Most Ancient Aryan Society

Author(s): Ram Chandra Jain
Publisher: Institute of Bharatalogical Research Sriganganagar Rajasthan
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001639/1

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RAMCHANDRA TAN
MOST ANCIENT ARYAN
SOCIETY

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THE MOST ANCIENT ĀRYAN SOCIETY
BY
RAM CHANDRA JAIN
PUBLISHER:
INSTITUTE OF BHĀRATALOGICAL RESEARCH
SRI GANGANAGAR, Rajasthan (India)

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Sole Distributor : SUNDERLAL JAIN Post Box 1586, Delhi.
First Edition, 1964 Price Rs. 201- Only
Printed at : THE TARA PRINTING WORKS,
VARANASI.

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DEDICATED
TO
ETERNAL STREAM OF ŚRAMANIC WAY.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am presenting this my first research work to the world of scholars. I am indebted to the great array of research scholars from whose wisdom I have been immensely benefited. I am much indebted to the eternal stream of the Sramaņic way that gave me the right wisdom and the right perspective.
My first gratitude goes to Acharya Sri Tulasi, the greatest living symbol of the lingering Śramaņic traditions, who, by his very physical presence, continuously inspires faith in right wisdom. I am also grateful to Karl Marx from whom I have learnt the dialectical historical view. My wife Smt. Bhagwan R. Jain deserves all my grateful thanks for creating a favourable atmosphere at home.
I thank Dr. Prannath and Dr. Dasharatha Sharma for valuable guidance and suggestions. I avail this opportunity to thank Dr. K. S. Sogani and Sri G. R. Parihar, my comrades in Bhāratalogical studies.
Sri Mannalal Soorana advanced munificent financial contributions for furthering the research projects of the Institute. His assistance to the Institute in its infancy is memorable. Sri Malchand Khated gave all encouragement and help. I am grateful to these friends.
Sri Shantilal Jain incurred all the expenses of this publication as its sole Distributor. Tara Printing Works of Varanasi printed the book within the shortest possible time on the eve of the XXVI International Congress of Orientalists at New Delhi. I express my hearty thanks to these friends.
I also appreciate the cooperation always readily given by Sri Bhagwat L, Sahi.
RAMCHANDRA JAIN

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CONTENTS
I. INTRODUCTION
i-xii Genesis, Man--at the beginning of history, Supposed supremacy of Āryan Way, Sramaņic Way, Sramaņic Region, Meaning of śrama, Organic Critical Method, Materialistic institution, Marxist thesis of progress unfounded, Perversion of spiritualism, Morphomotheistic Aryan beliefs, Meet the challenge, History in
Rgveda, Śramaņic ideology-the only panacea. II. CHAPTER I. PRE-ARYAN ANCIENT GRAMANIC SOCIETY
1–75 Section 1. Introduction
145 Imperial Necessity for research, Sir William Jones' Discovery, Science of comparative philology and com. parative mythology, Science of Egyptology, Science of Sumerology, Science of Bhāratalogy, Science of Ægeo
logy, Geographical unity, Ethnic unity. Section 2. Economic conditions
6-10 Agriculture, Industry, International trade, Section 3. Social conditions
11- 15 Common pattern, Community buildings, Early peaceful development, Peaceful development throughout in Bbārata, Absence of social tensions, Status of
Women. Section 4 Political Institutions
16-23 Republican system in ancient Egypt, Leader of the Land, Republican system in Sumer, Jana republics and Parisadas in Bhärata, Horns as emblem of supreme
power. Section 5. Jana-republics of Bharata
24-35 Institution of Jana, Jana-republics an Asura institution, Panchajanah and Panchakşitinām, People and Terri.

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tory, Parigada, Rājan-the highest executive of republic,
No central political authority. Section 6. The śramaric Way
36-56 Spiritual experiences, Egyptian spiritualism, Egyptian spiritual tenets, Sumerian spiritualism, Sumerian spiritual tenets, Bharatiya spiritualism, Bharatiya
spiritual tenets. Section 7. The Origins
57–64 Introductory, Original home of the Sumerians, Original home of the Egyptians, The land of Punt. Section 8. The Pre-Olympian Ægean society
65--70 Ægean culture, Original earliest immigrants, Economic and social conditions of the Minoan society,
Elective republics, Rşabha cult. Section 9. The pre-Aztec American society
71-73 Quatzalcoatl immigrants, Original home, Their beliefs, Paņic immigration circa 2000 B, C., Pattern of
society. Section 10. The Resume
74–75 III. CHAPTER II. UTTARAKURU-THE ARYAN CRADLE-LAND
76—132 Section 1. Nature of Aryology
76-78 The basic Aryan language, Aryan race, Aryan culture, The Aryan way. Section 2. Various theories of Aryan cradle-land 79_81
German home theory, Western Europe home theory, South Ural home theory, South Russia home theory, Central Asia home theory, Central Europe home
theory, Sapta-sindhu home theory, Arctic home theory, Section 3. Linguistic Tests
82–88 Position of Sanskrit, The dispersal of Aryan languages, Greekāryan and Brahm āryan languages, Lithuanian-Most archaic Aryan literary records, Results from linguistic evidences.

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89-97
Material relics of culture,
Grey-ware pottery pattern, Grey-ware people and their associates, Their martial character, Fire-the most efficient Aryan wealon, Grey-ware people are Aryans, Archæological conclusions, Migrations from Sapta-Sindhu theory examin. ed, Conclusion.
Section 4. Archæologcial tests
Section 5. Geological tests
98-107
Geological conditioning of physical life, Tilak's geological arguments examined, Das' theory of four seas, Saraswati river, Sapta-Sindhavah-not a country, Saraswati region, Cold climate, Invention of Agni from mass fires, Present geological formations.
Section 6.
Anthropological tests
Body-structure, Arya varṇa and Dasa-varṇa, Black-skinned ethnic group from Greece to Bharata, Proto-Australoids and Mediterraneans; (1) Linguistic evidence (2) Archaeological evidence (3) Ethnological evidence, Proto-Brahmi script, r and 1-the dividing line of the ethnic groups, origin of the Mediterraneans from the Proto-Australoids, Origin of Arya-varṇa. Section 7. Flora, fauna and ancillary tests
118-122
Geological formations of Saraswati Ganjetic plains, Flora-fauna arguments of Giles, Brahmaryan borrowing of flora, fauna and other terms, Austric culture pattern, Rice.
Section 8.
Mythico-geographical tests
123-130
Mythico-geography, Meaning of the word 'Uttara', Uttarakuru colonisation, Pururava-Urvasi legend, Digvijaya of Arjuna and Parikşita, Uttarakuru with Greeks, Enchainment of Prometheus.
Section 9. The resume
131-132
IV. CHAPTER III. GANA-THE BASIC ARYAN SOCIETY,
133-143

108-117
Separation of the Aryans, Gana-an artificial aggregation, Cana-an agrregation of cattle, Transfer of the

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concept to human society, Shepherds become Gaņapatis, Ganapati-the protector and the master, Devasthe
sub-leaders, Gaņa in Greece. V. CHAPTER IV. YAJNA-THE ARYAN TRIBAL ACTIVITY
144--193 Section 1. The Origin
144-148 Yajña--the foundation of Aryan culture and civilization, Birth of Agni, Birth of Yajña, Yajna is tribal
activity. Section 2. Yajña--the military activity
149-157 Military activity of Gaņa, Gana means an armed militia, Arms and weapons, Agni-the best weapon, Agni--the weapon wielder, Archaeological evidence of Agni as weapon, Samgrā-mamilitary activity, Greekāryan military victory, Asiāryan military activities, Braba
maryan military activities. Section 3. Yajña-tbe economic activity.
158-164 Yajñic economic activity, Yajnic fruits belong to whole Gaña, Contract of thousandfold return, Vajña
the primitive mode of exploitation. Section 4. Yajña--the social activity
165-188 Unitary society, Common mealsm-common drinks-- common entertainments, Samana festivals, Yoş--UşãUrvasi, Tribal festivities, concept of Jāra, Sociological interpretation of Puruşamedha, Sacrifice of Ganapati, Eating of human blood, promiscuous sex-relationship, Legend of Sūrya and Kuntī, Legend of Svetaketu's mother, Other instances of promiscuity, Promiscuity and Puruşmedha in Greece, Sacrifice of Gaņa pati in
Greece, Significance of the word 'Manus'. VI. CHAPTER V. THE GAŅA IN HISTORY 189–210 Section 1. Main characteristics
189-192 Section 2. Morgan on Gaņa
193-198 Gaña society, Grecian genos, Tribal nature, Bor. rowing of family and marriage system, And of Private property and succession, Borrowing of elective System.

