Traverses on Less Trodden Path of Indian Philosophy and Religion

Author(s): Yajneshwar S Shastri
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001577/1

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TRAVERSES ON LESS TRODDEN PATH OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION
L. D. SERIES - 109 GENERAL EDITORS RAMESH S. BETAI YAJNESHWAR S. SHASTRI
BY DR. YAJNESHWAR S. SHASTRI READER IN PHILOSOPHY GUJARAT UNIVERSITY AHMEDABAD
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY, AHMEDABAD-380 009

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TRAVERSES ON LESS TRODDEN PATH OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY AND RELIGION
L. D. SERIES - 109 GENERAL EDITORS RAMESH S. BETAI YAJNESHWAR S. SHASTRI
BY DR. YAJNESHWAR S. SHASTRI READER IN PHILOSOPHY GUJARAT UNIVERSITY AHMEDABAD
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY, AHMEDABAD-380 009

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Published by 1
Dr. R. S. Betai Director-in-Charge L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-380 009.
Printed by :
Shri Swaminarayan Mudran Mandir, Pro. K. Bhikhalal Bhavsar, 21, Purushottam Nagar, New Wadaj, Ahmedabad-380 013.
FIRST EDITION
March, 1991
PRICB : RUPEES 120/

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FOREWORD
It is really a matter of great pleasure for the L. D. Institute of Indology to publish "Traverses on Less Trodden Path of Indian Philosophy and Religion" by the learned author Dr. Yajneshwar S. Shastri. This book is a collection of some excellent research papers which display the author's erudite scholarship in the wide area of Indian Philosophy and Religion. This work is an output of indepth study of original texts of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism.
L. D. Institute of Indology is grateful to Professor Yajneshwar Shastri for allowing us to publish his research papers in book-form in our L. D. Series. We also thank him for correction of proofs.
We hope that the Traverses on Less Trodden Path of Indian Philosophy and Religion' will be welcomed by scholars and less trodden path will become frequently trodden path.
L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad-380009.
March 1991.

R. S. Betai Director-in-charge.

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PREFACE
The present book is a collection of important selected research pasers on Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism, written by me during last six to seven years period. All the papers are based on study of original Sanskrit texts and exclusively devoted to neglected aspects of Indian Philosophy and Religion. As for as I know, no substantial research has been made on these topics so far. Some of the papers were presented in national and international conferences and won the recognition of these learned bodies. Almost all the papers included in this book have been published from time to time in research journals and periodicals devoted to Indological studies. Indian and foreign scholars in the field of Indology encouraged me to bring out all these papers in a book form. I have selected only twenty-two research papers to include in this book. Eighteen papers are in English and four in Sanskrit, wnich were presented in various 'Pandita Parisads.'
Roally speaking, there is no scope for exhaustive introduction in a book like this one, because it is not concerned with one single subject. But different papers on different subjects can be summarised in short in the interest of the readers. Each paper has its own significance in the field of research.
In the first paper, an attempt is made to throw light on commcndable contribution made by the Jaina thinkers to reconcile divergent philosophical viewpoints in the field of Indian philosophy. It is aiso shown that how their Anekantavada doctrine itself leads to this reconciliation in the end.
Second paper deals with, for the first time on the presentation and refutation of Advaita by Jaina philosophers, which is an out-come of indepth study of philosophical texts of Jain thinkers. [o this paper, one can read the criticism of Advaitic doctrines of non-dual Brahman, Maya, Self, Liberation etc., by the Jaina philosophers.
Umāsvāti Vācaka's contribution to Jain philosophy is unparallel. lofact entire palace of Jaina philosophy is erected on his two foundational works, viz, 'Tattvārtha thigamasutra', also known as 'Tattvārthasūtra' and 'Pragamaratiprakarana.' Third paper, in nutshell, highlights his contribution not only to Jaina Philosophy but to Indian Philosophy in general, comparing his views with other systems of Indian thought. Fourth paper deals with

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[v]
doctrine of Truths in Jainism, Buddhism and Advita Vedānta, in comparative light. It is observed that, this doctrine is common to all the three shouls of thought and all of them have derived their ideas from Upanişadic literature. Fifth paper is devoted to the study of commentaries oo "Prasamaratiprakarana' of Umasvāti Vācaka. Sixth paper is on comparitive study between Prasamarati and Tattvārtbasūtra. In this paper, an attempt is made to show that Prasamarati is a work of Umāsvati. Yasovijaya occupies an unique place among the Jain philosophers. He was a versatile genius and master of almost all schools of Indian pbilosopby. His personality was combination of scholarship and saintlihood. Seventh paper throws light on mystical side of this great scholarly saint of Jainism. Jaina's famous doctrine of Anckāntavāda is based on their conception of Existence and Substance. Eighth paper deals with important Jaina philo. sophical concepts, such as Existence (sat), Substance (drayya), qualities (guņas) and moditications (paryāyas) in comparison with Nyāya-Vaisesika and others. It also highlights the peculiarity of definition of reality given by the Jainas.
Paper nine is devoted to the outstanding philosopher of Buddhism viz., Nāgārjuna. There are some modern scholars of Buddhism who doubt historical personality of Nagarjuna or question the authenticity of Nāgarjuna's affiliation to Mahāyāna. This research paper is written in answer to objections raised by these learned scholars and an attempt is made here to prove Nāgārjuna's affilitation to Mahāyāna on the basis of original texts of Buddhism. Mahāyāna Buddhists have developed the doctrine of Māyā, doubtlessly taking inspiration from the Upanişadic literature. They have developad it to solve the problem of Naumena and phenoinena, one and many. Paper tenth discusses about conception of Mayä in Vijñanavāja Buddhism of Asanga in comparison with Advaitic doctrine of Maya. It is generally believed misconception that no Buddhist school believes in permanent Reality, but indepth study of original Buddhist texts, especially Mahāyāna Buddhist literature reveals different picture. Eleventh paper deals with the conception of reality in Mahāyāna Buddhism, which is very nearer to the Upanişadic conception of Reality. Asarga's and Vassbandhu's Vijñägavāda Buddhism is profoundly influenced by Upanişadic thought. Mahāyānasūtralan kāra of Asanga is a landmark in the history of Mahāyāna Buddhism. The twelfth paper highlights influence of Upanişa is on Asanga's conception of Absolute and phenomena, doctrine of Māyā and Truths, Disciplines etc., which might be helpful for scholars and students of comparitive Religion and Philosophy. Regarding conception of Nirvāna, there is difference of opinion between Hinayāna and Mahāyāna. Paper thirteen deals with conception of Nirvāna

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in Vijñāpavada of Asanga in comparison with Hinayāna. Alayavijñāna is considered as a storehouse of consciousness and is very important concept of Vijñānayādı Buddhists. It is believed as seed of all phenomena. For Lankavatārasūtra, Alayavijñāna has two aspects, viz., transcendental and phenomenal. Transcendental aspect is identified with Absolute Reality. Asanga differs from Lankavatārasütra and considered it as lower aspect of the Absolute Consciousness. Fourteenth paper is devoted to analyse this concept of Alayavijñāna. There are lot of misunderstandings about Śakta Tantra. Its profound philosophical aspect is either unknown or mostly ignored. In this fifteenth paper, an attempt is made to erase certain misunderstandings about Śakta Tantra by analysing its philosophical aspects, particularly of Tripura Tantra. Indian philosophical point of view, suicide or atmaghäta is not possible in the real sense of the term on account of indestructibility of Ātman. But in general sense, voluntary destruction of the body on account of cause is condemned and considered as as sinful act by almost all the majority religions of India, Volutary deaths for sacred cause is not considered as suicide or at maghāta, but a Viramarana, Prayopavešana, Mabāprasthana, sallekhanā etc, Sixteenth paper is devoted to analyse the suicide and different kinds of voluntary deaths in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, Seventeenth paper is on the study of code of conduct for monks and householders, described in Praja naratiprakarana of Umāsvāti Vācaka. It also shows the philosophical basis of Jaina ethics. Eighteenth paper is on Ātmabodha of Padmanandi. Ātmabodha or Alocanā is one of the most important Jaina religio-philosophical treatise of Padmanandi which shows importance of confession of one's own fault in the presence of God (Arihanta) and the place of devotion (which leads one to the highest goal of life) in one's own spiritual path, Padmanandi was a mystic saint. His utterances are sometimes very similar to that of Upan işadic seers. I have tried to give gist of this treatise in the introduction and brief comparison is also made with Upanişads. Considering its philosophical and religious importance, for the first time, its critical version and English translation is given for the benefit of non-Sanskritist readers,
Nineteenth paper explains that philosophically Jainism cannot be called heterodox (nästika) system. Problem of Ātman, rebirth, doctrine of karma etc., are very important from the philosophical point of view. These doctrines are accepted by the Jainas. Simply on the basis of negating Nyāya concept of God as creator, sustainer, destroyer and bestower of fruits of actions ect., do not justify in calling Jainism as heterodox system, If it is to be so then almost all Indian philosophical systems can be termed as atheistic systems and indirectly as nästika. It is shown in this paper that rejecting conception of Isvara of Nyāya-Vai esika is not a criteria in

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(vll)
judging any system of thought as nastika. Twentieth paper deals with an important philosophical doctrine of Anekāntavāda (doctrine of manysidedness of Reality) of Jains on the basis of original philosophical writing of Jain philosophers. Objections raised against Anekāntavāda by other India
by other Indian thinkers are analysed and answered from the view-point of Jainism. Twentyfirst paper discusses Naişadhıyacarita of great philosopher poet Sriharşa. This epic-poem is one of the five important Mahakavyas and considered as "Vidvada uşadham' on account of indepth discussions of different branches of science. An attempt is made here to bring out its real importance in the field of Sanskrit literature. Last paper is on the criticism of Materialist (cārvāka) by the great Jaina philosopher Vidyanandi of 9th entury A.D. It is Wellknown fact that the Materialists deny existence of separate Ātman from the body, stating that the body associated with consciousness is the Ātman. They also reject the existence of the world hereafter (Paraloka), liberation (Moksa) next birth (Punarjanma), pointing out that all these conceptions are figment of imagoiation of few selfishminded people. All these views of materialists are refuted by Vidyānandi with logical rigour.
Roman alphabetical order is followed in preparing bibliography and Index. Correction of few printing mistakes are given in the "Errata' column in the end of this book.
I am very much grateful to the authorities of the L. D. Institute of Indology for including this work of mine in the L. D. Series. I express my gratitude to Dr. R. S. Betai for taking keen interest in bringing out this book. I am thankful to my dear wife Dr. Sunanda Shastri, for preparing exhaustive index with remarkable patience in addition to her office and household duties.
I am very much hopeful that Sanskritists and the Scholors of Philosophy would find something to interest them within these pages.
Yajaeshwar S. Shastri
March, 1991 Ahmedabad.

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CONTENTS
Pages Foreward Preface
iy-vii 1. Reconciliation of different philosophical view points-an attempt made by Jaina Philosophers.
1-15 2. Refutation of Advaita Vedanta in Major Jaina works.
15-27 3. Umasvati's contribution to Indian philosophy.
28-32 4. Doctrine of degrees of reality in Jainism, Buddhism and Vedānta. 33-52 5. Prasamaratiprakaraṇa and commentaries on it.
53-60 6. Tattvārthadhigamasutra and Pragamarati-a study.
61-64 7. Adhyatmopanişatprakarana of Yasovijaya-a study.
65-74 8. Conception of Existence and Substance in Jainism.
75-82 9. Nagārjuna is Mahāyānist.
83-90 10. Conception of Māya (Illusion) in Asanga's Vijñānavada Buddhism
91-100 11. Conception of Reality in Mahāyāna Buddhism.
101-112 12. Upanişadic Influence on Mahāyānasūtrālankāra
113-125 13. Conception of Nirvana in Asanga's Vijnanavāda Buddhism. 126-136 14. Conception of Alayavijñāna.
137-140 15. Tripura Tantra (Srividyā) : Its Philosophy and Path of Sadhanā.
141-160 16. Place of Suicide In Indian Culture and Religions.
161-174. 17. Code of Conduct for Monks And House-holders with special reference to Pragamarati.
175-190 18. Ātmabodha (Alocanā) of Padmanandi.
191-208 जैनदर्शनस्य आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता.
209-224 20. e4154214€? ET€97.
225-238 21. 93 Pagal994.
239-252 22.=slagafar føragusan.
253–258 Bibliography.
259-270 Index.
271-290 Errata,
291-292

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RECONCILIATION OF DIFFERENT PHILOSOPHICAL VIEWPOINTS-AN ATTEMPT MADE BY JAINA PHILOSOPHERS
Jainism is one of the three major religions of India. Since 2500 years, it has made manifold contributions to human society through its litera. ture, religion and philosophy. On account of its liberal, catbolic and reciprocal attitude towards Brahmanism and Buddhism, it is the only non-Vedic creed that has survived to the present day i India out of many that are preached in the 5th century B.C. in opposition to the Vedic rituals.
Principle of non-violence (ahimsa) is the dominant trend in Jainism. Lord Mahāvira emphasized the doctrine of ahimsă towards every living being in practical life. This principle, embodied in the respect for the life of others was transformed by the Jaina philosophers at the intellectual level into respect for the views of others. This attitude of toleration, which is hall-mark of this system inspired Jaina pbilosophers to make a unique attempt to harmonise, reconcile, all conflicting view.points in the field of philosophy. Learned Jaina thinkers thought that various systems of philosophy being dogmatic in their assertions, created bitterness amcogst the followers of different philosophical schools. The age-old philosophical disputes and controversies between the various schools of thought are on account of their conditional assertion in regard to philosophical proposi. tions. On account of this rigid attitude each school asserts its view to be true and thus, philosophers of these schools do not really try to understand the view.points of others, which resulted in hatredness and rivalry towards other systems of thought. This is also a kind of violence in the realm of thought, To avoid this kind of intellectual violence, Jaina thinkers adopted a unique, syothetic, philosophical methodology, technically known as anekantavāda (i.e. doctrine of many-sidedness of reality, which consists of dual doctrine viz. nayavāda (the doctrine of different view-points) and syādvada (the theory of relativity of truth) which is also known as-saptabhangi (the seven-fold predication). This doctrine is accepted to co-ordinate, upify and harmonise the divergent, seemingly disagreeing philosophical view.points into a practicable whole. It is better to bava clear idea about this great doctrine which is misunderstood and misrepresented by many scholars, before we start our actual thesis,
T-1

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Traverses on less trodden path...
History of Jainism tells us that, although scratches of anekānta is found in Mahavira's teachings, its all round development took place only when Sanskrit language came to be used by the Jaina writers. This doctrine, being itself a synthetic philosophy presupposes the existence of various well-developed philosophical schools on the Indian soil. In the works beginning from Angas and the Cūrnis in Svetām bara literature and in Pravacano sāra and other works of Digambara literature, there is no attempt at the synthesis of anekānta with the Upanişadic monism and other currents of Vedic thought. Tbis attempt to reconcile different philosophical view-points is found first in a slight degree in the works of Şiddbasena Divākara (Circa 5th century A.D.) and Samantabhadra (7th century A.D.). In the Sanmatitarka (Prakrit text) of Siddhasena a distinct synthesis of the doctrines of Bauddha, Sankhya and Nyāya-Vaiseșika is found. 1 But reconciliation of some philosophical schools such as Brahmadvaita, Sabdadvaita and others are not found in the Jaina Prakrit literature, In the subsequent Jaida Sanskrit literature an attempt is made to reconcile the doctrines of all these philosophical systems. This unique attempt, started by Siddhasena and Samantabhadra, is found clearly on a large scale in the works of Haribbadra (8th century A.D.), Akalanka (8th century A.D.), Vidyānanda (9th century A.D) and Abhayadeva Sūri (10th century A.D.). The same attempt to synthesize all these systems is carried out on an extensive scale by Hemacandra (12th century A.D.), Mallisena (12th century AD.), Vadideva Sūri (13th century A.D.), Gunaratna Suri (15th century A.D,) and Yasovijaya (17th century A.D.).
Jaina theory of ane kontavāda is really an offshoot of vibha jyavada (a theory of analysis and differentiation) of Buddhism, 9 Literally, the term anekāntavāda means the theory of the many-sidedness of reality. This term is used in two seses in the Jaina philosophical literature. First of ali, this term denotes the Jaina philosophical doctrine i.e. the theory according to which reality is manifold and each entity consists of maniforms and modes of innumerable aspects. Reality is one and many. Secondly, it indicates the Jaina philosophical method which allows for reconciliation and integration of conflicting philosophical views. 3 In the first place, it claims that everything in the world is complex in its structure and as such has many aspects. All kinds of sources of valid knowledge, mediate
1 Sanmatitarka, with a critical introduction and an original commentary by Pt. Sukhlal Sanghavi and Pt. Bechardas Doshi, ed. Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, Pub : Sri
Jaina Svetambara Education Board, Bombay, 1939, p. 114 (Introduction). 2 Nyāyāvatāravārtika-Vrtti of Santi sūri, Introduccion, ed. Pt. Dalsukh Malvania
Pub : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1949, pp. 11-35. 3 The Central Philosophy of Jainism, Bimal Krishna Matilal, Pub : L. D. Institute of
Indology, Ahmedabad, 1981, pp. 24-25,

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Reconciliation of different philosophical view-points
and immediate, prove only one thing that every object has innumerable aspects. Each entity is one in many. We are all imperfect human beings. We cannot comprehand an object in its totality and our view of it is limited. We are really wrong when we emphasize and say that our view is perfect and final. An object or reality is to be understood in its totality, To view a thing, thus, not only from a single point of view, but to exą. mine it from all possible points of view is the real meaning of the doctrine of anekāntavāda.
The notion of reality is a characteristic example of Jaina anekantavada. Reality (substance) consists of production, destruction and permanence, A substance is permanent in respect of its essential qualities and also subject to generation and destruction in regard to its changing modifications. When a substance, conscious or unconscious originates without leaving its own nature, it is called origination. Destruction is loss of existence in a thing that had it before. Permanence is the essential characteristic of substance, which remains unchanged in both the conditions, viz. in origination and decay. To cite an example, a jar, originates from clay without leaving the nature of clay; clay leaves its former mode or shape when it becomes a jar and the essential nature of clay remains unchanged in both the conditions. These three, differ in their nature but they are not mutually independent. Change and permanence, modes and substance exist together, neither is possible without the other, But permanence and change are not applied to a thing in one and the same capacity but in different capacity. . There is no contradiction involved and no violation of law of contradiction in applying opposite predicates t the same thing in different capacities, because, they are applied to its different aspects such as matter, state, space and time. It is seen that mutually centra. dictory elements can exist in one and the same thing in different capacity such as, the same man is a father to his son, son to his father, husband to his wife, and so on.? In fact, the positive and negative aspects must both belong to everything. If only the positive aspects belong to it, there would be nothing to distinguish it from another and all things would become one 'sat. If instead, only the negative aspects belong to a tbing, 4 Tattvārthasūtra, V-29, Part-I, ed. H. R. Kapadia, Pub : J. S. Javeri, Bombay, 1925, 5 Syādvādamanjari (S.M.), XIV, ed. : A. B. Dhruva, Pub : Bombay Sanskrit and
Prakrit Series, 1933, p. 92. 6 (a) Ibid, XIV, p. 92.
(b) Aptamimamsā-Vytti by Vasunandi, 47, Devāgama-Vịtti, ed, and trans. K. B. Nitve. Kolhapur. 7 (a) Sarvärthasiddhi, V-32, Pub : K. B. Nitve, Kolhapur, Sake 1839, p. 17. (b) Tattvārtharājavārtika, 1-6, ed. Gajadharlal Jain, Pub. : Sagatana Jaina Gran
thamala, Kasi, 1915, p. 26.

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Traverses on less trodden path... it would have no intrinsic nature. 8 So many-sided characteristic of substance, is the basis of anekāntavāda.
Jaina thinkers following this doctrine of many-sidedness of reality, state that philosophers of other schools of thought emphasize only one aspect of reality-describing it as either one or many, real or unreal, universal or particular, thus represent partial truth and the anekantavāda, according to which reality is neither absolutely real nor unreal, neither one nor many, neither particular nor universal, neither identical nor different, but both real and unreal, one and many, particular and universal, unity and diversity, from different points of view, reveals complete truth, To obtain complete truth, there is no other way, except admitting the anekanta path. It reconciles and assimilates all the partial view-points of other schools of thought. The word anekanta itself indicates its style of reconciliation. This word makes it very clear that 'many' is not diametrically opposite of 'one', for many includes one. It means different one-sided views (ekānta) are, thus, only constituents of the anekanta only. It is a philosophy of synthesis and emerges out of the examination of the partial truths of other systems. 10
Reconciliation of divergent philosophical view-points is not an easy task and it poses many problems. To solve this difficult problem, Jaina thinkers have developed nayavada in which views of different philosophical systems are individually accommodated and syādvada which reconciles all of them giving complete picture of reality. Both these doctrines are the two faces of the same coin, viz. anekantavāda. As a philosophical methodology, it takes its flight on the two wings of nayavada, the doctrine of stand-points and saptabhangi, the doctrine of seven-fold predication.'11
Philosophical understanding is generated by botb pramāṇas and nayas, 12 Syadvāda reveals the thing as a whole, thus, it is called pramaṇavakya (sakaladeśa) while naya reveals only a portion of it (vikaladeśa). 18 A pramana is like an ocean while nayas are simply like ocean-water kept 8. S. M. XIV, p. 91.
9 şaḍdarsanasamuccay-Tika by Gunaratna Sūri, ed. Mahendrakumar Jain, Fharatiya Jñanapiṭh, Kasi, 1969, p. 34.
10 soḍasaka of Haribhadra, XVI-13
11 Jaina Theories of Reality and Knowledge, Y. J. Padmarajiah, Jaina Sahitya Vikasa Mandal, Bombay, 1963, p. 173.
Pub. :
12 Framāṇanayairadhigama ḥ, Tattvarthasutra, 1-6.
13 (1) Laghiyastraya-Śrutopayogapariccheda, 12, Laghiyastrayādisangraha, ed. Pt. K. B. Nitve, Pub M. D. Jaina Granthamala Samiti, V. S. 1972, p. 83. (b) Pramananayatattvālokālankära (PNT), IV-44, ed. H, S. Bhattacharya. Pub Jaina Sahitya Vikas Mandal, Bombay, 1967, pp. 350-354.

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Reconciliation of different philosophical view.points
in different pitchers. A pramāņa can be reached through aggregation of all the constituent stand-points. 14
Naya means the points of view which gives only partial truth about reality. 18A When we present oply one aspect of many-sided reality supressing others, then it falls under the nayavāda, the doctrine of view-points. Traditionally, the Jainas mention seven or six kinds of nayas, taking into account, the different philosophical views, prevalent in ancient India They are : naigama. sangraha, vyavahara, jusūtra, sabda, samabhirūdha and evambhūta. 10B Again these nayas are fundamentally divided into two main categories viz. dravyästika, according to which substance is the fundamental reality and the modifications are gothing apart from it and paryāyāstika, which states that, modifications are the only reality, the substance being nothing apart from them.18 The first one may be called, view.point of generality and the second one, the view-point of particularity. These different kinds of na yas or standpoints represent views of different schools of thought, which are partially true. Naigama naya recognises both the universal and the particular. Nyāya-Vaiseşikas are the followers of this naya because they recognise both the universal and the particular, in an isolated and non-relative sense, Samgraha na ya, unholds the universal only. Advaitins and Sankhyas, represent this na ya, because former merges all particulars in the universal, 'sar' and the latter to the cause praksti. Vyavahāra is a point of view of commonsense view, which does not penetrate below the surface of things. The Materialists (Carvāka) way of looking at things is that of vyavahāra. Rjusūtia refers to changing modes only and states that reality is always in constant flux, Buddhist view of kşanabhangavāda is a very good example of this naya. Sabdanaya accepts single object denoted by variants of synonymous terms. Samabhirūdha goes a step further and accepts different meanings or synonyms based on their etymology. Evambhūta takes the word signifying an object, which possesses the action, connoted by etymology. The Grammarians and the Mināmsakas represent the sabda and other nayas, because they emphasize the grammatical, etymological importance of words. 17 In this way, nayavada comprises views of all others. These views are right in 14 Tattvārtharājavārtika, 1-6, pp. 24-27. 15A ekadesavi'sisto artho nayas ya vișayomatah, Nyāyāvatara, 29, ed. P. L. Vaidya, Pub :
Jaina Svetambara Conference, Bombay, 1928, p. 64. 15B P.N.T., VII-7-33, pp. 514-528 and also See T.S. I-34. 16 Sanmatitarka, 1-7-21. 17 (a) S.M. XXVIII, 161-165. (b) Adhyatmasara, Jin zmatastuti, 6, ed. Muni Nemicandra, Pub Sri Nirgrantha
Sahitya Prakasan, Delhi, 1976, p. 429.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
their own respective spheres but if they are taken in absolute seuse are wrong and become fallacious (durnaya). 18
they
The doctrine of syadvada or saprabhangi entertains within its fold every possible theory. It welcomes in it, all nayas and thus is like a necklace of pearls wherein every system has its proper place like a pearl, 19A in this doctrine discordent notes are blended so as to make a perfect harmony. As rivers mingle in the ocean, so d) all the systems mingle in the syadvāda, 19B
The doctrine of syādväda is nothing but systematic description of many-sided nature of reality in words. Jaina thinkers claim that no philosophical proposition can be true if it is simply asserted without condition, If it is asserted, then, it becomes one-sided (ekānta) view. It also excludes other rival possibilities. To avoid this shortcoming, syadvada makes use of the convenient particle 'syat' (=in certain respect) in all the seven varieties of a particular predication. The particle 'syat' indicates the many-sided nature of a proposition It is a doctrine of relativity of truth, according to which affirmative and negative statements can be made in regard to one and the same things in the following way :
1. Relatively the pot does exist. 2. Relatively the pot does not exist, 3. Relatively the pot does exist and does not exist, 4. Relatively the pot is indescribable. 5. Relatively the pot does exist and is indescribable. 6. Relatively the pot does not exist and is indescribable. 7. Relatively the pot does exist, does not exist, and is indescribable. 80
Each philosophical proposition is subjected to this sevenfold formulation in order to remove the danger of one-sidedness (ekāntavada). This is also called saptabhangi, because, it consists of seven kinds of expression regarding one and the sa ne thing with reference to its particular aspects, one by one, without any inconsistancy, by means of affirmation and nega
18 (a) Sanmatitarka 1-13, p. 18.
(b) P.N.T., VII-2, p. 511, (c) Aptamimāmsā, 108, ed. Pt. Girdharlal Jain, Pub : Siddhanta Prakasini Sanstba,
Benares, 1914. 19A S.M., XXX, p 174. 19B Dvätrimsiki, IV-15, Dytā imsad Dvātrimsikā, ed. P. Sushila vijaya Gani, Pub. :
Vijayalavanayasurisvara Jnanamandir, Botad, Saurastra, V.S. 2012, p. 10 20 (a) SM, XXIII, p. 14.-143.
(b) P.N.T., IV. 13-2).

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Reconciliation of different philosophical view.points
7
tion, made either separately or together. 31 This is also called 'anekantavāda', since it expresses the object that possesses many characteristics. 2 3
The Jainas upholding this doctrine of anekantavāda, state that the theories of other schools of philosophy being but partial views of the comprehensive reality are naturally at variance with each other and that they would find their final reconciliation in the syādvāda or anekantavado. On the basis of this doctrine, therefore, the Jainas try to reconcile some of the fundamental doctrines of non-Jaina school of thought, such as, the doctrine of causality. the problem of universal and particular, the problem of reality, the doctrine of self, the theory of sounds and so on.
Siddbasena Divakara, probably, is the first man in the Jaina philosophical history. who has laid down the foundation stone of reconciliation of other schools of thought by synthesizing the Sankhya, the Buddhist and the Vaigesika's views with that of anekantavada. He observes that the system of philosophy taught by Kapila is a representation of the 'only substance exists' view-point and that which is taught by the Buddbist is an exposition of 'only modification exists' view-point. All though Vaiseșikas employ both view.points, they employ each independently of the other. So, all these view points are partial and can be reconciled with the help of anekāntavada 28
The doctrine of causality is one of the important doctrines in the development of the early philosophical thoughts in India. Most probably, taking the hint from Nasadiyasūkta of the Rgveda, 24 about the origin of the Universe, different systems proposed diametrically opposite views. The Sankhya philosophers upholding the satkār yavāda claim that, the effect pre-exists in the cause before its production, while the Naiyāyikas admit asat karyavāda, according to which, effect does not exist in the cause before its production. Effect is a new beginning. The Sankhyas believe in the real transformation of praksti. Origination is explained as the unfolding of the hidden potentialities. The Naiyāyikas hold that only such things come into existence as did not exist before. Some of the Buddhists uphold the same view and state that change is order of nature. The Advaita Vedānta maintains that, there is no real change in the cause, change is only an appearance vivarta). It is the cause which was reality and that what is called the effect is indescribable i.e, neither pre-existent nor not pre-existent and thus, ultimately false. 21 (a) Tattvārtharâjavārtika, I. 6, p. 24.
(b) PN.T, IV-14. 22 S.M., V. pp. 13-20. 23 Sanmatitarka, III. 48-49. 24 Rgveda. X, 129, Rksuktavaijayanti, ed, Pt. Velankar, Bombay.

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Traverses op less trodden path...
The Jainas try to reconcile, these opposite views on causality by applying anekanta method. They point out that the Sänkhya view is correct in some respects, for, so far as the substance underlying the effect and the cause is concerned, it is the same; it persists in its immutability through the cause and the effect, which are two modes of its expression, therefore, in a very real sense, the effect is existent even before its emergence as an effect. On the other hand, effect is also a new creation (as Naiyāyikas and some Buddhists hold) in some respects, because it has its owo significance, own practical efficiency and all those features which pertain to a real effect were not in evidence before its emergence.88 The Jainas, thus, admit the partial validity of both the Sãokhya and Nyaya-Vaiseșika views. From the stand-point of its underlying substance, the effect exists in the cause before its production; from the consideration of the effect as a mode, it is new creation, not existent before its actual production. To cite an instance, a 'jar' is separate from as well as identical with the cause, i.e. 'clay'. It is identical with clay because, clay has a potentiality to produce a 'jar' and 'jar', when it is produced, is not without the essence of clay, It is also different, because, before its production as a 'jar', there was merely clay and the ‘jar' was not in a manifested form. It has no practical efficiency to carry out work as a 'jar'. Thus Siddhasena rightly pointed out that, the Nyaya.Vaišeşikas and the Bauddhas are right in so far they point out the faults and fallacies of the Sankhya view of causality and the Sankhyas are correct in so far as they criticise the Nyāya-Vaigesikas and Bauddhas. But when these two views of causality are adjusted to gether in compliance with the anekānta method, the result will be the true insight.88
Even Advaita Vedāntins' views of causality is one-sided and it can be reconciled with the help of anekanta. It is true as Vedāntins hold that effect cannot be described in language, it is inexpressible. But indescribability does not mean, unreal or false. Indescribability of the effect is not absolute, it is indescribable only in some respects. Effect is neither absolutely real por absolutely unreal. It is both real and unreal.87
The problem of universal and particular is, again, one of the most controversial problems in the field of philosophy. According to Advaita Vedānta, there is only one highest universal (mahäsämānya) in which
25 Sanmatitarka, 1. 27, pp. 29-30. 26 (a) Ibid., I. (b) Anekantavāda, Harisatya Bhattacharya, Pub : Jaina Atmananda Sabha, Bhavnagar,
1953, pp. 177-178. 27 Ibid., 178-180.

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Reconciliation of different philosophical view-points
9
everything is included.98 Some of the Buddhists claim that, particulars are the only reals. Nyāya-Veiseşikas give equal treatment to both samanya and višesa as principles of reality, but recognise them as absolutely distinct entities, 89 But all these views are partial representation of truth. Reality is neither absolutely universal nor absolutely particular. Suppose if we accept that there is nothing except the general and that there is no such thing as particular, (as Vedāntins maintain) then we should be forced in everyday activity to give up all the particulars of a thing and to accept only its general aspect. For instance, all the transformations of gold, such as ear-rings, bracelets, necklace etc., that are real in our daily life and that are actually experienced by us shall have to be given up and everytime we shall have to deal with gold as gold and nothing else-no varities of transformations of it. If on the other hand, we accept only the particulars of gold such as ear-rings, bracelets, etc. and eliminate the underlying substance gold from our daily exchange, then we have to face great confusion and inconvenience in our daily experience. The truth is that exclusive acceptance of the general only or particular only would land us into utter confussion. We thus, have to accept, both universal and particular, but not as independent categories, as Nyāya.Vaigesika philosophers hold. Nyaya. Vaiseșikas hold that universality or generality consists in a group of features common to a number of individuals and as such, is absolutely different from the particularities which are peculia. rities characterising each of the individuals. The Jainas state that, both tbose are not different but really inseparable. Neither of the universal and the particular has real existence, independent of the other. In the individual of our experience, the generality manifests itself through the particular and the perticularity appears as the particular mode of the generality. Wben we see a cow, we apprehend a certain unity of animal form, such as belongs to all individuals, we call cows, but at the same time we apprehend its distinction from other animals such as buffalo, horse, etc. Moreover, when, we speak of brindled cow', thus referring to the particular character (višeşa) of the animal, we also recognise the fact that the animal is a cow, we, thus, notice, the generality and the particularity. the two-in-one. Similarly, brindledness' too has a variety of forms. So, when we speak of 'a brindled cow', we do not refer to any brindled colour of the animal, but the particular brindled colour which we sco in the cow before us. So, here again, the perception of the
28 ekasmin mahāsāmānye antarbhāvah prajñānaghane.-- Brhadāranyaka Upanişad with
sānkarabhāsya, II. IV-9, The principle Upanişad, Pub. : Motilal Baparasidass, Delhi,
1978, p. 762. 29 S, M, IV, pp. 10-12,

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Traverses on less trodden patb...
generality is at the same time a perception of the particularity. The two are never-experienced separately from each other anywhere. Things are themselves co-ordinated with things of their own class and differentiated from things of other classes and consequently, there is no need to accept these two as independent categories as Nyāya-Vaiseşikas think. They are two relative aspects and aspects only of one and the same thing, 80 Accepting this view only, an apparently inexplicable contradictions involved in the doctrine of the generality and particularity is to be solved.
With respect to the ultimate reality the Advaita Vedānta upholds the non-dualistic view, stating that it is one withont a second, 81 The SänkbyaYoga, holds a dualistic view, claiming praksti and purusa as two independent realities 82 and the Nyāya-Vaišeșika system admits pluralistic view. And each of these schools opposes the others. The truth is, each of these views, is right to certain extent and each suffers from one-sided partiality. From the onekānta view-point, the ultimate reality is one in some respects, it is dual in some respects and is manifold in some respects. The Vedā. ntin's view that the reality is one is certainly correct, by reality (or sub. stance) we are to mean that which is the basis of all phenomenalities. But in consideration of the fundamental differences in their nature i.e. that between the conscious and the unconscious, a dualism between the psychical and un-psychical realities is to be accepted. In view, again, of their exclusiveness af each other the material atoms, time, etc. are reals, as held by the Nyaya-Vai eşikas. The difference, between the three views about the ultimate reality is, thus a difference of stand-points (nay) only. In anekantavāda, the validity is attached to the views of the three schools to some extent and their mutual oppositions are avoided. 53
Advaita Vedāntips, hold that, changes, modes or forms are unreal while the Nyāya-Vaišeşikas state that modifications are real. The Jainas reconcile these two opposite views by stating that a mode is real as well as upreal. A mode is the form in which the substance is presented, it is real in this sense. It is unreal because, it has no existance, a part from its underlying substance. Thus, it is real in certain respects and that it is unreal also in certain respects. 54
30 Ibid, pp, 10-12; and 84-89. 31 Ekameva hi paramarthasatyam brahma.-Taittiriyopanişad with śānkarabhâsya, II. 8. 32 Sankhyakärika, 3, ed. Sivanarayana Sastri, pub, : Panduranga Jawaji, Nii nayasa gara
Press, Bombay. 1940. 33 Anekantavāda, pp, 175-76, 34 Ibid., 177.

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Reconciliation of different philosophical view-points
11
The attitutde of Vedanta and Sankhya philosophy and that of Buddhist towards soul is that of eternalism and non-eternalism respectively. Eternalism claims that, soul is absolutely eternal, thus it is never tied to wheel of samsara, while non-eternalism states that soul is absolutely transcient -unreal. Both these views are partially true and can be reconciled on the basis of doctrine of relativity. The soul is eternal, never changing from the view-point of substance and it is everchanging, non-eternal on the ground of modification point of view. Viewed from the transcendental stand-point, it is unchanged, but viewed from the phenomenal point of view, it is chained. In its own nature it is real, but as matter it is unreal. It is one from the stand point of atmatva, it is many from the point of view of samsăra. If atman be exclusively eternal, the experience of happiness and misery, will be impossible. For, to be eternal means to be unchangable, and there cannot be experiences of pain and pleasure one after another unless atman could pass (or change) from one state to another. Again, merits and demerits, liberation and bondage are, not possible. Similarly absolute non-eternality of atman is untenable. If atman is absolutely non-eternal, everchanging, then, it means an end to the law of retribution which requires personal identity of doer and enjoyer. Again merits and demerits, bondage and liberation become meaningless. 35 So, atman is eternal with change. We have to accept pariṇāminityatva of atman -the doctrine of identity-in-change, of unity-in-difference, of
one-in-many,
Again, the doctrine of sound is one of the most debated topics among the Mimamsa and Nyaya philosophers. The Mimamsakas maintain the theory of eternality of sound, 36 while the Naiyayikas upholds the impermanent character of sound 37 and state that, sounds have beginning and an end. These two extreme views about sounds are partial and they be reconciled, following the path of anekanta. The Naiyayika's view is right in some respects. Sound is obvisouly produced by buman efforts. Whatever is produced is impermanent. So, sound is non-eternal in this sense. Sound is also eternal in respect of its basic substance. Sound is a mode of matter, the substratum underlying sound is a pudgala (matter) which
35 (a) Haribhadra, Aşṭakaprakaraya, 4-7, ed. Vijayadeva Suri, Pub Jaina Grantha Prakasaka Sabha, Ahmedabad, 1973.
(b) Yasovijaya, Adhyātmasāra, III 24-29, 38-39.
36 (a) Sabdo nityaḥ vyomamätraguṇatvāt vyomaparimāṇavat, Prabhakara, quoted in Syadvadamañjarī, ed. Jagadish Chandra Jain, Pub R. C. Desai, Srimad Rajacandra Ashram, Agas, 1970, p. 340,
37 Nyayadar'sana with Vatsyayanabhāṣya, II. II-13, ed. Ganganath Jha, Pub Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Benaras, 1929, p. 362.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
as a substance is eternal. From this point of view, the Mimamsaka's view is correct. So, considering the aspect of modifications in sound, it is unreal, while on account of its everlasting substantial basis, it is eternal. In this way, both these irreconcilable theories can be reconciled. Similarly, Advaita Vedantin's negative approach in respect of the existance of the world, i.e. the world is neither absolutely real like Brahman, nor absolutely unreal like son of a barren woman, but indescribable (anirvacaniya) and ultimately this is to be treated as unreal can be reconciled with that view according to which the world is absolutely real; by accepting the view that the world is real in some respects i... in respect of its basic substance and in respect of the changes of the phenomena it is unreal. Even the Sunyavadi Buddhists view of absolute negativism, i.e. 'an object is neither existent nor non-existent, nor both nor-neither', can be reconciled, by accepting the path of anekanta, i.e, these statements are true in some respects only. In this way the Jainas point out that, applying this anekantaväda, to each and every problem of philosophy. a sound harmony can be established in the field of philosophy.
This attempt to reconcile different philosophical doctrines is unique contribution of Jainas to Indian philosophy. In respect of reconciliation it is said that, there is no philosophical method superior to anekantavāda.59 But not much attention has been given to this praiseworthy attempt in the field of philosophy.
It is also very important to note that, this doctrine of anekantavada which tries to reconcile different philosophical view-points, is not the sole monopoly of Jainism. It is right that, this doctrine became central philosophy of Jainism and its systematic exposition is found only in this system, but this doctrine was existent in ancient Indian literature and is traceable here and there in all the non-Jaina works such as Nāsadiyasukta of Ṛgveda, Taittiriya Brāhmaṇa, Upanisadas, Bhagavadgitā, Mahabharata and so on. In fact, even Jaina thinkers themselves maintained that every system of philosophy has accepted anekanta in one way or the other 41
38 (a) S. M., XI, pp. 69-70.
(b) Anekantavāda. pp. 180-181.
39 Ayogavyavacchedikā, 28, See S. M., ed. by Jagadish Chandra Jain, p. 276.
40 Darsan aur Anekantavada, Pt. Hamsaraj G. Sharma, Pub: Atmanand Jain Pustak Pracarak Mandal, Agra, 1928, pp. 133-149.
41 (a) Saddar'snasamuccaya-Tika by Gunaratna Sūri, S. M. Appendices, pp. 318-322. (b) Saptabhangitarangini, Pub: Manoharlal Raicandra Jain Sastramala, Bombay,
V.N.S., 2442, pp. 90-92.
(c) S. M., XXX, p. 172-174.

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Reconciliation of different philosophical view-points
13
The Materialists (Carvākas) view that, consciousness is product of combination of different material elements which is neither identical or different from each of these, is acceptance of many-sided aspects of consciousness only. It really means, in some respects, it is identifiable with material elements and in some respects, different from them. Madhyamamārga or Madhyamāpratipat of the Buddhists, which is accepted as middle way between two extreme view of eternalism and non-eternalism, bears the same significance as the word onekanta. Madhyamika philosopher's view of reality, that, it is neigher existent por non-existent, nor both nor neither', is a form of anekantavāda only. 42 Even, the view of Vijñānavāda Buddhists, according to which this world is transformation of eternal, non-dual consciousness 43 (vi jñāna). is acceptance of pariņaminityatā of one kantavāda. The Nyāya-Vaiseșika philosophers apply this anekantavada without being aware of it. These philosophers in stating that atoms constituting a material 'pot' are eternal while the pot as a product and a passing pbase of matter is non-eternal, are practically admitting the anekānta position, which is that a 'pot' is non-eternal in some respects (as a mode of matter) and that it is eternal also in some respects. 44 (ie, in respect of its constitutive substance). Again, while describing anyonya. bhāva, the Vaiseșikas point out like Jainas that 'pot' is real as 'pot' not as cloth.45 Earth, (prthivi) is both eternal as well as non-eternal. Citrarüpa is a conglomeration of several mutually exclusive rüpas whlch belong to a single substance. 46 Even though Nyāya-Vaiseșikas bave accepted the generality and particularity as two idependent categories, they are not able to discard the path of anekānta. Vātsyāyana mentions that both contradictory elements can exist in one and the same place, 17 Jati is, again, both general as well particular. 48 Amongst the two kinds of universals, (i.e. para and a parā) aparāsāmanya is both, general as well as particular. 49
42 Sanmatitarka, Introduction, p. 138. 43 Trimsikā I, Vijfiaptimātratasiddhi, ed. Svami Mahesvarananda, Pub : Gitadharma
Karyalaya, Varanasi, 1962, p. 3. 44 S.M.V., p. 17. 45 Vaiseșikadarsana, with Upaskarabhasya, I-1-4-5, See Darsana aur Anekantaväd, p. 82. 46 S. M. V-20. 47 Nyāyadarsana, 1-(-41, p. 160-162. 48 Ibid., II-II-66, p. 424. 49 Vaiseșika Darsana, with Prasastapādabhāsya, I-IT-5; IX.II-3, see Darsana aur Anekanta
vād, pp. 78-80.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
The Sāókhya doctrine of evolution of praksti according to which Prakti is neither absolutely eternal nor absolutely changing, but eternalcum-change is in no way different from the Jnana doctrine of parināmini. tyatā. The difference between the two view is that the Sankhya doctrine is applicable only to non-sentient praksti, while the anekānto of Jainas has its application to all the fundamental things, sentient as well as nonsentient.80 Vyāsa and Vacaspati Mišra foilowed the path of anekānta in their commentaries on Patañjala Yogasutra in many places. Both of them admit the eternal-cum-non-eternal nature of the phenomenal world and substance. Even, things are always both general and particular. In respect of prakti-puruşa relation, Vyāsa clearly admits the identity-cumdifference like the Jainas. Puruşa is not absolurely different from intellect (i.e. product of prakrti), nor absolutely identical with it. The relation between the two is identity-cum-difference.81 The Mimāmsā school practically admits the anekantavāda by stating that substance has three characteristics of origination, decay and permanence.52 Kumārila Bhatta, while discussing the part and whole (avayava and avayavi), clearly states that, both are not absolutely different from each other. Their relation is identity-cum-difference.58 Parthasārathi Misra upholds the same position, A thing is real as well as unreal, universal as well as particular.84 Again, the view, that the same eternal word (vak) manifests itself in the evanes. cent phases of the vaikhari, the madhyamā and the paśyanti is very similar to anekantavāda, 58
Anekānta method has place in all the schools of Vedānta pbilosophy. Even, Sankara the great critic of anekāntavādu, has applied this doctrine in some places. Sankara, while criticising the prakstikäranavāda of Sankhya, states (like Jainas) that both pravýtti (activity) and nivștti (in-activity) which are contridictory, can exist in Îśvara. 56 The Advaita Vedāntins' view that the same immutable self appears in the changing states of waking, dreaming and dreemless sleep, is basically, anekāntavāda only.87
50 Sanmatitarka, Introduction, pp. 139-140. 51 Darsan aur Anekāntavāda, p. 28-45. 52 Tasmādvastu trayātmakam, Mimāmsa-śloka-vārtika, quoted in Darsan aur Anekāntavāda,
p. 16. 53 Ibid., pp. 55. 54 Sastradīpikā, Pub : Vidya Vikas Press, Kasi, V. S. 1967, pp. 387, 412. 55 Anekāntavāda, p. 187. 56 Brahmasūtra Sārkarabhāşya, Tarkapāda, II-IJ-4, ed. with Gujarati translation, Ft,
K. V. Abhyankar and Dr. J. M. Sukla, Pub : K. V. Abhyankar, Abmedabad, 1958, 57 Anekantavāda, p. 187.

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Reconciliation of different philosophical view-points
15
Influence of anekāntevāda is found in the latter Vedanta works such as works of Ramānuja, Bhāskara, Vijñānabhiksu, Nimbārka, Srikantha Sivācārya and Vallabha. 58
It shows that, anekantavādu the doctrine of reconciliation is acceptable to all the systems of philosophy. Yašovijaya, the great 17th century Jaioa stalwart, keeping all these views in his mind, makes a beautiful statement that every system of Indian philosophy has accepted this anekāntavāda, which harmonises all the conflicting views, and sees unity in diversity. There is really no reason to reject this doctrine, 59
58 Darsan aur Anekāntavāda, p. 94-119. 59 Adhyatmopanişat-prakarana, 1-44-53, and 61 62, Adhyatmasara, Adhyātmopanişal,
Jilānasāra, Prakaranatrayi. Pub : Sanghavi, N. K. Jamnagar, V. S. 1994.

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REFUTATION OF ADVAITA VEDANTA IN MAJOR JAINA WORKS
History of Indian philosophy tells us that all the systems of Indian Philosopby developed in the atmosphere of freedom of thought. There was a tradition in Indian philosophical platform to present opponent's view first known as the pūrvapakşa (prior view) and then establishment of one's own view by refuting opponent's stand point known as the Uttarapaksa or Siddhanta (conclusion). This kind of method inspired the Indian thinkers to study thoroughly views of all others prior to the establisbment of their own system of philosophy and gave thoroughness, perfection and catbolic spirit to their system. Jaina philosophers also following the same brod. minded tradition, presented views of all the systems of Indian thought with considerable care and establisbed their own principles refuting opponept's view with logical rigour, But it is very interesting to note that just as great thinkers of otber schools of thought such as Bhartshari, 1 Kumārilabbatta, 3 Prabhākara, 3 Jayantabhatta4 and Udayana, who treated only Advaita as the Vedanta system, similarly eminent pbilosophical per sonalities of Jainism presented and refuted only Advaita system of Vedanta in their writings. Even later writers who flourished after Rāmā. nuja and Madhva mention Deither Vikistadvaita nor Dvaita system, of Vedanta.
1 “Yatra drasta ca dr syam ca darsanam cāvikalpanam. Tasyaivarthasya satyatvamahust
rayyanta vedinah" Vakyapadiya-ed ; J. M. Shukla; Pub. L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad-1984. 2 "Dvaitapak şāt parānudya budhyasuddhisamasrayāt. Paramätmänamevaikam tattvam
tattvavido viduħu"-Brhatika, quoted in Vedantadarsanam' (R. P.), Pt. S. Subrahmanya Sastri, Pub. Varanasiya Sanskrit Visvavidyalaya, 1967. 3 "Yastu Brahmavādināmeşa niscayo yadupalabhyate na fat fathyam, yannopalabhyate
tattathyamiti namastebhyo"-Brhati, Part-I, Pub. University of Madras, 1934, p. 239. 4 "Atra tāvat vedāntina āhuh....nityasukhamātmano mahatvavadastityāgāmaprāmūnyada.
bhyupagamya tām. Tacca samsārādaśāyām avidyavaranavasena nanubha yate"
Nyāyamaħjari-II, Apavarga pariksa, Pub. Oriental Institute, Mysore, 1983. p. 431-2, 5 "Suddhabuddhasvabhāva ityaupanişadan"-Nyaya KusumaAjali-1, Pub, Chowkhamba
Sanskrit Series, Benares, 1912, P, 4-5.

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Refutation of Advaita Vedānta...
17 Criticism of Upadişadic Armadvaita or Brahmädvaita is found in early Jainagamas such as Sutrakstānga and Visesavasya kabbaşya.' The line of presentation and refutation of Advaita is more or less similar in all the major works of Jainism. Certain common features are found in both Jainism and Advaita Vedanta such as liberation as the highest goal of life, ignorance of Reality as the cause of our bondage, Law of Karma, Jivanmukti etc., still in certain other matters both the systems are diametrically opposed to each other, Absolutism of Advaita Vedanta claims that, Reality is one without a second, this world is mere appearance and ultimately there is no difference between supreme Reality and individual soul. & Jainism is a system of realism, dualism and pluralism. It is a realism, because it recognises the reality of the external world; it is a kind of dualism, because it advocates two fundamental realities; the Jiva (Soul) and the Ajiva (non-soul) which are obviously controdictorily related to each other; and a pluralism on account of belief in pluralities of substance. 10 Advaita Vedanta believos in absolute non-dualism while Jainism advocates non-absolutism or many-sided theory of Reality (Ane. kantavada). It rejects both the extreme view of absolute eternality as well as absolute non-existence. It is a system of unity in difference, of onein-many and of identity-in-change, 11 According to Jainism Advaita Vedānta is one-sided theory which rejects particularities and emphasises only oneness of Reality. It gives only partial knowledge of Reality and falls under the sangrahanaya. 19 6. Evamegeti jappanti manya arambhanissia. Ege kicca sayam pavam. ivvam, dukkham niyacchai"-Sutrakytānga-1-10 and see 8, 9, 11, Ed. Ambikadatta Oza, Pub. Jaina
Jnanodaya Society, Rajkot, V.S, 1993, p. 31-35. 7. Visesavasyakabhāşya-II, Gathā 2036-2045, Pub. L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad-9, 1968. 8. (a) “Brahmasatyam jaganmithya jivobrahmi va năparah". Brahmajñānavalimala-verse
20. works of Sri Sankarácarya, Vol. 16, Vanivilas Press, Srirangam. p. 224. (b) Bhāmati-mangala verse 1-Brahmasūtra Sankarabhäşya with Rainaprabha, Bha
mati and Anandagirivyākhyā, ed. Mahadev Shastri Bakre. Fub. : Nirnayasagara
Press, Pombay, 1909. 9. Taţtvārthadhigamasūtra with Siddhasepagani tikā (T. S.) 11-4 Fd. H. R. Kapadia.
Pub.: J. S. Javeri, Bombay, 1926. 10. (a) T, S, I-V-2. (b) Pramānapayatatt välokālankāra-VII, 56, ed. H. S. Bhattacharya, Pub. Jaina
Sahitya Vikas Manda, Bombay, 1967. p. 560. 11. Şaddariapasamuccaya with Gunaratnasuri tika. Ed. Mahendra Kumar Jain, Pub. :
Bharatiya Joanapitha, Kasi, 1969. p. 344. 12. (a) Akalanka's Siddhiviniscaya with tika. Ed. Mahendrakumar Jaina, Pub. :
Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Kasi, 1959. pt. II, p. 677-78. (6) P, N, T, VII-13, 15, 16, p. 518-520, T-3

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18
Traverses op less trodden path...
Logical Jiants of Jainism such as Samantabhadra, 18 Akalapka, 14 Vidyānanda, 15 Prabhacandra, 16 Hemacandra, 1? Vadidevasūri, 18 Mallisena 19 and others have severely criticised the Advaitic theory of non-dual Brahman, doctrine of Maya and oneness of individual Souls (Eka jivavāda). Criticism of Advaitic conceptions are scatered in different Jaida works. A humble attempt has been made here to size them in to unity in a very condensed form.
Jajna thinkers argue that Advaitic doctrine of non-duality of Brahman and theory of Maya (i.e. illusory nature of the world) cannot be proved by any accredited means of knowledge. If it is provable by any means of knowledge then there is duality of Pramāna and Prameya20. Frist of all, existence of non-dual Brahman is contradicted by our perceptual experience. Perception reveals only the world of plurality. Daily experiences of duality or plurality of phenomena cannot be repudiated as false appearance or illusory, because this difference is clearly seen and felt. There is no proof against this duality or plurality which is cognised in our normal experience. Where is contradiction in saying that potter fashions a pot with his sticks and eats his food with his own hand. The difference (such as potter and his actions) between agent and action is even known by the ordinary people. 9 i If Advaitic view of non-dual Brahman is accepted, then, the difference observed between the agent and the action cannot be possible. 22 The standpoint of the Advaitin's that
13. Aptamīmamsā 24-27. Ed. Pt. Gajadharlal Jain. Pub. : Bharatiya Jaina Siddhanta
Prakasini Sanstha, Benares. 1914. 14. S. V. II; p. 463-468; 494, 677, 678. 15. (a) Astasahasri, ed. Vansidhar, Pub. Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, 1915, p. 157-163. (b) Tattvärtha slokavārtika, Ed. : Manoharlal Shastri, Pub : Nirnayasagar Press
Bombay, 1918. p, 25-26. (c) Satyaśāsanaparīkņā, Pub. : Bharatiya Jnanapitha, Kasi, 1964, p. 1-9. 16. Nyāyakumudacandra part-I, p. 63-64; 147-155, Part II, p. 808, 812, 830-838, ed,
Mahendrakurrar Shastri, Pub. Manjkcandra Jaina Granthamala, Bombay, 1938.
and 1941. 17. Anyayoga vyavacchedikā with Syadvadamañjari-13. Ed. Jagdiscandra Jain, Pub :
Ravajibhai Chaganbhai Desai, Srimadrajachandrasrama, Agas, 1970. 18. P. N. T. 1-15, VII. 13-17 and 56. 19. Syadvādamañjari, ed. A. B. Dhruva, Pub : Bombay Sanskrit and Prakrit Series,
1933. p. 77-83. 20, S. S, P. p. 7. 21. A. S. p. 158. 22. (a) Tattvārtharā javārtika, Pub. : Bharatiya Joana Pitha, Kasi, 1953. p. 21.
(b A. M. 24 ( CA. S, P, 158,

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one absolute transforms into many such as agent and action etc., also indicates duality. This is because one absolute never transforms itself into many without the assistance of others, which means acceptance of duality between the assistant and assisted.28 The well-known example of shell and silver given by the Advaita Vedantins to prove the ultimate falsity of the phenomenal world and oneness of Brahman, itself proves the existence of the shell and the silver as two different entities. In the same way, the statement of Advaitins that Brahman is one without a second and the world is just appearance 24 proves the duality of Brahman and the phenomenal world which is different from Brabman.25 It is also not tenable to argue that one unitor self-identical Brahman appears as the plurality of phenomena just as in dream a plurality of facts is experienced though it is one Consciousness that only exists and is felt and thus existence of on absolute Brahman is not contradicted by perceptual experience. This is because even in dream as in wakeful experience, theconsciousness of action is different from that of the agent because dreamcontents are produced by different memory impressions.88
The viewpoint that the indeterminate (nirvikalpa ) cognition which cognises existenc of Brahman cannot be accepted as source of our experience, because we never perceive what is not determined by space, time and what is not other than the knowing self. On opening our eyes we perceive specific existence determined by space, time, otherness and the like.91 Granting that indeterminate cognition is a kind of valid source of knowledge, it must be accepted that, it will not only take note of what Brabman is, but, will also take note of what Brahman is not and thus, it leads to dualism of Brahman and non-Brahman. a 8 Even the argument that perception bas no power to deny the Reality, it only affirms, is baseless because affirmation always implies negation, a thing cannot be affirmed to be yellow without denying that it is black. Thus, affirmation and negation which are presented together are the positive and negative aspects of a single Reality. Our perceptual experience instead of proving one Brahman, proves difference to be as integral to Reality as identity. 89
23. S, S, P, p. 6-7. 24, "Anirvācyāvidyādvita yasacivas ya prabhavato vivarta yasyaite viyadanilatejo avanayah,
Yatascābhūdviśvam caramacaramucc āvacamidam namāmastadbrahmäparimitasukhajñāna
mamytam"-Bhāmati-Mangala verse-1, quoted in S. S. P., P. 2. 25. S. S. P. p. 2. 26. A, S. p. 158. 27. S. S, Pp-4, 28. S. M. p. 82, 29. S. M. p. 79.

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If perception only affirms Reality i.e. Brahman, then why not to state that it affirms this plurality of phenomenal world also. If it affirms botn, then there is a dualism of Brahman and the world. Thus argument of the Vedantins that perception only affirms positive Reality, is not justified by our experience. If Brahman is only real and this world is false, then Brahman could have been known in the first case of our normal experience and not this pluralistic phenomenal world. 30
Even the Non-duality of Brahman cannot be proved on the basis of pure logic also. When Vedantins argue that Atman is un-born, un-bound and always freed and thus, in reality, there is neither bondage nor liberation, etc., this is purely fabrication of mind and to prove such kind of Atman by inference will be completely imaginary. The consequence of this is attainment of an imaginary liberation.82 Bondage and liberation are facts and both cannot be regarded as illusory. Denial of distinctions between them in definance of experience is nothing but embracing the Scepticism or Universal nihilism,58
If non-duality of Brahman is proved with the help of valid inference which involves the proban (hetu) and the probandum (sādhya), then there is clear admission of duality between the proban and probandum. 54 The fact is that both cannot be identical because, inference will be invalid unless both are admitted as two distinct facts. Again it will not be possible to construct a syllogism which demands different members. In inference, one proves the probandum by means of proban, proceding from the known to the unknown which means inevitable dualism of the known and the un-known'. It is also illogical to argue that so far as the opponent's refutation is concerned the conditions of Inference, such as the probao, the probandum and the example, are accepted as true by the opponents and hence they are valid, because it will again lead to dualism of one's own acceptance and the acceptance of the opponent. 38 If the condition of inference (the proban, the probandum and the example) are false and thus cognition of difference be considered as false, then that
30. S. S. P. p. 8.
31. Mäṇḍūkyopanisad with Gauḍapādakārikā and Sankarabhāṣya-VaitathyaprakaraṇaVerse 32, Gita Press, Gorakhpur, V.S. 1993. p. 108.
32. T. S.-V. p. 25-26.
33. (a) A: S. p. 159. (b) S, S. P. p. 7.
34. (a) A. M. 26.
(b) A. S. p. 160-161. 35. (a) A. M. 24.
(b) A. S. P. 158.

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inference will be declared to be invalid, because no valid, conclusion can be drawn from false premises. If Advaitins prove tbeir theory of nonduality on the basis of false premises, then we may obtain real fire from to dream smoke. 38
In addition to all these difficulties, the word 'duality' which occures in the word Advaita itself indicates acceptance of duality. 'Advaita' means rejection of dvaita. Without acceptance of dvaita, its denial is also not possible. Nothing is contradicted unless it exists and thus, non-duality, which contradicts duality, from this very fact accepts the existence of duality. 38 Again, it is not plausible to argue that Brahman is supporting ground of all and is that principle of existence wbich runs through all things and unites them in one Reality, because it clearly involves the dualism of a principle that runs through the things (anvets) and the things through which it runs (anviyomana). 68 If the doctrine of Advaita is based on Scriptural testimony and not on pure logic, then, dualism or pluralism may also be said to be based on Scriptures on the same ground.
Even acceptance of Scriptural testimony implies dualism of Agama (revelation) and Brahman i,e. dualism of vacya-vācakabhava, without which these Scriptures declare nothing. 38 Ontologically, Scriptures cannot be identical with Brahman because the means of proof (Agama) and the object of proof must be different. Otherwise they can establish nothing. In fact, Scriptural statements such as "All that exists is Brahman", "Everything is that one Reality”, etc., which Advaitins quote in their support, prove dualism between all existing things of the world and Brabman. 40 Even Scriptures cannot be regarded as the essence of the Absolute, because, esence and possessor of essence must be numerica ly different. 41 Another important thing is that, as far as these Vedāntic texts are concerned, Advaitin's interpretations are not to be accepted as fipal word. This is because there are other possible interpretations which are in harmony with dualism or pluralism as interpreted in Višeşāvasyakabbāşya 43
If Absolute Brahman is self-proved, then there is no harm in accepting duality or plurality or voidity as self-proved truth. Self intuition cannot be considered as proof for the existence of non-dual Brahman, because, there is again an inevitable dualism between the proof (i.e. selfintuition) and the object of proof (i.e. Brahman). If self-intuition is 36. S. S. P. p. 7. 37; (a) A. M. p. 27.
(b) A, S. p. 162. 38. S. M. p. 83. 39, Vācyavācacakabhāvalaksanasya dvaitasyaivatatrapi darśanāt-S. M. P-83. 40. (a) S, M, P-83; (b) S. S. P. p-5. 41, S. S. P, P-6. 42. V. S. B-JI, gātha 2036-2045,

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identified with the Absolute, then it cannot be considered as a proof for the existence of Brahman.43 It is self-contradictory to say that self-evident pure consciousness is the contradictor of our normal cognition of plurality, because, it means, again admission of duality of the contradicted and the contradictor. 44
Even on the religious ground, the doctrine of non-dual Brahman cannot be accepted, because it means denial of distinctions between good and bad deeds, pain and pleasure, this world and the world hereafter, knowledge and ignorance, bondage and liberation. Thus, if this doctrine is accepted then the consequence is destruction of the moral fabric of human life. 45
if it is said thal, Brahman is the only Reality and on account of Māyā or Avid yā, this apparent world exists, then again it is impossible to prove, either the existence of Māyā or Mithyātva (illusory nature) of the world by any means of valid knowledge. 46 The fundamental objection against Advaitin's is, whether the doctrine of Māya (cosmic illusion) adopted to explain this multiplicity of the phenomenal world is real or unreal. If it is real, then it destroyes the non-dual nature of Brahman and leads to an inevitable dualism. If it is unreal, then, this world which is caused by Mayo will not be possible. To say that Māyā is unreal and still it creates this world is as absurd as to say that a wonian is barren and that she is a mother. 47 And the Vedāntins themselves accept the theory tbat the real thing (the world) cannot be produced from unreal thing, 48 Again, the very statement that Maya is indescribable i.e. neither existent nor non-existent 'on account of being existent in the state of mundane life and no more at the state of realisation, indicates that it is describable in terms of either existent on the phenomenal level or non-existent in the state of liberation.49 To say that Mayā is indescribable, is self contradictory like saying that I am silent throughout the life and my father is bachelor. 50
43. A. S. p-161. 44. A. S. p-158. 45. (a) A. M. 26.
(b) A. S. p. 159. 46. A. S. p. 161-163. 47. Anyayogavya vacchedikā with Syädvādamañjari verse-13. 48. Māņdūkyopadişad with Gaudapādakārika and Sankarabbāşya-Advaita prakarana,
verse-28, p. 164-165.. 49. (a) N. K. Part-I, p. 63
(b) S. S. P. P. 8. 50. S. S. P. p. 8.

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23
If we grant that Måyå exists, then where does it exist ? Neither Brahman nor jiva can be locus of Maya. It cannot exist in the supreme Brahman which is pure consciousness by nature. If it exists in Brahman, then Brahman cannot be called pure consciousness on account of being associated with Maya. Even individual self is pure consciousness by nature and in essence, not different from Brahman and thus free from all taint of Māyā. If Mayā is an independent reality like Brabman and co-eval with it from the beginningless time, then it will be an impossible task to annihilate it by any means of liberation and the consequence of this indestructibility of Mayà is an eternal bondage of the soul. 1 It is argued that Māyā exists (Bhāvarūpa) but it cannot be eternal like Brahman nor cannot be an independent entity. Though it is not capable of being determined by logic, suill the denial of its existence would be contradiction of a felt fact and without adopting this doctrine of May, it is not possible to solve the problem of relation between the Absolute and phenomena, individual self and the Brahman, real and the unreal, 82 Here, again, one may argue why should such kind of illogical and irrational concept be accepted at all? Instead of postulating this kind of unreal principle as the cause of the world, it is better to accept the view that the world is both different as well non-different from the Brabman. The relation between the Absolute and the world is to be identity-cumdifference. An advantage of accepting this view is that there is no necessity of denying any one of the felt facts, the world and its cause-the Absolute, 58
Again, the unreality of the world cannot be proved. Argument of the Vedāntins is that real is real always, iemains constant at all the times and is free from origin and destruction, increase and decrease. But things of the world are subject to constant change, decay and death. Thus they are unreal. This Vedāntic position can be put in the following syllogistic form: "world is unreal, because it is an apparent reality, that which is apparent is unreal (as for instance) silver on a shall, therefore, this world is unreal because of its apparent nature. 34 This word, "unreality” of the
51. A. S. P. p. 9 52. Sureśvara-Sambandhavārtika-175-181, ed. Kasinatha Sastri Agase, Pub. Anand
asrama Press, Pune, 1982, P. 55-57. 53. A S. P. 163. 54. (a) S. M. P. 78. (b) Ratnāk arávatārikā ed, Hargovindadas, Pub. Dharmabhudaya Press, Benares,
Vira Sarvat-2437, P. 34

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Vedaotins can be understood in three alternative ways :--absolute nonexistenco, mistake or one thing appearing as another and indescribable. The first two meanings are denied by the Vedantins because, the former view leads to asatkhyāti, which is accepted by some Buddhists and latter view is Viparitakhyāti, which involves two reals: the thing which is mistaken and the thing as it is mistaken. The third alternative that it means 'indescribability' is also not plausible because everything has corresponding expression for it in language, for instance, 'this is a table', 'this is a sarala tree' etc. and what gives birth to an expression in language is either an object or a piece of knowledge. Again, an object must be either real or upreal; to deny both the alternatives to a thing is meaningless, only one of them can be denied. If indescribability of thing means ' niņsvabhāvariva (i.e. unsubstantial) i.e. it is not what it appears to be, than it leads to viparitakhyati. If it is understood in the sense of un-knowability, then the very argument that a thing is un-substantial because it is unknowable indicates that the thing is not absolutely un-knowable. And again, this apparent world eannot be, talked about due to unknowability and it cannot be made the subject of the syllogism such as the world is unreal, because it is an apparent reality', etc. If the world is un-knowable, then it could not be predicated of the world. Thus, unknowability is inconsistent with the hetu i.e. prati yamanarva. If unknowability means that a thing is not really as it appears to us, then it cannot be said as un-knowable, because, here, a thing is known differently from what it is, which is again principle of Viparitakh yati, un-acceptable to Vedāntins. Even direct perception of plurality of thing of the world such as "Table', 'Chair'. Sarala tree' etc. disapproves the doctrine of indescribability of the world. 58
This doctrine of unreality of the world of Advaitins can be refuted by providing counter arguments such as "world is not false, because it is different from a non-existing thing, that which is different from nonexisting thing is not false, as for instance the soul, this world is so. bence, it is not false”.56 This counter argument makes it very clear, that. it is irrational to accept the Vedantins view that the soul which appears as a reality in our apprehension is only real and other things are unreal which also appear as real in our apprehension. If it is said that inference proves the unreality of the world then, it can be argued that "Is syllogism
55. n) R. K. P. 34-35
(b) s. M. P. 78-79. (a) B. K. P, 34-35. (b) S. M. P. 80,

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which is supposed to prove the unreality of the world is part of the world or is it separate from it ? If it is separate, tben is it true or uptrue ? It cannot be true, otherwise the wbole world will become true. It cannot be untrue, because, it proves nothing. If it is part of the world then, it is unreal like the rest of the world and cannot accomplish task of proving unreality of the world.87 If it is said that an argument has a practical validity and serves well as a working theory, then we bave to accept that an argument is real, and it will destroy the fundamental position of the Advaitins that nothing besides Braman is real. 88
Even Scriptural texts such as 'Sarvam khalu idam Brahma' etc. instead of proving unreality of the world prove reality of the world and Brahman i.e. all existing things of the world and Brahman.89
Even Advaitic one soul theory is not tenable because this view is again contradicted by perceptual experience of plurality of individual selves. Like Sankhyas. Jainas argue that, if Atmon is only one then birth and death, bondage and liberation, pain and pleasure etc., should be one for the whole universo, if one person is blind or deaf, all should bo blind or deaf, if one acts, all should act in the same way, if one suffers or enjoys, all should similarly suffer or enjoy. If selves were one, bondage of one should have meant of bondage of all and liberation of one should have meant liberation of all. But what we find in the world is of a nature which is quite the opposite. 01 If Atman is one then births of different kinds of beings such as hellish, human, Divine, etc., are not possible. If Aiman is one and all pervading, then why is not consciousness seen in innert things such as pot, stone etc, ? Again, there will be no difference between liberated and bound Soul, preceptor and pupil. child and wise and so on.89 Jiva is different in each body pratik setram Bhinnah)68 and thus, individuals are born and die at different times, their actions and experience are diverse in nature and so on.
- - - - 57. S. M. p. 80. 58. S. M. p. 80. 59. (a) A. S. p. 16).
(6) S. M. p. 83. 60. Sankhyakarikā-verse-18, Pub : Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, 1963. 61, Syad vādaratnākara-V. Pub: Motilal Ladbaji; 27, Bhavanipeth, Pune, Vira Samvat
2457. P-1094. 62. Śilanka-Sūtrakstāngatīkā ed. Ambikadatta Oza, Mahavira Jaina Jnanodaya Society,
Rajkot, v, S. 1993, P. 30-35. 63. P, N. T. VII-56.
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There cannot be absolute indentity between Jiva and Brahman because, in that case muncane world of different individual selves will be impossible to conceive on account of inseparability of Jiva from ever liberated supreme Brahman. It also cannot be said that Ātman seems to be different on account of bodily adjuncts but essentially one, because, in that case, just as after destruction of pot its space is also freed, similarly, when body is destroyed every one will be liberated and no nced of means of liberation, consequently no one will try to achieve this goal and whole science of liberation will become purposeless 04 and theory of karma, rebirth etc. collapse to the ground.
If it is said that, on account of Sanskäras (impressions) every fiva is not freed immediately after destruction of the body and becomes object of trasmigration then the question is whether these Sanskaras of individual Jiva are specio-temporal or all-pervading like ether. If they are limited by space and time then the man died at particular place, to say at Citrakūta must born in the same place, because Sańskaras cannot travel from one place to another being inactive and unconscious (because product of unconscious avidyal, Sumskāras cannot also be allpervading because in that case, no place and 10 soul, even liberated, will be free from clutches of all pervading Samskäras and these Sanskaras might bring liberated man back to this mundane world. So, it is not possible to prove the oneness of souls and it is more wise and practical to accept the view of plurality of selves, 6 5
To sum up, Jainas point out that Advaitin's arguments that reality is one without a second, on account of Māyā this world appears as many (vivarta) and this appearant world disappears after destruction of Maya and realisation of Brahman, and Sravana, Manana and Nididhyasana are the means of liberation, are meaningless like discription of the barren woman son, because the existance of non-dual Brahman or Ātman cannot be proved by any available means of knowledge.66
Now, all these objections raised by Jainas are generally found in the writings of Rāmānuja 67 and Madhva. Possible answers are found in
64. S. R. P-1095. 65. S. R. P-1095-6. 66. S. S. P, P-7. 67 Śribhåşya-part-I, ed. Vasudev Shastri Abhyankar, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay,
1914, P-77-135, 68. Anandatirtha (Madh va)-Māyāvādakhandanam, Pub : T. K. Venkatacarya, Srividya
Printing Press, Kumbhakonam, 1921, P-1-15.

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27
the works of stalwarts of Advaita Vedanta such as Sankara 69 and his followsers which certainly deserve separate treatment. It is also vory important to note that, thougb Jaipas criticise the some of the doctrines of Advaita, still some Advaitic trends are steeped into Jainism.70 And there was trend to reconcile Jainism with Advaita and other systems of Indian Philosopby. For instance, Yašovijaya 71 a 17th century Jaina stalwart proclaims that Jainism has no quarrel with any other system of Indian thought.
(ABBREVIATIONS used in Notes)
A.S. - Astasahasri A.M. - Āptamjmāmsā N.K. - Nyāyakumudacandra P.N.T. - Pramananayatattvalokālan kära R.K.A. - Ratnākarāvatārika S.M. - Syadvadamañjari S.R. - Syājvādaratnakara S.S.P. - Satyaģäsana pasikṣā S.V. Siddhiviniscaya T.S.
Tattvārthadhigamasutra V.S.B. - Viseşāvagyakabhāsya
69. (a) Works of Sankaracárya.
(b) Sambandha vārtika (c) Advaita siddhi, ed. Anantakrishna Shastri, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, 1917. (d) Madhvatantramukhamardanam-ed. Pt. Ramanatha Diksit, Hanuman ghat,
Benares-1941. 70. a) "Samalam nirmalam cedamit idvaitam yadagatam. Advaitam nirmalam Brahmata
daikam vasişyate", Yasovijaya-Adhyatmonanişat prakaraṇa, 11-40, p. 152.
Adhyatmasara, Adhyatmopanişad, Jnanasaraprakaranatrayi, Pub Sanghavi Nagindas Karmacanda, Jamnagar, V. S. 1994. (b) "Advaitic Trends in Jainism'- 1 he Jaina Antiquary. Vol. XXIII 1965. p. 671, Abaddham paramārthena paramārthena baddhañca vyavahārataḥ. Bruvânobrahmavedan
nänekāntam pratikşipet".-Adhyātmopanişat prakarana-I p-50, and 45-49 and 51,

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UMĀSVĀTI'S CONTRIBUTION TO INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
Jainism is one of the major philosophical systems of India. Since 2500 years it has made manifold contributions to Indian Culture through its literature, religion, philosophy, architecture, sculpture, painting and music. Our author Acārya Umāvāti Vācaka who flourished circa 4th Century A.D, belongs to the galaxy of master-minds of the Jaina literary world holding a pre-eminent place among intellectuals and saipts of the Jaioa community. The position which he occupies among Jaina authors is of a unique character. As far as the available literature of the Jainas is concerned, he is the first among the Jaina masters to present fundamental principles of Jainism in Sanskrit language. The credit of introducing Jainism in Sutra form (aphoristic fcrm) on the lines of NyāyaVaiseșika sūtras, goes to this author. His contribution to Jaina philosophy, Religion, Ethics, Psychology and Cosmology, through his monumental work Tattvärthadhigamasūtral (T. S.) is unparalleled in the history of Jainism. He is the first author who has introduced the term adhyaya in T. S. instead of adhya yana of early Jaina Āgamas. Again, he is the first Jaina author to adopt Sanskrit poetic media to propagate Jaina Philosophy and Religion. The Praśamaratiprakarana of this learned author is one of the master-pieces in this direction. This is also a compendious work covering the quintesence of Jainism in a convincing manner. Though many other works such as Jambudvipa-samasa, Srāvakaprajñupti and Fūja prokarana are attributed to this author, but the two works viz., Tattvarthàdhigamasutra and Praśamaratiprakarana are really mile-stones and have left unimaginable.. impact on the later Jaina writers and have proved to be a milch-cow for later commentators for quotations. Tattvärthadhigamasutra is purely philosophical in nature wbile Prasamurati is religio-philosophical treatise of more popular nature addressed to monks and lay followers. His contri. bution to Metaphysics and Ethics through these two works is perbaps the most valuable contribution, not merely to Indian pbilosopby. but to world thought.
1. Tattvärthādhigamasūtram (T. S.), part I and I, ed H. R. Kapapia, Pub. : J, S.
Javeri, Bombay, 1926, and 1930. 2. Prasamaratiprakarana with Haribhadra's Commentary Pub. :D. L. Jaina Pustakod
dbara Samstha, Surat, 1940.

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29
Umāsvati is the first man who has laid down the philosophical foundation on which the beautiful palace of later Jainism is erected. His definition of reality whicb consists of seedling idea of reconciliation of different philosophical view-points is a remarkable contribution to Indian pbilosophy in general and to Jaina philosophy in particular. His definition of reality became a basis of Anekaniavāda i.e. the doctrine of manysidedness or the doctrine of non-absolutism, which tries to reconcile and harmonise the doctrines of almost all the non-Jaina systems of thought.
According to Umasvati reality (substance) consists of production, destruction and permanence. A substance is permanent in respect of its essential qualities and also subject to generation and destruction in regard to its changing modifications. When a substance, conscious or unconscious, originates without leaving its own nature, it is called origination. Destru. ction is loss of existence in a thing that had it before. Permanence is the essential characteristic of substance, which remains unchanged in both the conditions, viz. in origination and decay. To cite an example, a jar originates from clay without leaving the nature of clay. The clay leaves its former mode or shape when it becomes jar and the essential nature of clay remains unchanged in both the conditions. There is no contradiction involved and no violation of law of contradiction in apply. ing opposite predicates to the same thing in different capacities, because tbey are applied to its different aspects such as matter, state, space and time. It is seen that mutually contradictory e.ements can exist in one and the same thing in different capacities such as the same man is a father to his son, son to his father, husband to his wife, brother to his sisters and so on. This kind of definition is also accepted by the Mimāṁsā system. It means everything in the world is complex in its structure and as such has many aspects. To attain a complete truth, each entity is to be viewed from ali possible view-points. This deficition of reality paves the way to the famous synthetic doctrine of Anckäntavāda according to which, reality is neither absolutely real nor unreal, neither one nor many, neither particular nor universal, neither identical nor different, but both real and unreal, one and many, particular and universal, unity in diversity froin different points of views. 6 3. T. S. V. 29, part I. 4. (a) Sarvārthasiddhi, V-32, Pub : K. B. Nitve, Kolhapur, saka 1839 p. 17. (b) Tativârtharăjavartika, I 6, ed. : Gajadh. rlal Jaina, Pub : S. J. Granthamala,
Kashi, 1915. p. 26. 5. Mimāmsaslokavārtika, quoted in Darsana aura Anekantavāda, Pt. Hamsaraj G.
Sharma, Pub : A. J. P. P. Mandel Agra, 1928, p. 133-149. 6. Şaddarsanasamuccayarīka, Gunaratnasûri, Ed. : Jaina Mahendrakumar. Pub..
Bharatiya Jnana-Peeth, Kashi, 1969, p. 34.

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The theory of knowledge is a very important topic in the field of pbilosophy. Umāsvāti's contribution to this field is worth noticing. According to him, philosophical understanding is generated by both pramānas (sources of valid koowledge) and nayas (the doctrine of different standpoints). Right knowledge is of five kinds viz. inati, śruta, avadhi, manah-paryaya and kevala.? The former two are called indirect knowledge and later three are called immediate knowledge. It is important to note that (māsvāti has defined direct and indirect knowledge of perception in different fashion which is found in other logical schools of Indian philosophy, The cognition born of sense-organs is called pratykşa (direct knowledge) while that born of probans etc. is called paroksa (indirect) by other schools of thought, But according to Umāsvāii, the cognition depending on a Soul is to be called direct knowledge (prat yakşa), while that depeod - ing on the sense-organs and mind, i.e. depending on something other than a Soul is to be called indirect or parokşa, Mari and śruta are indirect knowledge which are acquired by the Soul through the medium of sense and the mind. The remaining three types of cognition are direct because they originate without the aid of the sense-organs and mind and on the basis of the capacity of a Soul alone. The terms paroksa and pratyakşa are thus used by Umāsvātı in senses quite opposite to those which they bear in other Indian philosophical literature. This explanation of direct and indirect koowledge is a speciality of Umāsvāti. Again, inference, comparison, authority, presumption, non-existence, probability which are accepted by others as valid sources of knowledge are not separate sources but included in the paroksa type only. Pramanavük ya reveals the things as a whole while na ya reveals only a portion of it. Nayas, or different view-points are true in their own capacity, but they reveal only partial truth. A truth can be reached through aggregation of all the constituent stand-points. Different non-Jaina systems represent different stand-points which are partially true. But combining all of them under the head of pramnana (Syadvada) or the doctrine of relativity of truth, one can obtain real truth. Nayavāda is introduced to accommodate 9 view-points of others in the Jaina view of anekantavada.
Again the simultaneity of perception and cognition (darśana and jñāna) is a great contribution of Umāsvāti to Indian philosophy.10 The keyali or Enlightened soul, perceives and knows everything simultaneously, His knowledge is all-pervasive. There carnot be any gap between perception and knowledge of the omniscient. We bave no proof to prove that this was said by any Jaina author other then Umāsvāti. Again the notion 7. TS. I 13. 8. Tattvarthasütra, Introduction, Sukblalji, Pub.: L. D. Institute of Indology, Abad. 9: T. S. I, 6 and 34.
10. T. S. I. 30, 31.

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31
of dharma (principle of motion) and adharma (principle of rest) are peculiar to Jainism alone. 11 Another important contribution of Umāsvāti is emphasis on faith, knowledge and action (conduct) in one's own life. 18 Different philosophical systems such as the Nyaya-Vaiseşika, the Sankhya, and the Vedāna give a prominent place to knowledge (jñana) whereas, the Yoga and the Buddhist systems attach great importance to the character or transition of knowledge into action. Umāsvāti emphasizes not merely knowledge and action, but incudes faith along with the two. Faith knowledge and conduct are said to be the ingredients of discipline that lead to freedom from karmic bondage. These are three gems and together constitute one path and are to be simultaneously pursued. If one is absent, the path of salvation is incomplete, 15 They are inseparably bound up and perfection of one goes with the perfection of the otber two. This is a positive contribution made by Umāsvāti. Again, the theory of karma, which is accepted by almost all the Indian systems is analysed in such a manner that it became peculiar to Jainism alone He, like other Indian thinkers, believes that emancipation is the ultimate aim of life. The empirical self from the beginningless past is under the malignant ipfiuence of passions occuring froin the association of Karmic matter. Passions, along with psycho-physical activities, attract fresh material particles which get trapsformed automatically into karmic particles and engender empirical bondage of the soul. So long as the soul is imprisoned in the body, it is subject to the shackles of the organism and is enmeshed in sordid karmic matter. As long as it is in the bondage of karma, it will never be free from the taint of misery and pain.14 Complete freedom can be obtained only by checking the continuous activity of mind, speech end body which is the cause of fresh inflow of Karmic matter to the soul and the elimination of the accumulated deposit of karmic force from the soul. Thus, libiration is deliverance of the soul from Karmic bondage. The place which liberated soul occupies is the peculiar problem to Jainism. Umāsvāti apswers by saying that a liberated soul goes vertically up to the top of loka, and remains there for ever. never entering the physical encasement for any reason whatsoever, 18 This problem is not faced by any other system.
Though, in certain respects, Umāsvāti maintains his own individuality and peculiarity of Jainism, it does not mean that Jainism has nothing in common with the other systems of thought it is true that there are certain subjects to which different degrees of attention have been paid by different Indian systems. Consequently that subject on which a special stress is laid by a particular system, comes to be known as its 11. T. S. II. I, 17.
12. T. S. I. 1. 13. Prasamarat iprakarana, 230. 14. Ibid., 30.
15. T. S., X. 5-6.

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unique subject or its distinguishing characteristic. Though the different schools emphasize on diversity of views, we can see even in them common features of Indian philosophy. The most striking and fundamental point of agreement are that all the systems (barring materialists) of philosophy believe that emancipation is the goal of human life; ignorance of reality is the cause of our bondage; law of karma is responsible for cycle of births and dearbs; self is different from the material body etc. Almost all the doctrines of Umāsvāti show the common characteristses of Indian systems.
The definition of 'sato os substance, guna and paryaya in T. S. is very similar to the pariņāmavāda of Sankhva system and that of substance, quality and action in the Vaiseșika system.16 The technical terms for pariņāmavāda used in T, S. and in the Sänkhya systems are practically the same. The pudgalavada of Jainism can be considered as a synthetic representation of the parama nuvada of the Vaiseșika and prakstipartnāmavāda of the Sankhva, 17 for it embraces both arambhavāda and parinâmarada. Again, the definition of substance can be compared with pariņāminit va defined in the Sankhya and Yoga systems. 18 Just as NyāyaVaisesika and Sankhya systems admit a plurality of souls, so does Jainism. 19 The classification of substanae into six kinds reminds us of six padarthas of the Vaiseșika system.99 Upayoga, ie, consciousness, the main characteristic of an animale object pointed out in T. S.21, is not differen from definition of the Vedānta or other atmavadi systems, The two kinds of right knowledge are really synthetic and systematic synopsis of the various types of valid knowledge of the different non-Jaina systems of philosophy, viz. two of the Vaiseșika and Buddism, three of the Säikh va and Yoga, four of the Nyāya and six of the Mimar sakas. Three kinds of immediate knowledg remind us of siddha, yogin and yśvara of god of the Nyāya, Yoga and Buddhist systems. The treatment of monahpar vdya seems to resemble paracitta jnana of the Yoga and Buddhist systems. 98
In short, the treatment on the subjects like knowledge and conduct, given by Umāsvāti gives us an exact idea of what Jainism has to say about thess subjects, like other non-Jaina systems. It is on account of his contribution that Jainism has occupied a prominent place among the Indian philosophical systems. In other words, credit goes to Umsväti for placing Jainism in the list of Indian philosophical systems. He will be remembered as one of the great thinkers of India in the history of Indian philosophy.
18. Ibid, 17-18.
16. T. S., part II, Introduction, p. 17-18. 19. T. S., Il 10. 20. Ibid, I, 4. V, 1-2. 22. Ibid, part II, Introduction, p. 14.
17. Ibid, 17. 21. Ibid. II. 8. 23. Ibid, P. 14.

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DOCTRINE OF DEGREES OF REALITY IN JAINISM,
BUDDHISM AND VEDANTA
The doctrine of degrees or orders of Reality is one of the most important problems in the history of world thought. The distinction bet. ween the Transcendental and Empirical, Noumenal and Phenomenal truths
1 tbat it has always been maintained in some form or other by all the great philosophical thinkers of the world. We find, in the east, these two distinctions in the early Upanisads, Jainism, Buddhism and also in Advaita Vedanta; so in the west in the writings of Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Spinoza, Kant, Hegel and F. H. Bradley, 1
The Upanișadic two paths-śreyas and Preyas (Good and pleasurable), Para and Apara Vidya (higher and lower khowledge), Amūrta and Mürta Brahman (Brahman-formless and having form), Jainas Paramartha and Vyavahara or Niscayanaya and Vyavaharanaya, Paramartha and Samuti of the Madhyamikas, Parinişpanna and Paratantra of the Vi nanavādins, Paramarthika and Vyavaharika of Advaita Vedāntins etc.; stand for these two, transcendental and empirical orders of Reality.
Upanişadic view :
Upanişads are termed as Himalayas of Indian philosophy. Just as different rivers, which having their origin in the Himalayas, flow in different directions, similarly all the schools of Indian thought have their roots in and are influenced by Upaniladic Philosophy. The seeds of alı all the systems of indian philosophy are to be found in the early Upanisods, The distinction between, empirical and transcendental orders of Roality, adopted by later thinkers of Jainism, Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta, is to be found in the early Upanişads.
Katha Upanisad teaches us that there are two paths opened to a person, Śreyas and Preyas (good and pleasurable). Wise men choose the path of Good wbich leads to the Supreme Self. The path of pleasure is related to worldly life and enjoyment. Fools choose the path of pleasure 1 Socrates's the World and Form, Plato's the Sepse ard the Idea, Aristotle's the Matter
and the Mover, the Modes and Suhstance of Spinoza, the Phenomenal and Noumenal of Kant, the illusion and the Absolute of Hegel; Anpearance and Reality of Bradley's, stand far these two distinctions.-Critical survey of Iodian Philosophy, Fage. 59. T-$

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and remain tied to the wheel of Samsara (mundane life), subject to the repeated births and deaths. They go round and round like the blind led by the blind. This path leads one to the misery of Samsara The path of Good (Sreyas) is the real path, which leads to self-realization, immortality permanent happiness, which is the goal of life. 2
Mundaka Upanisad makes distinction between the two kinds of knowledge, higher and lower (Para and Apara). Lower knowledge consists of the study of the scriptures and the secular sciences, it is related to worldly matters and the higher is the knowledge of the indestructible Brahman i.e. Supreme self. The higher knowledge is that by which the immortal Brahman is known. In Bṛhadaranyaka, it is said that, Brahman is of two kinds, having form (murta) and the formless (amurta), the actual and the beyond. This, having form or saguna Brahman is ultimately discarded in favour of formless Brahman, which is adjudged as real of the real. Again we are told in the Katha-Upnnişad that Reality is eternal among the reals.c These statements are clearly an indication of plurality of truths understood by the Upanisadic sages. It is clearly mentioned here that except Brahman or Atman everything else is empirical, transitory and not real. Tsavasya Upanisad tells us that the face of truth is covered by a golden disc. (Hiraṇmayena pātreṇa satyasyāpihitam mukham-1śāvāsya-15).
Here the word 'apihita' is used in the sense of cover (Samvṛti). The real truth is covered by the phenomenal truth. It also envokes the Sun god to raveal the truth. The phenomena, this apparent world is empirical, not real ultimately, and Paramartha Satya is only Brahman or Atman which is to be realized.
These two types of distinctions of the Upanisads are the basis for the transcendental and empirical distinctions of later thinkers of Jainism. Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta.
Jaina Conception
The history of distinction between Vyavahāranaya (partial view point) and Niścayanava (complete view point) in tne Jaina philosophical literature is found in one of the earliest Jainagamas, viz. Bhagvati Sutra. It states
2 Kath. UP, II, 1-2,
3 Mundaka-I-IV-5.
4 Dvevāva Brahmano rupe mürtañcaivāmūrtañca-Bṛh. UP. III-II-1.
5 Brh Up. IIA-II-6.
6 Nityonityanam-Kath-Up. V-13.
7 Isavasya-15.
8 Bhagavatisütra-18-6-630.

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Doctrine of degrees of reality...
that Vyavahara gives only partial knowledge of a thing or reality. It is like grasping only black colour in a black bee, while Niscayanaya is grasp. ing all the five colours in it. In other words Vyavahāra is that point of view which gives only partial account of a thing, while Niscaya gives a complete account of a thing or reality. Jinabhadragani in the Veseşāvas yak abhâsya repeats the same idea. 9 in the Uttaradhyayanasūtra, we find a slightly different conception of vyavahāra and Niśca yanaya.10 Here it is said that from the empirical standpoint external characteristics, disciplines and symbols are means of liberations, but from the transcecdesial point of view Right belief, Right knowledge and Right conduct are the real means of liberation, 11 Kundakunda-the great ethico-religious thinker gives completely different interpretation of Vyavahāranaya and Niscayanaya. He appears to be well aquainted with the Upanişadic thoughts. He was the first Jaina thinker who applies practical point of view (vyavahāra) to problems of empirical life and transcendental point of view (paramārtha) to supreme Self which transcends the limitations of the empirical life. He found that it is necessary to adopt this intellectual method or approach towards the comprehension of reality. Throughout his writings, be applies these transcendental and empirical distinction calling them Paramartha and Vyavahara, Svasamaya and Parasamaya, Niśca yana ya or Suddhanaya and' Vyavahāranay. 12 Kundakunda's wellknown work Samayasāra, begins with this distinction between pure self and impure self. Pure self is termed as Svasamaya one's own real self, which in its intrinsic purity rests on Right conduct, Right belief and Right knowledge and transcend the empirical limitations. It is paramārtha-the highest truth. The self, which is conditioned by Karmic materials is other then the real self, impure, empirical ego designated as parasamaya. It belongs to vyavahāra. 18 Vyavahāra is that state in which one is not able to distinguish between real self ond not-self. Engrossed in worldly pleasures, man does not see the real truth which is beyond the empirical level. In the absence of true knowledge of pure self, one identifies oneself with the characteristics of the external world of objects and gross body. From the practical standa point, no doubt, the soul (jiva) and body are found together in an embodied individual, but from the absolute standpoint they are not one, they
9 Logavvavahāraparo vavahāro bharai kala obhamaro. Paramatthaparo bhaņi
nicchaio pañcavabņotti-Višeşāvaśyak bhāşya -gălbā-3589.. 10 Uttarādhyayana sūtra-Adhyayana-33. 11 But these Agamas are not accepted by the Digambara sects. 12 Samayasāra-2, 7, 8, 27. Pravacanasāra-[I-2 and also Niyamasāra-18, 49, 55, 76, 158. 13 Jivaḥ carita-darśana-Jžānasthitaḥ tambi svasamayam jānihi. Pudgala karmopadeśa.
sthitam ca tam jāpihi parasamayam-S, S.-2.

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are separate. Pure soul cannot be identified with the gross body.14 This vyavahara is concerned with the problems of empirical life only. It tells us about the bound soul with all its characteristics. From the empirical point of view the soul is the agent of action and it undergoes such experience as those of pain and pleasure. Transcendental point of view is related with supreme self which transcends the empirical conditions. It is a state in which an intelligent person distinguishes self from not self and sees self as pure entity, free from all types of conditions. Perceiving the Atman as not bound, not touched, not other than itself, steady, without any difference and not combined is the pure transcendental point of view. 15 The practical standpoint does not reveal the pure self; it is transcendental view point, which reveals the truth. 16 The so-called characteristics of soul, such as colour, taste, smell etc., and spiritual development are predicated of the soul from the purely on empirical view point but absolute point of view, none of these can be predicated of the soul, because it is above these predicates. 17 From the empirical standpoint the self is regarded as an agent and enjoyer, but from the absolute point of view the self is neither an agent nor an enjoyer. 18 From the vyavahära point of view, the self appears to be bound. 19 Again from the absolute standpoint, individual self is identical with ultimate reality or Supreme Soul. Karmic adjuncts cover the selfshining Atman. When all the Karmic materials are destroyed through Right faith, Right conduct and Right knowledge, the self shines in its pristine purity and glory. In the supreme self, there is no colour, no smell. no taste, no touch, no visible from, no body. neither desire, nor aversion, no Karmic matter, no ego consciousness. There is neither activity nor bondage.20 Paramartha (transcendental-state) is the state of complete freedom from attachment, aversion and all types of Karmic materials. It is the state of knowledge consciousness (Jñana cetana). In this state the soul remains absorbed in its pure intrinsic, blissful conscious state. Right belief, Right conduct, Right knowledge are said to
14 Vyavaharanayo bbasate jivodehaśca bhavati khalu ekaḥ Na tu niscayasya jivodehaśca kadāpyekarthaḥ S. S. 27.
15 Yaḥ Pasyati ātmanam, abaddhaspṛṣṭam, ananyakam niyatam. Aviseṣamasamyuktam tam Suddhanayam Vijanihi-S-S. 14.
16 Vya vaharo abhūtartho bhütärtho desitastu suddhanayaḥ. S. S. 11.
17 Vyavahäreṇatvete jivasya bhavanti varṇādyaḥ. Gunasthänäntä bhāvā natu kecin. niscayanayasya-S, S. 56 and 60..
18 Vyavaharasya tvātmā pudgalakarma karoti anekavidham. Taccaiva.punarvedayate pudgalakarmaneka vidham.-S. S. 84.
19 Jive Karma baddham, spritm ceti vyavaharanayena bhaṇitam. Suddhanayasya tu jive abaddhaspṛstim bhavati karma-S. S. 141.
20 S. S. 50-54.

