Structural Temples of Gujarat

Author(s): Kantilal F Sompura
Publisher: Gujarat University Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006728/1

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GUJARAT UNIVERSITY Thesis Publication Series 4 TIIE STRUCTURAL TEMPLES OF GUJARAT DR. KANTILAL F. SOMPURA M. ALL B. PILD GUJARAT UNIVERSITY AHMEDABAD

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Gujarat University Thesis Publication Series-4. THE STRUCTURAL TEMPLES OF GUJARAT (Upto 1600 A.D) by DR. KANTILAL F. SOMPURA, M.A, LL.B., Ph.D. :kameja kauzalama Gujarat University Ahmedabad-9 ( India )

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First Edition 1968 (C) Gujarat University, 1968. Price : Rs. 125, Printed by : Shri S. G. Vora, The Press Manager, Majoor Mudranalaya, Bhadra, Ahmedabad-1. Published by : Sbri K. C. Parikh, Registrar, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad-9.

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PUBLISHER'S PREFACE It gives me great pleasure to publish Dr. Kantilal F. Sompura's thesis entitled "The Structural Temples of Gujarat" which is a historical survey of the structural temples built in Gujarat upto 1600 A.D. with special reference to architectural canons discerned in their extinct remains. This thesis also reveals valuable information about most of the important temples in Gujarat and Saurashtra and a rare mastery in unravelling the tangled problems of their evolution. I am grateful to Dr. K. F. Sompura for agreeing to the publication of this research work which was accepted by my University for the Ph.D. Degree. I also wish to express our grateful appreciation of the financial assistance given by the University Grants Commission. I have no doubt that students and teachers and others interested in this subjects will find this reading a rewarding experience. K. C. Parikh University Registrar. Gujarat University, Ahmedabad-9. September 19, 1938, Saura Bhadrapad 28, 1890 ( Saka).

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PREFACE Like art and literature, architecture has, to a large extent, evolved in the service of religion. Temple-architecture has, therefore, formed one of the important aspects of the cultural history of India. The tradition of stupas and Caitya-halls got extinct in course of time along with that of Buddhism. But the tradition of temples enshrining images of Deities and Tirthankaras has continued for about two milleniums under the patronage of Brahmanism and Jainism. The present forms of temple-architecture, therefore, have a pretty long history behind them. The early examples indicate the initial stages of its evolution, while the subsequent monuments reveal the various stages of its further development, which took different forms in the different regions of the country. Accordingly Gujarat had originally a style of architecture which it shared in common with the rest of Western and Northern India. In course of time this order was modified into the regional Caulukyan (Solanki) style which flourished in the Caulukyan period (942-1300 A. D.). We find numorous examples of this elaborate and ornate style of temple architecture in various parts of Gujarat including Saurastra and Kaccha. The traditional rules and techniques have not yet ceased to function in this state of India. The pioneering work in the study of the architectural monuments in Gujarat was contributed by Burgess and Cousens. The Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh by Burgess was out in 1876, the Architectural Antiquities of Northern Gujarat by Burgess and Cousens in 1903 and Somanatha and other mediaeval temples in Kathiawad by Cousens in 1931. These works contain a description of several architectural mounments in North Gujarat, Kathiawad and Kaccha, with special reference to the historical and traditional account of their origin. But the

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monuments were not described chronologically, nor were they classified even according to their architectural forms. A systematic study of the monuments in their chronological sequence, with special reference to their classification according to their architectural forms, was initiated by Dr. H. D. Sankalia in his Archaeology of Gujarat published in 1941. But as architecture formed one of several sections of his work, it received but a summary treatment resulting into an outline account of the architectural features of the monuments. Recent explorations and excavations have brought to light a number of more architectural monuments left unnoticed hitherto or their lower portions buried below the ground level and thrown ample light on some monuments that were noticed cursorily and described vaguely. Hence a detailed and upto-date historical survey of the architectural monuments of Gujarat is a long-felt desideratum. This work aims at presenting a critical study of a large group of those monuments confining its scope to structural temples. Herein I have tried not only to put forth the account of all the structural temples that are noticed and described in works published hitherto, but also to incorporate information available from epigraphic and literary sources. I have also visited and described some temples that were found either unnoticed entirely or noticed cursorily. The historical survey of the structural temples, presented here, thus gives an exhaustive and uptodate treatment of the monuments of the successive periods. In addition to the survey of the temples a detailed study of their individual components in relation to the architectural canons discerned in them is also a desideratum in the study of these monuments. The architectural features discerned in the treatment of the various parts of the different temples are noticed in detail and an attempt is made to trace their relation with the works that apply to them to the largest extent.

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I have also supplemented by investigation into this relation by observation of the current practice among the local architects, known as Sompuras, who still follow the architectural traditions received in heritage whenever they construct new temples or restore old ones. Thus on the whole I have based my research on the establishments of new relations of facts observed by others as well as on the discovery of some new facts. The results of my research on the historical survey of the structural temples built in Gujarat upto 1600 A.D. with special reference to the architectural canons discerned in them thus presents general advancement of knowledge in the sphere of an important aspect of the cultural history of Gujarat which has contributed to the history and culture of India. Among the architectural monuments of Gujarat temples form the most copious and the most valuable form of architecture. Among temples the early examples are available in the form of the Buddhist (and Jain) Caityas and Viharas, rock-cut as well as structural. But the evolution of the architectural form of the present temples in Gujarat is clearly traceable especially in the remains of the structural temples. The early examples of structural temples in Gujarat date from the Gupta period, some of the pre-Caulukyan monuments leaving important land marks in the evolution of temple architecture in the region. The Caulukyan period, which is styled as a golden period in the history of Gujarat, is marked with some monumental contributiones in the field of temple architecture. The Caulukyan form of temple architecture represents one of the important architectural forms evolved in the different regions of India. In this work I have aimed at presenting an exhaustive and up-to-date survey of the extant as well as extinct structural temples in Gujarat, incorporating an account of temples noticed by others subsequently or noticed here for the first time after my

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personal visit. The survey includes the general architectural description of the individual temples, arranged in chronological sequence. It also includes as stated above, an account of important extinct temples known from epigraphic and literary sources, The survey of the structural temples is followed by a detailed examination of the general architectural features of the different component parts of temples surveyed. The comparative study of the general architectural form of the temples of the different periods reveals, (i) an early phase characterised by small shrines with stepped pyramidal superstructures, (ii) a gradual transition to the temple complex with a curvilinear spire over the shrine, (iii) the full-fledged Caulukyan form of temple architecture in Gujarat and (iv) a sort of deterioration in the general scheme and workmanship in the post-Caulukyan period. Along with the description of the general features of the different component parts of the temple, it is also attempted to compare the features with those recommended in the early canonical works on temple-architecture concerned, with a view to identify if possible the architectural canons discerned in those temples. Appendix 'A' which gives a description of some temples either unnoticed hitherto or noticed vaguelly is mostly based on the results of my personal visit of these monuments. Some scholars have pointed certain architectural drawbacks in the Caulukyan form of temples. Appendix 'B' is devoted to the pros and cons of this problem. The glossary of technical terms concerned includes references to some current Gujarati terms corresponding to those given in the canonical works in Sanskrit. The work is appended with several illustrations including plans and photographs of temples and their component parts.

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Some of these are reproduced from those given in previous publications while some others are contributed by me anew. For the proceeding and completion of my research on this subject, I acknowledge indebtedness to the following persons and institutions : i) To the authorities of the Gujarat University for gran ting me research-studentship from July 1956 to June 1958. ii) To Prof. R. C. Parikh, the Director, B. J. Institute of Learning and Research, Ahmedabad for giving me valuable suggestions and various facilities at the Institute, where almost all necessary works and journals were available to me, iii) To Dr. H. G. Shastri, M.A.Ph.D., the Asstt. Director of the above mentioned Institute, under whose guidance I conducted my research and who spared no pains for guiding me at every stage of my work. iv) To the publishers of A.S.l. and A.S.W.I. for the illus trations reproduced from their publications. v) To Shri M. P. Vora, Shri Hargovandas Photographer and the Archaeological Research Society, Porbandar for lending me Photos illustrated as Nos, 24, 26, 27, 40, 41, 42, 43, 93 here and. vi) To Shri J. M. Pancholi, Ahmedabad for lending me photos illustrated as Nos. 52-54, 76, 77, 80, 81, 107, 119-123/a, 124-132, 139-141, 143, 146-152, 187-188, 191, 196, 197, 209, 210, 212, 214 F-214 J here. The copyright of these photographs rest with them respectively. vii) To the Dept. of Archaeology, Gujarat State, Rajkot for lending me photos illustrated as Nos. 2, 3, 5, 12-16, 21--23, 29, 37-39, 44-51, 55-57, 59, 63 64, 70-75, 82-92,

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102, 106, 109-116, 133, 134, 145, 153, 154, 163-181, 184-186, 191-193, 198-208, 211 here. 6 viii) I express my profound gratitude to late Dr. V. S. Agrawal for recommending to the Gujarat University an early publication of this thesis. I am benefited by some suggestions made by him with regard to the terminology given in the glossary, which I have incorporated therein. ix) I take this opportunity to convey my grateful thanks to the authorities of the University Grants Commissions, New Delhi, for sanctioning a substantial amount as grant-in aid for the publication of this research work. I, also, thank the authorities of the Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, for the keen interest taken in the publication of this work. Ahmedabad K. F. Sompura

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xix Kumar Ahmedabad New Delhi Memoir Archaeological Survey of India Nagari Pracharini Patrika New Indian Antiquary Nutan Gujarat Poona Orientalist Proceedings and Transactions of the All India Oriental Conference Banaras Bombay Ahmedabad Poona Proceedings of Indian History Congress Progress Reports of the Archaeological Survey of India Western Circle, Poona Puratattva Ahmedabad Research Bulletin of Vallabha Vidyanagar Vallabha Vidyanagar Rupam Calcutta Triveni Calcutta

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XX ABBREVIATIONS AANG AAR AB ABORI Architectural Antiquities of Northern Gujarat Annals & Antiquities of Rajasthan Archaeology in Baroda Annals of Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute Aufracht Catalogus Catalogorum ACC (Auf.c.c) Ad AFIS AG Ag; P. AHS AI AIOC AKK APILS APPR ARAB ARBS Adhyaya Some Archaeological finds in the Idar State. Archaeology of Gujarat Agni Purana Ancient History of Saurashtra Archaeology in India Proceedings & Transections of All India Oriental Conference. Antiquities of Kaccha & Kathiawada Arbuda Pracina Jain Lekha Samdoha Aparajitapsccha Annual Report of Archaeological Department, Baroda State. Antiquarian Remains in Bombay Presidency Annual Report of Secretariat Record Office, Bombay Archaeological Survey of India Annual Report Archaeological survey of India Western Circle. Archaeological Survey Report Ananda Asrama Sanskrit Series Archaeological Survey of Western India in the province of Kaccha. Ancient Towns and Cities in Gujarat and Kathiawad Bulletin Deccan College Research Institute. Bombay Bombay Gazetter ARSROB ASIAR ASIWC ASR ASS ASWIK ATCGK BDCRI BG

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xxi C CG Bh. Ins (BPSI) Bhavnagar Praksit & Sanskrit Inscriptions Bh. List Bhandarkar's list of Inscriptions of Northern India in Brhami and its derivative scripts Bh. MSS Bhandarkar's report on the search for sanskrit manuscripts Bh. P Bhavisya Purana BI Bibliotheca Indica BMB Baroda Museum Bulletin. BPSS Bhavnagar Pracin Sodha Samgraha Br. Sm Brhat Samhita BRSS Bihad Silpa Sastra BSPS Bombay Sanskrit Praksit Series. BSS Bombay Sanskrit Series BV Bhartiya Vidya Circa Chaulukyas of Gujarat CHI Cambridge History of India CHI Cultural Heritage of India P, K. Acharya CHG Chronology of Gujarat Chro, Kane Chronology given by P. V. Kane in History of Dharmasastra Vol. II pt. I SMJV Catalogue of manuscripts in Jasalmer Bhandara CMPB Patan Bhandara CR Calcutta Review CSS Charotar Sarya Sangraha CSTG The Chronology of Solanki Temples of Gujarat CTG The Ceiling in the Temples of Gujarat DA Dravidian Architecture Dipa Diparnava DHNI Dynastic History of Northern India DMP Devata-murti Prakarana Dvyasraya EB Encyclopaedia Britanica EHA Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture EHI Elements of Hindu iconography DV

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xxji EI ERE FGT GMRI GOS GP HA HAIA HAISS HCG HFAIC HIEA HIG HIIA HR HT IA IAAA Epigraphia Indica Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics Farbas Gujarati Traimasika Gujarat no Madhyakalina Rajputa Itihasa Gaekwar Oriental Series Garuna Purana Holy Abu Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad Hindu Art in Social Setting Vide 'SHCGEG' below History of fine Arts in India and Cylone History of Indian & Eastern Architecture Historical Inscriptions of Gujarat History of Indian & Indonesian Art History of Rajputana Hindu Temple Indian Archaeology Indian Architecture-Ananthalwar & Alexander Indian Architecture (Buddhist & Hindu period) Indian Architecture by E. B. Havall Indian Art and Lettars Indian Architecture by 0. C. Gangooly Indian Culture Proceedings of Indian History Congress indian Historical Quarterly Inscriptions in Kathiawad Indian Antiquary Indian Sculpture Jain Agama Sahityaman Gujarat Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society Journal of the Bombay Historical Society Journal of the Bihar & Orissa Research Society Jainism in Gujarat Journal of the Gujarat Research society Journal of Indian History IABHP IAEBH IAL TAOC IC IHC IHQ IK Ind Ant. IS JASG JBBRAS JBHS JBORS JG JGRS JIH

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xxiii JISOA JMSUB JO1 JRAS JRASNS JRSA JSSI ISST JTSS JUB JUB (N.S) KK KKS KM KPSS KSD KSR(MS) LARBP Journal of India Society of Oriental Art Journal of M. S. University, Baroda Journal of Oriental Institute Journal of Royal Asiatic Society Journal of Royal Asiatic Society (New Series) Journal of the Royal Society of Art Jain Sahitya no Samksipta Itihasa Jain Sahitya samsodhaka Traimasika Jain Tirtha Sarva Sangraha Journal of University of Bombay Journal of University of Bombay (New Series) Kalyana Kalika Kirti Kauriudi by Somesvara Killometer Kadi Prant Sarva Samgraha Kacchanum Sanskriti Darsana Ksirarnava (Manuscript) List of Antiquiran Remains of the Bombay Presidency Laghu silpa Jyotissara Mamorandum on the Antiquities of the town of Dabhoi, Ahmedabad, Than Junagadh and Dhank Manasara Memoirs of Archaeological Survey of India Meter Maharana Kumbha Matsy Purana The Matsya Purana-Dikshitar, V.RR. New Indian Antiquary New Imperial Series Naradiya Purana Nagari Pracharini Patrika Nirnya Sagar Press Nagara, Vesara, Dravida Notes on visit to Gujarat LSIS MADTD Man MASI M MK MP MPVRR NIA NIS NP NPP NSP NVD NVG

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XXIV OA PBVC PC PCD PCI PCT PJLS PLM Pl or Plt PM PO PPS PRAS WC PRT Rai Rama RD Rg. RLARBP Orissan Architecture Prabhavaka carita Prabandha Cintamani Durgashanker Shastri Jinvijaya Tawny Pracina Jain Lekha Samgraha Pracina Lekha Mala Plate Pasada-mandana Poona Orientalist Puratana Prabandha Samgrah Progress Report of the Archaeological Survey of India Western Circle. Puratattava Rajavallabha Ramayana Ruins of Dabhoi Rigveda Revised list of the Antiquarin remains of Bombay Presidency Rupam Somanath Sacred Books of East Sacred Books of Hindus Silpa Dipaka Struggle for Empire Social Function of Art Studies on Historical and Cultural Geography and Ethnology of Gujarat Singhi Jain Series Suksitakirti Kallolini Samarangana Sutradhara Somanatha and other Medieval Temples of Kathiawad a Ratnakara RUP SBE SBH SD SE SFA SHCGEG (HCG) SJS SKK Sm. Su SMTK SR

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SS SSR SSS Supra T TASRT TWI VD.P. (VDh. P) VDTK Sukritasankirtana Sculptures from Samalaji & Roda Silpa Sastra Samgraha Suprabhedagama XXV Triveni, also Temple or Temples Studies in Sanskrit texts on Temple Architecture with special Reference to Tantra samuccaya Travels in Western India Visnudharmottara Purana Vividha Tirtha Kalpa Vedic Index Visvakarma Prakasa VI VKP VP VR VSMRS VTF VTP (VTPT) Vastupala-Tejapala prasasti VVBR VVS WMR Vayu Purana Vastu Ratnavali Vaisnavism, Saivism and Minor Religions Systems Vastusara-Thakkar Faru Valabha Vidyanagar Buletin of Research Visvakarma Vastusastra Watson Musuem Report

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THE METHOD OF TRANSLITERATION ADOPTED a, a; i, i; u, u; si, si; e, ai; o, au; k kh; g, gh; n; c, ch; j, jh; n; , th; d, dh; n. t, th; d, dh; n; p, ph; b, bh; m, y, r, 1. v; s, s. s; h, TM; h

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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (A) Photographs TEMPLES Fig. No. or Nos. Monument Temple Sun Varaha Sun Place Gop Kadvar Sutrapada Visavada Old Sun Bale] Pata Suvan Srinagar Jagannatha ,, Siva Sun Devi Sun Sun 14 Kalsar Pindara Boricha Akhodar Pasanavada 15-16 17-19 Sun Gayatri Siva 20 Ranavav 21-23-23/a Siva, 24 Ganapati , Pancayatana ,, Old Dhingesvara , Kalikamata ,, Miyani Pasthar Harasiddh Porbandar Dhrasanve! Navidhraved Khimesvar 32 Khimesvara ., Dudhesvara .. Randala , Lunai Mala , Group of Temples 32/a. 33-35 Lunav Bhansar

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xxviii 36 37-38 39 40 41-43 46-50 51 52-54 55-58 64 65-66 67-68 Old Temple Odadar Siva Bilesvar Sun Kinderkheda Pasthar The Group of Temples Sonkansari Temple No., III, V, VII Roda Hariscan- >> Shamalaji dra-ni-cori Siva , Galatesvar (Sarnal) Nilakantha , Sunak Small Sander Sanderimata >> Somesvara , Gorad Harasiddha Harasiddh Mata Nilakantha ,, Miyani Jain Nilakantha , Ruhavi Amathora Vadnagar Mata Rt. angular , Khandosan Siva Kotai Old Punaragadh Sun Modhera Mahavira Kumbharia Santinatha , Muni Bawa, Than Trinetresvara , Taranetar Navalakha 1 Ghumali Sejakpur Rudramala Siddhpur Double Viramgam Shrined Parsvanatha ,, Kumbharia Adinatha Vadnagar Ajita natha is Taranga 69 70-73 74-75 76-81 82 83 84 85 86-90 91-92 93-100/a 101 102 103-104 105-105/a

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xxix 106 107 107/a -107/c 108 109-111 112-113 114 115 116 117 118 119-123/a 124-130 131-132 Neminatha , Kumbharia Bechara Mata, Becharaji Kankesvara & Vasai (Dist Junagadhi , Jamnagar) Sitala Mandrapur Bladesvara , Anjar Old Pawagadh Rama Baradia Laksmana Madhavarai .. Madhavpuit Sitala Piludra Neminatha , Girnar (Vastupala-Tajapala) Tejapala Abu Kalika & Dabhoi Vaidyanatha ,, Khamalai Dhinoj Mata Ranakdevi Wadhwani Mata Sambheva-, Kumbharia natha Sun T. on , Prabhas Hiranya Sun T. on, Triveni Hatakesvara , Vadnagar Dwarkadhisha , Dwarka Shamalaji, Shamalaji Jain Bhiloda Rukmani , Dwarka Magaderun , Dhrasenvel Visnu ", Odadar Sasibhusana, Prabhas Rudresvara , Group of Temples Visavada 133 134 135-136 137 138-144 145 146-150 151-152 153 154 154/a 155 156 157-58

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XXX 159 159/a 159 b 160, 160 a 161 162 163 164-166 167 168-172 173-175 176-180 Siva Gokesvara , Siva Old Agia Vaitala ,, Old Saranesvara Siva Kuchhadi Lovarali Tukada Nandisvar Bhankhar Gunja Temple Polo III Siva-Sakti Siva-Pancayatana Lakhena is 181 182 183 Door Frames Door-frame of Temple Sitala T. at Roda at Piludra at Vadnagar Ceilings Temple ! Ceiling at Roda Temple Sitala Nilkantha 184 185 186 187-188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 .. Lakhena ,, Nilkanth ,, Siva ,, Vimala ,, Miapuri at Vadnagar at Sunak at Gunja at Polo at Sunak at Kotai at Abu at Prabhas (Somnath) at Abu at Modhavpur at Prabhas at Kumbharia Masjid Temple 196-197 198-199 200 201-203 204 205 ,, Tejapala ,,Madhavrai ,,, Sasibhusana , Mahavira ,, Santinatha ,, Parsvanatha

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Xxxi 206-207 208 209-210 Neminatha ,, Mahavira 211 Anlamaz d 212 213 214 , Siva Jain ,, Visnu at Vadnagar at Kotai at Abu at Odadar at Ahmedabad 214 a 214 b 214 c &d 214 e 214 f to k 2141 214 un 215 $ 216 217 218 219 *220 *221 $222 Kirtitorana Kirlitorana Hariscandra cori Shamalaji. Sun T. Modhera Piludra Rudramala Siddhapur Vadnagar Sun T. Balej Ranchhodji T, Valam (B) Ground Plans Old Temple Gop AKK, Plt. LII Conjuctural Plan Sun Temple Visavada SMTK. Plt. XLV Sutrapada SMTK. Plt. XLII Varaha , Kadavar SMTK Plt. XXXIIJ. Nilakanth Temple Sunak. AANG. Plt. LXNXII Triple Kasara AANG. Plt. LXXXII Old right anguler , Khandosan Sun Modheia AANG. Plt XLVIII Limbojimata ,, Delma! AANG Plt. LXVI Navalakha >> Ghumli AKK Pit. XLI Sejakpor SMTK Plt. LXV Rudramala Siddhpur AANG, Pit. XXXVIII Ajitanatha , Taranga AANG Pit. CIX.. Bhadrasvar AKK. Plt. LVIII. Somanatha , Somnath SMTK. Plt. VIII Sun Bhimnath AANG, Fig.6.p.73 Vastupala , Girnar AKK. Plt. XXXIV 223 *224 225 226 *227 228 229 230 Jain *231 232

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xxxii 233 234 235 236 237 228 239 $240 $241 $242 $ 243 $ 244 Bahusmarana ,, Kanoda AANG. Plt. XCVI, 3 Vyaghresvarimata ,, Dhinoj , 2 Narayana , Manod Nilakantha Temple Virta AANG Pit, XCVI, 4 Sun Somnath SMTK Plt. XIII Sun Than SMTK Plt. XLIX Neminatha Girnar AKK Plt. XXXII Tejapala Abu Jain Miyani Magaderu , Dhrasanvel (C) SKETCHES. Projections in the ground plan (a) Eknasika (b) Trinasika (c) Pancanasika (d) Saptanasika (e) Navanasika Projections in the ground plan of door jambs (a) Tri-sakha (b) Panca Sakha (c) Nava Sakha Udumbara Ardhacandra Kamada Pitha (basement) Mahapitha Mouldings of the Mandovara (a) Khuraka (b) Kumbha (c) Kalasa (d) Jangha (e) Kevala (f) Mancika (g) Udgama (h) Bharani (i) Pattayukta sirvati (j) Kutachadya Mandovara Elevation of the Sikhara Bilesvar SMTK. Plt XXXIX , Sutrapada Ground plan of the curvilinear AANG. Plt. sikhara. LXXII, Fig. 4 Elevation of the curvilinear $ 245 $ 246 $ 247 $ 248 $ 249 $ 250 251 $ 252 253 $ 254

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xxxiii sikhara. $ 255 Amalaka $ 256 Kalasa $ 257 Elevation & Section of storied Mandovara and Sikhara of Sandhara prasada. 258 Pillars (a) Surya Tample (Somnath) & SMTK. Plt. XIII Bhadresvara (Kaccha). (b) Navalakha Temple Ghumali AKK. Plt. XLIV (c) Navalakha Temple Sejakpur SMTX Plt. LXVIX (1) (with Kaksasana & Vedika) , , , (ii) 259 Brackets from the Brackets from the pillars AKK. Pit. XLIII Ghumli $ 260 Ground plan of Samvarna $ 261 Elevation of Samvarna * Asterisk marks indicate enlargement of plans by me. $ Arrow-marked figures indicate sketches prepared by me.

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CONTENTS Preface Bibliography Abbreviations Transliteration List of Illustrations 1-6 | i-xix XX-XXV xxvi xxvii-xxxiji PART I SECTION 1 INTRODUCTORY Chapter Pages I The Indian conception of a temple 1-2 JI The Evolution of the Caitya-griha 3-17 i) The concept of Caitya-worship and the Erection of the Stupa ii) The Early Stupas open to the sky a) The beginning of the structural stupa b) The Stupas of the Mauryan period c) The refinements of the Stupas of the period of the Snungas and the Andhras d) The Stupas of Western India e) The Stupas of S. E. India iii) The Caitya-g`ihas enshrining the Stupa a) The early (Hinayana) phase of the rock-cut Caitya-grihas b) The later (Mahayana) Phase of the rock-cut Caitya-grihas III The Shrine and the temple : Early Phase 18-30 i ) Early traces of the Indian Shrine a) The Indus Civilization b) The Vedic references c) The Wood phase d) Buildings in Brick

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XXXV ii) The early Bihamanical Cave-temples (C.A.D. 350-650) iii) The evolution of Full-fledged shrine and the theories of its origin iv) The Gupta Temples in Central & Northern India (C.A,D. 350-650) v) The final phase of Cave-temples (7th Cent-9th Cent, A.D.) a) Elora caves b) The Cave-temples at Elephanta and Jogesvari c) The Rock-cut temples in South India The Component parts of the Full-Fledged Temple : 31-48 IV i) The principal parts of the temple ii) The different forms of the Sikhara and the classification of temples iii) The salient feature of horizontal parts a) Garbhagriha b) Mandapa c) Antarala d) Ardhamandapa e) Circumambulatory f) Accessory Mandapas iv) The Main characteristic of Vertical parts a) Conception of the Limbs of Human body b) Vertical parts of the shrine c) Vertical parts of the mandapa v) Subserviant parts of the temple V The Development of the Regional Phases of the temple 49-66 a) Northern or Indo-Aryan phase i) Temples of Orissa (A D.800-1250) ii) Temples of Rajasthan (A.D. 800-1250) iii) Temples of Gujarat (c. 941-1311 A.D.): iv) Temples of Madhyapradash (A.D. 950-1050)

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Xxxvi v) Early Calukyan temples in the Deccan (C, 450-750 A. D.) vi) Later temples in the Deccan. (c. 1100-1300 A. D.) b) The Southern or Dravidian Phase i) The early Calukyan phase (c. 725-740 A,D.) ii) The Pallava Phase ( c 600-900 A.D.) iii) The Pandya Phase ( c. 900-1150 A.D.) iv) The Vijayanagar Phase (c. 1100-1350 A.D.) c) The Later Caulukyan or Hoysala Temples (c. 1050-1300 A.D.) SECTION 11 A Historical Survey of the Structural Temples built in Gujarat upto 1600 A.D. I The denotation of Gujarat and its scope II An lavestigation into the structural temples in pre-and proto-historic times 70 IN i) Pre-historic Times-Stone Ages ii) Proto-historic Times a) Copper-Bronze Age, b) Puranic Age The Survey of the structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times i) The period of the Mauryan rule (c. 322-185 BC.) the extinct Sudarsana lake at Girnar ii) The period of the Indo-Greek rule (185 B.C.-78 A.D) Jajn tradition jii) The period of the Kstrapa rule ( 78 A.D.c 400 A.D.) 71-95

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xxxvii Buddhist structures -at Boria, at Intawa and at Devni Mori iv) The period of the Gupta rule (c. 400 A.D.-470 A.D.) Jungadh Rock Inscription of Skandagupta the extinct temple of Cakrabhtita (Visnu) The extant temples at Gop, Kadvar etc. v) The period of the Maitraka-Gurjara rule (c. 470 A.D.-788 A.D.) The ruins of the old city of Valohi, Hiuan Tsang's account-Jain Prabandhas-Extant temples at Sutra pada, Visavada, Roda, Samalaji etc, vi) The Post-Maitraka period (c. 788-942 A.D.). Literary and Inscriptional references-Saindhava Kings-Vanaraja-and Anhilapurpattana-Extant temples at Bilesvar, Kindarkheda, Pasthar, Kalsar, Ghumli, Son Kansari etc. Some unnoticed pre-Caulukyan temples. Structural Temples of the Caulukyan period 96-198 (942 A.D.-1299 A.D.) -Literary, Epigraphic & architectural sources -Extant Temples of the 10th cent. A. D. Merutunga's AccountTemples at Samalaji (Harischandra-ni-Cori), Sarnal, Sunak, Kasara, Sander, Parabadi, Chaubari, Harasiddh, Miani, Ruhavi, Vadanagar (Amthora), Khandosana (right angular), Anjar, Kotai, Kheda, Kanthakot, -Temples of the 11th cent. A.D. Modhera, Abu (Vimal), Tnan (Muni bawa); Delmal, Ghumli (Navalakha), Sejakpur, (Navalakha). -Temples of the 12th cent. A.D. -Girnar, Somnatha (extinct), Siddhpur, Bhayavadar, Khandosan (Hingolaja), Taranga, Kumbharia, Becharaji, Bhadresvara, Vasai, Asoda, Mandrapur, IV

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xxxviii Pawagadh, Baradia, Bhimnatha, Madhavapur, Piludra Khedabrahma, Bavka - Temples of the 13th cent. A.D. Vastupala-Tejpala, Temples on Mt. Girnar & Abu Temples at Kamboi-Solanki, Vaghel, Dabhoi, Dhinoj, Wadhwan, Virat, Motab etc. Some unnoticed Caulukyan temples Structural Temples After The End Of The Caulukyan 199-236 period (Upto 1600 A.D.). The temples of the 14th cent. A D. The temples at Prabhas, Than, Srinagar, Sarotra, The temples of the 15th cent. A.D. Pittalahara at Delwada-Dharnivihara at Ranakpur -Kharatar Vasahi at Delwada -Ambaji on Mt. Girnar -Temples at Vasai, Pawagadh, etc. The temples of the 16th cent. A. D. -Satrunjay -Sundarvar at Mandavi -Kavi, Dwarka, Samalaji Girnar (Parasvanatha) Some unnoticed temples PART II SECTION III The architectural canons discerned in the extant remains of the structural temples in Gujarat I Sources of the architectural Canons 239-276 i ) Early references to architectural canons a) Rgveda Samihita b) Yajurveda Samhita c) The Brhamanas d) The Manusmrti e) The Sutras f) The Epics

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Xxxix g) Buddhist literature-Jatakas & Pali canons; and Jain literature h) Arthasastra i) Puranas-Matsya; Agni, Garuda, Skanda, Narada, Vayu, Bhavisya, Brhamanda, Visnudharmottara and others j) Agamas (k) Tantras, (1) Brihatsamhita m) Pratistha class of works n) The works on architectural canons (dated upto 1500 A. D.) a) Visvakarma-works ascribed to Visvakarma, worksincluding Sections on temple-architecture, Apara- jita praccha-Visvakarma-Vastusastram, Visvakarma prakasa-Ksirarnava, Diparnava etc. b) Samarangana Sutradhara by King Bhojadeva, sections on temple-architecture c) Sutradhara Mandana and his works-work including sections on temple architecture-PrasadaMandana, Vasturaja, Vastusara etc. d) Sutradhara Nathaji, Govinda, Thakkar Feru and others-their works II The Sites of the extant temples (with reference to the canons for their selection) III The orientation of the extant temples (With special reference to its canons) IV The Architectural forms of Temples 277-281 282-287 a) Pre-Caulukyan Phase b) Caulukyan Phase c) The architectural form traced to the canonical sources; the Nagara type d) Determinants of its sub-types i) Shapes of ground-plans ii) Profiles of the spire e) The Sub-types of the extant temples in Gujarat 288-333

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V The Ground plan of the garbhagliha 334-344 i) The architectural treatment in the extant temples ji) An Identification with the different types discerned in the canons VI The Door-frame of the Garbhagriha 345-363 i) The architectural treatment in the extant temples ii) Canonical principles discerned VII The Antarala 364-365 i ) The early examples in Gujarat ii) Canonical principles discerned VIII The Ground plan of the Mandapa 366-376 i) The architectural treatment in the extant temples ii) Canonical principles discerned 1x The Ground plan of the ardha-mandapa (Porch) 377-381 i) The early examples in Gujarat ii) Cannical principles discerned X The Ground plan of the Pradaksinapatha 382-386 i) The early examples in Gujarat ii) Canonical principles discerned XI The vertical treatment of the base 387-394 i) The plain and ornate phases in the extant temples ii) Canonical principles discerned XII The architectural treatment of the Mandovara 395-400 i ) Treatment in the extant temples ii) Canonical principles discerned XIII The Architectural treatment of the Sikbara 401-410 i) The sikhara of the extant temples ii) Canonical principles discerned XIV The Vertical parts of the Mandapa 411-446 a) Pillaras

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xli b) Brackets c) Arches d) Architraves e) Samvasna-domes f) Ceilings g) Kaksasana h) Balaconies etc. i) Treatment in the extant temples discused ii) Canonical principles discerned XV The Architectural treatment of the sukanasa i ) Early examples in Gujarat ii) Canonical principles discerned 447-449 XVI The Accessories of the temple complex 450-460 a ) Kirti-torana b) The Prakara and Balanaka c) Devakulikas d) Dipastambha e) Kunda or Reservoir i ) Treatment in the extant temples ii) Canonical principles discerned XVII Decorative sculptures and their structural functions 461 476 i) Treatment in the extant temples ii) Canonical principles discerned Xylli The Main source or sources of the canonical principles 477-485 discerned in the extant temples of Gujarat APPENDIX "A" A description of some undescribed temples in Gujarat 487-536 i) Pre-caulukyan temples at Balej, Bhansar, Boricha, Dharsanvel, Harasiddh, Khimesvar, Lunav, Miyani,

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xlii Nandisvar, Navidhraved, Odadar, Pasanavada, Pata, Pindara, Porbandar, Ranavav, Srinagar. Suvan, etc. ii) Temples of the Caulukyan period at Dhrasanval, Dwarka, Khandosan, Kuchhadi, Lovarali, Nandisvara, Odadar, Prabhaspatan, Tukada, Vadanagar, Valam, Visavada etc. iii) The old (Post caulukyan) temples in Polo APPENDIX B in the 537-541 A discussion of the principles of stability structural form of the temples in Gujarat. GLOSSORY 543-560 1-46 Index Errata 47-49 60-61 List of Places Map of Gujarat

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SECTION I INTRODUCTORY

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CHAPTER-1 THE INDIAN CONCEPTION OF A TEMPLE The conception of deities and their worship has a great antiquity in India The archaeological finds of the Indus civilization include a number of figurines indicative of image worship. The Vedic literature, which is the earliest known literary monument of India, contains hymns addressed to several deities, which supply some hints for their anthromorphical forms. But the beginning of the construction of temples cannot be definitely assigned to these protohistoric times. The earliest known remains of sanctuaries enshrining objects of worship appear in the form of caitya-gliha dating some centuries after the period of Gautama Buddha and Mahavira Swami. In the beginning these religious creeds, especially Buddhism, showed a sort of aversion to representing the bodily form of the Buddha for worship, who was, therefore, worshipped through the stupa, the Bodhi tree, and other symbols. The tradition of constructing sanctuaries for enshrining the stupa seems to have commenced after the end of the Mauryan period (c. 322 B. C.-185 B. C.) The Sunga period (c. B. C. 185c. 70 B. C. ) also marks the beginning of temples constructed for enshrining images of deities. In course of time the Buddhist and Jains adopted the worship of the bodily form of the Buddhas and the Tirthankars and began to construct temples for their worship. Now the temple generally represents a sacred building enshrining the image of a deity or an emancipated personage designated as a deity.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Indian temple is generally styled a mansion (Prasada)1 built as a place of residence2 for the deity (Deva) concerned. Originally the deity was housed therin in the form of the image of his or her person or limb, or a symbol representing the deity. corresponds to the Temple which forms the dwelling house of the deity to which it is consecrated, whose presence is marked by a statue or other sacred symbol,3 Thus it differs from a prayer hall (like that of a mosque or a Protestant church or a bethel of the Jews or Zoroastrians). The early temple in India consisted of a single celler enshrining an image or symbol of the deity. In course of time it gradually developed into a complex building with one or more pillared halls added to the cella. The cella enshrining the deity, then, formed the inner apartment of the House of the Deity, (Devatayatana), while the hall or halls added to it in front or those added on sides of the central hall served as an accessary to the innermost cella (Garbhagara) or the shrine proper. When an image or a symbol is consecrated with all due rituals prescribed for it, the soul (prana) of the deity is regarded as entering into and dwelling in it. Since the performance of this rite known as Pranapratistha, the deity is to be attended and worshipped with due ceremonies regularly. 1. Or Mandira, Bhavana, Vimana. 2 Griha, Agara, Ayatana, Alaya, Kula, Sthana Ves ma etc. 3. Ency, of Religion & Ethics, Vol. XII, p. 235., Ency. of Britanica, (9th edi.) Vol. XXIII, p. 165.

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CHAPTER 11 THE EVOLUTION OF THE CAITYA-GRIHA (i) The Concept of Caitya Worship and the Erection of the Stupa The highest objects of worship for the Buddhist are Triratna or the three Jewles (1) the Buddha (2) the Dharma and (3) the Sangha. Accordingly over the relics of holy persons like the Buddha, the Pratyeka-Buddhas, the Arhats and the Cakravartins, over which great monuments were erected. The chief corporeal relics are those which are properly called Sariras, i. e.; the remains of a corpse after cremation 1. The most general name for a sanctuary is 'Caitya' a term not applying to buildings, but to sacred trees, memorial stones, holy spots, images and religious inscriptions. Hence all edifices having the character of sacred monument are caityas, but not all caityas are edifices. We know that memorial mounds were erected over the relics of worthy people even in the Pre-Buddhist age. The word caitya is derived from the word cita, or funeral pile, and denotes anything connected with a funeral pile, e. g, the tumulus raised over the bones of dead saint. Although generally speaking caitya means a relic shrine or a temple or any place of worship technically it means a mound. A term stupa is analogous to caitya, as it also means a mound, or something which is raised. Later, the term caitya came to mean a shrine, an alter or a temple. For our purposes it is necessary for us to understand caitya as meaning a mound containing a relic; e. g. ashes, bones, hair, or a tooth of the Buddha. Caitya is a religious term while Stupa is an architectural term for a relic mound.2 1. Bapat. P. V. "2500 years of Buddhism." (1956) p. 2. 8-9. 2. Ibid. p. 280-281.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Stupa originated as a pilled-up burial-tumulus and constituted the most characteristic monument of worship in the Buddhist religion, although Jain stupas are also known, s This was the chief religious edifice or an object of Buddist cult worship. The sacred object in Buddhism was body relics of Buddha which were originally enshrined in eight or ten monuments. In course of time, Stupas began to be built not only to enshrine the relics of Buddha or Buddhist saints but also to commemorate spots and events of religious significance. Architecturally, the stupa was a solid structural dome (anda) usually raised on one or more terraces and invariably surmounted by a railed pavilion (harmika) from which rose the shaft of the crowning umbrella (chatra). The stupa had one or more circumambulatory passages (pradakshina-patha) which were enclosed by railing (vedika). The earlier stupas were open to the sky and were hemispherical in shape with low base while the latter ones assumed on increasingly cylindrical form with a well-developed drum and covered and enclosed within a caitya-griha.* (ii) The Early Stupas Open To the Sky (a) The Beginning Of The Structural Stupa The earliest known religious monuments in India appear in the form of stupas. According to Buddhist tradition the separate relics of the body of Gautama Buddha, who died at Kusinagara, were distributed among eight kingdoms and enshrined within stupas at their capitals. 5 3. V. A. Smith. The Jain stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura. (Allahabad, 1901) pp, '1-13: pls, I-V 4. Al. (1590), pp...78-79. 5. The Buddha died in the land of Malla's who did honour to bones with dancing, music, garlands and perfumes. Ajatasatru from Rajagriha, the Licchavis of Vaisali, the Sakyas of Kapilvastu, the Bulis of Allakapa, the Mallas of Pava, the koliyas of Ramagrama and a brhamana from Vethadipa claimed their share in the division of the relics.

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The Evolution of the Caitya-griha The only extant stupa of a probable pre-Asokan date ( about 450 B, C. ) is that at Piprawa6 (Dist. Basti, U. P ). The stupa is built of large bricks and has a diameter of 34.8 meters and an extant height of 6.4 meters, indicating a low ratio of height to diameter, which is a sign of antiquity. According to the inscription the relics found in the stupa. pertained to Buddha himself." A series of low flattish stupas, fifteen in number composed of mud or mud-bricks with baked brick-revetments, standing at Lauriya, 8 may be regarded roughly, contemporary with the Piprawa stupa.9 (6) The Stupas of The Mauryan Period (c. 322 B. C. 185 B. C.) With the probable exception of the Piprawa Stapa and the Stupas of Lauriya, the earliest examples composed of mud or mud-bricks, Asoka (c. 273-232 B. C. ) is credited with the construction of a circular tumulus or stupas of brick in many It appears that after the division had been made, a messenger, of the Mauryas of Pippalivana came for portion of the relics. As there was nothing left, he took pieces of coal which the Mauryans began to revere and placed in a stupa. Thus, originally there were eight stupas : in Rajagpiha, Vaisali. Kapilavastu, Allakapa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Dava and Kusinagara, besides those erected by Brhamana Drona and the Mauryans of Pippalivana. Bapat P. V. '2500 years of Bud thism.' P. 279. 6. W. C. Peppe and V. A. Smith, the Piprahwa stupa, containing relics of Buddha. JRAS, 1898 pp. 537 ff. 7. Al. p. 79. 8. One of the two viliages of same name in District Champaran. N. Bihar. ARASI 1906-07 (1909) pp 119 ff; 1935-36 (1938) pp. 55. ff. 9. Al. p. 79

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6 The Structural Temples of Gujarat parts of his empire. From his own words in Edicts (Nigliva pillar inscription), we learn that he enlarged, to twice its size, the Stupa of Konakamana, the previous Buddha, at Nigliva and built for the sect of Ajivikas three sets of cave-dwellings in the Barabar hills of Bihar 9a He is also credited with the construction of the first stupas at Sanchi and Sarnatha, 11 though tradition assigns him many other stupas including Dharamrajika at Taxila. 12 The great Stupa at Sanchi as it now stands is a segment of a sphere of which the proper height should be 23.5 ms. while the diameter at the base of the dome is 33.5 ms. The original structure of Asoka (c. 250 B. C.) the nucleus of the present one, had somewhat smaller dimensions, and was evidently made of bricks 13 The Excavation of Dharmarajika Stupa* At Saranatha. It revealed six successive enlargements of the original Stupa The original structure raised by Asoka, was 1.35 ms. in diameter. The first addition was made in the Kushan period. The second enlargement came in the fifth or sixth century A. D. with the addition of circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha), nearly 16 ft. wide, around the Stupa and ancompassed by a solid outer wall, 1.3 ms. high pierced by four door ways in the four directions. In the third enlargement in the seventh century the pradakshinapatha was filled up and access to the stupa was provided by placing four monolithic staircases. The next two additions were made in the ninth-eleventh centuries. The sixth and the last encasing of the stupa took place when the monastary of 9a. Mookerjee A. K. 'Asoka' p. 81. 10. Al. plt. xxv II. Al. plt. xxvi. 12. Al. p. 53 plt. xiv. 13. Mookerjee A. K. Asoka p. 88. * This stupa was pulled down in 1794 by Jagat Singh's workmen.

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The Evolution of the Caitya-gliha Kumaradevi was built in the twelth century. 14 Remains of a unique type of stupa-shrine of Mauryan date (c. B. C 250 ) have been recovered at Bairat15 in the formor jaipur state. The main interest of the monument lies in the enclosing circular shrine ( diam. 8.2 ms.) which was made of lime plastered panels of brick work alternating with twentysix octagonal pillars of wood. The shrire was entered from the east through a small portico, supported on two wooden pillars and was surmounted by a 2.1 ms. wide circular processional patha with an opening on the east, the whole being enclosed at a later date within a rectangular compound (21.3 * 13.4 ms.) containing an open space for assembly in front of the entrance. This stupa shrine resembled in plan and design a circular caitya-cave in the Tuljalena group at Junnar, dating from c. first century B. C.16 The original brick Stupa at Bharhut (Madhya Bharat) was of the Mauryan date, probably Asokan (c. 250 B. C.)17. At Nandangarh (N. Bihar ) occurs a unique type of brick stupa built on multiple polygonal terraces with re-entrant angles. This stupa is not earlier than 100 B. C.18 (c) The refinements of Stupas during The Period of the Sungas And The Andhras (c B. C. 185 to A. D. 150) During the period of the Sungas (c. B. C. 185-c. 70 B. C.) in Northern India and the Andhras (c. B. C 185-c. 150 A. D.) in Southern India, as a whole the refinements took the form of replacing the impermanent materials of which the religious monuments had heither to, been composed by others of a more 14. Agrawala V. S. 'Saranath' p. 15 15. Sahni D. R. 'Archazological Remains and Excavation at Bairat,' pp. 28 ff. 16. Al p 80-81. 17. IABH, p, 23. als@ A. Cunnigham Stupa of Bharhut'( London, 1819) pp. 4 ff. 18. ARASI 1935-36 (1938) pp. 63 ff: 1936-37 (1940) pp. 47 ff;

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat stable nature, in a word stone was employed where previously had been brick and wood. From the constructional advances shown in the stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi Torana, it can be said that the art of masonary,building was progressing slowly from timber construction to stone.29 Taking the sequence of events at Sanchi as typical of the movement as a whole, one of the first measures of reconstruction at this sanctuary began as early as 150 B. C., when the existing stupa was enlarged nearly twice its previous size. In the enlargement of the stupa the new structure was made to cover or envelope (achchhadya) an area of 36 meters in diameter, and to rise to a total height of 16.4 ms. the size it is at the present day.20 Around it was alse added a terrace (medhi) 4.8 ms. from the ground thus providing a separate and upper ambulatory passage, access to which was obtained by a double stairway (sopana) on the southern side. The whole of the building was then finished off by means of a facing dry masonary composed of hammer-dressed stones laid in fairly even courses. The flattened crest of the dome was surmounted by a superstructure of particular design consisting of a square railing enclosing a pedestal (harmika) which supported the shaft (yashti) of a triple umbrella. 21 Somewhat similar changes as those effected at Sanchi appear to have been carried out in the Stupa of Bharhut. In this instance, however, the brick stupa was not enlarged as it retained its original dimensions of some 20.7 ms. in diameter, but the railing around it was reconstructed. In size the Bharhut stupa was only about half that of Sanchi its railing being a little over seven feet in height, but in marked contrast to the solid simplicity of the latter, every portion of its stone work is richly carved in bas-relief portraying incidents in the 19. IABH. p. pp. 16-17. 20. TABH. p. pl. X Fig. 1. 21. TABH. p. pp. 17.

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The Evolution of the Caitya-griha Jatakas, or scenes connected with the life of Buddha. The remains of the railing is preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. 22 Sacred shrines and stately monuments were raised all around as the account of the chinese pilgrim, Yuan Chwang, gives us a glimpse of the past splendour of the sacred site, known as Bodha gaya.23 Yuan Chawng ascribes the erection of the original Bodhi shrine to Emperor Asoka No vestiges of such a shrine can, however, be found at present. Scholars are of the opinion that the Bodhi shrine carved in a Bharhut relief might represent the one erected by Asoka. The stately structure, which we see nowadays, is a later erection. This temple has been restored and renovated many times. From the descripton of Yuan Chawng it appears that the temple, essentially in its present shape and appearance, existed already in the seventh century A. D.34 From the remains, around the temple it can be said that an important railing was also erected, its shape, however, having to conform to the square plan of the building it enclosed, was not circular but disposed around a quadrangle measuring 44.2 by 32.9 ms.. Although in much the same style as the Bharhut railing, in size it is slightly smaller, as it is only 2 meters high, and its general dimensions are less massive. From these more slender proportions and its refined treatment, as well as from the character of bas-relief it is presumed to be later than either the Bharhut or Sanchi examples, and has been assigned to the early part of the first century B. C.25 22. IABH, p. p. 18 23 9.6 Kims, south of Gaya. 24. 2500 years of Buddhism', p. 310 25. IABH, p. p. 18.

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10 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The erection of substantial stone railings to enclose the sacred portion of stupas and shrines was not, the only eleboration effected in these structures. Entrances, particularly of religious buildings have been regarded as architectural features preeminently suitable for ornamental treatment, and the openings in the stupa railing through which admission was obtained to the ambulatory were an invitation to add some kind of imposing gateways to the scheme. This took the form of a torana, a special kind of entrance archway. From its not infrequent appearance in the bas-reliefs the torana Seems to have been accepted as the traditional type of ceremonial portal so that it was an appropriate addition to the Buddhist sanctuary.36 The earliest known Torana is that which formed the entrance to the eastern side of Bharhut stupa, the only surviving example of four similar gateways, and it bears an inscription stating that it was built during the reign of Sungas" (184-72 B. C.)27 The torana at Bharhut, although the oldest of the style and displaying that is artistic and instructive, it is entirely eclipsed by a series of similar gateways of a richer and far more impressive design which were shortly afterwards erected at Sanchi.28 (d) The Stupas Of Western India (78 A. D. -C. 400 A. D.) The Stupas that have, so far, been found or uncovered in Western India are of brick. The great Boria stupa in the Jungles on the Girnar Mt. at Junagadh had a solid burnt brick core. The relics were imbedded in this brick-structure at a considerable depth about ground level. The find of a few sculptured marble slabs, however, showed that some stone 26. IABH, p. p. 18 27. JABH, p. p. 18 28. IABH. p, p. 19 Pl. xi opp. p. 18.

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The Evolution of the Caitya-gliha 11 work existed, probably as railing and crowning umbrella. The casket containing the relics are on view to the Junagadh Museum. 29 The relics of the Sopara Stupa, which are assigned to the middle of the 2nd cent. A. D. were discovered by Dr. Bhagwanlal Indraji in 1882 at a depth of 3.7 ms. from the top of the mound at Sopara in a regularly built chamber of bricks of the early centuries of the Christian era. They consisted of a large stone-casket with a lid, which when opened disclosed copper-casket; around which, eight bronze images of Buddha were arranged. 30 The Stupa, At Devani-Mori.* With an elongated drum it rests on two square platforms, the lower one of which measures 26 meters square. The first phase of the existing stupa may be dated (A, D, 300-400 ). Twenty two images of Buddha in dhyana-mudra have been found. 29 CHG. PL. XV (B) opp. p. 72 30. CHG. p. 91 * Taluka Bhiloda, Dist. Sabarkantha, Gujarat. haha P. S.- Recently its relic-casket is unearthed. It bears an inscription which records that the stupa was erected in years 127 of the Kathika kings, while Rudrasena was the king. On ascribing the year to the Saka Era that was in common use in the Ksatrapa kingdom, the year would correspond 205-06 A. D. and king Rudrasena would be identical with king Rudrasena l of the Kardamaka lineage of Western Ksatrapas. (JOI. IX. p. 459.). But on several grounds the stupa seems to be of a later period. It is, therefore, proposed to ascribe the year to the Kalcuri Era and equate it with 376-77 A. D. (JGRS. XXV, 100, p. 289). Rudrasena is accordingly identified with Rudrasena III among the Western Ksatrapas. It is also possible that the year belong to a Kathika Era, the epoch and origin of which are unknown and king Rudrasena belong to Kathika dynasty which has come to be known only through this record. (JOI. XV, pp. 59-65)

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12 The Structural Temples of Gujarat In the second phase of the stupa extensive repairs were done to the upper platform constituting the Pradaksina-patha. 31 At places, the round projecting drums were straightened. Decorated bricks were used at indiscriminately. A portion of the apse of the stupa was exposed.32 (e) The Stupas of S. E. India (c. 200 B. C.-c. 4th cent. A. D.) Between the second century B. C. and fourth century A. D. were built numerous stupas along the Krisna in S. E. India on sites of 1. Jaggayyapeta 2. Bhattiprolu 3. Gudivada 4. Ghantasala 5. Garikapada in Krisna district and 6. Padda maddur 7. Pedda Gangam 8. Amaravati and 9. Nagargunakonda in Guntur district.33 These stupas consisted of brick built hemespherical domes on a low base and were characterised by rectangular projections from the base of the dome at four cardinal points, the projections supporting a row of five ornamental pillars. The earlier examples at Bhattiprolu and Gudivada were of solid brickwork while those at Amaravati and Ghantasala with the interior radiating brick walls, with a hub and spokes, the spaces between the walls being filled with earth-packing, before the outer brick casings was constructed. The Stupas were finished with plaster and most of the larger ones were embelished at the base with sculptured marble panels, the example at Amaravati being particularly noted for them. The Superstructure of the Stupas is invariably missing, but it can be visualized by contemporary plastic representations on dimensions, the Amaravati marble friezes. 34 As regards their diameter ranges from 9.1 ms. for the smallest example at Jaggayyapeta to upwards of 30.5 ms, for those at Bhattiprolu, Gudivada, Ghantasala and Amaravati, the last having an 31, Indian Archaeology 60-61 pl. xi B. 32. lbid p. 10 33. IABH, p. pp 45, 48; plt. xxviii A. Fig. 2 opp. p. 45 34. J. Burgess. The Buddhist stupas of Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (London, 1887) Pl. 1

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13 The Evolution of the Caitya-griha approximate diameter of 39.5 ms. for the Stupa and 58.5 ms. for the enclosing railing with a conjectured height about 30.5 ms. The examples at Nagargunakonda, definately dateble to second-third centuries, range in diameter from 8.4 ms. to 32.5 ms. 35 (iii) The Caitya-grihas Enshrining The Stupa. (a) The Early ( Hinayana ) Phase of the Rock-Cut Caitya-grihas ( 2nd Cent. B. C. to 2nd Cent. A. D.) The Caitya-goiha36 as it accommodated a caitya or Stupa. took the form of a large valuted hall having an apsidal end and divided longitudinally by two colonnades into a broad nave and two aisles. In the apse stood the stupa, also carved out of the natural rock, consisting of an elaborated representation of the structural tumulus. The side aisles and apsidal end were for the purpose of procession and circumambulation of the stupa. and the wave was required for the congregational service.37 The Hinayana rock-cut monasterias with caityagrihas represent a definite regional development, as they are limited to the western side of India, many of them lying within the Maharastra state. Taking Nasik as the centre they are all situated within a circle having a radius of less than two hundred miles (320 Kms.) from that town. This architecture resolves itself into some ten separate groups of conventual establishments, each group being separate and self-contained on each originally consists of a prayer-hall (caitya-griha) and its accompanying monastery.38 Of the two kinds of structure, the caityagriha and the Vihara (monastery ), the more important from every 35. A. I. pp. 81-82. 36. In English, the structure is usually designated as chaitya-hall but the original word was 'Caitya-ghara' (i e. Caitya-griha ) which obviously is a more appropriate term. 37. IABH, p. p. 25 38 JABH, P. p. 25 plts : XV-XVII.

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14 The Structural Temples of Gujarat point of view was the caitya-griha. There are eight of those belonging to the Hinayana period as follows: Bhaja98, Kondane, 38 Pitalkhora, Ajanta (No. 10), Bedsa, Ajanta (No. 9), Nasik and Karle 381, probably executed in the order named. All the eight examples were excavated just previous to the Christian era, the first four in the 2nd cent. and the remainder in the first century B. C.. To these may be added two caitya halls from a numerous, and miscellaneous group at Junnar38/ one of which is small but complete, while the other is unfinished, but they are both of the same type and date as that at Nasik.38le Finally executed towards the middle of the second century A. D. is the caitya hall at Kanneri on Salsette near Bombay, which marks the end of the Hinayana movement as far as its rock architecture is concerned.39 In the chronological sequence, these caityagrihas were copies of wooden construction. The pillars appear as copies of plain wooden posts without either capitals or bases. The particular shape of the arch, frequently described as 'horse-shoe arch' forming the main feature of the facade of Caitya halls, seemed to have been evolved first at Bhaja; the arched aperature of which ultimately tend towards circular shape and that to such an extent that in the 7th cent. the facade of Visvakarma cave at Elora, there is no longer a horse-arch but almost a complete circle. Finally, when the caitya-arch motif appeared as a decorative feature in the Brahmanical temple it assumed a variety of forms.40 Further, the caitya-arch contained a window at the centre, through which the light was admitted in to the body of the hall. This window was clearly an enlargement and elaboration of the dormer window of the 38/a. IABH, p. plt XVIll. Fig. 1. 38/b. IABH, p. plt XVIII. Fig. 2. 38/c. IABH. p. plt XX. Fig. 1 & 2 38/d. IABH. p. plt XXII Fig. 1 38/e. IABH. p. plt XXVIII A Fig. 1 39. IABH p. p. 27 40. For Illustration. Vide IABH p. plt xxi Fig. 6 opp. p. 28 a

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The Evolution of the Caitya-griha 1. 15 vedic hut. In shape it is stilted semi-circular aperature divided in to lunettes and radiating like the spokes of a wheel. As an architectural conception and at the same time as an artistic and effective method of introducing light, this early form of traceried window is a remarkable achievement.41 (b) The Laser (Mahayana ) plase Of the Rock-cut Caitya-griha (c. A. D. 450-642 A. D.) The Mahayana rock-cut architecture is restricted to certain specified localites in western India. At Ajanta towards the beginning of the christian era, Hinayaua order has excavated a group of large halls and manastic abodes, after a quiescent period of four centuries the Mahayana order again excavated it. At Elora no earlier excavation had been made, it was previously unoccupied and an entirely new undertaking was initiated by Mahayana Buddhist and eventually developed under the Jains and Brahmanas, into the most important and comprehensive range of rock-cut monuments in India. The Mahayana Buddhist movements, both at Ajanta and Elora, appear to have begun simaltaneously about the middle of the 5th ceiit.42 At Ajanta they excavated two caitya-grihas viz., No. 19 ( C. A, D 550 ) and No. 26 (A. D. 550-600) The two of this group No. 19 is the earlier and finer. It corresponds in size to the already existing Caitya griha No. 10, the smaller and latter of tie Hinayana series, and, as with the caitya griha No. 26 (Mahayana), it follows the earlier type in having flat ceilings to its side aisles. In the interior there is the stupa standing on a slightly elevated platform within the centre of the apse. 4 3. The other Caitya-griha of the series is No. 26 and was excavated atleast fifty years latter than the preceeding. It is exceedingly fine and rich in production. The architectural treatment of this hall is in much the same style as No. 19, 41. IABH p. p. 27-28 42. IABH p. p. 68-69 43. IABH p. p. 70-71 (plts: XLI. )

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16 * The Structural Temples of Gujarat but the ornamentation has been increased. The stupa is an imposing conception, overlaid with a wealth of carving; yet it lacks the graceful proportions and rhythmic effect of the earlier type. 44 At Elora twelve rock-cut halls belonging to the Buddhist creed were produced. The series may be resolved into two sub-groups, Nos. 1 to 5, and a group slightly later in date consisting of Nos. 6 to 12. Each sub-group comprises a prayerhall and its attached monastaries. Of the first group No. 5 is the largest and most remarkble. It measures 35.8 ms. deep by 17.8 ms. wide, exclusive of two fair sized side recesses; and is divided into a nave and two aisles by 24 cushion' pillars in two rows. In addition it has three cells opening out of its sides. At the far end is a transverse vestibule, beyond which is a square cella containing a seated figure of the Buddha with his attendants.45 The most notable production of the whole Buddhist series at Elora, is the caitya gliha No. 10 datable to 7th cent. commonly known as the Visvakarma or Lord of the Arts, It resembles in many respects the two almost contemporary Mahayana, Caitya grihas at Ajanta previously described, although it is appreciably larger. It is not quite so richly carved as Ajanta example, but its interior is planned and decorated on much the same general principles. (The stupa contains a seated figure of the Lord Buddha'. 46 This phase (c. A. D. 450-642 A, D.) of the rock-cut architecture of western India is characterised by a practical elimination of timber constructions or imitations thereof and by the introduiction of the Buddha statuary as a dominent feature of the architectural design. But, on the whole, in the architectural sense, it displays no marked departure from that of the early period. The plan of the Caitya-hall remained essentially identical with that of the previous phase. This is exemplified by Caitya-griha: 44. IABHI p, 71 pit. XLll Fig. 1 opp. p. 69 45. JABH p. p. 72. 46. IABH pp 73

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17 The Evolution of the Caitya-goiha Nos. 19* and 265 at Ajanta which are the earliest products of this phase. The former which is earlier (c. 500 A. D.) and finer of the two has practically the same plan and dimensions as Ajanta Caitya-goiha No. 10 of the previous phase. Caitya-goiha No. 26 (c. 6th cent.) eventhough little larger and lacking in grace and dignity of the preceeding one also resembles hall no. 10.47 * JABH p. plt. XL. Fig. 2. $ IABH p. plt. XLll Fig. 1. 47. Al. p. 87-88.

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THE SHRINE AND THE TEMPLE EARLY PHASE CHAPTER-III (i) Early Traces of the Indian Shrine In India, as elsewhere, the temple is evolved from simple structures, though these as well as intermediate stages cannot always be traced in archaeological sequence or from historical evidence. However, a survey of the various data supplied by the archaeological and literary sources throws some light on the early stages of the Indian temples. (a) The Indus Civilization (c. 3000-2000 B. C.) The buildings discovered at different strata in the excavation at Mohenjo daro may be classified under the following heads : (1) dwelling-houses (2) public baths of relegious or secular character (3) Temples of some kind, and (4) raised platforms, possibly tombs. Now with regards to the existence temples, private or public, and of emblems or worship, Sir John Marshall assumes some of the massive and well-built structures as temples. He says, Whether these spacious and elaborate edifices were private houses or not are yet to be determined. Quite conceivably some of them were temples. In Mesopotamia the temples of gods were to all intents and purposes copies of royal palacesdwellings where a god could eat, drink, and make merry like any mortal prince, and even be wedded on occassion to his priestess. It may be, therefore, that the same idea held good at Mohenjo-daro, and that some of these exceptionally large buildings were erected as homes for the gods. In some such buildings the excavators found series of those peculiar ringstones 66

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19 The Shrine and the Temple: Early Phase "1 which we have good reason for believing were objects of cult worship." With a view to support his this "sheer conjecture Sir John Marshall refers to two buildings which bear all the essential features of a Hindu temple. There is the little building containing two chambers, one much larger structure, which comprises a large central chamber with a corridor on its western and southern sides, a well and two others small chambers at its southern end, and a group of some what larger chambers at northern, the original plan of which is obscured beneath latter accretions. Little, unfortunately, is left of this interesting ruin except its foundations, but these are unusually massive, nearly 10 feet (3 ms.) deep with a solid infilling of crude brick, and presuppose correspondingly high superstructure, which might very well have taken the form of a corbelled Sikhara over the central apartment." One without a preconceived idea, but familiar with the common features of a Hindu temple, would feel no difficulty in identifying the above buildings as ordinary shrines, with a central room where a deity or an emblem is installed, with necessary side rooms and corridors, and finally surmounted with a Sikhara. number of stray The Harappau sites have yeilded a figurines and statues, which appear to represent divine figures, but no buildings which can be definitely identified as temples are discovered so far. (b) The Vedic References. The Vedic literature contains some incidental references to structural abodes of residence or even to particular parts of buildings and associates certain deities (especially like Tavstr) with the sphere of architecture. But they give no indication about the existence of any religious structures in the form of temples. 1. Sir John Marshall. Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilisation Vol. I. p. 22. 2. Ibid p. 22.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat The protohistoric and the early historic periods mark a primitive stage in the history of architecture. It is charactrised by architectural attempts in impermanent materials like earth, stucco, bamboo, and timber. The fire altars (yajna vedis) of this age must have been like simple platforms made of Kusa grass and mud and the yajna sala must be a thatched hut. Dr. Radhakamala Mukerji in his "Social function of Art" traces the evolution of temple construction to the original shape of a hut. He says, "The temple rises skyward like a thatched conical hut of the Indian peasant, but since the temple is the abode of god it is capped by the fruit amalaka, or inverted petals of the lotus flower, or the inverted waterjar." It is clear that the shapes of the structures, originally, were round i. e. at first those of circular plan predominated. At a later date in the evolution of vedic hut the circular plan was elongated into an oval. And during the period of the composition of the Sulva sutras, Taitiriya Samhita, Baudhayana and Apastamba Sutra the vedis took the diverse artistic shapes and forms which ultimately lead us to believe that this sacred ritual edifice (vedi ) was the earlier ancestar to all later temples which were perhaps made of bamboo, reads, mats and muds. 20 It is interesting to note that the principal shapes, prescribed for the ground plan of temples in the Canonical literature of architecture figures among those prescribed in the Sulva sutra's for the ground plan of the Yajna Vedi (altar). Dr. P. K. Acharya also accepts the probability of the beginning of temple building under the circumstances noted above. This was the thatched period of Indian Architecture, 320. 3. Dr. Radha Kumuda Mukerji. "Social Function of Art." p. 4. For details: cf: Percy Brown. Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu period) Ch. I. P. 3. 5. c. 800. B. C. 6. Dr. P. K. Acharya, The cultural Heritage of India pt. III p. 253

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The Shrine and the Temple: Early Phase before the wood became common in use of architecture. From the ample references found in vedic literature; it is learnt that wood appears to have been a common material for architecture yet, stone is occassionally referred to.7 (c) The Wood Phase Temples in ancient India are of two types, rock-cut and structural. The earlier structural temples like the rock-cut, were main festly derived from wood-architecture. The harmonious integration of plastic decoration, one of the most striking features of Indian temple architecture, has its source or derivation in the early wood architecture. That is why, nearly all the canonical texts of vastuvidya have elaborately discussed the qualitative strength and plasticity of various kinds of wood, the most essential material used in architecture. 21 The high workmanship found in the wooden construction leads us to believe that it supplied a considerable contribution in the development of stone masonery. Percy Brown has aptly observed," Owing to the Indian craftman's traditional genius for imitation every detail of this early form of timber construction has been most faithfully reproduced in the numerous and very complete examples of rock architecture which followed, so that although the wooden originals have perished their exact facsimiles remain preserved in the living rock. In no other country has the carpenters and joiners craft as practised over two thousand years ago been so fully and accurately recorded."9 (d) Buildings In Brick Buildings in brick were partly conterminous with and succeded the period of wooden construction. 7. Rigveda 4, 3, XX; 'Satam, asmanmayinam puram I also Macdonald and Keith, Vedic Index, pt. 1, pp. 229-231. 8. Al p. 76. 9. IABH p. p. 7.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat Besanagar (Vidisa) was the capital of Sungas (c. B. C. 185-c. 70 B. C.). Here was a Brahmanical shrine of some prominent dedicated to the divinity Vasudeva, and apparently a temple, but only a few fragments of which have survived; and in whose vicinity, a pillar with an inscription (stating that it was a Garuda pillar raised in honour of the god Vasudeva by Heliodorus, son of Dion, a resident of Taxila ) was erected approximately in 140 B. C.10 (ii) The early Brahmanical Cave Temples (c. A. D. 350-450) The excavated chambers at Udaigiri* (Bhopal) are partly rock cut and partly stone built. They are in all nine. They are plain rectangular cells. Their architectural value lies in the treatment of the rock facades and particularly in the design of the pillared porticos that were built in front of them The only one of the series with its frontage fully intact is False cave (No. 1). It is probably the earliest Brahmanical sanctum that has survived. 11 The remaining shrines at Udaigiri are an elaboration of the principles applied in the False cave. But in most of instances the door-ways are richly carved, and in conjunction with them are certain separate sculptured figure compositions of high order. Cave no. 3 Binacave' in addition to the four pillars of the portico; has two smaller pillars in either side and the cell no. 9.Amrita Cave' steps further. It has a cella nearly twice the size of others. This cella is the largest as probably latest of the entire series. 1 2 (iii) The Evolution of The Full Fledged Shrine And The Theories of Its Origin The architectural form of the structural temple enshrining an image seems to have fully evolved in the Gupta period. The covered and enclosed sanctum (garbhgriha ) is built upon 10. JABH p. p. 21 * Cunningham's Report Vol. X p. 41 11. [ABH p. p. 56 plt xxxiii Fig. 1 12. IABH p. p. 59-60

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The Shrine and the Temple : Early Phase the base (Adhisthana and or Pitha). In the beginning the sanctum was covered by a flat roof which was in course of time replaced by a superstructure in form of a spire (Sikhara ) of the pyramidal or curvilinear shape. These vertical parts of the shrine seem to have originated from different sources. This has given rise to several theories about the architectural origin of the Indian shrine. They may be summed up as follows. :13 (1) The citi, The Alter The Adhisthana, the Socle or the base of the Vedic altar, the Citi, got itself incorporated in the structural genesis of the Prasada as its Jagati, Pitha. These lower parts of the temple is embodied the memory of the sacred ground (vedi ) with its piled up altar (citi) where sacrificial offerings were carried out by the flaming fire. Dr. Stella Kramarisch in * Hindu temple' has emphatically pointed out not only the origin of Socle or base in vedic altar, but the entire prasada, according to her is a citi. She Says, " The Vedic altar survives in the structure of the body of the temple in its lowest and its highest part. In technique and name the Prasada, the Hindu temple, shares in the name of the Vedi and Citi. Its total structure moreover when seen from outside has the appearance of a massive pile, and is monument more than a building. The thickness of the walls of the Garbhagliha; and the often nearly compact superstructure, also reveal that the entire Prasada is a Citi. This is confirmed by its very names, Prasada, Sadma, Sadana derived from or identical to the word Sadanam itself which denotes the piling of the vedic altar."14 (2) Dolmen. The flat roofed temple has the dolmen for its prototype. In dolmen the device is that that one larger flat slab of stone, supported by three upright slabs set on edge so as to form a small chember with one side open to serve as an entrance 13. Archaeology in India pp. 93-94; HT. Vol. I p. 145 ff. 14. Dr. Stella Kramarisch; " Hindu temple " vol. I p. 148.

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24 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Many ancient shrines have got this prototype shape. The flat roofed temples have no sikharas or spires. Technically, such Prasadas or temples are known as 'Chhadya Prasadas' covered by chhadya of many varieties, i. e, some may be doble roofed or triple roofed, "Rucakadi Prasada, elaborately described in 49th chapter of " Samrangana Sutradhara of king Bhojadeva, are Chhadya Prasadas and has many varieties. Even today the shrines of this class survive in many parts of India, especially in Bengal. These Prasadas i. e. temples owe thair origin to the Dolmen. The dolmen shrine constitutes the aboriginal temple of this day even many saiva Shrines of this type have been discovered by the Archaeological Survey. 15 (3& 4) The Shed of Initiation And The Tabernacle. " While the primeval shape of the dolmen is architecturally the proto-type of the sanctuary enshrined in the Hindu temple, other closed types of sacred buildings, also have preceded the Hindu temple. They too have lent their meaning and added their shape to the cube of the Garbhagriha. They are the vedic shed of initiation and undatable "Tabernacle" made of bamboo or branches of a large palm leaves only, in which divine presence is known to dwell while being worshipped. The Vedic shed of initiation is an Aryan element which contributed in the origin and development of the temple, while Tabernacle' is a non-Aryan element which also has contributed in the growth of the temple. Even to this date we have a proto-type of Taberanacle in our 'Satyanarayana-Katha, in which without any image, we simply invoke the divine presence and in our glorification and veneration thereof, we decorate it with leaves, especially with those of Kadali, Amra, Asoka etc. and give shape of a pavilion. These decorations and ornamentations have served as the motif for the later decorations and ornamentations in the Temple. Both these institutions i. e. the institutions of the shed of initiation and the tabernacle, one Aryan, the other non-Aryan; 15. Stella Kramarisch H. T. p. 153, fn. No. 61 and p. 150, fn. No. 53.

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25 The Shrine and the Temple : Early Phase have lent the architectural evolution to the internal and external parts of the temple. These are the proto-types of the temples having curvilinear Sikharas which were to rise above the garbha griha as the Superstructure.16 The shape of citi or altar, as suggested above, was one of the factors which contributed in the formation of different shapes of the prasada or temple. The other sources which have also contributed to the development of the shape of the prajada, are the mountains and the caves. (5) The Prasada As An Image of Mountain There are numerous references, both literary and epigraphic, in which the temple is compared with the mountain or one or other peak of the mountain. The very residence of the gods were described on the mountain peaks, the highest and sublimest among them, the Kailas, is the abode of the great god Siva. The traditional architectural manuals have designated some the sublimest varieties of the temples after the names of the mountains. In Brhat-Samhita and Matsyapurana, Meru, Mandara and Kailasa are the first three names among the twenty type of temples. These, and other peaks of the mountain have visualised the architectural shape of the Prasada. The geography of the Puranas have given the greatest importance to the Mountain Meru, and the Puranic cosmology has described it as the axis17 of the world and the Mandara and Kailasa are said to be the peaks of Meru. 18 These mountains have given the grandest models to the architectural genesis of their shape. Nearly all the silpa manuals have exalted Meru type of temple as Prasada-raja, King of Prasadas. 19 Prabandha Cintamani says "King of Gujarat constructed Karna-Meru Prasada in. Anhilvada 16. Dr. D. N. Shukla, Vastusastra' ), pp. 411-412. 17. Visnu Purana ch. Il v. 11-17. 18. Sidhanta Siromani pt. Il ch. III v. 36. 19. Sm. Su. Ch. 53. v. 3, APPR. ch. CLXVII.

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26 The Structural Temples of Gujarat name of the King being linked with the temple Patan, the type Meru, 20 (6) The Temple As An Image Of A Cave. In the evolution of the structural temples the cave temples or the rock temples of India have played a very important part. In architectural treatises these rock temples are described under the name 'Layana' (etymologically a place of rest) 'Guhadhara '21 etc. (iv) The Gupta Temples In Central & Northern India (c. A. D. 350-650) The Supremacy of the Guptas lasted only for about 160 years but the particular style of art associated with this dynasty was produced over a considerably longer period, the vitality of the movement giving it sufficient momentam to make its influence felt even in medieval times. 82 The specific characteristics of the Gupta period have been derived by Percy Brown; accordingly they are; "(a) the shape of the pillars and capitals, (b) the treatment of the intercolumination, (c) the system of continuing the architrave as a string course round the entire building, and the design of the door way.33 These were the novel features introduced by the Gupta architecture which with the development of temple architecture in the country attained the full fledged form. Further the addition of Sikhara over garbhagriha is a predominant feature of this period. Many of the early Gupta temples were flat roofed, technically known as 'Chhadya Prasada.' This variety of temple has been found elaborately discussed in some of the canonical text, especially in Samrangana Sutradhara of King Bhoja deva. 24 20. Prabandha cintamani (PCD.) III, 8. p. 89 21. Sm. Su. Ch. 59, vv. 236-237. 22. IABH p. p. 58 23. IABH p. p. 58 24. Sm. Su. Ch. 49

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27 The Shrine and the Temple : Early Phase The principal examples of Gupta temples now remaining are as follows,-a temple at Tigwa i. e. Visnu temple of Kankaldevi at Tigwa* (inspite of later additions to its frontage, still retains much of its original appearance), in the Jabbulpor district, the Narasinha and other shrines at Eran (N. E. of Bhilsa ); Temple No. 17 at Sanchi; a temple at Bhamara in former Nagod state; and the temple at Nachna in former Ajaiyagarh State. 25 It is interesting to compare the Brahmanical temple at Tigwa with the Buddhist temple (no. 17) at Sanchi both of which were probably erected in the first26 half of the fifth century. Their proportions are practically the same, and they both conforin to the general characteristics of the Gupta style.3 ? The Siva temple at Bhamara in former Nagod State, and the Parvati temple at Nachna in former Ajaigarh State, both probably erected before 500 A. D.. Each is built on the principle of the flat roof, with pillared portico, and although differing in some parts of their arrangements (for instance Nachna example has an upper storey), their proportions are very similar, and their plans are much alike. Both temples are much ruined but each had a processional patha around the outside of the sanctum, that Nachna being an enclosed passage, while at Bhamara it was an open promenade. In each case the doorways to the shrine are of the typical Gupta design.28 The early Gupta style reached its culmination in a superb little structure at Deogarh in the Jhansi district, a Siva temple probably dating from early in the sixth centrury. In this example is seen an effort to throw off the rudimentory convention of the flat roof, and instead of it the uper part of the sanctum * Cunnigham's Reports Vol. X p. 41., IABH, p. pl. xxxiv fig. 1 25. IABH p. p. 58 26. Guide to Sanchi, Marshall p. p. 19 and 105 27. IABH p. p. 59 plt. XXXIV. 28 IABH p. p. 60.

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38 The Structural Temples of Gujarat was carried upward in the form of a pyramidal tower. The other notable feature of this temple is the arrangement of its portico. Instead of only one of these, as usual in the front of the entrance to the sanctum, there are four of them, one projecting from each side of the central structure each with the flat roof supported on a row of four pillars, with the wider intercolumination in the middle.29 The brick temple at Bhitargoan is also of the same style and belong to 6th century A. D. A rectangular shrine with an apsidal rear-end and a barrel-vaulted roof showing a gable-end of the caitya-window design was considered to be a peculiar type of Gupta style. The two striking brick temples at Ter (Hydrabad) near sholapur and Kapotesvara temple at Chezrala in Krishna-district and temples consisting of a hollow cylandrical brick structure with enclosing circular wall represented by a unique example of Maniyara Matha at Rajgir in Patna District; eventhough conveying slight different features from that of general architectural conception of the Gupta temples, fall under this group. 30 (v) The Final Phase of Cave Temples. (7th & 9th cent. A.D.) The final manifestation of cave temples in India was the rock-cut temples, confined to three localities; (1) Elora (2) the islands of Elephanta and Salsette near Bombay and (3) the development under the Pallava Kingdom in south India. These rock-cut groups are Brahmanical and Jain and are excavated between the 7th and 9th centuries.31 (a) Elora caves cosist of such sixteen examples which fall into four groups. The first group was planned on the lines of a Buddhist cave-monestery consisting of a pillared portico with a cella beyond and is represented by the Dasavatara cave (early 7th cent.) which claims the distinction of being the only two 29. IABH, P. F. 60-61; Conjectural Restoration on plt. xxxiii, Fig. 6 opp. p. 54. 30. A. I. pp. 95-96 31. IABH p. p. 86

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The Shrine and the Temple : Early Phase 29 storeyed Brahmanical excavation of Elora. This temple is consisted of a courtyard having a square Nandi-mandapa (pavilion) and a pillared hall (32.2 * 29.1 ms.) in the ground floor and a larger and finer hall of the same size in the upper storey supported on six rows of five pillars each, with a twopillared vestibule at the far end leading to a square cella enshrining a linga. The second group of cave-temples, characterised by a processional path around the shrine, is represented by RavanKa-Khai and Ramesvara Caves ( late seventh century) The third group of rock-temples in which the shrine is isolated but stands in cruciform hall is represented at Elora by the solitary Dumar-lena* (early eighth cent.) Architecturally these are extremely remarkable cave-temples as they have three portals, one in front and one in each wing, and were lighted with artistic effect from three sides. A notable feature of these group is the elegant form of their massive pillars with ribbed cushion capital. The fourth and final group of cave temples at Elora is represented by the Kailasaf which is a replica in rock of a structural temple. (Later half of the 8th cent. ). This temple marks the supreme culmination of Indian rock architecture which was nothing but sculpture on a grand scale. It is more than 30.5 ms. in height, covering an area roughly 91.5 x 53.5 ms. and consisted of (1) main temple ( 50 x 33.3 x 29.4 ms. in size ) (2) Nandi shrine (3) gateway and (4) cloister surrounding the courtyard. Among the detached cluster of Jain excavation at Elora (c. 800-900 A.D.) the most notable are the Indra Sabha ( No 32 ) and Jaganatha Sabha (No. 33. ). The former is earlier and superior in workmanship. These jain cave-temples are remarkable for their lavish carvings and exquisite pillars with the cushion capital. * JABH. p. plt XLVIII fig. 1 & 2. I IABH. p. plt XLVIII A fig. 1, 2.

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30 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (b) The excavation of Elephanta and Jogesvari cave temples in Salsette island near Bombay emphethetically shows that they were inspired by the architectural scheme of Dumar-lane temples at Elora. The Elephanta cave (c. A. D. 750 ) is smaller than the Dumar-lane but is distinguished by the exceptional quality of sculptures, carved in recessed panels, of which the best known is the three headed Siva, facing the main entrance in the north. The temple at Jogesvari ( c. 800 ) is larger than the previous examples. (c) The rock-temples in South India (7th cent. A. D.) were expressed in two forms, one mandapa which was an excavation and the other ratha which was a monolith. The mandapa, which constituted a simple pillared liall with one or more cellas in the rear was initiated by the Pallava King Mahendravarman I (c, 610-640), who excavated 14 mandapas scattared from Undavalli (in Guntur Dist. ) to Trichinopoly ( in the extreme south ). His successor Narasinhavarman 1 (c. 640-668 ), besides the excavation of mandapas, excavated a new type of temples known as rathas, all his monuments being concentrated at Mamallapuram (mahabalipuram) of which the King popularly known as mahamalla, was the founder. His mandapas follow the general plan and dimensions of the previous reign but are more developed. The rathas were rock-cut models of structural temples, mostly derived from either the vihara or the Citya-goiha type of Buddhist structure. The Vihara type of ratha is square in plan and pyramidal in elevation. It is inspired by the monastic plan of a courtyard enclosed by cells. It is best illustrated in the Dharmraja ratha which is the largest in the group. The caitya-goiha type of ratha is oblong in plan and has a keel or barral-roof, with a Caitya gable end. The Sahadev ratha and the Bhima ratha are typical examples of this style. 3 2 32. IABH p. p. 96-97.

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CHAPTER IV THE COMPONENT PARTS OF THE FULL-FLEDGED TEMPLE The real foundation of structural temple architecture in Northern India was laid in the Gupta period (c. 350-650 A. D.). Before we make a general survey of the gradual development of architectural form of the structural temple it is necessary to introduce its principal component parts. (i) The Principal Parts of the Temple The principal parts of the temple are as follows: Throughout the greater part of the country, the sanctuary as a whole is known as the vimana,. The vimana is a small and generally dark chamber or cella for the reception of the divine symbol. This cella is the garbha gliha or "womb-house," and was entered by a doorway on its inner, and usually, eastern side. In front of the doorway was a pillared hall, or mandapa. Some of the earlier temples indicate that the mandapa, was a detached building, isolated from the sanctuary by a definite open space, as in the shore' temple at Mamallapuram and in Kailasnatha at Conjeevaram, both near Madras, and built about 700 A. D.. A little latter it became the custom to unite the two buildings, thus forming an intermediate chamber, or vestibule and called the antarala. Leading up to the main hall, or mandapa is a porch or. ardha-mandapa, while there may be a transept on each side of this central hail, known as the maha-mandpa. The most complete illustrations of the fully formed and coalesced temple structure, are the tenth century examples at Khajuraho, central India, especially that known as Kandariya Mahadeo. In this class of temple, each portion named above, has its separate pyramidal roof, rising in regular gradation,

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32 The Structural Temples of Gujarat from the lowest over the porch (ardha mandapa), to the lofty spire over the sanctum. In some parts of the country it became the practice to enclose the temple building within a rectangular courtyard by means of continuous range of cells, facing inwards, the whole forming a substantial surrounding wall, and this ensuring seculsion. Most of the early temples have a processional passage or pradakshina patha consisting of an enclosed corridor carried around the outside of the cella. 1 The (ii) The Different Forms Of The Sikhara And Classification Of Temples. The early works like Brahatsamhita and Agni Purana, give the classification of temples on the norms of proportional measure and are silent about the distinct styles and about their geographical distribution or racial origin. However, in temple architecture one type of structure is distinguished and differentiated from other types mainly by the shape of the Sikhara. By the shape of the Sikhara we have to understand the inner shape that is to say the original shape at horizontal section. The curvilinear lines are developed on the outer face in a later day construction. Thus the curvilinear and bulging aspect has no functional side and is chiefly ornamental in design i. e. it is a subsidiary feature built into the square Sikhara as a matter of ornamentation in the course of the development of temple architecture. And so the shape of the horizontal section of the Sikhara has become a determining factor in the classification of styles of temple architecture. Taking the shape of the Sikhara as the fundamental basis of classification, nearly all the ancient Indian writers and authorities have laid down the three main styles of temple architetcure known as "Nagara' 'Dravida' and 'Vesara'. If the shape of 1. IABH p. p. 75

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The Component Parts of the Full-Fledged Temple 33 the Sikhara is square (Yugasra)'10 the temple is said to belong to the Nagara class, if circular (Vstamaka), to the Vesara class if facetted (Saduragasra) (i.e. hexagonal or octagonal) to the Dravida class. Thus Nagara shrine has a square Sikhara i. e. it will be a pyramid on a square base, ending in a point. The square is the fundamental shape. The octagonal and circular shapes are derivation from the fundamental square. Thus, it is clear that Nagara which is square structure from bottom to head i. e. completely square in the shape of its body and head, has a pure form while those of Dravida and Vesara admit of mixture of shape in respect of the body and head. The 'Tantrasamuccaya' a well known treaty of the Southern school of architecture, has clearly accepted the fundamental basis of classification of the styles of temples on the shape of 10. Narrated in Manasara, Mayamata, Tantrasamuccaya, Isangurudeva paddhati, Kamikagama, Silpratna, Samarangana Sutradhara, Aparajitapraccha etc. + Nagaram caturasram Syadastasram Dravidam Tatha 1 Vitam Ca Vesaram Prokatam......(vide Manasara LIII. 53-54) Aparajitapsaccha, a work of 13th century at the latest, mentions the six styles -a1317, afas, fat, ah, afisat and 71977 instead of the three styles Further, it mentions as many as fourteen varieties of salgs as under :(1) a11 (2) alice (3) afda (4) 2212 (5) fahia (6) Arar (7) farqlama TOR (8) fA2017 (9) HITS (10) fahra_984 (11) pet (12) FA 17347 (13) TEST (14) age Samarangana Sutradhara, a work of 11th century, treats all the above mentioned first eight varieties.

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34 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the Sikhara. The Stanza 11 which defines the three styles 'Nagara' Dravida and 'Vesara' is as follows: "That temple is known as Nagara which is made square from the mula (basement) to the Sikhara (head) (both inclusive), that is Dravida which is made distinctly-hexagonal or octagonal from above the griva (neck) to the end of the Sikhara (head); that is vesara which exhibits a circular shape either from the basement (Mula) or the neck (gala). One may construct, according to one's liking, one from among those whose features have been particularly prescribed. 12 Shri P. A. Mankada has elaborately treated the subject of geographical distribution of the three styles.SS He says: "Documentary evidence as gathered from Vastu Sastras points irresistibly to the fact that India was divided geographically as well as politically into three main divisions as under: Northern most division extended from the Himalayas to the Vindhya ranges. The middle zone comprised of a tract of country lying between the Vindhya ranges and the Godavari on the one side and Krsna on the other, and the Southern most zone extended from the Krsna to Capecomorin the Southern extrimity of India These zones were known as nAgara, vesara, drAviDa respectively. The nAgara division included all those people whose mother tongue is Hindi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Maghadhi, Bengali etc.; with Sanskrit, II. Tantrasamuccaya (N. V. Mallaya), Part I, Patala II, St. 71 "Muladya Sikharam Yugasraracitam geham Smritam Nagaram Grivadya Sikharakriyam Saduragasro-debhaditam Dravidam Muladya Galatoathava Parilasadvritatmakam Vesaram Tesvekam Prithagattalaksmsu vidadhyadatmanah Sammatam. 12. This definition with slight variation has been adopted by Sri Kumara, another author of Southern India, in his Silparatna (Silparatna, T. S. S. ed. pt. 1, Patala XVI) SS APPR. Int. p. XXXIII-XXXIV

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The Component Parts of the Full-Fledged Temple 35 Nagari and Deva-nagari, as their scripts. The country known as q was the original home of these races. They, agreeably to the exegencies of the times, spread over at different times in history and in different batches small or great into Gujarat, Malva, Lata and Anarta on the South and magadha, baMga etc. on the east. Similarly, the middle zone known as a included in its boundaries them, a etc. The people of this zone speak agy and the last and the Southern most division includes the Tamil speaking races. Kerala forms a part of this. The Dravidian territory includes the northern half of Ceylon and extends northward up to an irregular line drawn from a point on the Arabian Sea about 1000 miles south of Goa along the Western Ghata as far as Kolhapur, then north east through Hydrabad and further east words to the Bay of Bengal. The old or Telugu country covers about 8000 Sq. miles and is bounded on the east by the Bay of Bengal, on the north by the River Godavari and on the South by the Krsna (Preface of Dr. Burnett, Catlogue or Telugu works.)13 All the available texts are agreed on the point that the Nagara style was prevalent in the region between the Himalays and Vindhyas (Nagarasya Smrito desah Himavad-Vindhyamadhyagah-Isangurudevapaddhati, Silparatna etc.. Similar statement is also seen in Kasyapasilpa and Kamikagama) while Aparajitapraccha confines the Nagari (Nagara) style to Madhyadesa and further mentions Lati and Vairati (evidently the styles prevailed in Lata and Virata (Varada) regions) as separate styles (Nagari Madhyadesa tu Lati Lata prakirtitaAPPR.) These Lati and Vairati may be considered as remifications of the Nagara style. But, it is noteworthy that these styles are not exclusively confined to any region or race as all the styles are found more or less in all parts of the country. Nearly all the texts or canons 13. APPR. Int. p. XXXIII

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36 The Structural Temples of Gujarat of architecture have given importance to the shape of the sikhara while classifying the styles of the temples. The regional or geographical distribution or racial origin is secondary; the primary one is the shape of the temple. Similarly the origin of a particular architectural form cannot be definitely ascribed to any religious sect. Thus it is a misnomer to designate any type of a temple architecture as specifically Buddhist, Jain or Brhmanical. The Nagara style of temple architecture, for instance, applies not only to Siva and Visnu temples, but also to Jain temples as well, as is evident from the various Jain temples of Rajsthana and Gujarat. The Nagara style is represented in modern terms as the North Indian or Indo-Aryan style, while the Dravida style is now known as the Dravidian or South Indian style. The Vesara style is not much accepted as a distinct style in modern works on Indian architecture. Some of the scholars of Indian architecture are of opinion that the Vesara style was prevalent in South and the temples belonging to that style were built by the later Calukyas in the Kanarese Districts, and by Hoysala dynasty in Mysore. 14 The architectural monuments of temples in Gujarat generally belong to the Nagara style. The two distinct prominent features of the Nagara style are revealed one in planning and the other in elevation. 1. In plan it is always a square with a number or offsets or lateral projections in the middle of each side, which give it the shape almost of cruciform. 2. In elevation it exhibits a higher tower (Sikhara) gradually inwards in a convex curve, for we have the term 'Sukanasa Sikhara' ( i. e. the Sikhara which is curved like the parrot's beak ) in the Puranas. 14. Vide H. T. p. 291

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The Component Parts of the Full-Fledged Temple 37 The Nagara style has exhibited distinct varieties and remifications in different localities conditioned not only by local factors but also by the different lines of evolution and elaboration that each locality choose for itself. But inspite of elaborations and modifications in different localities, the two distinct prominent features i. e. cruciform plan and curvilinear tower have been maintained thoroughly. Apart from the two distinct features of the Nagara temple, other various features which give the elaboration to it are multifarious; and so in the Nagara School of architecture along with the shapes of ground plans and elevations of structures these other features are also taken into account as differentiating features, giving rise to many fold divisions or classification of temples. These are the measures of height of their basements (Pithodayamana), the measurements of doorways (Dvaramana ), the ornamentations and other constructive specialities in the nature of Sikhara and their Rekha, mouldings ( Kantakas) etc. According to writers of the Southern school i. e. the Dravinian school of Architecture, the quadrangularity of the ground plan is the determinant of the Nagara style while hexagonality is that of the Dravida school, But this restriction to the form of the ground plan is not accepted by writers of the Northern i. e. Indo Aryan or Nagara school, for facility of construction, however, all the forms of the ground plan are reduced to five shapes only, viz., Vairajya. (Square), Puspaka (rectangular), Kailasa (Circular) Manika (ellipsoidal) and Trivistapa (octagonal). The Dravidian structures have the same five fold forms of the ground plan.15 So it is clear that it is not the general ground plan of the temples and their forms alone that determine these styles. There are many other factors which differentiate the one style from the other. These factors, according to Aparajitapraccha, a 15. APPR. Int. p. XL

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38 The Structural Temples of Gujarat famous work of the Nagara or Northern or Indo Aryan style, are Ksetra (Plan of a site ), Talacchanda (internal as well as external arrangement in the ground plan), urdhavacchanda (arrangement in parts in elevation), Pitha ( basement), Dvaramana ( measures of doorways ), Prasadodayamana ( measures of heights of temples), Mandovara (walls of garbha goiha), Sikhara (Spire), Kalasa (Finial), Rekha (profile of a spire), ornaments, Kantaka (mouldings), Bathos, Talamana etc. 16 (iii) The Salient Features of the Horizonatal Parts (a) Garbhagriha: The cell or Sanctuary is the shrine proper. The garbhagriha or 'womb-house' is a small and generally dark chamber entered by a doorway. It is almost universally square in plan. Over the square ground plan of the cella the wall rises vertically to a certain height. This is followed either by pyramidal or curvilinear sikhara and Amalaka. The garbhagriha with its upper pyramidal or tapering portion including the Amalaka and finial (Kalasa) is known as Vimana also. In the inner side the garbhagriha is but a plain square plan But it is given an artistic complex shape on the outer side. This feature is produced by adding several projections on the outside of the four walls. Generally the middle portion of each wall is projected in the form of a narrow parallel face known as bhadra. One of the faces has an entrance door. The doorway mostly faces the eastern direction, Between these four faces however, one or more recessed angles technically known as pratiratha, uparatha, nandi etc. may be systematically introduced and upon this principle that the complicated star-shaped plans of temples and modified forms of spires (Sikharas) are arrived at. 16. APPR. Int. P. XXXVIII

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The Component Parts of the Full-Fledged Temple 39 (b) Mandapa: This is the place from where the glimpse of the consecrated deity of the garbhagriha can be had. It is a pillared hall in front of the doorway of the garbhagriha. Some of the earlier temples have no mandapa; or they show that the mandapa, was a detached building isolated from the sanctuary and in some cases it is found added subsequently. Later on it became the custom to unite the two isolated buildings i. e the garbhagriha, an abode of the deity and the mandapa, the prayer hall, thus forming an intermediate chamber or vestibule called antarala also known as Korimandapa. Elegantly carved pillars form an essential part of the mandapa. They are so arranged geometrically that they leave the octagonal area or nave at the centre and outside this central area they are so spaced that they form a pillared aisles. The pillars of the mandapa are exquisitely decorated in a high and low relief. Percy Brown has vividly described the architectural style of the Mandapa, The shafts of the pillars rarely taper, but are divided horizonatly into decorative zones or drums, the upper being less in diameter than the lower, so that they diminish by stages, to finish in a bracket-capital or Sira. Surrounding the nave the pillars are provided with an extension or attic of dwarf-pillars also bearing bracket-capitals, the interval between the upper and lower Siras being fild by inclined struts or braces each carrying an image, usually a female figure, carved in high relief. These attic pillars, with the architrave above, while raising the height of the nave, also support the central dome, which consists of a shallow bowl-shaped ceiling formed by a succession of overlapping courses, the joints being so concealed in intricate carving that the whole appears as if moulded in one piece."17 (c) Antarala:- It is a vestibule in form of an intermediate chamber which usually connects the two isolated parts of the 17. IABH p. p. Ch. XXIV p. 144 66

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40 The Structural Temples of Gujarat temple i. e. garbhagriha and mandapa. It is also known as Korimandapa, 18 Its shape must not be like a square court but it should be rectangular. (d) Ardhamandapa : Leading up to the main hall or mandapa is a porch. It is an open four-pillared pavilion in front of the entrance door of mandapa. If the Mandapa has three entrance doors, there shall be three such pavilions, one on each side. In design and carving it resembles the mandapa. (e) Circumambulatory :- This is known as Bhramani or Pradaksinapatha and is a passage between the two-one outer and the other inner-walls of the garbhagoiha. A Temple, having a garbhagriha ensconced by two walls and a circumambulatory is known as Sandhara Prasada. (f) Accessory mandapas : As the art of temple architecture progressed and temple ritual developed the central mandapa was widened and sometimes also surrounded by other subsidiary mandapas. The shrine having circumambulatory around it gave scope for the enlargement of the mandapa. When a transcept on each side of the central mandapa is added, the whole structure is known as Mahamandapa. With the further development of temple ritual more than one accessory mandapas were added to the front of the central mandapa in one axial alingment. This sort of temple complex is best illustrated in the temples of Orissa which include a Natamandapa (dancing hall) and a Rangamandapa (musical hall) added in front of the Jagamohana i. e. the central mandapa. These halls were invariably of one storey only with a pyramidal roof above.19 (iv) The Main Characteristics Of The Vertical Parts. (a) Conception of The Limbs of the Human Body Like many other types of the productions of the architect and the craftsman, vertical parts of the devakula or devalaya are conceived according to those of the human body. 18. IABH p. p. 72 19. TABH p. p. 119

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The Component Parts of the Full-Fledged Temple This is clearly implied by architectural terms used for several parts of the temples such as Jangha (thigh), Kati ( waist ) uru or uras ( breast-bone ), Skandha ( shoulder ) Kantha ( Neck), Griva (curvical cartilages), Mukha (the mouth) Karna (ears), Nasika (nostrils), Sirsa (head), Sikha or Sikhara ( head-knot) etc.30 20. This organic cheory pertaining to the structure of Prasada is beautifully brought out by Agni Putana in the following verses. prAsAdaM vAsudevasya mUrtibhedaM nibodha me / dhAranAdaraNIm viddhi AkAzaM zuSirAtmakam // tejastat pAvakaM viddhi vAyu sparzagataM tathA / pASANAdiSveva jalaM pArthivaM pRthivIguNam // pratizabdodbhavaM zabdaM sparza syAt karkazAdikam / zuklAdikam bhavedRpaM rasamannAdidarzanam // dhUpAdigandhaM ganghantu vAgmAdiSu saMsthitA / zuknAsAzritA nAsA bAhU tathako smRtau // zirastvaNDaM nigadita kalasaM mUrddhajaM smRtam / kaNThaM kaNThamiti jJeyaM skandhaM vedI nigadyate // pAdupasthe praNAle tu tvak sughA parikIrtitA / mukhaM dvAraM bhavedasya pratimA jIva ucyate // tacchakti piNDikAm viddhi prakRtijva tadAkRtim / nizcalatvajaca garbhA'syA adhiSThAtA tu kezavaH // evameva hariH sAkSAt prAsAdatvena saMsthitaH / jar3a tvasya zivo jJeyaH skandhe dhAtA vyasthitaH // uprabhAge sthito viSNurevaM tasya sthitasya hi / ' Ag. P. LXI, 19-27. Similarly the Texts of Southern School of Architecture like Hayasirsa Pancaratra (XXXIX) amd Silparatna (XVI) also support the aforementioned Organic Theory.

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42 The Structural Temples of Gujarat This concept is also applied to minor and subordinate limbs. Thus stambha ( pillar), Prakara (court ), Balanaka or Gopuram ( entrance gate ), Pratoli, Kirtitorana, Dipalaya, Ghata (pot) etc., have the same terms used for their component limbs. (b) The Vertical Parts of the Shrine The most important vertical parts of the structural shrine are : The base (Pitha ), mandovara (the wall of the garbhagriha) and the superstructure i. e. Sikhara with Amalaka and finial. (1) The base, otherwise, known as Adhisthana or Pitha, here includes also the most lower parts of the temple known as Jagati. The Jagati and pitha together serve the purpose of a platform on which the walls of the garbhagliha rest. The basement (i. e. Pitha ), the upper surface of which levels the floor of the interior, is carved with series of horizontal mouldings like rows of grinning faces (grasamukhas or Kirtimukhas ),- processions of horses, elephants or men, besides some form of semi-circular cushion mouldings ornamented with jewel motives or geometrical diamond reliefs. In the case of a shrine provided with an ambulatory passage, the most lavishly decorated side is that of the outer wall, the outer side of the inner wall and the innerside of the outer wall being relieved by few niches at the most. (2) The Mandovara Above the basement (pitha ) rise the walls of the garbhagliha. The inner side of the walls is straight in its ground plan and plain in its elevation, though it is occasionally relieved by niches in their middle. The outer side of the wall, technically known as mandovara is usually decorated with various sculptures in the form of panels and figures. The projecting central portion of the wall which is technically known as bhadra contains niches having plain, ringed-pilasters.

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43 The Component Parts of the Full-Fledged Temple In these niches beautiful figures of gods and goddesses are set. The other recesses adjoining the bhadra, similarly contain bands of human erotic and dancing sculptures, figures of celestial nymphs, gods and semi-gods with their attendants, chowribearers, musicians etc. String courses and vertical panels of flatly cut foliage motives are also introduced. (3) The sikhara ( Spire ) The word sikhara is used, here, to denote the whole superstructure including the crown (Amalaka ) and the finial ( Kalasa ). In respect to the structural development of the Sikhara style in India the two principal varieties (i) the pyramidal shape and (ii) the curvilinear shape are prominent. Both the superstructures have truncated bodies, which are either straight or curved, and are terminated by a platform (the neck, Skandha ) and above it rests the crowning portion whence rises the finial. (i) The Pyramidal Superstructure has Several Types. (a) The first type is one formed of slabs. This is represented in dolmen type shrines scattered in South India and the Himalayas. (b) The second type consists of straight trunk with round edged slabs. The slabs of the diminishing size are placed on the flat roof to bring out an enormous size both in the superstructure and the projection thereof. Roofs super-imposed on roofs form double roofed, triple roofed i. e. Dvichhadya, Trichhadya temples. This type of roof is found in chhadya prasadas and had its prototype in the first type. (c) In the third type, the pyramidal super-structure is composed of storeyes or bhumis.

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44 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (ii) The Curvilinear Superstructure The curvilinear Sikhara is prescribed by means of division in geometrical progression by four-fold division (caturgunasutra). This is the underlying principle of the buttressment of the curvilinear superstructure. The curvilinear sikhara is composed of an orderly grouping of miniature multiples of itself. In the simplest form of a square shrine, a miniature spire ( urustinga or turret ) is applied over each bhadra, the whole being crowned and bounded together by the weight of corrugated circular member of solid stone called amalaka. Here the Sikhara is no longer one simple member but it is a group of members, its lower portion is surrounded by a system of urusringas (turrets) and sringas (small turrets ), each being a replica in miniature of the large central spire. (c) Dertical Parts of the Mandapa. The vertical parts of the mandapa, like the shrine proper, are the base, the wall and the pillar and the superstructure with an amalaka and finial ( Kalasa ). (1) The base of the shrine, in case where there is mandapa in front of the shrine, is enlarged over which the walls and pillars of the mandapa stand. It levels the upper surface of the floor and is carved with corresponding horizontal mouldings which we see in the base of the shrine proper. (2) Over the base rest walls and pillars of the mandapa. If the mandapa is enclosed ( technically known is Gudhamandapa ), the interior of the mandapa wall, at times, contains niches in which images of gods and goddesses are set. The exterior of wall is exquisitely carved, having corresponding bands of sculptures similar to that of mondovara. At times, the mandapa is half closed and half opened. In such case the open

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The Component Parts of the Full-Fledged Temple 45 portion contains the seat with slanting back technically known as Kaksasana. The roof of the manqapa usually rests on pillars. Mandapa-pillars are provided with all possible shapes of decoration like square, rectangular, oval, eight-sided and sixteen-sided.21 They are kept either plain or lavishly carved in strick accordance with the mandovara carvings. (3) The superstructure of mandapa is comprised of stepped pyramidal roof known as Samvarana with amalaka and finial. As a rule, the superstructure or the mandapa should not exceed in height the Sukanasa of the temple (Prasada)2. The Sukanasa, however, itself varies at different periods and in the various types of temples. While the height of the mandapa depends upon the height of the temple and its Sukanasa, its proportion is not a fixed one in plan, however, the centre of the mandapa is in a fixed proportion to the garbhagriha; its central square has the same area.2 s The central space is marked as a rule by four pillars, forming a Catuski a pavilion whose pillars, by underpinning, help the roof or dome. The inter-columnia of the central square have maximum measurement. The other pillars are placed at equal distances from each other, in aliquot parts, and originally, half of the inter-columnia in the centre. The component parts of a pillar follow the elevation scheme of the temple and is divided into several well defined parts. The base of the pillar called Kumbhi has recessed corners above which are the mouldings Kevala surmounted by a Pattika or fillet carved with a row of faces called grasapatti. The upper 21. Sm. Su. Ch. LXVII. v. 39 22. Sm. Su. LXVI, v. 102, 110. 23. Sm. Su. LXVII, v. 43.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat moulding of the shaft is called the Sirsa or capital, usually supported by superimposed bracket (Bharani) on which is placed lintel supporting the roof, Sometimes, when the roof of the central dome is higher than the side bays which reach the level of the brackets a sur-capital is employed to meet the extra height. The section of the shaft supporting the sur-capital is called Ucchalaka or Virahakantha. Peray Brown has styled these pillars as "dwarf pillars." The dome is supported by an octagonal frame of pillars forming a nave and rises in highly sculptured concentric courses terminating at the apex in a most beautiful hanging pendant. The octagonal nave is obtained by geometrical distribution in the main hall of the pillars, which are so arranged as to form aisles on the outside. (v) Subservient Parts of the Temple The complex temple building also contains several subservient parts such as the Prakara (court), Balanaka or Gopuram ( entrance gate ), Pratoli, Kirtitorana (Tower of victory) Dipastambha, Devakulikas etc. The practice of enclosing temple within a rectangular court-yard prevailed. In contrast to the guarded secularisation of the inner portion, the outer part of the temple area is formed of a concentric series of open court-yards called Prakaras, enclosed within high walls, but open to the sky as they are too large to be roofed; these Prakaras provide ample space for buildings connected with the more secular aspect of the ceremonial. Within this court-yard there grew up pillared aisles. The entire composition within the courtyard was enclosed by high boundary wall, which was entered by Gopurams or gateways. Within the space thus enclosed various structures

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The Component Parts of the Full-Fledged Temple were erected chiefly pillared halls or subsidiary shrines and also certain buildings of semi-religious character such as granaries, and store rooms etc. 24 The Gopuram is a structure in connection with the entrance to the court-yard of the temple. In place of what should have been the main gateway a large subsidiary chapel has been introduced, complete with cella, vestibule and stairway approch, the actual doorways into the court-yard being relegated to openings on the either side.25 The gopuram as this type of temple portal is called, derived its name in the first instance from the "Cow-gate" of the vedic village, afterwards becoming the citygate, and subsequently the monumental entrance as to the temple. 26 A typical example of a gopuram depicts a building oblong in plan rising up into a tapering tower often over forty-five meters in height, and entered by a rectangular doorway in the centre of its long side. 27 in Northern Indian temple style, the structure, instead of Gopuram, is known as Balanaka. Kirtitorana with exquisite carving and delicay is known all over the western India especially in Gujarat and Rajsthana. The Kirtitorana is a form of Torana, usually an accompaniment to the temple design, standing as its outer entrance, but there were some for the ceremonial- of swinging the god ( hindola ). All the parts forming Kirtitorana are devised on the same principles as those employed in the temple design, with the spreading base, figured shaft, bracket capitals, and tabernacled superstructure being of much the same order, but, if anything, even more ornate.2 8 24. IABH. p. pp. 114-115 25. IABH. F. p. 100 26. IABH. p. p. 106 27. IABH. p. p. 106. 28. IABH. p. 149.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat In South India the Gopuram attained the height of a sky-scraper and was embellished with groups of plastic imaginary when it reached its maturity during the Madura period. It became pre-eminant even in relation to the Prasada inside. 48 Dipastambha (Lamp-pillar), especially popular in South India, is an architectural device which illumines the temple court during night time through the light of numerous lamps around the pillar. The whole structure from bottom to top is systematically arranged in mouldings corresponding to vertical member of the mandovara. In the Pancayatana or five shrined temple, the central temple is surrounded by four entirely separate and smaller shrines, all systematically grouped so as to form the whole into one unified but somewhat complex composition. They are located, at the four corners of the platform of the central temple and constructed on the same architectural design and plan that of the central one. At times more supplementary shines (Devakulikas) are also added, surrounding the central temple. Many Jain temples contain a range of exterior cells (Devakulikas) grouped in pillared varandah surrounding the inner court on all sides. The cells contain images of Tirthankars their number ranging from 24 to 72.29 The principal shrine in such temple complex is situated in the middle of the inner court. 29. i. e. 24 present, 24, past and 24 future Tirthankars.

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CHAPTER-V THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE REGIONAL PHASES OF THE TEMPLE (A) The Northern or Indo-Aryan Phase From the eighth century onwards temples with the Northern style of Sikhara began to be constructed in large numbers and were not confined to North Indian plains but extended from the Himalayas to the Deccan and from Orissa to Saurastra. The style had several regional movements and accordingly it took the various local shapes and colours. There were certain post-Gupta temples which really continued the tradition of Gupta brick as well as stronearchitecture. The brick temples of Nalanda, Paharpur and Ahichchhatra dating from sixth to tenth centuries form themselves a group. They are high solid structures and in each case the shrine is placed at the top which was approached by a flight of steps. The largest one was that of Nalanda. The temple of Ahichchhatra was remarkable for its cruciform plan and stupendous size ( 152.5 x 91.5 meters at the base ), The Lakshmana brick temple ( 10th cent A. D. ) at Sirpur in Raipur District resembles the Bhitargaon temple in its general design. (i) The Temples of Orissa (A. D. 800-1250) This style is mainly concentrated at Bhuvanesvara, Puri and Konarka-all in Puri district of Orissa. The style started during the eighth century with the Parsuramesvara at Bhuvanesvara and culminated during the thirteenth century in the Sun temple at Konarka. The earlier Orissa examples consist of a

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50 The Structural Temples of Gujarat sanctum surmounted by a high curvilinear tower and a square mandapa which is called in Orissa Jagmohana while later on were added in the same axis two other halls known as NataMandapa (dancing hall) and Bhoga-Mandapa (hall for offerings ). These halls were single storeyed structures raised on a plinth and the elevation of each consisted of two parts cubical below and pyramidal above. The tower stood on a similar plinth and upright cubical base, above which its part resolved into the tall curvilinear portion, the flat ribbed disc (amalaka ) and the finial (Kalasa ) as the crowning piece. The Orissa style is characterised by its general astylar construction, plain interior and a lavishly-decorated exterior, The Parsuramiesvara temple and the Vaital Deul temple (both of c. eighth century ), the Muktesvara temple (c. 975 ) are some of the earliest examples, but the finest and most majestic of the Orissan temples is the Lingaraja temple at Bhuvanesvara, built in c. 1000. Originally it comprised only the Viman (towered sanctum) and the Jagmohana, while the Nata-and Bhogamandapas were added later. The famous temples of Jagannatha at Puri (11th cent.), the temple of Rajarani and Ananta Vasudeva are also remarkable. But by far the grandest achievement cf the Orissa School was the Sun temple at Konarka, dating from the middle of thirteenth century. Built on a high plinth, conceived as a wheeled chariot dragged by seven rearing horses, this colossal temple originally consisted of a lofty Vimana with three subsidiary shrines attached, a large Jagmohana (30-5 X 30.5 ms ) with a pyramidal roof and a detached nata--mandapa of which oniy the Jagmohana preserved in an extensive courtyard (264 x 164.7 ms.) 1 (ii) The Temples Of Rajsthan (c. 800-1200 A.D.) The group of small Jain and Brahmanical temples of Osia (near Jodhapur ) dating from 8th to 12th centuries contain two remarkable temples-the temple of Harihar? (c. 8th cent.) and 1. A. I pp. 97-99 2. JABH p. pl. LXXXV opp. p. 135

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The Development of the Regional Phases of the Temple 51 the temple of Surya, 3 (c. 9th cent.) which are built on Pancayatana style with four subsidiary shrines of the same design at corners. The Jain temple of Mahavira (c. 8th cent.) deserves special notice because of its ornate torana-arch.4 It is the complete example of the Osia group, consisting of a sanctum, a closed hall, and a porch, immediately in front of which there is an ornate torana or gateway. At Gyraspur, in the ruins known as Ath-kumbha (eight pillars) and the char-kumbha (four pillars) are portions of the columned halls of two temples of the ninth and tenth centuries, while temple of Mala De is of early tenth century. Finally at Udayapur, there is the temple of Udayasvara dating from the middle of eleventh century, and showing by its style an affinity to the Chandela group at Khajuraho.6 (iii) The Temples of Gujarat (c. 941 A. D.-1311 A. D.) Western India including Gujarat and Western Rajsthana form a separate group of temples due to the peculiar development of regional style of temple architecture during the tenth to fourteenth centuries. The temples of this region contain the usual components of a Hindu shrine; a cella, a pillared hall or mandapa. But a great architectural skill is shown in joining the cella with the hall i. e. Mandapa. The scheme followed is well described by Percy Brown, "The plans of these temples resolve themselves broadly into two kinds, those in which the two compartments (ie. the cella and the hall) are joined so as to unite the entire building within a parellelogram, and those in which each compartment forms a rectangle, in the later case the two are attached 3. Ibid pl. LXXXIV opp. p. 134 4. Al. p. 100 s. IABH p. pl. LXXXVIII 6. IABH p.p. 139

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52 The Structural Temples of Gujarat diagonally.? The former system is well illustrated by that of Modhera, if its detached hypostyle hall or Sabha Mandapa is excluded, while the temple of Somanatha is the typical example of the diagonal arrangement. The facade of the temples is divided horizonatally into three main portions consisting of (1) the moulded basement (Pitha ) (2) the wall-face, upto the entablature ( mandovara ) and (3) the Superstructure ( Sikhara ). The second division usually carries a heavy-sculptured pantheon right round the edifice. But the third portion is the most significant and in the case of mandapa, consists of low pyramid of horizontal courses. The superstructure of a west Indian sikhara, however, is most distinctive and comprised a cluster of members including semi-detached turrets at the lower portion. The interior of the temples is mainly Peristylar, the pillars being of a characteristic shape with elegant carvings. The interiors of these temple display several notable characteristics. The columns of the mandapa are arranged geometrically leaving an octagonal area, or nave, in the centre, while outside of the mandapa they are so spaced so as to constitute the aisles. Surrounding the nave the pillars are provided with an extension or attic of dwarf-pillars also bearing bracket capitals. These attic pillars, with the architrave above, while raising the height of the nave also support the central dome, which consists of a shallow bowl-shaped ceiling formed by a succession of overlaping courses. The shrine doorway is designed so that its decorative scheme composes with that of pillars. 8 The temple cities or tirthas ( places of pilgrimage ) of Jains are considered to be of remote age. Inspite of the known antiquity of these mountain sanctuaries few of the temples comprising them are earlier than the fifteenth century, and most are much later. Various causes have been responsible for the older buildings having been obliterated, one being the 7. IABH. p. p. 143. 8. JABH p. p. 144.

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The Development of the Regional Phases of the Temple practice of the Jains themselves of pulling down their temples when decayed and erecting new ones in their places, many of the walls bearing evidences of this, as they reveal stones of earlier structures having been built into them. As, they exist at present, these religious sites are surrounded by embattled walls, with their interiors divided up into tuks or wards, like the inner courts of fortified cities, each tuk having massive circular bastions at its angles, entry being obtained through storng gateways." These temple-cities, are laid out on no specific plan, the buildings being arranged on such level spaces as the contours of the hill naturally provide. They contain several hundreds of edifices. Although many of the temples may seem complicated in appearance, each is designed as a rule, on the principles common to the relegious architecture of the late medieval period, the elaborations being due to such factors as the addition of numerous supplementary shrines, to the application of double stories, and to the practice of imposing pillared cloisters around larger examples. In the jain temples one variation in the general scheme of the temple is noticeable and that is the frequent production of a class of temple known as Chaumukha or four faced. The chaumukha is a quadruple image, or a group of four images either of one Tirthankara, or of four different Tirthankaras placed back to back so as to face the four cardinal points. Such a plan necessiated a shrine chamber with four door ways which effected both the design of the sanctuaries and the shape of the vimana as a whole 10 Two of the most important temple cities are on mountains in Saurastra, one being on Satrunjaya11 and the other on Girnar. 12 The largest of all is that of Satrunjaya, south of town of Palitana. Out of large number of shrines of various shapes 9. IABH. p. p. 162. 10. IABH p. p. 162. 53 11. IABH p. plt. CIV. A 12. IABH. plts. CIII Fig. 1 CIV. Fig. 2.

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54 The Structural Temples of Gujarat and sizes, a characteristic example is the Chaumukha temple of Adinatha, built in A. D. 1618, but on the site of much earlier structure. This temple shows how the builders put into effect the plan of the fourfaced shrine. The cell is provided with the four exquisite entrances, the east being connected with the assembly hall in the front and the three others openings have porches leading into surrounding courtyard. The Neminatha temple, the other famous temple city on Girnar, bears an inscription indicating that it was restored in the 13th century and is probably not very different in its general appearance from what it was when first built a century before. Standing within a quadrangular courtyard, it is surrounded by a range of pillared cloisters containing over seventy cells. The other famous temple in the group of Girnar temples is the Triple temple of Vastupala-Tejapala. The principal Sanctuary contains the image of Mallinatha. the 19th Tirthankara and the side chambers contain monuments of solid masonary, called 'Sumeru' and 'Sameta sikhara '.13 (iv) Temples of Madhya Pradesh (A. D. 950-1050 ) The group of Hindu and Jain temples at the old Chandela capital Khajuraho (Chhatarpur, central India ) are second in importance and magnificance to the Orissan temples. They were built between 950 and 1050 A. D. The individual characteristics of this group of temple are: (1) Khajuraho temples, instead of being contained within the customary enclosure wall stand on a high and solid terrace. These temples may be classed as Jagati-Prasadas in the terminology of Silpa texts like Samrangana Sutradhara etc. Further on the broad platform i. e. terrace temples are erected not as a cojoined building, as in the case of Orissan temples but as a unified structure. (2) These temples are of not a great size, the largest is only thirty meters nearly, but consist of elegant proportions, graceful contours and rich surface treatment. (3) These temples are notable for their 13. IABH P. P. 163.

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55 The Development of the Regional Phases, of the Temple simpler designs. The whole edifice is divided into three main compartments namely the cell or garbhagliha, an assembly hall or mandapa and an entrance portico or ardhamandapa. Supplementing these, are the antarala or vestibule to cella and in the more developed examples, the transepts or Mahamandapas, together with a circumambulatory around the cella, (4) Orissan temple roof is pyramidal but the Khajuraho roofs are domical in contour. Perscy Brown observes : " The graceful shape of these Sikharas has been effected in two ways, on the one hand by the subtle lineaments of the main curves, and on the other by the rhythmic disposal of the subsidiary members (i. e, urusrings ) attached to them. It is only to realize the beauty of the former with its flowing profile. In the first place the contours at Khajuraho are more taut and tenuous, the tempo of the lines is accelerated as they mount up in a more decided incline. But the principal refinement is obtained by the design and distribution of the miniature turrets or urussingas, which it was the practice to superimpose on the sides to break up the mass."14 The main group of temples at Khajuraho. consisting of at least a dozen buildings, arranged in two lines, with both Vaishnavite and Sivaite Shuines standing side by side. The finest specimen among these is Kandarya Mahadeva temple. 15 The Vaishnava temple of Chatrubhuja and the Jain temple of Adinatha are also noteworthy. The temples at Gwalior ( 11th cent. form a distinct group in this region, The peculiar among these are the two temples, in Gwalior Fort, both designated as Sas-Bahu temples ( finished in 1093 A. D. ). Both are in much the same architectural mode, the smaller of the two although an elegant little building, in comparison with the larger example of which it is a reduced and simplified copy, is relatively unimportant. The large one is dedicated to Visnu. Only the main hall remains, the Vimana with its spire is disappeared. 14. TABH p. p. 134 15. IABH p. plt LXXX p. 128

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56 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Externally this Mahamandapa or great hall has three stories. Each storey is defined by a massive architrave, with the spaces between occupied by pillars and piers, the effect of the facades being that of large open arcades. The roof is partly demolished, but was an arrangement of diminishing tiers of ornamental masonry rising up into a low pyramidal or domical formation. Externally, the building is in three stories, but this does not apply to interior as there is a large central chamber. It consists of one tall compartment only around which project the loggias, one above the other, which comprise the triple stories of its external elevation. From the design it can be said that the constructional principles adopted here were much alike the Rudra Mahalaya temple at Siddhapur. 16 The Teli-Ka-mandira, is a rare type of Brahmanical sanctuary, a relic of the distant Buddhist heritage. It's Sikhara is remarkably noted for its affinity with that of Vaital Deul at Bhuvanesvara. It is over 30.5 meters in height. In its conception this building is rather more of a shrine than a temple, as it consists of a sanctuary only, comprising a tower together with a substantial porch and doorway leading to an interior cella; there is atached to it no assembly hall or mandapa, and none of those pillared pavilions which ordinarily formed part of the fully developed temple structure. It's shape externally as well as internally is oblong. The most marked departure from the Indo-Aryan style of the temple tower is in the composition of the summit or roof. Owing to oblong formation being confirmed throughout its height, the upper part of the building is also oblong in shape which in consequence is supersimposed with the vaulted roof of Buddhist Caitya-hall. To emphasize this character there is a form of sun-window at either end, a keeled ridge with finials, and pillared arcades derived from the rockcut colonnade system along each of its longitudinal sides. The roof of the porch also appears to have terminated in a Caitya arch gable. 17 16. JABH p. p. 156-157 also Plt. Cl. off. p. 157. 17. JABH p. pp. 156 also plt. C fig. 2. facing p. 151

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The Development of the Regional Phases of the Temple 57 (v) The Early Chalukyan Temples in the Deccan(c. 450 A.D.-750 A.D.) Almost at the same time when the Gupta shrines were being built in central and northern India, an activity of building shrines and temples took place in the Deccan under the rising power of the Chalukyan dynasty. The first effort of Chalukyans in this direction, is represented by a group of stone built shrines and temples at Aihole18 in Bijapur District of Dharwar. The majority of these structures are Brahmanical, although a few are Jain, and all appear to have been erected in the period between A. D. 450 and 650.19 Early chalukyan group of temples is confined to the locality of Ajhole. The temples at Aihole consist of some seventy buildings. As with the Gupta temples those at Aihole have flat or slightly sloping roofs, but the latter in some instances are surmounted by a small upper storey or tower (Sikhara ) which appears to have been subsequently added. The Chief difference between the two types (i. e. Gupta and Chalukyan ) lies in the treatment of the structures in front of the Sanctuary which assumed the character of a pillared assembly hall, or mandapa. The addition of this feature to the Ajhole structures implies a step forward in the development of the completed temple design.20 On account of its primitive appearance the temple known as Ladh Khana 1 is considered to be the oldest temple of Ajhole group and has accordingly been assigned to the middle of the fifth century. The notable features of this temple are the pillars with plain square shaft with a Cushion Capital above it with an expanded floral abacus supporting bracket (This particular form of capital afterwards became almost universal 18. ASI. AR. 1907-8 f. 189 19. IABH p. p. 63 20. IABH p. p. 63 21. IABH p. plts. xxxvi, fig. 1; xxxvii

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58 The Structural Temples of Gujarat in the architecture of southern India ) and a stone seat of the portico, with its sloping back-rest, (here is seen the beginning of Asana which developed into ornamental feature in the entrance halls of many mediaeval temples. ) 2 2 In direct contrast with the architectural formation of the foregoing, but at the same time, illustrating another experimental stage in the development of the temple structure is the Durga temple at Aihole. 23 This example is the Brahmanical version of the Buddhist Caitya hall, adopted to suit the service of the former creed. The temple was probably erected during the 6th cent. and is an apsidal ended structure on a high and heavily moulded plinth or stereobate. At the topmost tier of its flat roof there is a short pyramidal tower, or Sikhara, which has been subsequently added. Among other notable features in the design of this temple is its peripteral exterior, or pteroma, a passage formed by the colonnade of peristylar Verandah 2 4 Another, temple of the same kind is that of the Huchchimalligudi, a smaller and simplified form of the preceding for it has no apsidal end and is without a peristylar verandah. As with other examples at Aihole, to it has been added a sikhara of later date.25 The Jain temple of Meguti, bears an inscription recording its erection in 634 A D. Here advances in technique are noticeable. The quality of masonry is improved vastly and more delicacy is shown in the treatment of ornamentation 26 Badami (ancient Vatapi ) contains several buildings of an early date, but what is interesting is a series of four pillared excavated halls in the scrap of a hill. Three of these are 22. IABH p. p. 64 23. IABH p. p. plts : xxxvi Fig. 2; XXXIII Fig. 4. also XXXVIII & XXXIX 24. IABH p. p. 64. 25. IABH p. p. 65 26. JABH p. p. p. 65

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The Development of the Regional Phases, of the Temple 59 Brahmanical (one of which bears inscription dated A. D. 578) and one is Jain added to a century later. In their general appearance and interior arrangements these excavated temples are all of the same type, as each includes three features, a pillared verandah, a columned hall, and a small square cella cut deep into the rock. The exterior is plain, but the interior is highly carved. 27 At Pattadakala (16 Kms. from Badami) the temples of both the styles (i. e. Indo-Aryan and Dravidian) are found side by side. There are ten such temples of which four Papanatha (c. 680), Jambulinga, Karsedesvar. Kasinath are in the Indo-Aryan style. Of this group the temple of Papanatha is the older and important. Apparently dedicated in the first instance to Visnu and Surya, it seems to have been converted afterwards to the worship of Siva. This temple, both in its plan and in elevation, bears every indication of a conception in course of formation. 28 In general appearance it is a long low composition some 27 meters in length, with a tower at its eastern end too small and stunted to be in good proportion with the remainder of the building.29 The Temple of Papanatha has illogical arrangement of the plan. The vestibule or Antarala is at fault, as the compartment is too large; it takes the shape of square court, containing four piilars widely set, so that instead of forming a connecting antechamber, it becomes supplementary assembly hall. It is this disproportion in the plan that has produced a corresponding disproportion in the elevation, 30 (VI) The Later Temples In The Deccan (c. 1100 A. D.-1300 A. D.) A variation of the Indo Aryan style was produced during the early medieval period in the Deccan. One of the most 27. IABH p. p. 66 plts. XXXIX opp. p. 62 and XL Fig. 1 opp. p. 63 28. IABH p. pl. XLV Fig. 1. 29. IABH p. p. 83. 30. IABH p. p. 83.

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60 The Structural Temples of Gujarat prominent self originated characteristics in the Deccani style of temple is observable in the design of the Sikhara, which is decidedly different from that of any other region. Instead of the turrets or urusringas being grouped around the lower part of this structure, as in most examples, the Deccan Sikhara has a pronounced vertical band carried up each of its angles, taking the form of a "Spine' or quoin. This feature extends from the lower cornice right up to the finial, and displays functional qualities of a higher order as it follows the main contours of the spire thus holding the entire shape within its firm outline. Then the space between these quoins are filled in with rows of small reproductions of Sikhara itself. The same principle is employed in the formation of the pyramidal roof of the mandapa, which is composed of diminishing rows of miniature multiples of itself. A certain originality is also noticeable in the plans of these temples, as in the large examples they are laid out on a diagonal arrangement and a marked elaboration in the shape of walls also attained by projections and recesses of the wall surfaces. 31 The well-known examples of the temples of this style are the temple of Ambaranatha ( Thana District), the Triple shrine temple at Balsane (Khandesa), Gondesvara temple at Sinnar and Mahadeva temple at Jhogda (Nasik District); and Laxmi Narayana temple at Pedgaon (Ahmedanagar District ). (B) The Southern or Dravidian Phase The Southern style of structural temple architecture ( upto 1600 A. D.) mostly known as the Dravidian style, practiced almost entirely in the Tamil country anciently known as Dravidadesa, can be conviniently classified into five phases corresponding to the five principal kingdoms which ruled in South India during the course of evolution of structural temple architecture of that region. 31. IABH p. p. 152

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61 The Development of the Regional Phases of the Temple (i) The early Chalukyan Phase (c. 725 A. D.-c. 740 A. D.) There are several examples of the Dravidian style of temple at Aihole, as for instance that numbered 53, and the Jain temple no. 39, as well as the Meguti temple bearing a date equivalent to A. D. 634; in each case the tower is in a state of ruin. So for a very early example of the Dravidian style in this region, it is necessary to turn to the town of Badami, situated some twenty-four Kms. from Aihole, and the seat of Chalukyan dynasty at a slightly later date. 3 2 There is a temple of Mahakutesvara, at Badami which from inscriptional evidence appears to have been built before A. D. 600. It is a small and almost insignificant edifice, but it is instructive because the tower is complete, with an octagonal domical finial, and surrounded by tiers of miniature shrines, all illustrative of an early phase in the evolution of the Dravidian Sikhara. But a larger and slightly more developed structure of much the same type, although undoubtedly of somewhat later date (i. e. c. A. D. 700 ) is Malegitti Sivalaya. It consists of three compartments-cella, assembly hall, and porch, the two former square in plan. Its heavy monolithic pillars, ponderous capitals, broad string-courses and over hanging roll-cornices, are all suggestive of rock-cut tradition. 3 8 At Pattadakal the temples of the Dravidian style are six jn number. They are Samgamesvara (c. 725), Virupaksa (c. 740), Mallikarjuna (c. 740) Galanatha (c. 740 ) Sunmesvara and a Jain temple.34 Of this group the Virupaksa temple is striking. It is a comprehensive scheme, as it consists not only of the central structure, but of a detached Nandi pavilion in front and is contained within a walled enclousure entered by an appropriate gateway, It measures 36 meters 32. JABH p. p. 81 33. IABH p. p. 81-82 plt. LI Fig. 1. 34. IABH p. p. 83.