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Section 3. Jayaswal on Gaņa
199-204 Hindu Polity, Gaņa-rāyāņi, Samiti, Janapada and Mahajanapada. Section 4. West Asia and Egypt
205-210 Materialists of the Desert, Materialists of the Mountains, Hittites, Hurrians, Kassites, Hyksos,
Internecine Aryan quarrels, Assyrian reaction. VII, CHAPTER VI. VRATA-CONFEDERATION OF GANAS
211-217 Confederation of Gaņas, Vrātaspati, Pbratry and
Phratriarch in Greece. VIII. CHAPTER. VII. BRAHMA-THE ĀRYAN UNIVERSAL TRIBAL SOCIETY
218–251 Section 1. Institution of Brahma
218–227 śramaņic-materialistic contacts, Separation of Brahmas, Growth of the institution of Brahma, Spiritual reaction, Ritualisation of Brahmáryan institutions, Method of analysis, Purohita, Viswāmitra, Meaning of
Brahma, Section 2. Military Brahma
228-233 Brahma is armour, Brabmanaspati-the supreme leader of Brahma, Self-armed Brahma, Agni-purifier of Brahma, Brahma in Atharvaveda, Brahma in Sukla Yajurveda, Brahma in Tattiriya Saṁbitā, Indra-Brahma
legend. Section 3. The economic Brahma
234-241 Augmentation of Brahma-wealth, Economic power of Brahma, Indra-protector of Brahma and Yajšia, Paņis • Kine for Brahma, Brahma in Atharvaveda,
Brahma in Tattiriya Samhita, Viraj legend. Section 4. The social Brahma
242--246 Brahma-a unitary organisation, Brahmadvisāḥ, Brabma-a universal organisation, Greek Basileia. Section 5. Brahmaṇaspati
247-251 Brahmaṇaspati-the supreme commander, Foremost of Gaņapatis, Greek Basileus,

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IX. CHAPTER VIII. THE ARYAN WAY
252-268
Material conditioning, Importance of cattle, Phenomena of nature, Name=Thing, Theory of Descent, Bhaga-the sun, Hsvism, Doctrine of Morphomotheism, Science of Chhandopathy, Yajña-parent of
Chhandopathy, Chhandopathy-the parent of magic. X. CHAPTER IX. THE MARCH OF MANKIND' 269--303 Section 1. The Aryan Society Circa 1000 B, C. 269-270
Assimilation of Sramaṇic culture, Section 2. The Age of Tribalism : 1000 B, C.300 B. C.
271-285 śramanic and Aryan coalescence, Rise of Monarchy, The Etruscans, The Romans, Birth of the Institution of Religion, Judaism, Religion in Greece and West Asia, Brāhmanism, Celestialisation and Ritualisation, Borrowing of spiritual doctrines, Buddhism,
Śraniaņic Revivalism, Religion-a Materialistic adjunct. Section 3. The age of Feudalism : 300 B.C- 286—292
Monarchy. Christianity, Islam, Lowest Ebb of European culture, Features of Aryan feudalism Section 4. The Age of Capitalism : 1500 A.D.-1962 293-297
Money becomes capital, Imperialism, Capitalist monopolism, Communism. Capitalist Tribalism,
Communist Tribalism, Section 5. The role of Religion
298-302 Principal adjunct, Reactionary role of religions. Section 6. The Epilogue.
303 Picture of future society. BIBLIOGRAPHY
304-311

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INTRODUCTION
The present always hovered upon me during the long course of studies since my boyhood. My childhood developed under the
shadow of the First World War and my youth witGenesis
nessed the horrors of the Second World War and is experiencing the fore-conditions of the Third Total War. The whole humanity at every moment is sitting on a gigantic volcano and standing on the brink of War. What has brought this our world to this culture and civilization of the acutest exploitation and the most horrific violence? It has not fallen upon us from heaven It has grown from the earth. The culture and civilization of today is deeply rooted in history. The original seed from which this masterstructure of exploitation and violence has grown has to be discovered. That discovery leads us to certain positive conclusions for the guidance of the future human society. This is the genesis of the Ideology revealed in this Book and of the Book.
When the first chapter of Human History opens, we find Man standing erect with a broad vision, a deep mind and strong hands.
He is not a secluded man but widely dispersed in
society over long regions of lands and seas. He has Beginning of History
great intellectual attainments to his credit. His spiri
tual thinking is very deep and serene. His moral conduct is ideal as it respects all life as his own. He is fully develo. ped in Art and Architecture. Agriculture made the vast tracts of the region the granary of the world. Science and industry was known to him. He welded metal but used only bronze for peaceful purposes. He did not create a war industrial machine from bronze. As he was not war-minded, he did not need the services of Iron. He is not a savage, a barbarian, a subhuman but a highly cultured and fully developed man,

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The scholars upto the nineteenth century believed that the Aryan Way is the first civilizing force of humanity. Politicians carried this weapon most happily to satisfy their greed Supposed and arrogance. The discovery of the Science of ComSupremacy of Aryan Way parative Philology added fuel to this fire. It provided vague arrogance the scientific basis. The revolutionary discoveries of Darwin in the field of Biology, tracing the gradual developmental history of man, gave it much weight. From jelly fish grew the invertebrate, from invertebrate the fish, then amphibian, then reptile from whom the bird and the mammal grew. Mammal developed into ape and the ape into man. This gradual developmental theory was extended by Morgan in the fields of social sciences. Morgan maintained that though the Aryan fore-fathers travelled through all the stages of savagery and barbarism like other people but they were the first people who civilised the world. The world was savage and barbaric through the long course of history till the era of civilization was ushered in the world Circa 1000 B. C. by the Aryan people. Marx extended this progressive developmental theory in the field of political economy. Marx and Engels based their theories of family, private property and the State on the discoveries of Morgan in the field of social sciences. Communism, as founded by Marx and Engels, believes that the humanity lived in a state of Primitive Communism since the hoary past to the establishment of the Age of Feudalism in the first millenium B. C. Feudalism gradually, through the force of inherent contradictions, developed into Capitalism. Imperialism is the highest stage of Capitalism, Fascism is capitalist reaction. Capitalism developed into communism which is the highest stage of Materialism. The establishment of the new society of capitalism after feudalism and the new society of communism after capitalism is not an evolutionary process but a revolutionary one. There is complete break from the old society though the newer society inherits some healthy ingredients of the former. But the humanity advances all the same. All these discoveries flow in the wake of the Aryan culture and this progress in civilization and culture of humanity is brought by the Aryan man and Aryan Way. Communism decries the Aryan as a race but not as a Way.