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be characteristics of soul, from the empirical standpoint, but at transcendental level, there is neither faith nor knowledge, nor conduct, in pure soul.1 In this state of transcendence there is no good and bad. It is beyond the duality of good and bad.59 The pure self transcends all relative view points.23 The self is neither one, nor many, neither bound nor defiled. It is a state of intuitive experience of Atman which is beyond speech and thought. At this level all duality vanishes. Amṛtacandra rightly points out that, when this Paramartha or Supreme-self is realized through intuition, all duality vanishes. In this state nayas (view points) do not arise, the means of knowledge (pramanas) are set at rest, the nikşepacakra pades into nothingness. 25 Only those who have risen above all the relative view points can reach and enjoy this immortal state. Amṛta candra makes it very clear by saying that, "those who have realized the truth, arising above all the relative view points of the intellect, who have obtained mental peace by transcending the categories of thought, they alone really drink nectar, enjoy immortality, always see the eternal consciousness ever dwelling in the essential nature of self."98 Kundakunda like Upanisadic sages, clearly states that there are two courses of action open to a person, the superior and the inferior (i.e. paramartha and vyavahāra). The wise will always choose the superior.97 Those who maintain that what is obtained from the empirical point of view is true, they never realize the supreme self. Realization of the supreme self is possible only by adopting the Niścaya point of view, which is the only path to reach the absolute Reality 28 Vyavahāra is empirically true but ultimately false. It is only the Paramartha that is ultimately true.98 Kundakunda being a great mystic saint realized that, worldly happiness is not the ultimate end of life. Realization of pure soul, which is beyond thought and speech,
21 Vyavahare jopadiśyate jñaninaścãritram darśanam jñānam. Näpi jñānam na caritram na darśanam jñāyakaḥ śuddbaḥ-S. S. 70.
22 Paramarthataḥ subhasubhopayogayoḥ prthaktva vyavastha navatiṣṭhate-pravacanasära -1-72. Com. and Na khalu paramarthataḥ punyapapadvaitamavatiṣṭhate. Ibid 1-77, Com. See also S. S.-145-146.
23 S. S. 142-144.
24 Ibid-15.
25 Udayati na nayaśrīrastameti pramāņam kvacidapi ca na vidmo yāti nikṣepacakram. Kimaparamabhidadh mo dhamni sarvamkaşesmin, anubhavamupayate bhati na dvaitameva-S. S. 13 com.
26 Vikalpajalacyutaśanta cittaḥ taeva sāk ṣāt amṛtam pibanti; ya evamuktvä nayapakapătam svarupaguptanivasanti nityam.-S. S. 142-Com.
27 Muktva niscayartham vyavaháre na vidvänsaḥ pravartante.-S. S. 156.
28 S- S. 414.
29 Vyavahāro abhätärtho, bhalartho desitastu Suddhanayah-Ibid-11.

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Traverses on less trodden path... pure, blissful, consciousness, is the highest aim of life. But worldly experience and bappiness cannot be dismissed altogether as uoreal. To show the difference between empirical experience and mystic experience, he has accepted these two types of distinctions-lower and higher. In this respect, he seems to be inspired by the Upanişadic thoughts.
After Kundakunda, his followers always uphold this distinction between empirical and transcendental viewpoints. They have applied these two points of view to tackle different problems. Pujya pada in bis Samā dhirājatantra says that guru is required for giving spiritual instruction, only on vyavahåra level, but on the transcendental level, the self alone is its own guru, as it is responsible for its transmigration as well as liberation. 80
Buddhist's View : Hinayānism :
We find this type of distinction between empirical and transcendental truth in early Buddism. Kathāvastu mentions that Buddha has used two kinds of speech, conventional (Sammuti) and real (paramārıha), empirical and transcendental 81 Expressions like stttā (being), pudgaa (persion), deva (God) etc., are conventional (Sammuti) and those like anicca (impe. rmanence) duhkha misery), anatta (Soullessness), Khandha (aggregate), the Āryasaltas duḥkha, duḥkha samudaya, duḥkha nirodha and marga), protitya samutpada (dependent origination) and all dharmas (elements cf existence) are real and hence belong to the category of paramartha satya.
Mabāyāna Buddhism
Mabāyānists accept this distinction but their interpretation of conven. tional (Samvrti) and real (Paramartha) trtuh differs entirely from that of Hinayanists. Mahāyānists criticise the Hinayapists for their failure to understand the real teachings of Buddha and maintain that real truth called by them is a matter of conventional and not real truth.
Almost all the great Mahāyānist thinkers such as Ašvaghoşa, Nagarjuna, Asanga and Vasubandbu, have adopted these two standpoints in their writings. Absolute suchness and conditional suchness of Asvaghoşa (1 A.D.) stands for these two distinctions. Nāgārjuna (2nd A. D.) makes clear cut distinction between empirical and transcendental truth, by saying that 'the teachings of Buddha are based on two kinds of truth, viz., empirical (Samvrti) and Absolute (paramārtha). 82 He points out that, those who do
30 Samadhirajatantra-75. 31 Kathāvastu-P. 33-38. 32. Dve sat ye samupăsritya buddhānām dharmadesana. Lokasavvyt i satyam ca satyam
ca paramárthatal-Madhyamika Kārika XXIV-8.

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not know the deeper meanings of these two standpoints cannot know the real meaning of Buddha's teachings. 83 Samvști is empirical truth, it is a sort of screen which covers up the real; it is, therefore, called Samvşti (i.e. cover or envelope). All worldly things belong to tbis category. The existence which is relative, conditioned by the subject-object duality, is called empirical existence, in the ultimate analysis. it is not trutb at all. The real is really beyond this empirical truth, paramārtha Satya is real and it is just Śünya-indescribable, beyond the categories of thought, calm and blissful, non-dual and it can only be directly realized.84 Nāgārjuna emphasises the transcendental reality. For him except Absolute reality which is non-dual (advayamtat tram), non conceptual, everything else is empirical, unreal. He categorises the whole phenomenal existence as Samvştisatya and does not analyse the empirical experiences in detail. But his followers Candrakirti (circa 6 A. D.) and śāntideva (7th A. D.), further destinguished the phenomenal reality into two kinds viz. tathyaSamvqli that which is empirically true and that which is empirically falsemithya Samvști, 8
Asanga (Circa-4th A. D.), the great exponent of Vijñāpaväda Buddhism, has also accepted two kinds of truth-empirical (Saṁvşti) and Absolute (paramartha). 30 Samvști is the same as illusion (māyopama). It conceals the real-truth. This Samurti Satya conceals the truth and projects nonexistent un-real objects. 87 Things of this world have no more existence than magical figures created by a magician. The entire phenomenal world comes under the samvştisat ya. Ultimately it has no existence of its own. The Paramärtha is beyond this empirical existence. It is un-originating and un-decaving 88 The transcendental truth is uncaused, un-conditioned, nondual, free from subject-object duality and non-conceptual consciousness 89 Asanga, being a great speculative thinker tried to give constructive theory of phenomena advocating three kinds of truth unlike Nāgarjuna's doctrine of two truths. The Phenomenal truth (Sarvști) is further divided into imagined and dependent (parikalpita and paratantra) and paramarthu is also called parinis panna. Asanga's constructive analysis of all empirical experiences 33. Ye anayorpavijānanti Vibhāgam Satyayordvayoh. Te tattvam na vijananti gam
bhiram buddhaśä sane. M. K. XXIV-9. 34. Aparapratyayam Santam prapancairaprapancitain. Nirvikalpamanänărtham etat
tattvasyalakşaņam. M. K. XVIII-9. 35. Madhyamikakärikävytri of Candrakirti; See also Bodhjcaryavatara of Santideva. 36. Laksanam sarvştisatyalaksanam paramārtha Saiya Jakşa namca-Mahāyāpasūtra
lankāra-XI-3-Com. 37. Tattvam samchadya bālānām atattvam khyāti sarvatah-M. S. A, XIX 53. 38. Mahāyānasatralan kāra-V1-1. 39. Tattvamyat satatam dvayenarahitam, bhrāntesca sanniśrayah. Sakyam naiva ca
sarvathābhilapitum yaccaprapancãtmakam.-M. S. A. XI-13.

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lod him to accept three kinds of truth. According to him, even at the phenomenal level, there are two kinds of experences, one is utterly unreal or illusory (parikal pita) and another is dependent, real for all practical purposes. The world parikalpita itself indicates that it is merely imagined truth and has no intrinsic existence of its own. It is illusory or utterly uoreal even at the phenomenal leveal, 0 It is purely mental creation and thus absolutely upreal.41 Paratanıta is dependent on causality. It is a false thought creation about the subject-object duality. It is imagination of non existent phenomenal world ou pure consciousness. It applies to the phenomenal world of subject-object duality. 2 Parinişpanna is well established truth (paritaḥ nişpannaḥ). It is paromärtha satya which is equated with the absolute. It is non-dual, beyond speech and indescribable by verbalizing mind. 45 The highest state which transcends opposities in which existence aod non-existence, the positives and negatives are one and the same, is called parinişpannaa. 44 This is the only existent (Sat) reality and except for this nothing exists in reality.45 Parikalpita and paratantra are related to worldly things, wbile parinişpanna is related to the highest truth Nirvana, Where all Klešas and imaginations cease to exist. - 6
Lankāvarāra sūtra, one of the authoritiative works on Vijnanavāda, also refers to these three kinds of truth by stating that parikalpita is purely imaginary like the hare's horn or a sky flower or dream etc. and paratantra is relative, depends on causes and conditions and comes under the realm of phenomenal and parinişpanna is the paramärtha sarya (highest truth), absolutely real, which transcends subject-object duality and is purely based on spiritual experience. 7
Vasubandhu, known as the second Buddha' or 'pratibuddha'48, also follows Asanga's line of thought. Parikalpita is purely imagination of the intellect, thus it does not exist in reality.49 Paratantra is dependent, relative, it arises out of causes and conditions. Whatever is caused and
40. Asarkalpanimittam hi perikalpitatalaksanam-M. S. A. XI-39. 41. Pari alpita svabhavah atyantamasaltvāt-M. S. A. XI-13 Com. 42. Grāhyagrāhaka lakṣaṇaḥ--M. S. A. XI-40. 43. Apabhilapyam aprapancatmakam ca parinispanna svabhāvaḥ-M.S A. X1-13 Com. 44. Abhavabhāvatāyaca bhāvābhāva samānala. Asanta santāklapă ca parinispadnalaksanam
-M. S. A. XI-41. 45. Na khalu jagati tasmad vidyate kiAcidanyat..Sat samantad vihāya-M.S.A. XJ-14. 46. Vikalpopašamārthah śāntārthah parinispanna laksanam--M.S.A.XVIII 81, Com. 47. Lan kāvatarasūtra-Suzuki P. 56. 67, 222. 229. 48. Buddhist Logic-Stcherbatsky. Vol. I, p. 32. 49. Yena yeda vikalpena yad yad vastu vikalpyate. Parikalpita eväsau svabhavo pasa
vidyate--Trimsika-20,

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conditioned is not ultimately real.50 Parinispanna is the only truth, it exists independantly by itself. It is beyond the subject-object duality, nonconceptual Consciousness. 51 It is pure, undefiled Existence. It is beyond. finite thought; it is the Good, it is the Eternal, Blissful, it is Liberation. It is the Buddha's body of pure Existence. It transcends the categories of thought as well as the plurality of the phenomenal world. 52
Advaitic View ;
Sankara, the chief exponent of Advaita philosophy has introduced this distinction between transcendental (Pāramarthika) and empirical (vyāvahārika) orders of reality with certain purposes.
First of all he has accepted these so called gradations of reality to reconcile the contradictory statements of the Upanisads. In the Upanisads, we come across divergent views almost side by side. In certain passages the ultimate reality is described as beyond thought and words, acosmic, attributless, indeterminate, one without a second, and so on. But there are also passages which describe ultimate reality as cosmic, all-comprehensive, creator, sustainer and destroyer of the world, full of all good qualities and so on. It was Sankara who took up this difficult task of bringing these contradictory statements into intelligible and coherent relation with. the help of these so-called degrees of Reality. His second important purpose in accepting the orders of reality is to show that this conception of distinction between transcendental and empirical level of reality is as old as Upanisadic thought and not new contribution of Jainas or Bauddhas. At the time when Sankara rose on the Indian philosophical horizon, great Jaina and Buddhist philosophers were dominating the intellectual fields of society through their writings. Sankara was undoubtedly, wellaquainted with important Jaina and Buddhist works. He saw that, people are under the impression that this distinction between transcendental and empirical level of existence is original contribution of Jainas and Buddhists. His main aim was to re-establish the lost glory of Upanisadic thought Sankara, throughout his writings applies this distinction of real and empirical existence and quotes Upanisadic passages in several places to prove that, this idea is already accepted by the Upanisadic sages. The terms used by the Upanisadic seers to show the difference between empirical and transcendental level, may be different trom Jainas and Bauddhas
50. Para antrasvabhāvastu vikalpaḥ pratyayodbhavaḥ-T. M. S. 21.
51. Ibid 21
52. Sa eva anasravodhätuḥ acintyaḥ kušalo dhruvah. Sukho vimukt ik ayosau dharmakhyoyam mahāmuneḥ-T. M. S. 30.
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but idealogically, they convey the same meaning. Sankara found nothing wrong in accepting the popular terminology, current among the Jaina and Bauddha literature of his time to convince the intellectuals of society, Thirdly, his adoption of orders of reality is based on a most realistic approach. Sankara found that even at empirical level, there are two kinds of experiences, one merely appears to exist and the other is rea! for all practical purposes. It is a well-known fact that what appears perfectly real at lower level becomes unreal when we come to look at it from a higher level. The illusory objects of dream experiences are sublated at empirical level and in turn this empirical experience is contradicted by still higher experience of transcendental reality or Brahman. Thus the whole conception is based on the different kinds of human experience, rising from a lower to a higher level. Sankara's systematic analysis of human experience led him to accept these so-called orders of reality, trascendental, empirical and illusory, koown as Sattatraya. Sankara gives hair-splitting arguments and explanations about these three orders of reality and shows with his intellectual sharpness and logical vigour, how we proceed and progress from lower to bigher level of existence.
The term Prātibhäsika literally means existing only in appearance, that which appears to exist for a brief moment to a single individual. A person sees a spake (in darkness) where there is a rope, silver where there is a shell, water where there is only mirage, a thief where there is trunk of tree. In dream, some times, he sees a dream-lion, tiger and so on. These perceptions are peculiar to the single individual and last only for a few minutes. But they are real experiences and bence cannot be dismissed as unreal. According to Sankara, whatever is perceived must be admitted to be so for real. An unreal thing is never perceived by any one. No one has ever seen the hare's horn or the sky-lotus. These are all mere words with no objects corresponding to them in the real world. If something is perceived by one individual even for a brief moment, it must be granted to be so for real. 53 Water in a dream can quench thirst in a dream and a person bitten by a snake in a dream may feel himself dead in the dream. 8. Sometimes the person who imagines that he has placed his foot on a snake, takes fright, perspires, trembles all over the body. In the same way, objects that are seen in dreams are real as long as they last. The snake that is perceived in a rope lasts for a brief moment and then vanishes after keen observation. Similarly, the dream lion is created when the dream starts and it dissolves when the dream breaks up. These, snake on a rope, silver in a shell, dream lion etc. are
53. Sankara Bhäşya-II-II-28. 54. S. B. II-I-14.

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real creations, but they are sublated when a higher experience takes place. Here in all these cases a lower order of reality is superimposed on a higher order. It comes into existence witb the perception and goes out of existence with the cessation of the perception. Though, these objects are perceived by an individual for a brief moment, they are perfectly real until higher experience takes place. These objects that are perceived by an individual for a few minutes, belong to the lowest order of reality, known as pratibhasikasattā. This pratibhåsika experience is not completely real as it suffers cootradiction. The unreality of the effects of this imagipary standpoint can be realized only when the empirical standpoint is attained. The snake seen in a place of rope disappears when we come to know that there is only a piece of rope lying in that place. The rope which remains after keen observation, certainly, belongs to a higher order. It can be perceived by anybody and any number of times. It is the same to the same individual and same to the different individuals at the same time. So also the shell, mirage and trunk of treo etc. This type of experience undoubtedly belongs to higher level than pratibhasika experience and it is called Vyāvaharika (empirical) reality. This world which is the ground of all our activities and experiences, the individual ego, 7 svara, belong to this order of reality. This world is relative, phenomenal and finite. But it is not illusory like pratibhasika. This phenomenal world and worldly objects exist because we all experience them. All experiences, thus, of worldly things belong to the level of empirical reality. This empirical world is real for all practical purposes. No one can deny it. If this world and individual souls are unreal, then it would be against the practical notions of our ordinary life and expe. rience. Sankara recognizes the relative, empirical and pragmatic reality of the world. The empirical world cannot be called completely non. existent because, then the practical utility of all worldly experiences would collapse. According to Sankara, the entire complex of phenomenal existence is still true to a person who has not reached true knowledge and realized his Self. On account of ignorance (avidya), we believe that this world and individual souls are completely real. As long as one is in the grip of this ignorance, the reality of the world and self is vouchsafed for him. For ordinary, ignorant people, this empirical order is the highest reality, because they do not rise to a higher level of experience. Yet actually it is not the highest reality, because it becomes sublated after realization of Brahman or Supreme Self. Though the world is not real in the ultimate analysis, it is not absolutely unreal like the hare's horn. The unreality of the world is realized only when the absolute is realised, Till then, it is true for all practical purposes for man.

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It is entirely erroneous to suppose that Sankara treats the world as illusory or unreal. He does not dismiss the experiences of the world and worldly objects as absolutely unreal. The world characterised by diversity and change is not wholly unreal. He only shows that this world becomes ontologically less real when Brahman is realized. He rightly points out that the world of the waking state cannot be reduced to the level of dream objects, though it resembles dreams in certain respects. “An object will not lose it's real nature and aquire that of another, merely because it resembles that other in certain respects."55 This manyfold world is taken to be real as long as the essential unity of the Jiva with Brahman is not realized.86 As long as this unity with Brahman, the supporting ground of all phenomena is not realised, the world with all its difference is perfectly real. 57 When Sankara says that world is 'mithya' 58 it does not mean that the world is utterly unreal. This word is used by him to emphasize the ultimate unreality of the phenomenal world. It's existence is not denied but assigned to a lower ontological level. So long as we are in this world, we cannot take it to be unreal. It is a practical reality. When Sankara characterises the world as 'mithya', all that he means is that it is not ultimately real, though it appears to be real for all practical purposes. This world is not absolutely real as it is sublated in a still higher experience. When Brahman consciousness arises the reality of the empirical would suffers contradiction. Though empirical experiences cannot be reduced to the level of dream objects. still this world can be compared to a long dream, because it is contradicted by a still higher experience of Brahman.5 9 Brahman-consciousness which serves to contradict the world of our waking state does not suffer contradiction, because it is pure consciousness at any level or at any time. 60 It is the same in all waking, dreaming and deep sleep. Realization of Brahman is called paramārtha-the highest state, the highest aim. This level is mystical experience of oneness or unity of Jiva with Brahman. This is the only reality and as compared to it, the other two are merely appearances under certain conditions. 55. Na ca yo yasya svato dharmo na sambhavati so anyasya sädharmyät tasya
sambhavisyati; na agniņi uşṇaḥ anubhūyamānodakasādharmyāt sitobhavisyati--S. B.
II-II-29. 56. Prākcätmajkatvāvagateh a vyäbatah sarvah satyāpyta vyavabāro laukiko vaidikaścel
yavocāma. S. B. II-I-14. 57. Tavād satyam jagadbhāti suktikā rajatam yatha. Yavanna jfhāyate brahma sarva
dbisthānamadvayam--Ātmabodha-7. 58. Advaita Vedānta p. 166-167. M. V. Ayer. 59. Anubhūtopyayam loko vyavahārakṣaṇopi san. Asadrāpo yathā svannah uttarakṣaṇa.
badhataḥ-Aparoksanubbūti-verse 56. 60. Nahi vijñātuh vijfāte viparilopo vidyate-S. B.

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The pratibkasika and vyāvahāraika are relative, hence not real, ultimately, while paramarthika (the transcendental reality) is beyond all kinds of relative viewpoints. At the paromā, thika level ordinary experience is transformed into intuition.
Our entire worldy activity is on acconnt of Avid ya-igoorance. Right knowledge removes ignorance and it cannot be sublated. The falsity of the dream-object is realized when the dreams break up and we are awake. And even then when these dream objects are sublated, the consciousness that the dreamer had experienced these objects in the dream is not sublated even in the waking state. Consciousness therefore is eternal and real. 61 According to Sankara, the whole plurality of appearance is due to avidyā (ignorance).62 From the pāramārthika point of view, there is only one Absolute, Brahman, one without a second. & 3 It is unchanging and immutable, absolutely permanent, completely independent of all contingencies, ever the same and most stable. It is neither contradicted Dor contradictable. It is Existence, Consciousness and Bliss, 64 It is level of self-luminous universal Self of all.65 At the paramarthika level there is no difference between individual souls and Brahman, 66 This pluralistic vision of selves is empirical standpoint while unity of all selves is päramarthika. Just as the sun or the moon appears many on account of the reflection in different vessels of water, 67 or just as the same space appears different spaces, similarly the same self appears as so many phenomenal selves on account of adjuncts.68 He rightly states that, "as light, ether, sun and so on appear differentiated as it were, through their objects such as fingers, vessels, water and so on, which constitute the limiting adjuncts while in reality they preserve their essential non-differentiateness, so the distinction of different selves is due to limiting adjuncts only, while the unity of all selves is natural and original."69 There is only one 61. Yadyapi svapnadarśanāvastbasya sarpadamsapodakasnānādikāryam anstam; tathāpi
tada vagatih satyameva phalam, pratibuddhayāpyabādhyamanatvāt-S. B. II-I-14. 62. Ekatvamevaikam pāramārthik..m...mithyajñānavijpmbbitam ca nāgātvam--S. B.
II-1-14. 63. Eko hi pratya gātmā bhavati nadvou pratyagātmānau sambhavatah-S, B. I-II. 20. 64. Sat cit anandam Brahma. 65. Armā sarvas ya atmā. 66. Atmă ca Brahma-S. B. I-I-I. 67. Ajñānam mansopadheh karttvadini catmani. Kalpyantembugate candre calao,di
yathāmbhasah. Atmabodha-22. 68. Yathā prakaśākāśasavitsprabbrtayaḥ angulikarakodakaprabhrtişu karasu upadhi
bhûteșu sa višeşā iva avabhäsanle, na ca svābhāvikima višeşālmatām jabāti evam
upädbinimitta ovayamätmabhedah svatastu ekatmyameva-S. B. III-II-25. 69. S. B. III-II-25.

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pure consciousness or highest reality, eternal, unchanging, which is the luminous body of pure-consciousness, which, on account of ignorance or Māyā, manifests itself as many, and except this there is no other reality, no other pure-consciousness. 70
On acconnt of avid ya, we superimpose the world on Brahmon, wbich is supporting ground of the phenomenal world. On account of ignorance, we mistake rope for snake, shell for silver, we see one object in place of another. We attribute to an object certain qualities which do not belong to it. We superimpose the world on Brahman in the saine manner as at a lower level, we superimpose the snake on rope, shell on silver etc. similarly we superimpose the body, the sense-organs and the mind on the Self. We also attribute agency and employership to the self which do not really belong to it.71 We think that this Jiva associated with ego is the highest reality. Actually speaking, this ego is not the true Soif. True Self is that which is free from all these adjuncts, ultimately it is one with Brahman 12 From the Paramarthika. transcendental point of view, even the view that jiva becomes one with Brahman at the state of realization is only a verbal statement, for he is always Brahman,78 Just as pure transparent crystal is wrongly imagined to be red on account of a red flower placed near it, just as colourless sky is wrongly imagined to be sullied with dirt by the ignorant or just as a rope is wrongly taken to be a snake in darkness, similarly, the non-dual Atman or Brahman is wrongly imagined to be jiva or empirical self by ignorant people. 74 On account of powerful avidya, the Self appears to be manifold. But in fact, Sankara, writes---''the Self is not to be known" as manifold, quali. fied by the universe of effects. You are rather to dissolve by the true knowledge, the universe of effects, which is the mere product of nescience and to know that one Self which is the general abode, as uniform.78 Common error like seeing snake in place of a rope, silver in a place of shell, etc., can be set right by proper observation and examination. But to remove metaphysical error like superimposition of world on Brahman, one has to go tbrough rigorous spiritual descipline. 76 After going through 70. Eka eva parameśvarah kūțasthanityo vijñāpadhaturavidyaya mayayā māyāvivad
anekadha vibhavyate nānyo vijñānadbăturastiti. S. B. I-III-19. 71, Atmabodh-22. 72. Atmã ca Bralıma. S. B. I-1-1. 73. S. B. on Brh. Up, VI-4-6. 74, S. B. I-II-6. 75. Na Káryaprapanca višisto vicitra ātmā vijñeyah. Kim tarhi, a vidyakrtam käryapra
pañcam vidyayā pravilāpayantah tam evaikam ayatanabhūtam ātmānam janatha
ekarasamiti-S. B. I-IIJ-5. 76, S. B. I-1-4.

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very hard discipline one can acquire the higher knowledge of Brahman which consigns the world to a lower order. The superimposition of world on Brahman which is beyond specio-tempora), causeless, non-perceptible is like superimposition of colour, shape, dirtiness on the sky, which has neither shape nor colour. It is not always necessary that superimposition should take place on objects in time and space.?
At päramärthika level, Sankara denies any activity to Arman, since acti. vity by its nature is non-eternal. The Self cannot be abode of any action, since action cannot exist without modifying that in which it abides. Activity and enjoyment are dependent on dualistic vision, which is not the highest truth.78 Paramartha is the state which is free from all empirical activities, 19 Paramartha is pure consciousness, self-luminous which trans. cends subject-object duality. At this level of experience, ordinary knowlodge is transformed into intuition. At this level, there is no differentiation of knower, knowledge and known. At empirical level, there is distinction between knower, knowledge and the known, 80 while the real transcendental state is free from all these distinctions.81 This state is nothing but ineffeble experience, beyond thought, speech and differentiation. It is pure consciousness bereft of all content.83 The dualism of subject and object disappears and there is only the mystical union with Brahman. This state transcends all the categories of intellect. It is essentially indescribable for all description and all categories fail to grasp it fully.88 It is direct perceptions (Saksātkara), which is manifested when the avidya is destroyed and the individual realises oneness of Armon. It is also called state of perfect knowledge, 84 and perfect intuition. 8 8 This is the state of ultimate reality which seers experience in the state of Nirvikalpa Samādhi. It is nothing but a state of Turi yavastha - fourth state, which transcends three states of waking, dreaming and dreamless sleep.86 It is non-dual pure Seif. This highest state 77. Na cāyamasti niyamah purovasthita eva visaye vişayantaramadh ya vasitavyamiti--S. B
I-I. Introduction. 78. S. B. Běh up. IV-I-15, S B. II-III-40. 79. Paramarthavasthāyam sarvavvavahārabhāvam vadanti vedantāḥ sarve--S. B. II-I-14, 80. Avid yakalpitam vedyavedityvedanabhedam. SB. I. I. 4. 81. Nahitatra pramānaprameyabhedah sakyate kalpayitum. S. B. On Gaudapadakar ika
IV-67. 82. Praktivikytibhinno suddhabodhassvabhāvah sadasadidama'seşam bhasayan nirvises ah
Vivekacüdamaņi-137. 83. Naiva vācā na manasa na cakşusā nānyairapi indriyaih praptum sakyate S.B. on kath
-VI-12. 84. Samyagjnanadi sfam ekatvam--S B. I. II 8. 85. Paramātmaivāyam samyag darśanavişayabhūtah. S. B. I. II. 13. 86. Avasthātrayātitamadvaitamekam param brahma nityam tadaivahamasmi. Svarūpanu
sandhanaaka-5 and see also Upadesa sahasri_-40

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(Paramārthika) is state of liberation. Sankara writes. “that entity, in the absolute sense real, highest of all, eternal, all-pervading like the ether, exempt from all changes, all sufficing, undivided, whose nature is to be its own light, in which neither good nor evil has any place, nor effect, nor past, nor present, nor future-this corporeal entity is called liberation.
It is very clear that, Sankara's conception of orders of reality is based on the difference in the grades of our experience. It is well-known fact that what appears to be real at lower level becomes unreal when we come across higher kind of experience. The unreality of the effects of the illusory stand-point is realised when we attain empirical standpoint. Similarly, the unreality of the empirical standpoint can be realised only on attaining absolute standpoint. He wanted to show that, the real import of the Upanişads is the knowledge of the highest non-dual Brahman. The world is mere name and form. 88 The reference to difference in the Upanişads is just concession to our empirical modes of thinking. 8 9 The recognition of the three kinds of realities, however, should not be regarded as contradic. tory or incompatible with the non-dualistic doctrine of Advaita system. Really speaking these tbree kinds of realities are not degrees of reality, independent of one another. There is no place for two or more permanent realities in the non-dualistic system. These distinctions are also adopted to teach common man. Ultimately, prātibhāsika and vyāvahårika realities are discarded in favour of päramärthika-the non-dual absolute.
It is important to note that Sankara differs from Vijñanavāda Buddhists who have also accepted three kinds of orders of reality. For Vijñā. navādins, especially, for Asanga, there are two aspects of Reality; one is absolutely real (Parinişpanna) and the other is defiled aspect of the same reality (i, e. paratantra). This absolute is affected by illusion Pure consci. ousness appears as the manifold world of phenomena. It cannot remain indifferent to its appearances. It is involved in phenomena, The paramärtha which is the pure aspect of the real is defiled and appears in the form of subject-object duality and as the manifold world of phenomena. This defiled aspect is empirical (paratantra). When it is purified it becomes paramārtha. In the Advaita of Sankara, there are no pure or impure aspects of reality. Absolute is never defiled, it is always pure. The absolute consciousness is un-defiled and unaffected by all types of illusion. It
87. Idam tu pāramārthikam kuțasthanityam vyomavad sarvavyāpi sarvavikriyārahitam
nity a trptam Diravayavam, svayam jyotiss vabhāvam yatra dhar adharmau saha
kā ryeņa kālattrayam ca nopăvartete tad etat asarirat vam mokşākhyam--S. B. 1-1-4. 88. Vācārambhanam nāmadheyam myttiket yevasatyam--Ch, Up. VI. 1.4. 89. Na cātrobhāvapi bhedābhedau śrutistulyavad vyapadi'sati abhedameva hi pratipadyatyenam
nirdisati-S. B. III. II. 29,

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remains indifferent (Kütastha) to all kinds of appearancos superimposed on it. It is the basis of illusion but itself is not affected by it, Vyavahara is not defiled aspect of the reality. It is ontologically less real than the ultimate reality, purification of vyavahara is not attaining paramartha. Transcending, going beyond vyavahara we will realize this state of pure consciousness.
We have already seen that the same current of thought flows in all these systems. The description of nature of paramartha satya is common to all--from Upanişadic philosophy to Advaita Vedanta. The parā-vidyd or bigber transcendental knowledge is equated with the pure self luminous, ingescribable Aiman or Brahman in the Upanişads. It is beyond the grasp of words and intellect,90 Atman is devoid of sound, touch, form and it is undecaying, devoid of taste, colour, etc.91 Mundaka Upanişad clearly states that transcendental knowledge is that by which the immortal Brahman is known.99 Transcendental knowledge is that by which one attains immor. tality.98 The same idea is developed by Kundakundācārya, Nāgārjuna, Asang. Vasubandhu and Advaita Vedāntips. Kuudakunda's Paramartha view point is related to the supreme self which transcends limitations of empirical life. His description of paramartha or transeendental stand-point is the same as para vidya of the Upanişads, He, like the Upanişadic sages, equates paramärtha with the supreme Ātman in which there is no colour, no smell, no taste, no touch, no visible form, no body, neither desire nor aversion, nor karmic matter, no ego-consciousness. In the pure soul there is neither activity nor bopdage.94 Nāgārjuna describes paramärtha satya as that which can only be directly realised, that which is quiescent, inexpre. ssible; that which is non-discursive, and non dual 98 For Asanga; paramartha satya is a state of liberation in which all suffering and imagination cease to exist and it is peaceful. It is non-dual, indescribable and non-determin nate, pure consciousness.96 Vasubandhu describes, paramarthasatya as pure undefiled existence, beyond finite thoughts, good, eternal, blissful and libor. ation itself.97 For Sankara, Absolute Brahman is paramartha sarya, which 90. Katha-V1-12. 91. Katha-011-15. 92. Atha Dara yā tadakşaramadhigamyate-Murd Up 1-5. 93. Vimukto anto Bhavati-Mand. Up. III-9; Vidyayā amstamasnute l'śa. Up. 11 and
Kath. Up. VI-8. 94. S. S. 142-144. 95. Madhyamikakārikā. --XVIII-9. 96. M, S. A XI-13. 97. T. M. S-30.
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is one without a second. This is a state of liberation, where there is no difference between individual self and Brahman. It is attribute less, beyond the categories of intellect, non-contradictable, stable, immutable, eternal, pure, ever free and of the nature of Existence, Consciousness and Bliss.98 Secondly, in the Upanisad, this world is treated as real so long as one is in the grip of ignorance and has not realised the ultimate Reality. When it declares that Brahman is the truth of truths, 99 eternal among the eternals, consciousness of the conscious beings,109 it means that Atman or Brahman belongs to an order of reality higher than that of the world which is also real in so far as it is presented to our senses. In other words, Atman and the world belong to two different orders of reality. Atman to the higher and the world to the lower. The import of the Upanisadic statements is that, this world of diversity and change is not ultimately real, though real for practical purposes. Actually speaking, there is only one reality, Brahman there is no plurality whatsover and one who sees diversity and change as real, goes from death to death. 101 Kundakunda also holds that empirical level is real for those who are not able to reach this highest transcendental state. Once this highest mystical state is attained, this vyavahāra is discarded automatically. Similarly, for Nagarjuna. Asanga, Vasubandhu and Sankara, this world is real for all practical purpose. Thirdly, Upanişads teach us that, the higher level can be reached only through the lower order. We cannot reach higher level without touching the lower ladder. We have to reach parâvidya through apara.109 Ananda through matter.108 It means without realization of unreality of empirical standpoint, no-transcendental level is attainable. The same idea is developed by Kundakunda, Madhyamikas, Vijñānavādins and Advaita Vedantins. Though all these philosophers have emphasized the realization of ultimate reality, they have not ignored the importance of phenomenal truth, equally they have emphasized the realizing the unreality of this phenomenal aspect. This empirical truth is not real in the ultimate analysis, but plays a very important role in our everyday experiences. The experi ences of worldly objects are unreal, ultimately, but they need to be realized as such. In waking state only we realize that dreams are unreal or illusory. In the same manner to realize the transcendental truth (paramartha) there is no other way except realizing unreality of phenomenal truth. Phenomenal truth is also called truth, because it is taken as truth by
98 S. B. I-I-4.
99. Satyasya satyam.-Brh. Up III-II-6.
100. Cetanascetanānām, Kath. Up. II-V-13. 101. Advaita Vedanta P.-13.
102. Mrtyoh sa mytyum gacchati ya idam naneva pasyati. Kath. Up. IV 11. 103. Mund. Up. 1-5.

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Doctrine of degrees of reality...
51
common people. There is only one truth that is paramartha. This distinction between phenomenal and transcendental is made by the intellect itself. Truth is beyond intellect. So, ultimately this distinction is also not real. But as long as we are in ignorance, this distinction is real, we cannot question the empirical level of truth. The ordinary man, engrossed in worldly matters, does not understand the hight of transcendental truth. Thus, it is necessary to adopt vyavahārika point in communicating transcendental truth to ordinary people. Kundakunda rightly pointed out that just as a non-Aryan cannot be made to understand any thing except through the medium of his non-Aryan language, similarly knowledge of the Absolute cannot be communicated to the mundane people except through vyavahara.108 The same idea is beautifully illustrated by Amṛtacandra by saying that, "small children who, have not yet learnt to walk require helping hands of parents or elders. But when they have grown up and learnt to walk no longer need helping hand of others. Similarly, a person who remains on the empirical level, needs, empirical standpoint but when he has arisen higher to the transcendental level, he sees everything as manifestation of consciousness and realizes nothing except pureconsciousness. 107 Even Nagarjuna and Asanga declare that without empirical truth, paramartha cannot be taught. 108 Sankara admits that the lower knowledge or empirical truth leads us eventually to the higher wisdom. He says that "this scriptural account of creation admitted by Avidya ...has, for its highest aim, the teachings that Brahman is the true self. This must not be forgotten."109 Realization of unreality of empirical world leads us to realization of highest truth. Vyavahara is true until awakening occurs, 110 One has to transcend this vyavahara level. Again these religio-philosopbical thinkers, like Upanisadic seers, have emphasized the importance of intuitive experience of ultimate reality which needs rigorous self-discipline. It is clear that all these great thinkers have accepted these two types of distinctions. But they differ widely in certain 104. Annamayam, prāṇamayam, manomayam, vijñānamayam, Anandamayam-Taitt, Up.
II-V-2-6, 8-9.
105. Yatha na śakyo anaryo anaryabhäṣām vina tudgräbayitum. Tathā vyavahāreņa vinā paramärthopadeśanam aśakyam-S. S-8.
106. Vyavahāranayaḥ syad yadyapi prāk padavyämiha nihitapadānām hanta hastāvalambaḥ tadapi paramartham citcamatkaramātram, paravirahimantaḥ pasyatām naisa kiñcitS. S.-13-Com.
107. Vyavahāramanäśritya paramartho na deśyate-M. K. XXIV-10.
108. Deussen-System of Vedanta-p-106.
109 Tasmat prag brahmatmatā pratibodhādupapannaḥ sarvo laukiko vaidikaśca vyavaharaḥ-S. B. II-I-14.
110. Na samsarasya nirvāṇādastikiñcit viseṣaṇam. Na nirvaṇasya saṁsārādasti kiñcidviseşaṇam-M. K. XXV-19.

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2.
Traverses on less trodden path...
respects. Kundakunda's distinction is applicable to only supreme self and empirical self. He believes in plurality of souls which are reals. According to him, materlal and non-material objects of the world have their own independent oxistence. World is not dismissed as unreal entity. Six substances are regarded as permanent entities. Mabāyānists believe that there is no difference between phenomenal and noumenal, 111 the universe viewed as a whole is the Absolute, viewed as a process it is the phenomenal world 112 According to Sankara the world is not real ultimately. (but real for all practical purposes), it has no independent existence of its own. For realized soul the world does not exist. Sankara is an advocate of non-dualism. For him self is non-dual and ultimately there is so difference between Jiva and Brahman.
It is important to note that some scholars have pointed out that Sankara has copied the conception of Vyāvahārika and pāramarthika orders of reality from Buddbism. Some others think that Sankara took suggestion from the earlier-Jain thinkers, especially from Kundakunda. But our observation clearly proves that, this conception of transcendental and einpirical, lower and higher, is common to Upanişadic thought, Jainism, Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta. At the present state of our knowledge, instead of saying that Sankara has copied it either from Buddhism or Jainism, it would be more appropriate to say that this idea is common to Vedāntic and non-Vedantic schools of thought.
vä.
So pratitya anupadaya nirvāṇam
111. Ya ajavam javibhāva upādāyapratitya
upadesyato-M, K, XXII-9.
ABBREVIATIONS (Used in the Notes)
Bțb. Up. - Bșhadāraṇyaka Upanişat Cha. Up - Chaodogya Upanişat Is Up. - Išāvāsyopanişat Kach. Up. - Kathopadişat M. K. - Madhyamikakirika M. S. A. - Mabayänasetralankara S. B. - Sankarabhasya (Brahmasutra). S.S. - Samayasara Tait. Up - Taittiriya Upanijat T, M. S.- Trimgika

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PRAŠAMARATIPRAKARANA AND COMMENTARIES ON IT
introduchtal princed, he is
Prasamaratiprakarana (PRP.) is attributed to Umāsvāti. Umäsväti, reverently adored as the Ācārya Umāsvāti Vācaka, belongs to the galaxy of master-minds of the Jaina literary world holding a pre-eminent place among intellectuals and saints of Jaina community. His contribution to Jaina Pbilosophy, Religion, Ethics, Logic, Psychology and Cosmology is unparalleled in the line of Jaina writers. The position which he occupies among the Jaina authors is of a unique character, As far as the available literature of the Jainas is concerned, he is the first among the Jaina masters to present fundamental principles of Jainism in Sankrit language. The credit of introducing sūtra form in Jaina philosophical literature goes to this author.1 It is he who has first adopied Sanskrit poetic media to propagate Jaina philosophy and ethics. He is the first man who has laid down solid foundation on which beautiful palace of later Jainism is erected. He is the first great writer and saint, respected highly and admired by all the sects developed within the Jaina community, His profound scholarly writings have left unimaginable impact on the later writers and some of his works, especially Tatvārthasūtra (TS.) and PRP have proved to be a milch-cow for later commentators for quotations, that at once indicates the authoritative character of his works.
Umāsvāti was an eminent writer in those days and the tradition attributes to him not less than five hundred treatises called prakaranagranthas. 8 At the present state of our knowledge, it is very difficult to accept this traditional view. At present TS. with Svapo jñabhāşya, PRP, Jambudvi pasamdsa, Sravaka prajna pri and Pujāprakarana are accepted as works of Umasväti. But it appears that he might have written few more texts handed down to us, because certain verses attributed to
1. TS. with Siddhasenagaạitīkā, part I and II, ed. H.R. Kapadia, Pub. J.S. Javeri,
Bombay, 1926 and 1930. 2. PRP. with Haribhadra's commentary, Pub : S.D. Lalbhai Jaina Pustakoddhara
Samstha, Surat (a) sa ca Śrīmānumisvātināmā mahātārkikak prakaranapanca'satikartā ācārya suprasidho abhavar. Abbayadevasūri, Pancāsakavytti, p. 122, (b) 'Pafica'sataprakaranaprabandhapraneta', PRPV Introduction. (c) Jinaprabhasari · Vividhatirthakalpa, Part-I, P-69, Pub. Singhi Jaina Inaga
pooth, Santipikotan, 1934.

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54
Traverses on less trodden path... Umasvati by later writers such as Siddhasenagani, Abhayadevasüri and Bhavavijaya, are not traceable in his extant works.
There is no doubt that PRP. is from the pen of the same author who has written TS, with Svopajñabhäşya. Its language and line of thought bear such a remarkable similarity with TS. that it is very difficult to believe that they are from the pen of different authors. Parallel lines are bodily lifted from one work to another which are clearly indicative of the spontaneous outcome of the same author, Secondly, almost all the eminent writers and commentators of Svetambara sect have recognised PRP, as a work of Umāsvāti and have quoted profusely many verses from it in support of their content. Jinadas amabattara (7th A.D.), a great writer, quotes 120th verse from PRP, in his Nisitha curņi after saying that Acarya said so. Haribhadrasuri (8th A.D), known as Yakinisūnu, recognised as a gigantic scholar and commentator quotes two verses from PRP. in his commentary on TSB. by saying that it is said by the same author in other treatise. Siddhasenagani (8th A.D.) commenting on TSB. clearly mentions that the same thing is explained by the same author in his PRP.8 He quotes many verses from PRP. to
4.
5.
(a) 'Vacakenäpyuktam-yadrāgadoṣavad vakyam", TSBT, Part II, VII 9. P. 75. (b) Abhayadevasuri Sthānāngavṛtti-Dänavarṇanam, verse 1-8, Pub. Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay.
(c) Bhāva vijaya-Uttaradhyayanavṛtti, X, P. 244. Pub. Jaina Atmananda Sabha Bhavanagar, 1918.
(d) Säntisūri Uttaradhyayanavṛtti, PP. 93, 95, 180, 191,
(a) TS. I. 1-4, 9-11, 13, 31-32. PRP. 230-31, 222-23, 189, 224-25, 226-27.
(b) TS. II 1, 2, 8, 10, 12-15. 28. PRP.-196, 197, 195-9, 190-2, 287.
(c) TS. III, 1, PRP. 212
(d) TS. V, 1-4, 5-6, 9, 11, 17-18, 19-20, 20, 22, 23, 24, 29, 31. PRP. 207, 214, 213, 208, 215, 217, 218, 216 204 206.
(e) TS. VI, 2-4, 24. PRP.-157, 220, 100.
(f) TS. VII. 12, 16. PRP. 178, 203-4.
(g) TS. VIII, 1, 4-6, 26. PRP.-33, 56, 142, 157, 36, 34-35, 219.
(h) TS. IX, 1-3, 6-7, 18-20, 37. PRP.-220, 159, 221, 167-178. 149-152, 228, 175-76,
246.
i) TS. X. 1-7, PRP. 221, 287, 294, 296–301.
6. Nisithacurai, Part I. gatha 20, bhasya P. 574, ed. Acarya Vijayapremasūriśvara,Litho copy, L.D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, No. 1851.
7. TSBT. III, 6. PRP. 210-211.
8. TSBT. V, 6. PRP.-208, and TSBT. IX, 6, PRP. 80,

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55
defend his view.9 Abhayadav..sQri (10th A,D.) commenting on Sanma. titarka prakarana qvotes a verse from PRP. to show that his view is supported by Umāsvati Vācakalo Again, another well-known writer Sāatisari in his Dharmaratnaprakaranavytti attributes PRF. to Umāsvāti and quotes 16 verses from it in different contexts. 11 These evidences suffice to lead us to the definite conclusion that PRP, is recognised right from the begincing as a work of Umāsvāti,
This work of the learned author is one of the master-pieces of Jaina Ethics, Philosophy and Religion. It is a compendious work covering the quintesence of Jainism in a convincing manner. This work holds a unique place in the old Sanskrit Jaina literature. Unlike the TS. which is purely philosophical in its nature, PRP, is an ethico philosophical text of more popular pature, addressed to the monks and laymen. Alike by the nature of its contents and easy language of the verses, it is studied with utmost devotion by Jaipas. It is a source bock of religious inspiration and spiritual solace for thousands of spiritually-minded people.
This work contains 313 verses in lucid Sanskrit in Arya metre and is divided into 22 chapters known as adhikaras, 19 covering almost all the important doctrines of Jainism, such as substance18, tativas, 1. plura. lity of Souls, 18 syadvada, 16 code of conduct for monksit and house-holders, 18 etc.
This work has significant title which subst'ntially indicates the main theme of the subject-matter. The author himself explains the term Prasama occuring in the title of the present work as synonym of vairaeva (non-attachment).19 It mainly deals with the causes of bondage in mun9. TSBT, Part II, 1 (int.oduction), III-1, IIT-6; V-20, V1-23; 1X-37. 10. Sanmatitarkaprakarana with vyākhyā I, P-64, PRP. Verse 218. ed. Sukhlal
Sanghavi, Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad, Samvat 1980. 11. (a) Dharmarat naprakaranuvrtii, gātha 103, P. 66, Jaip Atmanand Sabha, (b) Following verses from PRP : 162 2; 28/14, 184120; 175/76/44: 72, 72 73, 74:
6953; 106 107164; 121; 182 183/110 and 70/126. 12. Adhikara' means a Section in which particular topic is discussed. This divi
siog is a lot by con natator Haribhadra for the first time. 13. PRP. 189, 207, 210. 14. Ibid. 189. 15. Ibid. 190. 16. Ibid. 204-206. 17. Ibid. 114 ; 148, 228-9, etc. 18. Ibid. 302, 308. 19 Madhyasthyam vairāg yam viragatā säntih prasamaḥ"-PRP.-17.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
dane life, and the process of attaining absolutely an unperturbed state of spiritual calmness through complete non-attachment to worldly objects.
The distinctive value of this work is that it is by a person in whom saintliness is combined with profound scholarly aptitude and insight. The whole work is instinct with the prophetic vision of a seer and the expression, too, is so lucid and poetical that a new life has been breathed into the dry bones of pbilosopbical and eithical discussion, Umāsvāri, here, looks no more like a dialectical metaphysician. He realised that not all are qualified to study philosopby which requires higher level of intellect combined with profound knowledge of different branches of sciences. It is beyound the reach of common man. his book is written with the intention to inform common people atout the truth of life as preached by ) nas. The main object of this work is to point out the practical and scientific path of self-realisation as laid down in the Jināgamas by the Tirthankaras who rose to the height of perfection with its aid. This work is not only limited for preaching philoso. phical and moral principles, but it shows the true way of life which must inevitably lead to a vision in which the individual realises bis own pure, perfect, blissful and self- luminous Arman. It teaches us that if deliverance is to be achieved, certain moral codes are to be followed, and it requires firm Faith in the Jinavcana, Knowledge of Jaina doctrines and Right Conduct.
Though the central topic is vairāgya, there is scope for side topics which are subordinate, and complementary to central topic. This work is not a philosophical treatise, but the learned author steeped in Jaina doctrines has stuffed this work with manifold details whereby this work has become a veritable compendium of Jainism. He deals with these philosophical topics like a moralist poet. Nowhere the author tries tn show his profound scholasticity and throughout the work he takes the reader into his confidence and sincerely preaches in homely manner without entering into dry field of logical argumentation. The nature of work is such that the author never feels the necessity of logical defence of the principle which he is enunciating. The exposition of subject. matter is very systematic and some times he takes resort to similes to make his teaching effective. 20
His style is very simple, but the current of his expression is very forceful. His explanation of Jaina philosophical and ethical conceptioos in simple terms is special feature of this work. He handles the Jaina technical terms and conceptions in a natural and easy manter, 20. Ibid. 4, 9-11, 28, 41-15, 67, 107, 135, 140-41, etc.

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Prasamaratiprakarana and commentaries on it
57
of Jainism such as substance, soul, Some of the important doctrines syadvada, house-holders' duties etc., are so precisely told that the reader feels that many verses are really sutras, pregnant with utmost significance. The subject-matter is discussed with such a remarkable dignity, in suitable Arya metre in lucid and simple manner, that this composition is enough to commemorate the poetic talents of Umasvati. The speciality of this work is that the verses are precisely worded, throughout the work there is an ease about discussions, simplicity in style, direct appealing nature, spontaneous outcome of thought which are possible only from one who has tasted the nectar of direct spiritual experience. Jaina PhilosoThis work is undoubtedly an outstanding contribution to phy and Religion.
Commentaries on PRP.
no
Two commentaries are available at present on PRP, one by Haribhadrasari (12th Century A.D.) and another with avacurat by an unknown author.91 Both these commentaries belong to Svetambara school and it seems that no Digambara has commented upon it. Except these two commentaries, unfortunately other commentaries are available at present, but their existence is inferred from the colophon given at the end of Haribhadrasuri's commentary on PRP.29 But no special profoundity is found in these two existing commentaries. The essential qualities of a genuine commentary, especially critical insight of textual explanation, alternative interpretations, the supplementary discussions, standard quotations and similes are absent in these commentaries.
Commentator Haribhadrasuri (12 A.D.) is not the same individual as the distinguished erudite writer, known as yakinisunu Haribhadra who flourished in circa 8th century A.D. He is also different from that Haribhadra (1216 V.S. = 1160 A.D.) who is the author of Nemināhacariu in Prakrit, and who belonged to Vadagaccha and was the pupil of Sricandrasuri. The colophon given at the end of commentary on PRP., by
*
Recently I found one more brief commentory (Sańksepato arthavṛtti) by Jasasomagani (1619 A.D.). It is really a kind of avacuri and lacks original.ty of its own. It is completely based on earlier two commertaries and avacuri. This brief commentary is now published in my critically edited with English translation of Prajamaratiprakaraṇa, published by L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1989.
21. (a) Prasamaratiprakarana with Haribhadra's commentary, J.S. Zaveri. 1940.
(b) Prasamaratiprakaraṇa with unknown author's commentary, Bhavnagar. V.S. 1966. 22. "Paribhavyavṛddhatikaḥ"-PRP. Colophon-3.
T-8

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Traverses on less trodden path...
Haribhadra himself reveals that he was a pupil of Jinadeva who was a disciple of Devasūri (1-2) and this commentary is composed after going through all other commentaries existing before him, during the King Jayasimhadev's rule at Anahilapur, Patan in V.S. 1185.a 8 From this colophon we learn that this commentator Haribhadra flourished in the first half of the 12th century A.D. and there were many commentaries on PRP. already composed prior to the period of this commentator.
At the beginning of his commentary Haribhadra gives most valu. able information about the author of PRP., by stating that Umāsvāti was a great logiciall, acar ya, vācakamukhya, author of five hundred treatises and the glory of the entire Svetambara family. His father's name was Svati and Umā was his mother.34 This commentator divides this book into 22 chapters according to the subject-matter treated in it.
Haribhadra's commentary is very lucid and simple. He is satisfied with giving only the literary meaning of the verses. There are neither additional philosophical discussions which can be distingui. shedly pointed out nor there are any standard quotations from earlier works. Very few passages from Agamas are quoted, and the commen. tator's aim seems to be limited to giving literary meaning of the texts.
Another Commentary with avacaini by an unknown author appears to be older than Haribhadra's commentary and is more elaborative in its nature. This commentary, in addition to verbal explanation, gives detailed explanations about some important ethical and philosophical conceptions of Jainism though very standard passages are quoted from earlier texts.
But both the commentaries unanimously attribute this work to Umasvati and have commented upon all the 3132 8 verses. The style of both the commentaries is more or less similar. The verbal explanations are often the same word for word, but the unknown author's commen. tary is more elaborative. Hasibbadra's commentary appears to be very modest, gives word for word explanation of the text and the extent of it is shorter than that of unknown author's commentary.36 Hari. bhadra's style is more refined and be uses precisely-worded sentences, 23. PRP, Colopnon-4. 24. PRP. Introduction to Commentary, 25. The un-known author added one vers (243) which is simply a repetition of 127th.
verse of the same work. Again, the unknown author on its one important verso (276) of the text but quotes and comments upon it in the commentary. It is also found that the order of 13th and 14th verses interchange in the text accepted by an
unknown author. 26. Granthagra of Haribhadrasūri's commentary is 1800 (Sadvrtterastadasasarāni), while
Granthagra of unknown author's commentary is 2552, (M.S.No. 23489).

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His Commentary is very precise and systematic. It seems that Hari. bhadra follows this old commentary and thus does not feel it necessary to give detailed explanations of many well-known principles of Jainism. His Commentary justifies bis own statement “samasena" (very briefly), made in the colophon.o 1
Though, it is very difficult to say which commentary is older, still Haribhadra's commentary seems to be later than unknown author's commentary. Haribhadra mentions some alternative readings of the text in his commentary which are found in unknown author's commen: tary and in the text which it follows.98 Secondly, Haribhadra divides PRP., into 22 chapters on the basis of different topics dealt89 in it, while these divisions are not found either in the text accepted by unknown author or in his commentary. It is certain that, if unknown author's commentary is later than Haribbadra's, these divisions could have been mentioned by this commentator also. Thirdly, Haribhadra's commen. tary is very precise and seems to be summary form of unknown author's commentary. Fourthly, some of the incorrect readings of the text followed by unknown commentator seem to be corrected by Haribhadra. 30 Haribhadra corrects the commission and omission commited
27. "Sukhabodhārtham samāsena" PRP.-Colophon-3. L. D. Insti. A'bad. 28. Following are some of the alternative readings of the text mentioned by Haribhadra
in his commentary which are accepted by an unknown author. (a) PRP. 51, Puştikarah (H). "Tuştikaral" (unknown author). (6) Ibid. 146, Upayoga (H). Upaghāta (unknown). (c) The reading Upaghāta is accepted by unknown author in his commentary. But
text aecepted by him retains the word Upayoga. It might be a mistake of the
copy-writer. (d) PRP. 182. Four words of this verse are found in Accusative cases (dvitiya
vibhaktyanta) in the text accepted by Haribhadra whereas same words are found in Nominative cases (prathamavibhaktyanta) in the text aecepted by unknown author. This is clearly mentioned by Haribhadra in the following
words : anyctvatra āryāyām cat väryapipadani prathamāvibhakt yantani vyakhyanti. (e) PRp. 221, tapaupadhānāttu (H); upadhānam tu (unknown). (1) Ibid, 245, Sugamamārgasya (H), Sugamapärasya (Un).
(8) Ibld. 286, Sarvabhāvāni (H), Sarvabhāvini (Un). 29. Dvāvimsatyadhikäräh mukhyā iha dharmakathikayam, PRP. colophon-9. 30. Incorrect readings
correct readings (unknown author)
(Haribhadra) (a) PRP-61 silāngagahasradbāriņa), - silãngasahasradhāraṇe. (b) Ibid, 100, Parivādātmotkarpacca Parivādādātmotkarşācca
(Chandobhangah). (c) Ibid, 125, Tatsartgo,
Yatsarăgo. (d) Ibid, 136, Dirūpamadhștih,
Darüpamadhrtina (chandobhangah).

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by unknown author.81 Haribhadra's refined and precise style, which is absent in unknown author, shows that Haribhadra's commentary is later than unknown author's commentary.
[Abbreviations :-PRP. (Prasamaratirprakarana); sutra); TSBT. (Tattvärthasūtrabhāṣyaṭika)]
由

31. The verse 243 of PRP. found in the text accepted by unknown author is mere repetition of 127th verse of the same text with very little change. This mistake is not found in the Haribhadra's text. Again, the unknown author omits very important verse (276) found in the Haribhadra's text.
TS. (Tattvartha

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6
TATTVÄRTHADHIGAMASUTRA AND PRASAMARATI: A STUDY
Umasvati Vacaka is one of the outstanding religio-philosophical personalities in the History of Jaina thought. His works viz. Tattvärthadhigamasutra (T.S.) and Prasamarati (PRP.) are the mile-stones in the development of Jaina philosophy. T.S. is purely philosophical work while Prasamarati is religio-philosophical treatise of more popular nature addressed to monks and lay followers. Prasamarati is undoubtedly a post-T.S. work which is mainly written for the benefit of lay followers. Contents of this work are the same as in T.S. but certain improvements are made on T.S. to suit his practical purpose. The author of Prasamarati, using precisely worded verses, does not feel it necessary to give elaborate accounts of many points which are already exhaustively described in T.S. and Svopajñabhāṣya. There is not only ideological similarity between these two works but certain sutras of T.S. are bodily lifted and entered into the body of the verses.. Comparison between some of the important topics of these two works will reveal the remarkable similarity between the two.
In the Tattvarthsütra and Bhaşya it is said that Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct together constitute the path of liberation, All these three aspects must be present in an aspirant, if he is to reach his spiritual goal. If one of them is absent, the path is imperfect. The three together form one path and are to be simultaneously pursued. In Prasumati, Umasvati repeats it in the same manner, with little change of words to suit his metrical need. 3 Again, firm faith in the nine fundamental principles (tattvas) is called samyagdarsuna which can be natural outcome or obtained by scriptural study. Prasamarali not only states the same thing but bodily lifts up the sutra of the T.S. as it is. It is said in T.S. that consciousness is the chief characteristic of jiva, and this consciousness is classified into determinate (sākāra) and indeterminate
1. (a) Tattvärthadhigamasutra part-1-3, 31; II-10; II-8 etc. Ed. H. R. Kapadia, (b) Prasamaratiprakarana 22, 226. 190, 194, respectively, Pub. J. S. Javeri. 2. Samyagdar'sanajñānacāritrāṇimokşamargah-T S. I.1.
3. Samyaktva-jñāna-caritrasampadaḥ sadhanani mokṣasya. Tasvekatarābhāvepi mokşa
margopyasiddhikaraḥ, PRP. 230.
4. Tannisargadadhigamādvā-T. S. I-3.
5. Samyagdarsanametacca tannisargādadhigamāāvā. PRP.-222.

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(anākara), and each is subdivided into eight and four kinds respectively. These ideas are explained in two sutras. These two sutras are summarised in one verse in the Prasamarati. In T.S. knowledge is classified into direct and indirect, The former is of three kinds while the latter is of two types.8 The same classification is accepted by prasamaratikara. Instead of the word matijñana, it uses abhinibodha,9 which is also used in T.S. as synonym of matijñāna. 10 The soul is classified into worldly and liberated, and worldly souls are divided and subdivided into many kinds by T.S. and Bhasya, 11 which are described in three verses of Prasamarati in the same manner. 19 Bhava which constitutes the nature of the soul is of five types : - aupaśumika, kṣayika, misra, audayika and pāriņāmika, and they are subdivided into 2, 9, 18, 21, and 3 by T.S. and Bnas ya13 while Prasamarati in addition to these five accepts one more bhava which is known as sannipātika, 1
T.S. defines the substance or Sat as that which possesses the three characteristics of production, destruction and permanence.15 The same definition is beautifully explained in Prasamarati 16 T.S. accepts seven fundamental principles 17 (rattvas). Punya and papa are included in bandha itself, 18 while in Prasamarati pāpa and punya are accepted as independent tattvas totalling nine in all. 19 Six substances are accepted by both T.S. and Prasamarati.20 According to T.S. matter
6. Upayogolakṣaṇam; sa dvividhe aṣṭacaturbhedaḥ-T. S. II-8-9, respectively.
7. Samanyam khalu lakṣaṇamupayoga bhavati sarvajīvānām. Sākāroanākāraśca So aṣṭabhedaścaturdha, PRP.-194.
8. Matiśrutavad bimanaḥparyayakevaläni jñānam; ädyeparoksam, pratykṣamanyat-T. S. 1-9, 11. 12, respectively.
9. PRP.-224-225.
10. (a) Matismṛtisamjñā cintääbkinibodhaityanarthantaram, T. S. 1-13.
(b) Tatraparoksam dvividham śrutam abhinibodhakam ca vijñeyam, PRP.-225.
11. T.S. II-10-15.
12. PRP.-190-2.
13. 1.S. II-1-2.
14. PRP.-196-197.
15. Utpadavyayadhrauyayuktam sat, T.S. V-29.
16. Utpada vigamanityattvalakṣaṇam yattadasti sarvamapi. Sadasad va bhavatityanyathārpitanarpitaviseṣät, PRP.-204.
17. Jivājīvāsravabandha samvaranirjarāmokṣāstattvam, T.S. 1-4.
18. Punyapapayośca bandhe antarbhāvāt na bhedena upadhānam-Siddhasenagani, T.S. bhāṣya tika-1-4, p-4.
19. Jiväjivaḥpuṇyampāpāsra vasamvaraḥ sanirjaraṇaḥ. Bandho mokṣaścaite samyak cintyä navapadarthaḥ, PRP-189.
20. (a) T.S. I-4, V-1, 38.
(b) PRP.-189, 207, 210.

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(pudgala) has form and other substances are formles and impercep. tible.91 Matter (pudgala) is possessed of touch, taste, smell and colour. 28 It consists of numerable, innumerable, and infinite parts and it is divided into atoms (aņu) imperceptible, and molecules (skandha)perceptible. Atom does not consist of parts and hence it is indivisible. :3 Skandha is composed of atoms and forms, the basis of body, speech, mind and vital air and the cause of worldly enjoyment, pain and plea. suros, life and death.24 Dharma and adharma are principles of motion and rest respectively, which help the movement of jiva and pudgala. 28 Dharma, adharma, akasa have one substance each.96 All of them are motionless.21 Dharma and adharma occupy asankhya units of space. a 8 Akāśa occupies unlimited units.49 The function of space is to give room to all substances. 80 Kāla is the auxiliary condition of the continuance, modification, and activity now and then.31 The same line of thought is found in Prasamarati 39
Ten kinds of dharmas, 38 twelve bhāvanās (anupreksas),34 of T.S. are enumerated by Prasamaratkāra with little change of order to suit his metrical need.83 Four types of Karmabandhall and their subdivisions of T.S. are accepted by the author of Prasamarati.38 Definition of rativas is common to both T.S. and Praśamarati. According to T.S. the auspicious activities of mind, speech and body are the causes of inflow of good karmas and inauspicious activities are the cause of inflow of bad karmas (asrava). 59 Control of inflow of karma is samvara. 40 Stock of 21. Rūpinahpudgalāh, T.S. V-4. 22. Sparsarasagandhavarnavantah pudgalak-V-23. 23. Sankhyeyāsaikhyeya'sca pudgalāḥ, T.S. V-10, 24. T.S, V-19, 20. 25. Gatisthit yupagraho dharmadharmayorupakāraḥ—T.S. V-17. 26. Akaśādekadravyani-T.S. V-5. 27. Nişkriyānica--T.S. V-6. 28. Asankhyeyāḥ pradeśāk dharmadharmayok-T.S. V-7. 29. Akašas yānantaḥ--T.S. V-9. 30. Akaśasyavagāhal-T.S. V-18. 31. Vartana purinamah kriya paratvāparatve ca kālasya-T.S. V-22. 32. PRP.-207-8, 213-218. 33. Utramah kşamāmārda värja vasaucastyasamyamatapāsteyākiñcanyabrabmacaryāni
dharmah-T.S. IX-6. 34. Apityāśaranasaṁsāraikatvanyatvāsucitvasravasamvaranir jarā lokabodhidurlatbadha
masvākbyätatvānucintanamanuprekşāḥ-T.S IX-7. 35. PRP.-167, 149-162.
38. PRP. 35-36. 36. T.S. VIII-4.
39. T.S. VI-3-4. 37. T.S. VIII-5-6.
40. Ibid. IX-1-2,

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karma can be annihilated through penance.41 Destruction of all types of karma is mokşa or liberation. These tattvas are defined and explai. ned in the Prasamarali, using similar iterms as used in T.S.B Parallel lines are found between T.S. and Praśamarati at several places. 14
Though there is a remarkable similarity of the line of thought bet. ween T. S. and Prasamarati, it differs from T.S. in certain respects. Vivalaksanas (characteristics of Jiva) are explained in Prasamarali as not only Consciousness, but right faith, right knowledge, right conduct, power and virtue of learning 45 as against T.S. which defines soul as having charac. teristic of Consciousness 46 T.S. mentions only five characteristic conditions (bhāvās) of the soul, 47 whereas Prašamarati adds one more bháva, i.e. sannipatika (product of mixed five bhāvās), making total six bhāvās of the soul. 8 Order of anuprekşās and ten kinds of dhormas are slightly modified to suit his metrical need. 4 9 Again the sthāvaras (immobilo souls) are counted in T.S. as of three kinds Bo, whereas in Prasamarati, they are counted as five kinds--those living in the bodies of carth, water, fire, air and vegetable.51 Umāsvāti in this work has made certain improvements on Z.S. though the content of it does not go much beyond what is contained in T.S. Instead of seven tattvas of T.S. nine tattvas are accepted and explained in detail for the benifit of layman. Papa and punya are these two more additional tattvas, which are most important from the practical point of view 52. Introducing these two more tuttvas, it induces the layınen to observe good conduct to obtain Svargaloka in reward of their good conduct. 63 Again in T.S. only five substances are directly mentioned. 84 The substance 'Kala' is separately mentioned as accepted by others. 56 But in Prasamarati käla' is included in the list of a jivas. 56 Another very important improvement on T.S. is that Prasama. rati gives the processes of kevalısamuighata and yoganirodha which are untouched by T.S.57 41. Ibid. IX-3.
42. Ibid. X-3.
43. PRP.-220-221, 44. (a) T.S.-1-1-4, 9-11, 13, 31-32. PRP.--230-1, 222-3 etc.
b) Ibid-IT-1-2, 8, 10, PRP.-196, 197, 195 etc. (c) Ibid-III-1, PRP.-212.
(d) TS-V-1-4. 5-6, 9, 11; PRP-207, 214, 213 etc. 45. Samyaktvajtiānacāritraviryrgaśiksäg unāḥ, PRP-218. 46. T.S. II-8.
51. PRP - 192. 47. Ibid.-II-1.
52. Ibid-189. 48. PRP. 196-197.
53. Ibid-302-307. 49. PRP.-196. 149-162.
54. T.S. V-1. 50. T.S. II-13.
55. Kalasca it yeke-T.S. V-38. 56. Dharmadharmakasani pudgalah kala eva cajivāh, PRP, 207. 57. PRP. 272-274, 277-280.

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ADHYATMOPANISATPRAKARANA OF YASOVIJAYA – A STUDY
Adhyatmopanişatprakarana is attributed to Mabāmahopadhyâya Yaso. vijaya-an outstanding philosopher Saint of Jainism. He flourished in end of 1 th Century and biginning of 18th century AD. He was the last great author and we can defipitely say that with our author, ends the history of Jaina Philosophical speculation. Gifted with multisided philosophical genius Yagovijaya enriched the Jaipa pbiloso phical thought with a number of orgional contributions. His writings, large in number and most diverse in contents, are standing testimony to the multifaced character of his intellectual personality. He has not given any new doctrine but his originality lies in making clear to us the meaning of the cardinal doctrines of old Jaina writers, often obscurelay worded and often mutually conflicting. Even his independent writings are essentially elaboration of and vindication of the traditional Jaina doctrines but presentation of them is genuinely independent. He was the only Jain author who has thoughly mastered or both Digambara and Svetāmber rich philosophical heritage. He was also extremely well-versed in all the contemporary systems of Indian philosophy and in tnis respect he can only be compared with Ācārya Vidyananda of 9th Century A.D. He is mostly known for his erudite scholarship. The mystical side of his saintlihood accompained with philosophical hсight is not yet fully explored to the learned world.
He was a great reconciliator of all the systems of Indian Philosophy. An attempt which was started by Siddhasena Divakara (Circa 5th A.D.) and Samanta Bhadra? , to reconcile different philosophical view-points culainated in writings of Yagovijaya. History of Jaina logical literature tells us that the texts belonging to this category are mostly devoted to the vindication of Anekantavada apd general evaluation and reconciliation of non-Jaina philosophical viewpoints. In this Adhyatmopanişatprakar also, Yagovijaya tried to uphold same tradition. But here he does not stop but goes beyond and speaks like a perfect mystic. This work is
1. Sanmatitarkaprakarana, Ed. Sukhalal Sanghavi and Pt. Bechardas Doshi. Pub.: Shri
Jain Shvetambar Education Board, Bombay, 1939. Introduction. 2. Aptami māmsa Ed. Gajad harlal Jain, Pub Bharatiya Jain Siddhanta Prakashini
Sanstha, Benaces, 1914, T-9

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product of the mature mind of the author who has tasted the embrosia of spiritual experience. In this matter this work seems to be a later work of our author.
This Adhyātmopan işatprakarana is written in beautiful melodious Saoskrit in 209 Verses and contains four chapters, viz. Šāstra yogajudhi, Jhānayogasuddhi, Kriyayogasuddhi and Samyayogaguddhi. It is very important work from the point of view of Jaina Philosophy and Religion.
It seems to be a sponteneous expression of a mystic mind in its attempt to realise the Supreme Soul. The underlying current of this work is Umāsvāti Vācaka's statement viz. Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Action (conduct) are the means of liberation. He goes a step further and describes the state of Liberation or Mokşa (State of Samata) which is necessary consequence of following the path of liberation.
The first chapter is devoted to show the importance of Right Faith in the words of Jina; Right Knowledge is glorified in second chapter; importance of action is described in third and, the last chapter is dedicated to describe the State of Sameness (Samatā), the updivided blissful state, which is the result of Right Faitb, Right Knowl.oge and Right Action. These three gems together constitute one path and are to be simultaneously pursued. If one is absent the patb of salvation is incomplete. Right Faith is responsible for placing a person on the right path, Right knowledge illumines the path and Right Conduct leads to the goal. Thus it is emphatically maintained that all these three aspects must be present in a person, if one is to reach his spiritual goal. 5 It seoms that on the basis of same foundation laid by Umāsvāti in fourth century A. D.. Yasovijaya, erected a beautiful palace illumined by his spiritual light. He has developed the same idea of Umāsvāti, but presented it in such an independent way, that it is very difficult to say that he is propagating
Umgsvati's thought. The chapter-wise study will reveal this fact very clearly. Now let us make a chapter-wise servey to understand the mind of Yagovijay.
In the beginning of the first chapter, he explains the correct meaning of the word Adhyatma. Adhyatma bas two meanings. Evembhūra point of view (which declares that a thing bears a particular Damo only while it
:: 3. 'Samyagdarsanajñānacäritrāņi mokṣa margah'-Tattvārthasūțra-1-1. Part-1, ed : H.R.
Kapadia, Pub : J. S, Javeri, Bombay. 1926. 4. Adhyatmopanisatprakarana A.P.) IV. Adhyatmasāra-Adhyātmopanişat-Jñāpasāra
prakaranatrayi. Pub. : Sanghavi Nagindas Karmacanda, Jamnagar, V.S. 1994. 5. Prasamaratiprakarana of Umāsvāti.--Verse-230. Edited by Y. S. Shastri, Pub.: L. D.
Institute of Indology, A'bad, 1989, p-53.

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sense
performs action or Kriya which entitles it to bear that name, not always) it means all kinds of religious or moral activities of the individual Jiva, which assists in the spiritual advancement of one's own Atman or Self. Secondly, the Citta or the antaḥkarana which is purified by the practice of virtues in one's life, such as friendliness, compassion etc., is entitled to be called as Adhyatma, from the point of view of Vyavahāra and Rjusutra. The first meaning is concerned with spiritual activities (kriva) and the second is with internal purification (Bhāva). But real meaning of Adhyatma is to be understood on the basis of Anekantavāda which is free from any kind of contradiction and reconciles difterent view-points. From Anekanta point of view Adhyatma means combination of spiritual activities and purification of citta. (i.e. kriya and Bhāva). Then he tells us that, there are many things in the world which are beyond our organs and mere reason, which have to be understood with the help of Scriptures (Agamas) utilising reasoning. To achive highest goal the knowledge of Satra (authority) is essential. The Scripture which is possessed of governing capacity and irreprochable power of protection is called real Sastra, and that Sastra is, only the words of Omniscient and not any other. Because an untruth cannot come out of the mouth of possionless and desireless Jina, therefore, one must have Right Faith in the words of Omniscient. Unfaith in his words is nothing but exhibition of great ignorance. The Right Faith in His words is so powerful that, it brings attainment of all kinds of siddbis. In other words, the Highest State can be obtained by having firm faith in the words of Vitaraga, which is also called as eternal state, permanent abode, and peaceful state.8
The question is, there are many systems (Sastras), then on what basis only the Jina Sasana can be considered as real Sastra. Is it not a narrow mindedness to say that ours is the only right system? The answer of Yasovijaya is that the statement i.e. Jina Sasana is the real Sastra, is not made on the basis of secterian approach but based on the examination of purity and truthfulness of words of all the different kinds of systems (Sastra). Just as gold is tested by a touch-stone by rubbing, cutting and heating, similarly genuineness of Sastra is to be determined by Kaşa, Cheda and Tapa Jina Sasana alone can get through this:
6. A. P.-I, 2-5.
7. Sasanättränasaki esca budhaiḥ
nanyasya kasyacit-A P. I-12.
67.
sastram nirucyate. Vacanam vitarägasya tacca
Prasantavabitämanye visa
9. Parikṣante kasacche datapaiḥ svarṇam yathā janāḥ. Sastre api varnikāśuddhim parik,
ṣantām tatha budhaḥ-A.P. I-17.
8. Enam kecit samapattim vadantyanye dhruvam padam.
bhagakṣayam pare. A.P.-I-15.

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severe method of examination. In Kaşaśuddhi, we have to see whether prescribed injunctions and prohibitions for one and the same act is noncontradictory or not. If these are non-contradictory then, it is real Sastra. For example, Jainism prescribes injunctions and probibitions in the case of self-restraint (ie. Sam yama). In this case injunction is to observe carefulness in walking, speaking, taking, food, keeping and receving things and evacuating bowels etc. and control of psycho-physical activities of miod, speech and body, which are known as Samitis and Guptis respecttvely. Prohibition is to avoid injury to all living beings, speaking untruth, stealiog, acquisition and so on. Hero injunctions and probibitions are for the perfection of Samyama, and non-contradictory in nature. Throughout Jina Sasana the same method is followed. In other words, Jina Śāsana prescribes means of liberation, and obstacles on tho path of liberation are prohibited. But this is not the case with other systems (Šāstra) where Artha and Käma are dominent factors and Makşa is secondary. Secondly, in Jainism non-contradictory injunctions, and prohibitions are prescribed to protect particular religious action while in other systems, injunctions are found contradictory. Statements like 'do living beings can be injured and injury done for Sacrifice is not injury' make their nature very clear Such type of Śästra cannot be purified by cheda method. All other śastras uphold only onesided view and Anekanta alone reconciles different view-points giving all sided meaning of Reality. Thus, Jina Sastra wbich upholds Ane kanta alone is real Śästra. 10 According to it Arman is one from the point of view of substance and many from the point of view of modifications. To judge things from all sides, Anekānta is only the alternative,
Anekantavada is systematic reconciliation of different kinds of Nayas. Naya is a partial view-point about reality. It cannot give complete picture of a thing. 11 It is right in its own way. But when only one aspect is taken to be real then it becomes fallacious, because reality has many aspects. 19 There is no contradiction involved and no violation of law of
liction, in applying opposito predicates to the same thing in diffe. rent capacities because, they are applied to its different aspects such as matter. state, space and time. It is seen that mutually contradictory elements can exist in one and the same thing in different capacity such
10. A.P. 1-18-32. 11. A.P 1-33 34. 12. Samagrena dvayalambe apyavirodhe samuccayak. Virodhe durnayavratah syaśāstrona
svayam hatāḥ. A.P.I-37.

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as, the same man is a father to his son, san to his father, husband to his wife, and so on 18.
In fact, positive and negative aspects must both belong to everything. If only the positive aspects belong to it there would be nothing to distioguish it from another and all things would become 'Sat* If instead, only the negative aspects belong to a thing, it would bave no intrinsic value. 14 So, production, destruction and permanence is a nature of Reality and this many-sided characteristic of reality is the basis of Anekantavāda. 18
Anekāntavada combines all view-points and this is the only way to know the real nature of a thing. By saying Anekanta is real method we are not emphasizing Anekantavada in the form of Anekāpta, because, in this, on the basis of context and intention of the speakers particular view -point becomes dominant and other view-point becomes subbordinate. Anekanta is not a single doctrine, it is a combination of many Nayas and does not uphold particular view-point. Thus, it cannot be said that, it is also ekantavada. 16 This is a doctrine of reconciliation and acceptable to almost all the systems of Indian pbilosophy. It hormonises all the conflicting views and sees unity in diversity.
Yagovijaya beautifully describes how, no system of Indian Philosophy can reject Anekantavada. Sankhya system cannot reject Anekāntavada because, it upholds the view that mutually contradictory attributes can exist in one and the same thing by stating that Prokti consists of Sativa, Rajas and Tamas. Anekantavada is not unacceptable to Vijñānavadi Buddibist because, he claims that Vijñāna is one but takes different forms. That means Vijñāna is one and many. Again, Naiyāyikas cannot reject Anekanta because according to them though conglomeration of several mutually exclusive rūpas belong to a single substance (citrarūpa), and its knowledge is authentic, it is one and many. In other words, according to NyayaVaiseşikas citrarūpas can exist in one and the same substance, Prabbakara
13. Bhinnāpekşã yathaikatra pityputradikalpanā.
navirotsyate. A.P. I-38.
Nityanityādyanekāntastat haiva
14. A. P. 54-59.
15. Utmana am dadhibhävena naştam dugdhataya payah. Gorasatvat sthiram jāoan
syadvad avit janoapikah. A P. 1-44 and See I-60. 16 Anekanteapyanekāntadaniştaivamapakstä. Nayasükşmekşikāprānte viśranteh sulabba.
tvatah A.P-I-42.

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Mimāmsakas will not object because they hold that though knowledge is one still indirect knowledge is different from direct knowledge. Kumarila Bhatta, who claims that reality is both universal and particular, identity-cum-difference, upholds the Anekantavāda. Even Advaita Vedantins cannot refute Anekanta because for them Atman is bound as well as unbound. From the phenomenal point of view, Atman is bound and Atman is unbound, ever free, from the transcendental point of view. The Vedas upholding the different meanings of Mantras would not have any complaint against Anekantavāda. In this way, Yagovijaya tried to show all pervasiveness of Anekanta doctrine.17 He mentions that Materialists (Carvākas) approval or disapproval of Anekanta is not worth considering because, they are too ignorant about metaphysical problems. 18
70
Yagovijaya points out that, both absolute eternalism and absolute non-eternalism, are untenable because of their one-sidedness. If Atman is exclusively eternal, the experience of happiness and misery will thereby be rendered impossible. Eternal (nitya) means unchangable. Unless Atman could pass from one state to another, there cannot be experiences of happiness and misery, one after another. Even injury and non-injury, merit and demerit etc., are not possible, if Atman is taken to be absolutely eternal. Similarly if Atman is absolutely non-eternal (anitya, then, merits and demerits, bondage and liberation become meaningless. Absolute non-eternality means an end of the law of retribution which requires personal identity of doer and enjoyer. So, both these views suffer from one-sidedness and the truth is that Atman is neither absolutely real nor absolutely unreal or changing, but real as well as unreal, eternal as well as non-eternal. Atman is eternal, never changing, from the point of view of substance and it is ever changing, non-eternal from the point of view of modifications. Viewed from the transcendental stand-point it is un-chained but viewed from the phenomenal point of view it is chained. It is one from the stand-point of atmatva, it is many from the point of view of Samsara. This is a proper approach to everything which gives
17 Icchan pradhanam sattvädyairviruddhairgumphitam gunaiḥ, Sankhyaḥ sankhyāvatām mukhyo nanekāntam pratikṣipet. Vijñānasyaikamākāram nănāk ārakarambhitam. Icchan täthāgataḥ prajño nänekäntam pratiksipet. Citramekamanekam ca rūpam prämāņikam vadan. Yogo vaiseṣika väpi nänekāntam pratikṣipet. Pratyaksam mitimatramse meyamśetadvilaksanam. Gururjñānam vadannekam nänekätam pratikşipet. Jativyaktyätmakam vastu vadannanubhavocitam. Bhatto väpi murārirvā nänekäntam pratikṣipet. Abaddham paramarthena baddham ca vyavahārataḥ. Bruvano brahmavedanti nänekäntam pratikṣipet. Bruvaṇa bhinna bhennarthāṇnayabhedavyapekṣaya. Pratikṣpeyurno vedah syadvādam sarvatäntrikam. A.P. 1-45-51. 18. A.P. 1-52.

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correct picture of reality. This approach is called Anekāntavada. 19 The peculiarity of this doctrine is that it treats all the different view-points (nayas) impartially like a father.20 It has no special affection towards any single Naya. Ignorant of this fact, many others criticise it as method of doubt and so on.21 Really speaking, one who is aspirant of liberation must have pot only erudite scholarship of this Jaina sastra but have firm Faith in it.29
The Second Chapter deals with importance of knowledge and consequence of its practical aspect. Mere knowledge of Sastra cannot lead one to the highest goal. The main aim of Sastra is to give clear idea about
reality and to show the path to realise it. But on its own it does not bestow the realization of Arman. Realization is a result of practice of those principles taught by Šāstra.28 It is a matter of personal experiance. This highest goal is achieved by thinking that everything is play of matter like magical figures produced by magician and meditating on qualities of Ärman. The Muni who has eng.ossed in knowledge of Atman, tasted tbe embrosia of knowledge of Arman cannot have attachment towards worldly objects, 24 Arman is self-luminous and realization of Arman is real happiness. To attain this highest happiness is in one's own band. Running after worldly things means invitation to misery. Thus, realization of self-luminous Aiman is a state of supreme bappiness wbich cannot be described in words and cannot be compared witn any mundane pleasure, such as embracing a beloved or apointment of body with sandalwood,
In describing the nature of Atman, Yasovijaya follows the Upan işadıc path. He even quotes Upanışads. Alman is pure consciousness and this characteristic demarcaies Ātman from other objects. Alman is really indescribable, boyond thought and words and independent from all kinds objects. This Ātman is pure Brahman and it cannot be known through even thousands of arguments of Sastra It can be realized by direct, pure experience. This non-dual experience of Brahman cannot be gained either by scriptures, or mind or iute,lect
19. A.P. I-54-60. 20. Yasya sarvatra samatā nayeşu tanayeşviva-A.P.-1-61.
21. A.P.-1-64. 22. AP.-1-70 23. A.P.-11-3-5. 24. A.P.-II-6-7. 25. AP.-11-8-13.

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It is indescribable, undivided experience. It is the highest state, Turiyavastha, which is beyond the states of waking, dreaming and deep sleep. Existence of Atman cannot be logically demonstrated but it is felt within. Realization of Ātman is called Svasomaya (transcendental state) and attachment towards worldly objects is Parasama ya 2 6 (empirical state). Ārman is pure consciousness by nature, free from all kinds of blemishes. This so called impurity is superimposed on Ātman by karmic matter. When, the conception of duality about Ātman (such as pure and impure Ātman) vanishes, then there remains non-dual pure Brahman.37 Here our author speaks like Advaitin 28 by stating that Brahman is highest universal in which all divisions born out of different view-points merge, like waves of ocean produced by ghastly wind, which merge in ocean ultimaterly. 29 This highest universal touches all the six substances on account of substantiality. But phenomenal point of view, parti. culars are accepted for practicl purpose. So Finally, Yasovijaya, wants to say that nature of Atman is 'Existence, Consciousness and Bliss.'31 It is non-contradicted by any kind of reasoning because it transcends all reasoning. It is a matter of Yogic perception. Just as small a girl cannot understand the pleasure derived from the husband, similarly the bliss which is produced by Yogic method cannot be known by ordinary people, 59
In this chapter itself Yas vijaya, tells that, in the beginning, aspirants of liberation must follow self-restraint, celibacy etc., when they become really competent then only the real nature of Atman, and everything is Brahman etc., must be taught. To teach 'everything is Brahman' from the very beginning is dangerous because incompetent cannot understand such
26. A.P.II - 15–26. 27. Samalam pirmalam cedamiti dvaitam yadagatam. Advaitam nirmalam brahma
tadaik amavasiqyate. A.P. II-40. 28. Ekasmin mahāsamanye antarbhāvah prajñānaghane. Brhadāranyaka Upanişad with
Śāřkarabhasya. II-IV-9. The Principle Upanigads, Motilal Banarasidas, Deihi, 1978. p. 762,
29. Mahāsamanyarūpesmin majjanti nayajā bhidā. Samudra iva kallolāk pavanonmātha
nirmitāḥ. A.P.-II-41. 30. A.P.-JI-49. 31. Saccidānardaraptvam brahmano vyavatişthate, A.P.-II-43. 32. Kumāri na yatha vetti sukham dayitabhogajam. Na jānāti tathā loko yoginam
jñānajam sukham. A.P.-II-47.

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higher level thought and it may lead bim to self-destruction. Thus, guru must be careful in imparting his knowledge. 88
Third chapter is devoted to explain the importance of action. Yagovijaya, some times speaks in terms of Bhagavadgitā. He states that even after realization of Self, the realized person performs actions, but ho is un-affected by those actions. He performs actions for the benefit of oihers. His actions are ideal for society. He who wants to achieve highest goal must follow the religious and moral duties. Without uction, wi:hout practice, just knowledge is futile. Without walking, just by standing in one place, no one can reach his destination. 34 So, without conduct, knowledge cannot lead us to reach our destination. Actions are to be performed to develop spiritual qualities and to keep Samyama steady88. Following the code of conduct only one attains state of Sthitaprajna 80. Wrong knowledge is destroyed by both Rigbt Kpowledge and Right Action. So, both can be simultaneously pursued. There are some bypocrites in the world who claim that knowledge alone is enough to lead us to self-realization and action is not necessary. Really speaking they are neither Jñāni nor men of action. Equal respect is to be shown to both knowledge and action.39
In the fourth chapter Yašovijaya describes the state attained by the Yogi. An aspirant of mokşa, riding on the chariot of sameness along with knowledge and action reaches the transcendental state88. It is a state of desirelessness and equanimity. He is unmoved by any kind of worldly attraction. This state itself is like blissful ocoan. In this state all kinds of Tilusion vanishes. Reaching this state one enjoys only bliss nothing else89. To reach this state of sameness (Samatva) one has to give up minc'ness (mamatva), In this state Atman shines in its pristine purity. In this state of permanent bliss, neither worldly pain nor pleasure exist. 4 o It is a real state of liberation. Yašovijaya, tells that for common people
33. A.P. II-48-52. 34. Gatim vină puthjño api näpnoti puramipsitam. AP. IIT-13. 35. A.P. III-12. 36. A.P. 111-3. 37. AP. III-13 and 37-42. 38. A.P. IV-1-2. 39. A.P. IV-5-6. 40. A.P. IV-8-23.
T-10

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it (Samata) is a means to achieve liberation but for liberated, it is a state of liberation itslf.
This work of the author is undoubtedly an out-come of profound koowledge and experience. His originality can be seen in presenting the same old ideal presented by Umāsvāti in a different and convincing manner. He tries to reconcile different philosophical view-points on the basis of Anekāntavada. Yagovijaya's speciality here is, like Upanişadic sages, be describes his mystical experience in similar terms. This book of the learned autbur is a very important contribution to pbilosophy and deserves more attention of the scholars of comparative religion and philosophy,

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8
CONCEPTION OF EXISTENCE AND SUBSTANCE IN JAINISM
Reality (Existence) consists of origination (utpado), destruction (vyaya) and permanence (dhrauvya)1,' is a definition of reality given by the Jain Philosophers of India. Origin of this idea is traceable in Jain canonical texts, 2 a viz., Jain Agamas. But this systematic and scientific definition is found first in the Tattvarthasutra of Umāśvāti, who flourished in circa 4th century AD. The definition of existence (sat) tells us that all the things deserving to be designated as 'real' are possessed of a triple form of origination, destruction and permanence. The real is permanent in respect of its essential qualities and also subject to origina. tion and destruction in regard to its changing modifications. It is impor. tant to note here that Jain thinkers have identified the notion of exist. ence with substance. 9B Kundakundacārya clearly states that "that is called substance which is characterized by origin, decay and permanence, without changing its 'own-nature', and which is endowed with qualities and accompanied by modifications. For the 'own-nature' of the substance is its existence (sadbhava), which is always accompanied by qualities and variegated modes and at the same time by origin, decay and continuity. What is called existent is, in fact, the substance existing by its ownnature."5 Substance means that which undergoes modifications. * Really speaking substance is combination of being' and becoming. It is a synthesis of change and permanence. Kundakunda clearly states that "the substance has both natures, from the stand-point of its own nature, it is being (sat) and stand-point of its other own-nature' it has triple
1. Utpadavyayadhrauvyayuktam sat-Tattvärthadhigamasutra, of Umäsväti (T.S) V-29, Part-I, Ed. H. R. Kapadia, Pub: J. S. Javeri, Bombay-1925.
2.A. Go naya. Jiva siya sasaya siya a sasya. Gomaya davvathayae sasasa bhavathayae asasaye-Bhagavatisutra, VIJI. 2.273, Ed by Pupphabhikhhu.
2.B. Digambars version of the Tattvärthasūtra accepted by Pujyapapa, clearly states that, existences is cha acteristic of substance ie whatever is sat that is substance. It is said that 'sat dravyalakṣaṇam (comm yat sat tad dravyam.) V-29-Sarvārthasiddhi. This sūtra is not found in Tattvarthasutra accepted by Svetämbaras.
3. Pravacanasara of kundakunda-II verse 3-6, Ed: A. N. Upadhye Agas; Rajachandra Jaina Sastramālā, 1964.
4. Paryayaiḥ drūyante dravanti vā tāni iti dravyāṇi-Sarvārthasiddhi on TuttvärthasūtraV-2, pub, Bharatiya Jnanapeeth, Kasi, 1955.

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character."5 Siddhasena Divakara upholds the same view in different terms and states that "reality is to be viewed, from the two standpoints i.e. substance exists' (dravyarthika) and 'modification exists' (paryayarthika) points of view. In other words, existence is to be looked from the stand-point of being and becoming. Being aspect reveals that every-thing exists eternally and becoming aspect reveals that everything originates, perishes and stays. There cannot be being without becoming or becoming without being, therefore substance is defined as the combination of being with becoming i.e. origin, destruction and permanence". The substance is also defined as that which is possessed of qualities (guna) and modes (paryayas)." Jains identified existence with substance and treat substance as the core of change and as the substratum of attributes (i.e. qualities and modes). Thus, the definitions of existence and substance make it very clear that everything is endowed with the triple character of origination, destruction and permanence. When a real or substance, conscious or un-conscious originates without leaving its own nature, it is called origination (utpāda). Destruction (vyaya) is the disappearance of a form in a thing that it had before. Permanence (dhrauvya) is the fundamental characteristic of the real which remains unchanged throughout various modifications, For example, take gold; when we make an ornament out of gold, the original mass of gold suffers a modification, the fundamental form is destroyed, a form is produced, but the substance gold persists throughout the change. In other words not to give up one's own specific nature is the permanence; to originate and perish in the form of a different transformation in every moment is the utpada and vyaya. Thus, origination does not mean 'coming into being out of nothing, it means the production or development of a new form. Destruction does not mean the complete annihilation of the substance but simply the destruction of the previous form. These three viz, origination, destruction and permanence, differ in their nature, but are not mutually independent. Change and permanence, modes and substance exist together, neither is possible without the other. The three aspects are necessarily there at all the time and it is just this that is meant by the persistance or indestructibility of the real. The cycle of permanence, origination and destruction always operate in a substance
new
5. Pravacanasära-II-7,
6. Sanmatitarka-I-7, and 9. ed Sukhlal Sanghavi and B. Doshi, Ahmedabad, 1939. 7. Guṇaparyayavad dravyam-Tattvärthasutra-V-37.
8. (a) Sarvarthasiddhi-V-30.
(b) Tattvärtharājavārtika-V-29.