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62 The Structural Temples of Gujarat from the front of the porch to the back of the shrine. Owing to its balanced composition, definite coherence and rythmic grouping of its parts it is much more pleasing to the eye.36 (ii) The Pallava Phase (c. 600900 A. D.) The structural temples of the Pallava phase fall into two groups (i) Rajasimaha group A. D. 690 to c. 800 and (ii) Nandivarman group c. A. D. 800 to c. 900 A. D. With the rule of king Rajsimaha, the rock-cut method of architecture ceased in South India. Instead of it, the art of structural building was taken up. The production of the first group of temples of this phase called Rajsimha group began towards the end of the seventh century and occupied the whole of the eighth century, during this period several notable buildings were erected. Of the Rajasimha mode there are some six examples, comprising the Shore', Isvara, and Makunda temples at Mamallapuram; a temple at Panamalai in South Arcot district; and the temples of Kailasnatha and of Vaikuntha Perumal at Conjeevaram. The first Pallva building to be constructed of dressed stone was the * Shore Temple' so named in modern times as it stands on the external foreshore of the ancient port36 with the underlying idea that cell should face eastwards overlooking the sea, so that the shrine might be illuminated by the first rays of the rising sun, the plan of the shrine left no room for a forecourt or assembly hall, and not even for an entrance gateway and so the shrine was left entirely open to the sea. 37 Not long after the erection of the shore temple at Mamallapuram, a Siva temple, the Kailasnathat was begun at Conjeevaram, the capital seat of the Pallavas. The most 35. JABH p. p. 84. 36. IABH p. plt. Lii, Figs. 2 & 3 37. IABH p. p. 98-99 + lbid, plt. LVII

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The Development of the Regional Phases of the Temple 63 interesting feature of this temple is the pyramidal tower or Sikhara for it is in the distinctive treatment of this feature that the development of the Dravidian style may be best observed. Apart from the main structure of this temple, in a place of what should have been the main gateway a larger subsidiary chapel has been introduced with cella, vestibule and stairway approach, suggesting the beginning of the Gopuram, or entrance pylon. In the temple of Vaikuntha Perumal at Conjeevaram the Pallava style is seen in its most mature form. 38 The second group i. e. Nandivarman group (c. A. D. 800900 A. D.) marks the decay of this dynasty. No building of any note were erected at this time, but there are few small temples which show the direction of movement. The principal examples at Conjeevaram and Tiruttani are mere reproductions of the previous manifestations. 39 (iii) The Chola Phase (c. 900-1150 A. D.) The temples of this phase do not exhibit a material alteration in the structural plan and arrangements but are marked by the introduction of new elements. The Pallava lion-motif is replaced by conventional mouldings of griffnheads which afterwards becomes the characteristic of the South Indian style. The order of the pillars also have been changed. Two changes are discernible; one relating to the capital itself, and the other to the abacus above. The abacus is considerably expanded and combined with lotus-form underneath.40 Of the temples of this phase the most majestic is the temple of Brhadisvara1 at Tanjore built by Rajaraja (985-1018 ). The temple has stupendous dimensions and is composed of several 38. IABH p. plt. LIV 39. JABH p. p. 99-100 40. IABH p. p. 103 41. TABH plt. LVII.

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64 The Structural Temples of Gujarat structures such as the great tower, a large hall, a pillared portico and Nandi pavilion, arranged axially in the centre, of a large walled enclosure. The other striking example is the temple at Gurigai Konda Cholapuram42 (Trichinopoly District) built by Rajendra Chola (1018-33 ). It is remarkable for its large mandapa supported on over 150 columns. Like the Tanjore example, the stylobate of this temple is decorated with large sculptures which form a striking feature of the Chola temple. 4 3 (iv) The Pandya Phase (c. 1110-1350 A. D.) The most conspicuous feature of the Pandya phase was the emergence of the monumental gateway or Gopuram which dwarfed the towered sanctury and became the dominating feature of the temple-complex. The Temples came to be fortified within a series of enclosing walls which were pierced at the four cardinal points with gateways of imposing size and ornamental appearance. The Gopuram were the monumental entrance to the temple. Elementary prototype of this characteristic architectural feature have been already found at the entrance to the Kailasnatha temple at Conjeevarum and also in the early Chalukyan temple of Virupaksha at Pattadakal; both example illustrate the Gopuram in a very rudimentary stage. 4 4 The Gopuram developed under the Pandya phase was oblong on plan and pyramidal in elevation with a cubical base. The best examples of the Gopurams of this phase are to be found at Srirangam (Trichinopoly Dist.) Chidambaram (South Arcot Dist. ), Kumbakonam (Tanjore Dist.) and Tiruvanhamalai (N. Arcot Dist). Of these the eastern gateway at Chidambaram is the most representative. It is a seven storeyed structure and ornamented with architectural decoration consisting nine pillared niches and canopied pavilions. 42. IABH p, pl. LVIII. 43. JABH p. pp. 103-104. 44. IABH pp. 106.

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The Development of the Regional Phases of the Temple (v) The Vijayanagar Phase (c. 1350-1565 A. D.) During this phase certain additions were made to the main temple. There were separate shrines, pillared halls, pavilions and other annexes, each having its special purpose and each occupying its appointed position in the scheme. One of these is the Amman shrine, a subsidiary temple usually situated to the N. W. of the main building and slightly behind it; in it is enshrined an image of the consort of the deity to whom the temple is dedicated, he himself occupying the cella of the central structure. Another and even more important building, generally placed towards the left and front of east entrance, is the Kalyana mandapa. This is an open pillared pavilion with a raised platform for a throne in the centre for the reception of the deity and his consort on the annual celebration of their marriage ceremony.45 Much of the intricacy of rich beauty of the Vijayanagar type of temple was, further, produced by the number and prominance of its pillars and piers, and the manner in which they were sculptured into the most complicated compositions, strange and manifold, so that each becomes a figurative drama in stone.46 The pillared halls in this period were larger and more ornate than the preceding and constitute a distinct feature. The best examples of the pillared halls exist in the temples at Auvadiyas Kovil and Vellur (N. Arcot Dist. ); Ekamranatha temple at Conjeevaram and Vithal temple at Hampi (Bellary Dist. ). The most representative temples of this phase are the Vithal and Hazara Rama temples at Hampi.*7 65 The development of the Dravidian style continued after the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire and attained its final form under the Nayakas of Madura. But in view of the lower limit fixed for the treatment of this subject is not here 45. IABH pp. 109 46. IABH p. p. 109. 47. IABH p. p. 110.

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66 The Structural Temples of Gujarat necessary to enter into details of the final phase dating after 1600 A. D. (c) The Later Chalukyan or Hoysala Phase (c. 1050-1300 A, D.) The temples built in Karnataka and Mysore during the reign of the later Chalukyas and the Hoysalas respectively represent a peculiar school of architecture which cannot be classed under the Indo-Aryan or Dravidian School. The special features of this school seem to have resulted from an admixture of Indo-Aryan detail to Dravida building. In otherwards these temples are of the Southern or Dravidian Phase in their plan but contain architectural ornamentation of the Northern or Indo-Aryan phase. In terms of Indian architecture this type may be classed as the Vesera type which is produced by an admixture of the Dravida plan (Vinyasa) and Nagara ornamentation (Kriya). Naturally, the effect of the Southern style is more eminently marked in Mysore in comparision to the northern region showing the influence of the Dravidian overlaping and interpretation over the Indo-Aryan style. The typical Hoysala temple stands on a High polygonal plinth, conforming in shape to the main building which is wide enough to be used as processional passage. The main structure in its simplest unit comprises a cell, a vestibule, a pillared hall, the last often fronted by an open pillared pavilion. But many of the temples contain from two to five such open pillared pavilions. The stellate plan of the sanctum or other parts is another notable feature of this type. But the most distinctive feature of this style is the lavish sculptural decoration. The typical examples of this style are the Kesava temple48 (c. 1268 A. D.) at Somnathapur (Mysore State ), The group of temples at Belur4 9 (c. 1117 A.D.) and the shrine of Hoysalesvara50 at Halebid (c. 1150 A, D ) in Mysore State. 48. IABH plt. CVII. opp. p. 162. 49. JABH plt. CX. Fig. 1 opp. p. 165. SO. IABH plt. CVI. Fig. 1 opp. p. 161.

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SECTION | A HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE STRUCTURAL TEMPLES BUILT IN GUJARAT UPTO 1600 A. D.

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CHAPTER 1 THE DENOTATION OF GUJARAT' AND ITS SCOPE Gujarat, which was in abeyance as a political or administrative unit for a few centuries past, has recently re-emerged as a separate state in the union of India. * The name Gujarat' seems to have applied to this region about the beginning of the Solanki period. In earlier times Gujarat had hardly received any common name denoting the entire region. Parts of Gujarat were known by different names like Aparta, Lata and Surastra in earlier times. In this work the term Gujarat' is therefore used for convenience sake even for the earlier ages prior to the actual application of the current name to this region. The boundaries of Gujarat fluctuated from time to time, and its political and cultural extent included a number of districts that are put in adjoining states at present.

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CHAPTER 11 AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE STRUCTURAL TEMPLES IN PRE-AND PROTO-HISTORIC TIMES (i) Prehistoric Times - Stone Ages. Archaeological explorations and excavations have unearthed the prehistory of Gujarat, from the stone Ages, especially in the Paleolithic Age and the Microlithic Age. But the remains of these prehistoric cultures do not contain any structures that may be styled temples in the modern sense of the term. 1 (ii) Protohistoric Times. (a) Copper-Bronze Age The well excavated structural remains of this period are available in the form of some brick-built structures unearthed at Lothal in the Ahmedabad District. These remains seem to represent residential buildings, hardly containing remanants of any temple structures. Nor do the archaeological explorations and excavations disclosed at Rangapur, Somnatha, Rozadi, Bhagatarav and other sites in Gujarat show indications of any temple structures of this period. (b) Puranic Age. The traditional accounts, preserved in the Puranas (that appear of late origin in their extant form) record the existence of some temples in the time of Krisna-Vasudeva,2 Aristnemi and Mahavirasvami.3 1. Sanklia H. D 'Investigation into Prehistoric Archaeology of Gujarat' & Subbarao B. The Personality of India.' 2. Harivamsa, ch. 58 vv. 15, 16, (Ed. Kalayana) Jinaprabha Suri, 'Vividhatirthakalpa', (completed in V. S. 1389) Ujjayantamahatirthakalpa (Singhi Jain grantha ma|a no. 10) pp. 8-9. Satrunjaya Mahatmya,' The tradition records that Dhanesvara Suri composed this work in V. S. 477 at Valabhipur (JSSI. p. 134). But the work contains the account of Caulukya King Kumarapala (1144-74 A. D.), Bahada, Vastupala, Sama asa and others and so it is definite that the work is of later origin, probably composed during 14th cent. A. D. (MG. p. 487) 3. Jinasena Suri i. e. A. D. 783-84) Hari Vamsa Purana; (Composed in Saka yea: 705;

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CHAPTER 111 A SURVEY OF THE STRUCTURAL TEMPLES OF PRE-CAULUKYAN TIMES (i) The period of the Mauryan rule (c. 322 B. C.-185 B. C.) This period marks the beginning of the historical period of Gujarat. The supramacy of Candragupta Maurya ( 322-298 B. C.), extended over both Anarta and Surastra. The continuance of the Mauryan rule under Asoka is attested to by the Girnar and Sopara versions of his Fourteen Rock Edicts. 1 The known structures of this period are in the form of the extinct Sudarsana lake at Girinagara2 and the extant caves known as Bawa Pyaras Math in its vicinity. 8 No remajns of, or even references to any structural temples are available so far. (ii) The period of the Indo-greek rule (c. 185 B. C.-78 A. D.) After the break-up of the Mauryan Empire (c. 185 B. C.) Gujarat seems to have passed under the power of Indo-Greek kings such as Apollodotus and Menandar, whose coins were in use at Barygaza or Bharukaccha upto the time of the Periplus.4 This period has not left remains of any temples but the Jain traditions have preserved an account of the 1 CHG. p. 29. 2. Junagadha Rock Inscription of Rudradamana: AKK. p. 128. 3. Sankalia H. D. AG. p. 49. 4. CHG. p. 41.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat construction of certain temples which may be ascribed to this period on the bases of the chronological references contained therein. According to the Jain tradtion. Venivatsaraja a contemporary of the famous Jain monk Arya Khaputacarya (the beginning of the 1st Cent. A. D )6 was formerly a Buddhist and got built a temple dedicated to the Buddhist goddess Taradevi in a city known as Taraura (SK. Tarapura).? Arya Khaputacarya, then converted the said Venivastaraja to Jain faith and the temple of Taradevi was converted into the temple dedicated to Siddhayika, a Jain goddess 8 There was a temple dedicated to Munisuvrata known as Sakunika-vihara at Bharukaccha in the time of Arya Khaputacarya.9 Padaliptasuri flourished probably, in the early centuries of the Vikram Era.10 Nagariuna, his desciple, built the city known as Padaliptapura (Palitana) and erected a Jain temple on Satrunjya consecrating the images of Mahavira and Padaliptasuri therein 17 Nagarjuna also consecrated the image of Parsvanatha at Stambhanaka 12 (Thamana) which naturally implies the existence of a Jain temple there. (iii) The Period of the Ksatrapa Rule ( 78 A. D.-c. 400 A. D.) About the end of the 1st cent. A. D., the Kusana Emperor Kaniska I seems to have extended his power over central and western India. Bhumaka is the earliest known Ksatrapa in 5 Kumarpala pratibodha of Somaprabhacarya (composed in V. S. 1241) (1145 A. D.) (G. O. S.) Int. p. iii. 6. PC. V. w 143-146; JSSI p. 99; JASG. p. 60. 7. This city is identifed with Taranga : vide JTSS Vol I pt.l. p. 146. 8. Kumarapala pratibodha : Arya Khaputacarya Katha, p. 442-443. 9. The said temple was restored by minister Ambada, the son of Minister Udayana in V. S. 1221-22. (Vividha Tirtha Kalpa pp. 20-22) 10. Nirvanakalika, Int. p. 16. 11. Prabhavaka carita ( revised in 1277 A.D.), Padaliptacaritam vv. 247-306 12. Stambhanaka Tirthotpatti Prabandha.

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 73 charge of this part of western India. Nahapana, his successor seems to have ruled over a vast territory from Nasik to Pushakar including the regions round about Bharukaccha ( Broach) and Prabhasa (Prabhaspatan). The Ksaharata Ksatrapas lost their power to the Satavahana of the Deccan but their northern dominions soon passed under the sway of the Kardamaka Ksatrapas. The power of Mahaksatrapa Rudradaman I extended over a vast region including Gujarat. The Ksatrapa rule over Gujarat ended with Swami Rudrasimha III in or about 390 A. D. The Ksatrapas were probably saivas, as indicated by their names like Rudradaman, Rudrasimha, Rudrasena. The stone inscriptions of the time of Nahapana13 record religious donations made by his son-in-law Usavadata at several sites, which appear to be Brahamanical. However, no remains of Brahamanical temples of this period are known so far. According to the Jain tradition the sect of Caitya-vasis (monks residing in Caityas, ) started in the year 882 of the Vira Era ( 356 A. D.). The date falls in the later part of the Ksatrapa period. The tradition seems attested to by the rock-cut cave shelters near Junagadh. The symbols (Svastika, Bhadrasana, Nandipada, Minayugala, Kalasa) carved in the caves and the occurance of Jain technical terms in an inscription14 found in one of the caves corroborate their association with Jainism. The architectural form of these caves reflect that of their structural propotype. The Ksatrapa period has left remains of some Buddhist structures. The excavation at Intwa15 near Girnar have yeilded remains of a Buddhist monastery (Vihara ) which seems to have 13. EI, VIII, p. 78. 14. El. XVI, 239, HIG. VOL. I. no. 9. 15. Acharya G. V. Excavation of Buddhist Vihara of Intwa Hill in Girnar at Junagadh. Gujarat Samachar (Daily oct. 1949.)

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74 The Structural Temples of Gujarat been constructed by Rudrasena I (c. 199-222 A. D.) The explorations at Boria near Junagadh have revealed the remains of a Buddhist fragamentary burnt-brick stupa which contained a relic-casket.16 The stupa at Devani Mori, (Taluka Bhiloda, District Sabarkantha), is a massive brick structure with two square platforms on which the cupola rested. The lower platform serves as a Pradaksina. The entire face of this platform has several recesses and mouldings and divided into eleven bays by 12 pilasters. The second platform above it is divided into 9 bays by 10 pilasters. 17 It is interesting to note that this stupa is surrounded by several images of the Buddha, which supply the earliest known trace of Mahayana sect in Gujarat. 17o (iv) The period of the Gupata Rule ( c. 400 A. D.-470 A. D.) The Ksatrapas lost their power to the Gupta sovereigns of Maghadha in about 440 A. D. The Gupta rule over Gujarat is attested to by a number of silver coins issued by Candragupta II. Kumara Gupta 1 and Skandagupta as well as by the Junagadh rock inscription of Skandagupta. The Gupta sovereigns patronised Vaisnavism in particular The Junagadh rock inscription 18 of Skandgupta records the construction of a lofty, magnificent temple of Cakrabhsita ( Visnu) by Cakrapalita, the administrator of Girinagara ( Junagadh). The temple does not exist now in its original form but seems to be represented by the present, Damodar mandira (of late origin ) 16. The relics are on view at Junagadh Museum. For Pl. vide CHG. pl. xv. opp. p. 72. 17. CHG, . Addenda 'P. 309 also plt. LXXXV, 17a. Far detail. Vide here. p. 15. 18 Fleet, Junagadh rock inscription CII, III p. 56; HIG Ind. Ant. Vol. VIII. p. 36. vol. I No. 6;

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 75 near Junagadh. A few remains of the old temple, including some old images of black granite were pointed out in the surroundings of the present temple by Dr. Bhagwanlal Indraji.19 The Traikuta kings ruled over South Gujarat during this period, were also followers of Vaisnavism. But no remains of any Brahmanical temples built during their reign have come to light. A guild of silk-weavers that migrated from Lata (south Gujarat) and settled at Dasapura ( modern Dasar or Man-Dosar in Malva) is known to have built a sun temple in the city. But their exist no remains of the temple at present. The earliest known architectural monument in Gujarat are generally assigned to the 5th Century A, D. They represent structural temples of different styles. The temple at Gop,20 in Barada Hills was dedicated to Sun and the temple at Kadvar near Veraval to the Varaha, incarnation of Visnu 19. The present Damudar Mandir which was built probably on the old site of the Cakrabhrit temple in the 15th cent. during the rule of Mandalika, the last Chudasama ruler of Junagadh. At the time of Muslaman conquest (A. D. 1484) as violence was feared the images were removed and buried. Mandalika temple was repaired by Amarji Dewan of Junagadh ( 1759-1784 A. D.). It was proposed to make and consecrate new images. But certain old images of Visnu were found in digging foundation for the enclosure wall and were consecrated. Two of these images were taken by Girnara Brahmins and consecrated in the names of Eadeva and Revati in a neighbouring temple specially built for them. Of the original temple the only trace is a pilaster into the wall to the right as one enters. The style and carving are of the Gupta period. (BG. I. Pt. l. ch. VII p. 70 ) 20. Burgess placed the temple of Gop at least as old as 6th cent. A. D. (AKK. p. 187) but on the arology of the evolution of Caitya-window ornament Dr. H. D. Sankalia assings it to the sth cent. A. D. i. e. a century earlier than that fixed by Burgess (AG. p. 59).

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76 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The temple at Gop ( Dist. Jamnagar)21 consists of a square shrine Surrounded by a double court yard. The shrine is 3.4 ms. square inside, about 7.1 ms. high, with wall .7 ms thick. The walls, which are perfectly plain, having no niche or any other ornament, are perpendicular to a height about 5.3 ms. thereafter they begin to contract to form the Sikharae (spire ) of the temple. The Sikhara was constructed on the corbel principle, the interior being hollow. On the out side the Sikhara rises in tiers as a stepped pyramid, but it is distinctly cut off into three divisions. The lowest division has two caityawindows on each of its faces; the upper one has one; above it the apex is crowned by a single stone. 2 2 Of the two courtyards, the inner one is mostly broken probably, as shown by similar later temples, it served as a pradaksinapatha. The outer one standing a little below the inner is in ruins; only a portion of the eastern side now remains. 2 S The temple of Gop faces east. The temple at Kadvar (Dist. Junagadh )3 4 has a long rectangular shrine, surrounded by an outerwall, which opens 21. AKK. Plts. LI-LIIS; SMTK. Plts. XXVII-XXVIII. Here figs. 1, 215, 216. For the location of the places mentioned henceforth, vide the map at the end of this section. 22. AG. p. 56. 23. AG. p. 56 The recent conservations by the Archaeological department of Government of India have exposed the high plinth of the temple which is near by 4.5 ms. in height and measures 20.5 ms. each side on the ground surface. At the bottom it has seven lateral projecting bays on each side. Vertically the plinth is cut into two platforms, the outer of which, perhaps, served as an open pradaksinapatha around the temple. The surrounding top of the plinth also, probably, served as a pradaksinapatha. It was possibly roofed with flat slabs, as indicated by the holes just below the cornice of the walls of the shrine. 24. SMTK. plts. XXIX-XXXV. Here Figs. 219. & 2. Due to the close affinity of Gupta temple motives Dr. Sankalia believes that the temple may be assigned to that period. (FGT. Vol. IV

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 77 out on one side and forms the mandapa, having a porch on either side. Six pillars support the roof of the mandapa and short dwarf pillars placed in corners support the roof of the porches. The sikhara is destroyed.2 5 The temple is dedicated to Varaha but may be a Dasavatara temple, as Cousens suggests, 2 6 as figures of these and other deities are found both on the prabhavali of the Varaha image and also on the walls of the porches. The Shrine door-way has five well preserved panels27 each containing various figures of deity. The pillars of the mandapa and porches are plain with square massive shafts and bracket capitals of the caves. The Sikhara of the shrine was the same of the early type as that of the old temple of Gop.28 (v) The period of the Maitraka-Gurjara rule (c. 470 A. D.-788 A. D.) Shortly after the death of Skandagupta (c. 467 A. D.) Senapati Bhatarka of the Maitraka family established a kingdom at Valabhi on the eastern coast of Saurastra. The Maitraka kings gradually extended their power as far as western Malva No. 4). The sculptures, ornamentation and style of the Sikhara together suggest an early date, not much later than that of Gop (AG. p. 64). This veiw is also supported by a standing cult-image of varaha, as the varaha images found standing in the temples of Madhya Bharat, Malva, Erana and in the caves of Udayagiri belong to that period. The position of the hands of varaha image at Kadvar closely resembles to that of the hands of varaha at Udayagiri (Gwalior) (IS. plt. xxi) Epigraphical evidences from Gujarat, North Rajputana, Southern region of Deccan-Konkan, indicate the existence of Vasudeva-Sari Karsana Worship (El. x Appendix p. 2. no. 7 and El. xxii p. 198 ) as well as vedic gods Indra, Yama, Varuna-practicaly in the whole of the western India ( Nanghata Inscription. B. G. xviii. iii) This was obviously the puranic form of Vaisnavism, 25. AG. p. 63. 26. SMTK. p. 38. 27. SMTK. plt. xxxii, xxxiv. 28. SMTK. p. 39.

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78 The Structral Temples of Gujaratu in the east and their Kingdom included almost the whole of Gujarat except parts of South Gujarat. They reigned for about three centuries. (the fall of their power being dated v. s. 845 (A. D. 788). The Maitrakas were generally followers of Sajvism. They issued a number of grants of lands to Brahamans. A few of the grants recorded in their copper-plates were made to temples of Mahadeva, 29 Aditya, 30 and Goddesses.31 The ruins of the old city of Valabhi, have yeilded a number of big images of the linga and nandi which also imply the existence of several 29. In Surastra at Vatapiada a temple dedicated to Siva was built by one Harinatha, Siladitya Dharmaditya (A. D. 609) granted two pieces of land and a vapi (step-well) to the said temple. (Ind. Ant. IX, 238; MG. pt. II, 368). In the copper-plate of Dhruvasena ll, there is a reference as to the temple known as Bhatrisvara in the Konaka Pathaka of Khetaka Ahara, (MG. ft. Il. p. 370; HIG. vol. I No. 64) A Gurjara record of the Maitraka period refers to the temple of Asramadeva at Kemajju which is represented by Kimoja near Kavi in Broach District. In the vicinity of the village there exists a temple of Asamesvara corresponding to Asramadeva. The temple enshrines an old lirga of Siva but the construction of the temple is of recent origin. (Ind. Ant. Vol. V. p. 109-10; MG. Pt. II. p. 370) 30. The existence of Sun-worship and Sun-temples is supported by the copper-plate of the year 292 (611-A. D.) issued by King Siladitya | alias Dharmaditya to a Sun-temple at Bhadreniyaka (Saurastra ) (El. xxi. 116; HIG. vol. I, 59. A). The Dhank grant of this king which records the gift of land dedicated to Mahadeva temple at Vatapadra, also mentions a vapi belonging to the temple of Adityadeva while enumerating the four borders of the plots donated (Ind. Ant. IX. 238, HIG. I. 57). 31. A temple of goddess Sankarika in Sirvatanaka-sthali in Saurastra is referred to in a copper-plate of Dharasena III ( c. 621-627 A. D., WMR. 1925-26 p. 14; JBBRAS. (NS) 4, 185; El. 21. 183; HIG. | 61) aid a copper plate of Siladitya IV ( c. 685-710 A. D.) refers to Matristhanaka Ksetra i. e. temples dedicated to Goddesses in Madasarasthali, Saurastra (JBBRAS (NS) I. 53; HIG. I. 65).

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 79 lofty Saiva temples at Valabhi. 32 But none of the old temples seem to be in existence at present. The Maitraka kings extended their patronage to Buddhist Viharas which also enshrined images of the Buddha or the Baddhas. Many of the Viharas mentioned in the grants were built at Valabhi but none of them have survived. In his records, 33 Hjuan Tsang refers to a number of Buddhist Viharas in Bharukaccha, Malava, Khetaka, Anandapura, Surastra and other parts of Gujarat, but we hardly come across the remains of any Viharas of this period, 3 4 The Jain prabandhas refer to a number of Jain images removed from Valabhi. It implies the existence of some Jain temples in the city. A manuscript of the 'Visesavsyakabhasya' Valabhi inscriptions mention temples dedicated to goddesses Panarajya or Panduraja ( MG, II. p. 374) and Kottammahikadevi (JBBR AS. xx. pp. 9-10). A reference to Pandurajya tirtha in Svabhra region is given in Padma Purana 6, 166 (E. I, XVI, 17) and Kottammahikadevi (JBBRAS. xx. pp. 9-10 ), Dronasinha (A. D. 502-03 ) granted a village for the maintenance and up keep of the temple of first goddess. He also built a temple of Kottammahikadevi in the boundary of Trisamgamaka (modern Tarsania) (JBBRAS. XX. p. 6). The royal grant, once stopped was resumed and made permanent by Dhruvasena || alias Baladitya (A. D. 639-40) and repaired the said temple (HIG. I, 67). Jackson narrates that a temple dedicated to Kottardevi existed at Tarsaniya when the copper-plates were found and edited by him; but the query made by Dr. H. G. Shastri does not support the statement (MG. II. 373 ). 32. Some of the old images of the lingas have been enshrined in the modern temples such as temple of Ratnesvara, Buddhesvara, Pragatanatha and Bhidabhanjana etc. at Vala ( MG. II. pp. 368.) 33. Bea!. Records Vol. 2 pp. 242 ff; Water's Travels, Vol. 2, pp. 239 ff. also M. G. II. pp. 396-405. 34. The vihara noticed by Hiuan Tsang not far from Valabhi is presumably identified with the large cave at Talaja (Puratattava Vol. I. pp. 99 ff.) In that case the vihara is rock-cut.

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80 The Structural Temples of Gujarat alludes the temple of Santinatha at Valabhi, but none of the old Jain temples also exist at present.35 However, some of the existing old temples in Gujarat seem to have been constructed during the Maitraka period. The celebrated temple of Somnath at Prabhas was reconstructed several times during Caulukya period, but the original temple seems to have been constructed during the reign of Maitrakas. 36 Even the stone temple was subsequently demolished so frequently that the existing remains of its structure could hardly give any distinct idea of its original form during the Maitraka period. The Muslim chroniclers give some description of the temple and the image enshrined in it but it does not good hold in detail. The traditional account of the large linga and the lofty temple gives some idea of the magnificence of the temple but does not supply adequate data about its architectural form. The Surviving temples of the period of the Maitraka Gurjara rule (c. 470 A. D.-788 A. D.) are the old Sun temples at Sutrapada, Visavada38 and Than in Saurastra, a group of temples at Roda and old sun temple at Samalaji in Sabarkantha District. The temple at Sutrapada39 (Dist. Junagadh) explains the plan of the shrine at Gop where the outer walls of the 35. MG. II, pp. 422-423, 493 36. It's version in stone seems to have been built at the beginning of the Caulukya period on the model of the wooden prototype which is generally assigned to the Maitraka period. (SMTK. p. 18; Munsi K. M. Guj. and its literature p. 76; BG. I. 164; D. K. Shastri "Saiva Dharamano Samksipta Itihasa' pp. 147-148; GMRI. pp. 202-203) The assumption is corroborated by the remains of the pre-Caulukyan basement unearthed by the excavation at the site of the old temple of Somnatha (Somnatha, Souvenir p. 89) 37. Nearly 13 Kms. from Somanatha patan, along the coast to SE. 38. 24 Kms. to N. W. of Porbandar. 39. SMTK p. 41 plts. XL & XLI. Here Figs. 3 & 218

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 81 Pradaksina have fallen, and where the slots along the top of the wall of the shrine, show where the lower roof of that passage joined it at the base of the Sikhara. The pillars within are of not quite so simple a type as those in the temple of Varaha at Kadvar. The central bay of the ceiling is closed by three huge flat slabs without ornament; the side ceilings and the ceiling of the Pradaksina slope from the centre to the sides, the slabs resting upon heavy beams are placed at intervals. The doorways are severaly simple, and they each have upon the dedicatory block an image of Ganapati. The forward part of mandapa, with a flat roof seems to be an addition or rebuilding of a porch that had fallen. Besides the temple, upon its south side, is a modern one of the Navagraha or nine planets. 40 At Visavada41 (Dist. Junagadh) there is a much older temple of Sutrapada style now in disuse and partly ruined. It is massively built and plain. In the shrine are some mutilated images, among them being one of Surya, so, possibly, the temple was originally dedicated to him. Nearly two killo-meters to the N. W. of this again, standing isolated in the fields, is a very small shrine, which is certainly oldest at this place. 41. It is a small square building standing upon a ruined basement. Before it stood a porch which has now disappeared; it can be seen where it was attached to the front wall of the shrine. The fall of this part damaged the masonry around the doorway part of which has blocked up to give support to the lintel. There may have been an enclosed passage around shrine as in the Kadvar temple, but there are no indications of one having been attached to the walls of the shrine, the walls being perfectly plain between the basement and the eaves. The stepped out pyramid roof is, if anything, simpler than that 40. The present image, in the old shrine at Sutrapada has been installed by one Thakar Visaladeva in V. S. 1357 (A. D. 1300-1) 41. SMTK. plt. XLV. Here Figs. 4, & 217. 41a. SMTK. plts. XLIII, XLIV; Here Fig. 5

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82 The Structural Temples of Gujarat at Gop, but the workmanship is coarser, the caitya niches being left blank are without the rich detail. Instead of the straight sloping corners, seen between the niches at Gop, we find here ornamental curves similar to the heavy mouldings in early Chalukyan and Dravidian building of approximately the same age. The Caitya-niches however, still preserve the single loop and have not yet developed into the triple loop or Trefoil form as in the Sutrapada temple, but we have here the ribbed amalasara beneath the finial as in the last. 4 2 During my recent visit to Saurashtra I came across some* unnoticed temples along the Western Coast of the peninsula. Architecturally these temples have in plan and design a close affinity with the temples of Sutrapada and Visavada. They all, probably seem to have been built during this period. Many of these temples are dedicated to the Sun and some to Siva or Sakti. They are either singular or grouped into four or five or sometimes even more then seven temples in number. The temples dedicated to the Sun at Balej 4 2/1, Pata 42 %, Suvan421 (Varvada), Srinagar 4 2/4, Pindara 4 215, Boricha 4216, Akhodar4 217 and Pasanavada 4 218 are singular. Of these the Sun temples at Pindara, Boricha and Akhodar comprise only single square cells, while those at Balej, Pata, Suvan (Varvada), Srinagar and Pasanavada consist of square garbhaglihas at times surrounded by Pradaksinapathas and single Mannupas attached to them in front, giving a rectangular shape to the whole structure. The garbhagriha is usually square in plan while the mandapa is either square or rectangular. Each of these temples 42 SMTK. pp. 44-45 * For a detailed description vide Appendix 'A' 42 1. Here Fig. 6. 42/2. Here Fig. 7. 42/3. Here Fig. 8. 42/4. Here Figs. 10, 11. 42/5. Here Fig. 13. 42/6. Here Fig. 14. 42/7. Here Figs. 15, 16. 42/8; Here Fig. 17.

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 83 has a sikhara (generally pyramidal) over the garbhagriha. The mandapa is covered with a flat roof, while the Pradaksinapatha is covered with a sloped roof. The mandapa contains simple but heavy square pillars. Similarly the Siva temples at Ranavav4 3/9, Miyani42/10 Harasiddha42/11 and Porbandar42/12 (Dhingesvara Mahadeva) Lunav, Navidhraved4 2/13, Pasanavada42/14 are singular. In plan they are similar to the Sun temples described above. The temples at Harasiddha and Porbandar consist of only square garbhagliha adorned with Sikhara while the rest have attached Mandapas and porches. Some of them also contain pradaksinapathas which terminate into aisles. The groups of temples at Khimesvar 42/18, Nandisvar, Bhansar42/16, and Odadar 4 2/17, consist of temples dedicated to the Sun, Siva and other minor deities. In plan and design they closely resemble the temples described above. Nearly all have square garbhagliha. Among them some are single celled while others contain pradaksinapathas, attached manqapas with or without porches. The Khimesvara group consists of several temples of which six are noteworthy. The main temple Khimesvara42/18 facing east, is a rectangular structure consisting of a square garbhagliha, a covered ambulatory, a mandapa and a covered portico. On the left of it, facing north, there is a temple dedicated to Bhairava, the temple being typical in its superstructure displaying a close affinity to the gable-roofed type of 42/9. Here Fig. 20 42/10. Here Figs. 21, 22, 23. 42/11. Here Fig. 25. 42/12. Here Fig. 26 42/13. Here Figs. 28, 29. 42/14. Here Figs. 18, 19. 42/15. Here Figs. 30, 31, 32. 42/16. Here Figs. 33, 34, 35. 42/17. Here Fig. 36. 4218 Here Fjg. 30.

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84 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the superstructure. Its garbhagriha is a square one with an attached rectangular mandapa. On the right there is a temple dedicated to Randala 4 9/19 (consort of Sun-God) facing east. The temple is typical as the exterior of the mandapa wall is adorned with beautiful carved big niches (gavaksa) each on either side of the main entrance. The next one is the temple dedicated to Khadesvara4 2/2 0 having a superstructure similar to that of Khimesvara. It has a square garbhagriha surrounded by a Pradaksinapatha and an attached covered mandapa. Oppisite to this temple, facing east there is a temple dedicated to Dudhesvara Mahadeva with a square garbhagliha adorned with a sikhara over it. In the vicinity of the Randala temple there is a temple dedicated to the Sun. The group of temples at Nandisvara consists of pre-Caulukyan as well as Caulukyan temples. Many of them are dedicated to Siva while one is dedicated to a Goddess. One of the two pre-Caulukyan temples comprises only a square garbhagriha with a peculiar door of unusual height. The other temple lies to the south of the main temple of Nandisvara ( which belongs to Caulukyan period ). The superstructure of this temple resembles to that of Khimesvara. At Bhansara there is a group of several temples which can be assigned to this period. The group contains two varieties of temples viz., pre-Caulukyan and Caulukyan. Lakroda* : There is an old temple in this village which is somewhat noteworthy. It seems to have been a Siva shrine originally; but at present it is called Demaranum Derum of Hanuman, whose image is kept in its compound. The shrine 42/19. Here Fig. 32. 42/20. Here Fig. 34. *9.6 Kms. to the east of Lodra near Vijapur (Dist. Mehsana ).

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 85 consists of a cella, an antechamber, a Gudhamanqapa and a porch, The mandapa is supported by 12 square corbelled and massive pillars. The temple is plain in construction and built of huge blocks of stones. 4 2 2 1 The spire over the cella is pyramidal in shape consisting of twelve thin tiers ( kandoras ), the top-most number being lost. The antechamber is covered by Sukanasa while the roof of the Gudhamandapa is flat. There is also a detached catuski located near this temple. It is an interesting peice of architecture. On a stylobate (Pithika) of this catuski there are four 'bhadraka' type pillars (i, e. pillars with central off sets). The lower portion of each pillar bears two niches at two exterior right angular sides; the upper portion of the shaft is adorned with bharani and Sirsa. From the style of carving on the pillars of both these structures i. e. the temple as well the catuski they seem to be of the same date as that of Roda Temples. 42; 23. The Old Temple at Than (Dist. Surendranagar ). This temple is smaller in size. The porch is extinct and the Sikhara is totally collapsed. Except some minor differences this old temple looks very similar to those of Roda. Dr. Sankalia has placed this temple after the one at Sutrapada.42/a But the pieces of the collapsed Sikhara lying scattered about the temple are adorned with carvings (of jalaka ) which have close 42/21. ARAB. 39. p. 8. para 21, For plt. see AB. plt. XXII. 42'22. Shri M. A. Dhaky in his papers on 'The chronology of Solanki temples in Gujarat' (Journal of the Madhyapradesh Itihasa Parishad No. 3, 1961 ( Bhopal) has put this temple along with the temples at Roda group and the old temple at Than etc. in the Formative group of the Early Nagara phase which he assigns to the early part of the 8th cent. A. D. (Ibid p. 3) 42 a. AG. p. 61.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat similarity to those of Sikharas of the temple at Roda. Further its doorway42/b and some of the sculptures have also close affinity to Roda temples. All these features would place it nearer to Roda temples in time. 86 A group of seven temples4 3 existing at Roda (Dist. Sabarkantha) is highly interesting from the architectural point of view. Out of these one (No. IV), 48. which standing on the back of the Kunda between temples III and V has been destroyed and only its platform remains. Fragments of it are lying around the plinth. None of the temples bears any inscriptions and so we have to fix their ages on the strength of the style of structures, sculptures carved on them and their circumstancial evidences.44 The sculptures and other ornaments of these temples have close affinity with the temples ascribed to 7th, 8th and 9th centuries in other parts of India. Further, the strong stylistic affinities with some of the early temples at Than, Visavada and other places in Saurastra display the fact that they belong roughly to the later half of the Maitraka-rule i. e. the first half of the eighth century A. D. This is further supported by a comparision with similar shrines at Osia dating from 8th to 10th cent. A. D. The temple at Osia seems to be later than the Roda group, on stylistic grounds especially of 42/b SMTK. plt. 43. SSR. Plts : XLIX. No. I p. 101 No. II. P. 100 No. III. pp. 102-104 Fig. No. 82; here figs 44, 45. 80 No. IV. p. 99 No. V. pp. 105-109 No. VI. p. 108 No. VII. 109 111 "" 29 d. " 19 "" .. "P 43a. The numerical order of the temples, according to Dr. U. P. Shah's SSR. 44. SSR. p. 99. "" 9: "" " 19 23 dr 83, 84 85, 86., here figs. 46, 47. 79 87, 88, 89., here fig 48. 90 91 92, here figs. 49, 50. adopted here, is given

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 87 the pillars, caitya window ornaments etc. Our assigning these shrines to the Maitraka period is further supported by the existence of a large number of temples, showing various stages in the evolution of the Sikhara and the temple walls etc., discovered from various sites in Saurastra and Katcha which were definitely under Maitraka rule during 6th to 8th centuries. 45 All the shrines except no. VII are small temples with square or rectangular sanctums (garbhagrihas ) and a small porch (ardhamandapa i. e, a pragrriva covered with phansana (gabled) 1oofing) in front, eventhough the porch has fallen down from some temples. Most of the temples show one or two offsets (ratha, pratiratha etc.) while No. II has plain walls which could be compared with the plain walls of the famous Gupta temples at Sanchi etc. Unfortunately the upper part of this temple is not existing so it is very difficult to Judge about its nature and style, the eaves are sloping down and such a sloping base of the Sikhara above having caitya-window (motif) with bifurcation is interesting, as these could be favourably compared with similar roofs in South India and Saurastra 46 Roofs of porches present an interesting stylistic comparision with some of the temples in Saurastra and Rajasthana and else where. The roof of the mandapa of temple VII reminds one the temple to the South of Harihara temple No. 1 at Osia and even the temple at Kalsara in Saurastra, but the roof here is highly ornate with Caitya-window ornaments on sides and front.47 The Sikhara are of curvilinear North Indian types and have their parallels in Saurastra at Ghumali, Pasthar, Miani, Wadhawana etc., and in Rajsthana at Osia, Badoli, etc. Except 45. SSR. pp. 113-114. 46. The old shrine at Visavada is comparable with Temple II at Roda, but the Visavada shrine has a porch, while the Roda shrine does not seem to have had any. SRR. p. 110. 47. SSR. P. 110.

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88 The Structural Temples of Gujarat no 1147. which seems to have phansana ( gabled) type of roofing all are eka-stingi i. e. monospired. The Caitya-window motifs on the Sikharas and on the niches of Roda temples are some what earlier than those on the surya temple at Osia (c. 900 A, D.) or on the Harihara temple II at Osia.4 8 To the N. E. of the Khaka Chowk at Samalaji is an old Surya temple with a broad-door frame, the shrine compares favourably with the Roda and Osia groups of shrines, niches on the backwall of the sanctum are now empty, but they are highly ornate with the Caitya-window ornament of the Roda type. The temple, at present, has a rectangular cella, an antarala, a mandapa with balconies on two sides, and a porch. There is also a pradaksinamarga which seems to be later made by another wall enclosing the shrine. The old Sikhara of the temple has been lost and the temple was repaired at least more than once.49 (Vi) The Post-Maitraka period (c. 788-942 A. D.) After the decline of the Maitraka Kingdom the territories of Gujarat passed under the power of several dynasties. A large part of northern Gujarat was ruled over by the Cavadas who established their power at Anhilapataka-Pattna ( Patan) The Rastrakutas in Southern Gujarat gradually extended their power over central Gujarat, shifting their capital to Khetaka (Kheda). In Saurastra, we find a number of different kingdoms 47a. Ibid Fig. 80 p. 100. 48. SSR. P. 110 also Kramrisch Stella, "The Art of India through Ages', Figs. 115, 116,; Archaeology in India 1958-59 A review, Pl. LXXXV. for Osia and Pl. LXXXVI. for Badoli. Architecturally Roda group of Temples come very near to Harihara Temple no. 1 in Osia group cf Temples (ASI, AR. 1908-09. plt. XXXVII (a)) 49. SSR. p. 36.

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 89 in different parts of peninsula for instance, the Capas in the North, the Calukyas in the South and the Saindhavas in the East. 50* Of these the Capas and the Calukyas are expressively known to have acknowledged the supremacy of the Pratiharas of North India. This period is marked by a long struggle for supremacy between the Pratiharas in the North and the Rastrakutas in the South. At the end, the Paramaras of Malwa also extended their powers over some parts of North Gujarat. The power of the Cavadas at Anhilapataka was uprooted in 942 A. D. by Mularaja of the Caulukya family. The establishment of the Caulukya power at Anhilapataka marks the beginning of a new epoch in the history of Gujarat. During the post Maitraka period a number of literary and inscriptional references as to the existence and building of temples belonging to different sects are met with. A long description about Mt. Abu is given by Kasmini-poet Damodargupta (c. 750-790 A. D.) in his work Kuttani-matam(pp. 54-59 vv. 238-261). Here he says that the Mt. Abu was rich in various shrines, tanks, step-wells etc.51 A number of pupils of Yaksadatta Gani (745 A. D.) adorned Gujarat by getting Jain temples built at various places.52 Niya also called Ninnaya or Nima, a predecessor of famous minister Vimala, as a minister of Vanaraja Cavada got built a temple (V. S. 825) of Lord Rsabha in Anhilvada Patan.5s In Modhera, there was a Jain temple (c. 794) of Vijaydeva described in Jiva-Jivabhigama.54 According to Jain Traditions, Ama alias Nagavaloka and * 50. Besides these there were established some other powers also such as those of the Valas, Cudasamas and Gohils. 51. U. P. Shah 'Early Sculptures from Abu' Baroda Museum Bulletin (1957) p. 46. 52. Colophon of Kuvalayamala, 53. Colophon-V. 9 of Mallinatha cariyam of Haribhadra Suri quoted in JTSS Vol. I. p. 57 54. JPI. pt. 1 F. 522.

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90 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Nagabhatta II, king of Kanyakubja (Kanauj), who died in V. S. 890 i. e. 834 A. D. got built Jain temples at Anhilapura (Patan) and at Modhapur (Modhera). Further at the instances of Bappabhatti Suri he want to sartunjaya and Urjjayant for pilgrimage 54/1 This reference indicates the existence of Jain temples at both the aforesaid places. The Surat plates (A. D. 821)55 of Karkkaraja Suvarnavarsa speaks about the existence of a Jain temple (caitya-layatana ) at Nagasarika (Navasari). There is no trace as to its existence at present. The Rastrakuta King Prabhutavarsa Govindaraja gave a gift to the temple of the Sun (Jayaditya) at Kapika ( Kavi). 56 The Una copper-plate (892 A. D.) of Mahasa manta Balvarman of the Calukya dyansty was issued to the temple of Sun God Tarunaditya on the bank of the river Kanvirika in Saurastra 57. His son Avanivarma II alias Yoga also issued the grant of the village to the same temple in V. S. 956 (i. e. 899 A. D.)58 The Saindhava King Mahasamanta Ranaka (874-875 A. D.) assigned grant of land to a group of temples dedicated to Hari (Visnu ), Haridasva (Surya), Vinayaka (Ganapati ) and the Matnis (Mothers )59. A temple of Visnu was built by Bhuvaka in the time of the Gurjara Pratihara King Bhoja at Prithudaka near Praci-Sarsvati in 882-883 A. D.80 Thus along with the temples of Siva and Surya the temples of Visnu were also erected during the reign of Cavada-Rastrakuta-Pratihara Kings. 54!1. Prabhavakacarita xi, w, 857,-859; 684-685 55 El, xxi, pp. 136 and 144. 56. IA; V. 144 ff. 57. EI. IX. 1. ff. pp. 4-10; alo HIG. Nos. 234 and 235. 58. El. IX p. 6. 59. Ghumali Plates El XXVI, 212 ff. 69. El. I. P. 187: Cunnigham ASR. II. P. 224...

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 91 The temple of Somanatha at Prabhasa during this period seems to have acquired wide fame as a Ksetra of pilgrimagers. This can be seen from the number of literary references. 6 1 This is corroborated by epigraphic record (c. 950 A. D.) narrating the visit to Somesvara temple by the Kalacuri King Laksmanrajadeva, during his expedition to Western region. 62 Anhilapura pattana said to have been built in V. S. 802 by Vanaraja. The king is said to have also built a Jain temple known as Pancasara Parsvanatha; so named after Pancasara, from where the image was brought. The Prabandha-cintamani 63 also ascribes the erection of the temple of Kanthesvari at the Dhavalagriha (?) at Anahilpura by Vanaraja. His successors Yogaraja (805-814 A. D.)64 there added a temple dedicated to Bhatlarika Yogesvari;6 5 Akadadeva, apparently called Rahada or Ghaghada ( 888 915 A. D.) built in the City of Karkara (?) the temples of Akadesvari66 and Kanthesvari67; and Bhuvada or Bhuyada (915-932 A. D, )68 built a temple of Bhuyadesvara probably at Bhuyada 69 in Kaccha. The said village contains a ruined temple of Bhuyadesvar. Much of it has been damaged by the last earthquake, while the beautiful door-frame of the garbhagriha still retains, 6 9 The Surviving temples of the post-Maitraka period are the old Siva temple of Bilesvara, 70 the temples at Kindekheda, 71 61. Prabhasa Khanda of the Skandapurana. 62. El. 11, 174 63. PC. (Guj. Trans ) pp. 36, 37. 64. According to R. C. Modi; Lekhasamgrah pt. I, p. 30 GMRI. Pt. I. p. 60, fn. i. 65. PC. Ibid p. 37. 66. R. C. Modi; Ibid. p. 30. 67. R. C. Modi. Ibid. p. 30. 08. 9.6 Kms. from Bhadresvara in Kaccha. 69. KSD. p. 96. Figs. pp. 97, 98, There is also an inscription dated 1346 'A. D. 70. in Barda Hills, 24 Kms, N. E. of Probandar. 71. 19.2 Kms. N; of Probandar.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat Kalasar2 and Pasthar73; all the three dedicated to Surya and a group of the ruined temples north of Navalakha temple at Ghumali and the group of temples at Sona or Suvan Kansari. 92 The temple of Bilesvara74 (Dist. Junagadh ) faces east and is dedicated to Siva but whether this was so originally, or not; is uncertain as the present door-frame does not appear to be an old one. In the shrine there is a damaged linga at present. The plan of the temple is unusual, for we have here the square shrine planted right in the middle of what might be called the hall, leaving a broad, but dark closed in passage all around it. It measures, outside 15.4 ms. and the shrine 8 ms. square, the passage around the latter being about meters wide, unnecessarily wide for a pradaksina or circumambulatory passage.75 3 The temple at Kinderkheda (Dist. Junagadh) is about the same size as the temple of Surya at Sutrapada, but more simple and severe in its general appearance and more massive for its size than the Kadvar temple. Unlike the plainly moulded shafts of the pillars at the former, they are, here, if anything simpler than those at the latter temple, being nothing but heavy square blocks unrelieved by a single line. They have no bases as they have in the other buildings, and the bracket capitals are partly rectangular slabs and partly fashioned into a simple roll, being much like these in the Tin tal cave at Elora. The roof is plainly constructed of overlapping slabs above the hall, and is a simple pyramid above the shrine.76 72. 9.6 Kms. N. E. of Mahuva. 73. a little South to Son Kansari (Ghumali ). 74. SMTK plts. XXXVI-XXIX. Here figs, 37, 38. 75. SMTK. p. 40. 76. SMTK. p. 1 Fig. No. 3 on p. 42. Here Fig. 39.

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan Times 93 The Sun temple at Kalasar ( Dist. Bhavnagar) was first noted by Shri Ravisanker Raval?? in the year 1947-48. It consists of a garbhagsiba measuring 4.3x2.6 ms. and a rectangular Mandapa before the shrine measuring 2.7x3 ms. The wall of the temple is plain and is .7 ms in thickness. The upper part of the shirine is closed by stone slabs which rise into sikhara by supplying slabs in Corbel style. No morter is used for fixing the stones. The sikhara shows close affinity with that of the temples at Sutrapada, Visavada and Bilesvara. The Sun temple at Pasthar (Dist. Junagadh ) is roofed with long slabs of stones. The Pradaksina has had a slanting roof, and two small windows at the back. One pillar of the mandapa remains standing, with four-armed figures on the barckets. Ganesa is carved on the lintel of the door, and a Surya inside is represented much as Visnu with only two hands.78 There is a group of ruined temples North of Navalakha Temple at Ghumali* (Dist. Junagadh). One of it measures 2.5 ms. square inside and the walls are 0.8 ms. thick. Nothing is remained of the shrine, but the jambs and lintel of the door and three or four pillars and the mode of closing the spire speak of its old antiquity. The other shrine noteworthy of this group is a ruined Jain temple of which few pillars of mandapa and the three of the small cells that surrounded it survive. The bracket capitals and the elaborately carved doors of little shrines of the circumambulatory or court are interesting. 9 Scattered about all over the site of Ghumali are fragments of temples and some of them are noteworthy. 77. The details, and sketches of the temple, ground plan and photographs are given by Shri Raval in JGRS. Vol. Xl. No. 2 pp. 81-88. Here Fig. 12. 78. AKK. p. 186. * Ghumali lies 6.4 Kms. South of Bhanwar, in the North-Eastern end of the Barada Hills. 79. AKK. p. 181, plts. XLV; XLVI. Fig. 1.

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94 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (1) A Vaisnava temple-the shrine remains, 1.8 ms. square inside, with wall of 0.5 m. thick and a Pradaksina 0.9 m. wide round it. On the lintel of the shrine door is Ganesa, and on the frieze above is Visnu seated with Garuda below his asana or throne, a nimbus behind his head, and female figures at each side; to the left to Visnu, in another compartment, is Brhama, three faced, seated cross legged on two hansas or sacred geese, with two female attendants; and to the right is siva, three faced, with the bull Nandi below, and two females. All three have four arms each, and are about 0.4 m. high. In front of the shrine door two pillars of the mandapa still remain, divided into three nearly equal lengths of 4, 8, & 16 sides, with bracket capitals of the usual cruciform shape. (2) The Second temple, has a Mandapa with low screen wall 0.5 m. thick. The shrine is 21 m. square inside, with walls 0.7-9 m. thick, surrounded by a pradaksina 1.1 ms. wide, the outer wall of the temple forming 5.4 x 9 ms. inside 6-4 x 10 m. outside, with four pillars in front of the shrine 0.8 m. square below, octagon above and having square bases. They have round capitals and brackets of grinning Kirtimukhas and four-faced figures. The walls are of plain ashlar, the stones neatly dressed and jointed. There has also been a porch, but it has fallen. The Sikhara is much ruined, but has been carved with a sort of chaitya-window pattern, not deeply cut, and other mouldings usual in temples from the 8th century or earlier to the 10th or 11th century and crowned with a larger flat amalsila 80 The group of temples at Son or Suvan Kansari ( Dist. Junagadh) consists of some 18 or 20 temples 80/1 ... None of them 80. AKK. p. 182. 80/a. Here Figs. 41. 42, 43.

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A Survey of the Structural Temples of Pre-Caulukyan times 95 is very large, but apparently of an earlier date than those described above, and perhaps dating from the 8th to 10th Cent. A. D. The larger ones consists of a square shrine built near one end of an oblong court or mandapa, and the smaller ones of an outer room or porch and a cell. The mandapas have fallen except that of three larger ones, shown in the background a little to the right of the middle of the view, of which a considerable portion is still entire. This appears to be a Vaishnava temple with four columns in the mandapa. From the pradaksina a smaller door opens on the right or north side into a little room outside the encloser wall; and at the back and south sides there are small openings or windows into similar appartments. The roofs of the pradaksina and aisles in these temples have slanted downwards. These shrines however, differ than most others in the way they are roofed; the Sikhara or spire being gradually contracted in dimensions inside, till it terminates in a square aperture of about a foot, covered by a single slab. In one of the larger temples, on the N. side of the group, there appears to have been two floors and above the second, the area is gradually contracted in this way. The shrine is 3.2 ms. square inside and the walls 1.2 ms. thick with a Pradaksina 2 ms. wide, having four windows one on each side and two behind.81 81. AKK P. 183-184, plt. XLVII. Here Fig. 49.

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CHAPTER IV STRUCTURAL TEMPLES OF THE CAULUKYAN PERIOD (942 A. D.-1299 A. D.) The power of the Cavada's was uprooted by Mularaja I of the Caulukya family in 942 A. D. He ruled from Anhilapataka and established his sway over Sarsvatamandala (the Sarasvati Valley) and Satyapura mandala (round about modern Sanchor in Marwar). He reigned upto 997 A. D. His son Camundaraja reigned from 997 to 1010 A. D. Durlabharaja the second son of Camundaraja reigned from 1010 to 1022 A. D. He was succeeded by his nephew Bhima I (1022-1064 A. D.). The celebrated temple of Somanatha was sacked by Mahmuda of Gazna during his reign. He added Kaccha-mandala into the dominions of the Caulukyas. Karna I (1064-1094 A. D.), his Son and successer, annexed Lata-Mandala. He was succeeded by his son Jayasinha, popularly known as Siddharaja, (1094-1143 A. D ). He conquared Surastra-mandala, Dadhi padra-mandala (round about Dadhi padra i. e. Dahod in Panchmahal District), Avanti (in Malwa ) and some territory in Rajsthana Jayasinha was succeeded by Kumarpala, the great grand son of Ksemataja, the step brother of Karna I. The power of Kumarapala (1143-1173 A D.) extended upto the Western sea in the west, North Konkan in the South, South Rajsthan in North and Eastern Malwa in the East. He is well known for his patronise to Jainism. He was succeeded by his elder son Mularaja II (1176-78 A. D.). The later is credited with repulsion of the imminant invasion of Mohammad Ghori. Bhima II, the successor of Mularaja, reigned for a pretty long period of about sixty four years (1178-1242 A. D.), but the Caulukya power

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period declined to a great extent during his reign. He was succeeded by his son Tribhuvanapala (1242-1244 A D.), whose power passed to Visaladeva, the grand-son of Lavanaprasada, a Caulukya of Vyaghrapalli (Vaghel) When the Caulukya power at Anhilpataka was on decline during the reign of Bhima II, Lavanaprasada, the Rana of Dhavalakka ( Dholaka), was appointed the Sarvesvara of the Caulukya King. Lavanaprasada and his son Viradhavala spared no pains in defending the kingdom of Gujarat against the onsloughts of the neighbouring kingdoms, Vastupala and Tejapala, their well known ministers, were great patrons of Jainism. Visaladeva the son and successor of Viradhavala acceeded to the throne of Anhilapataka in 1246 A. D. The power of the Vaghela Caulukya dynasty continues till the end of the reign of Karna II, the great grand son of Visaladevas brother. Karna lost power to the Khalji Sultnate of Delhi in about 1299. A. D. It makes the end of a powerful glorious Hindu Kingdom in Gujarat. 97 The Caulukya kings generally professed to be followers of Saivism. Many of them have contributed to the construction of large and lofty temples of Siva. Sometimes they are also said to have built temples of other deities like Surya. Some of them, as well as some of their ministers are also known to have built magnificent temples pertaining to Jainism. * Mularaja (942-997 A. D.) built a temple of Mulanatha or Mulesvara in Vardhi Visaya.1 The temple structure cannot be 1. Kadi grant S. 1043, I. A. VI, 191-93. The Vardhi region figures as a Visaya during the reign of early Caulukya kings and as a Pathaka during the reign of their successors. The name is, probably, represented by the modern derivative Vadhiar. The region seems to have covered the Viramgam Taluka along with some parts of Chansma and Harij Talukas. (HCG pp. 35-42)

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98 The Structural Temples of Gujarat traced at present. He also seems to have built the Rudramahalaya at Sristhala (Siddhpur ) According to Merutunga Mularaja I built the Vasahikas of Mularaja and the temple of Muladevaswam14 in Patan. Later he built the temple of Mulesvara at Mandali, which is evidently the temple of Mulanathadeva mentioned above. Marutunga also states that Mularaja built the Tripurusa temple 5 at Asahilapataka.5la 2. Traditionally this temple is said to have been begun to be constructed by Mu!araja but completed by Jayasinha Siddharaja ( PC. P. 61). But the reference to Mularajas worshipping the image of) Rudra at Rudramahalaya makes it clear that the shrine was already completed in his time. Siddharaja may have either repaired or enlarged the temple. (C. G. XVIII, p. 377) 3. PCT, 25-6; PCJ, 17-8. 4. PCT, 26; PCJ, 18. In some manuscripts the temple is named Prasada of Munjaladevaswami. In his translation Tawney has followed this reading (PCT. p. 25 ). But this is obviously a wrong reading for the Prasada of Muladevaswami as Munjala flourished in the time of Karna I. The latter reading is justifiably adopted by Shri D. K. Shastri (PC. p. 26). 5. Latter on Merutunga records that Bhima I built a new Tripurusa Prasada in the memory of his deceased son Prince Mularaja (Shri D. K. Shastri PC. p. 86). It is possible that Mularaja I and Bhima I both may have built *Tripurusa Prasada' at Asahilapura. At the same time it is also possible that the later writers may have confused between King Mularaja I and this Prince Mularaja, and may have accordingly ascribed the Tripurusa Prasada built by Bhima in memory of Prince Mularaja to King Mularaja I. 5, a. Shri M. A. Dhaky and H. P. Shastri are of the opinion that Mularaja rebuilt a large and superb temple of Somanatha at Prabhas. Shri Dhaky further states that the famous temple of Hatakesvara at Vadnagar also was constructed by Mularaja (CSTG. p. 20) The veiws of both these scholars are discussed in the context of respective temples (Vide here relative portions about both the temples in Section II. ch. 4 & 5 respectively).

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period The Plates of Camunda, the crown-prince of Mularaja, record the existense of a Jain temple at Varunasarmaka (Vadasama, in Mehsana District ).6 Another Inscription refers to the existence of a Jain temple at Broach in Saka Era 910 (988-89 A. D.). The temple was known as Mulavasati.? The Gurvavali by Muni Sundar Suri (A. D. 1410-11) contains a reference to a temple of Rsabhadeva at the village Ramasainya (Ramsena, 24 Kms. N. W. of Deesa ).8 Some of the existing temples are generally ascribed to the 10th century A. D. The temple of Hariscandrani Cori at Shamalaji (Dist. Sabarkantha) is probably of the 10th Cent. A. D. When this territory was under the sway of the Parmaras.9 It has a rectangular sanctum with a big mandapa in front. The mandapa has balconies on two sides and a porch in front. The whole structure is enclosed in a court-yard, the walls of which have fallen but the ornamental Torana (gate-way) is still standing.10 The pillars of the Torana have ornamental bases with niches on four sides containing amorous figures and mutilated figures of Gods and Goddesses of the Hindu Pentheon. The niches are surmounted by miniature Sikharas above which the shafts of pillars show the Purna-ghata motif. The toranabeam contains figures of heavenly musicians and is decorated with two semicircular arches with elongated ends issuing out of makara heads. The various carvings on the torana, the figures in the niches and the spires over them, suggest a date C. 1000 A. D. or a little earlier for this torana. This may also be the age of the temple. In the niches on the wall of 6. Bhartiya Vidya ( Hindi-Guj. ) I, 73; HIG. Vol. 3 No. 136 A. 7. Pandit L. Gandhi, Jainsatyaprakasa Vol. 10 No. 8. 8. Muni Sundarsuri, Gurvavali Sl. 57. 9. Harsol Plates of Siyaka II, V. S. 1005, El, XIX, 236. 10. SSR. Fig. 20 a on p. 34., Here fig. 51.

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100 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the sanctum are figures of ganas, Camunda and other forms of Durga which suggest that the shrine was dedicated to some form of Durga. 11 The Siva temple of Sarnal* otherwise known as Galtesvara was patronised by Paramara Siyaka II, in the 10th Cent. A. D. 12 From architectural point of view this temple has an unique style. It somewhat resembles with the temple of Ambarnatha near Kalayan. The temple is in a ruined state. Anyhow, some portion of the Mandapa still retains. The Mandapa or portico is about 12 ms. each way, and its roof is supported by 8 pillars of the central dome and by the smaller ones standing in pairs in the screen walls that surrounded it. 13 In plan this portico (Mandapa ) follows the pattern of temples of the Calukyan style in the Kanerese districts, with their numerous projecting angles. The inner eight columns are each 4.3 ms. in height, have double capitals and are square for the lower third part of their height, then through an octagonal and sixteen sided belt are changed into cylindrical form 14. They are not spaced equally apart on the floor as in most Jain and Muslaman domes: those on corners they are only 1.7 ms. in height and this is so arranged as to bring them into a line in each direction with the outer pillars on the screen wall. 11. SRR. p. 39-40. For a detailed study of this structure vide JMSUB. March 1959. Shri M. A. Dhaky has assigned this temple to the early 9th Cent. A. D. (CSTG. P. 10.) However he has given no definite data for this period. * S. E. of Thasara (Thasara Taluka, Kaira Dist.) 12 Harsola Plates of siyaka II, V. S. 1005, E. 1, XIX, 236 Dr. Sankalia conjuctures that this shrine may be the Sivanatha shrine on the Mahi mentioned in the aforesaid plate. (AG. P. 115). 13 ASWI. Vol. XXIII. pp. 95-96 & plts LXXXIV & LXXXV. Here Figs. 52, 53, 54. 14. ASWI, XXIII; plt. LXXXV, fig. 4.

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Structura! Temples of the Caulukyan Period 101 A small ante-chamber or porch is formed in front of the shrine,, and the door-way of the latter is elaborately carved on the jambs, lintel and architrave, but it has been much damaged by the iconoclast. The figure sculpture on the middle of the lintel indicates it to be a Saiva temple, and a boldly cut Kirttimukha projects from the upper cornice. The shrine or garbha-gliha is 3.3 ms. square inside, and its floor is somewhat lower than that of Sabha-mandapa. Outside, its walls are much broken up by numerous projections, which lie in a circle of about 7.4 ms. in diameter and among which are seven recesses for images, facing so many of the 8 points of Hindu compass-that on the east being the entrance of the shrine 15 The old temples at Sunak, Delmal and Kasara (in Mehsana District) appear earlier than the Sun temple (A. D. 1026-27) at Modhera. 16 The temple of Nilakantha Mahadeva at Sunak* contains the usual Siva linga but whether this is the original or not is impossible to say. The doorway of the shrine, on the lintel of which the dedicatory symbol is carved, has been reconstructed, and, in fact much of the temple appears to have been rebuilt. 15. Ibid. pp. 95-96. 16. Burgess. AANG. p. 106. The temple of Thakkur Mahadeva at Sunak received a grant of land from Karna I in V. S. 1148 (1091-92 A. D.) El. I, 316. * 14.4 Kms. S. S. W. from Siddhpur & 8 Kms. west from Unjha. ( Dist. Mehsana ) The date of the temple at Sunak has raised interesting controversies. According to Burgess along with the temples at Delmal and Kasara it possibly belongs to the century previous to the date of Sun temple at Modhera ( AANG, p. 106). Dr. H. D. Sankalia, however, ascribes it to the 11th cent. (AG, p. 74) on the basis of the Copper-plate grant of land received by Thakkur Mahadeva temple from Karna l in V. S. 1148 (1091-92 A. D.) (E. 1. I. 316). Shri A. K. Majmudar on stylistic

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102 The Structural Temples of Gujarat As it now stands, it consists of the shrine and an open hall or Mandapa with an entrance porch before it, facing the east. 17 The Sikhara is fortunately complete to the finial and the roof of the mandapa together with the porch are also intact. 18 It is thus a fairly complete example of this style. The roof of the hall is supported by sixteen columns or a square of twelve flanked on the north and south sides by two additional pillars in projecting bays. And here, as to Kanoda and other small sized temples in Gujarat, the arrangement of the eight inner pillars, in order to give sufficiently wide central openings on the four sides, is not such as to yeild a regular octagon; for in this case, the middle openings would be only 1-3 ms. To get over this, the width of the mandapa over the pillars is divided in to 5 parts, one of which is the distance between centres of the corner pillar, and the next on the adjoining sides of the square; thus, if the extreme dimension over the corner pillars be-as in this case-4.1 ms. and the diameter of the pillars about 0-3 m. the distance between centers of the middle pairs on each of the sides the opening will give a clear passage of 2 ms: the sides of the octagon thus formed by the lintels will then be as 7.5 to 4.8-those across the corners of the square being the shorter. To reduce this to a regular figure for the dome, a second architrave or frieze has to be placed over the first, projecting more over the corner lintels than over the side ones. If the first lintels were all grounds assigns it to a period ateriar to Karna's reign. (A.D. 1066-94) (COI p. 381 ). Similarly Shri S. K. Sarswati is also in favour of ascribing it to an earlier date (S. E. pp. 592 & 593). Shri M. A. Dhaky agrees with the view of Dr. H. D. Sankalia and ascribes to it the more precise date namely the latter half of the 11th century and thus assigns it (CSTG, p. 40 ) to Karna's reign (1066-94 A. D.). 17. AANG. P. 103. 18. AANG. Pls. LXXXI & LXXXIII. Here Figs. 55. 56, 57, 58 & 220

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 103 laid accurately then the upper ones on the corners would require to project 0.2 m. farther in than those at sides, and would really rest upon the ends of the lower side lintels; and as the diameter of the octagon between the lower architraves will be 3.3 ms. each figure of the regular side will be 16.6 ms. The lower lintel is carved with grasada or Kirtimukha faces and scroll work, with projecting blocks masking the corners; and the frieze is ornamented with figure sculpture. In this example the dome is very richly sculptured and has had 12 devatas, supported by brackets projecting from a deep vertical tier of upper frieze. These figures are carved with human or demon supporters: but six devatas are now wanting.19 Of the old temples at Delmal (Dist. Mehsana) the two subsidiary shrines dedicated respectively to Laxminarayana and Surya (AANG. plts. LXVIII & LXX) in S. W. and S. E. corners of the court of Limboji Mata20 temple are assigned to the 10th century A. D. Both are exceedingly neat and complete little structure-chaste in design and ornament. The Gajathara and Narathara bands of sculpture have been left out of the base to reduce its height and suit the small size of the shrine. The Sikhara is complete in both cases. & 1 The original shrine of Limboja-mata, situated to the east of the village, is now dedicated to Parvadevi. It is of exactly the same, plan as the larger temple in the village-which is a copy of it-even to the sculpture, but the work of this older 19. AANG. pp. 103-104. 20. The present temple of Limboji Mata is of a modern date built precisely on the same line as that of the old one (That had been probably of 11th cent) but on larger dimensions. The sculptured figures on its walls are ra her coarsely carved, somewhat in the style of the 17th & 18th centuries. Some parts of the mandapa are rebuilt with the material and sculptures from the original temple. 21. AANG. pp. 88-90. plts. LXVIII & LXX.

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104 The Structural Temples of Gujarat shrine is vastly superior to that of the later one. The carving is deep and crisp, the cornice projects more elegant; the pillars are well conceived and executed in the style of those at Modhera, Kasara & Sunak; and the upper ledge of the screen wall (or Kaksasana ) is deeper and better proportioned than that of the new temple. In front of the temple are portions of two pillars once supported a kirtitorana, 21/1 There is also an old temple on the bank of the tank of the village.2 1/9 The old temple at Kasara or Kasra* has three shrines dedicated to siva, Visnu and Brhama grouped round a central hall or mandapa on its N. W. and South sides. 22 The front porch, that formed the entrance from the east side, has entirely disappeared, and the whole building which was properly covered with sculpture, has been badly battered and injured. Almost every figure on the walls have been defacted. It is not of great size; the central Mandpa is only about 3.01 ms, square or 4 ms. to 4.1 ms. over the pillars that support its roof; and this is about the same as the Sunak temple, so that the arrangement of the pillars is exactly the same. Behind the two middle pillars in front of each shrine, and only 0.2 m. from them, is a second pair and beyond them the entrances into the shrines. These face east, north and south; and the door ways28 are all of one pattern, but the shrines belong to different divinities. On the central door, belonging to west cella the figures are all Saiva; those on the North one are Vaisnava; whilst those on the South belong to Brhama these being the divinities of the Hindu Trimurti or triod. The original images have been taken out of the sancta; but one of them that of Visnu-lies outside, battered and broken 21/1. AANG. p. 90. 21/2. lbid plt. VIII. *About 22.14 Kms. to N-V from Patan. 22. AANG. p. 105-107 Plts. LXXX, Im; Pit, XI. Here Fig. 22. 23. AANG. Pit. XCII, 1-6.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 105 in two24. In the North and South cells are Vedis or asanas for images, but in the west or central one there is not, and it probably was occupied by the Lingam or emblem of Siva. In the West cell there are now two white marble figures of Surya, 25 On the outer walls of these cells the figures in the principal niches correspond with those of the doorways. The central hall, surrounded by twelve pillars all standing on the low screen that encloses it, has a double architrave resting on the lintel that lie over the bracket capitals of the pillars; and as at Sunak it is the second that forms the regular octagon on which the dome rises in concentric circles of plain leaf mouldings, round the outer edges of which depend serrated fringes or drops. A lotus pendant hangs from the apex of the dome 26 The pillars are all of one pattern, the ornamentation on the shaft naturally reminds one of the pillars in some of the Brahmanical caves at Elora, but the bracket capital carved with four armed dwarfs differentiates them, and closer comparision makes it manifest that there is no indication here of relative age. This Kasara temple and that of Sunak are of the same period, and they can scarcely differ in age by more than fifty years from the Delmal and Modhera temples; the pillars on the screen wall of the Chauri in the latter, 27 are of the same style as here-but they alone would scarcely be a safe guide, and we have to take into account the whole style of the structure. The curves of the Sikhara are much the same as those on the Sunak temple, and the arrangement of the plan and roof of the Mandapa is quite the same. 24. AANG. Plt. XI, XCII-7. 25. AANG. Plt. LXXXVIII, figs. 4 & 5 26. AANG. p. 17. 27. AANG. P. 107: Pits: LXXXVIII-LXXXIX, 3; VII, VIII, LIII. LXXXV.

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106 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The larger of the two shrines at Sander, an old temple in the vicinity of Hingolaji Mata temple at Khandosan, the triple shrine at Parabadi and the temples of Kanoda, Gorada and Chaubari and Harasatmata and Nilkantha Mahadeva temple at Miani from the style of fragment preserved are to be affiliated to the Sunak group and so are to be assigned preferable towards the close of the 10th century A. D. 28 Sander* has two small disused but interesting old temples.29 The larger of the old temple is identical in plan and detail with that of Nilakantha teniple at Sunak, only smaller, being 8.7 ms. in total length from east to west. It faces the east, and the basement is buried to about 0.7 m. in the soil. The sanctum of the temple is 4.3 meters wide and the mandapa is only 5.3 meters in width. The total length of the shrine is nearly 9.6 meters. Except a few decorative motifs, almost all the details of the carvings of the various mouldings of the temple are similar to those of the temple of Nilkantha at Sunak. The smaller shrine, beside the larger one, is a typical Ekandaka i. e. Eksringa prasada ( which reminds Burgess (AANG. p. 109) of the temples in Orissa, which have been ascribed to the sixth cent. A. D.). Above the shrine door is a figure of Ganesa, and over him, on the frieze, are the Navagrahas or nine planets similar to those on the door ways of two small shrines in the compound of the Amathora Mata temple at Vadanagar (AANG. pit. LXIII) and Bhadesvara shrine at Kaccha ( AKK. plt. Lxi. 2). From the transitional treatment of the Sikhara, this shrine can be chronologically placed with Roda temples, but it is also possible that the practice of such treatment continued to be in vogue even in later times. Similar treatment of the Sikhara is seen in shrines in the Kunda at Modhera which is definitely a work of 11th cent. A. D. 28. Majmudar R. C. Struggle for Empire' pp. 593-594. * 4 Kms. West of Ruhavi & 8 Kms. S-W from Sunak. (Dist Mehsana ) 29. AANG. Plts. XCIV, XCV. Here Fig, 59.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 107 In the carving here, as in the old shrine at the tank at Delmal30 the cripness and depth even of the surface ornament is noticeable, and though weathered by centuries, it still strikes the eye by the rendering of light and shade. Over the shrine doorway, Ganesa is carved on the usual projecting block, whilst above are Brhama, Visnu and Siva In the dome of the mandapa are eight female dancing bracket figures-where at Sunak there are twelve. The Samavarna over mandapa is one of the finest surviving in Gujarat. Outside. in the principal niche in the back or west side of the shrine, is a figure of Siva, on north is Visnu and on South Brhama, 31 At Parabadi* There is an interesting old, triple shrined temple32 of the same style as that of Navalakha at Sejakpur and those at Anandapur and Chaubari. It is much ruined (and the hall and porch have fallen and disappeared). The doorframe of the 30. AANG. Plt. VII. 31. AANG. pp. 108-109. The temple of Sanderi Mata regarded by Burgess as modern (AANG. p. 108, here Fig. 60) lies in the vicinity of the aforementioned old temples. The shrine consists of a sanctum; a mandapa, the spaces between the dwarf pillars of which are filled up with grills and a trikamandapa replaced by a shabby modern hall. The original shrine as stated by Shri M. A. Dhaky belonged to the 11th cent. A. D. (CSTG. p. 33). In the modern hall the vase-and-foliage pillars of the original trikamandapas (Navacoki) are reused. Similarly the doorway and the roof of the mandapa retain some old features. * 3.2 kms. N. E. of Anandpur (Dist. Surendranegar) 32. SMTK. p. 62 plt. LXXI. Shri M. A. Dhaky assigns the construction of this temple to the period of Kumarapala (1114-77 A. D.) (CSTG. p. 57)

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108 The Structural Temples of Gujarat central shrine has been much damaged, but those of the side shrines are in tact. As at Kasara all the three shrines here are connected by a common Mandapa; but the central shrine at Parbadi has larger dimensions than the side ones. Above the door way is Ganesa indicating that the temple was dedicated to Saiva Worship; above him, in each case, is a row of five devis. The hall was common to all three shrines as was usually in three-shrined temples. Around the main temple were four smaller shrines, thus forming with it a pancayatana group. The S. E. and N. E. shrines, have fallen: of the other two, that on the S. W. appears to have been dedicated to Visnu and N. E. one to Surya. The shrines of the main temple were dedicated to Siva, Visnu and Brhama respectively. Though badly shattered, we have here all the elements of the complete Sikhara save the Kalasa or finial and from it, are able to reconstruct the absent ones from other temples we have met. Its peculiar curve of outline, the 'rek' will be seen to be very different from that of the rebuilt tower of the temple at Anandapur, which, certainly is not pleasing as the older form. 3 3 Kanoda* Upon the south side of the village tank at Kanoda are the ruins of what must once have been a very pretty little temple. The mandapa is left, but the shrine hall all but disappeared-only part of the foundations now remaining; sufficient however, to show its size. Its door frame has fallen within it and lies in the form of the pieces of the two jambs and the lintel.33/a The hall, though of much the same style and workmanship as the temple of Nilakantha Mahadeva at Sunak is arranged 33. SMTK p. 62. * 6.4 Kms. S. V. to Dhinoj. (Dist. Mehsana) 33/a. The sanctum proper has been re-erected recently with old materials.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 109 somewhat differently having three porches to the Mandapa 34 The style of the pillars is much like the others already described, and, as at Sunak, we have the caitya-window ornament on the basement of the screen wall. The basement or pitha itself is less in height in proportion as the temple itself is smaller than at Sunak, and accordingly the two upper mouldings, usually filled with elephants and human figures, are both omitted to reduce the height. The domical roof of the hall has been decorated in the usual way, but instead of a central pendant ornament it has a flat rosette or lotus, and there are 16 brackets round the dome to support as many dancing figures and musicians. 35 At Gorad* there is a small old temple, dedicated to Somesvara Mahadeva. The shrine has a sanctum and a porch only. The basement and mandovara are decorated with usual courses of mouldings. The Sikhara and the roof of the porch are partly ruined. The dwarf pillars of the porch are of usual vase-andfoliage (Ghatapallava ) type and the ceiling is of the Samatala type showing compartments adorned with floral motif. Part of the basement is now buried below the present ground level; the porch appears to have been rebuilt, and is not bounded with the masonary of the shrine and prominent moundlings of its base are 0.2 m. below the corresponding ones of the shrire. It faces east.36 The shrine in the tank of village Chaubari@37 was probably Vaisnava as image of Sesasaya was found lying within it, and 34. AANG. Plts. XII; XCVI Fig. 3; Here Fig. 233. 35. AANG. pp. 110-111. Shri M. A. Dhaky places this temple in the reign of Kumarajala ( 1144-77 A. D.) (CSTG. p. 57) *4. 8 kms. N. E. of Dhinoj. (Dist. Mehsana ). 36. AANG. p. 111; Pit. C11. Cill. Here Fig. 61. @ 6.4 kms to N. E. of Anandapur (Dist. Surendranagar ). 37. SMTK. P, 63 plt LXXIJ.

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110 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Varaha figure upon the outside. The roof of the shrine differs slightly to that of Muni Bawa's temple and the pillars are practically the same. In the village there is an old temple of Sivas 8 facing east resembling very much in details to those at Anandapur and Parabadi. The Harsat Mata and Nilakantha Mahadeva temples at Miani.* The temple of Harsat Mata3 9 is at present dedicated to Devi but originally it was dedicated to Siva. Had this been intended as temple to a goddess, it would, most probably, have faced the north. The shrine, contained a linga set in the middle of the floor, but this has been up-rooted and smashed, a portion, only, of the Salunka or lower part, remaining. Ganesa presides above the door way, while above him, in a low, as at the temple of Surya at Than are the Navagraha. The images have been disappeared from the principal niches around the outside of the shrine; the other images have been suffered greatly from the weather. The door frame is of the usual style in this class of temple. The hall ceiling, which is supported on marginal pillars, rising off the seat that surrounds the hall, and two full length pillars standing upon the floor, is decorated in the usual style with horizontal bands of mouldings. The marginal dwarf pillars are of the same type as those at Sunak in N. Gujarat.4 0 38. SMTK. Plt. LXXIII. * Near the coast in the N. W. corner of Porbandar. (Dist. Junagadh) 39. SMTK Plts. LXXXIX & XC. Here Fig. 62. 40. AANG. p. 103 plts LXXXIII & LXXXIV; SMTK pp. 68 69

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 111 In the village are two large temples of the same class as that of Harsata Mata, viz the temple of Nilakantha 40/1 and a Jajn temple; 40/2 and it is quite likely that the same architect designed them except the pillared hall or porch of Nilkantha, which is very late reconstruction,41 in which are included two of the original pillars. 4 2 These two pillars are of the same pattern as those in Harsata-Mata. An image, which occurs upon both temples is seen to be that of Lakulisa, a form of Siva....... The general design and workmanship are alike in both temples; and here too, Ganesa presides above the shrine doorway with the Navagraha above him.4 3 The Jain temple, entirely deserted, is of the same style of the Nilkantha temple only that the mandapa instead of being open is a closed one with niches in the walls for images. 4 4 The temple consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala, a Gudhamandapa. a trikamandapa (with three Cokis), a sabhamandapa (of which some portion and pillars are extant) and a porch (extinct.) The mandovara of this shrine is plain. But its doorway is ornate and the spire over garbhagriha contains an usual jalaka decoration. The brick foundation of the temple of Nilakantha Mahadeva at Ruhavi* is an evidence of the early age of the temple. The 40/1 Here Fig. 63, 40/2 Here Figs. 64, 241. 41. upon a pillar in the hall is a much corroded inscription dated V. S. 1260 (A. D. 1204). During the reign of Bhima II the pillared hall must have been added. The style of the work of this hall indicates a declined form of architecture. 42. SMTK. Plts. LXXXVII & LXXXIX. 43 SMTK. pp. 69-70 44. SMTK. p. 70 *4.8 kms. S. W. from Sunak (Dist. Mehsana).

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112 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Sikhara above the shrine walls has perhaps been rebuilt at a later date; it is more taparing in form than spires of the same age; the finial is larger and clumsy. The mandapa has been destroyed and cleared away except a portion of basement. The temple faces the east, and has been of the same style as that at Sunak. 45 At Vadanagar, (Dist. Mehsana) the site associated with Amathora Mata temple has yeilded remains of old temples which on the basis of their architectural form may be assigned to the 10th century A. D. Burgess has noticed these remains. From fragments lying about it can be said that it was once a small but very ornate shrine. Round it are five cells,46 four behind and one to the right of the entrance. 47 From sculptures around the shrine and door frames it can be said that the site originally might have been dedicated to Visnu-worship. Sculptures of Varaha, Narsinha, Trimurti, Surya and others pertaining to Visnu's incarnations and panels of Navagraha etc. are frequent. The newly erected temple of Amthora Mata, in the old site contains many sculptures from the old temple. An old door-frame is 45. AANG. P. 108 plt. XCIII. Here figs. 65,66. In the vicinity of the temple of Nilaka tha, there is a temple dedicated to goddess Brahmani. On local inquiry it is gathered that this temple was built at this site about forty years back out of materials of an old temple which stood at so.ne distance from the present site of the village. Local eye-Witnesses inform that the mandapa of the old temple was an open one, while that of the new temple is a closed one. It retains some of the original sculptures like those on the pediments of bhadra, viz. Surya, Mahesa etc. Similarly the basement and spire of the temple are original ones while the mandovara is newly built. 46. AANG. plt. LXI, 1. Here Figs. 67, 68. 47. AANG. plt. LXII, Burgess assigis the shrine about the early half of the 13th century. But in view of its closer affinity with the temples at Sunak Delmal, Kasara etc. the shrine may better be assigned to the later half the 10th cent. A. D.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 113 inserted into the new temple, which contains bold carvings of the Avataras of Visnu and a panel of Navagrahas above the door lintel. At Khandosana (Dist. Mehsana) there is an old temple47/1 in the vicinity of the temple dedicated to Hingolaja Mata. Formerly it lay hidden in the bush. But the structure is now cleaned. On noticing the architectural form of the temple it becomes obvious that this temple is definitely older than the Hingolaja Mata temple which belongs to the 12th century A. D. In plan it closely resembles the Kasara sanctuaries mentioned above. The temple has got two garbha-goihas arranged at a right angle and provided with a common mandapa in the middle. One of the sanctuarjes faces West while the other faces South. The entrance to the Mandapa is accordingly on the West as well as on the South. Each sanctuary measures 1.8 X 1.8 ms. and the top lintel of the door-frame bears a panel of the nine planets, with Ganesa in the centre. The two door-jambs contain figures of females carrying water-pots, probably, representing Ganga and Yamuna. The central Mandapa measures 4.3 X 4.3 ms. The Mandapa is covered with a ceiling marked with a lotus petal design in the centre. Above the ceiling lies the usual Samarana. The garbhagliha has each a sikhara above it. From the architectural style the temple may be assigned to the 10th cent. A. D. Mula Dvarka (Dist. Junagadh) is marked by a soliditary dilapidated shrine48 standing on a rock and not used in worship. The shrine cannot be anterior to the loth Cent. A. D.49 47/1. Here Figs. 69, 222. 48. The situation of this shrine, curious to say, corresponds the description of the old Dvarka given in Bhagvat Purana, in that it is the only structure left on the spot. When Dvarka was submerged in sea after the passing away of Lord Ksishna only one building is said to have been spared. (XI 31. 23 ) 49. ARAB. 34-35 pp. 16-17; plt No. IV.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Amba Mata temple at Anjar (Kaccha) and the adjoining math (or monestery) are built of fragments of older temples. To a room over the enclosure gateway is a door of hard reddish stone, carved all round, which, from the repetition of Devi on the jambs and lintels may have belonged to a Vaisnava Sakta temple.50 The style of the carving places the temple in 10th cent. A. D,51 114 Kotai (Kaccha) has several ruined temples of perhaps the earlier part of the 10th cent. A. D. The temple dedicated Siva, is built of the yellowish and red stone used also at Kheda, and is roofed in a peculiar way.51/1 The aisles are covered by a sort of groins, like the side aisles in some Caitya-caves; the nave is roofed in the same way as at the Amarnatha temple-at Kalayan, the central area being covered with massive slabs hollowed out in the centre, in which a pendentive has been inserted. Outside it has a slanting roof divided into four sections of slightly different heights that next to the spire being the highest, and the remote end the lowest; each section is terminated by a neatly carved gable end, 52 The porch has long since fallen away. The door of the temple has been neatly carved with the nine grahas or patrons 50. AKK. p. 210 plt. LXI Fig. 2. 51. Kumara, Nos. 242, 243 pp. 41-44. *North to the shores of Kaccha Rana. 51/1. Cousens represented this temple as dedicated to Sun. (AKK. p. 214) But the decription given by him applies to the Siva temple situated at the adjoining site of Angorgadh. There was a Sun temple in its vicinity but it is in a completely ruinous condition since long. Probably Cousens misascribed the account of extant Siva temple to the extinct Sun temple. 52. AKK. p. 214-215 Plts. LXIV; KSD. Plts. facing pp. 128-129. Here Figs. 70-73.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 115 of the planets over the lintel; the jambs are also carefully sculptured. In the Mandapa, which is 5.1 ms. square, are four pillars measuring 2.9 ms. to the top of the bracket, and with a square block sculptured below the bracket, and six pillars apparently inserted for the sake of uniformity only, for they are not of any structural use. The shafts 2 ms. high support a plinth 0-2 m. high, on which stands a block carved with colonnettes at the corners, and crowned with an amalasila-shaped member, the faces of the block being sculptured with figures of men and elephants. The total height is 2.6 ms. Among the four-armed figures on the brackets of the columns one is a female, and one has a face on the abdomen (as at Aihole). In the window recesses are also pilasters with four armed figures in the bracket capitals. The pillars and pilasters all are of (the Hindu) broken square form.53 The shrine door is elaborately carved with two rows of figures on the frieze, Ganpati on the lintel, and the jambs richly ornamented. The area behind the central one is roofed with large slabs carved with 16 female figures linked in one another's arms in a circle, with the legs crossed and turned towards the centre. Each holds a rod or bar in either hand, the left hand being bent down and the right up, and so interlaced with the arms of the figures on either side. The roofs of the three aisles, at the sides and in front of the central area, are very prettily carved with flowered ribs, and three horizontal bands inclusive of that from which they spring. 54 This temple faces the west. Of the three small temples to the west of it, two face east and one to north. The last has been a very small Vaisnava temple, but only a fragment of the 53. AKK. p. 214. 54. AKK. p. 214.

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116 The Structural Temples of Gujarat shrine remains. Of the middle one also only the shrine remains standing; on the walls are carved a figure of Surya on the west face, and Sardulas in the recesses, Varaha has fallen of from the South wall, and there is a figure of Ganapati on the lintel, which seems to have been used in Saurastra, on Sun temples as well as those of Siva. Of the third temple a portion of the porch as well as the shrine remains. Over the head of the shrine door are carved the nine-grahas. On the north wall outside is Nrisinha, and on the west Visnu, both much time-worn. To the N. E. of this group are fragments of two other temples facing west. These are very simple and much plain temples. 55 *Kheda (Khedakot) has an old Siva (Lakhesvara) temple of, perhaps, the end of the 10th cent. A. D. thrown down by the earthquake. The shrine still stands, and measures 2.6 ms. square inside, with walls 0-9 ms. thick, surrounded by a pradksinapatha, or path for circumambulation, 0-9 m. wide, the Vimana measuring 7.4 ms. over all. This temple has been built partly of red and partly of yellowish very hard stone. Of the mandapa which was 5.7 ms. wide, only a part of the north wall with one window in it is left; all the rest is a heap of ruins, and the amlasila of the Sikhara lies outside, a block about 2 ms. in diameter. The sculptures on the walls are not numerous, but have been superior to the usual run of such work and the elaborate ornamental work on the faces of the spire has been largely undercut; it represents the Caitya window, repeated over a triangular face, with human figures between. Of these triangles of sculpture there are eight on each side, gradually diminshing in size as they rise higher and higher, one behind another, like so many gable ends. The corners of the shrine are surmounted by miniature spires, 55. AKK. pp. 214-215. *20.8 Kms. south of Bhuj in Kaccha. It is an ancient Kapilakota, the capital of Ra'Lakha.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 117 reaching not quite half the height of the sculpture and above there are other four similar, but set further inwards; above these and the sculpture rises the massive outline of the great central spire of the Sikhara, all beautifully carved. To light the pradksinapatha, there is a window perforated stone on each side. 8 6 Purrano gadha : The platform of the ancient temple, here, is 2 meters high, 48 long and 14 meters wide. The temple, which is 16-5 long & 6.6 meters wide, is situated nearly in the middle, and the four corners of the platform had four small temples, now in ruins... There was a third in the middle of the two back temples with pabasana having seats for three idols. There was a porch at the entrance near the threshold, now lying in ruins. Between this and the porch in front of the temple is an Agnikunda for sacrifice on special days. The porch in the front is 8 meters long and 5.4 meters wide, with 16 pilasters and 8 square pillars, forming two aisles. The height of the pillar is 3-6 ms, and width 0.5 meters. In the brackets are figures of men and lions. The dome has fallen down, but an upperfloor with rosettes in the middle of the ceiling, and creepers with leaves in the cornice is entire. There are three balconies. The shrine is 3 meters square with a linga 0.5 meters high. There is a pradaksina about the shrine. Above the lintel of the door frame are large figures of men in the attitude of playing music. The upper part of the shrine is partly fallen, and the stones have been re-arranged. The temple faces west. Its height must have been 17-5 ms.56/1 56. AKK. pp. 212-213, Plts LXII, LXIII, Figs. 1, 2, & 3. Also KSD. pp. 137-147 and pl. on p. 144. 56/1. D. H. Khakhar : ASWI. Report on the Architectural & Archaeological Remains of the Province of Kaccha ( 1879); Vide also KSD. pp. 153-55. Here Figs. 74, 75.

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118 The Structural Temples of Gujarat *Kokra or Kakra (Kaccha): has two ruined old temples, both of them Saiva. In the most easterly one there is a fine door to the shine...It is evidently old, of hard, compact stone, and has a Caitya window ornament over each jamb and the different comaprtments of the lintel. On the lintel Siva is carved in the centre, Brahma on the left, and Visnu on the right, in a very spirited style, with Kirtimukhas between. Some well sculptured pillars also lie about. 57 Kanthakot (Kiccha) also has an old Surya temple. The temple is a simple one, but in style and design it resembles that of Surya temple at Bhimanatha near Prabhas. The Sikhara of the Garbhagliha and the dome of the Mandapa have fallen down.58 It consists of a square sanctum, an ambulatory, a closed hall and a porch in front of it. The ambulatory has three balconied windows around the square sanctum. The pillars of the hall are plain square ( Rucaka type ). The porch is also plain. The uttaranga of the squarish door-way has a panel of eight planets. 58/1 The sikhara, though completely ruined, seems to have been placed over the cella above, the ambulatory being covered with a flat roof. Merutunga ascribes the construction of the Saiva temples of Candanatha and Cacinesvara (or Vacidesvara ) to king Camunda (997-1010 A. D. )59. His son Durlabha ( 1010-1022 A. D.) built the temple of Mandanasankara for the spiritual welfare of his deceased brother Vallabha and also constructed a reserviour called Duralabhasara at Anhilpura60, which according to some scholars was subsequently elaborated into the Sahasralinga lake. * About 1.6 Kms. South to Kanthakot in Kaccha. 57. AKK. p. 216. 58. BG. Vol. V. p. 225; also KSD p. 109 figs. on pp. 110-111 and 119. 58. 1. This reminds us the instruction of Visnudharamottara regarding omission of Ketu (VDP. LXVII, 52). 19. PCT, 29; PCJ 20; DV. VII, 31; Ind. Ant. IV, 111. 60. PCT, 29; PC). 20.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 119 During the reign of Bhima I (A. D. 1024-1066 ) Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Gujarat in A. D. 1025-26, and sacked Somanatha Pattana and destroyed the celebrated temple, which according to its description by Muslim writers, seems to have been built of wood on a plinth of stone and bricks. 6 1 The Prabhas Patan inscription of the time of Kumara pala records that the temple was built of stone by Bhima.62 The reference seems to apply its reconstruction by Bhima I. The other two important temples constructed during his reign are the magnificent Sun temple at Modhera and the fine Jain temple at Abu, the latter being built by his renowned minister Vimala and known as Vimala Vasahika. 61. Albaruvi (Sachau ) II, 105, also GMRI. pp. 203-204. 62. Verse 15, Bhadrakali temple (Prabhas Patan) Stone inscription of the lime of Kumarapala ( BPSI, 186 ) This inscription is also known as Prasasti of Bhava Bsihaspati. According to Shri M. A. Dhaky, with the advent of the rule of Bhimadeva I, the true Solanki (Caulukyan ) style of temple architecture came to full blood. He has discussed at length some of the characteristic advancement in different mouldings of the temples to support this theory (CSTG. pp. 24-26). It is well-accepted that frem the time of the construction of the Sun temple at Modhera and the Adinatha temple (Vimalvasahi ) at Abu; the style of temple architecture of Gujarat entered into a new epoch. But Shri Dhaky's divisions into kingwise phases like Bhimadeva's phase, Karnadeva's phase, Siddharaja's phase, Kumarasala's phase, Early and late Vaghela's phase etc. are quite arbitary and do not throw proper light on the development and progress of the temple architecture nor do they give a real picture of the evolution of several mouldings as narrated by him in the beginning of each phase.

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120 The Structural Temples of Gujarat in the Prabandha Cintamani Merutunga states that Bhima l built a new Tripurusa Prasada* in the memory of his deceased Prince Mularaja. The context indicates that the temple was built at Pattana Merutunga also records that Bhima I erected the temple of Bhimesvaradeva and Bhattarika Bhiruani at Pattana. None of these temples now exists at Patan.63 The Sun Temple At Modhera. (Dist. Mehsana) From the date V. S. 108364 (1026-27 A. D.) found inscribed in the back wall of the shrine and from its close resemblance with the Vimala Vasahika built in 1032 A, D., the temple is assigned to the reign of Bhima I (A. D. 1024-1066).65 * The prevelaice of the large nunber of composite figures of the Sun found in Gujarat, leads us to suggest that the deity in the Tripurusa temples erected by Mularaja I and Bhima / were composite images of Surya who is invoked in the Maikaideya-Purana (CIC, V. 71 ) in the following verse. Brhami Mahesvari caiva Vaisnavi caiva te tanuh 1 tridha yasya Syarupamtu Bhanor-bhasvauprasidatu II A Characteristic figure of this nature is the three-faced and eightarmed seated composition which is found or a shrine dedicated to Surya inside the compound of the - Limbaji Mata's temple at Delmal (N. G.) Burgass AANG. p. 88-89; Vide here. also Note 5 on p. 98 63. PCT, 78, PCJ, 55. 64. In 'Studies in the historical and Cultural Geography and Ethnography of Gujarat' Dr. H. D. Sankalia ascribes the construction of the temple to Karna I (p. 40), though in 'Archaeology of Gujarat' he has assigned it to the reign of Bhima I (p. 84). This seems to be an error committed through slip of memory as the author has not adduced any reasons for altering the statement. 65. AANG. p. 80-81. Plts. I, VII, XLVII. Here Figs, 76-81 & 223.

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121 Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period The present dilapidated temple of the Sun was one of the most beautiful and splendid temples in Gujarat. Even in its rujn and decay it is still an imposing structure, with a majestic beauty rarely met with in such ruins. * From the ruins it can be determined that the temple consists of a shrine proper i. e. Garbhagriha surrounded by circumambulation with small entrances in it on the two sides, a Guabamandapa, a detached Sabhamandapa and a porch facing the flights of Surya Kunda just in front of the temple. From the extant remains of a Torana on its north-east, it appears that it had Toranas on the both sides of the frontage serving as entrances to the temple. The position of the temple facing due east is such that the rising Sun at the equinoxes would shine straight through Sabhamandapa doors into the shrine. On plan the frontal structure i. e. open hypostyle hall (or Sabha (Ranga) mandapa), is based on a square of nearly 15.2 ms. wide, placed diagonally with the axial line, its sides being interrupted at regular intervals by recessed chases. There are pillared entrances with cusped archways at each of the four corners and a smaller pillar set within each recessed angle, the whole system forming an adequate support to the wide projecting eave or Chajja, and the triple cornice above. A dwarf wall, richly empanelled with figure subjects, and surmounted by the leaning seat-back encloses the lower part of this arcade, while the upper portion being open presents vistas of its fine interior columination. The interior of the hall is composed of two aisles of pillars arranged along with diagonals of its square plan, thus producing a cruciform effect. By ommiting the central pillars at the junction of these cross aisles, the octagonal space of the nave opens out in the middle of the hall, and above this rises the domed ceiling, elavated higher than the aisles by means of an attic story. As to the dimensions the pillars are 4 ms. high, the rim of the dome is nearly 5.3 ms. with its centre 7.1 ms. from the floor level.

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122 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The principal building (the enclosed hall including shrine) is an oblong formation with an extreme length of 24.4 ms. and a width of 15.2 ms. having its long sides, not diagonal as in the case of the hypostyle hall, but parallel to the axis of the scheme as a hall. In its design recessed angles are also a distinctive feature of the exterior; while the sole entrance is through a pillared portico on the east, where it connects with the western or rear doorway of the Sabhamandapa. 63/1 At intervals in the sides are window openings, five in number, each a well proportioned aperature, and with its side pillars, relieving the wall surface in an interesting manner. The elevation is composed of the three main divisions already referred to with the basement or pitha consisting of the conventional range of carved mouldings, above which is the spacious mandovara or panelled wall-face, richly embellished with figure sculpture, each image enshrined in a niche, the principal divinities in the larger and central ones, female figures such as dancers and musicians at the sides, with saints and asceties in the smaller and less prominent sides. The Superstructure of this building has completely disappeared, but it comprised the traditional arrangement of a low pyramidal roof over the front portion, and a tall turreted Sikhara over the shrine. In both these formations the recessed chased, still visible in the body of the structure, were continued upward, those carried 65/1 The original plan of the temple seems to have consisted of the Garbhagriha and the Gudhamandapa, the Torana and the Kunda. The Sabhamandapa seems to have been added later on as indicated by the fittle space remaining between the Sabhamandapa and the Torana. Shri M. A. Dhaky, on the strength of his peculiar methods of the style-critical analysis of Ranivava at Patan, ascribes the rangamandapa (i. e. Sabhamandapa) of this temple to the early years of the reign of Karnadeva. He also holds that the torana likewise was also latter addition. According to him both these structures show close resemblance in decorative and figural work but differ from those found in the Main shrine. (CSTG. p. 77. )

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 123 up into the spire providing that element of verticality to its outward appearance which in its present truncated condition, is lacking. The interior of this enclosed portion is divided equally into two compartments, each consisting of a square of 7.8 meters wide, the front or eastern being the Gadhamandapa or assembly hall, containing eight columns around a central octagonal nave, above which is highly ornamental ceiling. Except, however, fof a niche in every bay the enthroning an image of the sun-god, the walls of this hall are plain leading out of this compartment, through a shallow four pillared vestibule, is the shrine chamber a square cella with a processional passage around it. Carved decoration is here sparsely distributed, most of being concentrated on the entrance of the cells. This doorway has its jambs and lintels divided up by mouldings into sections each crowded with figures. 66 In front of the temple is a spacious tank which is known as the Rama or Surya Kunda. It has many terraces and steps that lead down to the water. On its banks and corners are various small shrines in some of which are to be seen the images of Sitala, Jalasayi Visnu and various other gods. The interesting and rare sculptures noticed here are those of Candra (the moon) and Ravana. The Kunda measures 53.8 x 36.6 ms.87 Vimalvasahi : It is built by Vimalasa the minister of Bhima ! at Delvada on Mt. Abu. It measures 42.7 x 57.9 ms, and contains the shrine proper (Mulagabharo), Gudhamandapa, Rangamandapa, Nava Coki and 52 devakulikas enclosing the temple. There is the Hastisala also. The image of the Mulanayaka Risabhadeva has been consecrated in V. S. 1088 (A. D. 1032 ). There is exuberant carving and ornamentation on outer parts like Navacoki, Rangamandapa and cells in the court yard contrasted with much 66. IA, BH. p. pp. 146. 67. AB. p. 10.

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124 The Structural Temples of Gujarat plane inner sanctum and Gudhamandapa in its front. The present Sikharas also are too simple and crude. From this it can be assumed that many times repairs have been taken place. 68 The main entrance to it is through a domed porch in the east facing which is a six-pillared roofed pavilion-a rectangular walled structure-known as Hastisala. Entering the main door way, one notices an open wide corridor on a high platform running on all sides of the court yard of the shrine. At the outer end of the corridor is a row of about 54 cells with openings facing the shrine and their back walls forming a high outer wall enclosing the Vimalvasahi. The shrine, with its Guohamandapa and the other mandapas, is a structure cruciform in plan, its length being 30 ms. and its widest part is 12.9 ms. Through the open-space of the 68. The fact is that, in v. s. 1368 (1311 A. D.) Muslim invadar (Ala-ud-din Khilji ) destroyed both the temples (Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi ) at Delvada and the demolition must have been so extensive and thorough that almost all the sanctums and the guuhamandapa as well as the images of the Tirthankars and the Portraits in Hastisala were broken to peices or mutilated and even the outer carvings of the main sanctum and their front hall did not escape destruction. It is for this reason, that the interiors of the sanctums and the Guuhamandapas rebuilt in later repairs, have no ornamentation, and have quite plain interiors. Another extensive repair work (Jirnodhara ) to this shrine took place in V. S. 1378 ( APJLS. Inscription No. 1). These repairs were carried out with the Joint donation of six brothers Vijada and others who were sons of Dhanasimha and grandsons of Gosala of of Mandavyapura ( modern Mandor near Jodhpur in Marwar ) and of their three cousin brothers Laliga (Lalla) and others who were sons of Mahanasinh the sons of Bhima, the brother of Gosala. Portrait sculptures of Gosala and his wife Gunadevi and Mahanasinha and his wife Minaladevi, are still preserved in the Gudhamandapa of the Vimala Vasahika. It is just possible that these donors could not spend large sums over repairs and had to be satisfied with rebuilding the totaly destroyed parts with simple walls etc. void of fine carving.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 125 court yard, one first reaches the Rangamandapa, the floor of which is only slightly raised from the level of the court yard. This open pavilion is composed of a central nave based on an cctagonal plan, with eight pillars supporting the dome of the nave. On the front and two sides (north and south) of this Mandapa, are, attached to it three open porticos resting on ornamental pillars with separate domes or ceiling for each. To the west or this Rangamandapa is attached a rectangular ceiling on pillars and of the same width as that of Navacoki or Vestibule to the west of it, and to which is joined this Rangamandapa. At this end of Rangamandapa one has to ascend three steps of the platform or basement on which rest all the other parts of the shrine built by Vimalashah. To the west of Rangamanqapa, on this open platform, is the Navacoki an open rectangular pavilion-a trancept or vestibule in front of the Gudhamandapa-divided into three main sections, open on three sides, and having its roof supported by two rows of four pillars each. A main entrance to the sanctum is in the middle of the wall of the Gudhamandapa covering the western side of this Navacoki. The entrance has a high ornamental door-frame, the side walls adorned with different relief-carvings and ornamental big projecting Niches ( Khattaka ) on each side. The entrance leads into the Gudhamandapa or the hall adjacent to and in front of the main sanctum. On two sides (N. & S.) of the Gudhamandapa are two trancepts (Vestibules or open porticos ) reached by a flight of few stepts from the level of the court yard. This Gudhamandapa or so to say, the shrine itself has 3 entrances, the two entrances from these trancepts also having ornate door-frames; the pillars of the trancept are also adorned with reliefs of gods and goddesses. The Sanctum, the Gadhamandapa ( with the trancepts ) and the Navacoki in front rest on a common platform with basement mouldings, the platform being of almost the same level as that of corridor, The Rangamandapa whose floor is almost on a level with the Navacoki by a rectangular ceiling supported by a row of four extra pillars, the ceiling being divided into 3

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126 The Structural Temples of Gujarat sections or bays. The porticos to the N. & S. of Rangamandapa extend beyond the line of two trancepts of the Gudbamandapa, and almost fill up the space of the open court yard, leaving very little space for circumambulation of the whole shrine. This shows that either the whole Rangamandapa did not belong to the original plan or at least its porticos were later additions. Literary evidence also supports the above view, Prithvipala, a minister of Kumara pala and a descendant of the family of Vimalashah, is said to have adorned the shrine with a mandapa etc., From the evidence of and inscription in cell No. 14 of this temple, the date of erection of a mandapa, Hastisala and repairs to the shrine can be fixed as c. 1206 V. S. ( 1149-50 A D.)69 The literary references as to the existence of sevaral Jain temples during the reign of Bhima I are available. In V. S. 1112 (A. D. 1056) Gunasagarasuri consecrated images of Jiravala Parsvanatha and Abhinandanajina at Pawagadh.70 The temple of Neminatha was built in V. S. 1113 ( A. D. 1057) and the image was consecrated in it in V.S. 1135 (A.D. 1079).71 Some templerepairing works also have been executed here in V. S. 1115 (A. D. 1059).72 The temple of Kumbhesvara near Viinalavasahika at Abu also seems to have been built during this period. Externally as well.as internally it is lavishly carved. The pillars and doors are fashioned like those of the Vimalavasahika and the Sun temple at Modhera.73 69. U. P. Shah; H. A. int. pp. xx-xxii. 70. JTSS. Vol. I, 1, pp. 19, 20. 71. Ibid. p. 121. 72. Ibid. p. 121. 73. Munivisalavijayji, Kumbharia' p. 59; Dave K. B. Kotesvara ane Kumbharia. pp. 44-45. Ambika'

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 127 The Mahavira temple at Kumbahria (Dist. Banaskantha ), is securely dated by an inscription on the pedastal belonging to the original principle image in the sanctum which refers to the rendering of the image of Tirthadhipa' at Arasna in V. S. 1118 (A. D. 1062).73/1 * The temple rests on a large platform (Jagati ). It consists of garbhagriha, gudhamandapa, Trikamandapa (of three Cokis ), Sabhamandapa and Sringaracokis (porches). The Sabhamandapa is flanked by eight devakulikas on either side and six niches instead of devakulikas in front of it, and two other devakulikas placed at right angles with a common mandapa in the extreme s. e. corner, thus constituting 24 cells for tirthankaras. 7 3/2 In front of the central porch there is also a balanaka. The temple complex faces north. Where the devakulikas terminate the prakara starts and encloses the remaining part of the temple and ensures complete seclusion. The prakara also contains two more entrances-one on the east and the other on the west. The interior carvings of the temple in appearance is pearl like ornate and completely proportionate. The two central ceilings of the trikamandapa are master peices of their class. 73/3 According to Merutunga, Karna I. (1066-94 A. D.), after attacking Asa Bhilla at Asapalli (near modern Ahmedabad) received an omen from Bhairavadevi (Bhairavadevyah Sakuna Jate), and built there a temple of the goodess Kocaraba."4 The name of the goddess is preserved in that of the present name of the Suburb on the Sabarmati.5 The locality contains a small shrine of its goddess, but shows no traces of 73/1. Visalvijayaji 'Kumbharia', p. 43 Inscription No. 1. 73/2. Ibid. p. 36; For the ground plan of this temple See BSS. III, p. 109. 73/3. Dave K. B. Ambika Kotesvara ane Kumbharia. pp. 53-55. Here Fig. 82. 74. PCT. 80; PCJ. 55. 6 75. Forbes. Rasamala 1, 79. Forbes says that the temple was in existence till his times.

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128 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the old temple. Kaina is further credited by Merutunga with having built the temple of Karnesvara, presumably a siva temple, at Asapalli, where he also erected another temple dedidcated to goddess Jayanti. The temples do not exist there at present. The same author tells us that in Pattana, Karna caused to be built the temple of Karnameru, 76 which also does not exist at present. Karna had three Jain ministers-Munjala, Santu and Udaya (Uda). Santu built a temple called santuVasahika and Uda built a large temple called Udayana-Vihara at Karnavati,77 built by Karna in the vicinity of old Asapalli. The site of this city seems located round about modern Kocharab, but the temples do not survive at present. The name of Munjalavasati at Anhilpura, mentioned in the prasasti (Colophon) of Yogalrsti-Samuccaya of Haribhadrasuri composed in V. S. 1146 (A. D. 1090)78, implies that it was probably built by Munjala. The temple is no more in existence. The Ladol copper-plates of Karna dated V. S. 1140 (A, D 1084)79 supply an epigraphical evidence for the existence of a jain teinple dedicated to Sumatinathadeva enshrined in the Vasahika (temple ) erected by Mahamatya Pradyuman in Takavadhi ( modern Takodi, Mehsana District). The temple is extinct since long, The Santinatha temple at Kumbharia In the arrangement of the plan with few deviations this temple is very similar to the Mahavira temple discussed above. Except balanaka the temple consists of all the component parts enumerated in the case of Mahavira temple. It is a complete 76. PCT. 80; PC). 55. 77. BG. Vol. Ip. 170. 78 Peterron's reports 5, Parisista 1, p. 29; JSSI. p. 219 para 298. 79. Dr. H. G. Shastri, "Two new Copper-plate inscriptions of the Caulukya dynasty, JOI, V. pp. 365 ff.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 129 Caturvimsati Jinalaya having eight devakulikas in the east, eight in the west and four niches flanking either side of the entrance to the rangamandapa, thus making a full total of 24 devakulikas. Here the trikamandapa consists of six catuskis. The temple faces south. In the S. E. corner there is a small chapel sheltering a caturmukha Nandisvara dvipa. 80 The ceilings and the two niches ( khattakas) of the Trika are beautifully decked. The earliest four inscriptions on the pedestals of images are dated V. S. 1133 ( 1077 A. D.) This can safely be regarded as the date of the temple. 80/1 An inscription on one of the old pillars of the present Jain temple at Bhadresvar81 (Kaccha) records that the temple was reconstructed in V. S, 1134 (A. D. 1078). The Colophon of Mahaviracariya dated V. S. 1139-(A. D 1083) by Devandrasuris 2 refers to a jajn temple named Dohatti Sresthi Vasahika at Asahilapura. The Prabhavakacarita 83 refers to the existence of a Caitya of the Modheragaccha at Dhandhuka at the time of the birth of Hemacandra Suri (V, S. 1145-1089 A. D.) The Temples of the Eleventh Century Muni Bawa's Temple Four miles south of Than are the ruins of a small deserated temple called Muni Bawa's temple. When entire it must have been a very pretty shrine. Burgess thought that the temple is datable to the 14th cent. A. D. 83/1 Cousens, however, regards it as nearly of the same style and age as the temple of 80. For the ground plan of this temple vide BSS. III. p. 110. 80/1. Visalavijayaji 'Kumbharia' p. 56. Inscriptions No. 1-4; also Dave K. B. * Ambika Kotesvara, ane Kumbharia' pp. 55-57; Here Fig. 83. 81. JTSS, Vol. I. pt 1 p. 139. 82. Mahaviracariya published by Atmananda Sabha, Bhavnagar JSSI. p. 218, para 297. 83. Prabhavakacarita, v. 26. 831. ASI. (NIS). XVI, p. 240.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat Trinetrasvar8 3/2 described below. The temple consists of a garbhagriha and a mandapa, both adorned with monospired (Eksringi) Sikhara and the phasana (gabled) type of roof respectively. The temple faces east and has been dedicated to Siva, the linga still occupying the shrine, over the doorway of which Ganpati presides. Although the walls are richly decorated the basement is particularly plain, the few mouldings being almost devoid of surface ornament. 84 130 A reference as to an existence of an old ruined temples 5 dedicated to Siva known as Trinetresvara' or Tarnetar (9.6 kms. N. W. of Than) is given by Burgess,86 * 83/2. SMTK. f. 51, 84. SMTK. p. 52. Here Fig. 84. Shri M. A. Dhaky has precisely dated this temple in the early regnal years of Mularaja (942-97 A. D.) on the strength of some stages of evolution in the mouldings (CSTG pp. 21-22). This view comes rather nearer to that of Cousens. 85. SMTK. p. 51. Here Fig. 85. 86. Burgess took photographs of the said temple in 1890 A. D. SMTK. Plt. LI. The photograph given by this author is indicative of its restoration in V. S. 1958 (A. D. 1902). On the analogy of similarity of certain mouldings-such as of basement, of top of Jangha treated as a pilaster and the phansana (gable) typed roof of mandapa etc..-of the temple with those of temples at Roda and Lakroda Shri M. A. Dhaky has classed this temple in the second phase i. e. phase of Maturity of Early Nagara phase. (CSTG. pp. 15-16). The date ascribed by him to this temple is about 925 A. D. From the photographs given by Burgess the temple seems to have been constructed in the 11th cent. as the author holds. But in the present form after the subsequent restoration the original forms of mouldings are so much changed that I am at a loss to understand how the temple can be dated still earlier from the observation of its present form.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 131 The style of construction of this temple was very much alike the style of Muni Bawa's temple. These two temples were of the same age. The full length griffons, or lions rempart repeated in the recesses of the wall, are a peculiar feature, which was perhaps, a common to both the temples. The shrine consists of a square sanctum, an antarala and a manpapa having three porches. The temple is surrounded by a Kunda on three sides and the whole complex is within a surrounding wall (prakara ). Delmal * ( Dist. Mehsana ) The temple of Limbojimata is of comparatively modern date, but contains much of older shrine now in ruins ( which originally was situated on the bank of a tank to the east of the village ). The present temple ( AANG, plt. LXV) has been built on precisely the same lines as the old one, but in larger dimensions-the figures on the walls of the latter being literaly copied upon the former-but are of inferior workmanship. Like the old shrine the new one faces north. Some parts of the mandapa are rebuilt with the material and sculpture from the original temple. The interior is plain, the roof is domical with figure-brackets. The pitha of the temple has no narathara nor gajathara bands of mouldings. 87 In front of the main shrine in the N. E. & N W. corners of the court there are two small triple shrines confronting each other. They are simple and their superstructures have been * About 10 kms. S. S. W. of Patan & 6'3 kms. W. N. W. from Modhera. 87. AANG, pp. 87-88. P. LXV, LXVI ( ground plan ). Shri S. K. Sarswati also assigns 11th century to this temple (S. E. p. 595). Dr. Sankalia, however, is of the opinion that the temple seems to belong to the 12th or 13th century (AG. p. 102), Shree Dhaky places the temple in Bhimadeva (il) phase (A. D. 11781242) (CSTG. p. 64).

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat vanished; again two very small isolated shrines on the west of the main temple; and a small cell against the east wall, dedicated to Parsvanatha are also situated.87/1 132 On the west of the principal temple there is a Kirtitorana87/9 The Navalakha temple at Ghumali * The temple known as Navalakha at Ghumali stands in the middle of the other ruins, on a raised platform of 47x31 ms. The enclosing wall or screen on the top of this, however, has entirely disappeared; and of the entrance only the steps and the bases of the two massive pillars above them remain. The temple itself measures 17.5 ms. from the threshold of the Mandapa to that of the shrine, and 21.1 ms. to the back of Pradaksina or passage round the shrine inside. The level of the temple is considerably raised above that of the court and is approached by a flight or steps at each of three doors, 88 The shrine is 2.9 ms. square inside and is roofed by a neat dome with chakwas, or sacred birds on the lintels of the octagon. (The linga that once occupied it was carried off to Porbandar long ago, and is now to be seen in the temple of Kedarnatha). Round the shrine is a pradaksina, about 1 m. wide, but opening to over 1.7 ms. opposite the three windows that throw light into it on the different sides. 87/1. AANG. p. 89. 87/2. Ibid. Plt LXV. * 64 kms. west from Dhank and 6.4 kms. south of Bhanawad. Tod visited the place in 1822 A. D. (TWI. pp. 404 ff); Captain general Le Grand Jacob visited the place in 1837 and gave a more accurate and detail account, published in JRAS. Vol. V. pp. 73 ff. Burgess places the temple in the latter half of the eleventh or twelth cent A. D.-AKK. p. 181. 88. AKK. p. 179; plts; XL-XLIV. Here Figs. 86-90 & 225.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 133 The mandapa of the shrine is 17 ms. in width. It has two storeys. It is of a pretty common cruciform shape, the central area being 9 ms. square; to each side of this an aisles is added 6 ms. long, outside of which is further added a portico about 2.6 ms. square.89 The central octagon of the Mandapa supports a frieze with a low parapet wall above, infront of the gallery or upper floor, to which there does not appear to have been any regular means of access, unless it may have been by some wooden ladder. The dome rests on the columns of the second storey, but the pendentive in the centre and some of the upper courses of stone have fallen in, and it is now open in the middle. The east or front entrance is more dilapidated than either of the other two; the upper storey or the porch on this side has fallen, much of the debris lying in front and the lintel of the entrance is broken and supported in the middle by a rough pillar built of blocks of stone which lie about. 90 The Navalakha temple at Sejakapur* Sejakapur possesses an old temple of Navalakha 91 originally dedicated to Siva a building of the same class as the temple of the same name at Ghumali. It is in a sadly ruined condition. As seen from the plan, which is in striking contrast to the simple plans and arrangements of the earlier temples, it consists of a shrine and an open mandapa; and above the 89. AKK. p. 179. 90. AKK. p. 179. 180; Pit. XLII. A ruined temple of Paravanatha (the mandapa of which alone now survives) and the temple of Celesvara (the porch and Sikhara of which are lost) at Ghumali seem contemporary to the Navalakha temple. * 9.6 Kms S. E. of Dolia Rly. Station (Dist. Rajkot). 91. AKK. Plts. XXIV-XXVI., Here Figs. 91, 92 & 226.

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134 The Structural Temples of Gujarat latter, rises a larger domed ceiling like that at the Miapuri Masjid at Somnatha, fashioned into concentric rings of mouldings, with brackets for twelve small images. The shrine has had a domical ceiling which has been built as an inner shell within the tower-walls, springing from a corbel table with the exception of fragment of one of the jambs, there is nothing left of the shrine door-way On a string course in the dome is carved a procession of men and battle scenes, and in one place, is a palanquin. As is usual, the plan is designed with recesses and corners, and these, again are further picked out into smaller ones in the basement mouldings by divinding a square into 121 smaller ones, eleven on each side, and discarding ten squares in each corner, by a zigzag line accross the corner, the approximate shape of the periphery of the shrine, or hall is obtained. These offsets and recesses, running vertically up the face of the building, crossed and cut up, as they are with the deep horizontal mouldings, produce a pleasant but bewildering display of light and shade. This temple is a good example of correct disposition and proportional detail as laid down in the rules and regulations for temple building. The pillars are of the same type as those in the eleventh century temple of Surya at Modhera, the drawf ones around the margin of the hall having the water pot and foliage decoration so common through out Gujarat in temples of that period. 92 The temple of Varuna Mahadeva at the village Varana (Kaccha) retains an old structure of the Garbhagriha, along with its sikhara and the Sabhamandapa. 93 92. SMTK. pp. 57-58. Dr. H. D. Sa:akalia inclines to place the Navalakha temple at Sejakpur, near in time to that of Ghumali and he does not believe that the former belonged to the 11th cent, as Cousens had placed it. On this anology, however, Shri M. A. Dhaky ascribes this temple to the reign of Siddharaja ( 1094-1144 A. D.) (CSTG. p. 54 ) 93. KSD. p. 181. Plts on p. 181.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 135 Almost every old work of architectural or antiquarian interest in Gujarat is ascribed to Jayasinha Siddharaja (A. D. 1094-1144) by the chronicles and legends of Gujarat. His two greatest works, fragments of which are still surviving, are the Rudramahalaya at Siddhapur and the Sahasralinga lake at Patan (both in Dist. Mehsana). The Rudramahalaya, though very little is left from its size and the beauty of its carving must have been a magnificent work-the grandest specimen of architecture of the Solanki period. 94 The remains of the Sahasralinga excavation show that it must have been a work of surprising size and richness, well deserving the title 'Mahasara' or great lake. 95 Siddharaja built the temple of Rudramahalaya, which is said to have been one of the largest temples ever built in India 95/1 Muslim invaders demolished this temple and a part of the magnificent temple still survives; some of the portion including the great hall and the sanctum sanctorum is being used as a mosque.9 96 Tod, found therein two inscriptions, 97 one mentioning the foundation of the temple in V. S. 998 and the other its completion by Siddharaja in V. S. 1202. Burgess remarks that these inscriptions are no longer found there, 98 In his notes on a visit to Gujarat he however, notes to have seen three inscriptions there but found them undicipherable.99 The report of the Archaeological Department of Baroda State make no mention of these inscriptions. From this Shri A. K. Majumdar presums that they are lost. 100 But the presumption cannot hold good 94, CG. p. 179, 95. CG. p. 180. 95/1. PRAS, Wc. 1912, p. 16. 96. ARAB, 1934-35. p. 8. 97. Tod. Travells in Western India. p. 142. 98. AANG. p. 60. 99. Burgess; Notes of a visit to Gujarat (1869) pp. 66-67. 100. CG. D. 28. note 28.

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136 The Structural Temples of Gujarat as the inscription dated V. S. 1202 was personally seen by the writer in March 1958 A. D. on a pillar of the porch. The site of temple of Rudramahalaya covered an oblong of about 70.1 by 91.5 ms., in the centre of which stood the temple-two or three storeys in height, with a mandapa 15.2 ms. square inside, having porches on the east, north and south sides and the shrine on the west. In or round the court were eleven other shrines dedicated to the Rudras. The court was perhaps surrounded by small cells with principle entrance on the east and a ghata or flight or steps down to the Sarswati river on that side. 101 Only a few magnificent fragments of Rudramahalaya are left surviving. 101/1 The restoration plan102 of the site has been published by Burgess and Cousens. The remained fragments are four pillars of North porch to the manqapa and five pillars of east porch; four pillars at the back of the mandapa, one beautiful Torana and a number of pillars and the doors and 101. AANG. p. 59-60. 101/1. Here Figs. 93-100. 102. AANG. plt. XXXVIII, Fig. 227. In respect to the arrangement of pillars in the Gudhamandapa of the main shrine Shri M. A. Dhaky does not accept the ground plan proposed by Burgess and Cousens and he remarks that it needs some investigations. He says, "There are clear evidences that the temple was a storied building, since then the arrangement of pillars of the guahamandapa is not admissible as far they do not allow room for walking on the floor of the upper storey. In fact they are not in conformity with the practice observed." (CSTG. P. 45 ). And by comparing the ground plan of this temple with that of Ajitana.ha temple at Taranga he gives possible clues for the arrangement of pillars, but the clues are hardly acceptable as they are far fetched and vague. The pillared antarala, in fact, would leave ample room for moving on the upper floor.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 137 cells possibly in situ have been turned into a mosque about 5.3 ms. in length. At the back of the court there is also one cella with a spire over it. 103 The work known as Upadesatarangini of Ratnamandira, 15th Cent. A, D and a Kavita by Lalla Bhatta, though in an exaggarative tone, describe the temple of Rudramahalaya having 1700 pillars, 1800 female sculptures and nearly 17000 figures of elephants and horses in different poses carved in Narathara an Gajathara bands around the Pitha i. e. basement of the temple. It also narrates that Siddharaja placed the life-size sculptures of Asvapati, Gajapati and Narapati praying to the God in the temple, 104 While narrating the completion of Rudramahalaya Merutunga states that the height of the temple was twenty three cubits. 105 The next great achievement of Siddharaja was the excavation of the Sahasralinga lake which was so named because it contained a thousand Siva linga shrines around it. Some of them were, however, dedicated to other deities also. The Dvasraya refers to the shrine of Dasavatara (ten incarnation of Visnu ) as built by Siddharaja.106 The Sarasvati Purana locates it on the South-west of the Sahasralinga lake.109 The Dvasraya records that lake contajned 108 shrines of goddesses and a tample of Dasavatara in addition to 1008 shrines of Siva. 108 The Purana refers to some other shrines as well. In the centre of the lake was an inlet, upon which was erected a temple of Rudresvara. 103. Ibid. pp. 50-60; also plts. XXXVIII, VI, XXIX. 104. K. B. Dave. Kumar No. 400. pp. 213-214. 105. P. C (Guj. Translation ). p. 90. 106. DV. XV, V. 119. 107. Sarasvati Purana, XVI, V. 162. 108. DV. XV, W, 114, 117-119.

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138 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Sarasvati Purana is almost contemporary with the lake. Its author graphically describes the many tirthas on its bank and the beautiful important shrines that graced its embankments. A thousand or a thousand and eight Siva shrines (with lingas in them ) were built along the embankment. According to Purana the temples on its embankment included shrines of the 10 incarnations of Visnu on its northern embankment. On its westrn bank were 108 shrines of devis or Goddesses. Besides these there were shrines dedicated to the Sun, Nakulisa, Vinayaka, Kartika, Kapalesvara, Kolladevi, Somanatha and Bhairava. In the centre of the lake is a small hillock on the top of which is a Muslim structure or roza. According to the Purana the shrine dedicated to Vindyavasini was located here. Above the triple inlent sluices (or Triveni ) was the shrine of Jalasayi -Visnu. The tank was in good condition till the 16th cent. A. D. when Akbar's tutor was murdered while boating in the lake. The structures on the bank were pulled down by Muslims and the stones of temples and embankment were carried away for constructing the tank known as the Khan Sarovar. ( 16th cent. A. D. ). During the excavation, on the Southern side of the tank near Rly. line, remains of a siva temple, consisting of carved and plain marble pieces, and two profusely carved pillars were exposed. 109 The lake Munsar at Viramgam is said to have been built by Siddharaja in the name of his mother Minaladevi. On the bank of it neary 500 small Siva shrines have been erected of which 300 are still surviving. The extant structures give an idea of the construction and appearance of the Sahsralinga lake at Patan. 109. Archg. in Baroda. pp. 7-8.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 139 There exists a double shrine on the bank of the Munsar lake. In the middle is a square man apa; on its east is a shrine (now) dedicated to Siva, while on the west it was Vaisnava. 110 The Shrines, externally, have recessed niches, 111 and in decoration of mouldings, are identifical with those at Sunak. So also the sikhara is. The mandapa, which is common to both, has twelve pillars and seems to be open. It has a stepped roof,112 A minister of Jayasinha Siddharaja built a temple of Goganarayana at Dadhi-padra 113 But it cannot be traced now. The earliest inscription on the pedestal of one of the images in the Parsvanath temple at Kumbharia is dated in the year V. S. 1161 (A. D. 1105 ). 113/1 This may place the temple a few years anterior to this date. The temple faces north. It consists of a sanctum, an antarala, a Gudhamandapa, a trikamanpapa (having three Cokis ), a Sabhamanqapa (Rangamanpapa ) and a porch. It has nine devakulikas each on eastern and western side of the temple and three on either side of the entrance to the temple, thus constituting in all 24 devakulikas. 113/2 Two floral pillars of the rangamanpapa113/3 and the trikamancapa, along with arches 113/4 are highly ornate. The ceilings of the bays of the 110. Burgess, ASVI, VIII, p. 91, plt. LXXIII, fig. 1. Here Fig. 101. 111. lbid plt. LXXIV. 112. AG. pp. 80-81. 113. The Dahod Inscription, Ind. Ant. X. 158. 113/1. Vishalvijayaji, 'Kumbharia' p. 47; Inscription No. 1 113/2. Hid. p. 44; For the ground plan of this temple vide BRSS p. 111. 113/3. Stella Kramrisch. 'Art & Architecture of India': p. 133. 113/4. N. M. Sompura. "Silparatnakara' plt. facing p. 121.

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140 The Structural Temples of Gujarat trika and those of central devakulikas are notworthy for their exquisite workmanship. 113/5 The Siddhesvara temple at Wadhwan (Dist. Surendranagar), repaired in V. S. 1301 (1244 A. D.), is said to have been built originally by or in honour of great Siddharaja Jayasinha, who conquered Saurastra in or about V. S. 1171 (1115 A. D)114 Anandapura* (Dist. Surendranagar) There is here the old temple of Anantesvara Mahadeva an old ruined building which has been rebuilt and added to in subsequent times, and supposed to have been originally erected by Siddharaja Jayasinha. It faces the east. The lofty hall, before the shrine is modern; but the shrine with its outer wall, upto the roof, is old, except that the old door-frame has been rebuilt. Judging by the sculptured walls of the shrine, the original temple must have been a very elaborate one completely decorated in all its parts. Being dedicated to Siva the principal images on its walls are Saivite-the nude Kalabhairva, Camunda, Siva in Tandava pose etc.115 The Gajathara, or elephant course, in the basement is not so monotonous as on some temples where they are repeated in precisely the same stiff form all round; here, they are in all sorts of attitudes, some of them quarrelling and fighting with one another, more after the style of the great basement round 113/5. Dave K. B. Ambika Kotesvara ane Kumbharia'. p. 55. Here Fig. 102. 114. I. K. Inscrip. No. 8; NIA, Feb. '39. pp. 689-690. * 38.4 Km. due south of Than. The city was founded in Sam. 1124 by Cudasama Anand, after whom it was named. The temple of Anantesvers is also recognised as 'Navalakha' temple (CSTG. p. 54) 115 SMTK. p. 60. Plts. LXIX & LXX.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period the Kailasa at Elora caves, where, they are almost life-size. The bands of human beings, above, are also full of life.116 The Gala inscription117 of Jayasinha Siddharaja records the erection of a temple of Bhattarikadevi ( family deity) along with a small shrine of Vinayaka in V. S. 1193 (1137 A. D.). The ruined structure stands on the Western bank of Chandrabhaga river at the distance of about 12.8 Kms. from Dhrangadhra (Dist. Surendranagar). A larger part of the temple which faces east is in ruins, while the shrine on the south contains a fragmentary image of Vinayaka. According to Jain tradition during the reign of Siddharaja, when Rudramahalaya was under construction on an extensive base several jain temples had been built at Siddhpur either by the King himself or by his ministers. It is narrated that Siddhraja built a 'Caumukha' type of temple known as Siddhpura Vihara,118 or Siddhavihara at Siddhpur and a temple known as Rajavihara at Patana.119 The said Rajavihara according to another version was built by Siddhraja's minister Aliga.120 Minister Santu also said to have built a Jain temple known as Maharaj-bhuvan at Siddhpur. 121 None of the temples exists to-day. In Canto IX of the Somasaubhagya Kavya122 (1468 A. D.) Somapratistha Suri, the deciple of Somasundara Suri, records 116. SMTK. pp. 60-61. 117. Gala Stone Inscription-JBBRAS, XXV, 322; HIG. Vol. II No. 114. 118. Somapratibhacarya: 'Kumarpalprati bodha' p. 22. also 'Puratan Prabandha Samgraha' p. 30. 119. JSSI. p. 290. 120. R. C. Parikha, 'Kavyanusasana,' Intro. p. 188. 141 121. BG, Vol. I, p. 173. 122. satadeva siddhapura purarAja vihArAkhyavara vihArasya / sadRzaM sadRzAM cadRzAM sudhAMjanaM zainyakRccaityam // Somasaubhagya Kavya. IX. 47.