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Way
The startling revolutionary discoveries in the domains of the sciences of Archaeology, Anthropology, Geology and Geography
have far extended the horizons of knowledge of the Sramanic ancient culture and civilization.( Archaeology has
played the most important role. The material relics of the ancient houses, town-planning, the use of material for building houses and social palaces, weights and measures, seals, steattites and other objects of art, paintings and pictures, and by far the most important, the inscriptions, have given us a coherent picture of the ancient cultures and civilizations of the pre-Aryan world in the region comprised by Egypt, Greece (including Crete and the Cyclades ), Western Asia and Bbārata. The upprejudiced and balanced scholars are now veering round' the view that the preĀryan world possessed better, higher and superior cultures and civilizations; in ideology, beliefs, arts, agriculture and industry than the semi-bar baric nomadic Āryans had.The pre-Aryan śramaņic way was in all respects superior to the Āryan Way except that of Military organisation. These discoveries have changed the whole social outlook of the modern thinkers.) The conclusions arrived at on the basis of incomplete and imperfect knowledge are meeting in surmountable challenges from the new discoveries. The whole mass of available evidence has to be reviewed. The whole social outlook bas to be changed. The whole bistory has to be re-interpreted. The humanity has to give birth to a new ideology to meet the challenge of total annihilation of mankind. This Book is a modest attempt towards this purpose.
The first chapter of the Book deals with the pre-Aryan ancient śramaņic Society. The region, in those ancient times, extending
from Bbärata to the Mediterranean was one, alSramanic
most homogeneous cultural region. The present Religion
extent literature almost belongs to the Āryans. No pre-Aryan literature has been permitted to live. The inscriptions hidden beneath the earth alone lived safe and unhurt from the Āryan sword and fire. Whatever we know about the conditions of the pre-Aryan peoples from the literary sources belong to the Āryans. They wrote their accounts in the same way, rather in a

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barsher way in those tribal days, as Vincent Smith wrote the imperialist history of British India. But they per force could not write of their achievements without bringing in the accounts, though perverted, of their adversaries. They could not hold the neck of their adversaries in bell without themselves being there. That gives us some relief. We have to be very careful and cautious to screen the truth out of the horrible mass of falsehoods but fortunately today, we have other methods to measure the truth against falsebood. The Science of Comparative Mythology has rendered us some help. If these accounts are tested in the light of truths given by archæology and other sciences, we may know the real state of affairs. The Vedic and Greek studies, from this viewpoint, are far more important to us today than they were to William Jones, Maxmuller and the later band of great Indological scholars.
The Aryans exhibited a great flexible character that helped much their materialistic culture to survive, even for this small period of bistory, without which it had no chance. Their society assimilated their own vanquished adversaries by conversion. Their thought was flexible and assimilated all the best ingredients of the former cultures. They had the sagacity to convert that as their own which belonged to the others. That gave them life and vitality. The Aryan Man and the Aryan Society is completely dead but the Aryan way still survives even to this day. The two contradictory currents are clearly discernible in the Aryan literature. We find total violence in Rgveda and Homer but peace in Upanişads and Orphism. We find Purandar Indra in Rgveda but Supreme Ek-Vratya in Atharvaveda. We find earthly happiness in Vedas, heavenly happiness in Brahmaṇas and Supreme Bliss in Upanişads. One current cannot grow out of the other. Animal-sacrificer Brahmă could not be the all-pervading ethereal Brahma. Poligamy and marriage do not go together. Ganapatiship and Rájan are incompatible institutions. Family and tribal unit contradict each other. We have to discover some method to explain these contradictions. Fortunately, we have discovered the method which is the surest standard and guide to separate the Āryan and the pre-Aryan from the Āryan literature. The world has been too

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Srama
much studied from the Aryan point of view. Let us inaugurate the era of study from the Original Point of view which is essentially pre-Aryan but incorporates the Āryan at its due place in history, The Āryan literature, customs, traditions and thought have assimilated in themselves much that is pre-Aryan. The first chapter is necessary to understand the Āryan Way and the most ancient Āryan Society,
I have termed the pre-Aryan society as a śramaņic society. śrama means "religious exercise and austerity.” The word is
mostly applied to the conduct of Jaina and Buddhist Meaning of monks who were known as śramanas. The word
"Ņ'stands for knowledge.1 śrama, thus, means "the spiritual way" and śramaņa, the "right spiritual way."
śramana, as a follower of this way, is "the individual or society pursuing activities in a righteous, spiritual way." The fruit of Srama is Karma. Karma is the inherent movemental energy of Soul till Final Attainment. śrama is the outward manifestation of Karma. The word "Karma' has been translated as "Activism or Actionism.' These words 'activism or 'actionism' smack of some alien guiding force that permits or fecilitates movement. They do not suggest movement self-based, from within. It may not be translated as 'labour' also. Labour is a physical concept engaging in movement also out of compulsion. The science of Karmism or Šramanism revealed the basic turths of Soul, its Transmigration and Final Attainment. It was the foundation upon which the surperstructure of śramanic economic, social, political and administrative institutions was erected. Word 'Effort' comes nearest to the word śrama or Karma. 'Effort signifies inherent movement of the self-propelled soul. I preferred the word "Effort word 'Action'. Effort leads one to movement. The fruits of the movement become basis for further efforts. This is an ever-going circle till the Final Attainment is achieved. Effort in movement is Śrama wbile as the basis of further effort, free and self-propelled, is Karma. The science of śrama and Karma is unique to the
1. Monier-Williams : Sanskrit-English Dictionary ; 1966 ; Pages
1096, 431.

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Spiritual System. Effort is the quality of the soul. Soul is iß. herently free and self-existent and always effortive. Effort, thus, allows no compulsion or fear. The society founded on 'Effort' is a śramaņic society. The word śramaņa later came to denote an ascetic, a Muni or a Yati following the Jaina or the Buddhist way. The follower of śramaņa was called śramaṇopasaka. But that was not the original meaning of the word śramaņa. Śramaņa, in its origin, signifies “one who makes effort or exertion with a righteous, spiritual view. The word originally applied to all the stages of life; householder's or ascetic's; Śrāvaka's or Muni's. I have not used the word 'śramanic' in relation to the ancient pre-Aryan society in any restricted sense. I give it the broadest sense. Sramaņic society is one that is founded upon free, fearless and right individual and social effortiveness.
We, now, enter the true Aryan problem with the second chapter. The life and thought of the people are largely shaped by the mate
rial environment in wbich they live and pursue actiOrganic vity. The location of the original habitat of the Critical Method Aryan people is, thus, of far-reaching significance I
have adopted the Organic Critical Method. So far, the method of research had been critical but inorganic. The linguist did care to know the conclusions of the Archaeologist. The Archaeologist did not joined hands with the other Scientists. The literat:eur did not care even for the conclusions of the linguist and almost ignored the conclusions of the other sciences. Their theses, therefore, became one-sided apt to be readily contradicted by the others. Archaeology goes very much against the Central European Home Theory. Anthropology throws the Āryan habitat beyond the frontiers of the seat of the Gramanic society; the region being largely proto-Austic. A coherent picture has to be carved out of
clusions of the various allied sciences. That is the aim and purpose of the Organic Critical Method which I have tried to apply in the scheme of this Book.
The organic critical method comprehends that the events be studied, possibly from all available angles, in a chronologico-dialectico-historical way. Customs, manners and habits; economic,

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social and political instiutions; beliefs, superstitions and literature; religious, artistic, secular or otherwise; all depict human activities; physical and mental; of a particular people, in a particular age, of a particular region. To comprehend them otherwise is unreality which may become fraud. The scholars and the Scientists since the days of Sir William Jones in the fields of literature, archaeology, anthropology, geography, geology, physics and others; have unearthed and brought to life startling facts hitherto unknown. The large heaps of unsifted mass are lying unexplored. The necessity of further unearthing may not be denied but the age, now, is changing direction. The undaunted spirit of unearthing was so high in the past that the Science of interpretation did not receive due attention. We have, now to shift the direction of research, That is the necessity of the age. The spirit of original research is dying in Bharata after R. G. Bhandarkar, and more specially after thirtees of our century. The research has limited itself merely to re-arrangement of facts within a pre-conceived framework of ideology. There is nothing new or original. The-pre-conceived prejudices regarding the Aryan Way of life are mainly responsible for the stagnation of the spirit of research. The pre-Aryan people, their beliefs and institutions are totally ignored to the detriment of the true spirit of research. The Truth remains hidden. If people existed before the Aryans; they deserve sympathetic scientific treatment. Hence the whole outlook to the line of scientific research has to be completely changed in a revolutionary way. More emphasis, of necessity, shall have to be given to pre-Aryan life to know and understand truth so that the humanity may benefit from the history of its real march through ages. The organic critical method attempts to re-interpret the voluminous mass of available evidence in a chronologico dialectico-historical way. This method is organic and
!
critical.
The chronologico-dialectico-historical (it may briefly be called Chrodhic) method has led me to locate the Aryan Cradle-Land in the territory of Uttarkuru, considered by the Aryans themselves as the heavenly land of their origin to which they always aspired to visit in the good old days. Uttarakuru is situate within the vast