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as such. These three are the very constituents of a substance. Siddbasena Divākara, therefore states that "there is no substance that is devoid of modifications, nor is there any modification without an abiding something -a substance. For origin, destruction and contipuance are the three constituents of a substance."9 Kundakunda also says that the notion of continuity is essentially dependent on origin and destruction There is no origin withont destruction, nor is there any desti uction without origin, and neither is destruction nor origination possible without what continues to be. 10 Amrtav andra explains this idea citing an example of a pot. When a pot is produced from a lump of clay, both the origin of the pot and the destruction of the lump of clay together maintain the continuance or persistance of the clay-substance, 11
Closely connected with this notion of substance is the conception of qualities and modes. Without understanding these conceptions it is not possible to appreciate, the Jain's definition of reality or substance, Umāsvāti in bis Tattvarthasutra gives definition of quality. He states that "what reside in a substance and are themselves devoid of any qualities are called qualities."19 But he does not give definition of modes. It is said in the Tattvārthabhāşya that “though modes too reside in a substance and are themselves devoid of any quality, they are subject to origin and destruction, Thus, they do not always reside in a substance. The qualities, on the other hand, are permanent and hence they always reside in a substance. This is how, qualities are to be distinguished from modes", 13 We find clearcut distinction between qualities and modes in the Sarvärtha. siddhi of Pūjyapāda Devanandi. He states that, “A quality is, really, the distinguisbjog character of one substance from another. For example, the soul is different from matter through its possession of consciousness, etc.; the matter is distinguished from soul through qualities like colour. The generic attributes common to souls are cognition etc., and that of matter are colour etc. The modifications of these qualities, viewed in their parti. cular nature, are called modes (paryāyās), such as, cogoition of a pot, anger, pride (in a soul), and intense or mild odour, deep or light colour in the case of the matter."14 From all these explanations, we can draw a conclusion that Jain thinkers have divided broad category into two 9. Sanmatitarka-I-12. 10. Pravacanasāra -II-8. 11. Ibid-comm. II-8, P. 125. 12. Dravyasraya nirguņā guņāḥ. T.S.V-40, 13. Tatt värthasūtras vopa iñiabbasya-V-40.... 14. Aovayino guņa vyatirekinah paryāyāḥ....dra vyam dravyāntaräd yena višisyate sa
gunah....tesām vikārā višeşātmana bbidyamāgāh paryāyah. Sarvārthasiddhi-V-38.

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sub-categories viz. qualities and modes. Qualities are permanent aspect of a substance and modes are changing aspect of it. Without knowing the distinction between these two, the definition of reality or substance given by the Jains cannot be understood. Some of the scholars not aware of this subtle distinction existing between qualities and modes, used these two terms indiscriminately. Even, an eninent scholar like Jadunath Sinha writes that “there can be creation and destruction of its qualities and modes. The substance is permanent though its qualities and modes are created and destroyed. It persists through its changing qualities which appear and disappear. A substance is said to be created and destroyed because of its qualities and modes. It is permanent, though its qualities and modes are constantly changing "15 This kind of opinion is not justifiable because we have already seen that according to Jains, substance has two types of attributes, some of which are permanent through all changes, they are called gunas or essential qualities and the other attri. butes change through modifications, they are called modes or paryayas.
The main charge against this definition is that, it is self-contradictory to attribute both permanency and change to one and the same thing. The real cannot be permanent as well as transitory at the same time. How is it possible that mutually contradictory things like hot and cold should simulteneously belong to one and the same thing? To attribute both permanency and change to one and the same thing involves law of contradiction.
in reply to this objection Jains state that there is no contradiction involved and no violation of law of contradiction in applying opposite predicates to the same thing in different capacities. They are applied to its different aspects such as substance, state, space and time. It is also seen that mutually contradictory elements can exist in one and the samething in different capacities such as, the same man is a father to his son, son to his father, husband to his wife, brother to his sister and so on. There is no contradiction if we consider primary and secondary meaning of the speaker in cach statement, 16 This tripled character of substance is upheld by all the later thinkers of Jainism, showing that, origination, destruction and permanence can exist in one and the same. thing without contradicting each other. Samantabhadra (7th A.D.) states that if a golden pot is destroyed and a golden crown is made out of it, destruction, origination and continuity happen simulteneously and give rise to sorrow, joy and indifferent attitude respectively in the mind of 15. A History of Indian Philosophy -Vol. II. J. N, Sinha 1952, P. 216. 16. Arpitānarpitasiddheḥ-T.S.V-31. 17. Sarvärthasiddhi-V-32 comment. P-303.

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three different kinds of people, those in favour of the pot, those in favour of the crown, and those in favour of the gold stuff, 18
The definition of substance, specially, the second character i.e. "the substance is possessed of qualities and modes" seems to be very much similar to Nyāya-Vaiseșika definition of substance. The substance, according to Nyaya-Vaiseșika, is the substratum of qualities and actions. It is defined as “the substratum where actions and qualities in here and which is tbe co-existent material cause of the composite things produced from it. 19 Without substance we cannot have qualities and actions for they cannot hang loose in the air but must be contained somewhere. Nor can substance be defined apart from qualities and actions. For Nyaya-Vaiseşika, ultimate substances are eternal, independent and individual and are infinite. All compound substances (avayavidravya) which are made of parts and arise out of the simple ultimate substances are necessarily transcient and impermanent and subject to production and destruction. But simple ultimate substances which are material causes of the compound substances are eternal and not subject to production and destruction. The definition of Nyaya-Vaiseșikas, makes it clear that it is substratum of qualities and actions and is, an inherent cause, which gives causal support to the changing attributes-qualities and actions. 20 Nyaya-Vaiseşikas seem to emphasize the substance as the substratum of qualities and actions while Jains maintain substance as a core of change and as a substratum of attributes. In the Western Philosophical History, Aristotle seems to uphold both these notions of substance. He states that “the most distinctive mark of substance appears to be that, while remaining numerically one and the same, it is capable of admitting contrary qualities. From among things other than substance, we should find ourselves unable to bring forward apy which possessed this mark."91 The idea of substance as the essence or the immutable core is also suggested by Aristotle. "A natural corollary to this notion is that a substance is independently existent, 28" Thus, according to Aristotle, the term existence can be applied to substance only in proper sense and qualities and relations have only a secondary existence. “Therefore, that which is primarily, i.e. not in a qualified
18. Aptamimams1-JII-57, Ed. : G. Jain, pub. Sanātana Jaina Granthamalā-1914. 19. Kriyagunavat samaväyikāranamiti dravyalaksanam-Vaišeşikasutra. I-1-15.
Ed., Mahadeva Gangadhar Bakre. Pub. Gujarati Printing press, Bombay. 20. The Central Philosophy of Jainism -B, K. Matilal, L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad, 1981, p. 36. 21. Categories --Aristotle (4a, 10-14), The Basis work of Aristotle, Ed. R. Mckeon,
New York, 1941. 22. The Central philosophy of Jainism-B, K. Matilal, P. 37.

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seose but without qualification, must be substance."23 We have seen that Jains too, identified the notion of existence with that of substance. but they add also it is" or "it exists" means only that it is endowed with the triple character of origin, destruction and continuity.
This definition of substance of the Jains seems to be very much similar to the definition of energy and matter of modern science, A.N. Whitehead pointed out that the doctrine of energy has to do with the notion of qualitative permanence underlying change.34 T. A. Colding states that, "energy is imperishable and immortal and therefore, wherever and whenever energy seems to vanish in performing certain mechanical or other work, it merely undergoes transformation and re-appears in a new form but the total quantity of energy still abides."96 Similar idea is expressed by Dr. J. W. Mellor. He maintains that "In all changes of a corporeal nature the total quantity of matter remains the same, being neither created nor destroyed... The law of persistance of weight or the so-called law of indestructibility of matter means that... substance persists while matter changes its form. According to all these modern scientists matter is constantly undergoing change, new modifications appearing and the old ones disappearing and at the same time maintaining its intrinsic nature through all these changes. This has been proved to be the fundamental characteristic of all matter. It means that everything has triple character of origination, destruction and continuity. Like modern Scientists Jains admit dynamic reality (dravya). It is an identity expressing through difference, a permanency continuing through change.
This definition of reality of the Jains is very significant in many ways. In fact it is a basis on which entire Jaia pbilosophical palace is built. First of all this definition makes Jain's position about reality very clear by distinguishing itself from other schools of thought. As regards the nature of reality the different systems of ludian philosophy maintain different approach. Advaita Vedānta adopting absolutistic approach, maintains that real is Existence, Consciousness and Bliss, uncontradicted in all the times, eternal and one without a second. It is a highest universal in which all the particulars merge. 8 7 In other words, the real taken as a 23. Ibid.-37. 24. Science and the Modern world-A. N. Whitehead, P. 126. 25. Thesis on Energy-L. A. Colding, Copenhagen, 1843. 26. Inorgenic and Theoretical Chemistry. Vol. I-J. Mellor p. 101-2. 27. 1. Taittiriyopan işat with Sankarabha sya--II-1-1.
2. Ibid-II-6. 3. Chandogyopanişat with Sankarabhasya---VIII-1-1. 4. Brhadaranyakopanişat with Sãå karabhāsya-II-IV. 9.7.9.
2 The principle Upanişads with Sarkarabhasya, Pub. Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi. 1978

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81
whole is exclusively permanent. Some of the Buddhists hold that real is unsubstantial, momentary and absolutely impermanent. The Nyaya-Vaiše. şikas think that substance in its atomic form is exclusively permanent and in gross form, like jar, a piece of cloth etc, is exclusively characte. rized by origination and destruction. According to Sankhya philosophers, the real, in the form of conscious variety (puruşa) is exclusively permadent in nature while, the same real in the form of un-conscious variety viz. Prakrii, is both permanent-cum-transitory (parināminitya). Umásvati was well aware of all these definitions and their short commings. There. fore, to avoid all these he adopted a realistic and scientific approach and defined real as combination of change and permanence. The real even taken as a whole cannot be exclusively permanent or exclusively transitory. The positive and negative aspects must both belong to everything. If only positive aspects belong to it, there would be nothing to distinguish it from another and all the things would become one 'sar'. If instead, only the negative aspects belong to a thing, it would have do instrinsic 'ature. 38 This Jain's definition of the real avoiôs both the extreme views of absolute eternality (Vedantist view) as well as the absolute transitoriness (Buddhist view) maintaining that real is neither absolutely real por absolutely transitory, but real as well as unreal, permanent-cum-change. As against the Nyāya-Vaiseșika, Jains definition points out that it is not possible to thịok that, one of the part of it is exclusively non-eternal, transitory. As against the Sankhyas, it maintains that it is not acceptable that, certain part of it is exclusively permanent while certain other part is permanentcum-change. In fact all the things deserving to be designated as 'real' must bave, a triple form. There is nothing self-contradictory about a real entity being found characterized by permanence wben viewed from standpoint of specific nature i,e. substance and the same being found characterized by origination and destruction when viewed from the stand-point of transformation. Secondly, this definition of reality gives a clue to the Jajn's view on causation. Jains disagree with the absolute views of Sankhya and Vedanta on the one hand and Nyaya-Vaišeşika and Buddhists on the other. The Satkar yavādins89 maintain that the effect is already existent in its cause before its production in an upmanifested form. If effect were non-existent in the cause anything could have been
28. Syadvadamañjari-Mallişeņa-XIV, P. 91, Ed. A. B. Dhruva, Bombay, Sanskrit and
Prakrit series, 1933. P. 91. 29. Asadakaraņāt upādājagrahaņāt sarvasambhavabhāvāt.
Saktasya Sakyakaraņāt kāraṇabhāvācca sat karyam.-Sänkhyakarika-2... Pub. Chowkhamba Sanskrit series, 1963,
T-11

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produced from anything, cloth could have been producod from clay; jar could have been produced from threads and so on. But Asatkāryavādins, 50 on the other hand argue that if an effect is already existent in its cause There is no need to attempt for its production. Besides, if effect is already existent in its cause, it should be seen there and the same purpose could have been served by cause and effect. Jains on the basis of their notion of substance reconcile the truth in both these views and state that cause and effect are partly identical and partly distinct and therefore, an effect is partly existent in its cause and partly non-existent, 51 A particular cause has a power or potency (Sakti) to produce a particular effect and thus an effect is existent in its cause in the form of this potency. But an effect is a new subtance so far as its form is concerned and thus with reference to its form it is non-existent in its cause. A jar, for example is existent in its cause, the lump of caly, so far its matter clay is concerned, but it is non-existent there in the shape of the jar. This view is very near to Sinkhya but, the only difference between them, appears to be that Sankhya is not prepared to admit this manifestation as sometbiog Dewly emergent while Jains do. Thirdly, definition of reality became a basis for Jain's famous synthetic philosophical doctrine of Anekāntavādaa theory of many-sidedness of reality, wbich consists of dual doctrine viz., Nayavāda in wbich views of different philosophical systems are individually accommodated and syadvāda (philosophy of relativism) which reconciles all of them giving complete picture of reality. 82
lo this way, this definition of reality (sat) became an all-embracing principle in Jain's pbilosophical literature.
30. Causation in Indian Philosophy-Bharatiya M. C.. Pub. Vimal Prakashan, Ghaziabad,
(U.P.), 1973, pp. 242 254. 31, Sanmatitarka-1-27, pp. 29-30. 32Please refer to first paper of this book.

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NĀGĀRJUNA IS MAHĀYĀNIST
Nagarjuna is one of the most outstanding philosophical personalities in the history of Buddhism. There is no second opinion among the scholars that in metaphysical profoundity, logical acumen and spiritual insight, he has few equals among Indian thinkers barring perhaps Sankara. But it is quite interesting to note that some of the modern scholars either expressed doubt about the very existence or historicity of Nagarjuna or questioned the authenticity of Nāgārjuna being a Mahāyānist. Prof. M. Walleser, thinks that a person known as philosopher Nāgārjuna might not have existed on this earth. He states that, the systematic development of thought of voidness laid down in the Prajnaparamitasūtras is brought into junction with the name of whom, we cannot even positively say that he has really existed, still less that he is the author of the works ascribed to him this name is Nagārjuna 1 Dr. A. K. Warder, known scholar of Buddhism of our present day, questioned the authenticity of Nāgārjuna being a Mabayanist. 2 As per my knowledge, there is no question about Nāgārjuna's historical personality. The great minds of Buddhism like Aryadeva (Nagarjuna's direct disciple), Kumārajiva, Huiyacin, Candrakirti and others hold him in high esteem in their writings. Lankāvatarasūtra spoke of him as glorious and renowned monk of Maha yāna Buddhism.3 The writings through which he made an extra-ordinary impact on the development of Buddhism and religious thought in the East and the images of him formed by the generations of Asians constitute his historical personality.
Many Jaina and Hindu texts mention his name as propagator of Sünyavada, 5 The followers of Buddhism of China, Tibet and Japan, in fact actually did consider him to be the second Buddha 6 who had once again set in motion the wheel of Dharma (i.e. truth and righteousness). 1. The Life of Nāgārjuna from Tibetan and Chinese Sources. M. Walleser. Nag
Publishers. New Delhi, 1979, p. 1. 2. Is Nāgārjuna Mahāyānist-A. K. Warder. Pub. Two truths in Buddhism and
Vedānta, Edited by M, Sprung, Holland. 1973, p. 78-88. 3. Saddharma Lānkāvatārasütra X-165, ed. P. L. Vaidya, Pub. : Mithila Institute,
Darbhanga, 1963, p. 118. 4. Nagarjuna, Part I-K. Satcidananda Murti, pub : National Book Trust of India,
New Delhi, 1971: p. 1. 5. Sarvadarsanasangraha-Madhavacāry. Ed : Umasankar Sharma, Chowkhamba Vidya
Bhavan, Varanasi, 1964. 6. Nagarjuna-K. S. Murti, p. 1.

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It is true that there is no authentic biographical data, no reliable historical account of Nāgārjuna is existent. In fact it is difficult to draw satisfactory picture of him because his figure is obviously overlaid by many legends and myths, many of which had nothing to do with him.7 And no where Nagarjuna himself gives bis historical account. But on this basis to carry doubt about Nāgārjuna's very existence, indicates ignorance about Indian tradition. in India even the greatest poets, philosophers and writers, were not used to write about themselves. They were so humole in their nature that they thought writing about themselves amounts to self-praise. These renowned masters were known through their disciples and followers. There was a Guru--Sis ya tradition in India. Nāgarjuna belongs to tois great tradition. He was known through his works and disciples. S., his historicity is undeniable and he represented a movement and a school as much as a personality. 8
Dr. A. K. Warder, in his paper 'ls Nāgārjuna Mahāyānist', questio. ned the authenticity of Nāgarjuna being Mabāyāpist and through this shaking the common belief of Nāgārjuna's affiliation to Maha yang opened the new arena of research in the field of lovian philosopby ia general and Buddhism in particular.
Dr. Warder, ascribes only six books to Nagarjuna viz., Mulamadhyamakakarika, Vigrahavyävartani, Sūnyatāsaptati, Yuktişaştika, Vaidalyasūtra and Prakarana. He does not accept Nāgārjuna's authorship of Suhrllekha, Rainavali and others. ro prove his thesis, the learned author is completely dependent on only one major work of Nagarjuna i.e. Mülamadhyamakakārika (M.K.). Only on the basis of tbis single work he tried to negato Nāgårjuna's affiliation to Mahayāna. His arguments can be summarised in the following manner: "Nāgārjuna neither mentions nor quotes any Mahāyānasūıras in his Mūlamadh yamakakärikā to prove his contents. Instead of quoting Maha yānasürras he quotes many early Buddhist Pitakas without naming the sūtras and mentions · Kätyäyanavavādasitra' by name, which again belongs to early Buddhism. Sources of bis work is Tripitakas but not Mahāyānasūtras. There is no evidence that Nagarjuna had ever seen any Pru jñā pārmaitā. Again there are no terms peculiar to Mahayana in M.K. and nowhere the term Mahayāna is used by Nagarjuna in this work. His criticism in M.K. is not against early Buddhism but against Sarvastivāda Buddhism which is developed from Abhidhurma. His faithfulness to carly Buddhism clearly questions the authenticity of
āgarjuna being Mabāyānist."
7. Ibid-P. 2. 8. Hinduism and Buddhism-Sir Charles Eliot, London, 1957.

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This thought-provoking issue raised by the learned author must be re-examined in a critical and analytical perspective. It is easy to say from particular angle that, Nagarjuna is not Mahāyāoist. I think that, before passing any judgement on Nāgārjuna, it is very essential to study Buddhist works which are existent prior to Nagarjuna, and his own works, works of his disciples and predecessors, biographers and points of view of historians.
First of all it seems that the learned scholar taking advantage of atmosphere of chronological uncertainty of early Mahāyāna literature and not finding any direct quotation from it in M.K. draws a conclusion that there is no evidence that Nāgārjuna had ever seen any Prajnaparamita texts, 9 thereby assuming that Pru ja pāramitā literature itselt is posterior to Nāgärjuna. But this is logically untenable, because Nagarjuni flouri shed in 2nd century A.D., and Mahayana was developed, far early i.e. four or five centuries prior to Nāgarjuna. The root of Mahayana is found in 3rd century B.C. in Mabāsānghikas. 10 Progressive thought of Mahā. sāngbikas are the basis for development of Mahayana. At the time of Nāgārjuna, i.e. in 2nd century itself some of the Pra jñāpārmità sūtras were translated into Chinese language. The Astasahasrikā Prajñapärmita (Asta.) was translated into Chinese by Lokakşema in 170 A.D. At this time not only Aşta but even Puncavimśatisähasrikā Prajñāpārumina was known to Chinese because on some occasions the text of Lokakşema is nearer to that of the large Prajñāparamua than to Așta. 11 That means these some of the Pru jñāpāramiras were introduced to China long before, their translation took place. They must have been existent in India long-long before they were introduced to China. Therefore, sately we can say that Prajñāpāramitā literature was existent atleast one or two centuries earlier to Nagarjuna. Secondly, a close study of the language and style of some of the Prujnaparamitās, especially Aşta reveals tbat it was composed in Ist century (circa) or latest by beginning of the Christian era. The style, language and phraseology of Prajñāparamitā literature is very much similar to Pali Pitakas and seems to be just rendering into sanskrit of Pali-Pitakas. This Prujnaparamitā literature is also written in a repetitious style like Pali Canon. It seems that no other style was known to that period except the canonical style. Pra jñāpar. mitá, like Päli Cannon appeared in prose form and did not enter into Poilusuphical
9. Is Nāgārjuna Mahāyānist-A. K. Warder, p. 80. 10. Conception of Bnddhist Nirvana--Stcherbatsky, Pub, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan,
Varanasi, p. 7-15. 11. Prajñāpāramitā literature --Epward Conze, Ounton and Companies Gravenb aga,
London, 1960, p. 26.

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discussion until its ideas were systematically formulated by later writers. Like Fali canon it lacks refined form and logical regiour. Not only this,
in the Prajñāparamita literature like Pali Canon, Philosophical principles are mixed with religious dogmas and ethical conduct, All these indicate that. at the time when Aşțasahasrikā Prajñaparamita was composed, the Mahāyāna was in the early state of its history. While, Nāgārjuna's style and language are very much refined, there are no repetitions, doctrines are systematically presented and defended with sharp logical argumenta. tion. On this basis also, we can say that Prajñāpāramitā Maha yana literature was existent prior to Nāgārjua. Thirdly, a comparative study of the development of Sūnyavada reveals that some of the Prajñapāramita were definitely existent prior to Nāgārjuna. The term Śünya' is found in Buddhism since the beginning of its history, but its meaning has not been defined beyond its being identified with nothingness or emptiness in the sense of absence of content.
Hinayānists accepted only the pudgalanairarm ya (non-substantiality of soul). They did not try to go into its depthness. The Mahäsānghikas, for the first time took this word in a broader sense and maintained Pudgalanairaimya as well as Dharmanairatmya i.e. un-substantiality of all dharmas. Accordiog to them, empirical knowledge could not give to us an insight into reality, only Śūnyatā wbich transcends all worldly things can give to us a vision of the real 13 The Prajñāpäramita literature has concentrated on this conception of "Śūnyatā' ct the Mahāsānghikas. It teaches us non-substantiality of all dharmas, 13 The Phenomena, being dependent on conditions are devoid of substantial reality, hence they are Sūnya. Nirvana, being transcendent to all categories of thought is Sūnyaemptiness itself. Both Samsūra and Nirvana, the conditioned and unconditioned are mere thought-construction and are so devoid of reality (Sünya). Śünya transcends all impirical determinations and thought-construction. It is thus equated with ultimate reality. Thus Sūnya and Prajña became synonymas, 14 So, these Mahāyānasūtras made it (Sünva) mean the same thing as suchness which is indescribable. 15 But this doctrine of Sanya is treated in a loconic and desultary manner. Nāgārjuna, thinking that this doctrine dealt in Prajñāpāramita might be misunderstood as mere nothingness,
12. Conception of Buddhist Nirvana-Stcherbatsky, p. 9-11. 13. Sarve dharmā anātmānah-Aştasahasrikā Prajñāpāramita-ed. P. L. Vaidya, Pub.
Mithila Institute Darbhanga pp 20, 121, 136, 156-7, 201, 203. 14. (a) Prajñāparamita hi subhute sünyā--Asta, p. 201.
() Sünyatvät duranubodhye yam Prajñāpäramita 15. Early Mādhyamika in India and China--Richard H. Robinson, Pub. Motilal
Banarasi Dass, Delhi, 1976, pp. 177-78.

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tried to defend it with logical rigour in M. K. and Vigrahavyāvartani. His sharp logical miod found that the Prajñāpäramitā literature, though profound, was wanting in logic, for they did not prove what they thought. Thus his main aim in M. K. is not to defend Mahāyāna sect, but to establish the doctrine of Sünyaca propounded by Prajaparamitā literature, in the light of reasoning. Thus quoting Mahāyānasūtra is not a criteria in judging Nagarjuna's affiliation to Mahāyāna or non-Maha yana, but it lies in the logical assessment of the development of the doctrine of omptiness (Sūnyata) in early Buddhism and in Nāgārjuna's works.
Again, there is a close similarlity of the general structure between M. K. and Astasähasrikā Pra jñā pāramitā. The doctrine of Sūnya, concep of Nirvana, the doctrine of Dependent Origination, the conception of personality and two kinds of truths that found logically developed form in M. K. are certainly based on Aşta and purely Mahayanistic in nature. 16 The similes which are peculiar to Mahāyāna in general and Asta in particular are used in more than 11 places in M.K. by Nāgārjuna. 17 It is also not proper to say that there are no terms peculiar to Maha yāna in M.K. In fact the term 'Śūnyatā' itself is peculiar to Mahāyāna literature because, it stands for doctrine, not for mere nothingness of the carly Buddhism. Again, the conception that everything is like dream, like illusion, thought construction, Gandharva Nagar and thus unreal, is the special feature of Prajñāpāramita Mahāyāna literature. 18 To explain the doctrine of "Śünya' Nagarjuna bas used the same terms and similes used by Aşta. 19 We can find numerous examples from M.K. to prove that Nagarjuna has developed most of his conceptions from Aşta. 0
It is true that many important, peculiarly Mahāyān ists ontological and religious terms found in Aşta are not occur in the M.K, such as Prajña, Tathata, Advaya, Dharmadhatu, Paramita, etc., even the term Bodhisativa occours only once in the M.K. But it is important to note that the choice of the authors words depends on what he is talking about and whom he is talking to Mūlamadhyamakakārika is not written to defend Mahavāna. To defend Mahāyāna, Nāgārjuna has written many other works such as Ratnávali and Suhtllekha. In M.K. Nāgārjuna is not talking to Mahāyāoists who are familiar with those peculiar Mabāyanistic terms but talking to and criticising Hinayānists who did not accept 16. Madhyamika schools in India--Peter Della Santina. Pub. Motiial Banarasi Dass,
Delhi, 1986, pp 9-19. 17. Madhyamakaśātra-V11-8, 31, 34. XIII-5, 6, XVI1-7, 14, XXIV-17, 15, XXV-14,
XXVII-22-ed. P. L. Vaidya, Mithtla Institute, Darbhanga, 1960. 18. Asta-pp. 20, 121, 230, 254, 265 etc. 19. Madhyamahasástra-Ed. P. L. Vaidya, Mithila, Darbhanga, 1960. 20. Madhyamika schools in India-Peter Della Santina pp. 9-14,

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Mahāyāna doctrines and also by reasoning on solid grounds, he points out that they have misunderstood the Buddha's teachings. In M. K. Nāgat. jung refutes Hinayapists in their own terms. He persuades them by quoting directly or indirectly early Tripitakas, using those terms which were familiar to Hinayanists. This seems to be the main reason in not using many terms in M. K, which are peculiar to Mahāyāna.
It is again illogical to argue that, the term Maha yāna is not used or Mahayāna is nowhere mentioned in M, K., thus, Nāgārjuna is not Mabāyānist. Always we have to keep in mind that characteristics of the work and doctrines are important factors rather than particular terms. The Diamond Sutra (before 400 A.D.) is one of the most profound, sublime and influential of all Maha yana scriptures. Its main aim is to establish the doctrine of "Śtnya'. But the term Sünya is not even once mentioned, nevertheless the do.trine of Śünya is established in ap ontological, psychological and logical forms. 88
is it possible to say that since it does not use the term Maha yana, thus it does not propagate Sünyavāda and does not belong to Mahāyana ? Again, history of Indian literature reveals that many great writers of different schools of thought did not mention in their writings to which school they belong, still they propagate doctrines of particular school of thought. Similarly Nāgarjuna also without naming or mentioning the Mahayana propagated the doctrines of Mahāyana in M.K
It is also important to note that the ideas of Mahayana are all to be found in the Nikāyas. Early Tripitakas are like Vedas and Upanişads for all the schools of Buddhism. Just as the Vedānta schools quote Vedās and Upanişads to defend their views, similarly all the schools developed within the Buddhism quote early Tripitakas to defend their view point and claim that their interpretation is real teaching of Buddha. Nagarjuna also quotes early Tripitakas to show that his school of thought is also founded on solid foundation of the teachings of Buddha. Thus quoting from Tripitakas does not substantiate to prove that he was not Mabāya. nist. Nagarjuna, quoting from Tripitakas in M.K. tried to convince the Hinayānists that Mahayana is not a new teaching, from Buddha's teaching but it represents the real spirit of Buddha's teachings. It is true that Nagarjuna does not refer to any Mahayānasūtras in M.K. by name but has derived his ideas from Mahayanasūtras. Capdrakirti in his commentary on M. K. tried to show from which Mahāyānasūtra Nāgārjuna has drawn his ideas. 38 21. Madhyamakaśāstra-XXIV-32 p. 223. 22. Vajracchedika Prajñāpäramita-Ed, Santibhiksu Sastri and Sanghasena Sinba, Deibi
University, 1978, p. 9-25. 23. Madhyamaka'sātra with Prasannapada-Fd. P. L. Vaidya.

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Again, Dr. Warder tried to prove Nagarjuna's non-affiliation to Mahayana on the basis of only one work viz., Mulamadhyamakakarika. It is certainly not proper to draw a conclusion only on the basis of one work. At present substantial volume of Nāgārjuna's authentic writing is available and we can know something of his thought by making a careful study of it. Before we come to the conclusion, whether Nagarjuna is Mahāyānist or not, it is in fitness of things to consider some of those authentic works of Nagarjuna, Many works have been attributed to Nāgācjuna. All of them may not be his, but on the basis of style, language, subject matter, systematic presentation of the doctrines, we can definitely say that, Mūlamadhyamakakarika, Vigrahavyāvar tani, Sunyatasaptati, Yuktişaştika, va dalya siira, and Prakarana, Ratnāvali and Suhrllekha24 are the works of Philosopher Nāgārjuna. If we accept Nagarjuna as the author of M. K. then there is no reason to doubt about authorship of Nagarjuna's other works mentioned above, because their content, style and language agree with that of the M. K. In addition to these, Catustava, Pratityasamutpadahțdaya and Bhavanasankranti are attested by quotations in Candrakirti's Prasannapada. 2 5 The Suhộllekhã was translated into Chinese twice shortly after 430 A, D Once by Guņavarma and once by Sanghavarma. 26 Both these treat this work as work of great Nāgarjuna. If we accept Rathavali and Suhrllekhū as the works of Nāgārjuna then there is 10 question about Nägārjuni's Mahāyäoisthood because these two works are written to propagate Mahāyāna in clear terms.
The Chinese and Tibetan sources clearly mention tbat Nāgār juna was a great Master of Tripitakas and Mahāyānasūtras, 27 These sources are not historically very very authentic on account of their legendary form, but they cannot be completely turned as mere fabrication of Chinese and Tibetan winds. They show some positive truth and indicate thit Nāgārjuna was a historical person and the great Mahāyānist. The Lankāvatārasūtra, one of the profound Mahayanasūtras predicts that after preaching Mahayana Nagarjuna would go to the Sukhāvatsloka.98 This protion of Lankavatāra seems to be a later addition but it tells us that he was Mahāyānist. 24. Early Madhyamika in India and China--Robinson, pp. 25 8. 25 Central Philosophy of Buddhism--T. R. V. Murti, George Allen and Unwin Ltd.,
London, 1960. pp. 90-91, 26. Ibid-90-91. 27. Life of Nägārjuna from Tibetan and Chinese Sources. M, Walleser pp. 1-23 and
23-37, respectively. 23. Daksinäpathavedalyam bhikṣuḥ śriman Mahāyāśaḥ, nägähvayah namnātu sadasat
pakşadhārakal. Prakas ya loke madyānam mahāvānamanutlaram, asadya bhamim muditam yasyate' sau Sukhāvatīm-Lankavatārasútra-X.165 p. 118.
T-12

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Agrin, we cannot casily dismiss the vicws of post Nägarjuoa Buddhist writers, Biographers, commentators and historians, who considered Nagār. juna as the great champion of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Nāgārjuna's followers such as Āryadeva, Buddhapalita, Bhāvaviveka, Caudrakirti and Santideva, treat him as the great Mahāyānist. Kumārajiva, who flourished in the 4th century A.D. (343-413 A.D.) and translated biography and many other works of Nagarjuna into Chinese states that "Nagarjuna wrote a number of works and fostered the practice of Mabāyāna."'29 Hui-Yuan, who flourished in 5th century AD., states that "Nāgārjuna considered the Prajñāpāramita to be the sublime gate to the numinal treasury, the way to the ideal unit.”80 And "there was a Mahayāna Bodhisatrva named Nāgarjuna... From his time the enterprise of the Mahā yana flourished again."51 The preface to the Chinese translation of Asanga's Madhyamakaśāstránu sära states that the Master Nāgār juda who comprehended the Dharma wrote M.K. on the basis of the Mahaprajnaparamita. Asanga's commentary says that in confirmity to valid reasoning he entered the meaning of the Mahaprajña paramita in order to lead living being to.." Candrakirti (6th century A.D.), a well-known scholar and commentator of M.K. believes that Nāgārjuna was the Master of Prajñāpāramitā. He states in clear terms that Nagarjuna koowing the correct meaning of the class of works going under the name of Prajnaparamita, out of compa ssion, in order to colighten others composed the Mülamadhymakakäriků. The statements of all these writers and commentators clearly show that Nagarjuna was familar with Prajña paramita literature and was a great Mahāyānist. Views of all these great minds of the Madhyamikas cannot be easily dismissed as false or result of blind traditional faith as Dr. War der thinks. Even modern writers and Buddhist Historians like Taranath, Buston, D. T. Suzuki, Keith, Robinson, S. Bagchi, Nalioaksa Datta and others consider Nagarjuna as a great Mahāyānist on the basis of solid ground, H. Kern rightly pointed out that Nagarjuna's name was not only that of the first eminent leader of Philosophical school, but also became simply a comprehensive name of the activity of Mahāyāna in the first phase of its onward course, 84
To sum up, from all these evidences we can safely say that in the history of Mahāyāna the sutra class came into existence first and Nāgārjuna and others took Prajñāpāramitā literature as their sacred source and there is no doubt about Nagarjuna's affiliation to Mahāyāna school of thought. 29. Early Madhyamika in India and China-Robinson p. 22. 30. Ibid-p. 62. 31. Jbid--p. 201.
32. Ibid---n. 62. 33. Madhyamakaśāstra with Prasannapada-Ed. P. L. Vaidya, p. l. . 34, Manual of Indian Buddhism--H. Kern. Strassburg, Verlag von Kart J. Trubner, p. 123.

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CONCEPTION OF MAYĀ (Illusion) IN ASANGA'S
VIJNĀNAVĀDA BUDDHISM
Asanga (circa 290-360 AD) is one of the outstanding philosophical personalities in the history of Mahāyāna Buddhism. His contribution to Vijaanavāda School of thought is unparalleled in the annals of Buddhist history. There is no Buddhist topic which is left untouched by him in his works, 9 In fact, one of his works namely Mahāyānasütrālankāra' is a landmark in the development of Mahāyāna Buddhism, which also throws full light on Absolutism of Vijñanavāda.
It is a well-known fact in the history of Mahāyāna Buddhism that Nāgārjuna-the chief exponent of Madhyamika philosophy-adopts a purely negative approach to Reality and defines it as that which can only be directly realised, that which is quiscent, inexpressible, that which is non-discursive and non-dual. 8 Absolute reality is Sūnya, i.e., beyond subject-object duality, inderminate, indescribable and cannot be even identified with pure consciousness. The word Šünya is used to indicate this Absoluie Reality, 4 But it seems that Nāgārjuna emphasizing the transcendental aspect of the Absolute, failed to show the proper relation between the Absolute and the phenomena. He does not analyse how this absolute is related to the phenomenal world. His extreme negative approach is misunderstood by his oponents and consequently he is dubbed as a propagator of nibilism in his own time.5 But shortly after Nāgārjuna, some of the Mahāyāna thinkers revolted against the negative stand point of his and started thinking in a more positive way by identifying the Absolute Reality with pure consciousness and established their own independent school of thought known as Vijñānavada. 1. Indian Buddhism-A. K. Warder, Pub. Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi-7, 1970, p. 436. 2. Many works are ascribed to Asanga, but Madhyanta vibhanga, Mahayanasūtra.
lankara and Dharmadharmatavibhanga are very important from philosophical
point of view. 3. Aparapratyayam Santam prapancairaprapancitam. Nirvikalpam anänărtham etat
tatt vasya laksanam. Madhyamakaśāstra (Ms) XVIII-9, ed. P. L. Vaidya. Mithila
Institute, Darbhanga, 1960. 4. Prajfaptyartham tu kathyate -Ibid, XXI1-11. S. Vigrahayyavartani-by Nagarjuna, ed. K. P. Jayaswal and Rabula Sankrityayapu
Pub. Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, Vol. XXIII, Part-III, 1939.

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Asanga, a disciple of Maitreyanātha, is prominent among those revolutionary thinkers who went against Nagarjuna's doctrine and propagated Vijiāpavada. Asanga, a speculative thinker of first rank is not satisfied with this negative attitude of Nāgārjuna. His approach to Reality is more positive and he identifies the Absolute Reality consciousness which is free from subject-object duality, indescribable, beyond determination of thought-categories and oon-dual.C Asanga is not ready to accept the view of Nāgārjuna that the phenomenal world is purely conceptual and lacks any basis.7 His aim was to find out the ground of phenomena-an apparent world on which it appears. There must by some basis for this worldly appearance. Phenomena, though unreal, must be rooted in some reality. This line of thinking, leads him to come to the conclusion that the base or the ground for this apparent phenomenal world is nothing but pure-consciousness. Consciousness itself appears as subject-object duality on account of transcendental illussion. Appearance of a form of consciousness as something objective and independent is illusory. But the ground of this appearance is real, it is the reality-pure-consciousness. In other words, pure consciousness freed of the false duality of subject and object is the Absolute. Phenomena are the veiled form or false appearances of the Absolute. Phenomena do not completely cut us form reality. They are appearances and appearances point to that which appears, i.e., pure consciopsness.
According to Asanga, the highest reality which is nori-dual, indescribable and non-determinate,& transcends all opposites and in it the positives and negatives are one and the same. 9 The nature of the highest reality is such that it is neither existence nor non-existence. It is neither born nor destroyed. It is neither pure nor impure. 10 It is Dharmadbātu i.e., essence of all elements. It is the substratum of all phenomena, permanent background of world of phenomena. It is the principle of unity underlying the entire phenomenal world. It is essentially identical with all elements (dbarma) and yet it cannot be defined in terms of any elements, it transcends all of them. 11 It is like the sky (äkāga) which pervades every thing and is affected by nothing. 12 It is unimaginable, immeasurable and
6. Tattvam yat satatam dvayena rahitam bbräntesca sannišryal), sakyam naivaca
sarvathabhilapitum vacciprapañoätmakam-Mahāyānastri'ai lầa (MSA) X[-].
ed Dr. S. Bagcbi, Mithila Institute, Darbharga, 1970, 7. Madhyamakaśāstra-1.9-10. 8. MSA-XI, 19. 9. Bhavabhāvasamânată-Ibid., XI. 41. 10. Ibid VI. 1, 11, Sarvadhrāmāśca buddhatvam dharmo naivaca ka cana-Ibid-IX. + 12. Ioid IX. 15.

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93 all-pervading. 18 It is the highest reality which is permanent and eternal. 1 It is uncaused, unoriginated, and self-existent. It is pure knowledge. 15 It is unlimited bliss. 16
If the nature of reality is such, then the problem is how this non-dual pure consciousness appears as unreal manifold world of phenomena. In other words, how is this Absolute related to the phenomenal world ? To solve this problem of relation between noumena and phenomena, appearance and reality, one and many, Asanga has advocated the theory of illusion (māyā) as an explanatory factor. This doctrine is a logical necessity for all the Absolutists to explain the otherwise inexplicable relation between the universe and the Absolute. This doctrine of illusion is introduced to satisty the natural curiosity to know the why and how of appearances. The seed of this doctrine is found in the earliest texts of the Prajñāpāramitā literature, works of Nagarjuna, Lankavatārasutra and in Ašvagboşa's writings. The Aspasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramita-the earliest work of Mahāyāna literature, states that everything is like a dream, like illusion, thought construction and thus unreal.17 Even Nirvāna is said to be like illusion, and dream 18 The Samādbirājasūtra of Mabayāna literature also tells us that all things have no self-substance, they are like the air castle of the Gandharvas, tbat they are like Māyā or mirage, 19 Nagarjuna, the great champion of Madhyamika school of thought holds a similar view. 20 Lankavatārasūtra treats the entire world as an illusion or as similar to Māyā 21 All the things are Māyā, because they are unreal like the flash of lightning wbich is seen as quickly appearing and disappearing. All things are unborn and thus do not exist. They are like the air-castle of the Gandharvas, like a dream, like the creation of a magical power. 22 Even Ašvaghosa, the great master of Mahāyāna Buddhism, clearly states that
13. Aprameyam acintyam ca vibhut vam bauddbamisyale-Ibid-IX, 40. 14. Mahābodhim nityām dhruvam-Ibid-50. 15. Ibid-1X. 3; XXI. 44. 16. Ibid-V 8, commentary. 17. Astasahasrikā Prajñāpăramitā-1.P, 8. XXVIII-p-230, XXXI. 254, ed. P. L. Vaidya,
Pub. Mitbila Institute, Darbhanga, Bihar, 1960. 18. Nirvāṇamapi devaputra māyopamān svarnopamān-Ibid, II. p. 20. 19. Samadhirūjashtra, IX, 11, 17. quoted by Candrakirti in Prasannapada on Madhya.
maka Šāstra-VII. 34, p. 71. 20. Yathi māya yatha svapno gandharvanagaram yathā--M.S.-VII. 34; XVII. 33,
XXIII. 8-9. 21. Saddharma Lankavatārasitra-X. 126, 144, 228, 23, 251, 279, 291 ed., Dr. P. L.
Vaidya, Mithila Institute, Darbhanga, 1963. 22, Gandharvanagarasvapnam ayanirmānasadzsal-Ibid, X. 144.

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all phenomena are created by the imperfect notions of the finite mind. All existence is therefore like a reflection in a mirror, without substance, only a pbantom of the mind. 23 The Absolute is non-dual, but the phenomenal world of objects is appearance or illusory. Ignorance colours the true model in the finite mind. As there is an influence at work, there arise false imperfect ideas. On account of influence of ignorance this manifold world of phenomena arises. 2. The same idea found in earlier texts is fully developed by Asanga and credit goes to him for giving perfect shape to this doctrine of illusion or ignorance. All these words, such as ignorance, illusion, Bbrāoti, Māyā are used as synoyms by Asanga. Asanga was not fully satisfied with his predecessors, explanation to a question how this non-dual pure consciousness appears as a manifold world of phenomena. To attribute any kind of causality in an absolutely real sense to the immutable, uncreated and transcendent Absolute will be logically absurd. To solve this vexed problem, Asanga has developed this doctrine of Māyā or illusion owing to the influence of which consciousness,
though itself absolutely non dual, appears to be holding up diverse discrete and finite appearances as jnumerble, animate and inanimate objects of the universe. Pure consciousness influenced by ignorance gives rise to all phenomenal appearances recognised as various empirical eotities (paratantra) and also to further appearances sometimes known as illusory objects25 (Parikalpita). So, besides the one non-dual Absolute Reality there has to be assumed a universal diversifying factor or effectuating principle. Thus, assumption of illusion or ignorance is the only solution to the question which unavoidably arises as to how this one non-dual transcendental Reality is to be ralated to the complications of diverse becomings, pseudo realities in the form of inumerble appearances as multiple empirical or illusory entities. Illusion or ignorance must be accepted, however illusory in its ultimate nature. It has no existence of its own It is yet not entirely upreal as it produces the objective world. Hlusion being itself unreal, cannot exist by itself. In iiself it is nothing. 26 Its existence is inferred through its function Its main function is the creation of subject-object duality. All entities of the universe, are thus only diverse appearances appraised as so many real or illusory entities from the view point of relativity and arising from and lasting upto the termination of ignorance.
Illusion exists in the Absolute.a? In other words, Absolute is the locus of Māyā. Yet it is nothing. It exists in the real so long as the Rea' 23. Awakening of Faith -T. Richard, ed. A. H. Walton, London, 1961, p. 55. 24. Ibid-p 60. 25. MSA-IX, 15. 25. Svayam asadapi yad akarena pratibhasate sa bräntih malvat-MVSBT-1. 18. 27, MSA-XI. 13.

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is not knowo. The appearances of subject-object duality is the result of ignorance. This ignorance can be determined to be neither distinct from nor identical with the basic reality. It is, nevertheless, undeniable both ontologically and epistemologically as existent, veritable and valuable in the empirical order of things until the realisation of reality. That means Avid ya being illusory can be described to be peither identical nor different from Reality and really it is not there at all from the view-point of reality. Sull it appears to be there as sometbing other than reality. Illusion cannot be a separate permanent reality. No absolutism will accept any permanent reality other than non-dual reality. Thus, illusion or Māyā must be an appearance; it appears to be veritable and real for all practical
purpose and intents, and to be ceaselessly functioning until the realisation of Reality itself. All the elements of existence are appearance like that of Maya. They can be said to be neither existent nor non-existent, like a magical elepbant produced by a magician. They cannot be called existent because they disappear after the removal of illusion. They cannot be called even non-existent because they exist so long as illusion is there. The most truthful description of the state of things as we experiences in this world of particulars will be to compare it with Māyā as created by the magician making use of whatever objects a man chooses; he makes a variety of phantom creations which appear to the spectators as real and substantial. But just as illusion or Mäyä is neither existent nor non-existent, similarly 1bese elements of existence are also said to be peither existent nor ponexistent,98 All the elements of the universe are thus diverse appearances only. Realisation of Reality (Tattva) is the last milestone or the end of illusion and it results into a disruption of all appearences. But so long as this milestone is not reached the unceasing and diverse modifications of Avidya contioue to hold up appearances further and further, Uotil reali. sation is achieved, it dominates the whole field of our existences and experiences as an irresistable, inexhaustible and un-definable power. Owing to tbis illusion, only the Absolute, non dual pure consciousness appears to have been divided and limited to finite existences.
Asanga advocates the Vijñanapariņāmavāda. He thinks that the phenomenal world is transformation of the pure-consciousness only. The absolute (pure consciousness) transcends everything, but tainted with ignorance, it manifests itself as subject-object duality.29 He analyses this entire process of phenomenalisation of pure consciousness, (which is on 28. Tatha bhāvāt taubā abhāvāt bhāvābhāva višesataḥ, sadasantah atha máyäbhá ye dharma
bhrāptilakşaņāḥ-Commentary : Tayońca bhāvābhāvayoravišiştat vat-santo'pi mäyäpi
caivam lakgaņā, tasmãnmayopamāḥ-MSA-XI. 27. 29. Cittamätrameva dvayapratibhāsamișyate, gcähyapratibhāsam grābaka prátibhāsam ca
-MSA-XI, 34, Com,

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account of ignorance), in the following manner : First of all, owing to the influence of powerful illusion or ignorance it manifests itself as Alayavijñāna -a store-house of creative consciousness. It is the first product of pariņāma, out of pure consciousness which is also known as seed of all phenomena, 50 This store-house of consciousness projects various forms out of it. Because of various impressions (Vasana) left in the Alaya, the ego and the material world, the subject and the object are produded, 81 Alaya Vijñāna is defiled aspect of pure consciousness only. 32 Purification of Citta or consciousness is nothing but becoming free from subject-object dualiiy, created by Alayavijñāna and stopping activity of Alayavijñāna.58 Once this is achieved illusion affecurg pure consciousness fetens out automatically and illusion is no more required to be assumed as an explanatory factor of appearances of our rtality After realisation of reality not only ignorance or illusion is dissipated, but all products of illusion such as subject-object duality, relativity, limitations etc., are also wholly exterminated along with their sustaining appearances. The moment reality is realised, there is neither this illusion nor any appearances, any more.
We have seen that lusion must be accepted, however illusory in its ultimate nature, as explanatory factor of all the appearances of the phenomenal world. Apart from this explanatory nature, it can claim no existence or reality whatsoever. That is why it is held to be both beginningless and terminable. Its origin is not traccable. It is thus called begionipgless. It is beginningless but it can be destroyed by enlightenment or realisation of pure-consciousness. It cannot be said toat what is without beginning is without end as well. The example of seed and tree relation will make this idea very clear. The seed is produced from the tree and ibis tree is from the seed; it is thus not possible to trace out their origin or begioning. But tree or seed can be completely destroyed by some outer causes such as fire, etc. Likewise, ignorance can be destroyed by fire like knowledge of pure consciousness.
It is very important to note that no Vijñānavādin has given a proper answer to the very subtle questions such as why is this ignorance? How is it that non-dual pure consciousness affected by illusion, becomes impure, 8and phenomenalısed ? The why of illusion or ignorance nobody can explain as much as the why of suchness or reality. Suppose 30. Bijam alayavijñānam--MSA-XIX 49-Com. 31. Tatrālayākhyam vijñānam vipakaḥ sarva bijakam-Trimsika-2; Vijñāpitimätratāsid dhi
ed. Svami Mahesvarananda, Pub : Gitadhrmakaryalaya, Varanasi, 1962. 32. MSA-XIX. 51. 33. Bijaparāvrtteh ityalayavijñānaparavrttitah. Padarthadeha nirbhasanam vijñānam
parāvýttirapásravo dbátuh Vimuktiḥ. MSA-XI. 44 Com. 34. Matam ca cittan praktiprabhāsvaram sada tadāgantukadoşadūşitam. MSA-XIII. 18,

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we accept it as an explanatory factor of all appearances, the question why or how it defles the pure Absolute, how the Absolute becomes impure and takes the form of manifold world of phenomena are still upanswered, if its impurity is due to past deeds, then are these deeds free acts of the Absolute ? What makes it to do bad deeds in the beginning? There seems to be no clear-cut answers to all these questions in the Vijñanavāda School of Thought.
This doctrine of illusion is closely connected with the theory of error. It is a commonly accepted misconception that Vijñānavāda upholds the atmakhyāti which means that error is the super-imposition of the form of cognition on the so-called external object, such as I am the Silver.' But this allegation does not apply to Vijñanavada of Asanga and Vasu. bandhu. Asanga, by calling illusion or Bhrāpti as neither existent nor nonexistent, advocates the theory of non-discribability of error.36 His theory of error is very similar 10 anirvacantyākhyāti of the Advaita Vedāptin, even though he does not use the world anirvacaniya. The error is indescribable in the sense that it can be called neither real por unreal. It cannot be called totally unreal because it is there as long as an appearance Jasts. It cannot be real because it is contradicted afterwards when the real is known. Error is true as long as it lasts and becomes unreal only when it is contradicted by higher knowledge, 1.6., after realisation of Reality.
Advaita Vedanta of Sankara also offers theory of illusion to solve the problem of relation between Absolute and phenomena, apparent and the real. Advaita Vedanta, like Vijñāoavāda has faced the same problem because according to it, there is only one pure Absolute Reality, one without a secondes and is the only ontological Reality i.c., 57 Brabman. World is mere apparent reality and ultimately there is no difference between Brahman and individual soul.38 Advaita Vedāntios have faced the problems as to how, from the pure non-dual Brahman the impure world of man and things came into existence, how one appears to many without loosing its pure, non-dual nature, how the real appears as the transistory world ? Sankara, the Advaita stalwart thought that without the assun ption of an extraneous principle, which is already found in socdling form in
35. MSA-XI, 15.29. 36. Ekamevadviti yam-Chandog yopanişad-VI. 11-1, The Principal Upanişads with śan kare.
bháşya-Pub. Motilal Banarasidass, New Delhi, 1978, p. 506. 37. Ekamova hi paramärthasatyam Brahma-Taittiriyopanişad-Brahmanandavalli-6. 38. Brahmasatyam jaganmithya jivo brahmaiva näparah-Brhmajñaodvalimala-Works of
Sankarácārya. Vol. 16-Yanivilas Press, Srirangam, p. 224. N.D, T-13

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the Upanişads, 59 it is not possible to account for the world appearance. There must be admitted some principal or power wbich superimposes the manifold of scnse on the st persenseous Supreme Brahman. This extraneous principle, the Advaitins call Māyā or illusion. This doctrine plays a very vital role in the Advaita philosophy. On this edifice Advaita metaphysics is well established. The Advaitin's analysis of illusion is very subtle and far more satisfactory than that of Vijnanavădins.
The nature of Māya is such that it is neither real por unreal and therefore anirvacapiya 40 i.e., indescribable. It is power of God, indistinguishable from him, just as the burning power of fire is from the fire itself. 1 It is neither real like Brahman nor unreal like son of a barren woman. It is existent but not real like Brahman. It is destroyed by realisation of Brahman. 42 The statement that the world is Maya or mithyt means that it is an appearance of reality in a form which is not its essential and ultimate nature and has no being after the dawn of right knowledge about it. It is to be inferred through its effects by our intellingence.48 It operatos in three ways as positive wrong knowledge, as doubt and as absence of knowledge. Really it cannot do any harm to reality, just as mirage water cannot make the sandy desert muddy. Its function is twofold; it superimposes and conceals (ävaraña) the real nature of the object and shows up in its place some other object, it conceals Brahman and shows up in its place the universe and the world of souls. It not only makes us not apprehend Brahman, but creates some other things in its place. It conceals the Brahman in the sense of preventing the igoorant individual from realising his real nature,
39. (a) Isopanişad-15.
(b) Kathopanişad-I. 24-5. (c) Mundakopnişad--II. 1. 10. (d) Chandog yopanişad-I, 1, 10. VI. I-4. (6) Prasnopanişad-I, 16. (f) Svetaśvataropanişad-1, 10, IV, 9.10. The Principal Upanişads with Sankarabhāşya. Pub: Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi,
1978. 40, Vivekacūdāmani-III, Works of Sankarācārya, Vol-14, Pub. Vani Vilas Press,
Srirangam, p-21, 22. 41. Brahmasü trasařkarabhāşya (BSB)-I. IV. 14. with Ratnaprabhā, Bhāmati and
Anandagiri Vyākhyā, ed; Mahadeva Shastri Bakre, Pub. Nirnayasagar Press,
Bombay, 1909, 42. Jñate dvaitam na vidyate-Mândükyakárikā, Agamaprakarana-78, The Principal
Upanigads with San karabhagya p. p. 191, 43, Karyānumeyā-Vivekacūdāmani-110, p. 21,

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just as a patch of cloud conceals the sun by preventing a person from perceiving the sun. 44 Though it is the creative power of God, it does not affect God, just as magician is unaffected by his own magical power. 4 $ We can only say that Brahman appears as the world; even Sankara aptly remarks that Mayā or nescience is co-evel with life. We do not know how or when we got into it. Nobody walks into illusion consciously. We can only know how to get out of it. It is the result of a false identification of the Real and the unreal. It is the nature of man's experience. 47 But without Maya no human activity is possible. All intellectual, religious moral and social activities presuppose Māyā. Every one of our activities is the work of Mayā.48 The world is product of Māya. The world itself is Māyā in the sense that it is only apparent. It is real for practical purposes, but vanishes after the realisation of Brahman. The word Mays of Mithya is used in Advaita Vedānta to emphasize the ultimate unreality of the world. It is real so far as empirical life is concerned but becomes sublated when knowledge dawns. But so long as we are in this world. we cannot take it to be unreal. 49 .
Both Vijñānavāda and Advaita Vedanta advocate anirvacanıyakhyati i.e.. non-describability of error. For both, Reality is non-dual, puro consciousness which is direct, immediate and self-luminous and is the transcendental background of the world of phenomana which is its appearance due to the power of beginningless ignorance. But the differ. ence between Vijñīnavada view-point and Advaita view-point is that in Vijñānavada, the Reality is affected and defiled by illusion and tranforms into the phenomenal world while in Advaita the Absolute Reality-Brahman is unaffected, neutral and is not subject to transformation. The world is Vivarta of Brahman,50 This world is superimposed on Brahman by illusion as snake is superimposed on the rope, silver op shell etc. Illusion consists in mistaking the given for something else, In the statement this is a snake, rope is mistaken for a snake. But this rope must be there as the substratum of snake appearance. Though rope appears as a snake, it is unaffected by soake appearance. Similarly, Brahman
44. Ghanacchanadraştil ghanacchannamarkam yathä nişprabham manyate catimüdhah. 45. Yathā svayam prasaritamāyayā māyāyi trişvapi kāleşu na samspraśyate avastutatvät,
evem paramātmäpi samsäramāyaya na samspraśyata iti-BSB-111.9. 46. Rajvä iva sarpädibhävena iti-Ibid III. 9. 47. Satyäorte mithunikstya ahamidam, mamedam iti gaisar gika ayam loka vyavahärah
Ibid-Adhyāsabhasya-p. 9-10. 48. Avidyāvat venai va jivasya sarvah vyavahäral santato vartate-BSB-I.IV. 3. 49. BSB-II.I. 11. 50. Vivarta yasyaire-Bhāmati-Verse-1, BSB-p. 1.

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is mistaken as this phenomenal world, i. e. Brahman is the substratum for this world appearance. But Brahman is neutral and unaffected by any type of illusory power.s1 Illusion does not affect the Absolute while in Vijñāpavada as opposed to Advaita Vedānta, tbe Reality itself is affe. cted by illusion. The phenomena is defiled aspect of Reality. It is only after removal of ignorance that its phenomenalised aspect will no more be there. It shines in its pristine glory only after the destruction of illusion. But the question how it is affected by illusion still remains to be answered,
$1. BSB-Adhyasabhasyam, p. 7-).

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11
CONCEPTION OF REALITY IN MAHAYANA BUDDHISM
Buddbism has produced outstanding Philosopbical personalities who made substantial contributions not only to Indian Pbilosophy but to the world thought.
Gautama, toe Buddha, who was founder father of this School. has not built any particular sect or school of thought. He was not much concerned about metaphysical problems, such as existence of self,' nature of the world and Reality' etc. In fact he had warned against metaphysics. He has emphasised on the moral aspects of human conduct; his approach was mainly ethical. He was not interested in establishing any pbilosopbicai system as such, But his followers, taking inspiration from his teachiogs became divided on the grounds of metaphysics and established many Philosophical Systems.
Buddhism is divided into two important sects, Viz., Hina yāná (lower vehicle) and Mahayana (greater vehicle). Vaibhāșika (Sarvästivado), Sautrantika, Madhyam iko (Sünyāvada) and Vijñānavāda (Yogacāra) are the four famous schools in the history of Buddhism. The first two belong to Hinayāpa and the other two to Mahayāna. Vaibhāșika School is so called because this school gives more importance to the commentaries called Mahavibhāṣā and Vibhaşā on Abhidharma treatise. They are also called as Sarvästivādins, because they believe in existence of all things (sarvamasti). physical as well as mental. This school is radial pluralism erected on the depial of Soul-Substance (Pudgalanairatmya) and the acceptance of discrete momentary entities. According to this school, everything is momentary, there is nothing human or divine, that is permanent. For these philosophes seventy five dharmas are the ultimate elements of existence, wbich are momoptary and yet real. Vaibhaşikas believe in theory of direct perception (bahyapratyakşavāda). These thinkers argue that there is no permanent Reality as such and thus realisation (Nirvana) is also not realising some. thing permanent spiritual entity but extinction of all desires, passions and miseries.
The Saufrântikas, (the followers of Sutrapiļaka) uphold most of the doctrines of Vaibhāșika school, such as non-soul theory, doctrine of momentariness and liberation as mere extinction of miseries, etc. But according to these Philosophers external objects are not directly perceived

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as Vaibhāșikas believe, but only indirectly inferred (bah yānuine ya). They admit the extramental existence of the world. We do not know the thing in itself. We can only know ideas which are copies or mental pictures and from these copies we inter the existence of the originals. Thinkers of this school of Hina yūna, cut down the numbers of seventy five dharinas (i.e. elements of existence) of the Vaibhāsika to forty three and treat the rest as subjective or mental construction and hence unrcal.
These two schools of Hinayina are the upholders of theory of momentariness. (Kşanabhangavāda). The ultimate aim of these two schools of Hinayāna is attaioment of individual Nirvāņa (liberation) which is negative (i.e. extinction of miseries).
Mahāyāna is revolt against the feeble mindedness and selfishness of the Hina yāna Buddhists. The Mahasanghikas revolted against the Sthavira's narrow interpretation of Buddha's teachings. They have interpreted them in a broader sense. To show greatness or superiority of their system, practice and conduct, they coined the term Mahāyina (the great vehicle) and dubbed Sthavira's (olders') view as Hina yana (lower vehicle).
Ašvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Asanga and Vasubandhu are the first rank thinkers of the Mahāyāna Buddhism. All these Philosophers unanimously criticised the Hinayānists for not understanding the deepest meaning of Buddha's teachings.
Ašvaghoşa (circa 1st A.D.) is the Chief exponent of Mahāyāna Budd. hism. His Mabāyānasraddhotpadašāstra ( The Awakening of Faith)1 plays very important role in the development of Mahāyāna Buddhism. All the important principles of latter schools are found in this work, though not in a full fledged form. The special contribution of this work of Ašvaghoşa to latter schools of Mahayāna is its absolutistic approach towards reality.
Ašvaghoşa declares in clear terms that Hinayānists being feeble minded are unable to grasp the deeper meaning of Buddha's teachings about Reality and his aim is to unfold fundamental teachings of the master as against the errors of the Hinayānists. As against the Honayänists, who have maintained the elements of existence (dharmas ) as real entities, ho defines Reality as 'that which is ultimately indescribable beyond all the categories of intellect and hence it cannot be said neither existence for non-existence, nor both, nor neither, neither one or mor many neither affirmation nor negation. It is formeless. Once we penetrate beyond 1. (a) The Awakening of Faith by D. T. Suzuki, Chikago, 1900. 2. (b) The Awakening of Faith by T. Richard, ed. A. H. Walton, London, 1961. 2. Awakenin of Faith by D. T. Suzuks, P. 47. 3. Ibid., P. 59.

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103 fornis, it is discovered that all the different forms of the univerce are not rcal differences of the soul at all, but different manifestations of One Real Power', hence it has always been impossible to speak adequately, to name correctly or to think correctly of this One Soul, the real essence of things, which is unchangable and indestructible. We therefore name it the True Essence or the True likeness' or the 'True Reality'. 4
Ašvaghosa like Upanişadic thinkers believes that this reality is essence of all things and originally anly one. This Reality has no attribute and it can only be somehow pointed out in speech as Thatness'. Discribing the relation between this Absolute Reality and Phenomena (world), Asvaghoșa, declares that they are not two different realities posited against each other. In the ultimate analysis they both are one and the same. Phenomena is nothing but appearance of Reality, Absolute has two aspects viz. conditioned and un conditioned. The un-conditioned Absolute tainted with ignorance manifests itself as a conditioned suchpess. This phenomenal world of subject-object duality is the result of this conditioned suchness. Absolut itself owing to inffiuence of ignorance appears as this manifold world of Phenomena. The relation between them is like that of the ocean to its waves. Ašvaghoşa says that "just as calm waters of the ocean on account of wind, appear as waves, so does consciousness on account of ignorance appcars as finite intellect. Just as clay is transformed into various kinds of pottery.one consciousness manifests itself as so many finite intellects. The Absolute is non-dual but the phenomenal world of objects is appearance or illusory. This manifold world of Phenomena arises on account of ignorance. Ignorance is cause for all such confusion. This ignoraaco colours the true Reality in the finite mind. As there is an influence at work there arise false im perfect ideas. Ašvagaosa, "beautifully illustrates the influence of ignorance in the following manner "clothes have no scent but if any one smoked them with incense, the clothes would then be perfumed like the incense, so it is with influences. The True Reality is pure and has really no confusion colouring it, but ignorance in man colours his views, so there is confused state", 7 Asvaghosa accepts two kinds of truth, one conditioned by ignorance (empirical) and the othor uncondi. tioned (transcendental) which is free from impurities caused by ignorance. Purified conditioned suchness is un conditioned suchoess. Really speaking ultimately, there is no difference between Absolute and phenomena. Phenomena arise from false notions of the mind. If the mind is independent of these false ideas then phenomena disappear. When truc knowledge 4. Awakening of Faith by T. Rechard, Pp. 46-47. 5. Ibid., P. 56. 6. Ibid., pp. 51, 54. 7. Ibid., P. 59.

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Traverses on less trodden path... dawns, we realise that we are no more tioite things but absolute suchness. This is the self existent, immortal Reality, Calm and Blissful, which must be realised 8
This absolutistic way of thinking of Ašvaghosa, remarkably influenced the later thinkers of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Inspired by the utterness of Ašvaghoşa, some of the Mabāyānists emphasised the negative aspect and other positive and therby established their own schools of thought within the Mahāvāna school, known as Sünyavāda (Madhyamika) and Vijñānavada (Yogācāra) respectively.
Nāgārjuna (2nd A.D.) is a systematic expounder of Sünyavada (Madhyamika) Buddhism. He refuted the Hinayānists on the basis of of dialectics, Hirayānist denied only Fudgala (existence of self) but accepted the substantiality of dharmas (elements). For them dharmas exist objectively and independently. For Nagarjuna there is nothing which exists obsolutely and objectively. Everything that exists is relative, dependent and thus, unreal. Dharmas of the Hinayāpists are subiective and unreal, Nāgārjuna argues that if a thing were objective and real, it would be able to exist by itself, it must not be in need of being understood through something else.. But nothing is found in thought which is not relative, everything is relative to everything else. Relativity is the mark of the unreal, of the subject. For Nāgārjuna, our entire expesience is purely subjective: things have only an apparent existence (samurti) in reality. They are imaginary and unreal, Entire phenomenal world is unreal. He interpretes pralityasamutpada (Dependent origination) in terms of relativity and proves the dependent unreal nature of all elements. He says that there is no real independent existence of entities (prat yaya), 10 since, there is no elements of existence (dharma) which comes into manifestation without conditions, therefore there is no dharma which is not Sünya ic. devoid of real independent existence.11 Thus Phenomenal objects are unreal. The ground of phenomena can never be met within reason as reason by its very nature leads to insoluble antinomies. He, thus, comes 10 the conclusion that the Absolute Reality is Sūnya. It is Šunya in the sense that it is transcendent to thought, it is indescribable, non-determipate and non-dual (advayam tattvam). It is neither subject nor object. It is free from this duality. Subject-object duality indicates relativity and whatever is relative, dependent is unreal. He adopts more negative approach and says that this Reality is indescribable and it cannot even be equated with pure consciousness. 8. Śäntar sivam kşaumapadam acyutam țat. Saundarananda, verse 26-27. 9. Madhyamaka-kārinā (M.K.)-X-10. . 10. Na hi svabhūvo bhāvānām pratyayādişu vidyate.--M.K.-1-5. 11. Apratitya samutpanno dharmo kaścana vidyate.
Yasmāt tasmät aśünyo hi dbarmo kascana vidy ate.--M.K, XXIV-9.

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Nagarjuna defines Reality as 'that which can only be directly realised, that which is quiescent, inexpressible, that which is non-discursive and non-dual.19 For him, Reality is indescribable, non-determinate thus it is Sunya. When he says that reality is Sünya. his idea is not different from that of Asvaghosa. Reality is Sunya in the sense of non-describability, free from all empirical predicates. The word Sunya is understood in two senses in Nagarjuna's system. Firstly, it is Sunya from the point of view of phenomena. It means Srabhāvaśünya, i.e. devoid of independent substa. ntial reality of its own. Secondly, from the absolute point of view, it means Frapancaśunya i.e. devoid of verbalization, thought construction and plurality. It is indescribable in human language. It is transcendent to thought. It does not mean absolute blank. Nagarjuna makes it very clear by saying that it cannot be called void or not void, or both or neither, but in order to indicate it, it is called void.13 His stand is more negative than that of Agvaghosa. He emphasizes the transcendental aspect of the Absolute. His dialectical approach does not allow him to identify this Absolute with even pure consciousness.
Nagarjuna, while speaking about the relation between Absolute Reality and phenomenal world, says that the universe viewed as a whole is the Absolute, viewed as a process, it is the phenomenal world. In other words, the same thing when it is viewed through the glasses of causality is phenomenal world and when causality is discarded it is the Absolute or Nirvana. 14 Really there is no difference between Phenomena (Samsara) and Noumena (Nirvana;.15 He criticises Hinayänist's conception of Nirvana (liberation) which can be attained only by realising pudgalaniratmaya (soullessness). He says that Nirvana is not merely extinction of miseries but, it is the extinction of all conceptions of our productive imagination. It is beyond all categories of thought, it cannot be defined. Nirvana is giving up all views, stand points and predicaments. 10 For Nagarjuna there are two levels from which truth may be envisaged-the paramartha ard samvrti, the absolute and relative, the transcendental and the empirical. He says that the teachings of Buddha are based on two 12. Aparapratyayam Santam prapañcairprapancitam.
Nirvikalpamanānārtham etat tattvasya lakṣaṇam.--M.K.-XXII-11.
13. Śūnyamiti na vaktavyam aśūnyamiti va bhavet.
Ubhayam no' bhayam ceti prajñaptyartham tu kathyate.--M.K.-XXII-II.
14. Ya ajava n javibhāva upādāya pratītya vā,
So pratityänupādāya nirvāṇamupadeśyate.-M.K. XXV-9.
15. Na şamsarasya nirvaṇādasti kiñcidviseṣaṇam,
Na nirvanasya samsäradasti kiñcidviseṣaṇam.-M. K. XXII-19.
16. Muktistu sunyatadṛṣṭeḥ tadarthaseṣabhāvanā,
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kinds of truth, viz., the empirical and the transcendental. 17 These two kinds of truth, are accepted by the Hinayānists also.18 But according to Nāgarjuna, Hinayānists have misunderstood these two kinds of truth. He severely criticises the so called truths of the Hinayänists, viz., dhātus, ayatanas, skandhas, aryasattyas, etc,, as matters of conventional, empirical and ultimately they are not truth at all. Paramartha satya is the truth relating to the Absolute Reality, that which is beyond all categories of thought. Samvṛti satya is the Pseudo-truth which relates to the world of Phenomena that which is concerned with empirical usage (loka vyavahāra). This distinction between the empirical, and the transcendental which is epistemic does not. however, import a difference into Reality. The Real is one and non-dual, beyond the categories of thought and can directly realised. 10
only be
Shortly after Nagarjuna some among the Mahāyānists who were not satisfied with the negative approach of Nagarjuna, adopted revolutionary way of thinking. They have started thinking in positive manner calling the Absolute Reality as pure consciousness. They have accepted the theory of Sunya of Nagarjuna and interpreted it in an idealistic manner. Pure consciousness is sole Reality for them and it is Sunya. This pure consciousness is free from subject-object duality, non-dual and indescribable in terms of human language.
Asanga (circa 270-350 A.D.) is one of the great thinkers who raised voice against Nagarjuna's doctrine and propagated Vijñānavāda. He is a very prominent and dominating thinker in the lines of VijñānavādaBuddhists. He agrees with Nagarjuna in criticising the Hinayānists by saying that not only pudgala (self) is non-substantial but all the dharmas (elements) are also non-substantial and unreal. Everything is appearance and unreal ultimately. Pure consciousness is the sole Reality and it is one only. He questions the very foundation of Sauträntika's logic that if Vaibhāṣika's seventy-five real dharmas can be reduced into forty-three rejecting others as subjective and unreal, why not on the basis of same logic other dharmas are also be discarded? Other ones also can be turned as subjective and unreal on the basis of same logic. On the basis of theory of causation, i.e., dependent origination (Pratityasamutpada, he proves the unreality of dharmas (elements). 90 He, thus, proclaims
17. Dve satye samupaśritya buddhanam dharmadeśanā.
Lokasamvṛti satyam ca satyam ca paramarthataḥ.-M.K. XXIV-8.
18. Kathāvastu, pp. 31-38.
19. M.K,-XVIII-9.
20. Mahāyāncsutralankara. XVIII-82, Commentary.

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pudgalanair atmya as well as dharmanairāim va. This criticism of realism of Hinayaoist led him to accept idealism. He accepts ideal Reality, i.e., pure consciousness.
Asanga's main attack against Nāgārjuna is his extremism. As far as the conception of Reality is concerned, he differs from Nāgārjuna. For Nagarjuna, we have already seen that, Reality is indescribable, transcendental and cannot even be called as pure consciousness, Asanga, a speculative thinker, is not satisfied with such type of negative attitude of Nāgārjuna. He identifies this Absolute with pure consciousness which is also free from subject object duality, indescribable, beyond determination of thought categories and non-dual, He is not ready to accept the claim of Nāgārjuna that phenomenal world is merely conceptual and lacks any basis. His aim was to reach the ground of phenomena, the apparent world, Unlike the Madhyamika he thought that phenomena though unreal, must be rooted in some reality. There must be some basis for this worldly appearence. It must not be baseless. Asarga, thinking on this line, came to the conclusion, that the base or the ground for this phenomenal world is nothing but pure consciousness. Consciousness itself appears as subject -object duality, this appearance is on account of transcendental illusion, The appearance of a form of consciousness as something objective and independent is illusary. But that wbich is ground for this appearance is real, it is the Reality, i.c., Pure consciousness.
Asauga's view is not only idealism but it is Absolutism. He was aware that mere idealistic position will not be the final goal for specula. tive system'. Nāgārjuna has already shown through his rigorous logic that Absolutism can only be reached through dialectical apdroach. Nāgārjuna has mentioned that the subject and the object are relative dependent and thus unreal. The subject and the object both are corelative categories and that one cannot be had without the other. Consciousness without an object is un-thinkable. Thus, Reality cannot be called as Pure Consciousness. The Reality is above all these thought cate gories and inexpressible. For Asanga, Consciousness is the only Reality, true existence. This is idealistic standpoint. Reality is ideal and it is pure consciousness. But he does not stop here. For him, from the ultimate standpoint, pure subject ceases to be subject. It becomes something non conceptual.s 1 This dialectical awareness compelled him to transcend his idealism to Absolutism. Adopting Nāgārjupa's dialectic method, he came to the conclusion that ultimate Reality, i.e., Pure Consciousness is something that cannot be called as a subject in the ultimate analysis. Owing to influence of transcendental illusion, conscious. ness itself appears as the subject and the object. The objectivity is only 21. Grāhyagrāhakabhāvena nirūpayitumasakyatvat.--M.S.A., p. 182.

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mode of consciousness. When this illusory idea of objectivity is removed the subject-consciousness also ceases to exist. When there is nothing to know, consciousness also ceases to exist. 2 At the transcendental level pure consciousness alone exists. This is ultimate Reality, the essence of everything. Consciousness free from the false duality of subject and object is the Absolute.
Asanga defines Absolute Reality (Tativa) as 'That which is free from duality; ground for illusion, is describable and non-determinate'.83 It is called dvajarahita (free from duality) because in it there is no room for subject and object, positive and negative. The highest Reality transcends all opposites and in it, the positives and negatives are one and the same. 24 Reality is indescribable and non-determinate.a 5 It is indescribable because words are not capable of describing it. It is non-determinate, beyond all thought descriminations. Thought descriminations imply duality. Duality is ignorance and it is uoreal but Reality is non-dual, free from all types of duality. It is beyond the grasp of intellect. Reason or intellect has its own limit. The reason cannot lead us to Realisy. 86 It cannot be described positively or negatively. It is Self existent (sat) and non-relative. Thought categories are emperical. Thought cannot go beyond these categories of existence and non-existence. Reality cannot be conceived by any thought category. A sauga, therefore, denies the positive as well as negative predicates to Reality by saying that "rise above the categories of thought-existence and non existence, as both or neither is Reality.21
Asanga calls this Absoluse Reality in different terms such as Paramā. rthasat ya (the highest truth), Dharmadhatu (essence of all things), Śünya, ( beyond thought determination ), Buddhatva (Buddhahood ), Nirvana (Liberation), Suddhatian (Pure Soul) and Mahatman (Universal Soul).
Asanga identifies highest Reality with Paramarthasatya saying that, highest truth is that which is neither such nor otherwise, neither born, nor destroyed, neither increase nor decrease, neither pure nor impure. 28 Reality is also called as Dharmadhatu, i.e., essence of alt elements. It is substratum of all phenomena, the permanent background of world of
22. Grahyabhave grāhakabhāvāt.-M.S.A.-VI-8. Commentary. 23. Satyam yat satatam dvayena rabitam bhräntesca sanniśrayah, sakyam naiva ca
sarvathabhilapitumyaccaprapancatmakam.-M.S.A, XI-13. 2, Bbāvābhāvasamāpatā-M.S.A.-VI-41. 25. Anabhilapyamaprapañcatmakam ca parinişpannasvabhävah.--MS A.-XI-13. Comm, 26. Ato na tarkasya tadvişayaḥ.-M.S.A-I-12. Commentary. 27. Na bhävo napi cabhävo buddhatvam tena kathyate,--M.S.A.-IX-24. 28. Na sat na casat na tatha na canyatha, na jayate na vyeti na cavahiyate,
Da vardhate nāpi visudhyate tat paramärtbalaksanam.-M.S.A.-VI-!.

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phenomena. It is the principle of unity underlying the entire phenominal world. It is essentially identical with all elements and yet cannot be defined in terms of any elements, it transcends all of them. It is like ūkaša (sky) which pervades everything and is affected by nothing.30 The word Śünya' is used for Reality to indicate indeterminate nature of Reality in terms of subject-object duality. The Reality by its very nature has no characteristic of its own to describe it.81 It is also called 'Suddha. imon and Mahātman. He says that realising the non-substantiality of ego and that of elements, understanding the real meaning of Sün yarā, the enlightened ones transcend the individual existence and realise pure Soul (Suddhātman) and became one with that universal Soul.52 It is also identified with Nirvana (Liberation).83 Nirvana is nothing but realising Dharmadhātu i.e. the essence of everything. For Asanga, everything is in essence, the same as Dharmadhāju. Nirvāņa neans realisation of this potentiality.
Asanga thought that, Nāgärjuna emphasising the transcendental aspect of the Absolute failed to show the proper relation between Absolute and Phenomena. It is true that Nāgārjuna accepted the Dharmadhāru as the underlying ground of phenomena and did not treat it as an entity separate from the Phenomenal World. But, he did not make clear how this Dharmadharu or Absolute, immanent in empirical experience constitutes the very soul of all things. Asanga, to show the relation between the Absolute and phenomena speaks of double process of the Absolute, viz. defilement and purification (Sanklesa and Vyavadana). Phenomenal world is defiled aspect of the Absoluie only. He believes in certain kind of parıņāmavāda (theory of transformation). Owing to powerful influence of ignorance, the Absolute becomes defiled and transformes itself into phenomenal world. But this defilment is not a permanent feature of the Absolute. It is foreign to it. Therefore, it can be purified by realising pure consciousness. Really, Phenomena are not different from the Absolute. The relation between tham is like that of pure and muddy water. The water is the same whether, it is muddy or pure. Pure water is the muddy water from which the mud is removed. Similarly Reality is nothing but the world from which subject-object duality is removed, 34 The things
29. Sarvadharmasca buddhaivam dharmo najvaca kaścana.-M S.A. IX-4. 30. Yathambaram sarvagatam sadāmatan tathaiva tat sarvagatam sadamatam.
M.S.A,-18-15. 31. lbid.-XIV-34. 32. Buddhah suddhät malabhitvat gatá almamahatmatāın.--M.S.A;-1X-25. 33. Ibid. -- IX-17; XVIII-66. 34. Yathaiva toye luthite prasadite no jayate sa punaraccbatänyatak.
Malapakarsastu sa tatra kevalah svacittasuddbau vidhiresa eva hi.-M.S.A.-XII-19.

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of the manifold world are taken to be real by common men. 83 They think that the phenomenal world exists independently by its own. To remove this misunderstanding, Asanga like his previous thinkers, says tbat it is wrong to think that there is a difference between Naumena and Phenomena, Nirvana and Samsāra, apparent and the real. They are not two different realities posited against each other. Reality, viewed as dependent, relative as governed by causes and conditions, constitute the world (samsāra) and ine Pnenomenal world viewed as free from all conditions is the Absolute. 36 Ahe Absolute is the only real, it is identical with Phenomena. Reality lies at the very heart of Phenomenal world. It is identical wiih Phenomena in the sense that it is the basis or ground and inner most essence of all phenomenal things. Absolute is in phenomena as essence of it but is itself not Phenomena. It transcends phenomena. It is basic conception in the philosophy of Asanga that Dharmadhālu, the non-determinate Reality is the ground of the determinate entities of the Phenomenal world. This non-determinate Reality is only the ultimate nature of the determinate phenomenal entities and not other entity apart from them. Thus, that the absolute transcends phenomena does not mean that it is another reality which lies outside the world of Phenomena. There are no two sets of the real. The Absolute is the reality of the apparent phenomena and it is their nature,
Nāgārjuna, emphasising transcendental aspect of Reality, categories the whole Phenomenal existence as samvști (empirical) Satya and does not analyse the empirical experiences in derail.3" Asanga, being a great speculative thinker is not ready to accept Nāgārjuna's extreme view of bringing all Phenomenal of empirical experiences under one category i.c. under Samıļlisatia. He tried to give constructive theory of phenomena advocating three kinds of truth unlike the Nagarjuna's doctrine of two truths. The Samystisaiya of Nāgārjuna is divided into parikalpita (imagi. ned and paratantra (dependent) and Paramärıha-Satya of the Nāgārjuna is also called Parinişpanna. According to Asanga, even in the phenomenal level, there are two kinds of experiences, one is utterly unreal or illusory and other is dependent, real for all practical purposes. Parikal pita 88 and paratanıras 9 are related to worldly things while Parinis panna is
35. Tattvam sañchädya bäläpän atattvam khyati sarvatal-Ibid.-XIX-53. 36. Na cintaram kiñcana vidyate anayoh-Ibid. -VI-S. 37. His followers (Āryadeva and Candrakiti) divided sarvilisatya into two types,
viz. Tathyasarnvști and mithyasamviti. 38. MS A XI-13, 39. 39. Ibid, XI-10,

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related to highest truth, Nirvana were all klesas and imagination cease to exist.40
Vasubandhu, Younger brother of Asanga, Upholds the Asanga's view. He describes the Absolute Reality as Pure, undefiled existence which is beyond finite thought, the Good, the Eternal and Blissful. It is liberation, it is Buddha's body of pure existence. It transcends the category of thought as well as the plurality of Phenomenal world. 41 This Phenomenal world is transformation of Vijnana only.49
It is clear from conception of Reality of Mahayanists that, they took very much pain to prove that the Absolute is indescribable and non-determinate. It cannot be described positively or negatively. It is neither existence nor non-existence, neither both nor-neither. It cannot be called existence (bhava) because it is not subject to origin, decay and death. There is no empirical existence which is free from origin, decay and death. Empirical existence arises from causes and conditions. Everything that which arises from causes and conditions is necessarily, unreal. Whatever is produced by cause and condition has beginning, decay and destruction. Reality is uncaused and unconditioned, hence it cannot be called as an existence. It cannot be called as non-existence also because the nonexistence (abhāva) is a relative concept depending upon concept of bhāva (existence). Disappearance of bhava is known as abhava (non-existence). To call it being or non-being (bhāva or abhāva) is thus absolutely wrong.
Reality cannot be called both existence and non-existence at the same time because these are contradictory terms and cannot be applied to the same thing at the same time, as light and darkness cannot remain at the same time and at the same place. If it is both existence and non-existence it will not remain un-caused and unconditioned because both are depen. dent upon causality. But Reality is above causality. It is not dependent on any other thing for its existence. It is Self existent (sat). Reality cannot be caught in the trap of reason. It is catuşkotivinirmukta i.e. 'is' and 'is not' and both is and is not, and neither is nor is not'.
Mahāyānists, show how Hinayänist's conception that, dharmas (discrete elements of existence) are momentary and yet real, is bundle of controdictions. Hinayānists denied only the Pudgala (impermanence of self) and accepted discrete elements are real entities. Mahāyānists, adopting dialectic method severely attacked the Hinayänists by saying that these being lower 40. Vikalopašam arthaḥ śantarthaḥ parinispannalakṣaṇam nirväṇam,-Ibid-XVIII-81, comm. 41. Sa evänäsravodhatuḥ acintyaḥ kuśalo dhruvaḥ.
Sukho vimuktikayo asau dharmakhyo ayam mahāmuhneḥ-Vrimsikā-30. 42- Atmadharmopacaro hi vivid ho yaḥ pravartate,
vijñānapariņāmo asau..

-Ibid -1.

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intellectuals, cannot see even impermanence of dharmas, existence of all elements dharmanairātmya). Without realisation of both i.e. pudgalaniratmya (non-substantiality of soul) and dharmanairālmya (non-substantiality of all elements) it is not possible to reach the state of Nirvana. Again, Nirvana is not something which can be gained or achieved as Hinayapists believe. There is no difference between Nirvana and Samsāra ultimately. Nirvāņa is not merely annibilation or extinction of misery but it is realisation of tbe germ of Buddhahood which is within one's own heart. It is nothing new but transcending the subject-object duality a d giving up the all stand points,
We have seen that, Mabāyānists describe Reality in positive as well as in negative terms like Upanişidic thinkers. Nāgārjuna emphasised the negative aspect of it, while Vijñānavādıns describe Reality in positive as well as in negative terms.

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12
UPANIŞADIC INFLUENCE ON MAHĀYĀNASŪTRĀLANKĀRA
The Upanişads indeed occupy a unique place in the development of Indian thought. The secds of almost all the systems of Indian philosophy are to be found in the Upanişads. The Upanişads are the original source of Indian philosophy as a whole. They can be termed as Himalayas of Indian philosophy. Just as different rivers having origin in the Himalayas flow in different directions; similarly, all the schools of Indian thought including Cārvāka, Buddhism and Jainism have their roots in and, are influenced by Upanişadic philosophy. Upanişads are regarded as the fountain-head of different schools of Indian pbilosophy. Dr. R. D. Ranade rightly pointed out that the Upanişads supply us with various principles of thought and may tbus be called the Berecynthia of all the later systems of Indian philosophy. Just like a mountain which from its various sides gives birth to rivers which run in different directions, the Upanişads also constitute that lofty eminence of philosophy wbich from its various sides give birth to rivulets of thoughts which as they progress towards the sea of life, gather strength by the inflow of inumerable tributaries of speculation which intermittently join these rivulets, so as to make a huge expanse of waters at the place where they meet the ocean of life. There are many direct and indirect evidences to prove that Buddhism has its roots in the Upanişads. Buddha's utterances about Reality such as unborn, unmade, non-becoming and uncompounded, 2 and the word immortality8 etc., show that his conception of Reality is the same as that of the Upanişadic thinkers. In the Martavilāsaprahasana' written by King Mahendra Vikramavarma (7th C. A.D.) we find a statement of a Kapalika saying that in the matter of thieving the Buddha was a greater hand than Khara pața (the promulgator of the science of theft) as he has built his Pitakas and Koşas with the things stolen from
1. Ranade, R. D.: A Constructive Survey of Upanişadic Philosopby. Pub : Bharatiya
vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 1968, p. 131. 2, Ajätam, akstam, abhūtam, asamskptam. Udána. 3. Amộtamadhigatam.-Vinayapițaka, Mahāvagga, 1.1.7.
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the Upanisads and the Mahabharata. This statement may be an exaggerated one but it throws some light on upanişadic influence on Buddhism. Most of the Mahāyānists were learned Brahmins before conversion to Buddhism. It is, thus, not surprising, if these philosophers, viz., Madhyamikas and Vijäānavādins brought Buddhism closer to the Upanişadic thought. Buddhism undoubtedly owed a great deal to Upani şads and influenced in its turn the later Vedāntic school.
We are here, mainly concerned with Asanga's Mahāyānasūtralankära and Upanişadic influence on it. Mahāyānasūtrālankara is one of the most important works on Mahāyāna Buddhism. This work represents Vijñänavada school of thought, Here, the author has discussed almost all the topics of Buddhism. la fact this work is a landmark in the development of Mahayāna Buddhism. We can see tremendous influence of Upanişadic thought on it. We can see clearly Upanişadic influence on his conception of the Absolute and phenomena, theory of ignorance, doctrine of truth, the conception of Moksa or Nirvana ( liberation ), on the doctrine of Bodhisattva and the disciplines. When we talk of Upanișadic jofluence on Asanga, we have to keep in our mind that it is ideological influence rather than terminological. Now let us see how Upanişadic thinkers describ: the Absolute and how Asanga has been jofluenced by that conception.
We are told in the Mandukya Upanişad that the Supreme Reality is that which cannot be seen, which cannot be described, which cannot be grasped, which has po distinct marks, which cannot be thought, which cannot be designated, that of which the essence is the knowledge of the oneness of the self, that in which the world ceases to cxist, the peaceful, the benign, the non-dual.5 Katha Upanışad tells us that the Reality is neither born nor does it die. It is unborn, eternal, everlasting and primeval. 6 Again, it is said in the same Upanişad that the Reality can not be reached by speech, by mind, and by sight." This knowledge of Reality cannot be obtained simply by argument of reason.8 Brahman
4. Kbarapatādapyasmim adbikāre Buddha eva adhikah-kutah : vedāptebhyo grahitvār
tbūo yo mahābharatadapi. Viprūņām mişatāmeva krtavān koşasañcayam, Matcavila
saprahasana . ed. by T. Ganapathy Shastri (1917) p. 15. 5. Adrøyam, avyavahāryam, agrāhyam. alakşaņam. acintyam, ekātmapratyayasäram,
prapañcopaśamam, säntam, sivamadvaitam. Mänd. Up. 7. I šādi astottara atopanişad,
ed. Vasudev Sharamapanasikar, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay, 1917. 6. Na jayate mariyate vă vipaścionāyam kutaścinda babhuva kaścit. Ajo nityah
Säśvatoyām puränah. Kațh. Up. I-II-18. 7. Naiva vaca na mapasă prăptum Sakyo na cakşusa. Kath. Up. II-VI-12, 8. Naisā tarkena matiräpaneya. Kath. Up. I-IT-9.

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or the Absolute is that from which all speech within the mind turos away unable to reach it.9 Brhadaranyaka Upanisad declares that the Atman (Reality) can only be described by 'not this', 'not this'. He is incomprehensible for he can never be comprehended. He is indestructible. He is unattached for he does not attach himself. He is unfettered. He does not suffer. 10 The intended meaning of this statement is that the Absolute is characterless and indefinable. That which may be predicated of it falls outside of it and thus fails to define it. The Absolute is described in positive terms also. Taittiriya Upadişad describes it as *Existence, Consciousness and Infinity 11 Reality is eternal, all pervading, omnipresent and extremely subtle. 13 We are also told in the Bộbadāraṇyaka that this great Being infinite and boundless is only a mass of consciousness. 13 This consciousness itself is Absolute. 14 Emphasising knowledge, the Katha Upanişad states that by his light all this is illumined.15 Mundaka also tells us that he who knows Supreme Brahman becomes Brahman bimself.16 In Taittiriya Upanişad also it is said that the knower of Brahman reaches the Supreme, 17
Asanga in his Mahayānasūtrālankara, describes Reality in positive as well as in negative terms like the Upanaşadic thinkers. It is non-dual, inexpressible and indeterminate. 18 It is neither exsstence nor non-existence, nor both nor neither. 19 It cannot be obtained by reason or logic. 20 It is neither production nor destruction.a1 It is unimaginable, immeasurable and all pervading. It is pure self-luminous conscious. ness. 28 It is the universal soul.94 Like the Upanişads, he describes
9. Yato väco givartante apräpya manasa saba. Taitt. Up. II-4 and 9. 10. Sa eşa netineti ityātmā agrāhyo na hi gļhyate, asiryo nasiryate, asargo pa hi
sajyate, asito na vyathate, na rișyati. Bșh. Up. IV-IV-22 and IV-V-15. 11. Satyam jñānam anantam Brahma. Taitt. Up. II-). 12. Nityam vibhum sarvagatam susūksmam. Mund. Up. l-1-6. 13. Vijñanaghana eva. Bțb. Up. I-IV-12. 14. Prajñānam Brahma. Ait. Up. III-3. 15. Tasya bhāsā sarvamidan vibhāti. Kath. Up. II-V-15. 16. Brahmavid brahmaiva bbavati. Mund. Up. III-II-9. 17. Brahmavidāpnoti param. Taitt, Up. II-). 18. Mahāyānas airāla ikära (MSA) XI-13, ed. S. Bagchi, Mithila Institute, Darbhanga,
1970. 19. MSA. IX-24. 20. MSA. 1-12. 21. MSA. VI-1. 22. MSA. IX-40. 23. MSA. XIII-19. 24, MSA. IX-23.

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Reality as pure Existence (sat).2 5 It means tbat though the highest Reality cannot be grasped by the category of existence, we can describe it from the pbenomenal point of view, but we must avoid dangerous nihilism and say that the Reality exists by itself and in its own right because it is self-luminous consciousness. He agrees with the Upanişads in maintaining that Reality is absolute consciousness which is the permanent background of all changing phenomena and which ultimately transcends the trinity of knowledge, knower and known. 26 It is indescribable because all categories of the intellect fail to grasp it fully. His Visuddha Tathatā or Citta or the Suddhātman or the Mahatman or the Dharmadhātu is the same as the Ātman or the Brahman of the Upanişads which is pure and permanent self luminous consciousness. Like Upanişadic thinkers, Asanga emphasises on the path of koowledge 27 and he even identifies pure knowledge with Absolute Reality.28 He says that by the knowledge of True Buddha (Reality) everything immediately becomes known like a world which shines through the light of sun.29
We are told in the Chãodogya Upadişad that the world is merely a name and a form; the truth is that everything is Brahman only. 30 Just as by a clod of clay, all that is made of clay is known, the difference being only a pame arising from speech, while the truth is that it is just clay only 51 Everything besides the Ātman or Brahman is merely a word, a mode and a name. The implication of this statement is that everytbing that exists is Brahman or Atman only. 32 Everything that is besides Brahman is an appearance; that all causation is ultimately due to Brahman, It is clearly stated in the Kathopanışad that it is the Ātman who makes his one form manifold'.88 Āiman is eternal among the transient, the Consciousness of conscious beings. 54 Mundaka Upanişad declares that everything here is verily Brabman.38 Again in the Aitareya Upanişad we are told that everything in this world is guided by Brahman,
25. MSA, XI-14. 26. MSA. XIV-28. 27. MSA. IX-12. 28. MSA. XIV-28. 29. MSA. IX-33. 30. Sarvam khalvidam brahma, Cha. Up. III-XIV-1. 31. Väcarambhanam vikāro nāmadheyam mrttiketyeva satyam. Cba. Up. V1-1-+. 32. Brahamaivedam visvam. Nuņd. Up. II-II-11. 33. Ekam rūpam bahudhā yaḥ karoti. Kath, Up. II-V-12. 34. Nityo an ityinīm, Kath. Up. II-V-13. 35, Sarvam hi etad Brahīņa, Mund. Up. I-1.

