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INTRODUCTION.
space-measurement (prades'a). The whole world is 'fully packed with material bodies, subtle or gross, capable of being received as karmas or not by the soul. Dharma and Adharma are one-all-pervasive substances which are coextensive with the physical space. Akas'a or space is of two kinds: Lokākās'a or the physical space wherein are accommodated all these substances for all the time, and Alokākās'a, non-physical or super-physical space (which is beyond Lokākās'a) where there is nothing but mere space that extends infinitely; the ultimate unit of space is a space-point or prades'a which is capable of giving room to the atoms (in some cases prades'as) of all substances. Time which marks continuity is without extension in space; the ultimate unit of time is samaya, that much period of time required for a primary atom to traverse one space-point. That which has no space-points, not even one space-point, is to be known as void, which is something other than existence (II, 35-52, 60, 76-77).
LXIII
CRITICAL REMARKS ON JAINA AND SAMKHYA ONTOLOGY.-Jainism does not accept creation in the Nyaya-Vais'esika sense or emanation, whether actual or apparent, in the Vedantic sense. With it the world is existential and real. Since it is not created by any one on the analogy of a carpenter or a smith, the cosmic constituents enumerated by Jainism are such that they are capable of explaining the diverse phenomena by their mutual interaction. The ontological start is that of realistic dualism or even pluralism. The world of existence is constituted of two substances, life and non-life, which are not philosophical postulates but reals as spirit and matter which are pluralistic, constitutionally eternal, and not liable to lose or to interchange their nature. The substances like earth, water, fire, mind etc. enumei atd by Nyaya-Vais'esıka are only forms of matter according to Jainism. The position is exactly the same in Jainism and Samkhya so far as the initial start is concerned, one accepting the thesis and antethesis of Jiva and Ajīva and the other of Purusa and Prakrti; thus both are dualistic or even pluralistic in view of the plurality of spirits that essentially retain their individuality; but the immediate development of these two schools is interesting. Samkhya dualism is undiluted, it is what Dr. Belvalkar aptly calls touch-me-not dualism; with a spirit of idealism this dualism has been maintained by the Samkhya almost to a logical fallacy; while Jainism started with the same dualism but with a plain dogma that the soul is associated with matter from times immemorial. With this dogma it was easy for Jainism to explain samsara as a remedy against which Religion was needed. That explains very well how Jainism became an institutional religion with all the necessary accessories like mythology etc. and with a philosophical background, while Samkhya remained till, the end only a system of intellectual pursuit. The strong realistic tone of Jainism is the result...of..common-sense and analytical approach to objectivity. Dharma and Adharma respond to the definition of substance, 'because they exist as the neutral and conditional causes of motion and rest. The two words are never used in this sense any
1 The conceptions of Dharma and Adharma require a thorough study. In early stages of oriental studies they were uniformly misunderstood. For some important exposition