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territories of Angaraland. Geo.geographers divide the ancient world into the North and the South divided by the Tethys Sea. The Southern region was known as Gonda wanaland while the northern as Angārā land. The word 'Angārā' does not occur accidentally without any rhyme or reason. After the end of the Fourth Ice Age Circa 8000 B. C. ; this region was over-crowded with thicky forests where mass fires were a regular phenomenon. The first separated living charcoal, the Angārā, was the greatest revolutionary discovery of the people residing in the habitable arcas. Angārā or Agni assumed supreme importance with them. The association of Agni in the most important way with the Aryans is a single detrimining factor in favour of the land of Uttarakuru in the Angārāland region to be the original Aryan Home. The phenomenon of Angārā or Agni belongs to the undivided Āryans. Agni or Ignis is supreme both to the Europāryans and the Brabmäryans. The region of Agni or Angārāland keeps living the reminiscences of the basic foundation of the Aryan culture and civilization which was later to envelop the whole world. Geo-geography supplies us a very valuable piece of evidence. All the other available tests go to prove Uttarakuru, as the Āryan Cradle-Land. It is interesting to note that the Geo-geographers call the Āryan Cradle-land along with lands extended to East and West, by the name of Angaraland.
Gaga was the basic Āryan tribal society, confederating as Vrāta and culminating in the Universal Tribal Society, the Brahma. Yajña
is the tribal military, economic and social activity. I Materialistica Institutions.
do not mean any disrespect to any faith or dogma,
The human race is a mixed race today with curiously mixed ideas and ideologies. The human culture has inherited from the past many good virtues along with much more filth and rot. It is with a scientific spirit that this enquiry is undertaken to separate the mass chaff from grain so that truth may shine over falsehood. I crave for a sympathetic and scientific understanding. The Brāhmaṇical and Greek traditions go strikingly similar to each other in history at almost parallel times. They exhibit remarkable similarities and their, not very late, contacts influenced the course of each other. The utility of the first chapter would be better realised through the course of later chapters.

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While discussing the main characteristic of the Aryan Gana life; I have discussed the views of Morgan, the Western representative scholar and the views of Jayaswal, the Eastern representative scholar, on the subject. The conculsions of Morgan on Āryan Gana Society are vitiated for three shortcomings. Morgan did not rightly appreciate the culture and civilization of Sumer and Egypt, knowledge about which was available in this times through archaeo. logical finds and literature. He had no access to the archaeological discoveries in the Ægean and Bhāratiya regions. Secondly, he had not studied Rgveda. His remarks on the Brahmáryan social system are vague and superficial. He did not contact the spirit of the Brahmäryan institutions. Thirdly, he did not appreciate rightly the Āryan problem. He presumed the main characteristics of gens, genos and Gaņa purely Aryan. He could not distinguish the Āryan and the Non-Aryan elements in them. He did not understand the current of the Aryan Way. He did not make use of the available literature on the subject. Jayaswal was too much obsessed by his national spirit which betrayed the scientist in him though his researches greately enhanced the prestige of ancient Aryan institutions in Bharata. He did not go to the Vedic problem of Gana and Jana and being misled by the word 'Rajan' enunciated his famous theory that Monarchy in Bhārata preceded Democracy which today stands exploded. Any structure built on the foundation of these inherently wrong researches is bound to topple down.
The economic aspect of communism was based upon the researches of Marx himself. The revolutionary theory of Surplus Value in
the domain of Political Economy was epochal upon Marxist Thesis which the foundation of Marxism has been laid. The of Progress Unfondded social aspect of communism, the theory of family
and private property, alongwith its political aspects, the theory of State, was founded upon the researches of Morgan. Communism under-estimated the mis.role of religion. It proved a bit charitable to religion. Religion played more havoc than Marx and Engels could think. This wrong foundation led the Fathers of Communism to lay down a wrong doctrine that the thesis, the from of the newer society, is a progress

Page #25

upon the former. They rightly appreciated the role of the forces of contradiction which directed the changing society to progress. It may not be upheld that these contradictions were inherent in the established society. The basis of the forces of contradiction was quite foreign to the nature of the established society. They may be called inberent only in the sense that the upholders of the forces of contradiction were also a part of the whole society that came into existence at the beginning of the Age of Tribalism by coalescence of the two different ways and their peoples. Marxist Doctrines bave to be reviewed in the light of the modern state of knowledge. The humanity needs a newer doctrine out of the ashes of Marxism and the modern vital forces of contradiction.
The highest Aryan tribal collective, the Brahma, existed with the undivided Aryans in some form. I do not know any Greek
word equivalent to Brahma. A comparative linguist Perversion of Sipiritualism
of may be able to find the original word. The institutions
of Basileia and Brabma; Basileus and Brahmanaspati; reveal remarkable similarities. Their direction of progress changed after the final establishent of Aryan power in Greece and Bharata. Weak spiritualism in Greece and the Ægean and very strong spiritualism in Bbārata account for the change of directions. Aristotle caused the divorce of religion from philosophy in Greece. Afterwards Greek philosophy and Reason became the watchwards for progress that ultimately led to the victory of materialistic forces in Europe. The Aryans in Bharata borrowed and perverted spiritualism. They could not go on the pure materialist way. They lost the fruits of both; the materialism and the spiritualism, Spiritual traditions ceased in Greece. Europe gave birth to Feudalism, Capitalism and Imperialism. The spiritual traditions lingered on through the whole course of Bharatiya bistory which even loosely organised gave death-blow to the Aryan Imperialism and led the chain of crumbling empires.
The Eighth Chapter on Gaga beliefs; the basic Aryan ancient Mornhothe mode of thought, deals with basic Āryan doctrines
istic of Havism, Chbandopathy and Morphomotheism. Aryan Beliefs
du beitels The most primitive Āryan beliefs are known by the name of Anthropomorphism. Maxmuller has given us

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too words, Kathenotheism and Henotheism. They do not depict the true state of the primitive Āryan thought, Natural forces lived actively with the Aryans and the Āryans acted in immitation of the natural forces, That was the state when the Āryan institutions were living organisms. Antbropomortheism and all other isms are later growth during the period of celestialisation and ritualisation. These descriptions have totally ignored chronology. Devas are not conceived in the beginning as acting like human beings. They really do not act as such. The buman activities of the living persons are transferred to the unknown residence of the Devas; that may be called Theo-homism, not Anthropomortheism I suggest the word Morphomotheism for the Aryan human activities in immitaion of the Forces of Nature when men assumed in themselves the power and vitality of the natural forces as Devas.
The last chapter really does not belong to the present Book. It is a separate subject of research. But the Book deals with the most
ancient Āryan society and no useful purpose is served Meet the Challenge.
to know the picture of that society if that stops at the
establishment of Aryan hegemony in the world. The real blossoming' of the Aryan culture takes place in the historical period. It is necessary to give the briefest outline of how the Aryan Way marched through history. I had first the idea of including it as an Appendix but later the thought of its inclusion in the main Book prevailed. We now know the basic problem of our Age. We have to think out the way to meet the challenge of our Age
I have drawn profusely upon the Rgvedic evidence along with evidences from archaeology and other sciences. The vedic literature
is interpreted mainly by three methods : the HistoriHistory in cal, the Naturalistic and the Symbolical. It is an
Rgveda unwritten law of the Brahmanical the theologians that Vedas should be interpreted in the light of the Puranas otherwise they are prone to cause more harm than good. Purāņas are the soul of vedas. Puráņas, apart from the controversy that they contain, though with transferences of events, persons and times, historical traditions of the anti-Brahmanical pre-Aryan Ksatriyas, the original inhabitants of Bharata; contain primarily traditional history. Apart from Indra and Vrtra; the Purānas contain bistory

