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Y. S. Shastri
Nirgrantha
ignorance, appear as finite intellect. Just as clay is transformed into various kinds of pottery, one consciousness manifests itself as so many finite intellects." The Absolute is non-dual but the phenomenal world of objects is 'appearance (and hence) illusory. This manifold world of phenomena arises on account of ignorance. the ignorance is the cause of all this confusion. This ignorance colours the true Reality in finite mind. As there is an influence at work, there arise false and imperfect ideas. Ašvaghosa beautifully illustrates the influence of ignorance in the following manner : "Clothes have no scent but if any one smoked them with incense, the clothes would then be perfumed like the incense. So is with influences. The true Reality is Pure and has really no confusion colouring it, but ignorance in man colours his views; so there comes into play a confused state."6 Aśvaghosa accepts two kinds of truth, one conditioned by ignorance (empirical) and the other unconditioned (transcendental) which is free from impurities caused by ignorance. Purified 'conditioned suchness' is 'un-conditioned suchness. Really speaking, there is ultimately no difference between Absolute and phenomena. Phenomena arise from false notions of the mind. If the mind is independent of these false ideas, then phenomena disappear. When true knowledge dawns, we realise that we are no more finite things but 'absolute suchness.' This is the selfexistent, immortal Reality, calm and blissful, which must be realised? This absolutistic way of thinking of Aśvaghosa, remarkably influenced the later thinkers of the Mahāyāna Buddhism. Inspired by the utterences of Aśvaghoșa, some of the Mahāyānists emphasised the negative aspect and the others positive, and thereby established their own schools of thought within the ambit of the general Mahāyāna School, known as Sūnyavāda (Mādhyamika) and Vijñānvāda (Yogācāra) respectively. Nāgārjuna (2nd c. A. D.) is a systematic expounder of Sünyavāda (Mādhyamika) Buddhism. He refuted the Hīnayānists on the basis of dialectics. Hinayānists denied only Pudgala (existence of Self) but accepted the substantiality of dharmas (elements). For them dharmas exist objectively and independently. For Nāgārjuna there is nothing which exists absolutely and objectively. Everything that exists is relative, dependent, and thus unreal. The dharmas of the Hīnayānists are subjective and unreal. Nāgārjuna argues that, if a thing were objective and real, it would be able to exist by itself, it must not be in need of being understood through something else. But nothing is found in thought which is not relative, everything is relative to everything else. Relativity is the mark of the unreal of the subject. For Nāgārjuna, our entire experience is purely subjective; things have only an apparent existence (samvrti) in reality. They are imaginary and unreal, the entire phenomenal world is unreal. He interprets pratītyasamutpāda (dependent origination) in terms of relativity and proves the dependent unreal nature of all elements. He says that there is no real independent existence of entities (pratyaya)'. Since, there is no element of existence (dharma) which comes into manifestation without conditions, therefore, there is no dharma which is not śünya i.e. devoid of real independent existencelo. Thus phenomenal is unreal. The ground of phenomena can never be met within reason, as reason by its very nature leads to insoluble antinomies. He thus comes to the conclusion that the Absolute Reality is Sünya. It is Sūnya in the sense that it is transcendent to thought, it is indescribable, non-determinate, and non
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