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117 based on Brahman. . Whatever breathing thing that is here, whether moving or flying, and whatever is stationary, all this is guided by selfconsciousness (Prajña ). Tbey are rooted in self-consciousness. It is the basis of the world.BC We are also told in the Katha Upan işad that there is no multiplicity or plurality wbatsoever. He goes from death to death who sees only multiplicity here. 37 The Bșhadāraṇyaka Upadişad tells us that 'as a spider moves along its threads, and as from a fire tiny sparks in all directions, even so from this Alman, come forth all organs, all worlds, all deities, and all beings, 38
Asanga also says that pure consciousness appears 89 as this manifold world of phenomena on account of ignorance. There is no subject-object. knower and known, in the absolute consciousness. This distinction is only an error.40 Phenomenal things are taken to be real by jgporant people. 41 They are only name and form. 43 Pure consciousness transcends everything but it appears as subject-object duality owing to the influence of ignorance. It is only consciousness which appears as manifold world of phenomena.44 The Reality (Tattva) or Citta (pure Consciousness ) is one only and it is by its very nature self-luminous consciousness.45 All dharmas, i.e., elements of existence, worldly experiences, phenomenal world of subject-object, etc., are merely relative, dependent. They are ultimately unreal because they are neither existence nor non-existence, nor both, nor neither. They are like that of magical figures created by a magician. They are thus, indescribable, mere appearances. The very fact that they are appearances implies that there must be reality of which they are mere appearances. The theory of momentariness applies to phenomena only. Reality is above phenomena and is indescribable absolute Consciousness.
36. Yatkincedam präņi jangamam ca patatri ca yacca sthavaram sarvam tat prajiane
tram, prajfiane pratisthitam. prajñānetro lokal), prajñā pratişthā, prajñanam brahma.
Ait. Up. II-V-3. 37. Neba Dāpästi kiñcana. Mrtyoh sah mrtyum gachbati ya iha Dāneva paśyati. Kath.
Up. II IV-11 38, Yatbornanäbhih tantunoccaret, yathāgneh kşudráh vir hulinga vyuccarapti, evam eva
asmādātmapah sarve präņāh, sarve lokāh, sarve devāḥ, sarvāṇi vyaccaranti Brh.
Up. II-I-20. 39. MSA. XIX-53 40. MSA. XI-15. 41. MSA. XIX-53. 42. MSA. XI-38, 39 and 48. 43. MSA, XI-34. 44. Cittam citräbhāsam citrakāram pravartate, MSA. X1-35. 45. MSA, VIII-19.

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Asanga's doctrine of ignorance or illusion is also rooted in the Upanişads. The impartial examination of Upanişadic ideology makes it very clear that there are definite traces of doctrine of Avidyā or illusion in the Uqanişadic literature. išāvāsya Upanişad states that truth is veiled in this Universe by a vessel of gold and it invokes the grace of sun God to lift up the golden vessel and allow the truth to be seen 46 Kathopanişad tells us that we are not able to see the truth because we are blinded by illusion, Fools steeped in ignorance, wise in their own conceit and regarding themselves as learned go about staggering like blind men led by the blind. 47 Similar idea is found in the Chāndogya Upanişad also. It states that a cover of untruth hides the ultimate truth from us, just as the surface of the earth hides from us the goldedn treasure that is hidden inside it. 48 The word aprta ( untruth) is used here in the sense of ignorance or illusion. Again, Chārdogya makes this idea very clear by stating that everything besides the Brabman or Atman is merely a word, a mode and a name.* 9 Pragna Upadişad tells us that without removing ignorance in us, we are not able to see the truth as it is. 'One cannot reach the world of Brahman unless we have shaken oft the crookedness in us, the falsehood in us, the illusion (Māyā) in us. 50
Asanga develops the same doctrine of ignorance (Avidyā) or illusion (Māyā) which is already found in the Upaaişads, though not in a full-fledged form. Avidyā or ignorance hides the truth. Therefore, it is called SamvȚlisat ya. The one truth or non-dual reality is seen in the form of a world of subject-object duality through force of Avid ya. This subject-object duality is an illusion. It is an appearance. Really there is nothing in the world, except this reality, in the true sense of the word.51 Except this pure consciousness, everything is name and form (nåmamátra) and imaginary.59 The elements of existence, subject-object duality etc.,
46. Hiranmayena pätreņa satyasyāpihitam mukham, Tattvam pūşan apavrņu salyadhar.
maya drstaye. Isa. Up. 15. 47. Avidyāyām antare vartamānih svayam dhirah panditam nanyamänäh dandramya
māņāh pariyanti nūdhāh andhenaiva niyamani yathandbah. Kach. Up. I-[[-5. 48. Ta ime satyäh kämäl anstäpidhānah teşam satyārām satan antamapaidhänain. Yo
yobi asya itah praiti na tamiha darśapaya labhate....tadyatbāpi hiranyanidbimni hitam aksetra jňal uparyupari sancaranto na vindeyulevameva imāli sarväh prajāli
harahargacchanty ah enam brahmalokam na vindanti apsteņa bi pratyudhal. Chā.
Up. VIII-III-1-2, 49. Chā. Up. VI-1-4. 50. Teşām asau virajo brahmaloko pa yeşu jibmam anrtain na mäyä сeti. Pra. Up. 1-16. SI, MSA, XI-15. 52. MSA. IX-81.

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are mero appearance, superimposed on reality like magical figures created by the magician. 83 The magical figures do not exist in reality but they appear to exist. Like Upanişadic thinkers he says that, realising all things to be illusion or māyā, removing ignorance, one attains this supreme Reality. 84
The doctrine of truth is also traceable to the Upanişads. Brhadāranyaka speaks of Brahman as the real of the reals and even as the Sole Reality. 5 This statement is clearly an indication of plurality of trutbs understood by the Upanisadie sages. We are told in the Katha Upanişad that the reality is eternal among the transient 56 It is implicitly mentioned here that except Brahman or Supreme Reality everything else is empirical, transitory and not real. The išāvāsya Upanisad tells us that the face of truth is covered with a golden disc. Here the word ‘apihita' is used in the sense of cover (Sanvşti). The real truth is covered by the phenomenal truth. The word 'samvşti' satya is used by Asanga in the same sense as understood by the ‘apihita' by the Upanişadic thinkers. This phenomenal world is Saivyti Satya (empirical) not real, ultimately; only Paramärtha Satya is real and it is the only reality.
In the Upanişads, the two terms Ātman and Brahman are used as synonyms. Mandukya clearly mentions the identity of Atman with Brahman by saying that this Atmap. is Brahman.87 Brhadāraṇyaka states that this is indeed the Stman, the immortal and the Brahman.5% Chāndogya tells us that Atman is indeed all this, 59 There are many statements which show that Ātman is identified with Brabman in the Upanişads and these two words are used as synonyms in the ultimate sense, o
Asanga's notion of pure consciousness is nothing but Atman or Brahman of Upanişads, even though he criticises Ātman of the Upanisads understanding it in the narrow sense of ego. Really, he does not deny the existence of Atman, i.e., Reality of the Upanişads. His Tathala - Thatness is the same as Ātman or Brahman of Upanişads. He
53, MSA, XI-15. 54. MSA. IV-24. 55. Satyasya satyam-Bh. Up. 11-1-20. 56. Kath. Up. II-V-13. 57. Ayam itmi brahma. Māņd. Up. 2 and Běh. Up. II-V-19. 58 Sa yoyam ärmedam amstam idam brahma. Bịh. Up. II-V-19. 59 Sarvam khalvidam brahma. Chā. Up. III-XIV 1. 60. Tattvamasi. Cha. Up. VI-XVI-3. and, ayamātmā brahma. Mand. Up. 2.

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even calls this Tathata as Atman of the Buddhists.61 Hc calls reality as Suddhātman i.e. pure Soul. His notion of reality is the same as that of Atman of Upanisads. Only he denies the ego of the individual.
Asanga says that everyone has a germ of Buddhahood in his heart.62 It is to be realised. This idea is the same as the notion of Atman of the Upanisads which is within us. 63
The word Vimokṣa is used in the Upanisads for liberation. In Bṛhadaranyaka, we find a statement saying that, Sir, please, instruct me further, for the sake of my liberation.64 This state of realisation of reality is described in the Katha Upanisad as, indescribable highest happiness.65 It is also called the state of eternal happiness. 66 It is a state of eternal peace.67 It is called the highest state. Katha Upanisad tells us that when the five instruments of knowledge stand together with the mind, and the intellect does not stir, that they say is the highest state.68 Having known this great reality which is omnipresent, the wise man does not grieve, 69 When all the desires that dwell in the heart are cast away then does a mortal become immortal, attain Brahman even here', 70 It is a state of oneness with the Absolute Brahman. The realised one sees oneness everywhere. It is the final merging with the Absolute. Just as rivers which flow into the ocean, disappear in it after having thrown away their name and form, the sage after having thrown off his name and form, enters the highest realit.71 The knower of Brahman becomes an ocean of consciousness without any duality. He lives in a world of freedom. Katha Upanisad tells us that being liberated, one becomes free indeed. 73
61. Tathata buddhānām ātmā. MSA. IX-23. Commentary.
62. Tathāgata garbhaḥ sarvadehinaḥ, MSA. IX-37.
63. Atmā sarvāntarak. Bṛh. Up. III-V-1.
64. Atha ardhivam vimokṣaya brühi iti. Bth Up. IV-III-14-16. 65. Anirdesyam paramam sukham. Kath Up II-V-14.
66. Sasvatam sukham. Kath. Up. II-V-12.
67. Santiḥ sasavti. Kath. Up. II-V-13.
68. Yadā pañcavatiṣṭhante jñānāni manasā saha. Buddhisca na vicestati tamahuḥ paramām gatim. Kath. Up. II-VI 10.
69. Mahāntam vibhumātmānam matvā dhiro na socati. Kath. up. II-IV 4.
70. Yadā sarve paamucyante kamah ye asya hydi śritah. Atha martyo amṛto bhavati atra brahma samaśnute. Kath. Up. II-VI 14.
71. Yatha nadyaḥ syandamānāḥ samudre astam gacchanti namarüpe vihaya. Tathā Vidvän namarupädvimuktaḥ para param puruşamupaiti divyam. Mund, Up. III-II 8.
72. Salila eko draşta advaito bhavati. Brh. Up. IV-III 32.
73. Vimuktasca vimucyate. Up. II-V 1.

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Asanga also speaks about the state of liberation in the same manner. In the state of liberation (Mokşa) there is no place for duality contradiction. It is that state in which positive and negative are one and the same. It is a state of Samata-state of mind in which one cannot distinguish himself from any other thing of the universe,75 It is the state of paramartha satya (highest truth). He uses the same word for Nirvana as used by the Upanisads by saying that it is the state of perfection 70 It is the state of unlimited happiness. 77 Asanga, like Upanisadic thinkers, says that just as rivers which lose their individuality merge with the ocean leaving their names and forms; similarly, realising Buddhattva or Nirvana, a seeker becomes one with the Absolute consciousness, losing his name and form. 78
realised the Satya, all desires vanish realised person is called Vimuktaconception of liberated soul is called
The conception of the ideal of Bodhisattva also has, definitely, its root in the Upanisads. In the Katha Upanisad it is said that when all the desires that dwell in the heart are cast away then does a mortal become immortal and attain the Brahman even here.79 Similar view is expressed by the Mundaka Upanisad also. It states that for those whose desires are fulfilled and who have even here on this earth, 80 The liberated soul on the earth. This 'Bodhisattva' by the Buddhists and Jivanmukta by the Advaita Vedantins. Liberation on this earth means nothing but a state of mind wich is completely free from every kind of passion, desire and worldly attachment. It is reaching a state of total passionlessness and desirelessness. Realised persons become perfect in their Soul, tranquil and free from passion. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad tells that the eternal glory of the knower of Brahman is not increased by work nor is it diminished. Therefore, one should know the nature of that alone. Having known it, one is not tainted by evil action. Thus, he who knows it as such becomes calm, self-controlled. withdrawn, patient and collected, sees the Self in his own self, sees all in the S.If. Evil does not burn him, he burns all
74. MSA. XI-41.
75. MSA. IX-70.
76, MSA. XVIII-81.
77. MSA. V-8.
78. Samudraviṣṭiśca bhavanti sarvaḥ ekāśraya eka mahajalaśca. Buddhat vavistäśca bhavanti sarve ekāśraya ekamahävabodhah. MSA. IX-83 and 85,
79. Kath. Up. II-VI-14.
80. Paryäptakāmasya kṛtātmanastu ihaiva sarve praviliyanti kämäḥ. Mund. Up. III-II-2. 81. Sampräpyainamṛṣayo jñanatṛpta ketimino vitaragih. Mand. Up. III-II-5,
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evil. Free from evil, free from taint, free from doubt, hc becomes the true knower of Brahman. 83 He who realises Brahman is a really freed man in the true sense. Chandogya tells us that, he who realises the Atman, has unlimited freedom in all worlds. 88 Igavasya Upanisad explains, the state of perfect tranquility gained by a Self-realised sage, Realisation of one's own Self is nothing but to realise its oneness with the Universal Self. He who constantly sees everywhere, all existence in the Self and the Self in all beings and forms, thereafter shrinks from nothing. 84 Again it says that when, to the knower, all beings have become one in his own Atman, how shall he feel deluded thereafter ? What grief can there be to him who sees oneness everywhere 28 8 In realising this reality, the individual becomes free from all his mental ideas of repulsion, shrinking dislike, fear, hatred and such other perversions of feeling He becomes one with all beings. He does not see any difference between himself and other beings. He is free from all types of attachment. In this state, a father is no father, a mother is no mother. 8 6 He is not affected by good and evil. He performs actions without any attachment. He is not affected by good, nor is he affected by evil, be has passed beyond all the sorrows of the heart. 87 He is beyond good and evil.
Now Bodhisattva ideal of Asanga is not different from the realised person on earth of the Upanisads. He is a perfectly realised soul on earth 88 He universalises himself and lives for others. 89 He acts not for himself but for others. He is above all selfish and abiding acts as he has no more attachments and aversions and is immune from all governing motives, conceptions and considerations of empirical life. Bodhisattva state is a state of sameness with all beings. It is realisation of a state of universality. Individuality vanishes here. He lives and acts not for
82. Esa nityo mahima brahmanasya na vardhate karmaņā, no kaniyan. Tasyaiva syät padavittam viditva na lipyate karmaṇā pāpakeneti. Tasmädevam vicchanto dānta uparataḥ titiksuḥ samähito bhūtva ätmanyevätmanam paśyati, sarvam ātmānam pasyati, nainam päpma tarati, sarvam papmānam tarati, vipapo, virajo, avicikitso brāhmaṇo bhavati. Brh. Up. IV-IV-13.
83. Sarvesu lokeṣu kāmacaro bhavati. Cha. Up. VII-XXV-2.
84. Yastu sarvāņi bhūtāni ätmanyevānupaśyati. Sarva bhuteṣu catmānam tato na vijugupsate. Isa. Up. 6.
85. Yasmin sarvani bhūtāni atmaivabhut vijanataḥ. Tatra ko mohaḥ kaḥ śokah ek "tvamanupaśytaḥ Isa. Up. 7.
87. Ananvågatam puṇyena anan vāgatam papena tīrņoti tada sarvan sokan hṛdayasya bhavati Brh. IV-III-22.
88. Drstasatyah. MSA. XII-8.
89. MSA, XIX 65,

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himself but for the upliftment of others. He sees no difference between himself and others, 90
Upanisads emphasise on certain disciplines for the realisation of Supreme Reality, Upanisads mainly emphasise on a life of tranquility, truth, penance, insight and right pursuit. Unless these conditions are fulfilled the aspirant after spiritual life may never hope to realise the Self. The Katha Upanisad declares that unless a man has stopped from doing wrong, unless he is entirely composed himfelf, it may not be possible for him, however highly strong his intellect may be, to reach the Atman by force of mere intellect. 91 The Mundaka Upanisad insists upon truth and the life of penance, right insight and the life of celibacy as essential conditions for the realisation of Atman.92 Katha Upanisad criticises the life of impurity, ignorance and uncontrolled mind by saying that he who has no proper insight or understanding, who has no control over his mind, and who is ever impure, does not reach that place. 9 It emphasises on proper understanding, self-control and purity.94
Upanisads also emphasise the moral aspect of the individual for realisation of Reality. In the Katha Upanisad we are told that it is only when the whole moral being is purged of evil that one is able to realise the greatness of God.95 After purification of mind and body one realises the Atman and becomes one with the Brahman as pure water poured into pure water becomes the same. 96 Mundaka Upanisad declares that it is only when a perfect catharsis of the whole moral being takes place by the cleanness of illumination that one is able to realise the immaculate God after meditation, for, he can be attained neither by sight nor by word of mouth, nor by any other senses, nor by penance, nor by any actions whatsoever. 97
90. MSA. V-2 and XIV-31.
91. Nävirato duscaritat näsanto na samahitaḥ. Nasanta manas o vapi prajñänenainamapnuyat. Kath. Up. I-II-23.
92. Satyena labhyah tapasa hyeşa ima samyak juanenabrahmacaryena nity am. Mund. Up. III-1-5.
93. Yastu avijñāṇavān bhavati amanaskaḥ sadā asucih. Na sa tatpadamapnoti. Kath. Up. I-III-7.
91. Yastu vijñānavan bhavati sa manaskaḥ sada suci. Sa tu tat padamapnoti, Kath. Up. 1-III-8.
95, Tamakratul vitasoko dhatu prasadanmahimanamisah. Kath. Up. I-II-20.
96. Yathodakam suddhe Sud Ihamasiktam tādṛgeva bhavati. Kath Up. II-IV-15.
97. Jñanaprasadena višuddha satvah tatastu tam pasyate nişkalam dhyāyamanaḥ, Mund Up. III-I-8.

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Asanga, we bave already seen, also points out that to attain Supreme truth, one must practise pine principles of self-perfection (Älmaparipaka) and Paramitās. These spiritual disciplines are meant for self-purification or removal of de filement that cover up the real. He emphasises the paths of perfection known as six paramitas. Practice of dina (charity ), sila (good conduct), ksanti (tolerance) are the necessary steps on the path of spiritual attainment. Like Upanişadic thinkers he emphasises on philoso. phical wisdom (Pra jña).
In the major Upadişads, we find some hints for the practical realisation of the reality by means of Yoga. The steady control of the seoses is considered as Yāga.98 We also come to koow from Mundaka Upanişad, that Yoga is required for purification of mind and prānas. After purification of mind only Ātman reveals himself. In the Mundaka Upanişad, we are told that the mind for its purification is dependent on the prāṇas and that it is only when the mind is purified after an initiated control of the Prāņas that the Ātman reveals himself.99 We also find in the celebrated passage of the BỊbadāranyaka Upanişad that Yajnavalkya tells Maitreyi to meditate upon Ātman. 100 Mundaka Upanisad tells us that one is able to realise the immaculate God after meditation. 101 We are also told in the Katha Upanişad that Naciketā learnt Yogavidhi (method of Yoga) from Yama. 10% It is true that Yogic stages are not mentioned in the Upanişads but the yogic practices were not unknown to them.
• Asanga emphasised the Yogic practices as important methods for attaining the state of Nirvāņa. He mentioned ten stages in the yogic practice.
Asanga was not only influenced by the ideology of the Upanişads but also has bodily lifted certain words from them. He uses many words of the Upanişads in their original Upanişadic meaning. For example, the words 'dhirah' and 'balah' are used for wise and ignorant respectively in the Upanişads. 108 Asanga also uses them in the same sense 104 Upanişads used the words like 'sukham' (happiness), 'śāntam' (peaceful) for
98. Tam yogamiti manyante sthịrām indriya dbāraņām. Kab. Up. II-VI-11. 99. Prānaiscittam sarvametam prajānam yasmin visuddhe vibhavatyeşa atmā. Mund.
Up. III-I-9. 100. Atma nididhyasitavyah. Bịh. Up. IV-V-6. 101. Mund. Up. III-I-8. 102. Yogavidhin ca kştsnam. Kath. Up. IJ VI-18. 103. Kach, Up. 11-IV-20. 104, MSA, 1-12, V-8, VI-10, XIX 53.

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the state of liberation, 108 Asanga uses them in the same sense. 100 The Reality is not born, says Katha Upanisad, 107 Asanga also says it is not born. 108 Reality is called ever-abiding or constant (dhruva) eternal (nitya) and all-pervading (vibhu) in the Upanişads. 109 Asanga also describes reality in similar words.110 The freed man is known as Kamūcāra i.e. who has unlimited freedom in all worlds in the Chārdogya Upanişad. 111 The same word is used by Asanga in the same sense, 119
Upadişadic influence on Vijñāpavāda in general and Mabayaqasūtralarkara in particular was observed by critics of Vijñanavāda, They pointed out that Vijnana or pure consciousness of the Vijnãoavādins is nothing but Ā.man of the heretics-Tirtbankaras in disguise.
105. Kath. Up. II-V-12, 13. 106. MSA. V-8. XIX-81. 107, Kath. Up. 1-11-18. 108. MSA, VI-1. 109. Kath. Up. I-11-10, II-V-13. 110. MSA IX-40. 111. Chi, Up. VII-XXV-?, 112. MSA. XI-18..

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CONCEPTION OF NIRVANA IN ASANGA'S VIJNANAVADA BUDDHISM
The conception of Nirvana or liberation is the greatest original contribution of Indian philosophy to the world thought. This is the gate-way shown by the Indian sages to the suffering mankind to become free from all kinds of miseries, passions, and ignorance, realising one's own real nature or Self. All the systems of Indian philosophy except Carvāka considered moksa as the highest value, the summum bonum of human life. To attain this Liberation or to become free from the clutches of ignorance, sufferings and passions, Indian sages and thinkers have enumerated and emphasised different paths based on their spiritual experience. Describing the nature of Nirvāṇa or mokṣa the different schools of philosophy may differ from one another but the ultimate goal is liberation or freedom from bondage.
The world 'Nirvana' itself seems to be the original contribution of Buddhists to Indian philosophy because this word does not appear in the major Upanisads. Describing the nature of Nirvana, especially Buddhism differs from the other schools of thought, but at the ultimate point of view, there is not much difference between them. It is, for all, becoming free from the clutches of ignorance, pain and attachment, even though it is indescribable in human terms. Describiag the nature of Nirvana even Buddhist schools differ from one another. Hinayanists think that Nirvāṇa is something existent, full of peace and beyond misery. It can be attained realising pudgalanairatmya (i e. realising self or ego to be non-existent which is the real cause of pain and passion). Removing the klesavaraṇa is enough for attaining the Nirvana. But Mahayanists hold that Nirvana is not something to be achieved; it is realising the true natura of things. It is indescribable and beyond categories of intellect. Therefore, it cannot be said to be either existent or non-existent. Simply realising the pudgalanairatmya is not enough for realising the Nirvana but realising the dharmanairatmya is also essential. Removing both the klesavarana and jħeyavaraṇa, one can know the real nature of Nirvana.
Nagarjuna, being an absolutist, severely criticises the Hinayānist's conception of Nirvana. It cannot be said to be existent or non-existent. It is beyond all categories of thought. Really it cannot be defined. It is non-dual.

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"Nirvana is merely the extinction of all conceptions of our productive imagin. ation". For Madhyamikas, there is no difference between Nirvana and saṁsára. The same reality viewed from empirical stand-point is samsara and viewed from transcendental view-point is Nirvana. It is free from all pluralities. It is sunvata i.e. "giving up all views, standpoints and predicaments"," The conception of Nirvana of Vijnanavadins is slightly different from that of Madhyamikas. For Madhyamika absolute is sunya i.e., indescribable. So, Nirvana is also sunya. Vijñānavādin's ultimate reality is pure consciousness. So Nirvan is also a state of pure consciousness, (cittam) where it is free from all the subject-object duality. It is the law of the universe; it is the same as dharmakaya of Buddha. Nirvana meant realising this dharmakaya or dharmadhatu. For Vijnanava dins every being is potentially a Buddha and is, in essence, the same as dharmadhatu. It means, Nirvana is nothing but realisation of this potentiality.
It comes to mean self-realisation. This idea of self-realisation is found in the Lankavatāra and is prominent in Asanga's works. Though these Vijñānavadins, including Asanga, Vasubandhu and later thinkers, directly or indirectly, uphold it.
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Nirvana, according to Lankavatāru, is something indefinable. It is nondualistic in nature. It cannot be called even by the word Nirvana because it is indescribable. Lankavatāra mentions more than twenty theories of Nirvana and rejects all of them on the ground that they are all dualistic in nature. They all conceive Nirvana dualistically and in a causal connection. 3
The real knowledge of the Alaya is Nirvana for Lankavatara. Alayavijñana is the Nirvana where a revulsion of all the seven pravṛttivijñānas (caksu. ghrāṇa, śrotra, jihva, kaya, manas and visista manovijñāna) takes place. This is self-realisation.4
when the self-nature and the habit energy of wrong speculation go through revulsion, it is Nirvana. It is the state in which sunyata (emptiness) of the whole phenomenal world is realised. It is to see the Reality as it
1. na samsarasya nirvānāt kiñcidasti viseṣaṇam, na nirvāṇasya samsärätkincidasti viseṣaṇam -Madhyamakaŝastra-XXV-19. ed. by Vaidya, P. L., Mithila Institute, Darbhanga, 1960, p. 234.
2. Ibid, p. 234.
3. Lankavatarasutra. (L.A.S.) chapter-III, ed. Vaidya, P. L., Mithila Institute, Darbhanga, 1963.
4. LAS II. p. 41, 51, 52.
5. LAS II. y. 41.

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is in itself and not merely as it appears to be. 6 This can be realised only when the pravịttivi jānes which are caused by discrimination, cease. Nirvana is simply realising the fact that the whole phenomenal world which is seen, is nothing else but a dream. Lankā says that even Nirvana is like a dream for him who has attained Nirvana. This is because Nirvāna is not something which can be attained. There is really no Nirvāṇa where one may enter or come out. 8
Pure citta or consciousness is the sole Reality for Asanga. It is also equated with Dharmadhātu, Tathata and Buddhattva. Nirvana, therefore, means realisation of pure consciousness which is one's own original nature. It is realisation of Dharmadhātu underlying the wbole universe. It is a state of omniscience which is free from all obscurations. It is a state free from all sorts of kleśävarana and jheyavarana. 10
Like other Mahāyānists, Asanga conceives two screens : kleśåvarana and jñeyāvarana. Both these screens operate as hindrance or obstacle in the way of realisation of Nirvana. The non-dual reality or pure consciousness is verled by these obscurations. Reality is hidden by the veil of passions, like attachment, aversion, delusion (kleśävarana) and also by the veil that hides true knowledge jñe yavarana. The klesavarana is mainly due to belief in existence of permanent self, pudgala or satkā vadīşti. Believing in it, there arises attachment towards it which is the cause of pain and suffering. Jřeyavarana is dependent on the belief of substantiality of existence of elements and accepting independent reality of their own. It is the veil which was lying on the pure consciousness and making it appear to be external world. Without removing these two screens it is not possible to realise Nirvana. Only by removing these screens one enjoy bliss. 11 Realisation of the pudgala-noirätmya and dharma-nairatmya i.e. knowledge of the unreality of ego and of the existing elements is needed for the removal of these screens. Realisation of soul-lessness is pudgalanairātmya and realisation of external world as merely a product of thought and illusion is dharma-nairatmya. Knowledge of pudgala-nairatmya destroys
6. LAS II. p. 67. 7. LAS JI p. 51 8. Studies in Lafikávatāra, ed. Suzuki, D. T., Routledge and kegan paul Ltd. London,
1957. p. 132. 9. Sarvakārajñatāvāptik sarvavaranan irmalā. Mahäyānasūtrālankara, (MSA) IX-2. ed.
by Bagchi, S., The Mithila Institute, Darbhanga, 1970. 10. Sarıaklesa-jfeyavarananir muktatā. MSA. XX-XXI-44 Ibid. 11. Sarvävarananirmokşāt prasrabdhya sukhameti ca, MSA. XVIII-60 OJ 10.

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the attachment towards self. There will be no more pains, because of the destruction of attachment which is the root cause of worldly pains; when this root cause is destroyed, no forward movement will take place. By roalising the non-reality or unsubstantiality of personal self i.e. pudgalanairātmya, all the kleśas or obstacles are removed. When one realises the non-existence of self, naturally an individual ego is destroyed and, as a result of this, passions, desires and attachment are eliminated. This is known as destruction of kleśāvarana. The realisation of dharmanairatmya
-non-existence of things of this world, removes the screen over that knowledge. It is known as destruction of jie yāvaraña. Removal of jñeyavarana is possible only by realising dharmanairātmya i.e. realisation that all the dharmas or elements of existence are unsubstantial, devoid of any independent reality of their own. Realising the pudgalanairātmya and dharmanairātmya i.e. knowing the unreality of the ego and of the existing elements, a wise man recognisiog it to be essentially non-dual pure consciousness becomes one with it which is a non-describable state. Realising these two non-substantialities on enters reality. After that he transcends even this recognition and that is called mukti or Liberation or Nirvāņa. 12
Realising these two types of nairatmya, he secs everything as nane and form. 18 He dogs not see any duality, conception of pudgala and dharma disappears. This is called Vimukti. When both the screens are removed, one realises the true nature of pure consciousness. This is moksa, freedom, freedom from all obscuration. This is a stare of sarvākara jñata, state of omniscience. Realising the upreality of pudgala (selflessness) and dharmanairāimya-non-substantiality of all elements, removing both the kleśävarana and jñe yüvarana, the defled consciousness gets rid of the subject-object duality and becomes pure, rests again in itself.14
Nirvana is purification of consciousness (which is defiled by the false idea (kalponā) removing all sorts of covering. It is the discovery of the sole reality of consciousness eradicating the imaginary idea of subjectobject duality and empirical objects.
Hinayānists maintained that realisation of pudgalanairaimya leads to Nirvana. They did not think that realisation of dharmanairātmya is also necessary for attaining Nirvana. Asanga, when he emphasises the realisa. tion of both the pudgalanairātmya and dharmanoirâtmya, wants to point 12. Viditvä nairatmyam dvividhamiba dhimān bhavagatam samam tacca jñātva pravisati
satat vam grabanataḥ. Tatastatra stbānanmanasa iba na khyāti tadapi, tadakhyānam
muktih parama upalamdhasya vigamah. MSA. XI-47, 13. paśyati hi namamātram. MSA. XI-47. 14. Cintasya citte sansthānät. MSA.-XVIII-66.
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out against the Hinayânists that merely realising pudgalanairatmya, removing klesavarana is not sufficient for the attainment of Nirvana; the realisation of dharmanairatmya i.e, the removal of jñeyavarana is equally important. Asanga clearly points out the Mahayana is superior to Hinayana because it penetrates into both pudgalanairätmya and dharmanairaatmya-realisation of the two forms of non-substantiality. 15
Nirvana is the asrayaparavṛtti, i.e., retracting of alaya from its forward movement. Asraya (alaya) is the support of the entire phenomental world. Asraya is abhuta parikalpa which projects contents where they are not. 16 Alaya, impelled by the ignorance, goes on creating forms of subject-objcct duality and phenomenal things. Influence of ignorance is so powerful that consciousness, influenced by this illusion loses its equanimity. It becomes defiled. It begins to project contents where they are not. This is bondage. It is caused by the false notion of the being something external and real. Owing to this wrong conception, pure consciousness becomes infected by subject-object duality. This is samsara. It is due to ignorance. When this ignorance, which is the governing power of the forward movement of asraya is destroyed, consciousness becomes free from influence of ignorance and will not be affected by the empirical objects. Destruction of ignorance which is the main cause for creating the forms of phenomenal objects, is asraya paravṛiti, withdrawing asraya from its forward movement. Asrayaparavṛtti, therefore, means, disappearance of the subject-object duality, the unreal objects and realisation of pure consciousness. It is 1ealisation of non-dual reality removing subject-object duality. This is nirvana or mokşa. It is nothing else but seeing reality as it is. 18 This is realisation of Thatness-tathata, one's own true nature.
Ignorance is the root cause of defilement of consciousness. Nirvana is nothing else but purification of this defiled consciousness, destroying all sorts of coverings. Asanga, being an obsolutist declares that mokşa or liberation is nothing but only removal or dissolution of ignorance. 19 Ignorance screens the absolute or nirvana as the clouds hide the Sun and his rays. The sole Reality or pure consciousness is defiled by ignorance i.e. believing in existence of self and existence of external world. On account of ignorance people of the world nourish belief in the existence of the self or ego. This ego is the root cause of desires. These desires are the main causes of sorrow and suffering. If there is no desire, there is no
15. MSA: IXX-59.
16. Chattergee, A. K., The Yogacara Idealism, 2nd ed., Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1975, p. 159.
17. asrayaparavṛttiḥ mokṣosau. MSA. XIX-54.

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attachment, consequently no sorrow, no parting, no change. Nirvana thus, means freedom from all kinds of attachment which are generated by desires. The same ignorance is responsible for creating subject-object duality and it is the root cause for belief in external world and empirical objects. When this ignorance is removed, one realises one's own original nature, pure consciousness i.e. absolute. Nirvana, therefore, means realisation of one's own true nature or discovery of sole reality of consciousness, destroying subject-object duality and empirical objects. The creation of subject-object duality is the function of ignorance, avidyā. The absolute consciousness is non-dual but when infected by the illusory idea of the other it is diversified into the subject-object duality. Realising the illusory existence of all elements and non-reality of ego, one realises Nirvana, 20 Nirvāna is covered by the clouds of ignorance. Just as the sun, covered by the clouds becomes unseen, similarly, Absolute covered by the ignorance is not easily seen or realised by the man. Nirvana, therefore, means removal of clouds of ignorance hoveriog round the light of bodhi or the Absolute.21 Nirvana is nothing but regaining the sovereignty of consciousness removing the root causes of defilement, ie., destroying ignorance, realising unreality of ego and external world. When consciousness gets rid of ignorance, it rests again in itself.
Asanga says that there is nothing in the world besides this tattva or the absoluse. Except this tattva or reality everything else is māyā or illusion. The world itself is that absolute. And yet the whole world is deluded about it. How has this peculiarity of the world's delusion come about that it has resorted to the unreal, after abandoning the real existing all around. 92 Nirvāņa or mahabodhi is eternal and stable. 23
Ignorance consists in the absence of right knowledge of thiogs, It consists in understanding things not as they really are but in understand. ing them otherwise. Asanga, therefore, warns against this tendency of misunderstanding of the things and emphasises on proper understanding of thiogs. He calls it yathābhūtaparijñāna-knowing things as they really
18. yathābhītaparijñānam. MSA. XIX-55. 19. mokso bhramamitra sankşayak. MSA. VI-2. 20. Māyopamān vikşya sarvadharmān. MSA. VI-24. 21. Yathaivādit yarasminām meghād yavaranam matam. Tathaiva buddhajnánānām avlik
satvadustajā. MSA. IX-34. 22. Na khalu jagati tasmädvidyale kincidanyajjagadapi tada sesazh tatra sammadhabuddhi:
Kathamavamabhirudho lokamohaprakāro yadasadabhinivisah satsamantadvihāya, MSA
X1-14. 23. Mahabodhim nityām dhruvarnasaranānām ca saranam, labhate. MSA, IX-50.
:

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are. 24 To attain Buddhahood, it is necessary to remove this ignorance which is the root cause of all evil and suffering, Nirvana, therefore, is not something to be achieved but knowing reality as it is.
Asanga, also, calls Nirvana as vikalpopašama i.e, destruction of imaginary thoughts and things. Tativa or Reality is only real, Seeing everything as simple production of imagination, one can attain Nirvana or enlightenment bodhi. Realising everything to be imaginary, the Bodhisattva or realised one ceases to imagine anything at all. There is nothing to imagine for him. This is called eplightenment, 28 Therefore, it is called vikalpopasama.90 Nirvana is the regaining of sovereignty of consciousness by realising upreality of imagined objective world. Realisation of illusory-kälpanika existence of self and all elements is absolutely necessary for attainment of nirvana. The distinction between sansāra and Nirvana is also a thought -construction, fabrication of the mind. Asanga, like Nāgārjuna, declares that truly speaking, there is not even the sligbtest difference between Nirvana and saṁsāra, noumena and phenomena, Absolute and empirical. 87 Nirvana and samsära, noumena and phenomena are not two different sets of reality posited against each other. Phenomena viewed as relative, as governed by causes and conditions (pratityasamutpâda) constitute saṁsāra or world. This is bondage, product of ignorance. It is caused by the false notion of there being something external and real. The same reality viewed as free of all conditions is the absolute or nirvana. The nirvāņa viewed through the specie aeternitatis (vikal pa) is samsara, the world or samsāra viewed sub specie aeternitatis is the absolute or nirvana itself.98 Only from the empirical point, we distinguish between samsara and Nirvana. Asanga's intention is that the only reality is nijvāņa or dharmadhatu or tathata, everything else is delusion of the mind. The moment an individual realises that he is the reality, that samsara is identical with Nirvana, he becomes perfect Buddha. Avidyā or ignorance is the root cause of Bondage, nirvana means destruction of avidyā and the purification of defiled consciousness It is the state of samata, i.e., a state of consciousness or mind in which a man can no longer distinguish himself from the infinite elements of the universe. The realised one sees oneness everywhere. 29 All are one and the same in this state of nirvana.
24. Yathābhūtaparijñānam, MSA XIS-55. 25. Pasyatā kalpana mātram sarvametadyathoditam, akalpābodhisatvänäm prăptă bodhih
nirūpyate. MSA IX-81, 26. MSA. XVIII-81. 27. Na cântarain kincana vidyate' nayoh. MSA. VI-S. 28. Murti, T.R.V., Central philosophy of Buddhism, George Allen and Unwin, London,
1960 p. 274.

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Individuality vanishes in it. For him, there is no difference beta een things and things, Noumena and Phenomena, nirrana and sansöra. It is sameness of all elements, i.e., dharmasamata.3 0 It is unity with all universe. This is a state of unlimited happiness. 81 No doşås will affect him who has realised this state of samara. This idea is similar to Vedāntic thought. Upanişads state that there is no aversion and grief for one who sees oneness everywhere.82 It also states that he who sees everything in him and himself in everything will not shrink from anything. He becomes one with universality of consciousness. He sees no duality.83
Pure consciousness is the sole Reality for Asanga. This absolute reality is called by different terms as Nirvana, dharmadhâtu, visuddha Tathara Tativa, Parābodhi, Buddhattra etc. So Nirvà na is beyond all thought discrimination. Thought discrimination implies duality. Duality is ignorance and it is unreal. But Reality is free from subjec-object duality. It is non-dual, i.e. in it there is no room for subject-object, positive or negative. It is indescribable and indefinable. 3. It is beyond categories of intellect. Therefore, this Buddhativa or Nirvana cannot be said to be existence or nonexistence at the ultimate point of view.88 This nirvāna is unfathomable, unimaginable and all pervading. 86 By its very nature it is solf-luminous. 87 Purification of consciousness lies in removing the impurities which are foreign to it. It is like purification of dirty water, removing mud or dirtyness which is foreign to it.38 Nirvang is destruction of imaginary thoughts. It is peaceful, Peaceful because the realised person will not be affected by any impurity, attachment and aversion. His mind will be stable, His mind will not be disturbed by land 'mine' considerations. Reaching the state of samatā he will enjoy perfect peace. nirvana is only paramärthasatya and it is parinişpannalakşaņa,9 It is opposed to samvrti satya. It is destruction of projection. Therefore, it is called nirvslisukha ( unlimited
29. Sarrasatveșu labhate sadātma samacittatam, MSA. XIV-30. 30, Nirvane saisararepyekarasosan, MSA, II-3. 31. Niryptisukham. MSA. V-8. 32, Tatra ko mohah, ka sokak ekatyamanupaśyatan. I'savasya Upanişad. 7 33. Isa. Up 6. 34, MSA. IXI-13. 35. MSA. IX-24. 36. Aprame yam acint yam ca vibhutvam bauddhamis yate. MSA. IX-40. 37. Matam ca cittam prakrtiprabhāsvaram sadā tadägantuka dosadūsitam. MSA, XIII-19. 38. Yathaiva toye luțhite prasādite na jayate sa punaracchatänyatan : Malapak arsasta
satatra kevalaḥ svacittasuddhau vidhireşa eva hi. MSA, XIII-18. 39. Vikalpopasamarthaḥ śāntarthak parinişpannalaksanam nirvanam. MSA. XVIII-81 Com.

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happiness removing samvrti or projection).40 It is free from all obscura. tions and all pervading. 41 Nirvāna is pure and all pervading. 42
Nirvana is indescribable in terms of thought-categories. Even at the empirical level it can be expressed in terms of Tathatā. This idea is similar to Vedāntic notion of nirrāna or mokşa, or Brahman. Upanişads are unanimous in proclaiming the indescribability of absolute Reality-Brahman. It is beyond speech, mind and sight. 43 It can be expressed in terms of 'not this not this,'44 It also states that Brahman is neither production nor destruction, neither existent nor becoming.. 5 Asanga says nirvana or Reality is eternal-nit ya and stable-dhruvam. Upanisads clearly point out that Brahman is eternal and stable or everlasting. Here Asanga is clearly influenced by the Upanişadic thought.
Asanga emphasises on viśuddha jñānamärga. Nirvana is called pure knowledge. It is nirvikalpaka jñana and free from subject-object duality. G Like Vedantins he advocates, that in the state of niryana there is no difference between subject-object and process of knowledge. It is this pure knowledge which brings the end of ignorance and illusion. Realisation of pure knowledge or consciousness destroys all doubts and ignorance just as strong medicine destroys or removes the effect of poison, 4 7 This is also similar to Vedāntic thought. Kathopanişad clearly states that Brahman realisation destroys all doubts, 48
For Asanga knowledge is not only means to nirrāna but from the ultimate point of view, it is an end in itself i.e. nirvāņa itself. Therefore, nirvana is also called bodhi (enlightenment and mahabodhi (great enlightement). One who realises buddhativa, there is nothing to be known for him. Knowing buddhartva everything will become known immediately. Everything shines with knowledge of Buddha, like a world which shines through the light of Sun. *9 Again this idea is similar to Vedāntic thought that knowing Brahman everything becomes known.60 One who knows Brahman 40. MSA, Y-8. 41. Sarvāvarananirmuktah sarvalokābhibhūl. MSA. XXI-44. 42. Anasravo dhātuļ vimuktik sa ca sarvatragasrayah. MSA. XI-44, 43. Naiva väcă na manasā prāptum sakyo no cakşuşā. Katha Upanişad. II-VI-12. 44. Neti neti. Běhadāranyaka Upanişad. IV-22. 45. Na jayate mriyate vā kadácit. Kațh. Up. I-11-18. 46. Dvayagrahavisamyuktam lokottara manuttaram. Nirvikalpam malapetam jñagam sa
Jabbate punah. MSA. XIV-28. 47. Mahāgadeneva visam nirasyate. MSA. VI-9. 48. Chhidyante sarvasarśayāh. Karh. Ur, II. II. 9. 49. Yatha Süryaikamuktābhairaśmibhirbhāsyate jagat, salirt-jšeyani tathā sarvan
buddhajñānaiḥ prabhāsyate. MSA. IX-33. 50. sarvamidam vijñātam bhavati. Mundaka Upanişad 1-1-3.

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becomes Brahman itself.81 Asanga, like Vedantins, says that realised persons, on realising nirvana or buddhartva, become one with it leaving their names and forms, like rivers which lose their individuality merging with ocean.52
Vasubandhu whole-heartedly supports Asanga's view on nirvana. It is non-dual reality. Destroying the ignorance, removing avaranas (obstructions), attains vimukti. According to bim it is realisation of pure consciousness (vijnapri mütratā), werging with it. He describes nirvana purely in positive terms. It is absolute, immutable, etespal, devoid of all kinds of passions, absolutely pure dharmadhatu. It is beyond our speech and comprehension. It is the highest good and infinite bliss. It is the dharmakāya of Lord Buddha. It is vimukti. 63
Attaining Buddha-hood is the ultimate aim for Asanga. It is nirvana. It is merging with Buddha-hood; or becoming one with it. Pure conscious. Dess or Buddha-hood is universal soul. Becoming one with it is liberation. 'Shaking of all duality, bodhisattva, directly perceives the absolute dharmadhātu which is underlying all phenomena, 84 Knowing this world to be merely a composition of forces (sauskāras), knowing that the ego and the objects do not exist and knowing further that all this is merely suffering, a wise man will leave far behind the baneful existence of the empirical ego and will embrace the universal soul. 85
Realising the non-substantiality of ego and elements, destroying igporance, kpowing the meaning of sūnyatā, one transcends his individuality and bocomes one with pure consciousness or universal soul. Setting on the right path, understanding the true doctrine of nairatmya and clearly grasping the real meaning of súnyatā, the enlightened ones transcend the individual existence and realise the pure consciousness or soul, and become one with that universal soul.BG
51. Brahma veda bramhaiva bhavati. Mund. Up. III-II-9. 52, Samudraviştāśca bhavanti sarvāh ekāśrayā ekamabājalāśca. Buddhat va vistāśca
bhavanti sarve ekāsrayā eka mahāvabodhāḥ. MSA. IX-83 and 85. 53. Sa evānāsravo dhātuḥ acintyaḥ kušalo dhruvaḥ. Sukho vimukti kāyosau dharmā
khyoyai mahāmuneh. --Trimsikā—30. Vijnaptimātratasiddhi - ed. by Swami
Maheswaranand, Gītā Dharma Kāryālaya, Varanasi, 1961, p. 5. 54. Pratyakşatāmeti ca dharmadhātustasmädviņuktodvayalakşanena.-MSA-VI-7. 55. Samskarmatram jagadetya buddhya pirātmakam duḥkha virüdhimätram vihāya
yanarthamabätmadrstim śrayate mahātmā-MSA.-XIV-37, 56. Sunyatāyām visuddhāyām nairâtmyännärgajabhatah, Buddhxh Page #145

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Asanga belicves like the Vedāntins that the right knowledge of the Ultimate Reality can only deliver an individual from his worldly shackles. nirvāna means the state of mind which is completely free from every kind of passion, desire and worldly attachment. It is reaching a state of total passionlessness and desirelessness. If mind can dissociate itself from the mental attachments to the worldly things, if the mind can rise above temptation of the worldly thirgs and does not allow itself to be influenced by the external things, naturally the mind can release itself from the painful sbackles. One must eradicate from his mind the conception of not only of his own individuality but also of the substantiality of any thing whatsoever perceived by him.
When the adventitious, physical and mental screens are removed, when the ignorance is destroyed by enlightenment, the citta realises its identity with the tathatā-thatness, vanishing multiplicity of subject and objects. It is recognition of the normal state of consciousness. When a being attains the state of samatā, a state of mind in which he can not distinguish himself from any other thing of the universe, he can be said to have attained nirvāna in the view of Asanga. Concept of nirvana is not negative concept for Asanga. It means destruction of ignorance, routing out of desire and cessation of all suffering. It means realisation of essencelessness on the negative side and realisation of pure consciousness or tathata (suchness) on the positive side. Mystically it stands for reali. sation of divinity which is within us.

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CONCEPTION OF ALAYAVIJÑĀNA
of
Conception of Alayavijñāna playes very important role in the evoloution the-Vijnanavāda Buddhism. Developed form of this conception is found in Lankavatārasutra, Mahāyānasūtrālank āra of Asanga and Vijña ptimātratāsiddhi of Vasubandhu. Asanga, clearly maintains that, the ground of this unreal phenomenal world is nothing but pure consciousness (citta) which is free from duality, indescribable and beyond determination of thought categories. This apparent phenomenal world is transformation of Vijñāna only.2 To explain this process of transformation, process of evolution of the phenomenal world, this conception of Alayavijñāna is introduced in Vijñānavāda texts,
Asanga states that pure citta or consciousness transcends everything but tainted with ignorance or on account of transcendental illusion becomes Alayavl jhana-a store-house of consciousness. Thus, Alayavijñāna is defiled aspect of the pure consciousness only. On account of avidya (ignorance) consciousness itself appears as subject-object duality and manifold world of phenomena,
Alaya, literally means store-house where all kinds of goods are kept in storage and vijana means consciousness, And it is-Alayavi jñāna's function to store up all the Vasanas (impressions) of one's thoughts, affections, desires and deeds. This Alayavijñana or all conserving mind is assumed to exist at the bottom of all the varieties of consciousness. Sthiramati commenting on Trimśika clarifies the significance of Alaya in three ways first of all it is called Alaya because it is a source place of all elements which are responsible for all kinds of suffering and defilement. Seeds of all elements are stored here. In the passage of time they come out of it taking different forms of consciousness. Secondly, from this Alaya only all elements are produced and thus they are connected with this Alaya as effect to cause. Thirdly, this Alaya is connected with all elements as cause to effect, The Alaya is a cause of all elements. There is a cause-effect relation between Alaya and elements.
1. Tattvam yat satatam dvayena rahitam bhränteśca sanniśrayaḥ, śakyam naivaca sarvathäbhilapitum yaccaprapañcātmakam. -Mahāyānasūtrālan kāra (MSA). X-13. Edited. S. Bagchi, Mithila Institute, Darbhanga, 1970.
2. Vijñānapariņāmo asau-Trimsika-1. Vijñaptimātratasiddhi.
3. Tatra sarvasankleśakadharmabijasthānatvāt ā!ayaḥ-Trimsikäbhāṣya, p. 10.
4. Aliyante upanibadhyante asmin sarvadharmāḥ kāryabhāvena ityalayaḥ. Ibid. p. 10. 5. Aliyate upanibadhyate kāraṇabhāvena sarvadharmeşu ityālayaḥ-Ibid. p. 10. T-18

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Asanga, states that Alayavijñāna is seed of all phenomena, 6 It is that principle in which seeds of phenomenal existence are prezent. It is responsible for creating all the elements of the phenomenal world. All kinds of dualities such as subject and object and thought constructions are product of Alayavi jñana only.? It is the supporting ground of entire phenomenal world and thus, it is called as Aśraya, Asraya means that on which anything is dependent and in this case the Ala ya is the Aśraya on which hangs the working of the Vijnanas and consequently the birth of the whole universe. Influence of ignorance is so powerful that consciousness influenced by this illusion loses its equanimity. It becomes defiled. It becomes Alayavijñāna. That means, the first product of parinäma of defiled aspect of pure-Vijñana is the Alayavijnana. Vasubandhu calls it vipakavi jñāna. i.e., consciousness in which all the effects of past karmas are-stored. It is on account of Väsanas, the Alayavijnana projects various forms out of it, 8
Vasana is again a very important concept and its knowledge is indespensible to the understanding of the Alayavi jñana. Vāsanā is derived from the root "vas', meaning 'to dwell', 'to stay', or 'to perfume'. In the Vijñānavāda texts it is used in two seoses combined, that is in the sense of a perfuming energy that leaves its essence permanently behind in the things it has perfumed. Väsanā, therefore, is a kind of super-sensuous energy (i.e, acintya vēsunā parināma) mysteriously emanating from every thought, every-feeling, or every deed on has done or does, which lives latently in the store-house called Alayavijñānā.9 Because of these Vásanās (impressions) left in the Alaya, the ego, and the material world, the subject-object dualities are produced. In the process of world-evolution this Alayavijñāna manifests itself in two forms. First it takes the form of an individual subject or ago (Kliştamanovi jñāna) and then it manifests itself in the form of various mental states and the so called external objects. Alaya, manas, manovi jñāna and the five senses are the products of defiled aspect of consciousness only. All kinds of modifications are caused by Alayavijñāna only. 10 But Asauga, makes it very clear that, behind these modifications, is the Citta or Dharmadhatu or Tattva, which is the permanent back-ground of all these, eternal, unchapging and non-dual.11
6. Bijam alayavijñānam. MSA. XIX-49, commentary. 7, Svadbätuto dvayābhāsāh. MSA. XT-32. 8. Vipāko mananākhyaśca vijñāptiravişay asya ca. Taträlayākhyam vijñānam vipakah
sarvabijakam. Trimsikā -2. 9. Studies in the Lankāvatārasūtra-D. T. Suzuki, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.,
London, 1975. P. 178. 10. Mahāyānasātrālankāra of Asanga-A study in Vijñānavāda Buddhism. Y. S. Shastri,
Indian Books Centre, New Delhi, 1989. P. 32. 11. MSA. VI-1.

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It is important to note that through this conception of Alayavijnana, Vijñānavādins have replaced the Hinayānist's theory of stream of thought by tbe theory of transformation (pariņāma) of consciousness. All the ideas are modifications of their store-consciousness. Prof. Sicherbatsky rightly pointed out that this tendency represents a disguised return from the theory of a stream of thought to the doctrine of the substantial soul." In the stream of thought every proceding moment of consciousness is the cuase of the following one. This relation called Samanantaraprat yaja is now preplaced by the relation of the store consciousness-Ālaya to its modifications 18 (pariņāma) This conception of Ālayavijñāna can be compared to primitive matter (Pradhana or Praksti) of the Sankhya system, according to which individual objects and ideas are modifications of Praksti only. Vijñānavādins, like-wise regard all separate ideas as modifications of their store-consciousness. 13 Again, this conception of Alayavi jñāna is compared with subconscious mind of the modern psychology, Both contain potential tendencies which will bear fruit in time. In this respect there is a similarity-between the two. But it must be kept in mind that ilayavi jñāna of Vijñānavādins is not merely psychological concept, it is also metaphysical concept. 14
Larkāvatārasūtra, one of the profound Mahāyāna texts deals with this conception of Alayavi jñāna According to Larkā, it has two aspects, pure and impure. In its pure aspect, it is unconditioned, free from subjectobject duality, beyond production and destruction and beyond all plurality of imagination, 15 In this respect it is equated with pure consciousness. There are numerous passages in Lankā which appear to all intents and purposes to be in favour of holding that Alayavijñāna is the ultimate Reality. According to it there is nothing other than Alaya which is also called as Cittamatra. This is again equated with Tathagatagarbha which in its intrinsic pature is immaculative. But being covered with contamination and taints it is not intuited in its true nature, viz., as the absolute Citta which is neither subject nor object. It is above changes. It is called Tathatā, Nirvāṇa, Advaya and the like. Change in the Alayavi jñana resulting in the eight fold vijñāna is only a seeming appearance. 1 B
Asanga's conception of Alayavijnana is little different from that of Larkā, Asanga gives only secondary place to Alayavijnana in his major work viz., Mahāyānasūtralarkāra. According to him, Alayavijnana is not 12. Conception of Buddhist Nirvāna-Stcherbatsky, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan, Varanasi,
P. 32. 13. Ibid-P. 32. 14. Mahayapasutrilankāra -A study in Vijñanaväda Buddhism-Y. S. Shastri, P. 33-34. 15. Lankāvatārasūtra-ed. D. T. Suzuki, London, 1959, P. 42-43. 16. Studies in Laukāvatāra-D, T. Suzuki, P. 179-180.

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permanent, immortal absolute reality as stated by Lankāvatārasütrā. It is a product of pariņāma of pure consciousness only. It is considered as lower concept by Asanga. 11 It is defiled aspect of the absolute Citta, therefore, not pure and permanent like pure consciousness, 18 He clearly states that, Āla yavi jñāna which is defiled aspect of Citta creates subjectobject duality and this duality is responsible for all kinds of pain and suffering.19 Purification of Citta leads to Niryāna. Nirvāna is nothing but becoming free from-subject-object duality created by Alayavijnana and stoping activities of Ālayavijñāna. It is withdrawing oneself from Alaya and its activities. 20 Withdrawing Citta from Alaya removes screen of ignorance (which is governing power of the forward movement of Alaya) and brings-realization of pure Citta, which is paramárthasatya in itself. Asanga makes this point very clear by stating that knowing that phenomenal world is nothing but product of Alayavijñāna, nothing but name and form, one realizes that nothing exists except non dual pure consciousness. He becomes one with it. He cannot distinguish himself from pure consciousness because, there is no-consciousness of consciousness. The consciousness itself is the Absolute.21 Thus, it is very clear that, Alayavi jñana of Asanga cannot be equated with Ala yaviñnâna of Lankavatāra.
The learned scholar Dr. D. T. Suzuki maintains that 'Lankävalara differs from the Yogācāra School in one important point i.e., that while the Yogacära maintains that the Alaya is absolutely pure and has nothing to do with defilements and evil passions, the Lankāvatara and Asvaghosa maintain the view that Tathagatagarbha or the Alaya is the storage of the impure as well as the pure, that is, both immanent and transcendent, both relative and absolute. 23 But this statement of the learned scholar seems to be not correct because as per our present knowledge of the Yogācāra school of Asanga and Vasubandhu, does not allow us to admit this view. We have already noted that Asanga never considers Alaya as absolutely pure, instead he considers it to be impure, lower aspect of the consciousness.98 He assigns secondary place to Ala yavaijñāna.
17. Hina eva dhātuh samudagatah alayavijñānabbävanī. MSA. 1-18. Comm. 18. Dauşbulya kāyasya alayavijñānasya-MSA. XIS-51. 19. Svadhātuto dvayabhāsãh sávadyāklesavrttayah-Com : Svadhātuto bhā vāri gāt ālaya.
vijñāpataḥ-MSA, X1-32. 20. Bijaparāvștteh ityalaya vijñānaparāvịttitaḥ. Padarthānām nirbhāsānām vijnananam
parā vịttiranāsravo dhātuh vimuktih. MSA. VI-44. Comm. 21. Cittadanyam alambanam grābyam Dāstitya vagamya budhyā tasyāpi cittamātrasya
nâstityavagamanam grāhyabhá ve grābakābhāvät. MSA-VI-8. Comm. 22. Studies in the Lankavatārasūtra-D. T. Suzuki, P. 182. 23. MSA. 1-18. Comm, and XIX-51.

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TRIPURĀ TANTRA (ŚRI VIDYA) : ITS PHILOSOPHY
AND PATH OF SĀL HANĀ
It is a wellknown fact in the history of Indian thought that liberation or self realisation is the highest aim of life for all the systems of Indian Philosophy, barring the Materialist (Cārvāka). Different systems in the field of Philosophical beritage have shown the various paths to achieve the same goal in accordance with difference in temparament, idiosyncrasy, as well as intellectual and spiritual advancement of the people. Tantra Śastra is one of the important branches of Indian thought which truely represents, quintessence of Upanişadic Philosophy, It is mainly practical scripture of Vedanta. It prescribes the means by which the highest aim of tife is fulfilled in an easy way by all, without any discrimination of caste, creed and sex. 1
The word “Tantra' has various meanings. More than twentyfive meanings have been ascribed to this word. In reality this word is originally derived from the root "tan'-to extend or spread out and usually applied to Tantra systems which pertains to the development of man's power, both material and spiritual. This Sastra is also known as Agama End Nigama. It is said that an Agama is so called because it proceeds from the mouth of Siva and goes to Girija, being approved by Vasudevu and Nigama is so called because it emanates from the mouth of Girijā to enter the ears of Śiva, being approved by Vasudeva. 3 The word Agama, which stands indifferently for the Veda and Tantra, shows its authoritative tradition. Tantra Sastra is considered as the fifth Vedat and called Sruti. Kullūkabhatļa, clearly states in his commentary on Manusmīti that Śruti
1. Matrkabheda Tantra-Introduction, ed, Bhattacharya Chintamani, Metropolitan
printing and publishing House, Calcutta, 1933, P. 4-5. 2. Ibid-Introduction, p. 1. 3. Āgatam Sambhuvaktrebhyo gatam ca Girijan ukham. Matamca Vasudevena tasmā
dagama ucyate. Nirgato Girijā vaktrāt gatasca Girišaśrutam. Matasca Vasudevasya
Nigamah parikathyate-Agamūdvaitanirnya, quoted in Mätskābheda Tantra, p, 2-3. 4. Bhagavän Parasurāmopyāha-Pancāmnāyān paramārthasărarūpän pranināya iti-Setu
bandha, by Bhāskararaya, ed : Agashe Kasinath Sastri, pub : Apto Hari Narayana, Anandashrama printing press, Pune, 1908. p. 24.

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is of two kinds-Vaidiki and Tantriki.5 There are mainly three kinds of Agamas namely Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva and Sakta. The Vaisnava Agamas mainly deal with idolatry, rules of temple architecture, worship of Tulasi plant (holy basil) and lay emphasis on the path of devotion, thus suited even to the lowest intellectual capacity. Vişnu and his consort Laksmi, are the main deities of these Agamas. More than 108 works with various commentaries, belonging to this sect show its popularity in olden days. Philosophical height of the Upanisadic idea of realising the unity of individual soul (Jivātman) and Universal soul (Paramatman) is hardly recognised in these scriptures. The Saiva Agamas are also idolatrous and ritualistic like the former. But Philosophically they are more advanced than the former. There are 28 Saiva Agamas with various commentaries. These Agamas incorporated the teachings of the Upanisads viz., unity of Jivätman and Paramatman; and the details of process of Yoga and the development of Kundalini Sakti is found in these Agamas.
The group of Sākta Āgamas really represents the finest Philosophy inherited by the Upanisadic thought. The Sakta Tantric study is mostly confined to the conventional details of external worship. Its hidden side of the esoteric culture is not truely presented to the learned world. This literature actually represents quintessence of mysticism which is based on the mystic doctrine of the unity of individual soul and Supreme Reality (Brahman), proclaimed in the oldest Upanisads. Sakta Tantra has touched the keynote of the Advaita philosophy by accepting this unity of Jiva and Para Brahman. This Tantra repeatedly states in clear terms that the highest form of Yoga (union) is the attainment of unity of Jiva with supreme soul.7
The entire Sakta literature is in the form of a dialogue between Lord siva and Parvati (Umā). It is believed that the revealer of the Sākta Tantra is Siva himself or Devi herself. Now it is the first who teaches and second who listens. Now, again, the latter assumes the role of Guru and answers the questions of Siva, for, the two are one.8
5, Śrutisca dvividha Vaidiki Tantrikica-Manusmrti-II-1, Commentary. ed Pandya Pranajivan Harihar, Pub: Desai M. L., Gujarati Printing Press, Bombay-1913,p. 30. 6. (a) Ayamātmā Brahma-Mand. Up.-2; Brh. Up.-II-V-19.
(b) Aham Brahmasmi-Brh. U.-I-IV-10,
(c) Tattvamasi-Chan. Up.-VI-XVI-3.
Isadyaṣṭottara'satopaniṣad ed. Panashikar Vasudhvasharma, Pub. Sheth Pandu
ranga Javaji, Nirnayasagar press, 19:5.
7. 'Aikyam Jivātmanorahuryogam Yogaviśaradāḥ'-Kulārṇava Tantra-IX-31-ed. Sharma Bhadrashila, Pub. Kalyana Mandir, Prayag, V.S. 2016, p. 57,
8. "Gurusisyapadesthitva svayam devah Sadasivaḥ. Praśnottaraparairväkyaiḥ tantram sama vatārāyat."-Mahāsvacchanda Tantra, quoted in Setubandha by Bhaskaracārya -ed. Apte, H. N.; Anand Ashrama Printing Press, Pune, 1908, P. 21.

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The unfortunate part of Šākta Tuntra is that, it is the most misunderstood and misrepresented system in the history of Philosophy and Religion. It is considered as ocult science, creation of some sex dominated people, purely materialistic and an immoral philosophy, Such kind of misconception and ignorance, still prevails among the people. This is due to excesses committed by some of the misguided followers of Sakta Tantra, namely, Vamamārgins. It is their literal interpretation and practice of Pancamakaras 9 viz wine (Madya), meat (Mâmsa), Fish (Matsya), grain (Mudra) and copulation (Maithuna), brought illname to this system. Really speaking these are technical terms of this secret system and cannot be taken literally. These words cariy their own deep meanings. These Pancamakāras esoterically symbolise different elements and principles. They generally mean the five great elements (Pañcamahabhūtas) taken collectively, viz., ether, air, fire. water and earth. These words are also interpreted keeping the real spirit of Tantra as, wine is the lupar ambrosia flowing from the Soma cakra which is in the cerebrum (Sahasrara). Meat is the surrender of the limited human to the unlimited Divine. Fish is the annihilation of 'I and Mine'. Grain is cessation from evils. Union Maithuna) is the union of the Kundalini-Śakti which is sleeping in the Muladhara, with Śiva in Sahasrara in the top of the head. 10 f Fañcamakāras are taken in this true spirit of Tantra there is no scope for misconception of this great system. It is reither an immoral nor a materialistic system. In this system woman is never considered as an object of animal passion and pleasnre, but she is adored as, Universal Mother or Parāsakri. It does not advocate Materialism. No doubt materialistic elements are found here and there in certain Tantric works, 11 but these should not be taken as final words of Tantra Sastra because it aims at both worldly enjoyment and spiritual freedon. 19 The main object of Sākta Tantra is to awaken the latent dynamism in all the planes of consciousness and divinise every elements in man and
9. (a) Madyam māmsam tatha matsyamudrāmaithunameva ca. Etāni pañcatattväni
tvayāproktani Sankara-Mahānirrvāna Tantra-I-59. ed. Bhattacarya Jivananda,
Vidyasagar, pub. Valmiki Printing Press, Calcutta, 1884, p. 13. (b) Madyam māmsam ca matsyam ca mudrā maithunameva ca, Makāra pancamam
Devi devatäpriti karanam-Kularnava tantra, X-5, p. 63. (c) Kulärnava Tantra criticises those followers, wbo misuse these five makāras - II
p. 14-15. 10. Tantrarāja Tantra-John Woodroffe, prefaee by Shuddhananda Bharati, pub. Ganesh
Co., Madras, 1954, p. XVI. 11. Parokşam ko anu jānīte kāsya kim va bhavisyati. Yadvā pratyakşa phaladm tade.
vottama darśanam-Kulārnava Tantra, II-89, p. 12. 12. 'Bukti mukti pradāyakam'-Kulārnava, II, p. 13.

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woman, by adopting short-cut method. It is fully acceptable to Vaidikafold. 13 Bhaskararaya, a well-known authority on Sakta Tantra, clearly points out that even the Veda talks of Tantra Vidya in conventional terms and not explicitly. 14
Sakti worship is the form of worshipping the supreme Brahman as a female entity. It is the worship of supreme Reality in the form of Universal Mother. Following the Upanisadic path, 18 Säktas maintain that Sakti is the Universal Energy which has brought the Universe into existence, which sustains and withdraws the Universe. 16
Now, this Sakti worship is not a new development in the history of Indian culture. This kind of Motherworship was recognised in the preVedic period. This type of worship has been traced to the Indus Valley Civilization. It is still not definitely known whether or not the Indus valley civilization had preceded or followed the Rgvedic samhita period but it may be concluded that the Sakti cult seems to have prevailed in India at least in circa 300017 B.C. The number of hymns written on various goddesses and more than 40 names of goddesses, indicate a fully recognised form of Sakti worship. 18 The Sakti is specifically referred to in the Ṛgveda with her eight different attributes-Kali, Tara etc. 19 Devisukta, Srisukta, Uṣā-Suktas of the Vedas are clearly indicative of worship of mother goddess. Thus, it is a faulty notion to believe that the Sakta Tantra has come out of the Mahayana Buddhist Tantra. It existed in India much earlier than the Mahayana Buddhism made its appearance on the Indian soil. The concept of mother goddess is found 13. (a) Setubandha, p. 24.
(b) Matṛkābheda Tantra-Introduction, p. 10f
14. Kāmo yoniḥ kamaletyevam sin ketikaiḥ, śabdaiḥ vyavaharati natu prakaṭam yām vidyam Vedapuruşopai.-Varivasyarahasya of Bhaskararaya, 1-8. ed. S. Subrahmanya Shastri, pub. Adyar Library, Madras, 1941, p. 8.
15. Yato vā imani bhūtāñi jayante, yenajātāni jīvanti, yat prayntyabhisam visanti, Taittiriyopanisat, Bhrguvalli, I. I'sadidasopanisad, pub. Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1978, p. 319.
16. (a) Layasthityudbhaveśvari'-Lalita trisati, works of Sankarācārya, Vol. 18, Vani
vilas Press. Srirangam. p. 237.
(b) Sṛṣṭisthiti vināśānām saktibhūte sanatani-quoted by Kaivalya'srama in the commentary on Saundarya Lahari-Ed. Ananta Krisna Sastri', pub. Ganesh and Company, Madras, 1957, p. 2.
17. Encyclopaedia of Indian Culture, Vol. IV, ed. Saletore R. N., Sterling Publishers Private Ltd., L-10, Green park Extension, New Delhi, 1984, p. 1271.
18. Saktt Cult in Ancient India-Puspendra kumar, pub. Bharati Publishing House, Varanasi, 1974, p. 10.
19. Mätṛkābheda Tantra, p. 9.

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in early Upanişads 90 also. There are many later Upanišads which havo developed the same idea of mother yoddess, that centre round Sakti regarded as Brahman and became the Philosophical basis of Sakta Tantra.
There are three Subschools within the Sakta Tantra, viz., Kaula, Miśra and Samaya and they have their own independent treatises. Kaula group has 64 treatises with various commentaries, %1 Miśra group has eight Ägamas. 29 These two schools emphasize external worship and their methods are mostly used to acquire material power and prosperity. Really it is some of the followers of Kaula group who have brought bad name to Tantra literature.
These two groups are considered as non-Vaidika by traditional Tantric writers like Sankara, Laksmidhara and others. Srividyopasakas are warned not to follow these paths, 23 The Samaya group is most important amonga the sākta Tantras on account of its philosophical height and its purified method of worship. This group of literature points the way to liberation along with material prosperity. This sama ya method of Sakri worship is accepted as the supreme path of realisation of Advaita by Adi Sankar. Its path is purely internal, though, as a first step in the spiritual advancement, it prescribes external worship of diagram and image. The main source of this Samaya method is five treatises known as śubhagamapancaka, whose authors are the great Sages, Vasiştha, Sonaka, Sanandana, Saratkumāra and Suka, 24 In adition to these five treatises, there are innumerable texts, such as Vamakeśvara, Tantrarā ja, Saundar ya. lahari etc., and many commentaries which propagate philosophy and
20. A(1) Kcnopanişat - DJI-12, p-3.
(2) Te dhyanayogougată apaśyan devātmasaktim svaguņa irnigūdhäm-Svetaśva
taropanişad-I-3. 20. B. (1) Tripurātāpinyupanişad-p. 461-70.
(2) Tripuropanişad- P. 472-73. (3) Bhāvanopanigad- P. 476-77,
(4) Bahvịcopanişad- p. 554-55. 21. Nit yaşodasikarnava. 1-14-21, ed.: Dviveda Vraja vallabha, Varāṇaseya Sanskrit
Viśvavidyalaya, Vārāṇasi, 1968; P. 43-44. 22. Saundaryalahari-31. Commentary by Lakşmidhara, p. 140. 23. 'Misrakam kaulamärgamca parityājyam hi Sankari'--Saundar yalahari-31, with
Lakşmidharā. -141. 24. Ibid. p-140.
T-19

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practice of Srividya.25 The main aim of our present paper is to bring out the finest philosophy and path of Sadhana of this Samaya group of literature.
The word Samaya is interpreted as either, 'He (Supreme Brahman) is' or 'She is' (Goddess) with me. It means that one has to think constantly that he is always one. with the ultimate Reality. He has to identify himself with the Supreme Brahman. Samaya is also commonly explained as offering worship to a cakra in the ether of the 26 heart. This internal worship is considered as the supreme by all the great Yogins. It is a higher kind of worship consisting of inward prayer, deep meditation and solemn contemplation.
In this Tantra, the Sakti is a synonym of Brahman of the Vedantic thought. She may be called Brahman or Mahāśakti or Universal Mother. The same Brahman of the Upanisads is termed as Tripura or Maha Tripura Sundari by these Tantric texts. The word 'Tripura' is pregnant with a significant meaning. The Universal Mother is known as 'Tripura' due to various reasons. In the Nityaṣoḍaśikārṇava it is stated that this supreme power is triple formed viz, creater (Brahma), Sustainer (Vişnu) and destroyer (Rudra). Again she is in the form of will power, power of knowledge and power of action and she creates three worlds, and is therefore called Tripura.27 She is the principle which exists prior to Trinity.28 Again this word 'Tripura' is interpreted as, She who has three angles, as well as three circles and her bhupura is three lined, her Mantra is said to be three syllables thus, since, she is everywhere triple, she is called Tripura,99 Again, philosophically more significant interpretations of this word Tripurā are found in these texts. Tripura means
25. Vāmakeśvara Tantra with setubandha, Rjuvimarsini, Artharatnävali, Tantrarāja, Mätṛkabheda Tantra, Varivasyarahasya, Lalita Trisati with Sankarabhāṣya, Kamakalä viläsa, Tripuram ahimnastotra, Saundaryalahari with Saubhagya vardhani, Lakṣmidhara and Aruṇāmodini; Tripura Tapinyupaniṣat; Tripuropaniṣat; Bhavanopaniṣat, Bahvṛcopanişat, etc.
26. Daharākāśāvakāśe cakram vibhavya tatra pūjādikan samaya iti, Lalita sahasranāma with Saubhagyabhaskara, verse-88, ed: Pansikar Vasudeva Lakṣman Shastri, Pub: Tukaram Javaji, Nirnayasagara press, Bombay, 1914 p-53.
27. Tripura Trividha devi Brahmaviṣṇvisarūpiņi. Jñanasaktiḥkriyāśaktiricchāśaktyātmika priye. Trailokyam samsṛjatyeṣa tripura parikirtita-Nityaṣoḍa'sikärnava-IV-II-12. p. 205-207.
28. Mürtitrayasyapi puratanatvāt tadambikäyästripureti nama-Lalita sahasranama with Saubhagyabhaskara p-133,
29. Trikonam maṇḍalam casya bhūpuram ca trirekhakam Mantro api tryakṣaraḥ proktaḥ tatha rupatrayam punah. Trividhäkuṇḍali śaktiḥ tridevänām ca Sarvam trayam trayam yasmāt tasmattu tripurāmatā. Ibid-verse I-Commentary, p-2.
Sṛṣṭaye.

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three nadis : suşumnā, Pingala and Ida and Manas, Buddhi and Citta, as Deri dwells (as Jiva) in these, she is called Tripura 80 Gaudapādasūtra says, "The difference is by the three tattvas. 31 The meaning is that the one Brahman is divided into three by the three tatqvus. In the commen. tary of the above, the tattvas are explained variously as qualities, forms, states, consciousness, worlds, Pitha, bija, divisions of Mantra, etc., and purā means beyond these. The gist of all these interpretations is that, she is the supreme power behind and beyond all these things.
The philosophy and aim of Tripura Tantra is the realisation of Advaita, i.e., Unity of Śiva and Sakti. Jivātman and paramātman. Quite in agreement with the Advaita Vedantic stand point, this Tantra maintains dual aspect of Universal power, namely Sagunna and Nirguna.
This Tantra describes the nature of Tripura in a similar manner as Upanişads describe the nature of Brahman. She is described as Nirvisesa (indeterminate) as well as Savijesa (determinate). These descriptions may seem to be contradictory but actually there is no contradiction. From two different standpoints Supreme Reality may be conditioned and unconditioned at the same time. From the standpoint of liberated soul it is unconditioned, from that of one in bondage, who has not yet reached the state of sameness or unity (sāmurasya), Brahman appears to be the cause of the Universe, endowed with omniscience and with other attri. butes. Thus, this Tantra constitutes two systems i one esoteric, philosophi. cal (Nirgunavidya) containing metaphysical truth for the few ones, rare in all times, who are able to understand it and another exoteric, theological (Saguna) who have less intellectual capacity and who want images, not abstract truth; worsbip, not meditation. But ultimately, it propagates non-dualistic philosophy of the Upanişads. At the transcerdental level, this Śakti is the highest knowledge (Samvid), beyond time and space and by its very nature, existence, consciousness and bliss.89 Tripura is the highest Reality in which there is neither rise, nor fall. It is self
30. Näditrayam tu tripurā susumnā pingala idā. Mano budhistathācittam puratrayamu.
dāhrtam. Tatra tatra vasatyesā tasmāttu tripuramata : Ibid 176-Commentary,
P-133. 31. Ibid, p. 133.
ha
32. (a) Deśakālākarabhedal samvido na hi yujyate-Tantrika varg mayame Saktadrsti.
Kaviraj Gopinath, Pub : Bihar Rastrabhasaparisad, Patna, 1963. p.4. . (b) Saccidānanda-Lalita Trišati with śān karabhāşya. Works of Sankara, Vol-XVIII,
Vanivilas Press, Srirangam p. 258. (c) Saccidanandasvarūpiņi Tripura iti niściyate-Nityāsodasikārņaya-Introduction, p-86.

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- Reality.38 She is the seed of all in the Universe, The Universe which resides inside of it emanates and shines forth outside of it.38 This Sakti is beyond 36 Tativas.57 Even Siva and Sakti emanate from this non-dual principle. She is in the form of Brahman and known as Parabhattürikā.38 She is the material cause of 36 Tattvas. Tripura is Existence, Consciousness and Bliss, and as such it is equivalent to the Brahman of the Upanişadic thought. She is beyond the three guņas and still she emanates them. She is the nature of Vidya and devoid of attributes.39 She is formless, immutable, all pervading Brahman, 40 She is the nature of Alman. 1 Brahman was alone in the beginning, states U panişads. Similarly Tripuro. panişod states that nothing existed in the beginng but the goddess alonc. Beginning does not literally mean beginning of this Universe. It is only knowledge point of view, it was alone in the beginning. It is she who has created the world with all the animate and inanimate objects. She is the Supreme power that permeates the three worlds and the three bodies and enlightens them both internally and externally. She is all forms and she fills all space and time. She is verily the self, and also everything else that is not self. She is wave incarnate on the ocean of the bliss of conscious existence. She is everything. She is the self, the universe, all gods and all that exists. She is the only truth and she can be known only through experiencing the oneness of the self and Brahman. She is the only Reality which pervades the whole Universe, 43 She is not related to anything for there is nothing else to relate. She is Unique. She is beyond luminous. 85 She is the highest Brahman, 34 and is the only Ontological
33. Nodeti nāstametyekā samvideşā svayam prabhā-Pañcadasi, quoted in Nityāşodasikar.
nava, Introduction p. 85. 34. Tripuraiva parambrahmetyabhidhiyate-Ibid-Introduction, p. 85, 35. Eesă să paramā śaktirekaiva-Ibid-IV-10, p. 205. 36. Samvideva bhagavati svāptaḥ stbitam jagad babih prakāśayatiti-Ibid, Introduction,
p. 85. 37. 36 Tattavas are : Siva, Sakti; Sadasiva, Isvara, Suddhavidya, Māyā, Kala, Kalā,
Vidya, Rāga, Niyati, Puruşa, Praksti, Abankāra, Buddhi. Mapas, five Jnanendriyas, five Karmendriyas, five Tanmātras and five Mahābhūtas-Nityotsava by Umānandanātha - 1IIrd edition, ed : Shastri Mahadeva, Gaekwad's Oriental Institute, Baroda,
1948, P, 7. 38. Nityaşodasikārnava 1-1, p. 9. 39. Nirguna-Lalitásabasranāma 95, p. 61. 40. Lalita Trisati with śārkarabhāsya, p. 218-19. 41. Sarvátmika-Trišati, p. 217. 42. (a) 'Sadeva saumya idamagra asid ekamevädvitiyam'
(b) Devi hyekagra asit-Babvịcopadişat-1-Išādy astottaraśatopanişad-p. 554. 43. Ibid, p-554.

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all relational basis of knowing and knowledge. She is pure consciousness. She is indeed the turiya, beyond the word and thought, inaccessible and of un-paralled grandeur. 44 She is un-knowable, infinite, ungraspable, un-born and non-dual. She is unknowable because even gods do not know her nature. She has no limit, and she is thus known as infinite. She is ungraspable, and she is thus known as imperceptible, no one knows her origin thus known as un-born. She alone resides everywhere, thus known as non-dual. She is consciousness all compact. She is indescribable. 45 She cannot be described because she is unlimited. In describing her we are making infpite as finite. Infinite cannot be limited. She is beyond speech, touch and tongue. Even gods cannot grasp her nature. 46 She cannot be defined in term of any categories for there is nothing besides Her. Nature of Tripura is similar to 'not this', 'not this, of the Upan şads. She is ordinarily in-expressible, So, the best way of describing this unpredicable and incomprehensible Reality is via negative or through negatives by calling it, infinite, immutable, indivisible and inexhaustible.41 Positive expression is in a sepse a limitation, for it implies the duality of the experiencer and the experienced, the denotive and denoted. The negative concept denies the possibility of such knowledge with regard to Supreme Brahman. It is beyond, quite beyond the grasp of human faculty or psychic apparatus. This Reality (Tripurā) is devoid of the distinction of knowledge, known and knower. 48 She is the highest Universal. When the highest Universal is known, all the particulars included in it are known. She is ur-pointable all pervading, pure consciousness. 4 9 She cannot be understood by scriptural study, 80 She is ore undivided bliss and self of all. She is supporting ground of all.51 Even though, inner controller of all, she is unaffected by all blemishes, 82 like the sun who is unaffected by any blemishes,
44. Saundaryalahari-98. ed : Shastri Subrahmanya and Ayyangar Srinivas T. R.
Theosophical Publishing House Adyar, Madras -1977. 45. Lalita Trisati with śāji kara bhāsya, pp. 175, 180, 192. 46. Nityāsodasikarnava-1-9, p. 23. 47. Devyupanişad-p. 471. 48. Joanajimitrile yānămabhedabhavanam - Bhavanepuniya, p. 476. 49. Trisati-p. 175, 218. 50. Ibid-p. 180. 51. Sarvadhāra-Ibid, p. 218. 52. Sûryo yatha sarvalokasya cakṣuḥ nalipyate cākşuşairbāhyadoşaih. Ekastathā sarva.
bhūtāntarātmā na lipyate lokaduhkhena bahyaḥ-quoted by Sankara inb Trisatibhāsya, p. 219.

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She is untouched by pain and pleasure, 53 She is neither girl, por maid, nor old, neither female normale, nor neuter. 54 She is inconceivable, immeasurable power, the being of all which exists, devoid of all duality, the Supreme Brahman, attainable in illumination alone. Though without feet, she moves more quickly than air, though without ears, hears even subtlest saund, though without eyes, perceives everything, Though without tongue, she tastes all taste. 55 The scriptural statements like 'I am Brahman', 'This Ātman is Brahman' •That thou art', etc., indicate that non-dual Tripurā only.56 She is the innermost self of all.87 She is the undivided one consciousness, which continues in all the three states-waking, dreaming and dreamless state. This consciousness in man, is like ether covered by pot. Though pot is destroyed, the ether inside of it is untoucbed by destruction. When darkness in the form of ignorance is removed, it shines in its own purity and one realises non-dual nature of it."
She is known as highest knowledge, knowing which everything else becomes known. 09 She is identified with one's own self. 60 Realisation of Tripura is nothing but the state of perfect identity of the self. This is the state of pon-dual, blissful communion, unitive life, in which there is neither bondage, nor liberation. In this state entire Universe, even creator, doer, action, cause, effect, and everything appears as one Universal self.COA It is a state in which positives and negatives are one and the same. In it there is neither origination nor destruction. It is beyond all fancy of imagination. It is a really a state of Supreme Brahman. This is the state of Adraita-Unity of individual self and Brahmun.61
53. Hanopādānanirmuktā- Trisati -p. 234. 54. Śakti and sākta-John Woodroffe, Pub.. Ganesh and Co. Madras, 1951. 55. Ibid. p. 43. 56. Bahvycopanişat. p. 555. 57. 'Sarveāşmantahpuruṣah sa ātmā.--Tripurātīpinyupanişad-1, p. 469. 58. Ibid-11. p. 469. 59. Nityāşodasik ärnava with setubandh-IV-2, p. 132, 60. (a) Sadanandapūrṇaḥ svätmaiva parādevatā lalita-Nityasoda'sikarnava,
(b) Paripurnasvātmaikyasvarūpā-Bhāvanopanişat. p. 477. (c) Kartā kārayita karma karanam kāryamevaca. Sarvitmatayā bhāti prasādāt
parameśvarāt-Tânirika Vangmaya me Säktadsști-p. 163-164. 61. Bhāvābhāva vinirmuktam nāšotpatti vivarjitam. Sarva sankalpanatilan parabrahman
taducyate--Ibid. p. 172.

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This Supreme Reality can be known either as Siva or Sakti because they are not two different entities, but one and the same.69 Though one in essence, yet for the sake of our convenience, we may call Siva as Static and Sakti as Kinetic energies. Siva is prakāśa (Knowledge) and Sakti is Vimarsa (activity) aspects of the same Brahman. When we emph. asize knowledge side, it is Sira and the same thing is Sakti when activity side is emphasized. Together they form a single Unity called PrakasaVimarsa Svarüpa.63 in the form of Siva it is inactive, indefferent, nonrelative, witness self. The same principle in the form of Sakti is material cause of the Universe. But they are inseparable like heat from fire, whiteness from milk, sweetness from sugar, luminosity from light and weight from material bodies. 64
Mayā is power of Sakti. Veiling herself with her own Māyā, She becomes desirous of creation. Then there arise 36 Tattvas 65 including Śiva and Sakti and creative, sustantive and destructive powers also arise, then arise the worlds and elements of which they are composed. Creative, sustantive and destructive powers are not distinct entities. They are all une and the same as parts of Her. Creation is a mode of Divine existence and Divine energy sustains the Universe that binds the atoms with atoms. Again destruction is also an aspect of Divine energy that goes in hand in hand with the creative energy. Thus creative, preservative and destru. ctive forces are but the three dspects of Divine energy that exists in Brahman.66
1 his Tantra has accepted Sakti pariņāmaväda. Sakti itself, transforms into the form of Universe. World is expansion of this Universal Consciousness. Thus, this world is also real.67 It is not Brahmavivarta like
62. (a) Sakti Saktimatorbbedam vadantyaparamārthatah. Abhedamanupaśyanti yogipas
tatt vacintakāḥ-Saundaryalahari with Saubhāgya vardhani, 1. Commentary, p. 3. (6) Sivasaktiritihyekam Tattvamähurmaņişinah--Tantrika vangmayame Śaktadış!i, p.76. 63. Sakti Cult in Ancient India-Puspendra Kumar, p 97-98. 64. Ibid-p. 151. 65, Nityāsodasikārnava--Introduction, p. 85-50. 66. Sak i Cult in Anciant India-p. 151-2. 67. (a) 'Asyām parinatāyān tu na kaścit para işyate-Nityaşodasikarnava--IV-5, p. 196. (b) 'Aupanişadām pakşastu parasya cidrūp asya brahmaṇaḥ saktirmāyākhyā. Sācaja
daiva. Saiva jagataḥ pariņāmyupādānam. Param brabma tu vivartopādānam. Ata eva jagato api māyikatvāt jadat vam mitbyātvam ca. Tāptrikāņām paksastu paracinnistha yā cicchatih aupaoikşadánāmapi sammatā saivānantarūpatvāt māyetyucyate....Tatpariņāma eva prapañcah Ata eva cidrūpah "Cid vilasah prapanco ayam" iti Jñanavasişțbāt. Ata eva ca satyo api-Nityāşodasik arnava with setubandha, p. 135.

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Advaita. This Sakti is not material like Sankhya philosophy but pure Consciousness. It is not praksti of the Sankhyas, which is unconscious and real. Even great Advaita stalwart Sonkara treats Sakti of the Tantra as Supreme Brahman.
It is very important to note that this Tantric literature lays stress on the dynamic nature of the creative power, i.e., Sakti bere as Brahman itself. Though the conception of the goddess Tripura corresponds to that Impersonal Brahman of the Upanişads this Tatra literature, emphasised the dynamic aspect of the godhead-the activity of panifestation of a deity in a form of Divine energy. The Saktas bave transformed the Impersonal Absolute Brahman of the Upanişads into a personal divinity. that is the omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient Sakti or a Divine Mother-the source, support and end of the entire empirical Uoiverse 89 According to this Tantra the supreme transcendental Reality (Brahman) which is really nameless and formless conceived through religious imagination becomes goddess in Saguna form. The Nirguna Brahman of the Upanisads comes down step by step and assumes the form of a goddess, and becomes an object of worship in the form of Universal Mother. All the paraphernalia for worship are then offered to her. This concept of the highest as Mother is a special feature of Sakta Tantra and it has its own significance. Mothe, always nurishes a more charitable attitude forgives the faults of her children and offers them an opportunity to reform their ways. This attitude of forgiveness and compassion, love and pity are more natural to Mother than to fatber. Thus. supreme Brahman in the personified form beconies affectionate Mother, worshipped in the name of Maha Tripurasundari. She is also known by various other names, such as Srividya, Sri Lalità Pañcaduśākşari, şodasi, Kamešvari and so forth. She is conceived as the most high, bigher than Sarasvati, Laksmi. higher than Brahma, Vişnu, Isvara and even Sadasiva. To Worsbid of Universal Mother in the Saguna form with ceremonial pomp is only
support for meditation on the highest, which is strictly beyond thought and mind. The Mother is really the bighest Brahman in empiric dress.
68 (a) Lalità Trisati with śānkarabhāşya p. 169, 178, etc.,
(6) Saundaryalahari, 35, 98. 69. (a) Lalita Trisati, p. 235,
(b) Saundaryalahari-7 p. 41.
(c) Ibid—I, Lakşmidharā, p. 2. 70. (a Saundarpalahari-22-29, p. 36-42.
(b) Trisati p. 198.

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The significances of the description of the highest Brahman in Saguna form is to indicate that she is near enough to us and yet far away, sbc is in the world and also beyond it and that she is both immanent and trascendent. In this form she is described as resplendant as the newly rising sun. She is also three eyed and holds in her four arms, noose, goad, arrow and bow. She can be worshipped either in female form or male form. In the, male form she is worshipped in the form of Lord Śri Krşņa.71 This Saguna aspect is only for those who are ordinary mortals, highly emotional and unable to meditate on the highest attribute less Brahman.
The beautiful description of goddes Tripura in Saguna form and significance of its worship is found in many texts such as Saundaryalahari and Tripurāmahimnastotra. This kind of description is mainly to rouse our emotion of devotion and strengthen it by furnishing suitable support for meditation. Tripura is described from head to foot in these texts. This is really intended to show that the Supreme Being is also Supremely beautiful and when it gets embodied in human form, for the benefit of dull witted mortals, the beauty that is its essence naturally shines through every tissue and filament. 19
Tripura is the supreme deity. All other gods and goddesses are subordinate to her, and offer obeisance to her.78 Inspired by her, Brahmã creates the world, Visnu sustains it and Rudra destroys. The relative reality and objectivity of the world and its regularity and law abiding nature are due to her. She is absolute in the world context. She is the supreme from the cosmic end. She is the moral governer and lord of the law of Karma.lt She is the form of ocean of mercifulness. 78 she is the bestower of all kinds of riches and happiness, 76 Mother of all77 and bestower of ultimate liberation. 8 71. (a) Tantrarāja Tantra-John Woodroffe, p. 24.
(b) Kadaciddyllality put rupa ktsnavigrabi-Lalitätrisatibhãy ya-p, 225-26: (c) Tantrarāja Tantra, XXXIV-p. 99.
(d) Lalita Sahasranāmabhäsya, Versc 16, p. 9. 72. Devi Worship in Saundaryalahari-Iyer Venkatarama M. K., Pub Prabhuddha
Bharata, Sept. 1959, p. B-1, 73 (a) Saundaryalahari, 24-25, p. 37-38.
(b) Trišati, p. 211. 74. Kārņādi sākşiņi kārayıtri karmaphalaprada --Trisati-4, p. 173. 75. 'Karuņāmộtasāgara'-Trisat 1-2, p. 169, 76. Ibid-7, p. 184-87. 77. Sarvamata'-Ibid, p. 218-9. 78. Sadgatidayini-Ibid, p. 258-260.
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The worshipper of Tripura, becomes the rival of Sun, Garuda, Manm. atha, Fire and Brahma, Visņu and Sankara,? 9 The devotee of Tripura acquires great learning, becomes exceedingly prosperous and develops a charming personality. 80 Devi confers all sorts of powers to her devotee. She fulfils all the desires. Her devotee becomes master of all arts, and obtaios unparalleled name and fame.81 She bestowes all worldy prosperity to her devotee. The devotee of Tripura, enjoys all the worldly riches and becomes one with her (Brahman) in the end. 8 9
Path of Sadhana This Tripura Tantra is mainly practical scripture of Vedanta. Though this Tantra represents Upanişadic philosophy, its main emphasis is on the practical aspect of realisation of Brahman. No doubt this Tantra has exaIted the supremacy of knowledge, but it emphasizes on that knowledge which is obtained from spiritual experience. Mere knowledge derived from scriptures will not lead to the realisation of one's own self. Mere scriptuaral speculation or erudite scholarship in Vedanta does not necessarily lead to real knowledge. Real knowledge consists in spiritual experience that can liberate the soul from eternal bondage. Thus both theory and practice are of utmost importance for a devotee to reach the the highest goal. For this reason, this Tantra literature prescribes a set of disciplines, to be followed by the aspirant on the path of realisation of Advaita. But it is very important to note that these disciplines described by Tantra do pot propagate self torture and dry austerity. It is clearly mentioned in these texts that, worship of goddess brings all worldly prosperity and enjoyment and ultimately leads to liberation, 88
Now, it is necessary to set forth the nature of thc Tantric Sadhana at some greater length.
These Tantric texts advocate two kinds of worsbip of Tripurā; the internal or higher form of worship, consisting of deep meditation and solemn contemplation for the highly advanced and the external intended for the less evolved, ordinary mortals. Saktas believe that the Universal
79 (a) Nityaşodasikārnava-I-3, p. 14.
(b) Saundaryalahari-101, p. 251. 80. --Saundaryalahari-5. 6, 13, 18, 101. 81. Tripurāmahimanastotra-51-53, Kävyamala-part XI. ed. Pandit Sivadatta and Kasinath
Pandurang parab, Nirnayasagar Press, Bombay-1933, p. 36-37. 82. Ibid-54, p. 37. 83. Yatrasti bhogo na hi tatra mokso, yatrasti mokṣo nahitatra bogaḥ.
Sivapadam bhojayugārcakānām bhuktisca muktiśca karasthiteva-Saundaryalahari with Saubhagyavardhani, p. 22.

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energy or Spiritual power in man lies dormant and is likened to a serpent that has coiled up (Kundalini Sakti). This power has to be aroused from its place (which is at the beginning of the spinal cord and led up step by step to the cerebrum. Here, in this state Sakti unites with Siva. This
e liberation. Thus, the primary purpose of the aspirant is to awaken this sleeping Snake or Sakti. This is done in many ways, such as purely practising Yogic technicalities, reciting sacred letters (Japa) and worshipping diagram and image.
Details of Yogic disciplines are set forth by Śankara in Saundaryalah. ari.84 Yoga speaks of șatcakras viz., Mūladhara (original abode), Manipura (full of rays), Svadhisthana (own place), Anahata (sound), Visuddht (the ether above) and Ajña (mind between the eyebrows), within the human body. 88 These are actually psychic centres in the body. These six psycbic centres represent the cosmic elements of earth, water, fire, air, ether and the mind respectively. 86 Last and high up in the cerebrum, there is the Sahastāra Kamala-thousand petalled lotus. An aspirant by deep meditation led it up to the cerebrum where this Sakti disengaged from all that is adventitious to it, emerges in its pative splendour as pure consciousness, It is here in this state Sakti is transformed into absolute consciouness. It is a state of liberation. This method of applying Yogic technicalities is considered as higher form of internal worship or subile meditation (Suksmadhyāng). 87 Highest type of meditation (Paradhyāna) is done by meditating on the Parasakti as one impartite, and impartible whole and visualising the Atman as steady, motionless flame in a windless place. 8 8 Ja pa (reciting sacred letters) is an aid to meditation. Mantra is identified with Devi, Pancadaśakşari Mantra is considered as supreme Mantra, wbich is also called Gupta Gayatri. 8 9 It is a formula for deep meditation. This mantra is so called because it contains fifteen germinal letters. These letters represent union of Siva and Sakti, Jiva and Brahman. 90 This Mantra represents body of Tripurasundari. Tripura herself is called Pancadasi because she is witness of five kinds of stages of the universe
84. Saunndaryalahari-7, p. 10. 85. Saundaryalahari with Lakşmidhară-9, p. 70. 86. Ibid. p. 70. 87. Tantrarāja, p. 76. 88. Ibid, p. 76. 89 (a) Tripurätāpinyupanişad, p. 461-463. (b) Tasyā rūpadvitayam tatraikam yat prapathyate aspa stam vedesu caturşvapi
paramaty antam gopaniyalaram--Varivasyärahasya, Bhaskararāya, p. 8, 90. Lalitātrisati, p. 291.