Page #27

xii
of the Kşatriya tribes such as Ikşavakū, Yadu and others; accounts of important personages such as Divodāsa, Sudās, Pūrukutsa, Trasadasyu, Krşna, Nemi, Bheda and others. Hence the historical content of the Vedic literature can not be denied even by the Naturalistic and the Symbolic interpreters. I believe that the Vedas and specially Rgveda, contain a history of their times, in a crude and perverted manner; and remniscences of some old events and institutions.
This study reveals that the present state of the world, doomed to materialistic self-destruction, is deeply rooted into history.
The growth of the Aryan Materialism, since Sramanic Ideology- four thousand years, is responsible at the bar The only Panacea
of history for the present situation. An ob jection is raised that the weak spiritualism that stood annihilated three thousand years back at the hands of Āryan materialism is not a safer way. It is true that the superior Aryan military might, with the horse and the newest weapons, and the steelframe tribal organisation inflicted crushing defeats upon the śramanic society. The śramanic Society believed in the doctrine of universal fellowship and never considered the Āryans as their enemies. Their localised republican institutions were unequal in social power in face of the Aryan tribal collective system. But the element of permanence underlying the spiritual system has given it a eterual historical role to play, and specially in the present times. The Āryan military might and tribalism have completely exbausted the peace and prosperity of the world. The Āryans are now looking to the "meta physics transmitted by the Indus civilization that endured;'>1 through the ages, for their protection and existence. The 'Indus metaphysics' or the Bharatiya Śramanic culture, earlier borrowed by the Aryans, is the only silver lining in the present materialistic darkest clouds. Communism is leaning more and more towards śramaņic spiritualism. There is a way out of this world death-cell but the people of the world shall have to change their Way. Sramanic ideology is the only hope of humanity. 10th DECEMBER, 1963
RAMCHANDRA JAIN SRI GANGANAGAR
1. Mortiiner Wheeler, The Indus Civilization; 1953; Page 96.

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CHAPTER I
PRE-ARYAN ANCIENT ŚRAMAŅIC SOCIETY
1. INTRODUCTION
Till the close of the Eighteenth century, different countries of the world thought themselves different entities having no organic relationship with each other. This was the age of the rise of European imperialism. Scientifically and technologically far advanced countries of Europe fell upon the weaker and backward countries of Asia, Africa and other parts of the world. The rulers soon realized the fundamental law of governance. They felt that their rule would not successfully endure for long till they knew the manners, customs, beliefs and history of their subject peoples. This desire for knowledge was purely materialistic born of imperial necessities.
Imperial Necessity for Research.
Sporadic efforts to gain such knowledge had continued since the beginning of the sixteenth century A. D. by different rulers and their associates in different countries. The shining sceptre fell upon the head of Sir William Jones, the Chief Justice of the High Court of Judicature at Fort Williams in Bengal, India, then under the rule of the East India Company operating from Great Britain and Ireland. He gave his famous historical address to the Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1786 A. D. He established the common origin of a number of languages, such as, Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, Persian, Sanskrit and others to which the scholars gave the name of Indo-European or Indo-Germanic. He laid the foundation of comparative philology.
Sir Jones' Discovery

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( 2 ) Frenchman Anqetil-Duperron, French English prisoner, Alexander Hamilton and German Freidrich Schlegal gave
memorable services to the cause of comparaSciences of Com
rative philology tive philology. H. H. Wilson was pioneer and comparative to Sanskrit studies at Oxford. Mythology
French Societie Asiatique was founded in 1821 A. D. and Royal Asiatic Society in London was founded in 1823 A. D. Then came Professor Freidrich Maxmüller on the scene. He rendered signal services to the cause of the science of comparative philology. He advanced his researches in a new direction and discovered the common gods of the undivided people who spoke the original Aryan language, the mother of Greek, Latin, Gothic, Celtic, Persian, Lithuanian, Teutonic, Sanskrit and such others. He rightly claims to be the father of comparative mythology. He rendered the most brilliant service to the cause of the two sciences by the publication of the sacred Books of the East Series.
But the linguists suffered from the limitation of working only on written records. They could not construct the full pictures of their ideas.
Till the close of the Eighteenth century Greek culture and civilization was considered to be the most ancient. The
whole of Europe and America were indebted Science of Egy- to the Greek ideas and institutions for their ptology
intellectual, scientific, social and political growth. Napoleon Bonaparte carried his military expedition to Egypt in 1798 A. D. Trilingual Rosetta stone was discovered in 1799 A. D. Some unsuccessful attempts were made to read the script but the crowns fell on the head of Jean Francois Champillion. He deciphered the Hieroglyphic script. He read his memorable lettre a M. Dacier at the Paris Academy on 29 September 1822 and laid the foundations of Egyptology. Flinders Petrie and Jnmes. H. Breasted,

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( 3 )
the eminent archaeologists and historians, rendered great services to Egyptology.
The ancient culture and civilization that flourished in ancient times in the valleys of Euphrates and Tigris was discovered comparatively later. J. F. Taylor, the British Councel at Basra, first unearthed inscriptions in 1854 A. D. R. Campbell Thompson and H. R. Hall advanced the work of Archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia. Leonard Woolley, the great Mesopotamian Archaeologist gave the full picture of the culture and civilization of Sumer. The father of Sumerology completed his work in 1934 A. D.
Science of Sume. rology
Asiatic society of Bengal in Bharata was working on written literary records. In the nineteenth century, arts,
epigraphy, coins and ancient script drew Science of Bhara- the attention of the scholars. Gifted James talogy Princep deciphered Brahmi script in 1837 A. D. Appointment of George Cunningham to the post of first archaeological Surveyor of India in 1862 A. D. began a new chapter in Indian history. Rakhaldas Banerjee excavated the sites of Mohenjodaro and Harappa in 19211922. These sites were fully excavated by John Marshall, J. H. Mackay and Vats between 1925-1931 A. D. The work of Wheeler, Ghose and Lall is appreciable in this field. Foundations of Bharatalogy have been well laid.
Archæologists had been working in Mainland Greece and Egean islands in the nineteenth century. Heinrich Schliemann dug at Mycenaean and Trojan Science of Acgio- sites of Acropolis and Hissarlik. But the logy memorable event in Greek and Egean archaeology came in 1900 A. D. when Arthur Evans purchased the site of Knossos and carried on his fruitful and

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(
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)
distinguishing excavations. He brought out the full picture of the Ægean culture and civilization.
Many other eminent archaeologists have worked on different sites in Greece, Egypt, West Asia and Bhārata since the pioneer work first revealed the picture of ancient civilizations and cultures. Archæologists had been influenced by the discoveries of their predecessor philologists and they worked hard to give the picture of that culture and civilization which was brought to light by the sciences of comparative philology and comparative mythology. In turn, they began to influence the discoveries made by those scholars. The linguists, in gratitude to archaeology, are now discarding their pet theories of Solarism and Racism.
Nineteenth century gave a great impetus to the growth of the sciences of Anthropology, Geology and Geography. They have supplemented and co-ordinated the conclusions arrived at by philology and archaelogy.
The cumulative result of the discoveries made by the sciences is two-fold. They have given us a picture of the culture and civilization of the Aryan people. The foundations of the science of Aryalogy have been well laid. They have, side by side, also given us a picture, fairly reliable, of the culture and civilization of the people, strikingly similar, who lived in the region that stretched from Egypt and Greece to Bhārata through Western Asia. Egyptologists, Ægiologists, Sumerologists and Bhāratalogists have definitely proved that the culture and civilization that flourished in this region was far superior and more advanced than that of the Āryans. And these unbiased scholars, in the main, had been Āryans. If these sciences together have to be called by one name, I would suggest the name “The science of Śramaņalogy." Before the rise and growth of Aryanism, Śramanism held its sway in the world.

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( 5 ) When the first chapter of the history of mankind opens in the beginning of the fourth millenium B. C., we witness
three most ancient centres of great civilizaGeographical
cal tions; the Bhārata', the Sumer : the Egypt. Unity.
This region lies on a belt between the twentififth and thirty-fifth parallel. This whole region is characterised by a certain geographical unity. Punjab, Sumer and Egypt lie in the valleys of great permanent rivers which water large tracts of land. The region enjoyed regular rainfalls in that age. The hot and dry deserts of today in this region were the parklands and granaries that flourished in their full bloom in these ancient times.
The people inhabiting this vast region, as shown later, belonged basically to the proto-Australoid stock and were
black-skinned. The land and sea-routes Ethnie Unity
" facilitated their frequent intermixtures, Mediterranean stock was only a local variety of the basic proto-Australoid racial stock.
This remarkable similarity of man and his environment extended further in other spheres of his activities ; economic. social, political and ideological.
References 1. I name Indus culture as Bhārata culture. Indas culture, sites have been located in Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttarapradesh ; Madhyapradesh and Karnataka States. Recent excavations have brought to light Indus influences in Bengal. Its contacts with farthest south have been estab. lished. It extended upto Afghanistan and Baluchistan in the West. The main Indus cultbre sites of Mohenjodaro. Harappa, Chanhu-daro and Kalibangan are only the representative sites of this basic Bhartiya culture.
3. Second Chapter-Anthropologial Tests.

