 911449f all दैन्ये दीनत्वमभ्येति स नाट्ये प्रेक्षकः स्मृतः // -Natyasastra (Ch. XXVII) --किन्तु तादृश एवासावानन्दः सुखदुःखात्मको यथा प्रहरणादिषु संभोगावस्थायां कुट्टमिते स्त्रीणाम् / अन्यश्च Stud.-44

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346 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE लौकिकात् करुणात् काव्यकरुणः / ---Avaloka commentary on the Dasarupaka (Ch. IV. p. 98) NS edition Bombay (1941) 5. अथ यद्यालाद इव दुःखमपि प्रमाणसिद्धं तदा प्रतिबन्धकत्वं न कल्पनीयम् / स्वस्वकारणवशाच्चोभयमपि भविष्यति / अथ तत्र कवीनां कर्तुं सहदयानां च श्रोतुं कथं प्रवृत्तिः / अनिष्टसाधनत्वेन निवृत्तेरुचितत्वाद् इति चेत् / इष्टस्याधिक्यादनिष्टस्य च न्यूनत्वाच्चन्दनद्रवलेपनादाविव प्रवृत्तेरुपपत्तेः / - Rasagangadhara (p. 31,) Kavyamala edition, (1939) According to Lollata rasa is primarily present in the hero and only secondarily in the actor who imitates or represents him. 6. अयमाशयो ग्रन्थकारस्य-यदुत नास्ति सा कापि चित्तवृत्तिर्या परिपोषं गता न रसीभवति / भरतेन सहृदयावर्जकत्वात् प्राचुर्यात् संज्ञां चाश्रित्याष्टौ नव वा रसा उक्ता इति / -Tippani on Kavyalamkara, Kavyamala edition (1909) 7. Abhinavagupta explicitly says that some of the 'sthayibhava's are 'sukha-svabhava' (of the nature of happiness, i.e. pleasurable) while some others are duhkha-svarupa' (of the nature of unhappiness, i.e. painful) : रतिहासोत्साहविस्मयानां सुखस्वभावत्वम् / .... क्रोधभयशोकजुगुप्सानां तु दुःखरूपता 1 --Abhinavabharati on NS I. 119, pp. 43-44 Siddhicandragani holds that rasa is simply 'laukika.' Naturally, he recognises the four 'rasa's based on 'rati', 'hasa' 'utsaha' and 'vismaya' and rejects the claim of 'raudra,' 'bhayanaka' etc. to the title of 'rasa'. Abhinavagupta, who firmly subscribes to the view that 'rasas' are 'alaukika,' regards even 'raudra', 'bhayanaka,' etc. as 'sukhasvabhava' or 'sukhapradhana.' 8. Kavyaprakasakhandana (p. 16 and pp. 21-22), Singhi Jaina Series, Vol. 40, Bombay, 1953.