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and indestructible. $1 Bhāskararāya gives fifteen meanings of this mantra.99 Three hundred meanings of Pancadasākşari is explained in Trisatibhâsya by Sankara.98 The fifteen letters of this Mantra are divided into three groups (Katas) viz. Vägbhava, Kamara ja aru Sakti. Vāgisvari is the JnanaŚakti which is in the Vagbhava division and confers salvation, Kamaraja is the Kāmyasakti, the ruler of desire and fuláls desire. The sakti division is the will power-the supreme energy and is in the form of Siva.94 Again, each group represents specific divine powers, such as Fire, Sun and the Moon. These three groups represent, the three states of waking, dreaming and dreamless sleep--Visva. Tai jasa and Prajña and willpower, power of knowledge and power of action. In essence, this Mantra is said to comprise all the fundamental truths of the Universe. This is considered as a very powerful Mantra and recitation of this is sure to yield results. It is said that the man who has been intiated to this Mantra has no more rebirth.98 This Pancadašākşari is known as either Hādi or Kādi, on the basis of beginning letter of the Mantra. It is said that Hādi is followed by Lopamudra and Kadi path is followed by Haya. griva, Agastya and Dürvâsa. For the very highly advanced and initiated, a sixteenth letter is added, and it is called sodasáksari. This sixteenth letter is kept very secret and not openly stated.
The Paths of Yoga and Japa Sadhanī are purely internal type of worship. The mind cannot remain steady on, what is formless (amürta). Therefore a form is accepted as aid to meditation. Form is also of two kinds-gross and subtle. The grossest form is pictorial that which is with hands, feet and so forth. Subtle form is the diagrm which is also called the body of Mantras. The well known Sriyantra or Sricakra is adopted for the worship of Tripura or Lulita. Details of Sricakra are given in Vāmakeśvra Tantra, Tantrarāja, Saundar yalahari, Saubhāgya Vardhani and Lakşmidhară.96
91 (a) Lalitā sahasranama, p. 50-52. (b) Daśāpañcakabhedena prapancasya vilasinah. Säkşiņi cūkgari Sasınāt tasmāt
pāncadaśaksari'-Saundar yalahari with Saubhāg ya vardhani, p. 49. 92. Varivas yārahasya p. 37-110. 93. Lalitātrisati, p. 166-290. 94. Nityāșodasikarnava-IV-11, p. 207-196. 95 (a) Yasya 110 pascimam janma yadi va Sankarah svayam.
Tenaiva labhyate vid vā śrīmatpaficadasăk şari.-Lalitātrisati, p. 293. (b) Yasya vijñānamätrena punarjanma na vidyate. ---Mātrkābhedatantra-VII-1, p. 38. 96 (a) Nityāşodasikārnava Vāmakes vara Tantra), I-29-43, P. 50-67 and 1-59 75 p. 83-88.
(b) l'antrarāja Tantra-VIII-52-71. (c) Saundaryalahari with Saubhāgya vardhani and Lakşmidharu-10. (d) 'Bindu trikona vasukoņadaśarayugmaman vasranāgadalasamyutaşodasāram.
Vịttatrayam ca dharani sadanatrayam ca sricakrarajainuditam paradevatäyāh.' ---quoted in Setubandha by Bhaskararāya, p. 27.

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The Sriyantra is composed of nine triangles and Cakras, one within the other until the central point or Bindu is reached. The names of the nine Cakras are Bhupura, sixteen petals, eight petals, first set of fourteen angles, second set of ten inner angles, third set of ten angles within these, fourth set of eight angles within these, three angles within these and the point of Bindu. In each of the nine Cakras the Gooddess Tripurasundari is worshipped in its centre under one of her nine names united with the Padukamantra of seven letters. These nine Cakras are also called Trailok yamohana, Sarvasuparipuraka, Sarvasamk şobhana, sarvasaubhagyadayaka, Sarvärthasädhaka, Sarvarakṣākara, Sarvarogahara, Sarvasiddhiprada and Sarvanandamaya, on account of their main functions. 97 These nine Cakras also represent creation (sṛṣṭi), maintenance (Sthiti) and absorption (Sambara).98 In this middle of this Śricakra there are nine triangles. The five triangles with their apexes pointing downwards are indicative of Sakti elements and four with their apexes pointing upwards are of Śiva. But Lakṣmidhara, mentions that according to Kaulas four triangles pointing downwards are of Siva and the five triangles pointing upwards are of the Sakti.99 The Bindu is in the innermost triangle. It is all blissful. It represents the unity of Siva and Sakti. This central point or bindu is also known as yonibindu. The word Yoni hear does not mean the generative organ of woman, it means source of the entire Universe, the cause and the womb of the Universe.
There are two different processes to construct Śricakra. To construct Śricakra from the bindu outwords is the evolution mode (Sṛṣṭikrama)the method accepted by Samyacarins and to work it out from the circle to Bindu is involution method (Samharakrama) adopted by the Kaulas, 100 This is a diagrammatic presentation of Divinity and mantra is its sound expression. Both these, Śricakra and Mantra embody the subtle essence of Devi herself.
A deeper study of construction of Sricakra reveals that, it is also a diagrammatic representation of the human body which consists of nine cakras. According to this Tantra system, nine elements sustain the human body. They are, skin, blood, flesh, muscle and bone and marrow, semen,
97. Nityaṣoḍasik arṇava with Rjuvimarsini and Artharatnavali, p. 135-36. 98. Setubandha, p. 40.
99. Kaulamatānusāreņa adhomukhani catväritrikonani Šivätmakāni,
Urdhvamukhani pañca trikoṇāni Saktyātmakāni.'-Lakṣmīdharā. p. 72,
100. 'Sambarakramena Kaulamargah...Sṛṣṭikramastu samayamargans-Lakṣmidhara, p. 82-83,

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vital air and soul. The first five originate from the Sakti and are known as Siva Yuvatis. They are diagrammatically represented as five triangles with their apexes pointing downwards and remaining four clements are Sivasvari pa and called Srikanthas. They are represented by four triangles with their apexes pointing upwards. In addition to these nine elements which sustain the body, there are also fortyfour elements composing it and these are arranged as so many triangles on the sides of the pine triangles. 101 It means that the entire human body represents Sricakra, which is Devi herself.
The main object of the worship of Sricakro is the realisation of the unity of knower, knowledge and the known, 102 che realisation of Sarvātmabhāva. The devotee has to abolish the imposed difference between bim and the deity. In this Tantra, this Advaita bhāva is expressed in ritual, meditation and Japa, In the beginning of the ritual the worshipper has to think that I am He or she' and should neditato upon the unity of Jiva is Brahman. 103 An aspirant should meditate upon himself as one and the same with her. 104 Kularnava tells us that the body is the temple of God. Jiva and Sadāśiva. Let him give up his ignorance as the offering which is thrown away and worship with the thought and feeling I am He or She'. 105 Even, Nyasa, Japa, Homa, Tarpana used in this method of worship indicate the Advaita bhāva with the goddess. Nyäsa means identifying one's own body with the deity's image. Japa generates a sense of identity with the deity. Homa is destroying the sense of multifariousness of the Universe. It is dissolution of all the distinctions such as “Thou" and "I", "15" and "Is not". Tarpana is the contentment (tipti) caused by the realisation of identity of all things with one's self.106 Yantras and mantras help to produce steadiness in the belief of one's unity or oneness with the Atman. 101
101. Saundaryalahari-II, ed. Subrahmanya Sastri and Srinivas Ayyangar, Adyar, Madras,
1977, p. 64-71. 102. 'Jñātā svātmā bhavejjñānamarghyam jñeyam haviḥ sthitam.
Śricakrapūjanam teşām ekikaranamiritam.'-Tantraraja Tantra-XXXV, p. 102. 103, Guram natvā vidhanena so ahamiti purodhasah. Aikyam sambhāvayet dhimän jīvasya
brahmaņoapi ca.'-Gandharva Tantra quoted in Sakti and Sakra, p. 568. 104. 'Evam dhyāt vā tato devim so ahamātmānam arcayet.'-Ibid, p. 568. 105. Deho devālayah devi jivo devah Sadasivah.
Tyajedajñānanirmālym so ahambhävena pūjayet. ---Kulārva Tantan-IX, p. 58. 106 (a) Nyasastu devatātvena svätmano dehakalpanam.
(b) Japastu tanm ayatā rūpabhavanam. (c) Kartavyamakarta vyamaudāsīnyanityātmavilapanam homalt
(d) Eşam anyonya sumbhedabhāvananı tarpanam.--Tantrarā; a-XXXV, p. 101. 107. Ibid, p. 104.

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Tripura Tantra...
No doubt, method of worship abvocated by this Tantra in the priliminary stages involves the dualistic idea, i.e. worshipper and the worshipped. But this idea disappears in the end and spiritual experience gained through this worship, i.e, merging of the individual soui into the supreme energy or Brahman, supports the idea of oneness between the worshipper and the worshipped. After realisation of this unity, the aspiraut will ever be in the enjoyment of the bliss of Brahman. He becomes Jivanmukta here anp now, 108 Thereafter, he is not bound to perform either any Puja or Japa or dhyana. Every word, thought, act and movement of his will be a spontaneous offering to the highest deity. 109
We have seen that immorality is not the aim of the cult of Mother worship. The highest impersonal Brahman of the Upanisads is worshipped in its feminine form. This Tantra mentions in clear terms that only those who are well exercised in selfdiscipline are eligible to worship the highest Brahman in the form of Universal Mother. Sankara rightly pointed out that the worship of Universal Mother is impossible for those who have no control over the senses. 110 In Tantraraja Tantra we are told that worshipping this goddess, controlling the wild longings, one will fully know one's own true nature and conquer the proclivities wtih which one is born and thus become one with true, pure manifest and boundless becoming.111 This Tantra emphasises the worship of qualified Brahman in the form of Universal Mother which leads in effect to the merging of the individual soul (Jivatman) of the aspirant into the nondifferentiated Brahman. This Tantric path is an approach to Impersonal Brahman through saguna in essence. It points out the gate-way to approach the highest reality which is attainable only through spiritual devotion, mental purity, self control and the knowledge of one's own real nature, It aims at the gradual dissociation of the spirit from the shackles of matter and also from the limitations that are imposed on it by its association with the mind and the antaḥakarana. Matter exists in the form of five gross elements (earth, water, fire, air, and ether) which are formed out of the five Tanmatras (finer essence). Each element has its own peculiar quality (i.e. odour, taste, colour. touch and sound, respectively) and we have special sense organs (i.e. the nose, the tongue, the eyes, the skin and the ears) to perceive these qualities. Enjoyment of the worldly objects
108. Bhavanaparo jivanmukto bhavaji.-Bhavanopaniṣat, p. 477.
109, Saundaryalahari-27.
110. Saundaryalahari-96.
111. Tantrarāja Tantra-XXXVI, p. 109-110.
159

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through these organs and mind, keeps the soul of the man in bondage. First of all the aspirant of liberation has to transcend these senses and objects. Then he has to rise above the limitations set by his own mind and the internal organ. When consciousness is completely freed from all its adjuncts, it shines in its own native splendour.112 This is the realisation of oneness with Universal Consciousness. This is the gist of the philosophy of Tripura Tantra and its path of Sadhana.
160
112 (a) Bṛhadaraṇyakopaniṣad-III-1-9, p. 792-3.
(b) Devi worship in Saundaryalahari, p. B-5-6.

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PLACE OF SUICIDE IN INDIAN CULTURE AND RELIGIONS
16
Indian Philosophical point of view, suicide or atmaghata is not possible in the real sense of the term. Atman or self is indestructible because it is unborn, uncaused, it has neither beginning nor an end. Bhagavadgitā clearly states that, self cannot be killed either by any weapon or water or wind or fire. Killing or destruction is possible only in the cause of those things which are produced by causes and conditions. Atman is beyond causation. Atmaghata or Atmahanana is used mainly to denote destruction of the body. Some times, the word Atmaha, is used in the philosophical writings to indicate a person who does not try to realise one's own Atman after acquiring this precious human body. The destruction of body or suicide, according to one's own sweet will or suicide on account of cause is condenmed in philosophical texts. Isävasyopaniṣat clearly warns that one, who commits suicide, can never see the light of knowledge. He reaches after death, the sunless, lightless regions covered by impenetrable darkness. His fate is to remain in the world of ignorance. 5 The reason behind such kind of opposition to suicide is that according to Indian tradition (except Carvaka) highest aim of life is realization of one's own self (ätmānam viddhi) which is pure bliss, untouched by worldly pain and pleasure. This is highest state which is called freedom, Mokṣa or Nirvana. Body is the means to achieve this highest goal of life. If this body is destroyed, how can one achieve this goal? Destroying one's body means harming one's own achievement. Therefore, Indian Philosophy
1. Na jāyate mriyate vā vipaścinnāyan kutaścinna babhüva kascit. Ajo nityaḥ śāśvatoyam purano na hanyate hanyamane sarire.-Kathopaniṣat, II-18. Isadidaṣopaniṣad. Pub. Motilal Banarassidas, New Delhi-1978.
(b) Bhagavadgita-II-20. Gita press, Gorakhpur-1969.
2. Nainam chindanti sastrani nainam dahati pavakaḥ. Na cainam kledayantyapo no soşayati marutaḥ--Bhagvadgitä-II-23-63.
3. Hanyamane sarire-Ibid-11-20. also Katha. p. II-18.
4. Vivekacādāmaṇi of Śankarācārya-4, works of Sankarācārya, vol. XIV, Pub.
Press, Srirangam.
5. I savāsyopani sat-3.
6. Priyapriye na sprṣataḥ.
T-21

Vanivilas

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tells us that you are born here as human beings to attain this final goal of undivided Bliss and do not miss this opportunity killing one's own body. Life is not worthless but store-house of abundent energy. It should be utilized in right direction. It should not be wasted by destroying one's own body.
The word suicide is also understood in general senee which is comman to all civilizations of the world. It prevailed in India and other civilized countries since time immemorial. Almost all the ancient civilizations of the world such as Indian, Greek, Latin and others were familiar with this tragic act.? It was also practised in China, Japan, Burma, Russia and other Asiatic countries. 8 Human nature being the same everywhere, the causes of suicide
have been almost identical all over the world. Most of the causes leading to suicide are, disappointment in love affair, jealousy, fear of punishment, shame or wounded pride, anger, extreme poverty, family unhappiness, feeling of inferiority, etc. 9 It is seen that frequent repetitions of situations which bring about feelings of disappointment, depression, mental and emotional conflicts, irresistably drive the victim to the extreme step of suicide. It is normally a mislortune of one's own making. A victim of suicide is either a victim of his own mental weakness or of external circumstances which he is not able to circumvent. 10 Modern social scientists, such as, Henry Morselli, Westermark, Emile Durkheim and others, who have made substantial contribution to the study of suicide, listed various cauees and influences which drive a person to end his precious life, 11a Even causes of suicide mentioned by Kautilya 11b are very much similar to these modern thinkers. This fact reveals that the causes are more or less similar throughout the ages.
The area of this research paper is restricted to the study of place of suicide in Indian culture and religions right from Vedic times down to the present day. Suicide means, destroying one's self by means employed by one's self. The corresponding word in Indian religions is ātmaghata
7. Henry Morselli, Suicide, pp, 2 ff, quoted in History of Suiciae in India by Urendra
Thakur, Pub : Munshi Ram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1962, p. 1, 8. Ibid., pp. 186-193. 9. Westenmark, Origin and Development of Moral Ideas, Vol. II, 1908, pp. 232 ff. 10. T. K. Tukol, Sallekhana is not Suicide, Pub. L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad, 1986. p. 71. 11. (a) Suicide : Origin aud Devejopment of Moral Ideas, Vols. I-II, 1906 and 1908.
Emile Durkhem, Suicide : A study in sociology. (b) Kautilya's Artha'sāstra, ed. Shamasastri, Sanskrit Series, IV-7.

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or atmahanana. This word almaghāta (suicide) is used in two different senses. First of all, it means voluntary self-killing or self-destruction which is committed out of pure melancoly, disappointment in love, unhappiness in one's life and on account of other worldly considerations.19 Secondly, it is used by the ancient philosophers in the sense of not caring for realisation of one's own self.18
Indian culture and religions viz. Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism have approved many other kinds of voluntary deaths (either religious or social ) in certain circumstances such as mahāprasthana (the great journey); prāyopavesana (fasting unto death ); jalasamadhi (drowning in sacred river); agnipraveśa (entering fire); bhgupatana (falling headlong from a cliff): sari, jauhur etc., which are not included in the category of suicide or armaghāta. Thus the word suicide is used in a limited sense. All kinds of voluntary deaths are not called suicides by followers of Indian culture and religions. The reason is that suicide or self-sacrifice for a cause is different from suicide on account of frustration. If one commits suicide for a frustration, he succumbs to weakness which is condemmed by society. If a person kills one's self for a noble cause, i.e. lays down one's own life for religious cause or for the benefit of entire society, his act is approved by the religion or society. But the word suicide is losely used for social and religious sacrifice by certain Western and Indian scholars 14 which may not be cent percent true in the context of Indian culture and religions. In fact they are not suicides but selfsacrifices for higher cause. Let us examine the placə of suicide and other kinds of voluntary deaths or self-immolations in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism to find out the truth of this matter.
Ordinary suicide is denounced by all these three religions of India as an absolutely degrading act, We have already noted that the lśāvāsyopanişat (1200 B.C. to 600 B.C.) bitterly attacks those who indulge in heinous act like suicide. It is condemned to postmortuary penalties which follow the soul. It states that those who commit suicide reach after death the sunless regions covered by impenetrable darkness, 15 They will not be 12. Vyapadyet vịthātmānam svayam yo agnyudakādibhiḥ. Avaidhenaiva märgeņa
ātmaghāta saucyute-quoted in Vācaspatyam; Kautilya's Arthasāsıra IV-7: Amstacandra, Puruşartha Siddhyupaya, ed. Ajit Prasad, Sacred Books of the Jainas,
Vol. IV, Pub, Central Jaina Publishing House, Luck now, 1933, verse 178. 13. Isavāsyopanişat, Ten Principal Upanişads with Sankarabhāşya Pub. Motilal Bana
rasidass, New Delhi, 1978, 3; Vivekacūdamani, Works of Sarkarācārya, Vol. XIV,
Pub. Vanivilas Press, Srirangam, 4. 14. See History of Suicine in India. 15. Asūryā dāma te loká andhena tamasāvstāḥ. Tämste pretyábhigacchanti ye ke
cãtmahano janāḥ-l'śāvās yopaaişat, 1.

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able to see the light of knowledge anymore. In later ancient and mediaeval periods, suicide was considered to be a vicious crime and various punishments are laid down in this direction.
Kautilya, (3rd century B.C.) in his monumental work Arthaśāstra condemns those men and women who, under the infatuation of love, anger, or other sinful passions, commit or cause to commit suicide by means of rope, arms or poison. According to him, such kind of suicider's body be dragged by means of rope along the public road by the hands of an untouchable (cândala). For such persons neither cremation rites nor any obsequies, usually performed by relatives shall be observed. In fact any relative who performs funeral rites of such self-murderers, shall either himself be deprived of his own funeral or be abandoned by his kith and kin. 16 Kautilya, being a great social thinker, has gone to the root of this problem of suicide and suggested a proper method to investigate the cause of death to decide whether it is a suicide or murder, which is known as kantakasodhana. 17 In his method of investigation, the magistrate, dealing with criminal cases, takes hold of the dead body and examines it to ascertain the causes and circumstances of death. If it is a case of suicide, then, the dead man's or women's body is exposed in the public thoroughfare. The treatment of the bodies of such persons was subjected to insult and indignities.
in the age of Dharmosūtra and Purānas also suicide or an attempt to commit suicide came to be condemned as a great sin. Vajasane yi. samhita states, “Whoever destroy their selves, reach after death demonworld that is shrouded in blinding darkness."18 Vasiştha Dharmasutra (3rd century B.C.) ordains that whoever commits suicide becomes guilty of mortal sin (abhisapta) and his relatives have to perform no death rites for him. It also prescribes punishment for merely resolving to kill oneself, even though when no actual attempt is made. 19 Manu (circa 200 B.C.- 200), A.D. the great ancient Indian Lawgiver, says that no water is to be offered for the benefit of the souls of those who commit suicide.80 Brahmapurāna declares that those who commit suicide by poison, banging, fire, drowning or falling from cliff or a tree, should be considered as great sinners, such persons should not be cremated, nor
16. Kautilya's Arthaśāstra, IV-7. 17. Ibid., IV-7. 18. Vajasane yasanhitā, ed. Weber, 39-3. 19. Vasistha Dharmasūtra, ed. Fuher, XXIII-14-16, 18, 20. Manusmrti with Medhatithibhāsya, ed, and Pub. Gharpure, Bombay, 1920, verses
88-89, pp. 426-28. .

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should useful funeral riles be performed for them.21 The Vişnusanhita (1st-3rd century A.D.) has also nothing but condemnation for such persons.92 The Mahābhārata also states that one who commits suicide does not reach blissful worlds. 23 The Yamasmiti (6th-7th century A.D.) prescribes harsh punishment and declares that, when a person tries to do away with himself by such methods as hanging, if he dies, his body should be smeared with impure things and if he survives, he should, along with his friends and relatives be fined.24 Parāśara (7th century A.D.), 28 Samyarta 36 and Likhita Smslis 27 (8th century A.D.) denounce such self-killing outright. Suicides are generally censured with few exceptions. If a Brāhmin is overtaken by disease or great misfortunes, he is permitted to walk straight on in a north-easterly direction subsisting on water and air until his body sinks to rest, 8 Atri approves this view of Manu and states that "if, one who is very old, candot observe the rule of bodily punification (owing to extreme weakness): one who is so ill that no medical help can be given, kills himself by throwing himself from a precipice or into water or fire or by fasting, mourning should be observed for him for three days and deatii rites should be performed for him. 29
We have seen that in general, suicides were universally condemned throughout the ancient and mediaeval times in Hindu law-books and society. Not only this brutal treatment 10 the bodies of suiciders were prescribed by ancient and mediaeval law givers to check the cases of suicide in society, Ancient and mediaeval Hindu society as a whole, disapproved the suicidal tendency. Brutal treatments to the bodies of suiciders where prescribed to prevent this tendency to commit suicide. In modern Indian society, this ordinary suicide is increasing on a remarkable scale on account of frustration, emotional conflicts and family unbappiness. In the eves of modern Indian Law, suicide is a crime which is punishable under section, 309, of Indian Penal Code. Here again, as in ancient
21. History of Suicide in India, p. 54. 22, Vişnusamhitā, ed. Jolly, Calcutta, 1881, XIX-8-9; XX-6-7; XXXII-1-2. 23, Mahābhārata. Ādiparva, Pub : Bhandarkar Oriental Institute, Poona, 179-80. 24. Yamasmrti, 20-21, quoted in History of Suicide in India, p. 57. 25. Parasarasmiti, cd, Vamanasastri Islam Purkar, Bombay Sanskrit Series, 1898.
Vol. II, Part I, IV-1-2, pp. 18-19. 26. P. V. Kane, History of Dharma Sastra Pub. Bhandarkar Oriental Research
Institute, Poona, 1941, Vol. II, Part-I. 27. Ibid. 28, Manusmrti, VI-31, p. 467. 29. Atrismrti, 218-19, qoted in History of Suicide in India, p. 89.

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societies, what is actually punished is the unsuccessful attempt to commit suicide but not a successful attempt, because, if the attempt is success ful, there is nobody to be punished. If the attempt is unsuccessful and the person survives, he will not be allowed to go unpunished. In suicidal tendency either man punishes himself by successful attempt or is punished by Law. In either case, this tendency is punished. Again, according to Hindu thinkers, the person being a part and parcel of social system, his body naturally belongs to society as a whole. He is not owner of his own bod., in real sense. It is the property of the society. Destroying one's own body means destruction of public property which is again a great offence. So, Hindu society has considered suicide as offence and strong law is prescribed to check it. A similar example is found in mediaeval Europe. The self-murderer was deprived of his rights which were granted to all other criminals. 80
Jainism also considers suicide to be a great sin. It declares that he who is actuated by passions, puts an end to his life by poison, weapors, by water, fire, or by stopping breath, is certainly guilty of suicide 81 and such kind of suicider is reborn as a demon, 32 Buddhism, upholds tbe same view and maintains that generally dire miseries are in store for the suiciders and the society look upon him as one who must have sinned deeply in a former state of existence. 33 It declares that a monk who encourages or preaches suicide is no monk at all.54 I-tsing, the Chinese traveller, tells us that, Indian Buddhists abstained from suicide and in general from self-torture. 36
From these abovementioned accounts, we can conclude that, all the three religions of India condemned suicide as unethical and opposed to religion. It was disapproved by Indian culture and religions, because, suicide involves self-condemnation or self-hatred. Unless you hate yourself, you cannot kill yourself. This is what is disapproved and prohibited by Indian society. But there are many kinds of self-immolations or voluntary deaths, prevalent in ancient and mediaeval India which were approved by religions and society as a whole. Religiously and socially approved kinds are : death by drowning at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna, and at other sacred rivers; self-cremation at one of the places of pilgrimage: hanging head-downwards over a blazing
30, Hiatory of Suicide in India, pp. 118-121, 198. 31. Puruşartha Siddh yupāya, p. 178. 32. History of Suicide in India, p. 101. 33. Ibid., p. 106, 34. Sacred Books of the East, XIII-4. 35. History of Suicide in India, p. 110.

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entering
fire, cutting upon one's flesh and offering it to birds as prey; self-lit fire at Benaras, death by fasting, Mahāprasthāna (the great journey) sati (self-immolation of widows), jauhar (self-immolation to save the bonour of community, culture and land from enemies). These kinds of voluntary deaths are not considered to be suicide, because, these are committed for religious or some noble cause. Laying down one's own life for religious or social cause is whole-heartedly approved by the society because, as we have already pointed out, self-immolation or killing one's own self for a noble cause, is different from suicide on account of frustration. The self-immolation for religious cause involves some spiritual attainment. It is dying for religious value. Similarly, selfimmolation for noble social cause, involves self-glorification (instead of self-condemnation in the case of suicide on account of frustration). The moment the person lays down his life for social cause, he becomes a national hero and is worshipped.
means
On religious grounds, in ancient period in India, people were allowed to commit self-immolation by drawning with the desire of securing release from this mundane world, at extremely holy places like Varanasi and Prayaga. From the very ancient times Varanasi is considered as holiest place and leaving one's body there is considered to be a of liberation.36 Death at Prayaga is highly commended from the Vedic times downwards. It is said in the Rgveda that whoever leaves his body at the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna, obtains immortality.87 During the Vedic period, self-immolation or self-sacrifice was practised, but it was very rare. In the early Upanisadic period, self-immolation was considered irreligious and foolish.38 In the later Upanisadic period, religious sanction was given for self-immolation to only ascetics who acquired full insight. They are allowed to enter upon the great journey (Mahaprasthāna), or choose death by voluntary starvation, by drowning, by fire or by a hero's fate. 39 We find ample evidences of self-immolations to be committed at the various places of pilgrimage in the Ramāyaṇa, ✩ o
167
36. Kāśyām tu maranan muktiḥ.-History of Suicide in India, p. 81.
37. Sitäsite sarite yatra samgate tatraplutaso divamutpatanti.
Ye vai tanum visṛjanti dhiraste janaso amṛtatvam bhajante,-Ṛgveda, ed. Maxmuller X-10, 6, 8.
38. History of Suicide in India, pp: 50-51.
39. Ibid., p. 51,
40. Vālmiki Rāmāyaṇa, ed. Chinaaswami Sastri, Pub. Ramaratnam, Madras, Aranyakanda, Uttarakanḍa.

1958,

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and Mahabharata, 41 in the Ramayana itself, it is said that Rāna, along with hundreds of his subjects drowned in the water of Sarayu. - 3
Self-immolation by fire. or water or by falling headlong from a cliff ( bhrgupatana) at Amarakamtaka is highly extoled. It is said that, he who throws himself down from the peak of Amarakanțaka, never returns to mundane world (samsära)* 3 These wethods of self-immolation are considered as means of salvation. Mahaprasthana is another kind of self-immolation approved by ancient authorities as a means of release from the miseries of the world. Mahabharata states that one who bas realised the transitorines3 of life should end it in the Himalaya. 44 It is further said that if a man, knowing the Vedānta and understanding the ephemeral nature of life, abandons life in the holy Himalaya by fasting he would reach the world of Brahman.'43 According to Mahabharata the Pāņdava brethren and their wife Draupadi followed this path of Mahāprasthāna.4 C
We get many instances of self-im nolation from ancient literature and epigraphic records. In the Mịcchakațika (Gupta period, 5th century AD) it is said that, king Sūdraka entered fire. 47 nalidasa in his Raghuvamsa (5th century A.D.) tells us that king Aja, in his old age, resorted to fasting (pra yapavesuna) and drowned himself at the confluence of the holy rivers-the Ganga and the Sarayu.48 Kumaragupta (554 A.D.), the later Gupta Emperor, is also said to have entered tire of a dried cowdung cakes, This kind of death is regarded as most meritorious in the Puranus, 8 0
In the mediaeval age, the position was more or less the same as in ancieat times. From Ain-e-Akbari we learn that death by starving, entering self-lit fire, burtying one self in snow, and death by drawning
41. Mahābhārata, Salyaparva, 39, 33-34. 42. Rāmāyana, Uttarakända, Sargas 109-110), pp. 1095-91. 43. Tirthavivecangkānda of Kit yakalpataru (TK), ed. Laksmihara Bhatta, K. V.
Rangaswami Aiyangar, Pub. Anandasrama Press, Poona, 1944, p. 2; Matsyapurana,
pub. Nandlal Mor, Calcutta, 1954, adhyāya 18), verses 28-36, 44. Mahabharata, Svargarohanaparva, 45. Ibid, Anu'sasanaparva 25, 63-64. 46. Ibid, Svargarohanaparva. 47. Mrochakatikam, pub. Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, varanasi, Samvat 2011; 1-4,
pp. 5-6. 48. Raghuvamsam, VIII-94-95. 49. History of Suicide in India, p. 96. 50. Ibid. p. 91.

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in sacred rivers, and cutting one's throat at Prayāga, were prevalent and considered as meritorious by Hindus in the mediaeval period as in the ancient times. B1 In addition to these, dying under the wheels of Jagannatha's car at puri and throwing oneself down from certain rocks or tree at Prayāga, etc., were also practised in mediaeval age, 59 From the Khairh plates 58 of mediaeval period we learn that, Yasahkarandade va obtained salvation together with his five hundred wives at the famous banyan tree of Prayāga in 1040 A.D. Jayapala, a king of Kabul and Lahore, is also said to have entered fire in 1001 A.D.54 Kadambadeva of Vedi (1042 A.D.) had ended his life in the waters.55 Calukya king Some. švara Anavamalla drowned himself in the Tungabhadra river in 1068 A.D.80 Many such instances are found in mediaeval inscriptions. 87 The statement found in Ra jatarangini (11th century A.D.), that there were certain officers, appointed by the king to supervise prāyopaiešanā indicates that, death by fasting was practised on a large scale in mediaeval period. 88
It is important to note that, only those who were possessed of high ascetic power and detached to worldly desires were permitted to undertake all these kinds of voluntary acts. The ordinary persons lacking in high ascetic power was generally denied resorting to such kinds of methods. Again, there were protests against all these kinds of voluntary deaths from certain corners of ancient, mediaeval and modern Hindu texts. These texts state that, these voluntary deaths are strictly forbidden in Kali-era. 9 Banabhatta (6th century A.D.), vehemently condemns these voluntary deaths.co Writers of 16th and 17th centuries denounced it as an inferior way of death.ci But history tells us that this probibition was never strictly followed or enforced. Jainism has also approved the self-immolation by fasting, which is know as sallekhana. This is a religious vow, which is given a very high place in Acärängasūtra, one of 51. History of Suicide in India, p. 92. 52. Ibid., pp. 92-98. 53. Epigraphia Indica-II, pp. 1-7; XII, p. 211, 54. TK, P. 259. 55. History of Suicide in India. p. 101. 56. Epigraphia Curstatika, Vol. II, verse 136. 57. History of Suicide in India, p. 98-101. 58. Rajatarangini, ed. P.R. Shastri, Pub. Pandita Pustakalaya, Kasi, 1960. VII-1411, 59, History of Suicide in India, p. 88. 60. Kādambari, ed, and pub, P. V. Kane, Girgaum, Bombay, 1920-Purvabhägah, para 177. 61. Narayana Bhatta (c. 1560 A.D.)-Trişthalisetu, pub. Anandashrama Press, Poona,
1915. pp. 290-316; Mitra Mishra (c. 1620 A.D.). Tirtha prakasikā in Viramit rodaya, Benaras, 1917; p. 354. T-22

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the earliest Jaina Agamas.62 Umāsvāti Vācaka (5th century A.D.), also in his monumental work Tattvārthasūtra, refers to this vow.83 Sallekhana is a vow to be adopted for seeking liberation of the soul from the body as a religious duty during a calamity, severe famine, old age or illness from which there is no remedy. 64 lo tbis ceremony many kings, men and women alike took part and devoted themselves to contemplation of the divinity for days without food or water. Sravanabelagola inscriptions are full of such instances. But all are not authorised to follow this path. Only those who have acquired the highest degree of perfection in the spiritual path are allowed to choose this religious vow. Except death by fasting, all other kinds of speedy methods of voluntary deaths are denounced as vulgar and evil by the Jainas. 66
Even Buddhist literature, notwithstanding the opposition of the Buddba, is full of stories of various kinds of self-immolation. The Majjhima-Nikayas 7 states that a husband threatened with separation from his beloved wife, kills her and also himself in order that they may be united as husband and wife in their next birth. There are many stories which prove beyond doubt that, Buddhism, in certain cases and in certain circumstances, approved self-immolation. The stories relating to self-immolation attempt of Siba, Sappadasa, Vakkali and Godhika are good examples of this fact.68 The stories of a future sākyamuni who gave his body to feed a starving tigress 9 and the legend of Bhaisajyaraja?o who filled his body with all sorts of oil and set it on fire are worth noticing. Säntidasa io his Sikşásammuccaa ya?! (a compendium of the rules of the disciple of the Great Vehicle), prohibits only those from self-immolation, who are just beginoers on the path of spirituality, imply. ing that, the spiritually advanced may resort to this method of self-immo. lation under certain circumstances.
62. Icārāngasūtra, Sacred Books of the East-XXII, I-VII 5-8, pp. 74-78. 63. Tattvärthādhigamasutra, Vol. II, ed. H. R. Kapadia, Pub. J. B. Javeri, Bombay.
1930, VII-32. 64. Samantabhadra, Ratnakarandaka Śrāvakācāru, Puls. Jivara ja G. Doshi, Sholapur,
1954, verse 122. 65. Sallekhana is not Suicide , pp. 18-63. 66. Kathakosa, translated by C. H. Tawney, London, 1895, p. 8.
7. Majjhima-nikaya--II' p. 109. 68. History of Suicide in India, pp. 107-109. 69. A Study of the Jatakamālā, ed. K. K. Misra, Pub. G. N. Jha Kendriya Sanskrit
Vidya Peetha, Allahabad, 1971, pp. 230-231. 70. Saddharmapuüdarika, Sacred Books of the East-XXI. 71. Bibliotheca Buddhicā-I, Petrogard, 1902.

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We have also several examples of men and women, who adopted self-immolation, out of devotion to their masters, mothers and for other sacred causes. Monuments are erected in memories of those brave and devoted persons. Mostly members of royal families resorted to selfimmolation, purely from personal affection and devotion, on a mass scale. When there was enough attachment to persons or even to ideas, people lost their interest in life and resorted to this method. Harşacarita of Bāpabhatta 79 tells us that, before and after the death of king Prabhākaravardhana, many of the king's friends, ministers, servants and favourite killed themselves. Kumāra Laksmana, the general of Vira Ballala, with his wife Suggalā Devi and the army-men attached to him, resorted to self-immolation, purely from personal affection towards the king, 78
Sati or self-immolation of widows was a very important form of voluntary death. It means entering the funeral pyre of ones husband to reunite with bim in the next birth or to acquire innumerable religious merits.
As regards this kind of self-immolation or sati, there is no explicit reference in the Vedas. In fact, remarriage of the widow was allowed in the Vedic period and she was asked to enjoy the bliss of children and wealth. 4 We do not find any explicit reference about sati in the Brāhmanas (c. 1500 B.C.-700 B.C.), Aranyakas and Grhya-sūtras7 (600-300 B.C.). Even in oldest Buddhist literature there is no reference to it. Moreover, we do not find any particular reference to this kind of self. immolation either in Kautilya's Artkaśāstro, or in the ancient Dharmasüfras, or in the early Smsti literature like Manusmrti and Yajñavalkya. smīti though these deal with an elaborate discussion of the duties of women and widows as well as suicide in general. During the 4th century B.C. and earlier, few cases of sati are recorded and the widows of king Kantirasa and Varisyanta are stated to have ascended the funeral pyre.16 We have, the earliest, historical instance of sati in the wife of the Hindu general Keteus who died in 316 B.C., while fighting against Antigones, The Greek historians tell us that one of his two wives was led to the pyre by her brother and that she was all gleeful even when the flames enveloped her person.77 But this was a rare occurance in the ancient times. It is only in the early Christian era that this practice gradually 72. Harsacarita, V, Pub : Vidyabhavan Sanskrit Granthmala, Vārānasi, 1958, pp. 250 etc. 73. Indian Antiquary, XXXV, p. 130 74. History of Suicide in India, pp. 128-130. 75. A. S. Altekar, Position of Women in Hindu Civilisation, Benaras, 1938, p. 137 ff. 76. History of Suiciae in India, p. 137. 77. History of Suicide in India, pp. 139-40.

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started gaining popularity and the Visnusinti 78 (c. 100 A.D.), contains reference to it. References are also found in the works of Bhāsa,?? Kalidāsa, 8o Sūdraka, 81 Bāņa 88 and in Agni purana 8.3 and Angirasasmsti. 84 After 700 A.D., this practice was defended by some law-givers delcaring that innumerable merits flow from the performance of sati,85 This pra. ctice became very popular among the Ksatriya Ciste from 4th century A.D. onwards and after 1000 A.D., became common to Brahmaņas, Kşatriyas and Vaisyas. 86
In the 19th century AD, this practice of sati was extended to rela. tions (besides widow of the dead) such as mothers, sisters, servants and nurses. The Rajatarangini and the Kathāsaritsägara (1100 A.D.) are full of such instances, 8 ?
We have also numerous epigraphic records referring to the practice of sari in ancient and mediaeval times. The earliest one is 191 of the Gupta era (510 A.D.) in the Gupta inscription, 88 Nepal inscriptions of saka 979 of the time of Rajendra Coladeva 89 and several other inscriptions so clearly point out that this practice was in general use, at least among the ruling class, in ludia, under the Guptas, the Vardhamanas and their successors.
Some stone monuments, called Mahāsatikal,91 erected in memory of satis, indicate that this kind of self-sacrifice was highly honoured by the society and some sati memorial stones were worshipped as goddesses. lo modern Indian history, we find few instances of this practice in the history of Rajputs, Marathas and Peshwas.98
78. Ibid., p. 140. 79. Dataghatotkaca, pub : Chowkhamba Vidyabhavan, Varanasi, 1960; Urub harga,
pub : C. V. Bhavan, Varanasi, 1962. 80. Kumārasambhavam, IV, ed, S. R. Sehgal, Pub : Munshi Ram Manoharlal, Delhi,
1959, pp. 35-36. 81. Mycchakațikam, X. 82. Kādambari, Pūrvabhāgah, Para 177, 83. History of Suicide in India, p. 140. 84. Angirasasmyti, Medhātithi on Manu, V. 157. 85. History of Suicide in India, pp. 140-141. 86. Ibid., pp. 140-159. 87. Rājatarangini, VI, 107, 195; VII, 103, 478; VIII: V. 88. Indian Antiquary, ix, 164; Fleet, Corpus Inscriptions Indicarum. Vol. III, p. 91. 89. Indian Antiquary, IX, p. 163 ff. (Nepa! Inscriptions); Epigraphita Indica, VI, p. 213. 90. History of Suicide in India, pp. 96-103. 91. Indian Antiquary, XXXV, pp. 129-30. 92. 'History of Suicide in India', pp. 141, 157, 160, 170, 171.

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173 It became highly respected and held in high estcem by the Hindus in the mediaeval age. But it was a purely voluntary aftair and whenever it took shape of purely a social custom and widows were compelled to practice sati, strong protests were made, declaring it as non-religious and not in accordance with the śāstras throughout the ancient and mediaeval periods. 98 But unfortunately, in later times, this practice took different shape and became purely cruel social custom and British rulers have stopped it.
Jauhar is another kind of self-immolation prevalent in the mediaeval period among the brave Rajputs of Rajasthan. It is a story of a glorious chapter of heroism and splendid sacrifice of Rajputs. Jauhar was in a sepse, a spontaneous out-burst of violent reaction against the barbarous atrocities perpetrated by the brute conquerors who felt no scruples in molesting even womenfolk.94 It is a heroic type of sacrifice, resorted to, to avoid intolerable shame and dishonour to culture and community at the hands of victorious enemies.
In India its origin can be traced as far back as the 4th century B.C. At the time of Alexander's invasion of India, many defeated kings along with their wives and subjects, resorted to this method of self-immolation to avoid dishonour at the hands of foreigners. It is said that in one city alone, some twenty thousand males, females and children embraced flames to escape captivity and dishonour. 95 In the early centuries of the Christian era, when the Sakas and the Huņas invaded India, created terror and played havoc with lives of the people, the royal families resorted to this method to save the honour of their womenfolk, 96 In classical literature, it is found that, Dākṣāyaṇi (daughter of Daksa ), or Sati insulted by her own father, resorted to self-immolation.97 The Rajput history is a living example of this great sacrifice in the mediaeval period. 98 Thousands of the Rajput ladies, when they came to know that their kings were defeated or captured or killed on the battle-field by the enemies. willingly and gladly embraced the rising flames to avoid captivity, sexual dishonour, and to save the honour of their royal blood, community, and culture from the hands of the victorious enemies, speci. ally the Muslims. In memory of these glorious sacrifices, stone-monuments 93. Manusmrti with Medbātithi commentary, V-157; Brahmāndapurana quoted in
Parā'sara Samhita, Vol. II, Pt. I, p. 58 etc; Jaimini Sūtra with sābarbhāşya, I-I-2. 94. History of Suicide in India', pp. 168-69. 95. Ibid., p. 162 96. 'History of Suicide in India', pp, 161-168. 97. Kumārasambhavam, I, 21-22. 98. Todd, Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, Vol. II, Madras, 1880, pp. 29, 370-73,
393-91.

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were erected, the performers of jauhar being duly honoured as gods and goddesses and worshipped in their households or in temples and shrines. 00
In the west also, such kinds of voluntary deaths have taken place in order to procure martyrdom or to avoid aspostacy or to retain the crown of virginity". These are allowed or approved by the earlier Chri. stian fathers, though ordinary suicide was denounced by them.100 We have, again several instances of Christian women putting an end to their lives when their chastity was in danger and their acts are spoken of with tenderness and even admiration. Some of them were admitted into the calender of Saints, 101 Self-immolation for a noble cause has always been hailed by all nations.
We have seen that all the major religions of India and Indian society as a whole denounced the ordinary suicide but, self-immolations for noble cause, either religious or social, were approved or highly praised. Indian people believed that man is the architect of his own future, the master of his destiny. Self-immolations were considered to be a means or release from the fetters of sufferiog, gate-way to Nirvāna. For this great religious cause thousands of people sacrificed their lives. In religious self-immolation, contrary to the suicidal intention, there is no desire to put an end to life, due to escaping from any difficult problem, frustration or emotional excitement. The person adoptiog the religious death wants to be liberated from the bondage of karma which has been responsible for all his ills in the world. Again, religious self-immolation is a conscious and planned act for self-realisation. A person committing suicide is weighed down wholly by mundane considerations. It is a circumstantially forced act rather than of free will. It is committed in a fit of emotional stress, mental imbalance or sense of frustration. Again, this act of suicide is due to a cause, rather than death for a cause. Thus. in Indian religions and culture, voluntary deaths or self immolations for religious faith, patriotic fervour or other lofty motives, are not considered as suicide in the real sense. In it, facing death in war is also applauded as an act of heroism (viramarana). Dying for one's own nation, culture, community is called martydom (or ātmahuti). The moment the person lays down his life for a noble cause, he becomes a national hero and worshipped with great reverence. These kinds of voluntary deaths are not called suicides, but self-sacrifice (ätmatyāga). Is it therefore proper to call (even loosely) all kinds of voluntary deaths as suicide?
99. Ibid., II, p. 609-610. 100. Divine Institution, vi, quoted in History of Suicide in India', p. 197. 101, Origin and Development of Moral Ideas, II, p. 251. in. 6.

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17
CODE OF CONDUCT FOR MONKS AND HOUSE-HOLDERS :
(With Special Reference to Prašamarati)
The aim of philosopbical investigations is not purely theoretical but predominantly practical according to the major schools of Indian philosophy. Philosophy is not merely intellectual gymnastic, but a way of life for Indian thinkers. That being so, it is quite natural that ethics plays an important role in philosophical enquires in India. Jainism, in fact, gives more importance to ethical aspects of life. It is predominantly ethical in its nature.'
Jainism, like other systems, believes that emancipation is the ultimate aim of life. The empirical self from the beginningless past is under the malignant influence of passions occurring from the association of karmic matter. Passions, alongwith psycho-physical activities, attract fresh material particles which get transformed automatically into karmic particles and engender empirical bondage of the soul. So long as the soul is imprisoned in the body, it is subject to the shackles of the organism and is enmeshed in sordid karmic matter. As long as it is in the bondage of karmic matter, it will never be free from the taipt of misery and pain.1 Complete freedom can be attained only by checking the continuous activity of mind, speech and body, which is the cause of fresh inflow of karmic matter to the soul and by the elimination of the accumulated deposit of karmic force from the soul. Thus liberation is deliverance of the soul from karmic bondage. To achieve this perfect state, the ethical disciplines are prescribed as the means.
Jaina thinkers firmly believe that the way to mokşa ( emancipation ) lies through ratnatraya, known as Right Faith, Right knowledge and Right Conduct,2 These three are said to be the ingredients of discipline that lead to freedom from karmic bondage. These three gems together constitute one path and are to be simultaneously pursued. If one is absent.
1. Karmodayāt bhavgatibhavagatimālā sariranirvștih Dehādindriya vişas ā vişayanimitte
ca sukbaduhkhe-Prasamaratiprakarana with Haribhabra's Commentary-V. 30;
Pub. D. L. Jaina Pustakoddbārasamstha, No. 88, Surat, 1940. 2. Tattvärthādhigamasutra, X-1, Part-I, Ed. H. R, Kapadia; Pub, J. S. Javeri, 1926.

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the path of salvation is incomplete. They are inseparably bound up and perfection of one goes with the perfection of the other two.4 Right faith means unflincoing faith in the nine fundamental principles of Jainism. 8 Right knowledge is correct knowledge of the tattvas as taught by Jinas. Right conduct is making one's life conforın to the truths learnt. Right faith is the first step on the path of spiritual development. It leads a person on the right path. But this alone is not enough for complete spiritual advance. ment. It must lead to right knowledge of reality. Right knowledge of the nature of reality is a necessary condition to spiritual development. These two
Right faith and Right knowledge-alone would not be sufficient to lead us to the highest spiritual goal. Acquisition of Right knowledge must lead to Right action. Without Right conduct, knowledge is futile. Thus Right conduct in the light of Right faith and Right knowledge is a necessary condi. tion for attaining the highest goal. In other words, Right faith is responsible for placing a person on the right path, Right knowledge illumines the path and Right conduct leads to the goal. Thus Umāsvāti emphatically maintains that all these three aspects must be present in a person, if one is to reach his spiritual goal.' Without Right conduct, Right faith and knowledge have no meaning. It is Right conduct which ultimately leads a person to the highest aim of life. Thus Jaina thinkers prescribed the exhaustive list of code of conduct. These principles of code of conduct are prescribed to engender the spirit of renunciation in the soul, they weaken and destroy the bonds of its karmas and enable it to attain its original perfect state of Infinite Power, Knowledge and Bliss.
So far as Right conduct is concerned, it comprises two sets of rules one consisting of injunctions applicable to monks and other in directions to house-holders Really speaking, Jainism gives prominent place to the
3. Sam yaktva-jñāna-caritrasampadah sādhanāni mokşamārgasya. Tasvekataräbhāvepi
mok samārgopyasiddhikaraḥ. P.R.P.-230. 4. P.R.P-231 5. Ibid-222. 6. Ibid-227. 7. To elucidate this idea Siddhasenagaui gives following beautiful analogy of curing
ulness of the patient. First of all, patient who is suffering from discase must have unflinching faith in the medicine, prescribed by the physician. Seeondly, he must have clear knowledge of the medicine of that particular disease and thirdly, he must acrually take the medicine and follow the restrictions in the manner of taking food etc,, as directed by the physician. Faith in the medicine, knowledge of the medicine and taking the medicine, all these three are necessary to eradicate the disease. Similar is the case of acquisition of spiritual health, which would be secured only by the combination of the three Jewels."-T.S. Bhaş yaţika-I-I P-28.

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life of a monk and the life of a householder occupies only a secondary place. It considers that the life of a householder is just a stepping stone to the life of a monk. It believes that asceticism is a sovereign remedy against all ills of this life and life hereafter. According to Jaina thinkers, liberation - the ultimate aim of life, cannot be obtained without complete renunciation of the mundane life.
Acara of the Sadhus (Monk )
The rules of spiritual disciplines, prescribed for monks are extremely difficult, rigid and puritanic, while in the case of householders they are modified. The course of conduct prescribed for the ascetics in Praśamarati can be roughly grouped under the following beads :--
I Five kinds of Right conduct (Pañcavidha Sadhvácāra) IL Five kinds of Great vows (Pancamahāvratas) III Five kinds of Cautions (Samitis) IV Three kinds of Restraints (Guptis)
V Endurance of Hardships (Parişaha jaya) VI Talk of Religious Stories (Dharma-kathās) VII Five kinds of Cäritra (Pancavidhacaritra) VIII Ten kinds of Religious Virtues (Daśavidha dharma)
IX Twele kinds of Reflection (Anuprekşās or Bhavanās) X Meditations (Dhyānas)
It is important to note that Prasamarati gives exhaustive information about some of the above-mentioned topics and some of them are mentioned in sitra form. The rules for monks which are not fully discussed in Tattvärthasütro and bhāşya are given prominence and explained in detail.
Pancavidha Sadhvācāra : Right Faith. Right knowledge, Right Conduct, austerity and vigour (power which is to be used in the direction of right efforts) are prescribed as right conduct. 8 These five kinds of codes of conduct are general rules which should be strictly followed by all ascetics.
Pancamahavratas : Non-injury (ahimsā), truthfulness (sat ya), non. theft (aste ya), celibacy (brahmacar ya) and non-acquisition (aparigraha) are considered as five-fold fundamental spiritual disciplines, which is to be observed absolutely without any limitation by monks. 9 Ahiṁsā is non. 8. PR,P-113.
9. Ibid-117. T-23

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injury in thought, word and deed to any being and showing reverence to all without any limitation, It teaches equality of all life. Truth fulness (satya) consists in ever abandoning all forms of falsehood. In its wider sense, trutbfulness is not only a negation of lie but a negation of all sorts of talk which is injurious. An ascetic should refrain himself from any type of stealing (asteya). Non-stealing really means that the monk should not acquire any objects which are not necessary for his use. The monks should not accept anything without permission of the owner. Celibacy (brahmacarya) consists in controlling sexual desires. He should disassociate himself from association with women. Aparigraha means non-attachment to one's own possession. Acquisition is main cause of greed and attachment. 10 Attachment is cause of bondage. Thus monks should renounce all personal property. Monks can only possess those things which are necessary for performing religious duties and sustaining life.11 Samiri means cautious bebaviour. Vigilance is considered as one of the important virtues, because negligence is the root of all sids. The monks should be careful while walking, speaking, taking food, keeping and receiving things and evacuating bowels etc. 19 These five samitis are prescribed to avoid all sorts of unpleasantariness to the living beings without any exception, and to keep the monks away from committing sins.
Guptis means control of psychophysical activities of mind, speech and body (manogupti, vāggupti and kāyagupti) which are the root cause of inflow of karmic matter to the soul. 18
Parişaha jaya14 is endurance of hardships which monks should face on the path of liberation. Monks must endure physical as mental hardships. The hardships that monks should overcome are roughly twenty-two in number. 1 B Victory over these bardships is part of austerity. The monks by facing these hardships, acquire a resolute will that no difficulty could bend them.
Dharmakathas or religious stories : Jainism, like any other religion, propogates certain ethical and religious doctrines through religious stories.
10. Ibid 178. 11. Ibid-138, 12. Ibid-116-117. 13. Ibid-241. 14. Ibid-114. 15. Following are the 22 Parisahas :
Hunger, thirst, cold, beat, insect bites, nakedness, distaste, woman, fatigue from walkjog, sitting on hard seat, sleeping on hard earth, abuse, beating, begging, failure to get alms, etc., disease, discomfort from grass, etc., dirt, respectful or disrespectful treatment, pride of intellect, ignorance, failures in religious practices. -T.S.-IX-8-9.
the 22 Parişahas, tres nakedness, distaste. Weating, begging, fai

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These stories are didactic (Upadeśātmaka) in nature. The didactic tone of these stories illustrates the consequences of good and bad deeds. Every story conveys some lesson and exhorts the need of firm faith in religious principles. It is the duty of the monk to reflect on these stories and teach laymen to create interest and faith in religious duties. They are four in number;16 - Akşepaņi- the story which makes one to follow religious path. This kind of story inspires one to perform religious duties. Vik şapani is a kind of story which reduces and annihilates sexual passion. Samvedani gives idea about painful nature of mundane life, and generates intense desire to acquire correct knowledge of reality. Nirvedani is a kind of story which generates spirit of non-attachment to all worldly things. In addition to these stories the monk should always avoid talks about women, their beauty, form and so on (strikathā); about delicious food (bhaktavik arhā), about adventures of a theft (corakathā) and about different countries (janapadakathā) which generate interest about worldly life and pleasure, hence indirectly the cause of attachment.17
Sâma yika, che dopasthāna, pariharavisuddhi, sūkşmasamparaya and yathā. khyāta are five types of caritras (condut) and they are the special rules which should be followed by the monks. 18 Samayika means equanimity and refraining from sin and developing friendliness towards all living beings. The monk should have equanimity of mind and avoid all sinful activities. Chedopasthana is observance of penalties for faults committed through negligence or inadvertence. If a monk commits a mistake in his religious duties, be should observe penalties, confess it in front of a teacher and again engage himself in the pursuit of rightousness, Chedopasthāna really means cutting down his lifespan as a monk who commits a mistake. Parihầyavtsuddhi is refraining from all kinds of injury-physical, mental and vocal. This rule is prescribed to purify the individual soul. Austerity is prescri. bed for cne who is having this caritra. Sūkşmasamparaya is the control of the passions; especially greed is to be reduced to a bare unrecognizable trait and all other passions are to be under the control of a monk. in this stage monk possesses only very minute passions. Yathakhyātaca. ritra implies the characteristics of those monks who have annibilated all of their passions, lusts and desires. When all passions are destroyed, a monk reaches the ideal state which is known as kevali. This ideal state of a monk is called yathākh yatacaritra These five kinds of caritra are considered as the chief ineans of liberation. 19
Dašavidhadharma or ten kinds of religious virtues are the cardinal virtues that are to be cultivated by a monk, who is aspirant of achieving 16. P.R.P.-182-83.
18. Ibid-228. 17. Ibid-183.
19. Ibid-229.

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the highest goal of life. These virtues are the basis of religion and are essential for a monk. Practice of these virtues roots out the attachment, aversion, deceit and green within a short period and leads to the final deliverance of a monk, 90 Umāsvāti gives prominent place to these ten kinds of virtues and dedicates thirteen verses to elaborate them.21 The ten kinds of virtues which are to be cultivated by a monk are-supreme forgiveness (kşama), modesty (mārduva), straightforwardness (ār java), purity (sauca), self-control (sar yama), renunciation (tyāga), truthfulness (satya), austerity (tapas), chastity of celibacy (brahmacarya) and nonacquisition 2 2 (akiñcanya).
Compassion towards all beings is called supreme forgiveness. It is the root case of religion.23 Modesty is the basis of humility. It is the main source of all good virtues. It controls and reduces egoistic tendencies of a monk.94 Straight forwardness consists in eschewing crookedness in thought, word, and deed and never concealing one's own faults. It is the main cause of self-purity which is very essential for realisation of pure self.: B Purity is of two kinds, internal and external. External purity consists in maintaining cleanliness and purity of food, clothes, drink etc. and internal or spiritual purity (bhāvasauca) consists in annihilation of passions.26 Self-control (samyama) is of seventeen kinds, viz. abstaining from five types -āstava, control over five senses. victory over four kinds of passions and control of mental, vocal and physical activities. 87 Renunciation consists in renunciation of all worldly attachments. relations, wealth, pleasuses and T-ness and Mine'-ness. An ascetic who has abandoned all worldly objects, is called nirgrantha, free from all sorts of worldly knots of attachment.98 Truthfulness is speaking in conformity with the words of jinas and avoiding lies even in worldly transaction. It consists in ever-abandoning all forms of falsehood and even talks which hurt others. It is of four kinds, viz. speaking in con. formity with the scriptures, and straightforwardness in deeds, thoughts and words.99 Austerity implies the renunciation and rejection of all kinds of desires, indifference to pleasures of this world and quietly enduring various physical troubles. Austerity is of two kinds-external and internal. The former emphasises on the outer aspect while the latter does on inner aspect. External austerity is of six kinds, viz. anasana, unodarata, vịttisamkṣepana, rasaparityāga, kāyakleśa and samlinata. 8 0 Anasana consists in fasting either for a limited period of time or till the 20. Ibid-179.
24. Ibid-169.
28. Ibid - ) 73. 21. Ibid-167-179.
25. Ibid-170.
29. Ibid-174, 22. Ibid-167.
26. Ibid-171.
30. Ibid-175. 23, Ibid-168.
27. Ibid-172.

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separation of the soul from the body. This austerity is prescribed to exterminate attachment towards body to perform meditation. Unodarata. is taking limited, pure and suitable food without any greed. A monk should not take over diet. The observance of this austerity is to have control over the senses and sleep which hinder meditation. Vrttisamk se pa means predetermination of the monk regarding the number of houses to be visited for taking alms etc., and eating indifferently even tasteless food. This austerity uproots the attachment for food. Rasaparityāga is renouncing delicious and tasty food such as milk, curd, ghee, oil, sugar, salt etc. It reduces the sexual desires of the monk. Kaya klesa means putting the body to certain discomfort employing certain uneasy and stern postures and not to be disappointed by adverse climatic conditions. Samlinata is staying at a lonely place, not craving for house, or worldly comforts, engaging oneself in pure meditation. Internal austerity is also of six kinds 81 -- viz., Prayascitia, dhyāna, vaiyav?tiya, vinaya, kāyot. sarga and spādhyāya. Prāyaścitta is confession before teacher or Ācārya for the transgression committed by the sådhu, either by negligence or in adverse condition. Dhyana is concentration of mind on the Ātman or on certain principles. It is divided into auspicious and inauspicious kinds. Ārta and rudra dhyānas are ina uspicious, therefore, they are to be avoided. Dharma and śukla dhyānas are considered as auspicious. Amonk must practice auspicious dhyānas which are conducive to mokşa or final release. Vaivāvsttya is rendering disinterested service to the Acāryas, Gurus and aged and suffering monks It is to eradicate egoism in one's self. Vinaya means devoted attendance on those who are endowed with Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct. It also consists in control over senses by eradicating passions. Kāyotsugra means indifference to body, its caressing and needs. It is performing meditation with complete detachment to body. Svadhyāya is devoted study of Jaina Scriptures which sharpens the intellect, enriches the moral and spiritual efforts. and eradicates the passions.
Brahmacar ya is restraining oneself from all sorts of sexual pleasure and desires. This consists in the abandonment of sexual relations in every way. This should be observed mentally, vocally and physically. It is of eighteen kinds : refraiping from sexual pleasures with divine beings. mentally, vocally and physically, also causing or helping others to have sexual pleasures in three ways ( mentally, vocally and physically) and consepting to enjoy others mentally, vocally and physically. It also consists in restraining from nine types of sexual satisfaction with human or lower beings, 82 31. Ibid-176. 32. Ibid-177.

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Akiñcanya (non-acquisition) signifies the attitude of indifference to worldly objects. Acquisition is defined as attachment. 88 which is the root cause of all ills of life. Thus monk should not own any property which will cause greedines in him. Thus non possesson is considered as the gretest virtue.
Twelvo kinds of Anuprekșas or Bhavanas :
The conception of Anuprekşā is one of the most important religious topics which plays very important role in Jainism. This principle is recognised right from the age of Agamas to present-day literature as a potent agency for the stoppage of the karmic influx and shedding of karmas. Anuprekşās are twelve in number, and practically cover all the important principles and cardinal teachings of Jainism. These anuprekşās are also called as pure bhāvanās. The term bhāvanā, practically takes the place of Anuprekşă io Praśamarati. 84
These are repeated reflections on the right principles, which serve as a ladder to reach the abode of liberation. The object of these bhāvanās or anuprekşās is to inculcate the spirit of detachment and renunciation. They serve as the starting point of meditation. Sthänānga38 and Urtaradhya yanasūtras treat anuprekșa as either a kind of dhyāna or svāvdhyāya. Tattvärthasūtra mentions anuprekşå as an agency of samvara ( stoppage of karmic influx).56 a It is understood as repeated study of scripture.86b Pajyapāda in his Sarvarthosiddhi3 7 defines it as pondering on the nature of body and other substances. Siddhasen agaội defines it as repeated reflection. 58 According to Kartikeyanuprekșä it means reflections on the right principles. 8 9 śubhacandra commenting on Kārtikeyanu prekşā says that it is repeated reflection on important nature of worldly things. 40
Thus, bhāvanās or anuprekşås are understood as repeated reflections on twelve principles which lead a monk to the state of virati (renunci. ation of attachment to worldly pleasures). This conception of bhāvana is considered as very important religious principle, and the author of 23. Ibid-171. 34. Ibid-150. 35. (a) Sthanānga, 1.5, 16; IV -248.
(b) Uttaradhyayana, X-18 XVI-12, XXIII-71. 36. (a) T.S., IX-2.
(b) T.S. IX-25. 37. T.S. bhâsya, IX-2. 38. TS. bhâsya, X-2. 39. "Tattvānucintă anuprck şa"-Kārtikeyānupreksā. Ed. : A.N. Upadhye, Pub. : Raaj.
chandra Jaina Šāstramāla 1960, P-I. 40. Ibid. 1, Commentaiy.

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183 Prasamarati devotes 14 verses 41 to enumerate the principle of bhāvanā. Twelve Bhavanās
(1) The transient character of thing (unit patva bhārana), (2) belplessness (asaranatva), (3) loneliness (ekatva), (4) separateness of the self and non-self, (5) impurity of the body (asucitva), (6) transmigrations (sum. sāra), (7) inflow of karmas (karmasrava), (8) stoppage of the inflow of karmas (sarvara), (9) shedding of stock of karmas (nir jarana), (10) constitution of the universe (lokavistara), (11) nature of Law (ahorma) and (12) difficulty in attaining Rightfaith (bodhisudurlabhata). These bhavanās are explained in the following manper : The monk has to reflict with on the impermanent nature of the world (anitvatva). In this world union with beloved people, prosperity, pleasures and accessories, werlih, lealth. physical gift, youth and even life itself are all transitory.49 The jiva is pestered by birth, old age, death, pain and pleasure. For this tormentiog samsărika jiva, there is no saviour except words of 8 Jinas (asaranotva). Roflection on ekatvabhāvanā is that the individual jiva is all alone wbile being born and all alone when it dies. One has to roap fruits of one's own actions, good or bad. one alone has to take birth in the lower or bigher world, no one else accompanies one to the next world. Thus monk should reflect on one's own welfare...
The monk has to reflect on repeated births and deaths (samsára). The soul during the range of beginningless time suffers many births and deaths. The same single soul plays different roles in different births, becoming mother, daughter, sister and wife and the same jiva also takes the form of a son, father, brother and even one's own enemy.43 Thus realising such nature of the samsara one should meditate on the true nature of soul whereby there would be an end to transmigration. Asravabhāvanā 4 consists in reflecting on the root-cause of karmic influx, Wrong belief, want of control, negligence, four fundamental passions, and psycho-physical activities of miod, speech and body lead to karmic influx and bondage of soul, Reflecting on these root causes of karmic inflow the monk bas to try to stop this inflow of karmic matter. Reflection on stoppage of influx of karma is known as sanvara bhāvona. The monk has to reflect on the process of stoppage of inflow of karmic matters through controlling the activities of mind, speech and body wbich are the main causes of karmic inflow through good and bad deeds, and cultivation of the habit of carefulness and observance of vows. 47 41. P.R.P, 149-162.
45 lbid-156. 42. P.R.P, 151.
46. Ibid-157, 43, Ibid., p. 152.
47. Ibid. 156 44. Ibid, 153.

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Reflection on the eradication of the accumulated karmas is known as nir jar abhavana. 48 Rigorous penance is the main cause of eradication of the stock of karmas. For meditation on the form, material and nature of the world, one should reflect on the expansion (lokavistara) of the universe which is constituted by the upper, the middle and the lower regions, 49
The monk has to contemplate on the fact that one has been born repeatedly in different regions reaping the coosequences of one's own actions. Repeated reflection on this principle destroys the worldly attachment and eradicates the stock of karma. Reflection upon the religious virtues, which are the main cause of destroying karma and means of liberation, is called dharma-svākhyātabhāvanā. Bo This path of dharma is preached by Jinas for the benefit of mundane souls. The monk who meditates on these religious virtues crosses the ocean of samsāra. Reflection on the difficult task of attaining right faith is called durlabha. bodhi bhavana, 5 2 It is very difficult to have birth among the human beings. Even after that, and obtaining birth in good family, favourable country, long life with physical perfection, good faith, teacher, and scriptural study, which are rarities among the rarities, one many find it very difficult to attain perfect knowledge. So one should concentrate respectfully on the cultivation of faith, knowledge and conduct which lead to liberation.
It is very clear that these bhävanās serve as potent factors leading to spiritual development. The monk reflecting on these principles realises the transitory nature of the worldly things. This idea automatically reduced monk's attachment to worldly objects. Then he tries to obtain permanent happiness directing his attention to practice and observance of religious disciplines and vows, which alone are the sole means of liberation,
Dhyāna (meditation) :-Process of meditation, like other systems of Indian schools of thought, occupies the most important position in the scheme of Jaina ethics. The concept of meditation (dhyāna) differs from one system to another, but they all recognise the importance of meditation. It is considered as one of the most important internal austerities. to be performed by a Jaina monk. This is the supreme means of selfrealisation. Dhyāna means concentration of mind on a particular object.82 Dhyāna may be auspicious orioauspicious. On this basis it has been classified as - artha, audra, dharma and sukla. The first two are 48. Ibid. 159
51. Ibid. 162 49. Ibid. 160
52. (a) T.S., IX/29 50. Ibid. 161
(b) P.R.P., 20, 246, 258. 280.

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inauspicious, causes of human bondage and the latter are auspicious, chief means of selfrealisation.
Ārtadhyāna means constantly thinking on the separation of beloved person (işṭaviyoga), loss of an object of desire, the association with an undesirable thing or person (anişṭasamyoga), bodily suffering (vedanā janita), and envy (nidana janita). This kind of dhyana is the result of the three inauspicious lesyas (black, blue and grey). This dhyana, though agreeable in the beginning, yields bad result in the end. Raudradhyana is considered as wrost kind of dhyana. It is the absorption of the mind in hiṁsă and other forms of sin, and delighting in acts of cruelty, falsehood, theft and the hoarding of wealth. These two kinds of dhyānas are abstacles in the way of self-realisation, thus known as inauspicious (aprašasta dhyānas) and so they are to be avoided.
Dharmadhyāna is the instrument in developing knowledge of the pure self and of engendering the spirit of non-attachment, 55 It is contemplation on such objects which assist the attainment of liberation from the bondage of karmas. This is divided into four kinds 84 ajñāvicaya, apayavicaya, vipakavicaya, and samsthana-vicaya. Meditation on the right meaning of scriptures taught by Jinas is known as ājñāvicaya, 55 and contemplation on the cause of inflow of karmas (asrava), result of worldly pleasures and hardships as abstacles in the way of liberation is apayavicaya, 56 It is repeated reflection Over the adequate ways and means of liberating the soul from the clutches of worldly suffering caused by perverted belief, knowledge and conduct, and also comtemplation on the means of ascending the ladder of spiritual advancement. Meditation on the effects of auspicious and inauspicious karma Is known as vipākavicaya. 57 Samsthānavicaya58 means meditation on the nature of substances and form of the universe. This kind of dhyāna helps the aspirant to realise his position in the universe and inspires the individual for meditation. These four kinds of dharmadhyānas prepare a suitable ground for sukladhyana -a higher type of meditation.
Sukladhyana is the advance stage of meditation. It implies pure self-contemplation in the highest sense. It is called śukla, because it emerges when the filth of passions has been destroyed or has subsided. It is also of four kinds; Prathaktva-vitarka-vicara, ekatva vicāra, sūksma. kriya pratipati and vigatakriya nivṛtti. 59 In the prathaktva-vitarka-vicăra
53. P.R.P., 245.
54. (a) T.S., IX/37.
(b) P.R.P., 246.
55. Ibid. 247.
56. Ibid. 247.

57. Ibid. 248.
58, Ibid. 248.
59 (a) T.S., IX/39.
(b) PR,P. 258, 280.

T-24

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state of meditation all the three types of activities of mind, speech and body continue and the aspirant shifts his meditation from one kind of activi y to another, from one substance to another and from one modification to another. In the ekatva vitarka vicara only one of the three yogas (activities) persists and there is no shifting from one object of thinking to another. In this state of meditation, oneness displaces manyness. In this state tbe mook meditates on one substance, or an atom, or modification of substance with the assistance of only one kind of yoga. These two types of Sukladhyanas are performed by spiritually well-advanced monks to obtain the state of kevala jñana.
The yogi or monk conquering the attachment and aversion, un. affected by worldly gain and loss, obtains yathā-khyāta casitra.60 Then
ingo 1 these two kinds of Śuk ludhyānas be roots out the deluding karmas (mohaniya) which are the root causes of karmic bondage and cycle of births and deaths. Umāsvāti beautifnlly describes the process of destruction of mohaniya karmas in the following manner:-09
In the first stage the monk reduces the four kinds of passions which are known as anantanubandhi kaşaya which were existing upto this time from beginningless time. When he reaches the first two kinds of Šukladhyānas, he can destroy them. In the second stage, he annihilates mithyātvamohaniyakarma which is the root cause of complete wrong belief and in the third miśramohanyia or samyaktva-mithyātvo which is mixture of some degree of wrong belief and some of truth, In the fourth he destroys samyak tva-mohaniya, which covers the right faith and truth due to the udaya (rise) of pure mohaniyakarma. In the fifth and sixth stages he annihilates apratyakhyāniya (which hinders partial self discipline) and pratyakhyaniya ( wbich obstructs complete renunciation ) passions respectively. Again, in the seventh stage, he destroys the neuter sex passions, and female sex passion in the eighth. In the ninth stage joking, liking, disliking, sorrow, fear and disgust are annibilated. In the tenth follows the destruction of the male sex passions and of the sanjvalana passions-anger, pride and deceit and san jvalana greed respectively. After this he reaches the bighest stage (12tb) in the series i.e. state of non-attachment (vitarăgata). In this stage mohaniya karmas are completely destroyed This is known as chadmastha vitardga stage. After remaining for an antarmuhurta in this stage, simultaneously destroying two types of obscuring karmas (jñānavarana and darśanavarana) and power-hindering karmas (antaraya) and attains infinite, glorious, uncomparable, excellant, unobstructed (or undisturbed) state of perfect knowledge
60. Ibid, 297
61. Ibid. 258
62. Ibid. 259-261

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187 (kevala jñāna) and becomes omniscient without fail,03 This stage is known as stage of sayogikevali characterised by the total destruction of the four kinds of ghātiya karmas (jñanüvaraniya, darśanavaraniya, mohaniya and antarāya). He becomes tbe the knower of all things past, present and future.6. This is known as sayogikevali state since it is accompanied by psycho-physical activities (yoga) and kevalajñāna (omniscience). ['ue to the existence of aghātikarmas viz., feeling-determining, age.determining, name-determining and family-determiningthe soul has association with body. But the kevali is not affected by any type of actions and passions. He performs the dispassionate vocal and physical activities which cannot affect him, Kevali wapders for some time on the earth, preaching right way for the benefit of common masses and then prepares for the final bodiless liberation. In case, if feeling determining, name-determining and family determining karmas exceed age de termining karmas, they are brought in line with the agedetermining karmas by means of samudghata, 66 the procoss known as kevali samudghata. Samudghata is performed by a kevali to equalise the duration of all the four aghatiya karmas.67 Eight samayas (-minutest part of time) are required to perform samudghála. The process of samudghata is this : the kevali, when he resorts to samudghata, in the first samaya emanates the pradeśas of his soul, and
rns them into a mace (danda) which touches both the upper and lower ends of the universe (loka). In the second sama ya, he converts this mace into a door (kapāta) which is long eastwards and westwards. In the third samaya, he constructs a churning stick (manthāna) by extending the pradeśas of the soul employed in the creation of this door into north and south directions. In the fourth samaya, he fills in the gaps therein and thereby pervades the entire universe (lakavyāpi). In this manner, in these four sama yas, tbe kevaii equalizes the four aghāti karmas. Then in the fiftb, sixth, seventh and eighth he restores the pradeśas of the soul used for filling gap, for creating churning stick, the door and the mace. Then his pradeśas of the soul pervade his normal body. 08
After retiring from samudghata, the kevali proceeds to annjbilate activities of mind, speech and body (yaganirodha).69 First he annihilates gross and subtle activities of mind. Then he stops subtle as well as gross and subtle activities. Then he engages himself with the third type of sukladh yana - sūkşmakri ya pratipati where only the subile physical activities remain and all types of mental, vocal and gross physical activities cease. Then he stops subtle physical activities also. After that, the kevalt enters the vigatakriyanivștti state of dhyāna in which all activities are stopped. To 63. Ibid. 267-268 66. Ibid. 272
69. Ibid. 277 64. Ibid. 269 67. Ibid. 272
70. Ibid. 280 65. Ibid. 271
68. Ibid. 273-274

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It is clear that the whole set of ethical disciplines is prescrjbed as the means of liberation. The aspirant who devotes himself in observing these vows, rules of conduct, penance and dh yāna, slowly eradicates his passions, destroys the gharikarmas and obtains liberation while yet alive. He enjoys the liberated state while in the embodied state. He is an ideal saint, teacher and guide to the society. Here, Jainism shows the ideal way of life. And finally, when the force of age-determining karma (ayuh karma) which holds the body and soul together is exbausted, he throws up his body and immediately goes upward and ascends to the siddhasila, to reside there for ever free from the karmic bondage, and beyond the suffering of transmigration. This is called final liberation or mokşa.
Acāra of the House Holders
The austere life of a monk is indeed extremely difficult and rare souls dare to observe it. It is practically not possible for laymen to adopt this path. Thus, for the benefit of laymen, another easy path is shown and it is known as śrävakadharma (duties of householder). The common man is expected to observe certain vows and disciplines and to gradually train himself for the arduous path of asceticism. Reaching perfection in the householder's dharma is considered as a gateway to non-attachment (vairag ya) and complete renunciation.
Prašomarati is primarily addressed to the life of a monk. The åcåra of the householders occupies a subordioate position to that of a monk. It devotes only seven verses 7 3 to describe the duties of house. holder. Here Umasväti does not give exhaustive details about these rules which are already explained in Tattvārtha sütra and Sro pajñabhäsya. He just enlists these rules in this work. But its important contribution to householder's duties is that it promises Jaymen to attain syarga (heaven) as reward for their good conduct, and also promises that the laymen reaching perfection in the practice of these householder's
73. Ibid, 302-308
71. Ibid. 281 72. Ibid. 283

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duties becoming completely detached from worldly attachment attain mokşa or siddha pada within the eight births. 74
The rules prescribed for householders are divided into twelve vratas (vows), viz. pañca aṇuvratas (five-small vows), three guṇavratas (vir. tuous vows) and four sikṣāvratas (disciplinarya vows). The householder has certain family and social responsibility. So he cannot observe the great vows (Mahāvratas) in absolute manner like the ascetic. In this case, the great vows are prescribed with limitations and qualifications. The householder is expected to observe five small. Vows (anuvratas), partial observance of the five moral principles of non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and limited non-acquisition. He should not voluntarily injure any beings or tell lie or steal other's property. He should restrict his sexual desire to his married wife and may not gratify his lust with other women, not coveting for other's property and putting a limit to his own possessions. In addition to these main vows, there are certain supplementary vows known as guṇavaratas, which discipline the external movements and increase virtues and the sikṣavratas, which emphasise on internal purity, preparatory 10 the discipline of an ascetic's life. These supplementary vows are collectively known as silavratas ( vows of conduct). Gunavrotas are three in number, viz. digvrata, desavakašikavrata and anarthadandaviramana. Digvrata consists in fixing the limits of one's Own movements in the ten directions. The householder has to put restriction on his movements and worldly activities to fixed points in order to avoid violence to the maximum extent. Desävakasikavrata is limiting one's Own movements to the region determined by certain villages and renouncing the rest of the places. It is meant to minimise one's own greed and to limit worldly activities for a fixed period only. Anarthadandaviramana consists in taking vow not to commit purposeless sin, such as thinking ill of others, preaching evil of others, uselessly breaking the boughs of trees, supplying weapons to attack, reading and listening to improper literature and so on. Sikṣā vratas are four, viz. sämayika, pauşadha, upabhoga parimanya and atithisamvibhāga (or dāna). Sāmāyika consists in spending a certain amount of time in a day in sitting at particular place, reading scriptures, praying and meditating on the self. Pausadha vow is prescribed to have control over food. The householder has to perform fast on certain days to purify his soul. While on fasting, he has to study scriptures, meditate on its meaning, worship Jinas and sadhus. He has to observe strict celibacy on these days. Upabhogaparimanyavrata means putting limitations to the use of object of worldly enjoyment, such as food, drink, ornaments,
74. Ibid. 308.

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bed, seat, perfume and so on. Danavrata or otithisanvibhāgavrara consists in sharing one's own possession with others. The householder is expected to earn his livelihood in a just way and share it with holy monks or a pious householder. It also includes serving the sādhus, sick and needy people.
In adition to these main rules the householder is expected to practise many rules such as offering salutation to the Jinas, gurus and monks establishment of Jina temples and daily worship of Jinas.
These major and minor vows should be observed regularly by the housebolder. In adition to the above-mentioned twelve vows there is another very important vow which is to be observed by the householder either in special circumstances. i.e. when the householder is not able to observe religious vows on account of unavoidable bodily infirmities and the like or on the occasion of natural death known in all probability, That is known as sailekhana vrata in which step by step everything is renounced by abandoning food, fear, dissatisfection and sorrows etc., and giving up the body. It is a kind of invitation to voluntary spiritual death. It should be practised mentally, vocally and physically. By practising all these vows, the householders obtain heaven after death and the perfection of these duties make them perfectly pure and leads them to liberation within eight births.

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ATMABODHA (ALOCANA) OF PADMANANDI (With Introduction and Translation)
Introduction
In the line of Jaina writers, one and the same name is borne by many authors belonging to different periods of time. There have been many Jaina Saints and writers bearing the name Padmanandi and we have been able to list about eighteen Padmanandis from different sources. Padmanandi is another name of Kunda Kundācārya.1 The author of the Prakṛtavṛtti on Pañca-sangraha is Padmanandi who is later than Akalanka. Padmanandis also called Siddhanti Cakreśvara, who flourished in Saka 997, is mentioned in Jain inscriptions. The author of the Jambudvipapannatti (a Prakṛt-Text) who flourished in circa end of the tenth or beginning of the 11th century A.D. is Padmanandi. The author of Dhamma Rasayana was padmanandi,5 There is another Padmanandi who belongs to Senagana and flourished in circa 9th century A.D. Again, Aviddhakarana Padmanandi-Siddhantika is referred to in an inscription of A.D. 1163. A disciple of Naykirti was Padmanandi, whose name is mentioned in some inscriptions dated A.D. 1181, 1195 and whose name is mentioned 1206.8 Padmanandi was pupil of Ramanandi9 in an inscription of the middle of the 12th century A.U. Padmanandi Pandita was one of the pupils of Adhyatma Subhacandra who flourished in the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century A.D.
1. Epigraphica Carnațika-Vol. II. p-64, 66 and Indian Antiquary-XXIII, p. 126. 2. Pañca Sangraha-Introduction. Pub: Bharatiya Jnana Pith, Banares, 1960.
3. Jaina Šilalekha Sangraha-Fart II Pub: Manikacandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala, Bombay, p. 269-70.
4. Jambudvipapanpatti-ed: H. L. Jaina and A. N. Upadhye, Sholapur. 1959. See Introduction, pp 13 F.
5. Siddbänta Särädi Sangraha-Manikcandra Digambara Jaina Granthamala. Bombay, 1922, p. 192 F,
6. Bhattaraka Sampradaya-ed; V. P. Johrapurkar, Pub: ed, G. H. Doshi. Jaina Sanskriti Samrakṣaka Sangha Sholopur 1959. p. 3.
7. Epigraphica Carnarika II, SB. No. 64.
8. Ibid, II, No. 327, 333 and 335.
9. Jainism in South Iadia-P. B. Desai, Sholapur, 1957, 280 F. 10. Epigraphica Carnatika-Introduction, p. 86 and SB No. 65.

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Padmanandi Bhaṭṭarakadeva, 11 a disciple of Hanasoge Bahubali Maladharideva flourished in saka 12 5. Padmanandi, flourished in end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century A.D. and he was a pupil of Traividyadeva of Kundakundāavaya, 19 Padmanandi Bhaṭṭāraka succeeded Prabhacandra on the pontifical seat at Delhi, since V.S. 1385 to 1450 (=13281393). He was the author of Bhavana Paddhati and Jirapalli Pārsvanathastotra. 13 This Padmanandi was very popular and he consecrated an image of Adinatha in the year, Samvat 1450.1 He was so famous that some. of the scholars presumed that, he was the author of twentyfive small treatises known as Padmanandi Pañcavimasati. 15 There are some more Padmanandis 16 who flourished in 16th and 18th centuries A.D. But the author of Padmanandi Pañcavimgati (in which our present work Atmabodha or Alocana is also included) seems to be quite different from all these above mentioned Padmanandis, because he is a disciple of Viranandi, the author of Acarasara with Svopajñavṛtti in Kannada Language. 17 This Padmanandi clearly mentions his guru's name as Viranandi in his works viz., Dharmopadesamṛtam, Danopadegaram and Atmabodha or Alocanã.18 So, he is quite different from other Padmanandis in general, and from the Bhattaraka Padmanandi (14th cenury) in particular. It is very difficutt to fix the exact date of this Padmanandi, still we can say that, he flourished in the first or second quarter of the 12th century A.D., on the basis of the following observations: Out of 95 small treatises of Padmanandi Ekatvasaptati is very famous and, it is often quoted by Jaina writers. We find verses quoted from Ekatvasaptati, in the works of 11. Jaina Šilalekha Sangraha-Part-III, Manikacandra D. Jaina Granthamala. p. 387. 12. Epigraphica Carnatika-SB No. 269.
13. Bhaṭṭārakasampradaya-P. 92,
14. Ibid-P. 92.
15. Kartikeyanuprekṣa-Introduetion, -A. N. Upadhye,
16. (a) Padmanandi (V.S.-1576) a disciple of Hemacandra - Bhaṭṭaraka Sampradaya
-P. 247.
192
(b) Padmanandi (Samvat-1600), disciple of Sakalakirti Ibid-P. 208. (c) Padmanadi (Samvat-1683), -pupil of Ramakīrti - Ibid-P. 158. (d) Padmanandi (Samvat-1773). disciple of Candrakirti - Ibid-P. 125. (e) Padmanandi (V.S. 1850), disciple of Devendrakirti Ibid--P. 78. 17. Pravacanasara-Introduction -ed: A.N. Upadhye, P. 104.
18. (a) Sa śrīgururdiśatu me muniviranandi — Dharmop adeśāmṛtam-Verse
197. Pad
manandi Pañcavimśati, ed. A N. Upadhye and H.L. Jaina, Jivaraj Jaina Granthamala No. 10. Sholapur, 1962 P. 77.
(b) Ratnatrayabharaṇavīramunindrpāda padmadvaya-sañjanitaprabhavaḥ '--Dānopadeśanam- Ibid Vesre 54, p. 90.
(c) Śrivirena mama prasanna manasa kiñcittaduccaiḥpa daprāptyartham paramopadeśa vacanam citte samaropitam-Alocaṇā-Verse-32 See our Sanskrit Text,

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12th century writers such as Jayasena 19 and Padmaprabha. 80 Jayasena flourished in the beginning of the 12th century and commented upon Pancāstikāya and Padmaprabba Maladbarideva flourisbed in the middle of the 12th century A.D. and commented on Niyamasāra. Prabhacandra 1 in bis commentary on The Ratnakarandakaśravak ācāra quotes two verses from Padmanandi's work. He flourished circa end of the 12th or beginning of the 13ih century. We also find verses quoted from Padmanandi's work in the Āsādhara's Svopajñavịttia on Dharmāmộta, who lived in the 13th century AD. Again. Padmanandi seems to be influenced by the writers such as Somdevasűria 3 and Amitagati, 24 who flourished, in the 10th and beginning of the 11th coutury, A.D. respectively.. Padmanandi bodily lifted certain lines from the Somadeva's Yaśastilaka. So, it is certain that our Padmananoi, the writer of twentyfive small treatises, must have flourished in the first and second quarter of the 12th century A.D. Tbe Kannada commentary on Ekatyasaptati, cleary mentions that, Padmanandi is a contemporary of Nimbadeva who flourished in 1136 A.D.2 The Kannada commentary on Ekatvasaptati, mentions the word 'labdhātmavrtti' on the basis of which some scholars presume that, the author himself has written the Kannada commentary. 86 But this possibility is ruled out because, the commentator Padmanandi is not a pupil of Viranandi, but disciple of Subhacandra-Rāddhantadeva and his Vidyāguru is Kanakanan di Pandita.al Though Padmapaodi was a great scholar of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada, still it is very difficult to specify place of activity of our author. He might bave lived in the Kannada speaking area.
19. Jayasena quotes 14th verse of Ekatvasaptati, Pañcāstikāya with Jayasena's
Commentary, Gātha-162. 20. Padmaprabha and commentary on the Niya masāra-A. N. Upadhye. pub.
Journal of the University of Bombay-X-II, 1942. 21. Ratnakarndakaśrāvakācāra-Introduction-pub, Manik acandra D. J. Granthamala,
24. Bombay, 1925. 22. Jaina Säbitya aur Itibása--N, Premi, Bomboy, 1956. p. 342 F, 23. Yaśastilaka and Indian Culture--K. K. Handiqui, Sholapur, 1949, 24. Jaioa Sahitya aur Itihäsa-Ilnd ed. N. Premi, Bombay, 1956. p. 275 FF. 25. Padmanandipancavim sati--Introduction, p. 17. 26. Ibid. p. 17-18. 27. Svasti śri Subhacandrarāddhāntadevagcusisyena, Kanakapandi pandita văgrasmi
-vikasitahrtkumudānanda-..-Concluding portion of the Kannada cominentary on Ekat vazaptati --Introduction, p. 17.
T-25

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This Ātmabodha (or Alocanä)--a hymn of 33 verses in fluent Sanskrit composed in Śārdula metre is included along with other treatises of Padaanandi in a manuscript known as Padmanandi Pancavimšati. This small work is critically edited with an introduction and accurately translated into English for the first time on the basis of the MS., found in Puộyavijayaji's collection at L. D. Institule of Indology, Ahmedabad under the heading of Ekatvasaptatikādi-Ācārya-Padmanandi křtisan graha, 98 No. 4425/12.
This complete MS. of 33 verses consists of 3 folios (24 B to 26 A). containing 58 lines and 47 to 49 letters to a line. The size of each page is 25.5 x 11,5 cm. It is hand-written in black ink on the hand made paper ( = country paper). Handwriting is very clear and fair, space is left for full-stop (-dapda) after completion of every verse. The MS., seems to be very old (circa 400 years), 'solid in appearance and condition of the MS. is very good. This work is written along with other works of Padmanandi, so, it begins after, the work Siddhastuti in the MS. and it ends with Kştiri yamiha panditottama Sri Padmanandinah. Few mistakes are found here and there. Possible corrections are shown in the bracket with question mark. 23
To speak about this work, it is termed as Ātmabodha-self awareness or Alocanä -self-confession. It seems that the name Alocadā is more popular than Atmabodha. The author himself in the concluding verse. calls it Alocanā.30 An unknown Sanskrit commentator's commentary on this work, ends with it yalocană samăptā.81 This work is also termed as Atmabodha on the basis of the inner current of thought. This Game is more bifitting to this work. There are two currents of thought running throughout the hymn. One is in the form of self-confession of one's own faults and another as in the form of describing the nature of Atman and self-realization. Most of the verses ate devoted to the latter. The author's statement that recitation of this work leads one to the abode of bliss in the concluding verse itself.
28. Published Catalogue. 29. It is very important to mention bere that when we have completed the critical
edition and English translation of this small treatise, the printed book Padmanandi Pancavimsati, with Sanskrit commentary ed, by A. N. Upadhye and H. L. Jaina came to our hand. We have made good use of it in introduction, but we have maintained our own critical reidings, and different readings accepted by
those editors are mentioned in the notes, wherever necessary. 30. Sūreh pankajanandinaḥ kệtimimāmālocanām;-33. 31. Padmanandi-Pancıvimsati-Alocapā-P. 168.

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justifies the title Ātmabodha. Though small in size, it is a very important hymn from the Jaina religious point of view, It seems to be a sponteneous expression of a mystic mind in its attempt to realise the Supreme Reality i.e. Ātman on the religious plane. This hymn is full of rhythm, vigour and insight, that inspire one for self-realization. This work is in the form of a prayer. Prayer is nothing but an expression of inner devotion. It is a firm belief of the author that devotional thoughts and prayers directed towards Jipesa bring the highest happiness (Liberation) here and now. The entire hymn can be summarised in the following manner : The way shown by the Jina leads one to the state of self-realisation, Self-awareness is nothing but a state of complete desirelessness and the realisation of sameness of all (Samatā). Jina is a perfact soul and treasure of bliss. Meditation on him, with an unflinching faith, constantly remembering his name and following the path of three jewels, which consist of Right faith, Right knowledge and Right conduct, one attains the highest object of life (ie., liberation). Firm faith in Jina will save one from the fear of birth, old age and death. Jina is like a good parasel of shower-bath, for the worldly people who are tormented by the strong heat of mundane life. Everything in the world is momentary and worthless, Jina - a perfect soul- is the only Reality, and knowledge, faith, bliss and vigour belong to this Reality. If Jina - the ultimate Reality-is realised, then everything else, automatically becomes known and nothing remains to be attained. Thus. Jina should only be prayed, remembered and saluted.
Whatever blemishes occur through negligence and doubt in the practice of religious duties and whatever sins occur thereby will become null and void after confessing one's own faults in the presence of Jina. Jineša is omniscient, knows everything. Still, for purification of one's own mind, one has to contess one's own faults in the presence of omniscient Lord. The main purpose of self-confession is to divest one's self from similar faults further and attain internal purification. Man's mind is very perplexed, deluded and thus, man commits endless faults. And it is wellnigh impossible to expiate them. It is only possible by withdrawing the mind from external objects and uniting oneself with the Universal Ātman by deep meditation and solemn contemplation. It is the only method to attain to the state of Jina. Mind is very fickle and nature of it is such that even after renouncing all worluly objects and taking shelter in forest, it runs towards the worldly objects. Control over the mind is possible only through concentrating it on the Supreme Self.
This mundane life is full of miseries and Nirväna is the only happiness. In this transitory world the only solace is the Jina's feet--the highest

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indeterminate Brahman. The state of Jina is the state of Nirvana, eternal bliss. Nirvana is nothing but the realisation of one's own Atman. It is the realisation of pure knowledge which is indescribable in terms of human language. In this state, Atman is neither gross, neither male nor female nor neuter; neither heavy nor light. It is a formless state of pure absolute consciousness. It is a body that is affected by birth, old age, disease, agony and death. Atman is pure spirit and untouched by all these. Thus attachment to everything including the body has to be given up. It is on account of enjoyment of worldly objects through senses and the mind, that Karmic particles enter the soul and the individual self to the wheel of mundane life. Realising the unreality of the sense-objects enjoyment and the separateness of the Atmam from the material body, one can attain real peace. Attachment and aversion are the root causes of Karmabandha. They are very powerful enemies on the path of spiritual progress. Thus, attachment and aversion, have to be avoided. Duality thy name is samsara (=mundane life). Llberation - the state of immortality is the non-dual state, free from all kinds of dualities. One has to reach from duality to non-duality, from lower to bigher. The real is above all duality and is beyond speech and intellect. It can be realised only in the innermost self of all.
196
The rigerous path of conduct preached by Jina is very difficult to follow in these days of Kali. The contemporary environments are not favourable for practice of code of conduct. So, unflinching devotion towards Jina alone work as a boat to cross over the ocean of mundane life. It is Jina's feet which will make one's free from the cycle of births and deaths and bestow liberation. Even recitation of this hymn which is written in praise of Jina will lead one to the permanent abode of bliss.
Our author Padmanandi seems to be powerfully influenced by the Vedantic thought. Many statements made in this work remind us of some Upanisadic passages. While describing the nature of Atman and the state of liberation, he speaks, just almost in the Upanisadic tone. Upanisad states that on knowing Brahman or Atman, everything else becomes known and everything is attained. 82 Padmanandi speaks in just similar way (v. 5). Atman is the only Reality, everything is unreal (angta,) says one Upanisad.8% Padmanandi also tells us in a similar way that, Atman is the only Reality and everything else is worthless (V-4). Again, the Upanisads conceived Brahman as beyond thought,
32 (a) Mundaka Upanisad I-II-3. (b) Ibid-III-II-9.
33 Chandogya Upanisad-III-XIV-1.