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Ž. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS Egypt in the fourth Milleniun B. C. was the granary of the civilized world. The peasantry was simple. It was
really free from the entire class of restri. Agriculture
ctions and interferences. It was not vexatiously interfered by the Governmet. It had freedom of choice with respect of crops and farming operations. The common people were mostly tied to the land which they tilled for their own living and for the maintenance of the State. We have no evidence what proportion the ordinary rent bore to the annual produce or profit, but it could not be high as the simple Egyptian peasant had to contribute only for the existence of only a few high intellectual leaders, who adjudged from the standard of their dress, lived wonderfully simple and unpretending.'
Egyptians were good and industrious peasants and employed improved methods of husbandry. Their natural intelligence was remarkable. as they were free tenants of their land. They had not to render forced labour. They grew variety of grains including wheat and barley and a big variety of vegetables. They employed elaborate system of canals, with embankments, sluices and flood-gates and constructed reservoirs for flood waters. Land was extensively reclaimed from marshes for cultivation. They had abundant surplus yields.
Sumerian reverine people were largely agriculturists. Land of each community belonged to the temple of deity, tilled on behalf of gods by tenants, share-croppers or day labourers under the superintendance of the priest in al-Ubaid times beyond 3000 B. C. They had a three-pronged land

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system, personal, communal and mixed. The personal land, called Kur-land, was divided into allotments which were assigned to members of the community for their support. The communal or common land, called Nigenna land, was cultivated by the community as a whole for the benefit of the community. The mixed land, called Uru-lal-land, was let out to tenants at a rent amounting from one-sixth to one third share of the yield. The temple supplied the seed, corn, draft animals and implements for the cultivation of the Nigenna-land. The sangu or priest was not a high dignitary to extort the people. He was rather a superintendent. He had to support himself by his own labour, Priests had their allotments to support themselves. There were no slaves or native serfs. Women were also the holders of allotments.
The basic economy of the Bhāratīya people was agriculture. Peaceful pleasant farmers carried on efficient farming operations in Iran, Baluchistan and Sind. They exercised well-regulated mixed-farming.? They lived in small village settlements in upland valleys and the plains alike. They enjoyed communal life with easy self-sufficiency.s There was irrigation farming and riverine water was stored in big bunds. We find big granaries in the two Indus cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro. This indicates that the agrarian system was so well-organised that the peasants sufficiently produced the necessary surplus to store in these granaries. The agricultural production must have been carried on in two ways. A part of the land might have been cultivated for the support of the individal and his family and the rest for the community. Bhāratīya peasants cultivated cotton, wheat, barley, rice and other considerable variety of farm produce. Fruits and vegetables were also abundantly grown.

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( 8 )
The most important Egyptian industries were building, stone-cutting, weaving, furniture-making, chariot making glass-blowing, pottery, metallurgy, boat-build
Industary ing and embalming. The Sumerians carried on building, weaving, weapon making, jewellery-making and other ancillary industries.10 Industry in Bharata was most efficiently and scientifically organised. Metallurgists smelted silver, lead and copper and worked gold too. Metallurgy, weaving, building, tools-making, pottery, boat-building and secondary industries were at their highest prosperity. Indus folk were ahead of their Sumerian or Egyptian fellows in secondary industries. The tools and weapons produced by the smith look more primitive than the Sumerian." Indus people had developed their brick industry in a very efficient manner. Indus masonary is some 500 years earlier in date than the similar masonary in Sumer and this style of masonary goes back to even earlier times in the Indus valley for it occurr down to the lowest levels.19
It appears that the internal trade was in the hands of the private people. The international trade was centrally organised by the community. In Egypt, was the wholesale merchant.
Pharaob
International Trade
Foreign trade was the royal monopoly." Pharaoh was the litatery head of the community as the Sumerian city-god was. In Sumer, the import and export trade was organised at the centre. The merchant was exclusively concerned with export and import trade for which he received an allotment of land which is significantly a certain proof that he was in the service of the community." Bhartiya merchants carried on foreign trade through land and sea-routes.15 Bharata had international trade with Sumer and Egypt. Herodotus informs us that the Phoenicians who originally came from the coasts of the Indian oceans carried

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on trade in the Mediterranean Ægean States loaded with Egyptian and Assyrian goods16 in the first half of the second millenuin B. C. Bhārata had a very flourishing foreign trade with Sumer and Egypt in the early part of the third Millenium B. C. The existence of big communal granaries leave no doubt that this foreign trade was carried on by the community as in Egypt and Sumer.
The economic life of the society of the region, it appears, was organised on the basis of the synthetic harmony of the individual and the society. The individual was recognised as free and independent. His self-sufficiency was ensured. Then he had full opportunities to serve the community. The surplus economic produce belonged, not for profit to any particular individual, high or low, but to the whole of the community. The individual received gift from community for his service to the community as in the shape of land in in Sumer, but he was not allowed to grow at the expense of other individual members of the society. The family of the individual was the basic unit and personal property was allowed, but it was never allowed to transgress the bounds of equality and social hamony. The individual and his family was the integrated unit of the society.
References 1. Gcorge Rawlinson ; History of Ancient Egypt, 1881, Vol. I,
pages 151-155. 2. Hentry Frankfort; The Birth of Civilization in the near East;
1954, page 90. 3. H. Frankfort; op. cit., p. 84, 87. 4. G. Rawlinson ; op. cit., Vol. II, page 42. 5. V. Gordon Childe ; New light on the Most Ancient East; 1958,
page 118. 6. H. Frankfort, op. cit., pages 60-61. 7. D. H. Gordon ; The Pre-historic Background of Indian Culture,
1958, pages 35, 55.

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( 10 )
8. Mortimer Wheeler; The Indus. civilization, 1953,
9. G. Rawlinson, op. cit., Vol. I, page 483.
10. H. Frankfort; op. cit., pages 66-67.
11. V. Gordon Childe; op. cit., page 117.
12. E. I. H. Mackay; Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro, 1938, page 649.
18. H. Frankfort, op. cit., pages 98-99.
14. H. Frankfort, op. cit., pages 66-67.
15. E. I. H. Mackay, op. cit., page 647. 16. Herodotus; The Historica, 1955, page 13.

page 8.

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3. SOCIAL CONDITIONS
Common Pattern
The region enjoyed peace and prosperity in the earliest period till circa 2000 B. C. In Egypt we find one storeyed and two storyed houses till VI dynasty. The houses in villages and towns do not exhibit remarkable economic differences. They are of simple pattern. The division of Egyptian society into priests. soldiers, herdsmen, husbandmen and artificers is a later growth. In the earliest period, the society was divided only into priests, husbandmen and artificers. Though the priests enjoyed certain privileges voluntarily granted by the people, their general living was marked by simplicity.' The people lived in self-sufficient villages and were wonderfully organised. Villages and towns were well-planned, houses well-ventilated and the public streets well-carved out. In ancient Sumer, each group of the first colonists considered themselves 'The peoples', the servants or perhaps the children of a god and lived in simple tenements erected in his temple. The villages and towns were owned by the god, viz, the community. No sharp differences between different professions of society existed and people lived in simple ordinary houses. The Bhāratīyan villages were well-organised and self-sufficient on whom was rooted the Indus riverine civilization. The houses of the common people do not display much diversities and great differences of wealth. There are workmens' quarters but the general lay-out of the principal Indus cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa reveal the existence of middle class houses in general." It seems that the thriving and prosperous agriculture and industry had thrown a vast and numerous middle-class.