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142 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the existence of Caturmukha prasada known as Rajavihara at Siddhpur and states that the plan and design of the Caturmukha prasada at Ranapura ( Ranakpur) closely resembled to that of Rajavihara at Siddhpur. The Rajavihara temple does not exist to-day but the present temple of Ranakpur, a prototype to that of Rajavihara at Siddhpur, except the religious alteration in plan and design, supplies the clue for the original plan and design of Rajavihara temple at Siddhpur. Sajjana was Siddhaja's first viceroy in Saurastra. He spent three years revenue in building a stone temple of Neminatha on Gisnar in place of the wooden temple. The stone temple of Sajjan would seem to be the present temple of Neminath. Many alterations have been made in consequence of Mohammadan sacrilege and modern enclosure is added. The inscription of Sajjan dating A. D. 1220 (V. S. 1176 ) is on the inside wall to the right in passing to the small South gate. 123 This temple of Neminatha is the largest of the Girnar group. There is an inscription which indicates that it was restored in the 13th century. The temple is probably not very different in its general appearance from what it was built about a century before by Sajjan. More recent renovations may perhaps have robbed it from some of its original character, but it is still a building of marked size and distinction. The entire scheme of the temple depicts a very carefully designed plan. Standing within a quadrangular courtyard measuring 58 x 39.6ms. it is surrounded by a range of pillared cloisters containing over seventy cells. The temple building is placed towards the Wes This statement is corrobarated by Ranigapura Caturmukha Prasada Stavana (A. D. 1443) of Pandit Meha composed on the occassion of the consecration ceremony of Ranakpur temple by Soma Sundarasuri in V. S. 1496 (A. D. 1440). JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. II. p. 214. 123. AKK. p. 159; Raivatgiri kalpa (in VDTK) p. 9: PBVC. p. 194, AKK. Plt. XXXII, here Fig. 239.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 143 tern end of this enclosure leaving a wide sweep of pavement in front to add dignity to its proportions, the structure itself having a plan of 36-6ms. long and 18.3ms, wide. The mandapa is a handsome hall 13.2ms. square with an open space in the centre constituting the nave, around which is a colonnade of twenty-two pillars forming the aisles. It is however in the exterior elevation of the Vimana that the early character of the temple may be detected, as this is composed of a grouping of turrets around the central tower (Sikhara) on a system common in the temple architecture of western India of about the twelth century. 124 The said Sajjana built a temple dedicated to Parsvanath at Sankhesvar (Dist, Radhanpura ) in V.S. 1155. The temple, though restored more than once is now in ruins and stands on the west of the new Parsvanath temple built there recently. 125 The other minister, Udayana built the Udayanavihara dedicated to Srisimandhara swami at Dhavalaka ( Dholka). The said temple designated as Udavasti, was in existence till the time of the composition of Prabhavaka Carita of Prabhacandracarya (V. S. 1334 ).126 A fragment of the Prasati of the said temple is found engraved on the back of the image of Ranchhodji 124. IABH. p. 163. 125 The Sankhesvara temple was restored and enlarged several times. Vastupala-Tejapala restored it in V. S. 1286. Rana Durjansalya of Zinzuwada repaired the temple in V. S. 1302 ( Jugadu Carita VI); it was again restored by one Manaji of Gandhara during the years V. S. 1628-1672. The temple consisted of three garbhagrihas with sikharas, a Gudhamandapa, a Sabhamandapa and enclosed by 52 cells of Tirthankars (Gujaratana Aitihasika Sadhano pt. II. p. 220 ). It too fell in ruins and a new temple on the east of the old one, was built in V. S. 1891. 126. PBVC. p. 172. w 48-52; Puratana Prabandha Samgraha pp. 26-27, Jain Satyaprakash Vol. 19 No. 6.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat consecrated in the Ranchhodji temple at Dholka.137 Udayana is known to have also built another Vihara at Karnavati (Ahmedabad). This vihara also was known as Udayanavihara.128 The Viharas exist no more. 144 During the reign of Siddharaja there also existed Aristanemiprasada 129 and Vasupujya Caitya130 at Karnavati. There also existed a temple of Bhabha Parsvanatha 131 at Asaula (Asapalli). None of these temples traced out so far. The Cambay inscription dated V. S. 1165 (A. D. 1109) records the erection of Jain temple known as Stambhana Parsvanatha temple at Stambhatirtha. 132 The present temple hardly yields traces of the old structure. Bahada built a Jain temple of Vardhamana Swami (Mahavira) in Anahilapur, the pratistha being dated V. S. 1179 (A. D. 1123).188 Similarly a temple of Adinatha134 was built (in Patan) at the suggestion of Asuka, a Jain minister in V. S. 1183 (A. D. 1126-27). Both these temples do not exist. There was a temple dedicated to Vasupujya at Broach.135 127. M. R. Majmudar. El. XXXV, No. 11. 128. JSSI. p. 335 para 482; PC (D. K. Shastri ) p. 91. 129. PBVC. p. 174 VV. 81-83; PPS. p. 27. 130. PPS. p. 27. 131. Samaya Sundara Upadhyaya Bhabhabu Parsanatha Mai bhetyo, Asauli manhe Aja re; Tirthabhasa Cattisi: (Jain Gurjara Kavio) Pt. 3. p. 874 132. PJLS. Pt. II. pp. 316 ff. 133. PBVC. p. 173. 134. R. C. Parikha, 'Kavyanusasana' II. P CCLV. 135. Vide Introduction, 'Sirapasanaha Cariya' (V S. 1165) by Devabhadrasuri (JTSS. Vol. I. pt. 1, p. 28)

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 145 The Great temple of Somanatha at Prabhas Patan (Dist. Junagadh) The Dvyasraya, and other chronicles state that Kumarapala (A. D. 1144-1173) restored the temple of Somnatha, 136 136. DV. XX, 91-94; also Verava! Piasasti (of Bhava Bshaspati ) BPSI, 186 ff. This temple was reconstructed and restored several times. The shrine originally was erected during the rule of Maitrakas. Mularaja the founder of Caulukya ( Solanki ) dynasty visited and worshipped the God Siva at the shrine. The temple was destroyed by Mahamud in A. D. 1025; but it was not completely destroyed by him. Its distruction was carried out by the lieutenent whom he left behind to gyvern the country. Bhima I rebuilt the shrine in about in A. D. 1100. Jayasinha Siddharaja visited the temple. Between that time and A. D. 1169, the temple was probably sacked again and was allowed to fall into ruin for it is in that year that Kumarpala reconstructed it. This we know from a dated incription still extant in the temple of Bhadrakali at Somanath. Then A'afkhan ( A. D. 1300 ) a general of Khilaji Sultan of Delhi attacked and destroyed the said temple. It was a serious attack. The sikhara or spire was thrown down. Again the rebuilding of the temple of Samanatha was carried out by the local Cudasama king Mahipaldeva (A. D. 1308-1325 ) but it was apparently not completed during his life time. But his son Khengar IV (A. D. 1325--1351 ) set up the linga in the temple. (More V. N. Somnatha (1948) pp. 18 ff). About 1394 A. D. Zaffarkhan, the Governor of Gujarat destroyed the Somanatha temple (B. G. Vol XXII, p. 233 ). Again the Sultan Mahmmuda Shah I better known as Mahmud Begda in about 1471 A. D. removed the linga from the temple and converted it into a mosque. But the edifice was not used as a mosque for any length of time. It appears that the level of the temple was raised and it was reconstructed in about 1500 A. D. and the worship of Somanatha continued in the temple. The sultanate of Gujarat became decadent very soon. Emperor Akabar marched on Gujarat and annexed it to his empire in 1573

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat The stone inscription in the temple of Bhadrakali at Prabhas Patan of the time of King Kumarpala (also known as Veraval-prasasti of Bhava Brihaspati ) dated Valabhi S. 850 (i. e. 1169 A. D.) records the circumstances in which the temple was restored by the order of Kumarapala. It is narrated in the 146 A. D. His viceroys appear to have captured the fort of Junagadh in about 1577. But the shrine of Somaratha continued to remain unmolested (BG. XXII, p. 268 ). " In 1701, Prince Mohammad Azam, the 39th Viceroy of Gujarat was ordered by Emperor Aurangazeb to destory the temple of Somnatha 'beyond possibility of repairs." (BG. XXII, 292). In 1783 A. D. queen Ahalya Bai of Indore finding the old ruins unfit for installing the deity, built a new temple (Plt. XXXII, opp. p, 49 'Somanatha Souvenir') at a little distance from the old temple. To Save it from destruction, the linga was placed in a secret underground, shrine immediately below the usual upper one. ('Somanatha the shrine Eternal', Somanath Souvenir pp. 38-40.) The archaeological excavations, conducted under the guidance of Shri B. K. Thapar in 1950, have reaveled the remains of almost two earlier temples below the temple of Kumarapala (1169 A. D.). The earlier of these two designated Phase I, was of modest size, built of reddish sand-stone and consisted of a garbhagriha and mandapa. The water out-let (A) in the centre of the northern wall of the garbhagriha and the Brahma Sila point to its being a Saiviti temple This temple seems to have been built in the eighth century A. D. and to be the same as the one demolished by Sultana Mahmud (A. D. 1025). The temple that succeeded, designated Phase II, closely follow the plan of Phase I and was built of Coarse-grained whitish sandstone. This, too, was a Saiviti temple evidenced by another water-outlet (B) immediated above the former (A). It can be definitely ascribed to Bhima and Bhoja (11th cent.). It continued to be used till about the 15th cent. A. D.) Phase III represents the structure built by Kumarpala in 1169 A. D. with later additions and reconstructions, representing the development of nearly 550 years. It is different in design and plan from the earlier

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 147 inscription that seeing the temple of Siva in a ruined state Ganda Bhava Brihaspati said to the king to repair the temple of God. 137 Kumarapala entrusted the work of restoration to Bhava Brihaspati. The temple was made like the Mt. Kailasa 138 Shri Thapar Supposes that this structure may have been a Surya Temple, as Prabhas was famous for Sun-worship according to the Puranic legends. As regards the date of the structure the presence of Polished-Red-Ware in its levels indicate that the structure belonged to the early centuries of the christian Era (But it is not possible to fix a more precise period, as the period of this pottery ranges from the 1st to the 6th A. D.) With the represent resurrection of the new Somanatha temple its old glory has vanquished. temples. The water-outlet of the previous phase continued to be in use till about 3rd quarter of 15th cent., when a new outlet (C) was constructed. The latter remained in use till c. 1700 A. D., when the temple was converted into a mosque. The presence of many sculptured stones in the fundation filling of the Temple of phase 1 indicate the existence of a still earlier structure at the site. This is coroborated by certain other remains too. In the present state of our knowledge it is difficult to ascertain the precise nature and the date of this structure, (Somanath the shrine Eternal' pp. 79-90). gaMDo bhAva bRhaspatiH smarariporuvIkSya / devAlayaM jIrNa bhUpatimAha devasadanaM proddhartumetadvacaH / BPSI. Inscri. Lines 14-15. 138. prAsAdaM vadanArayAt smaripoH kailAsa zailopamaM / 137. sauvaNe somarAjo rajatamayamatho rAvaNodAra vIryaH kRSNa zrI bhImadevo rucitaramahApAvabhI ratnakUTaM taM kAlAjjIrNameSa jJitipatinilako merusaMjJaM cakAra prAsAdaM saprabhASa sakala guNaM nidhegaDasavaizvarasya // 15 // BPSI. Inseri. Lines. 18-21.

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148 The Structural Temples of Gujarat During the restoration of the temple by Bhava, a strong fortress on the north and south of the God (temple) was built ( devasya dakSiNe bhAge uttarasyAM tathA dizi vidhAya viSamaM durga prAvayata yaH puraMInscrip. line 29 V. 24). Gold-pinnacles were placed on the (temple of) Gauri, Bhimesvara, Kapardi (Sira), Siddhesvara and other divinities probably surrounding the principal shrine of Somanatha (gauryA bhImezvarasyAtha tathA devakapadinaH siddhezvarAdi devAnAM yo hemakalAzan dadhauInscrip. line 30, V. 25). Further a Court room 24Tist for the kings to assemble and a vapi, a room (Mandapa ) before the temple of Karpadi ( Siva ) were added ( Inscri. line. 30-31 vv. 26-27 ) and the temple of Papamocana was also restored (919aaa aael JETE JACHET-Line 31-32 V. 28 ). Thus a new town of Somanatha was erected by Ganda and on the way to it he made two vapis and there established another shrine of Candika ( Inscri. line : 33 V. 30 ). 139 From the epigraphic records, therefore, the temple complex which was erected during the reign of Kumarpala would be as follows: the main temple, a Nripasala, a kitchen, a thearte hall and a torana; this group of building being flanked on its north and south by forts. 140 The main temple of Sumanatha which faced the east, consisted when entire of a large central closed hall, or Gudhmandapa, with three entrances, each protected with a deep lofty porch, and the shrine-the sanctum sanctorum-which stood upon the west side of the hall, having a broad pradaksina or 139. BPSI. pp. 187-188 140. CG. p. 372. In the vicinity of the temple of Somanatha as narrated by Skanda purana ( 9th-10th cent. A. D. ) there once stood a temple dedicated to Daityasudana Visnu. A few fragments of its Jangha images have been recently recovered from around this site. These include a five figure of dikpala Kubera, two images of Visnu in Samabhanga posture and an image of a form of Visnu shown engaged in killing an animal formed demon (CSTG. p. 76).

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149 Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period circumambulatory passage around it. The latter was lighted by a large balconied window in each of its three sides away from the hall, and these formed a very pleasing feature in the general appearance of the building from outside. That at the back, or west side, has fallen and also have the three porches. It is quite possible that, like the temple of Surya at Modhera, this one may have had a Sabhamandapa, or open hall, slightly in advance of the main entrance from which the beautiful ceiling in the Miapuri mosque may have been taken.141 The orginal roof which had fallen with the exception of the inner domical ceiling of the shrine, has been entirely rebuilt in a rough and ready fashion by the Mohmmadans, who raised the fallen pillars within and finished off the exterior of the roof with a large Muslaman dome and two stumpy minarates, thus converting it into a mosque. Of the original pillars and pilasters (in style of those in temples of Tejpala on Mt. Abu) the surface carving has been obliterated. The interior of the shrine retained most of its domical ceiling. 142 The general architecture of the temple shows it to be rather later than that of the best period of that style, that is, the eleventh century when the Modhera, Rudramala and Vimalashas' shrines were raised. This is particularly noticeable in the pillars which are more of type of those in the Tejapala's temple at Abu. In the early part of the 11th cent. the Modhera type was universal and the pillars of that period 141. SMTK. Pits. XVIII-XIX. Here Fig. 230. The excavations on the site of Somanatha temple have proved that the temple built by Bhimadeva was smaller in the size than Kumarpala's of different plan and specifications. In its ground plan the nandika's between Karna (i. e. mularekha) and pratiratha have been introduced, and the bhadra projection has been adorned with mukhabhadra, thus breaking the plan in Saptnasika projections (Vide Somanatha the shrine Eternal. fig. 2 facing p. 66). 142. SMTK. p. 15.

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150 The Structural Temples of Gujarat certainly show a more vigorous design than the more fancifully cut-up patterns of the later period. Bhima deva's temple may not have been so elaborate as Kumarpala's. 143 Hemacandra credits Kumarapala with having built the temples of Siva-Kedarnatha and of Kumarapalesvara at Anahilapura. 144 From the context it can be presumed that the temple of Siva-Kedarnatha also must been built at Anahilapura. Non of these temples survive. The stone inscription, of the time of Kumarapala in the the temple of Bhutanatha at Junagadh, dated Valbhai Samvat 850 and Sinha S. 60 (1169 A. D.) eventhough much defaced clearly suggests that a Siva temple was built by him at Anandnagar (Vadnagar). One of his ministers was Dhavala whose wife built two temples and made a gift of a village for their maintanance.145 These temples cannot be traced now. The Rsabhanatha (Adinatha) temple, popularly known as Cautanum derum, at Vadnagar, indicates some old portions even in the modern restoration. From the date recorded in the Inscription on the S. W. corner of the kumbha of the pitha, its earlier restoration may be dated in V. S. 1234 (A. D. 1178).145/1 143. SMTK. p. 17; Plts. Il-XVI. 144. DV. XX, 99-101, Abhayatilaka gani says that the temple of Kumarapalesvara was at Anahilapura. 145. BPSI. pp. 184-185. 145/1. Shri M. A Dhaky is of the opinion that the original temple was erected during the reign of Mularaja (A. D. 942-997) and on the basis of a reference in the Vastupala Carita he further suggests that it was restored by Tejapala (13th cent, A. D.). But the date recorded in the inscription falls earlier than the period of Tejapala (13th cent. A. D.) and hence the restoration cannot be ascribed to Tejapala.

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151 Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period The earlier shrine consisted of a sanctum and a square guNhamandapa connected by an antarala. During the later restoration in the V. S. 1721 (A.D. 1665) the trikamandapa ( of six cokis), with a large open platform and balanaka before it and all the surrounding buildings were added 14 5/2 The devakulikas of Yaksa and Yaksini of Adinatha also seems later additions like trika. The portion of the pitha, the manqovara with central bhadra gavaksas on entablature retains its earlier form. The superstructures over the sanctum and the gudhamandapa seem erected during the time of later restoration of the temple. 146/3 Wachoda* : On the north-east of the village there is a small old Siva, temple, with a representation of Siva, together with Ganapati and Kartikeya upon the architrave above the entrance, and goes by the naine of Nilkantha Mahadeva. Ganapati and the navagrahas surmount the shrine door-way. The linga is installed in the shrine. There is also the second shrine, facing this one and connected with it by a long low pillared passage. It is empty but Nandi sits facing the sanctum.14 5/4 The temple of Somaditya at Bhayavdar. An Inscription in the Sun-temple at Bhayavadar (Bagavadar)* speaks of the erection of the temple in 1146 A. D. by one Somaraja. This old ruined shrine of Somaditya, which is of the same style as that of Nilakanth at Miani, but, with this difference, that its walls are absolutely devoid of Sculpture. The roof and 145/2. This can be ascertained by an inscription in the trika, fixed on the outer wall of the Gudhamandapa i, e. on the right hand side of the main entrance to it. 145/3. Here Figs. 103, 104. * A hamlet about 3 kms. to the east of Bagavadar (Dist. Junagadh ). 145/4. SMTK. p. 72.

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152 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Sikhara have been destroyed The general workmanship is coarse and plain. Among the stones that have fallen from the tower, there is one containing a standing figure of Suraya which as it lies at the back of the shrine, may possibly have been the central image upon the lower part; if so, it would be good to suppose that it was originally dedicated to Sun 146 The temple of Hingolji Mata at Khandosan, is a magnificent shrine though comparatively of small dimensions. It is superbly carved. There is an inscription on one side of its antarala which is dated in V. S. 1207 ( 1150 A. D. ). The inscription shows that the shrine is sacred to the goddess Sarvamangla 147 styled as Bhatarika.148 In construction it clearly resembles to the Vaisnava (Rama) temple at Baradia. The main structure is almost entire in contour though badly damaged in several places. 149 The shrine consists of a sanctum and a porch. The porch has vase-and-foliage dwarf pillars standing on Kaksasana seats, the samvarna of the porch is vanished but the spire over the garbhagriha retains. The mouldings and carvings of the pitha and the mandovara are typical of the period. The Temple of Ambika at Kodinar (Dist. Junagadh). It is said that Siddharaja was a devotee of this goddess. During the reign of Kumarapala this temple is noticed as a site of Jain pilgrimage by Jinprabhasuri (1333 A. D) in his Tirthkalpa and was a well-known Jain shrine during tha Caulukyan period. 150 The temple does not exist at present. * 19.2 Km. North to Porbandar. (Dist. Junagadh ). 146. SMTK. P. 71 147. A form of devi as may be inferred from Durga Mahatmya in the Markandeya-purana. 148. Sans Bhattarika, one of the epi hets of Durga. 149. ARAB. 38 p. 5 para 10, 11 and p. 12 para 20. 150. B. G. I, 182 (footnote); Vividharthkalpa (edi. Jinavijayaji) p. 107. The temple was in existence in the time of Samarashah of Patan. who worshipped the devi, while taking congregation to Somanatha patan (Jinaviajaya; Jain Aithihasika Gurjara Kavya Samuccya pp. 249-50).

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153 Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period Saindhavi temple on Mt. Abu Mention of the Saindhavi goddess is found in the Dvyasrya 151 by Hemacandra. It narrates that this goddess was worshipped on a grand scale on Mt. Abu. The temple does not exist at present. Tradition represents Kumarapala as a great builder of Jain temples. From the Dvyasrya however, we learn of two other temples built by Kumarapala; one, which was called Kumaravihara was erected at Anahilapataka, while the other stood at Devapattana. 152 In a passage in the Mahaviracarita mention is made of a big Jain temple erected by Kumarapala near his palacel53 which was probable identical with Kumaravihara mentioned in Dy. In a passage in Mahavira Carita, it is stated that every village was adorned with Jain caitya by Kumarapala. 154 This probably means that he had erected a large number of small public edifices which apparently were not important enough to give separate names, and besides these built a great temple-the Kumaravihara at the capital which Hemacandra describes in detail in DV. Of the other chronicles, the Prabhavaka Carita, speaks first of all, of the Kumaravjhara at ARhilpataka, 155 and then it is stated that the King ordered to be erected thirty two temples (Viharas) as penance for the sins of his teeth, 156 he also erected an image of Neminatha in the temple of his father 151. DV. XVI, 54. There are sacred sites or shrines dedicated this goddess at several places in Gujarat as for instance at Patan, Karvan, Broach, etc. 152. DV. XXI. v. 93-100. 153. Mahavircarita v. 91. 154. lbid v. 75. 155. Prabhavaka carita XXII, vv 603-609 156. lbid v. 701

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154 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Tihunapala (Tribhuvan pala ),137 he then had a temple built on the Satrunjaya mountain; and finally it is stated that Kumarpala adorned all desa-sthanas, that is, the many places in each province, with Jain-caityas. 1 8 8 The next chronicler, Merutunga credits Kumarapala with erection of 1440 temples distributed all over the country. Besides, this, he states that the king built Musakavihara, Karambha vihara. Yukavihara 159 (probably) all in Anhilapur and Saligavihara (at Cambay), Jholika-vihara ( at Dhandhuka ).16 0 Even in the absence of any surviving monument, the literary evidence cannot be brushed aside. For of the three authors quoted above, Hemacandra was a contemporary, and the other two, namely Prabhacandra and Merutunga have indulged in certain exaggerations, when describing the number of temples built by Kumarapala, but we believe that both were fundamentaly right in recording that the King had built a very large number of temples, 161 These references indicate that Kumara pala built a number of Jain temples in Gujarat.162 The known inscriptions of Kumara pala refer to only to one Jain temple as built by him.163 157. Ibid. v. 688 158. lbid. v. 722-26 159. PCT, 143, PC). 91 160. PCT, 133. PCT. 86 PCT. 143; PCT. 91: PCT. 146; PCT. 93. Also Buhler; 'Life of Hemachandra' p. 46. 161. CG. p. 319. 162. It is not unlikely that many of the old temples of unknown origin were popularly ascribed to Kumarapala who was well-known as a great patron of Jainism. 163. It is located near Jabalipura ( Jalor in Rajsthan ), Jalor Inscription El. XI. 54.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 155 Of all these temples which ascribed to Kumarapala none have survived. The present tradition points to his erection of certain Jain temples on Satrunjaya, Girnar and Taranga. But these temples are restored frequently and hardly affored any indications of their original form. However, the present form of temples may be given in its main out line. Kumarapala's temple (Kumaravihara ) on Satrunjaya Hill ( Dist. Bhavnagar )*. It is one of the oldest extant temples on the hill. It is roofed and forms a fine block with low towers. It is dedicated to Adinatha, 1st Tirthankara. The door is of yellowish stone beautifully carved. The garbhagoiha has a beautiful canopy of bluish marble over the head of Rishabhadeva. There is a big hall with niches. 164 Kumarapala's temple (Kumaravihara ) on Girnar (Dist. Junagadh ) It is dedicated to Abhinandana Swami or the 4th Tirthankera. The temple has a big Sabhamandapa in the walls of which are several 'Devakulikas' containing images of Tirthankeras. It seems there was, at one time, a corridor round the temple. 165 It has a long open portico on the west supported by 24 columns. The temple proper i. e. Mandapa and shrine are small and the ceilings and architraves bear marks of iconoclastic violence. Indeed, towards the end of last century there was little of this temple standing except the mandapa with its beautiful pendentive and the pillars and lintels of portico. 166 * The temple is kept in such a state of constant repairs that it is difficult to say how much of it belongs to the time of Kumarpala. 164. JG. pp. 80-81; SMIK. Plt. XCV. SS An inscription of A. D. 1824 shows that it was repaired by Anandaji Kalyanji and Hansaraja Jetha. 165. AKK. Plt. xxxiii. 166. AKK. p. 168

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156 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The temple of A jitanatha at Taranga Hill (Dist. Mehsana) is said to have been built by Kumarapala, and is dedicated to Ajitanatha, the 2nd Tirthankara. 166/1 The temple measures about 45.7 x 30.5 ms. inclusive of porches of the mandapa. In the arrangement of the plan it will be noticed that the mandapaa is entered from 3 sides, with porches on the North and South supported by two advanced columns but on the front the porch is greatly enlarged having ten columns. 167 At the main entrance, there are 8 pillars of the biggest size with carving at the bottom as well as at the top. On the North and the South, the entrance is supported by similar two pillars. The temple has a big Gudhamandapa with niches. The central dome is supported on 8 pillars beautifully carved. Eight statues with various musical instruments are represented as standing on the pillars. The shrine consists of a sanctum with its ambulatory and three balconied windows, and a gudhamandapa flanked by porches on either side with the frontal porch. The height of the temple is about 38-6 meters. It has a storied arrangement externally as indicated by repetition of Jangha and other mouldings in the mandovara. 166/1. The temple was repaired in 16th Cent. A. D. On the wall of the temple there is an inscription recording a restoration in the time of Akabar (E. I. Vol. II. p. 33 f. n. 29) The renovations then carried out to this temple are not of such a nature as to alter the fundamental structure and appearance of the temple. So, as suggested by S. K. Saraswati (SE. f. 597), it retains its original form and design to a very great extent. Recently an attempt has been made to retouch the sculptures on mandovara etc. This restoration work, on a large scale, is carried out under the auspices of Sheth Anandji Kalayanji's Pedhi. (Ahmedabad) 167. AANG. p. 114 Plt. CIX; Here figs. 105, 105/a & 228.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 157 Outside the temple, there is beautiful carving on the walls. On all sides, there are statues of men and women as well as gods and goddesses, Men are adorned with bracelets, armlets, anklets, an ear-ornaments; some of them are represented with a loin-cloth only. Statues of women are represented in full dress, properly adorned with bracelets, armlet, anklets, necklace and earrings. It is interesting to note that none of them has ornaments for the nose, probably because in those days their use was uncommon. Some images of gods and goddesses are in meditating posture; others are represented as going to the temple with materials for worship. Some of these statues are mutilated, but most of thein are well preserved. All these statues are bare-footed. 168 Kumarpala's Jain ministers have widely contributed in temple building activity. Udayana or Uda reflecting on the risk of fire in a wooden temple of Adisvara at Satrunjaya determined to rebuild the temple in stone. 16 9 Before he could restore it he died (V. S. 1205 : A. D. 1149). His two sons Bahada ( Vagbhata ) and Ambada who were ministers of Kumara pala restored the said temple in V.S, 1211 or 1213 (i.e. A D. 1154-55 or 1156-57). Bahada also founded Vagbhatapura ( Bahadpur, now in ruins close to the east of Palitana) at the foot of the hill Satrunjaya. In this city he built a temple of Parsvanatha and called it Tribhuvana Vihara after the Kings (Kumarpalas) 168. AANG. pp. 115. 169. The said temple have been restored and renovated several times. In V. S. 1371 (A. D. 1315) Samarasa of Anhilapur-patan restored the temple and consecreted a new principal image of Mulanayaka i. e. Adisvara. In V. S. 1587 (A. D. 1521 ) Karmasa restored the said temple again and finally Tejapala Soni of Cambay in V. S. 1650 (A. D. 1594) restored the temple and adorned the temple with the name Nandi Vardhana. The inscription recording the restoration by Tejapala Soni exists on one of the pillars of the Rangamndapa. ( JTSS. Vol l. Pt. I. p 104 )

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158 The Structural Temples of Gujarat father.170 Ambada erected a new temple Sakunikavihara at Broach171 in V. S. 1211 or 1222. The last two temples do not exist at present. At Cambay minister Udayana built the temple known as Udayana Vasahi and minister Aliga built a temple of Adisvara, known as Aligavasahi172. Pritha vipala, a prime minister of Kumarpala, restored the Vimalavasahi on Mt. Abu.173 The splendid Rangamandapa was added by him. He also contributed a mandapa to the temple of Pancasara Parsvanatha at Asahilpura.174 The other Jain temples which seem to have been erected during the reign of Kumarapala are as follows: The temple of Parsvanatha at Narsinhaji's pole at Baroda, 7 75 the temple of Santinatha at Patan, 176 and the santinatha Prasada at Idar. 177 The inscription, dated V. S. 1202 ( A. D. 1146 ) states that Somaraja, a son of Sahajiga, a Gohil Chief of Sorath, built a temple of Sahajigesvara ( at present known as Jagesvara mahadeva ), at Chorwad* (Saurashtra ).178 170. P. C. (Guj. Tran) p. 220 w. 67-73; BG 1, 186; f. n. 4; JTSS. Vol. I. Pi. I, p. 104. 171. Ibid. vv. 185-187; Jayasimhasuri. Kumarpalacarita' VIII, 642; Jinamandana 'Kumarpala prabandha' p. 74 172. Dungarakavi Khambhayata Caitya Paripati. Jain Satyaprakash. XI, 3, pp. 65-66. 173. PJLS. p. 79. 174. JTSS. Vol. J. pt. I. p. 60. 175. Jayasinhasuri, Kumarapalacarita' lll w. 221, 527 176. Peterson's Report on MSS. found in Jain Bhandars of Patan, JTSS Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 57. 177. Jinamatisuri, 'Tirthamala' (Composed during V. S. 1210-1217 ) Muni Sundarasuri, 'Idarna Rsabhadeva Stavan'. The said temple is recently restored. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 84. * 14.4 km. from Mangrol. 178. V. G. Oza, 'The Sodhivav inscription at Mangrol' Bhavnagar Pracina Sodhasamgrha p. 3.

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159 Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period Neminatha temple at Kumbharia. The earliest inscription on the padestal of one of the images of this temple is dated V. S. 1191 (A. D. 1135).179 The 'Tapagaccha pattavali records that the image of Neminatha was consecrated by Vadidevasuri (V. S. 1174-1226 i. e. A. D. 1118-1170 ) and * Upadesa saptati' records that the temple of Neminatha at Kumbharia was built by Shrethi Pasila and the image of Neminatha therein installed by the said Suri in V. S. 1193 (A. D. 1137). 179/1 But it seem that the temple have been erected during the reign of Kumarapala, as implied by the inscription dated V. S. 1204 (A. D. 1148 ) found in its compound. 179/2 The temple consists of a sanctum. an antarala a Gudhamandapa, Trikamandapa (having 10 Cokis, the middle three of the frontal five being attached with sopanasrenis ) a rangamandapa (which is two storeyed and imposing owing to its size as well as height), a Nalamandapa and a balanaka. The temple faces north. The rangamandapa is flanked on either side with twelve devakulikas, thus forming their number twenty four which enclose the principal building. 179/3 The mandovara of the main shrine is fully decorated. 179/4 The pillars and the ceilings of mandapa are highly ornate and remind us of those of the mandapas of the Vimalvasahi at Abui. Krodidhvaja About 2 Kms. from the foot of Abu towards Anadara, on a separate hill, is the famous shrine known as Krodidhvaja. 179. Visalvijayaji 'Kumbharia p. 21 inscription No. 1. 179/1. Ibid. pp. 18-19. However Vastupalacarita' of Jinaharsagani records that the Neminatha temple was restored by said Pasila. ( Kumbharia p. 20 ). 179/2. Dave K. B. 'Ambika, Kotesvara ane Kumbharia.' p. 51. 179/3. For Ground plan, See BRSS. p. 108. 179/4. Silparatnakara': Plt opp. p. 87. Here Fig. 106.

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160 The Structural Temples of Gujarat It is a temple dedicated to Sun-god, with a black stone image of the Sun worshipped in it. But the image does not seem to be as old as the shrine. Outside the Sabhamandapa of the temple on one side, is another smaller temple of Sun, in which is worshiped another image of the sun-god. Near the entrance door of this shrine is preserved a big marble sculpture of Sun, partly mutilated, which seems to have been the image originally installed in the main shrine. On one of the pillars of the Sabhamandapa is carved a beautiful disc (Cakra ) of the Sun while on two others are inscriptions dated in V. S. 1204 ( A. D. 1148). There are a few more smaller shrines, in this area, with images of some goddesses and Surya. There is a small dilapidated shrine of Siva which has siva-linga, and sculptures of Surya, Sesasayi Narayana, Visnu, Haragauri and others. Remains of buildings are scattered around the hill with mutilated sculptures lying amongst them. About 0.8 Km. from this area are the remains of an ancient city called Lakhavati (Now Lakhav) where big sized bricks and old scuptures are still recovered. 180 The site seems built in the middle of the 12th cent. A. D. At Becharaji, ( Dist. Mehsana) there are three temples to the goddess, of which two are termed Adya sthana, the original places, and the middle temple or Madhya sthana. The first of these encloses the Varkharia tree whence the goddess first issued. The tiny temple, 4.7 x 5.8 ms, was built in V. S. 1208 (A.D. 1152) by Sankhal Raj, after whom the neighbouring village is named. The second or middle temple was built by Maratha Fadnis, of whom and whose date no record existed, and is 3.7x3 ms. 181 180. HA. p. 194. 181. The largest temple, the principal plance of worship, was built by H. H. Mahajirao Gaikwar in V. S. 1835 ( A.D. 1779), but as several years were spent in constructing the edifice, the final installation of goddess did not take place till V.S. 1847 (A. D. 1791). It is a large stone building of 15*2X 9*1 ms. having two domes and one spire to cover

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 161 Jami Masjid at Munjapur* ( Dist. Banaskantha ) has been constructed from Hindu Shrine, A short inscription 182 of the time of Kumarapala, in the north end of the mosque though very much abraded, reads the date of V. S. 1217 (A. D. 1161), being probably the date of the original Hindu shrine. On the north side of the court-yard of this Masjid are the remains of a porch or a mandapa which appears to be a part of a temple left in situ, to serve the purpose of the entrance porch to the court-yard. The large central dome of the roof is carved in the usual leaf-pattern arranged in concentric circles. In the apex of it is inserted a cusped rose pendant, 183 The Kalika Mata's temple at Patan (Dist. Mehsana) has an inscription dating V. S. 1225 (A. D. 1179) which describes the restroration of the said temple by Kumarapala. On the right side of the main temple there is a small shrine which has images of Kalika, Bhadrakali, and Ambaji. The temple is simple and does not contain any element of architectural interest. the roof. It is divided in three different parts, the last of which is walled room 3x3 ms. The rest two outer rooms are about 4:7 X 4.7 ms, each. Architecturally the temple does not differ from the ordinery shrine, but is certainly handsome. The adytum contains a small raised paltform, and behind it in a niche in the wall is the original object of worship, the Bala Yantra ( or figure shaped after the female genital object) An Argi, however, or frame is fixed to the niche and conceal from the visitor the real object of worship, and on the Angi the image of goddess is engraved, Becharaji riding upon a Cock. (B. G. VII. 610-611 ) Here Fig. 107. * 9*6 Kms. S. W. from Vaghel & 38.4 Kms. S. W. of Patan, 182. E. I. Vol. II. p. 28 no. 9. 183. AANG. p. 93 Plt. LXXII.

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162 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The name of Jagadeva Shah popularly known as Jagadusa* a merchant prince is connected with the famous temple of Bhadresvara (Kaccha ). The temple is said to have been erected by the said Jagadusa during the reign of Ajayapala (1173-1175 ) or of Mularaja II ( 1175-1178 A. D.) Anyhow, the temple of Bhadresvaral 84 is an old Vasahi or temple of several ages and has been restored and repaired very oftenly, the lower part of the shrine is perhaps the oldest of all; 18 4/1 the spire is comperatively recent erection or has more probably been carefully repaired; the temple itself and the corridors may be the work of Jagadevasaha about V. S. 1232 ( A. D. 1175 ). The arches put into support, broken lintels in the corridors etc. are perhaps be of the same age, and the outside porch in front is quite recent. On several of the pillars of the corridors are inscriptions dated V. S. 1223 & 1235 One in the back corridor is of V. S. 1134 and is a record of repairs. The general plan of the Bhadresyar temple is similar to that of the Jain temples at Delwada, Mt. Abu, It stands in a court of about 14.7x261 ms. round which runs a corridor in * He was alive till the reign of Arjundeva Vaghela as Jagadusas death was mourned by Arjundeva, i. e. he died before V. S. 1321 (A. D. 1274-75 ) the last year of Arjundeva's reign-JG. p. 158 Sarvanandasuri in Jagaducarita ( late 14th cent. A. D.) ascribes some more temples having been built by Jagadusa. According to him apart from the erection of temple of Bhadrasvara he built temples at Dhanaka ( Dhank ), Vardhamana (Wadhawan ) and at Devakula near Salakshanapur. Jagaducarita VI. v. 42-66. 184. AKK. p. 206 Plt. LVII-LXI. Here fig. 229. 184/1. The old portions of this shrine, according to Shri M. A. Dhaky (CSTG. pp. 72-73), belong to the phase of maturity of the early Nagara form. However, the view does not hold good as the statement is not supported by evidences.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 163 front of the cells or small shrines, about 44 in numbers, 9 of them in the back. The temple is placed towards the back end where the corridor has a double row of pillars. It is entered by a flight of steps ascending from the outer door to the covered area in front of the sanctuary. Over the porch is another large dome covering an area separated by a low screen wall from the area of the Mandapa between it and the front of the temple itself. On the east side of the temple is a large enclosed court. The temple faces north-an usual position for a jain shrine. The balcony wall or front in the upper storey may be compared with the screen walls of the Navalakha temple at Ghumali.185 The pillars on the raised platform immediately in front of the temple itself, and their corresponding pilasters, are more elaborately carved 186 Temples Built During Twelth Century A.D. Vasai The ancient name of Vasai was Kanakapuri. There are two old and interesting monuments. The main one being dedicated to Siva is known as Kanakesvara.186/1 This is a living shrine. The other monument which is called Junagadhi (?)187 is decidedly a temple which consisted of a sanctum, an antichamber, a porch and a varandah with a colonnade on each of 185. AKK. p. 208. 186. AKK. p. 208. * 9.6 Kms. N.E. of Dwarka, Dist. Jamnagar. The recent excavation by late-Shri P. P. Pandya at Vasai have confirmed the wide spread distribution of Harappan culture in Saurastra. 186/1. Here Fig. 107/a 187. A clear misnomer to a place of worship. The original name of the temple is forgotten. The site, at present is designated as Junagadhimata temple. (Indian Archaeology 1958-59 pl. c. 11.) Here Fig. 10716.

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164 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the two sides. The whole structure is much dilapidated. The row of columns, the roof and ceiling are damaged. The outer porch and gateway are also damaged. The ceiling stones have floaral carvings similar to those found at Siddhpur in the Rudramahalaya temple. They form a unique feature of structure dating from about the time of Siddharaja i, e. in the 11th and the 12th Cent. A. D. 188 Mandrapur*189 has got a fine Siva temple known as Dugdhesvara Mahadeva. The tradition current among the villagers says that it was built from the remains of an earlier structure. Orientation to the west is rather unusual. This temple is a Sikhara-shrine having a Sabhamandapa surmounted by a dome which rests on 12 pillars and enshrines Nandi. The garbhagriha has the lingam and a marble image of Parvati in a niche in the wall at back. The exterior of the temple is exquisitely carved. It is built in accordance with the canons of the Hindu Silpa Sastras and supplies a good illustration for the study of the later. The figures carved on it represent various subjects. Some are Hindu divinities, some female dancers while others are nude and amorous. The date from the style of the temple is assignable to about the 12th Cent. A. D. 190 Mahudi* Near Mahudi there is a Siva Shrine called Sarkalesvara Mahadeva which has a Matnika panel fixed in hall or mandapa, LUL 188. ARAB. 34-35 pp. 11-12; AB. PI V. * 189. The village is lying 10 kms. to the N. of Kheralu ( Dist. Mehsana). 190. ARAB. 35-36 p. 15 para 30 plate IV. here Fig. 108. Shri M. A. Dhaky compares this temple with the Nilakantha. temple at Sunak and believes that the same guild may have been responsible for building both the shrines. On stylistic grounds he assigns the same date Karna's reign (i. e. 1066-94 A.D.) as to that of Sunak temple.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 165 The slab is broken and only two figures are preserved, 191 The Siva temple of Bhadesvara ( South of Anjar in Kaccha) retains an old structure of Garbhgliha. There are beautiful sculptures in the walls. 199 The Jasamalnatha Mahadeva temple at Asoda (district Mehsana.) It is decidedly one of the best. The temple stands on a high plinth and commands a picturesque view. It consist of a small cella surmounted by a Sikhara, a porch and a Sabhamandapa with a dome resting on four main and eight subsidiary pillars. The porch in front of it has an ornamental arch springing from the snout of the makara resting on a standing lion on each side. The ceiling of the dome is decorated with human figures showing feinales standing on males in playful attitude. The exterior of the temple particularly the facade, is profusely carved. In style 191. ARAB. '39 p. 10 para 27, Some beautiful sculptures of the Gupta age have been found from the old temple of the Kotiyarka, apparently a sun -temple, a site 3.2 Km. from Mahudi on the confluence of the river Sabarmati and Hathamati. The find under notice comprises four images of bronze (1) The principle image of Buddha ( in 7th cent. style) (2) Yaksa, Kubera and Yaksini Hariti bearing a child on her left hand (3) Naga and Nagini and (4) an image of Buddha. (ARAB. '39. p. 7). An image of Parvati (Now transferred to New temple of Kotayarka at Mahudi) with a peacock behind her is fondling and feeding the child held on the shoulders of an attendait gana. The image, probably, belong to Gupta period. (Majmudar, Sculptures from Kotyarka, JISOA, 1941; also CHG. Plt. XXXV, A). Another sculpture of Mother and Child possibly belonging to 7th cent. A. D. (now in New temple ) also is found (CHG. Plt. XXXV, B ). 192. KSD. p. 177, Pits: on pp. 174, 175, 176. here Figs. 109, 110, 111.

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166 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the carving belongs to about the 12th Cent, and on that account the age of this interesting structure is not far remote from that of the sun temple at Modhera.193 The temple seems to be Pancayatana type of temple as it contains four small shrines at the corner. There are also traces of two toranas in front of the temple. 1 9 4 Pawagadh (Dist. Baroda ) The most interesting monument at Pawagadh is the fine Siva temple at the eastern foot of the cliffs bearing Mataji temple. It has been erected on a peninsula protruding into the tank; but most of the garbhagriha and Sikhara seem to have been blown up and have fallen in to the tank. The temple is not big, only 7.4 ms. long, but it is a masterpiece of architecture and sculpture. The mandapa consists of a quadrangular hall with the entrance porch-once supported on two columns-on one, the antarala on the other end, and a recessed image niche on either side. Eight columns with beautiful Kicaka figures support an octagonal ceiling drum, on which a beautiful ceiling slab is set, carved with a fine, lotuslike psedo-dome. The antarala has two smaller niches and a similar but much smaller ceiling. Above the Mandapa entrance there is the figure of Lakulisa, whereas the original lintel of the cella entrance has been replaced by a clumsy relief group, possibly on the occassion of a never completed repair in Akbar's reign, where as the interior of the Mandapa is spoiled by white wash. The Nandi in front of the temple corroborates its Saiva character. The socle is rather simple almost plain, above two round mouldings there rises a frieze of monumental relief panels, generally three on each prominent section of the facade. Above 193. ARAB. '38 p. 6 para 12. 194. AB. p. 15. Pit. V. Also SE. Pit. XXV.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 167 four other horizontal mouldings the roof begains, most of which has been completely destroyed. 1 9 5 From an art-historic point of view, this (Chauhana) (Here Fig. 112) temple does not belong to Solanki or Vaghela style traditions. On the one hand, there are number of archaic features. The relative simplicity of the organisation of the exterior facades, the plain socle, the grouping of the reliefs without much differentiation in size or depth, the prevalence of big compositions of Surasundari or attendant figures, the gavaksanetwork of the Sikhara reduced almost to a band ornament (a pratihara innovation ), the undercut flat ornament bands, the comparatively simple columns and pilaster bases, and finally the niche arches which, in one type, still have gavaksas of discernible size, in other the low arches crowned by a Kirtimukha head as at Elora place the temple altogether in a different style. Also the inconographic types are archaic. A mighty Nataraja (Pl II. Fig. 4 JGRS. Vol. XI. 2 P. 53 in northern India rare after 10th cent.), siva Lakulisa (JGRS Vol. XI.2 pl. I. fig. 3 Here Fig. 113; four armed right upper hand with Trisula or staff right lower hand touching left upper hand with a book (?) left lower hand with a staff) attended by Brhama and Visnu and surrounded by gods and rsisa, Ambika on lion (JGRS, XI. 2. Plt II. fig. 5), are very much like on the Gupta coins. On the other hand is an early date likewise impossible. The roofs show the fully developed high-mediaval type, especially the fragments of mandapa roof exclude any date earlier than the late 11th if not 12th century. The circular lotus ceilings, with their rich flatings, remind of Kiradu or even 195. Dr. H. Goetz 'Pawagadh-Champaner' JGRS. Vol. xi no. 2 p. 53; plts 1 Fig 1, 2, 3; || Fig. 4, s. Dr. H. Goetz has described this Siva temple as a Chauhan temple on the basis that it retains most the characteristics of the last phase of Chauhan art, a local art tradition developed by Chauhan dynasty. (For details see JGRS. Vol Xl. No. 2 p. 53 ff.) However, Shri M. A. Dhaky places this temple in the latter half of the eleventh century on the style of sculptures and others details (CSTG. p. 41 f. n. 78).

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168 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Delwada. The niche arches, despite their archaic details, come in their general conception very near to those of late Solanki art, especially those at the later sections of the sun temple at Modhera, and the same is true of part of the plinth decoration. Certain circular creeper ornaments are likewise common in late Solanki and especially Vaghela architecture. The figural sculpture reveals a perfect mastery of the human body and has the elongated proportions which prevailed 12th Century Gujarat. Nevertheless is the physique of a heavier and more substantial type than that found in Gujarat. Most of these characterstics fit on the very little which we know so far of Chauhana art. Unfortunately Chauhana art, as a special local style, has not yet been studied, and thus it can be compared only with such monuments which like those at Visalpur temple near Deoli, the Morkhan temple near Bikaner, Sculptures in Ajmer and Bikaner museums and near the Kutubminar, at Mandor, Osia, Gwalior, Surwaya etc. The heavier phisique of the figures, the decorative archaism, the Ambika and Nataraja images, can in fact be traced, in almost completely similarity, in these monuments. The wedding of Siva and Parvati is likewise archaic, and the sitting Brhama appears hardly ever in Solanki art. Lakulisa on the other hand, may well have been a radiation of the cult of Karvan. But the Pawagadh temple is more ornate than the above mentioned monuments. Thus we may be entitled to regard it as a so far unique example of the last phase of Chauhan art, erected probably at the end of the 12th cent. by the founder of local Chauhan Kingdom. 196 The Rama Temple at Baradia (Dist. Jamnagar) The temple stands on a raised platform and is approched by a flight of stone steps. It has a small porch, a domed antarala and a garbha-gliha. Two balacony windows decorate the antarala. Such windows formed a special feature of the 196 JGR.. Vol Xl. No. 2 p. 54

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 169 temples which were built in Gujarat about the 12th cent. when present shrine aslo was constructed. The exterior is profusely carved, but the images have all been disfigured by the ruthless hand of the iconoclast who attacked it. 197 The shrine of Laksmana, is plain as compared with Rama temple and was probably left incomplete. The mandapa is open and no dome surmounts it though the spherical base of its is there. The image which was enshrined in the temple is removed. The raised seat where it was fixed is, however intact.198 Vijapur:- Dist. Mehsana) It abounds in Hindu sculptures of medieval period. It has a varaha shrine the image of which is made of black marble and is highly polished. 198/1 The Sun Temple at Bhimanath At Bhimanath near Prachi Kunda in Junagadh District is the ruin of sun temple, its plan resembles to that of the temple of Aditya at Latapur in Kashmir, built by Lalitaditya Muktapid of Kashmir, measuring 17.2 ms. by 6.4 mis, inside with projecting windows, both from the mandapa and the pradaksina passage 19812 The Surya narayana temple near Somanath This is of the same general plan as Bhimanatha, but smaller, being 14 ms. by 6.6 ms. inside. 198/3 The existence of this 197. ARAB. 1938. p. 2, para. S; plts. I, II. Here Figs. 114, 115 198. ARAB. 36-37 p. 3. 198/1. ARAB. '39 v. 9 para 23. 198/2. AANG. p. 73 Figs. 5 & 6; section across the mandapa and ground plan., Here Fig. 231. 198/3. AANG. p. 74 Fig. 7, ground plan. Here Figs. 86, 87.

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170 The Structural Temples of Gujarat temple is corroborated by 13th cent. inscription, found at Somanathapatan, now preserved in Junagadh Museum. 1984 *Madhavpur ( Dist. Junagadh) The only remaining part of the old temple of Madliavaraja (Surya) is a dome in which is a circular ceiling with an ornamental representation of Ktisna slaying the great serpant Kaliya. A Similar ceiling occurs in the temple of Narayana at Manod, in N. Gujarat, but in this case, it is the four-armed Visnu, himself seated upon Sesa. 198/5 Recently, the interior of the mandapa is cleared and the burried portion of the lower part of the mandovara is exposed, 198/6. The Torana at Piludra. ( Dist. Mehsana ) It is believed to have formed a part of a Sun temple which is destroyed though the remains are lying burried under debris close by. The Torana, too, is not intact, its architrave and the pediment with its fine sculptures are mostly gone. No vestige of the arch is to be seen. The pillars are profusely and finely carved, 198/7 but are now out of plumb. It is also trabeate in construction. There is no arch as bracket left in it. The mouldings though not quite identical to Vadanagar Torana are of the type seen on the mandovaras or walls of the temples at Modhera, Sunak or other places and are made according to the requirements of the Silpa-Sastra. 199 The Sitala -Mata temple at Piludra The sitala Mata temple closely resembles of the old temple at Kasara or Kasra, a small village about 22.4 km. 198/4. IK. Inscrip. No. 20, p. 726 lines. 19-20. * along the sea-coast of Porbandar. 198/s. Smtk p. 87 plts. XCI, XCII. 198/6. Ind. Archaeology 56-57 p. 62. Here Fig. 116. 198/7. AANG. Plt. L, IX. Here Figs. 214/c, 214/d. 199. ARAB. 36-37 p. 6. Plt. VI.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 171 west-north west-of Patan. It must have been built about the 12th Cent. A. D. i. e, at the time when the Sunak, the Sander and the Ruhavi temples were constructed. All these temples are similar to one another (Comparising drawings are given by Mr. Cousens ) The finial of the Sitala Mata temple is missing but can be easily restored after that of the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple at Sunak or at Ruhavi. The miniature temples round the Sikhara and the mouldings on the Mandovara, the Jangha and the pitha or Upastambha give a very pleasing effect to the prospect and make it one of the very noble piece of architecture of mediaeval Gujarat. 200 Shri A. S. Gadre believes that originally the Sitlamata temple must have been a Siva shrine, as can be inferred from the constructions of the temple, the passage for ablution water etc. 201 Mevum (Dist. Mehsana) It has an old ruinous sanctuary called Nagapuri mata temple. The cella contains several loose images and in the walls several Jain sculptures are built. Apparently they belong to an old shrine now no more in existence.202 Linch. ( 9.6 kms, to the west of Jagudan, Dist. Mehsana) Here there is an interesting shrine called Jakharaja Mata Shrine which would remined one of the Yaksa worship that prevailed in ancient India. 202 Butapaladi ( 8 kms. N. W. of Mehsana). . There is a fine sikhara temple dedicated to Brhamini the Sakti of Brahma. It seems to have been built about 12th cent. A. D. 200. ARAB. 36-37 p. 6, Plt. VII. Here Fig. 117. 201. A. S. Gadre. AB. p. 15 202. ARAB. 36-37, p. 8 202. ARAB. 36-37, p. 8

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172 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Its walls are richly carved. The sanctum enshrines the bust of an image which is worshipped as Brhamani.203 Khedbrahma (Dist. Sabarkantha) On the bank of the confluence of the rivers Hiranyaksi (Harnav), Kamaksi & Bhimaksi near Khedbrahma there is an old Siva temple of Pankhanath. The temple faces west, and is restored several times. The shrine has a beautiful dancing figure of Siva in one of the niches of the mandovara.203/1 The Brahma temple at Khedbrahma is in fair preservation with many features of architectural interest. It measures 17.5 x 9.1 ms. and is 18.3 ms. in height. The style of Brahmaji temple, according to Henry Cousens, belongs to the 12th cent. The spire, dome and front part must have been destroyed and have been rebuilt in bricks and mortar. Fortunately the lower part of the main shrine has remained intact and it is full of good carving including the images of gods and goddesses and dancing girls, with the images of Brahma in the niches on the three sides. The inner part of the temple is quite simple and devoid of ornamental carving, 204 203. ARAB. 36-37, p. 8 203/1. AFIS. Plt. Vl. No. 14 204. AFIS. pp. 13-14. Plt. XXI. No. 44. The idol of Brahma, is 1.8 ms. high and his two consorts stand on each side. The image does not seem to be original (ASIF to 14; Pl. VI. no. 15) We have no inscriptional record as to the existence of Brahma temple during the reign of Caulukyan period. But on the strength of abudance of sculptures of Brahma found in many places it can be said that the cult of Brahma did exist from early times in Gujarat. We have two temples, one at Khedabrahma and other one among the triple temple of Kasara (Banasa Kantha ), dedicated ro Brahma. The

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 173 A reference as to existence of a Jain temple known as Acchupta vasati ( temple ) at Dholka ( Dist. Ahmedabad) is supplied by the Colophon of a Jain manuscript. 205 The Jain temple dedicated to Kunthunatha Swami at Unjha is said to have been build during this century, 206 None of these temples exists at present The Siva temple at Bavka* ( Dist. Panchmahal ) The temple was in a ruinous condition owing to the collapse of the Sabha-mandapa, Sikhara and western wall of the garbhagtiha; the door Jambs were dislodged and some of cult image is a standing figure of Brahma in the main shrine. it faces either east or north, the lintel of the door of Garbhagriha contains an image of Ganesa in centre and the exterior walls of the shrine contain sculptures of Brahma and Sarasvati, The images of Brahma are seen at many places in Gujarat. The most outstanding among them are : 1. Two life-size standing images of Brahma has been found at Nagara near Kambhata (Cambay) ( Dist. Kheda ). One of them have been shifted to Vallabha Vidya nagar. The other is at Nagara and even worshipped at present. 2. Many sculptures of Brahma are seen at Mahisa, Kathlal, Lasundra, Dholka and at other places. Two other noteworthy Brahma temples are : a Brahma shrine at Kamrej on the river Tapti near Surat, which has an old image of Brahma, which is still worshipped. ( Pandya A. V. cult of Brahma in Gujarat p. 3) and the ruins of Brahma temple found at village Mahisa ( Kheda Dist. ). The beautiful four faced image of Brahma together with many other sculptures are found in vicinity. (CSS. Vol. II. Pt. I. pp. 180-90.) 205. Nemacandrasuri 'Akhyanamanikosa' Vtitti JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I p. 94 206. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 66. The said temple has been renovated in V. S. 1600 (A. D. 1544). The temple contains a Jinamata patta bearing the inscription dated V. S. 1240 (i. e. 1184 A. D.) # S. V. of Dahod.

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174 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the sculptures were dangerously hanging.207 The temple belongs to 12th Cent. A. D.208 The mandapa is octagonal in shape, each side of 2.5 ms. with single stone lintels supported on octagonal pillars, 1.7 meters round at the base and below the capital. At the entrance of the shrine is a figure of Ganapati holding in his hands what seems to be a battle axe. On the outside are the remains of three belts of sculptures, the highest rude and somewhat indecent figures, the second elephants, and the third groups of very small figures of men and beasts. According to a local story this temple was built by courtezans at the time ( 646-1483 A. D) of the prosperity of Hindu kingdom of Champaner.209 From one of the inscriptions210 of Bhima II (A. D. 11781242) it is learnt that his queen Sumaladevi built a temple called Sumalesvara at Ghusadi (Viramgam) and another of his inscriptions (A.D. 1207) reveals that his queen Liladevi, had built the temples of Bhimesvara and Lilesvara at Lilapura or Lalitapura which is south of Viramgam and has retained its original name at present.211 None of these temples is traceable to-day. At Somanatha, Bhima built the temple named Meghnada.212 But Sridharas prasasti (A. D. 1216) mentions that Bhima built the Somesvara-manqapa called Meghadhvani, which indicates that he 207. Indian Archaeology 1955-56 pp. 47-48. Recently the dislodged door Jambs of the garbha-goiha and the pillars of the Sabha mandapa and the carved horizontal members of the plinth of garbhagriha and Sabhamandapa were refixed to their original position by Archaeological department, western circle. 208. Indian Archaeology 1957-58 p. 100 209. BG. III p. 303. 210. Ind. Ant. VI, 204. 211. SHCGEG. p. 39; Ind. Ant. VI, p. 194; HIG. No. 160 212. HIG, no. 204.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period constructed an additional hall to the temple of Somanatha,213 Lavanaprasada, the Saravesvara of Bhima II, built the temples of Analesvara and Salakhanesvara for the spiritual benefit of his father Anala or Ana (sk. Arnoraja) and his mother Salakhanadevi.214 at Salakhanapura (built in place of Bhojuyagrama),215 north of Ghusadi (Viramgam). Virama, the son of Lunapasaka who was a dandanayaka of Ajayapala, built a temple at Ghusadi called Viramesvara and obtained two separate grants from Bhima II for the maintenance of his temple.216 The temple does not survive at present. At Talaja (Dist. Bhavnagar) in Saurastra, the Mehr King Jagamalla made certain grants to several Siva temples, during his reign. These temples were (I) Suisaresvara (2) Sohinesvara (3) Caundesvara (4) Prithividevisvara. 217 None of these temples in their original form, exists at present. 175 Tripurantaka, the Saiva ascetic, also built several Siva temples out of his own earnings at Somanatha. 218 He erected five temples; the first was for the benefit of his mother and called after her Malhanesvara; the second dedicated to Umapati 6 213. Sridhara Prasasti (1216 A. D.) S. 1273 v. 45. Ind. Ant. II. p. 437; HIG. 163. Shri A. K. Majmudar in Caulukyas of Gujarat' mentions the name Meghadhvani being given to the mandapa because of its tonal quality of the hall. But from architectural point of view, this is one of the names ascribed to peculiar type of Mandapa. 214. Bhima I issued two grants in favour of these temples (Kadi nos. 6 & 7, Ind. Ant. VI. 201, 203). Tribhuvanapala granted a village to these temples. (Kadi grant no. 10 Ind. Ant. VI, 208) The usurper Jayantasimha also granted a grant to these temples (Kadi grant no. 4 Ind. Ant. VI. 196; HIG. No. 186.) grants 215. Ind. Ant. VI. 205, HIG. no. 201. 216. Kadi grants Nos. 8 & 9. Ind. Ant. VI. 205-8; HIG. no. 201 217. Timana Plates: S. 1264. Ind. Ant. Xl. 337. 218. Cintra-prasasti El. I, 272. 4

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176 The Structural Temples of Gujarat was in memory of Tripurantaka's benefactor Ganda Brhaspati, whose wife was named Uma; this lady too was not ignored since the third was built for her spiritual welfare and called Umesvara; the remaining two temples, namely Tripurantakesvara and Ramesvara were built after the names of the founder and his wife for the increase of their spiritual merits. Except one none of these temples exists. The one extant temple in the group of temples built by Tripurantaka is situated at N. W. corner of the Somanatha shrine. It is suggested by Cousens (SMTK. p. 29) as one of the temples restored by Ra Mahipaladeva, the Cudasama king of Junagadh (early 15th cent. A. D.). Only the basement of this temple now survives. In the reign of Bhima II, Sridhara, one of the officers, built temples of Kesava and Rohinisvami at Somanatha pattana 219 The name of the latter temple suggests that it was dedicated to Balarama (Balabhadra ), brother of Krisna. In Vadali;* there is the Vaidyanatha temple. The temple has two inscriptions one of the inscriptions, dated V. S. 1264 (A. D. 1298), speaks about the rebuilding of its mandapa. The other inscription, dated V. S. 1329 (A. D 1273) on a stone pillar in the compound is about a grant to the temple.220 The temple is completely plastered with stucco. But the beautiful sculptures on pitha and mandovara exhibit its original form. The spire is of Ekandi type. The temple consists of 219. Sridhara's Devapattana Prasasti, El, II, 439; also Bhav. inscrip. Lines 34-36. p. 197; Fig. No. 163. *11.2 kms. north of Idar: The place was known as Vata-palli in 12th cent. A. D. 220. AFIS. p. II Inscription on p. 45-46.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 177 its usual componants garbhagriha, antarala, mandapa and front porch.3 2011 Vastupala-Tejapala The literary sources ascribe to Vastupala and Teja pala a large number of temples. In his Naranarayananda Vastupala himself says that he has built innumerable temples for the spiritual merits of his parents, sons and other relatives 221 That this is not an empty boast can be seen by the various structures Tejapala raised in honour of their relations at Abu. From the Vastupala-Tejapala-prasasti, which seems to have been inscribed on a slab of stone in Sakunika Vihara in order to commemorate the gifts of Tejapala to the temple we learn that Vastupala 220/1. In the Vicinity of Vaidyanatha temple there is a temple which originally belonged to an earlier date. Popularly this temple is known as the temple of Balarama, because of an existance of sculpture of Balarama in the back niche of the mandovara of the temple. In the mandovara facing west there is a sculpture of Nsivaraha. Just near the temple there is a room, the wall of: which contains a sculpture of Noisimha, originially belonging to the temple. All this Vaisnavite sculptures indicate that originally the temple was dedicated to Visnu. There is also one more temple dedicated to siva. The two ornate pillars with Ghatapallava motif and the sculptures of Vedika and Samatala ceiling of Sabhamandapa suggest an earlier date, than that of the Vaidyanatha temple. The superstructure of the garbhagriha of this temple, though covered with thick plaster, exhibits over it a Jalaka design which also supports its early date. The walls of the temple known as Samadhi mandira also contain beautiful sculptures. The temple, known as Ruparana's temple, contains many components of early date such as the mouldings of the pitha, Vedikas, ceilings and vase & foliage pillars of he mandapa, and sculptures on Jangha moulding of the mandovara, the carvings of Samvarna (though covered with thick plaster ). etc. 221. Naranarayaannanda, xvi, 37.

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178 The Structural Temples of Gujarat erected an Indramandapa before Risabhadeva on Mt. Satrunjaya with the temples of Parsvanatha and Neminatha on two sides; and a torana on the temple of Satrunjaya, a lake in Padaliptanagara; ( Palitana) and Akrapalita-grama. Vastupala according to this prasasti restored the temples of Nabhiya (Rsabha), Neminatha and Stambhanesa (Parssva). He is also said to have built many other temples, wells, tanks, resting houses for yatis, gardens, and places for drinking water and supplied golden staffs to many temples. He is also said to have consecrated the images of Parsvanatha and Mahavira in Sakunikavihara at Broach and supplied twenty five golden staffs to the devakulikas (small shrines) in the city.222 According to the Sukritakirtikallolini written by Udayaprabha Suri, the Guru of Vastupala and Tejapala. it was after listening to the lectures of Vijayasenasuri that the two brothers began to build a series of religious edifices-Indramandapa with temples of Stambhana Parsvanatha, and Neminatha on Girnar; images of their ancestors by the sides of the temple of Adinatha on Satrunjaya. He built at Dholka a temple on the model of the temple at Satrunjaya and the Pancasara temple at Anhilapataka. He also built the temple of Asvavatara and consecrated there in the image of Muni Suvrata. He also restored the temple of Parsvanatha at Stambhana (Skamna near Umareth) and restored the nineteen golden capitals taken by Subhatavarmana, King of Malava, from the temple of Vaidyanatha at Dabhoi.223 The Sukritasankirtana of Arisimha which was composed about V. S. 1285 also gives a long list of temples and other public buildings erected by Vastupala. With the exception of few minor details Arsimha's list224 agrees with those of the Vastupala Tejapala-prasasti and Sukritakirti Kallolini. From all these sources it becomes evident that Vastupala and TeJapala 222. VTP. vv. 45-69. 223. SKK. vv. 157-176. 224. Buhler: 'Arisimha', Sitzungberichte, Bd. CXIX, (1889) also ASWI, Vol. II. pp. 169 ff.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 179 spread their building activities over the following places : ANhilpataka, 2 2 4/1 Stambhatirtha (Cambay), Dhavalakka, (Dholka), Satrunjaya, Padliptapura (Palitana ) Arkapalita-grama ( Ankavaliya) Stambhana (Thamna) Ujjaya yanta (Girnar ), Darbhavati (Dabhoi) and Arbuda (Abu). Thus in the case of Vastupala and Tejapala we find that the literature of the period credits them with having built a very large number of temples of which only a few survive; the rest were probably broken by the Muslims. Of these those temples which can be definitely ascribed to them are the temples at Girnar and Abu. Vastupala Temple At Girnar. The present temple of Vastupala at Girnar consists of three shrines (Triple shrines ), Mallinatha the 19th Tirthankara is enshrined in the central, while in the shrines on the sides are Sumeru ( Astapada) and Sameta Sikhara. 2 2 5 There are six incriptions embedded over many doors of this temple which give an idea of the religious activities of two brothers. The temple at Girnar is said to have been built by Vastupala to increase his own merit and that of his wife Lalitadevi. The inscriptions then claim that Vastupala and his younger brother Tejapala had by the year (V)S. (12)76 erected one crore of temples and renovated many old ones at great and renounced places of pilgrimage such as Satrunjaya. Arbudacala and in prosperous cities such as Anhilapura, Bhoigupura, Stambhanakapura, Stambhatirtha, Darbhavati, Dhavalakka and many other places. Of these only at Abu the temple of Tejapala can be definately identified.2 2 8 22481. Vastupalacaritram (A. D. 1441) of Jinaharsa refers to Ahacadeva caitya, Koraitavalagacchiya caitya, Sanderavala-vasti, and Mallinatha Jinalaya at Patan where Vastupala or Tejapala did one or other sort of Suksta (good deed). 225. AKK. Plts. XXXIII & XXXIV. Here Figs. 118, 232. 226. Girnar Inscriptions: ARBP, 283-302 also HIG. Vol. 3 nos. 207212. Somesvara, the author of Kirtikaumudi, was responsible for drafting

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180 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The temple of Tejapala otherwise known as Lunavasahi at Abu is dedicated to Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara, and was built by Tejapala for increasing the religious merits of his wife Anupamadevi and their son Lunasinha (sk. Lavanyasimha ). There are 32 inscriptions in this temple of which three relate to the erection of the main temple and contain historical information of importance while the rest are small ones recording that Tejapala in the years following the erection of temple ( V. S. 1287 A. D. 1231 ) did not cease to enlarge and embellish the sanctuary which he had created. These small inscriptions are engraved on the lintels of several cell shrines in the corridor of the temple and record the erection of those shrines, or of images of Jinas and Tirthankaras, by Tejapala for the religious merit of the various members of his family, amongst whom was also included Tejapala's second wife, Sri Suhadadevi.2 27 Situated near the Vimalavasahi, it has similar fine carvings and is composed of the garbhagliha (main sanctum) the Gudhamandapa, the Navacoki, the rangamandapa, balanaka (i. e. Dvarmandapa, a pavilion on the main entrance) Khatakas (big niches looking like miniature shrines on two sides of wall ) row of cells or Devukulikas in pillared-corridor and also is adorned with Hastisala. The Mulanayaka in the temple was consecrated in V. S. 1287 (1230 A. D.) 227/1 In this Lunavasahi, on two sides of the entrance from Navacoks into Gudhmandapa are two big niches (Khatakas) with ornamental frame-work of fine carvings which were built by three of the six Girnar Inscriptions. The number of temples and amount spent by Vastupala and Tejapala as narrated by him is quite fantastic and were recorded due to the predilection for gross flattery.on the part of Somesvara. Similarly accounts given by him in his Kirtikaumudi are also exaggerated. 227. E. I. VIII, 200-209 also BPSI. pr. 218-220. 227/1. Here Figs. 119-123 & 240.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period Tejapala for the spiritual welfare of his wife Suhadadevi. (these niches are wrongly known as Gokhas of Derani and Jethani ).227/2 All the cella in the corridor were consecrated during the years 1287 V. S. & 1293 V. S. while the consecration of aforesaid two big and excellent ornamented niches took place in V. S. 1297 (1240A. D.)228 Like Vimala Vasahi, Lunavasahi is an example of fine chiselling of marble. The walls, entrance doors, pillars, Mandapas, Toranas, cellings or domes etc. are adorned with ornamental relief carvings of inanimate motifs like flowers, trees, crepers, lamps, bells etc; of animals like horses, elephants, camels, tigers and lions or fishes and birds, besides various representations of gods and men, of scenes from life such as courts, royal processions, marriage processions, marriage scenes, drama, music parties, battle scenes, grazing animals, voyages by sea, life of shepherds, rites of monks and Jain layman and women, and scenes from the Lives of Tirthankaras or other great men of Jain mythology.229 Along with the Vimalavasahi, the Musalman army destroyed almost completely the main sanctum and the adjecent Gudhamandapa is also damaged with certain other parts of the Lunavasahi in c. 1368 V. S. (13117A. D. ). Pethada, a rich merchant, who was tho son of Chandasimha, carried out extensive repairs to this shrine in V. S. 1378 (1321 A. D.), installing a newly fashioned image of Neminatha.230 227/2. Here Fig. 123/c 228. HA. pp. 91-92. 181 229. HA. pp. 92-93. The architect (Sutradhara) of this shrine was Sobhanadeva by name. 230. H. A. pp. 95-96. Number of images in the temple proper and the account of different cells (Devakulikas) and the structure known as Hastisala surrounding the temple have been discussed in detail at great length by Muni Jayant Vijayaji in his workHoly Abu' (Edited by U. P. Shah) pp. 96-125.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat The inscription of Vastupala dated V. S. 1291 (A. D. 1235) records the erection of a mandapa by Vastupala to Ganesa temple at Ghumali 231 182 There existed a temple dedicated to sun-god Jayaditya at Nagara (near Cambay ). The said temple was damaged by heavy rainfall in V. S. 1220 (A. D. 1233), therefore, according to an inscription found in the vicinity of the temple Vastupala repaired the temple and new images were enshrined therein in the year V. S. 1292 (A. D. 1236).3 The temple does not exist to day. From the size of the image found from the site, Shri Ratnamani Rao Jote guesses that the temple may be as large as that of the sun temple at Modhera.293 The Jain temple at Sankhesvar (Dist. Banas-Kantha) is said to have been restored by Vastupala-Tejapala and enclosed by series of Devakulikas (cells) around it in V. S 1286 (A. D. 1230), 234 There are other temples notably at Satrunjaya which are said to have been built by Vastupala and Tejapala, but these have been renovated to such an extent that in the absence of any ephigraphic record, it is not possible to identify them with any certainty.235 231. Ganesa inscription V. S. 1291. ABORI, IX, 179, WMR 1923-24 p. 18. This inscription also states that Vastupala had installed (somewhere) two images of Ratnadevi and Rajadevi consorts of Surya. The reference, has some relation to the temple of Jayaditya at Nagara (near Cambay ) which was repaired and new images were enshrined therein by Vastupala. 232. Bhavnagar Pracin Lekha saingrha. pt. l., 4 A.V. Pandya cult of Brhama in Gujarat.' pp. 2-3 233. Ratnamani Rao Jote 'Khambhatno Itihasa' p. 149. 234. JTSS. Vol. I. pt. 1. p. 49. Originally the temple was built by Sajjansimha in V. S. 1155 (1099 A. D.) vide pp. 196-197 also foot note no. 125 on p. 197, above. 235. Cousens, SMTK. p. 73; Sankalia, AG. p. 107.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 183 The Jain temple of Siddhapala Vasati was erected in V. S. 1241 (A. D. 1185) at Anahilapura,236 The temple cannot be traced so far. Vadhu, the ancestor of Sobhandeva who was the Governor of Lata in V. S. 1247 (A. D. 1187) built a temple to Mahavira in Sangama Khetaka (probably modern Sankheda which is situated on the confluence of the rivers Shedhi and Meshwo). His son Kaparadi built a temple to Adinatha in Vatasara.237 None of these temples exists. Sresthi Pethada erected a Jain temple dedicated to Mahavira at Vijapura in V. S. 1256 (A. D. 1200),238 The temple does not survive. The dates in the inscriptions found on serval images of Pahalaviya Parsvanatha temple at Palanpur (Dist. Banaskantha) imply that the temple was built in the Solanki period. The principal image of Prahaladan Parsvanath bears an inscription of V. S. 1274 (A. D. 1218). The said image was consecrated by Kakkasuri. 239 The original temple does not exist but a new three-storeyed temple is erected on the old site. The inscription dated V. S. 1290, (1234 A. D.) engraved on the one of the Southern pillars of the temple of Nilkantha Mahadeva at Miyani records the erection of Mandapa of the said temple. 240 236. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. P. 57 also Peterson Reports: 'Pattanastha Jain Bhandagariya Granthsuci Prasastio. 237. JSSI, pp. 342 para, 499. 238. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 90., It is said that the said Pethada built the city of Vijapura named after his father Vijaladeva. Jain Sahitya Pradasna Shri Prasasti Samgraha. p. 76. MSS no. 270. 239. JTSS. Vol. 1. Pt.l, p. 33. 240. IK. Inscp. No. 6 p. 688

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184 The Structural Temples of Gujarat According to the inscription on the pedestal of the Sun-image found in a Vaishnava temple (Gosavaji's temple) at Kheralu (Dist. Mehsana), the image of the Sun and his consorts were set up in V. S. 1293 (A, D. 1237).241 The original temple enshrining the image seems extinct. One of the inscriptions at Abu clearly mentions that a Jain temple dedicated to Adisvara was erected by Sresthi Devacandra at Carupa, in V. S. 1296 (A. D. 1240) 242 The temple does not survive at present. One of the inscriptions dated V. S. 1296 (A. D. 1240) at Lunavasahi refers to the renovation of Suvidhinatha temple near Hathia Vapi at Patan. There is an old temple of Sandalesvara at village KambojSolanki* (Taluka Chanasma, Dist. Mehsana ). The shrine is still in use, having a linga as an emblem of Siva. The temple faces west, is rather plain and appears to have been clumsily rebuilts at some remote period. The basement is burried beneath the present surface of the ground, and the Sikhara has a shattered look.2 4 3 Vaghela or Vyagrapalli is about 7 kms. west from Delmal ( Dist. Mehsana). At this village, says Mr. Forbes is a temple similar in style to those which have been described ( Modhera etc.) but of smaller dimension. It consists of a single open mandapa, one storey in height with pyramidal roof, three porticoes and an adytum surmounted by a spire. 2 4 4 This no longer exists, not even a vestige of its foundation remains 2 4 5 241. ARAB. 1935-36 p. 12. 242. APJLS. No. 352. * In the inscription dated V. S. 1294 of Mularaja the said village is named as Kanboika-grama in Sarsvat mandala. The temple of Sandalesvara is also known as Candramaulisvara. 243. AANG. p. 91. 244. Rasamala l. p. 255 or reprint p. 195. 245. AANG. f. 91. The villagers say that it was broken down and the materials were carried off about 1865-70 A. D.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 185 Kevan* There is a Siva temple, belonging to 12th cent. It it as usual, a Pancayatana temple situated on a platform of stone slabs on the top of a hillock. There are ruins of temples in nearby hamlets also. 2 4 6 Saptnatha Mahadeva. * There are foundations of a Pancayatna temple. There is the Dharesavara Mahadeva temple, though recently taken down and rebuilt, seems to belong to a period earlier than the 12th cent. 247 It seems that the temple of Parsvanatha at Davad* has been erected in V. S. 1300 ( A. D. 1244 ). 2 4 8 The Jain temple with 1444 pillars and 72 cells (Devakulikas) was erected by one Munjashah at the instance of Punyasuritilaka at Bhorol* in V. S. 1302 (A. D. 1246 ). The temple complex included a step-well (Vapi ) also. The said Vapi is seen at the sight at present but no trace of the temple is found.2 49 Derol (Dist. Sabarkantha). The village contains several old temples. There is a tripletemple dedicated to Brhama, Visnu and Mahesa. Nearby there is a Visnu Pancayatana temple of a later date (probably of the * 8 Kms. from Raigadha. (Dist. Sabarkantha) 246. AFIS. p. 27. * 6.4 Kms. from Davad. (Dist. Sabarkantha) 247. AFIS. pp. 29-30. 248. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 83. *. 67.2 Kms. N. V. of Deesa (Dist. Banaskantha). 249. Ancalgacchiya Moti Pattavali. p. 89; JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 43. An inscription on a extant parikara, found in the modern Jain temple at Bhorol, also records the existence of a Jain temple in V. S. 1261 i. e. A. D. 1205.

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186 The Structural Temples of Gujarat 16th cent.) This temple has also a Kirtitorana (the upper portion of which is damaged) on front of it. One temple dedicated to Siva is situated near the triple-shrine. The central shrine of the triple temple is dedicated to Siva; it is flanked by the shrine on each side dedicated to Brahma and Visnu respectively. The common manqapa has a frontal porch. Further, in front of this temple once there was a detached Nandi manqapa, some portions of which are now survive and on its plinth, there is a Nandi. This was again fronted by a torana, the ruins of which are also visible. The mandovara of the triple temple is highly decked with beautiful sculptures, of which the amorous figures are noteworthy. The mandapa is covered with stone-grills decked with the depiction of several sculptures like Ganesa, a curlew (kraunca ) bird in flying gesture, a monkey playing with a child etc. This temple belongs to the 12th century.2 50 By the middle of the thirteenth Century, the temple of Vaidyanatha was erected at Darbhavati (Dabhoi ) ( Dist. Baroda ).251 The temple was constructed by the architect Devaditya.2 5 2 * 11 kms. east of Khedbrahma. 250. AFIS. p. 35. 251. The Vastupalacarita by Jinaharasgani records that Tejapala (died 1248 A. D.) contributed some accessories to the Vaidyanatha temple (Vastupala carita. Janinagar edition, Ch. III, Darbhavati, v. 71-72); while the fragmentary stone inscription composed by Somesvara in V. S. 1311 (A. D, 1255 ) leaves an impression that the temple was probably built by Visaladeva. (The inscription is at Hiragate, Dabhoi. EI, I, pp. 20 ff and also in R. D. pp. 12 ff.) It is interesting to note here that Darbhavati is said to be the birth place of Visaladeva and that Tejapala officiated as a minister during the reign of Viradhavala as well as Visaladeva. 252. The Prasasti of Somesvara v. 111-113; RD. p. 18.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period At present no temple exists under this name at Dabhoi. But the name of the architect is found incised in the temple now known as that of Kalikamata. A later inscription dated 1734. A. D. too, seems to refer to Kalika as the deity of the temple.253 It is possible that the extant temple to the north of the Hiragate represents the old Vaidyanatha temple, and that in course of time the latter may have turned into the temple of Kalikamata. However, it is also probable that the ruined shrine, on the southern side of the Hiragate represents the Vaidyanatha temple while the temple on the Northern side may have belonged to Kalikamata from the beginning. Tradition ascribes the erection of both these temples to king Viradhavala or Visaladeva. The appearance of the name of the architect of Vaidyanatha temple in the temple of Kalikamata may corroborate this assumption. The Southern portion of the Vaidyanatha temple is practically gone excepting a small portion of the base of the shrine. 25 The northern portion of temple (which is at present known as Kalikamata temple), however, is in a much better condition and the sculptures carved on it are interesting. The carving shows four string courses of different patterns. One of them, which is at the top, at once catches the eye of the spectator. The projecting frieze has three principal members: the lower one is carved with half rosettes, the second with chakwas, and the third with a procession of elephants, men, camels, etc.. There is a thin cornice above this string course. The portion above it is more richly carved, the surface being literally overlaid with ornaments. Four balcony windows spring out of this surface resting on richly carved brackets and provided with projecting and sloping roofs. Between the brackets supporting the sill of the window there is carved in bold relief an elephant with his rider surrounded by horsemen, The temple has three storeys, the shrine proper being on the first 253. RD. p. 19, Inscription v. 4. 254. RD. Plt. VII. Here Fig. 129. 187

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188 The Structural Temples of Gujarat floor. It is now reached by a flight of steps on the inner or city side. But these steps are later addition. The original entrance was probably from the stairs leading to the upper storey of the gateway. A large gate with old wooden doors, which is still preserved, marks the passage. The sculptures over the walls of the building are distributed in single figures, in pairs or in groups of three or more figures. The sculptor lavished his special care in the balcony windows, open to as well as closed, and on their four sides including offsets. 2 54/a side of Dabhoi-Shrine on Satmukhivav Jutting out into the south Tank Nagesvar To the west of the tank is a small shrine built into the tank. Probably it was a siva temple. It is contemporaneous with the Kalika mata temple. It consists of a central shrine with porches on the north and south. On the west side is a roomy balcony window and a seat overlooking the tank. After clearance (by Archaeological Dept. of former Baroda State ) sculptured walls of exquisite beauty, a manpapa on the eastern side are now exposed.255.1 In V. S. 1311 (A. D. 1265) Visaladeva restored a sun temple by the name Mulasthana, (perhaps at or near Dabhoi)2 5 6 It is mentioned that there existed a Jain temple dedicated to Vasupujya at Vijapur and it was adorned with golden staff and finial in the V. S. 1317 (A. D. 1261 ).257 According to 254a. RD. pp-29-30 Plts. IX-X1l; XIV, XIV (a), XIV (b)., Here Figs. 124-128. 255. AB. p. 13 Plt. XX., Hear Fig. 130. 256. Dabhoi stone inscription S. 1311. El. 1. 20-32. 257. Kumaragani Prasasti on Candratilaka Upadhyayas Abhayadeva --Carita W 39-40 (V. S. 1328 ); Buddhisagar Suri, Vijapura Brhada Vrattanta' pp. 141-145: Jain Pustaka Prasasti Sangraha no. 95.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 189 Laxmitilaka Upadhyaya, 2 58 the temple dedicated to Mahavira at Bhimapalli (Bhiladia ) was constructed in V. S. 1317 (A. D. 1261). Abhayatilaka Gani2 39 describes this temple as Mandalika Vihara, and says that it was restored by one Bhuvanpala Sresthi. Before restoration, the temple existed in V. S. 1218 (A. D. 1162) as it is referred to by Rayanasa. 260 None of the temples exists in its original form. The Adinatha temple at Athapoknara* is a Siva shrine. The present structure is new but a good deal of the material of which it is made is evidently old. An inscription of Visaladeva is placed in a small modern shrine opposite to it.261 Ranaka Samantasinha in the time of Visaladeva in V. S. 1319 (A. D. 1262) gave some grants for the maintenance of the temples of Ballala-Narayana and Rupa-Narayana 269 in Vardhi pathaka. These temples cannot be traced:now. These temples, unless they be of Visnu under his local names, seem to be of Surya, or of a composite aspect of Surya and Visnu. Even now there are some temples in Gujarat which are called by the name of Surya-narayana, the cult image being a combination of Surya and Visnu. 968 From the Kantela (Dist Junagadh.) inscription of Arjundeva's reign we learn that one Samantasinha erected an image of Visnu called Salaksa-Narayana (in V. S. 1320) in the temple of Laksmi-narayana to increase the merit of his dead brother 258. Commentary to 'Sravaka Dharma Prakarana' composed in V. S. 1317. 259. Abhayatilaka gani * Mahavira Rasa' composed in V. S. 1317. 260. Jinpatidhavalagita. * Some 96 kms. from Kodinar (Dist. Junagadh ) 261. ARAB. 34-35 p. 13 para 33. 262. Kadi grant Ind. Ant. VI, 210-13. 263. AG. p. 214.

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190 The Structural Temples of Gujarat named Salaksa.264 Thus we see that memorial temples were erected not only by Saivas, but by the Vaisnavas as well. Although the temple is called Laksmi narayana temple it has now a linga estabhished within it. From a record of one of the inscriptions at Girnar it is learnt that the said Samanatsinha also erected a temple dedicated to Parsvanatha.2 6 5 Temple of Harsata Mata at Veraval (Dist. Junagadh ). The temple is a modern one but its mandapa contains an inscription of Arjundeva's time dated V. S. 1320. (A. D. 1264).266 At about V. S. 1320 (A. D. 1264), Pethadesa of Mandavagadha constructed a Jain temple dedicated to Candraprabha at Dabhoi. 367 The temple is extinct. The tempel of Revachi mata.268 at village Rava (Kaccha) contains an inscription, dated V. S. 1328 ( A. D. 1272), of the 264. PO. II, 227; IK Inscri, no. 18 pp. 695-696 also no. 10 p. 691. The inscription is in Revati kunda attached to the Temple of Laksmi-narayana. (SMTK. p. 87). 265. HIG. Vol. lll. p. 206. Samantasinha was appointed as a governer of Saurashtra and subsequently he was transferred to Lata by Visaladeva. 206. SMTK. p. 34. It is dated in four different eras namely the Hejra year 662, the Vikram year 1320, the Valabhi year 945 and the Simha year 151 i. e. 1264 A. D. 267. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 21. Pethada-rasu (A. D. 1304), Gurvavali of Munisundara Suri (15th cent), Upadesatarangini (c. A. D. 1459 ) of Ratnamandira Gani and Sukritasa gara of Ratnamandana (e. 15th cent), are important sources on the life and works of Pethadasa. To him is ascribed the erection of Jain temples at Satrunjaya, Prabhas, Dholka, Salaksanapur etc. 268. KSD. p. 77.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 191 reign of Arjunadeva.269 The temple is believed to be an old one but at present it is newly built. Originally the shrine contained nine spires and domes over the temple 270 On the Satrunjaya Hill, Pethada, a prominent Jain merchant built a temple dedicated to Santinatha in about V. S. 1334 (A. D. 1278),271 The present temple restored and renovated to such an extent that it is not possible to trace out its original form, A much ruined Jain temple of Mahavira at Kanthakot (Kaccha) was built during the reign of Sarangadeva. A writing on pillar in the entrance hall dated V. S. 1339 (A.D. 1283) states that the builders were the relatives of Jagadevasa of Bhadresvara. The extant temple comprises the ruins of double mandapa, the ceilings and pillars, 272 The inscription dated V. S. 1343 (A. D. 1287) found on one of the palias (memorial stones) at Maitrana* refers to the existence of a Jain temple at that place 273 Bhuvad (Kaccha) At Bhuvad, the temple of Bhuvadesvara Mahadeva is much ruined; the roof of the shrine is entirely fallen. The mandapa measures 9.6x12 ms. inside and is supported by 34 pillars 269. KSD. pp. 78, 276: also Kumar. No. 301, plt. opp. p. 91. 270. Sarabhai Nawab : Kumar No. 301. 271. JSI. p. 406. Pethod was contemporary to famous minister Hemadri of Deogiri with whose consent he built a Jain temple at Deogiri known as 'Amulya Prasada' which was completed in V. S. 1335 (i.e. A. D. 1279). Ratnamandirgani, Upadesatarangini. pp. 97-98. 272. BG. Vol. V. p. 225, also KSD. pp. 108-109 Plts. on pp. 107, 108, 109. * near Patan, on Kakosi-Maitrana Rly. line. 273. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. p. 45.

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192 The Structural Temples of Gujarat and four pilasters, 18 on the screen wall and 12 of them round the dome, which covers 7 ms. sqaure inside the columns. The pillars are square to about one third their height, then octagon, and lastly round. The shrine has been a larger one, fully 7 ms. square, domed on 12 pilasters, 0.5 0.3 m. with four armed figures on the brackets. The brackets on the columns of the mandapa are plain, but a plinth of 0.2 meter deep above the bracket is carved with a raised geometrical pattern. The front of the brackets are also carved as in those of the Bhadresvar temple. The temple has been built of stones. Over the shrine door is a Devi probably Bhavani, There is an inscription on the pilaster to the right of the shrine door, dated S. 1346 (A. D. 1289-90).2 74 The stone inscription of Cinta mani Parsvanatha at Cambay records that the temple was built in the time of Ramadeva, son of Arjunadeva of the Vaghela dynasty in V. S. 1352 (A. D. 1296). The inscription records that one Badala built a temple of Parsvanatha and her son Vikala built a mandapa in front of the temple of Surya.275 The present temple of Cintamani Parsvanatha seems erected on the old site, but it does not retain its original form and design. The next temple mentioned in the inscription does not survive. The existence of a Sun temple in V. S. 1354 (A. D. 1298) is shown by the Murlidhara inscription of that year, in which mangala verses are in praise of Sun as two verses (vv. 20-21) refer to the attainment of Suryaloka by a warrior, so tnat it is evident that the prasasti was composed in connection with the erection of a sun temple. The aforesaid inscription has been found at the Murlidhara temple at Bhiloda (near Idar), 276 274. AKK. p. 209-10 275. BPSI. 227, w. 14 & 16. 276. Budhiprakasa, 1710,79 ff.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 193 Bhavanatha or Bhuvanesvara Mahadeva temple at Desan* is an old one. It was many times rebuilt in the past as the existence of temple and Kunda, 277 is mentioned in the inscription278 of V. S. 1354 (A. D. 1298) in the Sun279 (now Ramaji) temple in the compound which, according to above inscription was built in the time of Karna Vaghela. There is a large image of bull of grey stone marble 1.5 m. long, lying in the compound, which must surely have been belonged to an earlier temple. 280 Sculpture and panels present various forms of Visnu and depict several scenes from Ksisna's life. Some of the stray sculptures may represent the temples of Visnu or Ksisna having been erected during the rule of Caulukyan and Vaghela danasty in Gujarat. The Anavada stone inscription281 of Sarangadeva of V. S. 1348 ( A. D. 1296) attests to the existence of Ktisna worship in Gujarat Temples built during 13th cent. A. D. Dhinjoj (Dist. Mehsana) has an old temple of Vyaghresvari now known as Khamalai. This temple faces the east and seems to have been rebuilt. The portions of the original left undistrubed are the mandapa and the pillars, which are of old pattern, The dome is in Muhmedan style. The course in the basement, ususlly filled by a close line of elephants, is here almost plain but divided up by half pillarettes into small spaces, in a very few of which * 28-8 kms. N.E. of Himatnagar. ( Dist. Sabarkantha) 277. The Kunda is a famous place of miraculous cure for leprosy. 278. AFIS. p. 47. 279. In the inscription the sun temple is named as temple of Munjalaswamideva. 280. AFIS. pp. 19, 20. Plt. XXIX. no 56. 281. Ind. Ant. XLI. pp. 20-21.

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194 The Structural Temples of Gujarat are carved the head and fore-quaters of elephants. The screen wall or vedi is very richly carved with a variety of florid patterns arranged vertically and broken by compartments containing Saiva figures. The Kaksasana over this, forming the sloping seat-back is in a more modern style. 282 In front porch there is also a finely carved roof of geometrical design. 283 The inscription of 13th cent. engraved on a large black stone slab built up in the wall of the entrance gate of Somanath Patan, records the building of the temples of Vaidyanatha, Karkesvara and Karkesvari at Somanath. 284 None of these temples in their original form and design exists at present. Wadhwan Ranik Devi's shrine at Wadhwan probably belongs to the 13th cent A. D. The temple is plain but the beautiful decorated string courses round the walls are worth paying attention. The little chains, with bells, are a very happy addition. The more usual place for these is upon the shafts of pillars, where hanging down the flutes, they give them a dignified and distinguished appearance. Comparing the Kirtimukha face on 282. AANG. p. 110; Plan on Plt. XCVI. fig. 2. Here Figs. 131, 132 & 234. 283. Ibid Plts. XCVII, XCVIII, XCIX. Shri M. A. Dhaky has classed this temple in what he has designated Bhimadeva phase (A. D. 1022-66) of the Solanki period. He is of the opinion that the temple is contemporary to the Modhera temple, on the anology of similarity of some of the figures with those of the image on the gudha mandapa at Modhera (CSTG. p. 30). But the reasons given by him are meagre and vague and do not hold good for placing the temple to such an early date. 284. IK. Inscri. No. 21. p. 727-28 Lines- 21-24.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 195 these string-courses with the same upon the temple of Somnatha, or under the eaves of the temple of Surya at Somnath-Patan, it will be seen what a great difference there is in their treatment. In the last two examples they are monotonous to a degree, but here the repetition does not assert itself so unpleasantly. It is so interwoven with soft easy-flowing arbesque, and smaller repetitions of itself, that it has a richness of its own. The hanging leaf pattern on the lowest-course and, at the top of walls, is as rich as it is usual.2 85 There is a small old temple, in use at Manod (Manuad)* It consits of a small shrine with a porch or mandapa before it. The roof panel of this mandapa is very outstanding and interesting. Virtas has a neat little temple of Nilakanthesvara, of which the shrine is similar to that of Gorad but it has the addition of a mandapa. The dome roof resembles that of Sunak, but has only 3 bracket figures left out of 12. 285. SMTK. p. 54 Plts. LV, LVI. Here Fig. 133. On the basis of the Ekandi form of the spire Shri S. K. Sarswati has classed this temple with the early Nagara group (S. E. p. 389). On the ground of some stylistic reasons-carvings of doorway, udumbara, five panels with miniature phanasana roof on the uttaranga ( AFIS plt.xxv, fig. 48) etc., Shri Dhaky classed it with the Formative group of Early Nagara phase and inclines to place it in the last quarter of the 9th cent. A. D. (CSTG. pp. 11-12). But the Ekandi form of spire and other features do not necessarily indicate an early phase, as they remained in vogue even in later times, (for a detailed discussion Vide sect. Ill Ch, 13 below). *. 4 kms. S. of Sandera & 6.4 kms. S. W. of Sunak. (Dist. Mehsana) 286. AANG pp. 109-110; Plt. XCVI Fig. 1 lbid fig. 10 p. 109. $. 8 kms. N. W. of Gorad. (Dist. Mehsana)

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196 The Structural Temples of Gujarat In the three main niches of walls are the same figures as at Gorad, the door lintel has Ganesa. The temple faces west. It is a Saiva shrine. 287 Motabu On the east side of the village tank at Motab is a neat little shrine, of which the mandapa has quite disappeared and a great part of the outer facing the back wall has fallen. The temple faces the east. On the plinth or kumbha of the wall are many more pairs than are usual of highly erotic figures. The elephants on the basement are somewhat larger and are common on small temples, and at each outer corner is a very obese kneeling figure with shoulders thrown back and the hands laid together as if in worship. Among the female figures on the wall face or Jangha is one in the act applying something to her eye with a stick as brush, while she holds a cup or pot in her right hand; another arranges her hair with the right hand and holds a miror in the left. 2 8 8 Harij:- (Dist. Mehsana) There is a Jajn temple at old site of Haris. It is in a dilapidated condition. The ruins of its Gudhamandapa, dome and ceiling and walls of the Garbhagliha are seen at the site. The exterior as well as interior of the extant mandapa has beautiful carving in the general style of caumukhaji temple at Abu, The Puratana Prabandha has given a description of a Paravanatha temple at Harija. It is presumed that these ruins represent the said temple.289 287. AANG. 112-113. Plt. XCVI. fig. 4. Here Fig. 236. * 4.8 kms. south of Dhinoj. (Dist. Mehsana) 288. AANG. p. 111 Plt. Cl. In the shrine is a high altar or asana against the back wall on which is placed a large headed bust with long pendant ears. It is much battered, but occupied the principal place among other slabs carved with figeres which placed here. This temple is known locally as Jakrad vira. 289. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 51.

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Structural Temples of the Caulukyan Period 197 The Sambhavanath temple at Kumbharia : The temple is nirandhara (i. e. without circumambulatory ). It is also devoid of surrounding devakulikas though the whole temple complex is enclosed in a prakara (i. e. wall). The temple consists of a sanctum, an antarala, Guahamandapa flanked by a porch on either side, a Sabha or rangamandapa and an entrance porch attached with Sopanasreni leading to the temple which faces north.2 89/1 The Panca-pandava temple on Satrunjaya is a small structure belonging to this age. It comprises only a sanctum.2 89/2 Kherva# (Dist. Mehsana) The temple dedicated to Ambamata also designated as temple of Aihiras, contains an inscription dated V. S. 1303 ( 1247 A. D.) on one of the pillars of Sabhamandapa. The shrine door is of Trisakha type and pillars of the porch have ghatapallava motif. The niches of the mandovara have figures of Visnu. 28913 289/1. Visalavijayaji 'Kumbharia. p. 58. For ground plan See BRSS. p. 107; Dave K. B. 'Ambika, Kotesvara and Kumbharia', pp. 57-59. Here Fig. 134. 289/2. SMTK. Plt. ci. Situated near Jagudan (Dist. Mehsana ). 289/3. The sanctum contains the image of the Goddess, which is of much later period. It also contains a linga and Jaladhari in the midst of it. There is also a Siva temple known as Siddhnatha. Originally this temple was of Pancayatana type. But as it was too much mutilated, the principal shrine was once got down and then was rebuilt in V. S. 1868-69 (1332-33 A. D.) in such a way that its original fabric might not be distrubed. The Jagati or platform of the temple was a new erection but the rest of the temple was kept in tact and replaced over it. Only few wanting and missing sculptures were copied out and replaced. The figures of the principal niches of Jangha moulding are new additions but the others are original. However the corner hrines, being not restored, exist no longer.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat In the 13th century the family members of Amradeva contributed something towards the restoration of Mahavira temple at Kanthakot.290 This fact establishes the existence of the said temple during 13th century A. D. The new temple created now does not retain its original form. 198 There are several references as to the existence of Jain temple dedicated to Mahavira at Sander in the later half of the 13th cent. A. D.291 The temple dose not exist. 290. D. P. Khakhara. Report on the Architectural and Archaeological remains in the province of Kachha. (1879) p. 64. 291. One of the MSS of the prasasti on Bhagwatisutra, being caused to be composed by Pethada Sheth at Vijapur, describes about this temple. Jain Pustaka Prasasti Sangraha No. 16 p. 18., JTSS. Vol. I. pt. I p. 71 also MSS dated V. S. 1571. Jain Sahitya Pradarsana Shri Prasasti Sangraha p. 72.

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CHAPTER V STRUCTURAL TEMPLES AFTER THE END OF THE CAULUKYAN PERIOD (upto 1600 A.D.) Temples of 14th Cent A. D. The temples at Prabhaspatan, one dedicated to Candraprabha and the other known as Astapadaji, 1 were in existence in V. S. 1361 (A. D. 1305 ).2 None of these temples survives in its original form at present. The fragmentary inscription (date lost) is built up in a wall outside the southern door of the Neminatha temple on Girnar. It refers itself to the reign of King Mahipala (probably Mahipala 1 who ruled in V. S. 1364-1387 ) and records the building of temple of Neminatha by Vayarnsinha.3 The temple cannot be traced so far. The inscription dated V. S. 1367 (A, D. 1312) on a pedestal of a stone image in the compound of Rupesvara Mahadeva temple at Boru (Vijapura Taluka, Dist. Mehsana) records the restoration of the, probably, said temple. 4 1. P. C. ascribes this temple to Kumarpala (PC. Singhi Jain granthamala. p. 101 ). 2. JTSS. Vol. 1. pt. 1, p. 134. From the style of the carvings of the pillars of the present Candraprabha temple at Prabhas Shri S. M. Nawab is of the opinion that originally they belonged to 12th cent. A.D. ( 'Bharatana Jain Tirtho' Plt. 97. Figs. 184 & 185. also description of the plates p. 23 ). Some of the early images of Jain Tirthankaras lying in the ruined temples of Valabhi had been shifted to Prabhas Patan and were concecrated in these temples. The said images now are seen in some of the modern temples at Prabhas. 3. IK. Inscr. No. 30 p. 736. 4. ARAB. '39 list of Inscriptions. Appendix B. No. 19 p. 36.

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200 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Jesala Shah erected a Jain temple dedicated to Ajitanatha at Cambay in V. S. 1365 (A. D. 1309)" Samarashah or Samarasinha of Anahila vada repaired the temple of Adinatha in V. S. 1369 ( A. D. 1313 ) on the Satrunjaya hill. The new image of Adinatha was consecrated in V. S. 1371 (A. D. 1315).6 At Serisa ( near Kalol, District Mehsana ) there was a temple of Parsvanatha, as it is stated that while in the way to Satrunjaya, Samarashah worshipped the said temple. The temple is extinct. About V. S. 1369 ( A. D. 1312-13), the temples of Vimala Shah & Tejapala on Mt. Abu were destroyed by the Muslims. The Vimalavasahi was repaired by Vijada, and sons of Dhanasimha and Laligasimha. The inscriptions at the foot of many images in the cells near the principal temples show that many of them were set up about this time. In the Gudhamandapa even to-day there are statutes of the parents, of both the persons, which were set up in the V. S. 1378 ( A. D. 1322 ) when the pratistha of the temple was performed. 8 Abu is famous for its Jain temples, but there are certain old Brahmanical sites, which are of utmost architectural interest. The temple of Achalesvara Mahadeva has no linga or idol of Siva but it has an unique sculpture which is called the 5. PILS. Pt. II. pp. 315. ff. 6. Jinavijaya 'Jain Aitihasika Gurjira Kavya Samuccya' pp. 238-42; also vide Samararasu'. Marble was taken in carts to Palitana. Sixteen clever sculptors were sent from Anahilawada to Palitana to prepare the image of Adinatha. Balacandra Muni was to supervise the preparation of image. (Jinvijaya Ibid. pp. 542-43). 7. Ibid. Appendix pp. 136-37 also Jinasuri, 'Tirchamala' and Jinaprabhasuri,' Vividhatirthkalpa 8. PJLS. II. no. 132.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 201 forefinger of Siva's foot, and is worshipped as an emblem of Siva. There is a slab (Patta) of 108 lingas placed on a chotara near the temple and the wall of chotara contains an inscription" dating V. S. 1342. The shrine of Achalesvara Mahadeva is a plain structure and is enclosed in a very wide compound. There are other small shrines. The main shrine of Achalesvara Mahadeva is composed of Mulagarbhagriha and a Sabhamandapa. In front of it is a chowki with a small dome. The temple faces west. The temple is ancient but underwent numerous repairs. 9/1 In c. 1377 V. S. (A. D. 1321) Maharava Lumbha the Chauhana ruler of Chandravati repaired the Sabhamandapa and placed in it portrait sculptures of his own self and the queen. A beautiful stone sculpture of Kanhadadeva, the son of Maharava Tejasinha and grand son of Lumbha, is also preserved in Sabhamandapa. It has an inscription dated in 1400 V. S. (1343 A. D. ),10 The Sun Temple on the Hiranya River at Prabhas Patan resembles in plan the Modhera temple consisting of the Garbhagriha and the Gudhmandapa as the principal structure. It has no Sabhamandapa. However, according to Cousens it may be placed in the 14th Cent. A. D., for, amongst its basement mouldings, there is an asvathara, a course of horse-moulding, which is never found either by itself or along with others in a small temple of the the Caulukyan period, and thus Cousens rightly points out that this incorrect use of it denotes a much later date when 9. HIG. Vol. III, No. 252. 9/1. Shri M. A. Dhaky is of the opinion that the main fabric of the temple belongs to about the middle of the 11th cent. or slightly later (CSTG. p. 76). 10. In the compound of this shrine, is a temple dedicated to Laksminarayana, where there are images of 10 incarnations of Visnu, and a sculpture of Visnu reclining on serpent sesa (Sesa-Sayi Visnu.)

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202 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the canons and use of architecture were in decadence. This is also shown by the ill-proportioned size of the front porch. To this may be added the fact that it is not a typical sun-temple, because it has Ganesa on the lintel of the shrine door-way, and the niches round the shrine have figures of Laxami-Narayana, Siva-Parvati and Brhama-Sarsyati. As shown by the plan, it consists of a shrine with a Pradaksinamarga and Gudhamandapa, and has a small porch in front. Inside, the shrine is very simple and has a small image of surya. Its door-frame has on one side a panel of gods; the shaft is otherwise bare; above the lintel there is a panel of Navagrahas, and on the lintel itself there is an image of Ganapati, Outside, the shrine walls are simple, compared with those at Modhera. The only ornament is the asvathara on the pitha (base); the kumbhi has niched-gods and goddesses, separated by intervals. So also the jangha of the wall has fewer figures. Above this there is a band of kirtimukhas, and the cornice. Like the Modhera temple the pradaksinamarga has no windows, but niches which contain figures of gods and goddesses. The mandapa has a row of six pillars in the centre, and four pilasters on each side which once supported the roof above. The central ceiling of this roof has lost its middle portion, but the remainder is decorated with kirtimukhas which is totaly dissimilar from the earlier decoration 10/a The Sikhara is interesting too. Not only the shrine but also the porch-Sikhara is surrounded by a group of smaller Sikharas up to some height; while on the main Sikhara figures of Surya and others are found up to a height never noticed in other temples except those which are known to be late 11 10/a. Here figs. 135, 136 11. AG. pp. 91-92.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period The Sun Temple on the bank of Triveni river at Prabhas. On the bank of Triveni river, facing the rising sun, the old temple of Surya stands. It is a later building than Kumarpalas temple of Somnatha.12 Its general style follows that of Surya temple at Than but its worksmanship is better and earlier by a few years, dating perhaps about 1350 A. D. 203 From its plan13, it appears to be identical with that of the Surya temple discussed above, it has a shrine surmounted by a Sikhara, a pradaksina-marga, with three niches and gudhamandapa, with two windows, one on either side. Within there are six pillars. In front there is a porch. 14 The upper portion of its Sikhara, together with the roof of the hall, and the whole of the porch have been thrown down. The forward part of the mandapa including the roof and front doorway, has been rebuilt in a clumsy fashion. The roof of the mandapa has been rebuilt with arching thrown in above the central ceiling to support the outer structure. In this arching have been used old carved corner stones of a former ceiling. 1 15 The Sun Temple at Than There is an old Sun temple at Khandoigadh near Than in ruins. It is now represented only by the walls of shrine. This older temple judging from the style of what is left, which accords with the coarse Gujarati inscription slab and its date, was, originally, built in V. S. 1432 (A. D. 1376) by Simha, son of Butada Lakha. The original structure of the temple has almost disappeared on account of many repairs and rebuildings 12. SMTK. p. 29 & Plts. XII-XIV, Here Fig. 237. 13. Burgers, ASWI; Vol. IX. p. 74 Fig. 7. 14. AG. p. 93. Here Fig. 137. 15. SMTK. p. 29, Here Fig.

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204 The Structural Temples of Gujarat during different periods. The original structure has entirely disappeared, and its present appearance is by no means imposing.16 The Vijnaptipatra composed by Jinodayasuri in V. S. 1431 (A. D. 1375) records the existence of Navakhanda Parsvanatha at Ghogha. 17 The present temple of Navakhanda Paravanatha eventhough erected on the same old site, does not retain any remains of the old temple. Tejapala's temple on Mt. Abu was repaired by Pethad Sanghavi, Son of Chandasinha in V. S. 1378 (A. D, 1321-22)18 The said Pethad, also, erected Jain temples at Charup and Dholaka. 19 None of these temples exists at present in their original form. Dhamlej* (Dist. Junagadh) The sun temple at Dhamlej was restored by Karamasi, the minister of the Vaja King Bharama of Prabhas. 16. IK. Inscr. No. 36 p. 739; SMTK. pp. 46-47 plts. XLVI-XLVII. XLIX (Here Fig. 238 ) The decoration of the outside walls on the present temple illustrates how the architects were trying to keep up the old tradition, the many fold mouldings, with figures etc., Inside, the ornamentation on the door-frame (SMTK. pl. XLIX) is a mixture of old and new tendencise. The Ganesh figure on the lintel is disproportionately big. While below, on either side of the door, is a peculiarly large panel containing figures-all of which are badly defaced. The capital of the pilasters of the door, again, is totaly different from those noticed in the earlier temples. In every respect this temple indicates the end of the truly Caulukyan style (Ag. p. 93) 17. JTSS. Vol. I. pt. I. p. 111. 18. Jayantavijaya. Abu p. 92, 19. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I pp. 44, 98 Jayasekhara Suri, Paisvanatha Stavana.' Guryavali. p. 20, Vinayaprabha. "Tirthamala.' Situated at a distance of 18.4 Kms. $. E. of Sutracada. Formerly known as Malajaya. To the west of the village there is a celebrated Kunda called Visnu- gaya. It is also called Cakra Tirtha.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 205 The event is recorded in an inscription which is dated V. S. 1437 ( A, D, 1380 ). O Somnath Patan The inscription dated V. S. 1442 (A. D. 1385 ) originally found set up in the eastern i e. Triveni gate of Somanath patan is now built up in a wall of the Vahivatdar Kacheri, In the margin of the Inscription, there is a note to the effect that the temple of Sangamesvara was built in V. S. 1448 after which the inscription seems to have been engraved. 9 1 The temple is extinct. Khorasa* (Dist Junagadh) The interesting inscription was originally obtained from the temple of Sun in Khorasa. It is at present lying in the temple of Naganatha Mahadeva at Chorwada. The record opens with an invocation to the Sun God. It supplies the information about the restoration of Sun temple in Khorasa by one Malla, which was formerly built by one of his predecessors. The date of the inscription is V. S. 1445 (1389 A. D.)., The Temple referred is extinct. The Inscription, lying on the western direction of Naganath temple at Chorwada, records the construction of a Siva temple at Khorasa in V. S. 1455 (A. D. 1399 ) by Sivaraja the local ruler. The temple does not survive.8 2/* 20. IK. Inscr. no. 39 p. 27 Line 6. Inscr., also published in Ind. Ant. Vol. VII. p. 186. 21. IK. Inscrip. no. 44 p. 33. * 19.2 Kms. to N. W. of Somnath patan, original name is Khuravasaka. 22. IK. Inscr. no. 47 pp. 36-37 also formerly published in Revi. List of Anti Rem. of Bom-Presi. p. 250. 22/a. BPSS. List of Inscr. no. 128 p. 35.

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206 The Structural Temples of Gujarat There was an old temple of Sun at Sonagadh (Dist. Surendranagar) probably built during this century but it has been pulled down, and a modern shrine is raised on the site 23 Srinagar# (Dist. Junagadh) It was the capital of Jeth was, before they shifted to Ghumali. There is an old temple, still in use dedicated to Siva but tradition says it was once a surya temple. 24 Mul-Madhavapur* (Dist. Junagadh ). The inscription (?), found in the temple of Madhavarai in Mul-Madhavpur, supplies the information about the (extinct) temple of Balarama and Revati along the coast of Revatikunda revered as Gayakunda. The said temple was restored by one Kurapala (or Kumarapala ).25 Only a few lowermost courses of the sanctum are old. The rest of the temple is newly built and does not retain the original plan. (SMTK. pl. XCI). A few sculptures-especially the ceiling of the porch, depicting the Nagadamana scene and that of mandapa which are master peices associate the temple to its early form. 23. MADTD. p. 6. * At a short distance from Porbandar. 24. The Jethwas were at first, established at Srinagar, not far from Porbandar; Subsequently they built and fortified Ghumali in the Barada hills where the ruins of the finest of old temples are found, they moved to Ranpur about 1313 (A. D.) after Ghumali had been conquerred and destroyed by the Jadejas, under Jam Bamanioji from Kaccha; and then in 1574, to Chayya, 2.4 Kms. east of Porbandar. Jethwa bards relate that the fourth ruler of Ghumali built the temple of Sun at Srinagar in Saurastra. (SMTK. pp. 2-3). it at 1.6 Kms. distance to E. of Madhavapur near Porbander. 25. IK. Lascr. no. 73 pp. 605-606.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 207 Sarotra The old Jain temple at Sarotra# is popularly known as Bavandhaja, as the principal shrine is surround by 52 small cells ( Devakulikas ). The principal shrine stands in a rectangular court measuring 16.6 X 27.4 ms, over the walls. The back or south end and a large portion of east side and a portion of the sculptured walls of s. w. corner of the central temple has been fallen. Dr. Sankalia assignes this temple to the 13th-14th cent. A. D. on stylistic ground.2 In plan the temple is almost identical with several other Jain temples-such as that of Bhadresvar at Kaccha, of Neminatha at Giruar, of Vimala and the of Tejapala at Abu; there are of course divergencies in detail. The temple faces north, and the front half of the court, like the Bhadresvar and Vimala temple is roofed quite across by means of lintels connecting the front mandapa with the pillars of the corridor. This Mandapa is roofed by a dome standing as usual, on an octagon of lintels over the pillars. Four steps-in three divisons-between the columnis on the inner side of the mandapa, lead up as at Bhadresvar and Abu, to the pillared platform in front of the temple itself, which is also almost a copy of the Bhadresvar temple; and consists of a principal mandapa supporting a dome on eight pillars attached to angles of the walls with a small antichamber in front of the adytum. The whole temple, stands on a raised podium or basement, and is approached by 9 or 10 steps under a projecting porch, and has special shrines for the Yaksini and Devata on each side the entrance and which like all others, are entered from the court, but are walled off from the rest of the bhamati.27 * 9.6 Kms. S. W, of Chandravati on river Banas. 26. AG. p. 111; AANG Plts. X; LXXVII, 2; LXXVIII, LXXIX. 27. AANG. P. 100.

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208 The Structural Temples of Gujarat In its structure marble has been used through out, except the Sikhara and cells round the corridors which are built of brick. On the outside of the wall, moulded bricks are used for the lines of horizontal mouldings. Temples of 15th Cent. A. D. Jiyor (Dist. Baroda) On the border of the village Jiyor there is the Kumbhalesvar shrine. A prasasti dated V. S. 1463 (1407 A. D.) set up in a niche at the said temple records the restoration of the Kumbhalesvar by king Udayasinha's minister Goverdhan, the son of Jayasinha.28 Guneth* (Dist. Baroda) The Guneth prasasti (the stone inscription) of the time of king Shaktisinha of Nanda padra, dated V. S. 1474 (A. D. 1418) records the construction of a temple dedicated to siva by one Vija 29 The temple dedicated to Ajitanatha at Taranga, which is believed to have been built during the reign of the Caulukya king Kumarpala, is said to have been restored and extended by Govinda, who consecrated the principal image therein in V. S. 1479 (A. D. 1423).30 Pittalahara Temple at Delwada The present image of Mulanayaka of this temple is a big sculpture of Adinatha cast in metal (mainly brass-pittalla hence the name Pittalahara given to this shrine). The figure * Situated between Chandod and Tilakwala in Narmada Valley. 28. Pandya A. V. Some newly discovered inscriptions in Gujarat, Inscrip. no. 14, WBR. Vol. I. No. 2 English section pp. 14-15. * About 3.2 kms. S. of Tankhala (which is reached from Baroda by a narrow gauge line of W. R.) 29 lbid. Inscrip. No. 15, pp. 17, 18. 30 JTSS. Vol. I. pt. 1 p. 149 also Pratisthasoma, Soma Saubhagya Kavya (Composed in V. S. 1554 i. e. A. D. 1498) Sarga VII, 10-11.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 209 was installed in V. S 1525 (A. D. 1469) but it seems that the shrine was erected earlier. The inscription dated V. S. 1489 (A, D. 1433 )31 found outside the gate of this shrine, the inscription dated V. S. 1494 (A. D. 1438) preserved in the Digambara shrine and an inscription dated V. S. 1497 (A.D. 1441) preserved in shri mata temple refer to this shrine as Pittalahara, and an another inscription dated V. S. 1497 (A. D. 1441 ) on a pillar of the Gudhamandapa of this shrine refers to income from certain tolls received for the maintenance of this shrine. 82 Somansundara Suri in his Arbudagiri Kalpa (c. 1450-1499 V. S.) has also stated that Bhima Shah had first erected the shrine with a metal image of Adisvara as the Mulana yaka, and it was being repaired when he was composing the ArbudagiriKalpa. Thus the temple was already existing in V. S. 1489 (1432-3 A. D.) and that the image at present was installed by Sundara and Gada in V. S. 1525*, Now the inscriptions in the Vimalavasahi, dated in V. S. 1350, 1372, 1373, all show that at that time only two shrines-the Vimala and Luna Vasahi existed at Delvada. The date of erection of the Pittalahara temple (Bhimasha's temple) therefore falls between V. S. 1375 & 1489 ( 1316 & 1433 A. D.).33 The Temple consists of a mula-garbhagriha, gudhamandapa and navacoki. It seems that the work of construction of the rangamandapa and the bhamati was left unfinished at an early stage. The door lintel and door frame contain the figures of Jinas in standing posture.3 4 31. Jayantavijaya, Abu 11 inscription No. 248. 32. lbid. Inscription No. 426. * The Inscription at Achalagadha states that the original image of Bhima's temple was later removed to a Jain shrine at Kumbhalemera in Mevada. 33. Abu II, Inscription Nos. 240-243. 34. HA. pp. 129-130.

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210 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Posina* There are four Jain temples, out of which three-dedicated to Santinatha, Parsvanatha and Neminatha-are grouped together in an enclosed wall. There is an inscription dated V. S. 1281 ( 1215 A. D.) on the pedestal of the immage of santinatha. The image of Parsvanatha on its pedestal bears an inscription dated V. S. 1477 ( 1421 A. D.). The fourth temple. dedicated to Mahavira, contains some beautiful sculptures, of which one designated as Jain Goddess Ambika is noteworthy. This sculpture reminds one of similar sculptures in the ceilings of Vimalvasahi and Lunavasahi at Abu. 34/1 The restoration of these temples in later period 3 4 /2 has completely changed their original form, but few sculptural parts reveal their originality. Posina contains, also one beautiful Bramanical shrine designated as Nilkantha Mahadeva. The shrine from the lowermost member pitna to the upper most portion of mandovara contains beautiful sculptures and mouldings. The superstructure of the garbhagriha and the mandapa along with its porch is restored in later times. The shrine door way is of the Pancasakha type. From the carvings of the mouldings and sculptures the temple can be ascribed to the 15th cent. A. D. * Ths village is situated some 48 km. from Khedbrahma in extreme north in the hills of Aravali range. 34/1. JTSS. Vol. I, pt. I. p. 89. 34/2. According one of the pattavalis all these temples have been restored during the 17th cent. A. D. under the supervision of Vijayadevasuri. The Neminatha temples seems to have been constructed during the early half of the 19th cent. A. D. It's image of Neminatha as recorded in an inscription on its padestal, was consecreted in V. S. 1888 ( 1832 A. D. ).

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 211 Dharanivihara temple at Ranakpur* The consecration ceremony of the existing catur-mukha prasada (four faced temple), popularly known as Dharanivihara at Ranakpur built by Dharmasha, was performed by Somasundara Suri (A. D. 1373-4-1442-3) in V. S. 1496 (A. D. 1440),35 In plan the temple is nearly square (68.8 x 61 ms.) exclusive of the projection on each face, thus, covering a space of over 3600 square meters and it consists of 29 halls containing as many as 420 pillars, the design of no two of which are alike. The temple is three-storeyed building and in all it is supported by 1424 columns or pillars. Such a large and extensive conception can hardly claim to be an unified whole, and as a matter of fact it resolves itself into a comprehensive structural scheme consisting of an orderly aggregation of shrines, symmetrically disposed arround a larger one in the centre, the entire complex erected on a lofty plinth and contained within a high and solid boundary wall, to which 66 cells are attached facing to its inner side. Of the sikharas there are five, the largest and most prominent surmounting the central sanctuary, with each of the others over a corner shrine, while the cupolas are 20 in number, each forming the roof of the pillared hall. From the middle of three sides of the enclosing rectangle project the temple entrances, each a double storied portal of great elegance, that on the west being the largest, thus denoting the principal approach. Each of these entrances leads through a series of columned courts into the main halls of the temple 19.2 Kms. from Falana (Rajsthana) Station (W. Rly.) 35. The temple is also named 'Trailokya dipaka'. an 'Tribhuvana vihara', 'Nalinigulma vihara' etc. There is inscription in the temple recording the aforesaid date; also recorded by Kavi Meha in his 'Ranigapur Caturmukha prasada stavana', composed in V. S. 1499 (A. D. 1443). Ran

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212 The Structural Temples of Gujarat proper. At first sight the interior appears to be a complicated labyrinth of courts and pillared halls, but its regular and balanced composition soon becomes evident. Reduced to simple forms it resolves itself into a temple within a temple, in other words a central sanctuary surrounded by a range of chapels and subsidiary shrines. The main temple occupying the middle of the composition, is contained within a rectangular court-yard measuring 29.1 x 30.5 ms. which space it partially fills as it consists of a large hall standing on a plinth and graced with a hundred pillars. In the centre at the crossing or nave of this hall is adytum, 2.25 square meters in size and with four entrances, its interior consisting of a cruciform chamber enshrining the Caumukha, a quadruple image in white marble of Adinatha, the first Tirthankara. The rectengular courtyard surrounding this main temple is open to the sky, but the four outer sides are enclosed by the range of supplementary courts referred to above. There are three of these open spaces along each side with a special sanctuary and cella known as the Khunt-ra-mandar at each angle, besides four other shrines one on each side of the north and south entrance halls. Such is a bare outline of the arrangements of this temple on its ground floor, practically the whole of it is duplicated at the second story while portions of it, as for instance the compartments on each side of the main sanctuary, rise up to a third storey. These upper stories repeat, in many respects, the disposition of those below, even to the shrine chamber, with its four openings, access to which is obtained from the terraced roofs. The principal impression conveyed by this temple is the variety and multiplicily of its parts, yet all are well proportioned and unifornily disposed within the scheme. Then there is the contrast of the pointed spires with the ovoid domes, and the fretted roofs, each of a different character and height, but each signifying the position of some clapel, hall, or tabernacle within. Across these architectural elements move the broad and clear cut shadows of the wide eaves contrasting with the passages of light on the pillars of the superstructure, such are

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 213 some of the attractive features of the exterior. In the interior are the unending vistas of the columns interrupted of intervals by open courts, each vaulted compartment ceiled with carving of a most intricate character, and the whole illuminated by either direct or reflected light which is thrown from pavement to pillar, and from pillar to screen to penetrate into all parts. The general effect of this temple may not be that of great architecture, but as work of inspired art, and at the same time complying with the exacting conditions of the creed, it is a notable achievement.36 The temple of Sangramsinha Soni at Girnar was restored and renovated by Sangramsinha during the years V. S. 1502 to 1517 (i. e, A. D. 1446-61 ).37 The Kharatara Vasahi temple at Delwada* The temple is a three storeyed one, since the central fourfold image (Chaumukha ) is a sort of tall shaft, at each storey there are four-fold images. Inscriptions on the back side of asanas of these Tirthankaras are partly covered with plaster and hence the date of the temple and names of all donors are not known. The few letters visible at present suggest that most of the images were installed in 1505 V. S by Samghavi Mandalika and his family. An approximate date for the erection of this shrine can be obtained by other means. In an inscription in the Digambara shrine at Delvada, dated in V. S. 1494 and in the inscriptions dated in 1497 V. S. referring to certain arrangements for the 36. IABH. p. pp, 164-165. 37 Tradition ascribes the restoration of this temple having been taken place in V. S. 1494 (A. D. 1438 ) by Samarasinha and Maladeva. The temple, named here as Kalyanatraya, was also adorned with a Meghamandapa (Rargasara Girnaragiri Caityaparipati' V. 18 and Hemahamsa Gani: Giranara Caitra pravadi -Purattva Traimasika. Vol 1. No. 3 p. 292. )

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214 The Structural Temples of Gujarat shrines of Srimata etc., the temple built by Bhimashah is noticed but this shrine in not mentioned. Similarly the inscription outside Pittalhara temple dated in V. S. 1489 expressly mentions three shrines at Delvada. These facts clearly suggest that Kharatar Vasahi was built after 1497 V. S. and probably by Sangavi Mandalika in 1515 V. S. (1458-59 A. D.) Being three storeyed with its pinnacle, this temple is the tallest shrine at Delvada. On all the four faces of the sanctum on the ground floor are four big mandapas adjoining the sanctum. The outer walls of the sanctum are carved with figures of Dikapalas (quarterguardians), Vidyadevis, Yaksinis and such other deties of the Jain pantheon as also Salabhanjikas etc. In this sanctum, each of the four faces, is installed a big stone sculpture of Parsvanatha, cenopied by nine snake-hoods and with eleborate parikara round each figure. on There are some ornate Toranas (i. e. arches ). 88 38 Bhetali* The village Bhetali is situated at the foot of a hill on the road leading to Shamalaji. It has a siva Pancayatana temple in a well preserved condition. It consists of a central shrine, with its attendant shrines at the four corners. The whole temple complex is placed on nearly 3 meters high platform (Jagati) the back portion of which attached with the foot of a hill. The corners shrines are not much ornate. The shrines on S. E., N. E.; N. W. & S. W. corners are dedicated to Skanda, Ganesa, Parvati and Surya respectively. The images of Ganesa and Parvati are in situ, but the rest are lost. There is an inscription dated V. S. 1507 (A. D. 1451 ) on the pedestal of the image of Parvati, 38/1 So the temple complex may, safely, be ascribed c. 15th cent. A. D. 38 H. A p. 137. nearly 6.5 km. from Bhiloda (Dist. Sabarkantha) 38/1. AFIS. p. 22.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 215 The main shrine, dedicated to Siva, consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala, and mandapa with its frontal porch (coki ). The superstructures over the manqapa and porch are of later date. While the curvilinear superstructure of the garbhagriha seems to be the original one. The sculptures of Gods & Goddesses, regent deities, damsels in various gestures on the pitha and mandovara are beautiful. The Vedika design of the Sabhamandapa be speaks its age i.e., c. 15th A. D. In A. D. 1453, Sanaraja, son of Sajjanasimha, built a temple of Vimalanatha on Girnar.39 The existence of this temple is corroborated by an inscription dated V. S. 1523 ( A. D. 1467 ). as referred by Vijayadharma Suri40 but nothing is informed about its situation. The temple seems extinct. The tradition accounts that the temple known as "Laxami Tilaka' was built at Girnar by Narapala Samghavi in V. S. 1511 (A. D. 1455 )41. The temple is untraced due to frequent renovation of temples by Jains. Ambaji Temple on Mt. Girnar From a record in the traditional account given in one of the Prasastis dated V. S. 1524 (A. D. 1468 ) is known that the temple dedicated to Ambika devi at Girnar was restored and renovated by one Shresthi Samala 42 The Adinatha temple at Sojitra (Dist. Kheda ) was erected by Guda or Gudaraja. 4 3 The temple does not exist at present. 39. JSSI, p. 496 para, 719. 40. Vijayadharmasuri Pracintirthanala' ( Samksiptasara ) p. 57; also JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 118. 41. JTSS. Vol l. Pt. I. p.118; Jayasagara upadyaya Prasasti, Aitihasika Jainkavya Sanigraha p. 400. 42. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 129; also Jain Styaprakasa Vol. 7. No. 10 p. 484; No. 11 pp. 531 ff. 43. Somacaritra gani Gurugunaratnakara Kavya (V. S. 1941., A. D. 1489 ) Sarga' III, v. 12-13. According to this Kavya Sundara and his son Gada were ministers of Sultana Mahamuda Begada (A. D. 1458-1511) of Ahmedabad. These two persons while on their pilgrimage to Abu,

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat Vasai, near Vijapur (Mehsana District) has an interesting Siva temple built in the usual style of Sikhara shrines. It is known as the Akhada or Palesvara Mahadeva temple. It has a cella, an antechamber, a hall with twenty pillars and a porch. The outer walls of the sanctum are richly carved but their beauty is marred by the coats of whitewash given from time to time. The temple faces west and has four subsidiary shrines in its compound.44 216 There is an inscription dated V. S. 1525 (1469 A. D.) on a stone slab in Nilakanthesvara Mahadeva at Vasai (Vijapura Taluka) which records the construction of the temple by one Ranaka Patel, resident of Vasai. 45 According to one of the Prasastis dated V. S. 1527 (i. e. A. D. 1471) a Jain temple was erected at Pawagadh by Khimasinha and Sahasa, residents of Anahilpura.46 From the description of a Jain temple recorded in one of the prasastis dated V. S. 1527 (A. D. 1471) it seems that the temple was built at Cambay by Shresthi Godha during that period.47 The temple does not exist in its original form. Tradition records that there existed a Jain temple known as Kumaravihara in V. S. 1530 (A. D. 1474) at Idar and that another Jain temple nearby was built during that period by one Sheth Ishawar Soni. 48 installed the famous image of Adinatha, cast 108 maund according to the inscription consecrated in V. S. 1525 (A. D. 1459) No. 407). 44 AR. AB. 39. pp. 8-9 para. The inscription in the doorlintel of the sanctum dated V. S. 1645 (A. D. 1589) probably records the repairation of the temple. 45. ARAB. 38 list of Inscription, Appendix B. No. 22 p. 36. 46. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 19, also Jainsatyaprakash. Vol. XI Nos. 10-11 p. 274. v. 14. 47. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 15. 48. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 86, also 'Idargadha Caitya paripati '. in metal pittal, weighing on it. The image (Abu, Vol, Il, inscription was

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 217 The Parsvanatha temple at Chorwad (Dist. Junagadh) was built in V. S. 1530 (A. D. 1474 ).49 The temple in its original form does not survive. The Jain temple known as Bhetava Parsvanatha at Chanasma (Dist. Mehsana) was restored by Setha Ravichandra in V, S. 1535 (A. D. 1479 )50 Sresthi Purnasinha and Bandhuramana belonging to Sundarbedar built a lofy Jain temple at Girnar, during 15th Cent. A D. The temple is not traced so far. 1 Bhiloda* possess 15th Cent. monuments in the form of a Jain temple and a Kirtistambha (tower of victory ). The Kirtisatambha is similar in structure to that of the famous Kirtistambha of Maha Rana Kumbha at Chitor though smaller in size and seems to have built later, if not at the same time, The carving on the outside contains, the image of Hindu gods, the Dikpalas and number of incidents from the daily life of the people. 82 Vadiavir temple at Vadiavir village,* is a large half-fallen temple of Siva, probably built in the time of Rao Bhan who ruled over Idar in the 15th Cent. A. D. As siva temple is in a fallen condition, prominence is given to a small shrine of Vir by the people.53 49. BPSS. List of Inscr. no. 129 p. 35. 50 JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 54. It is said that originally the temple was built by one Jayata in V. S. 1335 (A. D. 1279) (Shri Atmananda Satabdi Smarak grantha, p. 207). 51 JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 117; also Pratisthasona: "Soma Saubhagya Kavya.' Sarga 9 v. 81-83. * 8 kms. from Bhavanatha. (Dist. Sabarkantha) 52 AFIS. pp. 21. Plt. XXVIII. No. 54. Here Figs. 151, 152. * 11.2 kms. N. E. of ldar (Dist. Sabarkantha ) 53. AFIS. p. 30.