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speech and bliss. 54 Padmanandi borrows the word Brahman of the Upanişads and uses it in the sense of the highest Reality which is indeter minate and bliss (17). We are told in the Upanisad that, Atman is neither male, nor female, por neuter. 85 It is self-luminous consciousness. There is neither duality nor plurality of the self, but every personal self and impersonal Brabman are one and the same, 30 Padmanandi, also describes it in similar maoner (17, 18, 29). He also seems to be influenced by the Bhakti school of Ramānuja Vedānta, Centemporary environment is not favourable to practise this code of conduct. Thus, Padmanandi lays more stress an devotion, almost of the theistic pattern. It seems that the Upanişadic spirit is imbued by our author, even though details are set in the religious and metaphysical framework of Jainism. We can also judge from this work that the author is more inward than out-ward in his religious approach. Though small in size, this work is undoubtedly a verry good contribution to religo-philosophical literature of the Jainas.
34. Katha Upanisad-II VI-12. 35. Svetāívatara Upanişad-V-10. 36 (a) Katha Upanişad-II-IV-11,
(b) Mándūkya Upanişad-11 (c) Běhadāraṇyaka Upanişad-II-V-19,11.

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आत्मबोधः (आलोचना) TEXT AND TRANSLATION * यद्यानन्दनिधिं भवन्तममलं तत्त्वं मनो गाहते स्वन्नामस्मृतिलक्षणो यदि महामन्त्रोऽस्त्यनन्तप्रभः । यानं च त्रितयात्मके यदि भवेत् मार्गे भवदर्शिते ।
को लोकेऽत्र सताम भीष्टविषये विघ्नो जिनेश प्रभो ॥१॥ O Lord Jinesa ! if (ones) mind meditates on you-the treasure of bliss and pure Reality; if there is a great Mantra-(Sacred letters) (with oneself) in the form of rememberance of your name, which is infinitely radiant; if (ones) journey is on the path of three Jewels, (then) what impediment can be there (in regard to attaining) the desired object (i.e. liberation) of noble people ?1
1.
निःसङ्गत्वमरागिताथ समता कर्मक्षयो बोधनं विश्वव्यापि समं दृशा तदतुलानन्देन वीर्येण च इ[ई] दृग्देव तवैव संवृतिपरित्यागाय जात क्रमः
शुद्धस्तेन सदा भवच्चरणयोः सेवा सतां सम्मता ॥२॥ 2. O Lord ! non-acquisition, non-attachment, equanimity, annihilation of
Karmaand all-pervading perfact knowledge with full of bliss and vigour, is the pure path (preached) by you to renounce the mundane world. Thus, adoration of your feet is always consented to by the noble people.
यद्येतस्य दृढा मम स्थितिरभूत् त्वत्सेवया निश्चित त्रैलोक्येश बलीयसोऽपि हि कुतः संभा(सा)रशत्रोर्भयम् । प्राप्तस्यामृतवर्षहर्षजनकं सच्छत्रधारागृहम्
पुंसः किं कुरुते शुचौ खरतरो मध्याह्नकालातपः ॥३॥ 3. O Lord of three worlds ! if I have reached surely this steady (state
of mind) on account of your worship, then indeed, where is fear from even (the most) powerful enemy in form of mundane life ? What
* Sanskrit text is jointly edited by the author and Dr. R. S. Betai.. 1. This verse indicates the importance of three things in the life of an aspirant of
liberation, i.e, meditation on pure blissful Atman, recitation of name of the Lord, and the path of three Jewels which consists of Right faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. The word Tritayātmaka' reminds us of Umāsvāti's statement in
Tattvarthasutra viz , Samyagdarsana-Jnana-Caritrani moksamargah -T.S, I-1. 2. 'Krtsnakarmakayomoksah'-T.S. X-3.

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even tormenting mid-day heat of summer can do to a person who has reached the good parasol of shower bath 3 which is the cause of immense satisfaction on account of showering nectar-like water ?
यः कश्चिनिपुणो जगत्त्रयगतानर्थानशेषांश्चिरं सारासारविवेचनैकमनसा मीमांसते निस्तुषम् । तस्य वं परमेक एव भगवन् सारो ह्यसारं पदं
सर्व (तत् ?) भवदाश्रितस्य महती तेनाभवन्निवृतिः ।।४।। 4. O Lord ! if some wise man reflects singlemindedly with discrimination
n worthiness and worthlessness of all objects of three worldst for long, for him, you are the only Reality (Lit. = Worth) and everything else is worthless. Thus, all that great happiness is attained by med who has taken refuge in you.
ज्ञानं दर्शनमप्यशेषविषयं सौख्यं तदात्यन्तिकं वीयं च प्रभुता च निर्मलतरां(र) रूपं स्वकीयं तव । सम्यग्योगहशा जिनेश्वर चिरात्तनोपलब्धे त्वयि
ज्ञानं किं न विलोकितं न किमथ प्राप्तं न कि योगिभिः ।।५।। 5. O Lord Jinega ! knowledge and faith of all objects, that infinite
happiness, vigour, sovereignity (i. e. God-of-all Gods) and faultless beauty are yours (Only). When (One) attains to you after a long period of time by right yogic vision, then what knowledge is not known, what is left to be seen and what is not attained ? 6
त्वामेकं त्रिजगत्पतिं परमहं मन्ये जिनस्वामिनं त्वामेकं प्रणमामि चेतसि दधे सेवे स्तुवे सर्वदा । त्वामेकं शरणं गतोऽस्मि बहुना प्रोक्तेन किंचिद्भवेत्
इत्थं तद्भवतु प्रयोजनमतो नान्येन मे केनचित् ॥६॥ 6. I take you to be the only highest Lord of the three worlds, great
conquerer and (my) Lord. I always salute, remember (or hold in my
heart), serve and pray you only. I take refuge only in you." What is 3. Here, A. N. Upadbye and H. L. Jain's (U and J) edition reads as • Sadyantra'
instead of Sacchatra', which seems to be very good reading. 4. Through these words the author indirectly expresses the importance of loka
vistārabhāvanā, i.e, one of the important reflections (apuprekşā)-See also T.S. IX-7. 5. U. and J, edition reads here 'me' in place of 'tad' put into the bracket by us. 6. This verse reminds us of the Upanisadic statement, yena vijnatena sarvam
vijñātam bhavati'. 7. In this verse, the author surrenders himself to the Lord. This reminds us of
navavidha bhakti, viz., Sravanam-kirtanam visnoh smaranam pādasevanam. Arcanam vandanam dasyam sakbyamätmanivedanam'.

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the use of speaking more (about all these) ? Let it be like that. I have therefore, no purpose with any other person (than you).
पापं कारितवान् यदत्र कृतवानन्यः कृतः साध्विति भ्रान्त्याहं प्रतिपन्नवांश्च मनसा वाचा च कायेन च । काले सम्प्रति यञ्च भाविनि नवस्थानोद्गतं यत्पुनः तन्मिथ्याखिलमस्तु मे जिनपते त्वं निन्दतस्ते पुरः ॥७॥
7. O Jinapati ! on account of delusion, whatever sin, I made others to
commit, whatever I have myself done and consented to other's sinful activities as good, by body, mind and speech, and again the sin which arises from these nine sources (mind, speech and body) at present, and which will be done in future, that everything of mine be proved null and void (in effect) on account of reproaching one's own self in your presence.
लोकालोकमनन्तपर्यययुतं कालत्रयीगोचरं त्वं जानासि जिनेन्द्र पश्यतितरां शश्वत्समं सर्वतः । स्वामिन् वेसि ममैकजन्मजनितं दोषं न किंचित्कुतो
हेतोस्ते पुरतः स वाच्य इति मे शुद्धधर्थमालोचितुम् ॥८॥ 8. O Jinendra ! Constantly (at all the times), simultaneously and from all sides you know and see the universe and beyond the Universe, w
erse and beyond the Universe, which are having infinite modifications and which exist in all the three times (in past, present and future). O Lord ! you know the faults of this birth of mine. Then why this fault of inine cannot be expressed in your presence for purification and confession 8 ?
आश्रित्य व्यवहारमार्गमथवा मूलोत्तराख्यान गुणान् साधोर्धारयतो मम स्मृतिपथा प्रस्थापि यद्दषणम् । शुद्ध्यर्थं तदपि प्रभो तव पुरः सज्जोऽहमालोचितुम निःशल्यं हृदयं विधेयमजः भव्यर्यतः सर्वथा ।।९।।
9. O Lord ! endowed with
fundamental and subsidiary
virtues of a
8. In this verse, the author brings out the doctrine of omniscience, which is widely
debated in Jaina Philosophical literature. Lord, Jina is omniscient. There is nothing in the universe. which he does not know and does not see. It is said that..
Ekobhāvah sarvathā yena drsth sarve bhāvaḥ sarvathā tena drstāh.' -quoted in Syadvadamanjari-I, P.5.

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monko (Whatever fault is committed) on the basis of empirical stand point or doubt raised by mind (in your words) that all, also to, purify, I am ready to confess in your presence, because, pious, wise people have to make (others) heart free from cause of tormentation, in every respect.
सर्वोऽप्यत्र मुहुर्मुहुर्जिनपते लोकैरसंख्यैर्मितः व्यक्ताव्यक्तविकल्पजालकलितः प्राणी भवेत् संसतौ। तत्तावद्भिरयं मदै(में)व निचितो दोषैर्विकल्पानुगैः
प्रायश्चित्तमियत् कुतः श्रुतगतं शुद्धिर्भवत्सन्निधेः(धौ) ॥१०॥ 10. O Jinapati! every Jiva in this cycle of births and deaths (travels) in
innumerable worlds associated with the ret of clear and unclear thought. Therefore this jiva is always 1o piled up by endless defaults followed by this net of thoughts. For So many faults (innumerable faults) where is scriptural (Agamic) expiation ? Expiation (of them) is (possible) only in your presence.
भावान्तःकरणेन्द्रियाणि विधिवत्संहृत्य बाह्याश्रयान् एकीकृत्य पुनस्त्वया सह शुचिज्ञानकसन्मूर्तिना । निःसङ्गश्रुतसारसङ्गतमतिः शान्तो रहः प्राप्तवान्
यस्त्वां देव समीकृते स लभते धन्यो भवत्सन्निधिम् ॥११॥ 11. O Lord! he who, withdrawing internal and external senses from out
worldly objects in a proper way and uniting (them) with you- the personified pure true knowledge; being detached (from worldlyobjects), understanding, the gist of scriptures, being tranquil and approaching solitude (it) such a one meditates 11 on you, that fortunate one attains your vicinity.
त्वामासाद्य पुराकृतेन महता पुण्येन पूज्यं प्रभु ब्रह्माधरपि यत्पदं न सुलभ तल्लभ्यते निश्चितम् । अईन्नाथ परं करोमि किमहं चेतो भवत्सन्निधौ
अद्यापि ध्रियमाणमप्यतितरामेतद्बहिर्धावति ॥१२॥ 9. Non-violance, truthfulness. non-theft, celibacy, and non-acquisition are called
Mūlagunas, i.e. fundamental virtues. To protect, nourish and purify these fundamental virtues certain other minor virtues are accepted. These are known as Uttaraguna, that is. subsidiary virtues -T.S.-VII. Pub: L. D. Indology.
Ahmedabad. 1974, p. 281. 10. Horo U and J edition reads 'Sadaiva' in place of Madaiva', which is more
correct reading. 11. The word . Samiksate' is used in U and J edition in place of Samikyte: Which is again a more satisfactory reading.
T-26

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12. O Arihanta! attaining you (i. e. thy feet) the adorable Lord, by
the great meritorious deeds done in the past, the state that is rare even to the creator etc, is surely atainable. But, what can I do ? My mind even to-day if forcibly concentrated (held) at your feet very much runs towards wordly objects.12
13.
संसारो बहुदुःखदः सुखपदं निर्वाणमेतत्कृते त्यक्त्वार्थादितपोवनं वयमितास्तत्रोज्झितः संशयः । एतस्मादपि दुष्करव्रतविधेर्वार्ना)द्यापि सिद्धिर्यतो
वातालीतरलीकृतं दलमिव भ्राम्यत्यदो मानसम् ॥१३॥ This mundane life is full of miseries (and) liberation is the only state of happiness. To attain this state of liberation, renouncing all worldly things, we retired to the forest. There we have discarded all our doubts. But even by (following) this difficult path of vows, liberation is not attained, even to-day. The reason is that our mind is perplexed like a petal mide trem alous by line of wind (or series of wind).
झम्पाः कुर्वदितस्ततः परिलसबाह्यार्थलाभादहन्नित्यं व्याकुलतां परं गतवतः कार्य विनाप्यात्मनः । ग्रामं वासयदेन्द्रियं भवकृतो दूरं सुहृत्कर्मण;
क्षेमं ताबदिहास्ति कुत्र यमिनो यावन्मनो जीवति ॥१४।। 14. (The nature of mind is such that), it wonders here and there, shines
all around by obtaining external objects (for enjoyment); constantly
nakes knowledgeable Soul restless without any reason and infuses the group of sense-organs (by karma) and is the powerful friend of karma which is the cause of mundane life. Where is happiness in this world even for restrained people when (such kind of their mind functions ?
नूनं मृत्युमुपैति यातममलं त्वां शुद्धबोधात्मकं स्वत्तस्तेन बहिर्भवत्यविरतं चेतो विकल्पाकुलम् । स्वामिन् किं क्रियतेऽत्र मोहवशतो मृत्योर्न भीः कस्य तत्
सर्वानर्थपरंपराकृदहितो मोहः स मे वार्यताम् ।।१५।। 15. O Lord ! this mind (after) attaining you-the essence of pure knowledge;
indeed, meets with death (i.e. mind becomes functionless). (But), being agitated by dilemma, it wounders contiouously towards the out
worldly object, withdrawing (concentration) from you (your feet). 12. in 12-15, the author enumerates the fickleness of the mind. These verses remind
us of nature of mind described in the Bhagavadgitā.

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O Lord, what is to be done (in this matter ?) Who is not afraid of death on account of infatuation in this world ? Thus, please impede my infatuation which is the eause of all kinds of series of evils.
सर्वेषामपि कर्मणामतितरां मोहो बलीयानसी धत्त चञ्चलतां बिभेति च मृतेस्तस्य प्रभावान्मनः । नो चेज्जोवति को म्रियेत क इह द्रव्यत्वतः सर्वदा
नानात्वं च गतो जिनेन्द्र भवता दृष्टं परं पर्ययैः ॥१६॥ . 16. Amongst all the karmas, this deluding karma is very powerful. On
account of its influence, the mind becomes perplexed and afraid of death. Otherwise, on the point of view of substance, who lives and dies in this world ? Manifoldness of the world is seen (preached) by you on account of its modifications only.18
वातव्याप्त समुद्रवारलहरीसंघातवत्सर्वदा सर्वत्र क्षणभंगुरं जगदिदं सञ्चिन्त्य चेतो मम । सम्प्रत्येतदशेषजन्मजनकव्यापारपारस्थितं ।
स्थातुं वाञ्छति निर्विकारपरमानन्दे त्वयि ब्रह्मणि ॥१७॥ 17. Thinking that, this universe is always momentary from all sides like
a series of waves of ocean accompanied by the wind, my mind, at present being free from (or going beyond) all these activities, which are cause of mundane life, desires to dwell in you-- the changeless highest blissful Brahman.14
एनः स्यादशुभोपयोगत इतः प्राप्नोति दुःखं जनो धर्मः स्याच्च शुभोपयोगत इतः सौख्यं किमप्याश्रयेत् । द्वन्द्वं द्वन्द्वमिदं भवाश्रयतया शुद्धोपयोगात्पुनः .
नित्यानन्दपदं तदत्र च भवानहन्नहं तत्र च ।।१८॥ 18. Demerit is on account of inauspicious activities. From this demerit
man becomes subject of suffering. Religious merit is due to auspicious activities. From this (religious merit) one attains some sort of happi. ness. This pair of duality is on account of taking shelter in mundane
13. In this verse, the author brings out the philosophical truth of Jainism. According
to Jainism, there are six substances viz. Jiva. Ajiva-principle of motion. principle of rest, space, matter and Time. All of them are real from the point of view of substance. It is the only point of view of modifications there is change in substance, Thus, substance is defined as that which consists of production, destruction and permanence( (T-S-V). Hence the point of view of Substance, no one takes births
and no one dies, 14. This line reminds us of the Upanişadic statement-Anandam Brahma.

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life Again, attainment of the highest eternal blissful state is on account of pure auspicious activities. O Arhan, (the difference betwecn you and me is that), you are in the state of eternal bliss and I am here in this mundane life (which is full of pain and pleasure)
यन्नान्तर्ने बहिः स्थितं न च दिशि स्थूलं न सूक्ष्म पुमान् नैव स्त्री न नपुंसकं न गुरुतां प्राप्त न यल्लाघवम् । कर्मस्पर्शशरीरगन्धगणनाव्याहारवर्णोज्झितः
स्वच्छं ज्ञानहगेकमूर्ति तदहं ज्योतिः परं नापरम् ॥१९॥ 19. I am nothing else but that highest self-luminous Consciousness ( Lit.
light) which dwells neither inside nor outside, nor in any direction; (which is) neither gross nor subtle; neither male, nor female, nor neuter; neither heavy nor light; free from Karma, touch, body, smell counting, word and colour and embodiment of pure knowledge and darsana.18
एतेनैव चिदुन्नति क्षयकृता कार्य विना वैरिणा शश्वत्कर्म खलेन तिष्ठति कृतं नाथावयोरन्तरम् । एषोऽहं स च ते पुरः परिगतो दुष्टोऽत्र निःसार्यताम
सद्रक्षेतरनिग्रहो नयवतो धर्मः प्रभोरीदृशः ॥२०॥ 20. O Lord! the gulf between us is created by this enemy in the form of
mischievous karma, whicb, without any reason destroys the advance
ment of Spirit.18 This, I am and that karma both are here in the presence of you. Amongst us (between us), (please) throw out that malignant (karma), because, it is the duty of a king to protect virtuous and punish the wicked ones.
आधिव्याधिजरामृतिप्रभृतयः सम्बन्धिनो वर्मणः तद्भिन्नस्य ममात्मनो भगवत किं कर्तुमीशा जडाः । नानाकारविकारकारिण इमे साक्षान्नभोमण्डले
तिष्ठन्तोऽपि न कुर्वते जलमुचस्तत्र स्वरूपान्तरम् ॥२१॥ 21. The mental agony, disease, old age and death etc., are related to
the body. (Thus) what (harm) these inanimate things can do to my
supreme Soul, which is quite different from these things ?11 (They 15. This verse is very similar to the Upanişadic statement that •Ātman is neither male.
nor female nor neuter.'-Svetāsvatara Upanisad-V. 10. 16. The word 'cidunnatiksayakrta' is used in U and Jedition, instead of 'cidunnatim'.
The reading 'cidunnatim' is more appropriate here. 17. In these lines, the author indirectly attacks the materialists (who claim that Atman
is not different from the body) by saying that Ātman is quite different from the material body.

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cannot do anything just as) these clouds taking various forms and shapes in the sky, cannot change the essential nature of the sky.
संसारात पदह्यमानवपुषा दुःखं मया स्थीयते
नित्यं नाथ यथा स्थलस्थितमता मत्से (त्स्ये) न ताम्यन् मनः । कारुण्यामृतसङ्गशीतलतरे त्वत्पादपङ्केरुहे
देव समर्पयामि हृदयं तावत्परं सौख्यवान् ||२२||
22. O Lord ! I am always in (the state of) sorrow, on account of having body which is burning by heat of mundane life like a fish (which is) on the ground. But, I am happy, as long as I dedicate my heart to the lotuslike feet of your's which are very cool on account of association of nectar like compassion,
साक्षप्राममिदं मनो भवति यद्बाह्यार्थसम्बन्धभाक्
तत्कर्म प्रतिजृम्भते पृथगई तस्मात्सदा सर्वथा ।
चैतन्यात्तव तत्तथेति यदि वा तत्रापि तत्कारणं शुद्धात्मन् मम निश्चयात्पुनरिह त्वय्येव देव स्थितिः ||२३||
23. O Lord! O pure soul ! this mind, with the group of sense-organs becomes connected with out-worldly objects. From that, karma arises. (But ), I am always different from that (karma), indeed, or that karma (which is material) is different from your consciousness. Here also (in my case also) consciousness (which is quite different from material karma) is the main cause (in feeling different from that Karma ). (Thus) ultimately my existence is in you only (or I am in thyself) (ie. there is no difference between nature of your consciousness and my consciousness, ultimately ).

किं लोकेन किमाश्रयेण किमुत द्रव्येण कायेन कि किं वाग्भिः किमुतेन्द्रियैः किममुभिः किं तैर्विकल्पैरपि । सर्वे पुद्गलपर्यया बत परे त्वत्त प्रमुत्तो भवन् नात्मनेभिरभिश्रयस्यतितरामालेन किं बन्धनम् ||२४||
24. O Atman ! what is the use of these, universe, abode, matter, body, speech, senses, vital force and those imagined objects for you? All of them are modifications of matter (only). (They are) different from you. Alas, why are you being negligent, vainly taking shelter in bondage, by these imagined objects?

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धर्माधर्मनभांसि काल इति मे नैवाहितं कुर्वते चत्वारोऽपि सहायतामुपगतास्तिष्ठन्ति गत्यादिषु । एक: पुद्गल एवं सन्निधिगतो नो कर्म कर्माकृतिः वैरीबन्धकृदेष सम्प्रति मया भेदासिना खण्डितः ||२५||
25. Principle of motion, principle of rest; space and Time, do not do any harm to me. ( Instead of that) all the four assist me in_motion, etc.18 This is ths only enemy in the form of matter which is transformed into the basic and subtypes of karmas, coming to me become a cause of bondage. So, I have destroyed these with the help of the sword in form of discrimination.
रागद्वेष कुतैर्यथा परिणमेद्रपान्तरैः पुद्गलो
नाकाशादिचतुष्टयं विरहितं मूर्त्या ' तथा ' प्राणिनाम् । ताभ्यां कर्म नवं भवेदविरतं तस्मादियं संसृतिः तस्यां दुःखपरम्परेति विदुषा त्याग्यौ प्रयत्नेन तौ ||२६||
26. Just as matter is modified by changes caused by attachment and aversion, in a similar manner, four formless (substances) space, principles of motion and rest, and time19 do not get modified or changed. From these attachment and aversion there, constantly, arises 20 new karma. On account of this karma ( bandha), there is this mundane life. In this mundane life, there follows series of sorrow ( Thus ), both these are to be avoided by the wise with great exertion21.
किं बाह्येषु परेषु वस्तुषु मनः कृत्वा विकल्पान्बहून् रागद्वेषमयान्मुधैव कुरुषे दुःखाय कर्माशुभम् । आनन्दामृत सागरे यदि वसस्यासाद्य शुद्धात्मनि
स्फीतं तत्सुखमेकतामुपगतं त्वं यासि रे निश्चितम् ||२७||
27. Omind ! why are you vainly performing inauspicious actions (which are cause of sorrow) imagining attachment and aversion towards outworldly objects? If you dwell in pure soul, which is ocean like nectar of bliss, then surely you will attain that abundont happiness of oneness.
18. Dharma, the medium of motion is the auxiliary cause of the movements Adharina, the medium of rest serves as the auxiliary cause of rest. Akāśa, the space assists to exist and Time (kala) has characteristic of making possible transformation perduration, activity, prior and posterior-Prasamarati-215 and 218.
19. Praşamaratiprakarana-207.
20. The word 'ghand' is used by U and J edition instead of 'navam'.
21. This verse reminds us of Umasvati's statements on attachment and aversion in Prasamaratiprakarana in which he states that attachment (-greediness and infa'uation) and aversion (-anger and ego) are the root Praśamarati--30-32.
cause of mundane life

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इत्याधाय हृदे स्थिरं जिन भवत्पादप्रसादात्सति अध्यात्मैकतुलामय जन इतः शुद्ध्यर्थमारोहति । एनं कर्तुममी च दोषिणमिता: कर्मारयो दुर्धराः
तिष्ठन्ति प्रसभं तदत्र भगवन् मध्यस्थ साक्षी भवान् ॥२८॥ 28. O Jina ! keeping a these (ideas) firmly, in my mind, by the grace of your feet this man ascends the one side of the transcendental scale
rification. On the other side of (the scale), these irresistable enemies in the form of karmas forcibly standing to make me faulty. O Lord ! thus in this matter of giving judgment you are the impartial witness.
द्वैतं संतृतिरेव निश्रयवशादद्वैतमेवामृतं संक्षेपादुभयत्र कल्पतमिदं पर्यन्तकाष्ठागतम् । । निर्गत्याद्य पदाच्छनैः शबलितादन्यत्समालम्बते
यत्सो संज्ञ इति स्फुटं व्यवहृतेब्रह्मादिनामेति च ॥२९।। 29. Ultimate point of view, the duality is mundane life and (the state of)
non-duality is liberation. 8 In both the cases, it is said briefly in its highest sense (or limit). The soul, slowly walking out from a variegated first! 4 state (i.e, from the state of duality), reaches (lit.-holds) another state (i.e. non-dual state). It is certain that (ultimate point of view) it, (soul) becomes nameless and on the empirical point of view. it is called in terms such as Brahman etc. (i. e. paramatman. parabrahman, etc).
चारित्रं यदभाणि केवलशा देव त्वया मुक्त । पुंसा तत्खलुमाइशेन विषमे काले कलौ दुर्धरम् । भक्तिर्या समभूदिह स्वयि दृढा पुण्यः पुरोपार्जितः .
संसारार्णवतारणे जिन ततः सैवास्तु पोतो मम ॥३०॥ 30. O Lord ! the code of conduct preached by you-the perfect omniscient,
for (attaining) to liberation, is, indeed, very difficult to follow by the man like me, in this unfavourable period of Kali age. O Jina ! the unflinching devotion towards you, which is on account of merits earned
22. U and J edition reads •ityasthaya' instead of 'ityādhaya' 23. The idea which expressed in this verse is very similar to that of Gaudapada in
the Mandük yakārikā, where he states that this world is Maya and duality. There is no duality at the ultimate point of view and realising this there remains no duality i, e, māyāmatramidam dvaitam advaitam paramarthatah; jñáte dvaitam
navidyate-Mindukyakarika-Agama prakarana, pp. 17-18. 24. Nirgatyadipadat' is used in U and Jedition instead of 'nirgatyādyapedat'.

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in the previous births, be the boat for me to cross the ocean of mundane life.25
इन्द्रत्वं च निगोदतां च बहुधा मध्ये तथा योनयः संसारे भ्रमता चिरं यदखिलाः प्राप्ता मयानन्तशः । तन्नापूर्णमिहास्ति किंचिदपि मे हित्वा विमुक्तिप्रदा
सम्यग्दर्शनबोधवृत्तपदवीं तां देव पूर्णा' कुरु ॥३१॥ 31. O Lord ! while wondering in the cycle of births and deaths, since
1.ng, I have obtained Indrahood (i.e. birth in the form of god of gods) Nigodata36 (i.e. birth in Nigodaform) and in between obtained all sorts of seats of briths, in innumerable times. Thus, in the world, there is nothing new for me except the path of Right faitb, Rigbt knowledge and Right conduct-which (path) is the bestower of liberation. (Please) make that path of mine perfect.
श्रीवीरेण मम प्रसन्नमनसा किञ्चित्तदुच्चैः पदप्राप्त्यर्थ परमोपदेशवचनं चित्ते समारोपितम् । येनास्तामिदमेकभूतलकृतं राज्यं क्षणं ध्वंसि यत्
त्रैलोक्यस्य च तन्न मे प्रियमिह श्रीमजी [ज्जि] नेन्द्रप्रभो ॥३२ 32. O Lord, to attain that bighest state, ar Viranandi (My guru) with ple
asant heart has imparted the highest teaching in my mind. As a consequence of that (religious teaching) let, this one momentary kingdam of earth, be far away from me, 28 even the kingdom of three worlds is not dearer to me here.
सूरेः पक्कजनन्दिनः कृतिमिमामालोचनामहंतां अग्रे यः पठति त्रिसन्ध्यममलश्रद्धानताङ्गो नरः । योगीन्द्रश्चिरकालरूढतपसा यत्नेन यन्मृग्यते
तत्प्राप्नोति परं पदं स मतिमानानन्दसद्म ध्रुवम् ॥३३॥ 33. The wise, who reads this Alocana, the work of Padmanandi in the
presence of Lord Arihanta, thrice a day, bowing down with pure devotion, indeed, attains that highest state (which is) the abode of bliss, which is searched with great exertion by the yogins with the help of deep-rooted penance.
25, In this verse, the author points out the practical difficulty in following religious
injunctions. He states in clear terms that, contemporary environment is not favourable to practise rigorous code of conduct. So, devotion towards Jina is the
only solace. It reminds us of very popular statement that Kalau bhak tirvisisyate. 26. Nigodata-one common body inhibited by infinite jivas. 27. The word tatkinciduccaih is used in U and Jedttion, instead of kincittaduccaith. 28. The author means to state that he is not at all interested even in the kingdom of
three worlds what then to talk of the earthly kingdom,

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20
जैनदर्शनस्य आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता
सामान्येन भारतीयदर्शनानि 'आस्तिक दर्शनानि' 'नास्तिकदर्शनानीति' द्विधा विभक्तानि विद्यन्ते । तत्र न्याय-वैशेषिक-सांस्य-योग-पूर्वमीमांसा-वेदान्तदर्शनानि च आस्तिकानीति, चार्वाक-बौद्ध-जैनदर्शनानि नास्तिकानीति च व्यपदिश्यन्ते ।। चार्वाकबौद्धजैनाः ईश्वरस्य जगत्कर्तृकत्वं नानुमन्यन्ते नापि च वेदप्रामाण्यं उरीकुर्वन्तीति ते नास्तिकाः इति परिगण्यन्ते व्यावहारिकदृष्ट्या ।
परमिदं महद्दौर्भाग्यमिति वक्तव्यं भवति यत् जैनदर्शनप्रतिपादितमूलभूततत्त्वानि अविगणय्य चार्वाकबौद्धमताभ्यां सहैव जैनदर्शनमपि नास्तिकदर्शनमिति व्यवहियते । यदा वयं दार्शनिकदृष्टयाऽस्तिकनास्तिकशब्दार्थविषये विचारयामो निष्पक्षपातिना मनसा, कुर्मश्च तस्य ऐतिह्यावलोकनं सूक्ष्मेनिकया, तदेदं सुस्पष्टं संबोभवीति यत् जैनदर्शनं न कदापि नास्तिकपदव्यपदेशभाग भवति, इयं धारणा च सांप्रदायिकतायाः विद्वेषमूलका न तु दर्शनशास्त्रमूलका इति । जैनदर्शनस्य तलस्पर्शीज्ञानाभाव एव निदानमित्यत्र अनिवार्यतया वक्तव्यं भवति । दार्शनिकदृष्ट्या स एव नास्तिकपदव्यपदेशा) यः देहातिरिक्तस्य आत्मनः अस्तित्वं निराकुरुते, परलोक-पाप-पुण्यादिक न मनुते, कर्मसिद्धान्तं मोक्षावस्थां च नाङ्गीकरोति । अयमेवार्थः नास्तिकशब्दस्य, दर्शनशास्त्रसंमतः इति प्राचीनसर्वदर्शनेतिहासावलोकनेन ज्ञायते । व्यावहारिकदृष्ट्या यः शास्त्रोक्तान कुलाचारान् न प्रतिपालयति, ईश्वरे न विश्वसिति यथेच्छ वा व्यवहरति सः 'नास्तिकः' इति जनैः व्यपदिश्यते । व्यवहारे नास्तिकशब्दव्यपदेशः प्रायः अनाचार. बोधकत्वमूलकः इति निविवादम् । परं व्यावहारिकोऽयमर्थः दर्शनशास्त्रसंमतो न भवितुमर्हति । दर्शनशास्त्रेषु प्राधान्येन 'अहं' प्रतीतिविषयः आत्मा एव प्रतिपाद्यो विषय , तदनुषङ्गतोऽवशिष्टं सर्वमिति जानन्त्येव शास्त्रविदः । तस्मादयं नास्तिकदर्शनव्यपदेशोऽपि आत्मविचारविषयक एव भवितुमर्हति । नेकविधदर्शनकारैः ये आत्मविषयक विचाराः प्रदर्शिताः तानवलम्ब्यैव आस्तिकनास्तिकशब्दव्यपदेशः यक्तिसङ्गतं स्यादिति मन्यामहे वयम । दर्शनसिद्धान्तानां आविष्कर्तृणां दार्शनिकाना मतानुरोधेन ईश्वरजगत्कर्तृकत्वं वेदप्रामाण्यञ्चाङ्गीक्रियमाणाः एवास्तिकाः त्वन्ये नास्तिकाः इति कथन 1 (a) नास्तिकान् वेदबायां स्तान् बौद्वलोकायताहतान-सर्वसिद्धान्तसंग्रह-v. 1. (b) एते चार्वाकास्तथा चतुर्विधा बौद्धाः अहंताश्चेति षण्णास्तिका इत्य ख्यायन्ते ।
-सर्वदर्शनसंग्रह, उपोधात. पृष्ठ 99. T-27

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Traverses on less trodden path ...
न कदापि सामजस्यं आवहेत् | आस्तिक-नास्तिकस्यापि दर्शनशास्त्रीय विवेचनेन प्रस्फुटं भवति यत् आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता ईश्वरस्त्रष्टिकर्तृत्ववेदप्रामाण्यस्वीकारमात्रेण न भवितुमर्हति । तत्र व्युत्पाद्यमानस्य नास्तिकशब्दस्य नास्तीति मतिर्यस्य स इत्यर्थः भवति । तत्र किं नास्ति इत्यपेक्षयां आत्मा नास्तीति मन्तव्यं आत्मविषयक - विचारप्राधान्यान् सर्वदर्शनानाम् । अतः शरीरानिरिक्तस्यात्मनो स्वीकरणात् आस्तिकत्वं तदस्वीकरणात् नास्तिकत्वमिति मन्तव्यम् ।
210
संप्रति प्राचीनकाले आस्तिकनास्तिकशब्दयोः उपयोगः केषु केष्वर्थेषु कृतः इति संविवेच्य सप्रमाणं, तदाधारेणैव जैनदर्शनस्य आस्तिकतां प्रदर्शयितुं, समीहामहे ।
उपनिषद्द्भ्यः त्रयं जानीमहे यत् 'मृत्योः पश्चात, शरीरेन्द्रयमनोबुद्धिव्यतिरिक्तो देहान्तरसंबन्ध्यात्मा अस्तीति मन्यमानः अस्तिकः, (नाम एवं विधो आत्मा अस्तीति स्वीकुर्वाणः) देहातिरिक्तात्मास्तित्वं च अपनुवानः नास्तिकः इति । विचारधारेयं कठोपनिषदि प्रकटीकृतास्ति 'येयं प्रेते विचिकित्सा मनुष्येऽस्तीत्येके नायमस्तीति चैके इत्यादि शब्दैः । उपनिषदामध्ययनेन इदमप्यनुमातुं शक्यते यत् 'सवादी, यः प्रागुत्पत्तेः पूर्व इदं दृश्यमानं जगत् एकमेवाद्वितीयं सदासीत्, तस्मात्सतः इयं सृष्टिः इति वदति सः आस्तिकः, असद्वादी, यः प्रागुत्पत्तेः पूत्रं असत्तत्त्रमेवाद्वितीयमेकमासीत तस्मादसतः सज्जायतेति वदति सः 'नास्तिकः' इति । तदुक्तं छान्दोग्योपनिषदि, 'सदैव सौम्येदमप्र आसीदेकमेवाद्वितीयम्, तद्धैके आहुरसदेवेदमग्र आसीदेकमेवाद्वितीयम् । तस्मादसतः सज्जायत। अद्वैतवेदान्तस्य सिंहनाद कर्तारः श्रीमदाद्यशंकराचार्याः अप्यमुमेवार्थं आस्तिकनास्तिकशब्दयोः अनुमन्यन्तेति तैः कृतभाष्यानुसारेण वक्तुं शक्यते । तेषां मते वैनाशिकचौद्धा अपि नास्तिकाः यतोहि तेऽपि असतः सज्जायतेति मन्यन्ते । भाष्ये तैः स्पष्टमुक्तं यत, एके वैनाशिकाः आहुर्वस्तु निरुपयन्तोऽसत्सद्भावमात्रं प्रागुत्पत्तेरिदं जगदेकमेव अद्वितीयमासीदिति सदभावमात्रं हि प्रागुत्पत्तेस्तत्वं कल्पयन्ति बौद्धाः ।
free: वाक्यस्यास्यैव अर्थान्तरोऽपि निष्पद्यते यत् असतः जडतत्त्वात् सज्जायते चैतन्योत्पत्तिः भवतीति मन्यमानाः असद्वादिनः नास्तिकाः । नागोजीभट्टस्य प्रसिद्धटीकाकारस्य दुर्गासप्तशतीटीकायां उक्तिः अमुमेवार्थ दृढीकरोति सः कथयति यत्, सन्- ब्रह्मवर्ग:, असद् जडबर्गः इति । वैय्याकरणाः पाणिनेः समये परलोकास्तित्वं पुण्यपापादिकं मन्वानः 'आस्तिकः' परलोकाभावं पुण्यपापादिकं अपनुवानः 'नास्तिकः ' इति व्यपदिश्यते स्मेति, 'अस्तिनास्ति दिष्टं मतिः', " इति सूत्रेणावगन्तुं शक्यते ।
2. कठोपनिषत् I 1 - 20.
3. छान्दोग्योपनिषत् - VI- II-1.
4. शांकरभाष्य - छान्दोग्योपनिषद् - VI-II-1.
5. दुर्गासप्तशती -1-62.
6. अण्टाध्यायी- 4-4-60.

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जैनदर्शनस्य आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता
211 वृत्तिकारोः अपि 'अस्ति परलोकः इत्येवं मतिर्यस्य सः आस्तिकः, नास्तीति मतिर्यस्य सः नास्तिक, इत्यवदन् ।' यास्काचार्या अपि स्वकीयनिरुक्तग्रन्थे, 'प्रमदको वा योऽयमेवास्ति लोको न पर इति प्रेसुः इत्यादिना परलोकसत्तायां श्रद्धारहितत्वमेव नास्तिकता इत्यब्रुवन् ।
कलिकोलमर्वज्ञहेमचन्द्राचार्या अप्यस्मिन्नेवार्थे नास्तिकशब्दं प्रयुजते इति मल्लिषेणाचार्याणां, " नास्तिकास्तिक देष्टिक' इति निपातनात् नास्तिकः, नास्ति परलोकः पुण्यं पापं वा मतिरस्य 10 इत्यादि वचनैः स्फुटं भवति ।
महाभारते नास्तिकतायाः लक्षणं परमरमणीयतया प्रतिपादितं व्यासमहर्षिभिः । 'मोह' एव नास्तिकतायाः परमकारणमिति सङ्गिरन्ते महाभारतकाराः। तैरुच्यते यत् -
'प्रज्ञा नाशात्मको मोहः तथा धर्मार्थनाशकः ।
तस्मानास्तिकता चैव दुराचारश्च जायते ॥11 अस्थायमाशयः यदतिमोहाभिभूताः नित्यानित्यवस्तुविवेकरहिता' कुपथे पदमर्पयन्तः धर्मरहस्यं आत्मतत्वदिकं चाविगणय्य स्वसुखोपभोगार्थ करहिंसादिकं दुराचारकचा चरन्ति तादृशा एव कुपथगामिनः नास्तिकपदव्यपदेशभाजो भवन्तीति ।
स्मृतिसाहित्यकाले आस्तिक-नास्तिक शब्दार्थो परिवर्तितो बभूव । समयेऽस्मिन् वेदप्रामाण्यमङ्गी कुर्वाणो आस्तिकः, नाङ्गीकुर्वाणो 'नास्तिकः' इति व्यपदिश्यते स्मेति, नास्तिको वेदनिन्दक:12 इति मनोः उक्तया स्पष्टं भवति | कालेऽस्मिन् आत्म पुनर्भवादि दार्शनिकविचारानवलम्च्य, 'आस्तिक-नास्तिकः' इत्यादि दार्शनिकदृष्टिः विलुप्ताऽभवत् । सांप्रदायिकदृष्टेः महत्त्वं दरीदृश्यते स्मृतिकाले । अतः दार्शनिकदृष्ट्या विचारस्यास्य तादृशं महत्त्वं नास्त्येव । तत्पश्चात् नैयायिकानां प्रभावाधिक्येन ईश्वरस्य जगकर्तृकत्वं मन्यानो ईश्वरवादी 'आस्तिकः निरीश्वरवादी 'नास्तिकः' इति व्यवहारः प्रचलितो बभूव । उदयनाचार्यः न्यायशास्त्रस्य धुरंधरैः 'कार्यायो जनवृत्यादेः पदात् प्रत्ययतः श्रुतेः । वाक्यान् संख्या विशेषाच्च साध्यो विश्वविदव्ययः'13 इत्यादि बहूनि प्रमाणा'न समुपस्थापितानि ईश्वरस्य जगत्कर्तृकत्वादि सिद्धये । तत्समयादारभ्य ईश्वरास्तित्वं निराकुर्वागः नास्तिकः' इति प्रथा प्रारब्धा इति अनुमातुं शक्यते । 7. कैय्यटाचार्याः पातजलपहाभाष्यस्य प्रदीपटीकायां एवं विलिखन्ति- 'अस्ति इत्यस्य इति
परलोककर्तृका सत्ता विज्ञेया, तत्रैव विषये लोके प्रयोगदर्शनात् । तेन परलोकोऽस्तीति
मतिर्यस्य सः आस्तिकः, तद्विपरीतो नास्तिकः ।।-4-4-60. 8. यास्कनिरुक्तम्-6-32. 9. हेमसूत्रम् -6-4-66. 10. स्याद्वादमंजरी-20. 11. महाभारत शांतिपर्व--123-16. 12. मनुस्मृति-II-2. 13. न्यासकुसुमान्जलि-v-1

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212
Traverses on less trodden path... सूक्ष्मेक्षिकयानया समीक्षया इदमत्र सुस्पष्टं भवति यत् नैयायिकानां प्राबल्यकाला. दारभ्य निरीश्वरवादिता एव नास्तिकतेति व्यवहार समारब्धः तत्पूर्व उपनिषदादि काले आस्तिकतया वा नास्तिकतया साकं ईश्वरास्तित्वस्वीकारस्य अस्वीकारस्य च न कोऽपि संबन्धः आसीदिति ।
संप्रति आस्तिकनास्तिकविषयमधिकृत्य प्रदर्शितान् विचारान् एकैशः संपरीक्ष्य जेनदर्शनं यथातथ्येन नास्तिकपदव्यपदेशा) भवितुमर्हति न वेति निर्णेतव्यम् । ___ दर्शनसाहित्यस्यैतिह्यावलोकनेन षद प्रमाणानि नास्तिकतायाः निर्धारणे समुपलभ्यन्तेत्यस्माभिः प्रतिपादितं खलु । तानि च आत्मास्तित्वनिरोकरणं, जडतत्वाच्चैतन्यं समुत्पद्यतेति प्रतिपादनं, परलोकपापपुण्यमोक्षादीनां प्रत्याख्यानं, मोहाभिभूतत्वं, वेदप्रामाण्याग्रहणं, निरीश्वरवादित्वं चेति ।
प्रमाणान्येतानि प्रदर्शितानि सम्यक् स्मृतिपथमानीय, सर्वविधरीत्या विचार्यमाणे भारतीयदर्शनेषु चार्वाकदर्शनमेवैकं नास्तिकशब्दव्यपदेशाहः भवतीति दर्शनधुरीणैः स्वीकर्तव्यमेव भवति । नास्तिक शब्दलक्षण मनसि निधाय निष्पक्षपातिना च मनसा चार्वाकजैनदर्शनयोः प्रतिपादितसिद्धान्तानां तुलनया जैनमतस्य परमास्तिकता प्रस्फुदी भवति ।
दर्शनशास्रपारावारीणानां मतानुरोधेन जैनदर्शनं नास्तिकदर्शनमिति कथनं युक्ति संगतं न भवतीति सप्रमाणं प्रदर्शयितुं नास्तिकस्य चार्वाकस्याभिमतसिद्धान्तप्रतिपादनं समापद्यते, तद्विशदीकरणमप्रासङ्गिकं न भवेदत्र ।
चार्वाकास्तु देहातिरिक्तात्मास्तित्वं, परलोकास्तित्वं, मोक्षावस्थाश्च नाङ्गीकुर्वन्ति, स्वेच्छाचरणं कामाचरणं वा मुक्तकण्ठेनानुमन्यन्तेति सुविदितमेव सर्वदर्शनशास्त्रविदाम् ।
__ आत्मास्तित्वविषये चार्वाकाः एवं सङ्गिरन्ते-प्रत्यक्षदृष्टिगोचरीभूतदेहातिरिक्तस्या. न्यस्य कस्यापि अनुगम्यविशिष्टात्मनः अस्तित्वं नास्ति । चैतन्यविशिष्ट देह एवात्मा । कायाकारेण परिणतपृथिव्यादिभूतचतुष्टयमेव चेतनः, एकैकभूतस्य चैतन्याभिव्यञ्जकाभावेऽपि समुदितस्य व्यञ्जकत्वं यथा मदशक्तिः एकैकपूगीफलादिना न भवति चूर्णपर्णफलेभ्यश्च भवति तद्वत् ।। B पश्यामि श्रुणोमीत्यादि प्रतीत्या मरणपर्यन्तं यावन्ति इन्द्रियाणि तिष्ठन्ति तान्येव आत्मा ।11 प्राणापानाद्यधिष्ठानाद् कायादेव युक्तं ज्ञानं जायते न तु ज्ञानाधारभूतो शरीराद्भिन्नोऽस्त्यात्मा ।' अहं. स्थूलः, कृशोऽस्मीति सामानाधिकरण्यतः, देहस्थौल्यादि योगाच्च,18 'चेतनविशिष्टदेह एव आत्मा' इति निगदन्ति । 14. बार्हस्पत्यसूत्र-4 15. जडभूतविकारेषु चैतन्यं यत्त दृश्यते ।
तांबूलपूगचूर्णानां योगाद्राग इवोत्थितः।। सर्वासिद्धान्तसंग्रह-7. 16. बार्हस्पत्यसूत्र-36 17. कायादेव ततो ज्ञान प्राणापानाधिष्ठिनाद् युक्तं जायते-बार्हस्पत्यसूत्र-22 18. सर्वदर्शनसंग्रह-चावकिमत-1/63-64.

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जैनदर्शनस्य आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता
213 "शीलाकोऽपि सूत्रकृतांगटीकायां पूर्वपक्षरूपेण चार्वाकमतमेवं प्रस्थापयति यत्,' पृथिव्यादीनि पञ्चमहाभूतानि तेभ्यः कायाकारपरिणतेभ्य एकः कश्चिच्चिद्रपो भूता व्यतिरिक्तात्मा भवति, न भूतेभ्यो व्यतिरिक्तोऽपरः कश्चित् परिकल्पितः परलोकानुयायी सुखदुःखभोक्ता जीवाख्यः पदार्थः अस्ति ।19
अनेनेदं स्पष्टं यत्, 'आत्मास्तित्वं देहातिरिक्तं नाङ्गीकुर्वन्तीति चार्वाकाः नास्तिकाः' इति ।
अपि च चार्वाकाः जडतत्त्वात् भूतचतुष्टयादि संयोगात चैतन्यं उत्पद्यतेति निगदन्ति । अतः ते असद्वादिनः, तस्मान्नास्तिकाः ।
परलोकिनः अभावात् परलोकोऽपि नास्ति । न कोऽपि मृतः पुनरागत्य स्वकीयं स्वर्गीयं पारलौकिकं सुखं प्रत्यक्षमनुभूय संवदति 11 वर्तमानशरीरोत्पत्तः पूर्वमात्मनः
अस्तित्वं नास्ति, शरीरनाशानन्तरमपि आत्मा न भवति, अतः आत्मनः परलोकगमनमः सिद्धमेव । एतावानेबलोकोऽयं यावानिन्द्रियगोचरः । इहलोकात्परो नान्यःरवर्गोऽस्ति नरको न च" + इत्यादि वचनैः परलोकप्रत्याख्यानं कुर्वन्ति । पुण्यपापे न कस्यापि । वैषयिकसुखमेव स्वर्गः, दुःखमेव निरयः, इत्यादिना पापपुण्यादिकं न मन्यन्ते । इन्द्रियोपभोगजनितपशुसुलभं वैषयिकं सुखमेव परमपुरुषार्थ मन्वानाः मरणमेवापवर्गः इति वदन्तः मोक्षावस्थां निराकुर्वन्ति । B यावत्पर्यन्तं भूतचतुष्टयसंघात् समुत्पन्न चैतन्यं शरीरे वर्तते तावत्पर्यन्तमेव नरः स्वेच्छया चेष्टते । चैतम्यनाशानन्तरं न किमपि अवशिष्टं भवति । अतः पुनर्जन्म नास्तीति वदन्ति । अतः परलोकपापपुण्यमोक्षावस्थादोनां अनङ्गीकारेण नास्तिकाः इति निश्वप्रचम् चार्वाकाः एव ।
19. सूत्रकृताङ्गटीका-1-1-1-7-8 20. पृथिव्यप्तेजो वायुरिति तत्त्वानि, तत्समुदाये शरीरेन्द्रियविषयसंज्ञा, तेभ्यश्चतन्यम्-बार्हस्पत्य
सूत्र-2-3. 21. A 'नास्तिपरलोकः,' बार्हस्पत्यसूत्र-29. ___B यदि गच्छेत्परं लोकं देहादेव विनिर्गतः।
कस्माद्यो न चायाति वन्धुग्नेहसमाकुल:-बार्हस्पत्यसूत्र-46. 22. तत्वसंग्रह-1857. 23. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चय-81-हरिभद्र. 24. सर्वसिद्धान्तसंग्रह-8. 25. A. मृत्युरेवापवर्ग:-बार्हस्पत्यसुत्र-30. _____B. न स्वर्गो नैव मोक्षोऽत्र लोकाः क्लिश्यन्ति वै वृथा-पद्मपुराण-सृष्टिखण्ड, ___C. अनालिङ्गनाजन्यं सुखमेव पुमर्थता 1-सर्वदर्शनसंग्रह. 26. तइस्ति चेतनो यावत् चेष्ट्यते तावदिच्छया । चेतनस्य विनष्ठस्य विद्यते न पुनर्भवः ।
त्रिषशिलाका-338.

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214
Traverses on less trodden path ..
मोहाभिभूतत्वं चतुर्थ कारणं नास्तिकतायाः इत्युक्तपूर्वमेवास्माभिः । चार्वाकास्तु, 'यावज्जीवं सुखं जीवेत् ऋणं कृत्वा घृतं पिबेत् । भस्थीभूतस्य देहस्य पुनरागमन कुतः । इति उद्घोषयन्तः मोहात, तत्त्वं अजानानाः पापाचरणं, अनाचाररुचाचरन्ति । अतः ते एव नास्तिकाः । ___'यो वेदस्य कर्तारो भण्डधूर्तनिशाचरा' इत्यादिना बुद्धिषौषहीनः आजीविकार्थ वेदरचना कृतेति कठोरशब्दैः वेदनिन्दा कुर्वन्ति, वेदनिन्दकत्वात् तेषां नास्तिकता।
'प्रत्यक्षमेवैकं प्रमाणं' इति 9 सिद्धान्तमङ्गीकृत्य नास्ति सर्वज्ञः प्रत्यक्षादिगोचरातिक्रान्तत्वादिति , ईश्वरास्तित्वमेत्र निराकुर्वते चार्वाकाः । अतः ईश्वरास्तित्वनिराकरणात नास्तिकास्ते । इदं सुस्पष्टं यत् षड्भिरपि कारणैः चार्वाकाः नास्तिकपदव्यपदेशभाजो भवन्ति ।
सम्प्रति जैनदर्शनाभ्युपगतसिद्धान्तेषु निक्षिप्यते समालोचनात्मकं चक्षुः येन सुस्पष्टं भवेद् जैनदर्शनाय आस्तिकता पूर्वप्रदर्शितषभिरपि कारणैः । विद्यानंदि31, प्रभाचद्र, हेमचन्द्र 5, मल्लिषेण, गुणरत्नादयो, जैनदर्शनधुरंधराः स्वग्रन्थेषु दर्शनान्तराणीव चार्वाकदर्शनं पूर्वपक्षरूपेण संस्थाप्य कठोरशब्दैः सप्रमाणं तत्खण्डनं विधाय नास्तिकदर्शनमिति स्पष्टमुद्घोषयन्ति ।
प्रत्यक्षमेव प्रमाणमिति सिद्धान्तमभ्युपगम्य प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणागोचरत्वादात्म-पापपुण्यपरलोकमोक्षादीनां निराकरणकर्तृणां चार्वाकाणामभिमतसिद्धान्ततरोमले कुठाराघातं विधाय नास्तिकतायाः खण्डनं विधीयते जैनसिद्धान्तमर्मज्ञैर्यथा-"चार्वाकाणां प्रत्यक्षमेवेक प्रमाण. मिति कथननपि अनुमानप्रमाणमेवावलम्ब्य वर्तते । यतोहि चार्वाकः स्वसिद्धान्तस्थापनाय काश्चन युक्तयः प्रदर्शनीयाः भवन्ति याभिस्तैः प्रतिपाद्यमानप्रत्यक्षप्रमाणिकतैव सिध्येत । यदि चार्वाकाः युक्त्या प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणतां साधयन्ति चेत , 'साधनात् साध्यविज्ञान', इत्यनुमानप्रमाणेनैव प्रत्यक्षमेवैकं प्रमाणमिति मतस्य तस्य मूलोच्छेदो भवति । विद्या नंन्दिना स्पष्टमेतत् प्रतिपादितं अष्टसहस्त्र्यां, यत् प्रत्यक्षं प्रमाण अविसंवादित्वात्, अनुमानादिकं अप्रमाणं विसंवादित्वादिति लक्षयतोऽनुमानस्य बलात् व्यवस्थिते न प्रत्यक्षमेकमेव प्रमाणमिति व्यवतिष्ठते । अनेन तेषां प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणगोचरातिकान्तत्वात आत्म-पलोकादिनिरासरूपः प्रजल्पोऽपि निरस्तो भवति ।
27. बार्हस्पत्यसूत्र 45. 28.
48. 29. . 25. 30. चार्वाकषष्टि-परिशिष्ट-७९ 31. अष्टसहस्री-पृ. ३५-४० 32. प्रमेयकमलमार्तण्ड-पृ.१०.१२ ;
न्यायकुमुदचन्द्र-९७-१०१.
33. अन्य योगव्यबच्छेदिका-श्लोक २० 34. स्याद्वादमञ्जरी १९२-१९६ 35. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका पृ 215-234. 36. अष्टसहस्री-प. 95.

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जैन दर्शनस्य आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता
215 अधुना तु नास्तिकतायाः षट्कारणान्येवावलम्ब्य जैनदर्शनाभ्युपगतसिद्धान्तान् प्रतिपाद्यैकैकशः प्रदर्शयामो परमारतकता जैनदर्शनस्य ।
देहातिरिक्तात्मनोऽस्तित्वमेव अपहनुवानानां चार्वाकाणां मतं निरग्य, चिचिव परे तत्त्वे विवेकस्तद्विवेचन' इति वदद्भिः आत्माऽस्तित्वसिद्धिः प्रत्यक्षानुमानागमप्रमाणः भत्रनीति तयुक्तकं प्रतिपादितमेव जनदर्शनपारंगतैः ।
आत्मा स्वसंवेद्यः । प्रत्यक्षस्यैव तत्सद्भावे प्रमाणस्य सद्भावात् । स्वसंवेदनतः बावर्जितो सदात्मा सिद्धो भवति ।58 सुरूयहं, दुःख्यह, इच्छावानहं इत्याद्यनुपचरिताहंप्रत्ययस्य आत्मग्राहिणः संवेदनात् । अत शरीरातिरिक्तः कश्चिदेतस्यालम्बनभूतो ज्ञानवानर्थोऽभ्युपगतव्यः तस्यैव ज्ञातृत्वोपपत्तेः स जीवः एवेति सिद्धः, स्वसंवेदनप्रत्यक्ष लक्ष्य आत्मा0 | चेतनायोगेन सचेतनत्वात् शरीरस्येवाहं प्रत्ययः इत्यादि प्रलापमात्र, यनः परसहस्त्र प्रदोपप्रभायोगेऽपि स्वयमप्रकाशस्वरूपस्य घटस्य प्रकाशकत्वं न दष्ट्र किंतु प्रदीपस्यैव । एवं चेतनायोगेऽपि न स्वयमचेतनस्य देहस्य ज्ञातृत्वं किंत्वात्मनः एवेति तस्यैव चाहं प्रत्ययोत्पादः । अनुमानप्रमाणेनापि आत्मास्तित्वसिद्धिः शक्या । काय कारपरिणतेभ्यो भूतेभ्यश्चैतन्यं समुत्पद्यते, तद्भाव एव चेतन्याभावात, मद्यागेभ्यो मदशकिवत् इत्याद्यनुमानाद् चैतन्यस्य भूतकार्यत्वसिद्धिः भवतीति चार्वाककथनमप्यसमा असमेव । यतो हि तद्भाव एव तद्भावादिति हेतोरनैकान्तिकत्वात मृतावस्थायां तदुभावेऽपि चैतन्यस्याभावात् 1 । अनुमानप्राह्यत्वे हि सिद्धे तदन्तर्भूतत्वेनागमोपमानार्थापत्तिग्राह्यतापि सिद्धा । वायुतेजसोरभावेन मृतावस्थायां न चैतन्यमिति उच्यते चेत् मतशरीरे बस्त्यादिभिः संपादिते वायौ, तेजस्युपनीते सति वा चैतन्यं नोपलभ्यते ।।
तथा 'नास्ति जीवः' इति योऽयं जीवनिषेधध्वनिः स जीवास्तित्वनान्तरीयक एव, निषेधशब्दत्वात् । यथा 'नास्त्यत्र घटः,' इति शब्दोऽन्यत्र घटास्तित्वं संकेतयति । 37. गुगरत्नसूरि-षइदर्शनसमुच्चयटोका -पृ. २२०. 38. तस्वार्थ लोकवार्तिक, पृ. २६. 39. A प्रमेयक्रमलमार्तण्ड, पृ. ११२. ____B इदं सुखमिति ज्ञान दृश्यते न घटादिवत् । अ सुखीति तु ज्ञानं आत्मनोऽपि प्रकाशिका ।
[उद्धृतोऽयं लोकः रत्नाकरावतारिकायां-6-55. 40 षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. २२१. 41. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 223. 42. चार्वाका कथयन्ति यत् 'अथैषां (भूतानां) कायाकारपरिणतो चैतन्याभिव्यक्ती सत्यां तदूर्व
तेषामन्यतमस्य विनाशे' अपगमे वायोस्तेजसश्चोभयो, 'देहिनो' देवदत्तास्यस्य 'विनाशः' अपगमो भवति, ततश्च मृत इति व्यपदेशः प्रवर्तते, न पुनर्जीवापगम इति ।
-शीलाकृतसूत्रकृताङ्गटीका-1-1-1-6-8. 43. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका-224.

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Traverses on less trodden path... यव सर्वथा नास्ति तस्य निषेधोऽपि न दृश्यते यथा पञ्चभूतातिरिक्तषष्ठभूतस्येति," एवं आत्मास्तित्वं प्रमाता प्रत्यक्षादि प्रसिद्ध आत्मा B इत्यादि वचनैः सप्रमाणं प्रतिष्ठाप्य, 'उपयोगी लक्षणं, चेतनालक्षणो जीवः' इत्यादिना चैतन्यस्वरूपो जीवः इति तल्लक्षणं प्रतिपाद्य तद्विपरोतलक्षणस्त्वनीव,41 इति जडतत्त्वं निर्देशयामासुः । शरीरोत्पत्तेः पूर्वमात्मास्तित्वं अस्ति, देहनाशानन्तरभपि भवत्येव । जडतत्त्वेन सह जीवस्याविनाभावसम्बन्धो नास्त्येव । अतः 'भूतानन्वयात्सिद्धः अविनाशी सनातनश्च+8 आत्मा' इत्यादि वचनैः आत्मनः अविनाशित्वं सनातनत्वञ्चोररीकुर्वन्ति जैनाः ।
दर्शनशास्त्रस्य आत्मविचारपाधान्योत् आत्मास्तित्वाङ्गोंक्रियमाणाः, आत्मास्तीति वादिन जैनाः चार्वाकाः इव नास्तिका इति वक्तुं न शक्यते ।
जीवोऽन्यः पुद्गलस्त्वन्यः, जीवो बोधात्मकः जडवर्गस्त्वजीवः इति जैनानां मतम् । षड्दव्याणि 9 जीव-धर्माधर्मपुद्गलाकाशकालाश्च नित्यानीति मन्यन्ते परन्तु न कदापि जडतत्त्वात उत्पद्यते चैतन्यमिति कथयन्ति । 'चेतनालक्षणो जीवः' 50 इति आत्मनो लक्षणेनैव जडस्वरूपः चार्वाकाभिमतो आत्मा व्यवच्छिद्यते । अनेनापि कारणेन जैनदर्शनं नास्तिकदर्शनमिति कथनं युक्तिसंगतं नास्ति ।
जैनाः परलोकादिकं मन्यते । अधोलोक-तिर्यग्लोक-ऊर्ध्वलोकश्चेति, लोकत्रयं अङ्गीकृत्य कर्मानुसारेण भवगतिः जीवस्येति वदन्ति । आत्मा परलोकयायोत्यनुमानप्रमागेन सिद्धान्तयन्ति यथा', तदहर्जातबालकस्याद्य स्तन्याभिलाषः पूर्वाभिलाषपूर्वकः अभिलाषत्वात् , द्वितीयदिनाधस्तनाभिलाषवत् । तदिदमनुमानं आद्यस्तनाभिलाषस्याभिलाषा. न्तरपूर्वकत्वमनुमापयदर्थांपत्त्या परलोकगामिनं जोवमाक्षिपति, तज्जन्मन्यभिलाषान्तरा. भावादिति स्थितम् । पुण्यपापौ+ तत्त्वरूपेणाङ्गीकृत्य बन्धस्येव कारणं भवत इति
44. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटोका, पृ. 231. 45. प्रमाणन यतत्वालोकालङ्कार:-परिच्छेद-7, सूत्र-55. 46. तत्वार्थसूत्र-II-8. 47. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 222. 48. 'भूतानन्वयात्सिद्धः प्रकृतिज्ञः सनातनः ।-प्रमेयरत्नमाला-पृ. 81. 49. जीवाजीवाद्रव्यमिति षविधं भवति--प्रशमरति 210. 50. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका पृ. 222. 51. A. प्रशमरति-211-212 B. तत्वार्थसूत्र-अध्याय-III. 52. कर्मोदयात् भवगति:-प्रशमरति-39. 53. A गुणरत्न-षइदर्शनसमुच्चयटीको पृ. 234-235. ___B नास्मृतेऽभिलाषोऽस्ति न विना सापि दर्शनात् । तद्धि जन्मान्तरान्नायं जातमात्रेऽपि
लक्ष्यते | प्रमेयकमलमार्तण्ड, पृ. 119. 54. जीवाजोवा: पुण्यपाषावनसंवराः सनिर्जरणा: ।
बन्धो मोक्षश्चैते सम्यक् चिन्त्याः नवपदार्थाः ॥-प्रशमरति:-189.

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जैन दर्शनस्य आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता
217 वदन्ति । हेमचन्द्राचार्या अपि 'चन्ति भक्षयन्ति तत्त्वतो न मन्यन्ते पुण्यपापादिकं परोक्षजातमिति चार्वाकाः,88 नास्ति परलोकः, इति च ते वदन्ति अतएव बार्हस्पत्यानुयायिनः नास्तिकाः इति अवदन् ।
जैनाः मोक्षमेव परमपुरुषार्थ मन्त्रानाः 'सम्यगदर्शनज्ञानचारित्राणि मोक्षमार्ग:08 इति बदन्तः तत् अधिगहुँ रत्नत्रयमेव साधनमिति उद्घोषितवन्तः । शुभाशुभकर्म एव जन्मबन्धकारणम् । कर्मोदयात् भवगतिः भवति । कृत्स्नकर्मक्षयो मोक्षः। इति सकलविध. कर्मनाश एव निर्वाणमिति मोक्षावस्थां च अङ्गीकुर्वन्ति ।
चतुर्थकारणानुसारेण तु मोहाभिभूतत्वात् धर्मरहस्यमजानानाः स्वसुखोपभोगायामानुषीयकरहिंसादिकं कुर्वाणाः अनाचारपथे सवरमाणाः एव नास्तिकाः। मोह रागद्वेषमित्थ्यात्वाविरतिप्रमादयोगैः सह कर्मबन्धकारणं भवति । कर्मबन्धनात् संसारः, संसारनिमित्तकं पुनर्दुःखं९०, अतः मोहो परित्यक्तव्यः, मोहादेव दुराचारः प्रवर्तते इति जनाः संमन्यन्ते । जैनाना कठोरसदाचारस्तु सुप्रथितः एव । तेषां कठोरसदाचरणस्य निन्दां 'नग्न श्रमण कदुर्बुद्धे कायक्लेशपरायण । जीवकायविचारस्ते केन त्वमसि शिक्षितः1 इत्यादि शब्दैः चार्वाकाः कुर्वन्ति । चावाकाणां स्वेच्छाचरणस्य खण्डनं जनाचार्यः तीक्ष्णशब्दैः कृतं दरीदृश्यते । शीलाङ्कः सूत्रकृनाङ्गटोकायां चार्वाकास्तु वाममागिणः अनाचारप्रवृत्तकाः गुप्तरूपेण अनाचारमाचरन्तीति उद्घोषयति, यथा 'वाममार्गादौ अनाचारप्रवृत्तावपि गुप्तिकरणमिति ।
'संसारदुःखात् यो धरत्युत्तमे सुखे स धर्मः' मोक्षसुखप्राप्त्यर्थ धर्माचरणमेव प्रमुखहेतुः, अतः 'सुखभंगभिया माभूः धर्मस्य विमुखस्त्वं'• इत्यादि वचनैः धर्मविमुखत्वं विनिन्दति जैनशासनम् । चार्वाकमते तु न हि किञ्चित्कर्तव्यमुपदिश्यते । धार्मिकोपदेशेषु न प्रत्येतव्यं इत्येव उद्घोषः । ऐहिकविषयोपभोगमेव परमपुरुषार्थ मन्वानान् चार्वाकान् विषयीकृत्य 'यद्यपि निषेव्यमाणाः मनस परिसुष्टिकराः विषयाः। किंपाकफलादनवद्भवन्ति पश्चादतिदुरन्ताः' इति विषयोपभोगस्य दुष्परिणाम प्रदर्शयन्ति 55. तस्वार्थसूत्रस्य सिद्धसेनगणिटीकायाम्-VI-अ, 2-3-4 सूत्र, 56. उणादिसूत्र-37. 57. बार्हस्पत्यस्तु नास्तिक:- अभिधानचितामणि-III-862. 58. तत्त्वार्थस्त्र-I-I. 59. तत्वार्थसूत्र-x-3. 60. प्रशमरति-56-57. 61. तत्वोपप्लव-पृ. 79, 15-18. 62. सूत्रकृताइटीका-पृ. 11. 63. रत्नकरण्डकश्रावकाचार-~2. 64. आत्मानुशासन-20. 65. प्रशमरति-107.
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Traverses on less trodden path...
उमास्वातिवाचकाचार्या । विषयोपभोगेन तृष्णा न कदापि शाति, प्रत्युत एतावती वर्धते यदखिलजगति विद्यमानान्य प वस्तूनि तृष्णाकुलस्य तृष्णां शमयितुं नैव प्रभवन्ति अतः वृथा विषयैषिता नाम |60
__ अन्यच्च अहिंसा भूतानां जगति विदितं ब्रह्म परमम्',81 " यत्किञ्चित् संसारे शरीरिणां दुःखशोकभयम् । दौर्भाग्यादि समस्तं तद्धिसासंभवं ज्ञेयम् ॥”88 "कण्ठगतैरपि प्राणै शुभं कर्म समाचरणीयं कुशलमतिभिः" इत्यादिना अहिंसादि व्रतपरिपालने, दशविधधर्माचरणे' अभिनिवेशश्चायं सदाचारसंहितायाः परमोत्कृष्ट मुदाहरणम् । एतत्सर्व जैनदर्शनानुयायिनां दृढोयस मास्तिकतामेव द्योतयति ।
अस्थायमर्थः यत् चतुर्थकारणेनापि जैनदर्शनं नास्तिकदर्शन भवितुं नार्हति । नास्तिकतायाः पवमं कारणं वेदनिन्दकत्यमिति यदुच्यते तद्विषये किञ्चिद्विविच्यते ।
सत्यमेतत् यत् वेदप्रामाण्यं नाङ्गीकृतं जैनः । जैनागमाः एव तेषां वेदाः । वेदनिन्दा तैः संपूर्णतया न विधीयते । मीमांसकैः अभिमतवेदापौरुषेयत्वं तथा वेदे यत्र तत्र समुपलक्ष्यमाणहिंसाप्रवृत्ते निन्दा कुर्वन्ति ते ! वेदापौरुषेयत्वं न्याय-वैशेषिकैरपि न स्वीकृतम् । ईश्वर एक वेदरचयिता इति तेषां मतम् । 'मा हिस्याः सर्वभूतानीत्यादि' 1 हिंसायाः निन्दा उपनिषत्स्वपि समुपलभ्यते । वेदानां तत्त्वज्ञानस्य निन्दा निन्दार्थमेव लक्ष्यीकृत्य न कुर्वन्ति । गणधरवादे वेदोपनिषद्वाक्यानां विवरणं जैनमतानुरोधेन कृतं दृश्यते ।' स्याद्वादमञ्जर्यामपि, "नहि वै सशरीरस्य सतः प्रियाप्रिययोरपहति स्ति अशरोरं वा वसन्तं न प्रियाप्रिये स्पृशत: 7 इत्यत्रोपनिषद्वाक्ये 'प्रियाप्रिये न स्पृशतः, इत्यस्य सांसारिकसुखदुःखे मुक्तात्मानं न स्पृशतः इत्यर्थः न तु सुखाभावः मोक्षावस्थायामिति, सुखदुःखादीनां अत्यन्तोच्छेदो मोक्षः, इति वदतां न्यायवैशेषिकानां विरुद्धं उपनिषद्वाक्यार्थो कृतः दृश्यते । अतः अनेन कारणेनापि जैनाः नास्तिकाः इति कथनं संपूर्णतया युक्तियुक्तमिति न मन्यामहे ।
66. आशागतः प्रतिप्राणि यस्मिन् विश्वमणूपमम् ।
किं कस्य कियदायाति वृथा वो विषयैषिता ।। -आत्मानुशासन-66 67. समन्तभद्र-स्वयम्भूस्तोत्र-119 68. शुभचंद्र-ज्ञानार्णव -पृ. 120 69. हिंसानृतस्तेयाब्रह्मपरिग्रहेभ्यो विरतिव्रतम् - तत्त्वार्थसूत्र-VII-1 70. उत्तमः क्षमामार्दवार्जवशौचसत्यसंयमतपस्त्यागां किम्चन्यब्रह्मचर्याणि धर्म:--तत्वार्थासूत्र-IV-6 71. प्रशमरति-167 72 गणधरवाद-गौतम ! वेदपदाणं हमाणमस्थ च ते न थाणासि" द्रष्टव्या
गाथा:-1553-1644 73. छान्दोग्योपनिषत् -VIII-12 74. स्याद्वादमजरी-पृ. 62,

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219
___ आस्तिकदर्शनेष्वपि ये वेदप्रामाण्यं उररीकुर्वन्ति तेष्वपि कानिचिदर्शनानि वेदोपनिषदां निरपेक्षयैव स्वसिद्धान्तान् प्रतिपादयामासुः । तत्र न्यायवैशेषिकसांख्ययोगदर्शनानि नाममात्रमेव वैदिकदर्शनानि । तैः प्रतिपादितानां सिद्धान्तानां वेदैः सह न कोऽपि साक्षात्मबन्धः दृश्यते ।
निरीश्वरवादितैव नास्तिकतायोः षष्ठं कारणमिति प्रदर्शितपूर्वमेवास्माभिः । यदि निरीश्वरवादितव 'नास्तिकतायाः प्रमाणमित्युच्यते चेत् सर्वाण्यपि भारतीयदर्शनानि निरीश्वरवादमूलकत्वात् नास्तिकदर्शनकोट्यां प्रतिष्ठापनीयानि भवेयु' । यतो हि 'मोक्षः एव परमपुरुषार्थः', इति चार्वाकान् विहाय सर्वेषामपि दर्शनसिद्धान्ताविष्कर्तृणामाघोषः। भारतीयदर्शनशास्त्रस्यतिह्यावलोकनेन सविशदं भवति यत् निःश्रेयसाधिगमः एवान्तिम लक्ष्यं संसारिणः न तु ईश्वरवादिनामभिमतस्येश्वरप्राप्तिरिति । मोक्षमधिगन्तुमीश्वरानुग्रहस्यावश्यकतामेव नानुभूयन्त प्राचीनदार्शनिकाः । 'उद्धरेदात्मनात्मानं'। इत्युदघोषयन्तः स्वप्रयत्नेनैव मोक्षावस्थां प्राप्तुं शक्यतेति सर्वेषामपि दर्शनानां मूलधारणा वर्तते । ईश्वरवादिनामभिमतो ईश्वरः' सर्वरास्तिकदर्शनैरपि नाङ्गीकृतः । प्राचीनन्यायवैशेषिकाः गौतमकणादयोऽपि पदार्थतत्त्वमीमांसाप्रसङ्गे ईश्वरस्य कृते स्थानमेव न दधुः । एवं सांख्य-योग-मीमांसा-वेदान्त दर्शनेष्वपि नेयायिकानां संमतो नाङ्गीकृतो ईश्वरः । यद्यस्माभिः ईश्वरवादिनापभिमतस्येश्वरस्य स्वरूपवर्णनं मनसि निधाय निक्षिप्यते चक्षुः तत्तदर्शनसूत्रप्रन्थेषु, तदा विचारसरणिरियं दृष्टिगोचरा भवति ।
ईश्वरवादिनां मते तु ईश्वर. सृष्टिकर्ता, एक , सर्वज्ञः, कर्म फलाध्यक्षः, अनुग्रहकर्ता यस्य कृपां विना मोक्षो नाधिगम्यते, वेदानां रचयिता च ।10 परमेताइयेश्वरकल्पना न्यायवैशेषिकसंमता, प्राचीनन्यायवैशेषिकसांख्य-योगमीमांसावेदान्तादिग्रन्थेषु नोपलभ्यते । एतादृशेश्वरस्यास्तित्वाङ्गीकारश्च कल्पनागौरवदोषदूषितो भवति दर्शनकाराणामनुरोधेन तत्त्वमीमांसाप्रसङ्गे । अतः सर्वाण्यायासिकदर्शनानि निरीश्वरवादीनि दर्शनान्यत्र । प्रतिपादितपूर्वमेवमरमाभिः यत् सकलान्यपि दर्शनानि चार्वाकदर्शनं विहाय मोक्षः एव परमपुरुषार्थः इति संगन्यन्ते । गौतमस्तु षोडशपदार्थानां सम्यग्ज्ञानात् मोक्षप्राप्तिर्भवतीति स्पष्ट मुद्घोषयात प्रमाण-प्रमेय-संशय-प्रयोजन-दृष्टात सिद्धान्तअवयव तर्क-निर्णय बाद जल्प-वितण्डा-हेत्वाभास-च्छल-जाति-निग्रहस्थानानां तत्त्वज्ञानात् निःश्रेयसाधिगमः, इत्यादिना ।'' गौतमेन स्वीकृतषोडशपदार्थेषु नैव निर्दिष्टो ईश्वरः । मोक्षम धगन्तुमेतेषां पदार्थनामेव तत्त्वज्ञानं निदानमिति मनुते सूत्रकारः। अन्यच्च मोक्षप्राप्तये ईश्वरानुग्रहस्यावश्यकता नास्ति । गौतममतानुसारेण स्वप्रयत्नेनैव मोक्षसिद्धिर्भवतीति तन्निर्दिष्ट सूत्रान्तराट् स्पष्टी भवति । तन्मते "दु ख-जन्म प्रवृत्तिदोष-मिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरापायादपवर्ग: 8 भवति । सुखदःखकारण
75. भगवद्गीता-अ. VI-लोक-5 76. उदयन-न्यायकुसुमाजलो-अ-5 77. न्यायसूत्र-1-1-1 78. न्यायसूत्रभाष्य -1-1-2

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220
Traverses on less trodden path...
जन्म । जन्मकारणं प्रवृत्तिः । प्रवृत्तिकारणं दोषः, दोषकारणं मिथ्याज्ञानम् । आध्यात्मविद्यायामात्मादितत्त्वज्ञानं तत्त्वज्ञानम् । यदा तु तत्त्वज्ञानान्मिथ्याज्ञानमपैति, तदा मिथ्याज्ञानापाये दोषा अपयान्ति दोषापाये प्रवृत्तिरपैति प्रवृत्त्यपाये जन्मापैति, जन्मापाये दुःखमपैति, दुःखापाये च आत्यन्तिकोऽपवर्गो निःश्रेयसमिति” ।
79
अतोऽत्रापवर्गमधिगन्तुं नास्त्यैवावश्यकता ईश्वरानुग्रहस्य । गौतम न्यायसूत्रे ईश्वरस्योल्लेखो आनुषङ्गिकदृष्टया कृतोऽस्ति त्रिषु सूत्रेषु । 'ईश्वरः कारणं पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् " । न पुरुषकर्मभावे फलनिष्पत्तेः ० ० ' तत्कारित्वादहेतुः '' 781 इति । वाचस्पतिमिश्रोदय नवर्धमानादीनां न्यायशास्त्र धुरन्धराणां अभिप्रायानुसारेण त्रीण्यप्येतानि सूत्राणि ब्रह्मपरिणामवादिनां वेदान्तिनां खण्डनार्थ निर्दिष्टानि गौतमेन न तु ईश्वरास्तित्वविषयकप्रमाणप्रदर्शनाय ॥ 88
4
कणादस्य वैशेषिकसूत्रेषु निर्देशो नोपलभ्यते ईश्वरस्य । अत युक्तिदीपिकाकारस्तु स्पष्टं वदति यत् 'तस्मात् सूत्रकारमते नास्तीश्वरः' इति । पट्पदार्थानामेव तत्त्वज्ञानं मोक्षप्राप्तिसाधनमिति मनुते न तु ईश्वरानुग्रहं वैशेषिकसूत्रकारः इति 'धर्मविशेषप्रसूताद् द्रव्यगुणकर्मसामान्यविशेषसमवायानां पदार्थानां साधर्म्यवैधर्म्याभ्यां तत्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसम्" इत्यनेन सूत्रेण विज्ञायते । कणादस्य तद्वचनादाम्नायस्य' प्रामाण्यं इति सूत्रमवलम्ब्य केचन सूत्रान्तर्गतस्य 'तद् शब्दस्यार्थः ईश्वरः' इति विवरणं विधाय कणादोsपि ईश्वरास्तित्वमङ्गीचकार स्वतत्त्वमीमांसाप्रसङ्गे इति प्रतिपादयन्ति । परमेतन्नसमंजसमिति प्रतिभाति । न्यायकन्दलीकारो श्रीधरः ( यः स्वयं ईश्वरवादी) 'तद्' शब्दः 'ऋषिः' इत्यर्थे सूत्रेऽस्मिन्नुपयुक्तोऽस्तीति वदति । 'तद्' शब्दस्य 'धर्मः' इत्यर्थः इत्यन्ये निगदन्ति । परमस्य बह्वर्थस्य सूत्रस्याधारेण कणादो ईश्वरास्तित्वं प्राधान्येन स्वीकारेति कथनं युक्तियुक्तं न भवेदेव । यतो हि न्याय - वैशेषिकमतानुसारेण विश्वरचनायाः कृते, जगदुत्पत्तये - परमाण्यात्मा दृष्टशक्तिश्चालम् । जगदुत्पत्तिस्थितिलय वर्णनार्थमपि ईश्वरस्यावश्यकता न दृश्यते । अनेनेदं सुस्पष्टं भवति यत् गौतमस्य न्यायदर्शनं कणादस्य च वैशेषिकदर्शनं, मूलतः निरीश्वरवादिदर्शनमिति । इदमत्रावश्यमवधेयं यद् ईश्वरवादिनो न्याय-वैशेषिका : प्रशस्तपादउदयन श्रीधरादयोऽपि संसाररचनामीमांसायामेव ( cosmology) ईश्वरस्यावश्यकतां जगदुत्पत्तेः निमित्तकारणरूपेणाङ्गीकृत्य परमाण्वात्मादृष्टशक्तिमेव उपादानकारणमिति वदन्ति । अदृष्टनियममेव
79. न्यायसूत्र -4-1-19.
80.
4-1-20,
81.
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4-1-21. 82. तत्रैव - 4 - 1 21 टीकायां. 83. युक्तिदीपिका- कारिका - 15.
84. वैशेषिकसूत्रम् - 1-1-4.
1.0
85. वैशेषिकसूत्रम् - 1-1-3.
86. अणूनां मनसश्चाद्यं कर्मा दृष्टकारितम् — वैशेषिकसूत्र - 5 - 2 - 13.

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जैनदर्शनस्य आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता
221 अनादितत्त्वरूपेण स्वीकृत्य, तदेव विश्वोत्पत्तिस्थितिलयकारणमिति मन्वाना कार्यकारणसंबन्धमस्य विश्वस्येश्वराद् स्वतन्त्रमिति ब्रुवते । ईश्वरोऽप्यदृष्टनियमोल्लघनं कर्तुं न समर्थोऽस्तीति तेषां मतम् । मूकस्य सांकेतिकभाषामवगत्यान्यस्मै निवेद्यमानः माध्यस्थ इव ईश्वरो केवलं निमित्तकारणं जगन्निर्माणकार्ये । मर्यादितस्वरूपेणाङ्गीकृतस्य निमित्त. कारणीभूतस्येश्वरस्य ईश्वरत्वं कथं सिध्येत इति महान् प्रश्नः ।
सांख्यदर्शनं तु निरीश्वरसांख्यमित्येव सुप्रथितं विद्यते । मतस्यास्यानुसारेणापि 'प्रकृतिवियोगो मोक्षः, सतु त्रिविधदुःखात्यन्तनिवृत्तिरूप:', प्रकृति पुरुषतत्त्वज्ञानात्88 समुपलभ्यते । सांख्यदर्शनतत्त्वमीमांसायां जगदुत्पत्तिस्थितिलयकारणीभूतो ईश्वरः नाङ्गीकृतः । तेषां मते पुरुषसान्निध्यात्प्रकृतिरेव जग:कारणं न तु ईश्वरः । ते तु 'ईश्वरासिद्धेः' इत्यादिवचनैः ईश्वरास्तित्वसिद्धिः असंभवेति निगदन्ति ।
योगदर्शनं तु सेश्वरसांख्यमित्युच्यते । परमत्रापि ईश्वरवादिनामभिमतो ईश्वरः नोरीकृतः । पातञ्जलयोगे स्वीकृतो ईश्वरस्तु गुरुसदृशः ‘क्लेशकर्मविपाकाशयर पराभृष्टो पुरुषविशेषः '91 अयं तु न मोक्षस्य विषयः न स्रष्टिस्थितिविलयकर्ता नापि च कर्मफलाध्यक्षः। चितवृत्तिनिरोधस्वरूपाद् योगात् द्रष्टुः स्वरूपेऽवस्थानमेव मोक्षः इति योगदर्शनकाराणां मतम् । अयमस्य मथितार्थः यत् सेश्वरसांख्येति परिगण्यमाने योगदर्शनेऽपि तत्त्वमीमांसायां ईश्वरो नाङ्गीकृतः ।
यद्यपि षड्दर्शनानि वेदप्रामाण्यमुररीकुर्वन्ति तेषु पूर्वमीमांसोत्तरमीमांसादर्शनद्वयमेव मूलरूपेण वेदावलम्बीति वक्तुं शक्यते । मीमांसकास्तु स हि (धर्मः) श्रेयसेन पुरुषं युनक्तीत्यादि वदन्तः ईश्वरस्य जगकर्तृकत्वं, वेदरचयितृकत्वं च निराकुर्वन्ति । जगतः अनादिमत्वं नित्यत्वं च स्वीकुर्वन्तो मीमांसकाः ईश्वरस्य जगकर्तृकत्वं, वेदान् अपौरुषेयान् मन्वानाः तस्य वेदकर्तृकत्वं च नानुमन्यन्ते । कर्मफल्यो: अबाधिनित्य सम्बन्धात् कर्मशक्त्यैव फलं उत्पद्यते, यादृशं कर्म तादृशं फलम् । दुष्टकर्मणां फलनाशो ईश्वरानुग्रहेण न भवितुं शक्यते । अतः कर्मफलयोर्मध्ये नास्त्येवेश्वरस्यावश्यकता इति वदन्ति । मीमांसकानामीश्वरविरोधित्वं परां काष्ठां गतमासीदिति तेषां निरीश्वरवादः नास्तिकवादे परिणति प्राप्तः आसीदिति प्रायेणैव हि मीमांसा लोके लोकायतीकृताः ।
87. सांख्यप्रवचनसूत्र-1. 88. तद्विपरीतश्रेयान् व्यक्ताव्यक्तविज्ञानात्-सांख्यकारिका-2. 89. पवन्धवदुभयोरपि संयोगः तत्कृत: सर्ग:-सांख्यकारिका-21. 90. सांस्यप्रवचनसूत्र-92-93. 91. पातञ्जलयोगसूत्र-1-14. 92. योगश्चित्तवृत्तिनिरोधः-योगसूत्र-1-1. 93. योगसूत्र-1-2. 94. मीमांसादर्शनशाबरभाष्य-1-1-1. 95. वेदस्यापौरुषेयत्वात्...वेदस्य नित्यता प्रोक्ता (कुमारिल भट्ट).

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Traverses on less trodden path...
तामास्तिकपथे नेतुमयं यत्नः कृतो यथा इत्यादि कुमारिलभट्टानां वचनैः अनुमातुं शक्यते । हरिभद्रोऽपि मीमांसकानामीश्वरविरोधित्तं, जैमिनीयाः पुनः प्राहुः सर्वज्ञादि विशेषणः। देवो न विद्यते कोऽपि यस्य मानं वचो भवेदिति प्रदर्शयति ।
स वेदान्ताः अपि सर्व खल्विदं ब्रह्म' 93 'ब्रह्मैवेई विश्वं' 9 3 'अयमात्मा ब्रह्म'100 'तदात्मा तत्त्वमसि श्वेतकेतो'101 'यथा नधास्यन्दमाना. समुद्रेऽस्तं गच्छंति नामरूपे विहाय तथा विद्वान् नापरूपाद्विमुक्तः परात्परं पुरुष पुपैतिदिव्यं103 इत्यादि शब्दैः आत्मब्रह्म गोरक्यमेव परमपुरुषार्थरूपेण स्वीकुर्वन्ति न तु ईश्वरवादिनामभिमतस्येश्वरस्य प्राप्तिम् । शंकराचार्या अपि आत्मब्रह्म गोरक्ययेव मोक्षः इति प्रतिपादयन्तः आत्मा च ब्रह्मा ब्रह्मभावश्च मोक्षः1 04 ब्रह्मसत्यं जगन्मिथ्या जोवो ब्रह्मैव नापरः105 इति वेदान्त डिण्डिमः इति समाघोषयन् । ते तु निर्गुणब्रह्मैव परमार्थसत्तारूपेणाङ्गीकृत्य' जगन् ब्रह्मविवर्तः इति प्रतिपाद्य साधारण जनानां उपासनार्थ सगुणब्रह्मरूपेण ईश्वर स्त्रोकृत्य पारमार्थिकदृष्ट्या तस्यास्तित्वमेव नास्तीत्यवदन् ।100
वेदान्तदर्शने यत्र तत्र समुपयुक्ताः 'ईश्वरः' 'महेश्वरः' 'ईशः' इत्यादि शब्दाः आत्मनः ब्रह्मणो वा पर्यायवाचकाः सन्ति । ईश्वरः सर्वभूतानां हृदेशेऽर्जुन तिष्ठति' 1104 इत्यादि भगवद्गीतायां 'ईश्वरः' इति शब्दः आत्मानमेव संकेतयति । श्वेताश्वतरोप. निषदि, मायां तु प्रकृति विद्यात् मायिनं तु महेश्वर 108 इत्युक्तं तत्र महेश्वरशब्दो परब्रह्मणः पर्यायवाचकः शब्दोऽस्ति ।
96. श्लोकवार्तिक-प्रतिज्ञा सूत्र--10 97. षइदर्शनसमुच्चय-मीमांसा करण । 98 छान्दोग्योपनिषद् -III--XIV-1. 99. मुण्डकोपनिषद्-II II-11 160. माण्डूक्योपनिषद्-2-1. 101. छान्दोग्योपनिषद् --VI-XV1-3. 102. मुण्डकोपनिषद् -3-2-8. 103. ब्रह्मसूत्रांरभ व्य -जिज्ञासाधिकरण-सूत्र-1. 104. तत्रैव-1-4. 105. ब्रह्मज्ञानावलीमाला-श्लोक 20. 106. अचिन्त्यस्याप्रमेयस्य निर्गुणस्याशरीरिणः ।
उपासकानां सिध्यर्थी ब्रह्मणो रूपकल्पना ॥ 107. भगवद्गीता-XVIII-61. 108. श्वेताश्वतरोपनिषद्-IV-10.

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जैनदर्शनस्य आस्तिकता वा नास्तिकता
223
एवमेवास्तिक दर्शनानीव जैनदर्शनमपि ईश्वरस्य जगत्कर्तृकत्वादिकं नानुमन्यते । यथोक्तं अन्ययोगव्यवच्छेदिकायां हेमचन्द्राचार्यैः
कर्तास्ति कश्चिज्जगतः स चैकः स सर्वगः स स्ववशः स नित्यः । इमा: कुवाकविडम्बनाः स्युस्तेषां न येषामनुशासकस्त्वम् ॥
"10 9
जैना. ईश्वरवादिनाम् अभिमतं ईश्वरं नाङ्गीकुर्वन्ति । परं तेषां मते अनन्तज्ञानवीर्य सुखरूप आत्मा एवेश्वरः । कोमानमायालो भहास्य भयविस्मयादि विकाररहितं सर्वज्ञ परमात्मानमेत्र ईश्वरत्वेनाङ्गीकुर्वन्ति ।
"
जैन धर्ममान्येश्वरस्य परमात्मनो वा स्वरूपं आचार्यैः अमितगतिभिः परम रम्यशब्दैः वर्णितमस्ति यथा यो दर्शनज्ञानसुखस्वभावः समस्त संसारविकारबाह्यः । समाधिगम्यः परमात्मज्ञः स देवदेवो हृदये ममास्ताम् || 110 इति ।
उक्तं चाकलंकस्तोत्रे
त्रैलोक्यं सकलं त्रिकालविषयं सालोक्यमालोकितं ।
साक्षात् येन यथा स्वयं करतले रेखात्रयं साङ्गुलिम् !! रागद्वेषभयामयान्तकजरालोकत्व लोभादयो ।
नालं त्वत्पदलङ्घनाय सः महादेवो मया वन्द्यते ॥
आचार्य पूज्यपादस्वामिभिरपि आत्मा एव परमेश्वरः स एवोपास्यः यः परात्मा स एवाहं योऽहं स परमस्तवः । अहमेव मयोपास्यो नान्यः कश्चिदिति स्थितिः 111 इत्यादिना स्पष्टमुक्तं विद्यते । स्वप्रयत्नेनैव सर्वेऽपि जीवाः वीतरागतां प्राप्य ईश्वरपदप्राप्तुमर्हन्तीति उद्घोषयति दर्शनमिदम् । जैनदर्शनानुसारेण सर्वेऽपि 'मुक्तात्मानः ईश्वरस्त्ररूपा एव । यदि ईश्वरस्यैकस्याभ्युपगमात् दर्शनमेकमास्तिकशब्दभाग्भवति चेत् अनन्तमुक्तात्मनः ईश्वररूपेणाङ्गीक्रियमाणं जैनदर्शनं परमास्तिकदर्शनमिति स्वीकर्तव्यमेव भवति ।
अन्यच्च भारतीय सर्वदर्शनानि मूलतः निरीश्वरवादीन्येवेति प्रदर्शित पूर्वमेवास्माभिः । निरीश्वरवादो नैव जडवादः नापि च अनाचारवादः । ईश्वरः न तु आध्यात्मिक जीवनस्य नापि चोत्तमनैतिक जीवनस्य आधारभूतः । सच्चारित्रेण आध्यात्मिकशिखरमारुह्य तत्त्वज्ञानात् मोक्षमधिगन्तुं ईश्वरवादिनामभिमतस्येश्वरस्य न काऽप्यावश्यकता, स्वप्रयत्नः 109. (a) अन्ययोगयवच्छेदिका - 6.
(b) जैनकृत ईश्वरवादखण्डनार्थ द्रष्टव्याः अधोनिर्दिष्टग्रन्थाः-

[11 अष्टसहस्त्री - पृ. 268 - 269.
[2] प्रमेयकमलमार्तण्ड - पृ. 266-284.
[3] न्यायकुमुद चन्द्र.
[4] स्याद्वाद मंजरी -28-42.
110. भावनाद्वात्रिंशिका - 12. 111. समाधितंत्र -31.