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SOME UNCONVENTIONAL VIEWS ON RASA Says Bharata : The great Brahma has declared that in a drama there are the following eight rasas : (1) srngara (erotic), (2) hasya (comic), (3) karuna (pathetic, compassionate), (4) raudra (furious), (5) vira (heroic). (6) bhayanaka (terrifying), (7) bibhatsa (disgusting) and (8) adbhuta (awesome or wondrous or marvellous). The permanent emotions (on which the above-mentioned eight rasas are based) have been declared to be (1) rati (love) (2) hasa (mirth, amusement, laughter), (3) soka (sorrow), (4) krodha (anger). (5) utsaha (energy), (6) bhaya (fear, terror), (7) jugupsa (disgust) and (8) vismaya (astonishment, wonder)". Of these eight permanent or dominant emotions, the following four are pleasant or pleasurable : rati, hasa, utsaha and vismaya; the remaining four, viz. soka, krodha, bhaya and jugupsa, unpleasant. Incidentally, it may be noted that Bharata nowhere speaks of the ninth rasa called santa (the sentiment of calm). Now, the question arises : Whether the four rasas, based on unpleasant emotions, are painful or whether they are also pleasurable like the other four rasas, based on pleasant emotions ? Bharata does not specifically answer this question. He, using a simile, explains how rasa is relished : "As connoisseurs of table delicacies are able to relish the flavour of food prepared with many spices and attain pleasure, etc., so sensitive and sympathetic spectators relish the dominant or permanent emotions suggested by the acting out of the various bhavas and presented with the threefold abhinaya called vacika (of speech), angika (of body, gestures) and sattvika (of sattvika bhavas-the involuntary states--like stambha--paralysis, sveda-perspiration, etc.) and attain pleasure, etc. (harsadims cadhigacchanti)." Regarding this phrase 'harsadin', Abhinavagupta notes the view of an earlier writer : "Others however think that the word etc. [in the compound harsadims cadhigacchanti) includes pain and the like. But this is not correct. For drama produces only joy in the spectator, and not such feelings as sorrow...these

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348 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE authors read harsamscadhigacchanti' (they attain pleasure)...while this is not given as Abhinavas position, we can be fairly certain that he would agree with the view that the sole purpose of drama is harsa (or priti) and that it never creates sorrow." Abhinavagupta in his commentary Abhinavabharati on the Natyasastra and his commentary Locana on Dhvanyaloka declares, on a number of occasions, that rasa is always pleasurable?. Dhananjaya in his Dasarupaka and Dhamka in his commentary Avaloka on it also declare that rasa is pleasurable (anandatmaka). Jagannatha too declares that things like sorrow, although unwelcome in themselves, when portrayed in creative literature produce extraordinary joy or delights. Among the four commentators of the Natyasastra we have already noted the view of Abhinavagupta. Bhattanayaka, like Abhinavagupta, holds that rasa is always pleasurable since he compares rasasvada to brahmasvadas. Regarding Sankuka, though he does not touch this aspect in the course of his expositon of the rasa-sutra, we come across a passage in Abhinavabharati which unmistakably shows that Abhinavagupta has in mind Sankuka who held the view that rasa is of the nature of imitation of emotions like rati and that soka (sorrow), when portrayed in a play, assumes an altogether different nature and causes joy?. About the view of Lollata and the ancients, whom he approvingly quotes, there is no indication to know if they held the view that all rasas are pleasurable or some are pleasurable and some painful. But we may not be wrong if we say that the generally accepted and traditional and dominant view is that all rasas are pleasurable8. Keeping in mind this background we now deal with some less known and unconventional views on rasa. The Anuyogadvara-sutra, one of the sacred texts of the Svetambara Jains, composed between A. D. 300 and 500, according to Weber, and according to the editors of its critical edition (Nandisuttam and Anuyogaddaraim, Jaina Agama Series No.1 Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1968) not later than 300 A. D., deals with the nine kavya-rasas : 1. vira 2. srngara 3. adbhuta, 4. raudra, 5. vridanaka, 6. bibhatsa, 7. hasya, 8. karuna, and 9. prasanta (i.e. santa). This list of rasas differs from the well-known list of eight rasas given by Bharata in his Natyasastra in three noteworthy respects : (1) It breaks the usual order in enumerating the rasas. It opens with vira instead of opening with srngara (ii) It does not include Bharata's bhayanaka but gives in its place vridanaka. (iii) It adds for the first time to Bharata's list of eight rasas prasanta, the same as santa, is the ninth rasa.