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218 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Siva temple, though restored for several times contains some old extant remains which speak of its past glory. It's beautifully carved door-frame is in many respects similar to that of the sun temple at Modhera. Further it consists of nine Sakhas (Jambs), a rare feature in the temples of Gujarat. Some beautiful sculptures are fixed to the walls of the temple. The mandovara of the temple is old one. It contains beautiful sculptures of Gods, Goddesses, dancing damsels and amorous figures. The Jain temples at Pawagadh form three groups. (i) Bavanderi temples, popularly known as Naulakhi temples. (ii) the Candraprabha and Suparsva temples S. E. of the Mataji cliffs; and (iii) the group around the Parsvanatha temple. The date of the construction of these temples is unfortunately unknown, but it seems to cover mainly the 14th and most of the 15th century A. D. Unfortunately all the temples are disfigured by modern repairs. (i) The Bavanderi Navlakhi group 54 at present consists of three temples. However, from the ruins it is evident that these are merely the subsidiary shrines once surrounding a big central temple on north, west and south sides. Of this central sanctuary at present, only the socle remains, a vast quadrangle with double and triple projections in the four directions; the plan lets suspect that it belonged to a caumukh temple. This temple was surrounded by a vast enclosure of which only fragments of eastern entrance ! ) wall remained. This enclosure was on its exterior side richly decorated with architectural motif and sculptures ( in contrast to the Delwada, Kumbharia, Girnar & Palitana temples which are plain from outside and display their exuberant att only inside.) The subsidiary temples stood outside this enclosure though probably connected with it by colonnades; without excavations this point cannot be decided as all the porches have been renewed. Also the spires are modern. From a historical point of view these temples must be of very late date, probably the early 15th century. For the mediaeval forms are 54. H. Goetz: 'Pawagadh-champaners,' JGRS. Vol. XI No. 2 Plt. 11. Fig. 6.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 219 no more understood, and elaborated and combined in a quite arbitary manner, 58 Thus, for instance the pot and foliage capital which already in the late Solanki period had been stretched and multiplied, is now extended over a whole major facade section, or it is placed on top of a minor facade section as if that later were a column; the pediments on top of the minor wall niches are step gables such as we find crowning the niches and windows of the 15th century Gujarati mosques; those of the major image niches are practically identical with those on top of the Ahmedabad and Champaner mosques' mihrabs; the corbel brackets may be compared with those in Raja Maldeo's building at Jodhpur and Merta, the organisation of walls and parapets into bundles of degenerated columns recurs in the last temples of Khajuraho, the Gujarati mosques and Taleti Mahal at Jodhpur. The columns in the clerestory are poor variations of those in Tejapala's temple at Dalwada, the sculptures are degenerated and can be compared with the clumsy creations on Rana Kumbha's temples in and around Mewar.58 (ii) The two small Jain ( Chandraprabha and Suparsva) temples S. E. of Mataji's cliffs, like wise in a-now destroyedrich enclosure, maybe somewhat older ( perhaps 13th-14th Cent.) but are thoroughly repaired in the middle of 19th Cent.57 (iii) In the third group, except some fragments of old enclosures around the Parsvanatha templess there is little left of the old temple. The temple of Hatakesvara at Vadnagar ( Dist. Mehsana) is sacred to Nagar Brahmanas It comprises of Garbhagriba, Kori, Mandapa, porches and compound and a high massive 55. lbid. JGRS. Vol. Xl. No. 2 Pl. II. Fig. 7; Pl. III. Fig. 8 56. Ibid. JGRS. Vol. Xl. No. 2 p. 55. 57. Ibid. JGRS. Vol Xl. No. 2 p. ss. 58. Ibid. JGRS. Vol. XI no. 2 Plt. III. Fig. 9. Plt. IV. fig. 4

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220 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Sikhara wall. The whole temple is elaborately carved and has some subsidiary temples round it. The smaller temple called Kasi Visvesvara, standing in the compound, is said to be older than the main shrine. Several sculptures are to be seen on the outer walls of the main temple. They represent the Navagrahas, the Dikpalas, the chief gods of Hindu pantheon and some scenes from the life of Krisna and Pandavas 58. The temple is profusely ornamented with carving and the figures are noticeably quaint and suggestive. From the style of the structure it is not later than the fifteenth century A. D.58b Temples of 16th Cent. A. D. There existed a Jain temple dedicated to Samindharnatha at Vamaj (Dist. Mehsana) during V. S. 1562 (A. D, 1506 ).59 At Moti Dau* there is the temple of Bhavanesvara Mahadeva which, according to a stone inscription in it, was built in V. S. 1565 (A. D. 1509). The marble images of Parvati, Brahmani and Varahi which are found in it, are noteworthy. 58/a. ARAB. p. 12. Here Figs. 138-144 58/b. Shri Dhaky believes that Mularaja built a large temple at Vadnagar, now going by the name of Hatakesvara. He further states that the Venukosa of the lofty mulamanjari gives a clue to the nature of Sikhara and its date. The original temple was the Latina (i. e. Ekasringi monospired) type like Ranakadevi temple at Wadhwan. (CSTG. p. 20). But the nature of the ground plan of the temple and the projection thereof correspondingly carried off upto the apex of the Sikhara come into the way of acceptance of his theory. The original form preserved in the lower protion of the central Sikhara, the urusringas and the sringas clearly indicates that the original temple could not be a mono-spired one. Moreover there is no literary and apigraphical evidence for the acceptance of the theory propounded by him. The present temple is definitely of late origin. 59. Lavanyasamaya, Aloyana Vinati.' A village lying 4.8 Kms. north of Piludra (Dist. Mehsana) "

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 227 The other temple in the village is called Syamaranum Derun. The walls of this temple are well carved. Some of the Hindu gods like Brahma, Siva, Varuna, Indra & Candra are represented in the panels of its walls.60 The shrine door has a beautiful Navagraha panel The superstructure of the shrine is extinct. The inscription at Satrunjaya dated V. S. 1587 (1531 A. D.) fixed in the wall of the Adisvara temple, records the seventh restoration and reerection of the temple of Pundarika in V. S. 1587 by Karmaraja (popularly known as Karmasa ), the minister of King Ratnasinha of Mevad. 6 1 In the same year Karma Shah also repaired Samarshah's temple (i. e. Adinatha temple just opposite the Pundarika Swami temple) on Satrunjaya Hill. A new image of Adinatha was set up by him. This temple is kept in such a state of constant repairs that it is difficult to say how much of it is the work of Samarshah or Karma Shah. Cakesvaridevi 6 2 temple in the Adesvara tuk of Satrunjaya also was erected by Karmashah in A. D. 153163 The two inscriptions on the lintel of the door of a Siva temple at Hamapar* record that the Siva temple was restored by one Jitamala Solanki in V S. 1588 ( A. D. 1532 )6 4 The temple of jagavallabha Parsvanath in Zaveriwad at Ahmedabad seems to have been constructed in V. S. 1600 60 ARAB. 36-37 p. 8. 01. IK. No. 95 pp. 197-99; PILS. Pt. II. No. 4 62. Cakesvari mata the guardian deity of Jainism, is seated on a tiger, She is richly dressed and profusely adorned outside. 63. JG. p. 240. * 9.6. Kms. to the north of the Rajasitapur Railway station on the Surendranagar-Dhangadhra line. 64. IK. no. 96 p. 199.

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222 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (A. D. 1544 ).65 The temple is restored and renovated to such an extent that it is difficult to trace out its original form and design. Shri Parsvanatha temple at Unja, ( Dist. Mehsana ) also, seems to have been erected during the year V. S. 1600 (A D. 1544). 6 6 It does not retain its original form. The temple known as Gandharia Caumukhaji, at Satrunjaya seems to have been built in V. S. 1620 (A. D. 1564).67 Shri Santinatha Jinalaya ( temple ) at Jamanagar had been erected during V. S. 1620 (A, D. 1564 ) by Seth Tejasinha.8 The present temple does not retain its original form. There is an inscription on the plinth of the Siddhesvara Mahadeva temple at Pudgam ( Visnagar Taluka, Dist. Mehsana). It records the repairs done to the said temple in V. S. 1622 ( 1565 A. D. 169 The inscription found engraved in the lintal of the temple popularly known as Dhingadmalla's temple in the village Dahisara* records the building of the temple in V. S. 1622 ( 1566 A, D.).70 The Inscription dated V. S. 1627 (A. D. 1571 ) lying at Sidhanatha Mahadeva at Dholka records the construction of Ranakesvara Siva temple by one Ranaka Brahmana.Ti The temple referred to seems extinct. 65 JTSS Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 11. 66. JTSS. Voll. Pt. 1. p. 66. 67. JTSS. Vol 1, Pt. I. P. 106; PJLS, Pt. II. No. 4. 68. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 97. The temple was restored and extended in V. S. 1647 (A. D. 1591 ) 19. ARAR. 38 'list of Inscriptions'. Appendix (D) No. 43 p. 29. * 4.8 Kms. from Vavalia near Morabi ( Saurastra) 70. IK. No. 102 p. 203. 71. BPSS. List. Inscri. no. 166 p. 44.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 223 The temple of Sundarvar at Mandavi (Kaccha) belongs to Vaishnava sect and is said to have been built by Rao Khengarji of Kaccha in V. S. 1631 ( 1574 A. D.). The platform or podium on which it stands is buried about 1.3 ins. in the ground, probably on account of the deposits of earth and mud. The temple faces the west. It is entered by a domed Sabhamandapa with domed porches on three sides and triangular projections on the square of the mandapa, on which is a dome, supported by eight pillars, partly octagonal and partly circular. The dome is formed of tiers of concentric centres, each projecting over the one below, till they terminate in the centre, from which hangs a lotus. The diameter of this dome is 5 ms. There are parapet walls or Vedika on the sides and front of the outer porches and on the sides of the Sabhamandapa, with seats for visitors. The backs of these Vedika, slope at an obtuse angle for persons to lean upon, and are carved. Leaving the Sabhamandapa we come to an oblong space 1.5 ms. In the screen walls of this, there are niches in which, instead of Ganapati of the Saiva temple, the holy water (Carnamrta) is kept The shrine measures inside 3 ms, by 3.3 ms. On a stone base called Kamalasana, is a wooden frame, lined and canopied with silk cloths, wherein stands the image of Sundarvarji, of black basalt dressed in a variety of cloths. The lintel of the door is carved with figures, but they are weather worn and painted. The two corbels in the facade of the shrine are ornamented with figures of monkeys. The outside of the temple has mouldings similar to other Hindu temples with a series of offsets rising to the spire. It's hejght is about 108 ms. The sides have two belts of figures and other carvings. There are, besides, niches in the sides, wherein the figures of Brhama, Visnu, Siva, Bhavadi, Lakshmi, Bhairava etc. are placed, but these sides are so

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224 The Structural Temples of Gujarat surrounded with buildings that scarcely a space of one meter is left. It is built of sand stone, but so weather-worn that unless repaired, the whole must give evay in a short time.'' Gedi, in Kacca, has the white-lime stone temple of Acalesvara Mahadeva built by Sachora Brahmin Goval Dave in 1579 A. D. The Linga in the shrine has four faces of Mahadeva carved on it.73 The shrine is simple in plan and design. The original shrine of Parsvanatha at Gandhar (Dist. Broach) was constructed in V. S. 1643 (A. D. 1587).74 The inscription dated V. S. 1661 ( A. D. 1605) found in the present temple of Vijaya Cintamani Parsvanatha at Cambay records its erection in V. S. 1646 (A. D. 1590) by Teja pala Soni.? 5 There is another lofty temple known as Cintamani Parsvanatha at Cambay which seems to have been built in V. S. 1644 (A.D. 1588 ) by two brothers known as Vajia & Rajia.7 l This temple is built of red sandstone and marble. It is a three storeyed temple, with 52 Devakulikas surrounded by. The foundation stone of the temple known as Sethana Mandira at Jamanagar was laid in V. S. 1633 (A. D. 1577) 72. ASWI. (in the province of Kutch) D. P. Khakhar. (1879) pp. 13-14. 73. B. G; V. 221. 74. The temple is restored in V. S. 1964. The inscription recording the restoration of the said temple gives an interesting account of the original temple (Visalavijay "Kavi-Gandhar-Zagadiya' p. 39) The present temple comprises the shrine proper, Sabhamandapa and the eleven shrine cells in circumambulation. 75. Ksabhadasa .Hiravijayarasa'. 76 PJLS. Pt. II. inscription no. 450 pp. 284 ff.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 225 during the reign of Jamasataji of Jamanagar, the consecration ceremony of the said temple took place in V. S. 1651 (A. D. 1595 ).77 From the description in Patana Caitya-paripati', composed by Lalitaprabhasuri in V. S. 1648 (A.D. 1592) it can be learnt that there existed three Jain temples at Munjapur.78 None of these temples is traced so far. Satrunjaya The inscription dated V. S. 1650 (A. D. 1594 ) engraved in the porch of the east entrance of the Adisvara temple on the left hand on the famous Satrunjaya Hill, records the erection of Caumukha temple by Tejapal Soni of Cambay.? 9 Patan The consecration ceremony of the Vadi Parsvanatha temple (A. D. 1596 ).80 The original temple is extinct. A new temple going by the said name has been erected recently, Ahmedabad The temple of Parsvanatha in Samalaji's pole at Ahmedabad was constructed by Sanghavi Somaji and his brother Siva in V. S. 1553 ( A, D. 1597 ).81 The present temple going by this name does not retain its original form and design. 77. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 97. 78. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. l. p. 52. 79. IK. No. 106 pp. 205-210; PJLS. Pt. II No. 12. 80. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. 1. pp. 60-61. The inscription recording the description of consecration ceremony have been published by Dr. B. J. Sandesara in 'Vastupalanum Vidyamandala ane bija lekho' pp. 95-100, 108-110. 81. JTSS, Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 10; There is an inscription in the temple recording the construction of the temple by said two brothers.

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226 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Hampar ( Dist. Surendranagar ) In the temple of Bhida Bhanjana Mahadeva at Hampar there is an inscription dated V. S. 1656 ( 1599 A. D.) found engraved below the inscription of V. S. 1588 (A. D. 1532 ) noted above. It records that Umabai and her sons belonging to Solanki family built the temple of Siva in Hamper in V. S. 1656. The inscription dated V. S. 1588 speaks of the repairs of the said temple in that year. It seems, therefore, that the temple was once more repaired in V. S. 1655 by Umabai. 8 2 Kavi ( Dist. Bharuca ) There are two lofty, magnificient temples at Kavi, one is known as Sarvajita dedicated to Adisvara and the other as Ratnatilaka dedicated to Dharmanatha both popularly known as Sasa--bahu temples. The present temples are modern, constructed on old sites. The original temples were constructed during the years V. S. 1649-1655. ( A. D. 1593-1599 ). The inscription recording the construction of original temple describes them to have been built of wood and brick. The Adinatha temple was constructed in the style of the temple of that of Adinalha at Satrunjaya, comprising shrine proper, Sabhamandapa, Antarala and circumbulatory with a lofty spire over Garbhagriha. It was 27.4 x 18.6 ms., the other temple dedicated to Dharmanath was similar in plan. It's area was 48.2 x 19.1 ms.83 Dwarka (Dist. Jamanagar) The present shrine of Dwarkadhisa cannot be much older than the Mughal period. The inscriptions written on the pillars and other places do not appear to be older than the 15th or 16th Cent. A. D. There must have been an earlier Shrine no doubt which was destroyed by Mahmuda Begada in 1473 82. IK. Inscr. No. 109. p. 274. 83. JTSS. Vol. I. Pt. I. p. 22; Muni Visalavijayaji, Kavi-GandharZagadia-' (1957) Inscrs. pp. 8-11; 17-18.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 227 A. D. The present temple seems to have come in existence about the time of Akbar, the great Mughal Emperor. The winged figures of Paris, ( apasaras ) in the hall are the clear evidence of being late in origin. The carving on the exterior is fine and seems to have been copied from earlier structures like those at Somanath-Patan and other places. The new structure appears to have been built on the plinth of the older structure. 8 4 The temple complex consists of Garbhagoiha, Antarala, Mandapa and Aardhamandapa. It's total height is nearly 51.8 ms. The tower or sikhara over garbhagliha, comprising several storeyes, is 31.2 ms. in height. The temple east to west is 27 ms. in length and south north is 21.3 ms. in breadth. The central mandapa is a five storeyed structure and is 23 ms, in height. The central square space of the mandapa is 7.6 x 7.6 ms. The temple has beautifully carved 72 columns on which whole structure of mandapa rest. 8 4 Ja * Musaffarkhan, the last Governor of Gujarat founded the Ahmed Shah dynasty which ruled over Gujarat till it was subdued by Akbar in 1572 A. D. His ( Akbar's ) reign was marked by toleration and Hindus repaired and rebuilt their sacred places during it. This is proved by the inscriptions found at Dwarka which are dated in the years when Akbar was ruling. These records would show that the present temple of Dwarka might have been repaired or reconstructed then. ( Dr. Hiranand Shastri, R. D. p. 40 ). The tradition records that the genuine image of Dwarkadhisa was removed in V. S. 1212 ( A. D. 1156 ) from Dwarka and brought to Dakor. The famous temple of Ranchhodaji at Dakore was built in 1772 A. D. (JUB. XVI. ( N. S.). Pt. 4 Jan. '48 pp. 57-58. ) 84. ARAB. 1934-35 pp. 110-11 para 27, 28. Here Fig. 145. 84a. Dr. J. J. Thaker, "Jagata Mandira' (1959) p. 2. Dr. Thakar has found a short inscription in the temple, which according to him belongs to 1st Cent. A. D. but it does not throw light on the period of the construction of the temple. (Ibid p 18).

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228 The Structural Temples of Gujarat At Broach there are three old sites dedicated to Devi worship belonging probably of 15th or 16th Cent. A. D. Simhavahani or Sindhavai Mata temple is perhaps the oldest one. The Vallabhabhatt Devi temple is of V. S. 1662 (A, D, 1606). The temple of Ganganatha Mahadeva has old images of Ambamata and Umiyamata. Ambaji is described as Kankesvari Mata in Revapurana.85 Samalaji (Dist. Sabarkantha) is at present associated with Visnu worship but originally the site was pre-eminently Saivita 8 6 probably under the influence of the Lakulisa cult. The present shrine of Samalaji is a mediaeval one, dating possibly from 16th Cent, A. D. The image in the sanctum obviously represented the Trivikrama, form of Visnu which was later known as Ranchhodaji in Gujarat and Rajasthan. The temple is full of ornamental sculptures inside as well as outside. The carvings contain images of Gods and Goddesses and illustrations of some incidents from the Ramayana and from the life of Ksishna. 8 7 There is a small shrine on the way to Mesavo river from the samalaji temple where a late Gupta standing Ganesa image is still in worship. 85. G. H. Desai, 'Bharucha Saherano Itihasa'. (1914 ) pp. so ff. 86. From the compound of the temple a beautiful old Bull, vigorously carved has been recovered. It obviously dates from c. coth ent A. D. and is one of the best animal sculptures of Gupta age. Opposite the Samalaji shrine is the Khakachoka area. On one end of this Chowk there is a temple of Trailokyanatha where a beautifal Saivite sculpture, obviously not originally belonging to the shrine, is in worship. Another almost similar sculpture was found from the adjacent small shrine. This sculpture as well as the aforesaid Bull have been removed to Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. To the north of Khaka chowk, is a small Siva shrine (Kasivisvesara temple ) with an Ekmukha-Siva-Linga, in the sanctum still in worship. The linga (of Schist ) dates from c. 7th cent. A. D. (SSR. p. 36). 87. AFIS. Plts. XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII, IX. Nos. 35 to 42. Here Figs. 146-150.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 229 Temple of Ambaji (Dist. Banaskantha) near Abu This temple is also known as Amba Bhavani or Arasuri. The temple is a small building of coarse marble. The shrine measures 6.1 x61x6 ms. The floor is of marble and there is an image of Goddess, a black stone roughtly hewn into the resemblance of a human figure. Some of the pillars contain writings, chiefly of 16th century; recording private gifts. A reservior near the shrine called Manasarovara bears the date of V. S. 1545.88 The temple of Parsvanatha at Girnar, otherwise known as Singharam Soni's temple, as it is said, the said Soni rebujlt the temple in the later part of the 16th Cent. A. D. This temple is peculiar in having a sort of gallery; and it faces the east, whilst the others dedicated to Parsvnatha mostely face the west. 89 The extant Jain temple at Sankhesvara 90 (Dist. Banaskantha) as described by Burgess belongs to 16th Century. 91 This old Jain temple of Parsvanatha was surrounded by cell shrines built of brick. The brick work, similar to that of a temple at Sarotra, was very carefully put gether, the bricks being moulded not cut to the shapes for the various string courses and other mouldings. Even the small brackets under the cornice of the 88. BG; V. pp. 432-33. 89. AKK. p. 168. This temple was repaired by Premabhai Hemabhai about 1843 A. D. 90. Originally the temple was ereated by Sajjansinha in V. S. 1155 ( 1099 A. D. ). It was restored and enlarged by Vastupala-Tejapala in V. S. 1286 ( A. D. 1230 ). Again it was restored by Rana Durjana Salya of Zinzuwada in V. S. 1302 (Jagadu Carita Ch. VI. ). The ruins of this temple have been noticed by Burgess. The present temple is modern raised on sites of old buildings that have quite disappeared (JTSS, Vol. l. Pt. I. p. 49). 91. AANG. p. 95

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230 The Structural Temples of Gujarat larger shrines were of brick-each moulded and burnt in one peice. This work had been covered with fine plaster, cut whilst wet into the most delicate geometrical patterns ( See AANG. Plt. LXXVI ). But all this has suffered grievously from the weather, the greater part of it having peeled off. The enclosure of the oldest temple measures over 31.3 ms. in length by 30.6 ms. in breadth and inside between the fronts of the cells-about 38 ms. by 21.3 ms. Two larger shrines project out from each of the enclosing side walls, and one from the end opposite to the main entrance. This last ( i. e. main entrance ) occupies the space of three cells, and from the right side of it to the corner about four cells have been broken down. On the left side of the court there is also an entrance which occupies the space of two cells and opposite it, and on both sides of the court, the continuation of the pillars of the portico is broken; otherwise it runs round the quadrangle. Exclusive of a very narrow closet on each side, the number of cells is forty-six in line and five large ones standing back, and which are properly temples. Inclusive of the principal shrine there are thus the favourite fifty-two in all.92 The temple dedicated to Vayu devata in Gujarat is at Vayada* ( Dist. Banaskantha ). It is regarded as being the ancient Vayuvata of the Vayupurana. Near the temple there is a step well. The images, of this temple and stepwell have been removed to Patan. The present temple still possesses a celebrated image of vayu but it is not an original one which the old temple had formerly.93 The temple does not retain its original form. 92 AANG pp. 94-95 Pits. LXXIV, LXXV, LXXVB. * 3.2 Kms. south of the Banas river and 22-4 Kms. N W. of Patan. 93. AANG p. 112. Also BV. Vol. vi. (1949) Nos. 3 & 11 pp. 48-49. There is also a Vayu temple at Baroda, which has images of both Vayu and Vayavi

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 231 Some of the temples, probably built during the Caulukyan period, are found either undescribed or vaguely noticed. They are the Rukamani temple at Dwarka ,93 the temple known as Magderu at Dhrasanavel, 94 the Gokesvara Mahadeva temple at Lovarali, the Sasibhusana 95 and Rundresvara temple 96 at Prabhaspatan, the group of the temples at the site khown as Mula-Dwarka (Visavada ), ? the Siva temple at Kuchhadi, 9 8 the temple of Nandisvara, 99 the siva temple at Tukada. the Vaisnava temple in the group of temples at Odadar, the Sstalamata temple at Vadnagar, the right-angular temple at Khandosana, 100 Mulesvara temple at Padna, Agiya vaitala temple at Bhankhar, 101 Jagesvara temple at Davada, the temple on the bank of the lake at Gunja, 103 Ranmala temple at Idar, Siva temple at Aithor etc. Many of these temples are small edifices consisting generally of a square garbhagriha with an open pillared mandapa or portico or both in front. They are modest in plan and proportion and in sculptured detail all the characteristic copiousness of the style is expressed. The open manqapa and portico contain a dwarf wall, above which, leaning outwardly, rests the Kaksasana (sloping seat ). The exterior walls of the garbhagriha are broken up by vertical chases, projected and recessed alternately and obtained through the usual system of nasika (ratha ) projections. Some recent investigations have revealed certain unnoticed post-Caulukyan temples 106 in the hilly tract known as Jungle of Polo in the Sabarkantha district. 93. Here Fig. 153. 98. Here Fig. 159. 94. Here Fig. 154. 99. Here Fig. 160. 95. Here Fig. 155. 100. Here Fig. 69. 96. Here Fig. 156. 101. Here Fig. 161. 97. Here Figs. 157, 158 102. Here Fig. 162. 106. An inscription dated V. S. 1554 i. e. 1498 A. D. is found in one of the Siva temples at Abhapur.

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232 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Among several unnoticed temples of this hilly tract the most noteworthy are the temples of Saranesvara, Lakhena and Navadera popularly known as temples of Sadavanta Savalinga near Abhapur and Astika pancayatana Kenyata Mahadeva. The other noteworthy temples in this group are Siva temples at Mathachhada, the temple of Vadjavira at Vadiavir, the Sobhesvara Mahadeva and Vaghesvari Mata temple at Shobharada. 107 Recently in a paper, 'The Chronology of the Solanki Temples of Gujarat'108 Shri M. A. Dhaky has at length discussed the chronology of the Solanki temples in Gujarat on the basis of epigraphic, literary and architectural materials that exist for the study of the temples. On scrutinising the extant monuments of Gujarat he feels that the early architectural style in Gujarat was not quite homogeneous but showed two parallel, though kindered, traditions. From the Gupta period the tradition in Northern together with Central Gujarat differed from the one that was current in Saurastra. Further he states that the tradition current in Saurastra bespeaks of architects working on a lower acsthetic plane. His statement regarding this tradition prevalent in Saurastra is vague, rather controvertial, in as much as. he says, "Although this tradition is not ancestral to the Solanki style, it did evolve at one stage the Nagara sikhara of an inferior variety in the last century of the Maitraka rule (p. 3). It is well-known, and accepted by the auther of this statement too, that the Solanki style was one of the branches of the Nagara version prevalent especially in North India. Further the canonical works like Sm. Su. have dealt with the two main sikhara styles; viz, Temples with pyramidal flat-roofed superstructure (Chadya prasadas ) and temples with curvilinear superstructure (sikharanvita ). Both the varieties were prevalent in Gujarat 107. For the description of these temples Vide Appendix 'A'. 108. Published in the Journal of the Madhya Pradesh Itihasa Parishad No 3, 1961, (Bhopal )

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 233 as well as in some of neighbouring territories of Rajsthana. Saurastra, menifestedly, has preserved the temples falling into the first catagory i e. chadya prasada; many of them were possibly erected also in North and central Gujarat, but they exit no longer. This does not mean that these temples were or are of inferior variety. The Next controvertial point in the paper is that the tradition represented by the monuments built in Saurastra from the 6th century to the beginning of the 10th century was supplemented by the other powerful ornate and superior tradition from North Gujarat that fully penetrated in Saurastra in the 1st half of the 10th cent. But the temples cited by him as examples of the early architectural tradition of North Gujarat, hardly appear to represent a tradition different from that of Saurastra. In fact, these temples display but a further step in the gradual stages of transition from the Chadya prasada phase to the Sikharanvita prasada phase, which is distinctly represented by the numerous extant temples in Saurastra, 109 Thus the transitory stages are visible both in Saurastra and N. Gujarat as well. As observed in this work 110 the Chadya Prasada phase finds mention in Samarangana Sutradhara (composed in the early part of the Solanki period) while the Aparajita-praccha (written a century or two later) makes no reference to it. While discussing the extant temples of Gujarat Shri Dhaky has broadly divided them into two divisions under (1) Early Nagara phase and (II) Solanki period. The temples of the Early Nagara phase are, then, subdivided by him into three groups. (A) Formative; In this phase he places the temples at Roda. Lakroda and the old temple at Than as displaying the formative stage. But as we have noticed in this work111 the temple at Roda unambigously indicate simply a later stage in the 109. vide Sec. III ch. XIII, below cf. The superstructure of the temples at Sutrapada, Pasthar, Akhodar, Miyani, Roda etc. 110. Sec. III, ch. IV & XIII. 111. Vide ch. XIII.

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234 The Structural Temples of Gujarat transition to the Sikharanvita temple. They can hardly be classed under the Formative phase of the full fledged Nagara temple, in as much as the horizontal effect in the superstructure is not entirely absent though the main effect is vertical. The same applies to the temple at Lakroda, its superstructure embodying the horizontal effect to a larger extant comparatively, 112 As for the old temple at Than its superstructure is totally collapsed, but from its pieces lying scattered about the temple the Sikhara seems later than that of Sutrapada and identical with that at Roda. The Ranakadevi temple at Wadhwan is traditionally associated with Jayasinha Siddharaja (A. D. 1094-1144 ) but following S. K. Saraswati Shri Dhaky classes it under the early Nagara phase. The superstructure no doubt indicates an old form of the transitional stage, but it is not impossible that an old form may be adopted even in later times. Burgess, Cousens and Sankalia have all accepted its traditional period. Shri Dhaky vaguely refers to stylistic reasons' but does not specify any points on particular.. Assigning the temple to the last quarter of the 9th Cent. he even assumes that it was built by the Capa chieftain Dharanivaraha. (B). Phase of Maturity. In this group are placed the Lakhesvara temple at Kera. and the temples at Kotai, the Trinetresvara temple near Than and the Amthor Mata temple group at Vadnagar and some other contemporary temples. Shri Dhaky classes these temples under the phase of maturity in the development of early Nagara form of the old temple in Gujarat 112. Shri Hiranand Shastri who noticed the temple first assigned it to the 12th Cent. A. D. (ARAB. 39 p. 8). But from the analysis of its elements Shri Dhaky puts it near the temples at Roda in time. The superstructure represents the old form of the transitional stage.

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Structural Temples after the end of the Caulukyan Period 235 Shri Dhaky commences the Solanki style with the reign of Bhimadeva I ( 1022-1066 A. D.), assinging the period of Malaraja I (942-997 A. D.) and other predecessors (997-1022 A. D.) to what he styles The Turning Point'. Under this group he introduces the Adinatha temple at Vadnagar in addition to the known extant monuments of this period. The older portions of the Adinatha temple are assigned by him to the last quarter of the 10th cent., while the later portions, including the Sikhara and Gudhamandapa, are put in the 13th cent. A. D. Moreover he holds that Mularaja probably built a large and superb temple of Somanatha at Prabhasa and the large Hatekesvara temple at Vadnagar. But these are both assumptions which contain incongruity with the known facts. As for the temple of Somanatha, the early phases mentioned in the Solanki inscriptions contain no reserence to Mularaja. Nor does the successive strata of structure unearthed in the excavations conducted by Shri Thapar in 1950 reveal any phase intermediate between the early phase of the Maitraka period and the next phase of the reign of Bhimadeva 1. The assumed association ot Hatakesvara temple with Mularaja also hardly seems convincing. He remarks that the original temple was of Latina class like Ranakadevi temple at Wadhwan but he does not specify how the Venukosa of the Mulaman jari gives a clue to the nature of its "ikhara and the date of its construction. Shri Dhaky attributes the Solanki style to a synthesis of the indigenous Gujarat elements and the elements adopted from Rajasthan, and corroborates it by citing the circumstances of the increased contacts with Rajasthan. The cultural contacts between Gujarat and Rajasthan no doubt received an impetus during the period of the Solanki kings, but the evolution of the form of the temple architecture in Gujarat even during the pre-Solanki period also reflects some elements found in the early temple of Rajasthan. In facts, Gujarat and Rajasthan seem to have evolved almost a common form of art and architecture known as the Western school, i. e. the school of Western India.

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236 The Structural Temples of Gujarat While surveying the monuments of the Solanki period Shri Dhaky classifies them according to the reign of the successive kings and describes their architectural features. But it is only in the case of some monuments that we know of the exact particulars about their dates and builders. Shri Dhaky's method of assigning even those temples, for which no particulars about their date are availabe either in literature or epigraphs, to the definite reigns of particular individual kings simply on the basis of their architectural characteristics, involves far-fetched judgments mainly based on self-conceived assumptions.

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SECTION III THE ARCHITECTURAL CANONS DISCERNED IN THE EXTANT REMAINS OF THE STRUCTURAL TEMPLES IN GUJARAT

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CHAPTER 1 SOURCES OF ARCHITECTURAL CANONS The structural temples built in Gujarat through the ages indicate the evolution of a particulars regional phase of architectural form. Most of the monuments may have been built in accordance with specific canons followed by the architects of the different times. Some of the canons may have been adopted by them by oral-transmission of the art, while some others may have been taken from written works of canonical character. It will be therefore, interesting to investigate into the probable canonical sources on the basis of the architectural canons discerned in the extant structures. (i) Early reference to architectural Canons. The earliest known works on Indian architecture seem to have been written as late as the 5th or 6th cent. A. D. but the earlier works on other subjects contain many important references to it. Some of them contain even regular sections on this subject, so an introduction to the architectural works may be preceeded by a review of the early references in non-architectural works. (a) Rgveda Samhita (c. 4000-B. C.-1000 B. C.) Some architectural traditions are recorded in the various hymns of Rgveda. One of the principal deities of this Veda i, e. Indra, is invoked to preside over the building site. He is described here as * Vastospati Indra'. According to explanation offered by commantators on Rgveda Vastu means Antariksa and Vastospati indicates all heavenly deities. This meaning of 1. According to chronology given by P. V. Kane History of Dharmasastra' Vol. II. pt. I.

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240 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Vastospatis rightly fits in the later development of Vastu purusa whose different limbs constituted the abodes of different deities as many as forty-five. Further Vastospati is identified with Tastr4 or Tvasir, 5 the Divine Carpentar. Taksana is another word used in the sense of Carpentar in Rg. 8 and often later.? Tastr or Tvastr, the Divine Carpenter sharpened the thunderbolt of Indra, 8 and gave rise to the clan of Taksakas (carpenters ). Agastya, other wise called Mada 9 is considered to be the earliest authorities on Vastuvidya i. e. architecture. He gave rise to two important traditions of Indian Architecture Mana-Carya i. e. Architect and Sutragrahina i.e. artisan. "Visvakarma' is invoked as a creater of the universe as a whole, which fits in the concept of Visvakarma as the primordial planner and architect-creater. 10 The Vedic works contain numerous words used in the sense of different types of houses. The word 'gcha'11 is used 2. Rg. VII Su.-54-55. 3. The work named Vastospatisukta is available in MSS. form. (Auf. cat. Vol. II p. 134). 4. Rg. i, 61, 4,; 105, 8; 130, 4; iii, 38, i; vii 32, 20; x. 93. 12; 119. 5. cf. Nirukta. v. 21. 5. Altharvaveda. xii 3. 33; Bloomfield, Hymns of Altharvaveda, 651. 6. Rg. IX. 112. 1. 7. AV. X. 6, 3. Kathaka Samhita, xii, 10; xviii, 13. Maitrayani Samhita, ii, 9, 5, Vajsaniya Samhita, xvi, 27, xxx. 6 Satapatha Brahmana i, 1. 3, 12; iii 6, 4, 4, etc. 8. Rg. 1 32. 2. 9. Rg. VII. 33, 10 (Agastya), 13, (Mana) 10. Rg. x. 72. Winternitz, M. A history of Indian literature', pp. 78,100. 11. Rg. iii, 53,6 iv, 49, 6; viii, 10, 1; ii, 42, 3; V. 76, 4; X. 18, 12; 85, 26; 142, 4: 165, 2. AV. vii. 83, 1; X, 6, 4; i, 7, 4; iii 10, 11. vi. 137, 1; Aitareya Brahmana, viii, 21, ii 31, viii, 26. Vajasaneyi samhita, ii, 32; iv, 33; xviii 44, Satapatha Brahmana i, 1. 2, 22: 6, I, 19 etc.

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241 Sources of Architectural Canons to denote the 'house' of the Vedic India. Dama 18 or Dam has the same sense, while Pastya' and Harmya denote morespecially the home with its surroundings, the family settlement. The house held not only the family, which might be of considerable size, but also the cattle, 13 and the sheep at night. It was composed of several rooms, as the use of the plural indicates, and it could be securely shut up.18 The door (Dvar, Dvara) is often referred to, and from it the house is called Durona.16 Very little is known of the structure of the house. Presumably stone was not used, and houses were, as in Magasthenes time, 17 built of wood. The hymns of the Atharvaveda 18 give some information about the construction of a house, but the details are extremely obscure, for most of the expressions used do not recur in any context in which their sense is clear. In connection with the house, mention is made of four forms, which though primarily sacrificial in meaning, seem to designate parts of the building : Havirdhana ( oblation-holder ) 'Agnisala, (fire-place ), Patninama Sadana ( wives room ) and Sadas (sitting room ).19 The words like "Harmya" used 12. Rg. i, 1, 8; 61, 9; 75, 5, 143, 4., ii 1, 2 etc. Vajasaneyi Samhita viii, 24. 13. Rg. v, VII, 56, 16; AV. I, 3, 4; ix 3, 13. 14. Rg. X. 106, S; AV. iii, 3. 15. Rg. vii, 85, 6. 16. Rg. iii, 1, 18; 25, s; iv. 13, 1; v. 76, 4 etc. Av. vii, 17, 3. Vajasaneyi Samhita xxxiii, 72, etc. 17. Arrian, Indica, x, 2. 18. AV. 111, 12; IX. 3; Bloomfield Hymns of Aarthvavda, 343, etc. 19. Zimmer conjecturally identifies the Agnisala with the central room the Hayirdhana with a place for keeping the grain, etc. (e. g. AV. iii 3, 4), the Patninama Sadana with the woman's apartments, and the Sadas with the subsidiary buildings.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat frequently in the sense of special building, 20 the references as to the existence of Puras and their fortification, the pillared halls and mansions, the several names like Sthuna, Stambha; Skambha, Viskambha of the free standing pillars and supports21 and the Yupa, the sacrificial post and Mrnmayam Grham, the burial mounds22 and the detailed references as to various articles of furniture, 23 all these record the advanced knowledge of architecture achieved during the Rgvedic period.24 (b) Yajurveda Samhita's etc. (c. 3000 B. C.-1000 A. D. )25 242 " The Krsna Yajurveda contains numerous hymns relating to Yupa, 26 the prototype of the Indian pillar. The Sukla Yajurveda's description of the Smasana' (funeral mound) gives an idea of the prototype of the Indian stupas so popular in later art.27 The Sala Sukta (hymn) of Atharvaveda immensly describes the residential houses. It also contains many architectural terms like Vansa for beam and Sthuna (Sthanu) for post. This veda further refers to houses of varying shapes and sides, some being twosided, eight-sided and four-sided. (c) The Brahmanas (c. 4000 B. C.-1000 B. C )28 have elaborately discussed the various religious structures the Yupa, the Vedi and the Smasana. The word 'Silpa' and its traditional 20. Rg. v. 32.5; vii 55, 6; 56. 16; 76, 2; IX 71, 4; 78.3. 21. Rg. I 59. 1; III 31, 12 IV 5. 1. 22. Rg. VII. 89. 23 Rg. VII 55-8. 24. For details vide Dr. P. K. Archarya: 'History of Architecture in India and Abroad' ch. II pp 54-62 and Dr. Bhatacharya. A study of Vastuvidya or canons of Indian Architecture' (1947) ch. 11 pp 11-23. 25. Chro. Kane. 26. K. Yaju. 1, 3; VI, 3. 27. S. Yaju. ch. 35. 28 Chro. Kane.

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Sources of Architectural Canons knowledge occur in the Aitareya Brahmana (VI. 5. 27). Sacrifices (Yagnas) form the main topic of the Brahmanas, In Citi (sacrificial altar) the burnt-bricks were used. Further, the description occuring in Satapatha Brahmana indicates the influence of Non-Aryan architecture. The construction of the Smasana (Burial mound over the ashes or the bones of dead man) is described in detail in the Satapatha Brahmana (XIII. 8. 1. 4) which, supplemented by Rgvedic and Yajurvedic verses already referred to, gives us a clear idea of the earliest form of the Indian Stupa. The Aryan stupas were four-sided; the non-Aryans ones were round. Square Hindu stupas have been found in India. The Hindu stupa rested on earth, where as the Asura stupa was errected on a base. The mound was then enclosed by a stone which perhaps indicates the stone casing or the rails round the stupas. Pegs were fixed on the four sides, which might have given rise to the custom of errecting a pillar on each of the four cardinal points arround the Stupa. (d) Sutras (800 B. C.-400 B. C.)29 The Kalpa Sutras one of the Vedangas, afford the earliest Vastusastras. The Samkhayna Grhya Sutra (III, 2 ff.) and the Asvalayana Grhya Sutra (II, 7, 9) devote as many as three chapters each to canons of house building. The existence of the central post and the importance ascribed to it indicate that the earliest house of the Aryans was one with a pillar in centre, on which the stability of the house depended. In the Gobhila and Khadira Sutras, the principles of siteselection, the quadrangular and circular shape, the position of the doors etc. have been eleborately discussed. Correctness of foundation and proportionate measurements of the architecture are strictly adhered in Sulbha-sutras. Dr. P. K. Acharya rightly observes: "The construction of these altars, which required for the great 'Soma' sacrifice, seems to have been were Chro. Kane. 29 243

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244 The Structural Temples of Gujarat based on sound scintific principles and was probably the precursor of the temple which later became the chief feature of Hindu architecture."80 (e) Epics : The Ramayana (2nd cent. A. D.)31 and the Mahabharata ( 4th cent. B. C.-4th cent. A. D.)32 both mirror a very advanced state of Indian architecture. Descriptions of towns, palaces, Sabhas, and forts simply abound. Experts in the Sthapatya ( architecture) were highly honoured; Visvakarma and Maya are repeatedly alluded as master-architects of Devas and Asuras. Techincal words like Sthapati, Vardhaki, Taksaka, and Sutradhara occur in the Ramayana. Houses and places had already been classfied with their appropriate technical names, according to their different characterstics, e. g. the Chatussala, the Padma, the Svastika, the Vardhamana houses, and the Vimana (palace) called the Puspahvaya. All these names occur in later Sipla-Sastras. Forts were also divided into four classes, such as river-fort (Nadeya, ), the hill fort ( Parvatya ), the forest-fort (Vanya) and the artificial fort (Kstrima) (VI. 3) Fortification of towns and inner chambers of queens with ditches and ramparts adorned with Gopuras and Toranas are stereotyped description of the capital cities like Ayodhya, Kiskindha and Lanka; palaces or ostentatious buildings were known as Prasadas, Vimapas, Harmyas and Saudhas and Prasadas are described as Saptabhauma, Astabhauma, Anekabhauma and the like. These palaces were also crowned with domes or pinnacles (Sikhara, Strga. etc. ). Over the tops of houses, besides the sikharas and Srogas (pinnacles ) were constructed the Candrasalas, Vilanakas and Valabhi's the technical members of houses are also mentioned. Decoration of houses with paintings and sculptures was also a current tradition. Palace-architecture has found an eloquent description in the Ramayana. 30. Dr. P. K. Acharya: "History of Architecture in India and Abroad.' p. 63. 31. Winternitz. M. History of Indian Literature Vol. I. p. 516. 32. Ibid. p. 475.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 245 Religious edifices like sacrificial halls, sabhas, fire-altars and temples of Gods (devayatana ) also found a place. The mention of numerous pillars inside the structure of Caitya hall suggests affinity with Buddhist Caityas of later times found at Karla and Ajanta. Similar cognate detajls abound in every page of these monumental poetic works couthed in poetic language full of similies and metaphors.33 Similar indentical profound descriptions of forts, towns, palaces, Sabha mandapas (assembly halls ) are met in the greater epic, the Mahabharata. It contains short but comprehensive accounts of cities of Dvaraka (III-15), Indrprastha (I, 207, 30 ff), a floating city (III, 173, 3), Mithila ( III, 207, 7) and others. In the Sabhaparva there are interesting descriptions of some assembly halls. Maya built an assembly hall for the Pandavas (Chapter 1). A description is given also of the assembly halls of Indra (chapter VII ), of Yama (Chapter VIII), of Varuna (Chapter IX), of Kubera (Chapter X) and of Brahman (Chapter XI). The Harivamsa which represents an appendix ( Khila ) of the Mahabharata contains specific references to temples. The words like Mandira, Devatayatana, Suralaya etc. have been used.94 (f) The Manusmrti (200 B. C.-100 A. D. )35 The Manusmoti contains references to temples as abodes of Gods.86 (g) Buddhist literature-Jatakas & Pali canons and Jain literature (3rd or 2nd cent. B. C.) In the Jatakas, the architectural traditions appear to have been well-established. The science of architecture had already 33. Dr. Bhattacharya. 'A study of Vastu-vidya or Canons of Indian Architecture pp. 43-51. 34. Harivamsa, Visnu Parva, LVIII, 14; LIX, 33, 44. 35. Chro. Kane. 36. The words like Devagarika and Deva-nikarya (1.36 ) ( taken by commentators as Deva-niyasa-sthana) have been used.

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246 The Structural Temples of Gujarat been enunciated in the teachings of a number of sages, 37 and ancient authorities like Visvakarma.38 Maya, Bhtgu and Agastya were considered early authorities contemporary even of the vedic and prevedic age. Technical words like 'Bhumi' and the technical designations of the Prasadas 3 9 and early tradition of Sala-houses 40 also occur. Royal residences like Prasada and Vimana were also there. The descriptions of underground tunnel and wood carving, wood painting and paintings on wall also occur. 41 The Introduction of stone-architecture is also recorded. The references like . Pasada etha silamaya'42 * Udukhala Pasanam'43, throne of yellow marble 44, Giridarga or hill-fort 4 5 and stone cutter (Pasanakottaka) and stone-pillar (Silathambam)4 6 are clear indications of the existence of stone architecture. There is reference to crystal palaces47 (Phatika Pasada-Sphatika Prasada ). Not only that in one of the stories, 48 the Bodhisttava himself is said to have been a stone-cutter by birth. In the Vinaya rules, we find that the Lord Buddha allowed his disciples to make use of stone not only in the basements of their halls, stairs, flooring and walls but also in the roofing of their houses. 49 This is an interesting literary proof of the fact that stone buildings existed in the age prior to that of Asoka. Adoption to standard measurement seems to have been in vogue from the earliest times. The technical terms of vastu-measures like "Kikku' ( Kisku ) and Vidathi ( Vitasti) occur frequently in Jatakas. Different classes of palaces of varying 37. Jatakas Nos. 257 & 489 references to Vatthu Vijjacaryas. 38. J. Nos. 483, 489 etc 44. J. No. 519. 39. J. Nos. 541, 558. 45. J. No. 516. 40. J. No. 489. 46. J. No. 476. 41. J. No. 546. 47. l. No. 378. 42. J. No. 545. 48. J. No. 479. 43. J. No. 514. 49. Cullavagga VI. 3. 11.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 247 shapes, with abudant application of pillars (Sahasthamba Pasada ),50 and with many pinnacles and storeys, 51 carved wooden rafters (Gopansiya ); 5 2 watch-towers with quarters for watchmen (Attalaka ); 5 3 pillars of various shapes ( AtthanisaAstasra );64 and doors, windows including latticed ones with perforated screens; lintels, stairs and cornices etc. have all found eloquent mention. The description of towns of Jatakas tally very much to those found in epics.55 The Mahavagga and the Cullavagga are two Pali texts which provide an abundant information on the most flourishing architectural condition of the day. At places it appears as if the Lord Buddha is giving sermons on the science of Architecture itself. In Cullavagga, 56 he appears to enjoin upon his devotees the supervision of building-construction as one of the duties of the Samgha. In Mahavagga 57 and also in Cullvagga 58 the blessed one is stated to have said, "I allow you, oh, Bhikkus, abodes of five Kinds-Vibara, Ardhayoga ( Addayoga ), Prasada, Harmya and Guha. This is the earliest classification of buildings very much elaborated in later Silpa-texts. Masonary and material alongwith component parts of building, residential or devotional, are all described. The description of three-fold windows-Vedika-vatayan, Jalavatayan, salaka-vatayan, the stairs and various kinds of plasters epitonize the flourishing state of architecture of the time. Dr. Bhattacharya has rightly observed, "The many-storeyed dwellings, the underground chambers and the stone roofs indicate the developed engineering skill of the Indians. The painted chambers, the latticed windows and stairbalustrades attest to their ascetic culture. The drains, the dams and the baths, described by Rhys Davids, are further proof of the developed state of Indian architecture. 59 50. J. No. 553. 54. J. Nos. 541 & S43. 51. J. No. 541. 55. J. No. 518. 52. J. No. 396. 56. Cull VI. 17, I. 53. J. Nos. 534 & 458. 57. Maha. I, 30, 4. 58. Cull. VI 1, 2. 59. Dr. Bhattacharya. "A study of Vastu-vidya or Canons of Indian Architecture'. p. 69.

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248 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Jain Literature In early jain literature the common word used for temple was 'Ceiya '60 ( Caitya ). The temple is also designated as Devakula",61 Jakhkhayatana 62 (Yaksayatana ), Jinasadma68 (Jinalaya ), Vihara6 4 etc. Jain works contain references to well known Caityas situated in the pleasure-gardens in the vicinity of several towns and cities, such as the Kotshaka Caitya at Sravasti,68 the Gunasila or Gunatilaka Caitya at Rajagraha, 66 the Candravatarana Caitya at Kausambi, 67 the Purnabhadra Caitya at Campa, 68 the Kamamaharnava Caitya at Varanasi (Benaras), 6 9 the Manibhadra Caitya at Mithila,70 the Bhandiravedamsiya Caitya at Mathura71 etc, and so on. 60. The word is also spelt as 'Ceia' Cetiya, etc. The word originally denoting a heap or monument generally stood for an object of worship, applied to an image in course of time ( Acaranga II, 80; Abhayadeva, Aupapatika tika p. 101; Prasnavyakrna Vtutti, p. 29; Dharmasagar Kalpa Kirnavali p. 37 ); later on its use extended to the temple as well (Abhayadeva, Bhagavatisutra tika p. 7; "Caiye'ti Citerlepyadi Cayatasya bhava; Karma Va iti Caityam; Samgna Sabdatvad devabimbam, tada asryatvat tadgrhamapi Caityam". ( Malayagiri; Suryapragnapti tika 1 p. 2). 61. Acaranga II, 80. 62 Anuyogadvara, 1. 63-64. Hemacandra, 'Abhidhana Cintamani', p. 396. 05. Sudharmswami, ' Bhagavati Sutra' 386, 430. 66. Ibid. 3. 67. Ibid. 441. 68. Ibid. 386. 69. Ibid. 550. 70 Jambudvipapragnapti. 1; Suryapragnapti, 1. 71. Avasyaka culni. 530.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 249 According to the common usage in canonical works, there is a stereotyped Varnaka (description) on the Caitya, which is repeated adverbatum in the different canonical works. The 'Varanka' contains a number of attributes of the Caityas, some of which refer to certain component parts of the temple, such as Chatta, Vedica, Torana, Stambha, Salabhanjika, Ihamriga, Vyala, Kalasa etc.72 The description is mainly literary and contains no hint about the definite form of the temple. The description ( Varnaka ) of the Vimana, though applying to super-human palatial buildings (or even worlds) constructed in the form of the Vimana, impliedly presents a pictureous idea of the architectural form of the monumental Vimana of the human world. As the main body of the temple is constructed in the form of a Vimana, the attributes given in the description of a Vimana contain hints about many component parts of the temple as well. The Vimana was supported on many hundred pillars and adorned with three beautiful stair-cases in the three directions. There were several arches supporting superstructure. The floor was decked with various sorts of gems. The audiance hall propped up by many hundreds of pillars decked with dolls and beautifully arranged arches, and with fine altars that were elevated and very wellbuilt. The floor of the mandapa was properly demarcated and studded with various gems. Its walls and entrances were highly decorated.73 The Nirvanakalika' by Padaliptacarya mainly deals with the religious rites pertaining to the construction of a temple, the installation of its important components and the construction of an image. But the work affords little information about the architectural form of the temple. Among the canonical works on Indian architecture 'SiriVatthusara-payaranam ( Vastu-Sara-prakarna), by Thakkar Feru, 72. Vide: Rayapassaniya 2; Bhagavatisutram, 386. 73. For the complete text of the Varnaka vide Rayapassaniya. 15.

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250 The Structural Temples of Gujarat is especially devoted to the forms of Jain deities and the temples enshrining them.74 (h) Arthasastra : ( 300 B. C.-100 B. C.)75 The authorship of this text is ascribed to the famous Kautilya, the Prime-minister of Chandragupta Maurya. This is the first datable text on civil architecture. It contains the scientific definition of Vastu76 which includes buildings and their engineering both. Houses (or the sites of houses ), pleasure-gardens (Aramas), Setubandhas (embankments and bridges ) and lakes etc. are called Vastu. The technical words like Vastuhtdaya, Navabhanga the central plot of nine plot sites etc. and the different kinds of roads with their appropriate names are the proofs of existence of developed science of architecture in that time. Durga-Nivesa?? is a most systematic presentation of royal palaces and forts. As regards the dedication of temples in the centre of the city, it remarks that in the Kosthakalayas, the Vastudevatas should also be set up according to their alloted positions. This gives us to conclude that Pada-vinyas, a very developed canon of town planning, was a stereotyped canon in Kautilya's age. Road-planning, planning of fort and palaces along with folk-planning and that connected with professions were all well established. The word * Pratoli' occurs for the first time here. Popular residential houses like Sala-buildings and religious types like Caitya and Stupas are also delineated upon. But the most copious descriptions and the presentations thereof pertain to forts and the palace-architecture.78 Thus the early works of pre-Christen era like Hymns, Sutras, Jatakas, Epics Arthasastra 74. For detail vide the description of the text given below. 75 Chro Kane. 76. Kaultiya's Arth. Book. III, Chap. 8. 77. Ibid, Book II. Ch. 4. 78. For detail refer Dr. Bhattacharya. A study of Vastuvidya or Canons of Indian Architecture. Ch. IX.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 251 presents the architectural subjects viz., Vastu, Bhuparikna and Bhumisamgraha (Selection of site and examination of soils ), Dvaras and Stambhas (position of doors and pillars), Padavinyasa Siteplans), Ayadinirnaya (Astrological consideration), structures and component parts of houses, palaces and temples, Sarkusthapana (calculation of cardinal points) and Hastalaksana (units of measurements ) either in crude or developed forms, which in later works like Puranas, Agamas and silpa texts have been found elaborately treated. (i) PURANAS. The Puranas contain some casual references to architecture, but some of them devote several adhyayas to architecture, sculpture and other fine arts and give a systematic and eleborate treatment of the subject. The Purunas seem to have been composed at different times and their period can be fixed only approximately. The following Puranas give a special treatment to the subject. The Matsya Purana* ( 300 A. D.-600 A. D.)79 contains a special section on architecture styled "Vastuprakarana' which consists of eight comprehensive adhyayas 8 0 ( chapters) dealing with the different aspects of architecture and sculpture in detail.81 In one of these chapters (ch. CCLII) accounts * Published in Anandasram Sanskrit series no. 54 and Trans. into English in SBH ( Panini office, Allahabad ). Vol. 17. 79. Chro-Kane, Some portion of the Purana is as old as 3rd Cent. A. (D., D. K. Shastri, "Purana Vivecan' p. 180.) 80. MP. chapters CCLII, CCLV, CCLVII, CCLVIII, CCLXII, CCLXIII, CCLXIX and CCLXX. 81. Brhat Samhita of Varahmihira approximately belongs to the period of MP. The subject of architecture treated by it displays some affinity with that of MP.

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252 The Structural Temples of Gujarat are given of the eighteen Vastasastropadasakas. (ancient preceptors of the science of architecture ).82 In the chapter entitled stambha-mananirnaya (ch. CCLV) five fold columns are described. Prasadalaksana (ch. CCLXII) and Mandapalaksana (Ch. CLXX) constitute the details of temple-architecture. plans, measures, storeys, cupolas, etc. Building materials under Darvaharana (Ch. CCLVII) are also discussed. The remainig three chapters (Chapts. CCLVIII, CCLXII & 82. (1) Bhigu (2) Atri (3) Vasistha (4) Visvakarma (5) Maya (6) Narada (7) Nagnajit (8) Visalksa (9) Indra (10) Brhama (11) Svamikartika (12) Nandisvara (13) Saunaka (14) Garga (15) Srikrisna (16) Anirudha (17) Sukra (18) Brhaspati (Ch. CCLVII, Vo, 1-3) Some of these are celebrated authors of science of Architecture. But the Matsya Puaana does not mention the names of the works of these authors. The Agnipurana gives a list of 25 traditional works on Silpa. They are entitled as follows :(1) Panca-ratra (2) Sapta-ratra (3) Haya-sirsa Tantra (4) TrailokyaMohan Tantra (s) Vaibhava Tantra (6) Pauskara Tantra (7) Naradiya Tantra (8) Sandilya Tantra (9) Vaisvaka Tantra (10) Saunak Tantra (11) Jnana-Sagara of Vasistha Tantra (12) Prahlad Tantra (13) Gargya Tantra (14) Galva-Tantra (15) Svayambhu Tantra (16) Kapila Tantra (17) Tarksa Tantra (18) Narayaniya Tantra (19) Atreya Tantra (20) Narasinha Tantra (21) Ananda Tantra (22) Aruna Tantra (23) Baudhayan Tantra (24) Arsa Tantra (25) Tantra spoken to Visva. (Ch. XXXIX v 1.5]). Many of these works are evidently named after their authors. The names of some of these authors occur among the names of the eighteen celebrated authors mentioned in the Matsya Purana (e. g. Nardiya, Saunaka, Gargya, Atreya etc.) Most of these traditional works on Silpa are not in existence at present. But it is certain that many of these must have served as sources to many later Silpa writers, as nearly all the works mainly deal with the subject of temple building ( Mandiranirmana), imagemaking and the rite of image consecretion (Pratima vidhana and Pratistha-Vidhi ).

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Sources of Architectural Canons 253 CCLXIII) are devoted to sculpture under the headings of Navatalalaksana '(i. e. proportionate measurement of an image,)' Linga-laksana and 'Pithikalaksana.' It describes twenty varieties of temples under three heads. The Vayu Purana* ( 300 A. D.-600 A. D.)83 It has a single chapter (Pt. I Ch. XXXIX) about the construction of temples on mountains. The Brhmanda-Purana* ( 300 A. D.-600 A, D. 184 likewise treats the construction of temples and other buildings in one chapter ( Ch. VII ) Visnudharmottara Purana* ( 6th cent. A. D.)88 This Purana forming an appendix of the great Visnu Purana is a store-house on the arts of architecture, sculpture and painting. It is divided into three Khandas, of which the third Khanda or part is a unique contribution on painting. It also imparts instruction to sculptors making images of Gods and to architects constructing temples, The Chapters LXXXVI-VIII, of this part give a geneological account about a hundred temples, * Bombay edition. 83. Chro Kane. Parjitar ascribes Ist. cent. A. D. to this Purana. * Bombay edition. 84. The said Purana, according to some scholars, is a detached portion of the Vayupurana and hence is placed with the Vayu PuranaParjitar, also Shastri D. K. Purana Vivecana p. 174. * Bombay ediiion (Vyankatesvara Press) 85. Shastri D. K. Purana Vivecana' P. 188. The age of the portion i. e. Khanda Ill, of this Purana ascertained by Dr. ( Miss ) Priyabala Shah is between the first or rather second half of the 5th cent. A. D. and the first half of the 7th cent. A. D. i, e. circa 450 and 650 A. D. (Dr. Priyabala Shah 'Visnudharmottara Purana G. O. S. No. CXXX (1958), Introduction p, XXVI ) But as the said Purana forms an appendix to Visnu Purana, which is dated 6th Cent. A. D. it may also be ascribed to 6th cent. A. D.

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254 The Structural Temples of Gujarat a detailed notice of which has been taken by the learned author of 'Hindu temple" Dr. Stella Kramrisch. The Linga-Purana* (9th Cent. A. D. )86 has single chapter ILVIII on sacrificial pits, temples and the installation of deities, The Agni Purana* ( 9th-10th Cent. A. D. )89 The Agni Purana, otherwise known as Agneya, has dilated the subject of architecture and sculpture at greater length. As seen above it submits the list of twenty-five authorative works on Silpa and Vastu-Vidya ( Ch. XXXIX VV. 1-5). In the purana there are seventeen chapters 90 devoted to the topics of Vastu-sastra. Out of these only three chapters dealing with Nagaradi Vastu (Ch. CVI), Prasada-Laksana-Kathana (Ch. XLII) and Prasada-Laksana (Ch. CIV) are important from the view point of the study of the temple architecture. It describes fourty-five varieties of temples under five heads. The remaining thirteen chapters (i. e. Chapts. XLIII-XLVI; XLIX-LV; LX, LXII & CV) deal with iconography and sculpture, further there is a good deal of affinity between the Agni and Hayasirsa-pancaratra 9 i one of the traditional Tantra works * Bombay edition. 86. D. K. Shastri places this Purana contomporeous to Bhagavata which according to him composed during 9th Cent. A. D.-(Purana -Vivecana pp. 207-209.) * Ag. P. Edited by Rajendra Mitra (Bibliotheca Indica) also English prose Transl. by Manmathanatha Dutt, Cal. 1903, Ch. XXXIX, and Ag. P. Bombay edition. 89. Shastri D. K. Purana Viveeana p. 216, 90. Ag, P. chapts. XXXIX, XL]), XLV, XLIX, -LV LX, LXII, CIV-CVI. 91. The text Hayasirsapancaratra, in Ms. form, is in the library of the Varendra Research Society , Rajshahi ( East Bengal ). Chapter I-XIV (Vol. 1) were published in 1952. A. D.; Chapt. XV-XLIV (Vol II) published in 1956. Dr. Stella Kramarisch has given its chapter Xlll Prasada Laksana in Hindu temple Vol. II pp 429 ff. From the text it seems that the text pertains to the Dravidian school of temple architecture.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 255 enumerated by the Agni Purana it self. The chapters on Vastuvidya dealt with by the Garuda Purana are identical with those of the Agni-Purana. This will lead to belive, as Dr. Bhattacharya has conjectured, that the fountain head of both these puranas might be Hayasirasa-Pancaratra. The Skanda Purana* ( 9th-10th Cent. A. D )92 It is also known as Kumara-Purana. It devotes three chapters to the subject of Vastu and Silpa. Its expatiation on the laying of a large city are of particular interest. Golden hall, chariots and Kalayana mandapa form the principal subjects of the other two chapters. In a summary manner this purana also treats the subject of painting. The Garuda Purana* ( 10th-11th Cent. A. D.)93 It has two chapters ( XLVI-XLVII) on architecture and two (XLV-XLVIII) on sculpture. These chapters as stated above, are identical with those of Agni Purana. But its chief contribution is the discussion of Salagrama images, given in salagrama-murti-laksana ( XLV). The Bhavisya Purana* (11th cent. A. D.)9 4 This Purana has four chapters, three (XII, CXXXI-CXXXII) being devoted to sculpture and one (ch. CXXX) to the temple architecture (Prasada-laksana-varnana ), in which it describes like Matsya-Purana, twenty varieties of temples under three heads. * Bombay edition. 92. Vaidya C. V. 'History of Mediaeval Hindu India' Vol. II. pp. 39-42. * Bombay edition 93 Shastri D. K Purana Vivecana' p. 211 Bombay edition. 94. Shastri D. K. 'Purana Vivecana' p. 231.

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256 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Nardiya Purana* ( 12th Cent A. D.)98 treats only the construction of temples, reservoirs, wells and tanks in one chapter ( Part I, ch. XIII.) Other Uppuranas like the Brahmavaivarta, the Vamana, the Varaha, the Harivamsa, the Devibhagavata, the Kalki, the siva and the Samba puranas have briefly touched the subject matter of architecture and sculpture, but no specific details about temple architecture are found in these works. (j) AGAMAS. The Agamas and the Tantras deal with mystical worship of Siva and Sakti. Agama contribution to Silpa Sastra is more extensive and technical than that of the Puranas. Some of the Agamas to all intents and purposes are but architectural treatises. For instance Kamikagama, out of its total seventy-five chapters, devotes sixty chapters to architecture and sculpture. Dr. Acharya remarks: "But, unlike the Puranas there is in the Kamikagama a discussion of architectural matters under some very highly technical classifications, such as the styles, Nagara, Dravida and Vesara : Shapes, masculine, faminine, neutar; Suddha, Misra and Sankjina, depending respectively on a single material, mixture of two materials, and the amalgamation of many materials; Sauchita, Asauchita, Apasauchita otherwise known as Sthanaka, Asana and Sayana, which in case of temples depend on the erect, sitting and reclining postures of the image. Another very technical matter referred to is Ayadi formulas, very important in selecting the right proportions.96 Out of the 28 Maha-Agamas, the five Agamas viz. Amsumadabhedagama, Kamikagama, Karanagama, Vaikhanasagama and Suprebhedagama have special refrence to architecture and cognate arts. * Bombay Edition. 95. Shastri D. K. 'Purana Vivecana' p. 233. 96. Dr. P. K. Acharya : Hindu Architecture in India & Abroad (Mansara series Vol. VI) Ch. Ill p. 86.

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257 Sources of Architectural Canons (k) Tantras. 97 The twenty-five Tantras as referred to, in the Agni Purana are already enlisted in the foregoing pages. These notable works on Trantra culture are also intimately associated with religious architecture, the construction of temples and the making of images, and allied sculptures. (1) Bihatsamhita of Varahamihira. * Bshatsambita, a datable work i. e. of the Gupta period (6th century A. D.) even though an astronomical treatise deals also with the subject of the science of architecture.98 Its treatment of subject is methodical, succinct and scientific. Its contribution, therefore, to the evolution and development of Indian architecture is simply superb. It has five chapters devoted to: both architecture and sculpture. The preliminary subjets are describted in the opening chapter * Vastuvidya' (LII). It opens with a definition of the science of architecture, and the author goes on to describe briefly but succinctly and to the point, the suitable building sites, testing of soil, general plan, comparative measures of storeys and doors, and carvings thereon, and other important parts of a bujlding. Then follows the chapter (LV) on Prasada Laksana, in which the temples are described under the same twenty types as in the Mastya and Bhavisya Puranas, the names and details being identical. Under the head of Vajra-lepa' (Ch. LVI) the preparation of cement is discussed. One whole chapter (LXXVIII) is devoted to the construction of the 97. It should be noted that most of the Agamas and Tantras refer. to Dravidian school of architecture, * Brht. Sam. Viziangram Sanskrit series (Sudhakar Dwivedi) Vol. X, pt. II (1897). 98. Matsya Purana approximately belongs to the period of Bihatsamihita. As are noted above the subject matter of architecture treated by both the works have some common affinities.

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258 The Structural Temples of Gujarat necessary articles of house-furniture such as bed-steads, couches and seats. And in the chapter of Pratima Laksna (LVII) the details of images are described in a most scientific manner which is missing in other ancient literature. From the commentary of Bhattotpala on BIhatsamhita it seems that Varahamihira has distinct knowledge of the works on architecture written by Bihaspati, Kasyapa, Garga, Maya, Visvakarma, sukra, Parasara, and Manu. Varahamihira, himself in his treatise avowedly refers to the works of old masters and truly admits that his was but a brief account of the treatises by master-architects like Maya, Visvakarma, Garga and Manu. (Ch. LV. vv. 29,31). (m) Pratistha Class of Work There are several standard manuals on Pratistha. Among them Isanasivagurudeva-Paddhati, Haribhaktivilasa and Hemadris Caturvargacintamani are very important. These works not only mirror the flourishing condition of Indian architecture of the time, but also lay down the rules relating to temple architecture and Iconography. (n) Miscellaneous Works Among these works, Niti-works like Sukras Niti-Sara, '99 poetical works like Banas Kadambari and Harsacarita, 100 Kalhanas Rajatarangini, Hamacandracaryas Sanskrit Dvyasraya and dramas like Sudrakas Micchakatika and Rajesakhara's Viddbasalabhanjika 101 are very valuable to reconstruct the history of India architecture. The astrologial and astronomical treatises frequently refer to architectural topics, especially those bearing upon auspicious times. In a pamphlet of this class twenty-one things are stated to be observed in connection with building a house or 99. Sukraniti : Ch. IV Sec. 4. 100, Harsacarita, pp. 103, 137, 153, 176. 101. In MS. form. Gov. Ori, Libra, Madras. 84 (Auf. Cat. Vol. II. p. 135)

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Sources of Architectural Canons a temple.102 The works like Surya-Siddhanta, 103 the SidhantaSiromani104 and the Lilavati105 deal exhaustively with a very technical matter bearing upon architecture,, namely, the description of gnomons (Sanku) which were used for finding out cardinal points. The subject is architecturally very important in as much as it refers to the oriention of buildings. (ii) The Works On Architectural Canons. The Gupta age marks the beginning of special treatises on architecture, as far as the extant Indian works on Architecture are concerned. 259 Indian architecture is classified into three broad divisions of styles namely, Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. In its intitial stage of development Indian Architecture did not bother about watertight classification of styles as suggested above. The Sulbha-sutras and the manifold injunctions found in Grhya and Srauta Sutras regarding the Puja-Vastu-the altars and Sadas, their layouts, proportionate measurements and materials etc. formed the guiding code for the sthaptis and the sthapakas of the old. But as time passed and current of architecture took an independent course it become an independent theme for producing independent manuals of the Sastra and there was a great line of Acharyas forthcoming. The whole code Brahmanised and our great gods Siva, Visnu and Brahma were made primary source from whence the Vastuvidya i. e. the science of architecture is revealed. No divine lore could remain unpassed to the Asuras hence the two schools flourished side by side. Thus their course of Vastu-vidya gave rise to two distinct styles namely Dravida and Nagara, the former belonging to the school of Maya flourishing in South beyond the Vindhyas and latter rising from the school of Visvakarma 102 Laghu-Silpa-Jyotis-Sara, 3-5 was 103. Ch. III. 1-4 104. Ch. VII, 36-49. 105. Part II Ch. II, Section VII

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260 The Structural Temples of Gujarat having flourished in the Northern India. So when we study the works of architecture both architectural i. e. treatises on Vasta and Silpavidya and non-architectural like Paranas, Agamas etc. we are bound to come to conclusion that there were at least two distinct and different architectural traditions in our land. Further, it should be noted that the devotional architecture is the outcome of Bhakti-cult founded by the Puranas and Agamas. The Pauranic Dharma being more popular in the Uttarapatha, enjoined the consecretion of gods and goddesses in the Devalayas, with Vapi, Kupa, Tadagas as the most virtious act. Similarly what the Puranas did for the north, the Agamas did for the south. These two relegious traditions corresponding gave rise, to two architectural traditions in the works on the Vastu-vidya, the science of architecture. 106 Many of the works are mainly devoted to the Nagara form of Indian architecture while some other works are mainly concerned with the Dravidian form. As for the temples in Gujarat they hardly contain any example of the Dravidian form. Hence works on the Dravidian form of architecture will be of no avail in our investigation. We may, therefore, confined ourselves to work on the Nagara form, which also generally contain a short account of the other forms as well. 106. Many of the Silpa manuscripts are copied by the Silpis who better knew to handle the construction itself than to write. These manuscripts contain the indispensable theoretical and practical prescriptions about the construction of houses, palaces, temples fortifications and Idols. For every silpi these are the treasures which were bequeathed by father to son from generation to generation. For him the instructions must be absolute correct irrespective of an accuracy as to grammer, praseology and orthography, which were of subordinate importance to him. This was the reason or source of corruption which we find in these manuscripts. Further the development of ideas and working methods also helped to be obsolete some of the traditional principles, which gradually became unintelligible. These are the some of the reasons why the modern manuscripts display a lot of mistakes and misunderstandings in exposition of the true principles. In

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Sources of Architectural Canons 261 The prominent exponant of the Nagara school of Vastu ( architecture ) and Silpa ( sculpture ) is Visvakarma. VISVAKARMA. The majority of the Vastu and Silpa-Sastras, either of the Nagara or Dravida School; are revealed to Visvakarma by Lord Siva 107 or Brahma 108 or Visnu 109 Visvakarma's antiquity is referred to in the Rgveda. 110 And as per our earlier tradition of Vedas and Brahmanas, Visvakarma really represents the working aspect of the Supreme principle, as Brahma does the thinking aspect. Creator Brahma could evolve only a manasi:sssti. To give it shape and lay it properly, in one word, to plan it beautifully, was the work of an architect-acarya and Visvakarma was there to fulfil the mission. Visvarkarama is like Brahma, four-faced. From the four faces were born Visvakarma, Maya, Tvast; and Manu, the progenitors of the four families of the architects namely Sthapatis (masterbuilders ) Sutragrahins, ( draftsmen), Vardhakis ( designers ) and Taksakes (Carpentars ) respectively.111 This is the ontology of the science in the context of its origin and premordial preceptors. the same way a lack of learned tradition also has brought a decay in the art of exposition of such an important branch of learning and research. The readings of many of available mss. are corrupt and unnitelligible and therefore it cannot be a reliable guide to the stundents of Indian architecture and sculpture for an adequate understanding of the subject matter. However, some attempts have been made to prepare a critical and reliable editions of certain works with the help of available manuscripts. 107. V. P. 1-3-4; Ag. P. XCIX; the treatises of Maya, Kasyapa, Manasara etc. 108. V. P. XIII. 108; Br. Sam. and lsanasivagurudevapaddhati. 109. M. P. 110. Rg. V. X. 72. 111. Manasara ll, w. 5-20.

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262 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Ramayana accepts Visvakarma as the architect of the Gods and Maya, the architect of the Asuras. It is stated that Visvakarma revealed the Sthaptya Veda. 112 In the Mahabharata, Visvakarma is said to have been the "master of thousand arts, the Vardhaki (carpenter) of the Gods and superior to all architects." He also constructed the chariots of the Gods. Men earned their livelihood by practising the arts invented by him and offered worship to Visyakarma 113 He constructed the Sabha of Vaivasvata] 14 and a town for the Gods, besides a statute, a necklace and wheels of the chariots, for them. According to the Matsya Purana, Visvakarma was the son of Prabhasa, 118 who was the last of eight Vasus, The mother of Visvakarma was the sister of Bhtgu. The eight-Vasus were mostly workers in different branches of art, Visvakarma thus naturally has imbibed skill in craftmanship from his father's side, Visvakarma's connecton with Bhrgu by his mother's side, was also no less responsible for the high state of excellence in craftmanship peculiar to the family of Bhrgus.116 Thus both his parental and maternal relationships contributed in equipping him with a rich heritage. He was endowed with consummate skill in fine arts, architecture, sculpture, painting including both their constructive as well as decorative aspects. The Agni Purana calls him the creator of thousand Silpas (crafts ), The Garuda Purana also places him among the prominent Silpis of Gods. The Siva Parana (ch. LIII) has given an interesting and lengthy account of the origin and the geneology of Visvakarma. Shri P A. Mankad on the basis of this account has very ably 112, Rama iV. 51. 11. Kiskindha Kanda chts. XLI, XXXV; XLII, XLIV; XLIII, XXI. 113. MBH I. 66. 29-31. 114. lbid. II, 8. 1. 115. M. P. ch. V. 27-28. He was born of Vasu the second daughter of Daksa Prajarati, given in marriage to Dharma. 116. In the Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics E. Sieg. explains the word Bhrgu as a term for craftman specially working with fire.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 263 and laboriously attempted to formulate a theory that Visvakarma formed a connecting link between the Sumarjan civilization on the one hand and the Narmada valley culture on the other.217 Works Ascribed to Visvakarma. The works attributed to yisvakarma are as follows :1. Apara jitapraccha.118 2. Ksirarnava. 1 19 3. Jaya-prcchadhikara. 120 4. Visvakarma-mata. 121 5. Visvakarma-prakasa 1 23 also known as Vastu-sastra, 193 6. Visvakarmiya-Silpa-sastra. 124 117. Vide P. A. Mankad's Introduction to Aparajita praccha. p. Ixxxix. 118. Auf. C. C. Vol. II p. 4, quoted by Hemadri in Parisesa Khanda 2, 660-662, 819, published in G. O. S. No. CXV (1956) Edited by P. A. Mankad. In this work Visvakarma is attributed as 'Bhuvandevacarya.' A work of similar title and nature termed as "Aparajita-Vastusastra' is available. The MS. of it was in possession of Manishanker Bhatt, Surat. (Catalouge of Sans MSS. contained in Private libraries in Gujarat, Kathiawad, Kaccha, Sindh & Khandesha, 1872 p. 276 No. 1) An another work termed as Aparajita-prabha or Visvakarma Samhita is also available (Auf. C. C. Vol. III p. 5.) 119. Auf. C. C. II, pp. 26, 138. Copies of MSS. having 19 to 23 chapters of this work are found with certain silpis of Gujarat. Four copies of this MSS. are in my private collection. Five copies of this MSS. ( Nos. 8265 (a), 3588, 3589, 11007 and 8287 ) are in the collection of Oriental Institute, Baroda. 120. Auf. C. C. II, p. 41; MS. No. 6857. in the Oriental Institute, Baroda. 121. Auf. C. C. II. p. 138, quoted by Hemadri in Parisesa Khanda (2, 817, 825, 827, 828). 122. Egg. MSS. p. 112 a. It is published without any commentary at Benaras, in 1888; with commentary by Sri Venkatesvara Press, Bombay (V. S. 1952). 123. Auf. CC. ll. p. 134. 124. Oriental MSS. Library Madras, Catalogue, Vol. XXII No. 13037, p. 8775.

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264 The Structural Temples of Gujarat 7, Silpa granth. 195 8. Visvakarma-Vastusastram. 126 9. Vastu samgraha.127 10. Vastuvicara, 128 11. Hasta-pramana.129 12. Diparnava.130 13. Vrksarnava.131 14. Rekharnava.138 15. Jnana-ratna-Kosa, 133 125. Egg. MSS. 3152, 1603 b (Written in modern Devanagari). It is almost identical to Aparajitapraccha. 126. Auf. C. C. II, 134; MS. no. 13727+13728 in the collection of Oriental Institute, Baroda. This is the only work which contains a commentary. Recently it is published in Tanjore Sans. Series. No. 85 (1958) edited by K. Vasudeva Shastri and Major N. B. Gadre. It is appearently a text belonging to the School of Southern India. 127. Auf. C. C. I. p. 568. 128. Catalogue of Sans. MSS. in N. W. P. 1885, p. 56. The MS. is in possession of Gaurinatha Shastri, Benaras 129. The work is on architecural measures. 130. Auf. C. C. III, p. 123. Recently, with Gujarati Commentary it is published by Shri P. O. Sompura (1960). Fragments of some of the chapters in MSS. form are also in my private collection. 131. P. O. Sompura, Diparnava, Introduction p. 41. 132. P. A. Mankad. Preface to Aparajitapraccha p. iii & introduction to lbid p. xlvii. 133. Auf. C. C. I, p. 210. Catalogue of Sans. MSS. contained in the private liabraries of Gujarat etc. 1872, p. 276. A copy of it was in possession of Acharatlal Vaidya of Ahmedabad. Another copy is with Shri P. O. Sompura. Some chapters in MSS. form on different subject of Vastu Vidya ascribed to Visvakarma are also found in Gujarat. In the collection of MSS. in the Oriental Institute Baroda there are such works. e. g. Pancasanmandapa Nirnaya (no. 10 + 62 (b)), Prasada Karanajnana Karika (no. 8273), Vastuvidya (nos. 1990 (a) 11073 ).

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Sources of Architectural Canons 265 In the chapters on prasada Laksana in Bshatsamhita Varahamihira (A. D. 505-587) quotas the opinion of Visvakarma. 186 So it may be safely said that the works of Visvakarma were highly esteemed by the scholars by the beginning of the sixth century A. D. However, it is difficult to ascertain his authority of the extant works ascribed to him. It is possible that some of them may have embodied the old traditions of Indian architecture. But the works in their present form available to us hardly seem to belong to the early centuries of the Christen Era. Probably they were written after the end of the first millennium, even after the Samarangana-Sutradhara written in the 11th Cent. A. D. Accordingly they seem to have been composed by some later writer or writers, possibly on the basis of some old sources. They may, therefore, be regarded to be as good as anonymous. Samarangana Sutradhara, Samarangana Sutradhara, one of the most valuable texts on the medieval architecture in India, is the earliest known work on the subject, to which we can assign definite chronology. It is compiled by Sutradhara Samarangana under the auspecious patronage of the Paramar King Bhojadeva of Dhara, who flourished from 1018 to 1060 A. D. In treatment of the subject matter no serial or systematic method is followed. There is no logical sequence or order in the arrangement of chapters. No doubt, as far as temple architecture is concered, the author has given a detailed treatment to Prasadas in their general plan and elevation. It includes nearly twanty chapters. 136. Sardha hastatrayam Caiva Kathitam Visvakarman' | Brh. Sam. LVI, 29 # Published in G. O. S. Nos. XXV ( 1925 ) & XXXII (1927) edited by MM. T. Ganapati Shastri.

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266 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Samarangana-Sutradhara consists of eighty three chapters. In the 1-VII chapters together with the chapters XLIV and XLV, the introductory subjects like need, origin, schools, scope and subject matter of architecture and qualifications of an architect are dealt with. The chapter VIII Bhupariksa deals with the surveying of the land and the examination of soilconditions. The chapter IX Hasta-Laksana is on the system of measurements. The site plans of the different catagories of the Vastu padas fit to be employed in nearly all sorts of architecture, are dealt with in chapters XI to XIV as well as in chapter XXXVIII. Chapters from XV to XXXVII, XXXIX to XLII, XXVIXLVIII and Ll are devoted to civil or popular house architecture and palace architecture together with preliminaries like Ayadiniranaya, Kilka-Sutrapata, the first opeartions, foundation laying ceremony (Silanyasa vidhi) etc. In the next twenty chapters i. e. in chapters XLIX and L and in chapters from LII-LXIX, the subject matter of temple architecture is dealt with. The origin and development of Prasadas i. e. the Hindu temples, their mainfold classifications, layouts, measurements, superstructure and the finial, the decorative motifs and the accessory buildings like mandapas, the pavalions, the basement of temples etc. have been discussed fully. As regards the different styles of the temple architecture, it has added two more to the ternary of Nagara, Dravida and Vesara (Vavata, Vairata ) Viz., Bhumija and Lata. In the last fourteen chapters i. e. from LXX-LXXXIII, the subject of Iconography both sculptural and pictorial is dealt with. Aparajitapraccha* The next valuable work on architecture is Aparajitpraccha "otherwise known as "Sutrasantana-gunakirtiprakasa. It is an exposition of the principles and practice of the science of Vastu f. e. architecture in a most compact form. * Published in G. O. S. No. CXV (1956) edited by P. A. Mankad.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 267 Traditionally the authorsihp of the work is ascribed to Visvakarma, whose view referred to in the Btihat Samhita (6th Cent. A. D.). But from the treatment of the subject matter it seems to have been composed later. It is definitely post-samarangana as many of its verses may be regarded as verbatim reproductions from the Samarangana, as the majority verses in Sutradhara Mandan's works are verbatim reproductions from the Aparajita-praccha. Accordingly the work may be dated not earlier than 11th Cent. A. D. when the Samarangana was composed. Shri P. A. Mankad has also observed on the strength of external and internal evidences the time of composition of APPR. between 12th and the first half of 13th Cent. A. D.187 By the critical examination of the contents of the text itself viz. the various mouldings of pitha and mandovara, purely provincial Nagara types of Sikhara of late origin, details of mandapas, pot-and-foliage type of pilasters, the mouldings of the ceilings and some iconographical features Shri M. P. Vora and M. A. Dhaky assign the work to the latter half of the 12th Cent. A. D.138 Thus the work is not as old as it professes to be. 139 137. APPR. Int. p. xii. 138. M. P. Vora and M. A. Dhaky. JOI, IX, 4, pp. 424-431. 139. However, it may be noted in this connection that it was and is, a usual practice on the part of the Silpi while copying or getting copied an old work for his personal use to insert into it even additional informations drawn from other allied sources prevelant in his times, without specifying the other sources utilized by him. Consequently many old works on Siipa, as available in their present form transmitted through such Silpis happened to incorporate several interpolations from other unspecified sources, though they figure as entire compositions of the old authors. This is the position of a number of old works, unpublished or even published, especially they are anonymous or are ascribed to such personages like Visvakarma and Maya. Hence the problem of the authorship or age of such works necessites a critical examination of the internal treatment of the subject.

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268 The Structural Temples of Gujarat In the view of our present study pertaining to temple architecture, the text APPR. imparts instruction regarding code of measurement (XLI), astronomical and mathematical calculations (XLII-XLVII & LXIII-LXVI), examination of the soils and selection of the site (LXVIII, LI-LII), the traditional classification of temple styles, their special features and the characteristics of horizontal and vertical orders of each veriety (CIII-CXCV) and finally iconography and the ceremonies to be attained while installing the images to be worshipped (CXCVI-CCXXIII ). Several other works on architecture are ascribed to Visvakarma. Tradition assigns an early date to the works of Viswakarma but like Aparajitapraccha the other works also seem to be of late origin. Ksirarnava.* The text of this work as available in its present form represents only a section of the work, which is related to temple architecture. The maximum number of chapters given in MSS. consulted is 23, the first chapter in the available section being numbered 101 in all the MSS. It begins with laying of foundation stone (Ch. CI). The proportionate measurements pertaining to Bhita-pitha (Ch. CII-CIII ), Prasadodya (Ch. CIV), Dvara (Ch, CV, CIX) and the information regarding the various members of Pitha, Mandovara (Ch. CVI-CVIII), Lingamana and Devatadnsti (Ch. CX, CXI) have been discussed. Some chapters impart valuable canons about the construction of Mandapa and pillars (Ch. CXVIII, CXIII & CXIV). The chapter on sikhara (Ch. CVI) treats many varieties of temples. Visvakarma-prakasa* The work consists of thirteen chapters. In the beginning preliminaries as to the construction such as Vastu-parusotpati, * The work is unpublished. Four copies of its MS. are in my private collecton. An unique incomplete copy of this text with Gujarati commentary in Doha-Copai form, written by one Umiashanker, is also lying with me.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 269 Bhumilaksana, Dikasadhana, Ayavyadi etc. are prescribed. Then the resedential architecture; proportionate measurements of Stambha, Dvara, sala etc. have been discussed. Some canons about the domestic architecture also have been imparted. The section pertaining to temple architecture deals with the laying of foundation stone and the construction of Pithika, Mandapa and Dvara. Then follow canons about the construction of Vapi, Kupa, Tadaga, Udyana, Durga, and palacial buildings. Diparnava The work is recently published in 1960 A. D. It is edited by Shri Prabhashanker O. Sompura. The editor makes no mention of the MSS. But it seems to have interpolated some verses or perhaps even chapters from other works on architecture. From the fragmentary MSS. in my collection it appears that the editor of the publication has re-arranged the chapters of the work in his own way. Hense it is very difficult to ascertain the original chapters and their sequence. The work, as presented to us in the form of this publication, begins with the treatment of architectural preliminaries ([Ch. I-II). It is followed by the prescription of Jagati (Ch. III), Pitha (:Ch. IV), Mandovara (Ch. V), and Dvara ( Ch. VI). The next chapters deal with Sikhara (Ch. IX, XIX), Mandapa (Ch. X.) and Samvarana (Ch. XI). Chapters XIII-XVIII give particulars about the iconographical features of Hindu deities. Here ends what the editor has styled the former half of the work. The later half (Ch. XX-XXVII)140 of the publication deals with the Jain form of architecture and iconography. Published from Benaras (1888) and Bombay (1896). 140. Ch. XX of this edition corresponds to Ch. l. in my MS., though Ch. V. of the edition corresponds to Ch. V in my MS. Ch. XIX in my collection deal with the Jirnodhara vidhi which is absent in this edition.

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270 The Structural Temples of Gujarat From the fragmentary MSS. consulted it seems that the original work possibly treated the subject of architecture and iconography according to the Jain tradition. Vastusara of Thakkar Feru.* The authorship of Vastusara (Siri-Vatthusara-Payaranam ) is ascribed to a Jain author Thakkar Feru inhabitant of village Karnal near Delhi. He compiled this work in 282 gathas in Ardhamagadhi on architecture in V. S. 1372 ( 1316 A. D.).141 The original text is divided into three chapters. In Ch. I, entitled Gsihalaksana the author has discussed preliminaries to be followed while constructing residential houses as well as temples. Then the constructional varieties of houses are discussed. Ch. II is pertaining to image making and its examination Bimba Pariksa. In this chapter the author has described various types of Jain images to be made of wood and stone and given their measurements. Ch. IIl is on the construction of temples. In this Chapter the subjects like ground-plan, Picha, Mandovara, sikhara etc. have been dealt with. In the Prasasti Feru himself mentioned that the work is a compilation from various sources. 142 Sutradhara Mandana 143 was a prolific writer of treatises on architecture and sculpture. Tradition represents his family * Edited and published by Pandit Bhagwandas Jain, Jaipur (1939) 141. Vasatusara-prakarana Intro. p. 4. 142. The editor has toied to give the complete Jain Iconography along with the original work (vide Vastusara. Appendice A. & D.). Thakkar Feru is known to have composed 'Siri-Rayanapari-kha-Payaranam' (Shri Ratnapariksa-prakranam ). The original text of this work is, also, given by the editor of Vastusara (vide Vastusara pp. 238-248) at the end. 143. In the unique library of Kavindracarya (17th cent.) Some of the MSS. of Mandanas works have been stored. (Kavindra Suci Nos. 2146. 2147, 2150, 2151, edited by R. Anantakrishna. G. O. S. XVII, 1921). Mandana's works are very popular in Gujarat hence several copies of MSS, in original form as well as with commentary in old

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Sources of Architectural Canons 271 originally belonging to Patan in Gujarat144 and having shifted to Mewar. He was patronised by King Kumbha Karna of Mewar 145 The following works 146 are ascribed to Mandana. 1. Devata-Murti-Prakrana. Gujarati are found lying with the artizans. Separate commentary (Tika) are also found under the head of Prasada-Tika, Ra javallabha Tika etc. (Catalogue of Sans. MSS. in private libraries of Gujarat etc. 1872. p. 276) 144. N. Y. Gosai, Rajavallabha ( 1911) Intro. p. 6. The copper-plate in the possession of Shri Bhanwarlal, former chief mason of Udaipur state who claims to be a descendant of Sutradhara Mandana; (cf. EP. Ind. XXIV. p. 64 f. n. 1 and published in the Indian Historical quarterly calcutta, XXX(2) June 1954, pp. 178-182) dated V. S. 1482 ( 1425 A. D.) states quite specifically that Mokala invited and procured with great difficulty Mandana, a native of Gujarat as he was in need of an expert on the study of sculpture aud architecture. Inspite of the fact that the text of the exisiting plate, as shown by Shri R. C. Agrawala (IHQ. XXXIII, pp. 323, 324) was drafted and engraved at a very later stage it establishes the fact that Mandana shifted from Gujarat to Mewar. Further it was perhaps, not Mokala, but Kumbhakarna, who invited him. It is a well known fact that he patronised him as the state architect. It was he who is said to have been entrusted with the task of designing and building the fort of Kumbhalgadha (Udaipur Dist. ) in V. S. 1515 (1448 A. D). He appears to have constructed the temple of Visnu just adjacent to the famous Siva temple of Ekalingaji. It is interesting to note that a number of images and sculptures from Kumbhagadha dated V. S. 1515 and 1516 were carved according to strict literary injunctions propounded by in Mandan's celebrated work Rupamandana (R. C. Agrawala Sodha patrika, Hindi, Udaipur, VIII (3) pf-1-12, and IX (1). pp. 6 ff) 145. N. Y. Gosai., Rajavallabha (1911) XIV, 43 p. 239. 146. Auf. C. C. I, pp. 730-31. Several works of Mandana are collected in the Oriental Institute, Baroda. a. Popularly known as Rupavatara, This along with Rupamandana, edited by Upendramohan Sankhyatirtha is published in Calcutta Sana Series. XII (1936).

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272 The Structural Temples of Gujarat 2. Prasada Mandana. 3. Rajavallabha. 4 Rapamandana d 5. Vastu-mandana. 6. Vastu-Sastra. 7. Vastu-sara. 8. Ayatattva. Prasadamandana' is a brief treatise on temple architecture, outlining the procedure to be adopted, in the construction of temples for gods and goddesses. It consits of eight chapters or Adhyayas. The chapter I deals with preliminaries (Misraka laksana) to be followed in the architecture of temple; Ch. II tells about the mouldings of the base; III describes measurements of Pitha, Mandovara, Grabhagriha, Sakhas ( door frames ) and Udumbara (thresholds ). Ch. IV. narrates the sizes of idols and their positions, flag staffs ( Dhavja Danda ) and Amalaka and Kalasa of b. Edited by : J. D. Zadoo and published in the Kashmir Sanskrit series of Texts and studies no. LXXII. 1947. Recently it is published by Bhagwandas Jain. (Jaipur) 1961. c. Published with Gujarati commentary and some illustrative diagrams by Narayan Bharati Yasavant Bharati Gosai of Patana in 1911, This work is also known as Vasturaja Vallabha. d. Vide f. n. a. above. Recently, the text with Hindi commentary edited by Dr. Balram Shrivastava is published from Benaras (1965) e. Available with Gujarati commentary. Published from Ahmedabad in 1878 A. D. It also deals with astrological matters concerning architecture. Auf. C. C. Pt. I. P. 569. f. This is a chapter dealing with astrological matter. Many of the Silpa texts contain it under slight different names. Silpa texts ascribed to Visvakarma Viz. Diparnava etc. also deals with the same subject matter. As a separate chapter it is known as Ayatattva. The subject matter of third chapter of Rajavallabha, titled as ayadi-Laksana is the same. It is abudently available in a separate Ms. form.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 273 the finials. Chapters VI & VII deal with the various types of the constructions of Sikhara (spire), Mandapa and Balanaka etc. The last chapter VIII deals with the conservation and repairs of the temples, institution of idols, installation of Vastu purusa and other architectural matters. The other works of Mandana mainly deal with the canons concerning the construction of residential houses, palaces, step-wells, lakes, fortification and image-making. Sutradhara Nathaji He was Mandana's younger brother147 and is known to have complied an independent treatise called Vastumamjari, 148 The work lies unpublished. It imparts very valuable information pertaining to the construction of temple and imagemaking in three chapters. Sutradhara Govinda: He was the eldest son of Mandana, and is known to have composed three works on architecture, namely Uddharadhorani, Kalanidhi and Dvaradipika.149 He was a state architect of Rana Rayamala ( 1473-1509 A. D.), the son of Kumbhakarna.150 The early portion of Kalanidhi as it is stated therein was written by Mandana himself while the remaining major portion of it was finished by Govinda.151 From the list 147. N. Y. Gosai, Rajavallabha (1911) intro. p. 6. 148. S. R. Bhandarkar; Report of a second tour in search of Sans. Mss. in Rajputana & Central India in 1904 A. D. p. 38. Two copies of Ms. of this work bearing nos. 3598 and 10453 are in the collection of Oriental Institute, Baroda. Two copies of this work are in my private collection. 149. S. R. Bhandarkar. Report on a second tour in search of Sans. MSS. in Rajputana and central India in 1904 A. D. p. 38. 150. Sodhapatrika ( Hindi ), Udaipur VII (i) Dec. '1955 p. 60. 151. The MS. (dated V. S. 1681) of this work is with Shri Nathulal Vyas of Udaipur. Five copies (Nos. 8276, 11001, 6856, 9214 & 11069) of this MS. are in the collection of Oriental Institute; Baroda.

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274 The Structural Temples of Gujarat of the chapters of Kalanidhi given by R. C. Agrawala, 182 it seems that the work mainly deals with the constructions of the profile of the Sikhara, Kalasa, Amalasaraka and Dhvajadanda. Sutradhara Rajasimha. He is known to have composed Vasturaja, 183 a treatise on temple architecture. The extant work consists of twelve chapters and begins with the chapter 1 on Prasadotapatti termed as Caturdasajati nirnayadhikar. Ch. II imparts instructions regarding Dsstidosa, Pranala, Jirnodhara etc., the III chapter is pertaining to Punayadhikara. In ch. IV subjects like Kurmasthapana, Dikpala, Jagati, in ch. V. Pratimavidhana (Iconography) in ch. VI Pitha Jaksana, in ch. VII bhittimana and prasadodayamana have been described. Chpts. VIII & IX treat the subjects of Mandovara, Garbhaglihodayamana and Dvara respectively. Ch. X imparts instructions regarding the construction of Sikhara. The 152. A list of R. C. Agrawala., Appendix to Some famous Sculptures and Architects of Mewar IHQ. XXX]][ No. 4 pp. 333-334. Mandana has also another son named Isara, whose name along with his father and grandfather appear in the concluding portion of Vavara inscription of Ramabaj ( Rana Kumbha's daughter ) dated in V. S. 1554 ( 1497 A. D.. Chhitara was the son of Isara and his name is also referred to in Chitor Inscription of V. S. 1556 ( 1499 A. D.) (G. H. Oza, Annual working report of the Ajmera Musuem for the year ending March 31, 1927 pp. 3-4). All these evidences show that even after the demise of Rana Kumbha, the decendants of Mandana were architects of no less ability and they had a profound knowledge of the subject rendered in practice too, 153. The work lies unpublished. A MS, of; this work is in my private collection. Three copies of this work (Nos. 10990 (b) 11072 & 11105 ) are in the collection of MSS. in Oriental Institute, Baroda. The alphabetical list of the MSS. mentions Sutradhara Narsinha to be the author is left unknown in the case of the other two MSS. But the work is well known as that of Rajasimha and hence the name Narsimha may be a wrong reading for Rajasimha.

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Sources of Architectural Canons 275 subject of Dhvajadanda also is given here. In Ch. XI five fold divisions of ground plan of Nagara Prasada are given. The last chapter XII deals with the subject of the construction of Sandhara prasada.154 These are the eminent known writers on architecture, who flourished in the first half of the Second millenium. 158 As regards the bearing of their treatises on Gujarat it may be noted that (i) Samasangana belong to Medapata (Mewad) which being in vicinity of Gujarat was in close contact with it, (ii) that the personal history of the author of Aparajitapraccha 154. Some more works available on architecture are : Pramanamanjari of Sutradhara Malla (Formerly published by N. Y. Gosai (1932 ). Recently, it is critically edited by Dr. (Miss ) Priyabala Shah and published in the M. S. University Oriental Series No. 3, Baroda ( 1958). The work deals with the construction of residential houses and contains no section on temple architecture. A number of other works on architecture are known from lists of MSS. some of them are, Prayoga Manjari Samhita of Shri Kantha (MS. Nos. 3591: & 1735), Vastu Kambasutram and Sukhananda vastu of Sukhanda (MS No. 8263 & 3605 respectively ) and Vastupaddhati of Tribhuvan Bhatta ( M. S. No. 12601) collected in the Oriental Institute, Baroda. The works known as Bedaya prasada tilaka of Sutradhara Virapala, Vastupradipa of Pandit Vasudeva, Vastukaustubha of Sutradhara Ganesa, Vastvadhyaya of Sutradhara Kausika are also referred to by Shri P. O. Sompura in Diparnva Into. p. 41. These works are all unpublished and hence it is not known whether any of them deal with temple architecture. Probably, most of them seem to be on secular architecture. 155. Some more works on architecture have comeforth in the last two Centuries. They are more or less compilation of extracts from earlier works mentioned above. Noteworthy among them are Laghu Silpa Jyotissara compiled by S. U. Sutar (1895); Silpa Sastra Sara Samgraha by Atmaram (1898); "ilpa Dipaka by Gangadhara (2nd edi. 1912), Brhad Silpa Sastra Pt. I (1931), Pt. II (1934) Pt. III (1936) by J. A. Sompura; Silpa Ratnakara by N. M. Sompura (1939) and Kalyana Kalika Pt. I (1956) by Muni Kalyanvijaya.

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276 The Structural Temples of Gujarat is unknown but that tradition associates him with a prince of the Caulukya Kingdom of Gujarat (iii) and that Mandana probably hailed from Gujarat and that he and his family lived in Mewad. From this it follows that the works of these authors may have some bearing on the architectural monuments of Gujarat. The investigation into the probability of this assumption may throw some light on the extent if any, of their bearing.

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CHAPTER 11 THE SITES OF THE EXTANT TEMPLES ( With Special Reference to the Canons for their Selection ) The extant temples of Gujarat, pre-Caulukyan as well as Caulukyan, are found erected on sites of different types. Many of the sites represent places of natural scenery, while some others formed centres of human habitation. Many of the pre-Caulukyan temples such as the temples at Kadvar, Sutrapada and Visavada and some of the Caulukyan temples such as Somnatha at Prabhas, Dwarkadhisa at Dwarka and Magaderu at Dhrasanvels are built in the vicinity of the western sea-coast. The sun temple at Prabhas is on the confluence of the river Triveni with the Sea. Many of the Caulukyan temples stood on the banks of rivers, streams and tanks. The siva temple at Sarnal known as Galateshvar stands on the bank of river Mahi. The famous 1. The other pre-Caulukyan temples that lie on the sea-coast are those at Pasanvada, Akhodar, Pata, Bhansar, Balej, Odadar, Porbandar (Dhingesvara Mahadeva ), Nandisvara, Khimesvara, Srinagar, Kalsar etc. 2. Among the other Caulukyan temples Sasibhusan and Rudresvara at Prabhas, the Siva temples at Lovarali, Tukada and Kuchhadi, the Rama temple at Baradia and the Rukamani temple at Dwarka and the Nilakantha and the Jain temple at Miyani likewise lie on the sea-coast. The jain temples known as Sasa-bahu at Kavi also stood near the sea-coast

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278 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Rudramahalaya temple is on the bank of the Sarasvati. The extant sun temple at Prabhas stands on the bank of the river Hiranya.8 The sun temple at Modhera is built on an unique site. On the west side of the present village is a large tank or talav that was at one time surrounded by stepts and perhaps also by shrines; further to the west end near the river Pusapavati is the sun temple with a fine oblong Kunda.4 Thus the site indicates the proximity of the river as well as the tank. An old temple of Limboji Mata at Delmal, which is now in ruins, was on the bank of a tank to the east of the village. The Hingolaja Mala temple with the right-angular temple, at present, stands on the bank of a pond to the east of the village Khandosan.5 The small temple at Chaubari is in the midst of a tank. In the centre of the tank is a mound, forming a small island, and between it and the steps, (Ghata of the tank) and facing the latter, is a small temple, intended to stand in the water. The temple of Satamukhi vava is jutting out into the tank Nagesvar at Dabhoi. Sometimes an attached :artificial reservoir, especially in the form of a Kunda, is found constructed with the temple. 6 3. The Ranakdevi temple at Wadhwan stands on the bank of the little streem, the Bhogava. The old ruined temple of Somaditya at Bagavadar, also, stands on the bank of a river. 4. This artificial reservoir at present, is known as Rama Kunda. s. Similarly the ruins of an old temple at Kanoda and the small temple at Motab are situated on the bank of ponds of respective villages. 6. But it is to be investigated whether it was the temple that was built in the vicinity of the reservoir or it was the reservoir that was constructed in the vicinity of the temple.

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The Sites of the Extant Temples 279 Muni Bawas' temple stands near the ruins of an old dam known as Sandasar which, though built of heavy masonry has, burst the temple being just above to the east of it. There were numerous temples on the bank of tank Sahasralinga at Patan. The Munasar tank at Viramgam still contains small temples on its banks. Originally they numbered over 500 out of which 337 still remain. The series also includes two large double-shrined temples. The temple of Trinetresvara ( Taranetara) near Than is surrounded on three sides by an artificial double right angular reservoir (Kunda). The temple of Brhama at Khedabrahma is associated with a step-well in front of it. The pre-Caulukyan old temple of Surya at Than is on the top of the hillock Kandola. Some large temples of the Caulukyan period, especially Jain temples, are constructed on summits of hills or mountains for instance, the Jain temples on Mt. Abu, Girnar, Satrunjay, Taranga and Pawagadh. The temple of Harasiddha rests on the summit of the hill.? The pre-Caulukya temples at Bilesvara and Navidhraveda are on the slopes of hills; while the famous temple of Gop lies at the foot of the Barada hills. Among the noteworthy temples of the Caulukyan temples constructed at the foot of hillocks, are those of Roda, Kumabharia, Delwada and Shamalaji. The temple of Navalakha at Ghumali stands in the midst of groves of the Barada hills. As for the remaining temples that are not found built at sites of natural scenery most of them seem to represent important towns and cities of old times. The temples at 7. The Kumbhesvara and Acalesvara Mahadeva temples on Mt. Abu, the old Siva temple on Pawagadh and Ambaji Mata temples on Mt. Girnar and on Mt. Abu are also noteworthy among temples that rest on summits of hills or mountains.

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280 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Kinderkheda, Pasthar, Sejakpur in Saurastra; Kotai, Khedakot, Bhadresvara in Kaccha and Vadnagar, Sunak, Sarotra and Shankhesvara in northern Gujarat and Dabhoi in southern Gujarat were probably, built at such sites of habitation.8 From the study of the sites associated with extant temples it can be ascertained that in selection of the site for the construction of a temple great attention was paid to the surroundings of the temple, and that in the selection emphasis was laid on pleasant sites of the nature, such as the sea, rivers, mountains, etc. Many of these sites, naturally lay in the vicinity of places of human habitation, as temples were intended for devotees. These types of sites to be selected for temples are also prescribed in several works of the Vastusastra 9 All the works recomnded that temples should be constructed on sites which are sacred as well as pleasant. Among such 8. Similarly the small temples at Suvan, Pindara, Boricha, Dhrasanvela Vasai, Anandpur, Parbadi, Asoda, Mandrapur, Kamboi-Solanki, Piludra etc. are situated amidst habitation sites. 9. While dealing with the selection of site vastusastras also give hints about the investigacion into the characterstics of the soil and the scope for its final choice ( vide : Byht. Sam. LIII, 96, 97; Bh. P. CXXX, 42-45; VDP. XCIII; Man. III, 16-32, IV, 4-38; V, 20-30; 34-37; Sm. Su. VIII; APPR. LI; VVS. VI, 8-29; VTF I, 3-5, 1-20; Raj. I, 13-30; VR. pp. 8-10; SD I, 22-23; SR. Il 85-90; Brss. I, VI; 52-156.) Some of the old temples in Gujarat have survived for several centuries, while many other seem to have parished in course of time. The disapperance of extinct temples rests on many other grounds in addition to that of the faulty selection of the soil. Under these circumstances it is not possible to ascertain how far the judgement in the selection of the site on the basis of solidity of the soil may be illustrated by the durability or otherwise of temples built in old times.

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The Sites of the Extant Temples 281 sites the choicest were the sacred places for baths (tirthas ).10 Hence the first preference was given to the sea-coast, the bank of a river or a stream, or the confluence of a river ( with another river or the sea ).11 It was believed that Gods like to stay at pleasant sites of the nature. Accordingly other types of natural sites were also regarded tirthas. These sites generally lie on the tops of mountains, in forests, in groves and in gardens. 18 But the ardency of devotion necessitates that temple for daily visit must be in proximity to places of human habitation. The silpasastra, therefore, also provides for temples in cities, towns and villages, but in that case it recommends that the temples must be built in lovely gardens or beside artificial reservoir. 13 10 The word originally denotes a descent into a river, a tank or a reservoir. 11. Brht. Sam. LV. 1; Bhavisya Purana 1, CXXX, 8; APPR. Su. 48, 7; Tantrasammuccaya, Patala I, 7 (i). 12. Brht. Sam. LV, 8; Bhavisya Purana I, CXXX, 15. APPR. Su. 48, 8; Tantrasammuccaya, Patala, l, 7 (ii) 13. Brht. Sam. LV, 3; Bhavisya Purana. I, CXXX. 10.

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CHAPTER III THE ORIENTATION OF THE EXTANT TEMPLES (With Special Reference to its Canons) An investigation into the orientation of the extant temples of Gujarat indicates that these temples usually face the cardinal directions. It also implies that the temples of different deities faced certain directions. The sun temples generally, faced east. Exceptionally a few of them faced west; for instance the sun temple at Kotai in Kaccha and the two sun temples at Somanatha Patan face west. Even when a sun temple was built on the coast of the western sea, it faced east; for instance the sun temples at Sutrapada, Srinagar, Balej, Pata, Boricha etc. The sun temple built on a mound at Modhera is due east in such a position that the rising sun at the equinoxes would shine straight through the Sabhamandapa down into the shrine. The sun temple at Than also faces east. The temples dedicated to Siva faced either east or west. The celebrated temples of Rudramahalaya at Siddhpur and Somanatha at Prabhas, for instance, face east, while the old temple of Nilakanth at Miyani and the Magaderu at Dhrasanavela face west. Similarly the shrines in the two double-shrined temples at Viramgam, facing each other, orient east-ward and west-ward. Though the pre-Caulukyan temple dedicated to Varaha at Kadvar faces east, the temples dedicated to Vaisnava deities mostly face west. The famous temples of Dwarkadhisa and Rukamani at Dwarka, and the small Vaisnava temple at Odadar face west, However, the Rama and Laxmana temples at Baradia face north and south respectively.

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283 The Orientation of the Extant Temples The Brhama temple at Khedabrhma faces east. As for the temples dedicated to Goddesses they are found facing east, west and north. The Kalikamata temples at Navidhraved and Dhrasanavela, and Gayatri temple at Pasanavada face east. The Rukamanidevi temple at Dwarka, the sitala mata temple and some of the fregmentary temples in the Amathor mata group at Vadnagar face west. The Hingolaja mata at Khandosan and Limboji Mata temple at Delmal face north. The Jain temples generally face north, for instance the famous temples on Mt. Girnar, Satrunjaya, Abu and Taranga. Some of the Jain temples face all the four directions and they enshrine four images installed in the four directions in the centre. They are known as Caumukhi. The Caumukhi temple on Mt. Satrunjay and that at Ranakpur are noteworthy among them. Nearly all the texts on Indian architecture give canons about orientation. This is called Diksadhana, Dinnirnaya or Praci-sadhana.' The principle of orientation was strictly observed by Indian Architects. Accordingly towns, cities, houses and temples all should face exactly the cardinal points. All buildings must face the cardinal points and not the intermediate spaces.3 This principle necessitated the determination of the cardinal points before the erection of a structure. It was attained by the application of several devices such as Sankusthapana, 4 or the 1. The Jain temples at Bhadresvar, Sankhesvar, Sarotra also face north. 2. APPR. LXIII (19-32) CXXXIV; PM. I. 23. VVS. III. 7-34; SSS Il-38-42, SD. I. 20-21; VTF, I, 6; BSS. 127-128; SR. II. 84. 3. Diksu dvarani Karyani Na Vidiksu Kadacana'-Ag. P. CIV, 24 (1) 4. Raj. I. 10, 18; Vastumuktavali v. 43 p. 14. The canons pertaining to devices applied for investigation about orientation are elaborately described in southern Indjan Vastu texts, Viz., Manasara VI, Mayamata VI, Silparatna XI, Kasyfa Silpa I, Vastuvidya III, Manusyalaya Candrika 11, Tantrasa nuccaya ), etc.

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284 The Structural Temples of Gujarat fixing of a peg for determining the cardinal points, the observation of pole-star.5 So, when, once the site of temple is selected, the next step consists in determination of due East. The predominance of East, the direction of the rising sun, is markedly noticeable in ancient temple construction. The predilection is that the deity in the cell and the whole temple should generally face the East. The object is good light and free ventilation. There are several temples now in existance where it may be observed that the stream of light from morning sun penetrates straight through a series of aperatures and gateways, into the cell, i. e. Girbhagriha as if touching the Deity's feet in worship before beginning his diurnal rounds. How the phenomenon of the Solar spectrum of Western science is expressed by Indian architects by this theory of orientation is elaborately pointed out by Shri P. A. Mankad the editor of Aparajitaprccha. He says, "The eastern face of structures, both in plan and elevation, when freely set in direction, gets full and direct exposure to the field of action of solar rediation. As soon as the early dawn breaks, the eastern verandah is flooded, so to say, by early invisible ultra-violet radiation which is the first in order to be felt; as the down advances into Usa, Aruna and actual sunrise, the different luminous visible rays go on impinging that face. They can thus be utilized as the exigencies of life demand, as towards sunrise all the radiations from ultra-violet on the extreme northern end of the eastern facet to the whole range of visible radiation ending in Infra-red on the extreme southern end of the same 5. LSJS. pp. 9-10 also figs. 1 & 2 opp. p. 10. Astronomical treatises like Surya-Siddhanta (Ill-1-51), SiddhantaSiromani (VII 36-39) and Lilavati (I sec. 4, Xl, 1-10, part 2), Brahma Siddhanta-sphuta of Brahmagupta (XIX-1-20); Panca-Siddhanta of Varahamihira (II, 10-13 XIV, 1-11, 14-22) have also dealt with this cardinal principle of orientation to be observed by Indian architecture.

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The Orientation of the Extant Temples 285 have their full pay. It has been observed that ultra-violet radiation has received more attention than the visible and infra-red radiation, owing to the fact that it produce flourescene, photographic action and many known biological effects. It is very significant in this phase of Indian thought that both the extremes of this eastern belt are denoted by Isa (N. E. portion) and Agni ( S. E. portion ) the counterparts of, so to say, ultra-violet or violet and Red or Infra-red radiation of the solar spectrum of the Western Science. The very names Is'a and Agni and their individual laksana which are given to these quarters from earliest times in the Indian History go to suggest that the phenomenon of refraction and diffraction (dispersion ) were well known to Indian Aryans."6 in the orientation of the temples these principles combine (1) the orientation proper, for the temple should face East, the rising sun; (2) the temples should face the centre of the settlement, the village or town, etc. (3) God in his peaceful (santa ) image should be located in and turned towards, the habitations of men; God in his wrathful (ugra ) image should be situated outside and face away from the habitations of men. The first consideration is primeval and remains in basis of orientation. Most of the preserved temples face the East, others the West. It is therefore, said that it is best if a temple has its door to the East and that it is good if the door is to the West. While however it is admissible that a temple faces South but it is not desirable that it should face North.? This is observed also when the second consideration prevails, for it is said that the temples in the east, should face west and those in the west should face east, and the others should face clock wise( pradaksina ) so that those in the north face south but those in the south should not face north.8 6. APPR. Int. p. xxi. 7. Vaikhanasagama Ch. II. 8. Pracyam pratyanmukhan kuryat pranmukhamscambbubhrddisi | yamyodakparsvayostasya Pradaksinyena Vamsagan Il Sm. su. X, 112.

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286 The Structural Temples of Gujarat As regards the orientation of temples in relation to the places which they surrounded, it is hardly possible at present to ascertain howfar the canons were observed in the case of old temples, since the present site of the place does not necessarily represent its original site. But the orientation of the extant temples may be compared to that prescribed in the different works on architecture. In the beginning the Aparajitapraccha enjoins that the sun temples should face the east, 9 but later on it permits that Surya like Brahma, Visnu, Siva and other deities may face east and west as well.10 The latter canon is also prescrtbed by the Prasadamandana. 11 It may be noted here that most of the extant sun temples in Gujarat face east. while a few others face west. The temples of Brahma, Visnu and Siva also are expected to face east and west.12 The temple of Brahma at Khedbrahma faces east. As for the temples of Visnu the pre-Caulukyan temple at Kadvar faces east, while the later temples of Dwarkadhisa at Dwarka and of Visnu at Odadar face west. However the Rama and: Laxamana temples at Bardia face north and south respectively.13 This forms an exception to the general rule given in Aparajitapraccha and Prasadamandana. But it may be applied to the general rule given in the Manasara to the effect that the temples of Visnu may be built in the four quarters and that generally they should face the village. 14 9. APPR. CXXXIV, 2. 10. lbid. 7. 11. PM. II. 37. 12. APPR. CXXXIV, 7. 13. At present there are no images in these temples. 14. Manasara, IX, 129.

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The Orientation of the Extant Temples 287 That the temples of Siva should face east or west fully applies to the old extant temples in Gujarat. The canon prescribes that the temples of the Goddesses should face south.15 But it is surprising to note that the old extant temples of Goddesses in Gujarat are found facing east, west and north, but in no case facing south. As for the Jain images, they are prescribed to the facing any of the four directions. 16 The old Jain temples in Gujarat generally face north. The caumukha temples naturally face all the four directions. 15. APPR. CXXIV, 8-9, P. M. II. 39 16. Ibid. 13.

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CHAPTER IV THE ARCHITECTURAL FORMS OF TEMPLES (a) The Pre-Caulukyan Phase. Among the surving pre-Caulukyan temples in Gujarat the oldest one is that of Gop. On plan the temple of Gop consits of a square central shrine, enclosed within a square covered court, the larger size of the latter producing a spacious aisle all round. This aisle was flat roofed, and out of its centre rose a pyramidal structure covering the shrine and its cella. In this instance the central feature rises well above the roof of the aisle, standing up high enough to be called a tower, and its pyramidal portion is in two tiers, squares in section surmounted by a substantial finial, or amalasila, which is circular in plan. On each side of the lower tier are two Caitya dormers while the upper tier has only one and it is the position. proportions and general design of these ornamental arched projections that give this building much of its character. 1 Due to its unusal shape Cousens has described it as a stranger in this region.2 He finds certain striking resemblances between this temple and the early Kashmirian monuments, particularly the Martand temple, in two important respects, namely the stepped out pyramidal roof with Caitya arches in the courses, and in the trefoil arches seen around the lower terraced basement. According to him the type was introduced in this region from Kashmir by the sun worshipping ancestors of the 1. IABH. p. p. 160. 2. SMIK. D 6.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples Mers. This view of Cousens, since accepted by archaeologists including Coomarswamy and Percy Brown suffers, however, from two important flows. The history of the ancestors of the Mers is not yet fully clear and it is not definitely known that they originally hailed from Kashmir. Secondly, none of the Kashmir temples of the type with which similiarities suggested can be dated earlier than the 8th Cent. A. D.; where as Gop temple is admittedly about two centuries older." The absence in Kashmir of any example of the type of a date earlier to that of Gop stands at present in the way of acceptance of the hypothesis of Kashmirian origin of the Gop temple. (Moreover certain features of Kashmirian temple are absent in Gop temple.) All these would suggest that the conception of the Gop temple was distinct from that of the Kashmirian. On the evidence of the shape of the basement arches in Gop temple Sankalia6 hesistatingly suggests a Gandharan influence through Sindh. But this view also cannot be pressed strongly as the fundamental elements of the design and composition of the Gop temple have hardly any parallels in the Gandharan monuments. The two major features in the 3. HIIA. p. 82. 4. IABH. p. 159 289 5. AKK. p. 7., HIIA. p. 82., IABH. p. 159. Recently a radio-carbon test of the wood fragment found in the Gop temple, was conducted by Dr. Syamadas Chetarji in the physics laboratory, Uni. College of Science and Technology, Calcutta. According to the test, Dr. Chetarji reports, the wood fragment is approximatety 1400 years old. The view of the archaeologist, who place the temple in the 6th Cent., is thus confirmed by a scientific method of dating objects. Dr. H. D. Sankalia (AG. p. 59) inclined to ascribe the temple to the 5th Cent. A. D. (S. E. foot note No. 77 p. 696) 6. AG. pp. 57-59.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat composition of the Gop temple, followed also in several other monuments of the region evidently of this class, are the situation of the sanctum within a covered ambulatory and the stepped arrangement of the roof. Of the first a parallel may be recognised in the plan of what has been designated as the storeyed type of Gupta temples. Shri S. K. Sarasvati observes on this analogy the stepped arrangment of the roof in the Gop temple may, perhaps, be considered as but a slightly different expression of the storeyed conception of the superstructure in the Gupta temple. According to him the bold and emphatic steps in the roof of the temple at Gop resemble, though in a less pronounced manner, the stories in receding stages, characterstic of composition of the roof in the Gupta temple and lend a plausibility to the suggestion made above. The appearance of Caitya arches as gables on the roof is very old and may be traced back to the days of Bharhut.7 290 Cousens has further noticed certain analogous features in the temple at Gop and in what he describes as "early Dravidian temples at Aihole and Pattadakal; " but he regards them as 'purely accidental.' However, such analogous are of greater import with regard to the affiliations of the Gop temple, particularly in the view of the fact that an almost identical plan also characterises the early temples of the Deccan. Shri K, V. Soundara Rajan. 9 upholds that the temple of Gop is basically a combination of the stepped pyramidal shape of the indegeneous Chalukyan sub-order with the ornamental Caitya window motif, being in existence in all early decorative devices to religious structures; and it differs radically from the gable type by the absence of the zig-zag and over-hanging 7. S. E. pp. 584-585. 8. SMTK. P. 6-7. 9. Architectural affiliation of early Saurastra temples' IHQ. xxxvii, No. 1 p. 5.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 291 elevation of the corner angles of the Sikhara at each storey. According to him it is also basically in tune with the Jagamohana-roofs of the Orissan type, As observed by Shri S. K. Sarsvati10 the temples at Than (old Jain temple), 11 Visavada, 12 Harasadamata 13 (old) Pindara 14 and Bilesvara15 in Saurastra belong to the same class as that of Gop. To this group may be added similar temples at Balej (Sun temple)16 Bhansar, 17 Srinagar, 18 Khimesvara, 19 Navi Dhraved, 20 Sonkansari,21 Porbandar82 and a few other places. These temples are all characterised by almost square shrines surmounted by a stepped pyramidal superstructure. The shrine is generally surrounded by a covered ambulatory 10. S. E. p. 585. 11. SMTK. p. 50. 12. SMTK. Plts. XLIII, XLIV; Here Fig. 5. 13. Here Fig. 25. The temple illustrated by him as the Harsadamata temple in fig. 45, in fact seems to be the old temple ( locally known as the Devi-sthanaka) situated on the slope of the hill, while the latter Harasiddhamata temple lies on the summit. 14. Here Fig. 13. 15. The name spelt by S. K. Sarasvati, here as Villesvara is obviously intended to be Bilesvara. Here Figs. 37-38. 16. Here Fig. 6. 17. Here Figs. 33-35. 18. Here Figs. 9-11. 19. Here Figs. 30-32. 20. Here Figs. 28-29. 21. Here Figs. 41-42. 22. Here Fig. 26.

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292 The Structural Temples of Gujarat as for instance in the temples of Bilesvara, Balej, Bhansar, 3 3 Srinagar, Khimesvara etc.24 In the case of the remaining temples there are left no clear indications of a covered ambulatory. The above temples of the Gop classs, when closely examined, may enable us to determine the progress of the style. The development is noticed in the progressive increase of the number of stages, in the gradual reduction of the heights of the steps, in more harmonious proportions between the lower and upper elements of the structure and in a general refinement of the contours. The temple of Siva at Bilesvara respresents, perhaps, the latest development of the type. It is almost the most perfectly preserved temple of the group and hence enables us to understand the composition and design of type in a more convincing manner. The sanctum is situated within a covered ambulatory and is surmounted by a pyramidal tower of stepped stages in receding tiers, each stage on each face being relieved by ornamental caitya arches, gradually diminishing in number from six in the lower most course to one in the uppermost, Each corner at each stage is further ornamented with decorative finjals. The ambulatory is enclosed by walls of stone relieved on the exterior by shallow pilasters that end in cornices. A flat roof of stone covers this ambulatory. From the increased number of stepped stages-the largest among the temples of the group-the refined pyramidal contour, 23. In the group of temples at Bhansara two temples have circumambulatory ( vide here fig. 33 as for instance ); while others are single celled. 24. As for sun temple at Visavada Cousens surmises that there may have been an enclosed passage around the shrine but he admits that there are no indications of one having been attached to the walls of the shrine, the walls being perfectly plain between the basement and the eaves. (SMTK. p. 44),

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 293 and the shape and design of the ornamental arches and finials, the temple may be considered to be the latest, at least in point of style, among the temples of Gop type25 Among the temples of the Gop type in Saurashtra a rectangular design of the sanctum may be recognised in the so-called Varaha temple at Kadvar.26 Another such rectangular temple with a distinctly stepped arrangement of the superstructure is found at Kalsar. Here the rectangular sanctum is preceded by a mandapa also of rectangular design, 27 The superstructure in each consists of a few stepped courses, relieved by Caitya arches.28 The superstructure of pre-Caulukyan temple got gradually modified to the curvilinear form. The different stages of the transition may be traced for instance, in following temples: (a) The old sun temple at Boricha and Kinderkheda. (b) An old temple at Son Kansari and the sun temple at Pasanavada. (c) The sun temples at Sutrapada, Pasthar and Akhodar. (d) The Kalika-mata temple at Dhrasanvel and the second sun temple at Visavada. As regards the ground plan of the pre-Caulukyan temples, the temple of simplest type simply consists of the sanctum or garbhagriha as for instance at Boricha, 29 Odadar,30 Pindara, 31 Bhansar, 32 Son Kansara,33 Visavada, 34 Pasthar35 etc. 25. S. E. pp. 585-586. 26. SMTK. pp. 38-39; AG. pp. 60,63; Here Fig. 4. 27. S. E. Pit. XXI. Fig. 44. The temple faces east. The longer side to south while that of the porch runs 28. S. E. p. 586. 29. Here Fig 14. 30. Here Fig. 36. 31. Here Fig. 13. of the sanctum runs from north east to west. 32. Here Figs. 33-35. 33. Here Fig. 41. 34. Here Fig. 4. 35. Here Fig. 40.

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294 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Sometimes the shrines were surrouned by circumambulatories mostly covered by roofs as for instance at Kadvar, 36 Bilesvara, Srinagar (Devi temple)3 8 Khimesvara39 Balej, 40 Kindrakheda, 4 1 Suyan,43 Ranavav, 43 Sutrapada, 4 4 Akhodar, 45 Dhrasanvel (Kalika-mata-temple ),46 Visavada etc.47 Later on a mandapa was added to the shrine with or without ambulatory as for instance at Kadvar, Balej, Navidhraveda, Bhansar Srinagar, Khimesvara, Kindarkheda, Dhrasanvel, Visavada, Akhodar, Sutrapada, Pasanavada, 48 Suvan etc. Not frequently a portico was prefixed to the mandapa as for instance at Balej, Srinagar, Khimesvara, Navidhraved, Kindarkheda, Suvan, Ranavav Sutrapada etc. Sometimes, the portico was attached to the garbhagliha when the temple had no mandapa for instance at Shrinagar 49 Khimesvara,50 Miyani, 51 Pasthar 52 etc.. In a few examples the usual square plan of the shrine was replaced by a rectangular one as at Kadvar and Kalsar. 58 Thus the most complex temple of the pre-Caulukyan period consisted of a shrine proper, a circumbulatory, a mandapa and a portico. As regards the elevation of the shrine the different forms of the superstructure are already referred to. With respect to the relative height of the superstruciure it may be observed that the height of the superstructure of the early temple (e. g at Gop) was considerably less than that of the walls supporting 36. Here Fig. 3. 45. Here Fig. 15 37. here Fig. 37, 38. 46. Here Fig. 27 38. Here Fig. 11 47. Here Fig. 4. 39. Here Fig. 30-32. 48. Here Fig. 17. 40. Here Fig. 6 49. Here Fig. 10. 41. Here Fig. 39 50. Here Fig. 30. 42. Here Fig. 8. 51. Here Fig. 21. 43. Here Fig. 20. 52. Here Fig. 40. 44. Here Fig. 3. 53. MG. II, Plt. VIII.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 295 it. while the height of the superstructure increased in course of time so that the superstructure became almost as high as (e. g. temples at Bhansar. Visavada, Dhrasanavel, Khimesvar, Srinagar, Navidhraved, Pindara, Pasthar) or some time even slightly higher than the walls below (e. g. temples at Sutrapada, Akhcdar, Bilesvara, Miyani etc.) The covered circumambulatory was generally roofed at the level of the top of the walls of the shrine. They roofed being either flat or sloped. The mandapa is covered with either a flat roof or a low pyramidal roof. The same is the case with the portico. (b) The Caulukyan (Solanki) Phase. The Caulukyan (Solanki) period (A. D. 942.- 1299 A. D.) marked one of the most glorious period in the history of Gujarat and contributed much to its various cultural activities including those in the sphere of art and architecture. Under the patronage of some eminent personages like Vimala, Kumarapala, Vastupala and Tejapala many of the architectural monuments built during this period were associated with Jainism. It was probably on this account that Fergusson was laid to designate the architectural style of this period as the Jain style.54 But as pointed by Vincent Smith;5 6 it has in reality no concern with any particular form of religion. In fact it was a regional form of expression that evolved in Western India during the Caulukyan period. It is therefore, apt to designate it as the Caulukyan phase of Western or Gujarat Style. The General scheme of the Caulukyan temple consists of the sanctum and the pillared hall or mandapa attached with a porch ( ardhamandapa ) combined usually in axial length. The exterior walls are broken up by horizontal mouldings and vertical chases, projected and recessed alternately 54. HIEA, II, p. s 55. HFAIC, p. 116

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296 The Structural Temples of Gujarat and carried up into the elevation producing effective contrast of light and shade. The chases are obtained usually by a system of Nasika (projections) in the ground plan of the temple. In some temples the circumambulatory of the pre-Caulukyan tradition found in vogue even during the Caulukyan period. In some examples an antarala is added between the garbhagliha and the mandapa. Originally, the antarala seems to have form the front portion of the circumambulatory. Thus a fulflegged Caulukyan temple consists of five horizontal components, namely garbhagliha, pradaksinapatha (circumambulatory), antarala, mandapa and catuski (porch). In the larger conception of the monument the temple complex is further amplified by the addition of another mandapa. In that case the first mandapa, which is otherwise left either open or half covered, is converted into a covered mandapa ( styled as Gulha mandapa ), while the second mannapa, known as the Sabhamandapa is generally kept open or half covered. The two mandapas were sometimes left detached, but in most cases connected either directly or through an intervening porch or porches. The sabhamandapa is also sometimes provided with a porch in front. To the mandapas, are. sometimes, added transepts 1 each side. CACIULIECIE In some monuments the temple-complex is fronted by an arched gate ( torana ) or more popularly known as Kirtitorana in Gujarat. Sometimes in place of one Kirtitorana in the centre are found two Kirtitoranas on the two sides of the frontage. In some cases an artificial reservoir generally in the form of a Kunda or Vapi is also added to the front of the temple complex. In elevation the Caulukyan temple rises from a high socle (pitha ) above which the wall surface ( mandovara ) upto the entablature (prahara ) is raised. The entabluture serves as a transition to the next division the superstructure.

