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34
Y. S. Shastri
Nirgrantha
only the Pudgala (impermanence of Self) and accepted discrete elements as real entities. Mahāyānists, adopting the dialectic method, severely attacked the Hīnayānists by saying that these being lower intellectuals, cannot see even impermanence of dharmas, and existence of all elements (dharmanirātmya). Without realisation of both i.e. pudgalanirātmya (non-substantiality of soul) and dharmanairātmya (non-substantiality of all elements) it is not possible to reach the state of Nirvāṇa. Again Nirvana is not something which can be gained or achieved as Hinayānists believe. Ultimately, there is no difference between Nirvana and Samsāra. Nirvana is not merely annihilation or extinction of misery but it is realisation of the germ of Buddhahood which is within one's own heart. It is nothing new but transcending the subject-object duality and giving up the all standpoints. Mahāyāna and Upanişads The Mahāyāna Buddhism is profoundly influenced by Upanisadic philosophy which temporally is anterior by several centuries. The Upanişadic conception of Reality as beyond reach of mind and intellect and as indescribable in human language, apparently had much influence on these Mahāyāna Buddhists. Absolute Reality (Brahman) is described in positive as well as in negative terms in the Upanişads. We are told in the Mandūkya Upanisad that the Supreme Reality is that which cannot be seen, cannot be described, cannot be grasped, cannot be thought, cannot be designated, and so forth42. The Katha Upanisad tells us that the Reality is neither born nor does it die. It is unborn, eternal, everlasting, and primeval43. Again, it is said that the Reality cannot be reached by speech, by mind, and by sight*4. Knowledge of Reality cannot be obtained simply by argument or reason". Brahman or the Absolute is that from which all speech within the mind turns away, unable to reach it. The Brhadaranyaka Upanisad declares that the Atman or Reality can only be described by 'neti' 'neti', ('not this', 'not this')*7. The intended meaning of this statement is that the Absolute is characteristicless and indefinable, which cannot be logically demonstrated. It can only be experienced within. The Absolute Reality is also described in positive terms in the Upanişads. The Taittiriya Upanişad describes it as "Existence, consciousness, and Infinity. "48 Reality is eternal, all pervading, omnipresent, and extremely subtle49. We are told in the Brhadāranyaka that this great Being, infinite and boundless, is only a mass of consciousness 50. This consciousness itself is Absolutesi The realisation of this Absolute is a matter of mystical experience. This is an experience where all duality vanishes altogether. In this state, there is no distinction between the knower and the known, subject and object. We have seen that the Mahāyānists describe Reality in positive as well as in negative terms like Upanişadic thinkers. Nāgārjuna emphasised the negative aspect of it, while Vijñānavādins describe Reality in positive as well as in negative terms. The Mahāyānists apparently were greatly influenced by Upanisadic thought. The main reason for this seems to be that most of the Mahāyānist thinkers were learned Brahmins before their conversion to Buddhism. Thus, it is not surprising if these Mahāyānists brought Buddhism closer to the Upanisadic Philosophy.
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