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SOME UNCONVENTIONAL VIEWS ON RASA 349 (i) Maladhari Hemacandrasuri's Sanskrit Commentary on this sutra (Agamodaya Samiti edition, Bombay, 1924.) says that the vira (heroic) is the first and best of the rasas. It has two sublime varieties called tyaga-vira (the heroic relating to magnanimity) and tapo-vira (the heroic relating to asceticism). Both of these are superior to the third variety called yuddha-vira (the heroic relating to battle). It further says that yuddhavira is vitiated by the sin or flaw of injury to others (paropaghata). The commentary says that vira is mentioned first-is given the pride of place--because it is the noblest and foremost of rasas'. The primacy of vira may be regarded an early contribution to aesthetics by the Jain tradition. Tapovira is a new view in aesthetics as far as we know. (ii) The vridanka rasa : As said earlier the Anuyogadvarasutra omits the bhayanaka and in its place gives a new rasa called vridanaka. The sthayi of this new rasa is vrida, or lajja (shyness, modesty, bashfulness, shame). The traditional bhayanaka is, according to the commentator, included under raudra rasa, and hence not mentioned separately. The illustration of this new rasa is very interesting, the reference in it is to a peculiar provincial marriage custom, According to this custom "elderly men and women including the father-in-law and the mother-in-law pay their respects to the sari and the person of the bride after the nuptial night. The bride is taken round and elders revere her for her chastity. The thought of the elders revering her produces a sense of shyness in the bride's heart."10 (iii) If the passage dealing with nine kavya-rasas be as old as claimed by Weber or the editors of the critical edition brought out by Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya, Bombay, then it is perhaps the earliest text defining and illustrating, for the first time, the santa rasa. It is thus defined : "That rasa, which is characterised by sama (tranquillity), which arises from composure of the mind divested of all vikaras (passions), is to be known as prasanta- (the same as santa) rasa." The following is its example : "Oh, (look) how the lotus-like face of the sage shines ! It is full of great beauty (arising from tranquillity), truly devoid of any vikaras (passions)--the face with its eyes calm and gentle unperturbed by passions like anger, love and the like." Even if these passages were older than Abhinavagupta, it is very unlikely that he would have seen them. His treatment of the santarasa shows absolutely no signs of his having seen them. If he had seen them, he would have certainly dealt with them in a critical manner. The Natyadarpana of Ramacandra and Gunacandra (1100-1175 A. D.) : They were disciples of the famous Hemacandra who wrote Kavyanusasana, a

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350 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE noteworthy work on poetics and dramatics. Hemacandra reproduces the whole section of Abhinavabharati on rasasutra and acknowledges his indebtedness to Abhinavagupta. Now, these disciples who wrote Natyadarpana have freely and copiously drawn on Abhinavabharati. They, however, have criticised Abhinavagupta's theory that rasas, one and all, without exception, are pleasurable by nature. Indirectly they have criticised their own guru who has literally followed Abhinavagupta in the exposition of the nature of rasa. They nowhere in their work have given any indication as to whether they had discussed this topic of the nature of rasa with their guru and whether he had approved of their presentation of the view that rasa is sukha-duhkhatmaka--both pleasurable and painful. They support their theory with the following arguments : "To say that all rasas are pleasurable is against experience. Karuna, raudra, bibhatsa and bhayanaka-these four rasas cause indescribable pain to the sahrdayas. They simply shudder when they witness plays depicting these rasas. If these rasas were pleasurable they would not shudder. The camatkara (thrill