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297 The Architectural Forms of Temples The socle (pitha) and the wall surface (mandovara) consist of series of mouldings, sometimes plain, usually ornamented with respective motifs in an order specifically fixed by tradition. The superstructure, surmounting the sanctum and corresponding to the vertical chases rising from the surface of the wall, to the apex is the tall curvilinear Sikhara adorned on all sides with urusrngas and srngas (replica of main Sikhara) members, and crowning elements. The superstructures over the mandapa and porch are low pyramidal roofs, composed of diminishing horizontal courses placed one over the other. Further, in the case of a few of the larger temples the mandapa and the porch are raised in height by multiplying the height of their walls and pillars in two or more stories. Correspondingly the height of the walls of the garbhagriha is also multiplied. In the arrangement of the interior the Caulukyan temple displays some notable features. The peristyle mandapa is composed of richly carved pillars. As in the elevation of the temple outside, the pillars are also divided into three principal sections, a moulded base, an elegantly carved shaft (further sub-divided into decorative horizontal zones) and the capital. The mandapa projects on the outside, the side projections usually accommodate Kaksasanas with leaning parapets and the front projection accommodates the entrance or coincides with the porch. The porch, too, is accommodated with leaning seats on its both sides. The walls of the Caulukyan temples differ from those of the pre-Caulukyan temples in three respects, (1) a number of recessed sides and corners (2) profuse figure sculptures and ornamentation on them (3) a series of base and wall-mouldings. In a few examples shrines of two or three different temples are planned in such a way that they may have a common mandapa between them. The Caumukha (Four faced)

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298 The Structural Temples of Gujarat type of Jain temples is characterised by a common shrine with mandapas on all its sides. Sometimes the tamples of the main deity is surrounded by temples of its four sub-ordinate deities, clased as Parivara devatas. The group is known as Pancayatana ( five Temples ). The Caulukyan temples were all built during a glorious but limited period of about three centuries and a half. The architectural form of the temple had attained full development in its ground plan almost in the early part of this period and hence we hardly find any distinct stages of evolution in the subsequent monuments of the period. 5 5 As regards elevation a few temples follow a simpler form of treatment56 in comparision to the other temples, the sikharas of which are endowed with their miniature replica. Leaving aside this exception, the Caulukyan temples display almost uniform development even in the treatment of their elevation. Unlike the pre-Caulukyan temples, the Caulukyan temples are almost uniform in the treatment of elevation, but they differ widely in the number of their horizontal components. For the sake of convenience they may, therefore, be grouped according to the disposition of their ground plan. 55. In the Archaeology of Gujarat Dr Sankalia classifies the temples of Caulukyan period into two groups (1) Early Type and (2) Late Type. In the beginning he claims that the classification is partly based on the style of architecture (p. 73 ), but latter on admits that in the late type temples there is nothing fundamentally different from the temple of Early Type, and that the former partake much of the decoration of the earlier temples. But additions here and omissions there relegate the temples to the late period (p. 100). Here it may be noted that additions and the omissions pointed by Dr. Sankalia in his description of the late Type temple apply to decorative details rather than the main architectural form. 56. This is illustrated by the small temple at Sander near the large one.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples Primarily they may be classified according to the number of their shrines (garbhagrihas) and then sub-divided according to the number of other components attached to the shrines. 1. One-shrine temples. Normally a temple contains a single-shrine. Accordingly most of the Caulukyan temples fall under this group. But they contain as many as ten varieties with respect to the total number of their components. (a) Some tiny edifices consit of only the garbhagrihas which are surmounted by the usual curvilinear Sikharas. The square ground plan of these temples have lateral projections with mouldings like Jadambo, Kumbho, Jangha (containing central niches for sculptures of Gods and Goddesses), Kevala, Bharni, CHHADYA (eave) etc. in their elevation. The Sikhara, corresponding the lateral projections and vertical chases, have cluster of anga Sikharas round its body and is surmounted with the usual amalaka and Kalasa (finial). The best surviving example of this group, though later, is the small temple of Kasivisvesara adjoining the famous Hatakesvara temple at Vadanagar. 57 The small temples situated on the banks of the Munasar lake at Viramgam 58 and those on the bank of the Surya Kunda at Mohdera also fall in this group. 59 299 The same applies to the small shrines (Devakulikas) aligned in the corridors surrounding some of the Jain temples. (b, Some of the one-shrine temples contain a porch attached axially to the garbhagriha which is almost plain. The porch as a structural component consists of with drawf walls or without walls having two free standing pillars in front and two pilasters attached externally to the garbha-wall. The pillars support the superstructure over it. 57. Here Fig. 144. 58. Here Fig. 101. 59. Surya Mandira Visesanka Plt. VI, fig. 25; Pit XIV, fig. 35.

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300 The Structural Temples of Gujarat In plan the whole structure is rectangular but deep cut recesses in the walls and corners give it a poly angular look. The early example of this type is the Vaisnava temple at Odadar.60 The walls of the garbhgriha, except the horizontal mouldings at the base and vertical chases due to lateral projections at jangha, are quite plain. The eaves over it are of low projections. And the Pancanasika projections rising from the surface of the wall reaching to the apex are also plain. The superstructure is adorned with a heavy Amalaka. The attached porch has much more projecting eave and the superstructure over it is damaged. The Sikhara illustrates the transitory stage. The other noteworthy temples of this group are the small temple in the vicinity of the Sander templeei and the Ranakadevi temple at Wadhwan.62 They form a distinct subgroup by the style of their Sikhara. Here we see, again the repetation of the Caitya window ornament alternated by amalaka shaped ornament in the vertical chases of the Sikhara. (c) The temples, having a grabhgriha with an attached mandapa, form a distinct group. The Siva temples at Virta 63 and Bavaka 64 and the Surya temple at Madhavapur65 have such arrangement of the plan. The open mandapa is contained within a dwarf wall, above which, leaning outwardly, is the sloping asana (Kaksasana ) while the pillars of the interior are square in section with reminiscences of the vase and foliage motif among the decoration of the shaft. 60. Here Fig. 154/a. 01. AANG. Plt. XCV. 62. Here Fig. 133. 63. AANG. Plt. XCVI, 4. 64. Indian Archaeology 1955-56 pp. 47-48. 65. SMIK. Plt. XCI.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 301 (d) A number of small temples fall under this group. The temple of this type consists of the shrine ( garbhagoiha), a mandapa, which extends on either side and a small porch in front of the mandapa. The mandapa here in reality square, but the projection on either side make it rectangular. On account of this peculiar construction, there are sixteen pillars to support the roof, eight of which directly support the dome above. Inside, the dome, resting on an octagon, rises in concentric circles, built on corbel principle. The roof of the mandapa as well as that of porch which is supported by four pillars each placed in the corner of the square forms a small pyramid the summit of which is crowned with small amalaka and a finial (Kalasa). The mouldings of the mandapa wall, corresponding the basement mouldings of the shrine proper, are decorated from the base. The part corresponding the Jangha of wall of the shrine, is sculptured at intervals with gods and goddesses. The best preserved example of this group is the Nilakantha Mahadeva temple at Sunak.66 In plan the temples at Sander Kanoda. Gorad, 61Manod (Manuda ), Runavi, 68 Delmal, Dhinoj, 69 Chaubari, Harasiddha, Miyani (Nilkanta Mahadeva ), Bhayavadar (Somanditya temple ), Mandrapur, Asoda. Valam, Madhavpur (Madhav temple), Than (Sun temple), Dwarka 66. For detail description vide Section II, ch. 4. Here Figs. 55-58 & 220. also AANG. Pits. LXXXI & LXXXIII. 67. The Gorad temple had lost the roof of the mandapa which is now replaced by a Muslim dome (AG. pp. 77-78). Here Fig. 61. 68.. The Ruhai temple had lost its porch and mandapa, when Burgess visited it. A new porch is now built instead. It also stands on an artificial brick mound, now paved (AG. p. 77 also f. n. no. 16, Fig 33) Here Fig. 65 69. At Dhinoj the temple is rebuilt completely, but with the old material (AG. p. 78 ) Its mandapa walls may be in tact as the photograph shows. ( Burgess AANG. Plt. XCVII ), Here Fig. 131.

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302 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (Rukamani temple ), 70 Visavada (Ranchhodji and Rudresvar Mahadeva temples)., Kuchhadi, Tukada71 etc were all originally similar to Sunak. The sun temple at Kotai,72 displaying the ground plan with the features of this group, has a typical gable-roofed superstructure over the mandapa and the porch. The nave of the mandapa is covered with a pyramidal superstructure but the aisle of mandapa and the porch in front of it have a gable-roofed superstructure slanting on either side. Certain Jain temples fall in the group but they from a distinct variety owing to the peculiarity of their ground plans, At vasai, the temple complex known as Junagadhi? 3 is within in an open paved court and is surrouned by a corridor on three sides. The garbhagliha (extinct) seems attached with front gudha mandapa by a narrow slit of passage and the latter with a sabhamandapa, which is connected with the corridor. by means of a pillared and perhaps covered passage.? 4. There is a porch?5 in front of the corridor. The superstructures of all the components are either extinct or damaged. In the Temple of Sarotra76 the Gudhamandapa is connected with the sabhamandapa by means of 16 pillared porches known as Nava Coki. The temple is enclosed by a series of 52 cells and in front of it there is a 'T' shaped porch with flight of 70. This temple has an additional detached rectangular Coki in front of the attached porch to the mandapa Here Fig. 153. 71. The porch is extinct here. Here Fig. 159/b. 72. AKK. Plts. LXIV, LX, Fig. 4. Here Fig. 70. 73. Here Fig. 107/b. 74. Extinct but remains determine the existence. 75. Here Fig. 107/c. 76, AANG. Plt. LXXVII.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 303 steps. Similarly the temple at Bhadresvara is surrounded by 52 cells but in composition it is simpler for it contains only one mandapa and a porch.77 The same is the case with the Kumarapala temple at Girnar, 78 while the Namjnatha temple at Kumbharia has two mandapas. (e) Some of the temples have an intermediary section between the sanctum and the porch. Accordingly they consit of a sanctum, an antarala and a porch. The typical early example of this group is the old Siva temple at Nandisvara.79 The superstuctures display some early characteristics like Caitya-arch ornament and amalaka quions at interval over the facets of the Sikhara and a gable-roofed and pyramindal arrangement. But the best specimen of this group is the Hingolaja-mata (Sarvamangala devi ) temple at Khandosan.80 It displays all the Caulukyan characteristics in wall mouldings as well as in the superstructures surmounted over the garbhagriha and the attached porch. The porch has the leaning seat ( Kaksansana ) on its either side. (f) The garbhagriha of the Sitla-mata temple at Piludra81 preserves the attached portion of the antarala while the mandapa seems extinct. This is perhaps the solitary example of the temple consisting of a sanctum, an antarala and a mandapa. (g) The temples of this type consists of the shrine, an antarala, a circumambulatory and a mandapa. 77. AKK. Plt. LVIII. 78. AKK. Plt. XXXII. 79. Here Fig. 160/a. 80. ARAB. '39. Pl. IX. 81. Here Fig. 117.

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304 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The sun temple on the bank of the river Triveni at Prabhas and that at Bhimanath82 follow this ground plan. The mandapa in the first intance has a projecting balconies on either side. The antarala has no distinct superstructure consequently the Sikhara covering the projections of the ground plan, covers the upper portion of the antarala. The restored plan of the Rudramala at Siddhapur88 indicates similar features of the ground plan. The temple complex also contained eleven small shrines 84 arround the main temple a separate detached nandi-pavilion in front of the mandapa and two Kirtitoranas, each on either side. (h) A few one-shrine temple are provided with antarala, mandapa and porch, but the circuinambulatory is missing. The temples at Sejakapur85 (Navalakha ), Lovrali88 (Gokesvara), Baradia (Rama), 87 Vasai (Dist. Mehsana ), 8 8 Vadanagar (Hatakesvara )89 consist of all the components of the ground plan except the circumambulatory, i. e. they have sanctum, antarala, mandapa and porch or porches as the case may be. The restored temple of Taraetar90 indicates that orginally this temple also had a similar plan, It had superstructure similar to that of the sun temple at Kotai.91 Some of the notable Jain temples, though displaying some additional features in the ground plan inay be classified in this group. On the whole The Vimalavasahi92 and Lunavasahia3 temples at Abu 8. SMIK. Plt. XIII. 83. AANG. Plt.XXXVIII; Here fig. 227. 84. AANG. Fig. 6, p. 73. Here Figs. 99-100. 85. SMTK. Plt. LXV. 90. Here Fig ss. 86. Here Fig. 159/a. 91. Vide AKK. Plt. LX. 87. Here Fig. 114. 92. HIEA. II, Fig. 283 p. 37. 88. ARAB' 38. p. 36. 93. ibid. Fig. 285 p. 41. 89. Here Figs. 138-140.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 305 have similar arrangement of the groud plan. Both the temples stand in the centre of the court yard which is surrounded on all sides by rows of cells with a covered and enclosed passage in front of them. But the temple of Neminatha at Girnar, 94 though similar in plan is located in front rather than in the centre, while the mandapa is fronted by two porches arranged axially. The Jain temple at Miyani 95 has two mandapas connected by a rectangular porch with six compartments (Chacoki ). The extant sabhamandapa shows traces of the porch, which now exists no more. (i) Some of the temples are provided with circumambulatories, antaralas and mandapas, From the view point of the arrangement of the plan the temple at Kheda display the stricking example as it comprises the garbhagriha, circumambulatory and the mandapa. The transitional Sikhara displays characteristics of both types i. e, it is curvilinear in shape with horizontal tiers adorned with Caitya-window and amalaka quoins at its facets. The temple at Modhera apart from the components required by the group of these temples, have a detached sabhamandapa with a Kirtitorana in front of the Gudha mandapa and two Kirtitoranas on the front, each in eitherside and an artificial reservoir, The garbhagliha as well as both mandapas have lost their superstructures.95 (i) The temple of this type consists of a shrine, a circumambulatory an anatarala, a mandapa and a porch. This plan represents a full-flaged type of the Caulukyan temple. The best of this type is supplied by the Sun Temple 94. AKK. plt. XXXII. Here Fig. 239. 95. Here Fig. 64 & 241.

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306 The Structural Temples of Gujarat at Modhera. The temples at Prabhas ( Somanatha, 9 8 Sasibhusana,97 Rudrasvara 98 and the sun temple on the bank of river Hiranya99), Dwarka (the Dwarkadhisa temple), Vasai ( Kankesvara ),100 Dhrasanavel (Magderu ), 101 Ghumali (Navalakha )102 and Taranga ( Jain temple of Ajitanatha )108 all display the full-flaged ground plan of the Caulukyan period. The old Somnatha temple is now extinct but the ground plan indicate by its ruins is well preserved in the new temple erected in its stead. The superstructures over the temples of Ghumali and Surya temple at Hiranya have been lost; that of Vasai displays its crude form; those of Sasibhusana and Rudresvara are restored and rebuilt to some extent and so devoid of their past glory, the curvilinear facet of the superstructure of Magadera contains horizontal tiers adorned with Caitya window and amalaka quious design; while those of Dwarkadhisa (though later) and Taranga display all the chief characteristics of Caulukyan Sikhara style. Moreover the Samarana (Samvarna) over their storied mandapas also are typical Caulukyan in design and set up. II. Double shrined Temples. The ground plan of the double shrined temple is found to be of two types. In one type the two shrines and the common mandapa between them are all arranged axially, while in the other type the two shrines are placed at right angles from two adjoining sides of the mandapa, The first type is illustrated by two double shrined temples 104 on the bank of Munsar lake at Viramgam. Both are similar in plan and in architectural details. The other type 105 is illustrated by the old temple in the vicinity of Hingolaja Mata temple at Khandosan. 95. Here Fig. 76. 96. SMTK. plt. VIII 100. Here Fig, 145. 97. Here Fig 155 101. Here Figs. 154 & 242. 98. Here Fig; 156. 102. AKK. Plt. XLI. 99. AANG. p, 75. Here Fig. 135. 103. AANG. Plt. CIX. 104. Here Fig. 101. 105. Here Fig. 69.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 307 The form of the shrine and the mandapa are of the same type as those of the one shrined temples of this period. III. Triple-shrined Temples. In these temples three shrines are planned adjoining three sides of a common mandapa. The known instances of Triple temple are at Kasara 106 Parabadi107 Girnar.108 To this list Bhidbhanjan Mahadeva of Visavada may be added. 109 The triple shrined temple, built by Vastupala at Girnar has a peculiar arrangement of the ground plan. The central garbhagliha enshrining the image of Mallinatha has a mandapa in front of it. This mandapa is fronted by another mandapa which is flanked by two garbhagrihas on the two sides. There are no porches. A flight of steps lead to the central mandapas; while the adjoining shrines has entrances on all the four sides. The Central shrine is surmounted by the curvilinear spire. The mandapa in front of the main shrine has Samarana ( Samvarna) type of superstructure. The other mandapas and the adjoining shrines are adorned with domical superstructures which seem to be later additions. (e) The Architectural Form traced to the Canonical Sources :- The Nagara Type Brihatsamhita.110 gives the names of proportionate measurement and enumerates 20 forms based on different shapes of the emple. 106. AANG. Pit. LXXXVIII. 107. SMTK. Plt. LXXI. 108. AKK. Plts. XXXVIII and XXXIV; Here Figs. 118 & 232. Dr. H. D. Sankalia has enlisted the Temple of Kanoda (AG. p. 77 ) in the group. In support of his enumeration he relies the existance of three porches attached to the mandapa (Ag. p. 82) but from the plan given by Burgess (AANG. XLI) it seems that it was a one-shrined temple with a mandapa which had three porches, each on each side. 109. For detail Vide Appendix 'A' below. 110. Br. Sm. LVII; 17-31.

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308 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Matsya Purana refers to a general classification of temples into three types Jyestha, Madhya and Kanistha-according to the difference between the sizes of the temples and Llngas. 111 It also describes 20 kinds of varieties of temples and enumerates their corresponding names. 112 They are similar to those enumerated by Br. Sm. The Bhavisya Purana113 strickly follows the types of temples discussed by Matsya Purana. Agni Purana divides temples into five classes according to the different shapes of the ground plan and subdivides each class into nine varieties, the grand total of the varieties being ultimately 45. After enumerating the corresponding names of the types the work states that these names apply to Lata and others. Garuda Purana 115 follows the scheme given by Ag. P. with slight differences in certain names of the types of the temples. Visnudharmottara Purana116 enumerates as many as 101 types of temples, 100 in adhyaya 86 and one Sarvotobhadra in ad. 87. The first variety namely Himavata seems to be the main type of which the remaining 99 are variations. Visvakarma prakasa enumerates 20 types of temples. 117 111. M. P. CCLXIX. 26. 112. They are :- Meru, Mandara, Kailasa, Kumbha, Simha, Mriga, VimanaChhandaka, Catursra, Astasra, Sodasra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simbasya, Nandana, Nandivardhan, Hansa, Vrisa, Suvarnesa, Padmaka, and Samudgaka. Ibid. 27-30. 113. Bh. P CXXX. 25-35. 114. Ag. P. CIV. 11-22; Vide Table 'A' below. 115. G. P. XLVII, 21-32. 116. VD. P. Pt. III, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII. (17. VKP. VI; 82-84.

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TABLE "A" The 45 temples derived from the five shapes according to Agni Purana ( CIV, 11-12) and Garuda Purana ( I. XLVII, 21 .ff ). B D E The Architectural Forms of Temples A Vairaja Puspaka Kailasa Manika Trivistapa (Caturasara (Ayatasra- (Vstta-Circular) (Vrttayata- (Astasra-Octagonal) Square), -Rectangular) Elliptical) *Meru Valabhi Valaya *Gaja Vajra #Mandara Gsharaja Dundubhai Vrsabha Cakra *Vimana Salagraha Padma *Hamsa Svastika (Bhadra (ka) Brahma-mandira Maha-Padma. Garutmana (G. P, Mustika) *Sarvatobhadra (G. P. Mandira) Vardhani (G. P. Garuda)* Khadga Caruka Visala (6 P. Mukuli) Bhusana (G. P. Vakra) (G. P. Rucaka) (G. P. Vimana) Usnisi. (G. P. Simha)* Gada Nandanika Prabhava Sankha Bhudhara Vajra-svastika (G P. Nandana) *Sama Kalasa (G. P. Bhumukha) Vijaya Nandivardhana (G. P. Uttamaha) Sri Vrksa Srijaya Citra Srivatsa Sivika-Vesma (G. P. Guva-Vrksa). Prthvidhara Srikantha (G. P. slbika-Vesma). Kksanayaka (G. P. Srivsksa ) Bhavana (Bhuvana) Note:-1. Groups A, B; C, D, and E have been traditionaly dedicated to Brhama, Kubera, Siva, Varuna and Indra respectively. 2. It is interesting to note here that on comparing the list of the twenty temples given in the Brhtsamhita. M. P. and Vis. P. with the list given above we find that twelve of the twenty names occur among those given in Ag. P and Garuda P. These names are marked with an asterisk in the Table given above. 3. Visvakarma prakasa narrates Padma as Padmaka, Garuda as Suparna and Mlga as Mlgaraja, 309

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310 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Samarangana Sutradhara deals with ten types of groups of temples under the head of (1) Rucakadi (Chadya prasada ) (XLIX), (2) Mervadi (LV) (3) Rucakadi (sikharanvita) (LVI), (4) Sridharadi (LVII), (5) Vimanadi (LVIII, LIX), (6) Srikutadi (LX), (7), Dravida (LXII), (8) Nagara (LXIII), (9) Digbhadradi (Vavata) (LXIV), (10) Bhumija (LXV). The first type Rucakadi (Chadya prasada) is described as having flat-roofed superstructure and it resolves into five shapes (Vairaja etc.) of ground plans. It is sub-divided into 64 varieties in all. The second type Marvadi has 16 varieties. The third type i. e. Rucakadi ( Sikharanvita ) as indicated by its name is adorned with spire. It is divided into four classes ( Lalita, Misraka, Sandhara and Nigudha ) which are subdivided into 64 varieties in all. The fourth type Sridharadi resolves into two groups (Sridharadi 118 and Nandanadi) having 50 varieties in all. The fifth type Vimanadi has 8 sub groups ( alloted to siva, Visnu, Brahma, Surya, Candika, Vinayaka, Laksmi and all deities ) which are sub-divided into 64 varieties, The sixth type Srikutadi has 36 varieties in all. Temples of this type are here intoduced as constructions of the Nagara style. The seventh type Dravida has 22 varieties of temples, 12 being based according to the number of storeys they have; the 5 based on moulding of pitha and again 5 on five-fold talachanda i. e. the shape of the ground plan. The eighth type Nagara has 20 varieties of temples which strickly correspond to those given by Br. Sm; M. P. and V. K. P. The ninth type Digbhadradi (Vavata ) has 12 varieties of temples and the last tenth type has three sub-groups (Nisadha, Veksajati and Astasala ) sub-divided into 16 varieties in all. Thus Sm. Su. has prescribed in all 364 varieties of temples 119 118. The subgroup Sridhara has 40 types of temples out of which 9, 6 5 and 20 are said to be favourite to Bhagavati, Siva, Brahma and Visnu respectively. 119 Vide table 'B' below.

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TABLE "B" Temple Classification of Sm. Su. (2) Mervadi (LV) (16) (1) Rucakadi (Chadya) (XLIX). Vairaja Kailasa Puspaka (24) (10) (10) Manika (10) Trivistapa (10) The Architectural Forms of Temples (3) Rucakadi (sikhara ) ( XLIX) (4) Sridharadi (LVII) Misraka Nandana etc Lalita (25) Sandhara (25) Sridharadi (40) (5) (10) (5) Vimanadi ( LVII ), (LIX) (64) (6) srikutadi (LX) (7) Dravida ( LXII) (22) (36) (8j Nagara (LXIII) (9) Digbhadradi ( Vavata ) (LXIV) (12) (10) Bhumija (LXV) (20 311 =364

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat It is here that we first come across the terms Nagara and Dravida in the texts on Vastuvidya pertaining to Northern school of Indian architecture. 312 The classification of temples into Nagara, Dravida & Vesara is a late innovation. According to Silpa texts square temples alone were not Nagara temples. Nagara temples admit all possible and prevalent shapes rectangular, oval, hexagonal, octagonal etc. Similarly it can be said that the circular ones alone were not Vesara temples and that the six-sided or octagonal temples alone were not Dravida temples. Therefore, it would not be unjustified to say that this classification of Nagara etc, does not primarily take the shape of temples as the criterian of classification. We have seen that early sources do not classify temples into Nagara, Dravida etc. But it should be taken into account that the early 20 temples narrated in Br. Sm, and M. P, (approx. 6th Cent. A. D.) have all been treated in the later work Sm. Su. (11th Cent.) as Nagara Prasada (Sm. Su. LXIII, 1-4) and they are distinguished by the same text, from Dravida (Sm. Su. LXI, LXII) and the Vavata (LXIV). Thus Nagara as a style of temple architecture was a later criterian of classification. By the time of Sm. Su. however, it has attained universal recognition. Dravida Form the perusal of the contents of the Sm, Su. (LXI, LXII) and other Silpa texts mostly those belonging to the South Indian group,1 120 however, it follows, that if one were to 120. The classifications of types of temple are also dealt with by the works, mainly dealing with the system of architecture, prevalent in Southern India. Manasara, Kamikagama, Suprebhedagama and Isangurudevapaddhati have discussed the various types of temples. The list in Manasara contains under twelve classes (or storeys) 98 types of temple, Kamikagama deals under three main styles Nagara, Dravida, Vesara-20 types, similarly Suprabhedagama also deals with the three styles, which comprise 10 types of temple. Sukraniti has discussed types of temple based on the shape of the ground plans as well on the number of storeyes that they take.

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The Architeetural Forms of temples 313 varify the texts within reference to existing monuments, the Dravidian temples are not hexagonal or octagonal in ground plan. This supports our contention that the shape (or geographical regions ) are not the criterian of different modes of expression. From the exisiting monuments it can be derived that the Dravida temples are the: square temples surmounted by a Sikhara which are divided into compartments like storeys, on the top of which are two kinds of crowing pieces, one like that on the Shore Temple at Mamalapuram, and the other like the one in Ganesa Ratha of that place. All the manuals on Vastu-sastra especially those belonging to the Maya school or Dravida School, describe temple divisons on the basis of the storeys in the Sikharas which might be 12 (or 12 to 17) in number. The crowning peice is called the Stupi with Kalasa. The Sm. Su. in this respect has exactly followed the Southern text and so its representation pertaining to this style is quite fitting to the existing monuments of South. The Aparajitapraccha divides temples into two main groups 121 Sudhachanda comprising eight (a) those belonging to varieties 122 viz., (1) Nagara (2) Dravida (3) Varata * (4) Misraka (5) Latina (6) Sandhara (7) Vimana (8) Bhumija 121 APPR. CIII, 1-3, CXII. 2-3, 13-15, 122. APPR. CLV, CLVII,

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314 The Structural Temples of Gujarat and (b) six varieties based on their special features like Desa (country), Jati (Community), Kula (family), Sthana (place) and Varna (colour). They are : (1) Valabhi (or trisangnaka). (2) Simhavalokana. (3) Phasanakara (or Napumsaka ) (4) Daruja (5) Vimana Nagara (6) Vimanapuspaka The first type Nagara is further divided into six varieties (1) Vairaja etc. 122 (which comprises five-fold shapes or ground plans) (2) Puranabhadra etc. 128 (3) Bhadhara 1 24 (4) Surataru etc. 125 (5) Sagaratilaka etc. 126 and (6) Meru etc., 127 each variety contains 53, 25, 25, 25, 41 sub-varieties respectively. The second type Dravida 1 28 is divided into temples having several Bhumikas; in all it comprises 25 varieties of temples. The Latina 12 9 type adopts the five-fold divisions of the shape of the plan and comprises in all 25 varieties of temples. The Misraka. 180 too, has three divisions ( Rucakodbhava, sridhara etc, and Sritilakodbhava comprising 25 verieties in all. 122. APPR. CLV, CLVI, CLVII, 123. APPR. CLXIV. 124. APPR. CLXV. 125. APPR. CLXVI. 126. APPR. CLXIX. 127. APPR. CLXVII, CLXX. 128. APPR. CLXXIV. 129. APPR. CLVIII. 130. APPR. CLXVIII

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 315 The Vimana181 type has two sub-groups, one based on the number of bhumikas containing 25 verieties in all. The other subgroup (pertaining to various gods-goddesses like Siva, Visnu, Brahma, Surya Devi, Ganapati, Tirthankara, and Sarva Deva, each ascribed with 8 varieties of temples). contains 64 varieties of temples. Thus this type contains 89 varieties in all. The Bhumija 132 type of temples is divided into three groups (Catursra, Vritta, Astasra, all based on the shape of the ground plan and admit the several numbers of storeyes in elevation). In all, it has 25 varieties of temples. The Sandhara, 133 the Varata, 134 the Valabhi, 13 5 the Simhavalokan136 each of these types contains 25 varieties of temples. The Phasanakara137 type of temples is based again on the several shapes of the ground plan and storeyes in elevation. In all it has 20 verieties of temples, The particulars of Daruja type are missing in the text. The Vimananagara138 type has three groups (Puspaka etc. Sridhadra etc. and Meru), subdivided into 76 varieties in all. The last type Vimana puspaka139 has 25 varieties of temples of which the last one namely Meru forms a class by itself. Thus APPR. mentions 453 verieties in all. 140 131. APPR. CLXII, CLXIX. 132 APPR. CLXXI. 135. APPR. CLXXVI. 136 APPR. CLXXVII. 137. APPR. CLXXVIII 133 APPR. CLIX. 134. APPR. CLXXV. 138. APPR. CLXII, CLXIII, CLXXX, CLXXXI, CLXXXII. 139. APPR. CLX. 140. Vide Table 'C' below.

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TABLE 'C' Temple Classification of Appr. 316 ii) Nagara. Vairaja etc. (53) Purnabhadra etc. Bhudara etc. (25) (25) Surataru etc. (25) agaratilaka Meru etc. (25) (25) (2) Dravida. (25) (3) Latina (25) (4) Misraka (5) Vimana. Rucakodabhava. Sridhara Sritilakodbhava. Based on Bhumika (25) dedicated to god & goddesses (64) (10) (6) Bhumija. (7) Sandhara (25) (8) Varata (25) (9) Valabhi (25) (10) Simhavalokana. (25) (25) The Structural Temples of Gujarat (11) Phasanakara. (12) (13) Vimananagara. (14) Vimanapuspaka. Daruja Puspaka (25) Sribhadra. (40) Meru (11) 162 =453

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The Architectural Forms of Temples Further APPR, also gives particulars about the different regions where the different types of temples were especially prevalent. The Nagara type for instance was common in Ahiraja (i. e. Ahichhatra) Vairajya, Virata, Kokana, Dandkarnya and Sanhyadri. The work also cites the types that especially in vogue in Saurastra and Gurjaradesa, but unfortunately the line mentioning these types is missing in the text.141 were In APPR. the Nagara type figures as the first and foremost type of temples. It describes the salient features of this type as follows. The spire of the Nagara temple is adorned with Srngas, Urusrigas, Pratyangas etc. It is constructed of profile (Rekha) of one to three divisions (Khandas). It has Sukanasa, Amalaka, Kalasa and Andaka Its' ground plan is adorned with various projections running vertically and horizontally from top to bottom. Its vertical member are Pitha, Uppitha, Jangha ( Mandovara) Kutachadya etc. It has Mandapa, Vitana (ceilings) adorned with bell-shaped Samvarna ( or Samarana )142 From the description of twenty temples in Brht. Sam.,143 M. P. 144 and Visva Karma Prakasa 145 (the works approx. of 6th Cent. A. D.) etc., it seems that the temples have assumed various forms by this time, 317 None of these works however refers to the Nagara School of architecture, which is found to be one of the principal schools in later canonical works. It is in the Ag. P 146 that 141. APPR. CXII, 12. Shri P. A. Mankad the editor of APPR. contends that the Nagara type originated in Ahichhatra in Pancala and that it extended southword along with the migration of the Brhamanas of Pancala, who are known as Nagaras ( Appr Int. pp. XXIII-XXVI ). 142. APPR. CVI, 18-25. 143. Br. Sm LVII, 17-31. 146. AG. P. CIV. 11-12. 144. MP. CCLXIX. 26. 145. VKP. VI, 82-86.

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318 The Structural Temples of Gujarat we come across an implied reference to the Nagara school when it associates the 45 varieties (expressly styled as Lata ) with Nagara (ctiy). It seems probable that architecture attain a special form accordingly got known as Nagara in course of time. Ag. P. further states that the 45 verieties of temples enumerated by it belongs to Lata (style) probably based on regional conception of temple building activities. The Sm. Su. is supposed to represent the canons of the Lata school. It represents temples into several groups such as Rucakadi, Sridharadi, Dravida, Nagara, Bhumija etc., Dr. D. N. Shukla classifies the first five groups under the early and later Lata styles. He has grouped the classification of the temples into five groups.-Early Lata style, Later Lata style, Nagara style, Dravidian style, and Regional styles. 147 The classification of temples, here seems to have been mostly based on the shapes of the ground plans, superstructures with or without storeys, sikharas, stingas and urustings and with five-fold terraces etc. Early Lata is further divided by him into three types-The Chadya Prasaada 148 (the roofed-temples), temples having superstructure with Sikhara 1 4 9 and superstructure with storeys. 150 Later Lata style, an ornamental style liaving sringas and storeys, comprises four sub-types Meru etc. with 16 & 20 varieties, Sridhara etc. with 40 and Nandan etc. with 10 varieties 151 Nagara style Supplies the traditional list found in two sub-groups (i) Meru and others 189 same as discussed in early 147. Dr. D. N. Shukla. Vastusastra Vol. I. (with special reference to Sm. Su.) pp. 443. ff. 148. Ibid. Ch. XLIX. 151. Sm Su. Ch. LV, LVII. 149. lbid. Ch. LI, LVI. 152. Ibid. LXIII. 150. lbid. Ch. LVIII, LIX.

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319 The Architectural Forms of Temples texts like Matsya P. and Visvakarma Prakasa etc. and (ii) Srikuta etc. 36 Prasadas.163 Dravidian style has one to twelve storeys with five fold terraces and talacchandas. 164 The regional styles with characteristics of both Nagara and Dravida have two types-Vavata (Vairata ) 158 and Bhumija 156 The classification presented by Dr. Shukla seems to be elucidative to a larger extent, however, the appellation "Lata' is not given in the original text and hence his application of this appellation seems to be arbitrary. He also assumes that Lala style was a branch of the Nagara style which was universal. As pointed out by Dr. T. Battacharya the Sm. Su. is definately the work of the Lata school which was in vogue in Western India. Sm, Su. has developed the 45 varieties of temples into 64 giving prominance to the Vairaja ( square ) type having 24 sub-types of temples. Sm. Su. treats 20 varieties of temples enumerated by early works like Br. Sm., MP. & VKP. in a separate chapter (vide LXIII) under the head of the Nagara type because they were perhaps considered as traditional type of temples during the period of its composition. The Agni Purana, the Haya Sirsapancaratram 158 and the 153. IBid. LX. 156. Ibid. LXV. 154. Ibid. LXI, LXII. 157. T. B. Vastuvidya' p. 141. 155. Ibid. LXIV. 158. * Nagaranadhikrtyeh prameyam Vartnodita I Yo Visesoatra latanam prasamksepenamanyate II Nagaraistu samalata Kintu te Karmabhedakah I Cataroran tu tesam masaraka Kapotakau II -Hayasirsa.

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320 The Structural Temples of Gujarat APPR.159 refers to the Lata Style. As shown above the Sm. Su. was perhaps mainly a work of the Lata school. The first classification of temples made in it contains many names quite different from those found in other works though the general (traditional) system of dividing them into 5 classes according to shape (Round, square rectangular, oval, and octagonal ) has been followed. The similarity, however, of some of these names with those in the Agri P. proves the statement, of the Purana that the "Lata temples bear the same name," ( though not exactly ). What were the characterstics of this earlier period may be guessed from the Hayasissa panca ratram (Ch.-18) The verses concerned may be rendered as follows : "The Lata temples are similar to Nagaras but they differ in the Karma ( construction). Their masurakas (pedastals) and Kapotakas (mouldings) are square." The distinctive features are not clear. This is an example of auothers looking on other 159. The Aparajitapsccha confines the Nagari ( Nagara ) style to Madhyadesa and further mentions: Lati and Vairati ( evidently of the Lata and Vairata regions ) as separate styles : Nagari Madhyadesa tu Lati Lata Prakirttita I Dravidi daksine bhaga Vairati tu Svadesaja || Lati and Vaisati should however, be considered as ramifications of the Nagara style which was current through out Northern India. (S. K. Sarsavati. 'Origion of Mediaeval temple styles' Indian Culture Vol. VIII. p. 183 f. note no. 2). The Brhta Samihita and other texts (like APPR etc.) on the Science of Architecture specifically mention that the Madhyadesa was the centre of the Nagara style and as Dr. Stella Kramarisch has suggested, from this centre under the patronage of the respective ruling dynasties, the specific types of temples built there, were seen to develop local variations of their own, in the countries to the East (Kalinga ) and West (Lata ) and from the Himalayas in the North to the river Tungabhadra in the South. (H. T. I, p. 292.)

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 321 schools as differing only in the shape of structures, as Dravidian authors later on did in defining the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara structures, 160 The original numbers of temples in the Lala order might have been 45, as mentioned in the Ag. P. but by the 11th cent. A. D. it has reached 64, as is evident from Sm. Su. The Agamas though written at a later age generally represent an early stage of development of Vastuvidya of southern school. From the summary of Kamikagama 161 we find that this Agama is acquainted with the divisions of temples into Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. It further adds three more varieties Sarvadesika, Kalinga and Varata, to this list.162 But the description of the Nagara type of temples, 163 offered by this Agama is considerably much different from the description of this class of temples narrated by Sm. Su. 164 and APPR. 16 5 This clearly indicates that the divisions offered by the works of southern India were mostly confined to the temples built in that region and that the classification offered has nothing to do with the temple built in Northern India so far the classification of the temples is concerned. While discussing this topic Dr. T. B. Bhattacharya also arrives at a similar conclusion. He says, "There is therefore no doubt that the South Indian Vastu texts deal only with the Dravidian temples and their Nagara, Dravida and Vesara do not refer to their distinct styles or orders of Indian architecture; but for reasons now not clear, there was a confusion about the meaning of these words which shows (1) that this division was a later growth and (2) these ineant to them not three different styles of three different countries but three classes or varieties of the South Indian temples and various other structures like the linga, Lingapitha etc. 166 160. T. Bhattacharya. 'A study on Vastuvidya' pp. 151-152. 161. Kamikagama. LXV.6-7, 12-18. 164. Sm. Su. LXI, LXII. 162. Ibid. XLIX; 2-3. 165. APPR.CVI., 18-25. 163. Ibid. XLIX, 5-10. 166. 'A study on Vastuvidya'. p. 161.

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322 The Structural Temples of Gujarat So the characteristics of three varieties Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, offered by Agamas 167 and Silpa texts like Manasara etc. 168 may fittingly apply to the temples of South India, which in shape are either square, rectangular circular, hexagonal and octagonal etc. The terminology about five fold shapes of the ground plan offered by Ag, P; Sm. Su. APPR (Vairaja etc.) is seen completely absent here; instead a new terminology about the shape i. e. for square Nagara', for circular Vesara and for hexagonal or octagonal 'Dravida' seems adopted by the southern school. Again, the description of temples under the head of Dravida given by Sm. Su.;169 APPR110 etc , in many respect fits to the existing monuments of southern India. This shows that when the canonical works of Northern school describe the temples belonging to Dravida, etc. school, they have clear idea about their geographical aspect. So the conclusion, which we are here arriving at, is that in the Southern school the form Nagara, Dravida and Vesara is based on the shape of the temple; and to the Northern school the terms are in the sense of the geographical divisions of the country. i. e. the division to which they apply. But the canonical works do not treat the Lata type of temples as a separate group of temples obviously it seems merged into all pervading and universal style Nagara. Sm. Su. treats temples enumerated by early sources like Br. Sm., M. P., VKP etc. as Nagara temples (LXIII). But the APPR has reflected much light on this type of the temple and first and foremost preferance is given to Nagara in its fourteen main types of temples. (CIII, CIV etc.) 167. Kami. XLIX; Supra. XXXI, 37-39; Vaikhanasagama (Vide T. B. Vastuvidya p. 144) 168. Manasara. XVIII, 45-51, LIII, 27 XXI. 36 etc. For details see P. K. Acharya's EHA. Nagara' pp. 260-272. 169. Sm. Su. LXII. 170. APPR. CLXXIV.

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323 The Architectural Forms of Temples (d) Determinants of its Sub-Types The traditional classifications of temples have some basic principles which determines their sub-groups. The temples are classified according to the architectural features171 of the buildings, their layouts, shapes, superstructures and the crowns to gether with decorations. These features may broadly be grouped under two heads (i) the ground plan and (ii) the superstructure. (i) The ground plan The traditional classifications and types of temple, as seen above, are discussed at length in the sections of the Paranas and the traditional works of Vastuvidya prevalent in north India. These works display much importance to the shapes of the ground plans and name them accordingly. Varahamihira in Br. Sm. lays down several rules pertaining to the ground plan.172 Apart from the usual shapes square, rectangular, circular, etc. the text prescribes many other varieties of shapes such as lotus-shaped, elephant-shaped, bull-shaped, swan-shaped, pot-shaped etc. Matsya Purana 17s follows the scheme offered by Br, Sm. The later work known as Visvakarma-prakasa, the authorship of which is ascribed to Visvakarma, cites the scheme given by Br. Sm. & MP, apparently displaying the similarity of shapes proposed by latter works.174 Agni Puiana more elaborately discusses the Ksetras' (plans) of the temples and accordingly deals with five 171. The classification of the Vimanadi type given in the Sm. Su. and APPR. is however made according to the different deities. 172. Br. Sm. LVII, 17-31. 173. MP. CCLXIX. 27-30. 174. VKP. VI, 82-84.

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324 The Structural Temples of Gujarat divisions of temples depending on five shapes or plans; 173 namely Vairajya174 (Caturasra = square ); (2) Puspaka 175 (Ayatasra = rectangular ); (3) Kailasa 176 (Vitta = round) (4) Manika177 (Vsttayata = Elliptical) and (5) Trivistapa 178 (Astasra = Octagonal). Each division contains 9 varieties ultimately giving rise to 45 varieties of the temples. These temples with their five-fold shapes are to be built of stones and baked bricks in towns (Nagara ). The Scheme given by Agni Purana is followed by Garuda Purana. 179 It gives exactly the general plan of five shapes and 45 sub varieties but the nomenclature is not identical in all cases. Almost all the canonical works like Sm. Su.180 and APPR.181 accept these five-fold geometrical representations of the forms or shapes as primary shapes for the ground plan of the temples. From the usual five shapes of the ground plans of the shrine Sm. Su. of King Bhojadeva (11th Cent. A. D.) derives 64 kinds of temples; Vairaja, the square one, having 24 varieties and Kailasa and others having 10 varieties each.182 This classification based on shapes like Vairajya applies to the Rucakadi group of 64 temples given in Ch. XLIX & LVI wherein the nomenclature of the varieties applies more to the list given in Ch. XLIX only i. e, to the varieties of the Chadya prasadas, rather than the list of Sikharanvita prasadas given in Ch. LVI.183 173. Ag. P. CIV; 1-34. 178. Ibid. 20, 21. 174. lbid. 14, 25. 179. G. P. XLVII, 21-23. 175. Ibid. 16, 17. 180. Sm. Su. XLIX, 3. 176. Ibid. 17, 18. 181. APPR. CIV. 3-5. 177. Ibid. 19, 20. 182. Sm. Su. XLIX. 183. Out of 64 varieties mentioned in this chapter only 25 varieties are based on shapes. They are grouped under the head Latina.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples , 325 Now if we just compare the two lists-45 temples of Agni Purana and 64 chadya prasadas of Sm. Su., we find that though the shapes of their horizontal sections with their prototypes in heaven (vertical height) remain the same, the number and arrangement, have undergone a change. The square varieties increased from 9 to 24, though others are stationary. Similarly certain temples in the list of Agni have assumed another shape in the list of Sm. Su. e. g. Hamsa elliptical in Agni is octagonal in Sm. Su, Mahapadama circular have attained octagonal shape in Sm, Su. Meru the most prominent in Agni is absence in this list of Sm. Su. (though highest extollation on the Prasada raja Meru is seen several times in other lists of Sm. Su.). The ground plan ( Talacchanda ) of the shrine internally and externally comprises the Garbhagriha, its dividing walls, Bhramani or Pradiksnapatha i. e. circumambulatory and the outerwalls walls of both the types include the different Argas (i e. Nasikas ).184 It is these Angns that go to give starlike projections to the external boundary of the plan. What would otherwise have presented a straight linear appearance in the bounding line, is converted into several zigzag projections, some going outwards and others in wards of the main external boundary due to the additions or angas like Bhadra, Pratiratha, Nandi etc. For getting varieties of starlike shapes the device of the bhadradi projections are applied to a square ground plan. The square ground plan of the shrine (as well as that of mandapa etc.) is divided into several parts such 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 22, 24, 26, etc. and they in turn all alloted in uneven numbers to the bhadradi projections being projected in a given formula, e. g. In Sm. Su.185 the square ground plan of the Sridhara variety of the Meru type consists of 24 parts of which 12 184. These Angas are Bhadra, Mukhabhadra, Pratiratha, Upabhadra, Karna, Pratikarna, Nandi, Varimarga, etc. 185. Sm. Su. LVII.

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326 The Structural Temples of Gujarat parts are alloted to Bhadra (Sala) projection and remaining for Karna equally distributed on its either side. The next variety in this group Hemakuta has 26 such parts; the additional two more are alloted to Varimarga having one part on either side of the bhadra ( Sala ) projection. Similarly in APPR. the ground plans of the 25 varieties of the Vairajyadi 186 temples are divided in to 4, 6, 8, 10 equal parts each of these divisions here is alloted to Bhadra, Pratirath, Nandi etc. projections and Karna the remaining original portion. Varieties of several types of temples discussed in Sm. Su, & APPR. exhibit this device getting innumerable starlike shapes of their ground plans, The varieties, thus attained in plan, give rise to various varieties of temples. This is one of the most important and conspicuous factors which determines the different varieties of temple. (ii) The Superstructure. The other determinant factor of the type of temple is the superstructure. The earlier works, while refering to the construction of superstructure prescribe the proportion of its height but do not specify any particulars about its profile or even about its horizontal form. Among the canonicol works of the North the Sm. Su. makes first mention of the two horizontal forms of the superstructure and accordingly classifies temples into two types named chadyaprasadas and sikharanvita prasadas. The former have flat or pyramidal superstructures, while the latter are endowed with the curvilinear spires. In Chadya prasadas it is determined by number of steppedout pyramidal layers of. diminishing sizes superimposed on other till the appex is reached which is crowned with amalaka and finial. 186 APPR. CLVII.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 327 But in Sikhara prasadas the spire (sikhara ) being curvilinear, the profile (Rekha) and its various modes determine the several varieties of the spire. The other elements which differentiate the one type of spire from another are seunga, ulussunga etc. It is in the APPR. that we first come across canons about the profile of the Sikhara. For attaining profile (Rekha) of the spire (Sikhara ) two methods are prescribed by the canons, (a) Candrakala and (b) Udayakala Rekha. 187 (a) Candrakala Rekha, Rekha i. e. the profile of a spire (Sikhara ) above the garbhagoiha involves methods of setting out curves. According to Candrakala, the given height of the spire is divided into Khandas varying from three to eighteen paits (thus giving rise to 16 such Khandas ). The first Khanda being divided into three parts is known as Trikhanda, the second being divided into four parts Catuskhanda, the third Pancakhanda in five parts and so on. By adopting any one of these Khandas the setting out of the curves i. e. profile of spire is obtained. Thus Khanda forms a piece, a uniform (straight or curved ) portion of Sikhara wherein the curvature remains practically of the same degree of acuiness. Further each Khanda is divided horizontally into several prescribed degits or parts, technically known as Kala, and vertically into divisions known as Cara. By means of prescribed ratio between these Kala and Cara, the profile (Rekha) of the sikhara is attained. In otherwords the curvature of the Sikhara is determined by a vertical Cara in corresponding ratio at each successive horizontal Khanda divided in Kala. The total number of Kala is 16: Cara also has 16 number. So the total number of Rekha will be (16 x 16) 256. This is one way of arriving at Rekha, 188 187. APPR. CXXXIX, CXL. 188. For detail vide Ch. 13 below. For drawings vide HT, vol I pp. 209-10; Also SR. P. 183.

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328 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (b) Udayakala Rekha In the other i. e. in Udayakala Rekha ( profile ) the given height of sikhara is divided into 5 to 29 Khandas, which ultimately give rise to 25 verieties of Rekhas. 1881 The Kala j. e. degit at each Khanda will vary with the increase of Khanda. The secondary elements which contribute in differentiating the types of the spire ( sikhara ) from each other are, Urustingas Stingas, Pratyangas. Tavngas, Tilaks etc. They are placed corresponding to the projections that have been attained by the ground plan. The simple square plan has only one sikhara above the shrine. But when square is given star-like shape by adding projections to the external boundary of the ground plan, the projecting portion above the top of the wall is adorned with the aforesaid members. Their increase and decrease in the number depends upon the zigzag shape of the ground plan, rendering variety in appearance which ultimately differentiate one Sikhara type from another. The addition of such various elements creates innumerable varieties of shapes of the spire. (2) The Sub-types of The Extant Temples In Gujarat It will now be interesting to investigate which of these canonical traditions apply to the old temples of Gujarat especially with respect to the general architectural form of the temple. Among the pre-Caulukyan temples the oldest is the temple at Gop. Different views have been suggested about the architectural form of the Gop monument. They based on the general appearance and affinities with certain monuments in other parts of the country. But none has tried to trace the particular form to the connical works on architecture. It will however be interesting to see whether the form can be identified with any type prescribed in those works. At the outset it may be noted that the temple at Gop has a 188/1 SR. p. 183.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 329 pyramidal, and not a curvilinear superstructure. The Aparajita praccha makes a passing reference to Prasadas without sikharas under the head of the Latina type 18 9 while describing the particular varieties of that type it however, confines itself to the description of Prasadas with Sikharas, 190 But the Samarangana Sutradhara contains canons about the prasadas with pyramidal superstructure as well. From this It follows that this form of the Prasadas was no longer in vogue at the time of the compilation of the Aparajitap;accha. The Samarangana Sutradhara devotes a separate adhaya to the varieties of Chadya prasadas i. e temples with pyramidal super structures, 191 It, however, does not designate these varieties under special head like Latina but simply represents them by the names of its shapes and their varieties. On comparisjon of these varieties with those given in the Agni Purana Dr. D. N. Shukla 199 has enunciated that they belong to Latas style which is a branch of the all pervading and universal stylethe Nagara. Among the different types of the Lata style the chadya prasadas obviously belong to the early phase. It is just possible that the Lata type of the Agpipurana 19 3 corresponds to the Lalita type of the Sm. Su. and the Latina type of the Aparajitapraccha. The name Lata may also imply that the type was especially in vogue in this region. As for the varieties of the Chadyn-prasadas described in Ch. XLIX of the Sm. Su, the temple of Gop well applies to the Rucaka type. As narrated in the text (vv. 25-31) the prasada is square in plan enclosed by an alinda (aisle). It is attached with praggrive (porch). The alinda contains the flat-roof. The Prasada is covered with three (Chadyas) round-edged slabs. The top is adorned with Amalasaraka. The superstructure of the temple is decked with the Hamsaprstbi, 189. APPR. Su. CIV, 28. 191. Sm. Su. XLIX. 190. APPR. Su. CLVIII. 192. Dr. D. N. Shukla, "Vastu-Sastra' Vol. I. pp. 443-444. 193. Agni Purana, Civ. 22.

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330 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The exact meaning of this terms is not explained in the works on architecture but from the shape of the tail of the Hamsa, the term seems to denote an arched figure which is here represented by what is known as the Caitya-window. Other temples of the Gop group also seem to represent the Rucaka type of Chadyaprasadas. Like the other types the Rucaka type also covers the usual five shapes ( Square etc. ), In the case at most of these temples, the garbhagniba is square. The rectangular form of the garbhagliha is illustrated in the temples at Kadvar and Kalsar. The other shapes are not met with in the extant remains. The gradual stages of transition from the stepped-pyramidal ( Chadyaprasada) to the curvilinear (Sik haranvita ) are not reflected in the canonical works; which seem to give rules about the various forms that are well established. The classification and nomenclature of temples were based on various principles such as, the size, the form, decorative elements, mouldings and the like. In the classification of temples the treatises of the Northern school differ in many respects from the Southern (e. g. classification according to the number of storeyes ). In the later works various ways of classification arose. This system of classifying may be traced from a very early period. In Caulukyan temples, as seen above, the ground plan and the superstructure above the garbhagriha are main determinant of sub-types or varieties of temples. The other determinant factors are (i) the temple complex with its accessories and (ii) the minor details like andakas, doors, flats (storeys ) etc. The ground plans of the shrines in extant Caulukyan temples as in pre-Caulukyan temples are mostly square but the projections given to them constitute several zig-zag shapes which are seen in the extant Caulukyan temples. These

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 331 projections in the ground plan form the main factors which determine and differentiate one variety of the temple from the other. So the plans with one, two, three or more projections have different nomenclatures in traditional works. The ground plan mostly corresponds to the plan of the curvilinear superstructure and correspondingly it takes one, two, three or even mores srungas, Ususeungas etc. This will also constitute a differentiating factor for the nomenclature. In the elevational aspect the Caulukyan temples are divided into three main sections viz. the pitha (basement ) the mandovara ( wall-face upto the entablature ) and the "ikhara (spire ). The Pitha is composed of a series of mouldings and string courses. The additions, substraction and repetetion of these mouldings will differentiate one temple from the other. Similarly in the mandovara, exclusively reserved for figure sculptures, the addition and substraction of figures also will constitute one more factor for distinguishing one variety from the other. The profile of the Sikhara is also one of the leading factors determinant of sub-types or varieties of temples. From the view point of the temple complex the later cononical works like Sm. Su. and Appr. etc., assume the similar from or general plan offered by the early works like Br., Sm., M. P., Ag. P. etc. It makes it clear that from the very early times the different members of the temple complex were known. The early as well as the traditional works, 194 so, on the strength of the addition (such as those of mandapas and porches etc.) and the substraction of various limbs, wall mouldings and superstructures of the temple complex formed variations in the type of temples giving rise to several varieties. This is also seen in the case of extant Caulukyan temples. 194. 'Antarala' seems added in later works; but its addition does not contribute to the variation and nomenclature of the temple-type.

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332 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (ii) The several variations either by additions or substractions in andakas, doors, flats (storeyes) etc. will give rise to manifold variations. The temple may have 1 to 100 andakas, 1 to 4 doors, 1 to 12 flats (as seen in the temples of Southern India ); the arrangement of pillars in the mandapa and in the portico may give altogether a different veriety from one another. The extant temples are illustrative of this remark also. In view of the above determinants of sub-types one can see the gradual progress that is attained by the extant temples of Gujarat. The temples at Sunak, Kanoda, Delmal and Kasara, Sander Ruhavi, Dhinoja, Parabadi, Harasiddh (Old), Miyani (Nilkantha) etc., are all small edifices of comparatively simple parts consisting of a shrine with either a mandapa, or a porch or both in front. In plan they display the projectional and sculptural details with all the characteristic copiousness of the style. The open mandapa and the porch are covered with dwarf walls, above which rest sloping seats leaning outwordly. The superstructures above the garbhaglihas follow the prescribed rules for a profile. The basement and mandovara mouldings with slight changes give unity to the general perspective of the temple. These temples are ascribed to the 10th Cent. A D. The Navalakha temples at Ghumli and Sejakpur, the sun temple at Modhera, the Vimalavasahi at Mt. Abu, even comprising all the necessary elements of the former group are larger and are more sublime in conception and complicated in architectural details. In these temples the art of temple architecture of Caulukyan period attained its supreme expression. The sun temple at Modhera ranks as the superb example in this group. These temples belong to the 11th Cent.

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The Architectural Forms of Temples 333 The temple of Rudramala (fragmently now) and several times restored temple of Somnath (now extinct) and the temples at Girnar (Neminatha, Kumarpala and VastupalTejapal), Taranga (Ajitanatha), Bhadresvar, Baradia, Mandrapur, Asoda, Khandosana, Piludra and lastly the temples of VastupalaTejapala at Abu, maintained the high water-mark in temple architecture and even enhanced development in certain varieties. This temples belong to the 12th & 13th Century A. D. and like the temples of 11th Cent. A. D. reflect the eligence prevalent in the golden period of the Caulukyan rule.

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CHAPTER V THE GROUND PLAN OF THE GARBHAGRIHA (1) The Architectural Treatment in the Extant temples Garbhagriha literally means the womb of the temple. It is the innermost sanctury in which is installed the image of the deity worshipped. This inner chamber is enclosed immediately by a wall. Some times it is also enclosed by another parrallel wall, the space between the two walls forming the circumambulatory around the shrine. 1 The garbhagrihas of pre-Caulukyan temples are almost square in plan, Exceptions to this are seen at the Varaha temple at Kadvar and at the temple at Kalsar2 which have rectangular garbhagrihas. The ground plan of the shrines of the temples at Gop, Sutrapada, Visavada (old temples) Kinderkhada, Pasanavada, Balej, Bilesvar, Srinagar, Ranavav, Bhansar, Khimesyar, Dhrasanvel (Kalikamata temple), Suvan, Pata, Pasthar, Boricha, Pindara, Akhodar, Odadar (old temple), Son Kansari ( Sadevanta Savalinga temple) Porbandar (Dhingesvar), Miyani (Small Siva and Ganpati shrines on south of the village ), Navidhraved are, internally, almost square. The walls of the garbhagliha, internally irrespective of the shape of the edifice are regerously kept plain. Externally the walls are found either plain from bottom to top or horizontally moulded at the base as well as at the top and sometimes either of it is found moulded. The middle portion of the wall, in case of pre-Caulukyan temples is generally found plain. 1. SMTK. Plt. XXXIII. 2. MG. II, Plt. VIII.

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The Ground Plan of the Garbhagriha 335 The old temple at Visavada, one of the old temples in the group of Sonakansari near Ghumali, the sun temples at Pasthar, Boricha, Pindara, Akhodar and Odadar, all single-celled temples have heavy cornice at the top of the garbhagriha walls over which the superstructure of the temple surmounts. Similarly the walls of the temples dedicated to Siva in the group of temples at Bhansara also consist of heavy cornice. These temples have moulded base which, in many cases, has been burried beneath the ground. The top of the shrine walls of the temple at Gop is adorned with a heavy and a bold reliefed cornice. The bottom of shrine-walls resting on a plinth is plain. In case of shrines surrouned by pradaksinapatha the walls (internal) of the garbhagriha are kept almost plain. The shrine walls (internal) of the temples at Bilesvar, Dhrasanevel (Kalikamata), Srinagar (Siva and Sakti temples) Pasanavada (Gayatri temple), Suvan (Jaganatha temple), Khimesvar are all plain. The walls of the garbhagriha of pre-Caulukyan temples are hardly found broken up vartically and divided into panels and facets. In plan the garbhagrihas of Caulukyan temples like the pre-Caulukyan temples, are, internally in shape either square or rectangular and in moulding regerously plain. corner But the walls outwardly which measured from corner to are modified by addition of certain projections upon them. These projections may be 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 or even more in number. Further all these projections and corners at times are divided into several projections or recessed angles so as to give the portion occupied by them a more zigzag shape. The addition of these projections on external sides of the garbha-walls presents a variety of shapes to the square ground plan of the garbhagriha (and of the temple as a whole).

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336 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The walls of the garbhagrihas are also broken up vertically and are, thus, divided into panels and facets. These lines run up from the lowest member (base) to the top of the wall (often to the summit of the sikhara ). These vertical chases cut up all the horizontal mouldings. The most conspicuous among them are the narrow slits or channels often placed between the different horizontal projections. The prominent projection in the centre is to the total length of the garbhagriha from external corner to corner. The walls of the garbhagliha of the temples of Rudramala at Siddhapura, 3 the Surya temple at Prabhas on Triveni river,4 that of Bhimanatha, 5 the Nilakantha and Jain temples at Miyani,6 the Nilakantha, Siddhesvar? and Bhidbhanjan temples at Visavada, the Ambaji temple at Girnar, the Sitala temple and the central as well as temple near the entrance at the site known as amthora-mata at Vadnagar and Kankesvara Mahadeva temple at Vasai, Nilakantha temple at Virat,& the Jain temple at Bhadresvar, 9 and the sun temple at Kheda in Kaccha externally have only one central projection with recesses at its corner. In most of the Caulukyan temples the walls of the garbhagliha externally are found having double projections. The garbha walls of the sun temples at Modhera, 10 Than, 11 on the bank of Hirnya at Prabhas 18 and Kotai (Kaccha )13; Dwarkadhish and Ruksmani temples, Rama & Laksmana temples at Baradia, the Vaisnava temple at Madhavapur, 14 the temple of Pancapandava at Satrunjaya, the 3. AANG. Plt. XXXVIII. 9. AKK. Plt. LVIII. 4. SMTK. Plt. XXIII. 10. AANG. Pit. XXXVIII. 5. AANG. P. 73. 11. SMTK. Plt. XLIV. 6. SMTK. PLT. XC. 12. AANG, p. 74. 7. Here Fig. 63. 13. AKK. Plt. LX. 8. AANG. Pit. XCVI., 4 14. SMIK. Plt. XCI.

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337 The Ground Plan of the Garbhagriha Vaisnava temple among group of temples at Odadar, the Saiva temples of Somanath,15 Sasibhusana, Rudrasvara at Prabhas, the Nilkantha temple at Sunak, 16 the Hatakesvar at Vadanagar; the Siva temples at Taranetar, Manoda, 17 Kanoda,18 Sander. Sejakapur, 19 Than (Muni bawa)19. Chaubari, Tukada. Kuchahhadi; the Magaderu20 at Dhrasanvel, the Gokesvara at Lovarali, the Ranakadevi temple at Wadhawan, the Limboji mata temple at Dalmal, 21 the Harasiddha mata temple at Harasiddh, the Hingolaja mata and right-angular temples22 at Khandosan, the Vyaghesvari temple at Dhinoj,23 the double-celled temples at Viramgam and Triple celled temples at Kasara 24 and Parabadi have double projection in the ground plan of their respective shrines. The Jain temples at Taranga (Ajitanatha), 25 Sarotra, 26 (Bavandhavaja), Ranakapura (Chaumukhaji); Vasai (Junagadhi), Miyani, Sejakapura,27 and the Central shrine among the triple-shrine of Vastupala and Tejapala at Girnar, have double projections at their outer sides. Here, the external total length of the garbha-wall is divided in ratio of 1:2 or 2:3 i. e. the length occupied by either corner is either one half or two-third to that of the portion occupied by the projecting members. Here the double projections on the external side of the garbha-wall are divided into 12 sections in the case of the former ratio and into 10 sections in the case of the latter ratio. The ground plan of the garbhagrihas of the temples of Navalakha at Ghumli29 and the Jain temples dedicated to 15. SMTK. Plt VIII. 16. AANG. Plt. LXXXII. 17. AANG. Pit. XCVI, 1, 18 AANG. Plt. XCVI, 3. 19. SMTK. LXV. 19a. SMTK. LIV. 20. Here Fig. 242. 21. AANG. Plt. LXVI 22. Here Fig. 222. 23. 24. 25. AANG. Plt. CIX. 26. AANG. Plt. LXXVII. 27. SMTK. Plt. LXVIII. 28. AKK. Plt. XXXIV. 29. AKK. Plt. XLI. AANG. XCVI, 3. AANG. LXXXVIII, 1.

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338 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Neminatha at Girnar.30 and Kumbharia;81 and the one of the cella dedicated to Malinatha in the triple-shrine of Vastupala and Tejapala temple at Girnar99 have one more additional projection on the outerwall of garbhagrihas between the double projections cited above. Here the external total length of the garbha wall is divided into 14 parts or sections almost equal in size, out of which 4 sections are occupied by either corner (equally divided) of the ground plan and the rest are distributed among the lateral projections. The central projection occupies six parts, the next on its either side have 4 (equally divisible ) and the projections on the side of corners too have 4 (equally distributed on other side) parts. Between the above mentioned external projections the garbha-wall of the temples of Samalaji and Becharaji have double additional projections. That is in the case of these temples there are two more projections added to the usual projections. In this case the wall of the garbhagriha is externally divided into 16 equal parts. Four parts are occupied by the corners on either side, from the remaining 12, four parts are alloted to the central projection and hight to the additional projections equally distributed on the either side between central projection and the corner. The most elaborate variety in plan is octagonal or eight faced ground plan of the temple. In this variety the star-shaped form of the ground plan is approached by laying two squares over each other at angles of 45 degrees to form a plan with eight points, and four at half that angle to produce one of 31. BRSS. III, p. 108. 30. AKK. Plt. XXXII. 32. AKK. Plt. XXXIV.

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The Ground Plan of the Garbhagliha 339 sixteen points. 33 Further, each side may have also laternal projections. The ground plan of the temple at Galatesvar ( Saranal )3 4 is eight-sided. Functions of projections :- The treatment of projections and recesses is a matter of absorbing interest to one who views a building as a composition in lights and shadows. The design of mouldings and the relative propositions of their projections are considered so as to fit in with the elaborate play of light and shadows. The intricacy and depth of mouldings, the sharpness and softness of their edges are qualities which lend nicety to structure. The projections and recessions, in otherwords, are designed as light-catching and shadow-throwing devices. (ii) An Indentification with defferent Types Discerned In The Canons. In early works like Br. Sm., 35 M. P.,86 Ag. P.,37 Vk. P.38 etc. the site of a shrine is required to be apportioned into compartments by dividing the length and breadth into an equal number of parts. (Viz. 64, 81, 100 elc. ) such sites may be of any of the forms square, rectangular, hexagonal, octagonal, oval, circular etc. 33. ASWI, III, pp. 20-21 & Plt. XVIII. This shape is rare in Gujarat. The ground plan of Suryanarayana temple at Ranakapur is also octagonal. 34. ASWI, VIII, The Muhammadan Architecture of Ahmedabad. Pt. II, plt. LXXXIV. 35. Br. Sm. LII, 55-56. 37. Ag. P. CIV. 1-4. 36. M. P. CCLIII, 19-48. 33. VKP. V. 5-23. According to Visvakarma Silpa, which sites should be divided into 8X8, 9X9 and which into 10X10 and so forth, is also explained. It prescribes two forms (viz. 8X8 & 9X9) foi Prasadas (shrines). rAjavezbha nivezeca gRhAdIni ca vaNinAM / ekAzIta padenaiva zakrasthAnaM camApamet // prAsAdAnvidhAn chandAMstathAdyAM zvASTamaNDapAn / ekAzIti padenaiva sarvAnetAnpramAyet //

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340 The Structural Temples of Gujarat In canonical works fundamental shapes-square (Vairaja ) rectangular (Puspaka), round (Kailasa) oval (Maaika) and Octagonal. (Trivistapa) of the ground plan prescribed by Puranic works like Ag. P., G. P. etc. are observed. 39 In the extant temples the first variety i. e. temples with square ( Vairaja ) garbhaglihas seems prevailing. Even the ground plan of the garbhagriha having the octagonal shape externally has square40 garbhagoiha internally. This is illustrated by the garbhagliha of the temple of Galatesvar (Sarnel)4 1 The five fundamental shapes prescribed by canonical works deal with the general shape of the ground plan (Ksetra ) of the temple as a whole and not only with the ground plan of the garbhagliha. So in the case of temples having rectangular or octagonal shape, the ground plan of the garbhagliha at times is obviously found square, Nearly all the extant temples in view of the component parts that they comprise are rectangular in their general appearance but from the view point of the shape of the ground plan they are mostly square ( with few exceptions ). In canonical works the square shapes ( Ksetra) of temples are divided into several sections or parts ranging from 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 30, 44 and so on, all coniprising the device for achieving the square ground plan of the garbhagriha; for instance the ground plan of the Rucaka type42 is divided into 4 parts out of which 2 parts are alloted for garbhagliha and the remaining 2 for walls enclosing 39. Sm. Su. XLIX, 3, 7-8; APPR. CLV, 1-21. 40. The square is the fundamental form of an Indian Architecture. Baudhayana Sulva Sutra (I, 22-28) has prescribed the rules how by the help of the cord (Sutra), the square could be drawn. Three further methods are also prescribed in Sulva Sutras of both Baudhayan and A pastamba (HT. Vol. I. p. 22). 41. ASWI, III, plt. XVIII. 42, Sm. Su. XLIX, LV, LVI, LVII, etc.

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The Ground Plan of the Garbhagriha 341 garbhagriha i. e. here the ground plan comprises 16 equal parts, out of which the central 4 are reserved for the garbhagpiha. The remaing 12 parts cover the walls of the garbhagriha.48 This may be illustrated in several temples of pre-Caulukyan period as well Caulukyan. The rectangular garbhagriha is termed 'Puspaka'. According to one canon 44 it is divided into the ratio of 2:1 i. e. the length of the garbhagliha is twice the width. According to another45 it should have 5 parts in length (Ayama) and 4 parts in breadth (Vistara). But the rules given here seem not followed by the two extant examples of this shape. The garbhagriha at Kadvar measures 7x2.8 meters the ratio being almost 5:2. Here the width is found to be in ratio one half of that prescribed in APPR. The garbhagriha at Kalsar is 4.3 x 2.6 meters, the ratio almost being 8:5 It comes near the ratio given in Sm. Su. It will be interesting to note here that APPR even though classifying certain varieties of temples having rectangular shrines under the heads of various types of temples, prescribe a definite rule that except temples belonging to Daruja and Valabhi Type, 46 the rectangular shape of the shrine may be avoided. Prasadamandan considers the rectangular garbhagliha as a defective one. 47 The device of dividing the ground plan in several parts such as 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 etc. serves two purposes, firstly it locates the position and size of the garbhagliha , circumambulatory and internal as well as external walls as the case may be; 43. Sm. Su. LVI, 45,; APPR, CLV, 3-4 / This is also prescribed by early works Ag. P. XLII, 1-2; M.P. CCLXIX, 1-2. 44. Sm. Su. XLIX, 124 45. APPR. CLV. 12. 46. APPR. CXXVI, 25 (i) 47. store RAPITA PM. III, 3...

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat secondly it prescribes the parts to be utilised by lateral projections on the external side of the garbha or circumambulatory or both. 342 In Caulukyan temples the walls, outwardly which measure from outer corner to corner, are modified by addition of certain projections upon them. These projections, technically are known Nasikas 8. The corner lines of the garbha wall are called Karnas 49 or Mulanasikas. And on this Mulanasika several projections called Nasikas are added. These nasikas may be 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, or even more in number. The technical names given to Nasikas are bhadra, 50 pratiratha, 51 nandi. 52 When the shrine is enclosed by pradiksana, the inner wall enclosing the shrine proper is known as antarbhitti in relation to the external wall which is called bahyabhitti. In such a case the projections either run parallel to both the walls or the inner wall is given a less number of projections or it is even left entirely plain. The projection at the centre is called bhadra. It is followed by a projection 'pratiratha' on its either side The projection called nandi is placed either between bhadra and pratiratha or between pratiratha and kona or between bhadra, pratiratha and kona (i. e. mulanasika). Further all these projections and karnas (corners) at times, are further divided into several projections or recessed angles which give the portion occupied by them a more zigzag shape. The addition of these projectians on external sides of the garbha-walls present a variety of shape to the square ground plan of the garbhagriha. They will give rise to three (Tri), five (Panca), seven (Sapta) and even more projections to the wall of the shrine. 48. Also called Falana. 49. Also called Kona. 50. Also called Sala. 51. 52. Also called Padhara Also called Karnika or Uparatha.

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The Ground Plan of the Garbhagliha 343 The horizontal projections upon the garbha walls are cut up by vertical chases giving rise to several panels and facets on the garbha walls. Vertically all the panels resulted from the projection of outer walls run up to the upper most part of the garbha walls (which correspondingly run directly upto the apex of the sikhara). The most conspicuos among these vertical chases or slits resulted from small projection are technically known as Panitaras' or Varimargas, 5 3 The garbha-wall having the central ( bhadra ) projection only, on its three sides, is technically said Ekanasika.54 The external side of the wall being divisible into 8 sections, 4 sections alloted to the central bhadra and the remaining 4 divided in two equal parts alloted to the corner on either side of the bhadra, the tala (ground plan) of the garbhagliha is known as Astadha ( Athai). This may be illustrated by the Sun temple at Prabhas on river Triveni. 8 8 53. They are also known as 'Jalantaras, Udkantaras' Salilantaras. etc. These projections are also described by the works known as Ksirarnava (MS), Jnanaratnakosa (MS) and Diparnava as stated by the editor Sri. P. O. Sompura (Dipa, IX, 1-101 & f. n. 2.). He describes these projections as being raised from the base of the Sikhara and not from the base of the temple. But as stated above APPR. states its rise from the base of the temple. In extant temples the practice is found both ways. Some temples display the rise of these projections from the very base of the temple correspondingly reaching to its apex; while in other temples they rise from the base of the Sikhara leaving the portion below quite plain. The practice both ways followed by extant temples is found supported by the canonical compilation Silpa Ratnakara (N. M. Sompura ) III, 95-102. 54. Vide here Fig. 243, a. 55. For other illustrations vide p. 336 above.

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344 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The double projection i. e. that of 'bhadra' and 'pratiratha' upon the mulanasika (corner line) technically is known as Trinasika.56 In this case the external side of the garbha wall being divisible in either 10 or 12 sections, the Tala (ground plan) is known as Dasadha or Dwadasdha (Dasai or Barai) respectively. The plan with double projections (those of bhadra and pratiratha ) have been illustrated by many of the Caulukyan temples of Gujarat, as for instance the ground plans of the shrines of Modhera, Sander, Sunak, Harasiddha, Kasara etc.57 The triple projection of bhadra, pratiratha and nandi upon the mulapasika (corner line ) is, technically, known as Pancanasika,58 and the tala (ground plan) being divided into 14 parts or sections, is known as Caturdasadha ( Caudai ). This ground plan is illustrated by the shrine of the temple at Ghumali.69 When an additional nandi projection is added to the triple projection described above the projection is called 'Saptanasika';60 and the tala ( ground plan) being divided into 16 equal parts is called Sodasa Tata (Solai). This may be illustrated by the ground plan of the shrines at Samalaji and Becharaji. 56. Vide Here Fig. 243, b. 57. For other illustrations vide pp. 336-337 above. 58. Vide Here Fig. 243, c. 59. For other illustrations vide pp. 337-333 above. 60. Vide here Fig. 243, d.

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CHAPTER VI THE DOOR-FRAME OF THE GARBHAGRIHA (1) The architectural treatment in the extant temples The door frame of the garbhagriha comprises the two vertical jambs supporting the lintel containing a central dedicatory block. The lower horizontal member is known as threshold. It rests mostly in the centre of the front garbha wall to a small height from the ground level. The usual proportion of height to width of the opening of the door way in most of extant temples is nearly 2:1 in ratio. The jambs are carved into vertical sections or mouldings. some projecting and other recessed. The fascial thus formed may be 3, 5, 7 or 9 in number. They are usually decorated with a creaper and leaves, or with lozenge-shaped ornament, or a square and a circle, or with dancing figures etc. The lower member threshold may be lavishly decorated. The lintel may contain various panels of Gods and Goddesses or may be ornamented with various designs. The door threshold, at times, projects outward, in that case it contains a semi-circular drum like moulding in the centre, and on each side of it there is a projecting Kirtimukha face. The space between the projecting threshold and the ground floor of the antarala to mandapa as the case may be, is filled with an elaborately carved slab. On the centre of which is carved the figure of his consort, Ganesa. the lintel is a small projecting block on deity to whom the temple is dedicated, vehicle or other sacred emblem-usually

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat In most of the temples including pre-Caulukyan the panel of Navagrha over door-lintel is common. 346 In pre-Caulukyan temples the door-frame is mostly found plain except the lintel which contains a figure1 of Ganesa in the centre. However, there are certain exceptions too. At Kadvar, the shrine door way measures 2-6 x 1.1 meter giving a ratio of about 12:5. The Jambs contain 5 vertical sections, all being plain except the section on the opening side which contains the floral lozengeshaped ornament with standing figures on each side at the bottom towards threshold. The standing figures represent the Ganga-Yamuna motif. The Central vertical facet of the jambs being round in shape, at the topmost part contain heavy capitals with foliage and Caitya-arch ornaments.2 Above the door lintel there is a well preserved panel divided into five sections (in the shape of niches ) each containing a deity. From left to right they are Surya, Brahma, Visnu, Siva and Soma or Candra, the last having what appears to be the cresent moon behind his head. Visnu occupies the central panel, and, below on the dedicatory block, he appears again, while Ganesa, the more frequent image in this position on Saiva temples, is relegated to a more subsidiary position between the lintel and the panel. Each Section of the panel is superimposed with stepped pyramidal ornament adorned with Caitya-arch motif. The door-way of the Sun temple at Sutrapada measures almost 2 X 1 meter i. e. it maintains the ratio of 2:1. The ratio of the height and width in the door ways of several other Pre-Caulukyan temples such as those at Balej, Bhansar, Khimesvar, Pata, Ranavav, Srinagar, Pasanavada, Miyani etc. is nearly close to the ratio prescribed. 1. SMTK. Plt. XXXIV. 2. Due to lozenge-shaped moulding in the jambs and the flanking pilasters with pot capitals, Cousins traces the similarity of carvings that found in the Buddhist caves, especially those of Ajanta. (SMTK. p. 39)

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The Door-Frame of the Garbhagriha 347 The Shrine door3 at Munibawa temple at Than is neatly carved with a running flower pattern on the jambs, fuman figures (probably Ganga-Yamuna motif) below at each side and three bands of small human figures on the architrave, outside the jambs. Ganpati is carved on the lintel and the frieze above is divided into seven compartments by colonnedes; the central one is occupied by sitting figures, and the others by standing ones. The door frames of the group of temples at Roda are oanate and are decorated with highly ornate floral patterns, arabesques ( Temples II & III) and panels of divine and semidivine beings. On one door-frame ( Temple VI ) there are figures of Navagrahas on the lintel; and the drarpalas and Ganga and Yamuna on the door jambs which are highly interesting. The most ornate door-frame belongs to Temple III (SSR. figs. 84-86). On the door-step is a pattern possibly of two birds and a central tree, covered in a semicircular frame. The jambs contain 5 sections each, on its third or central section on the left side are seen figures of Siva, Siva-Parvati and Ardhanarisvara while on the corresponding section on the right side are figures of Visnu and Laksami-Darayana; on the first section are figures of Ganga and Yamuna much defaced and figures of Nagas and Saivite dvarpalas also adorn the frame. The lintel above shows figures of Brhama, Visnu, Siva, Ganapati etc.5 The door frame of Temple VI contains the figures of planets over the door lintel. The jambs of the door-frames of temples at the site known as Amathor at Vadnagar have three sections each. The sections on the opening side of the door contain running flower and creeper pattern, the middle ones are adorned with the sculptures of standing drawf human figures; and the jambs, 3. SMTK. Plt. LIV. 4. MADTD. p. 6. 5. SSR, F. 112.

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348 The Structural Temples of Gujarat attached with pilasters have sculptures of some of the principal incarnations of Visnu such as the Varaha, Vamana, Rama, Balarama, Noisimha, Krisna etc. The threshold contains a semi-circular step with a pattern of tree in the centre flanked by two birds, In front of the step there is a carved slab containing a conch pattern on either side which is in its turn flanked by grasa moulding. The dedicatory block contains a Ganesa figure. Above the lintel there is a Navagraha panel superimposed by a series of grasa mouldings with a creeper in their mouths. The door frames of the Modhera temple are beautiful pieces of sculpture. Their jambs contain five sections each, the middle three are carved with figures of Gods and Goddesses. The central section on either side has a vertical panel of four niches adorned with stepped out pyramidal superstructural ornament. These niches contain sculptures of god (Surya ) repeated over and over again surrounded by dancers and amorous couples carved on either section. These three projecting sections are each superimposed by a vase and foliage capital with grasa pattika over it. The sections on the wall side have vertical series of amorous figures while those on the opening of the door are carved with the creeper and flower design. At the base there are standing human figures, on the right the figure though defaced seems to be a male Dvarpala, with his male and female attendants on the left, the female Dvarpal (Dvarpalika) with her female attendants. Below this panel and touching to the surface of threshold there are sculptures of Ganesa with his consorts and female attendants on left, and of Siva with his consort and female attendants on right. Ganesa and Siva are in sitting postures. The amorous couples on the threshold and the dedicatory image are completely destroyed. 6. AANG. Plts. LI-LII.

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The Door-Frame of the Garbhagriha 349 Above the door lintel there is a panel of niches containing sculptures of probably Siva, Visnu and Brhama in sitting postures with standing female attendants. The niches are superimposed with the stepped pyramidal pediment. Some of the fragments of the door-frame of the extinct Somanatha temple, now, preserved in the museum at Somanathpatan display the fact that the original shrine door-frame had been removed and a very plain patched up one was substituted, as Cousins thought. It contained the door-step (the black stone Candrasila ) flanked on either side by a conch and a conventionalised tortoise and the latter contracted door-frame with two steps partly superimposed in the earlier Candrasila (moon-stone) 8 Thc Jambs of the door-frame of the garbhagriha of Limboji mata temple at Delmal :9 contain five vertical sections each. The sections on the opening side of the door have a running flower and creeper pattern. The central section have three niches on each side in which the Devi figures in sitting posture surrounded by their female attendants are carved. The sections on the side of the wall are carved with the lotus petal design. At the base of the jambs the central sections contain standing Devi sculptures with their female attendants in pairs, while the sections on the side of the walls are decked with amorous sculptures. Below the base touching the surface of the threshold there are female dancers in various postures. The threshold contains an usual semi-circular step projected with grasa on either side. The lintel has the figure of Ganesa in the centre. A panel above consists of five niches contains sculptures of Devis in sitting postures flanked by their standing female attendants. 7. SMTK. p. 14-16. 8. Vide; 'Somnath the shrine Eternal', Plt. XXXI. 9. AANG. Plt. LXVII.

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350 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Each niche, like that of the jamb is superimposed with the usual stepped-pyramidal moulding. In the case of tripal-shrine at Kasara 10 the door frame contains five sections of jambs. The section on the opening side is carved with a pattern of flower enclosed in a circle. The adjecent three sections have sculptures. The central one has three niches adorned with usual superstructure on each withi figures of Gods in sitting postures, flanked by standing attendants carved on the sections on its either side. The section on the wall side is carved with the lotus-petal pattern. At the top of the jambs there is a vase and foliage capital, the base of jamb contains, in the centre the sculpture of a Dvarpala flanked by female attendants on either side. The threshold has the usually semi-circular step with projecting grasa moulding on its either side. The door lintal having a Ganesa figure in dedicatory block is superimposed with a panel of five niches. The niches contain sculptures of gods in standing postures and are adorned with usual superstructures of stepped-pyramidal niouldings. At Sander, over the shrine door-way, Ganesa is carved in the usual projecting block; whilst panel above contains figures of Brhama, Visnu and Siva, 11 There is Ganesa on the lintel of the shrine door-way at the sun-temple situated on the bank of river Hiranya at Prabhas. The central section of the door has a panel of niched gods; the other sections being left bare, above the lintle there is a panel of Navagrahas. The Siva temple at Mandrapur* has a door Jamb with three sections. In the middle one there is a panel of three niches having sculptures of Siva in a sitting posture. It contains sculptures of Dvarapala at the base. 12 10. AANG. Pit. XCII. 11. AANG. pp. 108-9. * 9.6 km. from Kheralu (Dist. Mehsana ). 12. JGRS. V, I, (1943) p. 108.

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The Door-Frame of the Garbhagliha 351 The temple of Siddhambika at Disa contains a beautiful shrine door. The door jamb comprises five sections. The central one contains the sculptures of Indras four in number and a small figure of Sarvsyati on either side. The lower portion i. e. the base of the Jamb on either side has a big size sculpture of Indra with his usual emblem Pasa, Arikusa, Mala and Kamundala respectively in his four hands. 13 The Hathesvara Mahadeva temple at Limkheda* has a beautiful shrine door. Its door Jambs retain the sculptures of river-godesses Ganga and Yamuna on either side, the former standing on a Makara (a crocodile ) and the latter on a Kacchapa (a tortoise), unfortunately some of the protruding parts of sculptured surface of the door frame are besmeared with colour. 14 The garbhgrihas of Siva temples at Taranetar,18 Piludra, 16 the Rudresvara temple at Prabhasa 17 and the Harasidha (old) temple 18 retain beautiful and ornate door frames. All these temples have their doors containing jambs divided into five sections each with the usual projected threshold and the panel of Gods and Goddesses above the lintel, The former two temples also have above this panel the panel of Navagrhas. The door jamb of the Gokesvara Mahadeva temple at Lovarali,19 13. JGRS V, I, (1943) pp. 109-110. * 38-4 km. from Godhara (Dist. Panchmahal ). 14. ARSROB. 56-57. 15. Here Fig. 85. 16. Here Fig. 182. 17. Here Fig. 156. 18. Here Fig. 62. 19. At times like the door-frames of the shrines the door-frames of the main entrances of the temples are also beautifully carved with all the necessary particulars such as of Jambs, lintel, dedicatory block, the motif Navagraha panel etc. The door-frame of the entrance of the temple of Sitala mata at Vadanagar (here fig. 183 ) and the Siva temple at Taranetar have Ganga-Yamuna beautiful specimen of this type.

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352 The Structural Temples of Gujarat contains three sections. The section on the opening side of the door has a flower creeper pattern. The carvings on the rest are mutilated to a great extent, but the sculptures of Dvarapala at the base are retained. The threshold has an usual mouldings of a semi-circular step and a projecting grasa on its either side. Above the usual dedicatory block, in which Ganesa is carved, there is a Navagraha panel. The shrine doors of some of the Jain temples display very elaborate and delicate carvings on their structural elements. The floral pattern and niche-god ranges are accurate to their taste and requirements. The door jambs of the garbhagrihas of the temples at Kumbharia contain five vertical sections out of which three are adorned with niched goddesses; while the door jambs at Ranakapur have Seven vertical sections out of which five are adorned with niche-goodesses. In Jain temples the niche goddesses on jambs as well as on the panel over the lintel are usually the sixteen Vidya Devis. (ii) Canonical Principles Discerned Usually the garbhagriha has a door in the centre of its front wall. The earliest regulations about doors are found in the Gsihya sutras, The Gobh ila 20 and the Khadira1 Grihya Sutras lay down rules for the cardinal point which the door is to face. They prescribe all the cardinal directions except the west and prohibit a back door to any of the buildings. In the case of extant temples in Gujarat the door of the shrine is found facing all directions including even the west. The gradual development of the characteristics of the door is an interesting matter for investigation. From the earliest times the scriptures and the treatises on architecture laid down regulations as to the position, the dimensions and the relative proportions of the different parts 20. Gobhi'a IV. 7, 15-20. 21. Khadiza IV, 2-14-15.

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The Door-Frame of the Garbhagriha 353 of the doors. The tradition about the position of doors was highly elaborated in the Puranas like M. P.,22 Ag. P.,23 G.P.,24 VDH. P.25 etc. Br. Sm.26 and VKP.27 also lay down similar rules for the position of the door. The Puranas and Silpasastras liad down elaborate rules for the doors of the temples. All works agree as to the position of the doors. They must face the exact cardinal points and must not be turned to any of the corner directions, 28 and they should be placed cxactly in the middle of the front wall, 29 In case of the rectangular garbhagriha, the door should be placed on the side of the longer wall in front.30 This canon is found well-followed in the two extant examples of rectangular shrines namely those at Kadvar and Kalsar. Several texts like Br. Sm. and Ag, P. also enumerate certain rules regarding the prohibited positions of doors here as well as in Silpatexts. This is known as Vedha (fault) which is to be avoided. 31 The width of the Jamb should be of its height, the same applies to that of threshold, the thickness of the Jamb should be of its width.39 All the texts are unanimous on this point. 22. M.P. CCLV.. 7-9. 23. Ag. P. CV.. 25. ff. 24. G. P. XLVI. 31-35. 25. VDH. P. LXXXVIII, 2 25. Garga, quoted by Bhattotpola (Br. Sm. Viziangram. Sans, series) LII. 69-73. 27. VKP. VII. 66 ff. 28. Ag. P. CIV. 2. 29. Br. Sm. LV. 10; VDh. LXXXVIII. 2. 30. VDh. LXXXVI, 38. 31. Br. Sm. LII. 70-81; Ag. P. CIV. 31-38. 32. Ag. C. IV. 28. Br. Sm. LV. 13.

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354 The Form of the Jambs and The Lintel. It is laid down that the jamb should never be a single plain piece but should comprise 3, 5, 7, or 9 parallel vertical sections each adorned with various sculptures on them. The lower most quarter of the jamb is reserved for the insertion of the figure of an image (Ag. P. CIV. 30)of the door keeper, whose form depends upon that of the main deity enshrined. 33 The rest of the jamb should be decorated with auspicious elements such as birds, trees, Svastika, designs, vases, human pairs, lotuses, swans, creepers, foliages and the Avataras of Visnu (especially in Visnu temple). Besides these are recommended the images of the Navagraha panel, Ganesa and the figure represented as being bathed by two elephants, which are generlly found in the existing specimens on the lintels. 34 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The width of the door and the proportion it bears to the ground plan of the temple are prescribed in three different ways: (1) The whole ground plan of the temple being devided into 64 squares, 8 being on each side, the sanctum should be made of 16 inner squares (i. e. of the whole ground plan ); in the middle of the front side (of 4 squares) of sanctum and covering of its width should be the door for entrance into the shrine. Thus of the length of the whole ground plan of the temple represents the width of the door, 35 (2) The garbha should be divided into equal parts on each side (the whole ground plan being devided into 400 33. APPR. in a separate chapter (CXXXIII) enumerates the list of Dvarpalas to be carved on the door frame of the shrine. Accordingly various deities like, Siva, Visnu, Brhama, Surya, Ganesa, Gauri (Parvati) Candika and Jina (Tirthankara) have several demi-gods as their Dvarpalas-to be carved on the door-frame of the shrine dedicated to them. 34. Br. Sm. LV. 13-16, also Hay. P. (MS.) as quoted in Haribhaktivilasa XX. 35. M. P. CCLXXX, 18-19; Br. Sm. LVI, 10-12. VDh. P. LXXXVIII. 7.

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The Door-Frame of the Garbhagliha 355 squares, 20 being on each side and the sanctum being of 25 squares ) and of its side should represent the width of the door. 36 In this case the width of the door becomes zloth of whole ground plan of the temple.37 (3) VDH-P. gives measurement of the shrine door in relation to the main door of the temple. It says that the door of the garbhagliha should be less by 1 of the measurement of the main door, 38 VDh. P. prescribes various measurements pertaining to the width and height of the door. Accordingly the height of the door should be in ratio of 8:7 in relation of the height of the image (including its pedastal). The height of the door should be twice its width.39 The height of the door is generally enjoined as being twice its width, The Ag. P. says that height may be twice the width or may be 4, 8 or 10 angulas (nearly one inch in measure )40 more. In many of the extant temples of Gujarat the height of the door way is found nearly twice to its width. The door ways of the temples at Sutrapada, Pasanavada (Sun temple ), Kadvar, Visavada (Sun temple), Srinagar (all the three temples) Khimesvar, Balej, Bhansar (main temple), Pata, Prabhas (the sun temple on Hirnaya), Harasiddh (old temple ), Dhrasanvela (Magaderu), Miyani (Jain and two other small temples), Tukada, Odadar (Vaisnava temple), Viramgam (double shrine temples) maintain the ratio 2:1. But the door shrine of some temples observe altogether a different ratio as to the height in comparision to width. The ratio observed here is 3:2. The door shrine of the temples at Pasanavada 36. MP. CCLXIX, 5-6; GP. XLVII. 9. 37. MP. CCLXIX, 1; GP. XLVII. 6. 38. VDh. P. LXXXVIII. 13. 39. VDh. P. LXXXVI. 9. 40. Ag. P. CIV. 27-28.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat (Gayatri ), Prabhas (Sasibhusana, Rudresvara and the Sun temple on the bank of Triveni), Ranavav (old temple), Miyani (Nilakantha) etc. illustrate the ratio of 3:2. 356 The height again should be such as the image enshrined in the sactum may be viewed even from a distance. So the height of the image should along with its pedastal should be made equal to that of the opening less by one-eighth. This fixed proportion of the height of the image with that of the door and of the door with that of the temple enables guess the dimension of one from that of the other. us to Sm. Su. devotes two separate chapters (LIII & LIV) to the measurement of the door (Dvaramana). It also relates the position of the shrine door, its relative width and height and the vertical sections or facets of its jambs, the measurement of the door in relation to the measurement of the whole temple structure and describes the threshold etc. in detail. But its narration is vague to some extent and is found hardly fitting to the extant temples of Gujarat. The Silpa texts like Sm. Su.41 Ksiraarnava42 (MS.) PM.43 APPR. prescribe rules pertaining to measurement of door according to the size of the Prasada. But APPR, has given vivid and elaborate description of the door frame in several chapters (CXXIX-CXXXIII), in which it imports intructions pertaining to the measurement of the width and the height of the shrine door in relation to that of the temple (Nagara type) taken as a whole, the door frames and their vertical sections in 3, 5, 7, 946 and the figures of the Dvarapala carved on them.47 The door frames of many of the garbhagrihas of the Caulukyan temples seem to represent the canons given by the APPR. 41. Sm. Su. LV. 129. 42. Vide MS. KSR. Ch. 109. 43. PM. IV, 39-49. 44. APPR CXXX. 8-10. 45. lbid. CXXXI, 2-5. 46. lbid. CXXXII. 47. Ibid. CXXXIII.

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The Door- Frame of the Garbhagliha 357 APPR. prescribes rules pertaining to height (rise) of the shrine door on the basis of the measurement of the width of the temple (Nagara type), The measurement of the breadth of the temple is based here on the Gaja*8 measurement. Accordingly a temple having the width of 1 to 4 Gajas has 16 angulas rise of the shrine door per gaja. Thereafter the increment of 3 angulas per gaja is prescribed for temples having breadth of 5 to 8 gajas and further increment of two angulas in the case of temples of 9 to 50 gajas in breadth. 4 9 48. ARPR CXXX, 8-9. Gaja consists of 24 angulas. Angula is nearly equal to 8.1 c. m. so the Gaja will be approxinately of 2 meters. Further canons prescribe three measurements uttam, madhyam aud kanistha, for angula. Accordingly if it consists of 8 * Yava' (a unit for an angula) it is uttam, if cf 7 the angula is madhyama and if of 6 than it is kanistha. Consequently the Gaja will be also of three varieties.Uttama, Madhyama and Kanistha i. e. comprising 24 angalus of above mentioned three varieties ( APPR. XLI, 196 ). 49. It may be tabulated as follows: The breadth of The rise or height of the Temple in Gajas, door in angulas. BEO van Ee Na Thenceforth the increase of two angulas per Gaja is prescribed upto the temple having the breadth of 50 Gajas which will require 160 angulas as the height of the shrine-door.

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358 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The breadth of the shrine door is prescribed to be 1 to that of the height of the shrine door. 50 P. M. accepts the measurement offered by APPR.51 The measurement of the Udaya (rise) of door given by Ksirarnava (MS) is quite different than that given by APPR. & P. M. According to it : Temple of 1 Gaja in breadth has a door of 16 angulas in height 1 2 , 32 5 3 , 48 80 88 g ,, 91 103 , 1 118 120 128 - 19. 2 35, 138 139 143 1 940 148 158 (KSR (MS.) CV. 1-3) 50 APPR. CXXXI, 3. 51. P. M. III. 43-44. One more measurement of the height of the shrine door is prescribed by Diparnava. It prescribes as follows.Temple of 1 Gaja in breadth has a door of 16 angulas in height 1 1 64 1, 67 - >> 78 >> 80 11 1 82 9 * 122 - >> 162 (Diparnaya. VI, 1-3) * Oost

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The Door-Frame of the Garbhagriha 359 It will be interesting to note here that many of extant pre-Caulukyan as well as Caulukyan temples seem following the canons pertaining to the height and breadth of the shrine door imprated by APPR. The vertical sections in which the door frame divides are technically known as Sakhas. 82 APPR. classifies the door jambs into 9 types according to the number of the sakhas contained by them, the numbers ranging from one to nine. 58 Among these types four are described in detail namely jambs with three sakhas, 54 those with five Sakhas 55 those with seven Sakhas 56 and those with nine sakhas. 57 These sections are highly decorated with flowers, creepers and leaves, lozenge-shaped ornaments squares, circles, dancing figures, niches of gods and goddesses, lions, and wedge-shaped moulding the Kalva (Khalva ). The Section adorned with creeper and leaves round the door way is known 'Patra Sakha'; that with dancing and amorous figures as Gandharva sakha, that with small niches containing sculptures of gods and goddesses as "Rupasakha' that with simha figures as Simha sakha and that with wedgeshaped moulding as Khalvasakha. In the case of many of the pre-Caulukyan temples the door jambs of the shrines are generally of the Ekasakha type, the sakha being left almost plain. As for the Caulukyan temples the door jambs are found of three different types namely Tri Sakha, Panca sakha and Sapta sakha, the most common being the Panca sakha type. The Tri sakha jambs may be illustrated in the temples, at Vadanagar ( Amalthoramata) Mandrapur etc., the Panca sakha jambs at Roda (Temple III), Modhera, Delmal etc., the Sapta Sakhas jambs at Ranakpur. 52. also termed as Stambha'. 53. APPR. CXXXI, 1-5 54. lbid. 3-7. $5. Ibid. 8-13 (i). 56. lbid. 13 (ii)-18. 57. Ibid. 19-25.

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360 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Details of Tri sakhas. To achieve the moulding of Trisakha it is necessary to divide the breadth of Sakha into 4 equal parts, out of which two parts are given to a central projecting moulding known as Rupa Stambha. Its projection is of 1 part. The remaining 2 parts of Sakhas on the either side (i. e, on right and left sides) are known as Simba Sakha* and Khalva Sakha respectively.58 The Nirgama or projection of the Rupastambha as indicated by APPR. is of 1 part; but it may be even of 13, 14 or 2 parts. 59 The projecting Rupstambha and adjoining Sakhas are to be adorned with various Sculptures like Pratihara, Yaksa, Ganga, Yamuna, Gandharva etc. at the bottom and the middle portion with Champa garland (Champa chhadi) which is placed on Konika, the projecting portion between Stambha and Sakba.60 Details of Panca Sakha, Here the breadth of Sakha is divided into 6 equal parts, out of which two parts are reserved for the central projecting moulding, Rupa stambha having a projection of one part. The remaining 4 parts are distributed among Patra Sakha Gaodharva Sakha, Khalva Sakha and Simba Sabha, each having 1 part.61 Details of Sapta Sakhas. Here the breadth of sakhas is divided into 8 parts out of which two parts are reserved for the central projecting moulding Rupa Stambha. The other sakhas on either side are * Patra sakha according to KSR (MS) and Dipa VI, 21. 58. APPR. CXXXII, 1-2, PM. III 57-58. KSR-(MS) CIX; 13-14; Dipa. vi-21. 59. PM. III-59. 60. APPR.-CXXXI, 4-7; PM-ill 60-61. Vide here Fig. 118. 61. APPR. CXXXII. 8-13, PM. 1.1-62, Dipa Vi, 22-23. Vide Figs. 122-124.

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The Door-Frame of the Garbhagliha 361 Patra sakha, Gandharva Sakha, Rupa sakha; again Rupa Sakha, Khalva Sakha, Simha Sakha, each having one part.62 Details of Naya Sakha. The breadth of sakha is here divided into 11 parts. Here we have two Rupa stambhas each having two parts; the remaining 7 parts are distributed among the other sakbas, i. e. Patra Sakha, Gandharvasakha, Khalva Sakha, Gandharva Sakha (again), Rupa sakha, Khalva Sakha, (again) Rupasakha (again) and Simha sakha.6 Uttaranga ( Lintel) The upper horizontal member of the door frame is known as Uttaranga. 6 4 Its height may be kept one and quarter to that of Udumbara (threshold). It contains various projected and recessed mouldings and figures of gods and goddesses whom the temple is dedicated. At times closely associated demi-gods (figures) are also engraved or marked with auspicious signs like Kalasa, Swastika etc. Ganesa is mostly found sculptured on it, 6 5 especially in the Siva temples. The lintels of the doorshrines of most of the pre-Caulukyan as well as those of the Caulukyan temples are usually marked with Ganesa figure. In Jain temples the auspicious signs like Swastika, Kalasa etc. are found on the door lintels such as at Delwada etc. The door threshold is called Udumbara, from which projects a semi-circular drum, and on each side of this is a projecting Kirtimukha face. The whole step is called mandaraka, 62. APPR. CXXXII, 14, 17-18; PM. III, 63-64; KSR (MS) CIX 16-17; Dipa. VI, 24-26. 63. APPR CXXXII, 20-23; PM. III, 65-66; KSR (MS) CIX, 18-19. Disa. VI, 27-31, Vide here Fig, 244. 64. APPR CXXXIX, 27-28. It is also known as "Citraranga' (SR. IV. 81. ). 65. Dipa VI, 40-44.

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362 The Structural Temples of Gujarat whilst the low Semi-circular step-in the place of door-mat and which is often very elaborately carved, is termed half moon or ardh-candra roughly translated as moon stone (candra sila ). Almost all the Caulukyan temples have this sort of threshold and the ardhacandra moulding before it. The texts APPR. & PM. and the KSR. (MS) have given the measurement of the Udumbara in relation to that of the door frame (jambs). APPR. has given four measurements for the height of the Udumbara. It may be either equal or ), or ; or of the hieght of the Kumbha of the door frame.66 PM, supports this view.67 The mouldings of Udumbara. The breadth of the door-frame should be divided into 3 equal parts. The middle part covers the moulding known as Mandaraka (Manu, the local term ) having the shape of half-moon adorned with lotus leaves. This Mandaraka moulding, in height is divided into sub-mouldings like Jadyakumbha, Karnamala etc. And on its two sides there are two moulding of Kirtivaktra (i. e. Kirtimukha or Grasa ).68 Their ferocious appearance is described too.69 The mouldings on both the sides of the Udumbara should be similar to the lower mouldings of the door frame.70 Both the texts APPR. and PM. agree on this subject. The Udumbara should be placed on the Ardhacandra which is in level with the Khuraka moulding (under Kumbhi moulding) of the door-frame. (The ground floor of the garbhagriha should be either }, } or 1 heigher than the Udumbara )71 66. APPR. CXXXIX, 9-10, KSR (MS) CIX, 8-9. 67. PM. III, 37,40 also Dipa VI, 36. 68. APPR. CXXIX, 13, 15; PM. III, 38-39. 69. APPR. CXIX. 16. 70. APPR. CXXIX, 17. PM. III, 39. 71. APPR. CXXIX, 11; KSR (MS). CIX, 9.

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The Door-Frame of the Garbhagriha 363 Ardhacandra* This Ardhacandra (Candrasila ) whose height is equal to that of Khuraka and whose length is equal to the breadth of the door-frame has a projection } ( one half) to that of its length. The length of the Ardhacandra is to be divided in 3 parts, in such a way that 2 equal parts may come at the centre and 3 part on either side of them may constitute 1 part. The two central parts cover the moulding ardhacandra proper in a half moon shape; and a moulding named gagaraka is placed on either side which cover an aggregate one part. The whole moulding is to be adorned with Sankha (conch), Padma ( lotus) and lotus leaves.72 It is seen above that the most of the Caulukyan shrine doors have the projecting Udumbara mouldings with Candasila as narrated in the text APPR. etc. ik This Ardhacandra, due to its prominent moulding Sarkha, is known as sarikhadvara or Sarkhavata in local terminology. It is otherwise known as candrasila also. 72 APPR. CIIIX, 19-23., PM. III, 41-42 , KSR. (MS) CIX. 9. Vide here Fig. 246.

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CHAPTER VII THE ANTARALA (1) The early examples in Gujarat The ground plans of the temples of Gujarat resolve themselves into two kinds; those in which the two main compartments i. e. Garbhagliha and Mandapa are cojoined so as to unite the entire plan within a parallelogram and those in which each compartment is attached diagonally by means of the architectural device known as Antarala or Kori. The antarala here becomes an independent compartment which cojoins the Garhhagniba and the Mandapa. In such a case it has its ground plan and a superstructure too. In most of the pre-Caulukyan temples the garbhagliha and the mandapa are cojoined in such a way that they unite within a parallelogram. But in the case of temples having circumambulatory around the garbhagriha and an aisle around the nave of the mandapa, the front portion before the garbhagriha gives rise to an illusion of the antarala. But in fact they simply represent the cojoined portions of the circumambulatory and the mandapa, where as the antarala is altogether a distinct chamber added between the garbhagriha (with or without circumambulatory) and the mandapa. In the case of the temples at Kadvar, Sutrapada, Visavada (Sun temple), Srinagar (Devi temple), Khimesvara, Suvan etc. the juncture of the circumambulatory and the adjoining aisle of the mandapa creates the illusion of antarala. The temple at Kalsar presents perhaps, a solitory examples of antarala in case of pre-Caulukyan temples. Here the both rectangular garbhagliha and manqapa are cojoined diagonally by means of a narrow slit like antarala,

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The Antarala 365 But during the Caulukyan period the antarala, as an intermediate chamber as vestibule, is found frequent. Several Caulukyan temples such as the old (extinct) temple of Somanath, the Navlakha temple at Ghumali, Sunak, Girnar (Neminatha ) etc. are provided with antarala, (ii) Canonical principles discerned. In ground plan it is mostly rectangular. The later canonical works have laid down few canons pertaining to its width etc. The ground plan of the antarala is very plain. The projections of the garbhagriha and the mandapa leave little scope for any external projections of the antarala. The antarala is conspicuous by its absence in the early works on architecture. It implies that this component was probably introduced at a late stage. Among the canonical works the APPR, lays down a few canons about its plan. The measurement of its width is given in relation to the width of the shrine. The prescribed ratio1 is 2: 1; 3:1; 4: 1; 5:1; 5:2; or 10:3. Any one of these ratios may be followed. The Prasada mandana follows the canons precribed by APPR.2 Some of the extant Caulukyan temples display the ratio of 2:1 in the case of the ground plan of the antarala. The temples at Ghumali (Navalakha), Sunak (Nilkantha). Dhinoj, Girnar (Neminatha ), Bhadresvara, Sejakapur (Jajn temple) Bhimnath (Surya temple ) etc. illustrate the former ratio; while temples at Prabhas (Sun temple ), Virta ( Nilkantha) Kasara (Triple-shrine) Harasiddh (Old temple ), Baradia (Rama temple ), Visavada (Nilakantha) etc. are the examples of the latter ratios. 1. APPR. CXXXVIII, 16-19; 2. PM. III, 29.

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CHAPTER VIII THE GROUND PLAN OF THE MANDAPA (1) The architectural treatment in the extant temples A hall that is either directly attached or connected through the antarala with the garbhagriha is known as mandapa. Small temple has a mandapa either open or half-covered. While the large temple has closed mandapa which is called Gudha mandapa. In some of the largest temples, like that at Modhera, there is a detached open hall varjously called the Sabha mandapa or assembly hall, the Ranga mandapa or festival hall, the Nsitya mandapa or dancing hall. In plan the mandapa is either square or rectangular, with or without lateral projections. Due to these lateral projections the plan of the mandapa attains a cruciform shape. The attached ground plan of the antarala and that of front porch, along with ground plan of mandapa with lateral projection will give a pleasant scene of cruciform like shape in general appearance. The pre-Caulukyan temples have either plain square or rectangular ground plans of the mandapas. They are plain i. e. without having any lateral projections. The ground plans of the mandapas of the temples at Dhrasanvela (Kalika mata ), Suvan, Pasanavada (Gayatri temple with double manqapas ). Pata, Sutrapada etc. are almost square while those of the temples at Balej, Bhansar ( main temple ) Khimesavar, Navidhraved, Pasanavada (the Sun temple), Ranavav, Srinagar (Siva and Devi temples), Kalsar etc. are rectangular. The only exception to this is the temple at Kadvar, whose square ground plan of the mandapa has two projected squares joined at right angles in the front at two corners.

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The Ground Plan of the Mandapa 367 The ground plans of the mandapas of almost all the Caulukyan temples are square either plain or facetted with lateral projections. The number of projections here either may be one (bhadra ) or two (bhadra & pratiratha ) and hardly three, (bhadra, pratiratha and nandi). The mandapa having rectangular shape also are adorned with these lateral projections further divisible into chases and recesses. So the ground plan of the mandapas of the Caulukyan temples will look like a cruciform in shape. (a) Some of the mandapas of the Caulukyan temples are square but plain in design that is devoid of lateral projections, The square mandapas at the temples of Tukada, Viramgam (double-shrined temples ), Lovarali, Prabhas (Sasibhusana ) Vasai (Kankesvara, with series of columns), Dhrasanvel (Magaderu), Visavada (Triple-shrined), Kuchhadi etc. have no projections. (b) The square-facetted ground plans of the mandapas of the temples at Delmal, Harasiddh, Than (Muni Bawa), Madhavpur (Madhava and Surya temples), Sejakapur (Siva temple) Sunak, Virta, Dhinoj, Manod, Abu ( Vimala vasahi and Luna vasahi ), Prabhas ( the Sun temple on Hitnaya and Rudresvara), Miyani (Nilkantha), Visavada (Nilkantha), Baradia, Taranetar, Siddhapur (Rudramala restored plan) etc. have one central or bhadra projection. While the mandapas of the temples at Kotai, Sejakapura (Navalakha and Jain temples), Bhadresvara, Bhimanath, Modhera, Taranga, Sarotra (the Jain temple), Prabhas (the sun temple on Triveni and old temple of Somanatha ), Girnar (Neminatha ), Visavada ( Siddhesvara ), Vasai (Junagadhi) have two-bhadra and pratiratha projections. (c) The rectangular mandapas of the temples at Than (Surya temple) and Kanoda have respectively one (bhadra) and two (bhadra and pratiratha ) projections in their ground plans.

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368 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The projected portions in the ground plans of the mandapa on either side are adorned with elevated Kaksasana at times, but the arrangement of windowed balconies or entrances through attached porches make the mandapa more sublime and picturesque. The mandapas of the temples at Madhavpur (Sun temple), Sejakpur (Jain temple), Prabhas (Sun temple on Triveni and old Somnatha temple ) Girnar (Nemi), Sarotra etc. have such balconied windows while the temples at Ghumali (Navalakha), Girnar (Neminath), Siddhapur (Rudramala, restored plan), Modhera, Taranga have Kaksasana only. In elevation part the mandapa has a basement, the pillars (with or without Kaksasanas ), the architraves and the domical or stepped pyramidal superstructure. In case of large temples the mandapa may be two, three or even five storied structure. The Navalakha temple at Ghumali and the Ajitanatha temple at Taranga, the Kalika mata and Vaidyanatha temples at Dabhoi etc. consist of two storeys. The mandapa of the Rudramala temple at Siddhpur was probably of 2 or 3 storeys as Burgess suggested. The famous Dwarkadhis temple at Dwarka consists of five storeys. * (ii) Canonical principles discerned. M. P. has given a separate chapter on the Mandapa. In it, it has discussed the various kinds of the mandapa in accordance with the dimensions of the shrine. It classifies the manqapas into three1 categories Uttama, Madhyama and Kanistha. The * During my visit to Mansa (Vijapur Taluka Dist. Mehsana) I come across a brick structure with a double storey. The structure except probably, the part of a double storied mandapa is extinct. The extant mandapa has a device of double stair-case which lead to the upperstoried portion of the inner side projecting balcony. The protograph produced here is indicative of the structure being storied with a dome over it. It is also now ruined. The site of the extant temple is known as Gandu derun. 1. M P. CCLXX. 2. Ibid. 1. 2.

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The Ground Plan of the Mandapa 369 number of prescribed varieties is 27.3 In plan they are either square, triangular, circular, octagonal or with 16 sides. The different varieties are based upon the varying number of pillars, ranging from 12 to 64 through an addition of two pillars in each succeeding variety. The mandapa with 12 pillars is known as Subhadra, with 14 Syama, with 16 Simha and so on till the last variety having 64 pillars.* The scheme about the mandapas prescribed by M. P. is followed by VKP.5 and by later canonical works like Sm. Su.6 APPR. KSR (MS),8 Dipa,9 and PM.10 Almost all the texts have parallel names and identical specifications. But Sm. Su. 11 and APPR. have given several other types of mandapas in addition to the types offered by M. P. Sm. Su. (LXVI, LXVII) has described as many as 35 mandapas in two groups of 8 and 27, the first being known as Bhadradi and the second Puspakadi. But the description of Sm. Su. is imperfect and vague. The Bhadradi group of mandapas in Sm. Su. is narrated as Vardhmanadi in APPR.12 This variety of 8 mandapas are based on the additions of several projections in their ground plans. Accordingly the first variety Vardhamana is square but additions of bhadradi projections over the square ground plan result into seven more varieties. These eight mandapas are narrated as Gudha mandapa in PM.13 3. Ibid. 3-6. 4. MP. CCLXX, 7-8. 5. VKP. VI, 125-136. 6. Sm. Su. LXVII. 7. APPR. CLXXXVI. 13. PM. VII, 16-21, " bhittiH prAsAdavadgUDhe maNDape'STa vidhesu ca / " 8. KSR. (MS). 9. 10. II. 12. APPR. CLXXXVII, 1-4. Dipa X, 26-30. PM. VII, 26. Sm. Su. LXVI.

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370 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Other varieties of mandapas prescribed by APPR, are Subhadradi 14 (pertaining to porches) 12 in number, Praggrivadi 16 Nsitrya mandapas 15, Mervadi 25 mandapas 1 B and Nandanadi 8 mandapas, 17 APPR. has given vivid description of all these types of mandapas. Consequently APPR. gives a rich variety of mandapas ranging from the simple four pillared porch (praggriva ) to large hypostyle halls. Examples of the latter type are met with in Gujarat from 11th cent. onwards. Diparnava adds one more group known as Sivanadadi to this list and instructs that it is prescribed by Vsiksarnava (MS) with detailed measurements and there architectural form. 18 Many of the earlier temples have no Mandapas, to some it is added afterwards i. e. after the completion of the shrine proper it is added as an extention or as a subservient part of the structure. The text Sm. Su.19 gives a clear idea about this. A porch like structure was added in the front 0 garbhagliha, fulfilling the function of the Mukhamandapa. This Mukhmandapa subsequently got known as Kori mandapa (or antarala ). This small porch like structure is marked by a buttress carried on to the Sukanasa. It may be noted here that many of the extant temples such as two small temples on the outskrit of the village Miyani have ardhamandapas (porches) in front of their respective shrines. As for the width of the mandapa the rule laid down by Sm. Su is that it should have the width of the garbhagriha 20 or its width must be equal to the diagonal of the garbhagriha 2 1 14. APPR. CLXXXVII, 15-26. 18. Dipa X, 60-61. 15. Ibid CLXXXVIII, 1-11. 19. Sm. Su. LXVI, 17. 16. lbid 12-39. 20. Sm. Su. LXVII. 98. 17. lbid 40-44. 21. Sm. Su. LXVI. 8.

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The Ground Plan of the Mandapa 371 At time it may be double or 13 times of the width of the garbhagliha. Various intermediate proportions are also given in the same text. 2 2 The other measurements as to the width of the manqapa are laid down by APPR, 23 PM 24 and Dipa 2 5 The PM. & Dipa prescribe five-fold ratio of the width of the mandapa to that of garbhagliha, namely 1:1, 5:4, 3:2, 7:4 and 2:1, while APPR26 adds two more viz. 9:4 and 5:2. In the case of the Pre-Caulukyan temples such as at Navidhraveda and Kalsar the approximate ratio of the width of the mandapa to that of the garbhagriha is 7:4; at Bhansar it is 2:1, at Suvan, Pasanvada (Surya temple ) it is 9:4 and at Balej, Pasanavada (Gayatri temple), Srinagar (Devi temple) and Sutrapada it is 5:2 as prescribed by the canons. However, in the case of certain temples tlie ratio of width of the mandapa exceeds that given in the prescribed formulae. The ratio of the breadth of the mandapa to that of garbhagriha in the temples at Dhrasanvel (Kalikamata), Khimesvar and Ranavav is 3:1. In the case of the Caulukyan temples the approximate ratio of the width of the mandapa to that of the garbhagliha of the temples at Miyani (Jain ), Visavada ( Nilkantha ), Sejakapur (Siva temple) and Kasara (Triple shrined ) is 3:2; at Lovarali, Visavada Siddhanatha ) and Sejakapur, Harasiddha (old), Manoda, Girnar (Triple shrine), Than (Surya temple), Taranetar, Sejakapur (Jain) and Kanoda, it is 2:1; at Prabhas (Surya temples on the bank of Hiranya and Triveni, and Rudresvara), Miyani (Nilakantha), Kuchhadi, Baradia, Tukada, Viramgam, and Kheda ( Kaccha ) it is 9:4; at Delmal, and Dhinoja it is 5:2 as prescribed by the canons. 22. Sm Su. LXVII. 1-4. 23. APPR. CLXXXV. 24. PM. 11, 4, 25. Dipa X, 2. 26. APPR. CLXXXV, 1-3.

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372 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The approximate ratio of the width of the mandapa to that of the garbhagriha in the case of certain temples here also exceeds the prescribed ratio. It is 3:1 at Dhrasanvel (Magaderu), Ghumali, Than (Muni bawa), Sunak and Virta and exceptionally it is 7:2 at Sarnal (Galtesvara ). The nave of the mandapa is of the same size as the garbhagriha but in the case of Sandhara prasada i. e. the temple having ambulatory, it (nave) must be equal to the garbhagriha with its surrounding inner walls, 27 Further as a rule the nave of a mandapa is marked by four pillars, forming a Catuski, ( Coki) which mainly supports the roof or dome. Other pillars of the mandapa also, are intended to give a secondary support to the dome. The Mandapa of greater sizes i, e, double or more than that of a temple may contain Alinda or Sala (aisle). This Alinda may be single, double or even more in number.28 It is made of series of Catuskis (Cowkjs. These Cokies may be covered interally with Vitana (dome ) and externally with Samvarna, but in no case the dome and Samvarna over such Catuskis should exceed the hight of the central dome and Samvarna of the mandapa itself. It should be in the height to that of the dome and Samvarna of the mandapa proper. Further the height of the mandapa, must be equal to and in no case should exceed that of the Sukanasa of a shrine i. e. the cupola of mandapa must be in straight line to that of the top of the Sukanasa, but if it exceeds, it is an exception and not a rule.29 In the case of the pre-Caulukyan temples the height of the manqapa corresponds to that of the shrine. These temples have no Sukanasa. In the case of the Caulukyan temples which have Sukanasas, the height of the mandapa follows that of the shrine as well as Sukanasa. 27. Sm. Su. LXVII. 43. 28. APPR. CLXXXV, 8-10. 29. APPR. CLXXXV. 13 (ii) also PM. VII. 7 (ii)

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373 The Ground Plan of the Mandapa The entrance to the mandapa. In case where the mandapa is enclosed by walls it is provided with one, two or three entrance door ways. The ratio of the height of the entrance to that of the shrine door is prescribed as follows. The entrance to the mandapa may be equal in width to that of the shrine proper, but exceeds in height by 1, } or 1 30 or it should be 11, 13, 14 or twice the door of the shrine proper i. e. girbhagriha. 3 1 In the case of pre-Caulukyan temples such as at Khimesvar, Navidhraved, Dhrasanvel, Balej as well as in the case of the Caulukyan temples such as at Modhera, Somanatha ( extinct), Taranga, Girnar (Neminatha ) etc. the height of the entrance door way is mostly found exceeding slightly that of the shrine door, as specified above. The projection of Mandapa. The ground plan of the mandapa should be in straight line ( HF) with that of the upper surface of the pitha and the mouldings of the basement of the shrine should correspond to those of the basement of the mandapa. Further, the projections of the mandapa should either be of 4th, $ or equal to the (length wise ) space occupied by the projecting portion.3 2 The Mandapa may have Gvaksa ( with lattice) at the bhadra projection. In the case of the Gudha mandapa the Gvaksa should be open. It is known as Candravalokana ( balcony ).33 The number of the pillars in a mandapa is one of the determinant factors for its sub-varieties prescribed in the canons. 30. Sm. Su. LXVI. 20. 31. Sm. Su. LXVII. 97-98. 32. PM. VII. 19 also APPR. CLXXXVI, 21 (i). 33. PM. VII. 20.

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374 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Almost all the mandapa of the pre-Caulukyan temples have 16 pillars, 4 being in the centre and 12 surrounding them either in the form of free standing pillars or attached pilasters to the walls. The mandapa containing this sort of arrangement of the pillars, is known as santa in the canons. 34 The manqapa of the temple at Kadvar has also this sort of arrangement but the projections on the front parts add 8 more pillars (dwarf) to the mandapa and so the number of pillars, here are 24. As the arrangement is strange one no canonical reference about its sub-variety is available. In the Caulukyan temples the arrangement of the pillars in mandapas Seems varied, but broadly speaking they may be grouped as follows: (a) mandapa having 12 pillars (4 in the four corners and 8 forming an octagon supprting the roof of the mandapa ). This mandapa is known as 'Subhadra' in the canons.35 The mandapas of the temples at Lovarali, Prabhas (Sasibhusana, Sun temple on Hirnya), Miyani (Jain), Visavada (Triple shrine ), Kuchadi, Baradia, Viramgam, Khandosan (right angular shrine), Girnar (Ranga mandapa of Neminatha ), Abu (Rarga mandapas of Vimala and Tejapala's temple), Kasara (Triple shrine ) etc. belong to this category of 'Subhadra.' (b) Mandapa having 16 pillars known as Simha. In Plan it is similar to that of Subhadra except in two side projections which take two additional pillars on each side.36 The mandapas of the temples at Prabhas (Surya temple on Trivani, Rudresvara), Harasiddha (old), Miyani (Nilakantha) Dhrasanvel (Magaderu ), Taranetar, Girnar (Triple shrine), Than (Muni Bawa), Delmal, Madhavepur (Madhav temple), Sejakapur (Siva), Sunak, Virta, Dhinoj, Kanoda, Tukada, Kotai ( Kaccha ) etc. belong to the category of Simha. 34. APPR. CLXXXVII, 19. 35. APPR. CLXXXVII, 17. 36 APPR. CLXXXVII. 25.

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The Ground Plan of the Mandapa 375 (c) The mandapa having 20 pillars, 8 forming the central octagon and the rest surrounding them, is known as " Padmasimha' in canons.37 The mandapa of the Navalakha temple at Sejakpur is the example of this type. (d) The mandapa of the Siddhesvara temple at Visavada illustrates one more variety. It has 24 pillars, 12 being in the usual position as found in Subhadra type (narrated in (a) but instead of out side projection (as we see in subvariety (b), it has two projections on its both sides; constituting an addition of 6 pillars on each side. The variety illustrated by this temple is known as Suryatmaka in canons. 38 (e) The mandapa having 32 pillars 8 forming the central octagon and the rest surrounding them is known as Bhujaya 'in the canons, 39 The mandapa of the Neminatha temple at Girnar illustrates this variety. (f) The mandapa of the Taranga temple has 28 pillars. In canons this variety is known as Vimanabhadra..40 The Sabhamandapa of the Modhera temple consists of 28 pillars, but its architectural form does not tally with the Vimanabhadra variety. If the frontal 8 pillars, 2 being on each direction, are substracted from the 28 pillars of the Sabhamandapa the remaining 20 will form the Padamsinha variety described above. (g) The mandapa of the old Somanatha temple (extinct ) of Prabhas, had 48 pillars. It was of Srivatsa variety prescribed by canons.41 From the view point of the variety of the mandapas that the extant temples-pre-Caulukyan as well as Caulukyan-have, it will be realised that the varieties like Subhadra, Simha, 37. Ibid.. CLXXXVIII, 14. 38. APPR. CLXXXVII, 16, 25. 39. APPR, CLXXXVI, 3, 10. 40. Ibid, 3. 9. 41. APPR. CLXXVI, 2, 14.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat Padmasimha, Bhujaya, Vimanabhdra and Srivatsa belong to the group of 27 mandapas prescribed by the early works like M. P.; V. K. P. etc., which with slight changes in the nomenclatures and details survived to the later works like Sm. Su.42 and APPR.43 376 Further, the Santa variety discerned in the pre-Caulukyan temples and the Suryatmaka variety figuring in some Caulukyan temples are not found treated in the early works as well as the canonical works except APPR, which describes the Santa veriety under the Mervadi group and the Suryatmaka variety under the Trikamandapa group. This sort of arrangement is illustrated by the pre-Caulukyan temples as well as by the Caulukyan temples when the shrines are enclosed by pradaksinapatha. The nave of the mandapa forms a catuski (coki) such as at Kadvar, Pata, Khimesvar, Srinagar, Modhera, Girnar, Abu etc. 42. Sm. Su. LXVII. 43. APPR CLXXXVI.

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CHAPTER IX THE GROUND PLAN OF THE ARDHAMANDAPA (PORCH) (i) The early examples in Gujarat. Leading up to the main hall or mandapa, is a porch or "ardhamandapa'.1 As it serves a purpose of entrance to the temple it may have a flight of steps either on one side, two sides or on three sides. The pre-Caulukyan temples that contain porches are mostly endowed with mandapas to which the ardhamandapas are attached, such as the temples at Balej, Navidhraved, Pasanavada (Gayatri temple) Srinagar (Devi temple ) etc. The sun temple at Srinagar has no mandapa and hence the porch is attached directly to the garbhagliha. The porch of the sun temple at Srinagar2 as well as that of the Gayatri temple at Pasanavada comprises a single square Coki (catuskika ), 3 while in the case of the remaining temples mentioned above the porch is rectangular and is divided into three sections through an: arrangement of pillars. Sometimes all the three sections are equal in area and sometimes the central section is bigger than that on either side. The double projections in the two corners of the front side of the mandapa of the Kadvar temple are generally taken to be porches. But the elevation of the so called porches 1. In the case of a temple having no mandapa, it leads directly to the garbhagriha. 2. Here Fig. 12. 4. SMIK. pp. 38-39. 3. Here Fig. 22.

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378 The Structural Temples of Gujarat indicate that they are here intended to serve as projections of the Kaksasana sections of the manqapa in as much as they contain no flight of steps but form parts and parcels of the mandapa in respect of the ground plan. The porch at Srinagar (Surya temple ) is open on all sides except on the side of the garbhagriha. Two pillars on the front side and two pilasters attached to wall of the garbhagriha support the superstructure over it which is stepped out pyramidal in shape. It is plain in design. The square porch at Pasandavada (Gayatri temple) has four dwarf pillars superimposed on dwarf walls. It contains signs of Kaksasana (extinct) over the dwarf walls. The rectangular porches are open on the front side except in the temple of Navidhraved which is open on three sides. The arrangement of pillars is also distinct in the case of these temples. In the temples at Srinagar (Devi temple), Khimesvar and Balej, the rectangular porch has 8 pillars, 4 at the back attached to the mandapa wall; and 4 in the front. The two pillars located at extremes are attached to the side walls, while the other intervening ones are free standing. But the porch at Navidhraved is divided into 3 distinct sections. The middle Section is bigger in size and has 6 pillars, 2 attached to the back wall the rest being free standing. The other two sections on its two sides are further divided into four sub sections each. The side sections having twelve pillars in all. Thus the porch contains 18 pillars in all. The side sections contain Kaksasana also (some of the portion of this porch is extinct). Among the Caulukyan temples, the porches at the temples of Wadhwan and Odadar (Vaishoava temple) are attached with garbhagrihas. At Wadhwan the porch is extinct. At Odadar it is almost square in ground plan, with dwarf pillars superimposed on dwarfwalls. The superstructure over it is of the Samvarna type. The size of the porch is equal to that of garbhagsiha.

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The Ground Plan of the Ardhamandapa (Porch) 379 In the temples with mandapas the porch is attached to the mandapa in front.5 Here, the width of the porch in some cases give the ratio of 1: 2 or 1:3, But in large temples of the Caulukyan period such as Somanatha (extinct), Dwarka, Taranga, Rudramala (fragmentary), Ghumali, Vadanagar (Hatakesvaja ), Girnar (Neminatha ), Abu ( Vimal Vasahi and Luna Vasahi ) porches are attached on all the three sides of the mandapa. In such cases the ratio of width is 1:3. Like other component parts especially the mandapa, the porches of the Caulukyan period are most ornate. They have exquisitely carved free columns adorned with delicately carved toranas or cusped arches, highly sculptured with scenes of hunting and those of homely life. Their vedis, (the outer parts of dwarf walls ) and kaksanasas also are lavishly carved. (ii) Canonical principles discerned. in the description of temples the early works use the word `Mukhamandapa' to denote the porch.6 In the case of a temple consisting of a garbhagriha with a porch ( Mukhamandapa ), the rule for the width of the porch in relation 10 that of the garbhagriha is laid down by M. P.7 as well as by Ag. P.8 Accordingly the width of the porch is equal to that of the garbhagriba. But in the case of a temple consisting of a garbhagliha, a manndapa and a porch as its components, the width of the porch should be one-half to that of the mandapa as laid down by M. P. 9 5. Vide Ch. IV. p. 39 ff. 6. MP. CCLIIX, 6, 11; Ag. P. XLII, 7. 7. M. P. CCLXIX, 6; 8. Ag. P. XLII, 7. 9. M. P. CCLXIX 10-11.

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380 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Sm. Su. attributes the name Praggriva 10 or Praggrivaka11 to the porch. The word, originally, seems to mean the entrance. Sm. Su. does not lay specific rules pertaining to its architectural form. From the description about the mandapa imparted by APPR, it reflects that the porch has not its independant architectural formulae which may throw light on its ground plan, superstructure or other details. But while dealing with the subject matter of mukhamandapa termed as "Trika mandapa' (i. e. the triple mandapa in front of the closed (Nigudha) mandapa APPR enumerates its twelve varieties.13 The varieties differ in the number of their Cokies 18 and are known by different names. In the Brhamanical temples of Gujarat the porch is generally of type one, namely Subhadra which consists of one Coki, while the Jain temple yeild three more varieties namely Kirita; Pranta and santa, which are commonly known Tri coki, Cha Coki, and Nava Coki' on the basis of the respective numbers of their cokis, for instance the triple temple of Vastupala at Girnar has "Tri Coki' between the 10. Sm. Su. XLIX, 29. 11. Sm. Su. XLIX, 34. 12. APPR. CLXXXVII, 15-26. Originally Mukhamandapa' denotes the porch in front while "Trika mandapa" stands for the three porches on the three sides. But here the two terms seem to have been used synonimously. It makes no difference in prescribing the architectural form of the porch as the canons equally apply to all of them. 13. They number 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16 and 20 respectively the corresponding number of pillars are 4, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26 and 30 respectively,

Page #436
The Ground Plan of the Ardhamandapa (Porch) 381 two mandapas, similarly the temples of Vimala and that of Tejapala at Mt. Abu have also such arrangement of Tri Coki between the Gudha and Ranga mandapa. The remains of Jain temple at Miyani also illustrate the similar example. The Jain temple at Bhadresvar has an unique arrangement of Cokis, which co-join three Ranga mandapas, arranged triangulary. At Taranga there is 'Cha Coki' in front of the temple of Ajita natha. Vimalvasahi at Abu has Navacoki while the Jain temple at Sarotra has similar Navacoki' between the Gudha and Ranga mandapa.

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CHAPTER X THE GROUND PLAN OF THE PRADAKSINA PATHA. (i) The early examples in Gujarat. Some temples are provided with a pradaksinapathai intended for circumambulation (Pradaksina) around the shrine. Generally it is enclosed by an outerwall running parallel (at least in its general out line if not in detail) to the wall of the garbhagsiba which forms the inner wall for the passage. In that case it is covered either by a separate roof (flat or sloping ) or by the projections of the superstructure of the shrine. In a few cases it is found left open (uncovered) and unenclosed, The ground plan of the circumambulatory, as discerned in the extant temples of Gujarat may be classified into the following types, according to the plainness or otherwise of its inner and outer sides. (a) Plain on the inner as well as the outerside, the delineation of the inner and the outer wall being plain. (b) Externally plain, but containing specific recesses and projections internally (corresponding to those of the inner wall) (c) Internally plain but containing specific recesses and projections externally (corresponding to those of the outer wall). (d) containing specific recesses and projections on its inner as well as outer side ( corresponding to those of the inner and the outer wall ). in a few examples the covered circumamublatory is further surrounded by an open one. attached to the former either on the same level or on a lower level. 1. Also known as * Bhrama', * Bhramani' or Bhamati.