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( 12 )
The one glaring and outstanding feature distinguishes itself throughout the whole region. In astonishing contradistinction, to the houses of the common people, Community Buildinga we find massive, huge, spacious and palatial buildings; pyramids and temples in Egypt., temples in Sumer and grand halls in Bharata. Egyptian pharaohs and Sumerian gods were only titulary heads of the people. The leaders of Bharatiya people were also no kings. These palatial buildings existed for the use of the community and belonged to the community. They were the communityhalls of the people.
Common people pursued peaceful avocations. They carried on peaceful internal and external trade. Sumer and Egypt were colonised peacefully. They Early Peaceful Development were not subjugated by military might of the people from the oceans or the mountains of the east. Egypt showed this peaceful progress till the fourth Dynasty. Snefru built a fleet of sixty ships of one type for trade His times were free from wars.1 The Sumerian purposes. civilization was built up from the elements derived from all three sources. al.' Ubaid, Uruk and Jamdat Nasr. The first two colonizers were peaceful people and were not accompanied by military might. The intrusion of the Jamdat Nasr people also appears to be peaceful but they afterwards incurred the hatred of the old inhabitants for their acts of usurpation and violence. People rose in rebellion against them and put a violent end to the regime." The original founders of the Sumerian civilization developed their life in peaceful conditions. These two states later developed their military might. They raised army and navy and invented weapons of war.

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( 13 ) The Bhāratīyan experiment is unparallelled and unique compared to the Egyptian and Sumerian ways. The
strangest phenomenon of the Bhāratīya culPeaceful Develop. ment throughout ture is its great and remarkable homogeneity in Bharatat
throughout the region with such supreme and unequalled prosperity. There is remarkable absence of the manifestation of the spirit of public display of wealth in buildings, decorations, monuments and inscriptions. The tools of violence are curiously weak. The Bhāratīyan people did not develop military and police power for internal and external trade. Peace reigned throughout the vastest Bhāratīyan region but it was maintained by the voluntary will of the people, not by force. We do not find fortified towns or cities till the end of the Third Millenium B. C.
This picture clearly reveals the basic character of the people. They lived like brothers in peace and happiness.
Though the pattern of earning was private, Absence of Social there was no greed and vulgarity attached Tensions.
to it. There was no private or public display of wealth. The disparities in incomes and possessions appear to be negligible hence there were no classes. There may be high and low people but that was not on account of the difference in material possessions. That was due to the inherent merit in intelligencejand character of the individual. The society was prosperous and happy for want of social tensions. It was an integrated society.
The position of women in such a society could not but be of equality and prestige. She was economically indepen
dent, and enjoyed status and freedom. She Status of Women.
**** could attain the position of a priestess. She could go anywhere without molestation. All landed property descended in the female line from mother to daughter,

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)
Egypt imported custom of matrilineal descent from her first colonisers. Monogamy was the general custom. In Sumer, women could own land wich ensured their economic independence. Goddess was the supervising deity of the realm. Terracotta figurines of nude females in meditative and contemplative postures unearthed in the earliest level at Ur reveal the high status women enjoyed in the Sumerian society. Woman was equal partner of man in Bhārata and various figurines, seals and steallites unearthed at Harappa and Mohenjodaro show the high status women hield in the society. The Irānian culture before the advent of Irānāryans was probably matriarchal, having close relationship with the Indus culture. Both were of the same spirit and origin. We do not know for certain whether the social base in the whole region was matriarchal or not but it appears to be matriarchal in a large part of it but womanhood enjoyed the highest status and prestige in the whole of the region. She was definitely not a chattal to satisfy the vulgar and exploitative whims of man. She was free, independent and in her own.
Family was the social unit. As the family was based on a single individual, it was of necessity small. The marriage took place outside the family. The descent was generally matri-lineal. Patri-lineal descent was also in vogue in certain parts. There could not have been family tensions owing to the absence of a large family due to the marital custom of monogamy. Monogamy was compulsory on private persons and upto the twentieth Dynasty was practised by monarchy also. Polygamy was unknown to the inhabitants of the Nile valley, it was very strictly prohibited and even licensed councubinage confined to the kings. Women constantly appeared in public ; were equal in the eye of law; could ascend the throne and administer

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( 15 ) the Government of the country. The Nobles also limited themselves to a single wife whom he made the partner of his cares and joys and treated with respect and affection. Matrimony in Sumer was also based on monogamy. The head of the family was father. If his son married a second wife, his family was censured and he had to pay damages. Polygamy was prohibited. We have no written records for this period in Bhārata but the original inhabitants of Bhārata who took with them the monogamous system of marriage to Sumer and Egypt could not but have this system in their own home. The monogamous matrimony of Rāma and Sītā is a pointer to the marital custom of Bhārata in that period. The events of the life of Rāma belong to the pre-Aryan pre-Dravidian proto.Australoid Age."
There might have been a small class of domestic servants but slavery as such was non-existent. Education was considered to be of great importance and the children went to the boarding school at any age. People enjoyed common pastime. The spirit of unity and equality pervaded the social atmosphere.
References
1. G. Rawlinson ; op. cit.; Vol. I page 439. 2. V. Gordon Childe ; op. cit., page 114. 3. M. Wheeler ; op. cit., page 38 to 40. 4. M. A. Murray; The splendour that was Egypt; 1959; page 97. 5. Leonard Woolley ; Excavations at Ur ; 1955 page 49. f. Bendapudi Subbarao ; The personality of India ; 1:58: page 37. 7. M. A. Murray; op. cit., page 101-104. 8. L. Woollcy; op. cit ; page 31 Plate No. Il facing page 37. 9. E. Herzfeld ; Iran in the Ancient East, pages 11, 177. 10. G. Rawlinson ; op. cit. ; vol. I pages 534, 539, 552, vol. II page 321. 11. S. Moscati ; The Face of the Ancient Orients ; 1960; pages 47, 37. 12. S. K. Chatterji; Chapter VIII in Vedic Age, 1957, page 165,

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4.
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
The state in the modern sense had not emerged in this region in those times still the people had evolved such political institutions as the basic character tem in Ancient of their society needed for its preservation and growth.
Republican Sys
Egypt
At the dawn of history, the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt are united by a great personage called Menes. He certainly achieved the unity of the realm. He was the establisher of what is miscalled Old Kingdom. This age may truly be termed as the Old Republic. It lasted between 2850-2200 B.C.1 Menes, Mena or m'na
means the establisher of the station'. He is neither the king nor the founder of the unity of the whole of Egypt but only an 'Establisher'. He is the person who is known as the first Pharaoh in the glorious history of Egypt. At first no single minister stood between the Pharaoh and the various branches of administration. There was no Grand Vizier. Under the fourth Dynesty, however, the vizierata was introduced but only to be occupied by a confidant of the Pharaoh. The Egyptian state, the State had definitely existed then in its original form, was divided into various nomarches. Nomarch was the local administrator resembling the modern pattern of a provincial executive head. A nomarch of the Fifth Dynasty, Nesutnefer, is marked by his title as "Leader of the Land" (i.e. Province). This title establishes a significant fact that a provincial ruler acted with the consent of the people. He 'led' them; he did not govern them. Perhaps the people selected him and the Pharaoh nominated him. He enjoyed the confidence of both the pharaoh and the people. The sovereignty resided in the people.

