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INTRODUCTION
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While not neglecting austerities (tapa) (tapa is mentioned in PS 202, 214, 227, 263-264 and 268-269), Kundakunda lays stress on the internal aspects or mental attitude. The shraman, who is free from all desire or longing for food, he points out, is, in fact, observing the [internal] penance or austerity of fasting (the first of the external austerities (bahya tapa), as he is devoid of the desire (eshana dosha) (the fault against the observance of carefulness or self-regulation in eating, i.e. eshana-samiti]; for “the internal is more important (than the external). Although taking food, those shramanas are really not taking food and are really abstainers from food” (PS 227 AC). Thus Kundakunda, Johnson remarks, is “consciously reacting to acting against the excessive formalization, the mechanistic pursuit of physical austerity”. 155 28 Primary Qualities (Mulagunas) of Samana
In this way, Kundakunda seems to remind the readers that the 28 primary or fundamental qualities (mula-guna) (PS 208-209) of shramanas prescribed by Jinas are not to be viewed merely in external, physical, material terms. In his introductory remarks to Pravachanasara 205-206 and Pravachanasara 207 and in his commentary on Pravachanasara 277, Amrtachandra specifically mentions both external and internal characteristics of shraman.
Of the 28 mula-gunas of shraman, except for seven (see PS 208), the remaining 21 characteristics have both internal and external dimensions. These include five vows (vratas) or moral rules of conduct (besides non-violence and parigraha, truthfulness, non-stealing and chastity), the five observances of carefulness or self-regulation (samiti) (besides carefulness in taking food, i.e. eshana, carefulness in walking, speaking, handling of things and disposing of excrements i.e. cleanliness), restraint of five senses (indriya-rodha) and six essential duties (avashyaka) (see PS 207 AC). (For the significance of the study of scriptures (svadhyaya, the 5th avashyaka) see PS 232-237].
The seven mula-guna includes achailakya, which signifies the unclothed state of nakedness as well as the scantily-clothed state. Kundakunda has also used jadhajadaruva (yatha jata rupa in Sk.) (PS 204, 205 and 225), which could mean the nature of self at birth, the child-like simplicity as also the state of nakedness of a newly-born child. A shraman is required to be earnest in regard to the observances of mula-guna (PS 214). In case of negligence, a shraman should seek