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Traverses on less trodden path... एत्र गरीयानिति आस्तिकदर्शनानीव जैनदर्शनेनानेनापि समुद्धोष्यत एव । जैनधर्मे न कुत्रापि अनैतिकजीवनस्य प्रोत्साहनं दीयते । सदाचारमार्गेणैव विषयवासना विजित्य वीतरागतां प्राप्ताः धर्मस्यास्य नेतारो तीर्थकराः ।
___ यदि षड्दर्शनानि मूलतः निरीश्वरवादीनि तथापि आस्तिकानीति मन्यन्ते चेत् किमर्थ निरीश्वरवादीजैनदर्शनमेकमेव नास्तिकपदेन व्यपदेश्यम् । संकुचितसाम्प्रदायिक मनोवृत्तिरेवात्र कारणमिति मन्यामहे । यतो हि प्रतिपादितपूर्वमेवास्माभि यत् भारती. यास्तिकदर्शनेषु मूलतत्त्वरूपेण स्वीकृतानांआत्मास्तित्व पुनर्जन्म कर्मसिद्धान्तादीनामङ्गीकारः जैनदर्शनेनापि कृतोऽस्ति । तपयोगदेवादिविग्रहेषु दृढविश्वास: आंस्तिकमतमान्यो जैनधर्ममान्यः एव । अतः संकुचितमनोवृति मन:पटलात् निष्कारय दर्शनविशालतरूतले समुपविश्य पूर्वग्रहदोषदृष्टिं परित्यज्य विचार्यमाणे मुक्तकण्ठमुद्धोषणीयं भवति यत् जैनदर्शनमपि दर्शनान्तराणीवास्तिकदर्शनमेवेति । इति शम् ।

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21 अनेकान्तवादस्य स्वरूपम्
विदितमेवैतत्सर्वेषामपि विदुषां यत प्रत्येकस्य दर्शनस्यैको विशिष्टो मूलभूतो सिद्धान्तो भवति यस्याधारेण तद्दर्शनग्य सौधनिर्मितिर्भवतीति । जैनानामनेकान्तबादोऽपि तादृशो सिद्धान्तो यो जैनदर्शनसौधस्य प्रतिष्ठानभूमिरिति परिगण्यते । तेषां मते वस्त्वनेकान्तात्मकं भवति । सचेतनाचेतनं सर्व द्रव्यं वस्तु । द्रव्यं षड्वधं भवति 'जीवः धर्माधर्माकाशकालपुद्गलाश्चाजीवा' इति ।।
जैनानां मते वस्तु न नित्यमेकान्तेन नापि चानित्यम, न भिनं, नैवाभिन्नं, न सद् नाप्यसत् , परं नित्यानित्यं, भिन्नाभिन्नं, सदसदुभयात्मकं भवति । जैनोतिरिक्ताः सऽप्येकान्तवादिनः । यतो हि-सौगताः वस्तुनः केवलमनित्यत्वं, नित्यत्वं सांख्याः, न्यायवैशेषिकास्तु परस्परविविक्ते निन्यानित्यत्वे, सदसत्वे, सामान्यविशेषौः मीमांसकाः स्याच्छन्दवर्ण्य भिन्नाभिन्ने, नित्यानित्यत्वे, सदसदंशो, सामान्यविशेषौ, शब्दस्य नित्यत्वं चः, शब्दब्रह्मज्ञानाद्वैतवादिनः शब्दाद्वैत, ब्रह्माद्वत, ज्ञानाद्वैतञ्चाङ्गोकुर्वाणा एकान्तवादे विश्वसन्ति । एकमेकान्त दिनोऽनन्त धर्मात्मकस्य वस्तुनोऽभीष्टैकधर्मस्यैकान्तप्रतिपादनेन तच्छेषधर्मानपलप न्त । जैनास्त्वनेकान्त प्रतिपादनेन तानपि बोधविषयी कुर्वन्ति ।
एकस्मिन्नेव वस्तुन्यनेके धर्माः भवन्तीति प्रतिपादनमनेकान्तवादः। वस्तुतत्त्वविषये नित्यमनियं, भिन्न भिन्नमित्यादीकान्तमतत्यागात् वस्त्वनेकान्तात्मकमिति कथनमनेकान्नवादः इति मथितार्थः । तदुक्तं विद्यादिभिः--सदसन्नित्यानित्यादिप्रतिक्षेपलझ गोऽनेकान्तः इति । गुणात्नसूरिभिरपि षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीकायां सदसन्नित्यानित्य. सामान्यविशेषाभिलाप्यानभिलायोभयात्मानेकान्तः इत्युक्तम् । अनेके अन्ता धर्माः सामोन्यविशेषपर्यायाः गुणाः यस्येत्यनेकान्तः । अनन्तात्रिकालविषयत्वादपरिमितधर्माः स्वभावाः सहभाविनो क्रम भाविनश्च स्वपरपर्याया यस्मिन् तदनन्तधर्ममेव स्वार्थे कप्रत्ययेऽनन्तधर्मकमनेकान्तमित्यर्थः । जैनानां मते समग्रज्ञानानां विषयभूतं वस्त्वनेकान्तात्मकं, 'अनेकान्तात्मकं वस्तु गोचरं सर्वसंविदाम्' इत्यादि वचनात् । 1. तत्वार्थसूत्र-]-4, v 1, 38; प्रशमरति-189, 207, 210. 2. गुणरत्नसूरि-षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 3-4. 3. अष्टसहस्री, पू 286. 4. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 3. 5. गुणरत्नसूरि-- . तत्रैव पृ. 328. 6. सिद्धसेन न्यायावतार-29.
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Traverses on less trodden path... जैनानां मतानुसारेण प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणस्य परोक्षस्य च ग्राह्यमनन्तधर्मात्म कमेव वस्तु । वस्तुसंबन्धिज्ञानमस्माकमन्धगजन्याय इवैकान्तिकं भवति । अतः वरुवनन्तधर्मात्ममिति मत्वैव व्यवहारोऽनेकान्तवादः । वस्तुनोऽनेकान्तात्मकता तु सर्वदा सर्वप्रमातृभिरनुभूयत एव ।
कथमेकस्मिन्नेव वस्तुनि मिथो विरोधिनोऽनन्तधर्माः भवितुमर्हन्तीति शङ्का समुत्पद्यत । परमियं शङ्का निरास्पदेव । परस्परापेक्षया एकस्मिन्नेव वस्तुन्यनेकधर्माः भवन्ति, यथा एकस्य देवदत्तस्य पिता, पुत्रो, भ्राता, भागिनेयः, इत्येवमादयः संबन्धाः जनकत्वजन्यत्वादिनिमित्ता न विरुध्यन्तेऽपणाभेदात् । पुत्रापेक्षया पिता, पितृपेक्षया पुत्रः इत्येवमादिः । तथा द्रव्यमपि सामान्यापेक्षया नित्यं, विशेषणार्पणयानित्यमिति नास्ति विरोधः । अत एवोक्तं तत्त्वार्थराजनातिके यत् 'अर्पणाभेदादविरोधः, पितापुत्रादि संबन्धवत् । अत एव हेमचन्द्राचारयुक्तं यत जगतीतले न तादृशं किमपि वस्तु यदनेकान्तमुद्राङ्कितं न भत्र त । आदीपमाव्योम सकलं वस्तु नित्यानित्यस्वभावरूपानेकान्तमुदाङ्कितं दृश्यते--'आदीपमाव्योम समस्वभावं स्थाद्वादमुद्रानति भेदि वस्तु । तन्नित्यत्व में कमनित्यानन्यदिति वदाज्ञ द्विषतां प्रलापाः' इत्यादिना । प्रमाणप्रमेयरूपे वस्तुनि स्वपरद्रव्यापेक्षया क्रमाक्रमभावे नानन्तधर्माणां प्रतीतिर्भवति । स्वरूपग्रहणं पररूपभावाग्रह गच्च वस्तुनः वस्तुत्वम् । तदेवोक्तमकलङ्कदेवैः "स्वपरात्मोपादानापोहनः व्यवस्थापाद्यं हि वस्तुनो वस्तुत्वं 10' इति ।
एकस्मिन्नेव वस्तुन्यनेके धर्माः स्वारपर्यायः भवन्तीति, सर्वप्रसिद्धमनेकान्तात्मकतां सौवर्ण घटदृष्टान्तेन सविस्तरं प्रदर्शयितुं शक्यतेति जैनदर्शनकाराणामुद्घोषः। सुवर्णघटो हि विवक्षितो स्वद्रव्यक्षेत्रकाल भावैरस्ति परद्रव्यक्षेत्रकालभावश्च नास्ति । घटो स्वरूपेणास्ति पररूपेण च नास्ति, घटरूपेगास्ति पररूपेण कम्बलरूपेण वा नास्ति । स्वक्षेत्रे स्वस्थाने भूतलादावस्ति, न तु परवस्तूनां पटादीनां स्थाने कुड्यादौ, स्वकाले वर्तमानकालेऽस्ति न त्यतोतानागतकाले । स्वभावेन पीतवर्णनास्ति परभावैः श्वेतादिवणः नास्ति । ___ षड्विधद्रव्येषु घट: पुद्गलद्रव्येऽन्तर्भवति । यदा घटो वर्ण्यते पुद्गलद्रव्यापेक्षया तदा घट सत् भवति, सः पौद्गलिकद्रव्यत्वेनास्ति. धर्माधर्माकाशादि द्रव्यैस्तु नास्ति । पोद्गलकोऽपि स घटः पार्थिवत्वेनास्ति न पुनरप्यादित्वैः । पार्थिवोऽपि घटः धातुरूपतयास्ति न पुनः मृत्वादिभिः । धातुरूपोऽपि स घटः सौवर्णत्वेनास्ति राजतत्वादिभिर्नास्ति । सौवर्णोऽपि स घटो घटितसुवर्णात्मकत्वेनास्ति, अघटितसुवर्णात्मकत्वादिना नास्ति । पृथुबुनायाकारेणास्ति स घटः, मुकुटादित्वेन नास्ति । एवं प्रकारेण येन येन पर्यायेणास्ति इत्युच्यते स तस्य स्वपर्यायो भवति, यः यैः व्यावृत्यते स घटः, ते सर्वे 7. सर्वार्थसिद्धि-v. 32 8. तत्त्वार्थ राजवार्तिक, पृ. 36. 9. अन्ययोगव्यवच्छेदिका, लोक 5. 10. तत्वार्थ र जवार्तिक, पृ. 24.

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परपर्यायाः व्यावृत्तिरूपाः अनन्ताः भवन्ति । एवं सुवर्ण घटे द्रव्यापेक्षयानन्ताः स्वपरपर्यायाः भवन्ति ।11
एवमेव घटः स्वक्षेत्रेऽस्ति परक्षेत्रे नास्ति । तत्रापि तिर्यग्लोकवर्तित्वेनास्ति, ऊर्ध्वादिलोकवतित्वेन नास्ति । तिर्यग्लोकवयपि सः भारतवर्तित्वे न पुनः विदेशवर्तित्वादिना, अत्राप्येकरिमन्नगरे एकदेशस्थानीयतयाअस्ति न त्वन्य देशादितया । एवं क्षेत्रतोऽपि स्वपरपर्यायाः अनन्ता भवन्ति एकस्मिन्नेव घटे19 ।
कालदृष्ट्या यदा घटो विवक्षितो भवति तदा घटस्य स्वकालः वर्तमानकालः । परकालोऽतीतादिः । तत्र स्वकाले वर्तमानकालेऽस्ति परकाले अतीतादि काले नारित । वर्तमानकालेऽपि वासन्तिकयास्ति न पुनरन्यर्तुनिष्पन्नतया । तत्रापि नवत्वेन विद्यते, न पुनः पुराणत्वेन । तत्राप्यद्यतनत्वेनास्ति, अन्यक्षणतया नास्ति । एवं च परवापरत्वाभ्यां सर्वद्रव्येभ्यः क्षणलवघटी दिनमासवर्षादिभिः घटस्य पूर्वत्वेन परत्वेन चानन्तभेदेनानन्तभेदाः काल्तो भवन्ति ।
भावतोऽपि सः घ:: पुनः पीतवर्णेनास्ति, नीलादिवर्णैर्नास्ति । पीतोऽपि सोऽपर. पोतद्रव्यापेक्षयेकगुणपीतः, स एव च तदपरापेक्षया द्विगुणपीतः, स एव च तदन्यापेक्षया त्रिगुणपोतः, एवं तावद्वक्तव्यं यावत्कस्यापि पीतद्रव्यस्यापेक्षयानन्तगुणपीतः । अस्यायं भावः यत् तारतम्यभावेन पीतत्वस्याप्यनन्तभेदाः सम्भवन्ति । ते तस्यानन्तस्वपर्यायाः। पीतवर्णतरतमयोगेनानन्तभेदेभ्यो नीलवर्णादिभ्यो व्यावृत्तिरूपाः अनन्ताः परपर्यायाश्च । एवं भावतोऽप्यनन्तस्वपरपर्यायाः घटे सम्भवन्ति ।।
एवमेव सामान्यतो, विशेषतो, परिणामतो, कर्मतश्चानन्तधर्माः एकस्मिन्नेव घटे प्रत्यक्षीकर्तु शक्यन्ते । अतीतादि कालेषु ये ये विश्ववस्तूनामनन्ताः स्वपरपर्यायाः भवन्ति तेषु, एकद्विव्याद्यनन्तपर्यन्तधर्मः सहशस्य घटस्यानन्तभेदसादृश्यभावेनानन्ताः स्वधर्माः सामान्यतो भवन्ति1+ । विशेषतस्याप्यनन्ता. धर्माः घटे भवन्ति । घटोऽन्या. नंतद्रव्यापेक्षयकेन, द्वाभ्यां त्रिभिर्वा यावदनन्तैर्वा धर्मैः विलक्षणः सन् व्यावृत्तश्च भवति तेभ्यः । अनंतद्रव्यापेक्षया घटस्य स्थूलता, कृशता, समता, विषमतादि प्रत्येकमनन्तविधाः धर्माः भवन्ति । ततः स्थूलतादिद्वारेणाप्यनन्ता धर्माः भवन्ति । संबन्ध तोऽप्यनन्तकाले नानन्तः परवस्तुभिः सम प्रस्तुतघट स्याधाराधेयभावोऽनन्तविधो भवति । एवं जन्यजनकत्वनि मेत्तनमत्तिकादि संख्यातीतसंबन्धैरपि प्रत्येकमनन्ता धर्माः घटस्य ।18 परिणामतश्चापि घटेऽनंता स्वधर्माः परधर्माश्च भवन्ति । तत्तद्रव्यापेक्षया
11. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 329-330.
घृ. 331. पृ. 332. पृ. 335. पृ. 336.

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Traverses on less trodden path... तस्याणुत्वं, महत्त्वं, ह्रस्वत्वं, दीर्घत्वं चानन्तभेदं स्यादित्यनन्ताः स्वधर्माः । यैः यः स घटः व्यावृत्तो भवति ते सर्वे परपर्यायाः । उत्क्षेपणावक्षेपाणाकुचनप्रसरणरेचनपूरणजलादिधारणानन्तक्रियाणां तत्तत्कालभेदेन तरतमयोगेन हेतुत्वेन घटस्यानन्ताः कियारूगः स्वधर्माः तासां क्रियाणाम हेतुभ्योऽन्येभ्यो व्यावृत्तत्वेनानंताः परधर्माः भवन्ति । अपि चैक एव हि घटः कस्मैचिदल्पं, कस्मैचिदधिकं सुख मुत्पादयन् जीवानामनन्तानोमनं. तप्रकारस्य पुण्यपापादिरू रबन्धकारणत्वादनन्तेच्छानामवलम्बनत्वोत् मायालोभरागद्वेषादि विकाराणां कारणं भवतीति घटस्यानन्तधर्मत्वम् ।
घटे तूत्पादाः विनाशाः स्थितयश्च पुनः पुनः भवेनानन्तकालेनानन्ताः अभूवन , भवन्ति, भविष्यन्ति च तदपेक्षयाप्यनन्ताः धर्माः । प्रतिद्रव्यक्षेत्रादि प्रकार घटस्यावक्तव्यतापि स्वधर्मः स्यात् , तस्य चानन्तेभ्यो वनव्योभ्यो धर्मेभ्योऽन्यद्रव्येभ्यश्च व्यावृत्तत्वेनानन्ता अवक्तव्याः परधर्माः अपि भवन्ति ।
एवं यथैकघटेऽनंतधर्मात्प्रकता दृष्टा तथैव जीवाद पर्व द्रव्येषु स्वरूपेणास्तित्वधर्माः, पररूपेण नास्तित्वधर्माश्चेत्यनन्तात्मकता भावनीया ।
जीवद्रव्येऽपि सहभाबिनो क्रमभाविनश्चेति अनंता धर्माः भवन्ति । चैतन्यं, कर्तृत्व, भोक्तृत्वं, प्रमातृत्वं, प्रमेयत्वं, परिणामित्वं, सशरीरव्यापित्वमित्यादयो सहभाविनो धर्माः आत्मनि । हर्षविपादौ सुखदुःखे, मत्यादिज्ञानचक्षुदर्शनोपयोगौ, देवनारकतयङ्नरत्वानि स्त्रीपुंनपुसंकत्वान्धवादीनि क्रमभाविनो धर्मा ।18 अत्रापि स्वरूपेणास्तित्व. धर्माः, पररूपेण नास्तित्वधर्माः विज्ञेयाः। धर्माधर्माकाशकालेष्वसंख्यासंख्यानन्तप्रदेशाप्रदेशत्वं सर्वजीवपुद्गलानां गतिस्थित्यवाहवर्तनोपग्राहकत्वं 19 तत्तदवच्छेदकावच्छेद्यत्व. मवस्थितत्वं, अनाद्यनन्तस्वरूपित्वं अगुरुलघुनैकसंबन्धत्त्रं, सत्त्वं, द्रव्यत्व इत्यादयोऽनेके धर्माः दृश्यते ।३० पौलिकद्रव्येषु घटदृष्टान्तेनानन्ताः स्वपरधर्माः भवन्तीति प्रदर्शित. पूर्वमेवारमाभिः ।
स्वपर्यायाः व तुनः संबन्धिनो भवन्ति, परं परपर्यायाः भिन्नवस्त्वाश्रयाः कथं तस्य संबन्धिनो भवितुमर्हन्तीति शङ्कायाः कृते आस्पदो नास्ति यतो हि इहास्तित्वेन नास्तित्वेन च संबन्धो द्विधा । स्वपर्यायैरस्तित्वेन संबन्धः यथा घटस्य रूपादिभिः । परपर्यायैस्तु नास्तित्वेन संबन्धः तेषां तत्रासम्भवात् यथा घटावस्थायां मृद्रपतापर्यायेण । ते परपर्यायाः न सन्तीति नास्तित्वसंबन्धेन सम्बद्धाः अत एव च ते परपर्यायाः इति व्यपदिश्यन्ते ।
17.
.
16. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 334.
पृ. 334-335. 18.
पृ. 337. 19. तत्वार्थ सूत्र -V-17-22. 20. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका पृ. 340.

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एवं सकलं वस्त्वनन्तधर्मात्ममिति जैनाना सिद्धान्तः । षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयस्य 'अनन्तधर्मकं वस्तु प्रमाणविषयस्त्विह1 इत्यस्य श्लोकस्य विवरणप्रसङ्ग गुणरत्नसूरिभिः वस्त्वनेकान्तात्मकं प्रमाणप्रसिद्धमिति प्रमेयत्वहेतुना साधयितुं शक्यतेति प्रदर्शितम् । तथाहि, 'अनन्तधर्मात्मकं अस्तु' प्रमेयम् । 'सचेतनाचेतनं सर्व वस्तु अनन्तधर्मात्मकमिति' पक्षः । 'प्रमाणविषयः' इत्यनेन प्रमेयत्वादिति केवलव्यतिरेको हेतुः सूचितः । अन्यथानुपपत्त्यैकलक्षणत्वाद्धेतोरन्ताप्त्यैव साध्यस्य सिद्धत्वात् दृष्टान्तादिभिः न प्रयोजनम् । यदनन्तधर्मात्मक न भवति तत्प्रमेयमपि न भवति, यथा व्योमे कुसुममिति केवलो व्यतिरेकः । अन्वयदृष्टान्तौ च पक्षान्त तावेव बते । यतः संसारस्य सर्व चेतनाचेतनं वस्तु पक्षरूपेणाङ्गीकृतोऽस्ति । प्रमेयत्वहेतुरसिद्धविरूद्धानकान्तिकादिदोषरहितो वर्तते । यतः प्रत्यक्षादि प्रमाणान्यनन्तधर्मात्मकमेव वस्तु बोधविषयी कुर्वन्ति ।
वस्तुनोऽनन्तधर्मात्मकतामेव दृढयितुं हरिभद्राचार्यरूक्तं यत्, 'येनोत्पादव्ययध्रौव्य. युक्तं यत्तत् सदिष्यते । अनंतधर्मकं वस्तु तेनोक्तं मानगोचरः ॥ इति । उत्पत्ति-- स्थितिविनाशयोग एर मतो वस्तुनः लक्षणम् , उत्पादव्ययध्रौव्ययुक्तं सत* इत्यादि वचनात् । अत्र भिन्नोत्पाकव्ययध्रौव्ययोगाद्भावस्य सत्वं नाभ्युपगम्यते । किन्तु उत्पादव्ययध्रोव्ययोगात्मकमेव सदिति स्वीक्रियते । तदुक्तं समन्तभद्राचार्ययत् ,
"न सामान्यात्मनोदेति न व्येति व्यक्तमन्वयात् ।
___ व्येत्युदेति विनाशात्त सहकत्रोदयादि सत् ।। 88 द्रव्यात्मना सर्वस्य वस्तुनः स्थितिः पर्यायात्मना तु सर्व वस्तु उत्पद्यते विपद्यते वा । सर्वेऽपि पदार्थाः प्रतिक्षणं परिवर्तन्ते । परं परिवर्तमानेषु वस्तुष्वत्यन्तोच्छेदो न भवति । तदुक्तं-'सर्वव्यक्तिषु नियतं क्षणेक्षणेऽन्यत्वमथ च विशेषः । सत्योश्चित्यपचितयोराकृतिजातिव्यवस्थानम् ।" इति ।
अत्रैक स्मन् वस्तुन्युत्पत्तिस्थितिविनाशकथनमसम्भवमिति प्रतीयेत । परं सूक्ष्मेक्षिकया विचार्यमाणे विरोधोऽसम्भवो वा न प्रतीयते । यथा पक्कदलीफले उत्पद्यमाना हि पोतता पूर्वकालभाविनी हरिततां नाशयति, अर्थात् पीततायाः उत्पत्तिः जायते, हरिततायाश्च विनाशः । परन्त्ववस्थाद्वयेऽपि कदलीफलत्वं स्थिरूपेण वर्तत एव । एवमेव यदा वर्धमानकभङ्गे रुचकः क्रियते तदा पूर्वाथिनः शोकः, उत्तराथिन प्रोतिः माध्यस्थ्य तु केवलं हेमाथिनः, तस्माद्वस्तु यात्मकम् । एवं च यथा जीवद्रव्यस्य स्वर्गप्रापक21. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चय-जैनमत-लोक. 55 22. पइदर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 358-9. 23. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चय-लोक-57. 24. तत्वार्थसूत्र-V-30. 25. आप्तमीमांसा-लोक 27. 26. उदधृतोऽयं श्लोकः अनेकान्तवादप्रवेशिकायाम् हरिभद्राचार्यस्य तत्वाभाष्यटीकायाम् च [-V-29.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
पुण्योदये सति मनुष्यस्वभावस्य व्ययः देवस्वभावस्योत्पादः चैतन्यस्वभावस्य धौव्यम् । अपि च जीवस्य सिद्धावस्थोदये सिद्धत्वेनोत्पादः, संसारभावतो व्ययः, जीवत्वेन धौव्यमिति सर्व त्रयात्मकं भवति । तदुक्तं - ' सिद्धत्वेनोत्पादो व्ययोऽस्य संसारभावतो ज्ञेयः । जीवत्वेन धौव्यं त्रितयुतं सर्वमेत्रं तु' | 28 तथैवाजीवद्रव्यस्यापि मृद्द्रव्यस्य मृदः पिण्डाकारस्य व्ययः, पृथुबुध्नोदराकारस्योत्पाद: मृद्रूपस्य धुत्रत्वम् । यदा घटो उत्पद्यते तदा स घटात्मनोत्पद्यते, मृत्पिण्डात्मना विनश्यति, मृदात्मना च ध्रुव इति बलादभ्युपगन्तव्यमेवोत्पादादियुक्तत्वमजीवस्यापि । अतः उत्पादव्ययधौव्यात्मकता वस्तुनोऽनंतधर्मात्मनामे द्योतयति ।
230
अनन्तधर्मात्मक त्रस्तुनः एकदेशविशिष्टार्थवर्णनं नयवादः इत्युच्यते । अत्र वस्तुन एकांश प्राधान्येन वर्ण्यतेऽन्येष्वशेष्यौदासीन्यं प्रदश्यते । तदुक्तं वादिदेवसूरिभिः यत् नीयते येन श्रुताख्यप्रमाणविषयीकृतस्यार्थस्यांशः तदितरांशौदासीन्यतः स प्रतिपत्तुरभिप्रायविशेषो नय 20 इति । एकदेशविशिष्टोऽर्थो नयस्य विषयो भवति 150 अर्थात् प्रमाणग्रहीतार्थस्यैकदेशग्राही प्रमातुरभिप्रायविशेषो नयः । द्रव्यार्थिक नयः पर्यायास्तिकसंक्षेपेो द्वेधा । द्रव्यमेवपरमार्थतोऽस्ति न पर्याया इत्यभ्युपगमपरः द्रव्यातिकः । पर्याया एवं वस्तुतः सन्ति न द्रव्यमित्यभ्युपगमपर पर्यायास्तिकः । तत्र नैगमसंप्रहव्यवहार ऋजुपूत्र शब्द समभिरुदैवं भूतप्रकारेषु 1 नयसप्तेषु आद्यस्त्रयो द्रव्यास्तिकाः शेषास्तु पर्यायास्तिकाः ।
द्रव्यपर्याययोश्च मुख्यामुख्यरूपतया विवक्षणं नेगमनयः । 32 यथा 'सच्चैतन्य - मात्मनि' इत्यत्र चैतन्यस्य प्राधान्येन विवक्षणं, सत्त्वस्य चोपसर्जनभावेन विवक्षणं भवति । सामान्यमात्रम शेषशेषरहितं सत्त्वद्रव्यादिकं गृह्णातीति संग्रहो नयः इत्युच्यते 27. (a ) मीमांसा लोकवार्तिक- पृ. 619.
(b) घटमौली सुवर्णार्थी नाशोत्पादस्थितिष्वलम् । शोकप्रमोदमाध्यस्थ्यं जनो याति सहेतुकम् ॥ पयोव्रतो न दध्यति न प्रयोति दधिव्रतः । अगोरसव्रतो नोभे तस्माद्वस्तुत्रयात्मकम् ॥ (c) प्रध्वस्ते कलशे सुशोच तनया मौलौ समुत्पादिते पुत्रः प्रीतिमुत्राह कामपि नृपः शिश्राय मध्यस्थताम् ॥ पूर्वाकारपरिक्षयस्तदपराकारोदयस्तद्द्वया
धारश्चैक इति स्थित त्रयमयं तत्त्वं तथा प्रत्ययात् ।
28. उद्धृतोऽयं तत्त्वार्थमाण्यवृत्तौ हरिभद्रेण - V-29 29. प्रमाणनयतत्वालीकालङ्कार - VI1-1
- उद्धृतोऽयं रत्नाकरावतारिकायां पृ. 85 -8.
30. न्यायावतार - 29
31. तत्त्वार्थसूत्र - 1 - 34.
32. प्रमाणनयतत्र लोकालङ्कार - VII-7-33

आप्तमीमांसा श्लोक 59 60

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अनेकान्तवादस्य स्वरूपम्
तदुक्तं 'सन्मात्रग्राही परामर्शः संग्रहः' इति । अत्र विशेषाणामेकरूपतया सामान्यस्यैव ग्रहणं भवति यथा 'विश्वमेकं सदविशेषात्' इति । संगृहीनान् सत्वाद्यर्थान् विधाय न तु निषिध्य यः परामर्शविशेषस्तानेव विभजते स व्यवहारनयः, यथा यत्सत्तद् द्रव्यं पर्यायो वेत्यादि । ऋजुसूत्रनयस्तु ऋजुत्रर्तमान क्षणस्थायी पर्यायमात्रं प्राधान्यतः सूत्रयन् अभिप्रायो भवति । यथा 'सुखविन्तः सम्प्रत्यस्तीत्यादि । कालादिभेदेन ध्वनेरर्थभेदं प्रतिपद्यमानः शब्दनयो भवति यथा 'बभूत्र, भवति, भविष्यति सुमेरु : ' इत्यादि । पर्यायशब्देषु निरक्तिभेदेन भिन्नमर्थ समभिरोहन् समभिरूढनयः भवति यथा 'इन्दनादिन्द्रः, शकनाच्छकः पूर्वारणात पुरंदरः' इत्यादिषु । शब्दानां स्वप्रवृत्तिनिमित्तभूतक्रियाविष्टमर्थ' वाच्यत्वेनाभ्युपगच्छन् एवंभूतनयो भवति यथा इन्दनमनुभवन्निन्द्रः, शकन क्रिया परिणतः शक्रः, पूर्दारणप्रवृत्तः पुरंदरः इत्युच्यते 138
नयवादस्तु अनेकान्तात्मकवस्तुनः एकदेशांशप्रतिपादको भवति । अतः नयस्तु त्रिकलादेशः इत्युच्यते 1 34 याने कान्तात्मक वस्तुनः शेषधर्मानुपसर्जनीकृत्य एकन्यैव धर्मस्य प्राधान्येन वर्णनं विकलादेशः, नयदृष्टिरित्युच्यते । तदुक्तं - एकधर्मात्मकवस्तुविषयक बोधजनकत्वं विकलादेशत्वम् । 35
एकान्तवादिदर्शनान्यनेकान्तान्मकवस्तुनः एकैकधर्मस्यैव वर्णनं कुर्वन्तीति, सर्वेषामपि एकान्तवादिदर्शनानां विकला देशरूपे नयवादे समावेशो भवति । अतः सर्वाभिप्रायसंग्राहकाः नयाः इत्युच्यन्ते । तथा हि-न्यायवैशेषिकाः परस्परविशकलितौ सामान्य · विशेषाविच्छन्त्यतस्ते नैगमनयानुसारिणः; सांख्याः अद्वैतवेदान्तिनश्च विशेषं तिरस्कुर्वाणाः केवलं सामान्यं वाञ्छन्ति, अतस्ते संग्रहनयानुसारिणः इत्युच्यन्ते । चार्वाकास्तु नास्तिकाः प्रायः व्यवहारनयानुसारिणो भवन्ति । बौद्धाः क्षणक्षयिणः परमाणुलक्षणा विशेषाः सत्या इति मन्यन्ते, अतस्ते ऋजुसूत्रनयानुसारिणः । केचन रूढितः शब्दानां प्रवृत्ति वाञ्छन्ति, व्युत्पत्तितो ध्वनीनां प्रवृतिं वाञ्छन्त्यन्ये; वर्तमानकालभाविव्युत्पत्तिनिमित्त मधिकृत्य शब्दाः प्रवर्तन्तेत्यपरे एवं सर्वे मीमांसकवैयाकरणादयो शब्दसमभिस् दैवं भूतनयानुसारिणो भवन्ति 130
एतस्सर्वैः परदर्शनकारैः प्रदर्शिता विकल्पाः वस्तुतत्त्वविषये सापेक्षाः सन्तः परमार्थसत्यतां भजन्ते । निरपेक्षया त्वन्योन्येन निरस्यमानाः नयाभासाः दुर्नया: वेत्युच्यन्ते | 57
33. प्रमाणनयतत्वालोकालङ्कार - V11-37-41.
34. लघीयस्त्रय - श्रुतोपयोगपरिच्छेद-12.
231
35. प्रमाणनयतत्त्वा लोकालङ्कार -- IV - 44; सप्तभंगितरंगिणी पृ. 16.
36. बौद्धानामृजुसूत्रतो मतमभूद्वेदान्तिनां संग्रहात्
सांख्यानां ततएव नैगमनयाद् योगश्च वैशेषिकः ।
शब्दब्रह्मविदो शब्दनयतः सर्वैर्नयेर्गुम्फिता |
जैनीदृष्टिरितीह सारतरता प्रत्यक्षमुद्वीक्ष्यते ॥ -अध्यात्मसार - जिनमतस्तुति-6. 37. निरपेक्षा नया: मिथ्या सापेक्षा वस्तु तेऽर्थकृत् - आप्तमीमांसा -108.

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Traverses on less trodden path... तदुक्तं .. 'स्वाभिप्रेतादशान इतरांशापलापी पुनर्नयाभासः'88 इति । नित्यानित्यायेकान्त प्रदर्शक सकलं वाक्यं नयाभासः इत्युच्यते । नित्यै कान्तवादिभिरनित्यैकान्तवादिभिश्चा. नेकान्तात्मकवस्तुनो एकान्तसत्यताग्रहणेऽभिनिवेशो कियतेति तेषां मतानि नयाभासेऽन्त. भवन्ति । ते एव सापेक्षतया सत्यतां प्रतिपद्यन्ते । ___एक सर्वाण्यपि परदर्शनानि जैनानां नयवादेऽन्तर्भवन्तीति दृष्टम स्माभिः । नयवादस्वन्धगजन्याय इवैकान्तिको भवति । एतेषां सतनयानाम् समन्वयात्मको वादः स्याद्वादः इत्युच्यते । स्याहादेऽस्मिन् सकलनथानामन्तर्भावात वस्तुनोऽनन्तांशानां ज्ञानं भवति अत एव प्रमाणवाक्यं सकलादेशो वा इति कथ्यते । तदुक्तं, "स्याद्वादः सकलादेशः' 39 इति । यथा वस्तुनोऽनन्तधर्माः प्रधानभूताः भवन्ति तत्सकलादेशः इत्यच्यते । जगत सर्वतत्त्वानां प्रमाणनयः ज्ञानं भवति । प्रमाणनयैरधिगमः40 इति वचनात् । स्थाद्वाद एवं प्रमाणवाक्यमित्युच्यते । स्याद्वाद एत्र 'अनेकधर्मात्मकवस्तुविषयबोधजनकल्यान' सकलादेशः इति निगद्यते ।
विधिनिषेधापेक्षया अनेकान्तवादे यदा निक्षिप्यते चक्षुस्तदा स्याद्वादो दृष्टिगोचरो भवति । अनेकान्तात्मकवस्तुनः प्रवचनरुपेण प्रतिपादनमेव स्याद्वाद । स्याद्वादद्वारेणानेकान्तात्मकवस्तुनः प्ररूपणं भवति । अनेकान्तार्थकथनमेव स्याद्वाद:48 इत्युक्तमकरङकदेवैरपि । स्याच्छब्दप्रयोगेण सर्वथैकान्त दृष्टेः परिहारो भवति स्याद्वादः सर्वथै कोन्तत्यागात् किंवृत्तचिद्विधिः ॥ इति वचनात । अमृतचंद्राचार्या अपि कथयन्ति यत् 'सरंथात्वनिषेधकोऽनेकान्तताद्योतको कथविच दर्थे स्याच्छब्दो निपातः' इति । स्याच्छब्दः खल्वयं निगतरितगन्तपातिरूपोऽनेकान्तद्योती । तदुक्तं समन्तभद्वचार्य:'वाक्येष्यनेकान्तद्योती गम्यं प्रत विशेषकः । स्यान्निपातोऽथ योगित्वात 40 इति । स्यादम्तीत्युक्ते कथचिदस्तीत्यर्थः ।।
'स्यान' शब्दद्वारेणानेकान्तस्यैकान्तस्य च बोधो भवितुमर्हति । यथा-ज्ञान-दर्शनसख वीर्याधनंतगुणाः विद्यन्ते आत्मनि । यदा विवक्षुरनन्तधर्मान् लक्षीकृत्य वदति तदा स्याच्छब्देन सह जोवपदप्रयोगः ( 'स्याज्जीवः' इति) आत्मनोऽनन्तधर्माणां सूचको भवति स्यादस्ति जीवः' इति कथनेन केवलं जीवस्यारितत्वमेव स्याच्छब्देन द्योत्यते ।
38. प्रमाणनयतत्वालोकालङ्कार-VII-2. 39. लघीयस्य -श्रुतोपयोगपरिच्छेद-12 40. तत्वाश्रमूत्र-1-6. 41. सप्तभङ्गीतरङ्गिी , पृ. 16. 42. स्याद्वाद: भगवत्प्रवचनम् -न्यायविनिश्चयविवरण, प 264. 43. लधीयस्त्रय-83. 44. आप्तमीमांसा - 104. 45. पञ्चास्तिकायटीका 46. आप्तमीमांसा-103.

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अनेकान्तवादस्य स्वरूपम्
233 अकलङ्कदेवैः विचारोऽयं विशदीकृतोऽस्त्येवं - 'स्याज्जीवः' इत्युक्तेऽनेकान्तविषयः स्याछब्दः । 'स्यादस्त्येव जीवः' इत्युक्ते एकान्ततिषयः स्याच्छब्दः' इति ।
वस्तुन्येक स्मन्ननेके धर्माः भवन्ति, शब्दैः युगपदेव सकलधर्माणां प्रतिपादनमशक्यमेव । अतः एव सप्तनयानां समन्वयरूपात्मकं सप्त भङ्गीनयं नाम न्यायं योजयितव्यमिति जनानां मतम । एकस्मिन्नेव वस्तुन्यविरोधेन विधिप्रतिषेधकल्पना सप्तभङ्गीत्युच्यते । तदुक्तं, 'स्यादस्ति स्यान्नास्ति उभयमवक्तव्यं चेति पुनश्च त्रितयम् । दव्यं खलु सप्तभङ्गमादेशवशेन सम्भवति' । विचारस्यास्यैव विस्तरेण विवरणं प्रमाणनयतत्त्वालोकालङ्कारे तट्टीकायां रत्नाकरावतारिकायां च दरीदृश्यते । तथाहि-एकत्र जीवादी वस्तुन्यकैकसत्त्वादि धर्मविषयप्रश्नवशादविरोधेन प्रतिपक्षादिबाधा परिहारेण पृथग्भूयो समुदितयोश्च विधिनिषेधयोः पर्यालोचनया कृत्वा स्याच्छब्दलाञ्छितो सप्तभिः प्रकारैः वचनविन्यासः सप्तभङ्गीति विज्ञेयः"180 तद्यथा1
(१) 'स्यादस्त्येव घटः' इति विधिकल्पनाया प्रथमो भङ्गः । (२) 'स्यान्नास्त्येव घटः' इति प्रतिषेधकल्पनया द्वितीयो भङ्गः । (३) 'स्यादस्त्येव स्यान्नास्त्येव च घटः' क्रमतो विधिनिषेधकल्पनया तृतीयो भङ्गः । (४) 'स्यादवक्तव्यः एव' इति युगपत् विधिनिषेधकल्पनया चतुर्थो भंगः ।
(५) स्थादस्त्येव, स्यादवक्तव्यः एवेति विधिकल्पनया युगपद्विधिनिषेधकल्पनया पञ्चमः ।
(६) स्यान्नास्त्येव स्यादवक्तव्य एवेति निषेधकल्पनया युगपत् विधिनिषेध. कल्पनया च षष्ठः ।
(६) स्यादस्त्येव स्यान्नास्त्येव स्यादवक्तव्यश्चैवेति क्रमतो विधिनिषेधकल्पनया युगपद्विधिनिषेधकल्पनया च सप्तमो भङ्गः ।
47. लघीयस्त्रय, ष्ट. 85. 48, राजबार्तिक-1-6. 49. (a) चास्तिकाय समयसार.
(b) आप्तमीमांसा-14-15. 50. प्रमाणनयतत्त्वालोकालङ्कार-IV-14. 51. (a) आप्तमीमांसाटीका-14, 15, 16.
(b) प्रमाणनयतत्वालोकालङ्कार-IV. (c) स्याद्वादमंजरी-209-212. T-30

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Traverses on less trodden path...
__ शब्दद्वारेण युगपदेव सकलधर्माणां प्रतिपादनमसंभवमेव । अतः यो धर्मः विवक्षितः वस्तुनः स प्रधानो भवति, गौणीभूताश्चभवन्त्यन्ये । अत्र प्रथम भङ्गेसत्वस्य प्राधान्यं पुनरसत्वस्य द्वितीये, तृतीये, क्रमार्पितयोः सत्वासत्वयोः, चतुर्थत्ववक्तव्यत्वस्य, पञ्चमे सत्वविशिष्टावक्तव्यत्वस्य, असत्वविशिष्टावक्तव्यत्वस्य च षष्ठे, सप्तमे तु क्रमापित. सत्वासत्वस्य विशिष्टावक्तव्यत्वस्येति मन्तव्यम् । अत्र स्वरूपादिभिरस्तित्वमिव नास्तित्वमपि स्यादित्यनिष्ठार्थस्य निवृत्तये स्यादस्त्येवेत्येवकारः । तेन च स्वरूपादिभिरस्तित्वमेव न नास्तित्वमित्यवधार्यते । अत एवोक्तं 'वाक्येनावधारणं तावदनिष्ठार्थनिवृत्तये । कर्तव्यमन्यथानुक्तसमत्वात् तस्य कुत्रचित्' । वस्तूनामनेकत्वादनेके भङ्गाः भवितुमर्हन्ति, सप्तैव भङ्गाः इति कथं वक्तुं शक्यतेति शङ्का समुत्पधेत । परन्तु प्रतिपाद्यप्रश्नानां सप्तविधानामेव सद्भावात् सप्तैव भङ्गाः । अत एवोक्तं रत्नाकराव. तारिकायां-'एकत्र वस्तुनि विधीयमाननिषिध्यमानानन्तधर्माभ्युपगमनेऽनन्तभङ्गीप्रसङ्गादसङ्गतैव सप्तभङ्गोति चेतसि न विधेयम् । विधिनिषेधप्रकाशापेक्षया प्रतिपर्यायं वस्तुन्यनन्तानामपि सप्तभङ्गोनामेव सम्भवात् 154 एकत्र वस्तुनि सप्तभङ्गाः भवितुमर्हन्ति यथा एकस्मिन्नेव घटे रूपवान् घटः, रसवान् घटः, स्पर्शवान् घटः इत्यादि पृथग्व्यवहारनिवन्धना. रूपत्वादि स्वरूपभेदाः संभवन्ति तथैव मन्तव्यम् । द्रव्यात्मना वस्तु स्यादेकमेव नो नाना। पर्यायात्मनो नानैव स्यात् नैकम् । तदेतत्प्रतिपादितं तत्त्वार्थराजवतिके -"अनेकान्तोऽप्यनेकान्तः प्रमाणनयसाधनः । अनेकान्तः प्रमाणात्ते तदेकान्तोऽ. पितान् नयात्"10 इति ।
एवं सकलदार्शनानां परस्परविरुद्धभाषिणामभिमतवस्तूनां सद्भूतांशानां परस्परसापेक्षया कथन स्याद्वाद:56 इति जनानां मतम् । जैनदर्शनधुरीणाः समन्तभद्राकलंकहरिभद्र. प्रभाचन्द्रादयो सांख्यं सदेवेकान्तवादी, माध्यमिकमतमस देकान्तवादी, न्यायवैशेषिकमतं सदसदेकान्तवादी, प्राचीनबौद्धमतमव्यक्ते कान्तवादी,, शाङ्कराद्वैतमतं सदवक्तव्यकान्तवादो, बौद्धानामपोहवादिनां मतमसदवक्तव्यकान्तवादी, पदार्थवादो सदसदव्यक्तव्य कान्तवादा इति वदन्तः नित्यानित्यैकान्तवादिनां सकलदर्शनानामन्तर्भावो सप्तभङ्गीनयरूपे स्याद्वादे भवतीति प्रतिपादयन्ति । ये ये वस्त्वंशाः नित्यमनित्यं सदसत् इत्यादि । परैरङ्गीकृताः सर्वेऽपि सापेक्षाः सन्तः (स्यान्नित्यं, स्यादनित्यं इत्यादि) परमार्थसत्यतां
52. सप्तभङ्गीतरङ्गिणी-पृ. ९. 53. प्रमाणनयतत्त्वालोकालङ्कार-रत्नाकरावतारिका-IV-15-पृ. 61. 54. प्रमाणनयतत्त्वालोकालङ्कार - 1V-37-45. 55. तत्त्वार्थराजवार्तिक-पृ. 35. 56. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका १ 3. 57. आप्तमीमांसा -9-10; अष्टसहस्त्री, न्यायकुमुदचन्द्र, प्रमेयकमलमार्तण्ड, स्याद्वादमंजरी,
षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, इत्यादयो ग्रन्थाः दृष्टव्याः ।

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अनेकान्तवादस्य स्वरूपम्
235
प्रतिपद्यन्ते । अस्यैवाने कान्तवादस्य स्याद्वादस्य वा सकलदर्शनसमन्वयात्मकरूपस्य स्वरूप - वर्णनं अमृतचंद्राचार्यैः परमरमणीयतया वर्ण्यते । यथा गोपी मन्थाननेत्रस्याकर्षण - शिथिलीकरण क्रियाद्वारेण दध्नः सारभूतं नवनीतं प्राप्नोति तद्वत् स्याद्वादोऽनेकान्त - वादो वा धर्माणां प्राधान्योपसर्जन भावेन वस्तुतत्त्वरूपममृतं गृह्णाति । तदुक्तं - एकेनाकर्षन्ती श्लथयन्ती वस्तुतत्रमितरेण । अन्तेन जयति जैनीनीतिर्मन्थाननेत्रमिव गोपी " ॥ 88
01
59
जैनानामनेकान्तवादः बहुदोष दूषितोऽस्ति इति दर्शनान्तरधुरन्धराणामाक्षेपः । वस्तुनः सदसके, सत्वासत्वात्मके, नित्यानित्यात्म के, भिन्नाभिन्नात्मके स्वरूपे स्वीक्रियमाणे विरोव संशप्रपङ्करादिदोषाः सम्भवन्तीति बौद्धशंकर रामानुजाद्याचार्याः सम्मन्यन्ते । तथा हि-यदेव वस्तु सत् तत् कथमसद् भवेत् । यद्यसच्चेत् कथं सदिति विरोधः । वस्तु सद्वा असत् भवेत् । एक रेमन् वस्तुनि नोभयं सम्भवति । सत्वासत्वयोः शीतोष्णस्पर्शवन परस्परपरिहारेण स्थितिः दृश्यते ४०- धौव्येण उत्पादव्यययोः विरोधादेकस्मिन् धर्मिण्ययोगादित्यादि " वचनात् 180 संशयवादोऽयमनेकान्तवादो नामेति श्रोशंकराचार्यैः ब्रह्मसूत्रभाष्ये उद्घोष्यते । तथाहि - सत्वासत्वात्मके वस्तुनोऽ. भ्युपगम्यमाने सदिदं वस्त्रसद्वेत्यवधारणद्वारेण निर्णीतेरभावात् संशयः 'नैकस्मिन् संभवात् ' । न ह्येक रेमन् धर्मिणि युगपत् सदसत्वादि विरूद्धधर्मसमावेशः संभवति 'शीतोष्णवत्' इत्यादि । 01 अन्यच्चाने कान्तवादरवीकरणात् अनवस्थासंकरव्यतिकरादयोऽन्ये बहवो दोषाः समापतन्ति । येनांशेन सत्वमित्युच्यते किं तेनैव सत्वमाहोवित् तेनापि सत्वासत्वम् । यदि तेनांशेन सत्वं तदा, सर्वथा सदित्यङ्गीकाररूपैकान्तवादाभ्युपगमादने कान्तवादहानिर्भवति । यदि येनांशेन सत् तेनैत्र सदसदित्युच्यते तदा येनांशेन सत्वं तेन किं सत्यमेवाहोस्वित् तेनापि सत्त्वासत्त्वमित्यादिना 'अनवस्थादोषप्रसङ्गः । तथा च येन रूपेण सत्त्वं तेन सत्त्वमसत्त्वं च स्यादिति सङ्करः 'युगपदुभयप्राप्तिः सङ्करः' इति वचनात् । तथैव येन रूपेण सत्त्वं तेनासत्वमपि स्याद्, येन चासत्त्रं तेन सत्त्वमपि स्यादिति व्यतिकरः, परस्परविषयगमनं व्यतिकरः ' इति वचनात् । ०४
"
58. पुरुषार्थ सिध्युपाय -
-q. 225.
59. यदा व्ययस्तदा सत्वं कथं तस्य प्रतीयते ।
पूर्व प्रतीते सत्वं स्यात् तदा तस्य व्ययः कथम् । ध्रौव्येऽपि यदि नास्मिन् धोः कथ सत्वं प्रतीयते । प्रतीतेरेव सर्वस्य तस्मात्सत्वं कुतोऽन्यथा । तस्मात् न नित्यानित्यस्य वस्तुनः संभवः कचित् ॥ - प्रमाणवार्तिकालङ्कार - पृ. 142.
60. हेतु विन्दुटीका – 146.
61. ब्रह्मसूत्र शांकरभाष्य - II - II - 23.
62. षड्दर्शन समुच्चयटीका - पृ. 357.

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236
Traverses on less trodden path...
तथा सर्वस्यानेकान्तात्मकत्वेऽङ्गोक्रियमाणे जलादेशयनलादिरूपता, अनलादेरपि जलरूपता, ततश्च जलार्थी प्रवर्तेतानलादावपि, अनलार्थी च जलादावपीति, प्रतिनियतव्यवहारलोपः भवेत । अतोऽनेकान्तवादस्वीकरणं व्यवहारविरुद्धम् । रामानुजाचार्याः आक्षेरमुद्भावयन्ति यत् सर्वस्यास्य मूलभूतः सप्तभङ्गीनयः स्वयमेकान्तोऽनेकान्तो वा । एकान्तश्चत् सर्वमनेकान्त मत्यस्य वादस्यैव हानिः । द्वितीयेऽनेकान्तत्वेनासाधकत्वात् त्रिविक्षितार्थाऽसिद्धिः । तथा चेयमुभयतः पाशारज्जुः स्याद्वादिनः स्यात् इति ॥ 88
जैनानामयमभिप्राय यत् प्रतिपक्षिभिरनेकान्तवादस्य रहस्यमेव न ज्ञातम् इति । अनेकान्तवादस्य सम्यग्ज्ञानाभाव एव तैः प्रदर्शितविरोधादिदोषः सुस्पष्टो भवति । सूक्ष्मे किया विचार्यमाणे विरोधादिदोषाः न दृश्यन्तेऽनेकान्तवादे । यदि वस्तुनः येन प्रकारेण सत्त्वं तेनैवासत्त्वं, येनैव चासत्त्वं तेनैव सत्त्वमित्युच्यते तदा विरोधः संभवेत् । परं वस्तु स्वरूपेणास्ति, पररूपेण नास्तीति प्रतिपादनेन नास्त्यवकोशः विरोधस्य । अत एवोच्यते 'सर्वमस्ति स्वरूपेण पररूपेण नास्ति च । अन्यथा सर्वसत्त्वं स्यात् स्वरूपस्याप्यसंभवः 04 इति । स्वरूपक्षेत्रकालभावै सत्त्वं पररूपक्षेत्र कालभावैस्त्वसस्त्रमिति वस्तुनः मन्तव्यम् । दधिदृष्टान्तेन विचारसरणिश्यिं स्पष्टा भवेत् । दधि स्वरूपापेक्षया भवति । यदि दधि तदुभिन्नोष्ट्रापेक्षया दधि भवति चेत् 'दधि भक्षय' इति कथनेन दधिग्रहणवद् उष्ट्रमपि ग्रहीतुं गच्छेत् दधिभक्षणेच्छुकः । परमेतादृशः क्रमो व्यवहारे न दृश्यते । तदुक्तं - 'चोदितो दधि खादति किमुष्ट्रमभिधावति १०० इति । एवं सर्वपदार्थानां स्वरूपेण सत्त्वं पररूपेणासत्त्वञ्च विधीयते । जीवस्य तावत् सामान्योपयोगः स्वरूपं तस्य तल्लक्षणत्वात् । ततोऽन्योऽनुपयोगः पररूपम् । ताभ्यां सदसत्त्वे प्रतीयेते एकस्मिन्नेव जीवे ।
5
6
एवमेकस्यैव वस्तुनः युगपदुभयरूपता सदसदात्मिका घटते यथैकस्य पुरुषस्यापेक्षावशात् लघुत्व - गुरुत्व - बालत्व - वृद्धत्व - युवत्व - पुत्रस्त्र - पितृत्वादीनि परस्परविरुद्धान्यपि तथा सत्त्वासत्रादीन्यपि । भावानां सर्वथा विरोधो न घटते । तदुक्तं - 'अस्तित्वनास्तित्वयोरवच्छेदकभेदे नायमाणयोर्विरोधाभावात् । अथैकस्यैव देवदत्तस्यैकापेक्षया पितृत्त्रमन्यापेक्षया पुत्रत्वञ्च परस्परमविरुद्वम्' इति । 8 अपि चैकस्मिन्नेव वस्तुनि कथञ्चित् सत्यासत्ये स्थाताम्, यथैकत्र वृक्षादौ चलाचलात्मनोः वटादौ रक्तारक्तात्मनोः शरीरादात्रावृत्तानावृत्तात्मनोश्चोपलंभो भवति, तथा चैकत्र धूपपटादौ चावच्छेदकभेदेन शीतोऽगस्पर्शयो रुपालंभः भवत्यविरोधेन । एवं सत्त्वासत्त्वेऽप्येकस्मिन् वस्तुन्यविशेघेन
सम्भवतः ।
63. श्रीमान्य - II - 2 - 23: षड्दर्शनसंग्रह - पृ. 183.
64. तत्रार्थ राजवार्तिक - 2. 24.
65. स्याद्वादमञ्जरी - 130.
66. न्यायविनिश्चय - पृ. 374.
67. उपयोगो लक्षणम् - तस्वार्थ सूत्र - II-8,
68. तस्वार्थ राजवा र्तिक - पृ. 36.

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अनेकान्तवादरूप स्वरूपम्
वस्तुन स्वरूपमस्तित्वमेव भवति, न तु पररूपाश्रितं नास्तित्वं यदि पररूपाश्रितमपि नास्तित्व वस्तुनः स्वरूपं स्यात्तदा पटगतरूपादिकमपि घटस्य स्वरूपं स्यादित्याशङ्का समुत्पद्येतात्र । परमियं शङ्का निरास्पदा । यतो ह्योभयस्यापि स्वरूपत्वे प्रमाणमुपलभ्यते यथा घटस्य स्वरूपाद्यवच्छिन्नास्तित्वं पररूपाद्यवच्छिन्नं नास्तित्वञ्च प्रत्यक्षेणैव गृह्यते । घटो घटत्वेनास्ति, पटत्वेत नास्तीत्यबाधितप्रतीतिर्भवति । अतः वस्तुनः स्वरूपादिमिरस्तिलं पररूपादिभिर्नास्तित्वमित्युच्यते ।
अनेकान्तवादो संशयवादः इति कथनमप्ययुक्तम् । अहढप्रतीतौ हि संशयः स्यात् यथा क्वचित्प्रदेशे स्थाणुपुरुषयोः १० स्थाणुर्वा पुरुषो वेति । परमेकस्मिन्नेव वस्तुनि सत्त्वासत्त्वयोः स्फुटरूपेणैव प्रतीतिर्भवतीति संशयस्यास्पदं एव नास्ति ।
70
237
अनवस्थादोषोऽपि न भवत्यनेकान्तवादे । यतः सत्त्वासत्त्वादयो वस्तुनः एव धर्माः, न तु धर्माणां धर्माः । न चात्र सङ्कव्यतिकरौ सम्भवतः । यथा मेचकज्ञानमेकमण्यनेकस्वभावं न च तत्र सङ्कव्यतिकरौ एवमत्रापि । तदुक्तं - 'एकत्र बहुभेदानां संभवात् मेचकादिवत् । "" किञ्च यथा अनामिकाया युगपत् मध्यमाकनिष्ठकसंयोगे हृस्वदीर्घत्वे न च तत्र सङ्करादि दोषः एत्रमत्रापि । अनेकान्तवादस्वीकारे 'जला देरप्यनत्यादिरूपता' इत्यादि यदुच्यते तदप्यसमञ्जसमेत्र । यतः जलादेः स्वरूपापेक्षया जलादिरूपता न पररूपापेक्षया अतः जलार्थिनोऽनादौ प्रवृत्तिर्न भवति । " " सर्वस्य सर्वात्मकत्वाभ्युपगमस्तु स्वपरपर्यायात्मकत्वेन कृतोऽस्ति । अनेकान्ताभ्युपगमादनेकान्तहानिर्न भवति । सम्यगेकान्तस्यानेकान्तेन विशेधो नास्ति । नयार्पणदृष्ट्या एकान्तः प्रमाणार्पणदृष्टया अनेकान्तोऽङ्गीक्रियते । तदुक्तं विद्यानन्दिभिः यत्-नयार्पणादेकान्तस्य प्रमाणार्पणादनेकान्तस्यैवोपदेशात् । तथैव दृष्टेष्टाभ्यामविरुद्धस्य तस्य व्यवस्थितेः । 13
जीवादौ भेदाभेदः भवितुं नार्हतीति कथनमयुक्तम् । जीवद्रव्यस्य सर्वथा अभेदे एकान्तरूपत्वे पुण्योदय वैफल्यप्रसङ्गः । नित्यस्य भेदरहितस्यात्मनो न बन्धः, नापिच मोक्षः स्यात् । तदुक्तं समन्तभद्राचार्यै:- भावेषु नित्येषु विकार हानेर्न कारक व्यापृतकार्य युक्तिः । नबन्धभोगौ न च तद्विमोक्षः समन्तदोषं मतमन्यदीयम् इति । सर्वथा भेदे अनित्ये वात्मनि पुण्यवानन्यः फलवानन्यः इति पुण्य संपादन वैय्यर्थ्यप्रसङ्गः । प्रत्यभिज्ञाद्यसंभवो भवति च । तदुक्तं - क्षणिकान्तपक्षेsपि प्रेत्यभावाद्य संभवः । प्रत्यभिज्ञाद्यभावान्न
74
69. सप्तभङ्गीतरङ्गिणी - पृ 52-53.
70. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका - पृ. 361
71. न्यायविनिश्चय--- p. 45.
72. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका - 557-8,
73. अष्टसहस्त्री, पृ. 207.
74. युक्तयनुशासन - ४ आन्तमीमांसा 25, 26, 27.

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Traverses on less trodden path... कार्यारम्भः कुत. फलं' इति । सर्वथा भेदे आत्मनि सीक्रियमाणे मातृघाती मातृघाती न भवेत् , स्वपतिः स्वपतिनभवेत् द्वितीयक्षणे, स्वजाया स्वभार्या न भवेत् ।
___ अतः एतदोषनिवारणाय जीवस्योभयात्मकता भेदाभेदात्मकता नित्यानित्यात्मकता च स्वीकर्तव्या । जीवे यत्प्रत्यभिज्ञानं तदाकस्मिकं न भवति । नित्यात्मनोऽनङ्गीकारे प्रत्यभिज्ञाभावात् व्यवहारो लुप्येत । अतः आत्मनः नित्यत्वमभेदत्वं वा स्वीकर्तव्यम् । एवमेव कालभेदात् पर्यायभेदाच्चानित्यत्वं भेदत्वं वोररीकर्तव्यम् । यथा जोवस्य जीवद्रव्यरूपेणोभेदः मनुष्यपर्यायदेवपर्यायरूपेण भेदः इ त भेदाभेदो स्वीकर्तव्यो एकस्मिन्नेव जीवे । एवमनेकान्तवादे नित्यानित्यकान्तवादिना समन्वयो भवति ।
__ अनेकान्तवादस्य न केनापि सह विरोधो दृश्यते । यद्यपि जैनेतरसकलदर्शनानि निजमतभेदेन परस्परं विरोधं भजन्ते तथापि तेषामभीष्टानां वस्त्वंशानां मिथः सापेक्षतया कथनात् तेऽपि समीचीनतामचन्तीत्यनेकान्तवादिनामुद्घोषः । गुणरत्नसूरिभि ' यशोविजयश्च भिन्नभिन्नार्थान् ' नयभेदव्यपेक्षया ब्रुवाणाः सांख्यन्यायवैशेषिक - मीमांसकादयो स्याद्वादमने कान्तवाद वा न प्रति क्षपेयुरिति वदद्भिः सर्वदर्शनसमन्वयात्मको स्याद्वादः इति प्रत्यपादि । इति शम् । 75 आप्तमीमांसा-41. 76. प्रतिक्षणं भनि तत्पृथक्त्वात् न मातृघाती स्वपतिः स्वजाया । दत्तग्रहो नागितः स्मृतिर्न न क्वार्थसत्यं न कुलं न जातिः ॥
-युक्त्य नुश सन, पृ. 16 77. नित्यं तत्प्रत्यभिज्ञानात् नाकस्मातदविच्छिदा ।
क्षणिकं कालभेदाने बुध्यस चरदोषतः ||-आप्तमीमांसा-56. 78. षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 96-98 79 इच्छन् प्रधानं सत्त्वाचे विरूद्वेगुम्फितंगुणः ।
सांख्यः संख्यावतां मुख्यो नाने का प्रतिक्षिपेत् ।। चित्रमेकमनेकञ्च रूपं प्रामाणिकं वदन् । योगौ वैशेषिको वाऽपि नानेकान्त प्रतिक्षिपेत् ।। जातिव्यक्त्यात्मक वस्तु वदन्ननुभवोचितम् । भट्टो वापि मुरारिवा नानेकान्त प्रतिक्षिपेत् ॥ अबद्ध परमार्थेन बद्धं च व्यवहारतः । बुवाणो ब्रह्म वेदान्ती नानेकान्तं प्रतिक्षिपेत् ।। ब्रुवा भिन्नभिन्नार्थान्नयभेदव्यपेक्षया । प्रतिक्षिपेयुनों वेदा: स्याद्वादं सार्वतांत्रिकम् ।।
-अध्यात्मोपनिषत्प्रकरण 45-50.

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22 नैषधं विद्वदौषधम्
" वाग्जन्मवैफल्यमसह्यशल्यं गुणाद्भुते वस्तुनि मौनिता चेत् ।"
-नैषधीयचरितम्-VIII-३२. विदितमेवैतत्समेषामपि संस्कृतसाहित्यरसिकाणां यत्सारस्वतजलधिमन्थनेन परि स्रवरसुधावाहिनां गभीरार्थप्रतिपादकानां महाकाव्यानां निर्मातणां कवीनां सारस्वतस्रष्टौ नूनमयं नेषधकाव्यप्रणेता सर्वतन्त्रस्वतन्त्रो महाकविः श्रीहर्षः मुकुटमणीयेतति । न खल्वेतन्न विदितं विदुषां यत् दुरुन्नेय एव प्रायेण प्राचीनसंस्कृतकवीनां स्थितिसमयः । जानीमो वयं यदेते महाकवयः आत्मनो गुणनिचयमबहुमन्यमाना. इव नैवोल्लिखन्ति प्रायेणात्मनो प्रबन्धरत्नेषु तन्निर्माणावसरं विशेषतश्च काव्येषु । अतः तदाश्चर्यमाव. हति यदि प्राचीनपरम्परानुयायो श्रीहर्षोऽपि स्वीयकाव्ये नालेखीदात्मनोऽवस्थितिसमय- . मिति । एतस्य कालनिर्णयादिविषये विद्वांसो विप्रतिपद्यन्ते तथापि 'ताम्बूलद्वयमासनकच लभते यः कान्यकुब्जेश्वरात् इति श्री हर्णस्यैवोक्त्या क्रिस्ताब्दस्य द्वादशशतकस्योत्तरार्धे विजयचन्द्र-जयचन्द्रयोः समये भारतभुवमलचकारेति बहुभिरैतिह्यविद्भिरङ्गी क्रियते । श्रीहीरनाम्नः पण्डितोत्तमात् मामल्लदेव्यामुत्पन्नोऽयमिति कविनैव प्रतिसर्गमुपनिबध्यमानादन्तिमश्लोकादवधार्यते । अनेनैव कविना नैषधीयकाव्यं विहाय स्थैर्यविचारणप्रकरणं, खण्डनखण्डखाद्यं', अर्णववर्णन, शिवशक्तिसिद्धि , नवसाह. साकचम्पू गौडोर्वीशकुलप्रशस्तिः, श्रीविजयप्रशस्तिः, छन्दप्रशस्तिः10, ईश्वराभिः सन्धिः11 इत्येतानि ग्रन्थान्तराणि प्रणीतानीति तत्र तत्र नैषधीयसर्गान्तर्गतश्लो
1. नैषधचरितम् (ने.)-XXI-153. 2. 'श्रीहर्ष कविराजराजिमुकुटालङ्कारहीरः सुतं श्रीहीरः सुषुवे जितेन्द्रियचयं मामलदेवी च यम् ' । 3. स्थैर्यविचारणप्रकरणभ्रातरि महाकाव्ये-नै. IV-123. 4. खण्डनखण्डतोऽपि सहजात् क्षोदक्षमे महाकाव्ये-ने. VI-113. 5. सन्दब्धार्णववर्णनस्य तस्य-ने. IX-160. 6. शिवशक्तिसिद्धिभगिनी सौक्षात्रभव्ये -ने. XVIII-154. 7. नवसाहसाचरिते चम्पूकृत:--. XXII-151. 8. गोडोवीशकुल प्रशस्तिभणितिभ्रातरि-ने. VII-110. 9 तस्य श्रीविजयप्रशस्तिरचनातातस्य-. V-138. 10. स्वसुः सुसहशि छन्दप्रशस्तेः -ने. XVII-122. 11. द्रष्टव्यं खण्डनखण्डखाद्यम् !

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Traverses on less trodden path...
कैरगन्तुं शस्यो । 1चिन्तामणिमन्त्रोपासनालब्धतीव्रतरमतिभवोऽयं प्रतिभासामर्थ्य सर्वानन्यान् कवीनतिशेते ।
एतेन प्रगीतं नैषधीयचरितं सुप्रसिद्धेषु पञ्चसु महाकाव्येषु न केवलमन्यतमत्वेन परिगण्यते अपे तु सर्व धरीत्या सर्वोत्कृष्टमिति सुविदितमेव सर्वेषामपि विदुषाम । काव्यस्यास्याध्ययन संस्कृतभाषापटुत्वं विविधशाम्नविषयकवैदुष्यचाधिगन्तुं प्राचीनसंस्कृत साहित्याध्ययन परम्परायामपरिहार्यत्वेन निर्दिश्यते । गद्यकाव्येषु यथा कादम्बरी बागस्याद्वितीयेति परिगण्यते तथैवाप्रतिममिदं नैषधं काव्यप्रन्थेषु ! कविकुलतिलक कालिदासं विहाय नैषधकाव्यप्रणेतुः श्रीहर्षस्य महिमातिशयः भारविमाघाद्यपेक्षया गरीयानीति ‘उदिते नैषधे काव्ये क माघः क्वच भारवि.' इत्यभियुक्तोक्यःऽवगन्तुं शक्यते । कैदिचकाव्यममज्ञरेवमप्युक्तं दरीदृश्यते यत् पञ्चसु महाकाव्येषु कवि कुलगुरोः कालिदासस्य रघुवंशकुमारसम्भवे स्त्रीचरित्रवर्णनात्मके, भारविमाघयोः किरातार्जुनीयशिशुपालवधकाव्ये च पुरुषचरित्रवर्णनात्मके । परमेतस्य श्रीहर्षस्य नैषधीयकाव्यन्तु प्रकृतिपुरुषर्योरुभयोरपि समानरूपेण वर्णनात्मकं निसर्गभिन्नारपदमेक संस्थं महाकाव्यमिति । तदुक्तं-द्वे स्तेत्र प्रकृतेः पुंसे द्वे चैकमुभयोरपि । पञ्चस्वेतेषु पाण्डित्यं पुरुषार्थो हि पञ्चमः'15 इति । राजशेखरस्य काव्योलोचनसिद्धान्तानुसारेण शास्त्रकविः काव्यकविः तथोभयकविश्चेति त्रिप्रकारकाः भवन्ति कवयः । केचन काव्यसंसारे संस्कारप्रतिभाशक्त्या कवयो भवन्ति, अपरे तु शास्त्रादीनामभ्यासबलाच्च । एतादृशानां कवीनां काव्यग्रन्थेषु केवलं शृङ्गारादिरसपरिपूर्ण काव्यसौन्दर्य नीरसशास्त्रनियमानां वा प्रदर्शनं वयमक्षिसाकुर्मः । उभयोरपि सङ्गमो एकत्र दुर्लभप्रायो दृश्यते । अत एवं राजशेखर उभयत्रप्रवीण एव महाकविरिति समुद्घोषयति तथोभयकविस्तूभयोरपि वरीयान् याभयत्र परं प्रवीणः स्यात् 15 इत्यादिना । नैषधीयकाव्ये काव्यकलाकौशलं शास्त्रीयसिद्धान्तानां च सरससरण्या प्रतिपादनमवलोक्य उभयकविरासीत् श्रीहर्षः इति निःसन्देहेन वक्त पार्यते ।
नलदमयन्तीचरितप्रतिपादकं काव्यमिदं भारते प्रसिद्धेषु फचसु महाकाव्येष्वन्त-- भंतं गुणालङ्काररसभावादिविषये परमोत्कर्षमधिरूढं विद्वत्प्रियञ्च वरीवर्ति । अद्योपलभ्यमानमिदं २८०० श्लोकैः परिमितं द्वाविंशतिसर्गात्मकं बृहत्कायं महाकाव्यम् । अत्र तु द्वित्रान् सर्गानपहायान्ये सर्वेऽपि शताधिकैः श्लोकः संयोजिताः सन्ति । अत्र द्वाविंशस्य सर्गस्यान्ते श्रयमाणा 'श्रीरस्तु नस्तुष्टये 16 इत्येवं रूपा मङ्गलाशंसा काव्यस्यास्य द्वाविंशसर्गात्मकत्वमेव प्रख्यापयति । 12. तच्चिन्तामणिमन्त्रचिन्तनफले महाकाव्ये - नै. I-145. 13. नैषधीयपरिशीलन - डॉ. चंडिका प्रसाद शुक्ल, पृ. 555. 14. यच्छास्त्रसंस्कार: काव्यमनुगृणहाति, शास्त्रैकप्रवणता तु निगृहाति । काव्यसंस्कारोऽपि
शास्त्रवाफ्यपाकमनुरुणद्धि, काव्यक प्रवणता तु विरुणद्धि ।-काव्यमीमांसा-V. 15. काव्यमीमांसा-v. 16. ने.-XXII- 150.

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नैषधं विद्वदोषघम्
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18
स्वकाव्येऽस्मिन् सकलशास्त्र नदीष्णता, स्वीया सर्वज्ञता, रसिकोत्तंसता, लौकिकव्यवहा पटिष्ठता चानेन प्रादर्शि । सकलशास्त्रपारावारीणस्यास्य कवेः मुखादुत्तरोत्तरं काव्यं नवनवा शब्दा: धारावाहितया निरर्गल निर्गताः दरीदृश्यन्ते काव्येऽस्मिन् । यशसेऽर्थकृते व्यवहारविदे शिवेतरक्षतये । सद्यः परनिर्वृतये कान्तासम्मिततयोपदेशयुजे " इत्यादीनि यानि काव्यप्रयोजनानि काव्य सिद्धान्तलक्षणका रैः प्राधान्येन निर्दिष्टानि तानि सर्वाण्यपि महाकाव्येऽस्मिन् समुपलभ्यन्ते तथापि सद्यः परनिर्वृतिरेव काव्यस्यास्य प्रमुख प्रयोजनमिति 'एतत्काव्यरसोर्मिमज्जनसुखव्यासज्जनं सज्जनः ' इत्यस्मात् तन्निबद्धश्लोका देवावगम्यते । व्युत्पत्यभ्यासपरिष्कृता प्रतिभा काव्यसमुद्भव हेतुरिति मम्मट हेमचन्द्रादिभिः काव्यसिद्धान्तलक्षणकारैः 'शक्तिनिपुणतालोके काव्यशास्त्राद्यवेक्षणात् । काव्यज्ञशिक्षयाभ्यास इति हेतुस्तदुद्भवे" 19, 'व्युत्पत्यभ्याससंस्कृता प्रतिभास्य हेतुः १० इत्यादिभिर्वचनैः निर्दिश्यते । प्रतिभाव्युत्पत्तिरूपमणिकाञ्चनसंयोगात् यत्काव्यालङ्कारस्य रचना भवति सैव विदग्धकण्ठाभरणरूपतां प्राप्तुमर्हतीति क्षेमेन्द्रो उद्घोषयति । 1 एतेषां काव्यसिद्धान्तकर्तॄणामनुरोधेन व्युत्पत्तौ सकलज्ञानस्रोत रूपाष्टादशत्रिद्यानां कूलङ्कषज्ञानस्यान्तर्भावो भवतीति मन्तव्यम् | 22 श्री हर्षोऽपि निर्दिष्ट पूर्वसिद्धान्तानुसारेण व्युत्पत्य भ्यास परिपूर्ण प्रतिभाद्वारेण स्वकाव्यं प्राणषीदिति नास्ति सन्देह लेशोऽपि । काव्येऽस्मिन् कविना समस्त विषयज्ञानपरिपक्वता प्रादर्शि । व्युत्पत्ति पूर्णत्वा देवास्य काव्यस्य सर्वोत्कृष्टता स्वीकृता विद्वद्भिः । सकलशास्त्र विषयकज्ञानाकरभूतत्वात् काव्यमि विद्वदौषधमित्युच्यते । यथौषधं ज्वरादीनां निवारणाय शरीरबलवर्धनार्थञ्चासेव्यते
द्व नैषधमपि अल्पज्ञगर्वज्वरनिवारकं विद्वज्जनबुद्धि बलवर्धकञ्च वरीवर्तीति "नैषधं विद्वदौषधं " इति सङ्गिरन्ते विद्वांसः । अत्र तु तीव्रतरमतिवैभवानां विदुषां समाराधनं भवति । काव्यान्तरेभ्यः द्राक्षापाकयुक्तेभ्यः वैलक्षण्यं भजमानं शब्दतोऽर्थतश्च गभीरायमाणमिदं नैषधं सामान्यमतियुक्तानां कृते कटुकौषधायते । काव्यान्तरेषु वेविद्यमानाः सर्वेऽपि काव्यगुणाः रसभावालङ्कारादयश्चात्र दरीदृश्यन्त एव, तथापि इदमेव वैलक्षण्यमस्य काव्यस्य यदन्यैः कविभिरक्षुण्णं पन्थानमाश्रित्य कविरत्र विषयप्रतिपादनं करोति । इयमेव विलक्षणतास्यान्यकविभ्यो यदयं विद्वत्प्रतिभटकरिकेसरी, अनितरसाधारणमतिवैभवश्चानन्यसाध्यया विलक्षण काव्यपटुतया सकलशास्त्रार्णा किमधिकमष्टादशविद्यानां हृदयं स्वकाव्ये परमरमणीयतया निबबन्धेति । नैषां विद्वदौषधमिति कथने इदमप्येकं कारणं यत् नैकविधप्रन्थानामध्ययनेन यज्ज्ञानमुपलभ्यते तदेकेनैवानेन नैषध काव्याध्ययनेन सम्प्राप्तुं शक्यतेति । कबिनानेन स्वकाव्ये उपनिबद्धानां सर्वेषामपि विषयाणां सविस्तरेण प्रतिपादनमशक्यप्रायमेव लघीयसि प्रबन्धेऽस्मिन् । एकैकमेव
काव्यप्रकाश - I.
ने. - XXXII - सर्गान्तश्लोक -3.
17.
18
19. काव्यप्रकाश -I-3.
20. काव्यानुशासन - I
21. कविकण्ठाभरण V
T-31

22 (1) काव्यप्रकाश - I.
(2) काव्यमीमांसा - VII. (3) कविकण्ठाभरण - V. (4) वाग्भटालङ्कार -- 1-5.
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Traverses on less trodden path... विषयमधिकृत्य परः शतानि उदाहरणानि प्रदर्शयितुं शक्यन्ते । अतः अङ्गुलिनिर्देशेन प्रयतामहे प्रदर्शयितुं नैश्यस्य विद्वदौषधत्वं विद्वज्जनबुद्धिवर्धकगुणत्वं वा ।।
। सूक्ष्मेक्षिकया नैषधाध्ययनेनेदं सुस्पष्टं भवति यदव्युत्पन्नमतः नैषधे प्रवेशमेव नाहतीति । स्वकीयमेवागाधपाण्डित्यं वशीकृतवाग्देवीकत्वञ्च दिदयिषुरिव दशमे सर्गे दमयन्तीस्वयंवरे समवेतानां भूपतीनां परिचयं दातुमाहूतायाः सरस्वत्याः स्वरूपं-'मध्ये सभं सावततारबाला गान्धर्वविद्याधरकण्ठ नाला । त्रयीमयीभूतवलीविभङ्गा साहित्यनिर्वत्तितहक्तरङ्गा' इत्यादिभिः पञ्चदशश्लोकै. वर्णयामास । सरस्वत्याः स्वरूपवर्णनं संक्षेपतोऽधो निर्दिष्टरूपेण कृतं दृश्यते कविना-तस्याः सरस्वत्याः गान्धर्वविद्या एव कण्ठनालः, ऋग्यजुःसामवेदाः वलित्रयं, महाकाव्यनाटकचम्पूप्रभृतयो कटाक्षविक्षेपाः, अथर्ववेदो उदररोमावली, शिक्षाशास्त्रमेव चारित्रं, कल्पोऽलङ्कारः, निरुक्तविद्या समरतार्थनिर्वचनस्वरूपः, मात्रावृत्तवर्णवृत्तेन भिद्यमानं छन्दः भुजद्वन्द्वं, व्याकरणशास्त्रं मेखला, ज्योतिःशास्त्रं कण्ठहारः, पूर्वपक्षोत्तरपक्षी ओष्ठद्वयं, पूर्वोत्तरमीमांसे ऊरुयुगलं, तर्कशास्त्रं दन्तपंक्तिः, पुराणोपपुराणा दकं कर युगलं, धर्मशास्त्रमेव मूर्धा, सोमसिद्धान्तनामककापालिकदर्शनमाननं, माध्यमिकमतमुदर, विज्ञानवादमेव चित्तं, साकारविज्ञानवादिसौत्रान्तिकदर्शनमेवाखिलं स्वरूपञ्चासीत् । तीव्रतरबुद्धिवैभवोऽयं श्रीहर्ष सरस्वतीस्वरूपवर्णनव्यानानेन स्वकाव्येऽन्त तान् विविधविषयान् ज्ञापयित्वा विनैवेतेषां ज्ञानं न शक्यते काव्यमिद - मवगन्तुमिति प्रदर्शयति । काव्यमिदं चतुर्दशविद्यारङ्गतैः काश्मीरविद्वद्भिः स्ववैशिष्ट्येन समाहतमा सोदिति 'काश्मीरैम हते चतुर्दशतयीं विद्यां विद्वभिमहाकाव्ये' इत्यादिना कवेरुक्त्या एव सुस्पष्टं भवति । वेदवेदाङ्गादीनां विविधशास्त्राणाञ्च सारोऽत्र कविना निवेशितो दृश्यते, पर तत्सकलं वर्ण यतुं सविस्तरेण न शक्यतेति सम्प्रति न्यायः वैशेषिकसाङ्ख्ययोगमोमांसावेदान्ता देदर्शनानां सिद्धान्तान् प्रतिपादितान काव्येऽस्मिन् संक्षेपतो निर्दिश्यान्यान् विषयान् दिङ्मात्रमुदाहरिष्यामः । ___ न्यायवैशेषिकाशनसिद्धान्तानामुल्लेखः बाहुल्येन कृतो दृश्यते कविनानेन तर्कविद्यापारावारीणेन । न्यायशास्र प्रमाणप्रमेयादि षोडशपदार्थानां तत्त्वज्ञानात् निःश्रेयससिद्धिर्भवतीति यदुक्तं, ज्ञानप्राप्तेश्चोद्देशो तल्लक्षणनिर्देशो यत्कृतो दृश्यते तत्प्रतिपादनं चकार कविः सरस्वत्याः षोडश-षोडशदलसमवेतं दन्तपङ्क्तिद्वयमेव षोडशपदार्थानामभिधानरूपमुद्देशं तत्रोपदिष्टानाञ्च तत्त्वानां व्यवच्छेदकधर्मरूपलक्षणमभिव्यन कीत्युक्त्वा यथा-'उद्देशपर्वण्यपि लक्षणेऽपि द्विधोदितैः षोडशभिः पदार्थः । आन्वीक्षकों 23. न.--x. 24. नै.-x-73-87. 25. नै.-XVI-131. 26 प्रमाण-प्रमेय -संशय-प्रयोजन-दृष्टान्त सिद्धान्त - अवयत्र-तर्क-निर्णय वाद-जल्प - वितण्डा
हेत्वाभास-छल-जाति-निग्रहस्थानानां तत्त्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः-न्यायसूत्र-I-I-I. 27. तत्र नामधेयेन पदार्थमात्रस्याभिधानमुद्देशः । तबोद्दिष्टस्य तत्त्वव्यवच्छेदको धर्मो लक्षणम् -
न्यायसूत्रभाष्य-I-1-3.

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यहशनाद्विभाली तां मुक्तिकामाकलितां प्रतीमः' । अन्यच्च तदत्यन्तविमोक्षोऽपवर्ग.39 इत्यादिना मोक्षावस्थायां सुखदुःखाभावः इति न्यायवैशेषिकाः सम्मन्यन्ते । न्यायवैशेषिकाणां मोक्षावस्थातु पाषाणवद् वर्ततेति तत्प्राप्तु न कोऽपि यतेत इति दर्शनान्तरकाराणां मतम् ।३० वेदान्तानुयायी श्रीहर्षस्तु न्यायवैशेषिकाणां मोक्षविषयकमतमुपहसन्निव चार्वाकमुखेन स्वाभिप्रायं प्रकटीकरोति 'मुलये यः शिलात्वाय शास्त्रमूचे सचेतसाम् । गोतम तमवेक्ष्यैव यथावित्श तथैव स: 81 इत्यादिना । श्लोकेऽस्मिन् मोक्षो पाषाणवज्जड इति मन्यमानः गौतमस्तु गोतमः (गोषुतमः), महान् बलीवदः एवेति मन्यतामित्युपहसति । 'द्रव्यगुणकर्मनिष्पत्तिवैधादभावस्तमः'52 इति वदन्तो तमस्वभावरूपमिति मन्यन्ते न्यायवैशेषिकाः । वेदान्तिनो कुमारिलमतानुयायिनी मीमांसकाश्च तमस्तु द्रव्यमिति, प्रभाकरास्तु 'रूपदर्शनाभावस्तमः' 55 इति, केचिदन्ये 'आलोकज्ञानाभावस्तमः' इति मन्यन्ते । परमेतदाश्चर्यमावहति यत् वेदान्तानुयायी श्रीहर्षस्तु न्यायवैशेषिकाभिमतं तमः स्वरूपमेव समभिमन्यतेति 'ध्वान्तस्य वामोरु ! विचारणायां वैशेषिकं चारुमतं मतं मे । औलूकमाहुः खलु दर्शनं तत् क्षमं तमस्तत्वनिरूपणाय '56 इत्यनेन इलोकेन सुस्पष्टं भवति । अन्यच्च न्यायादिदर्शनशास्त्रेषु यत्कृतकं तदनित्यं, यथा घटः', 'घटाभाववभूतलं', 'यद्यत्र घटोऽभविष्यत् तदा भूतलमिवाद्रक्ष्यत', इत्यादिभिर्वचनैः घटदृष्टान्तो सुप्रथित एव । विषयमेवामुमतीव चारुतया कल्पनापाटवेन च कविवर्णयति यथा
'एतत्कुचस्पर्धितया घटस्य ख्यातस्य शास्त्रेषु निदर्शनत्वम् ।
तस्माच्च शिल्पान्मणिकादिकारी प्रसिद्धजन्माजनि कुम्भकारः ॥3॥ इति । दमयन्त्याः सौन्दयाधिक्यं वर्णयन् कविरत्र कथयति यत् परमरमण्याः दमयन्त्याः कुचस्पतिया घटः न केवलं ख्याति सम्प्राप्य दर्शनेषु निदर्शनत्वमाप अपि तु मृद्भाण्डनिर्मातापि दनयन्याः कुवर्थिकुम्भ निर्माणेन कुम्भकार इति प्रसिद्धि प्राप इति ।
28. नै.-x-81. 29. (a) न्यायसूत्र-1 1-223
(b) न्यायमजरी--पृ. 508. 30. (a) अत एव त्वदुहास: धूयते--- दर वृन्दावने रम्ये कष्ट्रत्वमभिवाछितम् । न तु वैशेषिकी
मुक्ति गौतमो गन्तुमिच्छति'-उद्याऽयं स्याद्वादमा महिणेन-पृ. 63. (b) आत्यन्तिकदु:खनिवृत्तिलक्षणो पाषाण पदृशो मोक्षो भवतीति वैशेषिकमतम्-प्राञ्चहृदय
___ --षड्वर्गप्रकरण-पृ. 65. 31. ने.-XVII 75. 32. वैशेषिकसूत्रम् -V II 19. 33. (a) विवरण प्रमेयसंग्रह:--पृ. 10. (b) सर्वमतसंग्रहः-पृ. 31. 34. सर्वदर्शनसंग्रह . 35. नै.--XXII-30 36. ने.-VII-75.

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Traverses on less trodden path... दमयन्याः कुवोदय गनव्याने नात्र कवि. न्यायादिदशनेषु सुप्रसिद्धं घटदृष्टान्तमेव प्रदर्शयति । एवमेव बहुषु स्थलेषु न्यायवैशेषिकाभिमतं कार्यकारणसिद्धान्तं', मनोद्रव्यस्य स्वरूपं, विधोत्पत्तिविनाशकपसिद्धान्तञ्चाविष्कृतमनेन30 कविना पश्यामः ।
सांख्यास्तु कारणे एव कार्यमव्यक्तरूपेण वर्ततेति मन्यमानाः 'असदकरणादुपादानप्रणात् सर्वसम्भवाभावात् । शक्तस्य शक्यकरणात् कारणभावाच्च सत्कार्य'4 ° इति वदन्तो सत्कार्यवादमनुमन्यन्ते । श्रोहर्षोऽपि सांख्यानाममुं सिद्धान्तं 'नास्ति जन्यजनकव्यतिभेदः सत्यमन्नजनितो जनदेहः 1 इत्यादिना प्रदर्शयति । एवमेव योगदर्शने पतञ्जलिना प्रतिपादितं सम्प्रज्ञातासम्प्रज्ञातसमाधिद्वयं स्त्रीयानुभव द्वारेण 'इत्युदीर्य स हरि प्रति सम्प्रज्ञातवासिततमः 4 " समपादि', 'यः साक्षात्कुरुते समाधिषु परं ब्रह्मप्रमोदार्णवं 5. इत्यादिना वर्णयति । तत्र तत्र कृतयोगरहस्यवर्णनेनायं महान सिद्धयोगी आसीदिति ज्ञातुं शक्यते। योगविभूतिवर्णनप्रसङ्गे पतञ्जलिनोक्तं यसिद्धयोगी परकायप्रवेशमपि की प्रभवतीति, 'बन्ध कारणशैथिल्यात् प्रचारसंवेदनाच्च चित्तस्य परशरीरावेशः' इत्यनेन सूत्रेण । एतामेव योगविभूति वर्णयितुमिच्छन् श्रीहर्ष: दमयन्त्याः शुद्धान्तेऽदृश्यरूपेण सञ्चरमाणे नले उत्प्रेक्षते यथा
__'भदन्नदृश्यः प्रतिबिंबदेहव्यूह वितन्वन्मणिकुट्टिमेषु । पुरं परस्य प्रविशन्त्रियोगी योगीव चित्रं स रराज राजा' । एवमेव स्वयंवरसभायां नलपञ्चकर्माक्षसास्कृत्य दमयन्ती योगविभूतेरस्याः उल्लेखं करोति यथा---'किं वा तनोति मयि नैषध एव कायव्यूह विहाय परिहासमसौ विलासी । विज्ञानवैभवमृतः किमुतस्य विद्या सा विद्यते न तुरगाशयवेदितेव' ।
'स्वतः सर्वप्रमाणानां प्रामाण्यमिति गम्यताम् । न हि स्वतोऽसतीशक्तिः कर्तुमन्येन शक्यते ५० इत्यादिना || स्वतःप्रामाण्यवादमुररीकुर्वतां मीमांसकानां मतमिदं नलेन हंसं प्रत्युक्तेन वचसा 'स्वत एव सतां परार्थता ग्रहणानां हि यथा यथार्थता'47 इत्यदिना प्रदर्शयति ।
ईश्वरास्तित्वविषये न्यायवैशेषिकमीमांसकयोर्मध्मे महान् विवादो दरीदृश्यते । न्यायवैशेषिकास्तु सेश्वरवादिनो ईश्वरं सृष्टिकर्तारं, सर्वज्ञ, कर्मफलाध्यक्षं, वेदरचयितारं च मन्यते । मोमांसकास्तु निरीश्वरवादिनो जगतोऽनादिमत्वं नित्यत्कच स्वीकुर्वाणाः, वेदस्यापौरुषेयत्वं च मन्याना ईश्वरस्य जगत्कर्तृत्वं वेदकर्तृकत्वं वा नानुमन्यन्ते । 37. नै.-IV-3.
44. नै -VI-46. 38. नै.-1-59; III-37.
45. नै.--XIII-48. 39. गै,-III-125.
46. श्लोकवार्तिकम् -11-47. 40. सांख्यकारिका-9.
47. नै.--II-61 41. न.--94.
48. न्यायकुसुमान्जलि:-v 42. नै.---XXI-119
49 श्लोकवार्तिकम् 43. न.-XX[[- सन्तश्लोकः-4.

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तथा चानाद्यनन्तं सृष्टिचक्रम पूर्वसिद्धान्तानुसारेण प्रचलति कर्म फल्योमध्येऽवादित-नित्यसम्बन्धात् कर्मशक्त्यैव फलमुत्पद्यते, तयोर्मध्ये नास्त्येवेश्वरस्यावश्यकतेति वदन्ति । 30 नैयायिकास्तु 'कारुणिकोऽप्ययं वस्तुस्वभावमनुविधीयमानो धर्माधर्म सहकारी जगद्वैचित्र्यं विधत्त इति वदन्तः ईश्वरस्य कर्मफलाध्यक्षत्वमङ्गीकुर्वन्ति । शङ्कराचार्या आप ब्रह्मसूत्रभाष्ये 'सापेक्षो हीश्वरो विषमां सृष्टि निर्मिमीते । किमपेक्षत इति चेत् धर्माधर्मापेक्ष इति वदामः 59 इत्यवदन् । श्रीहर्षोऽप्यनुमेव मतद्वयं संक्षेपतः प्रकटीकरोति यथा
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' अनादि धाविश्वपरम्परायाः हेतुः स्रज स्रोतसि वेश्वरेवा | आयत्तधीरेषजनस्तदार्याः किमीदृशः पर्यनुयोगयोग्यः' || 83 इति ।
कवियमपि विश्वसिति यदद्दष्टमीश्वरो वा यथा यथा प्राणिनं प्रवर्तयति तादृशी बुद्धिप्युदेति इति । 'किं करोति नरः प्राज्ञः प्रेर्यमाणः स्वकर्मभिः ' ' किं करोति सुधीर मन ईश्वराज्ञावशंवदः' इत्यादिना चादृष्टवशात् ईश्वरेच्छावशाद्वा " 54 प्राणी पराधीनोऽस्वतन्त्र वा भवतीति कवेराशयः ।
मीमांसकानां निरीश्वरवादिनां दमयन्ती कुशद्वीपाधिपतेः ज्योतिष्मतः गुणप्रशंसां साक्षाद्वाग्देवतायाः मुखारविन्दादाकर्ण्यापि वेदैरखिलैस्तूयमाने ईश्वरे यथा मीमांसकाः न श्रद्धधते तद्वत् तस्मिन्ननुरक्ता न बभूवेति 'वेदैर्वचोभिरखिलैः कृतकीर्तिरत्ने हेतुं विनैव धृतनित्यपरार्थयौ । मीमांसयैव भगवत्यमृतांशुमालौ तस्मिन्महीभुजि तयानुमतिर्न भेजे इत्यादिना परम रमणीयतया दर्शयति । देवतादीनां स्वतन्त्र मस्तित्वं नास्त्येवापितु 'मन्त्रमयी देवता' इति वदद्भि मीमांसकै तत्रापि विशेषतः जैमिनिना देवतानां स्थूलरूपस्यैव निराकरणं कृतमिति कविना 'विश्वरूपकलनादुपपन्नं तस्य जैमिनिमुनित्त्रमुदीये । विग्रहं मखभुजामम देष्णुः व्यर्थतां मदर्शनं स निनाय १०० इत्यनेन श्लोकेन निर्दिष्टम् ।
मीमांसकानां मतस्यास्य खण्डनमिन्द्रद्वारा कारयति । तद्यथा -
6
प्रत्यक्षलक्ष्यामवलम्ब्य मूर्ति हुतानि यज्ञेषु तत्रोपभोक्ष्ये । संशेरतेऽस्माभिरवीक्ष्य भुक्तं मखं हि मन्त्राधिकदेवभावे 57 ।। इलोकेऽस्मिन्निन्द्रः नलं प्रति कथयति यत् त्वयि यज्ञे क्रियमाणे साक्षादागत्याहमेव यज्ञभागं गृण्हामि, यतो हि यज्ञे साक्षान्नागत्य भुज्यतेऽस्माभिरिति मन्त्रभिन्ने देवतास्तित्वे केचन संशेरते इत्यनेन मीमांसकाः एव निर्दिष्टाः कविना । प्रना कर मतानुयायिनामख्यातिवादोऽपि वैदुष्यपूर्णपद्धत्या षष्ठे स प्रतिपादितो दृश्यते 8 ।
245
54. ने. नारायणीयटीका - VI- 102.
55. ने. - X1-64.
56. नै. - V-39.
57. *.—XIN-73.
58. .--XI-64.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
"
763
सर्वतन्त्र स्वतन्त्रस्यास्य मतिर्विशेषतया च वेदान्तेऽप्रतिहतरूपेण प्रसरतीति नैषधागम्यते । 'वाचारम्भणं नामधेयं मृत्तिकेत्येव सत्यं 6" इत्यादिनाविद्यया भासमानस्य जगतः मिध्यात्वं, 'एकमेवा द्वतीयं ब्रह्म ', ७० 'नेह नानास्ति किञ्चन' 1 'शिवमद्वैनं १, ७ तत्र को मोहः कः शोकः एकत्वमनुपश्यतः इत्यादिना चैकत्वं परमतत्त्वस्योपनिषदः उद्घोषयन्ति । एतेषां वेदान्तवाक्यानां सारं श्रीहर्षोऽप्येकस्मिन्नेव श्लोके उपनिबध्नाति ' वस्तु वास्तु घटते न भिदाना यौक्तनैकविधबाधविरोधैः । तत्त्वदीहितविजृम्भिततत्तदभेदमेतदिति तत्त्वनिरुक्तिः ॥ इत्यादिना । बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद आत्मा 'हिरण्मयः पुरुषः एकहंसः १०० इति यदुक्तं तमेवार्थ यथा योगी स्वशरीरान्तर्वर्तिनमात्मानमवबुध्यति तद्वन् नलोऽपि हिरण्मयं हंस ददर्शेति 'पयोधिलक्ष्मीमुषिकेलिपल्लवे रिरंसुइसी कलनादसादरम् । स तत्र चित्र विचरन्तमन्तिके हिरण्मयं हंसमबोधि नैषधः ||" इत्यनेन श्लोकेन विवृगोति । 'अहं ब्रह्मास्मि 1 तत्त्वमसि', ०४ 'सर्व खल्विदं ब्रह्म', ' 'आत्मा च ब्रह्म', ' , 10 'ब्रह्म भावश्च मोक्षः ', 11 इत्यादिवचनैरात्मब्रह्मणोरैक्यमेत्र मोक्ष इति उपनिषदादि वेदान्तग्रन्थेषु जेगीयते । वेदान्तिनां मोक्षावस्थ मिमां 'खञ्च ब्रह्म च संसारे मुक्तौ तु ब्रह्म केवलम् । इति खोच्छित्तिमुत युक्ति वैदग्धी वेदवादिनां' ||" इत्यादिना वर्णयति । वाक्कायमनोभिरनिर्वचनीयमात्मज्ञानमधिगत्य ब्रह्मज्ञानो सर्वविधभयमुक्तो भवतोति 'यतो वाचो निवर्तन्ते अप्राप्य मनसा सह् । आनन्दं ब्रह्मणो विद्वान् न बिभेति कदाचन' 3 ' अभयं हि वै ब्रह्म भवति', ' 'अभयं वै जनक प्राप्तोऽसि ', ' इत्यादिवचनैः उपनिषत्सु प्रतिपाद्यते । भुक्तात्मनो तामेत्र निरतिशयानन्दस्वरूपां मोक्षावस्थां नलहस्तमुक्तहं सस्यानन्दावस्थामुपवर्ण्य प्रतिपादयति यथा 'अधिगत्य जगत्य श्रीश्वरादथ मुक्ति पुरुषोत्तमात्ततः । वचसामपि गोचरो न यः स तमानन्दमविन्दत द्विजः 8 ॥ इति । एवञ्च 'विज्ञानमानन्दं ब्रह्म', " ' आनन्दो ब्रह्मति व्यजानात् 18 इत्यादिना सच्चिदानन्दस्वरूपमात्मनो उपत्रर्णितमुपनिषदि । श्रीहर्षोऽपि अनुमेवार्थमुपनिषदः मनसि निधाय कथयति यत् भवसिन्धुमनादि सम्प्रतीर्य यथा यतिः परमानन्दस्वरूपं ब्रह्म प्राप्नोति तद्वत् नारदो नाकनायकेन्द्रस्य निकेतनं प्राप इति ।
74
9
59 छान्दोग्योपनिषत् - VI-I-4. 60.
--VI-11-1.
".
61. कठोपनिषत् -
62. माण्डूक्योपनिषत् - 7.
63 ईशावास्योपनिषत् - 7.
64. नै. - XX1 108.
65. बृहदारण्यकोपनिषत् - 1V-111-12.
66. . -I-117.
246
67.
68. छान्दोग्योपनिषत् - VI-XVI-3 69. 1II-XIV-1.