Page #438
The Ground Plan of the Pradaksina Patha 383 We have two such instances, one at Gop and the other at Suvan. The extant remains of the Gop temple indicate the existence of double circumambulatory. The ground plan of the covered passage, on the inner side was plain, but externally it seems to have had three projections. It was probably surrounded by another circumambulatory indicated by the lower and projected floor having five projections externally. That it served as another circumambulatory is further implied by the figures on the wall on its internal side at a level lower than the base of the inner circumambulatory. The ground plan of the covered pradaksina patha of the temple of Suvan is plain internally as well as externally. But the surviving open pradaksina gives indications of certain projections on its external side though not so prominently as at Gop. The ground plans of the pradaksinapatha in most of pre-Caulukyrn temples follow the scheme narrated in (a) above i, e. they are plain externally as well as internally. This is illustrated by the pradaksinas in the temples at (1) Bilesvar, (2) Shrinagar (Devi temple ) (3) Balej (4) Bhansar (main temple) (5) Khimesvar (6) Ranavav. (7) Pasanavada (Gayatri temple ) (8) Kadyar, (9) Sutrapada etc. As for the ratio of the width of the pradaksina patha to that of the extant examples display several varieties. Among the temples mentioned above. No. 1 and 2 have the ratio of 1:2 , 3 , 4 , 1:3 >> 5 has , , 2:3 3:4 3:8 3:9 4:9 2. Vide conjectural plan given by me. Here Fig. 216.

Page #439
The Structural Temples of Gujarat The ground plan of the pradaksina of the sun temple at Visavada is plain externally, but its inner side contains specific recesses and projections corresponding to those of the wall of the garbhagriha. Thus it falls under the category (b) mentioned above. 384 It will be interesting to note here that the ground plan of almost all the pradaksina of the pre-Caulukyan temples fall into the category of (a) and (b) given above. The ground plan of the pradaksinas of the Caulukyan temples fall mostly in the Categories of (c) and (d) except the pradaksina of Magaderu at Dhrasanval which belongs to category (b). The ground plans of the pradaksina of the temples at Siddhpur (restored plan), Bhimanath (Sun temple) and Prabhas (Sun temple on Triveni) are internally plain corresponding to the garbha-wall but externally they take greater projections. The external projections of the circumambulatory of the first two temples, terminating into balconied windows or pavilions are extended so far as to leave an intermediate space just equal to the width of the garbhagriha. These examples belongs to category (c). The ratio of the width of the pradaksina to that of the garbhagriha is 1:2 in the case of the former two temples, while it is 1:4 in the case of the latter one. The ground plans of the pradaksina of the temples at Ghumali (Navalakha). Girnar (Neminatha), Prabhas (Sasibhusana, Rudresvara, Sun temple on Hiranya and Somanatha), Modhera, Taranga and Dwarka (Dwarkadhis temple) internally follow the projections given to the walls of the garbhagriha and correspondingly have projection externally as well. The lateral projections on the external sides in the case of the temples at Ghumali, Girnar. Somnath, Modhera and Taranga are adorned with beautifully carved balconies.

Page #440
385 The Ground Plan of the Pradaksina Patha The ratio of the width of the pradaksina in relation to that of the garbhagriha is 1:3 in the case of the temples at Ghumaii, Girnar and Dwarka; 1:2 in the case of Sasibhusana at Prabhas and the sun temple at Bhimanatha; 1:4, in the case of the temples at Modhera, Taranga and the Somanatha ( extinct) at Prabhas; 4:7 in the case of Sun temple on Hiranya and 4:9 in the case of Rudresvara, both at Prablias. The ground plan of the Pradaksina of Magaderu at Dhrasanvel follows internally the lateral projections given by the garbha wall, but externally it is plain, excepting a small projection intended for Kaksasana. The ratio of its width to that of the garbhagriba is 4:5. In Caulukyan temples, the outer sides of the shrine walls, in the pradaksina contain along with the other mouldings deep niches enshrining figures of god and goddesses as for instance at Modhera, Taranga, Prabhas (Sasibhusana, Rudresvra, Sun temple on Hiranya etc.). As the external wall of the pradaksina forms a portion of the mandovara, its vertical treatment follows that of the manaovara. 8 (ii) Canonical principles discerned. For the circumambulatory the words used in early works are Pradaksina and Bhramana as well. Ag. P. lays down that the shrine may be surrounded by a Pradaksina,4 the width and the projections to be adopted by the Pradaksina are also specified. Accordingly it must be equal in width to the basic width of Manjari (Sikhara) over garbha wall.5 From the extant temples of Gujarat it may be inferred that the height of the pradaksina should be equal to that of the garbha wall, but in certain cases the height of the pradaksina is also seem determined by the nature of the roof over it. In the case of temples having sloped roof over pradaksina the 3. Vide Ch. 12. here. 4. Ag. P. CIV. 9. 5. Ag. P.XLII, 41, 2 (i).

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386 The Structural Temples of Gujarat height of pradaksina on side of the garbha wall will be some what higher than that of the wall enclosing the pradaksina, for instance the Kalikamata temple at Dhrasanvel has sloping roof of this type. Apart from the words pradaksina and bhramana for circumambulatory Sm. Su. in the case of Chadya prasadas uses the word alinda which may be one, two, three or even more in number enclosing the garbhagriha and in the case of Sikharanvita prasada it adds the word andhakarika," the description of several varieties of Sikharanvita prasadas given in Sm. Su, gives the ratio of 1:2 for the width of pradaksina to that of the garbhagriha. It also enjoins for the circumabulatory the lateral projections imparted by garbha walls or the projections prescribed for the lateral sides of the temple. It will be interesting to note that the ratio prescribed by Sm. Su. is followed by the pre-Caulukyan temples at Bilesvar and Srinagar (Devi temple) and by the Caulukyan temples at Siddhapur (restored plan) and Bhimanatha (Surya temple). The other ratios found in the extant temples are not given in this work. Most of the Caulukyan temples follow the projections imparted by garbha wall as prescribed by Sm. Su. Further Sm. Su. (LVI) has narrated 25 varieties of temples under the head of Sandhara i. e. temples having circumambulatory.8 The same varieties of temples have been narrated by APPR. under the head of Kesaradi Sandhara prasada9 and again by Ksirarnava (MS).10 6. Sm. Su. XLIX, 40. 7. Sm. Su. LV. 17. The word is danotative of its covered up feature. 8. Sm. Su. LVI, 18-44. 9. ARPR. CLIX. 10. KSR. (MS) XVII.

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CHAPTER XI THE VERTICAL TREATMENT OF THE BASE (i) The Plain and Ornate Phases in the extant temples In building a temple, a paved platform is first laid upon a wall bedding of concrete, or upon a solid mass of brick work. On this is raised a pitha, a solid substructure, the upper surface of which forms the floor of the building. The outer face of this basement may be either plain or ornate being decked with series of horizontal mouldings which follow either a fixed order or a varying order having additions and omissions of certain mouldings. In almost all the temples the mouldings over the shrine base run parallel to those over the base of the antarala, the mandapa and the porch. The horizontal mouldings which are generally found carved on the ornate outer face of the basement of the temple are as follows from the bottom upwards Bhitta (platform), Jadaykumbha (or Jadambo, cyam recta moulding), Antarapatra (recess ), Karnika or Kani ( astragal with sharp-edge ), Grasapatti ( a band of Kirtimukhas), Chadya (eave), Gajathara, Narathara and Vajithara (bands of elephants, men and horses respectively), and Pattika (a square-edged moulding adorned with flowers and leaves pattern in a square, circle or lozenge-shaped design). Between two successive mouldings are carved a number of mouldings deep in recess. They are known as antarapatras. The Graspatti is a string-course or moulding sculptured with grinning faces; with horns-called also 'Kirtimukha' or Kirtivaktra-which is a decorative form of great antiquity, being found in the cave-temples as well as in structural buildings.

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388 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Elephants are represented in line, with their heads and forelegs projecting from the basement as if supporting the building; and where such a member appears, the base is called Gajapitha. The Asvathara or row of horses, when employed, occupy a similar position; the Narathara or bend of men forms a sort of frieze which represents the mythological scences and incidents. In the extant temples of Gujarat the mouldings Bhitta and Jadyakumbha (Jadambo ) occur since at least the end of the 8th cent. A. D. Tliey are illustrated by the temples of Roda and old temple at Than. The mouldings Grasapatti and Karnika (Kani) are available from the middle of the 10th Cent. A. D. onwards e. g. in the Kotai temple (Kaccha). Here the form of the Karnika itself is bold, roundish, and not knife-edged as we see in the later Caulukyan temples. The Gajathara, Naratbara and Vajithara mouldings are seen only from the early part of the eleventh century onwards. They are exhibited mostly in the large temples. The temples of Somanatha (old), Rudramala (both extinct) and Modhera illustrate these mouldings. Almost all the pre-Caulukyan temples manifest the plain phase of the basement over which the temple rests. However, exceptions are met with for instance at Gop, Suvan etc. The temple of Gop perhaps rested on three platforms, each one having lateral projections on the outer face. The lowest platform had seven projections regulated by horizontal mouldings like Bhitta mouldings and a series of niches for gods at regular intervals. The middle platform had likewise five projections and the upper one had three projections all containing the above-mentioned horizontal mouldings and niches for gods

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The Vertical Treatment of the Base 389 and goddesses. At present only some of the mouldings and niches have remained extant, but they are adequetly suggestive of entire plan. The temple at Kadvar rests on a high plinth, but it is very plain except in the uppermost part which contains a cornice-like moulding. In the very manner the temple at Bilesvar also rests on a high plinth. It is divided into sections by means of pilastars; and except in its lowermost and uppermost parts containing cornice like mouldings it is entirely plain. The basement of the temple of Suvan horizontally contains bhitta moulding at the base and a heavy cornice at the top. But its middle portion is divided into sections by means of pilaster like mouldings at short intervals. The basement of Srinagar, (Surya temple), though prominent, is simple and plain except the top cornice. The basements of the temples at Khimesvar, Ranavav, Bhansar, Srinagar (Siva and Devi temples) and Porbandar simply have a moulded cornice, but the temple of Sonkansari has a very heavy, bold and projected cornice, the upper portion of which is carved with a series of Caitya-arch carvings.1 " The basement of the temple at Navidhraved has a heavy 'Kumbha '-like moulding, while that of the temple at Dhrasanvel contains a projecting square edged moulding bhitta'. The Gayatri temple at Pasanavada has similar heavy Khumbha like moulding but is adorned with large projected Caitya arch niches. The basement of the Caulukyan phase manifests several variations in containing the additions, repetition and omissions of mouldings. The best example containing all the possible mouldings is illustrated by the basement of the shrine of the temple at Modhera. It contains bhitta mouldings at the lower 1. Vide Here Fig. 41. 2. AANG. Plt. XLIX, 1.

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390 The Structural Temples of Gujarat most part which is successively superimposed by the mouldings like Jadambo (Cyma recta), Antarapatra (recesses), Kani (astagral) grasapatti ( band of Kirtimukha ), Chhadaya, Antarapatra, again Chha jali, Gajathara, Antarapatra, and Patrika. The basement of the temples at Sunak3 contains repeated mouldings of bhitta which is superimposed by Jadambo, Kani again Kani, Kirtimukha ( defaced), Gajathara and Narathara, (defaced). The basement mouldings of the temples at Ruhavi, Motab and Gorad are similar to those at Sunak except that the Gajathara are bigger, and that contain a number erotic figures. The basement of the temple at Sander, is sunk into the ground, only the Gajathara-elephant row is partly visible. The basement of the temple at Delmal has no ornament, except a row of Grasas (Kirtimukhas). Similarly the sun temple at Hiranya contains only the Asvarthara moulding, the temple at Kanoda has all other mouldings except the three Gajathara, Narathara, Asvathara mouldings. The temple at Lovarali has only Bhitta, and Jadambo and those of Viramgam (double-shrine ) contain two more mouldings Kani and Chajali at their basement. The basement of the Dwarkadhisa temple at Dwarka has Jadambo and Gajathara mouldings. The Rukamani temple at Dwarka and Rama-temple at Baradia contain similar mouldings-bhitta, jadambo, antarapatra, kani, antarapatra, grasa, antarapatra, and gajathara. The basement of the temple at Shamlaji except asvathara contains all the moulding while that of the temple of Somanatha (extinct) at Prabhas had all the mouldings The basement of the temple of Navalkha at Ghumali has bhitta (repeated thrice ), jadambo, antarapatra, kani, kirtimukha, patrika with lozenge-shaped ornament and gajathara. Further it should be noted here, that in centre of each side of the gajathara, are carved two figures, projected prominently, of larger elephants with their trunks intertwined with the figure 3. AANG. Plt. LXXXI.

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The Vertical Treatment of the Base 391 of a rampart lion between the two elephants. This device is also applied to the basement moudings at Shamlaji, where the twin large elephants with a rampart lion in the centre are carved.4 The basement of Navalakha temple at Sejakapur contains all the mouldings displayed by those of the temple at Ghumali. (ii) Canonical principles discerned. The early works like Br. Sm., M. P., G. P. VDH, P., VKP. etc., do not refer to the basement or socle of the temple. Words like Jagati, Adhisthana occur frequently in these works, but there they are used in the sense of the basement of the temple in the general sense of a base and not in the specific sense of basement in particular. Sm. Su. has dealt with *Jagatis' in two Chapters (LXVIII, LXIX) but it is different from Pitha, the basement of the temple. However, it imparts instructions about the basement or socle ( pitba ) and its mouldings like Vedika or Vedibhandha 5 Antarapatra and Mekhala. Further the Vedika, the lower most portion of the Pitha is divided into the sub-mouldings like Kumbha, Masuraka, Kalsa, Antarapatra, Kapoti etc. 6 The proportional units of measurements prescribed to each member are precise in relation to the variety of the temple in which they are to be moulded; but they are not found representing the extant temples pre-Caulukyan as well as the Caulukyan temples of Gujarat. But the Canonical works like APPR,7 KSR (MS)8 Dipa,9 PM.10 etc. have given full treatment of the basement of the temple under the head of Pitha. 4. Vide here Fig. 86. s. Sm. Su. LVII, 25-26. 6. Sm. Su. LVII, 61-67. 7. APPR. CXXIII, CXXIV. 8. KSR (MS) CINI. 9. Dipa IV. 10. PM. III.

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392 The Structural Temples of Gujarat From the study of the different Types of the basement described in the APPR., KSR (MS)., Dipa. P. M. etc. it will be seen that all these treatises more or less agree in respect of the nomenclature, though they differ in the matter of details connected with measurements of the basements. Each text adopts its own measurement. The canons regarding the construction of the basement (Pitha ) of temples prescribed by APPR. (CXXIII, CXXIV) well apply to the Caulukyan temples of Gujarat. The mouldings like Bhitta, Jadyakumbha (Jadambo) Karnika, Antarapatra, Grasapatti, Gajathara, Vajithara ( asvathara ) and Narathara all, either entirely, partly or repeatedly are seen carved on the basement of these temples. The basement of the shrine of the Modhera temple is illustrative of full-fledged basement mouldings as narrated by APPR. etc. The sub-structure supporting the basement proper is known in canons, as bhitta. It corresponds to the shape of the shrine i, e. it follows all the lateral projections offered to the ground plan of the shrine. - In architectural treatises the ratio of the height of the bhitta to the width of the shrine is prescribed. 11 It is also stated that there may be one, two or three bhitlas, each superimposing one, diminishing in size. 12 The basement of the temples at Modhera, Sunak, Ruhavi, Motab, Gorad, Delmal, Lovarali, Dwarka, (Rukamani) Baradia, Ghumali, Sejakpur etc. contains the repeated mouldings of bhitta. At times like other members, the bhitta moulding is excluded. In such a case the Jadyakumbha (Jadambo ) of pitha 13 which is generally the lowermost part of the basement proper serves 11. APPR. CXII], 19-21; PM. III, 2-3, KSR (MS) CII, 1-2. 12. APPR. CXXIII, 22-24; PM. III, 4; KSR (MS) CII, 3-4. 13. Vide Here fig. 247.

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The Vertical Treatment of the Base 393 the purpose of the sub-structure and assumes a very high and massive form supporting the upper courses or even the wall-face ( mandovara ). It is well illustrated by the Jadyakumbha in the basements of the sitala-mata temple at Vadanagar, the Siva temple at Taranetar14 etc. The mouldings over the bhitta constitute the pitha15 or basement proper. The canonical works have imparted separate formulae about its height in relation to the width of the shrine. 16 The height of the basement must correspond in certain proportion to the height of Prasadas.17 Out of the several varieties prescribed by canons the most commonly known varieties are (i) Karna pitha (ii) Kamada pitha and (iii) Mahapitha (also known as Nagara pitha). 18 The first two varieties are devoid of moudings like Gajathara, Asvathara and Narathara, The first variety Karna pitha consists of only two members Jadyakumbha and Kani. No rule pertaining to parts alloted to each member prescribed but it can be assumed from the prescription that follow in other varieties that the height and projection of the Jadyakumbha must be greater than those of Kani. The Devakulikas in inany of the Jain temples, the shrines on the bank of Mansar lake at Viramgam and several other small edifices have this variety of basement. Even temples at 14. Vide Here Fig. 85 15. APPR (CXX, 21-23) has prescribed. 64 varieties of Pithas out of which the first 24 are designated as of the Nagara type. 16. APPR, CXXIII, 25-29; PM.III, 5-6, KSR (MS) CIII, 1-3. VTP, 111,3 pp. 98-99. 17. APPR, CXXIII, 7; PM. III, 19. 18. PM. III, 12-13; Dipa IV. 19.

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394 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Vasai (Junagadhi & Kankesvara). Visvada, Kuchadi, Tukada, Taranetar etc. have this sort of Karnapitha from where the wall-face (mandovara) rises. The second variety Kamda pitha consists of Jadyakumbha Karnika and Grasapati. The canonical works prescribed rules for the height and projections of these parts. At Kanoda, the basement of the temple contains this variety of Pitha as it contains no mouldings except the three prescribed above. The basements of the temples at Vadanagar (Amathoramata ), Miyani (Nilkantha and Jain temples), the Siva temple at Piludra, the temples on the bank of Viramgam (double shrined), Khandosan etc. represent the Kamada pitha.. The third variety Mahapitha or Nagarapitha is a fullfleged variety. It is described in detail by the canonical works like AFFR; FM; KSR, VKS; Dipa etc.19 which give rules of the height and projections of its different parts such as Jadyakumbha to Kutachadya, 20 The large temples at Somanath, Ghumali, Sejakpur, Modhera, Taranga etc. have this sort of Mahapitha as the basement of the shrine. 19. APPR. CXXIV, 1-23., PM. III, 7-11; KSR (MS), CVII; VKS (MS) CXLVII.. 20. PM. includes the mouldings known as Kapotali in grasapati ( III, 8). It also mentions that instead of Asva various other animals (Vahanas of devas) may be introduced (III, 9)

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CHAPTER XII THE ARCHITECTURAL TREATMENT OF THE MANDOVARA. (i) Treatment in the extant temples. Over the solid substructure Pitha (basement) wall of the Prasada (shrine ) is raised on each side. The wall enclosing the shrine proper is either plain or ornate. In the former case it hardly takes mouldings except the cornices at the bottom and the top; in the latter case it carries several mouldings some of them being repeated once, twice or thrice. In the case of temples having circumambulatory, the shrine is enclosed by two parallel walls plain or ornate. The outer face of the walls is known as Mandovara in Silpa texts. In its ornate phase it is decked with series of horizontal mouldings which follow either a fixed order or a varying order having additions, omissions and repetitions of certain mouldings. Like Pitha following the projections given to the ground plan of the shrine, it is broken up vertically into panels or facets, which run up from the bottom to the top i. e, upto the entablature. The horizontal mouldings which are generally found carved on the ornate outerface or mandovara of the temple are as follows from the bottom upwards; Khuraka, Kumbhaka, Kalasa, Kapotali (Kevala ), Mancika, Jangba, Udagama, Bharani, Siravati, Mabakevala and Kutachadya. Between two successive mouldings is carved a recess or antarapatra. Kumbhaka is a broad band cut vertically and horizontally decorated with figures of niche-gods and goddesses and a morous couples. Kalasa is a torus moulding often carved with

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396 The Structural Temples of Gujarat a row of oval discs and rosary of beads. Kapotali or Kevala is a projecting drip with or without Caitya-window ornament; Udagama is a triangular pedjment, Kutachadya is a chief slanting ribbed roof, the Chadya being a sub-ordinate one. The moulding Kumbhaka is prescribed by canons to have niched figures on its face and foliage on the shoulders. In the extant temples of Gujarat it is first found on Nilkantha Mahadeva temple at Sunak, which was built by the middle of the tenth century. Kalasa is prescribed to be decorated with jewelled patterns, the kind of which again appears for the first time at Sunak. The moulding of Jangha is usually decked with damsels, demi-gods, demi-goddesses, enshrined in the niches having square or round-shaped ringed-pilasters endowed with triangular pediment. Sculpture on Jangha are traced upto 9th cent. earliest. In the extant temples the Bharani of two shapes, square and round, are met with. The round type bharani with suspended foliage prescribed by canons is available from the early part of the eleventh cent, and thenceforth only. The tenth century temples have square bharanis, often double, but without the hanging foliage at the extremities. In the extant temples the mouldings Mancika, giravati and Kutachadya appear from the beginning of the eleventh century A. D. In the case of temple having gudhamandapa, the mouldings of the walls of the gudhamandapa, at times correspond the mouldings of the mandovara of the shrine e. g. the temples at Modhera, Sunak etc. Almost all the pre-Caulukyan temples manifest the plain phase of the wall-face (mandovara ). The walls of these temples are regerously plain except the heavy cornice moulding at the top from which the superstructure rises. However, exceptions are met with, for instance at Kadvar, Suvan etc.

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The Architectural Treatment of the Mandovara 397 The wall face of the temple at Kadvar is divided into sections by means of wall projected pilasters, the uppermost part of them being cojoined by arch-like mouldings. The wall face of the shrine of the Suvan temple has a lateral projection corresponding to that of its superstructure. Further at the top, like other pre-Caulukyan temples, it has a heavy cornice with tooth-like or dentiled intervals. The mandovara of the Caulukyan phase manifests some variation in containing the additions, repetitions and omissions of mouldings. The best example, is supplied by the wall of the temple at Modhera as it contains all the possible mouldings injucted by the canons, The mandovara, here contains the kumbhaka decorated with figure sculptures, kalasa, kevala, mancika, jangha, Sub-ordinate chadya, udagama, bharani, mahakevala and chief chadya from bottom to top. In the jangha it contains several panels of Gods and Goddesses, dancing damsels and musicians, amorous sculptures etc. The chief niche on each side has a standing figure of Surya with his seven horses and two consorts. The shrine-wall of the temple at Sunak contains all the mouldings illustrated by the temple of Modhera except the sub-ordinate Chadya. In the principal three niches of the jangha it has figures of Kali, Bhairava and Natesa. The wall of the shrine of the temple at Sander has similar mouldings as at Sunak. Only the Kumbhi, here, is not decorated with figure sculptures and amorous sculptures. The principal niches in the jangha contain figures of Siva, Visnu and Brahma. The walls of the temples at Ruhavi and Gorad have also similar mouldings to those of the temple at Sunak, the principal niches being enshrined with the figures of BrahmaSarasvati, Siva-Parvati, and Laxminarayana at Ruhavi and Mahakali, Natesa and Bhairava at Gorad. The Jargha of the sun temple on Hiranya at Prabhas, contains in jangha a less number of figures, otherwise it consists

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398 The Structural Temples of Gujarat of all the mouldings in the walls. Similarly the mandovara of the temples at Dwarka (Rukamani), Baradia, Khandosan, and Girnar (Triple-shrine ) contain all the mouldings. Some large and storied temples correspondingly have two, three or even more storeys in the mandovara, In the storied building, the upper storey successively decreased in height, so the manqovara of the first, second or third storey correspondingly requires less height. By omitting the lower mouldings likeKumbhaka and Kalsa and repeating certain upper mouldings like-Kevala, Jangha, Udagama, Bharani comparatively of less height than the former one the height of the upper storey is diminished. In such a case the upper most moulding Kuta Chadya is taken to upper most storey. The walls of the temple at Ghumali, Sejakapur, Tarnga, Shamalaji, Somanatha (extinct contain two storeys and so they have repeated mouldings of Jargha etc. with a lesser height. The Dwarkadhisa temple at Dwarka is a five storeyed building, consequently its mandovara has five storeys each having its moulding repeated from Jangha to bharani with its height decreasing at each upper storey. (ii) Canonical principles discerned. The propertionate measurement of the height of the wall of the garbbagriha in relation to the width of walli and to the width of the garbhagsiba? have been prescribed by the early works but they do not lay down any rules pertaining to the mouldings and their measurements. Sm. Su, enumerates the names of various mouldings3 of the wall-face but particulars supplied about their units of measurements and dimensions are not so much fitting to the extant temples of Gujarat. 1. M. P. CCLXIX, 16-17. 2. Ibid. 21-22; Ag. P. XLII, 3. 3. They are jargha antarapatra, mekhala, varandika, andaka grasapatti, stambha, bharana, sirska, patta, chadya etc.

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The Architectural Treatment of the Mandovara 399 But the canonical works like APPR., 4 KSR (MS).,5 Dipa, 6 PM.? etc. have given full treatment of the wall mouldings and their units of measurements under the head of mandovara. All these texts more or less agree in respect of the nomenclature, while prescribing the units of measurements of defferent types of manaovara such as Nagara, Meru etc. It will be interesting to note here that the formulae prescribed for the mouldings of the mandovara by these works apply to the Caulukyan temples of Gujarat to a large extent. As described above all the Caulukyan temples have followed these mouldings from bottom to top with slight variations due to the rare additions and omissions and repetitions in the case of multiplication of storeys in it. The mandovara of the temple at Modhera has proved to be the best illustration indicative of its full-fledged form. Two types of manqovara seem prevailing in Gujarat. As indicated by the number of the mouldings the mandovaras of the temples at Modhera, Sunak, Sander etc. belong to the Nagara type amongs the different types of the mandovaras described in the canonical works. The mandovara of the storeyed temples is classed under the Meru type in canonical works. The mandovaras of the storeyed temples like those at Ghumali. Sejakapur, Somnatha (extinct), Taranga, etc. illustrate this type. Prastara Just above the Kuatachadya of the mandovara is superimposed an entablature known an Prastara. In the case of a shrine with a curvilinear sikhara the entablature rests simply on the walls of the shrine. It generally consists of several mouldings such as Kumbha, Karna, Chadya, Karnika, Patrika, Antarapatra etc. 4. APPR. CXXVI, CXXVII. 5. KSR. (MS) CIV, CVII. 6. Dipa V. 7. PM. III.

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400 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The entablature extends over the other components of the temple building and forms the roof of almost all the subsidiary components such as the pradeksina patha, the antarala etc. In the case of the mandapa, and the adjoining porches the prastara forms the basis of the superstructure. Thus it serves as a connective member above the walls of all the components of the temple. The early canonical works do not give a separate treatment of the Prastara but refer to it in connection with the Chadya (eave) of the shrine. In later works the entablature is described in detail under the head prastara.8 The entablature is found to be common in the Caulukyan temples of Gujarat. 8. KSR. (MS). CVIII, 6-10; VTF, I 11, 18.

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CHAPTER XIII THE ARCHITECTURAL TREATMENT OF THE SIKHARA (i) The sikhara of the Extant Temples The sikhara (spire ) is one of the characteristics which indicates the order or style to which the temple belongs. As it is seen abovel sikhara of the pre-Caulukyan temples is stepped-out pyramidal in shape composed of horizontal layers (Chadyas ) one over the other. Right from the Gop temple having a spire of two layers, it has got gradual progress in the number of layers, till the land mark is reached at Bilesvar temple which has six layers adorned with series of Caitya-arch ornaments flanked by amalaka quoins at either corner of each layer. Temples having flat roofed superstructures are discribed as Chadya prasadas in Sm. Su.. They may be Dvi-Chadya or Tri-Chadya and sometimes even more chadyas superimposing each chadya. On this analogy we find some points of similarity in the pre-Caulukyan temples with those of Chadya-prasadas propounded by Sm. Su. ( XLIX ) known as Rucaka type. Some of the pre-Caulukyan temples in Gujarat indicate the following different stages of transition from the pyramidal form to the curvilinear from of superstructure, (a) The beginning of the transition may be traced in the modification of the right-angled steps into sloped steps relieved by a series of round-edged cornices. This is illustrated by the old sun temples at Boricha? and Kinder-kheda 3 and an old temple at Odadar;# the tiers numbered four in the case of the 1 Vide Ch. 4 above. 3. Here Fig. 39. 2. Here Fig. 14. 4. Here Fig. 36.

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402 The Structural Temples of Gujarat former two temples and three in the case of the last one. In this group the superstructure is devoid of Caitya-window ornament. (b) The next stage may be traced to the superstructure in which the cornices are reduced in projection and shaped into half round or square or a combination of both and in which the central bay of each face is decorated with a vertical series of Caitya windows. This is illustrated in one of the old temples at Son Kansari, 5 the sun temple at Pasanavada,6 the old Siva temple at Ranavav? and the Jagannatha temple at Suvan.8 (c) The horizontal effect of the superstructure is further reduced by the introduction of more vertical lines in the general design. Vertical facets on each face marked with amalaka quions (mostly alternated with Caitya window ornaments ) at corners and a continuous series of Caitya windows in the central bays characterise this type of superstructure. The best examples of this type are found in the sun temples at Sutrapada,9 Pasthar10 and Akhodar.11 The introduction of lateral projection from the base to apex begins to appear from the sun temple at Akhodar. This from of superstructure is further illustrated by the small Siva temple at Bilesvar, 12 the Ganapati temple at Ghumali, 18 the small temple at Miyani 14 and the group of temples at Roda.15 5. Here Fig. 41. 7. Here Fig. 20. 6. Here Fig. 17. 8. Here Fig. 8. 9. Here Fig. 3 12. SMTK. Pit. XXXVIII 10. Here Fig. 40 13. AKK. Pit. XLV. 11. Here Fig. 16. 14. Here Fig. 21. 15. SSR. Figs. 82, 83, 87, 88, 91 etc. Also here Figs. 44-50. The styled continued to a certain extent even during the Caulukyan period. It is illustrated by a few temples such as the Magaderu at Dhrasanvel, the Ranakadevi temple at Wadhawan and a small temple in the vicinity of two temples at Sander.

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The Architectural Treatment of the Sikhara 403 (d) The final stage of the transition is notified in a group of temples, the superstructuae wherein almost attains the plain curvilinear form in its general outline. The form is illustrated by the Kalika-mata temple at Dharsanvel.16 Here the lateral projection rises from the bottom of the Sikhara as in the case of the temples of group (c). The projection is of tri-nasika type. Four corner temples in the Pancayatana group at Pasthar have superstructures exactly of the same pattern. The sun temple at Visavada1has the same type of the lateral projection but the trinasika is developed into pancadasika in the example. The superstructure of the central temple in the Pancayatana group at Pasthar18 is of the pancanasika type but its lateral projection rises from the very base of the temple. The same applies to the small Ganapati temple at Miyani.19 The sikharas (spires) of the extant temples of the Caulukyan period exjhibit complete transformation of form. Here we have, instead of stepped-out pyramidal shape, a structure bulging out in the middle, and than gradually curving inwardly till it reaches the apex, Here, also two broad groups are seen in the extant temples. In one group the line of curve (rekha) of the spire rises almost vertically, turning gradually inwards as it reaches the summit. In this variety we have only one sikhara with its amalaka and finjal. (otherwise known as Ekandi or Ekastingi i. e. mono-spired). In the other variety the line of curve of the Sikhara turns inwardly in the same manner, but with a different degree of acuteness, due to Urustingas and Stingas over the lateral projections correspondingly emerged either from the ground plan or from the base of the sikhara. The reasons are obvious. The shrine having no lateral projections either in its ground plan or in the base of the 16. Here Fig. 27. 18. Here Fig. 24. 17. Here Fig. 4. 19. Here Fig. 23 a.

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404 The Structural Temples of Gujarat sikhara or in both will take the spire of the first variety as its superstructure while the shrine having lateral projections in its ground plan like those of Trinasika, Pancanasika etc. will take the second variety as its superstructure. The first variety of the sikhara is well illustrated by the the temples having shrines without lateral projections,20 These temples have only one finial (Andaka ) at the top such as in the temples at Sander (Small),21 Wadhavan (Ranakadevi temple )22 Nandisvar (temple opposite to the main ) 23 and Odadar 24 The second variety of the spire of the shrine has several lateral projections corresponding to the ground plan or originated from its base. In the extant temples the common projections in the ground plan corresponding to the spire are either of Trinasika or Pancanasika Type, the Saptanasika projection being seen at times also. The Trinasika projection in the spire is resulted from the central projection flanked by two side projections which take urusringa and sringa moulding over them. The Pancanasika projection in the spire has a projected central projection flanked by two other projections of a lesser degree on its either side and an additional projection beyond each projections all adorned with sringas; the central one being surround by urusringas on all sides. 2 5 20. It may be noted here that some of the shrines of this type in extant temples seem to have a ground plan with a slight projection on all its sides at times corresponding even to a spire over them. But the projection is so negligible that no crowning member is alloted to it, and it merges into the facets of the spire at the apex. 21. AANG. plt. XCV. Here Fig. 59. 22. Here Fig. 133. 23. Here Fig. 160. 24. The Vaisnava temple in the group of temples at Odadar. 25. The Sringa is a miniature in the round, while the Urustinga (strickly speaking urustinga ) is a miniature carved in half relief.

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The Architectural Treatment of the Sikhara 405 All the vertical members of the Sikhara complex are adorned with amalasara or amalaka 2 6 with final (Kalasa ) 27 as their crowning ornaments. This finial is also known as andaka, 28 The trinasika, pancapasika etc. projections have several andakas (Kalasa) which differentiate one variety of the temple from the other. In the extant temples of the Caulukyan phase the spires with trinasika projections are found adorned with 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, or 33 andakas. For instance, the spires of the temples at Nandisvar 29 (majn ) and Lovarali30 have 5 andakas, at Tukada 31 9 andkas; at Vadnagar ( Amthoramata),3 2 and Delmal33 (small temple of Laxminarayana ) 13 andakas; at Taranetar, 34 Kotai3 5 and Kumbharia 17 andakas; at Kasara ( Triple shrine ), 36 Sander,37 Gorad, 38 Viramgams 9 (double shrine), Miyani (Nilakantha and Jain)40 21 andakas; at Dhinoj,4 1 Siddhpur (Small shrine on the back of the Rundramala temple )4 2 and Harasidha (old )4 3 25 andakas; at Sunak,4 4 Dwarka (Ruksmani ), 45 Piludra, 46 Prabhas (Rudresvara)47 29 andakas and at Prabhasa (Sasibhusana restored )48 33 andakas. 26. It denotes a round cogged member of the superstructure, resembling in shape the amalaka (Embrice Myrobalan ) fruit. 27. 28. The finial bares the shapes of the Kalasa (pitcher). The Kalasa is surmounted by a Bijapuraka (Citron ). As a whole it forms the oblong shape of an andaka (egg ). 29. Here Fig. 160/a 39. Here Fig. 101 30. Here Fig. 159/a. 40. Here Fig. 63 31 Here Fig. 159/b. 41. AANG. Plt. XCVII. 32. Here Fig. 68. 42. AANG. p. 68, Flg. 4; Here Fig. 100 33. AANG. Plt. LXVIII. 43. Here Fig. 62. 34. Here Fig. 85. 44. AANG. Plt. LXXXIII., Here Fig. 57. 35. AKK, Plt. XLIV. Here Fig. 71. 45. Here Fig. 153. 36. AANG. Plt. XI, LXXXVII, XC, XCI. 46. Here Fig. 117. 37. Ibid plt. XCV. Here Fig. 59. 47. Here Fig. 156. 38. Ibid Plt. Cil. 48. Here Fig. 106.

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406 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The spires with pancnasika projections are found adorned with 41, 53 or 65 andakas. For instance the spires of the temples at Vadanagar (Hatakesyara ) 4 9 has 41 andakas, at Bacharaji 53 andakas 50 and at Taranga 51 (Ajitanatha ) 65 andakas. (ii) Canonical principles discerned. In early works references to the height of the Sikhara occur several times. M. P. states that the height of the Sikhara must be twice to that of the walls of the garbhagriha, 5 2 The other works like Ag. P., 53 G. P., 54 VKP.55 etc. follow the height prescribed by M. P. Further the curvilinear shape of the Sikhara to be obtained by applying the various methods of curves is also solicited by G. P.56 These works also refer to the amalaka as being its crowning member and mention that it occupies one-fourth part of the height of the Sikhara.57 But the details pertaining to the several varieties and their manifestations due to the application of curve methods are wanting. The types of the ikharas discussed by Sm. Su, broadly speaking fall into two heads (1) Chadya-prasadas (XLIX) and (2) Sikharanvita (LII, LV, LVI, LVII. LX, LXIII etc.) In flat-roofed (Chadya) temples the pyramidal superstructure is formed by placing the slabs of diminishing sizes one over the other so as to bring out an enormous size both in the superstructure and projections thereof. Roof Superimposed on roof, double-roofed (Dvichadya), triple-roofed (Tri-chadya ) is the subject matter of Ch. XLIX of Sm Su. The pre-Caulukyan extant temples of the group of the Gop temples fall into the varieties of temples described as chadya-prasadas by Sm. Su. 51. AANG Plt. CVIII 49. Here Fig. 140. 50. Here Fig. 107. S2, MP. CCLXIX, 9, 17, 23 53. Ag. p. XLII, 11. 54. G. P. XLVII, 8, 13, 20. 55. VKP. VI; 64. 56. G. P. XLVII, 37-38. 57. M. P. CCLXIX, 19; Ag.P. CIV, 11.

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The Architectural Treatment of the Sikhara Sm. Su, has given intensive expression to the Sikharanvita temples. The trunk of the Sikhara or manjari which is referred to here is curvilinear. Its curvature gradually varies with the height of the shoulder course (Skandha) from the base to the apex of the Sikhara. This curvilinear shape is described as Padmakosa or Venukosa i, e. having a curved shape like that of the calyx of a lotus or that of calyx of a bamboo It encloses the vertical axis of the Prasada (shrine) till the upper portion of it known as Kantha or Griva (neck) is attained. Over it rests the amalaka and the finial. At its base the main or central Sikhara (also called. here, mulamanjari) covers the space occupied by the shrine proper. Following the lateral projections, the uromanjaris (Urusringas) and sringas have their place. Each of the four curvilinear faces are adorned with an Uromanjari, which is lower than the trunk of the Mulamanjari having the height equal to its chest only and which represents a replica in shape of an offset. Like the mulamanjari, it consists of the neck (griva) the amalaka and the finial (kalasa). The corners (karnas) of the superstructure are fortified by small Sikharas (also known as Karnasringas or Karna Karmas), 407 Sm. Su, has laid down manifold rules pertaining to the height of the Sikhara and its several mouldings. In the common varieties the height of the shoulder (Skandha) of the Sikhara is prescribed to be twice, two and a quarter times or two and a half times the width of the prasada (shrine proper).58 The amalasaraka and kalasa are composed of several parts. The general rules prescribed by Sm. Su. pertaining to the height of the temples etc. are wholly accepted by APPR. as by other canonical works. But it has given greater importance to the constructions of several varieties of curves i. e. the profiles of the curvilinear Sikhara, 58. Sm. Su. LVII, 122, 329, 455, 492 etc. In particular instances the height of the Sikhara is however, prescribed to be only slightly more than or even one and a quarter times the width of the shrine (Sm. Su. LVI 161, 165. 175, 176,-181 etc.)

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408 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (a) Candrakala Rekha. Rekha i, e. the profile of a spire (sikhara ) above the garbhagriha involves methods of setting out curves. According to one aspect i, e. Candrakala Rekha, rekha is divided into Khandas which may be as many as three to eighteen giving rise to sixteen varieties in all.o 9 Each Khanda is divided horizontally into several prescribed degits, or parts technically known as Kala; and vertically into divisions known as Cara. By means of the prescribed ratio between Kala and Cara the profile (Rekha) of the Sikhara is attained. Consequently the total number of Rekhas comes upto (the total number of Kala 16 x the total number of Cara 16 ) 256 in all. This is one way of arriving at the Rekhas. These 256 Rekhas have specific names of their own.60 (b) Udayakala Rekha. In the other method i. e, in Udayakala Rekha, the profile or Rekha of the Sikhara is divided into 5 to 29 Khandas, which ultimately give rise to 25 varieties of Rekhas. 6 1 Sm. Su.62 and APPRA 8 have enumerated as many as 364 and 453 varieties of temples respectively. On examining the extant temples in Gujarat in relation to these numerous varieties, it is found that the temples illustrate at least eleven varieties mentioned in these works, as may be discerned from their ground plans as well as the number of andakas of their spires. Among these varieties of temples a few varieties seem to have been discerned in the extant temples of Gujarat from the view point of the ground plan as well as that of the number of the andakas that they have. 59. For specific particulars of the different varieties vide APPR. Intro. pp. XLIX-LXIV. 60. APPR. CXXXIX, CXL. 61. APXR. CXLI, 2-13. 62. Vide Here ch. 4 Table 'B' f. 311. 63. Ibid Table 'C' p. 316.

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The Architectural Treatment of the Sikhara 409 The temples of the first group i. e. mono-spired temples described above belong to the Vairaja type as narrated by APPR. in Ch. CLV. The temples of the second group having several andakas such as 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 25, 29, 33, 41, 53, 65 etc. belong to the Sub-varieties like Kesari, Sarvatobhadra, Nandana Nandasali, Nandisa, Mandira, Srivatsa, Amritodbhava, Hemakuta; Indranila and RatnaKuta prescribed by the Kesaradi Sandhara prasada Ch. CLIX of APPR which is the same as Ch. LVI of Sm. Su. The temples at Sander (small shrine), Wadhawan, Nandisvara (sub-ordinate shrine) Odadar etc. are of the Vairaja variety. The temples of the second group characterised by several andakas may be identified with certain varieties mentioned in these works. They may be tabulated as follows: The temple or Temples at (i) (ii) (iii) - (iv) (v) Nandisvara (main). Tukada. Vadanagar (Amthora), Delmal (small) Taranetar, Kotai & Kumbharia Kasara, Sander, Gorad, Viramgam (double-shrined) (Nilakantha & Jain) and Miyani (vi) Dhinoj, Siddhpur (small) and Harasiddh (vii) Sunak, Dwarka (Rukmani) Piludra, Prabhas (Rudresvara) (viii) Prabhas (Sasibhusana ) (ix) Vadnagar (Hatakasvara ) (x) Becharaji (xi) Taranga No. of andakas 59 13 17 21 25 23433 29 41 53 65 Name of the variety Kesari Sarvatobhadra Nandana Nandasali Nandisa Mandira Srivatsa Amritodbhava Hemakuta Indranila Ratna Kuta

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410 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Amalaka forms the part of the sikhara. The early works like M. P., Ag. P., etc. have alloted 1 part of the Sikhara to be adorned with the amalaka. 64 The later canonical works like Sm, Su. and APPR. and several others have described amalaka with its finial (Kalasa) as the crowning member of the Sikhara.6 5 The amalaka has a cogged rim. Its solid shape is that of a ring stone; it may be compared to an indented wheel, the spokes being shown as ribs of its ring shape. The amalaka crowns not only the main sikhara of the temple but every urustinga and stinga as well. It is surmounted by the finial or kalasa. 6 6 All the pre-Caulukyan and Caulukyan temples are adorned with amalaka with finial. 64. M.P. CCLXIX, 18-19; Ag. P. CIV, 10. 65. Sm. Su. LVI; 49,154; APPR. CXL]); Dipa. IX, 63-67; 75-85 P.M. IV, 32-33. 66. It also surmounts to the Samvarna i. e. the dome of the Mandapa,

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CHAPTER XIV THE VERTICAL PARTS OF THE MANDAPA (a) Pillars. (f) Ceilings. (b) Brackets (g) Kaksasana. (c) Arches. (h) Balconies. (d) Architraves (e) Samvarna-domes. (i) Treatment in the extant temples. (a) Pillars. Pillars are intended for supporting the superstructure of the mandapa. 1 They are essentially required when the mandapa is open one or when the mandapa, even if enclosed by walls, is a spacious one. Pillars are erected beside walls (if any) as well as within the inner area of the manqapa. When attached to walls they project half in size. These are known as half pillars (Ardhastambhas ) or pilasters. When attached to corners formed by two adjoining walls, they project only a quarter in size. The pillars in the inner area are all free standing and are carved fully on all sides. The pillars are superimposed by architraves which support the Samvarana or dome of the mandapa. The Pillar consists of three divisions (i) base (Kumbhaka or Kumbhi), (ii) shaft or pillar proper (Stambha) and (iii) capital (Sirsa ). The components of a pillar generally follow the elevation scheme of the temple. 1. They also support the superstructure of the porch, and the corridor (alinda) facing the surrounding rows of Devakulikas. 2. AANG. Plt. XIII, fig. 2,3. Here fig. 258/6

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412 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (i) The base ( Kumbhi ) of the pillar corresponds to the Kumbhaka mouldings of the mandovara (the wall face ) of the shrine. Its plan generally follows the ground plan of the shrine with its recessed corners. The base has several mouldings similar to those of the Kumbhaka of the mandovata. Further it may be superimposed by the mouldings known as Kevala and Grasapatti. (ii) A pillar is carved either square, round, octagonal or sixteen sided in full or in different sections of different shapes from amongst those mentioned above. They are adorned with several mouldings like Kevala, raised lotus petals (Pallavas). Grasa, string-courses and hiragrahakas (projecting supports intended to hold the arches supporting the beams of the superstructure and the lower tenons of bracket figures usually salabhanjikas, gandharvas or divine musicians). On the lower section of the shaft are carved niches on each face, often containing standing figures of the dikpalas, whilst above them are figures of seated devis of the class to which the temple is dedicated. The member known as 'bharani', is the upper most portion of the pillar. It has also several mouldings, the chief among them is the knife-edged (kani) moulding. The mouldings of the shaft correspond to the moulding jangha to bharani of the mandovara. 4 (iii) Capital (Sirsa ) is the upper section of the shaft, which due to high projection on an each side appears cruciform in shape. It has also several mouldings especially the hanging pallavas (leaves). 5 The upper most section of the pillar corresponds to the upper most part of the mandovara. When the mandapa is surrounded by aisle the base of the superstructure sometimes 3. AANG. Plt. XIII, fig. 1. Here fig. 258/c. 4. AANG. Plt. XIII. fig. 1. 5. lbid.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 413 stands higher than the top of the walls of the shrine. In such a case an additional short pillar, usually known as Ucchalaka, 6 is added on the Sirsa of the pillar proper. The Ucchalaka is composed of a short shaft, 'Sirsa and bharani'i.e here certain mouldings of the pillar proper are repeated with a lesser height especially in the shaft.? In this case the arch also lies higher and rests upon the brackets projecting from the capitals of the upper pillars. The space intervening between the upper bracket and the lower bracket (Hiragrahaka ) is decorated with bracket figures generally in the form of Salabhanjikas. Over the pillars, the beams (Patta) of the superstructure rest. They may be adorned with horizontal mouldings as well as with vertical sections having series of carvings, figures and scenes, Structural Functions of Pillars. The pillars situate themselves above the topmost moulding of the basement and below the lowest portion of the entablature. The impression created by the pillars is one of height and of ease in (sustaining the pressure of the structural parts that are situated above such as the entablature, the rafts, the roof etc. The pillars are spaced at equal intervals so that the weight supported is equally distributed among them. By their vertical feature, pillars produce the impression of elevation and by their number and disposition at equidistance they carry the load of the consequent distribution of the weight sustained with ease and lightness. Though walls have the same disposition as pillars they do not seem originally to have been intended to carry the function 6. Also known as Virahakantha, in local term it is called "Theki' or Teki corresponding to the pillar proper which is known as Theka or Teka, 7. AANG. Plt. XIII, fig. 1, Here fig. 258/c.

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414 The Structural Temples of Gujarat of pillars. Naturally the contruction of pillars is implied to take place first before building of walls is undertaken. This shows that pillars have great structural value than the walls. When walls come in and cover the interspace between pillars, pillars produce the impression of pilasters. Although the most parts of such pillars are burried in wall, they are regular and structural in their function as originally conceived. In this aspect too, they stabilise the wall and stand to receive the pressure that falls from above with an air of ease and lightness. Shapes of Pillars. Pillars have many varieties in shape but the basic shapes are four. i e. square, octagonal, sixteen faced and circular. The composite shape is obtained by the mixture of basic shapes such as pillars with (i) square, octagonal and circular shape or (ii) octagonal, 16-sided, round, etc. In the extant temples the pillar type also represents the simple square with off-sets, square with recesses and octagonal with corners. Ornamentation of Pillars. For the ornamentation of pillars several mouldings are executed on the base as well as on the shaft such as grasa pattis, Kevalas, courses with lozenges, squares, rounds; flowers and creepers; swans; strings; chains and bells, fillets with cyma-recta & cyma reversa mouldings and niches for standing as well as seated figures of gods and goddesses, damsels, musicians and amorous figures and human-beings in playful gestures. Among these mouldings the vase and foliage motif (ghata pallava) is very common in the extant temples of Gujarat. Some of the pre-Caulukyan temples such as those at Sutrapada, Kinderkheda, Kadvar, Srinagar (Devi & Siva temples), Khimesvar, Balej, Bhansar (main), Pata, Dhrasnevel, Navidhraved etc. have pillars consisting of massive shafts. Some of them

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 415 are campletely devoid of base for the shaft but are surmouned with bracket capitals either with projected rectangular slabs or with brackets fashioned into a simple role. Some temples have pillars with their simple bases such as those at Sutrapada, Kadvar, Kinderkheda, Shrinagar, Pata etc. But pillars of the pre-Caulukyan temples in architectural treatment give no clue as to the later development found in the Caulukyan temples. Unlike the earlier temples (of Sutrapada, Kinderkheda, Kadvar, etc.) the pillars of the mandapa in the Caulukyan temples are found richly decorated. At Sunak, the lower part of the short pillars, supporting the roof, is spuare, and plain, but the upper part has first an inset circle, sculptured with beautiful scroll design, then a vase with similar decorations on its sides. From here the shaft is octagonal; the lowar half decorated with horizontal bands 'serpent' and 'lozenge' interesected at each face of the octagon by a vertically hanging leaf; above this are Kirtimukhas. 8 The pillars supporting the porch and roof of the mandapa at Gorad temple are short as at Sander, Dhinoj, Gorad, and Delmal and are decorated in the same way as at Sunak. At Miani the form is the same but decoration is absent. Similarly the pillars at Kasara (Triple-shrine) both in decoration and construction, resemble those at Sunak, 10 The pillars at Limboja mata at Delmal are well executed in the style of those at Sunak but they differ in form as they consist of round, octagonal and again round sections from bottom to top.11 Pillars of all these temples (c. 10th cent. A. D.) has vase and foliage motif among the decoration of the shaft. 8. AG. p. 73; AANG, Plt. LXXXV. 9. AG. p. 78. 10. AG. p. 81. AANG, Plt. LXXXVIII (3). 11. AG. p. 89-90, AANG plt. LXVII (1).

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416 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The pillars at Muni Bava's Temple are square below, and built partly into the high screen wall that surrounds the mandapa; above the screen they are octagonal with round capitals supporting the brackets. 1 3 The pillars at Modhera, 13 The pillars of the halls are mainly of two kinds (1) short (dwarf) resting on the wall and supporting the roof above (2) pillars with tall columns, which rise directly from the floor. In the first kind of pillars 14 the shaft is square for about half its height then comes a base, after which the shaft becomes octagonal and is surmounted with a capital, and a bracket. The square part is decorated with a floral design in a circle (often semi-circular and contains a makara, elephants' head and a Kirtimukba ) on each of its faces; the vase part is similarly decorated on each of its corners, while the octagonal section consists of four bands, the top most being that of * Kirtimukhas.' In the second kind of pillars 15 the shaft rests on a square or octagonal base (Kumbhi ). Each of its faces is adorned with a triangular ornament or niched-god. Over this is a member called . Kalasa' and over it, separated by a deep band, is the * Kevala' decorated with Caitya-windows. Above this is a band of Kyrtimukhas. Over this is a triangular pediment, consisting of Caitya-windows. From here begins the shaft. It is decorated with large standing figures-usually dancers-placed in each of the eight faces of the shaft, enclosed with ringed-pilasters. A beautifully carved, round, pillow like plate separates it. Over this separated by a short annulate is a still smaller band 12. MADTD. p. 6. 13. AANG. plt. Lill-LV 14. AANG. Plt Lill, (1). 15. AANG. Plt. Lill (2), (3); LIV. 1, 2, 3 LV.Here Figs. 161, 162, 163.

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417 The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa containing a row of men (figurates), lozenges, and circles and lastly a beautiful row of Kirtimukhas, each of which is separated by a chain and bell ornament.16 The decoration of the pilasters at the Modhera temple is very much like that of the short pillars and resembles that at Sunak. The large columns resemble those in the temples at Somnatha, Abu (Tejapal's), Siddhpur (Rudramala), Vadnagar (Hatakesvara) in their mouldings and decorations. 17 In the temple of 'Vimala Vasahi' at Abu, the Pillars are mainly of 3 types.18 (i) Those support the central ceiling, have a square base, and a circular shaft, and are very profusely decorated. 19 (ii) Those support the ceilings of the entrance porches and are considerably simpler. (iii) Those support the roof of the corridor, they are octagonal, having horizontal flutings at regular intervals, and string-courses on the top. There are no figures. Pillars of the Navalakha Temple at Ghumali. Pillar decorations, ceiling and brackets are different from those of the early Caulukyan type of 11th cent. The columns are of two kinds as distinguished by their decoration. In the first, belonging to the central octagon, there is a double square plinth; over this, the Kumbhi is adorned with a seated figure on each face; above this separated by a Kalasa (torus) is the panelled part of the shaft (which 16. AG. pp. 87-90. 17. AG. pp. 87-90. 18. AG. pp. 107-108. 19. Dr. U. P. Shah, 'Holy Abu' Plt. 27, 28.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat appears to be round or square) having four panels only, one on each face; the small pilasters have griffons attached as brackets to the outward side. Above this is a smaller band having eight panels with sitted goddesses; over this the shaft is circular and adorned with a band of leaves, then a row of chakwas and above it a band of lozenges, and finally the Kirtimukha band below the capital. This is simple, consisting of low torus, and an annulet. 20 418 The other type of columns found outside the octagon is much simpler. Its construction is similar, but is devoid of any figure decoration, the other decoration consists of a pointed leaf for the base and the octagon section and a Kirtimukha band interspread with fishes for the circular section of the shaft, 21 Pillars of the Navalakha temple at Sejakpur. Pillar-decoration is akin to that of the temple at Ghumali. The pillars are octagonal and have a band of Chakwas, birds, among other things. Where as among sculptures of the brackets. is found a large solitary face (of a lion ?) besides the usual dwarfs.22 The Pillars in the Rudramahalaya at Siddhpur The shafts of these pillars are of single blocks 3.1 m. in height, and the outer pairs which form the main supports are much more massive than the intermediate one; exclusive of the brackets they are nearly one and quarter meter in diameter. while the smaller are nearly one meter and have the heavy attached brackets. In the large decorated columns, the divisions and mouldings are the same, and arranged in the same order and relative height, as the mouldings and horizontal divisions of the walls 20. Here Figs. 88. 258/b. 21. AG. pp. 102-105. 22. AG. pp. 105-106.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 419 of the temple to which they belong. The base or Kumbhi is octagonal and is surrounded by eight niched facets, each of which is invariably occupied by a small figure of a seated devi. Above the kumbhi and separated by a narrow neck, is the section corresponding to the jangha of walls, containing the standing figures probably of demi-gods. Above these are two bands of devi's eight in each; than small projecting corbels to support the bracket figures that generally adorn the capitals of these pillars. Over these again rise the bharani and siras or bracket capital. The columns are elaborately worked from top to bottom, and the outer ones have deep brackets thrown out from their sides to add to the support of the lintel above. The brackets of the sur-capitals, that carried the ends of the cross beams, by the directions in which they project, give us a clue to the arrangement of the other columns. 22/1 The pillars that remain of the north and east porches are surmounted by deep architraves supporting low parapets, and over those on the north stand two short pillars and two pilasters supporting the upper lintels of the second storey. The columns of these porches are of the same pattern as those already described; and those in the upper storey correspond pretty nearly in their mouldings to the upper portions of the lower ones. 22/2 The Pillars of the Old Somnatha Temple at Prabhas The pillars of the Gudha mandapa were of three types. (1) Pillars of the first type resemble the large columns at Modhera. They have an octagonal base, ornamented with pointed triangles; above it, separated by Kalasa, two bands and a deep neck with the panelled standing figures; above this, similarly separated is a smaller band of seated gods. After this, the shaft becomes sixteen-sided and is decorated with petals. Over this 22/1. AANG. p. 66-68 Plts. XLIII ( 1, 2, 3, 4); Here Figs. 93. 94, 95, 98. 22/2. Here Fig, 97.

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420 The Structural Temples of Gujarat separated by an annulet, is a band of human beings; then again triangular leaves, lozenges and finally the band of kirtimukhas. Over this the capital is similar to the one at Modhera, consisting of two or three annulets. A bracket, decorated with volutes, surmounts this. (2) Pillars of the second type are much simpler,. Here the base etc. are similar to those in the first. But the larger panel which contains standing figures is smaller in size than that of the previous one. Where as the shaft, after this, upto the kirtimukha band below the capital is cut up into very small compartments which contained seated figures. This feature reminds Cousens of the pillars in the temple of Tejapala at Abu,23 But it should be noted that there is a great difference between the decoration of the two pillars. In the Somanatha temple the shaft is uniformly decorated, where as in the Tejapala's there is much variation in decoration. Above the kirtimukhas the capital and bracket are similar to those of the first type. (3) Pillars of the third type are short. They are square for about half their height, and are then decorated by four circular deeply cut bands.24 Pillars of the temple at Taranga. The base has three mouldings but they are unadorned. The shaft is partly octagonal, partly sixteen sided, and above the middle circular, where it is decorated by a band of intersecting semicircles, band of lozenges, and kirtimukhas. Above this, the capital consists of two annulets and vaulted brackets. Among these the band of intersecting circle is new, other features are common. 25 23. SMTK. Plt. XVIII, a. 24. AG. pp. 100-102. 25, Ag. pp. 112-113.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 421 Pillars of the Lunavasahi at Abu. Pillars are more varied and comprised of four types : (1) These support the central ceiling and among themselves have three types. (a) These have dancing figures on the basement mouldings and nothing above. (b) These have dancing figures above the first brackets. (c) These have simple and close, vertical fluting. (2) These support the mandapa of the shrine and are profusely decorated with sculptures and carvings. (3) These support the corridors and are decorated with hexagonal or octagonal cuttings, kirtimukhas and simple brackets. (4) Short pillars supporting the side-porches of the shrine, sculptured with small minjature sikharas. 26 The Pillars of the temple at Sarotra. The pillars resemble more to the Jain temples at Abu than those of the Hindu temples of the period. Burgess illustrates four types: (1) Simple with Octagonal bases, and shafts divided into three sections; octagonal or hexagonal, sixteen-sided, and circular with dwarf brackets. (2) Smaller; the base similar to the first type, but decorated with seated figures; shaft also similar upto the lower middle, above which there are four bands of leaves, lozenges, kirtimukhas and caitya windows and brackets with incurved volutes. (3) Profusely decorated, resemble, similar pillars in the temple at Ghumali, the Somnatha temple and Tejapala's temple at Abu. 26. AG. P. 108-109.

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422 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (4) Short pillars over the porch-walls with vase, foliage and kirtimukha ornament. This last type resembles the 11th cent, pillars.2? The pillar decoration of the mandapa of the Sun temple on Hiranya is different. It has an octagonal base; the shaft for about half its height is sixteen-sided, then becomes round, which is adorned with a row of projecting bansas (swans), string courses, and a band of kitrimukhas.2 8 Pillars of the Hatakesvar temple at Vadnagar. The mouldings of the pillars follow those of the mandovara of the walls of a temple : first a complex pitha or base with three bhittas or plinth, the upper one carved with lozenge ornamentwhich on the comparision with pitha of the Modhera temple (AANG. Plt. XLIX) will be seen that they are identical, Secondly over this, the kumbha or sur-base has groups of figures added on the faces as in Sunak, Ruhavi, and Motab temples (AANG. Plts. LXXXI, LXXXIII, XCIII, and CI). The larger figures, in panels, above this correspond to the jangha; and beyond this the mouldings agree very closely with those of the pillars at Modhera. The double capitals are elegant feature and, with the lower brackets, form needful supports to those figures which the workmen were so fond of introducing both on the necks of pillars and in roofing of domes. The sur-capitals with their stilted shafts are close copies of the lower cap and neck of the pillar; and this portion of the column may be compared with the mouldings above the jangha on the walls of the temples at Ruhavi, Gorad, Motab, and the small temple at Delmal ( AANG. Plts. XCIII, CI, CIl & LXVIII). In the last will be seen the groups of figures above the cornice, corresponding to those over the lintel of the kirtimukha. The square blocks carved with figures, vertically above the pillars, again the analogous of similar ones 27. AG. pp. 111-112; AANG. Plt. LXXIX (1, 2, 3). 28. AG. p. 92 also plt. XXIX, Fig. 53.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 423 over the corners of temple cornices where they are known as Kutas. These may be noted in Gorad and Ruhavi temples (AANG. Plts; XCIII & CII). The only addition on the pediment is the cusped torana over-arching the central sculpture and issuing from makara mouths. Most of the bracket figures have been destroyed and the little circles of perforated work that filled the hollows between the cusps of the torana with the small guttae at the points, have nearly all disappeared.2 9 From the description of the pillars of some of the extant Caulukyan temples cited above it follows that in general plan and shape they may be grouped into the following types : (1) Pillars square from bottom to top but decorated with a few mouldings. Pillars of this type are seen at the temples at Modhera, and Vadnagar (Amthora). As their mouldings they have from bottom to top grasapatti, ghatapallava (vase and foliage), inverted pallavas (leaves ) and again grasapatti as at Modhera. 30 At Vadanagar the moulding from bottom to top are Kani (between cyma-recta and cyma-reversa moulding), niches for gods, square block adorned with caitya-arch ornament and with hanging chain and bell courses emerged from the mouth of the grasa moulding above. 3 1 (ii) Square pillars having lateral projections. This variety is best illustrated by some of the pillars at Modhera and Siddhapur (Rudramala). At Modhera the shaft is one half bare i. e. without any decoration but thenceforth the mouldings like ghatapalava, grasapatti, and inverted pallava design cover the remaining portion.32 But the pillars of this type at Siddhpur cover the whole of the shaft with profuse carvings. As for the mouldings from bottom to top they have niches for standing figures with caitya-arch ornaments, round and square fillets, 29. AANG. pp. 83-85. 31. ibid Plt. LXII, LXIII. 30. AANG. Plt. Lill, (2). 32. AANG. Plt. XLIII, (2).

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424 The Structural Temples of Gujarat two other courses for amorous or seated figures, kevala, antarapatra, a course with couples in a playful and gay manner, again fillets and courses for swan and lozenges, superimposed by heavy grasa mouldings.33 Some of the pillars of the Abu and Kumbharia have this sort of shape and mouldings. (iii) Pillars octagonal in shape from bottom to top. This variety is illustrated by some of the pillars of the temple at Modhera, Virat and Kumbharia. The shaft of the pillars at Modhera are plain, octagonal from lower to the middle portion and thenceforth liave mouldings like creeper in circles, ghatapallavas, inverted pallavas course with beads in inverted semi-circles, portion marked with hanging chain and bells and Grasa patti at the uppermost part.34 While the dwarf pillars at Virat have semi-circular arch design, inverted pallavas, lozenges interrupted by round beads, and grasapatti as their mouldings.95 At Kumbharia there are full octagonal pillars adorned with a few mouldings like grasa etc. (iv) Pillars having the lower portion square and upper portion octagonal. They are very common in the extant temples of the Caulukyan period. The pillars of this type are best illustrated in the temples at Sunak, Kasara, Modhera, Siddhpur, Sarotra etc. At Sunak the dwarf pillars of this type have the mouldings like creeper encircled in a semi-circular ghata pallava, lozenges marked with inverted pallavas and a grasa course.36 Kasara follows the mouldings carved at Sander. At Siddhapur the dwarf pillars of this type have two varieties. One set of pillars are adorned with a larger grasa at the bottom and thence the mouldings of ghata pallava, kevala, hansa course, string course with hanging chain and bells and a grasa 33. AANG. Plt. XLIII, (2). 34. AANG. Plt. Lill (3). 35. AANG. Plt. CIII (1). 36. AANG, Plt. LXXXV.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 425 course occur.37 The other set of pillars have mouldings like flower pattern, ghatapallava, triangular course, lozenges and grasopattika.38 At Sarotra the pillars have mouldings such as creeper, ghatapallava, kevala, inverted pallavas, creepers, triangles, lozenges, kirtimukhas and large inverted pallavas at the top.39 (v) At Sarotra we have one more variety of the pillars which are octagonal at the lower portion, sixteen sided at the middle and round at the upper one. We have here two sets of pillars of this type differing in ornamentation only at the upper portion. In one set the round upper portion is marked with grasa pattika at the top.40 In the other one the upper portion has several mouldings such as triangles, lozenges with circular mouldings, hanging chain and bell designs, grasa and caitya-arched pallava courses.41. (vi) The pillars, divided into three sections-square at lower portion, octagonal in the middle and round at upper, are met with at Siddhpur. Here the mouldings from bottom to top are adorned with seated bull, ghata-pallava, kevala, lozenges, grasa patti, again kevala, hansa course with hanging chain and bells, again grasa-patti, the moulding cyma-recta, cyma-reversa intervened by plain pattika at the centre, and plain octagonal, round and again octagonal courses, 42 (vii) Similarly the pillars divided into three sections round at the upper and lower portions and octagonal in the middle are seen at Delmal. Except the lower and middle portion marked with pallavas at the end they are plajn in design.43 37. Ibid. Plt. XLIII (3) 38. Ibid. Plt XLIII. (4) 39. AANG. Plt. LXXIX (4), 40. AANG, Plt. LXXIX (1). 41. Ibid Plt. LXXIX (2) 42. AANG. Plt. XL||| (1). 43. AANG. Plt. LXVII, 1.

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426 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (xiii) The pillars profusely carved with several mouldings from bottom to top, divided in to sections octagonal, sixteen sided and round are seen at Modhera, Somnath (extinct temple ) Ghumali, Abu (Vimala and Tejapala's temples) and Sarotra. These pillars have in vertical part double capitals with intervining dwarf pillars. As for their mouldings the best example of this type is illustrated by the pillars at Modhera. They have several mouldings from bottom to top such as grasapatti, cyma-recta, cyma-reversa with intervining kani ( astragal), niches for standings figures, niches for amorous figures, again niches for standing figures, kevala, a course of human beings in a playful gestures, pattika marked with flowers and creepers and grasapatti, again the last two courses are repeated in the section of dwarf pillars.44 At Taranga the pillars are divided into four sections-octagonal, sixteen sided, round, octagonal; of which upper section is well decorated. 40 (b) Brackets. The brackets are attached to the capitals of the pillars so as to form a support to the arches or architraves or to both as the case may be. In several pre-Caulukyan as well as Caulukyan temples no separate brackets are attached to the capital of the pillar. In such a case the capital itself forms a support to the architrave above through its off sets which are either fully rectangular or partly rectangular where they offshoot from the pillar and fashioned into scrolls in their outer ends. 46 In the Caulukyan temples we have both capital brackets as well as separate brackets attached to the capital of pillars. The capital of pillars of the mandapa of the Sunak temple consists of two plates with projecting shoulders. A bracket, carved with dwarfs, surmounts this.47 45. AANG. Plt. CXI, 2. 46. SMTK. p. 42. 47. AG. p. 75.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa At Kasara, the bracket capital is carved with Kicaka.48 The Capital of the Pillars of the Modhera Temple. The capital are simple, composed of three tiers of flat members or annulets-two with wedge-shaped edges, and the upper most with a 'drop' projection. On this rest the brackets which are as a rule of one block. The side brackets of the eight central shafts are shaped as makara-heads and from them spring the toranas; but the others represent fat dwarfs supporting the beams. These figures are styled Kicakas-said to be after Kicaka, crushed to death by Bhimasena and rolled into a ball. The capital of the pillars with tall columns, rising directly from the floor at the Modhera temple is crowned with a makara-bracket in the case of eight stilted pillars while the rest are crowned with dwarfs. Each of the eight stilted pillars is further surmounted with a short circular shaft and capital identical with the one just described and this is crowned with a bracket or volutes and pendent leaves. 49 The capital of the pillar of the mandapa of the sun temple on Hiranya, as at Modhera, consists, of two annulets, without the drop-projection, and is surmounted with brackets of volutes and pendent bells.50 427 The brackets of the columns of the mandapa of the Navalakha temple at Ghumali are great in variety. They are sculptured each with different devices such as kirtimukhas, kicaka, a bird triming feathers, an elephant, large human face, two monkeys with a common head, a bird with a flower in a beak, a horse with a man, a pair of bullocks butting, an elephant and a horse, a cock, a sheep, a swords man and an elephant, a pair of birds, a couple of fishes, three monkeys etc. 51 48. AANG. p. 107. 49. AANG. pp. 77-80. 50. AG. p. 92. 51. AKK. p. 180. also plt XLIII Here Fig. 259.

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428 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Pillar-bracket of the temple at Punyrano gadh have figures of men and lions. 5 2 The Pillar-bracket of the small deserted temple called Muni Bawas at Than has a four armed figure each figure different from others or in a different position. One is a Ganpati, another has a dog's face on his stomach and holds the mouth of it open with his fingers, one has his head turned downwards and his back outwards and supports upper member of the bracket with his feet, some gape, and most of them are conical or whimsical.os The brackets of the columns of the mandapa of the Bhuvanesvar Mahadeva temple at Bhuvad are plain, but a plinth of nine to ten inches deep above the bracket is carved with raised geometrical pattern. 84 (c) Arches. Fretted ornamental arches in the temples of the Caulukyan period menifest two purposes, firstly they flow like a garland from shaft to shaft and thus join the pillars arranged octagonally, triangularly or in a square or rectangular position and secondly they contribute the charm of the whole scheme. At Modhera the arches spring out from the snout of the makara. 5 5 Arches of the Modhera type are like its pillars universal. They are found in the temples at Siddhapur (Rudramala ), 66 Abu (Vimala & Tejapala's temples), Somanath (extinct), Asoda (Jasmalnatha temple ) etc. Much of their beauty, at Modhera, is lost by the destruction of little scrolls that filled the space between the cusps and of the hanging tips of the cusps. But at Abu, they are illustrated in their complete form.57 52. ASVIK. D. 18. 53. MADTD. p. 6. 54. AKK. p. 210. 55. AANG. Plt. LII, LV. Here Fig. 80. 56. AANG. Plt. XXXVII. Here Fig. 96. 57. Here Fig. 119.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 429 In shape the arches are found of two shapes-semi-circular and triangular,58 At Modhera, Abu ( Vimala and Tejapala's Temples ) and Somanatha both the types are found and they are identical with those at Modhera. The third shape known as bindolaka is also available at Abu. It springs from the mouth of the makara and in swinging manner touches to the architrave. (d) Architraves. Architraves are the horizontal supports to the superstructuer of the temple. In case of an octagonal mandapa they are laid transversely to form the base for the surmounting superstructure. The faces of the architraves are often, very richly carved with several mouldings like niched demi-gods, flowers and creepers in circles, triangles, lozenges, pallavas, rows of grasa, and scences from Pauranic legends as well as of daily lives of the people, kings, courtezens etc. The very common decoration are niched demi-gods as illustrated by the architraves at Modhera, 59 Siddhapur;60 carvings of grasa is very common in architraves of temples at Abu. (e) Samavarna. The superstructure over the mandapa is called Samvarana (or Samarana ). It is a domical ornate construction consisting of cornices supporting bell members of proportional sizes on a strick mathematical plan. Samavarna as a superstructure of the mandapa first appears nearly in the early 10th century in Gujarat. Prior to that the mandapas of the temples of the pre-Caulukyan period were covered either with flat roofs or with pyramidal roofs in diminishing tiers decorated with Caitya arches. 58. AANG. Plt, LV. 59. AANG. Plt. LV. Here Fig. 30. 60. AANG. Plt. XL, XLII; Here Fig. 98.

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430 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The external portion of the superstructure is the real samavarna. Internally it may be plain or ornate but externally it is composed of stepped-out pyramidal layers, each layer being decorated with a series of bell-shapped (ghanta ) ornament, diminishing in number at each tier as it goes upwards till the apex is reached. The apex is adorned with an amalaka and a finial. (f) Ceilings. Internally, the dome is supported on an octagonal frame of architraves over the pillars and rises in oversailing concentric courses, each course richly carved, terminating at the apex in a pendant of exiquisite beauty. The number of the concentric courses vary according to the height of the dome, Generally the number found is five or six. In exceptional cases, the number rises upto eleven, e. g. the ranga mandapa of the Vimala temple at Abu has eleven concentric rings. Further it is decorated with delicate female figures in dancing gestures or in a musical moods with the instruments in their hands. This internal part of the superstructure is called the ceiling or vitana of the Mandapa. Almost all the Caulukyan temples have Samavarna type superstructure with its typical decoration in the inner side. In the temple at Sunak the dome, resting on an octagon, rises in concentric circles, built on the corbel principle. It is beautifully sculptured; in the centre is the pendant bud, while on its sides were once twelve * Devis' or more probably dancing girls (about .6 m. high ) supported by brackets (in the shape of dwarfs and men ) projecting, from the deep vertical tier of the upper frieze.6 1 At Kanoda the domical roof of the hall has been decorated in the usual way, but instead of a central pendant ornament it has a flat rosette or lotus, and there are sixteen brackets round the dome to support as many dancing figures and musicians.63 61. AG. pp. 74-75. AANG, Plt. LXXXVI. 62. AANG p. 110.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 431 At Kasara, the concentric circles are adorned with plant and leaf-mouldings. 63 At Sejakpur the dome is embellished with sculptured figures, representing the rasamandala a part of which has fallen in. 64 In the Vimalavasahi at Abu the dome of the sabhamandapa is an interesting one. It is built up of eleven concentric rings, five of which, interposed at regular intervals, depict patterns of figures and animals. Every figure course is alternated by an ornamental course. While from the apex hangs a central pendant surrounded by a group of smaller pendants. On sixteen brackets, sixteen Vidyadevis (goddesses of learning) are superimposed on the surface of the dome across the mouldings.65 The Vadi Parsavanatha temple at Patan (now extinct) had a beautifully carved dome (in wood) which may be considered as one of the best manifestations of the carved dome. Burgess has elaborately given its description. The roof of this temple, is in the form of a dome rising to the height of 3.5 X 3.3 m, in diameter. The roof is decorated in concentric circles with figures and bands of ornament, and has a lotus - shaped pendant hanging from the apex. Eight large bracket figures are placed at equal intervals round the inside. These are female musicians and dancers, and between each pair of these is a seated male figure with two attendents. These are the astadikpalas or eight regents of the points of compass and are arranged in the ceiling according to their proper quarters, and each with his vahana or conveyance carved below his seat. Some fine carving, now much injured, has filled up the corners or spandrels of the octagonal roof, between the lowest circle. of the dome and helping to support it are four balcony windows, projecting inwards from each side of the apartment, 63. AG. P. 81 64. TWI, XVII, p. 405. 65. CG, XVII, p. 385.

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432 The Structural Temples of Gujarat which are very delicately worked. Lower still is a dado running round the four walls, and carved with musicians and dancers in niches, with rows of geese and other ornamental carving below. The rosettes in the spaces between the brackets below the window-sills are rich and effective (AANG. Pits. IV. & XX). All the carving designs & figures in this wood-work are precisely the same as are found in stone. With the Hindu workinen whatever was practicable in stone seems to have been regarded as equally so in wood, and viceversa. In the group of figures on the ledge of the window-sill is Gaja-Laxami in the centre, with musicians playing and a couple of girlshands joined and feet together whirling round in true-schoolgirl style. 66 Domes in concentric circles seem very popular in early medieval temples of Gujarat. The scheme of the dome is like this; concentric circles of decreasing diameters are placed on an octagonal base. First three circles from below are cut deep and decorated with a tooth-like moulding, which is nothing but a portion left out in cutting the cusps in each circle. The next four circles illustrate the geometric design of arch like cusps and circle. The inner most circle and cusps look like a half opened flower, probably a lotus flower. The Jasmalanath temple at Asoda (Taluka Vijapur) has a beautiful decorated ceiling with human figures showing females standing on males in playful attitude. 6 7 The temple of Sejakpur has a ceiling similar to that of Somanath, fashioned into concentric rings of mouldings with brackets of small images. The roof-panel in the ceiling at Manoda temple has a Kaliya-mardana scene. This scene seems very popular in Hindu temples. A similar ceiling is found in temples at 66. AANG. P. 49; Plts. IV, XX, XXI. 67. ARAB. 38. p. 6.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 433 Madhavapur.68 and Odadar.69 The scene is also depicted in one of the ceilings on the corridor surrounding the temple at Abu.70 The mandapa is generally covered by a domical superstructure but sometimes it is also covered by a flat ceiling. The ceilings of the extant Caulukyan temples exhibit a great number of varieties. Some of the ceilings display purely geometrical designs, but at time also a floral or mixed type or one containing human figures and depicting scences of the lives of the gods-goddesses are met with. Purely geometrical designs are seen in the mandapas of the temples at Sunak, Sander, Dhinoj etc. But many of them are mixed with floral designs.71 The ceilings at the Vimala and Tejapala temples on Mt. Abu are the best examples of this type. 68. SMIK. Plt. XCII. 69 Here Fig. 213. In Jamimasjid at Mangrol also similar ceiling is preserved (SMTK. Plt. LXXVIII). 70. CG. XVII, 385. 71. Best peices of workmanship of floral ceilings, originally belonging to Hindu temples are found in some of the mosques of Gujarat such as ceilings in the tombs of Shaikha Farida and Bawa Quazi, Patan (AANG. Plt. XVI, XVII); in Jami Masjida and Miapuri Masjida, Somanatha (SMIK. Plts. XI, XIX, respectively) and Jami Masjida at Ahmedabad (ASWI, VII, plt, XXXIV). In Jami Masjida at Somnath, Cousens has noticed only the porch ceiling. But on my personal visit I found nearly six more such ceilings in the domes of the Jami Masjida. Several other peices of ceilings have, also been preserved in Museum, now, at Jamimasjida at Somnath Patan. Also vide CTG. Figs. 2, 4, 22, 23, 33-35, 38, 40, 41, 46, 54, 58, 60, 61, 66, 67, 70, 73, 76, 78, 80, 81, 83, 86-92.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat Floral and geometrical designs are found on ceilings in the porches of the temples at Gorad and Vadanagar. In the former a conventionalized flower is placed inside a square; in the latter stylized floral design is cut out in very bold relief inside a parallelogram. 434 Many of the ceilings on the corridor of the devakulikas in the Vimala temple at Abu depict the scenes from the lives of Tirthankaras, Hindu Mythology etc. In the same way the ceilings of the corridor of Tejapalas temple at Abu, depict the scences from the lives of Tirthankaras, figures of dancers, and purely geometrical patterns. The story of the great renunciation of Neminatha, the 22nd Jain Tirthankara, is carved in a ceiling panel of the corridor in the Tejapala's temple at Abu. The ceiling is divided into seven horizontal sections. Each section depicts a part of the story beginning from the bottom. Sec. I. Shows the dancers and musicians who led the marriage procession of Aristanemi. Sec. II. The battle between Krishna and King Jarasandha, with Aristanemi in a chariot. Sec. III. The musicians, army and clansmen. Sec. IV. (from right): 1st, the arrival of Arist; IInd, animals tied for slaughter; 3rd, marriage pandol, called cori, a square tent-like bower constructed with seven earthern pots supported by stands of plantain trees, and decorated with festoons and garlands; 4th and 5th, the elephants guarding the entrance of the palace and horse stables, 6th gate way to the palace of Rajimati; 7th: The two storied palace with the chamberlain announcing to Rajimati and her friends the arrival of Arist. Sections V, VI. VII face upwards, chronologically first comes sec. VI, then VII and lastly V.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 435 Sec. VI. (from right) Arist seated on a throne in the assembly of gods and men, giving money and food in charity for a year, before he became a Jain ascetic. Sec. VII: (from left to right). 1st:-a scene which cannot be exactly identified; it shows Arist seated on a throne attended by fly-whisk bearers and others. 2nd :-Neminatha seated in meditation and plucking out the hair in five handfuls. Section V. (from right to left ), 1st, procession of gods and men carrying Ariston Mount Raivataka. 2nd. Arist, now Nemi standing erect and motionless practising penance ( Kayotsarga ).T The sitala mata temple at Vadangar, has beautiful pieces of ceilings. The central mandapa contains a dome of concentric circle pattern. with a pendant in the centre. But there are also some other pieces, which are noteworthy.73 There are two well-carved roof panels. One of them (AANG. Plt. LVIII, 2) is on a slab nearly .8 m. carved apparently with Kirtimukha faces and flowing arabesque work in the corners-three of which are destroyed and with a circular panel covering the breadth of the stone, having a border of round blossoms. Inside this border are sixteen male figures, arranged like 72. Dr. H. D. Sankalia. Mt. Abu., Triveni Vol. XXVII No. 3 Oct. '56. pp. 182-185. Plate opp. p. 183. 73. Burgess while describing these ceilings refer them to "a small and partly ruined temple in town," but does not specify the temple by name. On personal inquiry during my visit to Vadnagar I could trace them in two of the bays in the aisles of the manqapa of the sitala mata temple, one of the bays being hidden within a compartment of the aisles converted into a room recently. Here Figs, 209, 210.

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436 The Structural Temples of Gujarat spokes of a wheel, each with a sword in his right hand, held horizontally behind his head, whilst with his left hand he grasps the wrist of his next neighbour. Their feet are towards the centre of a circle, and the legs interlaced in an unsymetrical way, but owing to contraction of space, the whole number could not be introduced, though the arrangement prevents this being noticeable until we attempt to count them. The other panel, (represented on AANG. Plt. LX) is on a rectangular slab measuring nearly 1x0.8 meter and is of exceedingly chaste design. Two cross ribs each way enclose a central raised area 0.3x0.5 meter and have narrow sunk strips at the sides and small squares at the corners. In the central panel is cut a lozenge-shaped compartment filled with rich arabesque spreading out from a central oval boss. In the corners, outside the lozenge-border are four different figures with floral appendages : in two opposite corners there are perhaps Gandharvas, in a third the Kirtimukha, and in the fourth or opposite corner a peacock. The ribs and marginal panels are carved with various florid arabesques and the crossing of the ribs with rosettes. The whole is deeply chisalled and effective. Both these slabs are of the ordinary close-grained and durable sand stone so universally used in Gujarat in the building of temples.7 4 (G) Kaksasana. Kaksasana, otherwise known as Candravalokana? 5 is a seat attached to the pillars of the mandapa, of the porch, or of both. In the case where Kaksasana is attached to the mandapa or porch, the wall enclosing them are always kept dwarf. On the parapet of the dwarf walls this seat is attached. Further Kaksasana generally has a sloping seat back for comfortable accommodation of sitting. 74. AANG, pp. 83-85. 75. The term Kaksasana denotes a side seat. It is prescribed as a Candravalokana evidently as it serves a place for looking at the moon.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 437 The dwarf walls of the Sabhamandapa of the temple at Modhera is surmounted by a continuous parapet with Kaksasana. In the very manner several temples of the Caulukyan period contain this sort of the seat in the mandapa and the porch. The vertical sections of the Kaksasana contain from top to bottom the mouldings like Rajasena, Vedika (these two are the vertical parts of the walls of the mandapa or the porch, which are as a whole known as screen wall or vedi ), asanapatta and kaksasana proper ( which consists of dwarf pillars superimposed by bharanis and giras ) with projectings cornice or chadya, The screen wall, often, being on the external side of the wall is found richly carved and broken up by panels and facets containing figures of semi-gods, goddesses and sometimes of amorous couples. (H) Balconies etc. The balconies with its para pet wall, pillars and superstructure over it projects outwardly from the manqapa on its either side. At times it is enclosed by perforated stone screens. This is illustrated by the extant stone screen in one of the two balconies in the Gadhamandapa of the Modhera temple. 76 The mandapas with storeys in their elevational part give more scope for beautifully decorated balaconies. The Kalika mata temple at Dabhoi and the Dwarkadhish temple at Dwarka have such balconies. From this it can be guessed that the mandapas of the extinct temples of Rudramala and Somnath also possibly had such balconies. 76. Similar balconies are also found in the circumambulatory. The Somnath temple (Prabhas ) and Rudramahalaya ( Siddhpur ) both extinct had such balconies in their ambulatory. The Neminatha temple at Girnar, the sun temple at Prabhas on the river Triveni and the sun temple at Bhimanatha, have balaconies in the circumambulatories as indicated by their ground plans.

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438 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (u) Canonical Principles Discerned. In the early works like M. P., Br. Sm., and VKP. pillars are classified according to their shapes. According to their shapes square, octagonal, sixteen sided, thirty two faced and circular they are called Rucaka, Vajra, Dvivajra, Pratinaka and Vritta respectively. 7 7 Sm. Su. is silent about the shapes of the pillars. In the later canonical works like APPR. and Dipa. the prescribed shapes for the pillars are square and octagonal but due to offsets and recesses in the shapes they are determined in five types of the pillars. According to these works the pillar types represent the simple square (Rucaka ), square with offsets (Bhadraka), square with recesses (Vardhamana), octagonal (Astasra) and octagonal with recesses and projections (Swastika ).78 Out of these the last type (Swastika) is available in early 13th century only such as at Tejapala's temple at Abu etc. But for composite forms of the shaft of the pillar no particular instructions are imparted. 7 9 In the extant Caulukyan temples the types of the pillars known as Rucaka ( square), Bhadraka (square with offset), Astasra (octagonal) in purely prescribed form and Swastika (octagonal with recesses and projections) in composite form are available at Modhera 80 and Vadanagar;81 at Modhera, 8 2 77 Br. Sm. LIII, 28; MP. CCLV. 2-3 : VKP. II, 166-167. 78. APPR; CLXXXIV-31-33; Dipa X. 7-8. 79. In the local tradition the pillars are also described on the basis of the ornamentation that they take. For instance, those with the vase and foliage ornament are known as Ghata pallava, while those with figures of Kicaka and Kubera are known as Kicaka and Kubera pillars respectively. A pillar with a square base and octagonal shaft is styled 'Sridhara'. 80. AANG. Plt. Lill (2); 81. Ibid. Plt. LXII, LXIII. 82. Ibid. Plt. LIV (3).

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 439 Siddhpur, 83 Abu; at Modhera, 84 Virat 85 and Kumbharia; and at Modhera, 86 Sarotra 87 and Taranga88 respectively. Other composite forms of the pillars are available in the extant temples of Gujarat but for their forms no canonical prescriptions are available. It will be interesting to note here, that the temple at Modhera has all these four types of pillars. The Samvarna, the superscturucture over the mandapa is vividly described by APPR.89 as well as by Dipa.90 Both the texts prescribe 25 varieties. It is to be adorned with a bell, shaped cupola. The first variety has five such cupolas, the second has nine, the third thirteen and so on, the addition of four cupolas in each variety will give rise to 25 varieties of Samvarna the last one being adorned with 101 cupolas. PM. also accepts these 25 varieties of the Samvarna. 9 1 The mandapa, internally, is adorned with a ceiling flat or domical. In canonical works it is known as Vitana. 9 3 Sm. Su. has elaborately described several varieties of Vitana.93 Dipa, also refers to Vitana.94 PM. narrates it in a brief way.05 But 83. Ibid. Plt. XLIH (2). 84. Ibid. Plt. Lill (3). 85. Ibid. Plt. CIII (1). 86. Ibid. Plt. LIV, (1) (2), LV. 87. Ibid. Plt. LXXIX (2). 88. Ibid. Plt. CXI (2). 89. APPR.CXCIII. 90. Dipa. XI. 91. PM, VII. 47-50 92. It is also known as Karotaka, PM. VII, 21 (ii). 93. Sm. Su. LIV. 28, 94. Dipa. X. 21-25. 95. PM. VII. 34.

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440 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the subject of the construction of ceilings (vitana-vidhana) as discussed in APPR. is amazingly complicated. It occupies four chapters.96 All these canonical works have prescribed three main varieties of Vitanas (I) Samatala i. e. Carved in flat slabs (II) Ksipt--Otksipta i. e. ceiling in which several courses are going up and getting down simultaneously and (III) Udita i. e. going upwards by regular courses such as kolas and gajatalus, each of diminishing size. This variety is popularly known as Karotaka. The latter two varieties are depicted in the fashion of concentric circles. (1) The Samatala ceilings in the extant temples of Gujarat may be analysed into mainly three types (a) Panel type where in floral and figural motifs are carved; for instance, Roda temples contain some examples of this type, the finest being one that of Temple (II) (Here fig. 185). The ceiling in the porch of Bhadresvara temple, that of large temple at Sander, that above the transept of the main shrine at Modhera, 97 those at the antarala of Rudresvar & Sun temples at Prabhas, those in the porches of Nilkanth temple at Sunak and Bahusmaranadevi temple at Kanoda are some of the instances of this type. The finest example of this kind is the depiction of Kalpalata or urmivela found in one of the ceilings of the trika of Vimalavasahi at Aub.9 s 96. APPR. CLXXXIX-CXXIII APPR. & PM. have calculated as many as about 1115 varieties of ceilings. Many of them have only a theoritical value; it is very difficult or rather impossible to represent them in sculpture. Certain unpublished fragmentory works like Jayapraccha Inanaratnakosa, Ksiranava, Vtiksarnava and Vastusatra and Vastuvidya of Visvakarma deal with the subject of Vitana at length. Pramanamanjari, though mainly dealing with woodern architecture, contains a special section on Vitana. 97. CTG. fig. 5. 98. CTG. figs. 20 & 22.

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The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa 441 Few instances of figural motifs in panels in the ceilings are also noteworthy. A fragment of a lotus medallion of the central large samatala ceiling of Kerakot temple (now preserved in Bhuj Museum) depicts seated figures in the petals. 9 9 (b) The second type of the Samatala ceiling is Compartmenttype wherein the ceiling is divided into several compartments or sections which are depicted with floral as well as figural motifs. The ceiling in the porch of the Somesvara temple at Gorad 100 is divided into several sections which are decked with floral motifs. The bays connecting the eastern corridor with rangamandapa of the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia are entirely filled with figures in several compartments (Here fig. 208). In the Sabhamandapa of the sun temple at Modhera, four ceilings of this kind, are available. All of these depict the episodes from Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas etc. on a small scale. The ceiling from Vasai, near Dwarka, belong to the same class, 101 Similar ceilings are available at Patan, 102 Prabhas Patan, 103 Kumbharia (santinatha temple ) and Abu (Vimalavasahi) also. (c) The third type of Samatala ceiling can be described as Narrative-type wherein the scenes from Hindu and Jain Mythology such as Nagadamana, Noisimhavatara, Rasamandala, lives of Jain Tirthankaras, gods and goddesses etc. are carved. Sometimes the lotus medillions of the samatala ceiling are completely replaced by mythical or legendary scenes such as found in the antarala ceiling of Siva temple at Kotai (Here fig. 211) and another one in one of the ceilings of the bays of Sitalamata temple at Vadanagar (Here fig. 210). At times either in a panel or 99. KSD. Plt. on p. 150. 100. AANG. Plt. CIN. 101. Now preserved in Baroda Museum. CTG. fig. 15. 102. AANG. Plt. XVIII, 3. 103. A fragment of this ceiling is preserved in Prabhas Patan, Museum.

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442 The Structural Temples of Gujarat in a compartment parties of musicians, dancers etc. come to view, as for instances in one of the ceilings of Sitalamata at Vadnagar (Here fig. 209), at the old temple of Punarogadh 104 and at the Trinetresvara temple at Than. 105 The Nagadamana scene is depicted in the ceiling at Odadar (small Visnu temple ) (Here fig. 213), Mul Madhevapur (SMTK. plt. LXXVII ), Prabhas Patan, 106 Abu (Vimalavasahi)107 and in Bhairava shrine near Kasangadh (Dist. Sabarkantha ). 108 In the examples from Manund (Manod) and Ahmedabad 109 Krisna is replaced by Visnu. The scene of Nrisimhavatara is depicted in one of the ceilings of the corridor in Vimalavasahi temple at Abu.110 The Rasamandala scene depicted in the ceiling is met in Mangrol111 and on a large slab from Madhavpur.113 The highly ornate depiction of vidyadevis and yaksinis in the ceilings are found in the Jain temples of Vimala and Tejapala at Abu. II. The second variety Ksipta-otaksipta and the third variety Udita ceilings follow the several order or rhythm (chandas ).,113 such as, Nabhichanda, Padmaka, Padmanabha, Kamalodabhava (i. e. Padmamandaraka ), Sabhamandaraka, Sabhamarga etc. 104. CTG. fig. 8. 105. Ibid. fig 6. 106. A lower half of it is now preserved in Prabhas Patan Museum. 107. Tirtharaja Abu, pit. 29. 108. AFIS. plt. XX., fig. 43. 109. The slab depicting Nagadamana scene is at present in the collection of B. J. Institute of Research & Learning. Ahmedabad. ( Here fig. 213), 110. CTG. fig. 13. 112. Now preserved in Junagadh Museum. 111. SMTK. plt. XCII. 113. Aparajitapraccha has narrated classification according to the rhythm (chhanda ) or order that the ceiling follows. The rhythm (Chhanda ) found in ceilings is of four types (1) Padmaka (2) Nabhichanda (3) Sabhamarga and (4) Mandaraka (APPR chpt. CXCII). From the

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443 The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa From the extant ceilings in the temples of Gujarat it is found that Ksiptotksipta variety of ceiling manifests atleast three forms (a) Ksipta (b) Utksipta (c) Misra. (a) The ceilings of Ksipta class found in the temples of Gujarat mainly follow the order called Nabhichanda. Such sorts of ceilings are found in temples of Modhera, 114 Abu (Tejapala's temple)115 and Kumbharia, 116 (b) The ceilings of Utksipta class follow the orders of mandaraka. It is best illustrated by one of the ceilings at Kumbharia. 117 (c) The Misra type of ceilings admits a combination either of samatala ceiling with that of ksipta or utksipta; or of ksipta with that of utaksipta. Thus it has three catagories: (i) Samaksipta, (ii) Sama-utksipta and (iii) Ksiptoksipta. (i) The ceilings found in temples of Roda (Temples No. II & III ),118 Shamalaji (Hariscandrani-cori),119 Vadnagar ( Sitalamata temple )120 and Kotai ( Siva temple )121 belong to Samaksipta catagory. description of these catagories or orders the criteria of classification appears primarily to be the decorative elements involved in the formation of the ceiling. The ceiling that takes anyone of the orders in all its courses is considered to be of Suddha type, but wherein different orders are corroborated in courses it is to be understood of Misra type. This bi-component is technically known as Sanghata. i. e. In Sanghata any two of the above noted four Suddha catagories are involved. The combination wherein it becomes tri-component is termed as Bhinna and all the combination of all the four catagories gives rise to Quadru-component, termed as Udbhinna. (APPR CLXXXVII. 17: CXC, 8-26). In all APPR. mentions eight varieties of order-four Suddh and four Misra as stated above. Sm. Su. has given a list of 25 types of Vitanas (ceilings ) (Ch. LIV). 114. CTG figs. 31, 32. 118. CTG figs. 25,95 115. Ibid. 36, 39. 119. Ibid fig. 27 116. lbid. fig. 37. 120. lbid , 28 117. Ibid. , 48. 121. lbid , 48

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444 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (ii) The catagory known as Sama-utksipta vitana is invariably illustrated by the several ceilings in the temples at Abu. The order found here is of Mandaraka 18 2 as well as that of Kamalodabhava. 128 (iii) The catagory known as ksiptoksipta is well illustrated by the ceilings especially in the temples of Vimala and Tejapala and Mahavira temple at Kumbharia. This catagory follows several orders such as Padmaka, 194 Padmanabha, 135 Kamalodabhava i. e. Padma mandaraka, 196 Sabhamandaraka, 127 Sabhapadma mandaraka. 12 8 etc. (III) The concentric varieties of ceilings (Udita ) take the following mouldings in ascending order as their componant parts. The lower most moulding of the ceiling is called Karnadardarika (i. e. a cyma reversa moulding with a sharp ridge or edge). It is decorated with lotus petals in most cases. At times it is enriched with stencilled patterns. The earliest instance of karnadardarika is found in the ceiling of the rangamandapa of Muni Bawa temple near Than. It is usually topped by a small grasapattika, gajapatrika or ratpapattika and in some cases (as we see in the Nilkanth temple at Sunak and in the Sabhamandapa of Sun temple at Modhera ) a frieze of moulding below displaying human figures. The frieze is known as rupapatrika. The next moulding in ascending order is known as Ruphkantha i, e. a belt bearing figural work. In normal courses it comprises seated and niched figures of Goddesses, Vidyadharas etc. On the brackets attached to this moulding there stand figures of Nayikas, Vidyadharas, Vidyadevis, Nartakis, Suraganas and Salabhanjikas. The rupakantha furnished by the Gudhamandapa of the sun temple at Modhera is the earliest of its kind. 122. Ibid. figs. 49, 50. 126. Ibid. figs. 51, 55, 56, 57. 123. Ibid. 52, 53. 127. Ibid., 69, 74. 75. 124. Ibid. fig. 42. 128. lbid. fig. 82. 125. Ibid. figs. 43-45.

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445 The Vertical Parts of the Mandapa The rupakantha is superimposed usually by courses often three or more in numbers known as Kolas (Kalikas ). The Kola is a rib like moulding decorated with a gajatalu mouldings at terminal.. The next moulding superimposing Kola, in some instances, is known as gajatalu, 137 shaped like an elephant's palate. In carving it is nothing but a series of kolas rediating from a common centre and forming a cusped hemicycle. A gajatalu may comprises 3, 5, 7 or 9 ribs, in very early instances, decorated with Campaka buds which in later times replaced by lotus petals. The centre of gajatalu is generally occupied by a flower bud (mukuli) with spread out calyx. In the earliest instance the form of Gajatalu is simple but in course of time a complex form developed. A package of small gajatalus, in gradually increasing numbers, is found in several strata. This gave rise to a variety of modes in its internal depiction. Valika is an intermidate moulding seperating the two courses i. e. Kola & gajatalu, It is also known as staranatara. It is usually depicted in the form of a cippika decked with lotus petals. In earlier instances its profile is carved with creepers. In later times miniature lumas, 130 lambikas, kalikas etc. were attached to it. Their main function in ceiling is to give it a charming appearance. The central lotus pendant of the ceiling is traditionally known as Padmasila. 131 By virtue of its possition it is a key-stone of the ceiling. 129. The local term for gajatalu is kacala (nut-shell ). So the ceiling having both the courses-Kola and Gajatalu is known as "Kola-kacala' moulding. 130. A detailed account of several kinds of lumas is given in APPR. CXCII. 131. APPR. CXIII, 16; CXIV, 14; CXXIX, 7; CILVII, 2-3 & 6-7; Pramanamanjari, v. 171.

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446 The Structural Temples of Gujarat In a flat ceiling the padmasila is depicted in a full-bloom lotus carved in the centre in bas-relief. Similarly in the early examples of concentric ceilings (e. g. Khandosan, rt. angular temple ) it is depicted in full-bloomed lotus. But in latter examples a central peice is given a highly ornate form of pendant. The central tube hanging from padmasila, lumas etc. is known as padmakes ara while the course of various flowers around the pedmakesara is termed as puspaka. The Udita variety of ceiling is also termed as karotaka, It, too, has several orders. The popular orders in the karotaka of extant temples of Gujarat are sabhamarga 132 ( depicted in temples of Munibawa at Than and Siva temple at Mul Madhavpur ), Sabhamandaraka (in all the five Jain temples at Kumbharja ) 183 and Sabhapadmamandaraka (depicted in Tejapala's temple at Abu).194 Injunctions pertaining to the construction of the Kaksasapa are imparted by APPR.136 as well as by PM.136 The descriptions given are quite fitting to the existing illustrations found in the examples of Gujarat. 132. CTG. figs. 57,59. 133. lbid. figs. 62-65, 68,79. 134 The ceiling in Maipuri Masjid at Somanatha is of this order (CTG. fig. 88; here fig. 195). 135. APPR. CLXXXIV. s ff. 136. PM. VII, 9-13.

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CHAPTER XV THE ARCHITECTURAL TREATMENT OF THE SUKANASA (i) Early examples in Gujarat. The superstructure of the antarala, projected on the front side of the curvilinear sikhara, is technically known as Sukanasa. 1 The form literally denotes an object having an acquiline ( strictly speaking like the parrot's nose ) nose, and here seems applied to this superstructure on account of its peculiar shape. Its architectural outlines are curvilinear, its shape is that of a Sun-windows. Its archivolt filled with many figures and augmented by several figures. As the Sukanasa is emerged from the curvilinear sikhara, the pre-Caulukyan temples which have stepped-out pyramidal superstructure have no Sukanasa. In such a case the antarala has either a flat-roofed or gable-roofed superstructere instead of the Sukanasa. The gable roofed superstructure over the antarala is illustrated by the Temples (III, V) at Roda, the old (now restored ) temple at Tarnetar and the sun temple at Kotai ( Kaccha ). Almost all the Caulukyan temples have sukanasa, as a frontal projection to the curvilinear sikhara, superimposing the antarala. 1. It is, also, known as "Sukanghil' (G. P. XLVII, 4), evidently as its front view appears like that of two feet of a parrot.

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448 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (ii) Canonical Principles discerned. The early works like MP.2 Ag.P.3 G.P.4 etc. introduce the Sukanasa4 as structure attached to the body of the Sikhara. Ag.P. states that it should superimpose by the mukhamandapa ( antrarala ),5 By Sutra method, the curvature of the sukanasa like that of the "ikhara is to be attained 6 and its position must be in the midst of the (front side ) of the Sikhara.? Its height must be one-half to that of the Sikhara.8 M. P. also corroborates the statement of Ag. P. pertaining to the height of the Sukanasa.9 Its architectural form is prescribed similar to that of a Gavaksa (Sun-window). The canonical works like Sm. Su., APPR. Dipa., KSR (MS); PM. give cannos about the width as well as the height of the Sukanasa. Sm.Su, states that the sukanasa, at its bottom, has the width of the garbhagriha ( in the case of Nighudba prasada ) or it is one and quarter or one and half times (in the case of the Sandhara prasada ) of the Garbhagliha. 10 The early works have propounded the height of the Sukanasa one-half to that of the Sikhara, but later canonical works like APPR;11, Dipa;12 PM.13 etc. give different variations as to its height, ranging from the ratio of 9:2, to 13:21. A general instruction is imparted by the canonical works that the height of the Sukanasa should correspond to the height of the Mandapa i. e. the height of the super-structure of the mandapa. 14 2. M.P. CCLXIX. 8. Ibid. CIV. 10 3. Ag.P. XLII, 8, 15-16; 9. M.P. CCLXIX, 12. 4. G.P. XLVII, 4,13, CIV, 10. 10. Sm. Su. Lv, 94-100. 5. Ag. P. XLII. 8 11. APPR. CLXXXV, 11-13. 6. Ibid. 15. 12. Dipa. IX, 56-57. 7. lbid. 16. 13. PM. IV, 26. 14. Sm. Su. LXVII, 102, 110.

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The Architectural Treatment of the Sukanasa 449 In the extant Caulukyan temples the height of the sukanasa of the temples at Delmal and Sander approximately correspond the height of the mandapa. In some instances, the height is found corresponding to that of the Urusting attached to the Sikhara. This may be considered as one of the factors governing the height of the Sukanasa as it is like Urustings, a sort of projection to the Sikhara. At Sander its height corresponds to the first Urusginga, at Kasara to the second and at Ruhavi (as the extant remains of the extinct Sukanasa indicate) to the third Urustinga of the Sikhara.

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CHAPTER XVI THE ACCESSORIES OF THE TEMPLE-COMPLEX (a) The Kirtitorana (b) The Prakara and The Balanaka (c) The Deva Kulikas (d) The Dipastambha (e) The Tank or Reservoir (i) Treatment in the extant temples (a) The Kirtitorana1 A prominent feature of temple architecture in Gujarat is the ornamental torana or an arched gate which was erected on the front or in the middle and/or on either side of a temple. This imposing structure is formed of two richly carved lofty pillars. The architrave is surmounted by an arch consisting of three or five curves arranged in the form of a triangular pediment. The arch is flanked by a facetted rectangular block surmounted by a small amalaka and a finial. The block is technically known as the Tilaka. In some magnificient toranas a makara figure is projected from the Tilaka. la In the sections 1. The torana is popularly known as Kirtitorana in Gujarat. It is different from the term Kirtistambha which denotes a solitary memorial pillar. The torana was intended to provide for the Hinqolaka (Swing) on which the deity was placed on festive occasions. la, "Tilaka' is a rectangular block with facetted sides adorned with lozenges design and surmounted by a tiny amalaka and a finial.

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The Accessories of the Temple-Complex 451 of the pediment are carved figures of deities and semi-divine beings like Gandharvas. etc., the figure of the central deity being generally indicative of the main deity to whom the temple is dedicated. Just below the entablature is carved another arch, the terminals of which rest upon in the lower capitals of the pillars. It springs from the capitals either directly or through the figures of elephant mouths or makera mouths projected inside. All its components-bases, shafts, capitals and architraves etc. follow the scheme employed in temple design. The spreading base, figured shaft, bracket capital and tabarnacled superstructure being of much the same order. The base of the its pillars show the same conventional arrangement of mouldings of the pitha of the temple, viz. Grasapatti, Gajathara, Asvathara and Narathara, Similarly the bas-reliefed deities, niche enshrined demi gods etc. in the shafts of pillars invariably reveal an identity with those of the mandovara. All the components of the torana are generally carved profusely. The surviving Kirtitoranas in Gujarat are at Modhera (superstructure and the capitals of the pillars are extinct)? Siddhapur (Rudra Mahalaya ), 3 Vadanagar, 4 Kapadvanj, 5 Delmal, 6 Piludra,? Valam 8 Balej, 9 Shamalaji (Hariscandrani cori) 10 Ghunali ( now at Rajkot ), Astika Pancayatana Kanyata Mahadeva ( Dist. Sabarkantha )11 etc. 2. AANG. Plt. VII, 3. AANG. Plt. XLIV, also Here Fig. 214/c. 4 AANG. Plt. LVII, LIX, also Here figs. 214/f-214 k. 5. ASWI, VIII, Plt. LXXXII. 6. AANG. Plt. LXV. 7. Here Figs. 214/c-214/d. 8. Here Fig. 214/m. 9. Here Fig. 214/1. 10. SSR. cover page, also Fig. 20 1 p. 34. Here Fig. 214/a. 11. Nutan Gujarat dated 27-5-62 also Appendix 'A' here. A fagmentary beautiful arch preserved in the Museum at Prabhas indicates that there was a highly sculptured and ornamental torana, in

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat At Modhera, at the head of the steps of the Kunda on the western side stand two richly carved shafts of the pillars of the Kirtitorana. The existing parts of the pillars are richly carved. The capitals of the pillars, the entablature, pendiment, and an arch are extinct. 12 452 The Kirtitorana in Rudramahalaya at Siddhpur is north to the east porch.13 It was practically intact when Forbes wrote his Rasamala. but was denuded of many of its beautiful components such as principal sculptures in the pediment and the beautiful garland like arch. in 1869 A.D.14 the Somanatha temple (extinct). The preserved peice represents a side fragment of the arch and contains a devi in standing posture with two female attendants, one of which is a Chowrie bearer. Over the ringed pillaster in a niche there is a seated figure of Siva. The torana emerging from the mouth of a makara, contains a Swan course superimposed by 8 pallava course. The niche has a pediment and a sringa as its superstructure. In front of the Sasibhusana temple at Prabhas there is an extant torana base, which is nearly 1 meter below the present ground level. The base measures near IX 1 meter at the bottom. Possibly, there was a torana similar to that of torana at Somanatha ( extinct ). 12. AANG. Plt. VII. On the north of this torana stands another pair of pillars indicative of another torana. It implies that there was possibly another corresponding torana on the south as well. 13. AANG. Plt. XLIV. Here Fig. 214/c. According to the ground plan of the temple (AANG. Plt. XXXVIII) another similar torana ought to have been in south to the west proch. Burgess guesses the possibility of having third one either between the Nandi pavilion and east proch or on the top of the steps leading down to the river. ( AANG. P. 67 ). 14. AANG. p. 68.

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The Accessories of the Temple-Complex 453 The extant torana consists of two pillars that support a richly carved architrave, over which is a pediment in the shape of a triangular arch. This springs from makara-mouths and rests on four smaller columns. A torana semi-circular in shape, once adorned the inside of the pillars. It sprang from elephant brackets and touched the soffit. The bases of the pillars, in comparison to ordinary ones, are much broader. Each base consists of several plinths and a Kumbhi cut into series of facets. The shaft is circular which is superimposed by a capital adorned with pendant leaves and a bracket. Above this is the short shaft with a sur-capital and a bracket which supports the architrave. This is sculptured with minute figures. Above the architrave each makara bracket contains figures. The toranas at Vadanagar16 are the best preserved examples of the Kirtitorana architecture in Gujarat. Both are identical in size and style. The plinth of the torana-pillars is simple, having a decoration of lozenges only. After this follow in order the padma, kani, kirtimukhas, gajathara, narathara and sculptured kumbhi. Then, torus, 'drip' projction and a kirtimukha band. After this a panelled figure on each face of the pillar, placed under a richly carved canopy. Over this, after an octagonal band are corbel projections, which support on the inside a 'griffin' and from the mouths of the makaras springs the semi-circular arch; on the outside, round the shaft of the sur-capital are three standing figures, one on each side; over this is a short shaft, surmounted with a capital and bracket, This supports the architrave from which springs 15 AANG. Plt. LVII, LIX, Here Figs. 214/F, 214/K. When, Burgess gave the account there stood two tornas (see plt. LVII. AANG.) At present one is standing in tact while other has fallen to pieces which are lying on the ground.

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454 The Structural Temples of Gujarat a triangular arch. Inside this arch, between the two middle pillars, is a seated god, perhaps Siva, on his one side is a standing Ganesa; on the other the figure is not distinct. 16 The torana at Kapadvanj now stands on the east side of a platform of a Kunda, or reservoir in the market place. It is similar to those at Vadnagar and Siddhpur. Its mouldings and decorations are in some respects identical with those mentioned above but differ mainly in the shape of arches. At Kapadvanj, both the arches, one above the architrave, and the other between the two pillars, are triangular with five distinct curves for arches (cinque-foil). But there is slight difference between the arches themselves, particularly in the central crowning arch. The Kapadvanj-torana is further distinguished from those at Vadnagar and Siddhpur by the inset figures between the small columns on the architrave and by these columns themselves. The central figure here is Siva, in one of his dancing poses. 17 The figures in the adjoining niches are drummers. The small columns, again, are of sightly different design. There are no dripping, highly carved leaves over the capital of the pillars noticed in the pillars at Vadnagar and Sidhpur. For these reasons Dr. H. D. Sankalia places the Kapadvanj torana in the 12th or the 13th cent. before the Tejapala temple at Abu. 18 On the west of the temple of Limboja mata at Delmal there is a torana. 19 It consists of two pillars, plain except grasa moulding at the top of the shaft, which support the plain lintels over them. Above the lintel on both ends there are 'Tilakas.' 16. AG. p. 97. 17. Burgess described it as Bhairva (ASVI, VIII, p. 94). But as Dr. Sankalia thinks, is a Siva in the pose of 'Bhujanga-Lalita' (Vide Rao. EHI, II, 1, p. 227 and p. 254.) 18. AG fp. 97, 98. 19 AANG. Plt. LXV.

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The Accessories of the Temple-Complex 455 The torana at Piludra is in a dilapidated condition. 30 The basement moulding seems to be buried underground; the torana (or arch) is missing whereas the upper arch is mostly broken. Though many of its decorative sculptures are destroyed, the extant remains indicate that the torana was like the toranas at Vadnagar, Siddhpur and Kapadvanj both in the number of its mouldings and their decorations, The torana is believed to have been the main entrance to the Sun temple. This local belief seems to be justified., because besides the remains of the temple which are said to be buried under debris near by, the central figure of the architrave, upper arch, though considerably mutilated, appears to be a seated image of Surya (perhaps in the Utakatikaasana) 1 and his emblem, the lotus, is still visible in the right hand. A similar torana also stands in the Ranchhodji temple at Valam,2 2 The torana at Asoda (Jasamalnatha temple ) is peculiar. The ornamental arch is here springing from the mouth of makara resting on a standing lion on each side. 2 3 The torana at Shamalaji 26 is also noteworthy. It is situated in the front of the old temple known as Harishchandrani Cori.a? The structure is composed of a base, two pillars and a lintel. The surmounting superstructures Kutachhadyas etc. are missing, only a very small fragment of a cornice is still surviving overlying the lintel providing a clue for the superstructure. 20, Here Figs. 214/c-214/d. 21. AG. pp. 98-99. 22. Here Fig. 212. 23. ARAB. 38. p. 6. 26. A detailed study of this structure has been given by Shri S. N. Chowdhary. Journal of M. S. University, Baroda. VIII, 1, pp. 39-50. 27. SSR. P. 34 Fig. 20 a; Here Fig, 214/a.

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456 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The pillars of the torana have ornamental bases with niches on four sides containing amorous figures and mutilated figures of gods and goddesses. The niches are surmounted by miniature Sikharas above which the shaft of the pillars show the purna ghata (ghata pallava ) motif. The torana beam contains figures of heavenly musicians and is decorated with two semi-circular arches with elongated ends issuing out of makara-mouths. Dr. U. P. Shah suggests a date c. 1000 A. D. or a little earlier for this torana.2 8 The torana at Baleja 9 is perhaps one of the rare extant toranas in the pennisula of Saurastra. It stands in front of the pre-Caulukyan Sun temple at Balej, but it is a late construction and is very simple except the superstructure which consists of several figures of demi-gods. In dimension the torana is small, It consists of two pillars, a lintel and an arch like superstructure over the lintel. The central arch contains a seated figure of Siva facing east. On the west it contains a figure of Devi with her vehicle buffalo. The central arch is flanked by miniature curvilinear sting on either side. (b) The Prakara and the Balanaka The Prakara is the fortification which encloses the temple; the main entnance to it i.e. the entrance gate is known as Balanaka 30. The latter is either one storeyed or many storeyed structure. The space between the temple and the prakara form a court yard which may be square or rectangular. The courtyard of many Jain temples is enclosed by a series of devakulikas (small shrines) on its sides, their back-walls forming the prakara of the site. 28. SRR. p. 38. 29. Here Fig. 214/1. 30. Otherwise known as Pundarika. It is also sometimes known as * Pratoli'. Originally the term pratoli seems to denote the gate erected at the front of a street ( APPR. LXXXIII) but sometimes it also stands for the gate of the prakara around the prasada ( APPR. CXV, 22 ).

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The Accessories of the Temple-Complex 457 The main Jain temples on Abu, Girnar, for instance have beautiful Bala nakas ( entrance-gates ) in the form of porches ( Cokis ). (c) Devakulikas The large Jain temples, generally, contain the series of devakulikas fronted by corridors. The courtyard is enclosed by a number of cells, each containing an image of a tirthankara with his spiritual attendants ( Yaksas etc. ). The cells generally number 52 (or sometimes 72 ) and are all surmounted by their respective spires of the curvilinear form. The corridors in front of the cells are either open or covered. This device of enclosing the temple within a rectangular court yard by means of range of cells, facing inwards, the whole forming a substantial surrounding wall, is known as Bavanjinalaya (the temples having 52 cells ). All the Jain temples at Abu, Girnar (Neminatha temple which contains 72 cells), Sarotra, Bhadresvar, etc. have such Devakulikas enclosing the temple. (d) The Dipastambha : is considered to be one of the accessories of the temple complex. But among the old extant temples of Gujarat it is found specially in some Jain temples as for instance Neminatha temple at Girnar. It is also found in the famous Becharaji temple in Mehsana District. 3 1 (e) The tank or Reservoir ( Kunda ) Several temples are found associated with tank or reservoir 32 such as at Bhansara, Patan, Modhera, Tarnetar and Viramgam 31. The late Ranchhodaji temple at Dakor has two Dipastambhas. 32. The Damodara temple at Junagadh is associated with the Damodara Kunda in front and the Revati Kunda on the right. The Revati Kunda contains 12 sculptures of the well known 24 forms of Visnu. Mahatmyas of several Dharmaksetras contain references to several Kundas or Vapis in association with temples. Sometimes certain tanks or reservoirs constructed independently and provided with flight of stepts, contain on all their sides small shrines

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458 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (double shrined). Among those the Kunda at Modhera 33 is conspicuous by its architectural treatment. It is rectangular in shape, the longer side being south to nortii and the smaller one east to west. It is on the east face of the Sabhamandapa from which a broad stair lead down to the waters edge. The upper and outermost margin is surrounded by a low wall on the ground level. A small rectangular recessed bay projects (Devakulikas) enshrining lingas and images of other deities The remains of Sahasralinga lake at Patan and the present Munsar lake at Viramgam afford examples of such reservoirs. Of these the Sahasralinga lake was a famous adornment of the capital of the Caulukyas and is described graphically in several literary and epigraphic compositions. The lake exists no more since long but the archeaological excavations (Gadre A. S. Archaeology in Baroda') conducted at its site give some idea of its plan. As the name suggests the lake was surrounded by a thousand ( stricktly speaking 1001 ) lirga shrines and some shrines of Visnu and other deities as well. A general idea of the lake and its numerous shrines is at present afforded by the Munsara lake, a large part of which is preserved. At present the lake at Viramgam contains 357 small shrines out of the original 520 esteemated by Burgess. (ASWI, VIII, ii, p. 91 Plts. LXXII, LXXIV). As regards the deities enshrined in them the images are all missing at present. But the Jaladharis in the western row of the shrines indicate that they all enshrined lingas of Siva while the pedastals attached to the back walls inside the shrines of the eastern row indicate that they enshrined image of deities, evidently of Visnu and others. The Western row is relieved by two double shrined temples in the middle 33. The Kunda is locally known as Rama Kunda probably corresponding to Sitas Cori in the north east. This reminds us of the references in the Dharmarnya Mahatmyas ( ascribed to the Skanda Purana and to the Padma Purana ) to Ramas visit of Modhera and his grant of forty-four villages to the local Brahmanas. However the Kunda is in fact an accessory of the Sun temple and must be really styled Surya-kunda. The pillars of the so called Sitas Cori also, in fact represent the pillars of a subsidiary Torana.

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The Accessories of the Temple-Complex 459 outwards from the middle of each of the sides and in the middle of these on the first terrace below the ground level small detached shrines stand, each facing the tank. 34 The sides of the tank descend to the water in terraces, of which the drop from one to another is some what considerable, and steps running parallel to them would give no resting places; hence, from small landings above, a few cross-steps at right angles to the sides descend at both ends to the next terrace below. Access is thus secured from terrace to terrace by these numerous little stairs. The terraced descent is decorated with small shrines. Besides these shrines there are numerous niches which contain images. The noteworthy images from the small shrines are Visnu reposing on sesa, 36 Trivikrama, and a sculpture of Sitala. (ii) Canonical principles discerned APPR.36 imparts a separate chapter on Kirtitorana under the head of Torana. It describes five varieties of the Torana. They are Utturga, Maladhara, Vicitra, Citra-rupaka and Makaradhvaja by name. Dipa. follows APPR.3 7 The varieties differ from each other especially in the number of the pillars and/or other component parts like Mikas and Matavaranas. The Uttunga variety contains only one pair of pillars while the other varieties have one or two pairs more. The extant toranas in Gujarat all contain one pair of pillars and hence belong to the Uttunga variety. APPR. prescribes dimensions of the different parts of its pillars and enjoins to provide them with tilakas and makaras as well as with arches (toranas) with three decorated curves (Illikas) on each side. The texts also recommends to install figure of Sadasiva in the centre and that of Brhama and that of Visnu on the right and left respectively. 34. For arrangement of Shrines vide AANG. Plt. XLVIII; also p. 80. 35 The installation of Sesasayi Visnu on the east is significant in its association with a reservoir (Jalasraya ). 36. APPR. CXCIV. 1-13. 37. Dipa Ill. 32-33.

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460 The Structural Temples of Gujarat This recommendation well applied to the torana at Vadnagar. The Toranas at Kapadvanja, Balej, Shamalaji etc. however, show some deviation in detail. Every works refers to prakara.3 8 APPR. has imparted certain instructions pertaining to the construction of the Prakara and has given six varieties which correspond to the shape of the general ground plan of the temple.39 Further it states that in front of the Prakara the Pratoli may be erected.40 This Pratoli may be erected in front or on the sides of the temple41 and it may be adorned with Illika.42 APPR. also imparts injunctions pertaining to the construction of Balanaka, 43 Its width should correspond to the width of of prasada (shrine) and its height to that of its wall. At Abu the Balanaka of Vimala and Tejapala's temples are in breadth of equal size to those of their garbhgrihas. Instructions pertaining to the construction of Devakulikas arround the Jain temple have been imparted by the Vastu-sara of Thakkar Feru.44 It has given instructions pertaining to the construction of 24, 52 and 72 Devakulikas, 45 and their arrangement in the rectangular court. The Bavanajinalayas at Abu, Sarotra and Bhadresvar illustrate the scheme of 52 cells, while the scheme of 72 Devakulikas is represented by the Neminatha temple at Girnar. 38. Ag. pl. XLII, pp. 8, 21. 39. APPR. CXV. 18-21. 42. lbid. 43. 43. APPR. CXXII; also Dipa, X, 92-97, It corresponds the Gopura of the temples of Southern India. 44. VTP, III. 58-60. 40. lbid. 22. 41. Ibid. 39 45. Temples having 24 Devakulikas are also found popular in Jains. Several post-Caulukyan temples of this type are found at Cambay, Visnagar, Ahmedabad etc.

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CHAPTER XVII DECORATIVE SCULPTURES AND THEIR STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONS (i) Treatment in the extant temples The decorative sculptures of the temples forma part of temple architecture and serve to give charm and grandeur to the structures. The structural functions imparted by decorative sculptures in temples are of three kinds : (a) Constructive, (b) Representative, and Ornamental or Decorative. (c) purely (a) The pillars and pilasters with their brackets, the corniced steps of pyramidal roof etc. are the examples of the constructive decoration. (b) The representative class of decorative sculpture is sub-divided into (i) Natural and (ii) Conventional. The flora and founa that have been faithfully copied from the nature comprise the natural class. In the temples of Gujarat less attention has been paid to this sub division. No scenes of forests, hills, villages, rivers, mountains etc. are found vigorously depicted but they are symbolically suggested by a tree, or a fish or a few lines suggesting water etc. The sculptures of gods and goddesses, historical personages, protrait sculptures, scenes from the Epics, the Puranas, Hindu and Jain mythology, and scenes depicting social lives, customs, marriages, ornaments, garments and all the traditional representations belong to the conventional representative class.

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462 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (c) The purely decorative type of ornament consists of various composite and mythical figures, and geometrical and floral design sculptures. The pleasing form of this type of decoration is no doubt ornamental, and serves primarily an asthetic purpose which often captivates the minds of the spectators. A ljon mask with beaded strings issuing from its mouth i e. the celebrated Kirtimukha, is the best example of symbolic motif. Grotesque figures or dwarfs upholding weight on their hands, known as Kicakas, the figures of nine planets (Navagrahas ), the Gaja-Laksmi, the Ganga, Yamuna motif etc. represent ornamental decorations. Symbolic figures are used both for surface decoration and for free ornament. These are figures of griffins with human or animal faces (Vyalas ), lion figures in various attitudes ( Sardulas or Simhas ). The beutiful figures of sylvan nymphs, known as Salbhanjikas are, like many other figures both statury and symbolic. And whatever the idea may be underlying the erotic figures, they too must go back to a symbolic origin. Further a purely decorative ornament is either (a) organic, where the design is based on vegetable or animal life or (b) inorganic, where it consists of geometrical lines and points. The Lotus is most prominent in Indian ornament, this motif is commonly used as an independant free ornament. The lotus motif has also been used with great skill and variety on the bases and capitals of pillars and pilasters or in the ceilings. The flower and vase motif (gatapallva ) is inspired from vegetable life. The motif in which the tail of a bird is shown as terminating in a floral design (Hansalata) represents both Zoomorphic and Phyllomorphic elements. (a) Constuctive decorative sculptures The heavy pillars with their brackets and the corniced stepped pyramidal roof with Caitya-arch ornament and at times

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Decorative Sculptures and Their Structural Functions 463 with amalaka quions of the pre-Caulukyan temples are the best illustrations of constructive aspect of ornamentation. In Caulukyan temples too, the decorations given to pillars of the mandapas and porches as well as mandovaras and superstructures thereof also have constructive value. (b) Representative conventional sculptures Sculptures of Gods and Goddesses, are of this category, generally found on the pitha and mandovara sections of the shrine and mandapa.* These sculptures broadly fall into the following groups. (1) Saiva or saivite images, which include Siva, his various forms, his sons, goddesses and ganas. (2) Vaisnava or Visnus images which include the 24 forms of Visnu, his avataras and goddesses. (3) Brabma or images of Brahma, his consorts and attendants. (4) Surya, his consorts, attendants and Navagrahas. (5) Composite figures of deities ( Trimurti etc. ). (6) Miscellaneous ( Hindu ), River goddesses, Dikpalas etc. (7) Jain or images of Jinas ( Tirthankaras ), Yaksas, Yaksnis and others. (8) Scenes from the Epics, legends, Hindu and Jain mythology and depictions of social customs, marriages etc. I * The icons or images enshrined for worship are not included among these sculptures which are more or less decorative in purpose. | Dr. H. D. Sankalia while discussing the sculptures of the extant temples of Gujarat has divided the representative and purely ornamental or decorative sculptures into three classes. (i) Sculptures of human forms including gods and goddesses. This according to him is further divide into two classes (a) representation of Gods and Goddesses (b) and representation of human beings. (ii) Sculptures of animal forms. (iii) Sculptures of designs. (AG. IV. pp. 176 ff ).

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464 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (1) Among the earliest Saiva images is that of Ganesa. It is found seated in the Caitya window on the west-side of the Sikhara of the temple at Gop. It is usually found in the door lintel of pre-Caulukyan as well as Caulukyan temples. Its standing figures are in niches of the old temple of Than and the Sun temple on Hiranya river at Prabhas. The earliest Siva image so far available is found on the door frame of the Kadvar temple. The other Saivite images like Uma-mahesvara ( Kadvar, 3 Ghumali4 and Kapadvanj5 ), Andhakasuravadhamurti (Sunaks etc.) are also found. Dancing postures of Siva are often met with in temples of Gujarat such as at Sunak,? Piludra, Khandosana. etc. The Bhairav murtis are also found at Anandapar, 8 Somnath' ( extinct). The figure on the wall at Modhera now worshipped as a Kalabhairava is not a figure of Agni as Bargess thought.10 The images of Lakulisa are found at Miyani (Nilakantha) and Achalesvar (Mt. Abu). Figures of Parvati 11 and Mahakali 12 are found in the Kalikamata temple at Dabhoi. Figures of Mahisasurmardini are found common in the old temples of Gujarat, as for instance at Sunak, 13 Khandosana etc. The interesting figures of a goddess riding on an ass, are found at Modhera 14 and Sejakpur.15 Locally it is known as Sitala-mata ( a goddess of small pox ). 1. ASIWC, 1920-31, plt. xxxiii. 2. SMTK plts, XXXII, & XXXIV. 3. SMTK. plt. XXXV. 4. SMTK. plt. XXVI; also Fig. 60 now in the Rajkot museum. 5. Now in the prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. 6. AANG. Plt. LXXXV. Fig. 7. lbid. Fig. 3 12. Ibid. pl. XIV, fig. 1. 8. SMTK. p. 60. 13. AG. Fig. 61. 9. lbid. plt. VII. 14. AANG. p. 80. AG. Fig. 62. 10. AANG. p. 77. 15. SMTK. p. 58. 11. Burgess, Dabhoi, pl. xv.

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Decorative Sculptures and Their Structural Functions 465 (2) Figures of Laksminarayana are found at Kadvar16 and Kasara, 17 those of Trilokyamohana at Sandera, 18 of Varaha at Kasara19 and Valam, Trivikrama at Modhera 90 and Piludra and Antasayina (Sesa-Sayina ) at Modhera.21 A figure of Visnu is also found at Modhera 22 and of Noisinha and Rama at Kadvar. The figures of ten incarnations of Visnu are found on the door-frames of Sitala and Amthora mata temple at Vadnagar and of all the twenty-four forms of Visnu inside the garbhawall of the garbhagriha of Ranchhodji temple at Valam. A figure of Vaisnava goddess Laksmi is also illustrated at Modhera. (3) The figures of Brahma are found on the temples at Kadvar, Modhera, Kasara, Delmal etc. They are often placed in one of the niches in large temples. (4) The earliest known figure of Surya stands on the panel of the door frame at Kadvar, first from right.33 The sun temple at Modhera contains a number of figures of Surya in the niches of the garbha-walls falling into circumambulatory as well as in external walls of the temple. Some of the figures of Surya are flanked by his consorts.24 With Surya are also found Navagrahas, usually on a door-frame of the shrine, on the entrance door-way and sometimes on the torana of Surya image. They are found on the panel over shrine doors of the temples at Somanath (extinct) 95, Than,26 Roda Temple VI27, Amthora at Vadnagar, Khandosana ( right angular ), Lovarali etc. 16 Ibid. Plt. XXXV. 17. AANG. Plts. XC-XCI 18. AG. Fig. 64. 19. ANNG. Plt. XC-XCI. 20. AANG. Plt. LVI, fig. 1. 21. Ibid, plt. LVI. Fig. 3. 22. Ibid. plt. (LVII. 23. SMTK. plts. XXXII, & XXXIV. 24. AANG. plt. LVI, figs. 5,6 25. SMTK. plt. XIV. 26. lbid. plt. XLIX. 27. SRR. p. 112.

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466 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (5) Composite figures representing a combination of several deities are found at Delmal,28 Valam, 29 and Than30. The figure at Delmal perhaps represents a composite form of Brahma, Visnu, Siva and Surya as Dr. H. D. Sankalia presumes.31 The same is the case with figures at Valam. The composite figure at Than represents trimurti i. e. the trinity of Brahma, Visnu and Siva (6) Figures of the river Goddesses Ganga and Yamuna usually occur in the lower part of the jambs of shrine door. They are seen at Kadvar,32 Than, 33 Roda, (Temple III, VI )3 4 Khandosan, Karvan etc. Other miscellaneous figures are those of Dikpalas found in many Caulukyan temples as for instance they are found at Modhera, Vadnagar (Hatakasvara), Kumbharia etc. The other figures found on the walls of the temples are Risis, Tapasas, and Devanganas. They are also found in the door-frames of the shrines. The temples at Modhera, Sunak, Delmal, Vadnagar, Khandosana, Roda have such figures. (7) Images of Jinas (Tirthankaras) are hardly placed in niches of the walls of the temples. The various parivaradevatas and other subsidiary figures associated with Tirthankaras in Jain iconography are enshrined for decorative purposes. These are Yaksas, Yaksanis, Vidyadharas, Vidyadevis, Gandharvas, Kinnaras 28. AANG. plt. LXIX. 29. Here Fig. 213. During my visit to Ranchhodji temple at Valam I come across two such figures enshrined in the niches of the garbhgliha. Moreover I noticed there figures of the 24 forms of Visnu enshrined in the cella. Vide here Appendix 'A'. 30. SMTK. plt. Lill & LXVII. 31. AG. p. 164. 32. SMTK. p. 39 plt. XXXIV. 34. SSR. figs. 83-86. 33. lbid. plt. L.

