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THE ESSENCE OF JAINA SCRIPTURES
self combined with vital powers (prana, II. 53-55); the various stages manifested in saints, divinities, human beings, animals, plants, denizens of hell, etc.; and the four not perfect kinds of knowledge known as mati (=smrti sense knowledge), shruti (inference, etc.), avadhi and manah-paryaya (III. 34-35). Properly the self knows by direct intuition (pratyaksha) all substances, states, etc., in all times and places, without operation of senses. Sense-knowledge is indirect (paroksha), the senses being a material accretion. The stages (avagraha, iha, etc.) in a senseperception which are known to the canonical works are clearly contemplated in the text (1.21, 59).
In Kundakunda's very frequent reference to upayoga there must be some special point. The word has very rarely been cited by European writers on Jainism; we can mention only Cowell, in Colebrooke's Essays, vol. I, p. 446, who renders it by 'the true employment of the soul's activities'; Jacobi (translation of Umasvati's Tattvarthadhigamasutra, in the Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, vol. 60, p. 302), who gives 'geistige Funktion (Vorstellen),' 'mindfunctioning (presentation)'; Dr. L. D. Barnett (The Antagada-dasao and Anuttarovavaiyadasao translated from the Prakrit, pp. 141-142), who prefers 'energy'; and Professor Von Glasenapp (Der Jainismus, p. 177), who renders by Vorstellen, 'presentation'. The Sanskrit dictionaries do not refer to the technical use of the word; but it is clearly expounded in Umasvati's own commentary upon his Tattvarthadhigama-sutra and in editions of Jaina texts published in India, e.g. in the Dravya-samgraha of Nemichandra (ed. S. C. Ghoshal, p. 9), as a sort of inclination which arises from consciousness,' in the Gommata-sara, Jiva-kanda (ed. J. L. Jaini, p. 326), as 'conscious attentiveness or attention'; while in the great Prakrit dictionary, Abhidhana-rajendra, the equivalent uvaoga is the subject of a long article. Upayoga is the fundamental property of a living soul, the power of attending; and, as it exists even in the lowest forms of life, it corresponds, in its range, to the modern expression 'response'. In creatures of superior intelligence it embraces, as darshan and jnana respectively, a general or formless awareness of things (anakara-jnana, Dr. Barnett's 'indefinite apprehension') and a determinate awareness (Dr. Barnett's 'definite apprehension'). When free from error, darshan, as a general 'outlook,' is identical with the Jaina faith. This conception of upayoga appears in Kundakunda's other works (e.g. Panchastikaya-gatha, v. 40, Samaya-sara, v. 107); its
