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THE ESSENCE OF JAINA SCRIPTURES
consciousness)? (PS 221).
Conduct in Pravachanasara Book III of Pravachanasara deals with conduct and path of liberation. There are several misperceptions in that regard and Kundakunda has sought to rectify them. According to “purely orthodox doctrine," as found in Dasavaikalika Sutra and other Shvetambara "canonical texts”, particularly Bhagavati, Thanang and Uttarajjhayayana, Johnson states, Jaina asceticism was usually and primarily viewed in physical and material terms, 146 i.e. painful penance and mortification of the body.147 The glorious sufferings of Lord Mahavira, engaging himself in 12 years of “self-mortifications” and “wandering about leading a life of austerities and bearing hardships of all kinds”, portrayed in Acharanga Sutra, seemed to serve as an illustration and “set a high example of the true ascetic life”. 148
Thus, Jainism along with Samkhya and Buddhist philosophy came to be considered as “essentially pessimistič in worldly outlook," and “temperamentally ascetic,"149 with austerities (tapasya) “emanating from the darker and gloomier view of life”. 150 “Self-mortification” by several kinds of austerities thereby seemed to assume utmost importance in the Jaina order, including the shedding of karmas.!51 Nakedness was supposed to be “the excellent type of Jaina aceticism”. 152 The term “achela” signifies an unclothed state of nakedness, i.e. completely devoid of clothes on the body as well as scantily clothed.153 Nakedness is symbolic of extreme non-attachment to worldly objects to the extent of not having clothes on the body and as such is prescribed in both Shvetambara'54 and Digambara texts. Balance between Internal and External Aspects of Conduct
In these circumstances, in Pravachanasara Kundakunda sought to rectify the undue importance attached to the infliction of undue and painful physical hardships on oneself in the name of austerities in the belief that it led to the much desired balance and sanity between internal and external aspects. Internal aspects had “precedence” over the external ones. Kundakunda's concern for balance is reflected in the statement that a shraman does not desire/have any attachment to either food or fasting, either lodging (i.e. residence) or wandering (PS 215). Such a balanced approach is considered appropriate in regard to food and wandering (yukta ahara vihara) (PS 226).