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Decorative Sculptures and Their Structural Functions 467 Devanganas etc. They all adorn the external side of the walls of the Jain temples and especially the ceilings of the mandapas. Further Jains have adopted Hindu deities as their minor devas and so the sculptures of Siva, Visnu, Sarsvati, Brahma, Dikpalas etc. have place for decorative purposes. These deities along with the Jain parivaradevatas are seen on the walls of the Jain temples at Mt. Abu, Satrunjay, Girnar and Taranga. (8) Among the scenes from the Epics and Puranas the scene of Kaliyamardans seems very popular as it is found carved on the ceilings of several temples such as those at Manod, s 5 Madhavpur, 36 Odadar,37 Abu, Somnatha (extinct)38 etc. Two other scenes from the Puranas can be recognised among the sculptures on the Kalikamata temple at Dabhoi. One of these depicts the scene of the Samudramanthana 39 (churning of the ocean), the other relates the story of Taksaka and Pariksiata.40 Several panels in the ceilings in the Vimala and Tejapala temples at Abu41 depict scenes from lives of Jain Tirthankaras, scenes from the Epics and the the Vedikas of the Hatakesvara contain some images of Rama, Several panels depicting Puranas are found carved on temple at Vadnagar. They also Krisna, Visnu etc.42 The representation of Human being During the Caulukyan period. a few portrait sculptures and scenes depicting life, not of the people of the period but of the Tirthankaras are found in the temples at Abu.43 35. AANG. p. 109. fig. 10. 36. SMIK. Plt. XCII. 38. SMTK. Plt. LXXVIII. 39. Burgess, Dabhoi, Plt. XV. 40. lbid. 37. Here Fig. 189. 41. AG. Fig. 50 from a ceiling in Tejapala temple. 42. Here Figs. 196-201. 43. The supposed statue of Vanaraja in the temple of Panchasar Parsvanath at Patan is, as Burgess shown on the strength of the inscription of its pedastal, not of Vanaraja's. Further though there is an umbrella over the statue head indicating royalty, still the mudrasi.e. gestures of the hands of the figure imply preaching, which would be rather strange in the case of a king. (Ag. p. 117. f. n. 4.).

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat Members of Vimala, Vastupala and Tejapala's ancestors and family, riding on elephants, and horses in Hastisala in front of the Vimala temple and on the back of Lunavasahi; are the examples of protrait sculpture of this period. These figures give some idea of the dress of a section of a people of contemporary Gujarat. 468 The Narathara (the moulding of human figures) though not found in the pre-Caulukyan temples, is common in the medieval temples of Gujarat. It is well illustrated on the basements of the Caulukyan temples as Ruhavi, Sander, Motab, Shamalaji, Modhera etc. The men and women therein seen to represent persons on a royal highway, as it is sometimes called Rajavithi. How and why a narathara came to be sculptured on the basement wall cannot be definitely explained. But it seems that the idea was taken from the practice of portraying a procession of men and women on the gateway of Buddhist stupas.+4 Amorous Couples (or Mithuns) figure on many of the Caulukyan temples. These figures are the descendents of the gay, dancing, often nude figures. Dancing and amorous figures are found on the walls ( Janghas) of the shrine and mandapa, usually on either side of the panels of Gods and Goddesses. Many of them are of singular beauty. They are found on the temples at Modhera, Abu (Lunavasahi and the Jain temples near Achalesvara), Vadnagar (Hatakesvara), Dwarka (Trikamaji temple in the vicinity of Dwarkadhisa temple, Rukamani temple), Bhutia vasana (near Patan), Khandosan, Siddhpur (Rudramala), Kamboj, Mandrapur, Motab, Taranga etc. Specimen of amorous couples seem to be best preserved on the old shrine at Motab and dacning figures in the temple at Modhera. 45 44. AG. p. 121. 45. The decoration of buildings by the representation of Mithuns had become a favourite practice of sculptures through out India. The injunction fIaga faqa' was carried too far. The Jagannatha, Konaraka and other temples in Orissa, the Khajuraho temples (Madhya Pradesa) the Hoyasala temples at Halebid (Mysore) are marked with such figures. ,

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Decorative Sculptures and Their Structural Functions 469 Several theories, as to the origin and significance of the erotic aspects of temple sculpture, prevail among Indian as well as foreign scholars. Recently Shri Francis Leeson 46 has summarised them briefly as follows : (1) The mithuns are symbols of Sakti-both-sexes in one God-representing the oneness of God, or the magic syllable AUM. (2) They are representations of supreme, bliss an attempt in earthly terms to convey the meaning of heavenly rapture. (3) The mithuns are temptations to laud thoughts, but there expressly to be overcome by the devout. (4) They are just innocent depictions of a human activity in the same way as other sculptures show scenes of dancing, fighting, making music, praying, etc. (5) The mithuns were intended as a protection against the evil eye, "lightening" etc. (6) They attract grosser-minded people to come to church, if only for the initial pleasure of examining them. (7) The mithuns are there for the sexual education of the young and ignorant, as a sort of illustrated Kama Sutra. (8) They are straight forward representations of ritualistic orgies or Yogic postures. Having taken into account the various theories about the significance of sculptural representations of erotic postures in temples, examined them in light of the canons prescribed in the silpa works Dr. B. J. Sandesara has justified their place in temple sculpture as illustrating Kama which is induced among the three putasarthas leading to moksa.47 The ancient Indians 46 Kama Shilpa. III, p. 31, 34. 47. Sandasora B. J. "Itihasa ni Kedi' pp. 87 ff.

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470 The Structural Temples of Gujarat were not averse to giving due justice to all the purusarthas in their various artistic manifestations. 48 (c) Purely decorative type of ornament Pre-Caulukyan temples have no animal figures, The river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, in the Varaha temple at Kadvar must have had a tortoise and Makara as their vehicle but their form is hardly visible now. In Caulukyan temples rows of horses and elephants appear as basement mouldings. It is found at Sunak, Ruhavi, Motab, Modhera and Somnath. It is absent in temple at Ghumli. The elephant course (Gajathara) invariably decorates the temples of this period. The horses, for instance at Sunak, are shown pancing in profile, and their spirited action, on the whole is well depicted. The elephants are sculptured side wise, so that only their trunk and head are visible but not the legs. When exactly these courses began to be used as temple decorations is uncertain, but it seems to be soon after the Gupta period. For the treatment of animals is already conventional when we see them in the temples of 10th & 11th centuries. 48. As for the Canons about such sculptural representation some hints are noticed in certain works. The VDP. for instance enjoins that all the nine rasas including the Sringara may be illustrated in a temple ( III, XLIII, 1-15) The Sm. Su. also corroborates it (LXXXII, 1-3). The representation of nude figures was forbidden in the case of residential buildings. (as for instance in Silpratna XLVI, 9-10 and Vasturatnakara, Grihopakarna prakarana 77-78). Nagatively it implies that the restriction did not apply to public buildings like temples. Canonical works like the Mayamata (XXXIX, 12) and the Silparatna (XLVI, 8-9) possitively prescribe that the decorative sculptures in temples must illustrate all the three vargas or purusarthas and include scences of life and postures of dancing etc.

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Decorative Sculptures and Their Structural Functions 471 Departure of the conventional use of animals is found in the Navalakha temple at Ghumli. Here on one side of the shrine are sculptured two elephants-fighting or playing with their trunks, outstretched front and slightly bent hind legs, uplifted trunks and protruding tusks vividly describe the elephant's action. They serve a good specimen of animal sculpture in the round. Similar sculpture is also at Shamalaji. It is in the Navalakha temple again that we meet with other animal figures-lion, bull, monkey etc. Here they are used as brackets of pillars. From their drawing, the best sculpture seems to be that of the bull which is seated in a crouching attitude facing the left.49 Composite or Mythical figures Among composite or mythical figures, the Kirtimukha and Makara are most common in Gujarat as well as Indian sculpture in general. The pre-Caulukyan monuments, including the temples at Than and Sutrapada which form a transition stage, are surprisingly devoid of this ornament. In Caulukyan temples, the Kirtimukha figures almost invariably. The places it decorates are the basement (usually its topmost moulding-as in the temples at Sunak, Kasara, Ruhavi, Motab, Kanoda, Delmal, excepted at Taranga ), and shafts of short or long pillars (generally the top most band, just below the annulets). In the temple at Modhera, it is also found on the sur-capital of pillars of the mandapa, at Delmal, inset on the back of the mandapa wall, where as in the triple shrine at Kasara, it is placed on each side of the threshold. The Kirtimukha, at all those places, is sculptured facing the full front. The figures show that it is already stylised. Its evolution can be traced back to Gupta temples and Ajanta caves of the Vakataka period, where the form, inspite of being decorative, is realistic. 49. AG, pp. 122-123.

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472 The Structural Temples of Gujarat It must be noted here that Kirtimukha even in its early form is absent in the Brahmanical architecture as well as on the Jain and Buddhist stupas. It seems to have been introduced during the Gupta period, after which it became a stock feature of the temples of Mediaeval India. The Makara as a Vahana of the river goddesses Ganga and Yamuna is found at two places only in the temples at Kadvar and Than. The figure at the former place is too indistinct to make any comparison with figures outside Saurastra. The figure at Than though not so indistinct, gives no indication of the shape of its mouth. Representation of its body with nearly 1 meter in length looks naturalistic like the early figures (at Bharhut; Cousens) but the tail is florid, like the tail of a similar figure from the 5th cent. Gupta shrine at Tigawa M. P. Elsewhere in the Caulukyan monuments, the makara serves as a decorative figure, principally as a bracket of pillars with makaratoranas. Instances of these are found in the temples at Modhera, Somnath and Abu, and in the Kirtitorana at Siddhpur, Vadnagar, Kapadvanj and Piludra. It is only the part of bust of the makara that is sculptured at these places. The tail, if any, has merged into the bracket. This form is more advanced than the earlier ones, but there is no striking difference. Even in the early stages a makara was never realistically sculptured. Its mouth was like that of an allegator or crocodile, but the tail resembled that of a fish. Along with the makara may be mentioned the fish which is sculptured on the brackets of the pillars in the Navalakha temple at Ghumali. This motive is totally new to Gujarat sculpture, and from the drawing it appears to be most realistically done. Its presence at Ghumali cannot be explained at present except as a clan (totemic) motive of the Jethvas of Ghumali, An animal motive equally new as the fish is the 'griffin' which is found in the same tample attached as brackets to

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Decorative Sculptures and Their Structural Functions 473 small pillasters and colonades. Burgess at another place calls the griffon figure sardula. From the photograph given by Burgess (AKK. Pl. XLIV. fig. 2) it seems to be a pancing animal (horse or lion). Rare in Gujarat, this motive is a common feature of the Candela temples at Khajuraho, M. P. The Navalakha temple has also given us figures of a bird, swan etc.60 The naturalness of these two posses ( AKK. XLIII, figs. 7 & 15) one turning back its long neck and ruffling or scratching its feathers, the other as if playing with its companion remind us of similar figures reproduced by griffins from the paintings at Ajanta. Dwarfs, too, are a common feature of Gujarat sculpture. These nude, stunted, pot bellied, oval-faced figures always facing the full front usually appear as pillar-brackets in temples, for instance at Sunak, Kasara, Virta, Delmal and Ghumali. From early times, such figures have been thought fit to bear heavy burdens. Floral Designs Floral designs comprise leaf and flower, creeper and purely leaf decorations. The pillars, basements (of shrine and mandapa) and door-frames of the Caulukyan temples are lavishly decorated with the carvings of leaf-and-flower creeper especially encircled within a circular or semi-circular frame. Another design, closely related with the preceding one is what is known as the pot and foliage motif. It is almost an invariable feature of the Caulukyan temples. There a conventionalised vase, from which springforth buds and flowers, and a broad indented leaf falling down on either side of the vase, decorates usually the middle part and capitals of short pillars of the mandapa.. Examples of these may be taken from 50. For all such figures see :Burgess. AKK. Plt. XLIII. p. 180 (Brackets from the pillars in Naulakha temple, Ghumali )

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474 The Structural Temples of Gujarat the temples at Sunak, Sander, Kasara, Modhera, Somnatha, Sejakpur and Ghumali. The design which is called 'string course, scroll, or creeper' is essentially floral. Among the pre-Caulukyan temples it is found to a certain extent on the door frame of the Kadvar temple, where it is mixed up with a diamond design. The door jambs of the shrines of temples at Modhera, Delmal, Kasara, Lovarali, Vadnagar, etc. are lavishly decorated with running flower and creeper pattern. The square, round, lozenges adorned with flowers and creepers and encircled by rosary are the composite form of floral and geometrical designs. (ii) Canonical Principles Discerned Early works refer to decorative sculptures.51 Br. Sm.52 while describing the door-jambs enjoins that they should be decorated with auspicious birds, Svastika, designs, vessels, mithuns, leaves, creepers etc. Ag. P.53 also states that the mithuna figures should be carved on the door-jambs. The door jambs of the several Caulukyan temples are adorned with such decorations. Sm. Su. refers to floral decorations in respect to pillars and the arches to be adorned with makara faces. In respect to ceilings and door-frames it also imparts injunctions pertaining to their floral decorations.54 The bhusana ( decorative sculptures) on the walls of the temples described by it, consists of several decorative sculptures of demi-gods, goddesses and guardian of regents. 55 51. Several Puranas, deal with iconographical sections (Pratima Vijnana), but the descriptions relate to images of deities to be worshipped. 52. Br. Sm. LV. 53. Ag. p. CXL, 30, 54. Sm. Su. XLIX, 72-73; XXXIV, 30-31. 55. Sm. Su. LV, 117-123.

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Decorative Sculptures and Their Structural Functions 475 In respect to mithuna figures it imparts a special treatment. The available mithuna sculptures did not mean human couples only, but also those of animals, birds, Serpants etc. Two passages of Sm. Su. clearly enjoin the couples of monkey and of elephants playing in water to be used in decorating the building. 56 At several other places also it refers to mithuna figures.87 While describing several varieties of temples one by one, APPR. imparts, at times, instructions pertaining to floral, as well as decorative sculptures to be placed on the walls of temples, shrine doors etc. as for instance in describing the mandovara ( wall face) of Nagaraprasada it recommeds that it should be adorned with figures of elephants, lions, alligators ( Makaras ), Vyalas (composite figures ), Dikpalas (guardians of regents) and several sculptures of gods-goddesses, Munis, Tapasas etc.58 The description is followed by the later work Dipa.59 APPR. enjoins that door jambs should be adorned with decorative sculptures such as the figures of Ganga and Yamuna etc.60. Further it has given a separate chapter on the treatment of figures of Dvarapratiharas (or Dvarpalas ) of the temples dedicated to different dieties.6 1 56. Sm. Su XXXI, 126, 134. 57. Sm. Su. VIII, 43 The Southern Indian Text Suprabhedagama specifically mentions that the temples should be decorated with Siva krida (Siva's sport), Harikrida (Hari's sport) Tapasakrida (sport of the ascetics ) - Patala XXX. 58. APPR. CXXVII, 24-26. 59. Dipa. V, 26-27. 60. APPR. CXXXII, 4,5. 61. APPR CXXXIII.

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476 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The ceiling of the dome contains several decorative sculptures. It is adorned with floral and lotus petal designs with a highly carved pendant in the centre. It is shaped like the bud of a lotus. APPR. has given its graphic description. Therein it recommends to decorate it with figures of Kirtimukhas, Gandharvas, Kinnaras, vidyadharas, and Surasundaris, Nagas, scenes etc. 69 The walls (mandovara), pillars, ceilings etc. of the Caulukyan temples are found decorated with several floral designs and sculpture of demi-gods, guardians of regents and figures of Gandharvas, kinnaras, Vidyadharas and heavenly damsels. 62. APPR. CLXXXIX. 9-16.

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CHAPTER XVIII THE MAIN SOURCE OR SOURCES OF CANONICAL PRINCIPLES DISCERNED IN THE EXTANT TEMPLES OF GUJARAT In the foregoing chapters the different stages and parts of temple architecture found in the old extant structutral temples of Gujarat have been noticed one by one and an attempt is made to trace the canonical principles of temple architecture discerned in them. It will now be interesting to sum up the observations pertaining to different subjects mentioned above and to investigate on the basis of their co-ordination whether the architects of the temples of the different periods seem to have followed the canons given in any particular canonical work or works popular in Western India. As regards the selection of the site for a temple most of of the pre-canonical as well as the canonical works on architecture recommend almost the same types of sites. The sites of the old extant temples in Gujarat are in accordance with these recommendations, especially those given in Br. Sm., Bh. P. among the early works and APPR. among the canonical works. As for the orientation of temples the canonical works seem to follow the canons given in the early works to a large extent. However there are some variations in the case of temples of certain deities. The orientation of the Sun temples in Gujarat is confirmed by the APPR. rather than by the early works. The orientation of the temples of Brahma and Siva confirms the canons given in the early as well as the canonical works. The orienation of the temples of Visnu however is not in full

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478 The Structural Temples of Gujarat accordance with any of these works popular in Western India. It is curiously found reflecting the canons of the Manasara of South India. The orientation of the temples of goddesses is conspicuous by its absense in the texts of North India, while it is confirmed by the Southern texts only to a small extent. It may be noted here that among the canonical works on architecture Sm. Su. passes over such general topics which are treated in detail in APPR. As to the groundplan of the garbhagriha, the pre-Caulukyan temples strickly follow the shapes (square, rectangular etc. ) prescribed by the early works. But the star-shaped ground plans formed by the addition of lateral projections in the Caulukyan temples is met with only in the canonical works. The projections are prescribed in the Sm.Su. but they are treated more technically in the APPR. which is followed by PM. Dipa. and other later works. The position of the doors, their ratio of height and breadth and forms of jambs (3, 5, 7, 9) etc. propounded by early works have been maintained by Sm. Su, and other canonical works. But its decorative aspects are described more elaborately in APPR. These details are well reflected in the extant temples of Gujarat. The early works have described a group of 27 varieties of Mandapas. Sm. Su. adds a group of 8 varieties to it. The mandapa of the pre-Caulukyan temples illustrate a variety which occurs in the group added by Sm Su. The mandapas of the Caulukyan temples give many more varieties some of which can be identified with some of those added in APPR. Some of the pre-Caulukyan temples of Gujarat contain a porch, some contain a mandapa and some contain both. The early works make a passing reference to the Mukhamandapa but contain no description of the mandapa proper. Sm, Su. follows the reference to the mukhamandapa

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479 The Main Source or Sources of Canonical Principles and also gives a special treatment of the mandapa. Thus the pre-Caulukyan temples reflect the canons given in Sm. Su Some of the Caulukyan temples contain one or three ardhamandapas added to their mandapas These are treated in detail under the head of Trikamandapa in APPR. The Subhadra variety found in the Brahmnical temples and even the other varieties like Kiriti, Pranta etc. are treated elaborately in APPR. A number of the old temples in Gujarat contain pradaksinapathas. The early works make a reference to the pradaksina patha but ratio of its width is met with only in Sm. Su. and other canonical works. Ratios found in the extant temples well apply to those prescribed in Sm. Su. and APPR. as well. In the case of the vertical treatment of the base some of the pre-Caulukyan temples contain certain mouldings. The early works are silent on this topic. The Sm. Su. prescribes some mouldings of the base but they hardly apply to the extant temples of the pre-Caulukyan or even of the Caulukyan period. The mouldings in the pre-Caulukyan temples are hardly traceable to any wellknown works prevalent in Gujarat. The mouldings in the Caulukyan temples are well confirmed by the canons laid down in APPR. The same is the case with the vertical treatment of the mandovara. The mandovara of the pre-Caulukyan temples is mostly plain. It probably reflects its simple treatment in the early works. The Sm. Su. specifies some mouldings of the mandovara but they are not found illustrated in the temples of Gujarat. The various mouldings in the Caulukyan temples are in full accordance with those prescribed in APPR. The Sikharas of the pre-Caulukyan temple are of the stepped pyramidal shape, gradually displaying a transition to the curvilinear shape. Early works prescribe the height of the sikhara but are mostly silent about its shape. The Guruda Purana however, refers to the curvilinear shape of the Sikhara. The treatment of the stepped pyramidal Sikharas is given only in the Sm. Su. which describes it as the Chadya type.

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480 The Structural Temples of Gujarat APPR. which gives a more elaborate treatment of the curvilinear spire is entirely silent about the pyramidal superstructure. It obviously indicates that the pyramidal form of the superstructure which was in vogue in the pre-Caulukyan period got out of date at the time of APPR. Thus the type of the pyramidal superstructure of the pre-Caulukyan temples is met with in the Sm. Su. The Sikhara of the Caulukyan temples is curvilinear in shape. Among early works the G. P. deals with this shape and gives the method for arriving at it, but the description of the method is wanting in details. The Sm. Su, also describes the curvilinear spire as Sikharanvita Sikhara and refers to several varieties of it. But a full treatment of the curvilinear type especially specification of the Rekhas appears for the first time in APPR. which adds several varieties to those given in Sm. Su. From a comparative study of the different types of the Sikharas of the Caulukyan temples in Gujarat it is also gathered that only a few varieties of the temples apply to those given in Sm. Su. while almost all the variety correspond to those described in APPR. The pillars in the pre-Caulukyan temples are generally square in shape and plain in design excepting the heavy brackets at the top. Early works as well as canonical works refer to some different shapes of pillars, such as square, octagonal etc. The simple treatment given in the early works implies the plajnness of its design. The pillars in the Caulukyan temples are generally square (plain or facetted) or octagonal (plain or facetted) or more frequently composite in shape, displaying various permutations of shapes and embellished with several mouldings. Among these the simple shapes ( square and octagonal) occur among those mentioned in the early works, but the facetted shapes are given only in the canonical works, The square facettled and the octagonal facetted shapes

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The Main Source or Sources of Canonical Principles 481 are given in APPR. which also recommends that the pillars may be embellished with several mouldings and decorations. Thus the pillars of the Caulukyan temples indicate full accordance with APPR. The mandapas and porches of the pre-Caulukyan temples are covered with flat or pyramidal roofs. Early works make a passing reference to Ghanta and Vitanaka. Sm. Su. does not specifically describe the nature of the superstructure, but its treatment of the ceilings (Vitanas) impliedly applies to the pyramidal shape. The external form of the pyramidal roof of Caulukyan temples are specified as the Samvarna. The treatment of the Samvarna of the Caulukyan temples is met with in APPR. Pre-Caulukyan temples contain no arches but they are introduced in some temples of the Caulukyan period. Among the early works the M. P. makes a reference to it. Among canonical works they are referred in Sm. Su., ARPR., Dipa etc. the architraves of the mandapa are plain in pre-Caulukyan temples aud decorated in some of the Caulukyan temples. The decorative treatment is recommended in APPR. and later works. The Kaksasana seems introduced in Caulukyan period. Its treatment occurs in APPR. and later works. The same applies to balconies also. The Sukanasa also seems introduced in the Caulukyan period, though early works referred to it. The Sukanasa is described in detail in the canonical works as well. As regards the Kirtitorana the early works and Sm. Su. make no reference to it. APPR gives a special treatment to it and Diparnava follows it. The treatment of the pillars of the

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482 The Structural Temples of Gujarat torana as free standing pillars with their various mouldings is of course found in accordance with that of the pillars given in APPR. The examples of the Prakara and the Balanaka are met with in temples (especially Jain) of the Caulukyan period. The early works and Sm. Su. make references to them while they are well treated in APPR and later works ( especially Dipa ). Devakulikas are found introduced in some Jain temples of the Caulukyan period. Early works as well as Sm. Su. and APPR are silent about them. They are described in Vastusara of Thakkar Feru and some later works like Dipa etc. In the pre-Caulukyan temples decorative sculptures are generally found on and above the door lintel, on door jambs and on the external side of the walls, basements and the superstructure. These sculptures generally consist of figures of different deities. Early works recommend to decorate door-frames with particular types of sculptures but the types do not include figures of dejties, 1 nor do they refer to decorate walls, pillars etc. with these figures. Sm. Su. recommends to decorate walls of temples with figures of specific deities in the different directions, while it prescribes to decorate door-frames and ceilings with floral designs. Thus the pre-Caulukyan temples seem to have followed the traditions of decorative sculptures mentioned in early works and Sm. Su. as well. In Caulukyan temples the decorative sculptures are found on the basement, the wall face (mandovara) of the temple (including mandapa ) and on the door-jambs, pillars and 1. The images of Surya, Navagrahas, Visnus etc. have been discussed by the early works in section on Iconography

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The Main Source or Sources of Canonicial Principles 483 ceilings. The decorative sculptures are either (a) constructive (b) representative or (c) purely ornamental. The conventional representative sculptures consist of figures of gods and goddesses, historical personages, protrait sculptures, scenes from the Epics and Puranas, scenes from Jain mythology and scenes depicting social life etc. Some of these decorative sculptures occur among those prescribed in Sm Su. But the various features of decorative sculptures found in the Caulukyan temples indicate far more confirmation in APPR. However, the elaborate and rather ornate style of temple architecture developed in Gujarat during the Caulukyan period has attained a considerable place in the temple architecture of India. But it is very difficult to trace how this style evolved and which persons or works contributed to its developments. A comparative study of the architectural form of the old extant structural temples of Gujarat with the traditions giveni n the early and canonical works on Indian architecture seems to give some hint about the close relation of the monuments with some particular works. From the results of the comparative study given above it seems that the architectural traditions discerned in the pre-Caulukyan temples are reflected in the early works only to a limited extent. The traditions are comparatively more closely related to those given in the Sm. Su. which was of course composed about a century after the beginning of the Caulukyan period. The basic sources of this work may have belonged to the pre-Caulukyan period but they cannot be traced at present, probably, those sources may have served as a guide to the architects of the pre-Caulukyan temples. As regards the temples of the Caulukyan period the architectural traditions discerned in them are found reflected to a certain extent in Sm. Su. which was written in Malva on N. W. of Gujarat, during the early of the Caulukyan period.

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484 The Structural Temples of Gujarat But the results of the comparative study given above lead us to conclude that the architectural traditions found in the monumental temples of the Caulukyan period bare comparatively greater affinity to those given in the APPR. which seems composed during later half of the Caulukyan period. It is not known in which region the work was written but as the architectaral traditions of the Caulukyan temples are reflected in this work to a large extent it is probable that the work may have had a great bearing on architects in Gujarat. As regards the architects of the old extant temples in Gujarat the authorship of the pre-Caulukyan temples is found to be anonymous, while particulars about the architects are hardly available even in the case of the Caulukyan temples as well as post-Caulukyan temples. 2 Even when some reference to the architect is available, it, throws no light on his heritage of the architectural traditions followed by him. Nor is any of the well known works on Indian architecture definitely known to have composed in Gujarat. The traditional rules and techniques evolved in the Caulukyan period have continued in Gujarat to some extent even up to present times. The architects and sculptors, who are known locally as Sompuras after the town of Somanath, have preserved a good deal of their heritage and 2. Exceptionally we get reference to the architects of a few monuments e. g. The Tejapala temple at Abu, the Vaidyanatha and Kalika mata temples at Dabhoi etc. 3. The richly ornamented temple Pancasara parsvanath temple at Patan in N. Gujarat and the celebrated temple at Somnath in Saurashtra, for instance, are constructed by Sompuras under the guidance of Shri Prabhashankar O. Sompura.

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The Main Source or Sources of Canonicial Principles are available even to-day for building new restoring old ones. 4 485 temples and It will be interesting to note that mostly they follow the APPR. and the PM. which is based on it. Even the temples of the post-Caulukyan period, though lacking in the skill and grandeur of the monuments of the Caulukyan period, seem to follow the same traditions given in the APPR. It is very difficult to determine the exact relations between techinques in practice and canons in theory but in this instance the probable relations discerned between them in the old extant temples of Gujarat, especially of the pre-Caulukyan and Caulukyan period leave an impression that the works like Sm. Su. and APPR. probably present the architectural traditions evolved during the specific periods that preceeded the times of their composition. 4. The old Jain temples on Abu, Girnar, Satrunjaya and other places are not infrequently restored. The Vimala and Tajapala temples etc. at Abu for instance are at present being restored by Shri Amritlal Sompura and his assistance. On the basis of old works some recent works on architecture are also contributed by Sompuras. For examples (i) Bshadsilpa Pt. 1 (1931), II (1934), III (1936), by Jaganath Ambaram. II. Silparatnakara (1939) by Shri N. M. Sompura, III. Diparnava (1960) by Shri P. O. Sompura.

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APPENDIX A A DESCRIPTION OF SOME UNDESCRIBED TEMPLES IN GUJARAT

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(i) Pre-Caulukyan temples Balej* The village contains a small templel dedicated to the Sun. It faces east. It consists of a square garbhagriha (2.2 x 22 ms.) with a pradaksina 0.8 m. wide and a rectangular mandapa in front of it measuring 5.6 x 22 ms. The mandapa has four pilasters two attached to the wall of the garbhagliha and the other two to the opposite wall of the garbhagriha. The pradaksina has a sloped roof. There is a half opened rectangular porch in front of the mandapa measuring 5.6 x 2.4 ms. supported by pilasters six of which are extant. The mandapa and porch have flat roof. The Sikhara or spire over the garbhagliha is typical pre-Caulukyan, the Caitya ornament being carved in high relief. The extant spire has four tiers, out of which the lower three contain a series of Caitya-arch ornaments decreasing in number in the ascending order of the tiers. In front of the Sun temple there is a toranaa later addition, probably of the Caulukyan period (see here fig. 213).3 Bhanasar The group at Bhanasar consists of about nine temples. Five among them are noteworthy. In the centre there is a Kunda also. At present nearly all the temples are dedicated to Siva but originally many of them seem to be Sun temples. * 32 Kms. South of Porbandar. 1. Here Fig. 6. 2. Vide Sec. III Ch. 16 above. Here Fig. 214/1. 3. The site abounds in several other temples probably of late period. On the north there is a temple dedicated to Ganapati; opposite to it, is a Siva temple. $ 32 Kms. South of Porbandar.

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490 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The chief in the group, faces west. It has square garbhagliha (2.1 X 2 ms.) with a pradaksina *7 m. wide. The door measures 2 x 1 meter. The rectangular attached mandapa measures 3.8 x 25 ms. with 8 pilasters supporting its flat roof. The pradaksina is also covered with a flat roof, while the garbhagriha has a spire over it. Adjecent to this temple, there is another square temple (21 x 2.1 ms.), facing west. These two temples4 are on the east of the Kunda. On the west there are two templess which face east and on the south there is a temple 6 facing north. All these three temples are of the same size. The temple on south is similar in plan and design to that of the small temple just described above. The temples on west are similar in plan but they differ in the architectural form of the sikhara. From the view point of the form of the spire or Sikhara the whole group is divided into two forms of superstructure. orm of the temples have spires with horizontal tiers of diminishing sizes superimposed one on the other till the apex of the spire is attained. Such tiers are numbered four each one being adorned with the Caitya-arch ornament in low relief. The apex is adorned with a heavy cogged amalaka and a finial. But the spire of one of the two temples on the east facing west is peculiar and is in greater similarity to that of one at Bilesvara, and some what pyramidal in shape (See fig. 34 ) Here it contains three gabled tiers with high reliefed Caitya arches in the centre of each tier and a replica or miniature spire at the corners. The lowest tier has three Caitya arches, the central one has two and the upper one has one such arch. Each arch has high reliefed carving of full-blossomed lotus-like design in the central nave, probably a sign of the Sun temple. The uppermost tier is adorned with an amalaka and a finial. 4. Here Figs. 33, 34. 5. Here Figs. 33,35 6. Here Fig. 35

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491 Appendix A Boricha* There is a Sun temple? comprising only a square garbhagriha and a superstructure over it. It has plain walls with a low reliefed round edged cornice at the top from which the horizontal tiers, having round edged patti at the surface and a torus at the lower portion with a recess between the patti and the torus, each tier successively diminishing in size till the apex of the spire is attained. There are four such tiers. The upper most has a Caitya-arch ornament at the centre, while the rest are simple. The apex is crowned with a heavy amalaka. The finial is lost. Dhrasanvelt The Kalikamata temple8 has no deity in the garbhagliha. It has a square garbhagliha (2.1x2.1 ms.) with 1 m. wide pradaksinapatha. The external as well as internal walls of the garbhagriha measure nearly 0.6 m. in thickness. Thus externally the garbhagliha' measures 6.1 ms. The temple faces east. The attached mandapa is almost square measuring 6x 5.8 ms. with four tall square pillars supporting the central roof. The mandapa externally measures 6.8x68 ms. The walls of the mandapa are shorter in height than the pillars, hence the surrounding space between the pillars and the walls and the pradaksinapatha are covered with sloped roof. The high central portion i. e. the nave supported by four pillars may have had the stepped-out pyramidal superstructure. During conservation by the Archaeological department of Government, it is covered with flat slabs. Similarly the portion surviving as antarala before garbhagriha possibly also had a cylendrical gable-roofed superstructure with Caitya-window * Nearly 35 Kms. N. E. of Porbandar. 7. Here Fig. 14. I 9.6 kms. S. E. of Dwarka. 8. Here Fig. 27.

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492 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Ornament on its two sides as found in the siva temple at Taranetar near Than. The original superstructure has parished and the antarala is now covered with flat slabs during conservation. The superstructure over the garbhagriha, like the whole structure is plain except the central projections running from base to top. The spire, gradually terminating into an apex, has a heavy amalaka; the finial of which is lost. The side walls of the mandapa are each relieved by windows with Kaksasana, while the central door of the front has a window on each side. Harasiddh* The small temple on the slope of the hill at Harasiddha near Miyani is a square structure having only a garbhagliha surmounted by a peculiar pre-Caulukyan superstructure. The walls are plain. The superstructure is composed of horizontal tiers one upon another of diminishing size till it reaches to the apex. Each tier is decorated with Caitya arch ornaments. The amalaka and finial are lost. Khimesvaras The site contains several temples dedicated to siva, Surya, Randala and Bhairava etc. Main among them are siva temples Khimesvara, Dhingesvar, Khadesvara, and Dudhesvara. There are two other temples dedicated to the Sun and his consort Randala. The temple dedicated to Bhairava stands unique in this group on account of its peculiar superstructure. (1) The main temple, Khimesvara 10 in architectural form and design corresponds to the goddess temple at Srinagar. Its garbhagliha measures 2.6 x 2.6 ms. surrounded by a * 41-6 Kms. N. V. of Porbander. 9. Here Fig. 25. I nearly 11.2 Kms. North of Porbandar on sea-coast. 10. Here Fig. 30.

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Appendix A 493 pradaksina 1.6 m, wide. Its door measures 1.8 x 0.9 m. The covered mandapa before it, having 4 pillars at the centre and 12 pilasters, measures 7.6 X 6.3 ms. The covered porch in front of it is 7.6 X 1.9 ms. The Pradaksina is covered with a slopped roof, while the mandapa and the porch have a flat roof. The garbhagriha has a spire over it. It closely resembles to that of Bilesvar. The horizontal tiers surmounting one over another of diminishing sizes adorned with a bold Caitya arch ornaments and a replica of miniature Sikhara at each corner of the tier give a pleasant effect. The spire. as usually is adorned with an amalaka and a finial. (2) Opposite to the Khimesvara, there is a temple dedicated to Bhairava.11 It faces north, but has an entrance on east. The garbhagriha is square and is attached to a rectangular mandapa having four pillars in the certre. The two outer side of the front wall of the garbhagliha is adorned with a big caitya-arched niche at the base on each side of the entrance. There is a similar caitya-arch niche on the outer side of the back wall also. The spire over garbhagriha is a unique one. It is a cylendrical gable roof with two big Caitya-arch ornaments at the end. The rectangular mandapa is covered with a flat roof. (3) On the left of the Khimesvara temple there is a temple dedicated to Dhingesvara, 13 It faces east. The garbhagliha is a square with an attached half-open porch with four dwarf pillars at the four corners and two pillars in the front. The porch has a seat on either side. The spire over garbhagriha is composed of horizontal tiers of diminishing sizes till the apex is attained. (4) Khadesvara and Dudhesvara are two other temples dedicated to Siva respectively facing west and east. The 11. The temple is on the left to the main temple. 12. The temple on the right in here Fig. 31.

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494 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Khadesvara13 apparently looks older than the other. It has a square garhhagliha surrounded by a pradaksina having a sloped roof. It is attached with a rectangular covered mandapa with a flat roof. The spire over the garbhagriha is similar to that of Khimesvara, but of smaller dimension. The temple of Dudhesvara is much simpler having a square garbhagriha and an attached covered mandapa. The spire over the garbhagriha is similar to those of the remaining two temples dedicated to the Sun and his consort Randala. (5) The temple of Randala 14 lies opposite to that of khimasvara. It faces east. It consists of a square garbhagriha and an attached rectangular flat-roofed mandapa. The spire over the garbhagriha is pyramidal with low height. The peculiarity of this temple is that two huge niches having superstructure of three horizontal tiers each adorned with Caitya-arch ornaments and an amalaka and finial are flanked on the entrance door of the mandapa. The entrance door has a heavy cornice over it. (6) Adjecent to the Randala temple there is a Sun temple, of bigger size, but architecturally it is very poor and simple in design. It has also a garbhagliha and a mandapa. The garbhagoiha has a spire similar to that of the Randala temple. Lunar* The shrine in plan is much like that of Suvan. It has a square garbhagriha surrounded by pradaksina and a rectangular mandapa in front. The temple faces south. It is dedicated to a goddess known as Lunai Mata. On the either side of the entrance there are huge figures (2 meters in height) of goddess Camunda. The spire over garbhagriha is renovated and so it has lost its original form. 13. Here Fig. 31. 14. Here Fig. 32 * 35 Kms. S, W. of Dwarka on the sea coast.

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495 Appendix A Miyani* There are three small temples on the outskrit of the village, probably all belonging to the pre-Caulukyan period. On the way to Vadal from Miyani there stands a small square temple facing east.15 The extant temple contains only a garbhagriha (2.9x2.9 ms.), the attached mandapa being lost. The door lintel has a much defaced navagraha panel. The walls (externally measuring 3.7x3.7 ms ) have no projections but contain mouldings like Kumbha, Andhari, Kevala, Jangha (with grasapatti at the centre) and Kevala and a cornice upon which the superstructure of the spire rises. The spire from the base to the top is divided into two lateral projections, i. e. giving rise to pratiratha and bhadra projections. It is surmounted by heavy cogged amalaka but the finial is lost. The next one is a small temple16 facing south. It has a square ( 1.3 X 1.3 ms.) garbhagriha with an attached half covered porch ( 2-3x 1.9 ms.). The walls of the garbhagliha upto the base of the Sikhara over it have horizontal as well as vertical mouldings. The base has a Kumbha moulding from which rises the plain pitha. Above the pitua there is a cornice from which the superstructure corresponding to lateral projections of the pitha rises. It is very simple except the heavy amalaka over it. The finial is lost. The attached half covered porch has four dwarf pillars supporting the damaged Samvarna type of superstructure. The third small temple 17 dedicated to Siva facing east is comparatively more elegant in plan and design. It is just near to the one described above but much nearer to the village. 38-4 kms. N. W. of Porbandar. 15. Here Fig. 23. 16. Here Fig. 23/a. 17. Here Figs. 21, 22.

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496 The Structural Temples of Gujarat It's garbhagriha measures 1.8 X 1.8 ms., the attached porch measures 2.8 x 2.4 ms. It is similar in plan to the former one, but it differs in the style of its Sikhara and ornamentation of the porch. The Sikhara over the garbhagriha has several horizontal tiers rested one upon another with recesses gradually of diminishing size till reaching the apex. Each successive tier is adorned with a series of Caitya-arch and cogged ornamentation as we see in the case of one of the temples in the Pasthar group, viz. ( Sadevanta Savalinga temple ) and in the temple of Ranakadevi at Wadhawan. The Sikhara has an amalaka over it but its finial is lost. Nabdisvar. This site, contains several temples dedicated to Siva, The central temple facing east is known as Nandisvar. From the architectural concept or form of the temple it is definitely Caulukyan. But the site has several pre-Caulukyan temples as well. The oldest in the group seems to be one on the left of the Nandisvar temple. It is in very crude form. It faces north, probably dedicated to some godess. Some matnika images are kept in the garbhagriba. The garbhagliha has a crude sikhara with miniature Sikhara on the corners. The door is some what broader than its heights. The mouldings of the base and the pitha are heavy, with a heavy cornice at the top. On either side of the door there are large and bold caitya-arch ornaments. The next noteworthy temple in the group is on the south of the central temple. Its plain garbhagliha has a superstructure, closely resembling to that of Srinagar and Khimesvar in respect of caitya-arch ornaments. But it has bhadra projection at the centre, which is adorned with a much bolder caitya-arch or trefoil carved one over the other. The corners contain these ornaments of some what smaller size and low relief. The * 6.4 Kms. North of Porbandar.

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Appendix A 497 superstructure contains four tiers, each containing a series of the aforesaid ornament. The apex is surmounted with a heavy amalaka and a finial. Besides, this temple there is still another one probably of the same design and plan, but it is repaired to such an extent that it is difficult to trace out its original form. Navidhrevad* The Kalikamata temple18 at Navidhrevad faces east. The square garbhagriha measures 3.1 x3.1 ms. The image stands on a platform adjoining the back wall. The door of the shrine is simple. The attached mandapa is larger in size. It measures 6.6x7.6 ms. The roof of the mandapa has been parished leaving no indication of the existence of central pillars. The walls of the mandapa have four extant pillars, others being either destroyed or plastered with walls. The door of the mandapa is 1.3 meter wide. The wall on the north as well as that on the south contains a wide window with dwarf pillars projecting externally. These windows have chajjas (eaves) with big caitya-arches over them. In front of the mandapa there is a porch in ruinous condition. It contains ten extant pillars in three rows and a portion of kaksasana on the left. The central portion of the porch measures 3.2 x 1.8 ms. The pillars are simple but heavy with square base of 0.5 x 0.5 m. Neither mandapa nor porch has superstructure over it. The superstructure of the garbhagriha is square at the base having five horizontal tiers of diminishing size, ultimately terminating into an apex. Each tier is adorned with a miniature replica of the spire at the corners and a series of caitya-arches between them. The spire, thus, closely resembles to that of a Siva shrine at Bilesvar. It is crowned with a cogged amalaka and a finjal. * Nearly 32 kms. S. E. of Dwarka. 18. Here Figs. 28, 29.

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498 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Odadar* The site on the east of the village Odadar, known as Gorakhanath, abounds in many small temples the chief among them are : 1. The temple, probably dedicated to some Vaisnava god, facing west is in Caulukyan style. 2. Facing east are the Gorakha temple, the Siva temple and the temple dedicated to Anjali. All these are late erections but the temple of Gorakha from its extant form seems to be originally a temple dedicated to the Sun. It is repaired to such an extent that it is difficult to trace out its original form. It has a garbhagliha and a mandapa. 3. There is another temple in the line of the above, south to the Anjali temple. It also faces east. The icons of Surya and his consort are preserved in the garbhagniba, It, only consists of a square garbhagliha. The spire over it is damaged to such an extent that it is not possible to judge about its original form. 4. On the east of the group, facing west, there is a siva temple, perhaps of the same age as that of the Sun temple. In plan it is a square shrine with a pre-Caulukyan superstructure. The plain walls of the shrine have heavy moulded cornice at the top from which the horizontal tiers of the spire rise. There are three tiers of diminishing sizes superimposing one over the other. The apex is adorned with a heavy amalaka. Here we have no caitya-arch ornaments adorning the tires of the spire.19 Pasanyada1 (1) The sun temple It faces east. It has a square (1.9 x 1.9 ms.) garbhagriha and an attached rectangular mandapa (nearly 3.7 * 2.5 ms.) having * 9.6 Kms. south of Porbander. 19. Here Fig. 36. I 224 Kms. S. E. of Prabhaspatan.

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Appendix A 499 12 pillars in three rows. The mandapa is open on all sides but it is covered with a flat roof. The garbhagriha has a spire over it. The spire is composed of horizontal tiers with a square moulding at the base and three successive mouldings having rounded edge at the upper patti and a shape of torus at the lower portion with a recess between these two mouldings, each successively diminishing in size till reaches the apex, which is crowned with an amalaka and a finial. The interesting point to be noted about the spire is that each side of the spire is adorned with a vertical series of four heavy caitya-arches at centre, the arches gradually diminishing in size as they go up. On account of this ornamentation the square base of the spire attains an effect of being projected at the central portion. 20 This device is also found in many other temples of Saurastra, such as those at Suvan, Ranavavy 1 etc. (2) The Gayatri temple 2 2 The temple is situated 1.9 kms S. W. of the village. The temple is dedicated to goddess Gayatri. From the occurance of the recessed block marked with the lotus petal design23 and added upon the cornice above the front door of the temple it may appear that the temple was originally dedicated to the Sun. But this saliant feature may also apply to the temple of Gayatri who is closely associated with the Sun god. 20. Here Fig. 17 21. Here Figs. 8, 20 22. Here Figs. 18,19 23. This additional block is found among the detached ruins of Sun temples at Pasanavada and Pata. There the recessed block contains standing figures of the Sun god in the recesses in all its sides and is adorned with the design of an open lotus at the top. The common occurance of this block at the Sun temples of the two different places implies that it was probably a special feature of the Sun temples in this region during this period. The recessed block stands in situ in this temple so adorned with usual lotus petal design but the Sun figures have been extinct by this time.

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500 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The temple faces east and consists of garbhagriha, pradaksina patha and a double manqapa with an entrance porch. The temple rests on a high plinth with a height of four or five steps. The garbhagliha is almost square (2.4 x 2.2 ms.) with a seat at the back for images. The pradaksinapatha is 0.8 meter wide. The external breadth of the temple is 7 meters. The attached mandapa measures 5.6 x 5.4 ms. with twelve pilasters attached to the walls, out of which eight support the dome of the mandapa. The pillars are 5.4 ms. in height. They are square at the base, octagonal in the middle and round at the top with simple bharani over them. Over the door lintel of the garbhagriha there is a panel of the Navagrahas and a figure of Ganesa in the centre. The door of the covered mandapa has three plain jambas, but over its lintel there is a huge head figure, porbably of the Sun. The next mandapa attached to former one measures 5.7 x 6 meters. At present it is open to the sky but the surviving pillars attached to the walls indicate that originally it must have been covered like the former one. In front of this mandapa there is an entrance porch with remains of kaksasana on either side. The main body of the superstructure of the garbhagriha is shaped like a square recessed block with perpendicular sides surmounted by a tall slander finjal. This feature occurs here unusually or rather exceptionally, but it is doubtful whether the present shape represents the original one. 24 The high plinth of the temple has several mouldings but it curiously contains some niches 25 at the base. They are surmounted by heavy Caitya-arches, each containing either human figures or a single head. 24. Possibly the original superstructure was of the usual pyramidal form but its main body was subsequently encased into the square structure arbitarily 25. They number two at the back and three on each side, two on north being enclosed into the adjoining room added subsequently.

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Appendix A 501 The temple is renovated to a large extent but certain features indicate its pre-Caulukyan form. Pata. *has a sun temple26 facing east. Its square garbhagliha (2.6 x 2.6 ms.) has a recessed seat for the images. The door measures 22 X 1.1 ms. In front of it there is an attached covered mandapa measuring 4.4 x 4.6 ms. There are four massive pillars in the centre forming a roof. The twelve pilasters support the slopped roof of the aisles on the four sides. They are shorter than the pillars of the nave. On the north and south of the mandapa there are kakasanas probably open on the sides but during recent repairation they are totally covered with walls. The garbhagriha contains a large Sun icon ( nearly a meter high ) and an image of his consort (0.7 m high ). Both the images seem to be later additions. The superstructures over the mandapa and the garbhagliha are newly erected and so they have lost their original form and charm. The big structure, placed usually on the front portion of certain Sun temples, is seen here lying in front of the temple.27 Pindara The Sun temple of Pindara 28 consists of a square garbhagriha and a heavy superstructure over it. The temple faces east. The walls of the garbhagriha are plain. The extant spire has four horizontal tiers, each of diminishing size successively superimposed and having series of Caitya arch ornament with a miniature amalaka shaped ornament at the corners. The apex and amalaka with finial of the spire have been lost. The walls of the structure and suprimposed spire * 40.8 Kms South of Porbandar. 26. Here Fig. 7. 27. Vide the Sun temple and the Gayatri temple at Pasanyada. 57-6 Kms. S. E. of Dwarka. 28. Here Fig. 13.

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502 The Structural Temples of Gujarat have been separated by a deep recess with supports at intervals. The portion over the door has holes in the walls, probably a sign of the lost mandapa attached to it. Porbandar The Siva temple, known as Dhingesvara Mahadeva39 at Porbander is and old site. The temple consists of a square garbhagriha and an attached porch of low structure, perhaps a latter addition. The temple rests on a low plinth with heavy square edged cornice the walls upon it are simple, the upper portion of which terminates into a toothed edged cornice. Over it the spire of the garbhagriha rises. Four horizontal tiers of diminishing size carved with a series of Caitya-arch ornaments, superimposed successively one over another till the apex is attained. The apex is covered with a square flat slab over which an amalaka and a finial are placed. The superstructure over a porch is comparatively very late. Square slabs of diminishing size with tapering ornaments at the ends and the centre are placed one over another, over which the amalaka and finial rest. Ranavar* The old temple of Siva, 30 facing east, is situated in the compound of the newly built temple of Jadesvara Mahadeva. It has a square garbhagriha measuring 1.8 X 1.8 ms. The door of the garbhagriha (2:0 0.8 ms.) is a simple one. Its walls are 0.8 m. thick. The pradaksina patha arround it is 1 meter wide. In front of the garbha, there is an attached mandapa (5.2 x 2.10 ms.) covered by walls on the south and the north and open on the west with a row of four pillars supporting the western end of the flat roof of the mandapa. The garbhagriha is covered with a spire having similar horizontal mouldings as those at the Sun temple at Pasanavada. 29. Here Fig. 26. * 12:8 Kms. E. of Porbander. 30. Here Fig. 20.

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Appendix A 503 Here the number of Caitya arches rises to six and hence the spire is comparitively higher than that of the Sun temple at Pasa navada. The spire is adorned with the usual amalaka and finial. The shafts of the pillars are square at the bottom, gradually growing round and tapering as they rise upwards. The bases of the pillars are usually square with torus at the centre. The bharanis or the capitals of the pillars have different carved figures such as the face of an elephant, a seated bull, a grasa, a kicaka, the face of a tiger (vyaghra ) etc. The temple is, to a certain extent, restored. Srinagar* The temple at Srinagar have been vaguely noticed. 3 1 There are three old temples worthy of notice. On the south of the village there are two temples one dedicated to the Sun 3 2 and the other to Siva 33 facing respectively east and west. The temple dedicated to the Sun is renovated to a certain extent, but its original architectural form has been preserved. It is on a high plinth. The garbhagriha measuring 2.5 x 2.4 ms. is attached with a porch of 2.0 x 1.9 ms. The door of the garbha gliha measures 1.7 X 0.9 m. The porch is open; its superstructure is rested on four pillars. The present superstructure is a new one, evidently added in place of the original superstructure which seems to have been lost. It is composed of horizontal tiers of diminishing size, placed one upon another and ornamented with triangular moulding. It culminates into the apex, attaining a shape like a Samvatna. The superstructure over the garbhagriha retains much of its original form. Over the plain walls of the garbhagriha there is a heavy cornice from which the horizontal tiers, ornamented with Caitya-arches rise one upon another of diminishing size till the apex of the sikhara is attained. * 12.8 Kms. N. to Porbander, 31. SMTK. pp. 2-3. 32. Here Fig. 10. 33. Here Fig. 9.

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504 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The apex is sur mounted with a heavy cogged amalaka and a finial over it. Each tier of the spire has a cogged ornament at the corner, with a miniature spire over it. The temple deciated to Siva has a much older appearance than the former one. Its square garbhagriha (1.9 x 1.9 ms.) is surrounded by pradaksina patha nearly 1.1 meter wide. In front of the garbhagliha there is an attached closed mandapa. It measures 4.8 X 3.8 ms. Thus the whole structures is rectangular in plan. The garbhagriba is covered with a low pyramidal spire composed of series of horizontal tiers as we see at the Sun temple at Pasanavada. The central portion of the tiers, on each side, is adorned with a caitya arch ornament one upon another, till it reaches the apex, which is surmounted with the usual amalaka and finial. The rest of the portion is covered with flat roof. The temple on the north of the village 34 dedicated at present to some godess, is comparatively larger than the above mentioned two temples. It faces west. It comprises a garbhagriha, a pradaksina, a mandapa and a porch. It is a rectangular structure with a square garbhagriha (2.6 x 2.6 ms.). At the back in the garbhagriha there is a vedika (Seat) for images. The pradaksina surrounding the garbhagliha is 1.5 meters wide. The door of the garbhagriha measures 2.1 x 1.0 m. The covered mandapa is a rectangular measuring 6.6 X 4.6 ms., having four pillars at the centre and twelve pilasters attached to the walls. The pradaksina is covered with a slopped roof while the mandapa and a rectangular porch in front of it are covered with a flat roof. The porch is supported by eight pillars and is covered except on the west which has steps leading to the main entrance. 34. Here Fig. 11.

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Appendix A 505 The garbhagriha has a lofty spire of the usual stepped pyramidal shape. Each horizontal tier or step of the spire is adorned with the series of Caitya arches. In design it closely resembles the spire of the Sun temple just described above but the relief here is much more bolder and it has four horizontal tiers instead three. At every corner each tier has a miniature spire, which like the main spire is adorned with amalaka and a finjal. The whole superstructure, like the previous one, closely resembles that of the Siva temple at Bilesvar. Suvan (or Varvada )* Traditionally the site is known as Suvarna tirtha. The main temple, at present is dedicated to Jagannatha, 38 the Vaisnava God. But, it is said that originally it belonged to the Sun-God. On the left of the temple there is a small temple which also was dedicated to the Sun-God. Both the temples face east. In plan the temple dedicated to Jagannatha has a square garbhagliha, measuring 2.10 x 2.10 ms., surrouned by nearly 1 meter wide pradaksinapatba. The internal and external walls of the garbhagsiba are 0.8 meter wide. The attached square mandapa in front of the garbhagriha measures 6.2 X 6.2 ms. with 4 pillars in the centre and 12 pilasters, out of which 5 are visible, the rest being plastered with the wall surface. The mandapa is covered with a flat roof. The walls of the temple has projecting cornice moulding at the top. The garbhagtiha is a simple cube, but the spire over it has a lateral projection at the centre rising from base to the top of the spire. The spire has the usual horizontal tiers of the pre-Caulukyan style, diminishing in size and terminating into an apex. In the middle of each side of every tier diminishing * 6-4 Kms. S. E. of Dwarka. 35. Here Fig. 8.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat gradually in size, in correspond to diminishing size of tiers, there is a caitya window ornament. The spire has a heavy cogged amalaka and a finial over it. 506 It is intersting to note that the temple is further surrounded by an open pradiksinapatha 2.2 ms. wide except in the front side where it is carved with a flat roof supported by pillars. This also serves as a high plinth for the shrine which is nearly 2.3 ms. in height from the ground level. Exernally, the plinth has various mouldings from the bottom to the top. The adjoining small temple, with its image missing, is, at present in disuse. It has an attached porch carved with a flat roof. The garbhagriha of it is adorned with a spire similar in design to that of the previons one. The walls of the temple externally have lateral projections from bottom to top, which continue also in the spire. Further, the walls have mouldings like jadambo, kumbho, pitha and kevala or cornice over it. From the temple of Jagannatha, a mile N. E. to it, there exists a group of ruined temples, the principal one being known as the Guhaditya temple. From the extant remains it can be said that originally the group belonged to a Pancayatana type of temple. The principal temple faces east. Though, the temple exists at present only in the form of a shrine, it appears that it originally comprised a garbhagriha, a covered mandapa and a porch.

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(ii) Temples of the Caulukyan period Aithor 86 There is a siva temple, otherwise known as Ganesa temple, in the village which to some extent is slanting on one side. As usual it consists of a garbhagliha, an antarala, a mandapa half covered with dwarf walls superimposed by dwarf pillars and a porch. The mandapa, in appearance, is similar to that of the old large temple at Sander. The pillars contain vase and foliage pattern, while the vedika is adorned at a lower portion with usual mouldings like grasathara, pattika etc., the upper portion being adorned with amorous figures in the fashion of the vedika of sabhamandapa of the Sun temple at Modhera. The carving of tamala leaves in the pitha reminds us of pitha or Lakulisa temple at Pawagadh. The Jangha mouldings of the mandovara contain figures of Saiva and Vaisnava deities. The temple is enclosed within a wall, which is adorned with many old figures; the noteworthy among them is the figure of Siva in Andhakasuravadha posture. Bhankhar 3611 The temple here is known as Agiya Vaitala. It is in good condition. It faces east. The spire entwined with beautiful Jalaka design is of Ekandi type (fig. 161 ). The temple is highly decked from the basement to apex. The sculptures over 36. The village is nearly 5 kms. from Unjha (Dist. Mehsana). It represents ancient Arathaura mentioned in the Copperplate grant issued by the Caulukyan king Tribhuvanapala in V. S. 1299 (1243 A. D.). -IA. VI, pp. 208 ff. 36/1. The village is situated about 5 kms. to the east of Unjha (Dist. Mehsana). It represents ancient Bhansar mentioned in the copper-plate grant issued by the Caulukyan king Tribhuvanpala in V. S. 1299 (1243 A. D.). JA. VI, pp. 208 ff.

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508 The Structural Temples of Gujarat pitha, mandovara and pediments of bhadra projections are beautiful. The niche on the western direction of the Jargha moulding of the mandovara contains a figure of Trimurti-a rare combination of Siva, Visnu and Sarya i. e. an image of Harihararka. It is in standing posture and has six hands which contain khatavanga and trisula, sankha and cakra and two lotuses-the emblems of respective gods. The niche on north contains a figure of Siva in dancing attitude. There are also several figures of regent deities, gods, goddesses, damsels, chamaradharinis and dancing Ganesa. A shrine door is of trisakha type and there is a navagraha panel over the lintel. The mandapa of the shrine is a restored one which has lost its original charm. The temple belongs to a period of 12th. cent. A. D. Davad* The temple group known as Jagesvara Pancayatana Mandira belongs to a period of 12th cent. A. D. The temple complex rests on a platform with the main Siva shrine in the centre and subsidiary shrines in the corners dedicated to Ganesa, Gauri, Surya and Visnu. The former two shrines are in front of the main shrine which faces east. The latter two shrines are situated behind the main shrine which consists of the usual component parts and is also fronted by a fragmentary torana. The mandapa is adorned with Samvarna, the ceiling of which is beautiful and ornate. The dwarf pillars resting over kaksasana and vedika ( which are restored ) contain ghatpallava motif. Among the corner shrines, one dedicated to Gauri is wellpreserved. The sculptures over its pitha and manqovara are highly ornate. But the shrine is devoid of its frontal porch. The shrine dedicated originally to Ganesa (but now to Hanumana ) is restored but it has lost its charm. * Just near Bhavad (Dist. Mehsana).

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Appendix A 509 One of the back shrines dedicated to Surya contains a beautiful figure of Hariharapitamaharka36/2 in one of the niches of its manqovara. The pitha and mandovara retain the original portion of the shrine, the rest being newly built. The other back shrine dedicated to Visnu contains an original image of Visnu in the garbhagliha. Its mandovara niches contain figures of Visnu among which a figure of Trivikrama is noteworthy 3613 Dhrasanvel The temple, known as Magaderu, 37 lies about one mile south of the village. The temple is of the pancayatana type and dedicated to siva. The principal temple faces west. The temple complex consists of the main temple and five sub-ordinate temples attached to it. The former is surrounded by a pradaksina and has an half-opened mandapa with aisles. The sub-ordinate temples consist of only garbhagrihas. Out of them two lie in the two corners at the back of the main temple. Two of the other three, facing the mandapa, are situated at the western end of the northern side of the main temple. While the remaining shrine lies at western end of the opposite (southern ) side. To the east of this shrine there is an entrance porch leading to the mandapa on its north. In front of the mandapa there is a small covered square room, open on the side of the mandapa and covered by walls on the other three sides. The western wall of the temple moreover is relieved by a window on either side of this room. The shrine of the main temple is square measuring 2.1 x 2.1 ms, and resting upon a high platform approached by a flight of three steps. The walls are internally plain but 36/2. In carving the Figure exhibits close similarity to those at Delmal (AANG. pl. LXIX) and Valam. 36/3 Dr. R. H. Godani, Nutan Gujarat (Weekly ), Ahmedabad, dated 7-2-65 & 14-2-65. 37 Here Figs. 154 and 242.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat externally they have lateral projections on all sides except the front one. The external walls are moulded from base to top from which the Sikhara of the shrine rises. At the base, it has kumbha, antarpatra, kevala, and jangha mouldings with a pattika and niches for gods and goddesses at the centre. Over the pitha there is a heavy cornice. The major portion of the spire has perished, the extant portion has mouldings similar to those of the Ranakdevi temple at Wadhwan. The chases of the lateral projections from the base of the shrine, correspondingly rise towards the apex. The horizontal tiers of the spires are adorned with the Caitya-window ornament gradually diminishing in size at the centre on all the sides. 510 The pradaksina is 1.8 ms. wide and has outward projecting kaksasanas rested on the dwarf walls, in the centre of each side. From the remains it can be guessed that pradaksina had a sloped roof over it, while aisles arround the mandapa had a flat roof. The central mandapa had a samvarna type of superstructure. The pillars, technically known as bhadraka, are square with projecting central portions and terminating into vertical chases through out the shafts of the pillars. The higher level of the garbhagriha in comparision with the level of the mandapa and the greater heights of the pillars of the nave of the mandapa in comparasion to the height of the pilasters at the aisles, when veiwed to gather, imply that the pillars of the nave were probably surmounted by dwarf pillars supporting the roof of the mandapa. But the roof and the dwarf pillars exist no more at present, Out of the five small shrines, the four at the four corners are almost square, measuring 1.3 x 1.2 ms. Each of them has a recessed platform attached inside to the backwall. The remaining shrine, on the east of the north-western shrine, measures 1.3 2.3 ms. and contains a recessed platform on all the sides except the front one. The external sides of the walls of these shrines have lateral projections which vertically terminate into chases. These projections and chases correspondingly rise to Sikhara till its apex.

Page #566
Appendix A 511 The entrance porch on the south. corresponding to the opposite shrine measures 1.3 x 2.3 ms. with dwarf pillars on either side. The superstructure of it is lost. Dwarka The Rukamani temples 8 at Dwarka. is vaguely noticed. It is older than the present Dwarkadhisa temple. It faces west. In plan it consists of a square garbhagliha, an attached mandapa and a porch. There is also another open rectangular detached porch in front of the porch attached to the mandapa. The door frame, the lintel and the threshold of the garbhagliha are older. The door frame consists of three sakhas (jambs ) with usual niches for gods and goddesses, similarly the recessed lintel also has niches for gods and goddesses and dancing damsels. The centre of the upper jamb of the door frame is marked with a figure of Ganesa. The garbhagriha has a recessed seat on which the present image of Rukamani is consecrated. The pillars of the mandapa have kicaka mouldings at bharani. The shafts of the pillars have bands of Kirtimukha. The popular ghatpallava moulding is seen at the base of the pillars. The original superstructure of the mandapa seems to have been perished, the present dome being a newly erected structure, In front of the attached porch there is a rectangular detached open porch. Its pillars and brackets supporting the beams are quite dissimilar to those of the mandapa and the attached porch. Its seems to have been a later addition to the structure. The brackets are similar in design, but smaller in dimension, in comparision to those found in the Hiragate at Dabhoi. The exterior of the shrine is profusely carved with gajathara, narathara and grasapatti as the moulding of the base. Over the mouldings of kumbha there are ornate niches in which 38. Here Fig. 153.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat beautiful sculptures of goodesses, damsels and female figures, indicative of temple being dedicated to a goddess, are found. Over the chajja moulding the curvillinear spire of the shrine rises in the usual vertical chases corresponding to those of the walls from base to the top, surmounted by sringas and urusringas till the apex is attained, which is adorned with the usual amalaka and a finial. 512 Similar carvings are also seen at the lower mouldings of the exterior of the mandapa and attached porch. Gavada* as The Pancayatana temple of this village is known Jagesvara Mahadeva. The central shrine is surrounded by four corner shrines dedicated to Ganesa, Gauri, Surya and Visnu. The principal shrine consists of the usual components i. e. the sanctum proper and the attached mandapa fronted by a porch. The mandapa is restored but the superstructure over it retains some original portion. The shrine from basement to the apex of the spire is highly ornate. The style of sculptures of pitha, mandovara and pediments over the bhadra sections of entablature suggest 12th cent. A. D. as its period of construction. The corner shrines, too, are highly ornate from top to bottom. One of them dedicated to Surya is restored to such an extent that it has lost its original charm. There are beautiful sculptures of Kubera, Siva in Gajasuravadha attitude, Trivikrama, Surya, Hariharapitamaharka etc. Gunja++ On the eastern skirt of the village Gunja there lies a tank which is built with a flight of steps on its western side. There is also a temple, jutting out into the tank, facing the * 26. Kms. west to Mehsana. The village is situated in between N. W. to Visnagar and S. W. to Vadnagar to a distance of near 5 Kms. from both the Rly. stations of Western Railways.

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Appendix A village. The temple is approached by a stone bridge supported by 24 stone pillars, placed in two rows of 12 pillars each, being located at the interval of 2 meters each. The bridge is nearly 2 meters high from the present ground level. The buried portion of the bridge suggests that it is a storied-one, the lower storey being buried beneath the ground. The exposed steps, attached to the Ghata of the tank and leading to the down storey, support the assumption about the existence of lower storey of the bridge. The bridge is nearly 25 meters in length and its outward width is nearly 2-5 meters. Inwardly it is round about 2 meters in width. The stone-paved bridge is flanked by a parapet like vedika carved with heavy lozengeshaped design on its external side and superimposed by sloping seat (kaksasanas). The platform (Jagati) on which the extant temple rests is nearly 10 x 8.75 meters in size and is corresponding to the bridge 2 meters high from the present ground level. Except from the west (as it is attached in that direction with the stone bridge) it has a flight of steps leading to the water level on all its sides. The portion of it in veiw contains mouldings like ratnapattika, kumbha, kalasa etc. 513 The temple faces west i. e. in the direction on which the village is situated, and is approached by a small flight of steps resting on the platform. The temple originally consisted of a garbhagriha (measuring nearly 2 meters square, now extinct) and an open mandapa fronted by small rectangular porches on three sides. Only the mandapa and porches now survive, the rest, along with the upper portion of the superstructures of the mandapa and porches, being lost. (Fig. 162). The square mandapa measures 4.5 x 4.5 meters. The porches on its sides are 1 meter in length and 0-5 meter in breadth. The supersrtucture of the mandapa is supported by 12 pillars (2.2 meters in height ). The projected porches are supported by two more pillars each. The upper portion of the superstructure of the mandapa, which originally might be of

Page #569
The Structural Temples of Gujarat samvarna type, is, now, covered with bricks and stucco; while the lower and internal portion falling in the mandapa contains a beautifully carved ceiling (fig. 190) which contains five courses (i. e. kolas & gajatalus ). The frieze under these courses is depicted with war and amorous scenes, elephant fights, scenes of playing cards, instrumental music, hunting etc. Central pendant of the ceiling seems extinct. 38/1 Hirapur (Dist. Sabarkantha ). The temple known as Ujalesvara is of pancayatana type. The central shrine is dedicated to Siva. The garbhagriha of the shrine has an image of Parvati which seems original one, while the present linga is of later date. The shrine door simple in design and carving is of tri-sakha type. The lower portions of the shrine, mandapa and porch are buried in the ground but the carvings on the beems reveal the style assignable to postCaulukyan period. The mandovara of the shrine contains beautiful sculptures of Dikpalas, Camunda etc. 514 One of the corner shrine is completely destroyed. The rest are dedicated to Ganesa, Surya and Visnu. The niches on the walls of the shrine is dedicated to Surya contain mutilated figures of Surya, 38/1. A huge mound of several architectural remains such as lintels and jambs of the door-ways, vase & foliage pillars, capitals carved with huge figures or kicakas, beautifully carved beams, peices of spires, semi-spires, amalasilas and a number of sculptures found on the southern skirt of the tank, the place being popularly known as Munja Sakara associated with a Muslim grave-yard, suggest that once there stood a considerable large temple which is now completely ruined. Shri M. A. Dhaky on the analogy of similar carving ascribes the date of the temple to that of the Sunak temple. Moreover he is of the opinion that the temple was dedicated to Visnu (CSTG. p. 77 ). The inference is drawn, perhaps, from a loose sculpture of Trimurti', the figure having a Visnu in the centre found at a furlong away from the northern skirt of the lake.

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Appendix A 515 The superstructures of the main shrine, mandapa and porch are restored to such an extent that their original form is lost, but the superstructures of the corner shrines reveal some of the characteristics of their original form. 38/2 Idar (Dist. Sabarkantha ) The temple known as Ranamala Coki is dedicated to Siva. It rests on a platform (Jagati) of nearly 122 x 5.5. meters. The temple consists of a garbhagriha, an antarala, a circumambulatory and a mandapa. The mouldings like jadyakumbha, kani, kumbha, kalasa etc, of the pitha are, though not deked with ornamental motifs or figures, well proportioned and neat. The balconies of the circumambulatory are highly ornate and the open portion of them is covered with stone-grill divided into several sections which depict various geometrical designs. The vedikas of these balconies are decorated with figures of musicians and dancers and mythical episodes. 3813 The jangha moulding of the mandovara contains nearly a meter high figures of gods and goddesses. The noteworthy among them are the sculptures of Mahisasuramardini and Ganesa ind ancing attitude. 38/4 The work of stone-grills and style of sculptures place the temple in the 13th cent. A. D. Khandosan* In the vicinity of Hingolajamata temple at Khandosan there is a right angular temple, 39 consisting of two shrines one facing west and the other facing south with a common mandapa. The temple probably was either dedicated to Hari and Hara j. e. Visnu and Siva or Siva and Sakti. This temple is vaguely noticed by the Archaeological department of former Baroda State. 40 38/2. Dr. H. R. Godani, Nutan Gujarat' (Weekly) (Ahmedabd) dated 20-6-65 & 27-6-05. 38/3. Dr. H R. Godani "Navchetan', Sept 61. pp. 617-619. Fig. on. p. 618 38/4. Ibid. fig. on p. 619. * 9.6 kms. west of Visnagar ( Dist. Mehsana ). 39. Here Fig. 69. 40. Vide ARAB. 38 p. 5; also here fig. 161.

Page #571
516 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The garbhagriha facing west measures 1.8 X 1.8 ms. The shrine contains no image at present but the niche in the back wall implies that it was dedicated to Siva. Its door is 1.4 x 0.8 m. The door lintel has Ganesa figure in the centre. Above the lintel there is a Navagraha panel. The door has double sets of door jambs, one is carved slightly while the other is profusely carved with figures of gods and goddesses and dancing damsels. The lower portions of the jambs contain standing figures of Ganga and Yamuna holding water pots in hands, The threshold has projecting grasa on both the sides with a semi-circular step in the centre. The garbhagliha facing south measures 1.7 x 1.8 ms. It's back wall has left some traces of a recessed platform meant for the images of god Visnu or Sakti or some other deity. In all other respects it resembles to that of the privious one. The common mandapa measures 4.4 X 4.4 ms. It has dwarf walls' at the right angle except the entrances at which it opens out. On the dwarf walls rest the 12 dwarf pillars. Out of which 8 forming an octagon support the superstructure of the mandapa. The shafts of the dwarf pillars are square at the base, octagonal in the middle and round at the top which is merged with a band of couples. The capital over the pillar has grasa and kicaka mouldings. The ceiling of the mandapa has six tiers with carvings of the lotus petals. The key-stone, nearly 1 meter in diameter, has no pendant but is itself carved with the design of the full blossomed lotus. Externally the superstructure is adorned with Samvarana (Samarana), The external walls of the garbhaglihas have lateral projections terminating into vertical chases with horizontal mouldings like Jadambo, Kani, Chajali, Graspati, Kumbho, Chajali, Jangha, Grasapati, Kevala, Andhari and a projecting Chhaja, These mouldings are bold. The Jangha is adorned with beautiful figures of gods, godesses, dancing damsels etc.

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Appendix A 517 The sikhara of both the shrines are curvilinear, adorned with urusringas and dodhia (bhadra gavaksa ) mouldings on the central lateral projections and pairs of replica of minature sikharas at the corners. The sikhara over the northern shrine is much more damaged. The dwarf walls of the mandapa also are externally adorned with horizantal mouldings and recessed vertical chases. Kuchhadi* The Siva temple at Kuchhadi41 known as Saradesvar Mahadeva consists of a garbhagniba, an anatarala, a mandapa and a porch. It faces east. The square garbhagliha measures 1.6 X 1.6 ms. In front of it there is 0.5 m. wide antarala. The square mandapa measures 3.2 x 3.2 ms. The mandapa is half covered with dwarf walls on which rest the dwarf pillars. Out of 12 dwarf pillars 8 support the superstructure of the mandapa. The shafts of the pillars are square at the base, octogonal above it, then round with an octagonal grasapattika at the centre and again octagonal at the top. The capitals of the pillars contain various figures, such as Kicaka, bull, lion, fighting lions, grasa, monkey. tortoise, fish, swan; two monkies with one common head and two swans with one common head. The mandapa ceiling has simple tiers with a carved flat key-stone at the centre. The garbhagriha has beautifully carved door-frame adorned with niches for gods, goddesses and dancing damsels, so is the lintel which in the centre contains an image of Ganesa. The elevated threshold also is abudant in carvings and projecting grasa sculptures on either side. The external walls of the garbhagliha are in usual lateral projections with vertical chases and horizontal mouldings like * 9.6 Kms. N. W. of Porbandar. 41. Here Fig. 159.

Page #573
518 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Jadambo, Kumbha, Kevala, Antarpatra, Jangha, Kevala, Bharani and Chajja. But the Vedikas of the mandapa and the porch are plain. The mandapa and the porch have chajja mouldings with greater projection than that of the shrine proper, The half covered porch in front of the mandapa is mearuring square (1.5 X 1.5 ms.). Its dwarf wall on both the sides (i, e. N. & S.) support the two more projecting dwarf pillars, which in turn along with two other dwarf pillars of the mandapa support the superstructure of the porch. The superstructure over garbhagriha is curvilinear in shape, but it is much damaged even though it seems restored often. The lateral projections and vertical chases carried on through out from bottom to the apex are constructed in such a low relief that the structure appears square like from the distance. The apex has an amalaka with a finial. The miniature Sikharas (Sringas ) placed at corners are bold in relief. The superstructure of the mandapa and the porch are stepped-out pyramidal. The corners of the mandapa as well as those of the porch are adorned with miniature replica of the stepped pyramidal roof. The temple rests on almost a meter high plinth. There are two small shrines, dedicated to siva, on the S. W and N. E. of the main temple. The shrine on S. W. contains beautiful carved door jambs with a Navagraha panel over it. Lovarali* The Gokesvara Mahadeva temple 48 of Lovarali faces east. It has a square garbhagriha measuring 2.2 X 2.2 ms. internally and 2.10 x 2.10 ms. externally. In front of the * 35. Kms. S. E. of Dwarka. 42. Here fig. 159 a. A loose sculpture of human couple was noticed in the garbhagliha during my personal visit. It bears an inscription which records that the (Prasada ) was erected in V. S. 1245 ( A. D. 1189).

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Appendix A 519 garbhagriha there is an antarala measuring 2.5 X 1.4 ms. attached with it is a square mandapa measuring 3.5 x 3.5 ms. In front of the mandapa there is a porch measuring 2.5x2.2 ms. The square garbhagriha had Jaladhari and Linga in the centre but the image of the Paravati is missing. The temple is in disuse. The door-frame of the garbhagliha is very ornate with the usual mouldings on the jambs and lintel. Over the lintel there is a Navagraha panel. The walls of the garbhagliha, externally contain the lateral projections forming the vertical chases. Horizontally, it has a moulding of low Kumbha from which the simple Jangha with a pattika moulding at the centre rises. The Jangha is superimposed by a heavy cornice from which the spire rises. The spire of the garbhagriha, though simple in mouldings, contains the urustingas on the bhadra projections and stingas or miniature sikhara replica at the corners. The Sikhara is curvilinear. The apex is adorned with amalaka but its finial is missing. The mandapa has dwarf walls and 12 dwarf pillars out of which 8 support the superstructure of the mandapa. The ceiling has five simple tiers whose central key-stone is lost. Externally, the superstructure is stepped-pyramidal in shape forming a sort of Samvarana. The mandapa moreover has projecting Kaksasaaa on north and south. The front porch rests on four dwarf pillars supported by dwarf walls on either side of the entrance. It's superstructure is perished. The mandapa and porch have chajjas (eaves) while the main shrine is devoid of chajja (eave). Math-Kasangadh* There is an old temple dedicated to Khandesvari Mata at village Math. It has an elaboratly carved ceiling in the dome of the mandapa and carved images of goddesses and female attendants on the outer walls. * The village is situated some 16 Kms. from Idar (Dist. Sabarkantha).

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat In the adjoining shrine dedicated to Bhairava, there is an ornate roof-ceiling, which cosists of beautiful knots formed in the coils of Naga with Naginies entwined at places. The scene depicted is that of Kaliyamardana. The design is so much under cut, that it practically hangs like a pendant from the surface slab.42/1 520 There is an inscription on the pedestal of a broken image of a Dwarapala in the compound, belonging to the 15th cent. A. D. though the temple seems to belong to an earlier period. 42/2 A mile away on the opposite hill, there are remains of old Kasangadh. Nandisvar* In the group of Nandisvara temples, the chief temple43 is dedicated to Nandisvar Mahadeva and it faces east. The temple consists of a square garbhagriha, an antarala and an attached porch. The exterior of the temple has lateral projections terminating into vertical chases rising from the base to the top of the Sikhara. The pitha and mandovara are plain except at the cornice from where the spire over garbhagriha rises. The sikhara is curvilinear and gives a definite vertical effect on the whole though it is cut into horizontal mouldings at the corners. This offers a pleasing harmony between the vertical and horizontal mouldings. The apex of the spire is adorned with a cogged heavy amalaka over which an amalsari and a finial rest. The porch in front of the antarala is plain. The two half square pilasters and two square pillars support the superstructure 42/1 AFIS. plt. XX, no. 43. 42/2. Ibid p. 31. * 6.4 Kms. N. W. of Porbandar. 43. Here Fig. 160/a.

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Appendix A 521 which is barrel-shaped. Similarly the superstructure over the antarala is also barrel-shaped. In both the cases there must have been heavy caitya window ornament which have perished. The whole structure rests on a high plinth having a projecting cornice and recessed walls. The next temple44 noteworthy in the group is the Siva temple facing west, situated opposite to the main temple of Nandisvar. It has square garbhagriha, an antarala and an attached porch. The walls of the shrine externally have lateral projections terminating into vertical chases and rising from the lower base reaching to the apex of the spire. The mouldings and design of the Sikhara bear great resembalance to those of the spire of the Ranakadevi temple at Wadhwan. The spire has heavy cogged amalaka with finial. The porch is plain with dwarf walls and pillars over which the stepped-pyramidal superstructure rests. Odadar* The site, on the east of the village, known as Gorakhanatha, abounds in temples, some of which are Caulukyan. The outstanding among them is Vaisnava temple facing west. The temple consists of a nearly square garbhagpiha ( 1.5 X 1.4 ms.) and is attached with rectangular porch measuring 2-0 X 1.6 ms. The garbhagliha has a recessed platform for images:attached to the back wall of the shrine. The temple is in disuse, and damaged at many places. The rectangular porch has dwarf walls on its S. and N. over which the dwarf pillars rest. They support the flat-roofed superstructure of the porch. The ceiling of the porch is carved with a beautiful figure of Kaliyamardana similar to that in the ceiling of the old temple at Madhavapur. The porch has projecting eaves on its open sides. 44. Here Fig. 160. * 9.6 Kms. S. W. of Porbandar on the sea coast.

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522 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The external walls of the garbhagriha has lateral projections terminating into vertical chases with horizontal mouldings like Kumbha, Jangha, and cornice. The vertical chases of the lateral projections, beginning from the base of the shrine are carried out till they meet at the apex of the spire. The apex is adorned with an amalaka whose finial is missing. The Jangha of the shrine wall is plain except the niches, at the centre. Prabhaspatan.* The Sasibhusana and Rudresvar Mahadeva46 temples at Prabhas seem old as indicated by the original form of the mouldings that are preserved by some of their portions. The Sasibhusana temple facing east has a square garbhagriha measuring 2.9x2.9 ms. internally and 4-1 x 41 ms. externally. It is enclosed by a pradaksinapatha 1-5 ms. wide. The walls of the garbhagriha falling in pradaksina have lateral projections and various mouldings from bottom to the eave (chhajja), with a big niche on each side. The niches contain beautiful sculptures of Brahma on south, Siva on west and Visnu on north. The door frame of the shrine measuring 3x2 ms. is, however, quite simple. In view of the decorated walls of the garbhagriha this appears curious and leads us to doubt that the door-frame is hardly the original one. The antarala is 1.8 ms. in width. Its ceiling is beautifully carved and ornate in design divided in to three sections. The mandapa measures 5.5 x 6 ms. It has 12 pillars out of which 8 support the dome of mandapa. The dome ceiling has carved tiers, but the ceiling is inferior to that of the antarala. Much of the portion of the mandapa and that of the porch have been renovated to such an extent that it is difficult to get a definite idea about their original architectural form. The interier of the temple i. e. garbhagriha, pradaksinapatha, the external mouldings of the garbhagriha walls, the ceilings of the antarala and some of the pillars of the mandapa are old, but 45. Here Fig. 155. 46. Here Fig. 155.

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Appendix A 523 the front portion of the temple and its external position rising from eaves to Sikhara are much more restored and hence they have lost the original form as well as charm. The lower mouldings of the external zigzag walls have preserved some of the original sculptures. 4 7 The temple of Rudresvara has a square garbhagliha (3x 3 ms.). Its walls are internally plain, but externally are highly decorated with various mouldings from base to eave, beautiful sculptures at the laternal projections terminating into chases. The Pradaksina is 1.5 ms, in width. the door frame of the garbhagriha which is very ornate with usual carved niches for gods, goddesses and dancing damsels in its jambs as well as in lintel. There is also a Navagraha panel over the door Jintel and a Ganesa figure in the centre. Its threshold also is beautifully carved with the usual grasa mouldings. The attached covered mandapa before the garbhagliha is nearly square measuring 6 x 5.8 ms. having 6 pillars at the centre, four of which form a nave of the mandapa over which the dome of the mandapa rest. The extant 4 pilasters on the north, one on the east and three on the west, indicating the existence of the rest of the pilasters, support the flat roof over the remaining portion of the mandapa. The mandapa has an entrance door way 2.0 x 1.1 ms. which is quite simple in comparision with that of the garbhagriha. Moreover the mandapa had balcony on either side, but it is covered with walls during restoration. The external walls of the temple correspond in lateral projections and mouldings to those of the shrine falling into the pradaksina. But in carving and sculptured figures it is less ornate than that previous one. The superstructure over the garbhagriha is curvilinear in shape with urusringas on lateral projections and series of sringas at the corners. It is simple 47. The antiquity of this site can be proved by the existence of a portion of the torana base lying in the front of the temple.

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524 The Structural Temples of Gujarat and architecturally it belongs to a later period than the shrine wall. The dome over the mandapa seems to have been erected at the time of the restoration. 48 Padana* Near the village there lies an old temple known as Mulesvara Mahadeva.49 The temple consists of a garbhagriha adorned with a mono-spired or Ekandi type of sikhara as its superstructure and a mandapa attached with a porch having ghatapallava type of pillars. It is of small size. The pitha and mandovara are simple in moulding except the central niches on bhadra projections on each side. The Jalaka design over sikhara is highly ornate and the sikhara is adorned with a 48. Shri M. A. Dhaky assigns this temple a date A. D. 1169. He says, "According to Prabhasakhanda it happens to be one of the five most sacred temples of the holy town. The Somanatha inscription of Kumarapala mentions the renovation of this temple by Bhava Bshaspati. The older parts of the temple belong to that date. (CSTG. p. 80) * On the western border of the Banaskantha district touching the eastern border of the Ranna of Kutch, the village Padana is situated near the well known village Suigam. 49. N. M. Mandali, 'Somanatha Mahadevanam Sivalaya' Surya Mandira Visesanaka ( edited by the author of this work; Ahmedabad, 1964) p. 161 ff. On the strength of a statement occuring in P. C. ( edited by Shri D. K. Shastri, Bombay, V. S. 1991, p. 46). Shri Mandali identifies it with the temple of "Muladevaswami erected by Mularaja 1 ( 942-997 A. D.) and further identifies Pattana (mentioned in the connection with this temple ) with the present village of Padana. But this view seems far fetched. Dr. H. R. Godani in his article Mulesvara Mahadevanum Mandira' (published in Navachetan, July 65 p. 359 ff), too, expresses similar view and associates the relation of this temple with Mulesvara Mahadeva at Mandali situated in Vriddhivisya (Vadhiara pathaka ) to which Mularaj gave a land grant by a copperplate dated V. S. 1043 (IA. VI; HIG 191-3).

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Appendix A 525 cogged-wheel type of amalasila. The spire over garbhagriha in appearance is like that of the small temple at Sander and that of Agiya Vaital temple at Bhankhar. The mandapa, to some extent, is restored and whole temple is heavily white-washed. Tukada. The Siva temple at Tukada50 facing east, rests on a plinth nearly a meter high. It consists of a square garbhagoiha, and an attached mandapa. The porch is extinct, the garbhagriha measures 2.2x2.2 meters. The walls internally, are plain. The door of the garbhagriha measures 1.6 0.8 m. The door jambs, the lintel and the adumbara ( threshold) are beautifully carved with recessed niches for gods, goddesses and dancing damsels. The threshold has bold carved grasa figures projecting nearly 18 cms. The attached half covered mandapa is almost square measuring 4.5 x 4.1 ms. It is surrounded by dwarf walls over which a dwarf pillars rest. The central four pillars support the dome of the mandapa. The square frame of the mandapa above the capital terminates into an octagon on which the dome with several tiers rests. The ceiling of this dome is very peculiar. In the octagonal frame of the dome there is beautiful carved row of swans in various pleasing postures. There are also eight highly ornate brackets on which beautiful carved figures of females rest. Each tier of the dome has deeply carved concentric circles arranged into a triangle. The beautiful pendant hanging in the centre is lost. The space between the central nave of the mandapa and traverse i. e. aisles is covered with slightly slopped roof. The dwarf walls of the mandapa are plain. * 28.8 kms. S. W. of Porbandar on the sea coast. 50. Here Fig. 159/b.

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526 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The external wall of the shrine proper is divided into lateral projections, terminating into vertical chases with the several horizontal mouldings from the base to the uppermost cornice. These mouldings are Kumbha, Jangha and cornice. In the centre of the Jangha there are niches. Above the cornice is the projecting low reliefed chajja, over which the spire of the garbhagriha rises. The spire is curvilinear with urusging mouldings on central lateral projections while the cornices are adorned with a pair of miniature replica of the sikhara (i. e. Sringas ). The apex has a heavyamalaka and a finial. Vadanagar. The extant temple of Sitalamata, faces east and contains a garbhagriha, a pradaksina, a mandapa and a portion of aisles divided into several compartments or cokis of which ten are preserved. The eastern side of the temple is, at present obstructed by the wall of a house. The present entrace is on the north. The garbhagriha is almost square measuring 1.6 X 1.5 ms. The superstructure of it is completely perished; and its walls are surmounted by a flat roof at present. The external walls as well as the roof of the pradaksinapatha also exists no more. The walls of the garbhagriha externally have lateral projections, giving rise to vertical chases with horizontal mouldings like Kumbha, Kevala, Jangha etc. The extant portions of the Janghas preserve the niches for gods and goddesses but the sculptures set in are missing. The mandapa is square measuring 5.6 x 5.6 ms. It has 12 pillars, out of which 8 support the dome of the mandapa. The dome-ceiling contains six tiers, the lower two being plain, the upper four probably carved with sculptures enclosed in concentric circles arranged in a triangular mode. It has a beautiful pendant hanging in the centre, 51 - 51. Here Fig. 188.

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Appendix A 527 In front of the mandapa is constucted a group of combined compartments (Cokis ) each having four pillars at the conjunctional points. Some of these compartments have carved ceilings out of which two deserve special notice. One, just near the entrance has a carving of bands of musicians and a women dancing amidst them, the other ceiling has a panel of 16 warriors with swords in their hands arranged in circular manner like the spokes of the wheel. 53 The garbhagriha does not retain the original door frame, but the entrance door ( 1.8 x 0.8 ms.) on north has beautiful and ornate door frame consisting recessed and projecting niches for gods, goddesses and dancing damsels. Over the door lintel there is a panel of Navagrahas. The threshold also contains beautiful carvings. There is also a peice of some door frame now fixed in the southern wall of the temple. It is similar in design and sculptures to that of the entrance door. Valam.* The Ranchhodji temple at Valam, facing north has been vaguely noticed by the Archaeological Department of the former Baroda State.8 3 The temple is dedicated to Ranchhodji at present but the image is not an old one.84 52. These ceilings have been noticed by Burgess, in the description of Vadanager, AANG. pp. 83-85, but he does not mention their exact site. Here figs. 187, 209, 210. * Nearly 6.4 Kms. S. V. of Visnagar (Dist. Mehsana ). $3. Vide 'ARAB' 38 p. 12. 54. The image is of black stone and is about a meter in height. On local inquiry it is learnt that the image was consecrated nearly 150 years ago.

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The Structural Temples of Gujarat From local inquiry it is learnt that the original temple belonged to Varaha. This is supported by the big image of Varaha represented in theriomorphic form, preserved in the compound of the temple. 528 The garbhagriha (3.1x2.6 ms.) is rectangular. The door measures 1.7x0.8 ms. The door-frame is probably carved with recessed niches for gods and goddesses and dancing damsels. The door lintal and threshold also contain beautiful carvings. Figures of various incarnations of Visnu are carved in the niches of the lintal. The interior of the garbhagriha is plain, however, the northern wall as well as the southern wall is each relieved by a recessed and ornate niche which contains a beautiful seated image of trimurti with the face of Visnu in the centre.55 The walls on all sides contain panels of the figures of the 24 forms of Vinu, nearly 0-6 m. in height arranged in a pair of three sculptures each near the corners. The garbhagriha contains a ceiling with ascending tiers carved with lotus petal design. The key-stone is marked with hanging pendant. Over this rises the Sikhara which is a recent addition. The half covered mandapa is almost sqare measuring 3.8x3.7 ms. The dwarf walls of the mandapa support the dwarf pillars. The shafts of the pillars are square at the base with pot-foliage mouldings, octagonal in the middle and round at the top with grasspatti ornaments over them. They are 12 in number out of which 8 support the dome of the mandapa. Its ceiling corresponds to that of the garbhagriha in design and carving. There is also a half covered porch in front of the mandapa. It measures 2 x 2 ms. The two projecting pillars of the porch are similar to those of the mandapa. The exterior of the temple 55. The image is nearly one meter high and it has 16 hands. In design and carving it is similar to that of trimurti found on the exterior wall of Limboja-mata temple at Delmal (AANG. pl. LXIX).

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Appendix A 529 has no lateral projections it has, therefore, no vertical chases but horizontally it has Jadambo, Grasa, Gajathara, Narathara, Andhari, Devathara, Jangha, Bharani and Chajja superimposing one over the other. The Jangha along with the panels of other demigods has in the centre huge figure of Laxmi-narayan on south, Narasinha on west, and Varaha on the east. The two incriptions found there are dated V. S. 1732 and 1733, but the arrangment of the temple structure, its carvings and other sculptures found on the exterior walls of the temple and in the interior of the shrine proper and a kirtitorana before the temple indicate the site to be much earlier. The pitha and mandovara mouldings of this temple have some novel features. The vedika mouldings of the mandapa runs arround the sanctum too, and, instead of usual mouldings of mandovara, we see here, above the gajathara moulding of pitha, the moulding of avaranadevatas and a number of figures such as mithuns etc. on stambhika and vyalas in the recesses. The sculptures adorning the jangha moulding of the mandovara are separated by the vase-and-foliage type of pillar like mouldings. The space between these pillars forming ringpilastered niches adorned with llikalavans has been filled up by figure sculptures. Thus it gives an effect of a strange sort of Japgha,56 The original superstructure above the kutachadya is extinct and is now replaced by a modern Sikhara of briks. The next important temple site is one dedicated to Sulesvari mata temple. The temple consists of usual component parts. In its vicinity there is one more old shrine dedicated to siva. Both these temples are enclosed by a compound wall. The spire over Sulesvari temple is of Ekandi type. The enclosed manqapa has vedika, dwarf pillars and kaksasanas. Pillars are carved in gatapallava motif and grasa moulding. The 56. CSTG. plt. XIV.

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530 The Structural Temples of Gujarat supersctructure over mandapa is covered with thick stucco and so does not retain its original form. The mandovara-niches contain sculptures of goddesses viz. Parvati on North, Vaisnavi on South and Brahmani on west. The temple faces east. The old Siva temple contains Caitya-arch window ornaments in its supersctructure which is stepped-out pyramidal in design, This fact ascribes the temple a much more earlier date. Visavada There is a group of temples 57 in the village, the site being known as Mula Dwarka. Most of the temples are dedicated to Sira. The principal two temples face each other. The temple facing west is at present popularly known as the temple of Dwarkadhish, evidently on account of the image of Ranchhodji, installed in it. But the temple was originally dedicated to Nilakantha Mahadeva* whose linga is enshrined in the centre of the garbhagriha. The image of Ranchhodji, installed in the niche in the back wall is obviously a later addition inserted in place of the usual image of Paravati the consort of Siva. The other temple, facing east is dedicated to Siddhesvara Mahadeva. Around these two temples there were twelve subordinate shrines, out of which ten are extant, the rest two having perished. At present the Nilakantha temple has four subordinate shrines each in each corner, two on the back facing west and two in the front facing south and north respectively. The Siddhesvara temple is surrounded by six subordinate shrines, a pair of them lying in each corner at the back and facing east and the two others lying at the two corners in front and facing west. The whole group rests on a high plinth, with its main entrance and flight of steps in the north. 57. Here Figs. 157, 158. * Nilakantha temple referred to by Cousens in his notes on Visavada is probably identical with this temple (vide SMTK. p. 44.)

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Appendix A 531 The Nilakantha temple 58 has square garbhagriha measuring 3 x 3 ms. with an attached half covered square mandapa measuring 4.8 x 4.8 ms. The dwarf pillars resting on the dwarf walls and supporting the roof of the manqapa number 16 instead of 12. The 12 pillars distributed equally on each side, are arranged into rows running east to west. The rest four, two in number, placed on the east and west, two on each direction near the entrance which with the four of the twelve make an octagon on which the superstructure of the mandapa rests. The additional pillars are located in pairs in the Kaksasana projecting beyond the northern and southern sides of the octagonal nave. In front of the mandapa there is a half covered porch with two projecting dwarf pillars similar in design to those of the mandapa.. The garbhagriha of Siddhesvara temple 59 measures 3x3 ms. The doorway measures 1.8 x 1 meter. The door frame, the lintel and the threshold ( which is raised prominently ) are richly carved. They contained beautiful figures of Siva in various postures. But their beauty has become marred by modern repairs and application of stucco etc. The attached half-covered mandapa measures 5 X 4.1 ms. It contains 24 dwarf pillars instead of the usual twelve ones. The additional twelve pillars, equally distributed in the north and south of the octagonal nave, from the adjoining wider projections and the small projections beyond them. The dwarf pillars are placed on dwarf walls. The attached porch in front measuring :2.8 X 2.2 ms. is supported by two more projecting dwarf pillars which are rested on the dwarf walls of the entrance porch on either side. The shafts of the pillars are divided into the sevaral sections of varying shapes, viz., square, 58. Here Fig. 157. 59. Here Fig. 158.

Page #587
532 The Structural Temples of Gujara! octagonal, sixteen-sided and round in the ascending order. The capitals of the pillars are ornamented with Kjcaka carvings. The dome of the mandapa has plain tiers with lotus-petal design carved with key-stone at the centre. The external walls of both these temples have lateral projections terminating into vertical chases with horizontal mouldings like Kumbho, Andhari, Kevala Pitha, Kevala, Bharani, and chajja etc, from which the curvilinear spire with uruseungas and stungas corresponding to the lateral projections rises. The superstructures of the mandapas as well as of the porches of both the temples externally are in stepped-out pyramidal in shape. The subordinate shrines similar in plan and design around these temples consist of square garbhaglihas with attached porches which are almost square. The garbhaglihas have sikharas over them while the porches have stepped-out pyramidal superstructures. The site resting on a high platform, is surrounded by a compound wall. Its entrance lies in the north. The parts of the door are all carved profusely. The threshold has a projecting semi-circular step, flanked by the usual grasa mouldings. The temples in the site are restored too frequently to retain their original form. But they leave some traces of antiquity. The inscription on the pedastal of the statue of the local king Vikramaditya lying in the Siddhesvara temple contains a reference to Dwarkadhisa and is dated V. S. 1262 (A. D. 1205 "he contents of the inscription thus corroborate the antiquity of the site. 120 In the vicinity to this group of temples there is another temple which is popularly known as Bhidabhangan Mahadeva.60 This temple consists of triple shrines with a common mandapa 60. The temple is attached with a step-well.

Page #588
Appendix A 533 in the centre. The temple faces west. The shrine dedicated to Siva is in the centre. The shrine on the south is dedicated to Visnu while that on the north is dedicated to Kartikasvami. The triple-garbhagrihas are square measuring 1.9x1.9 ms. The central mandapa, having 12 pillars, measures 3.8 x 3.8 ms. The pillars and the dome of the mandapa are similar in design to those of the temple. The attached porch measuring 1.8 x 1.5 ms, too, has similar pillars to those of Siddhesvara. The Vedikas (dwarf walls ) of the mandapa and the porch are plain while the external walls of the shrine have lateral projections terminating into vertical chases and different mouldings extending from the base to the top of the wall. All the three garbhagrihas have usual curvilinear sikharas while the central mandapa and porch have stepped-out pyramidal superstructures. The old Temples in Polo (Sabarkantha District) The forest tract of Polo lying to the north east of Idar in the Sabarkantha district contains a number of old temples, mostly in ruins at present. The tract represents the site of an old deserated habitation of the former Vijayanagar state which flourished in the post-Caulukyan period. The temples, now appearing scattered either and theither in the forest tract seem deserated by the people in consequence of the Muslim raids and being left to themselves have fallen victims to the distructive forces of the nature especially through the subsequent outgrowth of the vegetation, which has cut through the walls and in many cases lifted up the stone blocks of the superstructure leaving a wide gap between the two adjoining strata. The temples represent almost a uniform style of architecture prevalent in the post-Caulukyan period.8 1 01. Unfortunately, I could not visit these temples personally but I could get much information about them from the articles of Shri D. M. Raval and Shri H. R. Godani published in Gujarati Journals and from the unpublished notes of Dr. H. G. Shahstri who had visited the

Page #589
534 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The outstanding temples may be described as follows :Saranesvar The Siva temple of Sarnesvar at Abhapur* is in a dilapidated condition. The temple consists of a garbhagliha, an antarala, a circumambulatory, a gudhamandapa flanked by porches on either side and a sabhamandapa. In elevation part it is a three storied building. In front of the temple there is a wide Yagnakunda with beautifully carved vedis. The pitha, mandovara and vedikas of mandapas and porches are highly carved in the post Caulukyan style. The pillars of the manqapas and porches are, too, noteworthy as some of them have typical shape either to unknown to Caulukyan temples. From bottom to top they are round in shape with ringlets at intervals on the shafts of the pillars which are otherwise plain. The bases and capitals of these pillars are mostly carved with the designs of inverted petals. Similar pillars also are seen at Lakhena mandira of this region. The superstructures over the shrine, mandapas and porches are extinct. 6 2 In the compound of the temple stands a memorial stone bearing an inscription dated V. S. 1554 and S. S. 1420 and recording the name of Maharajadhiraja Shri Rava Bhana. The temple is recently re-inhabitated by a Sadhu and hence visited by devotees off and on. Lakhena temple This is a Jain temple. The temple is in ruins. It consists of a girbhagpiha, an antarala, a gudhamandapa, a trikamandapa, a Sabhamandapa, porches and a balanaka. It is double-storeyed building. The shrine door measures 4.6 x 2 ms. Both the mandapas temples recently. I also gathered information from Shri J. M. Nanavati and Shri M. A. Dhaky of the Archaeological Dept. of Government of Gujarat. Most of the temples, now, are conserved by the said department. * 32 Kms. N. E. of Idar. 62. Vide . Nutan Gujarat' dated 3-6-62. Here Fig. 163.

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Appendix A 535 are covered with perforated stone latice. The pillars are highly carved in the fashion of those in the Jain temples at Mt. Abu. The ceiling of the antarala is a beautiful piece of sculpture.68 Just near this temple there are three more small temples dedicated to Hindu divinities-siva, Laksminarayana-and Sakati. The group includes a pair of small temples locally known as those of the Sasu and the Vanu.6 4 They too, are in almost dilapidated condition. A little far from the Lakhena temple on the dam of river Harnava there is ruined Sun temple of considerable big size. It is said that it had a Sun image of nearly 2 meters in height which is along with other images, disappeared. 68 Asatika Pancayatana Kenyata Mahadeva The temple complex consists of a principal temple surrounded by four small temples, each at a corner. The principal temple consists of a garbhagriha and a mandapa in front of it. It is badly ruined. The extant mandovara contains several noteworthy sculptures, among which the sculptures of Siva in the tandava pose and Varaha are best preserved. The mandapa preserves some of the pillars and kaksasanas but its superstructure is lost. The Sikhara over the garbhagriha also is extinct. The four small shrines too are in dilapidated condition. There is a Kirtitorana in front of the temple. It is in a good condition, though some of its components especially the arches below and above the lintel are extinct. The bases of the shafts and capitals of the pillars are highly carved, similarly the lintel also is adorned with several niches for gods and goddesses. This torana adds itself to the few available toranas of Gujarat. 66 63. Images of this deserted temple are now preserved at Himatnagar. Here Figs. 176-180. 64. This reminds us of the name of Sasa-bahu temple at Gwalior as well as of the two Sasa-bahu temples at Kavi in the Broach district. 65. Vide Nutan Gujarat' dated 24-6-62. 66. Vide 'Nutan Gujarat' dated 27-5-62.

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536 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Nay Dera (Nine Temples) or temples of Sadevanta-Savalinga Near the village Abhapur there is a group of temples dedicated to several deities such as Siva, Visnu, Camunda, Bhairava and Jain. They are known as Navadera i. e. Nine temples popularly known as the Temples of Sadevanta Savalinga.67 All these temples are in a ruinous condition but the extant portions reveal the charm and beauty of their architectural form as well as sculptural decoration. The Jain temple is, comparatively, in a good condition. All others have lost most of their component parts and so their ground plans as well as elevation schemes can hardly be traced at present. 68 Mathachbad* The village contains an old small Siva temple. In plan and design it is very similar to those at Vadanagar (Amthor). Like these temples, it contains a Navagraha panel over the shrine door. Sobharada The village is said to represent the old town Sobhavati. Near the village there was a large dam now extinct and on the bank of the dam there are two temples one dedicated to Siva known as Shobhesvara mahadava and the other to Vaghesvari mata the two facing each other. Both the temples are in ruinous condition. The temple of Shobhesvara is comparatively, in good condition, only the mandapa has lost its dome. The garbhagriha with its sikhara is in good condition. The mandapa consists of beautiful pillars, Kaksasanas etc. The mandovara and vedikas of the mandapa contain several beautiful sculptures. 6 9 67. The romantic tale of Sadevanta (Sadayavatsa ) and his beloved Savalinga is one of the popular folk tales in Gujarat. The site is locally represented as the meeting place of these lovers. 68. Vide . Nutan Gujarat' dated 27-5-62. * 14.4 Kms. from Bhuvanesvar near Himatnagar (District Sabarkantha) SS On the way to Shamalaji near village Ramagadh (District Sabarkantha). 69. Vide Nutan Gujarat' dated 22-7-62.

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APPENDIX B A DISCUSSION ON THE PRINCIPLES OF STABILITY IN THE STRUCTURAL FORM OF THE TEMPLES IN GUJARAT

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A question about the stability of the structural form of the temples of Gujarat was raised in 1903 by Cousins and Burgess. They remark, "They are constructed without mortar. The stones are carefully dressed and retain their positions by the mere weight of the superincumbent masses. Hence however the foundation subsided or pillars gave way, the loosened stones slid off one another and whole structure fell to pieces."1 Later on in 1931 Counsins treated this question more elaborately as follows: "The weak points in the construction of these temples are the poor foundations, the masonary without cementing material, and beams unable to bear the great weight piled upon them. In the better class of these buildings, in northern Gujarat the stone temple is often raised upon a brick foundation; but as the foundations, whether brick or not, were not sufficiently deep and solid, the least subsidence of the ground, below, brought down the walls in a crumbling heap, the stones having been piled dry one upon the other. In some cases, wooden or iron cramps have been used but these simply split the stone away whenever any unequal strain was brought upon the coupled blocks. The want of mortor or other cementing material, and binding or through-stones, is responsible for the stones sliding upon their beds, and the walls falling to pieces, the outer shell frequently parting company with the inner which has remained standing intact. The failure of beams by cracking, which has been the commonest failure of all, has been due to too great a span for the section, and the inferiority of the stone used. Thus it has come about that great number of these old temples have rolled down, wholly or in part, like a house of cards.2 1. AANG. p. 29. 2. SMTK. Int. p. 8.

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540 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The question about the stability of the superstructure of temples of Gujarat was, in 1955, rediscussed by Shri Nirmal Kumar Bose when he paid a visit to the new Somanath temple under construction. On comparing with medieval temples in Orissa and elsewhere in India, he contends that the Solanki (Caulukyan) temples of Gujarat were flimsy structures in which (i) the thickness of the walls was no more than perhaps a fifth of the length of the cella and (ii) there were no transverse walls to divide the interior of the tower into several chambers.5 If the remark that the foundations of the Caulukyan stone temples in Northern Gujarat were not sufficiently deep and solid is based on adequate data acquired by full investigation, and if the remark applies to the classical temples of entire Gujarat, the foundations must be admitted to be weak points in the construction of these temples. 11.4: However, many of the monuments have stood the taste of time for several centuries and most of the well known temples entirely or partly in ruins are known to have been victims of human forces. The extant two-storied portion of the Rudramahalaya at Siddhpur, for instance, has stood almost in tact even after the lapse of about a millenium. The want of mortor or other cementing material is relieved by dressing the stones preceisely as well as by joining them by means of nails of wood or metal. Moreover the elevation of the temples was primarily based on architectural principles of stable equilibrium. 3. N. K. Bose, 'A question about the Somnath Temple' Vigil Vol. VI, No. 10. 4. It was equal to a half in Orissa. 5. In Orissa there were transverse floors at different height within the tower, which added strength to the building by tying together.

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Appendix B 541 As regards the thickness of walls, the general ratio found to be 1/5th of the length of the cella, is in full accordance with that given in the canonical works like APPR.6 The canons followed in Gujarat seem to have prescribed the minimum thickness required according to the degree of the solidity of the material. The plan and the technique of the superstructure seem adjusted to the thickness of the wall as perfectly as possible. The same applies to the beams the dimensions of which are determined by the thickness of the walls. In most of the temples of Gujarat there are no transverse floors at different height within the tower? but the necessity of this device arises only in the case of storied structures. In the storied spire of the Dwarkadhisa temple at Dwarka, for instance, we do come across the adoption of this device. Moreover wooden beams were often laid diagonally between the different walls to add strength to them as in the case of Ajitanatha temple at Taranga. Again the cella was covered by a dome like ceiling made by diagonal corbels. The spire of the temples in Gujarat was rendered light and shell-like by certain devices. Blocks of stones were laid vertically (rather than horizontally) in the upper part of the spire, the height gained by adding each coarse being great in comparision with the extent of the horizontal extent of the courses. The burden on the walls of the cella was further relieved by throwing the weight of the spire on the outer ring of pillars and walls of the circumambulatory of short width. 6. According to APPR. the thickness of the walls of the Prasadas built of mud and the brick must be 4 of the length of the cella, while that in the case of stone-temples should be 1/5 or even 1/4 in ratio. 7. Bose N. K. lbid.

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Anga Anukaya Anga Anda 1 Andaka Attalika } Antarapatrika Antarapatra Antarala Ardhacandra Ardha mandapa Ardhastambha Andhari Andharika Adhisthana GLOSS ORY part the subservient part a cupola, a terrace, also Kuttima recess, the intermediate space Literally the distance between any two objects. hence, it implies a moulding which separates two other larger mouldings. Resembles the fillet, listel or annulet A vestibule, an intermediate chamber uniting the garbhagriha and mandapa, also known as Kori-mandapa. The semicircular door step before a shrine door Compartment or a porch in front of a mainhall (mandapa) of a temple a half pillar or pilaster same as Antarapatrika same as Bhramani or ambulatory Etymologically (adhistha, to stand) it denotes an object on which something stands. Hence it is a lower member of a structure. In the same way, it implies the stand or base of a column being the member between the shaft and the pedestal if there be any.3 1. The local forms of the term are 'Indaka', 'Indu', 'Endu'. 2. Same as Jagati 3. The local form of the term is 'Kumbhi'.

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544 Anuga Anugama Alinda Alindaka Avalokana Avalokanaka Avasankita 4 Asvathara Asvamala ) Astadikpalas. (Dikpalas) The Structural Temples of Gujarat Basement, the lower most constituent part of the temple, platform Pratiratha, the next to the main projection known as bhadra. Verandah, a corridor, a terrace, a balcony A gallary, a small vestibule a window, a lattice a cavetto a horse inoulding in the basement of a temple the eight guardians, or regents of the points of compass i. e. of the four cardinal and four intermediate points of compass Octagonal eight faced or sided, starshaped side a degree, a part the flat fluted melon-shaped member usually under the Kalasa, or finial of a temple Sikhara or spire., the flat scolloped cushion or cog-wheel member surmounting the sikhara or dome, the round flat stone with dented circumference Rectangular A seat or throne Astasra Asta-bhadra. Asra Amsa Amalaka ) Amalasara 5: Amalasila. Amalasari Ayata Asana Asanapata A sanpatta, a seat ( attached to the pillars of a mandapa ). Asanapattakaa 4. Local term 'Galato 5. The Local term 'Zanzan' denotes a small Amalsara. 6. Local Term 'Asarota' (BRSS. III. 295, p. 112.)

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Glossory 545 Illika Ilikalavana Ucchalaka? Small arch with pilasters. Hemispherical or bow-shaped arch over pilaster of a niche. The section of the shaft supporting the sur-capital is called Ucchalaka. It is otherwise known as Virahakantha. a lintel a water course Triangular pediment rise, height same as pratiratha Threshold Uttaranga 8 Udakantara Udagama 10 Udaya Uparatha Udumbara Urusringa11 Uromanjari Urdhavachanda Urdhavarekha Kaksasana Kantaka the subordinate sikhara on the central portion between the projecting bhadra and the wall raised from the griva of the Sikhara attached to the main Sikhara, half sikhara like turret attached to the main sikhara same as urusringa arrangement of parts in elevation Vertical line a seat having a sloping seat back moulding same as Gala, neck, portion between the body of the Sikhara and the Amalaka Kantha 7. Local term Theki or Teki 8. Local term 'Otaranga' 9. Also known as Jalantara, Varyantara, Salilantara, Varimarga; In local term it is known as Panitara. 10. Local term 'Dodnio', 11. Local term Orsanga' also known as Anga-sikhara,

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546 Karna12 The Structural Temples of Gujarat corner, angle, The projections on each face of the square plan leaving out a small portion in its original position at either corner is known as Karna. the miniature tower (Sringa ) at the corner of the roof i. e. Gudha mandapa (closed mandapa ) Karna-kuta Karnagudha (mandapa) Karna Simha Karni 13 Karnika figure of a lion placed at the corner an architectural term for the knife-edge moulding, astragal, arris, corner or angle; sharp edge formed by meeting of two surfaces, knife-edged moulding same as Sringa Karma A pigeon, a section of circular moulding made in form of a pigeons head Kapota 1 4 Kapotika Kapotali (Malakevala) (Mahakevala) Karotaka Kalasa Kamarupaka Same as Vitana, dome the water-pot shaped finial of a temple spire, a pitcher, a cupola, a vase, an ornamental pot found in finials and capitals amorous moulding bracket, sculptured human figure used in place of bracket of columns or pilasters, atlantes the face of glory, same as grasa, an ornamental mask a reservoir, a tank Kicaka Kirtimukha Kunda 12. Also known as Rekba, Mulanasika, Mulakarna The local term is Kona. 13. Same as Kanaka, Kanali Kanalika. Local term, Kani 14. Local term Kevala

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Kuta Glossory 547 Kumbhaka 15 a waterpot like moulding at basement, a motif resembling a vase, a stylobate the peak, same as stinga Kesari Sringa Sringa having five andakas. (Pancandaka ) Kori 16 Open space in front of a shrine or cella, The anti-chamber in front of a shrine Kori-mandapa The parallelogram which joins together the shrine and mandapa Kosa same as Venukosa i. e. Skandha (shoulder ) of a Sikhara Kshetra a site Khuraka 17 the lower most moulding of the mandovara ( wall ) Gagaraka a peculiar design with inverted petals of a flower Gajathara the elephant moulding in the basement of Gajamala a temple Gandharvas celestial musicians of Indra. Garbhagriha18 the shrine, Garbhagara l the womb of the temple, adytum, sanctuary, a cella, sanctum, sanctoria, the chamber in which the deity is placed, the compartment for image 15. Local term Kumbho. The word Kumbhi is used in the water-pot like moulding as the base of a pillar. 16. Local term : Koli, also known as Salila and Nali. 17. Local term Khura. 18. It is also known as Mulasthana, Jathara, Garbhakostha, BrhmaKosotha. Local term Gabhara

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548 Gavaksa 19 Gudha mandapa Grasamukha 20 Graspati Griva 21 Ghatapallava Ghanta Ghata Catuski 22 Candrasila 23 Candravalokana 24 Candrika 25 Candrasa. Cippika 2 6 The Structural Temples of Gujarat a balcony, a window resembling the cows eye, a litticed window, blind window also niche the closed-in hall of a temple, a hall in front of a sanctum, a vestibule Same as Kirtimukha (Kirtivaktra) i. e. a grotesque mask used in ornamentation the particular string-course, the moulding (in the basement of a temple) bearing a band of grotesque faces or Kirtimukhas " literraly the neck or throat. This is a quadrangular moulding of the spire. Vase and foliage motif Bell-shaped ribbed structure a flight of steps a porch, a portico, a pavilion Moonstone or the semi circular door step before a shrine a lattice letting moon-light inside 19. Local term Gaukha, Khattaka, Gokhala. 20. Known as Garasada in local term. one of the mouldings in Kalasa (finial) Pattika 21. Also known as Kantha or Skandha, Local term Gala 22. Local term Cauki 23. In local term it is known as Sankhavata or Sankhadvara. 24. Local term Venirasiyun' (Brss. pt. III, v. 294, p. 112) 25. Also known as Padmpatra 26. Local term Cipati.

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Glossory 549 Citraranga Same as Uttaranga Citi altar Caitya a monumental tomb, a sanctuary, a monastary, a shrine, a temple, usually a Buddhist assembly hall Caitya-griha prayer-hall, assembly hall Caumukha four jain images generally carved in one block placed back to back with their four faces looking towards the four cardinal points Chanda perespective view, an arrangement, disposition, bathos, nomenclature Chadya a roof, a sloping eave, an overhanging (Chadyakuta)27 cornice of a roof projecting beyond the face of the wall Jagati. See Adhisthana Jangha28 the thigh, an architectural term applied to the broad band of Sculpture towards the middle of the temple walls ( exterior) above the basement Jadya Kumbha 29 a torus like moulding at the lower portion of a mandovara Jala | the trellis window or screened lattice, or Jali perforated pattern, screen Thakara 30 Thagarika { One of the kinds of an ornamental moulding Taksaka a wood-cutter, a carpentar The ground-floor, the storey Tala 27. also known as Kbetachadya, Lacal term Chajja, Chaji, Chaju 28. Local term : Jarghi 29. Local term : Jadambo 30, Local term : Tekarun

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550 Talachhanda Tavangada Tilaka 31 Tula 3 2 Torana 3 8 Trikutacala. Tri-Murti. Dandaka Dandika Dala Dvara Dvarapala Dvara-mandapa Dvaramana Dvara-Sakha Dikpalas Dipastambha Dipalaya Dipamala Devakulika } The Structural Temples of Gujarat The disposition or arrangement of the ground plan Niche along with udgama i. e. pediment a rectangular block with facetted sides adorned with lozenges design and surmounted by a tiny amalaka and a finial a beam An ornamental arch shaped like a garland inverted; an arched gateway, It is employed both as an architectural member, as well as an ornament. triple shrine or three-celled temple Trinity of Brhama, Visnu and Siva a pillar, a moulding. a petal, a moulding of leaf-pattern Door-way a door-keeper a hall or pavilion on the entrance door of a shrine same as Korimandapa or Antarala measure of a doorway the door lintel with door-frame, jamb or post, side-frame guardians or regents a lamp pillar, a lamp-post a high towar or pillar for festival light a minor shrine, a collonaded group of minor shrines 31. Local Term: Talakadun Ghontadum, Deyadi 32. Local term: Mobha 33. Local term: Merapa

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Glossory Devakota Dehali Devayatana Devalaya 34 Nandi Nandika Nandisa Sringa Narathara Navagraha Naga Nakra Same as Makara Nanda Sali Sringa; a Sringa having seventeen andakas Nandana-Sringa Sringa having thirteen andakas a small projection between Karna and pratiratha or pratiratha and bhadra a sringa having twenty one andakas one of the mouldings in the basement of a temple, decorated with figures of human beings Nagabandha } Nala (Nali) Nasika Nirgama 3 5 Nirgatam Nisakramana Nirandhara Nritya-Mandapa Nemi 36 an enclosure wall to the temple site Threshold a house of a God, a temple 551 the nine planets, represented usually on the lintel or architrave of the front door of a shrine Mythical serpent, a figure half-man above and half-sepent below intertwinded figure of two or four snakes carved continuously along jamb and lintel kori, korimandapa, an antarala a nose-shaped architectural object, a projecting portion in a wall 34. Local term: Deharasara, Dehari, Deharun 35. Local term Nikara, Nikala 36. Visvakarma prakasa VI, 77. the projection or extention of the base or basement a shrine without ambulatory The dancing and musical hall Bhramani, Circumambulatory

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552 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Paksa A side, a flank, a foot-path Paksaka Pancayatana a group of five temples, where a principal one is surrounded by four subsidiary ones, the temples enshrining the five deities generally Siva, Visnu, Ganapati, Surya, & Devi Patta 37 flat slab, lintel or beam, an architrave, the beam or lowest division of the entablature which extends from column to column a small flat band which occurs chiefly between Patti mouldings to connect or separate them, a Pattika moulding with a square-edge Patra a leaf, a leaf-like moulding Pada a part, the foot Padma a plot of the site plan Padmaka a moulding cyam recta and cyma reversa, The moulding called padma is supposed to resemble a petal of that flower i. e. the moulding having the curves of the lotus petal, cyma reversa or recta. Padmakosa neck or Skandha of a sikhara i. e. a portion below amalaka of a Sikhara Padmabandhana 3 8 Neck moulding Padmasana a lotus seat, a kind of pedastal, lotus throne Pada-Vinyasa The plan, the site plan, the ground plan Padam Sila a key-stone in the centre of a dome (Vitana) Parivara the attendent deities, the family of God Pallava 39 leaf-like moulding, raised lotus petal design Pada a quarter, a fourth of a foot, a base 37. Local term Pata 38. Local term Bardhanuri. 39. Local term Palava.

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Glossory Panitara 40 Parsvasutra4 1 Pundarika Purna Kalasa Puskarani Puspakantha Pitha Pattaka 42 Prachadana Pratikarna Pratima Pratibhadra 4 3 Pratoli Pratyanga 553 Same as udakantara i e. a canal, a spout, a water-course When the moulding Bhadra is further divided at the corner the division is said to be a Parsvasutra and the remaining portion of bhadra is called subhadra Same as Balanaka vase of plenty, pot and foliage capital of the pillar Sacred pool or Tank a conrnice having flower designed engraved on it a basement, a solid substructure, the upper surface of which forms the floor of the building a lower surface of the moulding same as achhadana, a roof Same as Pratibhadra below an image, on idol a projection between the Karna and bhadra i. e. an additional projection between them. a gateway, sometimes provided with a flight of steps. a minor limb. a sringa-like moulding placed between the Rekha or profile of the main Sikhara and that of the urusringa a quarter Sikhara like turret attached to the main Sikhara 40. Local term Khala 41. Otherwise known as Parsvabhadra also 42. Local term Talancho, Petun, Padakhun 43. Also known as Pratiratha, Local term Padharo

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554 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Pradaksina. Pradaksina-pathaa a circumambulatory passage arround a shrine Pranala ) a drain, a conduit also the drip or channelPranali } like part of the pedestal (Jaladhari) of the Pranalika J linga (phallus) Prastara 4 4 the entablature, It comprises the parts of an order above a column or pillar. Prakara an Enclosure, a fance, a rampart, a balustrade of stone Praggriva45 the porch, pillared portico also Gavaksa and window Prangana a court-yard Pranapratistha a rite of installing a deity Prasada a temple Falana recessed angles; offset projections, lateral projections, alternate projected and recessed chases Balanaka47 a raised platform, a square mandapa or pavilion at the entrance of a temple served as musicial chamber Bijapuraka 48 the uppermost part of Andaka, having the shape of the Bijora fruit Bhadra a moulding, lateral projection, flat face or facet of the ground plan, buttress or facet of the Sikhara 44. Also known as Prabara The local term Pahada or Padha 45. Also a door (VKP. VI, 61) 47. also known as Pudarika The Local term Nagarkhanu, Takorakhanu. 48. Local term : Dodalo,

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Glossory 555 Bharani Bhaga Bhara moulding above the shaft of a pillar part, division beam, cross beam, support female-shaped bracket-like moulding i. e, Salabhanjika Bharaputalika Bhuja Karna Bhupariksa same as Karna testing the site and soil where a temple is to be constructed Bhuma Bhumika a storey, a floor Bhusana ornamentation Bhitti Bhita Bhitta a wall The lower most mouiding below pitha i. e. basement Bhrama enclosing cloister Bhramana Bhramani19 a covered arcade ambulatory, same as Pradaksina, circumambulatory passage a conventional ornamentation used in decorative detail Makara Mancjka 50 Manjari Mandapa Mandovara one of the mouldings of a mandovara same as sikhara, spire a hall, a prayer hal! the exterior wall of a temple a pearl shaped moulding usually placed at the projecting end of the Chadyakuta Manibandha 49. Local term : Bhamati 50. Local term : Manchi, Machi

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556 Mattavarana The Structural Temples of Gujarat parapet, a railing a niche over Bhadra a braket below a niche, window or Gvaksa Matalamba Madala Mandarakad 1 Mandarika a central half-round member of a udumbara or threshold Masuraka Maha-Mandapa Mukha Mulanayaka socle, A structure consisting of manqapa and transepts ( aisle ) on all its three sides the face, front portion, the front side, facade the main pratima or idol in the sanctum (always at the centre ), the principal deity same as Karna a class of demi-Gods or semi-Divine beings a class of demi Goddesses a shaft of a pillar a hall for music, dance and drama Mulapasika Yaksa Yaksini Yasti Ranga-mandapa Ratha Rathaka } facet, ressaut (like Bhadra, Pratiratha etc.) Rajasena 52 Rajasenaka Rekha I a basement like portion of a seat attached to the pillars of mandapa the vertical curve of a temple spire or profile of a spire succession of waves, corbel, series of waves the genital organ of Siva, worshipped in the form of phallus, the emblemejical phallus of Siva Lahara Linga 51. Local term / Manu 52. Local term Sarvavasiyanu (Brss. III, 295, p. 112 )

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Glossory 557 Lupa 53 Lupa Varaha Vasati Vajithara Vatayana Vyala5 4 Vyali Vastu Vabana Vitana 55 a sloping and projecting member of the entablature the boar incarnation of Visnu a Jain temple same as Asvathara window leogryphon, ljon-griffin The moulding decorated with lions, with the trunk of an elephant, hippopotamus-like creature in ornamentation building architecture in the broadest sense a vehicle dome, a roof or a ceiling of the mandapa, a cushion, a canopy a class of demi gods a class of demi goddesses same as ucshalaka an open mandapa the divine architect patron of the craftsman, prominent exponent of the Nagara school of Architecture monastery an altar, ritual edifice, a stand, a pedestal base as well as dwarf wall of the mandapa or a porch Vidyadhara Vidyadevi Viraha Kantha Viloka Visvakarma Vihara Vedi Vedika 53. Local terms : Lambana, Lumbo, Lambosio, Lumbi 54. Also known as Virala, Varalika, Local term, Yali SS. Also known as Karotaka. Local term 'Ghumata ', . Kaladio ' . Kaladi"

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558 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Vedha fault Vanukosa 56 curves of a sikhara Skandha shoulder course Samghata ( Pitha l-basement Stambba 57 a post, a pillar, a column, a vertical support, The shaft from kumbhi to bharani is the stambha proper. Sthapati master builder, an architect Samadala equal in length and breadth Saptamatri 1 the seven mothers, represented by seven Saptamatnika goddesses, nemely :-Brahmani, Mahesvari, Kaumari, Vaisnavi, Mabendri, Varahi and Camundi. Sabha-Mandapa the open hall of the temple, (also known as Ranga-mandapa, Khela-mandapa ) Samvarna 68 stepped-out superstructure adorned with bell-shaped ornamentation Sarvatobhadra stirga a Sringa having Nava (nine ) andakas Salilantara same as Udakaptara. the part of the sikhara looking like the Sukanasa Sukanasika. parrot nose, the lower ( vestibule like ) half part of a tower Sundika 5% Handrail to a stair case. Subhadra a central additional projection to bhadra projection Sutra measure of length 56. Local Term, Vanarasiya 57. Local tem, Thambbalo, Tekana 58. Local term 'Samarana'

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Glossory 559 Sutradhara Stupa an architect a Buddhist monument erected to hold sacred relics Simba Karna Sopana Sakti Sanku Sankusthapana Sankhadvara 60 Sakba Salabhanjika arch-key flight of steps, stairs, stair-case ladder female divinity A stake, a post, a peg, a pole, a measuring rod. the gnomon by means of which the cardinal points are ascribed for the orientation of buildings. the placing of Sanku same as Candrasila same as Dvara sakha the door frame, the jamb semidivine female figure usually placed as a bracket of the pillar Pada, compartments of ground plan, Tala, parts of Tala the spire or tower of a temple, the top, an apex, the lower part of the finjal, the tapering superstructure capital, upper portion of column or pilaster one of the upper-most members of pillar the science of architecture Spinga having one andaka Sala 6 1 sikhara Sirsa62 Siravati Silpa Sastra Srivatsa Sringa 59. Local term 'Hathani". 60. Local term Sankhavata 61. Local term Gala 62. Local term Sira.

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560 Sringa Harmika Hasta 63 Hiragraha (Ka) The Structural Temples of Gujarat A peak, ordinarily it forms a secondry spire, the Sikhara being the principal one, the miniature Sikhara, a railed pavilion a cubit, a measure generally equal to 24 angulas or 18 inches, the standard measurement employed in Indian architecture corbels (brackets) which hold the lower tenons or bracket figures usually Gandharvas 63. Local term 'Hatha', 'Gaja'

Page #616
INDEX Abhapur, 232; Saranesvara T 534; Navadera, Sadevanta Savlinga T. 536 Abhayatilaka gani, 189 Abhinandana Swami, tirthankara, 126, 155 Abu Mt. 89, 149, 159, 162, 179, 184, 196. 200, 204, 207, 215, 229, 279, 283, 304, 376, 429, 438, 444, 457, 460 467, 472, 535 Acalesvara T, 200; 464; Kumbhlesvara T, 126 ff. Lunavasahi (Tejapala) T, 123 ff. 367, 374, 379, 381, 417, 420, 421, 426, 428, 429, 433,434, 442, 446, 454, 460, 468, 484, 483 Sajndhavai T, 153; Vimalavasahi T, 123 ff; 158. 367, 374, 379, 381, 417, 426, 428, 429, 430, 431, 433, 434, 440, 441, 442, 444, 460, 467, 468, 485 Acchupta vasti, Dholaka, 173 Achalagadh, 209 Achalesvara T, Abu, 200, 201, 279 Gedi. 224, Acharya, Dr. P. K. 20, 243, 256 Adinatha(Adisvara) T, Abu, 184; Athapoknara, 189; Patan, 144; Satrunjaya, 54, 157, 178, 200, 221, 225, 226; Sojitra, 215; Vadnagara, 235; Vatasara, 183; Tuk, 221; Tirthankara, 151, 155, 200, 208, 209, 212, 216, 226 Aditya, 78 Adityadeva, T, 78 n. 30 Aditya T. Latapur, 169 Agamas, 251, 256, 260, 321, 322 Amsumadabhedagama, 256 Kamikagama, 33, 35, 256, 312, 321 Karnagama, 256; Suprabhedagama, 256; Vaikhanasagama, 256 Agastya, 240, 246 Agiya Vaitala T, Bhankhar, 231, 506, 507, 525 Agni, image, 285, 464, Agni Purana (Ag. P.) 32, 41, 253, 254, 257, 308, 309, 317, 319, 320, 322, 323, 324, 325, 329, 331, 339, 353, 354, 355, 379, 385, 406, 410, 448, 474

Page #617
Agrawal, R. C. 271, 274 Ahadadeva caitya, Patan 179 Ahalya Bai, Indore, 146 Ahmedabad, 215, 219, 442, 460; Jagavallabha Paravanatha T, 221; Jami masjid, 433; Parsvanatha T, 225 Ahichchhatra, brick T, 49; Ahiraja, region, 317 Ahiras, 197 Aihole, T. 57, 61, 115. 290 Aitareya Brahmana, 243 Aithor, Siva T. 231; Ganesa T, 507 Ajanta, Buddhist caves, 14, 15, 16, 17, 245, 346, 471, 473 Ajatasatru, 4, Ajayapala, King, 162, 175 Ajitanatha T, Cambay, 200; Taranga, 136, 156, 208, 306; Tirthankara, 156 Ajivikas, 6 Ajmer, museum, 168 Akabar, Emperor, 138, 145, 166, 227 Akadadeva, Rahada or Ghagada, 91 Akadesvari T, 91 Akhada Mahadeva T, Vasai, 216 Akhodar, Sun T. 82, 277, 293, 294, 295, 334, 335, 402 Akrapalitagrama. 178 Alafkhan, 145 Ala-ud-din Khilji, 124 Aliga, minister, 141, 158 Aligavasti, T, Cambay, 158 Allakapa, 4, 5 : Ama, Nagavaloka, 89 Amaravati, Slapa, 12 Amarji, Dewan 75, n. 19 Ambada, minister, 72 157, 158 Ambaji (Bhavani) (Ambika) (Mata), image, 161, 167, 168, 210, 215, 228, 229, Ambaji T, Ambaji, 229, 279; Anjar, 114; Girnar, 215, 279, 336; Kherva, 197 Kodinar, 152 Ambaranatha T, Kalyan (Thana) 60, 100, 114 Amman Shrine, 65 Amra, 24 Amradeva, 198 Amrita Cave, 22 Amtitod bhava, T, Variety, 409 Amthor Mata T, Vadnagar, 106, 112, 234, 283, 336, 347, 359, 394, 409, 423, 465, 536 Amulya Prasada, Deogiri, 191 Anadara, 159 Anahjlapura (Patan) (Anhila pataka) (Anahilavad', 25. 26, 88, 89, 90, 91, 96, 118, 128, 129, 157, 179. 183, 200, 216; Adinath T, 144 Dohatti Vasahika, 129 Kumaravihara T, 150, 153. 154

Page #618
Musakavihara T, 154; Pancasara T, 158, 178 Siva Kedarnath T, 150 Vardhamana swami T, 144 Yukavihara, T, 154 Anala or Ana (Sk. Arnoraja), 175 Analesvara T, Ghusadi, 175 Ananda cudasama, 140 n. below n. 114 Anandaji Kalyanji, Ahmedabad 155, 156 Anandanagara (Vadnagar), 150 Anandapura, 79, 107, 108, 110, 140, 280, 464 Anantasayini, 465, Ananta-Vasudeva T, Puri, 50 Anantesvara T, Anandapur, 140 Anarta, 35, 69, 71 Anavada, inscription, 193 Andhakasurayaghamurti, 464, 507, Andhras, 7 Angorgadh, 114 n. 51/1, Anjani T, Odadar, 498 Anjar, 165; Ambamata T, 114 Ankavaliya, 179 Anupamadevi, 180 Aparajita-praccha, (APPR) 33, 35, 233, 263, 266, 275, 284, 286, 313, 317, 320, 321, 322, 324, 326, 327,329, 331, 341, 343, 356, 357, 358, 359, 362, 365, 369, 370, 371, 376, 380, 391, 392 394, 395, 407, 408, 410, 438, 439, 440, 446, 448, 459, 460, 475, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 541 Aparajita-Vastusastra, 263, n. 118 Apastamba, sulve Sutra, 20, 340 Apollodotus, 71 Arbian sea, 35 Arasana, 127 Arasuri, 229 Arbuda (Arbudicala) (Abu), 179 Arbudagiri Kalpa, 209 Archacological Dept. Baroda State, 135; Govt. of India, 76; Survey, 24 Ardhanarisvara, 347 Arhats, 3 Arisimiha, 178 Aristanemi, 70, 434, 435 Aristanemi-prasada. Karnavati, 144 Arjunadeva Vaghela, 162, 189, 190, 191, 192 Arkapalita-grama (Ankavaliya), 179 Arthasastra, Kautilya, 250 Aruna, 284 Arya Khaputacarya, 72 Asa Bhilla, 127 Asapalli (Asaula), 127, 128, 144 Asoda, Jasamalnatha T, 165, 280, 301, 333, 428, 432, 455 Asoka, King, 5, 6, 9 tree, 24 .

