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Shri Mahavir Jain Aradhana Kendra
www.kobatirth.org
Acharya Shri Kailassagarsuri Gyanmandir
Indian theology are all men despite their conception of themselves as gopis devoted to Krishna” (1982:117). Drawing from the two texts, Bhaktiratnakara and Chaitanyacharitamrta, Dimock compiles a list of 67 names of the followers and authors of various texts on Bengal Vaisnavism. Each of the names referenced are of men. Hence, these theologies reflect only the point of view of men.
Bhakti theologies distinctly spelled out that devotees take on a female personae and relate in a manner that is feminine (passive) towards a male God. Attributes considered to be the privilege of men, such as, egoism, arrogance, power and pride were considered detriments to devotion and achievement of union with God. According to this religious viewpoint, then, it was essential, that male devotees relearn to be humble, to be subservient, passive, yearning and devoted. A.K. Ramanujan acknowledges that the social repression of women already cast them in a humble position such that "it is as if, being already female, she has no need to change anything to turn towards God. Like the untouchable and low caste saint, she need shed nothing, for she has nothing to shed: neither physical prowess, nor social power, not punditry, nor even spiritual pride. She is already where she needs to be" (1982:324). It is important to clarify that the repression of women was most pronounced among the upper castes (brahmin and the kshatriya or warrior castes); women from the low castes enjoyed relatively more freedom, economic and social, compared to their upper caste counterparts.
Over centuries, bhakti had become a very complex religious phenomenon. It had branched out into several cults and region specific practices. There were the vernacular strands of bhakti practiced by the commoners, and the orthodox strands of Sanskritik bhakti practiced by the brahmins. Bhakti also leaned towards Shaivism and Shakta practice. Contrarily to Vaishnava and Shaiva brahınanism, the Goddess cults, particularly, Tantra or the Shakta practices demonstrate “a reverential attitude towards women stemming from the belief in the presence of divinity in women and in attainment of the ultimate state by methods of ritual union"(Dimock 1966: 45).20 According to Tantra, women are not only eligible to receive and recite the mantras but also have the permission to give the mantra as a guru (Dimock 1966:98).
Concluding on a positive note, we do come across some instances in ancient texts where male and female dancer-actors are mentioned to have been honoured by royal kings and princes with extravagant awards for their virtuoso performances. The Sanskrit play Malvikagnimitra, written by the revered Kalidasa (5th century AD) portrays the character of Malavika, a young girl belonging to the upper class, having been trained in the fine art of acting (Dwivedi 1964). Samavai, a queen of the Pallava dynasty in the South, endowed land to the famous Tirupati temple during the 10th century AD; Sembian Mahadevi, a Chola queen (10h century AD) donated towards the construction of massive temple complexes in the South. Pleased by the dance performance of the Queen Shantala Devi, the King awarded her with the title of “Natyasaraswati.” Several renowned devadasis, temple ritual dancers,
Some Issues on the Gender Politics in the Bhakti Genre of Indian...
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