of pleasure, peculiar delight) experienced by the sahrdayas at the end of the performance of tragic scenes, etc., is however simply due to the display of the creative imagination (pratibha, sakti) of the poet and the great skill of the actors. The literary critics (like Abhinavagupta) who hold that these rasas also are pleasurable are perhaps deceived---misled by this camatkara. It is through excessive desire to experience this camatkara that people go to the theatre to see plays depicting these rasas also. Poets present the subject-matter keeping in mind the pleasant and unpleasant nature of the emotions of the hero Rama etc. : these four rasas resemble the pungent taste that adds to the sweetness of a beverage. For they heighten the pleasure yielded by pleasurable rasas. Tragic events, for example, the abduction of Sita, Dussasana dragging Draupadi by her hair and attempting to disrobe her, Hariscandra's serving a candala as a slave, the death of Rohitasva, Laksmana's being hit by a missile, Aghoraghanta's attempt to kill Malati, when represented on the stage can never cause delight in the hearts of sahrdayas. If through imitation by actors the unpleasant or painful feelings and emotions are said to become pleasurable, it is obvious that the actor's art of acting is very deficient or defective-it represents things falselyin their perverted form". It is for the first time in the history of aesthetics we find that this unconventional view on rasa is presented so vigorously and eloquently by the authors of Natyadarpana. Rudrabhatta's Rasakalika agrees with the above view that some rasas are pleasurable and some others painful. It attributes our interest in witnessing

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SOME UNCONVENTIONAL VIEWS ON RASA 351 plays depicting them to our mental absorption in the acting going on in front of us. "So the rasa of karuna is of a peculiar kind and is particularly due, not to the nature of the emotion itself, but to our contemplation of the art with which an actor presents it."l1 Kavyaprakasakhandana 12 of Siddhicandra : Finally, we have this commentary which presents altogether new and novel ideas regarding the nature and number of rasas. These may briefly be stated as follows : As compared with the supreme joy (or rather delight) of rasa of the Vedantins, a peculiar pleasure which arises on watching a dramatic performance or hearing the recitation of poetry is similar to the pleasure of anointing one's body with sandal-paste or of pressing the breasts of a young beautiful woman and is itself rasa--this is the view of the moderns (navinah) who belong to the 17th century A. D. In other words, the navinas (including the author himself) regard the aesthetic pleasure as on a par with ordinary pleasures of the senses--as only worldly (laukika). As a natural consequence of this view they hold that there are only four rasas : the erotic, the heroic, the comic and the marvellous, and they reject the claim of the pathetic (or compassionate), the furious, the terrifying and the disgusting to the title of rasa. The pathetic and others, arising from sorrow, etc., although are revealed with cit (=caitanya)-consciousness consisting of delight, they cannot be called rasa since the sthayi-amsa (part) is opposed to the state of rasa. Again, if you argue that they, being revealed by alaukika vibhavas etc., deserve to be called rasa like the pleasurable bites inflicted in the course of love game, our reply is : "No". For following this line of argument you will have to call mental distress, caused by hunger, thirst, etc., as new or different rasas. The bites in the course of sexual enjoyment remove the pain caused by overpowering passion and give a sense of relief as when a burden is taken off one's shoulders. But to say that sorrow, etc., like love etc., consist of or lead to light, knowledge and joy is simply a madman's prattle. Further in Aja-vilapa (Aja's Lament), etc., because of varnaniyatanmayibhavana (identifying one's self with the event or situation or mental mood portrayed), how could there arise the aesthetic joy similar to Brahmananda [the supreme delight arising out of the direct vision of the Highest Reality (the Absolute)-- brahmasaksatkara] ? In the disgusting rasa which arises out of vivid description of flesh, pus, etc., the reader or spectator does not vomit or spit is itself a matter of surprise; how could it produce rasa consisting of supreme delight ? It may be granted that the santa somehow deserves the title rasa with reference to persons who have given up completely all vasanas (various instincts) but certainly not with reference to sensualists as it (the santa) involves abstention from all

