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A SOURCE-BOOK IN JAINA PHILOSOPHY
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or identity (abheda). The third school of thought gives importance to both as of equal reality and the fourth school maintains that there is the qualified distinction of bheda and abheda (bhedavisişta-abheda).
The school emphasising difference (bhedavāda) maintains that nothing is permanent. Everything is changing. Difference is the only reality while oneness or identity is an appearance. Where there is bheda (difference), there is reality. Sautrāntika and Vaibhāşika schools of Buddhism advocate this theory. Everything is momentary (kşanika). Every moment there is the origination and destruction. Nothing is permanent. Where there is no permanence, there is no non-difference. Jñára and padārtha both are momentary. What we call the Atman is merely an aggregate of five skandhas (physical and mental states) : vijñāna, vedanā, samjñā, saṁskāra and rūpa. These are the aggregate of the skandhas and what we call the self. 1 This theory is called sanghâtavāda (the theory of aggregates). This is also the theory of anātmavāda and it is also called pudgalanairātmyavāda. From the point of time, the theory of self and the world does not express the reality of permanence but only of the stream or a continuity (santāna) without anything permanent to continue. We find that all our empirical thinking implies the process of thought leading to the theory of impermanence. The identity and oneness are the expressions of the aggregate or collection, and it is merely with reference to time and space. In fact, things and cognition are different and there is only a stream or continuity of the things and cognitions which are discrete. Change is the fundamental principle of the universe and permanence is only the appearance. The wheel of the chariot moves on one point of axle and also stops with that point. Similarly, every jīva lives in moment as a thought is fleeting, so also the jiva is temporary and fleeting2
The Greek philosopher Heraclitus said that everything is changing and nothing is permanent. Permanence is only appearance, We cannot step into the same river-water twice. Every moment there is change, and change is the very essence of thing. One moment, it is and the next moment, it is not. It does not, however, mean that there is modification of a thing because modification requires a substance to modify but there is no permanent substance. One who
1 Şaddarsana samuccaya. 2 Visuddhimaggo,
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