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By the twelfth century AD it had contents of the Angas. Needless become crystallised as a to say, this is only a very sketchy classical literary language rather summary. Extensive than a spoken varnacular as the commentaries have been various modern northern Indian written by later writers on these languages, Hindi, Gujarati and texts, described as curni, others, developed out of nijjutti, bhasa, as well as various Apabhramsa and began other explanatory writings. One gradually to assume their difficulty is that the names of modern forms. Once again, Jain these scriptures take various writers are found writing in different forms, as the title may these languages, and, of course, be given in Sanskrit or Prakrit. the output of Jain writings in Problems of Romanisation of Hindi, Gujarati and other Indian languages add to the modern Indian languages is complications. Modern critical considerable at the present day. scholarship. Jain and non-Jain However, we must not get the (including the work of European impression that Jain literature scholars), has done much to was composed solely in the less elucidate the process of learned Prakrits and vernacular compilation of these texts, tongues. The literary language, without detracting from their the language of scholarship par religious importance, and has excellence in India, was shown that they are generally Sanskrit, and Jain scholars wrote made up of various sections extensively in this language. brought into order and put Sanskrit writings by Jain authors together in many cases a are of great importance and by considerable time after they the eighth century AD Jain were originally produced. Here, Sanskrit works were being then, are the eleven surviving written in both the north and angas. They are, of course, in south of India.
the Ardhamagadhi Prakrit, and Collectively the canonical they were transmitted for many works recognised as such by the centuries in manuscripts written Svetambaras are known as on palm leaf strips often held Agama. The number of these together by cords. When paper texts is not quite fixed but is came into use the same oblong taken by most as 45 (though the shape was retained, and this, Sthanakvasi, the non-image indeed, continued in modern worshipping sect, recognises printed editions. Many of these only 32). The oldest texts are the have been translated into Angas, believed to have been European languages, especially originally 12, but only I survive. German and English, though the The word anga means a limb, translated versions are not that is a part of the canon. The always easy to come by. remaining 34 texts are called 1. ACARANGA This is certainly Angbahya, they are regarded as one of the oldest texts, subsidiary to the Anga though it was not all collection. There are 12 Upanga composed at the same time. texts which parallel the 12 The contents are varied. Angas. Then there are 10 dealing with, amongst other Prakirnas, six Chedasutras four matters, ahimsa, the life of Mula sutras, and two Mahavira, and rules for the Chulikasutras.
conduct of monks. Much Let us now look at the incidental detail of life in
early India may be found in
the text. 2. SUTRAKRTANGA This anga
contains much detail on non-Jain philosophical systems. Like other texts it contains a variety of material: the different forms of life are described in one section, the hells and their
tortures in another. 3. STHANANGA is concerned
not with the teachings of Mahavira but with a miscellaneous collection of matters arranged in
categories. 4. SAMAVAYANGA(probably
one of the latest) is similar. VYAKHYAPRAJNAPTI The most important anga, this gives a wide-ranging survey of the teachings of Mahavira, largely in the form of answers to questions given by Mahavira to his close disciple Gautam a Indrabhuti. There is a great deal of incidental information on society and political history near the time of Mahavira. The life of Gosala, leader of the Ajivikas, is given. (The Ajivikas were a rival religious group arising around the time of Mahavira and the Buddha, and surviving at least to the
twelfth century AD.) 6. NAYADHAMMAKAHAO is
more readable than many Jain scriptures as it contains a lot of improving stories. For example, Mahavira expounds the virtue of patience by telling how, as an elephant in a previous incarnation, he patiently protected a hare beneath
his uplifted foot. 7. UPASAKADASA Ten (dasa)
accounts of pious layman in Mahavira's time.
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