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352 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE pleasures of the senses. The heroic and the furious do not differ as their vibhavas bear resemblance. Regarding dana-vira etc., the poet's chief intention is to describe the supreme generosity, greatness, etc., of the hero. The poet (Kalidasa) describes 'The Lament of Aja' for pointing out the profound love of Aja for Indumati, his beloved queen. So too the santa is portrayed to demonstrate the intense sense of world-weariness of mumuksus (persons desirous of liberation). So too the terrifying in order to illustrate the tenderness of heart of the heroes concerned. To tell the truth, poets depict these various situations to exhibit the richness of their pratibha (creative imagination) in the same way as they write padma-bandha (artificial composition in which the words are arranged in the form of a lotus flower), etc. This point of view thar "rasa is laukika (worldly), that it is 'sukhaduhkhatmaka', and that it in no way differs from other pleasures of the senses", however, did not find able advocates among the alankarikas and was thrown into background, if not completely eclipsed, by the writings of Abhinavagupta, Mammata, Visvanatha, Jagannatha and the like. Notes and References : 1. Natyasastra VI. 15-17. 2. अन्ये त्वादिशब्देन शोकादीनामत्र संग्रहः / स च न युक्तः / सामाजिकानां हि हईंकफलं नाट्यं न शोकादिफलम् / ..हर्षांश्चाधिगच्छतीति पठन्ति / ---Abhinavabharati (A. Bh) I, p. 289 and Aesthetic Rapture, Vol.II. Notes, p. 68, fn, no. 385, by Masson and Patwardhan, Deccan College, Poona, 1970 3. i) तत्र सर्वेऽमी सुखप्रधानाः / स्वसंविच्चर्वणरूपस्यैकघनस्य प्रकाशस्यानन्दसारत्वात् / ...इति आनन्दरूपता सर्वरसानाम् / -A. Bh., Vol. I. p. 284 ii) तेनालौकिकचमत्कारात्मा रसास्वादः स्मृत्यनुमानलौकिकसंवेदनविलक्षण एव / --A. Bh., Vol. I, p. 234 iii) चतुर्वर्गव्युत्पत्तेरपि चानन्द एव पार्यन्तिकं मुख्यं फलम् / ---Locana, Balapriya edn., p. 41 iv) प्रीत्यात्मा च रसस्तदेव नाट्यं नाट्यमेव वेद इत्यस्मदुपाध्यायः / -Ibid., p. 336 4. i) आनन्दनिष्यन्दिषु रूपकेषु... ...स्वसंवेद्यः परमानन्दरूपो रसास्वादो दशरूपाणां फलम्...Dasarupakavaloka I.6, N.S. edn., p. 2 ii) तादृश एवासावानन्दः सुखदुःखात्मको यथा प्रहरणादिषु संभोगावस्थायां कुट्टमिते, स्त्रीणाम्, अन्यश्च लौकिकात् करुणात् काव्यकरुणः / ..तस्माद् रसान्तरवत् करुणस्याप्यानन्दात्मकत्वमेव / --Ibid., p. 98 5. अयं हि लोकोत्तरस्य काव्यव्यापारस्य महिमा, यत्प्रयोज्या अरमणीया अपि शोकादयः पदार्थाः आहलादमलौकिकं जनयन्ति / विलक्षणो हि कमनीयः काव्यव्यापारज आस्वादः प्रमाणान्तरजादनुभवात् / ___ -Rasagaigadhara, Anana I (under rasasvarupa) 6. भावकत्वव्यापारेण भाव्यमानो रसः..सत्त्वोद्रेकप्रकाशानन्दमयनिजसंविद्विश्रान्तिलक्षणेन परब्रह्मास्वादसविधेन भोगेन परं भुज्यत इति / -A. Bh., Vol. I, p. 277

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SOME UNCONVENTIONAL VIEWS ON RASA 353 7. ये तु रत्याद्यनुकरणरूपं रसमाहुः अथ चोदयन्ति शोकः कथं शोकहेतुरिति / परिहरन्ति च आस्ति कोऽपि नाट्यगतानां ' विशेष इति / .. -A.Bh., Vol I, p. 291 8. Abhinavagupta after refuting Sankuka's view very briefly refers to and refutes the view of the Samkhyas that rasa is of the nature of pleasure and pain. We have no more information about this view. The view of the authors of the Natyadarpana soon to be discussed below, bears close affinity to the Sarkhya view in its essence. 9.cf : अत्र तु त्यागतपोगुणो वीररसे वर्तते / त्यागतपसी च 'त्यागो गुणो गुणशतादधिको मतो मे', 'परं लोकातिगं धाम तपः श्रुतमिति द्वयम्' इत्यादिवचनात् समस्तगुणप्रधान(ने)इत्यनया विवक्षया वीररसस्य आदावुपन्यासः / --p. 135 10. Raghavan, V., The Number of Rasas, Adyar, Madras, 1975, p. 161. 11. This information is based on V. Raghavan's work : Bhoja's Srngaraprakasa, 1963 edn. p. 484, fn. 12. Parikh, R. C. Ed., Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan publication, Bombay, 1953, p. 16. 000 Stud.-45

