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THE ESSENCE OF JAINA SCRIPTURES
this world and has no expectation in regard to the other [i.e. next world), is self-controlled in food and wandering (yukta-ahara-vihara), and is free from passions (kashaya) is samana (PS 226);
(2) a person whose view (ditthi in Pk. and drashti in Sk.) or conviction is not in accordance with scriptures, cannot be selfrestrained (sanyat) and one who does not practice self-restraints, how can he be considered samana? (PS 236), i.e. he is not samana; and
(3) a person who maintains equanimity among groups of enemies and friends as the same, treats pleasure and pain as the same, regards praise and blame as the same, clay and gold as the same, and, moreover, maintains an equanimous attitude in regard to life and death by considering them to be the same (PS 241).
It is noteworthy that in the three works of Kundakunda, viz. Pravachanasara, Samayasara and Niyamsara, no distinction is made in vows as major-scale vows (mahavratas) and minor-scale vows (anuvratas), meant for ascetics and householders respectively. Moreover, in Niyamsara the five rules of moral conduct like nonviolence and five-fold self-regulation (samiti) as well as three restraints (gupti) (of mind, speech and body) (NS 56-70) (excluded from 28 mulagunas of samana, PS 208-209) have been described as vyavahara charitra. They are also considered as a practice of austerities (NS 55), i.e. conduct of self-restraint from the external, other referential (vyavahara) point of view, relevant, desirable and applicable to householders as well as samanas alike.
Eighty-two verses of Niyamsara (verses 77 to 158) discuss in detail issues like conduct from the internal, self-referential point of view (nishchaya charitra) of psychological techniques of self-introspection, repentance (pratikraman), etc., aimed at purifying the mental states at the inner level.163 They are briefly described as pratikraman, alochana, and pratyakhyana in Pravachanasara (see PS 207 AC). Interestingly, in Pravachanasara, the conduct which is endowed with equanimity is said to be free from infatuation (moha) and mental disturbance (kshobha) caused by attachment and aversion (PS 7). Faulty Criticism of Johnson of Kundakunda's
Views on Conduct Kundakunda's emphasis on the internal aspects of conduct without denying the importance of physical, external, social aspects is criticized