70. ब्रह्मसूत्रशांकरभाष्यम् - जिज्ञासाधिकरणम्-1-1.
71.
"D
**
72
-XVII-74.
73. तैत्तिरीयोपनिषत् -11-4.
74. बृहदारण्यकोपनिषद्भाष्यम् - I-IV-10.
75.
—I-IV-10.
""
76. नं. - II - 1.
77. बृहदारण्यकोपनिषत् - 111-1X-29. 78. तैत्तिरीयोपनिषत.
-1-1 4.
79. स व्यतीत्य वियदन्तरगाव वाकनायकनिकेतनमा सम्प्रतीर्थ भवसिन्धुमनादि ब्रह्म शर्मभरचार यतीव ॥
Ft.-V-9.

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ने षधं विद्वदौषधम्
247 'आत्मा वारे द्रष्टव्यः श्रोतव्यो मन्तव्यो निदिध्यासितव्यो मैत्रेयो, आमनो अरे दर्शनेन श्रवणेन मत्या विज्ञातेनेदं सर्व विदितं 60 इत्यादिवचनैः श्रवणमनननिदिध्या. सनादेवात्मज्ञानं शक्यमिति बृहदारण्यकोपनिषदि यदुक्तं तदेव श्रीहर्ष निम्ननिर्दिष्टश्लोकद्वारा वर्णयति यथा-'श्रुतः स दृष्टश्च हरित्सुमोध्यातः स नीरन्धित बुद्धिधारम् । ममाद्य तत्प्राप्तिरसुव्ययो वा हस्ते तवास्ते द्वयमे कशेषः' ॥81 इति ।। 'पुण्योन वै पुण्येन कर्मणा भवति, पापः पापेनेति'83 बृहदारण्यकोपनिषदि प्रतिपादितम् । तदेव ‘पापात्तापा मुदः पुण्यात परासोः स्युरिति श्रुतिः'85 इत्यनेन श्लोकेन कविः प्रतिपादयति । 'स्वप्नेन शरोरमभिप्रहत्यासुप्तः सुप्तानभिचाकशीति 84, 'प्राणेन रक्षन्नवर कुलायं बहिष्कुलायादमृतश्चरित्वा । स ईयतेऽमृतो यत्र काम'85 इत्यादिना एक एवात्मा स्वप्नावस्थायां फचवृत्तिना प्राणेन शरीरं परिपालयन् शरीगन्निष्क्रम्य स्वकामान परिपूरयित्वा पुनरागच्छतीति बृहदारण्यकोपनिषदि तथव च शंकराचारस्पनिषदोऽस्याः भाष्ये 'स्वयं ज्योतिरात्मा उपरतेषु हीन्द्रियेषु स्वप्नान् पश्यति' 86 इत्यादिवचनैः यत् स्वप्नसिद्धान्तविषये उक्तं तदेव कविरयं निमीलितादक्षियुगाच्च निद्रया हृदोऽपि बाह्येन्द्रियमौनमुद्रितात् । अदर्शि सङ्गोप्य कदाप्यवीक्षो रहस्यमस्याः स महान् महीपतिः' ॥ इत्यनेन श्लोकेन प्रतिपादयति । एवमेव बहुषु श्लोकान्तरेष्वपि वेदान्तशास्त्रस्य सिद्धान्तसारो समुपनिबद्धो दृष्टिपथमवतरति काव्येऽस्मिन् ।
जैनास्तु सम्यग्दर्शनशानचारित्ररूपं रत्नत्रयमेव मोक्षसाधनमित्युद्घोषयन्ति ।) रत्नत्रयविवरणमेव जैनदर्शनहृदयमिति मन्तव्यम् । अमुमेव रत्नत्रयसिद्धान्त जैनाना. मेकस्मिन्नेव श्लोके कोडीकृत्य दमयन्तीमुखेन प्रदर्शयति यथा-'न्यवेशि रत्नत्रितये जिनेन यः स धर्मचिन्तामणिरुज्झितो यया । कपालिकोपानलमस्मनः कृते तदेव भस्म स्वकुले स्तृतं तया ॥90 इति ।
___ एकमेव साप्तुं प्रयच्छति न पक्षचतुष्टये तां',91 'पाहि मां विधुतकोटिचतुष्कः परचबाणविजयी षडभिज्ञः', इत्यादिभिर्वचनैः 'न सन्नासन्नसदसन्न चाप्युभयात्मकम् । 80. बृहदारण्यकोपनिषत् ---JI-10-5 81. ने.- III 82. 82. बृ. उप.-II-13. 83. नै.-XVII-45. 84. बृ.उप --IV-III-11, 85. -IV-I11-12. 86. . शांकरभाष्यम्-IV-III-12. 87. .-1-40. 88. नै.--JI-384, 134; IV-70; VIL-48; IX-94; XVIII--54, XXII-46. 89. 'सम्यग्दर्शनज्ञानचारित्राणि मोक्षमार्ग:'.-तत्त्वार्थाधिगमसूत्रम्-1-1. 90. नै.--IX-71. 91. नै.-XIII -36. 92. ने,-XXI-88.

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248
Traverses on less trodden path... चतुकोटिपि निमुक्तं तत्त्वं' इति वदतां माध्यमिकानां बौद्धानां सिद्वान्तं;98 'चित्तं विज्ञानसामस्त्यमयान्तरं, " 'मृषा जगद् दृष्टमपि स्फुटाभं', इत्यादिना प्रत्यक्षेण दृष्टमपि सकल स्थावरजङ्गमात्मकं जगत् मिथ्या 'यदन्नईयरूपं तद् बहिस्वभासते',88 इति च प्रतिपादयतां केषाञ्चित् विज्ञानवादिनां मतं. 'साकारतासिद्धिमयाखिलेव,7 इत्यादिना च बाह्यानुमेयवादिना साकारविज्ञानवादिनां सौत्रान्तिकानां सिद्धान्त'; 'केनापि बोधिसत्वेन जातं सत्त्वेन हेतुना । यद्वेद मर्मभेदाय जगहे जगद स्थरम् ॥98 इत्यादिना सत्त्वरूपेण रिङ्गेन यत्सत् तत्क्षणिकं, यथा घटः इति जगदस्थिरतां क्षणिकताञ्च प्रतिपादयतां क्षणभङ्गवादिबौद्धानां मतमुपन्यसता कविना प्रादर्शि विविधबौद्धदर्शन पाण्डित्यमपि ।
श्रीहर्षस्य समये चार्वाकमतस्य प्रचाराधिक्यमासीदिति नैषधकाव्यात ज्ञातुं शक्यते । चार्वाकास्तु के चन प्रत्यक्षमेव के प्रमाणमङ्गीकुर्वाणाः देहातिरिक्तमात्मास्तित्वं, परलोकपुण्यपापादिकं, ईश्वरास्तित्वं मोक्षावस्थां चापहनुवानाः कामाचरणं मुक्तकण्ठेनानुमन्यन्तेति सुविदितमेव सर्वदर्शनविदाम् । चार्वाकमतमिदं सविस्तरमुपन्यस्य100 सप्तदशे सर्गे तत्खण्डनमपि करोति पण्डितप्रकाण्डोऽयं कविः ।101 सप्तदशे सर्गेऽस्मिन्नेव सकलशास्त्रपाण्डित्यमाविष्करोति कविरयमात्मनः ।
एवमेव कविरयं तत्र-तत्र बहुषु स्थलेषु वेदवेदाङ्गादीनां प्रावीण्यमाविष्करोति । 'भूयतां भगवतः श्रुतिसारैरद्य वाग्मिरघमर्षणऋगभिः108 धय्याधिगधैर्यधारिण:108' 'बहिर्मुखानाम नलाननत्वं'104, द्वेष्याकोर्तिकलिन्दशैलसुनया नद्यास्य यद्दोर्द्वयोंकीतिश्रेणि. मयी समागममगद्गङ्गा रणप्राङ्गणे 05', इत्यादिवचनैः श्रुतिज्ञान; स्थितिशालिसमस्तवर्णतां न कथं चित्रमयी विभतु या। स्वरभेदमुपैतु या कथं कलितानल्पमुखा न वा' ।1०8 इत्यादिना शिक्षाशास्रस्य वर्णस्वरादिविषयकान' सकलसिद्धन्तान सङ्केतरूपेण प्रदर्शयति । 93 बोधिचर्यावतारपत्रिका, पृ 356. 94. नै.-X-87 95. ने.-XXII-24. 97. ब्रह्मसूत्रशांकरभाष्यम्-11-11-28 98. न.-XVII-38. 99. बाई-पत्यसूत्रम्--25. 100. .-xv11-37-83. 101. नै--84-101. 102. ने.-V--18: ऋग्वेद ..x-190 1-3-8 अधमर्षण सूक्तम् । 103. नै-II-56; ऋग्वेद-III-XXVII-1; शतपथब्राह्मण -1-VI-I-37. 104. नै.-X-21; अग्निर्मुख प्रथमो देवतानाम्-ऐतरेयब्राह्मण -I-4. 105. नै.-XII-12; 'सिता सिते सरिते यत्र सगते(थे) तबलुतासो दिवमुत्पतन्ति । ये वै
तन्वं विसृजन्ति धीरास्ते जनासौ अमृतत्वं भजन्ते । ऋग्वेद, खिलसूक्त -1. 106. नै.-11-98. 107. शिक्षाशास्रम्-3-49.

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व्याकरणशास्रानुरोधेन नवनवप्रयोग विशेषाः यथेच्छमनेन स्वकाव्ये प्रयुक्ताः दृश्यन्ते (यथा ह) --'क्रियते चेत्साधुविभक्तिचिन्ता व्यक्तिरसदा सा प्रथमाभिधेया । या स्त्रोजमा साधयितुं विलासैस्तावत्क्षमा नामपदं बहुस्यात्'1.8 || 'वं नैषधादेशमहो विधाय कायस्य हेतोरपि नानलः सन् । किं स्थानविभावमधत्तदुष्टं ताक् कृत. व्याकरणः पुनः म:109' || 'भीमोद्भवे भवति भावमिवास्ति धातु:110', 'अपवर्ग. तृतीयेति भणतः पाणिनेरपि'11', 'भवफणिभवशास्त्रे तातङः स्थानिनी काविति विहित. तुहीबागुत्तरः को किलोऽभूत्113', इत्यादिभिः प्रयोगैः स्वकोयव्याकरणशास्रपाटवं प्रकटीचकार श्रीहर्षः । 'जात्या च वृत्तन च भिद्यमानं छन्दोभुजद्वन्द्वमभूधदीयम113' इत्यनेन प्रदर्शय त स्वीयछन्द शास्त्रोयं ज्ञानं कविः । एवमेव ज्योतिःशास्त्रस्यापि प्रावीण्यं 'श्रयत्ययं दौमधरों धुर ध्रु','1'. 'रसुराजभुवामिव यावता भवति यस्य युगं यदनेहसा',118 'विरहिगर्ववधव्यसनाकुलं कलयपापमशेषकलं विधुम । सुरनिपीतसुधाकमपापकं ग्रहविदो विपरीतकथाः कथम्'116 इत्यादिवचनैः प्रकटीकरोति ज्योतिःशास्त्रवित् कविरयं तत्र-तत्र स्वकाव्ये ।
तस्य धर्मशास्त्रज्ञानमपि 'अन्तः पुरान्तः स विलोक्य बालो काञ्चित्समालब्धुमसंवृतोरुम, निमीलताक्षः 118', 'उपनम्रमयाचितं हितं परिहतु न तवापि साम्प्रतं'110 मीयतां कथमभीस्सितमेषां दीयतां कथमयाचितमेव'120 इत्यादिभिरन्यैश्च121 श्लोकातुं शक्यते ।
108. (a) नै.-111-23, (b) 'सु औ जस्', पाणिनीयसूत्रम् . 109 (a) नै. x.136, (b) 'स्थानवदादेशोऽनल विधौ--पा.सू. I-1-56. 110 (a) ने.-X1-117, (b) 'अस्तेमू:'-पा सू -11-IV-52. 111 (a) ने.--XVII-70. (b) 'अपवनें तृतीया' ---पा.स्.-11-III-6. 112 (a) ने.-XIX-60, (b) तुद्योस्तात हा शिष्यन्यतरस्याम् --पा.सू.-VII-1-3. 113 नै.-X-76. 114 (a) ने.-xv-42.
(b) 'हिरवार्क सुनफानपा दुरुधरा: स्वान्तोभयस्यैर्ग्रहै : शीतांशो:'--बृहज्जातक-XIII-3. 115 (a) ने.--IV-44, (b) वृहदैवज्ञ रजन-2.5. 116. नै.-VI-62, xxxll-24. 117. .--1-17; 11-65-66%: VI-73 VIII-80: 1X-1193 Xv-8. 118 (a) ने.--V1-13, (b) 'नग्नां नेक्षेत च स्त्रियम्'- मनुस्मृति-IV 53. 119 (p) नै.--11-12, (b) 'अयाचिताहतं ग्राह्यमपि दुष्कृतकर्मण:'-याज्ञवल्क्य स्मृति-11-15 120 (a) ने.-V-83 (b) गत्वा यद् दीयते दानं तदनन्त फलं स्मृतम् ।
सहस्रगुणमाहूय याचिते तु तदर्धकम् ॥-मिताक्षरा-आचाराध्याय-203. 121. -VI-78, 97; VII-33; X1-126; VIII-21, 42: XIV-68; XVII-32.
T-32

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Traverses on less trodden path... आयुर्वेदेऽपि महानयं पण्डितः आसीदिति 'माङक्रामिकी तस्य रुजेय लन्ना',100 'देवाकय सुश्रुतेन चरकस्योक्तेन जाने खिलं स्यादस्यानलदं विना न दलने तापस्य कोऽपि क्षमः',125 वं मूर्च्छतां नः स्मरभिल्लशल्यैर्मुदे विशल्योषधिवल्लिरोधि,' इत्यादिभिः श्लोकै(वगन्तुं शक्यते । तदीयं धनुर्वेदपाण्डित्यमपि अगाधमासीदिति अवगम्यते । 'लक्ष्ये धृतं कुण्डलिके सुदत्यां ताटङ्कयुग्मं स्मरधन्विने किम् । सव्यापसव्यं विशिखा. विसृष्टास्तेनानयोर्यान्ति किमन्तरेव',126 || इत्यादिना लक्ष्यभेदिविद्याकौशल्यं, 'कामः कौसुमचापदुर्जयममुं जेतुं नृपं त्वां धनुः वल्लीमन्त्रणवंशजामधिगुणोमासाद्य माद्यत्यसौ,138 इत्यनेन इलोकेन धनुर्योग्यवेणुपरोक्षा, अस्त्र-शस्त्र खुरलीषु विनिन्ये शेष्यकोपनमिता. नमेतौ जाः,197 इत्यनेन ‘खुरलोति' धनुर्वेदस्य पारिभाषिकशब्दज्ञानं प्रदर्शयति । इलौकरन्यैश्चाप्यवबोद्धुं शक्यते तस्य धनुर्वेदविद्यानैपुण्यम् ।
- रामायणमहाभारतपुराणोपपुराणानां च तलस्पर्शिज्ञानं श्रीहर्षस्य तत्र-तत्रोपवर्णितपौराणिककथाभिः सुस्पष्टं भवति । एवमेव प्रदर्शितमनेन महाकविना 'गान्धर्व-180 नादय 11 कल189 -शिल्प153 -शकुन 18+-राजनीति136-पाक 15-मन्त्र-तन्त्र15आभूषण158-माणिक्य139 -तुरग140 - पक्षि41 जलचर -लोकव्यवहारादिषु 122 (a) ने.- IIL 111, (0) सुश्रुत संहिता निदानस्थान-V-33-34. 123 (a) ने.--IV--116 (b) सुश्रत उत्तरतत्र-47-48; चरक चिकित्सास्थान-III-258, 267. 124 (a) ने.-VIII-90, (b) आचार्य शोढल -ग दनिग्रह -मू धिकार:-XVI-30. 125 (a) गै.-X-117, (b) अग्निपुराण -250-7-10. 126. न.--111-126, नारायणीयटीका. 127 (a) --XXI-5, - (b) रुचिपति --अनर्घ राघवटीका --1V-24. 128 ने.-X-118-119 XIV-54, XX[-157. 129 ने -10-51, 1-32, 1-54, VI-14, VII-65, 1-96, I-116, V[-84, v-130,
XII-20 इत्यादि । 130. ने-1-52, X[-6, XII-16, xv-16-17, XVII-13, XXI-124-125 131. --IX-117, Xvil1-23. 132. ने.-XXII-111. 133. -XX-136. 134. ने-v-134, X-91. 135. ने -[-13, IV-81. XX-133, VII-81. 136. ने -XIV-78, 1-15, XV1-68. 137. ने.-1-145, VIL-23,98 XIV-88-90. 138. ने.-- -51. xv-26-69.. 139 नै.-VII-76, X1-48, X-93-94.
. 140 नं.-1-57-60.64.73.. 141 ने.-II-3-5, 68, 108; III-1. 142 नै.-IV-35. 143. नै.----75, II-26, V-105, XII-131,I VII-56, IX-84 XXII-31,51,108.

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नैषधं विद्वदौषधम् शास्त्रेषु पटुत्वं तत्र-तत्र काव्येऽस्मिन् । काव्यस्यास्य गभीराथैप्रतिपादकतामनुलक्ष्यैव प्रसिद्धटीकाकारो विद्याधरः कथयति यत् श्रीहर्षेण काव्येऽस्मिन्नात्मनः सर्वज्ञता अभिव्यजिता । अतः सकलशास्त्रवि देव " काव्यस्यास्यान्तरगं ज्ञातुं प्रभवतीति ।
अयं विशेषगमनाईः विषयः यत् शास्त्रीयसिद्धान्तपरिपूर्णेऽपि काव्येऽस्मिन् काव्यात्म भूताः रसभावालङ्कारादयो न न्यक्कृताः। रसराजो शृङ्गारः प्रधानभूतोऽत्र । तत्र पूर्षेषु सप्तदशसर्गेषु विप्रलम्भं वर्णयित्वान्तिमेषु पञ्चसु सर्गेषु सम्भोगोऽवर्णितः । धीर:करुण146-रौद्र -हास्य14 B... भयानक 9--अद्भुत180--बीभत्सादयो181 रसाः शृङ्गारस्यैव परिपोषकरूपेण प्रतिपादिताः । उपमा- उत्प्रेक्षा-अतिशयोक्ति-श्लेषादयो सुप्रसिवाः सर्वेऽप्यलकारभेदाः समुपयुक्ताः सन्ति काव्येऽस्मिन् अनेन कविना । शब्दार्थश्लेषघटनायामनितरसाधारणपटुत्वमनेन प्रादर्शि' 8 नैषधे । काव्यसौन्दर्यापादको शब्दानुप्रासो18 सर्वत्रापि दरीदृश्यते । दीघदीर्घसमासादीनां यद्यपि क्वचित् क्वचि. दुयोगः कृतः तथापि वैदर्भारतिरेवानेन शृङ्गाररसानुगुणा शब्दानुप्रासैरुपस्कृता परिपालिता इति “धन्यासि वैदर्भि गुणे दारैर्यया समाकृष्यत नैषधोऽपि । इतः स्तुतिः का खलु चन्द्रिकाया यदब्धिमप्युत्तरली करोति ।। 154 इत्यादिना अनुमातुं शक्यते । यद्यपि एतत् सत्यं यदियं वैदर्भीसरणिः कालिदासादिभिरनुसृतवैदाः वैलक्षण्यं भजते तथापि कवेरस्य वर्णनारीतिः वैदर्भीरीतिर्नास्तीति वक्तुं न शक्यते ।
शङ्गाररसप्रधानमपीदं काव्यं कालिदासादिकृति साधारणप्रसादाख्यगुणाभावातू अतिदुर्बोधत्वात् झटित्यर्थस्फूर्तेरनुदयाच्च क्लिष्टतादिदोषाणामाकरत्वेन निर्दिश्यते कैश्चित् साहित्यसमालोचकैः । कवेरतिव्युत्पत्तिशक्तिमजानाना एव वदन्त्येवमिति वक्तव्यं भवति । केवलं व्युत्पन्नमतय एव काव्यस्यास्य रसातिशयमास्वादयितुमर्हन्ति नान्ये । स्वयं कविरयमवबोधयति यत् यथा परमरमणी यूनामन्तःकरणमपहरति न तथा कुमाराणामेवमेव 144. अनेन सर्गेण श्रीहर्षकविराजेनात्मसर्वज्ञताभिव्यजिता । इतस्तत्सदृशेनान्येनाप्यस्य
सर्गस्यार्थरत्नाकरस्य पारं प्राप्तुं शक्यते -गैषधीयटीका-सप्तदशसर्गान्ते विद्याधरः । 145. नं.-1-7, 9, 10, 11, 15, 16, 142-143: III 25, V 79-80. 146. ने.-I-130, 136-139, 14 1- 142. 147. न.-XVII-84-85, 92, 95-96, 102' 143. नै -XII-21, 50, 106: XVI-110, XVII-114, 115. 149. न.-XI-21; XII-25, 28, 84; I-31, 34; VE-5, 10, 89; VIII-5; XIV-35;
XVI-123. 150. ने.-[-119, 129, 134; III-3; XII, 69, 71, XIV-70. 151. नै.-1-84, 86, 96. 152. नै.-VII-96; X-134; XIII-3, 11, 18, 25, 28, 34. 153. नै.-11-64, XIII-54, VIII--57, IX-51_XXI-162, XXII-27... 154. ने.-III-116.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
काव्यमिदं प्रौढजनानामवगाहनयोग्यमिति 155 | क्लिष्टत्वादिदोषं पुरस्कृत्य काव्यमिदमकाव्यमिति कथनमकिञ्चित्करम रसिकत्व द्योतकमिति 180 कविः कथयति । सौशब्द याद नितरसाधारण व्युत्पत्तिपरिपूर्णत्वाच्च काव्यमिदं दुर्बोधं व्याख्यागम्य वर्तते । स्वयं पण्डितंमन्यमानानी जनानां दर्पदलनार्थमेव बुद्धिपूर्वमेवेदं काव्यं दुर्बोधं व्यरचि इति नैषधीयचरितस्य द्वाविंशसर्गान्तरलोकादवगम्यते । नैषधकाव्यस्य नारिकेलसदृक्षस्यास्य रसास्वादनमसिनासम्भिद्यान्तर्निहित नारिकेलसारभक्षणमित्र कष्टसाध्यमिति मत्वैव " नैषधं इत्युच्यते विद्वद्भिः ।
विद्वदौषधं
""
155 नै - XXII - सर्गान्तश्लोक - 1.
155.
-2.
30
157
नै. प्रत्थग्रन्थिरिह क्वचित् क्वचिदपि न्यासि प्रयत्नान्मया प्रज्ञंमन्यमना हटेन पठिती मास्मिन् खल: खेलतु - XXII - सर्गान्तश्लोक -3.

"
"
1.

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आचार्यविद्यानन्दिकृतं चार्वाकमतखण्डनम्
जैनदर्शनधुरंधरैः आचार्यविद्यानन्दिभिः अष्टसहस्त्री सत्यशासनपरीक्षादिग्रन्थेषु चार्वाकमतं पूर्वपक्षरूपेण संस्थाप्य तत्खण्डनं सयुक्तिकं कृतं दरीदृश्यते ।
विदितमेवैतत्सर्वेषामपि विद्वद्धौरेयाणां यत् चार्वाकाः 'प्रत्यक्षमेवैकं प्रमाणं' इति उद्घोषयन्तः अनुमानोपमानशब्दादिप्रमाणानि नाङ्गीकुर्वन्ति । यतो हि तेषां मते नाप्यागमस्तक वा प्रमाणभूतोऽस्ति परस्परविरोधादिदोषात । तैरुच्यते यत् 'तर्कोऽप्रतिष्ठः श्रुतयो विभिन्नाः नैको मुनिर्यस्य वचः प्रमाणम् ' ' इति । चार्वाकविचारानुसारेण अनुमानप्रमाणेन निश्चयात्मकं ज्ञानं न भवितुमर्हति । अनुमानं तदैव निश्चयात्मकं स्त्रीयेत यदा अनुमानस्याचारभूतं व्याप्तिवाक्य असन्दिग्धं भवेद् सर्वविधरीत्या । परमेत्रं न दृश्यते । चार्वाकाणां प्रहारस्तु नैयायिकानां व्याप्तिवाक्यस्योपरि एव यत्र यत्र धूमः तत्र तत्र वह्निरिति । यत्र यत्र धूमस्तत्र तत्र वह्निरिति व्याप्तिवाक्यमिदं तदैव निःसन्दिग्धं भवेत् यदा विश्वस्याशेष धूमवत्पदार्थेषु वह्निव्यापकता प्रत्यक्षेण परीक्षिता स्यात् । परमेतदशक्यमेव । यतो हि विश्वस्य भिन्न-भिन्नक्षेत्रेषु यावन्तः धूमवत्पदार्थाः सन्ति तेषां सर्वेषां प्रत्यक्षीकरणमशक्यमेव । अतः एकस्मिन्नेव स्थले महानसे धूमरूपिलिङ्गमक्षिसात्कृत्य तदाधारेण सर्वत्रापि यत्र यत्र धूमस्तत्र तत्र वह्निरिति व्याप्तिवाक्यस्याङ्गीकारः औचितों नाञ्चति । अतः अनुमानस्याधारभूते मूलसिद्धान्तभूते च व्याप्तिवाक्ये दोषं सम्प्रदश्य अनुमानप्रमाणस्याप्रामाणिकता मुद्घोषयन्ति चार्वाकाः ।
आगमप्रमाणमपि अप्रामाणिक कोटिमाटीकते यतो हि शब्दप्रमाणे अनृतव्याघातपुनरुक्तिदोषाः परस्परविरोधादिदोषाश्च दृश्यन्ते । आगमा अपि नैकविधाः । तत्रैकमत्यं न दृश्यते । कस्यागमस्य प्रमाण्यमुररीकर्तव्यमिति शङ्का सदा वेविद्यते । यदि सर्वज्ञत्राक् प्रमाणमिति उच्यते चेद भिन्नभिन्नमतानुयायिनो स्वकीयमाचार्यमेव
1 महाभारत - उद्धृतोऽयं सत्यशासनपरीक्षायां विद्यानंदिभिः । सत्यशासन परीक्षा, संपादक - श्री गोकुलचन्द्र जैन, भरतीय ज्ञानपीठ, काशी, 1964, 9.15.
2 तत्रैव पृ 15.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
सर्वशं मन्यते । एते सर्वज्ञपदभाजोऽपि परस्परं विवदन्ते । मतस्यैकस्य सर्वज्ञस्य वचनं मतान्तरस्य सर्वज्ञस्य वचनाद्भिन्नं भवति । अतः कं सर्वमित्युररोकर्तव्यं, कस्य वचनं मतं वा प्रमाणमित्यङ्गोकर्तव्यम् । यदि बुद्धो महावीरो वा सर्वज्ञः इति स्वीक्रियते चेत् तदा कपिलऋषिणा गौतमेन वा किमपराद्धमिति पृष्टव्यं भवेत् । यदि सर्वेऽप्येते सर्वज्ञपदभाजो भवितुमर्हन्तीत्युच्यते चेत्तहि तेषु परस्परं मतभेदः कथं दरोदृश्यते । अत एवोक्तं दृश्यते यत्
" सुगतो यदि सर्वज्ञो कपिलो नेति का प्रमा।
तावुभौ यदि सर्वज्ञो मतभेदः कथं तयोः ।
अतः परस्परविवदमानानां वचनं प्रमाणभूतं न भवितुमर्हति । अतः चार्वाकाः सङ्गिरन्ते यत् प्रत्यक्षमेवैकं प्रमाण', प्रत्यक्षप्रसिद्धपृथिव्यादि तत्त्वोपदेशात् गुरु बृहस्पतिरेवाप्त , तस्यैवाप्तस्य वाक्यं प्रमाणम् । यतो हि बृहस्पतिना प्रत्यक्षसिद्धान्येव 'पृथिव्यप्तेजोवायवः' इति चत्वार्येव तत्त्वानि प्रतिपादितानि । तेभ्यः भूतचतुष्टयेभ्यः पृथिव्यादिभ्यः कायाकारपरिणतेभ्यः तदात्मकं चैतन्यमुत्पद्यते यथा पिष्टोदकगुडघातकी संयोगात् मदशक्तिरुत्पद्यते यथा वा स्नायुलाबूदण्डाष्ठागुलिप्रयत्नात् श्रवणरमणीय. कणितमुत्पद्यते' तद्वत् । तच्च शरीरादभिन्न चैतन्यमेव गर्भादिमरणपर्यन्नं 'जीवः' 'आत्मा' वेत्यादिव्यपदेशभाग्भवति । देहातिरिक्तो आत्मा नास्ति । गर्भात पूर्वकाले मरणादुत्तरकाले च तच्चैतन्याभावः इति मन्तव्यम् । अनेन पुनर्जन्ममोक्षादिसिद्धान्ताः पौरुषबुद्धिहीनानां प्रलापाः इत्येव सिद्धं भवति । प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणागोचरत्वात् परलोकिनः परलोकस्यापि चाभावो वर्तते । परलोकाभावेऽपि केचन मूर्ख शिरोमणयः परलोकसुख प्राप्त्यर्थ ऐहिक सुखविमुखाः तपश्चरणोपवासादिक्रियया शरीरार्थव्ययविधानेन बहुधा मुधावत् क्लेशमश्नुवते । इहलोक सुख न कदापि त्याज्यमगोचरपरलोकसुखप्राप्तये । अत एवोच्चते धीमद्भिर्यत् ' यावजीवेत् सुखं जीवेत् नास्ति मृत्योरगोचरः । भस्मीभूतस्य देहस्य पुनरागमनं कुतः' इनि ।
परन्तु चार्वाकाः एतद् विस्मरन्ति यत् 'प्रत्यक्षमेवकं प्रमागं' इति प्रतिपादनमप्यनुमानप्रभाणमेवावलम्ब्यावतिष्ठते । यतो हि-चार्वाकः स्वसिद्धान्तस्थापनाय काश्चन युक्तयः प्रदर्शनीयाः भवन्ति याभिस्तैः प्रतिपाद्यमानप्रत्यक्षप्रामाणिकता सिध्येत । यदि चार्वाकाः युक्त्या प्रत्यक्षप्रमोणतां साधयन्ति चेत् 'साधनात्साध्यविज्ञानं' इत्यनुमानप्रमाणेनैव प्रत्यक्षमेवैकं प्रमाणमिति मतस्य मूलोच्छेदो भवति । आचार्यः विद्यानन्दिभिः
3 तत्वसङ्ग्रह - श्लोक 3149. 4 सत्यशासनपरीक्षा, पृ. 15. 5 तत्रैव.

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अष्ट महव्यां चार्वाकमतस्य दौर्बल्यं प्रादर्शि सुचारुतया यथा--' प्रत्यक्षं प्रमाण, अविवादित्वात् , अनुमानादिकमप्रमाणं विसंवादित्वान इति लक्षयतोऽनुमानस्य बलात् व्यवस्थितेः न प्रत्यक्षमेवैकं प्रमाणमिति व्यवतिष्ठते । अनेन तेषां प्रत्यक्षप्रमागागोचरत्वात् आत्म-परलोकादि निरासरूपः प्रजल्पोऽपि निरस्तो भवति' ।
चार्वाकोऽस्माभिः प्रष्टव्योऽस्ति यत्कथं प्रत्यक्षमपि प्रमाणत्वेनाङ्गीकृतम । प्रत्यक्षस्यापि प्रमाण मन्ततो गत्वा विचार्यमाणे चार्वाकेण स्वीकतुं न शक्येत । तच्चा कोऽपि निराकुर्वाणो अनुमानादिप्रामाण्यं न जानाति । यतः लौकिकप्रत्यक्ष इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षजन्यं भवति । तत्तद्विषयेण वस्तुना सह वा यदि इन्द्रिय सम्बन्धो न भवति चेत् वस्तुज्ञानमसम्भवमेव । तत् चार्वाके गाप्यङ्गीक्रियते । लौकिकप्रत्यक्षेऽत्र यदिन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्ष भवति तत्र इन्द्रियपदार्थः कः ?, इत्यस्मिन् विषये विचार्यमाणे चाक्षुषप्रत्यक्ष कारणीभूतस्य स्वचक्षुषः प्रत्यक्षं न केनापि क्तुं शकयते । स्वचक्षषोऽत्र प्रत्यक्षं न भवति, अत एव चार्वाकमते चाक्षषप्रत्यक्षमपि मास्तु इति आपत्तिः । तथा चक्षुर्वाऽन्ये प्रत्यक्षघटकाः पदार्थाः इन्द्रियग्राह्याः इत्यपि वकतुं न शक्यते । सत्यपि ग्रहणेन्द्रिये मृतशरीरादौ वा कुत्रचित् प्राणभूतशरीरेऽपि गन्धग्रहणं न भवति । अत एव दृश्यं यदिन्द्रियं तत्तु वस्तुतः इन्द्रियं नास्त्येव, इन्द्रियद्वारमेव तत् । अतः द्वारा सूक्ष्म किमप्यिन्द्रियं चेतनसहकृतं वर्तत इति तु अभ्युपगन्तव्यमेव । तस्येन्द्रियस्यापि प्रत्यक्षं न भवति, अतःप्रत्यक्षस्यापि सिद्धिर्न भवेत् । अतः प्रत्यक्षमेकं प्रमाणमिति चार्वाकवचनं न चारु । अत एवोक्तं दृश्यतेऽभिः
'चार्वाकस्य न वाक् चार्वी कुर्वीदात्मवधं यथा ।
आक्षकमानता वाक् किं रक्षेदात्मप्रमाणताम' ।। इति । अन्यच्च, प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणागोचरत्वात् देहेन्द्रियभिन्नो स्वतन्त्रः आत्मा नास्तीति कथनमपि. प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणविरुद्धमेव । सुखदुःखहर्षविषादाद्यनेकपरिणामात्मकस्यात्मतत्त्वस्य स्वसंवेदन प्रत्यक्षेग निर्बाधमनुभवात हेतुभिर्विनैव अस्तित्वस्य सिद्धेः । अतः स्वसंवेदनप्रत्यक्षलक्ष्यात्मा ! 'ज्ञानवानह', 'इच्छावानह', इत्यादिषु शरीरातिरिक्तो कश्चि देतस्यालम्ब. नभूतो ज्ञानवानर्थोऽभ्युपगन्तव्यः, तस्यैव ज्ञातृत्वोपत्तेः, सः जीव एवेति सिद्धः । चेतनायोगेन सचेतनत्वात् शरीरस्यैवाहं प्रत्ययः इत्यपि चार्वाककथनं प्रलापमात्र, यतः परःपहस्रप्रदीपप्रभायोगेऽपि स्वयंप्रकाशस्वरूपस्य घटस्य प्रकाशकत्वं न दृष्टम् किन्तु प्रदोपस्यैव । एवं चेतनायोगेऽपि स्वयमचेतनस्य देहस्य न ज्ञातृत्वं किन्त्वात्मनः एवेति
7
अष्टसहस्री.
8 सत्यशासनपरीक्षा, पृ. 16.

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Traverses on less trodden path...
तस्यैव चाहं प्रत्ययोत्पाद। अतः प्रत्यक्षमिनस्यार्थस्यात्मनोरस्तित्वं साधयितुमनु. मानस्याप्यावश्यकता नास्ति । करकामक्षिसात्कर्तु दर्पणस्यावश्यकता नास्त्येव । अतः एवोच्यते-- " न हि दर्पण. आदेयः कर कङ्कणदर्शनाय बुधैः 10 इति। अतः इदं सुस्पष्टं यत् चार्वाकाभिमतप्रत्यक्षप्रमाणेनेत्र देहातिरिक्तात्मनोऽस्तित्वं सिध्यति ।
अन्यच्च, स्वसंवेदनमात्मनो निशकतु चार्वाकर्न शकयते । ज्ञानस्य स्वसंविदितत्वं स्वीकर्तव्यमेव वस्तुज्ञानार्थम् । ज्ञानं ज्ञानान्तरेण भवतीत्यप वक्तु न शक्यते यतो हि प्रथम ज्ञान द्वितीयज्ञानेन द्वितीय तृतीयेनेति अवश्थादोषप्रसङ्ग. प्रसज्येत, वस्तुज्ञानमेव च न सम्भवेत्। चार्वाणानुमान समाणं नाङ्गीक्रियतेति वस्तुज्ञानमनुमानेन भवतीति वक्तुन शक्यते । अतः स्वसंवेदनमेषितव्यम् । तत्र च स्वसंवेदनेन जीवस्य भोक्तृत्वसाधारणधर्मभूत: साक्षात्करणात प्रत्यक्षविरुद्ध मिदं चार्वाकपतमिति वक्तव्यं भवति ।11 जीवः शरीराद्भिन्नः, जीवो भोक्ता, शरीरं तु भोगायतनम , शरोरस्य भोगाधिष्ठानत्वेन प्रसिद्भः । अचेतनस्य शरीरस्य भोक्तृत्वं नोपपद्यते । अन्यथा मृतकस्यापि भोक्तृत्वप्रसङ्गः । नापि इन्द्रियसमूहस्य भोक्तृत्वं, तस्य भोगोपभोगकरणत्वात । न तु शब्दादिविषयस्य भोक्तृत्वं, तस्य भोग्यत्वेन प्रतीतिः । एवं भोक्तृत्वमात्मनि एवेति जीवस्य स्वतन्त्रसिद्धिर्भवति । 12 : देह एव आत्मा', तद्भिन्नो स्वतंत्रः कश्चित् आत्मा नास्तीति चार्वाकाणां वचनमनुमानविरुद्धम् । कायाकारपरिणतेभ्यो भूतेभ्यश्चैतन्य, तद्भाव एव चैतन्या भावात्. मद्याङगेभ्यो मदशक्तिवत् , इत्याद्यनुमानान् चैतन्यस्य भूतकार्यत्वसिदिः न शक्या । यतो हि, तदभाव एक सद्भावादिति हेनोरनैकान्तिकत्वात् , मृतावस्थायां तद्भावेऽपि (शरीरसद्भावेऽपि) चैतन्यस्याभावान वायुतेजसोरभावेन मृतावस्थायां चेतन्यं न भनोत्युच्यते चेत् . मृत शरीरे बम्स्यादिभिः सम्पादिते वायौ, तेजस्युपनीते सति वा चौनन्यं नोपलभ्यते ।15
9 (a पडदर्शनसमुच्चय टीका, पृ 220-221.
(b) तत्वार्थश्लोकवार्तिक, पृ. 26. 10 सत्यशासनपरीक्षा, पृ 16. 11 (a) तत्रैव, (b) इदं सुखमिति ज्ञानं दृश्यते न घटादिवत् ।
अहं सुखाति तु ज्ञन्तिरात्मनाऽपि प्रकाशिका-रत्नाकरावतारिका, पृ. 55. 12 तत्रैव, 16-17. 13 षड्दर्शनसमुच्चयटीका, पृ. 223.

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चार्वाकमतखण्डनम्
257
अन्यच्च, प्रतषेधगौणकल्पनादिभिरात्मास्तित्वं 14 साधयितु शक्यतेति आचार्यैः विद्यानन्दिभः सत्य शासनपरोक्षायां सम्यक् प्रदर्शितम् । तद्यथा-'नास्ति जीवः' इति योऽयं निषेधध्वनिः स जीवास्तित्वनान्तरोयक एव. निषेधशब्दत्वात । जीवप्रतिषेध वचनमेव जीवस्य मुख्यवृत्या अस्तित्वं सूचयति । यच्च सर्वथा नास्ति तस्य निषेधोऽपि न दृश्यते । यथा 'नास्तोह घटः' इति प्रतिषेधो देशान्तरे घटास्तित्वं प्रकाशयति तथा स्वरूपादि चतुष्टयेन सत एव जीवस्य पररूपादिचतुष्टयेन नास्तित्वं घटते नान्यथा । खामा गादो नामयनामावरूपा गामपि निषेधः यथा क्रियते तद्वदत्यन्ताभावरूपस्य जीवस्यापि प्रतिषेधः युच्यतेति चार्वाकाणां वचनं युक्तिसङ्गतं नास्ति, यतो हि गवादिमस्तके सत एव विषाणस्य खरादिमस्तके प्रतिषेधदर्शनात् । तथा चित्रपुरुषादौ 'इदं सजीवचित्रं' इति गौणकल्पनं मुख्यवृत्या जीवास्तित्वं कथयति, यथा 'सिंहो माणवकः' इति माणवके सिंहत्वं विशष्टजात्यादिपरिणतसिंहास्तित्वमिति । तथा च 'जीवः' इति शुद्धपदं मुख्यवृत्या, स्वार्थवत् , शुद्धपदत्वात्, प्रमाणपदवत् । ततः शुद्ध पदाभिधेयत्वात् 'अस्ति जीवः' इति च सिद्धम् । तथैवानेकविशिष्ट जनसम्मतत्वात् , आप्तप्रणीतत्वाच्च 'अस्ति जीवः इत्युररीकर्तव्यमेव । तथा च भूतचतुष्टयेभ्यश्चैतन्यं, इति मत्वा देहातिरिक्तस्यात्मनो निराकरणं कार्यकारणसिद्धान्तविरुद्धमस्ति । चैतन्यं (जीवः) जड. भूतचतुष्टयानां भिन्नभिन्नस्वभावयुक्तानां कार्यरूपं न भवितुमर्हति । जडाद् जडवस्त्वेवोस्पद्यते न तु चैतन्यम् । कार्यस्य तु कारणेन सह सजातीयत्वमपेक्षते नो चेत् तण्डुलैः काष्ठकवाटो समुत्पात परमेवं न दृश्यते । कार्यकारणसिद्धान्तानुसारेण कार्यकारणयोः परस्परं पूर्वस्थित्यापन्नयोग्यता वरीवर्ति । यथा मृद्घटः नाशानन्तरं कारणरूपमृदा सह एकरूपो भवति । परं तु चैतन्यं भूतचतुष्टयैः सह एकात्मतां नोपद्यते । कार्यरूपं चैतन्यं जडभूतचतुष्टयादुत्पन्नमिति कथनमौचिती नाञ्चति । तथा च भूतचतुष्टयस्याः स्तित्वं बाह्यं, चैतन्यमान्तरिकम् । बाल्यादिभावाः हि भौतिकशरीरगोचराः। रागादिभावाः जोवस्य । एवं बहिरनमुखावभासयोः बाल्यादिरागादिविरुद्धधर्माध्यासितयोव्यान्तरभावेन भिन्नप्रमाणग्राह्यत्वात भेद एव । तयोर्देशभेदेनादर्शनादभेदे शरीराकारपरिणतावनिवनपवनसखपवनानामप्येकत्वप्रसङ्गात् । " उपादानकारणसदृशं हि कार्य भवति"16 इति वचनाद् धारणेरणद्रवोष्णतारूपेण भूतसादृश्याभावात , अमूर्तचैतन्यस्य मूर्त कार्यवायोगाच्च शरीराद्भिन्नमेव चैतन्यम् ।
14 'प्रतिषेध-गौणकल्पन-शुद्धपदानेकसम्मतिजिनोक्तैः । निर्बाधलक्षणार्थं लिङ्गरपि भाव्यते जीवः ।
उद्धृतोऽयं श्लोकः सत्यशासनपरीक्षायाम् पृ. 17. 15 तत्रैव पृ 17 16 , पृ. 18. 17 धारणं वृथिव्याः, इरणं वाय्योः, द्रवो जलस्य, उष्णता चाग्नेः ।
T-33

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Traverses on less trodden path... न केवलमात्मनोऽस्तित्वमपितु पुनर्जन्मादिकमपि अस्ति । तस्य चाभिलाषो हि प्रत्यभिज्ञाने सति प्रादुर्भवति, प्रत्यभिज्ञानं च स्मरणे सति, स्मरणश्च पूर्वानुभव एव भानोति पूर्वानुभवः सिद्धो भवति । अन्यथा तदहर्जातबालकस्य स्तनादावभिलाषाऽ. भावप्रसङ्गात् । विद्यानन्दिभिः स्पष्टं प्रतिपाद्यते यत् मृतानां केषाञ्चिद्राक्षोयक्षादिकुलेषु स्वयमुत्पन्नत्वेन कथयनां दर्शनात् , केषाचिद् भवस्मृतेरुपलम्भाच्च परलोकोऽप्यस्ति, तदुक्तं
" तदहर्जस्तनेहातो रक्षो दृष्टेर्भवस्मृतेः ।।
भूतानन्वयनात सिद्धः प्रकृतिज्ञः सनातनः ॥"18 इति । नथा च जननादिकारण वे शेषेऽपि सुखदुःखादिवैचित्र्यदर्शनात पुण्यपापादिकमस्त्येव । अतः बृहस्पतिमतं प्रलापमानत्वात् सन्त्याज्यम् । इति शम ।।
A
..
18 उद्धृतोऽयं श्लोकः सत्यशासनपरीक्षायाम, पृ. 19.

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Page #280

INDEX
Abbāva-111. Abbayadeva Súri-2, 54, 55. Abhidharma-84, 10:. Abbinibodha-62. Abhigapta-164. Ābhusana-250. Abhataparikalpa-130. Absolute-95, 97, 100, 103, 105,
107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115, 117, 120, 121,
131, 132, 140. Absolute Reality-91, 104, 106,
108, 111, 116, 133. Absolutism-17, 91, 95, 107. Ācāra-177, 188. Ācārangasatra-168. Acarasāra-192. Ācārya-28, 53, 54, 58, 65, 181, 194. Acintya-138. Adbhuta-251. Adharma-31, 63, 216, 225. Adbikaras-55. Adboloka-216. Adhyatma-66, 67. Adhyatma Subhacandra-191. Adhyātmopanişatprakarana-65, 66. Adhyaya-28 Adinatha-192. Advaita-7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 17,
19, 21, 33, 41, 48, 49, 50, 70, 97, 98, 99, 121, 142, 145, 147,
150, 152, 154, 231, 234, 246. Advaita Bhāva-158. Advaita Vedānta-7, 8, 10, 27,
33, 34, 49, 52, 97, 99, 100, Advaitins-5, 18, 19, 21, 22,
24, 25, 26, 72 98,
Advaya-87, 139. Āgama-21, 28, 58. 75, 141,
142, 145, 182, 215, 253. Āgamas-170, 218. Agastya-156. Agbāti Karmas-187. Agnipravesa-163. Agnipurāņa-172, Abimsā-1, 171. Ain-e-Akabari - 168. Aitareya Upanişad-116. Ajiva - 17, 64, 225. Ajñā-155. Ajñāvicaya-185. Akalanka-2, 18, 191, 223, 232,
233, 234. Ākāga-63, 92, 109, 216, 225. Akiñcanya-180, 182. Aktepaņi-179. Alarkara-251. Ālaya-96, 127, 130, 137, 138,
139, 140. Ālayavijnana-96, 127. 137,
138, 139, 140, Alocană-191, 192, 194, 198, 208. Amarakaạtaka-168. Amitagati-193. 223. Amstacandra-37, 77, 232, 235. Amūrta-33, 34, 156. Anabata-155. Aşabilapura-58. Apakāra-62. Ananda-50, 246. Anantadbarmātmaka-228, 229, 230. Anantānubandhi Kaşaya-186. Anarthadandaviramaņa-139. Anasana-180

Page #281

272
Index
Anatta-38. Anavastbādosa-256. Andhagajanyāya-232. Anekānta-2. 4, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14. 67, 68, 69, 70, 231, 232,
233, 236, 237. Anekāntavāda-1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 10, 12
13, 14, 15, 17, 29, 30, 65, 67, 68. 69, 70, 71, 82, 225, 226,
232, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238. Angas-2. Angirasasmộti-172. Anicca-38. Anirvacanya-12, 97, 98. Anirvacaniyakhyāti-97. Anisțasamyoga-185. Apitya-70. Anityatva-183 Anyta-118. Antahkarana-67, 159, Antarāya-186, 187. : Antarmuhữrta-186. Antigones-171. Anu-63. Anugrahakartă-219. Anumānapramāna-214, 215,
253, 254, 255, 256. Anuprekşās-64, 177, 182. Anvetr-21. Anviksaki-242. Anviyamâna-21. Anyayogavyavacchedikā-223. Anyonyabhāva-13. Apara-13. Aparā Vidya-33, 35, 50. Aparasāmanya-13. Aparigraha-177, 178. Apauruseya-218, 221. 244. Apavarga-220, 243. Apāyavicaya-185. Apihita-34, 119,
Apohavādi-234. Apragasta dhyāna-185. Apratyakhyāniya-186. Ārambhavada-32. Aranyakas-171. Aihan-204. Arihanta-202, 208. Aristotle-33, 79. Arjava-180. Arjuna-222 Arnavavarnana-239, Ārtadhyāna-181, 184, 185. Artha-68, 211. Arthaśāstra-164, 171. Āryā-55, 57. Āryadeva-83, 90. Āryasattas-38, 106. Āśādhara-193. Asadvadi-210, Asamprajñāta-244. Asanga -38, 39, 40, 48, 49, 50, 51,
90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 102, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139,
140, Asankhya-63. Agaraṇatva-183. Asatkāryavāda-7 Asātkāryavādis - 82. Asrava-180. Aśraya-130, 138, Aśrayaparâvrtti-130. Asta-85, 87. Astasabasri-253, 255. Astādaśavidya-241. Aşțasáhasrikā-85, 86. 87, 93,
214. Asatkhyati-24.

Page #282

273
Index
Avidyā-22, 26. 43, 45, 46, 47,
94, 118, 131, 132, 137. Āyatanas-106. Āyu-188. Ayuhkarma-188. Ayurveda-250.
Asteya-177, 178 Āstika-209, 210, 211, 212, 219,
223, 224. Astikatva-210. Agucitva-183. Ašvaghoșa-38, 93, 102, 103,
104, 105, 140. Atisayokti-251. Atithisamvibhaga-189, 190. Ātmā-214, 215, 216, 222, 224,
254, 255, 256, 258, Ātmabod ha-191, 192, 194, 195,
198. Ātmadvaita-17. Ātmaghāta-161, 162, 163. Ātmakhyati-97. Ātmaba-161. Ātmabanana-161, 163. Ātmahuti-174. Atman- 11, 20, 25, 26, 34, 36,
37, 46, 47, 49, 50, 56, 67. 68, 70, 71, 72, 73, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 148, 150, 155, 161, 181, 194, 195, 196, 197, 205, 209,
212, 215, 232, 246, 248. Aimaparipāka-124. Ātmatva-11, 70. Ātmatyāga-174. Ātmavādi-32. Audayika-62. Aupaśamika-62. Avacūrņi-57, 58. Avadhi-30. Āvaraña-98, 135. Avayava-14, Avayavi-14. Avayavidravya - 79. Aviddhakarana-191.
Bahubali-192. Bāhyānumeya-102, 248. Bahyapratyakşavāda-101. Balāh-124. Bāṇabhatta-169, 171, 172, 240. Bandha-62, 217, 237. Barhaspatya-217. Bauddha-2, 8, 42, 209, 210,
231, 234, 235, 248. Benares-167. Bhagavadgitā-12, 73, 161, 222. Bhagavati sūtra-34, Bhaktavikatha-179. Bhakti-197. Bhişajyarāja-170 Bhāravi-240 Bharthari-16 Bhāskara-15 Bhāskararāya-144, 155 Bhāşya--62, 177. Bhattārakadeva-192 Bhāva-62, 64, 67, 111, 251. Bhavanapaddhati-192. Bhavanās-177, 182, 183, 184, Bhavanasarkrānti-89. Bhāvarūpa-23. Bhāvas-64 Bhāvasauca-180 Bhāvavijaya-54. Bhāvaviveka-90. Bhayānaka-251. Bhoktỉtva-228. Bhrānti-94, 97.
T-35

Page #283

274
Index Buddhahood-112, 120, 132, 135. Buddhapalita-90. Buddhatva-108, 121, 128, 133,
134, 135. Buddhi-147. Buddhism-1, 2, 32, 33, 34, 38,
39, 52, 83, 84, 87, 88, 90, 91, 93, 101, 102, 104, 113, 114, 126, 137, 144, 163,
166, 170. Buddhist-7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13.
24, 31, 32, 41, 69, 81, 85, 90, 91, 106, 120, 121, 144,
170, 171. Burma-162, Buston-90.
Bhrgupatana-163, 168. Bhopura-146. 157. Bhūtacatustaya-213. Bibhatsa-251. Bija-147, Bindu - 157, Bliss-72, 80. Bodhi-131, 132, 134. Bodhisattva--87, 90, 114, 121,
122, 132. 135, 248. Bodhisdurlabhatā-183. Bondage -20, 22, 31, 188, 206. Bradley, F. H.-33 Brahma-146, 152, 153, 154. Brahmacarya-177, 178, 180, 181. Brahmadvaita-2, 17, 225, Brahman-12, 18, 20, 21, 22,
23, 25, 26, 33, 34, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 71, 72, 97, 98, 99, 100, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 134, 135, 142, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 158, 159, 196, 197, 203, 207,
218,222, 246. Brahmanas-171, 172. Brahmanism-1. Brahmapariņāmavādi-220. Brahmapurāņa-164. Brahmasūtrabhāşya-235, 245. Brabmavarga-210 Brahmavivarta-151. Brahmins-114. Brhadaranyaka Upanişad-34,
115, 117, 119, 120, 121,
124. 246, 247. Bphaspati-254, 258. Buddha-38, 40, 83, 88, 101,
105, 113, 116, 127, 132, 134, 135, 170, 254.
Caitanya-212, 213, 215, 216.
228, 230. Caitanya bhāva-215. Cakras-157. Cālukya-169. Candala-164. Candrakırti-39, 83, 88, 89, 90. Caraka-250. Cāritra-179. Caritras-179. Cārvāka-5, 13, 70, 113, 126,
141, 161, 209, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 231,
243, 248, 253, 254. Cārvakadarśana-214. Caturdaśavidya-242. Catuskotivinirmukta-111. Catustava-89. Causality-7, 8. Causation-81. Cetapā-216. Chadmastha Vitaraga-186. Chandaprašasti-239. Chāndogya Upaniyad-116, 118,
119, 122, 125, 210.

Page #284

Index
Cheda-67, 68. Chedopasthana-179. China-83, 85, 162.
Cintamanimantra-240.
Citrakūta-26.
Citrarapa-13, 69.
Citta-67, 116, 117, 127, 128, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 147, 248.
Cittamātra-139. Cittavṛttinirodha-221. Colding, T. A.-80.
Consciousness-72. 80, 115.
Corakatha-179.
Curpis-2.
Dakṣa-173. Dākṣāyaṇi-173.
Damayanti-242, 244, 247.
Dana-124, 189.
Danavrata-190.
Danda-187. Danopadeśana-192.
Darsana-30, 204, 212, 219, 222, 224, 225, 242, 243, 248. Dariantsastra-209, 212, 216. Darśanavarana-186.
Darśanavaraṇiya-187.
Daśavidha Dharma-177, 179, 218.
Dependent Origination-87, 104.
Deśavakasika vrata-189.
Destruction-75, 76, 77, 78, 81.
Deva-38,
Devasuri-58.
Devi-142, 147, 154, 155, 158.
Devisukta-144.
Dhamma rasayana-191. Dhanurveda-250.
Dharma-31, 63, 64, 83, 90,
92, 104, 129, 183, 184, 188, 211, 216, 217, 221, 225, 226, 227.

Dharmadhatu-87, 92, 108, 109. 110, 116, 127, 128, 132, 133 135, 138.
Dharmadhyana-181, 184, 185. Dharma-Kathas-177; 178 Dharmakaya-127, 135. Dharmamṛta-193. Dharmanairatmya-86, 107, 112, 126, 128, 129, 131 Dharmaratnaprakarapavṛtti-55 Dharmas-86, 102, 104, 106, 111,
112, 228. Dharmasamatā-133
Dharmasastra-242, 249.
Dharmasutra-164, 171.
Dharmasvakhyatabhavana-184.
Dharmopadeśamṛta-192.
Dhatus-106,
Dhiraḥ-124.
Dhrauvya-75, 76, 228, 235.
Dhruva-125, 134.
275
Dhyana-159, 177,181,182,184,187,133
Digambara-2, 57, 65.
Digvrata-189.
Diamond Sūtra-88.
Draupadi-168.
Dravya-80, 225, 228, 230, 231. Dravyarthika (naya)-76, 230. Dravyastika (naya)-5, 230. Dualism-17 20, 21.
Duḥkha-38.
Duḥkhanirodha-38.
Duḥkhasamudaya-38.
Duracara-211.
Durkheim, Emile-162. Durlabhabodhi-184.
Durnaya-6, 231.
Durvasa-156. Dvaita-16, 21. Dvayarahita-108. Dveṣa-228.

Page #285

276
Index
Ekajivavāda-18. Ekānta-4, 6.231, 232, 233, 234,
236, 237. Ekāotavāda-6, 69, 225. Ekāntavādi-225, 231, 243, 238, Ekatva-183, 246. Ekatvasaptati-192, 193, 194. Ekatva vicāra-185. Ekatva-vitarka-vicāra-186, Eternal-110. Eternalism-13, 70. Evambhata (naya)-5, 230, 231. Existence-72, 75, 76, 79, 80,
81, 115, 116.
Hanasoge-192. Hādi-156, Haribhadra-2, 54, 57, 222, 229, 234. Haribhadrasūri (12 A.D.)-57, 58,
59, 60. Harşacarita -171. Hásya-251. Hayagriva-156. Hemacandra-2. 18, 211, 214,
217, 223, 226, 241. Henry Morselli -162. Hetu-20. Himalayas-33, 113, 168. Hegel-33. Himsā-185. Hinayāna-101, 102, 130. Hinayapists-38, 86, 87, 88,
106, 111, 126, 129, 139, Hindu-165, 168, 171. Hinduism 163. Hui-ya-cio-83. Hui-yuan-90. Huņas-173.
Ganadharavāda-218. Gandharvanagara-87. Gandharvas-93. Gāndharvavidyā-242. 250. Ganga-166, 167, 168. Garuda-154. Gaudapādasūtra-147. Gaudorvišakulapragasti-139, Gautama-101, 219, 220, 243, 254. Ghātiya Karmas-187, 188. Girijā-141. God-99, 123, 124, 199. Godbikā-170. Gotra-188. Grammarians-5. Greek-162, 171. Grhyasūtras-171. Guņa-32, 76, 78. Gunaratnasari-2, 214, 229, 238. Guņavarma-89 Gunavratas--189. Guptagāyatri-155, Guptas-172. Guptis-68, 177. 178. Guru-142, 181, 208. Guru-Śişya-84,
Ida-147. India-1, 84, 144, 166, 173, 174,
175, Indra-231, 245, 246. Infinity-115. īšāvāsya Upanişad-34, 118, 119. . 122. 163. Istaviyoga-185. Isvara-14, 32, 43, 152, 209,
211, 212, 219, 220, 221,
222, 223, 244, 245, 248, Isvarābhisandhi-239. Isvarānugraha-220, 221. Isvarassţikartștva--210. Isvarāstitva-214, 248.

Page #286

Index
277
Išvaravād1-211, 219, 220, 222,
244. I-Tsing-166.
Jadasvarūpa-216. Jadatattva-212, 213, 216. Jadavāda-223. Jadavarga-210, 216. Jadunath Sinha-78. Jagatkartýkatva-211, 221, 223, 244, Jaimini-245. Jaina-209, 216, 217, 225, 226,
229, 232, 236, 247. Jainācāryas-217. Jaidadarśana-212, 214, 215, 218.
222, 224, 225, 253. Jaininiti-235. Jainism-1, 2, 12, 16, 17, 18,
27, 23, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 52, 53, 55, 56, 57, 59, 65, 68, 78, 113, 163, 166, 169,
175, 176, 178, 182, 188, 197. Jalacara-250. Jalasamadhi-163. Jambudvipapannat!i-191. Jambudvipasamāsa-28, 53. Jāoapadakathā-179. Japa-155, 156, 158, 159. Japan-83, 162. Jāti-13. Jauhar-163, 167, 173, 174. Jayacandra-239. Jayantabhatta-16, Jayapāla-169. Jayasena-193. Jayasimhadeva-58. Jina-195, 196, 207. Jinabhadragani-35. Jioadāsamahattara -54. Jinadeva-58. Jināgamas-56. Jinapati-200, 201.
Jinas - 56, 176, 180, 183, 184,
189, 190. Jipašāsapa-68. Jinavacana-56. Jinendra-200. Jinesa-195, 198, 199. Jirāpalli-192. Jįva-17, 23, 26, 35, 44, 46, 52,
61, 64, 67, 142, 147. 155, 158, 183, 201, 213, 216, 225, 232, 233, 236, 237,
238, 254, 255, 256, 257. Jivadravya-228. Jivalaksana-63. Jivanmukta-121, 159. Jivanmukti-17. Jīvātman-142, 147, 159. Jñāna-30, 31. Jñanacetanā-36, Jñānādvita-225. Jñāpasakti-156. Jňānāvarana-186. Jõānāvaraniya-187. Jñānayogasuddhi-66. Jñāni-73. Jõeyāvaraņa-126, 128, 129, 130, Jyotihśāstra-242, 249.
Käbul-169. Kadambadeva-169. Kādambari-240 Kadi-156. Kala-250. Kala-63, 64, 216, 225. Kali-169, 196, 207. Kāli 144. Kālidāsa-168, 172, 251. Kalpa-242. Kalpanā-129. Kalpanika-132. Kāma-68. Kāmācāra-125.

Page #287

278
Index
Kāmaraja-156. Kamešvari-152. Kamyasakti-136, Kanakapandi-193. Kaņāda-219, 220. Kandada-192, 193. Kant-33, Kantakasodhana-164. Kantiras-171, Känyakubješvara-239. Kāpalika-113, 242, 247. Kapata-187. Kapila-7, 251. Karma-31, 32, 63, 64, 153,
174, 183, 184, 185, 188, 198,
202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 221, 224. Karmabandha-63, 196, 217. Karmanāša-217. Karmaphala-244, 245. Karmaphaladhyaksa - 219, 221,
244, 245. Karmas-63, 138, 176, 182, 183,
184, 185, 186, 187, 188,
203, 206, 207. Karmasiddhānta-209, 224. Karmāsrava-183. Krtikeyānuprekşā-182. Kartỉtva-228, Karuņā-251. Kaşa-67. Kaşašuddhi -68. Kathāsaritsāgara-172. Katha Upanişad-33, 34, 114,
115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120,
121, 123, 124, 125, 134, 210. Kātyāyanavavadasūtra-84. Kaula-145. Kaulas-157. Kautilya-162, 164, 171.
Kāyagupti-178. Kayakleśa-180, 181. Kāyotsarga-181. Kern H.-90. Keteus-171. Kevala-30. Kevalajñana-186, 187. Kevali-187, 188. Kevalisamudghāta-64. Khairh 169. Khandanakhapdakhadya-239. Kharapața-113. Kirātārjuniya-240. Klegas-40, 129. Kleśāvarana-126, 128, 129, 130. Klistamanovijñāna-138. Kosas-113, Krtisangraha-194. Kriya-67. Kriyāyogasuddhi-66. Kşamı-180. Kşanabhangavāda-5, 102, 248. K$anti-124. Ksatriya 172. Kṣāyika-62. Kşemendra-241. Kulācāra-209. Kullūkabhatta-141. Kumāragupta-168. Kumārajiva-83, 90. Kumāralakṣmaṇa-171. Kumārasambhava - 240. Kumārilabhatta - 14, 16, 70, 222. Kundakunda-35, 37, 38, 49,
50, 51, 52, 75, 77, 191. Kundakundánvaya-192, Kundalini-142, 143, 155. Küțas-156. Külastha-49.
Labdhātmavrtti-193. Lahore-169.

Page #288

Index
279
Lakşmi-142, 132 Lakşmidhara-145. 157. Laksmidharā-156. Lakayabhedividya-250. Lalita-156, Lankā-128, 139. Lankāvatārasūtra-40, 83, 89,
93, 127, 137, 139, 140. Law of Karma-17. Lesyas--185. Liberation-20, 22, 31, 35, 72,
73, 74, 120, 121, 129, 153, 154, 155, 188, 190, 195,
198, 202, 207, 208. Likhitasmrti-165. Lobha-228. Loka-31, 187. Lokakşema-85. Lokavistara-183, 184. Lokavyāpi-187. Lokavyavahara-106, 250. Lopamudrā-156.
Mabāsāmānya-8. Mahasinghikas-85, 86, 102. Mahāsatikal--172. Mabātripurasundari-146, 152. Mahātman-108, 169, 116. Mabāvibhasa-101. Mabavira-1, 2, 254. Mabavratas-189. Mahayāna-38, 83, 84, 85, 86,
87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 101, 102, 104, 114, 130,
139, 144. Mahayanaśraddhotpadaśāstra-102. Mahayamasutralahkara-91, 114, 115,
125, 137, 139. Mahayanasūtras - 84, 86, 87, 88, 89. Mahāyānist-83, 84, 85, 90. Mahāyānists-38, 52, 87, 111,
112, 114, 126. Mahendra Vikramavarma-113. Mahesvara-222. Maithuna-143. Maitreyanātha-92. Maitreyi-124, 147. Majjhima Nikaya-.70. Maladharideva-192, 193. Mallisena-2, 18, 211, 214. Māmalladevi-239. Mamatva-73. Mammaţa-241. Māmsa-143. Manabparyāya-30, 32. Manana-26, 247. Manas-147, Māņdūkya Upanişad-114, 119. Mānikya-250. Maṇipura-155. Manmatha-154, Manogupti-178. Manovijñāna-127, 138. Manthāna-187. Mantra-146, 147, 155, 156, 198, 250,
Madhva-16, 26. Madhyama-14. Madhyamakaśāstrănusāra-90. Madhyamamārga-13. Madhyamapratipat-13. Madhyamika-13, 91. 93, 101,
104, 107, 127, 234, 242. Madhyamikas-33, 50, 90, 114,
127, 248. Māgha-240. Mahabharata-12, 114, 165, 168,
211, 250, Mahabodhi-131, 134. Mahakavi-239, 240, 250. Mahakavya-239, 240, 241. Mabamahopädhyāya-65. Mahaprajnaparamitā-90. Mahāprasthāna-163, 16, 158, Mabāgakti-146.

Page #289

280
Mantras-70, 156. Manu-164, 165.
Manusmrti-141, 171.
Marathas-172.
Märdava-180.
Märga-38.
Materialist-5, 13, 70, 141.
Mati-30.
Matijñāna-62. Matsya-143.
Mattavilasaprahasana-113.
Matter-11.
Maya-18, 22, 23, 26, 46, 93, 94, 95, 98, 99, 118, 131, 151, 222, 228.
119,
Mayopama-39. Mellor J.W.-80.
Miśra-62, 145.
Miśramohaniya-186.
Mithya-98, 99, 248, Mithyasamvṛti-39.
Mithyatva-22.
Mithyatvamohanjyakarma-186.
Mimamsa-11, 14, 29, 219, 221, 242, 243.
Mimamsakas-5, 11, 12. 32, 70, 231,
218, 221, 222, 225, 238, 243, 244, 245.
Moha-211, 217.
Mohaniya Karmas-186, 187.
Moksa-64, 66, 68, 114,
121,
188,
126, 129, 130, 180, 189, 212, 217, 219,
221,
223, 237, 243, 246, 247, 254. Mokṣamarga-217.
Mokṣāvastha-212, 213, 243,
246, 248.
Monism-2.
Mrcchakatika-168:
Mudra-143.
Mukti-129, 246.

Muladhara-143, 155.
Mulamadhyamakakarikā-84, 87,
89, 90.
Mundaka Upanisad-34, 49, 116, 121, 123, 124.
Muni-71, 253. Mürta-33, 34.
Muslims-173.
Index
Naciketa 124.
Nāḍis-147
Nagarjuna-38. 39, 49, 50. 51,
83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 102, 104, 105, 107, 109, 110, 112 126, 132. Naigama (naya)-5, 230, 231. Nairatmya-129, 134. Naiṣadha-239, 240, 241, 242,
246, 249, 251, 252. Naiṣadhiyacarita-239, 240, 252 Naiṣadhakavya 239, 240, 248,
252.
Naiyayikas-7, 8, 11, 89, 211,
222, 245, 253. Nala-244. 245.
Naladamayanti-240,
Nama-188.
Namamātra-118.
Nārada-246.
Nastika-209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214 216, 217, 218, 219, 221, 224, 231.
Nastikata-211, 214, 215, 219. Nästikatva-210.
Natya-250.
Navasahasankacampu 239. Nayabhasa-231, 232.
Nayakırti-191,
Nayas-4, 5, 6, 30, 68, 69, 71, 230, 231.

Page #290

Index
281
Nayavāda-1, 4, 5, 30, 82, 231, 232. Násadıyasakta-7, 12. Nemināhacariu-57. Nidānajanita-185. Nididhyasana-26, 247. Nigama-141. Nigodatā 263. Nihilism-20. Ningreyasa-219, 220. Nihsvabhavattva-24. Nikayas 88. Nikṣepacakra-37. Nimbadeva-193. Nimbarka-15. Niraya-213. Nirgrantha-180. Nirguna-147, 152, 222. Nitisvaravada-219, 223. Nirisvaravādī-211, 212, 219, 223,
224, 244, 245. Nirjarabhāvanā - 184. Nijaraņa-183. Nirukta-242. Nirvana-40, 86, 87, 93, 101, 102,
105, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 121, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 139, 140, 161, 174,
195, 196. Nirvedani-179. Nirvikalpa - 19. Nirvikalpajñā na-134. Nirvikalpa Samadhi-47. Nirvisesa-147. Nirvştisukha-133. Niscayanaya-33, 34, 35, 37. Nīšithacūrroi-54. Nitya-70, 125, 134, 216. Nityāşodas kārnava-146. Nirvṛtti-14.
T-36
Niyamasāra-193. Non eternalism-13, 70. Nyāya-32. Nyāyaśāstra-220. Nyāyasütra-220. Nyāyavaisesika-2, 5, 8, 9, 10,
13, 31, 32, 69, 79, 81, 209, 218, 219, 220, 225, 231, 234
238, 242, 243, 244. Nyāyavaiseșikasätras-28. Origination-75, 76, 77, 78, 81. Padārthas-32. Padārthavāda-234. Padmanandi-191, 192, 193, 194
196, 197, 208. Padmaprabha-193. Pādukāmantra-157. Pāka-250. Paksi-250. Pali- 85, 86. Pāli Pitakas-85. Panca Aņuyratas-189. Pancabhūtas-216. Pancadašākṣari-152, 155, 156. Pañcadasi-155. Pancamahābhūtas-143, 213. Pancamahāvratas-177. Pañcamakāras-143. Pancasangraba-191. Pancāstikāya-193. Pancavidhacāritra-177. Pancavidha sādhvācāra-177. Pancavimšati-192, 194. Pañcavimšatisähasrika-85. Pāņdava-168. Pandita-191, 193, 250. Panditottama-194. Panini-210, 249. Papa-62, 64, 209, 212, 213,
217, 228, 247, 248, 258.

Page #291

282
Index
Para-13, 33, 34, 50. Parabhattārikā-148. Parābodbi-133. Parabrahman-142, 207. Paracittajñāna-32. Paradhyāna -155. Pāralaukika-213. Paraloka-209, 212, 213, 216,
248, 254, 258. Paramanuvāda-32. Pāramāıtbika-33, 41, 45, 47,
48, 52. Paramāstikatā-215. Paramātman-142, 147, 207, 223. Paramartha-33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
38, 39, 44, 47, 48, 49,
50, 51, 105. Paramārtha Satya-40, 49, 106,
108, 110, 121, 133. 140, 234. Pāramita-87, 124. Paraparyāya-228. Parāśakti-143, 155. Parasamaya-35, 72. Parāśara-165. Paratantra -33, 39, 40, 48, 94, 110. Paribāravisuddhi-179. Parikalpita-39, 40, 94, 110. Pariņāma-138, 139, 140. Pariņāmavāda-32, 109, 151. Pariņāmika-62. Pariņāminitya-32, 81. Parinzminityatva-11, 13, 14. Pariņāmitva-228, Parinișpanna-33, 39, 40, 41,
48, 110. Parinişpannalakşaņa-133, Parīşahajaya-177, 178. Parokşa-30. Pārsvanathastotra-192. Pārthasarathi Misra-14. Parvati-142,
Paryāya-32, 76, 77, 78, 226,
227, 230, 231. Paryāyārthika-76. Paryāyāstika (naya)-5, 230. Paśyanti - 14. Pātaņa-53. Patañjali-244. Paudgalikadravya-228. Pauşadha-189 Permanence-75, 76, 78, 80, 81. Peshawas-172. Pingala-147. Pitakas-113. Pitha-147. Plato-33. Pluralism-17, 21. Plurality of souls-55. Prabhācandra-18, 192, 193, 214, 234. Prabhākara-16, 69, 243, 245. Prabhākaravardhana-171. Pradeśas-187. Pradhana-139. Prajñā-86, 87, 117, 14, 156, 211. Prajiāpāramita 84, 85, 86, 87, 90, 93, Prajnapāramitasutra-83. Prakarana-84, 89. Prakaranagranthas-53. Prakasa -151. Prakrit-2, 57, 191, 193. Prakrtavrtti-191, Praksti-5, 7, 10, 14, 69, 81, 139, 152. Prakrtikāraņavāda-14. Prakrtipariņāmavāda-32. Pramāga-4, 5, 18, 229, 253. Pramānanayatattvālokālankāra-233. Pramänas 4, 30, 37, 212. Pramāņavākya-4, 30. Pramātstva-228. Prameya- 18. Prameyatva-228.

Page #292

Index
283
Pranas-124. Prapancaśünya- 105. Prasama-55. Prasamarati-28, 177, 188. Pragamaratikara-62, 63. Peasamaratiprakaran 1-28, 53,
60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 182, 183. Prasaunapada-89. Prasastapāja-220. Praśnopanişad-118. Pratibhā-240, 241. Pratibuddha-40. Pratityasamutpada-38, 104, 106. 132 Pratityasamutpā Jahrdaya-89 Pratiyamanatva 24. . Pratyakşa-30, 212, 214, 215,
253, 254, 255, 256. Pratyaya-104. Pravacanasara-2. Pravrtti-14. Pravrttivijānas - 127, 128. Prathaktv.vitarka vicāra-185 Prātibhāsika-42, 43, 45, 48. Pratibhāsikasattā -43. Pratyakhyāniya-186. Prayaya-167, 169. Prayagcitta-181. Prayopavesana-163, 168, 169. Preyas-33. Proban-20 Probandum-20. Prthivi - 13. Pudgala-il, 63, 104, 106, 111,
128, 129, 216, 225, 226. Pudgalanairātmya-86. 101, 105,
107, 112, 126. 128, 129, 130. Pudgalavāda-32. Pajā-159. Pūjā-prakarana-28, 53. Pajyapāda-38, 77, 182, 223 Punarjanma-213, 224, 254.
Punya-62, 64, 209, 212, 213,
216, 217, 228, 247, 248, 258. Pura 147. Purandara-231 Purānas-164, 168, 242, 250. Puruşa-10, 14, 81. Puruşottama-246. Purvanimāmsā-209 Purvapaksa-16. Raddhāntadeva-193. Rāga-228. Raguvamsa-168, 240. Rājaniti-250. Rajas-69.. Rajasekhara-240. Rajasthāna-173. Rājatarangiņi-169, 172. Rajendra Coladeva-172, Rajputs-172, 173, Rāma-168. Rāmanandi-191. Rāmānuja-15, 16, 26, 197
235, 236. Rāmāyaṇa-167, 168, 250. Ranade R. D.-113. Rasa-251. Rasa parityāga-180, 181. Ratnakarandakaśrāvakācāra-19; Ratnākarāvatārika-233, 234. Ratnatraya-175, 247. Rataāvali-84, 87, 89. Raudra-251. Realism-17. Reality-3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 17, 19,
20, 21, 29, 33, 34, 35, 37, 42, 43, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 68, 69, 71, 75, 76, 80. 81, 82, 91, 92, 94, 95, 97, 93, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 114, 115, 116,

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284
117, 118, 119, 120, 1.3, 124, 125, 127, 128, 130, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136. 139, 142, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 176, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199. Rgveda -7, 12, 144, 167. Relativism-82
Rjusütra-5, 67, 230, 231.
Rudra-146, 153.
Rudradhyana or Raudradhyana 181, 184, 185
Russia-162.
Sabda(naya)-5, 230, 231. Sabdabrahma-225.
Sabdadvaita-2, 225.
Sabdanuprāsa-251. Sabdapramäga-253.
Sadasiva-152.
Sadbhava-75.
Şaddarśana-224.
Şaddars inasamuccaya-229 Şaddravyas-216, 226.
Sadhana-146, 154, 156. 160.
Sadhus-177, 181, 189, 190.
Sadvadi-210,
Sadhya-20.
Saguṇa-147, 152, 153, 159. Saguna Brahman-34, 222.
Sahasrara Kamal-143, 155. Sailesi-188.
Śaiva-142.
Saka-172.
Sakaladeśa-4, 232.
Sākāra-61.
Sakas-173.
Sākṣatkara-47.
Sakta-142, 143, 144, 145, 152, 154
Sakti-82, 142, 143, 144. 145,
152,
145, 147, 148, 151, 155, 156, 157, 158. Śakuna-250.

Sakyamuni-170. Sallekhana-169, 170, 190.
Samabhirudha(naya)-5, 230, 231 Samadhirajasūtra-93.
Samadhirajatantra-38.
Samantabhadra-2, 18, 65, 78, 228, 232, 234, 237. Samanya-9.
Samarasya 147.
Samasena 59.
Samata-66, 74, 121, 132, 133, 136, 195.
Samatva-73.
Samaya-145, 145, 187. Samayacarins-157. Samayasara-35.
Samhara-157.
Samharakrama-! 57. Samiti-178.
Samitis 68, 177.
Samlinata-180, 181.
Sammuti-38.
Samanantarapratyaya-139
Index
Samayika-179, 189. Samprajñata-244.
Samsara-11, 34. 70,. 86, 105,
110, 112, 127, 130, 132, 133, 168, 183, 184, 196. Samskaras-26, 135, 240.
Samsthana-vicaya-185. Samudghata-187. Samvara-63, 182, 183. Samvarta-165.
Samvat-192.
Samvedani-179.
Samvid-147.
Samvṛti-33, 34, 38, 39, 104, 105, 106, 110, 119, 134
Samvrtisatya-110, 118, 119, 133. Samyagdarsana-61.
Samyaktva-mithyatva-186. Samyaktva-mohanjya-186.

Page #294

İndex
Samyama-68, 73, 180. Samyayogaśuddhi-66.
Sanaka-145.
Sanandana-145
Sanatkumara-145.
Sanghavarma 89.
Sangraha (naya)-5, 17, 230, 231 Sanjivalana-186.
Sankara-14, 27, 41, 42, 43, 44,
45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 83. 97, 99, 145, 152, 154. 155, 156, 159, 210, 222, 235, 245, 247.
Sankhya-2, 5, 7, 8, 11, 14, 25, 31, 32, 69, 81, 82, 152, 209, 219, 221, 225, 234, 242, 244 Sankhya-yoga-10.
Sankleśa-109.
Sanmatitarka-2, 55.
Sannipatika-62, 64.
Sanskrit-2, 28, 53. 55, 85, 193. 194, 240.
Santam-124.
Santidāsa-170.
Santideva-39, 90.
Säntisüri-55.
Saptabhangi-1, 4, 6, 234, 236.
Sarala-24.
Sarasvati-242.
Sarayu-168.
Śārdula-194.
Sarvajña-214, 219, 222, 244, 253, 254.
Sarvakarajñata-129.
Sarvamasti-101.
Sarvanandamaya-157.
Sarvarakṣakara-157.
Sarvarogahara-157.
Sarvarthasadhaka-157.
Sarvarthasiddhi-77, 182. Sarvasankṣobhana-157. Sarvasäparipüraka-157.

Sarvasaubhagyadayaka-157. Sarvasiddhiprada-157.
Sarvastivada-84, 101.
Sarvastivadins-101.
Sarvātmabhava-158, Śāsana-67.
Sagariravyäpitva-228. Sastra 67, 68, 71, 141. Sastras-173. Sastrayogaśuddhi-66.
Sat-5, 32, 40, 62, 69, 75, 81, 82, 108, 111, 116. Satcakras-155.
Satı-163, 167, 171, 172, 173. Satkāryavada-7, 244,
Satkaryavādins-81.
Satta-38.
Sattatraya-42.
Sattva-69.
Satya-110, 177, 178, 180. Satyagasanaparikṣā-253, 257.
Saubhagyavardhani-156.
Śauca-180.
Saugatas-225.
Saundaryalahari-145, 153, 155,
156.
Sauträntika-101, 242, 248. Sauträntikas-101, 106.
Savićeṣa-147.
Sayogikevali-187.
Scepticism-20.
Senagaṇa-191.
Siddha 32.
Siddha-hood-1. 8.
Siddhanta-16.
Siddhanti Cakreśvara-191.
Siddhapada-189.
Siddhasena Diväkara-2, 7, 8,
65, 76, 77.
Siddhasenagani-54, 182. Siddhasila-188,

285

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286
Index
Śikṣāsamuccaya-170. Śikṣāśāsıra-242, 248. Sikşā vratas- 189. Sila-124. Śilārka-213, 217. Sila vratas-189. Silpa-250. Sisupälavadha-210. Siva-141, 142, 143, 147, 148,
151, 155, 156, 157. Sivasaktisidohi-239. Sivasvarūpa-158. Siva yuvatis-158. Skanda-63. Skandhas-106. Sleşa -251. Smrti-171. Sinptisahitya--21. Socrates -33. sodasākṣari-156. sodasi-152 Semadevasūri-i93. Somešvara-169 Sound-11. Spinoza-33. Śrāvakadharma-188. Srāvakapi ajñapti-28, 53. Sravana-26, 247. Sravanabelagola-170. Śreyas-33, 34. Sricakra-156, 157, 158. Śricandrasuri-57. Sridhara-220. Sriharş1-239, 240, 241, 242,
243, 244, 245, 246, 247,
248, 249, 251, 252. Sribira-239. Srikantha Śivācārya-15. Srikanthas - 158. Śríkrsna-153. Sri Lalitā-152. Srisukta-144.
Srividya - 146, 152. Srividyopāsakas-145. Srivijayaprašast:-239 Sriyantra-156, 157. Srngara-251, Sisti-157 Sustikartā-219, 244. Srst krama-157. Srstisthitivilayakartā-?21. Sruia-30. Sruti-141. Stcherbatsky-139. Sthānārga-182. Sthāvaras-64. Sihairyavicāragaprakarana-239 Sthitaprajna-73. Sthiti -157, 228. Strikathā-179. Subhacadra-193. Sobhagamapancaka-145. Substancc-3, 4, 7, 12, 14, 29, 55.
57, 62, 63, 64, 70, 72, 75,
76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 206. Suddhanaya -35. Saddliätman-108, 109, 116, 120. Suggala Devi-171. Śūdraka-168, 172. Suhrllekha -84. 87, 89. Suka-145. Sukham 124. Sukhavatiloka-89. Sukla-185. Sukladliyana-181, 184, 185.
136, 187 Sükşnadyana -155. Siksnakriväpratipāti-185.187. Sükşmasamparāya-179. Summum bonum-126, Sun-154. Sünya 39, 86, 87, 88, 91, 104.
105, 106, 108, 109, 127.

Page #296

Index
287
Śūnyata-86 87, 109, 127, 135. Sünyatāsaptati-84, 89. Śūnyavāda-83, 86, 88, 101, 104. Śünyavāui-12. Susruta-250. Suşumnā-147. Sotra-28, 53, 57, 61, 62,
90, 171 Sūtrakrtānga-17, 213, 217. Sūtrapitaka- 101. Suzuki. D.T.-90, 140. Svabhāvašūnya-105. Svadharma-228. Svădhisthāna-155. Svādhyāya-181, 182. Svaparyāya-228. Svargaloka-64, 188, 213, Svarūpa-151. Svasamaya-35, 72. Svatahprāmānyavāda-244. Svāti-58. svetaketu -222. svetāmbara-2, 54, 57, 58, 65. svetasvataropaniset-222. Svopa jūabbasya 53, 54, 61, 188. Svopajñavștii-192, 193. Syädväda-1, 4, 6, 7, 30, 55,
57, 82, 232, 234, 235, 2.8, Syllogism-20, 24.
Taranātba-90. Tarka-253. Tarkaśāstra-242. Tathāgatagrabha-139, 140. Tathatā-87, 119, 120, 128,
132, 133, 134, 136, 139, Tathyasamveti-39. Tattva-95, 118, 117, 131, 132,
133, 138, 248. Tattvārtharāja vārtika-225. Tattvārthasūtra or Tattvārtha
dhigamasutra-28, 53, 61,
75, 77, 170, 177, 182, 188. Tattvārthasūtrabhāşyaţika-60. Tattvas-55, 61, 62, 63, 64,
147, 148, 151, 176. Thatness-103. Tibet-83. Tirthankaras-56, 224. Tirthikas-125. Tiryagloka-216. Trailokyamohana - 157. Traividyadeva-192. Trimsikā-137, Tripitakas-84, 88, 89. Tripura-146. 147, 148, 149,
150, 153, 154, 155, 156. Tripurāmahimpastotra-153. Tripurasundari-155, 157, Tripurā Tantra-160. Tripuropanişad-148. Trizatibhāsya-156. Tulasi-142. Tungabhadrā-169. Turaga-250 Turiya-148. Turiyāvasthā-47, 72. Tyāga-180.
Taijasa -156. Taittiriya Brahmana-12. Taittiriya Upanisad-155. Tamas-69. Tanmatras-159, Tantra-141, 142, 43, 144, 145,
146, 147, 151, 152, 154,
157, 158, 159, 250. Tantrarāja (Tantra) 145, 156, 159. Tāntriki-142. Tapa-67. Tāra-144.
Udaya-186. Udayana-16, 211, 220. Umā-58, 142.

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288
Index
Umāsvāti Vācaka-28, 29, 30,
31, 32, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 61, 64, 66, 74, 75, 77,
81, 170, 180, 186, 188, 218. Universe-148. Ünodaratā-180, 181. Upabhogaparimāṇya-189. Upadeśātmaka-179. Upamā-251. Upamāna-253. Upanişadas-12, 33, 34, 41, 48,
49, 50, 71, 88, 98, 113, 114, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 133, 134, 142, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 159, 196, 197, 212,
219, 246, 247. Upayoga-32. Urdhvaloka-216. Uşasūkta-144. Utpada-75, 228, 230, 235. Utpreksā-251. Uttarapaksa - 16. Uttaradhyayana sūtra-35, 182, Vacakamukhya-58. Vadagaccha-57. Vacaspatsmiśra-14, 220, Vacya-Vācakabhāva-21. Vadideva Sūri-2, 18, 230. Vāgasvari-156. Vāggupti-178, Vaibhāşika-101, 102, 106. Vaibhaşīkas-101, 102, Vaidarbhi-251. Vaidarbhirīti-251. Vaidika-144, 145, 219. Vaidiki-142. Vaidulyasūtra-84, 89. Vaikhari-14. Vaināśikabauddha -210.
Vairāgya 55, 56, 188. Vaigesika--32. Vaiseșikadarśana-220. Vaigesikas-7, 13, Vaiseșikasūtra-220, Vaişpava-142. Vaisyas-172. Vaiyāvrttya-181. Vājasaneyisamhitā -164. Vak-14. Vākbhava-156. Vakkali-170. Vallabha-15. Vāmakesvara (tantra)-145, 156. Vamamārgins-143. Vārānasi-167, Vardhamāna-220. Vardhamanas-172. Varisyanta-171. Vāsanā-96, 137, 138. Vasiştha-145. Vasiştha dharmasūtra-164. Vasubandhu-38, 40, 49, 50,
97, 102, 111, 127, 135,
1:7, 138, 140, Vasudeva-141. Vātsyāyana-13. Veda-141, 144, 171, 219, 221,
242, 248. Vedakartykatva-244, 245. Vedanajanita - 185. Vedanga-242, 248, Vedanindaka-211, Vedaniya-188. Vedānta-7, 8, 10, 11, 14, 15,
16, 17, 31, 32 33, 49, 81, 88, 141, 154, 168, 197, 209, 219, 222, 242, 243, 246 247.

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289
Index
Vedāntins-8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 19,
20, 22, 23, 24, 33, 49, 50, 70, 97, 121, 134, 135,
136, 220 213, 243, 246. Vedaprāmānya-209, 210, 211,
212, 218, 219, 221. Vedaracana-214. Vedas-88, 144, 218, 219. Vibhajyavāda-2. Vibhāṣā-10i. Vibhu 125. Vidya - 144, 148. Vidyadhara-251, Vidyaguru-193. Vidyananda or Vidyānandi-2,
18, 65, 214, 253, 254, 257. Vigatakriya Nirvịtti-185, 187. Vigrahavyāvartani-84, 87, 89. Vijayacandra-239. Vijñāna-13, 69, 111. 125, 137,
138, 139, 140, 248. Vijñānabhikṣu-15. Vijñānapariņāmavada-95. Vijñānavada-13, 39, 48, 91, 92,
97, 99, 100, 101, 104, 106,
114, 125, 137, 139, 242. Vijñanavādins-33, 48, 50, 69,
96, 98, 112, 114, 125, 127,
139, 148. Vijñaptimātratā-135. Vijfaptimatratasiddhi-137. Vikaladega-4, 231. Vikalpa-132. Vikalpopasama-132, Vikşepani-179. Vimarsa-151. Vimokşa-120. Vimukta-121. Vimukti-129, 135,
Vināša-228. Vinaya-181. Vipākavicaya-185. Vipakavijñāna-138. Viparitakbyāti-24. Vira Ballala-171. Viramarana-174. Virapandi-192, 208. Virati-182. Visesa-9. Visesavasyakabhasya-17, 21, 35. Vis stadvaita - 16. Vişņu-142, 146, 152, 153, 154. Vişnusa mhita-165. Visnusmrti-172. Visuddhajñānamarga-134. Viguddhi-155, Visuddha Tathata-116, 133. Visva-156. Vitarāga-67. Vitaragata-186. Vivarta-7. Vịttikaras-211, Vrttisamkṣepana-180, 181, Vyakarana-242, 249, Vyāptivākya-253. Vyavadāna-109. Vyavahāra (naya)-5, 33, 34,
230, 231, Vyavahāra-33, 35, 36, 37, 38,
48, 49, 50, 51, 67. Vyāvahārika-33, 41, 43, 45, 49,
51, 52. Vyāsa-14, 211, Vyaya-75, 76, 230, 235.
Walleser M.-83. Warder A. K.-83, 84, 89. Westermark-162, Whitehead A. N.-80.
T-37

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290
Yajnavalkya-124. Yajnavalkyasmṛti-171.
Yakinisunu-54, 57.
Yama-124.
Yamasmṛti-165.
Yamuna-166, 167.
Yasaḥkaraṇḍadeva-169. Yasastilaka-193.
Yasovijaya-2, 15, 27, 65, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 238. Yathabhutaparijana-131. Yathakhyata-179. Yathakhyatacaritra-186.

田
Index
Yoga-31, 32, 124, 142, 155, 156, 187, 209, 219, 221, 242, 244.
Yogacara-101, 104, 140. Yoganirodha - 64, 187, 188. Yogas - 186.
Yogasūtra 14, 221.
Yogavidhi-124.
Yogin-32, 73, 146, 208.
Yogi-157.
Yonibindu-157.
Yuktidipika-220. Yuktişaştika-84, 89.

Page #300

ERRATA
Page Line
Error
Correction
pain
para
apară
apara
13 . 28 13. 28 13. 28 21 . 13 21 . 14 32, 13 32 22 35. 20 38. 15 53. 23 63. 17
aparāsāmänya opvetr anviyomana Pudgulavada ātmovădi Vyavahara pudgaa Svapojñabhāsya Prasamaratikara
aparasāmānya anvetr anvıyamāna Pudgalavāda ātmavādi Vyavahāra pudgala Svopajñabhāsya Prasamaratikara Sastra Vitaraga Profundity Butson Prajnzpāramita Prajiāparamita Sūnya Ratnāvali Portion
Satra
Vitarāga Profoundity But on Prajiāpārmita Prajiāpārmita sanva Rathavali Protion
24 83. 3 84. 5 84. 85. 18 86 · 31 89. 21
• 32
· 31 124 · 11 125 · 11 127, 5 152. 8. 157 . 32 163 · 12 179. 7
sef
self
yāga Tirthankaras Sünvatā Tatra Tontra Jauhur Vikșapani
yoga Tirthakas Śūnyata Tantra Tantra Jauhar Viksepaņi

Page #301

Errata
Correction
292 Page Line 182 . 19 182 1 22 183 . 187 . 17 187 . 187 . 191 . 14 228 . 21 244, । 244 . 11 246. 14 249 , 1 251 . 13 252 . 4 256 . 20 256 . 20
Error Svavdhyaya Sarvorthasiddhi Bhāranā Kevali Kevaii Sakşmakrivāpratipāti Naykirti पोलिकद्रव्य सौन्दश्वर्णन
Svādhyāya Sarvarthasiddhi Bhavana Kevali Kevali Sūkşmakriyāpratipāti Nayakirti पौगलिकद्रव्य सौन्दर्गवर्णन
कर्तु
मोक्षावस्थ मिमां प्रयोगवशेषाः गुणैरदारैः पण्डितंमन्यमानानी चेतन्य भवतोत्युच्यत
मोक्षावस्थामिमां प्रयोगविशेषाः गुणेरुदरैः पण्डितमन्यमानानां चैतन्य भवतीत्युच्यते

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