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SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT MAHAKAVYAS Writers on poetics define and describe the salient features of an epicmahakavya : Dandin, one of the earliest alamkarikas, lays down in his Kavyadarsa the following characteristics : The subject should be taken from old narratives or traditions (itihasaKathodbhutam), not therefore invented; the hero should be noble and clever (caturodatta nayakam); there should be descriptions of cities, oceans, mountains, seasons, the rising (and setting) of the Sun and the Moon, sport in parks or water sport, drinking (madhupana), love feasts, (ratotsava), separations, marriages, the birth of a son, meeting of councils, (mantra), envoys, campaigns, battles and the victory of the hero although his rival's merits may be exalted. It should not be too short or compressed (asamksipta) and it should flow with sentiments and emotions (rasa-bhava-nirantaram). It should be marked with effective samdhis. The metres should be charming (sravya-vrttaih upetam); and each canto, which should not be too long, should end with a change of metre (sarvatra bhinna - vrttantaih upetam). The poem should open with a prayer (benediction), paying homage or invoking a blessing or an indication of the subject-matter (asirnamaskriya vastu-nirdeso vapi tanmukham). It should promote the four ends of human existence : dharma-Duty or Conduct, arthaWorldly success or Wealth or successful practical life, kama love and moksafinal release. The famous Sanskrit mahakavyas-Asvaghosa's Buddhacarita (the life of the Buddha), Saundarananda (The Handsome Nanda-the Gautama Buddha's half-brother); The Kumarasambhava (The Birth of Kumara Kartikeya) and the Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa, Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya, Magha's Sisupalavadha (slaying of sisupala), Sriharsa's Naisadhacarita or Naisadhiya (Life of Nala), etc., satisfy more or less, generally speaking, the above requirements. Asvaghosa is almost ignored by Sanskrit alamkarikas (literary critics or writers on poetics). We say almost because Rajasekhara quotes one verse from

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SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT MAHAKAVYAS 355 Buddhacarita for an example of a namakhyatakavi (a grammatical poet) : हतत्विषोऽन्धाः शिथिलांसबाहवः, स्त्रियो विषादेन विचेतना इव / न चुकुशु! रुरुदुर्न सस्वनुर्न चेलुरासुलिखिता इव क्षणम् / / "Other women, their splendour destroyed, their shoulders and arms loose, were as if senseless with despair; They did not cry, they shed no tears, they did not sigh, They did not move, they stayed as if they were painted!." Johnston in his Introduction to his translation of the Life of the Buddha has collected a number of examples where Asvaghosa's influence seems visible. "The kavis affected include among others Bhasa, Kalidasa and Bana. This suggests that his influence was considerable upto the 7th century, after which perhaps he was rarely read by kavis, who devoted their time to other models." Kalidasa's two poems, the Kumarasambhava and the Raghuvarsa rank among the famous five mahakavyas. The traditional list mentions the following five : Raghuvamsa, Kumarasambhava, Kiratarjuniya, sisupalavadha and Naisadhacarita. According to the old gloss on Svayambhu's Apabhramsa poem, Paumacariu (1.3.7.) the five poems are : 1. Kumarasambhava, 2. Raghuvamsa, 3. Meghaduta, 4. Kiratarjuniya and 5. Sisupalavadha. According to Handique, this enumeration is wrong. He would like to read 'Setubandha' of Pravarasena in place of Meghaduta (see Introduction to Pravarasena's Setubandha, pp. 50-51). This suggestion is, on the very face of it, unacceptable for the simple reason that the tradition wants to enumerate five famous