Page #619
Asramadeva, temple, 78 Asgadikpalas, 431 Astapada (Sumeru), 179, 199 Astasala, T, class, 310 Astasra, T. Variety, 308, 315; Pillar shape, 438 Astika Pancayntana Kenyata T, 232, 451, 535 Asuka, minister, 144 Asvalayana Gsihya sutra, 243 Asvatara T. 178 Athapoknara, Adinath (Siva) T. 189 Atharvaveda, 241, 242 Ath-Kumbha T, Gyaspur, 51 Atmaram, 275 n. 155 Aurangazeb, emperor, 146 Auvadiyas Kovil T. 65 Avanti, 96 Ayodhya, 244 B Badala, 192 Badami, 58; Temples 58 ff. Mahakutesvara temple, 61 Malegitti Sivalaya, 61 Badoli, 87 Bagavadar, (Bayavadar) 276, 301 Bahada (Vagbhata), minister, 70, 144, 157 Bairat, 7 Balacandra Muni, 200 Baladitya, Dhruvasena, II, 79 Balarama (Balabhadra), 176; incarnation, 348; T. Mula-Madhavapur, 206; T. Vadali, 177 Balavarmana, Maha samnta, 90 Bala yantra, 161 n. 181 Baldeva, 75 n. 19 Balej, 82, 277, 282, 291, 292, 294, 334, 346, 355, 366, 373, 374, 383, 414, 451, 456, 460. 489 Ballala-Narayana T, 189 Balsane, Triple shrine, 60 Bana, 258 Bandhuramana, Shresthi, 217 Bappabhatti Suri, 90 Barabar hills, 6 Barada, hills, 75, 206, 279 Baradia, 367, 371, 374, 392, 398; Rama T. 152, 168, 169, 277, 282, 286, 304, 333. 306, 365, 390 Laksmana T, 169, 282, 286, 336 Baroda, State, Archaeological Dept. 515, 527; Parsvanath T, 154; Vayu T, 230 Barygaza, 71 Baudhayana, sulva Sutra, 20, 340 Bavandhaja (Jinalaya) T, 207. 457, 460 Pawagadh, 218 Bavka, siva T. 173. 300 Bawa Pyara's Math, 71 Bawa Quaji, mosque, Patan, 433 Bay of Bengal, 35

Page #620
Becharaji, image, 160, 161 T. 338, 344, 406, 409, 457 Bedaya Prasada-tilaka, 275 n. 154 Bedsa caityagliha, 14 Belur, Temples, 66 Bengali, 34 Besnagar (vidisa), 22 Bhabha Parsvanatha T, Asaula, 144 Bhadra (Ka), T. Variety, 309; pillar shape, 438 Bhadradi, mandapa group, 369 Bhadrakali, image, 161 T. Somnath 119. 145, 146 Bhadrasana, symbol,73 Bhadreniyaka, Sun T, 78 Bhadresvara (Kaccha), Jain T. 106, 129, 162, 191, 207, 280. 303, 333, 336, 365, 367, 381, 440, 457, 460 Bhagatarav, 70 Bhagavati, 310 n. 118 Bhagvata Purana, 113 n. 48; 254 n. 86 Bhagwanlal Indraji Dr. 11, 75, Bhagwati Sutra, 198 n. 291 Bhairava, 138, 223, 397, 464, 520, 536; devi, 127; T. at Kasangadh, 442; T. at Khimesvara, 83, 492, 493; Bhaja, Caitya griha, 14 Bhamara, siva T. 27 Bhankhar, Agiya vaitala T, 231, 506, 507, 525, Bhansar T. group, 83, 84, 277, 291, 292, 294, 295, 334, 335, 346, 355, 366, 371, 383, 389, 414, 489 Bhan warlal, Udaipur, 271 n, 144 Bharama, Vaja King, 204 Bharhut, Stupa, 7, 8, 10. Bharukaccha, 71, 72, 73, 79 Bhatarka, Senapati, 77 Bhattacharya Dr. T. 247, 255, 319 Bhattarika, 152; Bhjtuni T, Patan, 120; Devi T, 141; Yogesvani T, 91 Bhattiprolu, Stupa, 12 Bhattotpala, 258 Bhava Bphaspati 146, 524 n. 48 Prasasti, 119 n. 62 Bha (Bhuvana), T. Variety 309, Bhavanatha (Bhuvanesvara ) T. Desan, 193 Bhavanesvara T, Moti Dau, Bhavani, 192, 223 Bhavisya Purana (Bh. P.) 237, 308, 477 Bhayavadar (Bagavadar) Somaditya T, 151 Bhetali, Siva T, 214. Bhetava Parsvanath T, .. Chansma, 217 Bhida Bhanjana T, Hampar, 226; Vala, 79 n. 32 Visavada 307, 336, 367 374, 532 220

Page #621
Bhiladja (Bhimapalli), Mahavira T, 189. Bhiloda, Jain T, 217 Murlidhara T. 192 Sun T. 192 Bhima (deya) I King, 96, 98, 119, 120, 126, 145, 146 149, 194, 235 Il King, 97, 111, 174, 175, 176 Bhimaksi, river, 172 Bhimanath, Sun T, 118, 169, 304, 336, 365, 367, 384, 385, 386, 437 Bhimaratha, 30 Bhimasena, 427 Bhima Shah, 209, 214 Bhimesvara T. Lilapur, 174; Patan 120; Somanath, 148 Bhinna, ceiling type, 443 n. 111 Bhitargaon, brick T. 28, 49 Bhogava, river, 278 11, 3 Bhojadeva, King, 24. 26, 90, 146, 265, 324 Bhojuyagrama, 175 Bhorol. Jain T, 185 Bhrgu, 246, 262 Bhrigupura, 179 Bhudhara, T, Variety, 309, 314, 316, Bhuj, 116; Museum, 441 Bhujang-Lalita, 454, 1). 17 Bhujaya, mandapa Variety, 375, 376 Bhumaka, Ksatrapa, 72 Bhumija T. Types, 266, 310, 311, 313, 315, 316, 319 Bhumukha, T. Variety, 309 Bhusana, T. Variety, 309 Bhutanatha T. Junagadh, 150 Bhutia Vasana, 468, Bhuvada (Bhuyada), King, 91 Bhuvadesvara T, Bhuvad, 49, 191, 428 Bhuvaka, 90 Bhuvanapala Sresthi, 189 Bhuvandevacarya, 263 n. 118 Bikaner, museum, 168 Bilesvara Siva T, 91, 92, 93, 279, 291, 292, 294, 295, 334, 335 Bina cave, 22 Bodha Gaya, 9 Bodhi tree, 1 Bodhi shrine, Bhathut, 9 Boria, Stupa, 10, 73 Boricha Sun T. 82, 280, 282, 293, 334, 401, 491 Boru, Rupersvara T 199 Bose, Nirmalkumar, 540 Brahma, 94, 107, 108, 118, 167, 168. 172, 173, 185, 186, 204, 220, 221, 223, 259, 261, 286, 309, 310, 315, 346, 348, 349, 350, 354, 397, 459, 463, 465, 466, 467, 477, 522 T. at Kamrej, 173; at Khedbrahma, 172, 279286; at Mahisa, 173

Page #622
Burgess, 75, 101, 107, 112, 129, 130, 132, 135, 136, 229. 307, 368, 431, 435, 452, 453, 454, 464, 473, 539 Burnett, Dr. 35 Butada Lakha, 203 Butapaladi, Brahmani Mata T. 171 Brahmagupta 284 n. 5 Brahma-mandira, T. Variety, 309 Brahamana Drona, 5, n. 5 Brahmanda Purana, 253 Brahmani (sakti), 171, 172,530; T. at Butapaladi, 171; at Ruhavi, 112. Brahma-Saisvatr, 202, 397 Brahma-Siddhanata-Sphuta, 284 n. 5 Brahma vaivarta, Purana, 256 Bshadisvara T. Tanjore, 63, 78 Bphrd silpa sastra, 275 n. 155; 485 n. 4 Bshaspati, 258 Bihat-samhita (Br. Sm., Biht. Sam.), 25, 32, 251, 257, 258, 265, 267, 307, 309, 310, 312, 317, 319, 320, 322, 323, 331, 339, 353, 391, 438, 474, 477 Broach, 99, 228 Ganganatha T, 228; Saindhavai T, 153, 228; Sakunikavihara, 158, 178 Vallabha Bhatt Devi T. 228 Vasupujya T, 144 Brown Percy, 21, 26, 39, 46, 51, 55 : Buddha, Gautama, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 16, 79, 165, 246, 247 Buddhesvara T. 79 Bulis 4. n. 5 14 14 Cacinesvara (or vacidesvara) T. 118 Caitya, Kosthaka, 248 Gunasila Candravatarana , Purna bhadra Kamamaharnava , , Bhandiravedamsiya ,, Caitya-griha, definition. 13 Caitya-griha at Bhaja. 14 at Kondane, ,, Pitalkhora, , Ajanta, 14, 15, 16, 17 ,, Bedsa, 14 >> Nasik 14 ,,, Karle. 14 ,,Kanheri 14 >> Elora, 15, 16 Caitya-Vasis, 73 Cakesvari Devi T, Satrunjaya, 22, Cakra, T. Variety, 304 Cakrabhsit, Visnu, 74; T. 75 Cakrapalita, 74 Cakratirtha, 204 n. 19 Calcutta, 289 Cambay, 144, 157, 173, 182, 216, 225, 460: 10,

Page #623
Ajitanatha T, 200; Aligavasti, T, 158; Cintamani-Parsvanatha T, 192, 224; Udayanavasahi, 158; Vijaya cintamani T, 224 Campa, 248 Camunda, King, 96, 100; Plates, 99; T. 118 Camunda, 140. 494, 514, 536 Candanatha T. 118 Canda simha 181, 204 Candika, 148, 310, 354; Candra, 123, 221 Candragupt Maurya, 71; 250; II, 74; Candrakala, Spire profile, 327, 408 Candramaulisvara, 184 n. Candraprabha T. Dabhoi, 190; Pawagadh. 218, 219; Prabhas, 199 Capecomorin, 34 Caruka, T. Variety, 309 Carupa, 184 Caturamukha-Prasada, Ranakpur, 142, 211 Caturavarga Cintamani, 258 Caturasra, T, Variety, 308, 315 Caulukya, Mularaja 1, 96 Caundesvara T. Talaja, 175 Cautanum Derum, Vadnagar, 150 Celesvara T, Ghumali, 133 Ceylon, 35 Champaner, 174, 219 8 Chandela, 54 Chandrabhaga, river, 141 Chandravati, 201 Chansma, 97 n. 1; Bhetva Parsvanatha T, 217 Char-Kumbha T. Gyaspur, 51 Charup Jain T, 204 Chatrabhuja, Khajuraho, 55 Chaubari T. 106, 107, 109, 110, 278, 337 Chetarji Dr. Shyamdas, 289 n. 5 Chezrala, Kapotesvara T, 28 Chhaya, 206 n. 24 Chhitara, 274 n. 152 Chidambaram, 64 Chitor, 217 Chitor, inscription, 274 n. 152 Chorwad, Sahajigesvara T. (Jagesvara T.); 158; Naganatha T, 205 Parsvanatha T, 217 Chudasama, Mandalika, 75 Cintamani Parsvanatha T, Cambay, 192, 224; Citra, T. Variety, 309 Conjeevaram, Kailashnatha T, 30, 62, 64, Vaikuntha Perumal T. 62, 63, 64; Ekamranath T. 65 Coomarswamy, 289 Cousens, 11, 77, 114, 128, 130 134, 136, 171, 172, 176, 201, 234, 288, 289, 290, 292, 346, 530, 539

Page #624
Copper-Bronze Age, 70 Cullavagga, 247 Cushion Capital, 57 D Dabhoi, 179, 186, 187, 278, 280; - Candraprabha T, 190; Kalikamata T, 187, 368, 437, 464, 467, 484; Satamukhi Vav T, 188; Vaidyanatha T, 178, 186, 368, 484 Dadhipadra, 139; mandala, 96 Dahisara, Dhingdmalla's T, 222 Dahod, 96 Daityasudana. Visnu, 148, n. 140 Dakor Ranchhodji T, 227 n. 457 n. 31 Damodara gupta, Kashmiri poet. 89 Damodara, Kunda, 457 n. 32 Damodara T. Junagadh, 74, 75, 457 n. 32 Dandakarnya, region, 317 Darbhavati (Dabhoi), 179, 186 Daruja, T, class. 314, 315, 316, 341 Dasapur, Dasar or Mandsar, 75 Dasavatara, Cave, 29; T. 77, 137 Davad, Jagesvara T, 231, 508; Parsvanatha T, 185 Deccan, region, 73, 290 Delmal, 101, 105, 112, 167, 184, 301, 332, 359, 367, 371. 374, 390, 392, 415, 422, 425, 449, 451, 465, 466, 471, 473 Laksminarayana T, 103, 405, 409 Limboji T, 103, 120, 131, 278, 283, 337, 349, 415. 454, 528, Surya T, 103; T. on Tank, 107 Delhi, 97, 270 Delwada, 162, 208, 209, 213, 218, 219 Demaranum Derum, Lakroda, 84 Deogiri, Amulya Prasada, 191 n. 271 Deoli, 168 Derani, Jethani Gokhas, 181 Derol, Triple T. 185 Desan, Bhavanatha T, 193 Devacandra, Shresthi, 184 Devada, 124 n. 68 Devaditya, architect, 186 Devani Mori, stupa, 11, 74 Devapattana, Kumaravihara, T, 153 Devata-Murti-Prakarana, 271 Devendrasuri. 129 Devibhagavata, Purana, 256 Dhaky M. A., 85, 98, 100, 102, 107, 109. 119, 122, 130, 131, 134, 136, 150, 162, 164, 167, 194, 195, 201, 220, 232, 267. 514, 524, 534, Dhamalej, Sun T, 204 Dhanaka (Dhank), 162 n.

Page #625
10 Phandhuka, 129; Zolikavihara, 154 Dhanasimha, 200 Dhanesvara Suri, 70. n. 2 Dhank, grant, 78, n, 30 Phara, 265 Dharasena III, 78, n. 31 Dharesvara T, Saptnath, 185 Dharmaditya, Siladitya, 78 Dharmanatha, tirthankara, 226 Pharmaraja ratha, 30 Dharmarajika Stapa, at Sarnath, 6 at, Taxila, 6; Dharmasnya Mahatmya, 458 n. 33 Dharnasha, 211 Dharnivaraha, Capa chiftain, 234 Dharaniyihara T. Ranakpur, 211 Dhavala, minister, 150 Dhayalakka, 97, 143, 179 Dhingadmalla's temple, Dahisara, 222 Dhingesvara T, Khimesvara, 492, 493, Porbandar, 83, 277, 291, 389, 502 Dhinoja, Vyaghresvari, T, 193, 337, 365, 367, 371, 374, 405, 409, 433 Dholaka, 173, 178, 179, 190. 204 Acchupta Vasati, 173; Ranakesvara T, 222; Siddhanatha T, 222 Dhrangadhra 141 Dhrasanvel, 280, 293 294, 295 389, 491 Kalika T, 283, 293, 334, 335, 366, 371, 373, 386, 403, 491 Maga Derun, 231, 277, 282. 306. 337, 355, 367, 372, 374, 384, 385, 509 Dhruvasena II, Baladitya, 78, n. 29; 79, n. 31 Digbhadradi (Vavata) T. types, 310, 311 Dikpalas, 220, 466, 467, 475. 514 Diparnava, 264, 269, 275, 343, 358, 369, 370, 371, 391, 392, 394, 395, 433, 439, 448, 475, 478, 481, 482, 485 Disa, Siddhambika T. 351 Doha-Copaj, 268 n. Dohatti Sresthi Vastika, Anhilapur, 129 Dravida, region 32 ff; 35, 60 Dravida, T. types, 310, 311, 313, 314, 316, Dravidian (Phase. School, Style, Temples), 36, 37, 60, 66, 82, 254, 256, 259, 266, 290, 312, 321, 322, Dudhesvara T, Khimesvara 84, 492, 493, 494, Dughadesvara Mahadeva, Mandrapur, 164

Page #626
11 Dumer-lena Caves, 29, 30 Durga, 100; Mahatmya, 151 n. 147; 1. Aihole, 58 Durlabharaja. 96, 118; Durlabhasara, lake, Anhilpura, 118 Dvaradipika, 273 Dvivajra, pillar shape, 438 Dvyasraya, 137, 145, 153, 258 Dwarka, 113, 11. 48; 227, 245, 379, 385, 441, Dwarkadhish T. 226 ff, 277, 282, 286, 306, 336, 368, 384, 390, 398, 437, 468, 511, 541 Rukmani T. 277, 282, 283, 301, 336, 390, 392, 398, 405, 409, 468, 511 Trikamaji T, 468 Simha, 150, 190; Valabhi, 150, 190; Vikrama, 190 Vira, 73 Erana, 77, n. 24 Narasimha etc. T. 27 F False cave, 22 Fergusson, 295 Forbes, 184, 452 Francis Leeson, 469 Ekalingji, siva T, 271 n. 144 Ekamranatha T. Conjeevaram, 65 Elephanta, Caves, 28, 30 Elora, Caves, 15, 16, 28 ff. 105; Kailasa, 141; Tin Tal, 92; Visykarma,' 14, 15; Epics, Ramayana, 245 Mahabharata, 245 Era, Christen, 147, 265 Hejra, 190; Kalacuri, 11 ff; Kathika, 11 if; Saka, 11 ff; Gada, T. Varjety, 309. Gadre A. S. 171 Gadre, N. B. Major, 264 n. 125 Gaja-Laksmi, 432. 462 Gajasuravadha, 512 . Gaja, T. Variety, 309 Gala, inscription, 141 Galanatha T. Pattadakala, 61 Galtesvara T. Sarnal, 100, 277, 339, 340, 372 Ganas, 100 Ganda Bhava Bshaspati, 147, 148, 176 Gandhar, 143 n, 125; 289 Parsvanatha T, 224 Gandharia Caumukhaji T, Satrunjaya, 222 Gandharvas, figures, 360, 436, 451, 466 Gandu derun, 368 n. Ganesa (Ganapati), 81, 90, 93, 94, 106, 107, 108, 110, 111, 113, 115, 116, 151, 173, 185, 196,

Page #627
12 202, 204, 214, 228, 315, 345, 346, 347,: 348, 349, 350, 352, 354, 361, 428, 454, 464, 489, 500, 511, 512, 514, 515, 516, 517, 523 T. at Ajthor, 507; at Ghumali, 182, 355, 402, 403; at Miyani, 334, 355, 402, 403 Ganga, figure, 113 Ganganatha T, Broach, 228 Ganga-yamuna, 346, 347, 351, 351 n. 19, 360, 462, 466, 470, 472, 516, Garga, 258 Garikapad Stupa, 12 Garuda pillas, 22 Garuda Purana, 262, 308, 309, 324, 353, 391, 406, 448, 479, 480 Garula (Suparna) T. Variety. 309 Garutmana, T. Variey, 309 Gauri, 508, 512; T. 148 Gavada, Jagesvara T, 512 Gayakunda 206 Gayatri, Goddess, 499; T. Pasanavada, 283, 334, 366, 371, 377, 378, 383, 389, 499, Gedi, Acalesvara T, 224 Ghantasala stupa, 12 Ghoga, Nayakhanda :: Parsvanatha T, 204 Ghumali, 87, 133, 134, 206, 279, 306, 332, 335 Celesvara T, 133 n. 90; Ganesa T, 182, 355, 402, 403 Jain T. 93, Navalakha T, 92, 93, 132 ff; 334, 337, 365, 368, 372, 379, 384, 385, 390, 392 394, 398, 399, 417, 421, 427 451, 464, 470, 471. 472, 473, 474; Vaisnava T, 94 Ghusadi (Viramgam), 174, 175 Sumalesvara T. 174 Analesvara T. 175 Salakhanesvara T. 175 Viramesvara T. 175 Girnar Mt. (Girinagar) 10, 53, 54, 71, 73, 74, 142, 155, 178, 190, 218, 279, 283, 376, 385, 457, 467, 485 Inscriptions, 180 n. 226 Temples : Ambaji, 215, 279, 336; Caumukha T, 54, 217 Kumarapala T, 155, 303, 333; Laxmitilaka T, 215; Neminatha T, 199, 207, 305, 333, 338, 365, 367, 368, 373, 374, 375, 379, 384, 437,1457,: 460; Parsvanatha T, 229; Samgrama soni T. 213; Vastupala (Triple T.) 179, 307, 333, 337, 338, 371, 374, 398;

Page #628
Gunadevi, 124, n. 68 Gunasagarasuri, 126 Guneth prasasti, 208 Gunja, T on lake, 231, 512 Gupta, (Soveriegns, period, style, Temples), 26, 27, 31, 74, 75, 76, 87, 165, 257, 290 Gurigai Konda Cholapuram T. 64 Gurjara, record, 78 n. 29; region, 317 Gurvavali, 99 Gwalior, 168; Temples, 55, ff. Gyaspur, 51 Vimala T. 215; Girmara, Brahmins, 75 Goa, 35 Gobhila grihya Sutra, 243, 352 Godani Dr. H. R. 524 n. 49; 533 n. 61 Godavari, river, 34, 35 Godha Shresthi 216 Goetz Dr. H. 167 n. 195 Goganarayana T, Dadhipadra, 139 Gokesvar T, Lovarali, 231, 304, 518 ff; Gondesvar T. Sinar, 68 Gop, temple, 75, 76, 77, 80, 82, 279, 288 ff, 328. 329, 334, 335, 383, 388, 401, 464 Gopuram, 64 ff. Gorad, 195, 196, 301, Somesvara T, 106, 109, 390, 392, 397, 405, 409, 413, 422. 423, 434, 441, Gorakh, T, Odadar, 498 521 Gosai N. Y. 275 n. 154 272 n. C. Gosavaji T, Kheralu, 184 Goval Dave, 224 Govardhan, minister, 208 Govinda, 208 Gsharaja, T, Variety, 309 Gangadhara, 275 n. 155 Gava-Veksa, T. Variety, 309 Guda (Gudaraja), 215 215 n. 43 Gudivada, Stupa, 12 Guhaditya T, 566 Gujarat, Denotation, 69 Halebid, Hoyasalesvara T. 66 Hamapar, Siva T, 221, 226 Hampi, Vithal T. 65 Hamsa, T. Variety, 308 n. 112; 309, Hamsalata, design, 462 Hamspsthi, motif. 329 Hansaraja jetha, 155 11. 164 Hanumana, 508; T. 84 Harnav, (Hiranyaksi) river 172, 535. Haragauri, 160 Harappan sites, 19; culture, 163 n. 186. Harasacarita, 258 Harasata Mata T. Veraval, 190 Harasiddha T, Miyani, 83, 106, 110, 279, 291, 332, 337, 344, 351, 355, 365, 367, 371, 374, 405, 409, 492

Page #629
14 Hiranya, river, 201, 278, 306, 336, 350, 385, 390, 397, 427, 464 Hirapur, Ujalesvara T, 514 Hiuan Tsang, 79, n. 32 Hoyasala T, Halebid, 66, 468 n. 45 Huchchimalligudi. temple, 58 Hydrabad, 35 Hari (Visnu), 90 Haribhadrasuri, 128 Haribhaktivilasa, 258 Haricandrani Cori T. Shamalaji, 99, 443, 451, 455, Haridasya (Surya), 90 Hariharapitamaharka, 509, 512, Harihararka, 508, Harihara T. Osia 50, 87, 88 Harij. 97, 196 Harinatha, 78 n. 29 Hari vamsa Purana, 70, 245, 256 Hasta-pramana, 264 Hatakesvar T, Vadnagar, 98, 219, 220, 235, 299, 304, 337, 379, 406, 409, 417, 422, 466, 467, 468 Hathesvar T, Limkheda Hathia vapi, Patan 184 Hayasirsa pancaratram, 41 n. 20; 254, 255, 319, 320 Heliodorus, Sun of Dion, 22 Hemacandracarya, 129, 150, 153, 154, 258 Hemadri, 191 n. 271; 258 Hemakuta, T. Variety, 326, 409 Himavata, T. Variety 308 Himalaly, rigion, 34, 320 n. 159 Hinayana, 13, 14, 15 Hindi, language, 34 Hingolaja Mata T, Khandosan, 106, 113, 152, 278, 283, 303, 337, 515 Idar, 533; Kumaravihara T, 216; Ranamallacoki T, 231, 515 Indra, 221, 239, 240, 309, 351, 245; Mandapa, 178; Sabha, 29 Indranila, T, Variety, 409 Indraprastha, 245 Indo-Aryan Style, 36, 59, 66, Indore, 146 n 136 Intwa, excavation, 73 Isa, 285 lsanagurudevapaddhati, 33 n. 10; 35, 258, 312 n. 120 Isara, 274 n. 152 Ishawar Soni, 216 Isvara T. Mamalpuram, 62 Jackson, 79 n. 31 Jacob, Le Grand Capt. 132 n. 87/2 Jagadevasa, (Jagadusa), 162, 191 Jagaducalita, 162 1. . Jagamalla, Mehr king, 175

Page #630
Jagannath Ambaram, 485 n. 4 Jagannatha Subha, Cave, 29 Jagannatha T, Orrisa, 468, n. 45, 50 at Suvan 364, 365, 371, 383, 388, 389, 396, 397, 402, 494, 499, 505, 506 Jagat singh, 6 f. Jagesvara T, Chowarwad, T. 158 at Davad, 231, 508 at Gavada, 512 Jagvallabha Parsvanath T, Ahmedabad, 221 Jaggaya peta, Stupa, 12 Jakharaja Mata T., Linch, 171 Jakrad Vira, 196 n. 288 Jalasayi, Visnu, 123, 138 Jamanagar, 225 Santinatha T, 222 Sethana T, 224 Jamasataji, 225 Jam Bamanioji, 206 1 24 Jambulinga T, Pattadakala, 59 Jami Masjid, Somnath, 433 n. 71 , at Ahmedabad , , at Mujapur, 161 Jarasandha, King, 434 Jasamalnatha Mahadeva, Asoda, 165 428, 432, 455 Jatakas, 9, 245, 246, 247 Jayaditya, Sun T. Nagara, 182 at Kapika (Kavi), 90 Jayantasimha, 175 n. 214 Jayanti, goddess, 128 Jayantvijayaji, Muni, 181, n. 230 Jayapsaccha (Ms) 440 n. 96 Jaya-prcchadhikara, 263 Jayasimha Siddharja. 96, 98 n. 2, 135, 141, 145, 208, 234 Jayata, 217 n. 50 Jesala Shah, 200 Jinaharsa, 179 n. 22411; 186 n. 251 Jinaprabhasuri, 70, n. 2; 151 Jinasenasuri, 70, n. 2, Jinodayasuri, 204 Jiravala Parsvanatha Tirthankara 126 Jitamala Solanki 221 Jiva, Jivabhigama, 89 Jiyor, Kumbhalesvara T, 208 Jhogada, Mahadeva temple, 60 Jholika-vihara, Dhandhuka, 154 Jnanaratna Kosa, 264, 343 n. 53; 449 n. 96 Jodhpur, Taleti Mehal. 217 Jogesvari Cave temple, 30 Johan Marshall, Sir, 18, 19 Jote Ratnamani Rao, 182 unagadh, 10, 73, 74, 75, 146, 176 Museum, 11. 170 Temples : Damodara T, 74, 75, 407, Bhutanatha T, 150 Damodara Kunda, 457 Revati Kunda, 457 Junagadhi Mata T, 163 n. 187 Junagadhi 1, Vasai, 302 Junnar, 7

Page #631
16 Kadali, 24 Kadambari, 258 Kadvar, 75, 76, 81, 92, 277, 282, 286, 293, 294, 334, 341, 353, 364, 376, 377, 383, 389, 396, 397, 414, 464, 465, 466, 470, 474 Kailasa, abode of siva, 25; Cave, Elora, 29, 141; Mt. peak, 25, 147; Shape, 37, 309, 324, 324; T. Variety, 25, 308 n. 112 Kailasanatha T. Conjeevaram, Kalsar, 87, 92, 93, 277, 293. 294, 334, 341, 353, 364, 366, 371 Kalyan, 100; Amarnath T. 114; -mandapa, 65 Kalyanakalika, 275 n. 155 Kalyanavijaya Muni, 275 n. 155 62 Kakkasuri, 183 Kalabhairava, 140, 464 Kalacuri Era, 11 f. Kalanidhi, 273 Kalasa, T, Varieny, 309 Kalika, 161 Kalika T, Dabhoi, 187, 368, 437, 464, 467, 484; Dhrasanvel, 283, 293, 334, 335, 366, 371, 373, 386, 403, 491; Navidraved, 283; Patan, 161 Kalinga, region, 320 n. 159; T. Variety, 321 . Kaliya-mardana, scene, 432, 467, 520, 521 Kaliya, serpent, 170 Kalhana, 258 Kalki Purana, 256 Kalpalata, Ceiling motif, 440 Kalpa Satras, 243 Kamada, basement Verjety, 393, 394 Kamaksi, river, 172 Kamalodabhava, Ceiling order, 442 444, Kamasutra, 469 Kamboi, 468; Sandalesvera T. 184 Kamboika-grama, 184 n. Kamboi-Solanki, 280 n. 8 Kamikagama, 33, 35, 256, 312, 321 Kamrej, 173 n. 204 Kanakapuri, 163 Kanakesvara (Siva), 163 T at Vasai, 306, 336 Kandariya T, Khajuraho, 31, 55 Kandola, Hillock, 279 Kanhadadeva, 201 Kanheri, Caitya glihas, 14 Kaniska, Kusana Emperor, 72 Kankesvari Mata, 228 Kanoda, 106, 108, 278, 301, 307, 332, 337, 367, 371, 374, 390, 394, 430, 440, 471 Kantela, 189 Kanihesvari T. Patan, 91

Page #632
17 Kanthkot, Mahavira T, 191, 198 Surya T, 118 Kanvirika, river, 90 Kanyakubja, (Kanauj), 90 Kapadvanj, 451, 454, 455, 460, 464, 472 Kapalesvara, 138 Kapardi (Siva) 183; T. Somanath, 148 Kapika (Kavi), 90 Kapilakota, 116 Kapilavastu, 4, 5 Karamaraja (Karmasa), minister, 221 Karamasi, minister, 204 Karambhavihara, Patan, 154 Kardamaka, 11 ff; 73 Karkara (? ), City, 91 Karkaraja Suvarnavarsa, 90 Karkesvara T, Somanath, 194 Karkesvari T, Somanath, 194 Karle, Caity grihas, 14, 245 Karmasa, 157 n. 169 Karna 119 n, 62, 128, 164 n. 190; 1, 96, 98, 127; II, 97; Vaghela, 193 Copperplate, 101 n 16, 102 Karnal, Village, 2.0 Karna-Meru-Prasada, 25; at Asapalli, 128 Karna pitha, basement Variety, 393, 394 Karnataka, 35 Temples, 66 Karnavati, 128, 144 Udayana Vihara, 144; Aristanemi Prasada, 144; Vasupujya Caitya, 144 Kartika (Swami), 138, 151, 533 Karvan, 168, 466; Saindhavi T, 153 n. 151 Kasangadh, Bhairava T, 442 Kasara, Triple T. 101, 104, 108, 112, 113, 170, 172, 307, 332, 337, 334, 350, 365, 371, 374, 405, 409, 415, 424, 427, 431, 449, 465, 471, 473, 474 Kasivisvesvara T, Samalaji, 228 n. 86 Vadanagar, 298, Kashmir, 169, 288 ff. Kasyapa, 258; Silpa, 283, n. 4 Kathika:Era, 11 ff. Kings, 11 ff. Kathlal 173 n. 204 Kausambi, 248 Kautilya, minister, 251 Kavindracarya, 270 n. 143 Kavi, Sarvajita T, 226 Ratna Tilaka T, 226 Sasa-bahu T, 226, 277, 535 Kedarnatha T, Asahilapura, 150 Porbandar, 132 Kemajju (Kimoj), 78 n. 29 Kerakot, 441 Kerala, 35 Kera, Lakhesvara T, 234

Page #633
18 Kesaradi Saudhara T. Variety, 386, 409 Kevan, Siva T. 185 Ketu, 118 11. 58/1 Khadesvara T, Khimesvara, 84, 492, 493, 494. Khadga, T. Variety, 309 Khadira, grihya Sutra, 243, 352 Khajuraho (Chhatarpur), (Candeta) Temples, 31, 54, 219, 468 n. 45. 473 Khakhchoka, 88, 228 n. 86 Khamalai T, Dhinoj, 193 Khandosan, Hingolaja Mata T, 100, 113, 152, 278, 283. 303, 306, 333, 337, 515, Rt. angalar T, 231, 278, 337, 379, 445 Khandesvari T. Math-Kasangadh, 519 Khandoigadh, 203 Khansarovara, Lake, Patan, 138 Kharatara vasahi T, Delvada, 213, 214 Kheda, 114 Khedabrahma, Brahma T. 172, 279, 286 Khedkot, Lakhesvara T. 116, 234, 280, 336, 371 Khengar IV, Cudasama King, 145 n. 136 Kheralu, Gosavaji T. 184 Kherva, Amba Mata T, 197 Siddhanath T, 197 n. 2893 Khetaka, Ahara, 78 n. 29, 79, 88 Khimasimha, 216 Khimesvara, 83, 277, 291, 292, 294, 295, 334, 335, 346, 355, 364, 366, 371, 373, 376, 378, 383, 389, 414, 415, 492, 493, 494, 496; Bhairava T, 83, 492, 493; Dhingesvara T, 492, 493; Dudhesvara T, 84, 492, 493; Khadesvara T, 84, 492.,493; Khimesvara T, 84, 492, 493, 494, Randala T, 84, 492, 493; Sun T. 84, 492, 493 Khorasa, Sun T, 205 Siva T, 205 Kicaka, 427, 438, 462 Kinderkheda 91, 92, 280, 293, 294, 334 Kinnaras, 466 Kiskindha, 244 Kiriti.. mandapa Variety, 479; Parch Variety, 380; Kirtikaumndi, 179 n. 226 Kirti stambha, 217 Kiradu, 167 Kocaraba (Kocharab), 127, 128 Kodinar, Ambika T, 152 Kokra (Kakra), 118 Kolhapur, 35 Koliyas, 4, n. 5 Kolladevi, 138 Konaka pathaka, 78 n. 29 Konarka T, orissa, 468 n, 45 Sun T, 49, 50 Kondane, Caityagrihas, 14 Konkan, 96, 317

Page #634
19 Korantavalagacchiya Caitya, 148, 149, 152, 153, 154, Patan, 178 n. 224/1 155, 157, 158, 159, 161, Kotai, T. group. 114, 234 280, 206, 208, 295, 524 n. 48 282, 302, 306, 336, 367, T. at Girnar, 155, 303 333 384, 388, 405, 409, 441, Kumarapalapratibodha, 72 n. 5 443, 447, Kumarapalesvara T, Kotiyarka 165 n. 191 Asahilapur, 150 Kottammahjkadevi, 79 n 31 Kumaravihara T, at Anahila, Kottardevi, T., 79 n. 31 pataka, 153; Kramrisch Stella Dr. 23 at Devapattana, 153; Krisna, 170, 176, 193, 220, 467; at Idar, 216 river, 34, 35 at Satrunjaya, 155, - Vasudeva. 70 Kumbha, T. Variety, 308 n Krodidhvaja, 159 112 Ksatrapa, rule, 11, 72 ff; Kumbhakarna, 271 n. 144 Bhumaka, 72; Kumbha Konam 64 Kardamaka, 73; Kumbhalagadha, 271 n. 144 Ksaharata, 73; Kumblialamera, 209, n. 32 Nahapana, 73 Kumbhalesvara T, Jiyor, 208 Ksemaraja, 96 Kumbharia, 218, 279, 338, 352; Ksipta, Ceiling form, 443 Mahavira T, 127; Ksptotksipta, Ceiling Variety, Neminatha T, 159, 303; 440, 442, 443, Parsvanatha T, 139 Ksiranava (KSR.) 263, 268, 343, Sambhevanatha T, 197 356, 358, 362, 369, 386, Santinatha T, 128 391, 392, 394, 395, 440, Kumbhesvara T, Abu 126, 448 279 n. 7 Kubera, 148, 165, 245, 304. Kurapala (Kumarapala), 206 438. 512 Kunthunatha Swami T, Unjha, Kuchhadi, Saradesvara T, 173 231, 277, 302, 337. 367, Kunvarji, ?25 371, 374, 394, 517 Kusinagara, 4; 5, n. 5; Kumara Gupta T, 74 Kushan, 6 Kumaradevi, 7 Kutubminar, 168 Kumarapala, 70 n. 2 96, 107 n. 32, 109 n. 35, 119, 126. 145, 146, 147,

Page #635
Ladhkhan T. Aihole, 57 Ladol, Copper Plates, 128 Laghu Silpa Jyotissara 275 n. 155 Lakhavati, (Lakhav), City 160 Lakhena T. Polo 232, 534, 535 Lakhesvara T. Kera, 234 T. at Kheda, 116 Lakroda. Demaranum Derum 130, n. 86; 234 Laksmana T. Baradia, 169, 282, 286, 336 Laksmanarajadeva, Kalcuri king 91 Laksmi 223, 310, 465 Laksmi Narayana 201, 202, 347, 397, 465, 535 Lakulisa 111, 166, 167, 168, 228, 464, T. at Pawagadh, 507 Laliga (Lalla), 124, n. 68, 137 Simha, 200 Lalita, T. Class, 310, 311 Lalitadevi, 179 Lalitaditya Muktapid, King, 169 Lalitaprabhasuri, 225 Lanka, 244 Lasundra, 173, n. 204 Lata regoin, 35, 69, 75, 183, 190 n. 265, 266, 308 320, n. 159, 321, 322, (Lati) style, 35 318, 320, School 318, 319, 320 Temples, 320 Latapur. Kashmir, 169 Latina, T. Class 235. 324, 11. 183, 329 Lauriya stupas, 5 Lavanaprasada, 97, 175 Laxmi-narayana, 189 T. 190; 190 n, 264 at Delmal, 103, ff 405, 409 at Pedgaon 60, at Girnar, 215 Laxmitilaka Upadhyaya. 189 Licchavis, 4, n. 5. Lilade vi 174 Lilapura (Lalitapura), 174 Lilesvara T. 174 Bhimesvara T. 174 Lilavati, 259, 284 n. 5 Ljmkheda, Hathesvara T. 351 Limboji Mata T. Delmal 103, 120, 131, 278. 283, 337, 349, 415, 454, 528 Linch, Jakhraja Mata T. 171 Linga- purana, 254 Lingaraja T.Orissa, 50 Lothal, 70 Lovarali, Gokesvara T. 231, 277, 304, 337 351 367, 371, 374, 390, 392, 405, 465,474, 518 ff Lumbha, Maharava 201 Lunapasaka, 175 Lunasimha (SK. Lavyanasimha), 180 Lunavasahi T.Abu, 123, 180, ff. 184, 209, 210, 301, 333, 367, 374, 379 381, 417, 420, 421, 426, 428, 429, 433, 434, 442, 444, 446,

Page #636
30 454, 460, 467, 468, 484, Mahaviracariya (carita) 129, 485 153 Lunav, Lunai T. 83, 494 Mahayira tirthankara Lunai Mata, Lunav, 494 T. at Bhiladia, 189, M , at Kanthkot, 191, 198 Madanshankara T. 118 , at Kumbharia, 127, Madasarasthali, 78, n. 31 441, 444, Madhavarai T. Mula at Osia, 50 Madhavapur, 206 , at Posina 210 Madhavpur, 170, 433, 442, ,, at Sander, 198 446, 467 >> at Sangam khetaka, 183 Madhavaraja (Surya), > at Vijapur, 183 T. 170, 300, 301, 336, Mahayana, 15, 74 367, 368, 374, 521 Mahendravarman Pallva king Madhyadesa, 35, 320 Madhybharat, 77, 11. 24 Mahesa (Mahadeva), 74, 112, Madura, 48, 65 183 Magaderu, Dhrasanvel, 231, Mahipaladeva Ra Cudasma, 277, 282, 306, 337, 355, king, 145, n. 136, 176, 367, 372, 374, 384 385, 199 386, 509 Mahi, River, 100, n, 12; 277 Magadha, 35, 74; sivanatha T, 100 Magadhi, 34 Mahisa, 173, n. 204 Mahabharata, 244, 245, 262 Mahlsasura mardini, 464, 515 Mahajirao, Gaikwar, 160, 11. Mahmuda Begada, 145, 181 01. 136, 146. 215, n. 43 Mahakali 397, 464 Mahmuda of Gazna 96, 119, Mahakutesvara T. Badami, 61 145, n. 136 Mahamalla 30 Mahudi. 164, 165 11. 191 Mahanasinha, 124 n. 68 Maipuri Masjid, Somanath, Mahapadma, T. Variety 309, 134. 149 325 Majtrana, 191 Mahapitha basement veriety, Majmudar A. K. 101, 135, 393, 394 175 n. 213 Maharaja Bhavan T. siddapur Makunda T. Mamallapuram, 141 62 Mahavagga, 247 Mala De T, Gyaspur, 51

Page #637
14 Malegitti sivalaya, Badami, 61 Malhenesvara T. Somnath, 175 Malla, 4, 5, 205 Mallikarjuna T. Pattadakala, 61 Mallinath, 54, 179, 307, 338; T. Patan, 179 Malva, 35, 75, 77, 79, 96, 178. 213 n. 37; 483 Mamallapuram (Mahabalipuram), 30, Shore T, 31, 62 Ishavara T. 62 Mukunda 'T, 62 Mana, 240 Mana-Carya, 240 Manaji, 143 n. 125 Manasara, 33, n. 10. 283, 286, 312, 478 Mandali, Mulesvara T, 98 Mandalika Cudasma, 75 n. 19 T. 75 n. 19; Vihara, 189 Mandali N. M 524 n. 49 Mandar, T, Variety, 25, 168, 308 n. 112, 309 Mandaraka, ceiling order, 443, 444 Mandara, peak, Mt. Meru, 25 Mandavagadha, 190 Mandavi, Sundaravara T. 223 Mandira, T. Variety, 309, 409 Mandrapur, 164, 280, 301, 333, 350, 359, 468 Mandsor, 75 Mandvyapur (Mandor), 124 n. 68 Mangrol, 433 n. 69, 442 Manika, T.Shape, 37, 309, 324. 340 Manishanker Bhatt, 263 n. 118 Maniyara Matha, Rajgir, 28 Mankad. P.A. 34, 262, 267, 284, 317 n. 141 Manod (Manund), 195, 301, 337, 367, 371, 432, 442, 467, 471 Narayana T. 171 Mansa, 368 n. Manu, 258 Manusmrti, 245 Manusyalaya Candrika, 283 n. 4 Markandeya, Purana, 120 Martanda T, Kashmir, 288 Mataji cliff, Pawagadh, 218, 219 T. 166 Mathachhada, Siva, T. 232 Math-Kasangadh, Khandesvari Mata T, 519 Mathura, 248 Matrika panel, 164 Matrisa. 90 Matristhanaka-ksetra, 78, n 31 Mastya Purana (M.P.) 25, 251, 257, 262, 308, 309, 310, 312, 317, 319, 323, 331, 339, 353, 368 369. 379, 391, 410 438, 448, 481 Maya, 244, 245, 246, 258, 259, 261, 267 n. 139; mata (School) 33 n, 10, 283

Page #638
n. 4, 313, 470 n 48 Medapata (Mevad), 275 Megasthenes, 241 Meghdhvani, 174, 175 n. 213 Meghnada T Somnath 174 Meguti. Jain temple, 58, 61 Meha Kavi, 142, 211 n 35 Menandar, 71 Mers, 289 Merta, 219 Meru. mandovara variety, 399 Meru Mountain, 25, 26 Merutunga, 98. 118, 127, 128, 137. 154 Meru, T Veriety, 308 n. 112; 309, 314. 315, 316, 318. 325 Mervadi, mandapa variety, 370, 376 Mervadi. T. Types, 310, 311 Meshvo, river, 183, 228 Mesopotamia, 18 Mevada, 209 n. 32, 212, 221, 271 n. 144; 276 Mevum, Nagapuri Mata T. 171 Minayugala, symbol, 73 Microlithic Age, 70 Minaladevi, 124 n. 68, 138 Misra, Ceiling form, 443 Misraka, T. class, 310, 311, 314, 316, Mithila, 245, 248 Miyani. 83, 87, 106, 110, 279, 294, 295, 301, 332, 337, 346, 370, 402, 415, 492, 493, Ganapati T. 334, 355, 402, 23 403 Harasiddh T. 291, 337, 344, 351, 353, 363, 367, 371, 374, 405, 409, 492 Jain T. 336, 355, 371, 374 381, 394, 405, 409, 464 Nilakanth T. 106, 110, 183, 277, 282, 332, 336, 305, 356, 367, 371, 374. 394, 405, 409, 464 Siva T, 83, 355 Modhapur (Modhera). 90 Modhera, Sun T. 89, 101, 104. 105, 106, 119, 120, 126, 149, 166, 182, 184, 194, 202, 218, 278, 299, 305, 306, 332, 336, 344, 359, 367, 368, 373, 375, 376, 384, 385, 388, 389, 392, 394. 396, 397, 399, 416, 417, 420, 422, 423, 424, 426, 427, 428, 429, 437, 439, 440, 441, 443, 444, 451, 452, 458, 464, 465, 466, 468, 470, 472, 474. 507 Modhera gaccha, caitya, Dhandhuka, 129 Mohammad Azam, 146 n. 136 Mohammad Ghori, 96 Mohenjo-dero, 18 Mokala, 271 n. 144 Morkhan, 168 Motab, 196, 278 n.5; 390, 392. 422, 468, 470 Moti Dau, Bhavanesvara T. 220

Page #639
24 Mulesvara T. Mandali, 97, 98, 524, n. 49; Padana 231, 524 Murlidhara, inscription; T. Bhiloda, 192 Musaffarkhan, Governor, 227 Musakavihara, Patan 154 Mustika, T. Variety, 309 Mysor, 66 Syamaranuni Derun, 22, Mtichakatika, 258 Mriga T. Variety, 308 n. 112 Mrigaraja T. Variety, 309 n. 3 Muni Bava T, Than, 100, 129, 279, 337, 347, 367, 372, ff. 374, 416, 428, 444, 446, Munj Sundar suri, 99 Muni Suvrata, Tirthankara, 72, 174 Munjala, minister, 128 Munjalaswamideva T. 98, n. 4. 193, n 279 Munjalavasati T. Anahilapura' 128 Munjapur, 161, 225 Munia Sakara, 514, n. 38 1 Munjashah, 185 Munsara, lake, Viramgam 138 ff. 279, 299, 458, n. 32 Mukerji Radhakamala Dr. 20 Muktesvara Temple, 50 Mukuli T. Variety, 309 Muladevaswami T. Patan, 98 524 n. 49 Malaraja I, 89, 96, 97, 98. 120, 130, 145, 150, 185, 204, 220, 235, 524 II, 96, 162 Mularaja Vasahika, Patan 98 Mulasthana, Sun T. 188 Mulavasati, Broach, 99 Mul Dwarka, 113, 530 (Visavadr Tgroup), 231 Mul-Madhavapur, Madhavrai T. 206 Balatama, T. 206 Nabhichhanda, ceiling order, 442, 443 Nabhija (Rsabha), 178 Nachna, Parvati temple, 27 Naga (Nagini) 165 n. 191, 347, 520 Nagabhatta II, King, 90 Nagadamana, 206, 441 442 Naganatha T. Chorwada, 205 Nagapuri Mata T Mevum, 171 Nagara (Northern Indian Style) (School, Phase, Type etc.), 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 85, 130, 173, 194, 232, 234, 236, 259, 260, 261, 266, 267, 310, 312, 313 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322 329, T. Basement Variety, 393, 394, 399. T. class, 310, 311, 313. 314, 316, 356, 357 Nagara, brahamanas, 219. 317, n. 141 Nagara, Jayaditya T. 182 Nagari. language, 35

Page #640
Nagarjuna, 72 Nagarjuna Konda, Stupa, 12, 13, 72 Nagasarika (Navsari), 90 Nagavaloka, Ama, 89 Nagesvara T. Dabhoi, 278 Nahapana, Ksatrapa, 73 Nakulisa, 138 Nalanda, brick temple, 49 Nanaghata, inscription, 77 Nanavati J. M. 534 n. Nandana, T. Variety, 308 n. 112; 309, 318, 409 Nandanadi, Mandapa Variety, 370 T. class, 310, 311 Nandangarh, Stupa, 7 Nandanika, T. Variety, 309 Nandapadra, 208 Nandasali, T. Variety, 409 Nandi, 78, 94, 151, 164, 166. 185 Nandipada, Symbol, 73 Nandisa T, Variety, 409 Nandisvara dvipa, 129 Nandisvara T. group, 83, 84, 231, 277, 303, 404, 405, 409, 496, 520, 521 Nandi Vardhana T. Variety 157, n. 169, 308 n. 112, 309 Nandivarmana, king, 62 Napusamsaka, T. class 314 Naradiya purana, 256 Naranarayananda, 177 Narapala Samghavi, 216 Narasimhavarman, Pallave King, 30 25 Narayana T. Manod, 171, 367, 371, 432, 442, 467, 471 Narmada valley cultura, 263 Nasika, caitya-Griha 13, 14, 73 Natesa, 397 Natraja, 168 Naulakhi T. Pawagadh, 218 Navadera, T. Polo, 232 Navagrahas, 81, 106, 110, 111, 113, 114, 116, 151. 202, 220, 221, 346, 347, 350, 351, 352, 354, 462, 463, 465, 495, 500, 508, 516, 518, 519, 523, 527, 536 Navakhanda Parsvanatha T. Ghogha, 204 Navalakha T, Ghumali, 92, 93, 132, 133, 140, 163, 279, 306, 332, 334, 337, 365, 368, 372, 379, 384, 395, 390, 392, 394, 398, 399, 417, 421, 427, 451, 464, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474 T. at Sejakpur; 304, 332, 337, 371, 375, 391, 418, 431, 432, 464, 474 Navidhraveda Kalika T. 83, 279, 283, 291, 295, 324, 366, 371, 373, 377, 378, 389. 414, 497 Nawab, S. M. 199 n. 2 Neminatha, Tirthankara, 126, 153, 159, 178, 180, 181, 434, 435 T.at Girnar 142, ff. 154, 198,199, 207, 305, 333, 338, 367, 368, 373, 374, 375,

Page #641
379, 384, 437, 457; T. at Kumbharia, 159, 303; at Posina, 210; at Satrunjay, 178 Nigliva, 6 Nigudha, T. class, 310, 311 Nilakantha T. at Miyani, 106, 110, ff, 151, 183, 277, 282, 301, 332, 336, 356, 367, 374, 394, 405, 409, 604 at Posina, 210; at Ruhavi 111, 112, 390, 392, 422, 423, 449, 468, 470. 471 at Sunak, 164, 301, 337, 344, 365, 367 372, 374, 390, 405, 415, 417, 422 424, 426, 430, 433, 440, 444, 464, 470, 471, 473, 474, 514 at Virta, 195, 316, 365, 367, 372, 374, 424, 439, 473 at Visavada, 336, 365, 371, 530, 531; at Wachoda, 151 Nirvankalika, 72. 0. 10, 249 Nisadha, T. class, 313 Niti sara, 258 Niya, Ninnaya or Nima, 89 Nrisimha (Narasinha), incarn ation, 112, 116, 177, 348, 441, 442. 465 Nritya, mandapa variety, 370 Nsivaraha 177, n. 220 1 404, 409, 434, 498; Anjali T, Gorakhanath T. 52 Visnu T. 286, 300, 337, 355, 378 442, 467 Oriental Institute, Baroda, 264 n. 133, 271 n. 146, 275 n. 154, Orissa, Temples, 49, ff, 540 Osia Temples, 50 ff., 86, 88, 168 Harihara T. 50, 87, 88 Mahavira T. 50 R Padaliptacarya, 249 Suri, 72 Padaliptamcaritam, 72 n. 11 Padaliptanagara (Palitana), 72. 178, 179 Paddmadur, Stupa, 12 Padma (ka) T. Variety, 308 n. 112, 309 Ceiling Variety, 442, 444 Padmamandaraka ceilng order 442, 444 Padmanabha ceiling order, 442. 444 Padma Purana, 79, n. 31; 458 n. 33 Padmasimha, Mandapa Variety, 375, 376 Padha, Mulesvara T, 231, 524 Pahalaviya Parsvanatha T. Palanpur, 183 Paharpur, brick temple, 49 Palanpur, Pahlaviya Parsvanath T. 183 Odadar T. Group, 83, 231, 277, 293, 334. 335, 401,

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27 Paleolithic Age, 70 Palesvera Mahadeva T, Vasai, 216 Palitana, 53, 72, 157, 179, 200, 218 Pallava, rock-cut temples, 28 Pancala, region, 317, n. 141 Panca-Pandava T, Satrunajaya, 197, 336 Pancasanamandapa Nirnaya, 264, n, 133 Pancasara parsvanatha T. Anahilpur, 58, 91, 178, 467, 484 Panca-Siddhanta, 284 n. 5 Pancayatana T, 108, 197 n. 289 3; 298, 506; at Asoda, 166; at Astika kenyata, 535; at Bhetali, 214; at Davad, 508; at Derol, 185; at Dhrasenvel, 509; at Gavada, 512 at Hirapur, 514 at Osia, 51 at Kevan, 185 at Saptnath, 185 Pankhanath, siva T. 172 Pandarajya or Panduraja, Goddess, 79 n. 31 Pandavas, 220, 245 Pandya A. V. 208 n. 28 Pandya P.P. 163 n. 186 Papamocana T, Somnath 146 Papanatha T. at Pattadakia, 59 Parabadi, Triple T. 106, 108, 110, 280, 307, 332, 337 Pasanavada, 277 n. 1, 294, Gayatri T. 283 335 Parasara, 258 Parasuramesvara T. Bhuva nesvar, 49, 50 Pariksita, 467 Parsvanatha, Tirthankara, 72, 132, 133, 178; T. at Ahmedabad, 225; at Baroda, 158; at Chorwad, 217; at Davad, 185; an Gandhar, 224 at Girnar, 190, 229 at Harij, 196 at Kumbharia, 139 at Pawagadh, 218, 219 at Posira, 210 at Sankhesvar, 143, 229, at Satrunjay, 178 at Serisa, 200 at Stambhanak, 178 at Unjha, 222 Parvadevi T. Delmal, 103 Parvati, 165, 168, 214, 220, 354, 464, 514, 519, 530 Pasanavada, 83, 346, 499 n. Gayatri T.283, 334, 366, 371, 377, 378, 383, 389, 499 Sun T, 82, 355, 366, 402, 498, 502, 503 Pasila shresthi, 159 Pasthar, 87, 92, 93, 280, 293, 294, 295, 334, 335, 402, 403, 496

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Pata, Sun T. 82, 277, 334, 346, 355, 366, 376, 414, 415, 499, 501 Patan (Pattana). 98, 122, 128, 135, 141, 171, 230, 271, 279, 431, 433, n. 71, 524, n. 49; Adisvara T. 144; Bhattarika Bhiruni T. 120 Bhimesvara T. 120 Kanthesvari T. 91 Kalika Mata T. 161 Muladevaswami T. 98 Pancasar Parsvanatha T, 484 Patana Caitya-Paripati 225 Pattadakala, 59, 61. 290, Pathaka, 97. n. 1 Pava 4, 5, 5. n. 5 9.3 Pawagadh, 126, 166, 216, 279, Bavanderi T. 218 Candraprabha T. 219 Suparsva T. 219 Parsvanata T. 219 Lakulish T. 507 77 Saindhavi T, 153. n. 151 Santinatha T. 138 "" Suvidhinatha T, 184 Vadi Parsvanatha T. 225, 431 F9 Pedagaon, Laxaminaraian T. 60 Peddganjam, Stupa, 12 Percy Brown, 289 Periplus, 71 Pethada 181, 183, 190, 191, 198, 204 28 Phasanakara (Napumsaka) T. class, 314, 315, 316 Piludra, Sitala T. 170, 280, 303, 351, 394, 405, 409, 451, 455, 464, 465, 472 Torana, 170 Pindara, Sun T, 82 280, 291, 293, 295, 334, 335, 501 Pippalivana, 5, n. 5 Piprawa Stupa 5 Pittalakhora, Caityagrihas, 14 Pittalahara T. Delwada, 208, 209, 214 Polo, jungle, 231, 533, ff. Porbandar, 132, 206, 291, 389, 502 Dhingesvara T. 83 Kedarnatha T. 132 Posina Mahavira T. 210 Neminatha T. 210 Nilakanth T 210 Parsvanatha-Santinatha T. 210 Prabhacandracarya, 143, 154 Prabandha-Cintamani 25, 91, 120 Prabhasa, Father of Visvakarma 262 Prabhas (Patana), 73, 118, 192, 199, 204, 235 Bhadrakali T. 119, 145, 146 Candraprabha T. 199 Rudresvara T. 231, 277, 337

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29 Sasibhusana 277, 306, 337 Somnath T. vide Somnath; Sun T. 201, 203 277, 278, 304, 306, 336 Prabhasakhanda, 524 n. 48 Prabhas patan, Inscription, 119 Prabhavaka carita, 72 n. 11, 129, 143, 153 Prabhutavarsa Govindaraja, 90 Prachi kunda, 169; Sarsyati, 90 Pradyumana, minister, 128 Pragatanatha T. Vala, 79 n. 32 Prithvidevisvara T. Talaja, 175 Prithvidhara, T. variety, 309 Prithvipala, minister, 126, 158 Prithudaka, 90 Priyabala Shah Dr. 253 n. 85 275 n. 154 Pudgam, Siddhessvara T. 222 Punarano galha, 117, 428, 442 Pundarika T. Satrunjaya, 221 Punjabi, language, 34 Punyasuritilaka, 185 Puranas, 251 260, 323, 353 Agni, 254 Bhagvat, 113 n. 48; Bhavisya, 255, Brahmanda, 253; Garuda, 255, 479; Harivansa, 70 n. 2; Kalki, 256; Kumara, 255; Linga, 254; Matysa, 251; Markandeya, 120, 151, n. 147 Nardiya, 256 Padma, 79 m. 31, 438 Praggvriadi, mandapa variety, 370 Prahaladana Parsvanatha, image, 183 Pramanamanjari, 275 n. 154; 440 n. 96 Pranta, mandapa variety, 479; porch variety 380 Prasadakarmagnana karika, 264 n. 133 Prasada-mandana (P. M.) 272, 280, 341, 356, 358, 362, 369, 371, 391, 392, 394, 395, 439, 446,448, 458, 478,485 Prasada-Tika, 271 n, 143 Pratinaka, pillar shape, 438 Prayogamanjari, 275 n. 154 Premabha! Hemabhai, 229, n. 89 Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, 228, n. 86 n. 33 Reva, 228 Sarasvati, 137, 138 Skanda, 148 n. 140, 155, 438 n. 33 Vayu, 231, 253 Visnu; 253 Visnudharmottara, 118 n. 58/1, 253

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30 Puratana Prabantdh, 196 Puri, 49 Purnasinha, 217 Puspaka, shape, 37, 309, 324, 340, T. Variety, 315, 316 Puspakadi, manadpa, group 369 Pusapavati, River, 278 Pushker, 73 R Rahoda, Akadadeva, 91 Rajadevi, Surya Consort, 182, n. 231 Rajagraha, 4, 5, 248 Raja Maldeo, 219 Rajaraja, King, 63 Rajasekhara, 258 Rajatarangini, 258 Rajavallabha, 272 Tilka, 271 n. 143 Rajavihara T. at Patan, 141 at Siddhpur, 142 Rajendra, Chola King, 64 Raigir, Maniyara Matha, 28 Rajia, 224 Rajimati, 434, Rajrani temple at Puri, 50 Rajsimha, Pallva King, 62 Rajsthana, (Rajputana), 36, 47, 50, 51, 77, 87, 228, 235 Ralakha, 116, below n 55 Rama, incarnation, 348, 465, 467, 468, T. at Baradia, 152, 168, 277, 286, 304, 306, 333, 365, 390 Ramabai, Kumbha's drughter, 274 n, 152 Ramadeva, 192 Ramagrama, 4 n. 5; 5 n. 5 Ramaji T, 193 Rama kunda, Modhera, 123, 278, n. 4; 458 n. 33 Ramasainya (Ramsena), 99 Ramayana, 228, 245, 262 Ramesvara Cave, 29; T. at Somnath, 176 Ranchhodji, 228, 527, 530; I at Dakore, 227 n. 457 n 31 at Dholaka, 143, 144 at Valam, 455, 465: at Visavada, 302 Randala, 492; T. at Khimesvara, 84, 492, 494 Rangapur, 70 Ranivava, Patan, 122 n. 65 1 Ranmala T, Idar, 231, 515 Ranpur, 206 n. 24 . Ranchhodji T. Valam, 451, 455, 465, 466, 527 Rana Darjana Salya 143 n. 125 229 n. 90 Ranaka Brahamana, 222 Ranakadevi T. Wadhwan, 194, 220, 234, 278, 300, 331, 378, 404, 409, 496, 521 Ranaka, Mahasamanta, Saindhava King, 90 Ranaka Patal, 216

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Ranaka Samantasimha governor, 189, 190; 190 n. 265 Ranakesvara 7. Dholka, 222 Ranakpur, Dharnivihara T. 142, 211, 283, 337, 339, 352, 359 Rana kumbha, 217, 219, 274 Ranavav, Siva T. 83, 294, 346, 356, 366, 371, 383, 389, 402, 499, 502 Rao Bhan, 217 Rao Khengarji, 223 Rasamala, 452 Rasamandala, scene, 441, 442 Ratnadevi, Surya consort, 182 n. 231 Ratnakuta, T. variety, 409 Ratnamandira, 137 Ratnasinha, King 22 Ratnatilaka T. Kavi, 226 Ratnesvara T. Vala, 79 n. 32 Rava, Revachi T. 190 Rava Bhana, King 534 Raval D. M, 533 n. 61 Raval Ravishanker, 93 Ravana, 123 Ravan-ka khai. Elora, 29 Ravichandra, 217 Rayanapankha-Payaranam (Ratna pariksa-prakranam 270 n. 142 Rayanasa, 188 Rekharnava, 264 Revachi Mata T, Rava, 190 Reva Purana, 228 Revati, 75 n. 19, 206 Kunda, 190 n. 264; 206, 457 n. 32 Rgveda Samhita, 239 ff Rhys Davids, 247 Risabhadeva (Rsabhanatha) (Adinatha), Tirthankara, 123, 155, 178 T, at Patan, 89 at Vadnagar, 150 Rksnayaka, T. Variety, 309 Roda, Temples 80, 85, 86, T06, 130, 233, 234, 279, 359, 388, 402, 440, 444, 447, 465, 466 Rohiniswami T. Somnath, 176 Rozadi, 70 Rucaka, T. Variety, 309, 310, 311, 313, 316. 324, 329, 330, 401 Pillar shape, 438 Rudra, image 98, 136 Rudradamana I, 73 Rudramahalya T. Siddhapur, 56, 98, 135, 141, 164, 278, 282, 304 333, 336, 367, 368, 379, 384, 386, 388, 405, 409, 417, 418, 423, 424, 425, 428, 429, 437, 438, 451, 452, 454, 455, 468, 472, 540 Rudrasena, 11 ff; 73, 74 Rudrasinha III, 73 Rudresvara T. Prabhas 137, 231, 277, 306, 351, 356, 367, 371, 374, 384, 385,

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405, 409, 440, 522, 523, at Visavda, 302 Ruhavi, 111, 112, 171, 301, 390, 392, 422, 423, 449, 468, 470, 471 Rukamani T. Dwarka, 231, 277, 282, 283, 301, 336, 390, 392, 398, 405, 409, 464, 511 Rupamandana 271 n. 144; 146.a; 272 Rupa-Narayana T., 189 Ruparana T, Vadali; n. 220/1 Rupavatara, 171 n. 146.a Rupesvara T. Boru, 199 S Sabarmati, river, 127 Sabhapadmamandaraka, ceiling order, 444, 446 Sabhamandaraka, ceiling order, 442, 444, 446 Sabhamarga, ceiling order, 442, 446 Sadasiva, 459 Sadevanta (Sadayavatsa), 32 536. n, 67 Savalinga T. at Abhapur. 536 at Pasther, p. 496; at Polo, 232, at Sonkansari, 293 Sagaratilaka, T. variety, 314, 316 Sahajiga, 158 Sahajigesvara T. Chorwad, 158 Sahasa, 216 Sahasralinga, lake, Patan, 118, 135, 137 ff; 279; 458 n. 32 Sahdeva ratha, 30 Saihyadri, region, 317 Saikha Farid, mosque, Patan, 433, n. 71 Saindhava king Ranaka, 90 Saindhavi T, at Abu Mt, 153; at Broach, Karuan and Patan, 153 n. 151 Sajjana, viceroy, 142, 143 Sajjansimha, 182 n. 234; 215, 229 n. 90 Sakti, 515, 516, 535, Saktisinha, king, 208 Sakunikavihara, 72, 177, at Broach, 158, 178 Sakyas, 4, n. 5 Sala-griha, T. variety, 309 Salakhanesvara T, Ghusadi, 175 Salaksa, 190 Salaksanapur, 162, 190 n. 267 Salaksa-Narayana, 189 Salsette, 14, 28, 30 Salunka, 110 Samadhi Mandira, Vadali, 177 n. 220/1. Samaksipta, ceiling form, 443 Samala, 215 Samaranagana sutradhara, 24, 26, 33, 54, 233, 265 ff. 275, 310, 311, 312, 313, 318, 321, 322, 324, 325, 326, 329, 331, 341, 356, 369, 370, 376, 380, 391, 398, 401, 406, 407, 408,

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33 410, 438, 439, 448, 470, 474, 475, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 485 Samarashah (Samarasinha), 70, n, 2; 152 n. 150, 157, 200, 213, 221 Samatala, ceiling variety, 440, 441 Sama-utksipta, ceiling form, 443, 444 Sainba, Purana, 256 Sambhavanath T, Kumbharia 197 Sameta-sikhara, 54,179 Samgamesvara T. Pattadakala, 61 61 Samindharanatha T, Vamaj, 220 Samkhyana glhyasutra, 243 Samudagaka, T. variety, 308 n 112 Samudramanthana, scene 467 Sanaraja, 215 Sanchi, 6. 8, 10, 87; T. 110, 17, 27 Sanchor, 96 Sandalesvara T, Kamboj, 184, 189, n. Sandasar, dam, 279 Sander, 106, 171, 300, 301, 332, 337, 344, 390, 397, 399, 404, 405, 409, 415, 424. 433, 440 449, 465, 468, 474, 524 Mahavira T, 198 Sanderi Mata T. 107 n. 31 Sanderavala-vasti, Patan, 179 n. 224/1 Sandesara Dr. B. J. 469 Sandhara, T. class, 310, 311, 313, 315, 316, 386 Sangamakhetaka (Sankheda), 183 Sangamesvara T, Somnath, 205 Sanghata, ceiling type, 443 n. 111 Sanghavi Mandalaka, 213, 214 Sanghavi Somaji, 225 Sangramasinha, 213 Sangrama Soni T, Girnar, 213 Sankalesvara Mahadeva, Mahudi, 165 Sankalia, Dr H. D. 75, 76, 85, 100, 101, 120, 131, 134, 207, 234, 289, 298, 307, 454, 463 Sankarika, goddess, T. 78, n. 31 Sankha, T. Variety, 309 Sankhala raja, 160 Sankhesvara, Parsvanatha T, 143, 182, 229 Sankhyatirtha, Upendramohan 271 n, 146/a Sanskrit, language, 34 Santa, mandapa Variety, 374, 376 Santa, poreh, variety, 380 santinatha T, Jamanagar, 222 at Kumbharia, 128; at Patan, 158, at Posina, 210 at Satirnjaya, 191 Santu, minister, 128, 141

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Saptnatha Dharesvara T, 185 Saradesvara T. Kucchadi, 517 Sarangadeva, 193 Saranesvara T. Abhapur, 534, Polo, 232 Sarasvat mandala, 96, 184 n Saraswati, figure, 351, 467; Purana, 137, 138; river, 136, 173, 278; valley, 96 Saraswati S.K 102, 131, 156, 195, 290, 291 Sarnel, Galtesvara T, 100, 277, 339, 340, 372 Sarnatha, 6 Sarotra, Jain T. 207, 229, 280, 302, 337, 367, 368, 381, 421, 424, 425, 426, 439, 457, 460 Sarvabhadraka T. Variety, 308 n. 112 Sarvadesika, T. Variety, 321 Sarvajita, T. Kavi, 226 Sarvamangala devi T. Khandosana 152, 303 Sarvananda Suri, 162 n, Sarvatobhadra, T. variety, 308, 309, 409 Sarvesvara, 97 Sas-Bahu temples, 55 at Kavi, 226, 277, 535 Sasibhusana T, Prabhas, 231, 277, 306, 337 Satapatha Brahmana, 243 Satavahana, 73 Satmukhivav Dabhoi, 278 T. 188 34 Satrunjaya Mt. 53, 54, 72. 90, 154, 157, 178, 179, 190, 191, 200, 279, 283, 336 Mahatmya, 70 n 2. Adinatha T. 54, 157, 178, 200, 221, 225, 226. Cakesvani T. 221, Caumukha T. 225, Gandharia, T. 222, Kumaravitara T. 155, Pancapandava T; 197 Parsvanatha T. 178 Pundarika T. 221 Neminatha T. 178 Samarashah T. 221 Santinatha T, 178. 191 Satyanarayana-Katha, 24 Satyapura Mandala, 96 Savalinga, 536 n. 67 Sejakpur, 280, 337, 392, 394, 398, 399, Jain T. 365, 367, 368, 371, Navalakha T, 107, 133, 304, 332, 337, 371. 375, 391, 418, 431, 432, 464. 474 Siva T. 367, 371, 374 Senapati Bhatarka, 767 Serisa, Parsvanatha T, 200 Sesa, 171, 459 Sesasayi Narayana (Visnu), 109, 160, 201, 459 Sethana Mandira. Jamnagar, 224 Shah, Dr. U. P. 86 n. 43a; 456 Shamalaji, 228, 279, 338, 344,

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35 Hariscandracori, T. 99, 443, 451, 455; Kasivisvesvara T. 228; Khakachowk, 88; Sun T. 80 Trilokyamohana T. 228 Shankhesvara, 280 Shastri Gaurinatha, Benaras, 264 n. 128 Shastri D. K. 98 n. 4, 5, 254 n, 86 Shastri Dr. H. G, 79 n. 31 533, n. 61 Shastri H. P. 98 n. Sla Shastri K. Vasudeva, 264 n. 126 Shedhi, river, 183 Shobherda, Vyaghesvari T, 232 Shore T, Mamallapuram, 62 Shri Kantha, 275 n, 154 Shri Mata T. 209, 214 Shukla Dr. D. N. 318, 319, 329 Sibika Vesma T. variety, 309 Siddhapur, 135, 141, 164, 282, 304, 336, 367, 368, 379, 384, 386, 388, 405, 409, 417, 418, 423, 424, 425, 428, 429, 437, 438, 451, 454, 455, 468, 472, 540 Maharajabhuvana T, 141 Rudramahalaya T, 56, 98 Siddhapur vihara T. 141 Siddharaja, Jayasimha. 96, 119 134, 135, 137, 138, 140, 144, 152, 164 Siddhambika T. Disa 351 Siddhnatha T. Kheralu, 197 n. 289 3; at Dholaka 222 Siddhant-Siromani, 259, 284 n. 5 Siddhapala vasati, Patan 183 Siddhayika, Jain Goddess, 72 Siddhesvara T, Padgam, 222; at Somnath, 148; at Visavada, 336; at Wadhwan, 140 Siladitya I, Dharmaditya 78 n. 30; IV, 78, n. 31 Silpa Dipaka, 275 n. 155 Silparatna, 33 n. 10; 35; 283 n. 4; 470 n. 48 Silpa Ratnakara, 275 n, 155; 343 ndeg 53; 485 n, 4 Silpa Sastras, 25 traditional works, 252 n. 82 Silpa-Sastra-Gara-sangraha, 275 n. 155 Sinha, era, 150, 190 n. 266 Mandapa, 369, 374, 375 T. variety, 308 n. 112, 309 Simbasya, T. variety 308 n. 112 Simhavalokana, T. class, 314 315, 316 Sinar, Gondesvara T. 60 Sindh, region 289 Sindhavai or Simhavahini Mata T. Broach, 228 Sirpur, Lakseman brick T. 49 Sirvatanaka-sthali, 78 n. 31 Sitala 123, 459, 464, 465,

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36 T. at Piludra, 170, 171, 303, 333, at Vadnagar, 231 283, 351, 393, 435, 441, 442, 445, 465, 526 Sitas Cori, 458 n. 33 Siva, 78 n. 29, 82, 83, 105, 107, 110, 118, 140, 145, 147, 151, 160, 163, 168, 184, 186, 197, 201, 208, 215, 221, 223, 226, 259, 286, 287, 309, 310, 347, 348, 349, 350, 354, 397, 454, 456, 458, 463, 464, 466, 467, 477, 489, 492, 493, 495, 496, 507, 508, 509, 512, 515, 521, 522, 530, 533, 535, 536 Sivanadadi, mandapa variety, 370 Siva, Purana, 256, 262 Siva-Parvati, 202, 347, 397 Sivanatha T, Mahi. 100 Sivaraja, 205 Sivika vesma T. variety. 309 Siyaka, II, 100 Skanda, 214 Skanda Gupta, 74 Skanda Purana, 148 n. 140 458 n. 33 Sobhanadeva, architect, 181 n. 229 Sobhandeva, Governor, 183 Sobherda, Sobhesvara T. 536 Vaghesvari T. 536 Sobhesvara T. Sobharada, 536 Sodasa T. variety, 308 n. 112 Sohinesvara T. Talaja, 175 Sojitra, Adinath, T. 215 Soma 346 Somaditya, T. Bhayavadar, 151, 278 n, 3; 301 Somaditya T. Gorad, 106, 109, 390, 392, 397, 405, 409, 415, 422, 423, 434, 441 Somaraja, Gohil chief, 158 Somapratistha Suri, 141 Somasaubhagya Kavya, 141 Somasundara Suri, 141, 142, n, 122; 209, 211 Somesvara, 179 n. 226; 186 n. 251 Somesvara-mandapa, 174 Somnath Patan, inscription, 205; 324 n. 48 Somnath (Pattana), 70, 119, 134, 138, 152, 170, 227, 235, 282 Bhadrakali T. 145, 146 Bhimesvara T. 148 Candika 7, 148 Candroprabha 7, 199 Gauri T. 148 Kapardi T. 148 Karkesvara T. 194 Karkesveri T. 194 Meghanada T. 174 Papamocana T. 141 Sangamesvara T. 205 Sasibhusana T. 332, 356, 367, 374, 384, 385, 405, 409, 452

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37 Siddhesvara T. 148; Somanatha T, 80, 91, 96, 98, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 175, 176, 277, 282, 306, 333, 365, 367, 368, 373, 375, 379, 384, 385, 388, 390, 394, 398, 399, 417, 419, 420, 421, 426, 428, 432, 437, 452, 464, 465, 467, 470, 472, 474, 484, 540; Sun T. 147, 195, 343, 350, 355, 356, 363, 367, 368, 371, 374, 384, 385, 390, 397, 427, 437, 440, 464 Malhanesvara T. 175 Kesava T. 176 Ramesvara T. 176 Rohiniswami T. 176 Rudresvara T. 351, 356, 367, 371, 374, 384, 385, 405, 409, 440, 522, 523 Tripurantekesvara T. 176 Umesvara T. 176 Vaidyanatha, T. 194 Somnathpur, Kesava T, 66 Somprabhacarya, 72 n, 5 Sompura Amritlal, 485 n. 4 Sompura, J. A. 275 n. 155 Sompura N. M. 275 n, 155; 485 n. 4 Sompura, P.O., 264 n. 130, 133; 269, 275 n. 154 343 n. 53; 484 n. 2; 485 Songadh. Sun T. 206 Sonkansari, T. group, 92, 94 ff, 291, 293, 335, 389, 402 Sopara, Stupa, 11 Soundara Rajan K. V. 290 Sravasti, 248 Sridhara, 176 pillar shape, 438 n. 79 Temple variety, 310, 311, 315, 316, 318 Sridharas Prasti, 174 Srijaya, T. Variety. 309 Srikantha, T. Variety, 309 Srjkuta, T. Variety, 310, 311, 319 Srimandara swami, Tirthan kara, 143 Srinagar. 206, 277, 282, 291, 292, 294, 295, 334, 335, 346, 355, 376, 415, 496, 503 Devi T. 364, 366, 371, 377, 383, 386, 389, 414, 492, 504 Siva, T. 366, 389, 414,503, 504 Surya T. 82, 206, 377, 378, 389, 503 Srirangam, 64 Sristhala, Siddhpur, 98 Sritilakodbhava, T. variety, 314, 316 Srivatsa, mandapa variety, 375, 376; Temple variety, 309, 409 Sri-vsksa, T. variety, 309 Stambhana (ka, Thamna), 179 n. 4 - Sompuras, 484 also n. 2 485 n. 4

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38 Sudraka, 258 Suhaaadevi, 180 Suigam, 524 n. 48 Suisaresvara T. Talaja, 175 Sukhananda, 275 n. 154 Sukhananda yastu, 275 n. 154 sukla yajuraveda, 242 sukra, 258 Sukraniti, 312 n. 120 Suksitakirtikillolini, 178, 179 Sulesvari T. Valam, 529 Sulva Sutras, 20, 243 Apasta mba, 343 n. 40 Baudhayand, 340 n. 40 Sumaladevi, 174 Sumalesvara T. Ghusadi (Viramgam), 174 Sumatinatha deva vasahika, 72, 179 Stambhanaka-tirthotpatti, prabandha, 72 n. 12 Stambhana Parsvanatha, 178 T. at Stambhatirtha, 144 Stambhanesa (Parsva), 178 Stambhatirtha (Cambay), 144, 179 Stella Kramrisch, Dr , 254, 320, n. 159 Sthaptya veda, 262 Stupa, 1, definition, 4 Stupa at Piprawa 5, at Lauriya 5, of Konakamana 6 at Sanchi 8, 9 at Bharhut 8, 9 at Boria 10 at Sopara 11 at Devanimori 11 at Jaggayapata 12 at Bhattiprolau 12 at Gudivada 12 at Ghantasala 12 at Garikapada, 12 at Paddamadur, 12 at Peddaganjam, 12 at Amaravati 12 at Nagarjuna kanda, 12 Subhadradi, mandopa variety, 369, 370, 374, 375, porch variety, 380 Subhatvarmana, Malva king, 178 Sudarsana Lake, 71 Suddha, ceiling types 443 n. 111 128 Sumarian, civilization, 263 Sumeru (Astapada), 54, 179 Suparsva T, Pawagadh, 218, 219 Suprabhedagama, 312 n. 120; 475 n. 57 Sun, Temple, 82, 83, 92, 93, 119, 169, 182, 184, 188, 192, 193, 201, 203, 204, 205, 206, 277, 278, 280, 282, 293, 304, 305, 306, 332, 334, 336, 346, 355, 366, 373, 377, 378, 383, 401, 402, 414, 451, 456, 460, 489, 491, 492, 494, 498, 502, 503 Sunak, 101, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 112

Page #654
39 171. 195, 280, 301, 302, 332, 337, 344, 365, 367, 372, 374, 390, 392, 396, 397, 399, 405, 415, 417, 422, 424, 426, 430, 433, 440, 444, 464, 466, 470, 471, 473, 474, 514 Sundara, 215 n 43 Sundarbedar, 217 Sundarvar T, Mandavi, 223, Sungas, T, 22 Sunmesvara T. Pattadakala, 61 Surasundari, 167 Surat, plates, 90, 173 Surataru, T. variety, 314, 316 Surwaya, 168 Surya, 81, 90, 93, 97, 105, 108, 110, 112, 116, 118, 120, 152, 160, 170, 189, 203, 214, 286, 310, 315, 346, 348, 354, 455, 463, 465, 466, 492, 498, 508, 509, 512, 514, T. 50, 103, 118, 121, 122, 123, 147, 149, 169, 195, 206, 279, 299, 300, 339 Surya-Narayana, 189 Surya-siddhanta, 259, 284 Suryatmaka, mandapa variety, 375, 376 Sutar S. U. 275, n. 155 Sutradhara, Ganesa, 275 n. 154 Govinda, 273, Kausika, 275, n. 154 Mandana, 267, 270, ff. 270, 271, 273, 274, 276; Malla, 275; Narasimha, 274 Nathaji, 273 Rajasimha, 274 Virapala, 275 Sutrapada, 80, 81, 82, 85, 92, 93, 234; 277, 282, 293, 294, 295, 334, 355, 364, 366, 371, 383, 402, 414, 415 Sutrasantana-gunakirti pra kasa, 266 Suvan, 82, 280 n. 8 294, 334, 335, 364, 365, 371, 383, 389, 396, 397, 402, 494, 499, 505, 506 Suvarna Tirtha, 505 Suvarnesa, T. variety, 308, n. 112 Suvidhinatha T. Patan, 184 Svabhra, region, 79, n. 31 Svastika, Symbol, 73; Pillar shalpe, 438, T. Variety, 309 Syama mandapa variety, 369 Syamaranum Derum, Moti Dau, 221 T Taittiriya Samhita, 20 Takavadhi (Takodi', 128 Taksaka, 467 Talaja, Cave, 79 Suisaresvara T. 175 Candesvara T. 175 Sohinesvara T. 175 Prithvidevisvara T. 175 Tamil country, 35, 60 Tanjore, Brihadisvara T. 63 Tantras, 257

Page #655
Tantrasamuccya, 32; 33, n. 10; 283 n. 4 Tapagaccha Pattavali, 159 Tapi, river, 173 n. 204 Taradevi, Buddhist goddess, 72 Taranga, 72, n. 5, 136, 155, 156, 208, 279, 283, 306, 333, 337, 367, 368, 373, 379, 381, 384, 385, 394, 398, 399, 406, 409, 420, 426, 439, 467, 468, 471 Tarapura, city, 72 Taraura, city, 72 Tarnetar, 130 Tarunaditya, sun T. 90 Tastr (Tvastr), 240 Taxila, 22; Dharmarajika stupa, 6 Telika mandir, Gwaliar, 56 Tejapala, 97, 150, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 186, 200, 219, 295, 468 T. 149, 180, 204, 207 Tejapala, soni, 157 n. 169, 224, 225 Tejasimha, Maharava, 20, Seth, 222 Ter, brick temple, 28 Thakar Dr. J. J. 227 n. Thakar Visaladeva, 81 n. 40 Thakker Feru, 249, 270, 460, 482 Thamana, 72, 179 Than, 86, 100, 129, 203, 234, 279, 301, 367, 371, 388, 40 464, 465, 466, 492, 541 Muni Bawa T. 100, 129, ff. 337, 347, 367, 372, 416, 428, 444, 446, Old T. 85, 291 Sun T. 80, 203 ff. 279 Thana, Ambarnatha T. 60 Thapar, 146 n. 136, 147, 235 Thinupala (Tribhuvanapala), 154 Tigwa, 27, 472 Tirthakalpa, 152 Tiruttani T. 63 Tiruvannamalai, 64 Tod, 132 n. 8712; 135 Torana, at Asoda, 166; at Derol, 186 at Modhera, 122 4.65 1, 170 at Satrunjay, 178 at Vadnagar, 170 Trailokyamohana, 465, T. at shamalaj!, 228 n. 86 Tribhuvana Bhatta 275, n. 154 Tribhuvanapala, king, 97, 175 n. 214, 507 n. 36, 36 1 Tribhuvana vihara, 157 Trichinopoly, 30 Trikamji T. Dwarka, 468 Trikuta, Kings, 75 Trimurti (triod), 104, 112, 463, 466, 508, 514 n. 381 Trinetresvara T, Than, 130, 234, 279, 304. 337 Tripurantaka, 175, 176 Tripurantakesvara T. Somnath, 176

Page #656
41 Tripurasa, Prasada (Triple Temple), 120; at Derol, 185; at Girnar, 54, 307; at Kasara, 104 ff, 108, 112 n. 47; 113, 170, 172 n. 204, 307, 332, 334, 337, 350, 365, 371, 374, 405, 409, 415, 424, 427, 431, 449, 465, 471, 473, 474 at Parabadi 106, 107, 108 110, 280, 307, 332 at Patan, 98; at Visavada, 307 Triratna, Buddhist, 3 Trisagnaka, T, class, 314 Trisamgamaka (Tarasanja), 79, n. 31 Triveni, gate, 205; river, 138, 203, 277, 304, 336, 343, 384, 437 Trivikrama, 228, 459, 509, 512 Trivistapa shape, 37, 309, 324, 340 Tukada, siva T, 231, 277 n.2. 302, 525 Tulaja lena at Junnar, 7. Tungabhadra, river, 320 n. 159 Tvastr, 19, 261 Twaney, 98 n. 4 Udayana or Uda, minister, 72, 128, 143, 144, 157, 158 Udayanavasahi, Cambay, 158 Udayanavihara, Dhavalaka, 143, at Kainavati, 128, 144 Udayaprabha Suri, 178 Udayasinha, King, 208, Uddharadharani, 273 Udita, ceiling variety, 440, 444, 446 Ugalesvara T, Hirapur, 514 Urjayanta (Girnar), 90, 179 Uarjyantamahatirthakalpa 70/n. 2 Uma, 176 Umabai, 226 Umamahesvara, 464 Umapati, 175 Umesvara T, Somnath, 176 Umiashanker, 268 n. Umiyamata. 228 Una, 90 Undvalli, 30 Unjha, Kunthunath T, 173 Parsvanatha T. 222 Upadesasaptati, 159 Upadesataranigani, 137 Upapuranas, Brahmavaivarta, 256 Vamana Varaha Harivamsa Devibhagavata Kalki Siva Samba Udabhinna, ceiling type, 443 n. 111 Udayagiri, caves 22, 77 n. 24 Udayakala, rekha, 327, 328, 408

Page #657
242 Urmivela, ceiling motif, 440 Usa, 284. Usavadata, 73 Utaksipta, ceiling form, 443 Uttamaha, T. Variety, 309 Vadal, 495 Vadali. Vaidynath T. 176, 177, 220/1 Balarama T. , - Siva T. Samadhi T. Ruparana T. is Vadhiara Pathaka, 97 n. 1; 524, n. 49 Vadiavir, Vadiavir T. 217, 232 Vadidevasuri, 159, Vadi Parsvanath, T, Patan, 225, 431 Vadnagar, 220, 288, 434, 435, 438, 451, 453, 454, 455, 460, 466, 472, 474 Amathor T. 106, 112, 234, 280, 347, 359, 394, 409, 423, 465. 536; Adinath T. 235 Hatakesvara T. 98, 219, 235, 248, 299, 304, 337, 379, 406, 409, 417, 422, 466, 467, 468; Kasivisvesvara T. 298; Rsabhanatha T, 150 Sitala T. 170, 351, 393, 435, 441, 442, 443, 465, 526; Torana, 170 Vagbhatapura (Bahadapur), 157 Vaghela (vyaghrapalli), 184 Vaghesvari Mata T, Shobharda 232, 536 Vaidya Acharatlal, Ahmedabad, 264 n. 133 Vaidyanatha T. Dabhoi, 178, 186 ff, 368, 484 at Somnath, 194 at Vadali, 176, 177 Vaikuntha Perumal T, Conjeevaram; 62 Vairaja (Vairajya) Shape, 37, 309, 310,'319, 324, 340 T. Variety, 314, 316 Vairayja, region, 317 Vairata, region, 320 n. 159 Vairati, style, 320 n. 159 Vaisali, 4 n. 5; 5 n. 5 Vaisnava Sakta T, 114 Vaisnavi, 530 Vajtal Deul Temple, 50 Vaivasvata, 262 Vajaking, Bharama, 204 Vajia, 224 Vajra; shape pillar 438 Varja-svastika, T. Variety. 309 Vajra, T. Variety, 309 Vakra T. Variety, 309 Vala, Ratnesvara T, 79 n. 32 Buddhesvara T, , Pragnatha, T. Bhidbhangan T. ,, Valas, 89, n. 50 Valabhi (Valabhipur), 70, n.2, 77, 79, 198 Santinatha T. 80;

Page #658
43 T. class, 309, 313, 315, 316, 341 Era, 150, 190 n. 266 Valam, 451, 455, 465, 466, 527, 529, 530 Valaya, T. Variety, 309 Vallabha bhatta Devi, Baroda, 228 . Vallabha, prince, 118 Vallabha Vidyanagar, 173 n. 204 Vamaj. Samindharanatha T. 220 Vamana, incarnation, 348 Vanaraja, King, 81, 91, 467, n. 43 Varaha, incarnation, 75, 77, 81, 110, 112, 116, 169, 220, 256; 281, 293, 334, 348, 465, 535 T. at Kadvar, 81, 293, 334 at Vijapur, 169 Varahamjhira, 251, 257, 265, 284, 323, Varaha, Purana, 256 Varahi, 220 Varana, 134 aranasi (Benaras), 248 Varata, T. class, 313, 315, 316, 321 Vardhamana (wadhawan), 162 Vardhamana, mandapa variety 369 pillar shape, 438 Vardhamanaswami T. Anahila pur, 144 Vardhani T. variety, 309 Vardhipathaka (visaya), 97, Varkharia, tree, 160 Vartula, T. variety 308 n. 112 Varuna, 77, 221, 245, 309 Varuna, Mahadeve T. varna, 134 Varunasarmaka (vadasama), 99 Varvada, 505 Vasai, 163, 280, 302, 304, Akhada T, 216 Junagadhi T. 337, 394, 441 Kankesvara T. 367, 394 . Nilakantha, T. 216 Palesvara, T. 216 Siva, 216 Vastospati Indra, 239, 240 Vastu (sasstra, vidya), 21, 34, 239, 240, 259, 260, 261, 263, 264, 266, 272, 280, 283, 312, 321, 323 Vastukambasutram, 275 n. 154 Vastukaustubha; 275 n. 154 Vastu-mandana, 272 Vastumanjari, 273 Vastupaddhali, 275 n. 154 Vastupala, 70. n. 2; 97, 177, 178, 179, 182, 295, 468 Vastupala caritam, 150 n. 145/1 179 n. 224/1, 186 n. 251, Vastupala-Teja pala, 143, 229; T at Abu, 337, 338, 371, 374, 398; T. at Girnar, 54, 179 ff; 307, 333 189.

Page #659
44 Vastupala-Tejapala prasasti, 177, 178 Vastupradipa. 275 n, 159 Vasturaja, 275 Vastu samgraha, 264 Vastusara, 270, 272, 460, 482 Vastusastra (M.S) 440 n. 96 Vastusastropadasakas, eighteen 252 n 82 Vastuvadhyaya, 275 n. 154 Vastuvidya, (MS.), 264 n. 133; 440 n. 96 Vasudeva Pandit, 275 n. 154 Vasudeva-Sri-Krisna, 22, 77 Vasupujaya T. at Broach, 144 at Karsavati, 144; at Vijapur, 188 Vasus, 262 Vataprada, 78, Vatasra, Adinatha, T. 183 Vathusara-Payasanam (Vastusara-prakarana), 249, 270 Vavara, inscription, 274 n. 152 Vavata (Vairata) T. Variety, 319 Vayarnasinha, 119 Vayad, vayu T, 230 Vayavi, 230 Vayu, image, 230 T. at Baroda, 230; T: at Vyad, 230 Vaya Purna, 231, 253 Vayuvata, 230 Velher, T; 65 Venivatsraja, 72 Veraval, 75 Prasasti, 146; Harasat T, 190 Vesara (Vavata, vairata) style; 32 ff; 35; 66, 256, 259, 266, 312, 321, 322 Vethadipa, 4 n 5.5, n. 5 Viddhasalabhanjika, 258 Vija, 208 Vijada, 200 Vijaladeva. Shresthi, 183 n. 238 Vijapur, 169, 183, 198 Mahavira T. 183 Vasupujya T, 188 Vijaya cintamani Parsvanatha T, Cambay, 224 Vijayadeva, 89 Vijayadevasuri, 210 n. 34 2 Vijayadharmasuri, 215. Vijayanagar, 65, 533 Vijaya, T. Variety, 309 Vikala, 192 Vikramaditya, King, 532 Vimala, minister, 89; 119, 149, 200, 295, 468 Vasahi T. Abu, 119, 120, 123, 124, 126, 158, 180, 181, 188, 200, 207, 209, 210, 304, 332, 367, 374, 379, 381, 417, 426. 428, 429, 430, 431, 433, 434, 440, 441, 442, 444, 460, 467, 468, 485 Vimalanatha T. Girnar, 215 Vimana, T. Variety, 309, 310, 311, 313, 315, 316

Page #660
: 45 Vimanabhadra, mandopa Variety, 375. 376 Vimanachhandaka T, Variety 308 n. 112 Vimananagar, 314, 315, 316 Vimana Puspaka, T, class, 314, 315, 316 Vinayaka, 90, 138. 141, 310 Shrine, 141 Vincent Smith, 295 Vindhya ranges, 34 Vindhyavasini Devi, 138 Virama, 175 Viramesvara T. Ghusadi, 175 Viramgam, 97 n. 1, 138, 174, 279, 282, 299, 306 Virata (varada) (region), 33, 317 Visrdhavala, 97, 186 Virta, Nilkanth T. 195, 300, 336 Virupaksa T. Pattadakala, 61 Visaala, T, Variety, 309 Visaladeva, 97, 186 187, 188, 189, 190 Visalpur, 168 Visavada 81; 82, 86. 93, 277, 291, 293, 294, 295, 302, 307, 334, 335, 336; Bhidabhanjana T, 307, 336 Nilakantha T, 336 Siddhesvara T, 336. Sun T. 80, 293 Visesavsyakabhasya, 79 Visnagar, 460 n. 45 Visnu, 90, 93, 94, 104, 107, 108, 112, 113, 116, 118, 138, 148, 160, 167; 171, 177, 185, 186, 189, 193, 197, 201, 223, 228, 259, 286, 310, 315, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 354, 397, 442 457, 458; 459, 463, 465, 466 467, 477, 498, 508, 509. 512, 514, 515, 516, 522, 528, 533, 536 T. at Kumbhalagadha; 271; at Odadar, 286, 300, 337 Visnu Dharmottara Purana, 118, 253, 308, 309, 353, 355, 391, 470 Visnu-gaya, 204 n. 19 Visnu Purana, 253 Visvakarma, 16, 240, 244, 246, 258, 259, 261, 265, 267, 309, 310, 317, 319, 322, 323, 339, 369, 391. 406, 438, 440, cave, 14, 15 Visvakarma-mata, 263 Visykarma Prakasa, 263, 68, 308, 309 Visvakarma Samita, 263 n. 118 Visvakerma silpa, 339 n. 38 Visvakamiya-silpa-Sastra, 263 Visvakarma-Vastusastrim, 264 Vithal T. Hampi 65 Vividhatirthakalpa, 70 n. 2; 72 n. 9 Vora, M. P., 267 Vriddhivisya 524 n. 49 Vtisa, T. variety 308 n. 112

Page #661
46 Vrksarnava (M S.) 264, 370, 394, 400 Vsksjati, T class, 310 Vrsabha, T, Variety, 304 Vitta, pillar, shape, 438; T. Variety, 315 Vyaghrapalli (Vaghel), 97 Vyaghresvari T. Dhinoj, 193 Yaksa, 165 n. 191; 171, 360, 457, 463, 466 Yaksadatta Gani, 89 Yama, 77, n. 24, 245 Yamuna, figure, 113 Yogadesti-Samuccaya prasasti, 128 Yogaraja, 91 , Yuan chwang; 9.. Yukavjhara, Patan, 154 Z Zaffarkhan Governor, 145 n. 136 . Zimmer, 241 n. 19 Zinzuwada, 193 n. 125; 229 n. 90 Zoljkavihara, Dhandhuka, 154 Wachoda, Nilakantha, T. 151 Wadhwan, 87, 220, 278; Ranakdevi T. 194, 234; Siddhesvara T. 140 Y Yajurveda Samhita, 242

Page #662
ERRATA Page 3 Line 6 Read 15 2 22 Jeweles monuments is 12 14 15 22 1 embellished vaulted horse-shoe-arch aperture later is Harappan yielded Tvastr reeds partly succeded prominence Altar are chamber types momentum Jewles monument are embelislied valuted horse-arch aperature latter are Harappau ycilded Tavstr reads succeded prominent Alter is. chember type momentam is was 26 31 31 31 32 14 14 15 20 .6 is later Seclusion Vstatmaka treatise extremity Brahmanical Harizontal aisle filled was latter seculsion Vstamaka treaty extrimity Brhmanical Harizonatal aisles fild 36 8 39 39 14 24

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48 Page 45 45 Line 6 10 strict for Read , of strick or Peray delicay , 47 48 50 19 4 28 pre-eminant preserved Percy delicacy pre-eminent survives latter temples overlapping has was prominence overlapping Supremacy basis there monuments Musalman Brahmanas Asramesvara alludes to piece latter Sikharas comes went to Satrunjaya 76 11 78 20 later temple overlaping have were prominance overlaping Supramcy bases : Their monument Muslaman Brahamans Asamesvara alludes peice later sikhara come want to Sartunjay pilgrimagers seccessors Kindekheda morter Brhama octagon consists Than Successer 85 10 87 27 91 23 93 94 successor Kinderkheda mortar Brahma octogonal consist from Successos 22 4 94 95 95 96 1

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Page 96 bhyH. 29 nndd nndd 103 102 104 104 105 105 105 Line 13 Read 22-22 8 10 21 11 8 6 10 25 1 24622 106 12 11 8 10 3 12 26 10 97 2 3 22 39 3" 99 F1 16 108 111 112 114 116 116 121 122 122 122 23 124 35 125 8 125 10 125 25,28,29,31, 125 26 126 127 129 " 99 "" 21 .. 23 "P "1 : "S Conquered Patronage 49 Kingdom onslaughts pantheon structures northern and southern pillars which Brahma western northern and no vedi western Brahma southern "2 Southern Navagrahas yielded dedicated to fallen off very columniation aperture asceties chases totally west of it transepts a few transepts principal deserted for "" "" 1 .:: "" 99 .. 23 93 .. .. "" 39 "" "7 93 33 dw "" 93 ** "" "" 79 17 91 Conquared Patronise King onsloughts pentheon structure north and south pillars Brhama west north and south not west Brhama 19 South Navagraha yeilded dedicated fallen of much columination aperature ascetics chased totaly west or which trancepts few trancept principle deserated

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Page Line 16 1332 132 133 135 136 136 137 137 138 138 141 144 145 146 147 147 147 148 150 150 150 150 151 153 153 153 155 157 159 152 161 161 25832 15 30 9 10 6 20,23 13 349 14 8 8 27 14 19 20 31 7 10 10 14 7 2,7 12 22 1 4 9 9 13 27 Read " 99 *" 39 " "J " 27 "" 19 +9 19 77 wr TP :a " 19 17 37 "" literally of twelfth aisle makes principal of exaggerative Dvyasraya Vindhyavasini inlet is also 50 are traced destruction follows vanished foundation indicates fine None 855 1174 maintenance seem Dvyasraya probably get which are and seems has 1169 conceals for ." 17 "" 39 11 "" "" "" "" "" 2 "" 99 " 11 "" ny "" "" 1 "" "" "" .. "" 21 97 " "" 19 " " literaly or twelth aisles make principle or exaggarative Dvasraya Vindyavasini inlent also traced distruction follow vanquished fundation indicate five Non 850 1169 maintanance seems Dvyasrya probable be which an seem have 1179 conceal

Page #666
51 for Page 163 164 165 Line 16 Read 18 , 21 1 28 166 167 1 Twelfth latter principal belongs corners begins like those on flutings prevailed in Brahmani Twelth later principle belong corner begains like on flatings prevailed Brhamani 168 8 171 172 173 174 each have highest mehr 175 177 179 184 185 191 192 either has highest bears mehar Naranarayanananda,, renouned definitely creepers laymen rebuilt Brahma is restored octagonal Sarangadeva sculptures mirror figures which are , Bhagavatisutra are totally decorations its tendencies totally referred to Naranarayananda renounced definately crepers layman rebuilts Brhama restared octagon Ramadeva sculpture miror figeres which Bhagwatisatra is totaly decoration their tendencise totaly referred 193 196 196 198 202 202 204 204 204 205

Page #667
52 Line 8 13 14 21 24 > , 1 8 26 >> 15 28 , , 20 Page 207 210 212 213 214 215 216 217 217 219 220 220 223 223 223 224 224 226 226 227 228 228 228 229 229 232 232 233 233 235 31 13,15 . 24 32 3 4 14 17 1 17-18 .. assigns a few rectangular 1515 corner 15th cent. 1469 possesses : have been comprises indicate epigraphical Vedikas clothes Brahma will give way Kaccha Sasu-vahu temples Ahmad Shahi Saivite represents c 6th ecnt. put to gether erected Sadevanta author next controversial,, temples temples available particular references commentators' carpenter assignes few recteugular 1505 corners 15th 1459 possess have comprises of indicates apigraphical Vedika cloths Brhama must give evay Kacca Sasa-bahu temple Ahmed Shah Saivita represented C. c6th ent. put gether ereated Sadavanta auther Next controvertial temple temple availabe particulars reference commantators carpentar 23 26 7 236 239 2 239 239 240 26 4-5 ,

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Page Line 240 9 243 243 247 248 249 249 11 249 20 10 1 8 6 250 28 256 1 256 19 256 20 257 3 257 14 258 26 259 20 22222 260 13 260 260 260 260 261 261 19 262 26 265 2 265 10 267 2 269 2 269 26 272 34 20 29 30 ,. 8 6 275 278 279 280 15 280 11 3586 28 > .. "" "7 "S d. "" "" "1 " 99 99 53 authority occurring non-Aryan abundant Kosthaka Vedika picturesque audience pre-christian Naradiya feminine neuter Tantra described astrological became correspondingly confine absolutely grammar phraseology exponent primordial genealogy quotes christian is referred residential latter abundently belongs to steps Brahma recommend others 37 " ', "' 14 "' 19 "" "> "" "" 99 "" " 35 authorities occuring non-Aryans abudant Kotshaka Vedica pictureous audiance pre-christen Nardiya faminine neutar Trantra describted astrologial become corresponding confined absolute grammer praseology exponant premordial geneology Quotas christen referred resedential later abudently belong to stepts Brhma recomnded other

Page #669
Line 28 Page 280 284 284 285 285 287 288 Joo W A co w 289 289 289 290 294 296 296 296 298 perished existence apertures produces florescence, laksanas be facing Surviving flaws admitedly hesitatingly indigenous Superstucture forned full-fledged entablature temples dwarf walls with,, here is in makes within an consist balcony temples displays full-fledged Auvere og w un usas Y e C va pasished existance aperatures produce flourscene laksana the facing Surving flows admitledly hesistatingly indegeneous Superstruciure form fulflegged entabluture tamples with drawf walls here in make within in consists balconies temple display full flaged 299 301 301 302 303 304 304 305 305 306 306 306 307 307 307 310 313 313 313 15 10 indicated quions leads mandap have Mervadi verify shapes crowning indicate Onjous lead mandapas has Marvadi varify shape crowing 8

Page #670
55 Page Line 315 318 3 319 15 319 321 13 322 28 322 823 325 327 sarya Devas attaining definetly prominence temples respects . preference later absent acuteness varieties Canonical two term of 10 328 328 329 330 330 331 more 331 21 331 Sarva Deva attain definatly prominance towple respect preferance latter absance acutness variety Connical three terms at mores Cononical from This parrallel regerously burried vartically regerously alloted progretians conspicuos alloted other fascial contain cresent colonnedes contains tripal 333 334 334 335 335 335 338 23 Canonical form These parallel rigorously buried vertically rigorously allotted projections conspicuous allotted others fascials contains crescent colonnadas containing triple 342 343 343 345 345 346 346 347 349 350

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15 lintel laid divided lintal liad devided shrine door be Page Line 350 353 6 , 354 17 , 354 25 355 26-27,29 , 356 6 362 364 27 366 366 367 369 369 370 door shride should be heigher Solitory examples oined at two mandapa are mandapa there mandapa its both indicate give known that of the extant 374 times higher Solitary example Joined at each of two mandaps is mandapas their mandapas both its indicates gives known as that of the garbha- ,, griha of the extant pradaksinas plans belong projections occupies 375 378 379 380 383 17 24 384 384 384 384 388 390 390 390 is pradaksina. plan belongs projection occupy are that contain erotic alloted prescribed prescription prescribed 393 393 393 394 394 , that they contain of erotic allotted is prescribed prescriptions prescribe of the Munsar at Viramgam 18 19 5 12 2 is >> of Viramgam

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57 Page Line 394 15 39615 396 32 399 401 402 403 404 23 405 405 406 407 414 fledged sculptures rigorously amongst described style then surrounded finjal bears Gop temple rest buried have then kirtimukhas 415 28 has 2-3 419 422 425 425 427 428 428 429 429 429 430 431 433 434 436 17 fleged sculpture regerously amongs discribed styled than Surround final bares Gop temples rests burried has than kitrimukhas have grasopattika capital different menifest superstructuer is strick exiquisite attendents scences plantain unsymetrical wall balaconies Aub instances catagory rediating peice. grasapattika capitals being different , manifest superstructure, are strict exquisite attendants scenes 24 , 436 22 24 437 440 442 444 445 446 unsymmetrical walls balconies Abu instance category radiating piece

Page #673
58 Line 13 Page 448 448 448 449 451 453 455 460 461 463 464 11 13 465 9 465 467 467 467 467 470 472 473 474 475 476 478 32 9-10 34 should be superimposed canons corresponds of its projection utkatikasana work fauna divided Burgess Anantasayin temples Kaliyamardana Pariksita Human beings has shown They are temple poses guardians Serpents Sculptures Strictly varieties forms early part of latter roofs cylindrical sikharas perished till reaches occurence salient jambs should superimpose cannos corespond of the its projetion utakatikasana warks founa divide Bargess Antasayina temple Kaliyamardans Pariksjata Human being shown It is tample posses guardian Serpants Sculpture Strickly variety form early of later roof cylendrical Sikhara parished till it reaches occurance Saliant Jambas 480 483 483 484 489 493 22 496 497 499 499 199 500 19:31, 23 ) 15 ,

Page #674
59 Line 24 8 11 ) , . slander slopped repairation and structures Page 500 501 501 502 504 505 505 506 510 510 512 513 514 18 surrouned 6 514 515 515 516 517 518 521 521 523 525 525 527 528 528 529 531 533 533 533 slender ... >> sloped reparatian an structure surrounded wall covered around together goddesses view beams shrines decked in dancing previous horizontal suprestructures has resemblance rests beautifully sloped piece lintel Visnu bricks form deserted hither thither destructive lattice test walls Carved arround to-gather goodesses Veiw beems shrine deked ind ancing privious horizantal superstructure have resembalance rest beautiful slopped peice lintai vinu briks from deserated either Theither distructive 25 533 latice 535 540 541 taste Coarse 23 course

Page #675
LIST OF PLACES 100* 60 Dwarka Gedi Girnar Ghumali 59 37 28/a 15 43 Gop 16 55 Gorad 84 Harij 93 101 2 113 91 54 68 52 57 29 116 25 Abhapur Abu Akhodar Ambaji Anandpur Anjar Asoda Astika-Kenyata Baradia Bavaka Becharaji Bhadesvar Bhadresvar Bhansar Bhayavadar Bhetali Bhiloda Bhimanath Butapaladi Bhuvad Bilesvar Balej Boricha Chaubari Dabhoi Delmal Delwada Derol Desan Dhamlej Dhinoj Dhrasanvel 102 103 50 77 49 36 Harasiddh Kadvar Kalsar Kamboi Kanoda Kasara Kanthkot Kavi Kerakot Khandosan Kheda Khedabrahma Khimesvar Kinderkheda Kotai Kotesvar Krodidhvaj Kuchhadi Kumbharia Lakhena Lakroda Linch Lovarali Lunav Madhavpur 13 24 56 20 115 66 64 106 104 105 117 .5 * Figure no. in the adjoing map indicates the find-spot.

Page #676
95 53 71 39 112 73 70 107 89 41 82 109 Mahudi Mandavi Mandrapur Mathachhada Mevun Miyani Modhera Motab Moti-Dau Nandisvar Navadera Navidhraved Odadar Parabadi 78 21 108 Shankhesvar Satrunjay Sarnal (Galtesvara) Sarotra Sejakpur Siddhapur Sobharada Somnath Sonkansari Srinagar Sunak Sutra pada Suvan Taranga Tarnetar Than Tukada Vadali Vadnagar Vadiavit Vaghel Valam Vasai (Dist. Jamanagar) Vasai (Dist. Mehsana) Vayad Viramgam Virta Visa vada Wadha wan Pata 79 27 35 12 110 74 114 76 111 86 9 Patan Pasannvada Pasthar Pawagadh Piludra Pindara Porbander Ranakpur Ranavav Rava Roda Shamalaji Sander 4 94 65 23 73 58 99 72/a 12

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Page #678
4 623 24 73 70 BANAKANTHA BANAS RIVER 58 J 58 83 SARASWer 72_15A 7 // / 9h 12. 107 76 98 100 1999 92 102 106 . 96 83 MEHSANAill 99 19 KAF SNA 50 109 105 roG SABAR KANTHA 12. a 46 SURENDRA - NAGAR PANCH MAHALS 97 KHEDA XABARMATI RIVE MAHI RIVER ME.PL JAMNAGAR no HILLS For more ne ate & Personal use only one AH DEDABAD . 38/ VRAJKOT BHAV NAGAR BH DAR RIVER BHAVNAGAR BARODA BROACH SUNAGADH TAPI RIVER SURAT de JOANGS VALSAD GUJARAT STATE SCALE - CM5-160 KMS

Page #679

Page #680
1 Sun Temple, Gop 2. Varaha Temple, Kadvar

Page #681
3 Sun Temple, Sutra pada 4 Sun Temple, Visavada

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5 Old Temple, Visavada 6 Sun Temple, Balej

Page #683
4 Sun Temple, Pata 7 8 Jagannath Temple, Suvan

Page #684
9 Siva Temple, Srinagar 10 Sun Temple, Srinagar

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11 Devi Temple, Srinagar 12 Sun Temple, Kalsar

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Sun Temple, Borichia 14 13 Sun Temple, Pindara,

Page #687
15 Sun Temple, Akhodar 16 Spire of Sun Temple, Akhodar

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19 Gayatri Temple, Pasanavada 18 Gayatri Temple, Pasanavada 8/a

Page #689
21 Spire of siva Temple, Miyani 20 Siva Temple, Ranavav 8/b

Page #690
17 Spire of Sun Temple, Pasanavada Jay 22 Siva Temple, Miyani 9

Page #691
23 Small Temple, Miyani 10 23]a Small Temple, facing south, Miyani

Page #692
24 Pancayatana Temple, Pasthar www 25 Old Small Temple, Harasiddh 10/a

Page #693
26 Dhingesvara Temple, Porbandar 10/b

Page #694
27 Kalikamata Temple, Dhrasanvel 28 Kalikamata Temple, Navidhravad

Page #695
X2 29 Kalika Temple, front view Navidhravad 31 Dudhesvara Tempie, Khimesvar

Page #696
30 Khimesvara Temple, Khimesvar 12/a

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Page #698
32 Randala Temple, Khimesvar 32/a Lunai Mata Temple, Lunav

Page #699
Old Temple, Bhansar 34 33 Back veiw, old Temple, Bhansar 14

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Page #701
36 Old Siva Temple. Odadar 14/a

Page #702
WA Siva Temple, facing east, Bilesvar 37 35 Old Temple facing north, Bhansar

Page #703
16 38 Sikhara from s. w., Bilesvar 39 Sun Temple, Kinderkheda

Page #704
41 Old Temple, Sonkansari 40 Sun Temple Pasthar 16/a

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43 One of the Temples, Sonkansari 16/b

Page #706
ON 43 Temple III, Roda A SA SALON 42 Temple, Sonkansari

Page #707
44 Temple I, front view, Roda 45 Temple I, View from south Roda

Page #708
48 Temple IV, Roda 47 Temple III, Roda 51

Page #709
20 50 Temple VII, Back view, Roda 49 Temple VII, from south, Roda

Page #710
52 Siva Temple, Galatesvar Fayret PES 51 Hariscandra Temple, Samlaji 21

Page #711
134931701 53, Basement of Siva Temple, Galatesvar 54, Kumbha moulding of Basement, Siva Temple, Galatesvar

Page #712
56 Nilakantha Temple, Facing East, Sunak 55 Nilakantha Temple, Sunak 23

Page #713
24 57, Spire, Nilakantha Temple, Sunak 58, Vedika of Mandapa, Nilakantha Temple, Sunak

Page #714
20 59, Pre Caulukyan (Small) and Caulukyan Temples, Sander 60, Sanderimata Temple, Sander 25

Page #715
26 62 Harasiddha Temple, Harasiddh 61 Somesvara Temple, Gorad

Page #716
63 Nilkanth Temple, Miyani 26/a

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Page #718
64 Jain Temple, Miyani 65 Nilakantha Temple, Ruhavi 27

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SOOS OS SSSSSS 67 Door frame. Amathor Mata Temple, Vadnagar WAY 66 Pitha and Mandovara 28

Page #720
69 Rt. angular Temple, Khandosan 70 Siva Temple, Kotai 28/a

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Page #722
28/a 71 Back view of Siva Temple, Kotai 72 Dancing figure, western wall of Siva Temple, Kotai

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74 Old Siva Temple, Puauranogadh 73 Dancing figure, Siva Temple, Kotai 28/b

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75 Old Siva Temple, from East, Puauranogadh 28/c

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Page #726
29 68 Shrine near entrance, Amathor Mata Temple, Vadnagar 76 Sabhamandapa, Sun Temple, Modhera

Page #727
Son 77 Sabhamandapa & Kunda, Sun Temple, Modhera 78 Mandovara & Sringara Coki of GunNha-mandapa from S. E. Sun Temple; Modhera 30

Page #728
79, Sculptures on Mandovara, Gudhamandapa Sun Temple, Modhera 31

Page #729
80 Interior view of Sabhamandapa Sun Temple, Modhera 32

Page #730
81 Amorous scene on pillar, Sun Temple, Modhera 81/a Porch of Junagadhi Jain Temple, Vasai 33

Page #731
NAS 84 Muni Bawa Temple, Than 2008 83 sikhara, Shantinatha Temple, Kumbharia 34

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82 Mahavira Temple, Kumbharia 34la

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86 Navalakha Temple, Ghumali ***** Trinetresvra Temple, Taranetar 85 35

Page #735
87 Navalakha Temple, Ghumali 88 Storied mandapa of Navalakha Temple, Ghumali 36

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89 Navalakha Temple, Ghumali 90 Brahma-Savitri on Kumbhaka moulding, Navalakha Temple, Ghumali 37

Page #737
91 Navalakha Temple Sejakpur | 92 Back Veiw of Mandovara, Navalakha Temple, Sejakpur 38

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94 Pillar details, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur 93 Pillar details, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur 39

Page #739
40 95 Pillar details, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur HET 96 Pillar-capital, arch and architraves, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur

Page #740
98 Pillars & architraves, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur 97 Porch on north, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur

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100 sikhera of N. W. Shrine, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur 99 Sculptured mandovara, N. W. shrine, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur

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101 Double-shrined Temple, Viramgam 102 Parsvanatha Temple, Kumbharia

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103 Basement & Mandovara, Adinatha Temple, Vadnagar 104 Spire, Adinathi Temple, Vadnagar 44

Page #744
R 105/a Mandovara, Ajitanatha Temple, Taranga 105 Ajitanatha Temple, Taranga 45

Page #745
107 Bechara Mata Temple, Becharaji : SEX 106 Back View Neminatha Temple, Kumbharia

Page #746
GOM 107/c Junagadhi Temple Vasai 107/a Kankesvara Temple, Vasai 47

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Abg KON 109 Bhadesvara Temple from N. W. Anjar 108 Dughdesvara Temple, Mandrapur

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wwwwwwwwwwwww 110 sikhara Bhadesvara Temple, Anjar 111 Sculptures on North, Bhadesvara Temple, Anjar OV

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50 $6000S 13 Lakulisa, Siva Temple, Pawagadh 112 Old Temple, Pawagadh

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115 Mandovara, Baradia 114 Rama Temple, Baradia wwww

Page #751
TADT LID 116 Madhavarai Temple, Madhavpur 117 Sitala Temple. Piludra 52

Page #752
118 Spire, Neminatha Temple, Girnar Atyrau oblystar m en 119 Hindolaka Torana (arch) Tejapala Temple, Abu

Page #753
120 Interior of mandapa, Tejapala Temple, Abu

Page #754
121 Interior of Rangamandapa, Tejapala Temple, Abu 122 Swastika pillar Rangamandapa, Tejapala Temple, Abu SS

Page #755
56 occc 123 Pillar Detail, Tejapala Temple, Abu 123/a One of the famous Derani-Jethani niches, Tejapala Temple, Abu

Page #756
bala 125 Kalika Temple, Dabhoi 124 Hiragate, Dabhoi 57

Page #757
127 Mandovara panel, Kalika Temple, Dabhoi 126 Mandovara, Kalika Temple, Dabhoi 58

Page #758
128 Mandovara panels, Kalika Temple, Dabhoi 129 Vaidyanatha Temple, Dabhoi 59

Page #759
60 130 Satamukhi vav-shrine, Dabhoi 131 Khama'ai Mata Temple, Dhinoj

Page #760
133 Ranaka Devi Temple, Wadhwan 132 View of mandapa and porch, Khamalai Temple, Dhinoj

Page #761
134 Sambhavanath Temple, Kumbharia 135 Sun Temple on Hiranya, Prabhas 62

Page #762
136 Interior view, Sun Temple on Jiranya, Prathas 137 Sun Temple on Triveni, Prabhas

Page #763
139 N. W. view, Hatakesvara Temple, Vadnagar 2000 44 2.94 138 Spire, Hatakesvara Temple, Vadnagar

Page #764
141 Vedika, Hatakesvara Temple, Vadnagar 140 Spire from N. W. Hatakesvara Temple Vadnagar

Page #765
142 Vedika panel, Hatakesvara Temple, Vadnagar 143 Vedika panel, Hatakesvara Temple, Vadnagar

Page #766
145 Dwarkadhish Temple from South Dwarka SOS 144 Kasivisvesvara, Hatakesvara Temple, Vadnagar

Page #767
68 LES R WUORESCE 146 Back view, Shamalaji Temple, Shamalaji PPPPORT BRE 147 Back View Shamalaji Temple, Shamalaji

Page #768
Caneca IK HE06 148 Mandovara Panels, Shamalaji Temple, Shamalaji 149 Mandovara & Vedika panels, Shamalaji Temple, Shamalaji 69

Page #769
151 Mandovara, Jain Temple, Bhiloda 150 Mandovara Shamalaji Temple, Shamalaji

Page #770
153 Rukamani Temple, Dwarka 152 Kirtistambha, Jain Temple, Bhiloda

Page #771
154/a Visnu Temple, Odadar 154 Magaderu from East, Dhrasanvel 72

Page #772
ANA ONS 155 Sasibhusana Temple, Prabhas 156 Rudresvar Temple, Prabhas

Page #773
157 Siddhesvar Temple, Visavada ANAX NAS ANNA 2000 158 Ranchhodji Temple, Visavada 74

Page #774
ev 922 159 Siva Temple, Kuchhadi 159/a Gokesvara Temple, Lovarali 75

Page #775
160/a Nandisvara Temple, Nandisvar 160 Old Temple, Nandisvar 76

Page #776
159/b Siva Temple, Tukada 75/a

Page #777

Page #778
162 Old Temple, Gunja WOW 161 Agiya Vaitala Temple, Bhankhar 77

Page #779
so 163 Saranesvara Temple, Polo 164 Siva Temple II, Polo 78

Page #780
79 165 Siva Temple II, Polo $2 166 Mandovara sculptures, Siva Temple II, Polo

Page #781
167 Siva Temple III, Polo 168 Siva-sakti Temple, Side view, Polo 80

Page #782
169 Front View Siva-sakti Temple, Polo es 170 Back view, siva-sakti Temple, Polo 81

Page #783
172 Siva-sakti Temple, Polo 171 Siva-sakti Temple, Polo 82

Page #784
173 Siva Pancayatana Temple, Polo MWAN WWW www 174 Front view, siva Pancayatana Temple, Polo

Page #785
84 175 Torana, Siva Pancayatana Temple, Polo 176 Lakhena Temple, Polo

Page #786
177 Front view, Lakhena Temple, Polo wees 178 Spire, Lakhena Temple, Polo 85

Page #787
86 179 Ceiling, Lakhena Temple, Polo 181 Door-Frame, Temple II, Roda

Page #788
180 Mandapa, Jain Temple Lakhena, Polo 182 Door-Frame, Sitalamata Temple, Vadnagar 86ja

Page #789
86/b EBERGER 184 Ceiling, Temple I, Roda Door-frame Sitalamata, Vadnagar 183

Page #790
186 Ceiling, Temple V, Roda 185 Ceiling, Temple II, Roda 87

Page #791
88 188 Ceiling, Sitala Temple, Vadnagar 187 Ceiling, Sitala Temple, Vadnagar

Page #792
FOCLEEF 189 Ceiling, Nilkanth Temple, Sunak 190 Ceiling, Lake Temple, Gunja 88/a

Page #793
192 Ceiling, Nilkanth Temple, Sunak 191 Ceiling Lakhena Temple, Polo 88/b

Page #794
193 Ceiling, siva Temple, Kotai 194 Ceiling, Rangamandapa, Vimala Temple, Abu 89

Page #795
195 Ceiling, Miapuri Masjid, Prabhas 196 Ceiling, Tejapala Temple, Abu 90

Page #796
198 Ceiling, Old Temple, Madhavpur 197 Ceiling, Rangamandapa, Tejapala Temple, Abu 91

Page #797
S3 200 Ceiling, Sasibhusana Temple, Prabhas 199 Ceiling, Old Temple, Madhavpur 92

Page #798
202 Ceiling, Mahavira Temple, Kumbharia 201 Ceiling, Mahavira Temple, Kumbharia 93

Page #799
204 Ceiling, santinatha Temple, Kumbharia R 90053 203 Central ceiling, Mahavira Temple, Kumbharia 94

Page #800
206 Central Ceiling, Neminatha Temple, Kumbharia ))) ULILIT 205 Ceiling, Parsvanatha Temple, Kumbharia XO 95

Page #801
96 82993 22 *** 98 208 Ceiling, Mahavira Temple, Kumbharia 207 Central Ceiling, Neminatha Temple, Kumbharia

Page #802
209 Ceiling, Sitalamata Temple, Vadnagar 210 Ceiling, warriors, Sitala Temple, Vadnagar 92

Page #803
98 211 Ceiling, warriors, Siva Temple, Kotai 56 212 Ceiling, four vidyadevis, corridor, Vimala Temple, Abu

Page #804
214 213 Ceiling, Kaliyamardan scene, Odadar Ceiling, Visnu on Kaliya serpent, Ahmedabad

Page #805
100 214/a Torana, Hariscandra cori, Shamalaji 214/b Torana pillars on North, Sun Temple, Modhera

Page #806
MAN 20 . 214/c Pillar and architrave, Torana, Piludra 214/d Detail, Torana pillar, Piludra 101

Page #807
102 214/f Torana at Vadnagar 214 e Torana at Rudramala, Siddhpur

Page #808
103 SZEJAC BAVEZNA EZEN CODODO 214/g Detail, Torana pillar, Vadnagar SEE 214/h Detail, Torana pillar, Vadnagar

Page #809
104 214/j Detail, Torana pillar, Vadnagar 214/1 Detail, Torana pillar, Vadnagar

Page #810
214/k Ilikalavana, Torana, Vadnagar 214/1 Torana, Sun Temple, Balej 105

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214/m Kititorana, Ranchhodji Temple, Valam 106

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GROUND PLANS & SKETCHES

Page #813
215 Old Temple, Gop 108

Page #814
216 Old Temple, conjuctural plan, Gop 109

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217 Ground plan Sun Temple, Visavada 110

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mary. 218 Ground plan Sun Temple, Sutrapada 11

Page #817
---- - - - - 219 Ground plan, Varaha Temple, Kadvar 112

Page #818
www 220 Ground plan, Nilkantha Temple, Sunak lain Education International

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115-116 ils p our 221 Ground plan Triple Temple, Kasara G00

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Ground plan Right-angular Temple, Khandosara ZZ7 117

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224 Limboji Mata Temple, Delmal 121

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28 0 DO POO OO 225 Navalakha Temple, Ghumali 122

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401 226 Navalakha Temple, Sejakpur 123

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124-125 227 Ground plan, Rudramahalaya, Siddhpur ib

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228 Ajitanatha Temple, Taranga 126

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el > 0 229 Ground plan, Jain Temple. Bhadresvar ipkssgNdhgNrrrrrrnn 24 - - 127

Page #830
`Th m` h m `d@ shf`hmqql``q`q` s`yd Hdd`s m`bd - 0 mt khm 6 bh GUDH TANDAO s s sh yrn - =-=-=-= = =dm sh m 230 Ground plan, Somnatha Temple, Somnath 128-120

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Page #832
Hui Hui Hui Hui Hui Hui Hui Hui . 10 Hui Hui Hui Hui 231 Ground plan, Sun Temple,Bhimnath 130

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131 Q 232 Vastupala Temple, Girnar

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233 Bahusmarana devi Temple, Kanoda 132

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133 234 Vyaghresvari Temple, Dhinoj

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235 Narayana Temple, Manod 134

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135 236 Nilkanth Temple, Virta

Page #838
ozuru 237 Sun Temple, Somnath 136

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0 238 Sun Temple, Than 137

Page #840
1. Xian Ai Min Guo Er Duan . -Min Ku Er Er Er Er Duan Qiang . WUW - + - - - - Ru Ru Ru Ru Ru Qie Ru Lin 1 U - - r . .Ou Jiao Jiao Jiao Jiao Jiao [ . . . Shang Yi Zhang NAVGLE - - I NFShi Yi 239 Ground plan, Neminath Temple, Girnar 138

Page #841
]FTITITI IST mi - 0 0 0 ood J HS n of aww}_ 240 Tejpala Temple, Abu ooooooo o o o o o o o o 4 h' o o o o o o o o Obsah ER 139

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241 Jain Temple, Miyani 140

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242 Magaderu, Dhrasanvel 141

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lnd (6) w dm 243 Projections in the ground plan 102

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143 a, Trisakha Zury b, Pancasakha c. Navasakha 244 Projections in the door jambs

Page #846
245 & 246 Udumbara and Ardhacandra 144

Page #847
OLAY:9:757 _ .. 247 Kamada Pitha ( Basement) 145

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. . 12555550 555531 248 Mahapitha ( Basement) 146

Page #849
147 249 (a) Khuraka 249 (c) Kalasa -Karna -Antarpatra -Karnaka -Antarpatra --Skandha -Cippika -Vratta with Pattka -Cippika SkandhapattikaTamalapatra A Skandha Gagarka Cippika-- 249 (b) Kumbhaka

Page #850
- 249 (d) Jangha with niches (b) Thakara 249 (d) Jangha (a) -Skandhapatti -Skandha with Thakara -Mukhapaiti -Karna -Mukhapatti with Gagarka Da 148 249 (e) Kapotali ( Kevala )

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-Nirvanapatika -Kapotali --Antarpatra -Kannika -Skandha -Karna -Skandha -Mukhapatti -Pattika -Kamarupa -Antarpatra 249 (f) Mancika -Antara patra -Andhakarika -Graspatti -Udagama - Antarpatra -Kapotali -Chadya 249 (g) Udgama 149

Page #852
Kamarupa Kapotali-- Tamala patra SkandhaAsoka pallava- tuyen Skandha Katna 249 (h) Bharani Patta -Skandha --Karna -Bharputalika -Antarpatra 249 (i) Pattayukta Siravati 150

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151 -Skandhpatti -Skandha --Mukhapatti Chadya --Dandika --Skandha -Aantarpatra 249/ Kutachadya

Page #854
Mida! WY. hu . keun bey Smuted_ 250 Mandovara 152

Page #855
153 C 251 Spire over Siva Temple, Bilesvar I

Page #856
252 Elevation of the Sikhira, Sutrapada 154

Page #857
Ve NUM IMMU 253 Ground dan of the curvilinear Sikhara 155

Page #858
In Elevation of the curvilinear Sikhara 254 TUTOTUUTTUU SEAT

Page #859
JODOOOOOGOGO 255 Amalaka - 256 Kalasa i 57

Page #860
KALASA AMALASA RAKA K-PADMAKOSA (SK ANDHA ) SHIKHARA URUSRIPIGA when URUSRINGA SR'NGA MANDOVARA - MANDOVARA GARBH GRIHA SHRINE WALL PRADAK SINA EXTERNAL WALL THA 257 Section of storied Mandovara & sikhara of Sandhara Prasada 158-159

Page #861
160 257/a Wall Mouldings, Surya Temple, Somnath ako 0000000000 MAGSASAMAAN Zppppppppu

Page #862
POO SU LU MMM LUM 258/a Base of the pillar, Bhadresvara 253/a Pillar, Surya Temple, Somnath 258/a Pillar, Bahdresvar 161

Page #863
W ITZT17: 1 258/b Pillar, Nayalakha Temple, Ghumali. 161/a

Page #864
A ALA . 1. GRAU gen 50 ETT IN -UE 258/c Pillars, Navalakha Temple, Sejakpur (with Kaksana & Vedika ) 162 ]

Page #865
259 Brackets from the Pillars, Ghumali 163

Page #866
260 Ground plan of Samvarna 164

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N V8778787 INIZILIZ 261. Elevation of the Samvarna 165,

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