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THE ALPHABET
to retain its power of expression. Another device which facilitates to understand the exact meaning is the employment of "synonym-compounds" (Karlgren), that is to say, pairs of words of similar meaning, which make each other recognisable; cf. also "pidgin English" look-sec. (E. H. Minns.)
The linguistic problem of China is still further complicated by the existence of a great number of local dialects. In recent times, however, thanks to the modern educational system, the so-called Mandarin dialect has become a kind of standard spoken language and has been even accepted for the new literature. (The Mandarin dialect was originally a northern Chinese dialect; there are four variations of which the Peking one predominates: it is much distorted with its great changes in initial sounds.) At the same time, experiments have been made-though without success-in introducing an alphabetic script, while a simplification of Chinese writing seems to have been partially successful through reducing the number of its characters to a maximum of 1,000 or even 6oo for use in popular books couched in "basic" Chinese,
Origin of Chinese Culture The early history of the Chinese people and the origin of their culture is in the twilight between the legendary and the historical. The so-called First Dynasty" or the dynasty of the Hsia, dated by Chinese tradition in the third millennium B.C., and in the first quarter of the second, is nowadays considered by some scholars as legendary. While there is much talk of the four thousand or more years of Chinese history, we know but that it existed, and perhaps the names of ten rulers.
The "Second Dynasty," or the dynasty of the Shang known also as Yin, is generally dated 1766-1122 B.C., but the chronology is far from certain. We have the names of the monarchs and certain informations about the culture of that period. Chinese civilization had already assumed definite characteristics. The bronzes attributed to that period exhibit high technical skill. Writing was already well developed, there were already some local varieties. When we come to the "Third Dynasty," or the dynasty of the Chou, commonly dated 1122 B.C.-249 B.C., we find ourselves on firmer ground, although, while "all authorities on the chronology of ancient China are in general agreement concerning both the relative and the absolute dating of events later than 841 B.C., for the period earlier than this, there is great difference of opinion both as to relative and as to absolute chronology." (H. G. Creel.)
Prof. Latourette points out that Chinese culture first definitely appears in what is now North Central China. "It is significant that this is where the trade routes across Central Asia from the West enter China, and that Chinese civilisation is probably not as old as that of the ancient centres of the Westem world. One cannot help but suspect something more than a coincidence." I do not think however, that the theory-suggested by some scholars--that Chinese culture derived from that of the Sumerians, can hold its ground. There is another theory, attempting to find in Central Asia the common source of both the earliest Mesopotamian and the earliest Chinese civilization, but positive proof is wanting. I agree, therefore, with Prof. Latourette: "We must wait for further discoveries in China and Central Asia before we dare give a final opinion."
ORIGIN OF CHINESE WRITING
The problem of the origin of Chinese writing is still open. A dependence on the cuneiform writing has been suggested, but this does not seem