mahakavyas in Sanskrit whereas Pravarasena's Setubandha is in Prakrit. Keith in his History of Sanskrit Literature observes : "Though inferior in some slight degree to the Kumarasambhava, the Raghuvamsa may rightly be ranked as the finest Indian specimen of the Mahakavya as defined by writers on poetics." H. D. Velankar in his Introduction to Raghuvamsas however says : "The Technical definitions of these varieties (Maha and Khanda kavya) given in the later works on the Sahityasastra are primarily based on the works of Kalidasa." This is very plausible, nay probable. So no wonder if Kalidasa's mahakavyas are true to the type. Kumarasambhava, canto VIII describes, according to the principle of Kamasastra, the joys of the wedded pair. Anandavardhana tells us in his Dhvanyaloka that there were critics who deemed it wrong to depict the amour of two deities. But Kalidasa wants to

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356 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE suggest that the wedding of Siva and Uma and their love are depicted as the prototype for human marriage and human love. Aesthetically, this canto is perhaps the best and I would like to suggest in all seriousness that it should be brought out separately with translation in modern Indian languages like Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, etc., and its copies presented to the newly wed pair who are about to proceed on their journey for honeymoon. The early epics of Asvaghosa and Kalidasa deserve all praise for their simple and lucid style--the Vaidarbha marga or Vaidarbhi riti. Kalidasa, much more than Asvaghosa, makes appeal to the heart and imagination of the hearer, but rarely to his intellect. His poetry therefore as one reads delights and teaches also but in the manner of a loving wife. Moral advice is so conveyed that the sahrdaya spectator or hearer is hardly conscious of it. Another distinguishing characteristic of Kalidasa's mahakavyas is ; he maintains judicious balance between the subjectmatter and descriptions and his poetic descriptions do not hamper the steady progress of his subjectmatter or narrative. In Kumarasambhava Kalidasa expressly claims the divine precedent of Siva and Uma as sanction for the most passionate married love; and throughout his Raghuvamsa we are reminded of the duties of kings; and he portrays in Rama an ideal ruler. If our present day rulers read Raghuvamsa and seriously and meticulously try to follow it, there would descend on earth real Ramarajya. . Bharavi's power of description is no doubt remarkable : 'His style at its best has a calm dignity which is certainly attractive' : 'He excels also in the observation and record of the beauties of nature and of maidens.' He, however, 'is guilty of errors of taste.' In Canto XV he sets himself to try 'feats of skill of the most foolish kind. Thus in Canto XV one verse has all four lines identical ! He 'sets a bad example in his fondness for showing his skill in grammar.' Magha in his sisupalavadha sets himself to vie with his predecessor Bharavi. If Magha "lacks the conciousness, the calm serenity and dignity of Bharavi at his best, he possesses much luxuriance of expression and imagination and in the many love passages of his epic sweetness and prettiness abound." Magha's exhibition of his power of twisting language is indeed deplorable (Canto XIX). The effort for achieving double entendres "leads to constant ransacking of the poetical lexicons extant and turns the pursuit of poetry into an intellectual exercise of no high value to the utter ruin of emotion and thought4." Indian tradition names Sriharsa mahakavi, as the successor of Kalidasa,

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SANSKRIT AND PRAKRIT MAHAKAVYAS 357 Bharavi and Magha. His poem, though long, "carries us only to a description of the married bliss of Nala and Damayanti leaving off with a description of the moon carried out in a dialogue between the amorous pair." "The Naisadhiya unquestionably has a definite interest in the history of Sanskrit literature, for it exhibits the application to the charming episode of Nala of the full resource of a master of diction and metre, possessed of a high degree of skill in the difficult art of playing on words and capable of both delicate observation of nature and of effective expression of the impressions thence derived." The three works of Bharavi, Magha and Sriharsa are tough. Poetry to them was essentially a learned pursuit, the product of much cultivation. A poet, according to Mammata, must supplement his natural genius-pratibha by a careful study of the Sastras as also of the worldly topics of knowledge. He must even practise extensively under the watchful guidance of a Kavya-critic. In short, after Kalidasa, Kavya became a preserve of men of learning and scholarship. Scholarship displaced genuine poetry. The Kavya ultimately became an object of study for Pandita-sahrdayas rather than a delightful thing of beauty. Now, a mahakavya is expected to promote the four aims of human life :dharma, artha, kama and moksa Abhinavagupta's perceptive remarks on rasas in relation to the four purusarthas in the context of drama are : "Thus vira, raudra, srngara are used there respectively, occurring in these works by being engendered by (the aims of the characters portrayed) dharma, artha and kama, while santa and bibhatsa occur in connection with moksa. But not every character can carry the main role in this latter case, only the occasional saint. Although in the nataka, santa or bibhatsa may be the principal rasa when moksa is the principal goal, this is not a common practice, so they although engendered by the best of human aims (the character's pursuit of moksa) are considered subordinate to the other rasas-vira, raudra and srngara. Thus the main rasa of a drama is really governed by the purusartha if it portrays, but other rasas occur in support of it as a result of the variety of subjectmatter in hands." A. Bh. Vol. II, p. 451. Prakrit Mahakavyas, "Maharastri, the language of Maharastra, is called the best of Prakrits in which the works like the Setubandha are written", tells us Dandin in his Kavyadarsao. Hemacandra specifically refers, following Bhoja, to the three Prakrit poems : Ravanavijaya, Harivijaya and Setubandha, as composed in a single metre, i. e., the skandhaka from the beginning to the end?. There are two

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358 STUDIES IN JAIN LITERATURE more poems in Maharastri Prakrit. Madhumathavijaya and Gaudavadha which are mentioned by literary critics. These five may be regarded as the famous panca mahakavyas in Prakrit. Of these, three poems are lost Ravanavijaya, Harivijaya and Madhumathavijaya. Only a single quotation from Ravanavijaya, cited by Bhoja and after him by Hemacandra, is preserved to us; and a couple of quotations from Vakpati or Vakpatiraja's Madhumathavijaya. And till recently only four quotations from Harivijaya (HV) of Sarvasena were identified by Raghavan and A. K. Warder. In my monograph, Bhoja and the Harivijaya of Sarvasena, I have identified about forty quotations as definitely from Harivijaya and over 100 quotations as probably from Harivijaya. Sarvasena composed, it is surmised by Handique, his HV about a hundred years earlier than Pravarasena's Setubhandha (SB) (first-half of the 5th century A. D.). Eminent Sanskrit alamkarikas, viz., Anandavardhana, Kuntaka, Bhoja and Hemacandra speak appreciatively of Sarvasena's HV : (i) Anandavardhana observes8 : इतिवृत्तवशायातां कथंचिद् रसाननुगुणां स्थिति त्यक्त्वा पुनरुत्प्रेक्ष्याप्यन्तराभीष्टरष्टसोचितकथोन्नयो विधेयः / यथा कालिदासप्रबन्धेषु / यथा च सर्वसेनविरचिते हरिविजये / "If in a plot adopted from a well known source, the poet is faced with situations conflicting with the intended rasa, he should be prepared to leave out such incidents inventing in their place even imaginary ones in conformity with the intended rasa. Kalidasa's works provide us illustrations and so does the Harivijaya of Sarvasena." Abhinavagupta thus explains in his Locana : "In Raghuvamsa we find the description of Aja's wedding, etc., although there is no basis for such events in the source books like Ra