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( 17 ) The election or selection of the official was conditioned by the moral virtues of the incumbant of the office.
The ideal official was 'the silent man', who Leader of the is respectful of established authority and Land.
just, since Maat (which means truth, justice, rightness) is part of that world order of which his royal master is the champion. The 'silent man' is not the meek sufferer, but the wise, self-possessed, well-adapted man, modest and self-effacing upto a point but deliberate and firm in the awareness that he is thoroughly in harmony with the world in which he lives". Pharaoh, the supreme leader of the people, possessed these qualities almost to a point of perfection. He was the best and the noblest servant of the people. Men of high moral fibre, possessing great intellectual and spiritual qualities, self-effacing, having little material possessions occupied high public offices with no hereditary rights. This ancient type of republican society flourished till twenty-second century B.C.
This republican type was more pronounced in Sumer. Political authority seems originally to have rested with the
citizens ; sovereign power and the city god Republican Sys- lay in an assembly guided by a group of tem in Sumer
elders. Since the terms for 'assembly' and 'elders' occur already in the Protoliterate tablets”; these political republican institutions appear to have endured for a fairly long period. These republican political institutions represent in the highest degree the intensified self-consciousness and self-assertion. They were man-made institutions overriding kinship relationship and asserting territorial affinities. Local autonomy was the rule of the land. The assembly was very conscious of its duties towards the people and it continued deliberations till practical unanimity was reached. The executive head in Sumer was called

Page #45

( 18 ) 'Lugal' which means 'great man'. He was neither a king nor a lord. Political assembly headed by lugal was the real sovereign power, god was only the titular head of the city. An American scholar Jacobson has called this system *Primitive Democracy'. He holds that pre-historic Mesopo. tamia was organised politically along democratic lines, not, as was historic Mesopotamia, along autocratic. The indica tions which we have, point to a form of Government in which the normal run of public affairs was handled by a council of elders but ultimate sovereignty resided in a general assembly comprising all members-or perhaps better, all adult free men of the community. This assembly settled conflicts arising in the community, decided on such major issues as war and peace, and could, if need arise, especially in & situation of war, grant supreme authority, kingship to one of its members for a limited period. Jacobson is a bit conservative. Looking to the status and prestige that women enjoyed, it appears almost improbable that they were debarred from the assembly membership. May be, they took very active part in it and successfully guided its deliberations. In any political system, political power always follows the economic power and women were economically independant and powerful in sumer. There was no slavery as such during this period in Sumer. It is almost certain that all the adult members possessed sovereignty and constituted the assembly. This republican type must have continued in Sumer till the voilent occupation of the realm by Sargon of Agade Circa 2350 B.C.
Indus script has not satisfactorily been deciphered, hence we have no access to the inscriptions to ascertain the
nature of political institutions obtaining in Jana Republics and Parişadas Bhārata in this age. But fortunately the in Bhārata
material relics found at Indus sites give &

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(19
)
clear answer. If the material relics are read with the descriptions of institutions and people whom the Rgvedic Āryans violently over-ran ; we find a definite answer.
We witness a self-sufficient, peaceful and homogenous society throughout the vast Bhāratiya region in this age. The prosperity of the villages and towns rested on agriculture, industry and trade. All the archæologists and historians agree on this point that this region was very weak in military and police power and the problem that has haunted them is to find that self-propelled adjunct that kept this vast humanity in unity as well as in prosperity in tact for thousands of years. Stuart Piggot maintains that the priesthood of some religion was the potent force behind this organisation.'
Rgveda is a Vincent Smithonian interpretation of the pre-Aryan Bhāratīya life by the invading semi-civilized nomadic Bralımāryans; still some truth may be gleaned from it, of course, with the help of subtle discerning skill, regarding the nature of the way of their adversaries; the Bhāratīya people.
The Brahmāryan adversaries were termed by them as Asuras, Dāsas, Dašyus, Panis, Rākşasas and Větras-all belonging to the Ahi sub-race. They were opposed to the basic Aryan way of life, the institution of Yajña. They were unbelivers, following other rites and not worshipping the Āryan gods.8 Their society was organised in Janas or Peoples or Republics. Panchajanāḥ or Five Peoples or Five Republics of Pūru, Yadu, Turvasa, Aņu and Druhyu; the Asuras and Dāsas; were the most important of them. These Pañchajanāḥ confederated with other five republics of the Abi sub-race in Dasarājña War who gave the last bitterest oppoşition to the Brahmāryan military forces. They were all

Page #47

( 20 ) non-sacrificers. The Jana-republic, of the Asuras had Parişadas, to the assemblies, which were also destroyed by Indra.
The people and their leaders had their spititual guides in Munis and Signadevas who were the followers of Vrşabha, a great sage belonging to the hoary past. They believed in the Duality of Spirit and Matter." This Muni and Sişnadeva culture latter came to be known as Muni-Śramaņa culture. This Muni-Śramaņa culture is pre-Vedic and pre-Aryan. Fuller information about this culture can be had from Jain sources. A Muni or Áramana is he who practises the perfect Vows of Truth, Non-Violence, Non-Stealing Complete continence and Non-Attachment". This Pre-Vedic and pre-Aryan śramaņa culture of Bhārata is of singular significance in this region from Egypt to Bhārata as it is found here in its pristine glory.
We find Munis, Siśna devas and Siśnadevis represented on the Indus art. The three-headed Yogi, the spiritualism incarnate, and mother-goddesses have been represented nude. Violent animals stand in the service of the Yogi which means that Matter is under control of the Spirit. We find humanheaded animals and yogi standing under the tree. This is not animism or animatism. It is belief in the existance of Spirit in the animal and vegetation world. Indus art represents the spiritual base of the pre-Aryan Bhāratiya people. Marshall, Mackay and Wheeler misinterpreted these Indus objects as they were not familiar with the institution of Śramaņas and śiśnadevas. They went constantly wandering amongst the people to keep alive faith in spiritual values. Elders imbued with spiritual qualities; themselves simple, self-effacing, with little material possessions, were elected to the Parişads who guided small village and local republics in far-flung areas. They kept aside the forces of

Page #48

( 21 ) exploitation and vidence from the people which gave. homogeneity and prosperity to this vast region.
We, thus, find that the whole region politically enjoyed an ancient republican system of its peculiar type. At the base were the sovereign self-conscious and self-controlled people. They were led by ascetic elders who did not seek wealth and material prosperity but only love and cooperation of the people. They kept the society in tact with little social tensions. Pharaoh in Egypt and Lugal in Sumer combined in them spiritual and temporal powers in the service of the people. But they were householders, not pure saints or Munis. There might have been some Munis in that region also but they did not excercise that power there as they did in Bhārata. They gave a peculiar lustre to the Bhāratīya culture and a longer tenure of life. The republican institutions began to fade away in Egypt and Sumer after circa 2200 B. C. while they endured in Bhārata till 1150 B. C., the probable date of Bhāratīya defeat in Dāsrājña War.
Power
It appears certain that the whole electorate elected the elders. The assembly had the right to elect various leaders
for administration. A Commander for War Horns as Emblem of Supreme is also referred to have been elected in Sumer
by the Assembly. Persons holding supreme office and the authority have been depicted in the art of the region wearing horns. Ek Vrātya, the supreme human being in Bhārata, is represented as three-horned. An, the supreme being of Sumer, is represented as having two or three horns.16 Pharaoh, the son of Osiris, the Egyptian supreme being, is depicted as two-horned.18 Horns of consecration, as symbol of power and authority, were used in the Minoan period of Ægean civilization. The pre-Aztec

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( 22 ) American culture-hero Quetzalcoatl led the first immigrants belonging to Ahi or Nāga sub-race, from the East to America. He is represented in art sitting in a meditative mood in Padmāsana posture with eyes closed having two hooded horns 18 The elected leaders of society, the temporal supreme beings, considered themselves the sons of their spiritual leaders meaning theraby that they had to conduct themselves according to the commands of the spiritual standards; that their temporal authority was subject to the spiritual authority and as a token . of this pledge, they wore a head-dress with a horn-like object. We get a glaring evidence of corroboration from Rgveda. Vţtra wore a horned headdress in battle against Indra wherein he was slain by Indra,19 Vţtra was the leader of a Jana-republic of Bhāratn, a follower of Muni-Siśnadeva culture and the arch-adversary of Brahmāryans in Bhārata. The Horns of the Bull are the horns of authority. Bull represents Vrşabha in art; the great spiritual leader of Bhārata going to the hoariest antiquity who attained Final Spiritual Attainment. We may, thus, safely conclude that the people of this region accepted Horn as the emblem of supreme power and authority. Horn became, thus, associated with freedom, equality and spiritual supremacy in relation with highest public office of the ancient republics from Egypt to Bhārata; both temporal and spiritual.
References 1. S. Moscati ; The Face of the Ancient Orient ; 1960 ; Page 101. 2. G. Rawlinson ; Op. cit.; Vol. II, Page 27. 3. H. Frankfort; Op. cit.; Page 84. 4. H. Frankfort ; Op. cit.; Page 87. 5. H. Frankfort ; Op. cit.; Pages 68-69." 6. S. Moscati ; Op. cit.; Pages 20-21. 7. S. Piggot ; Op. Cit:; Page 201.

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(23) 8. Rgveda 1.7.2.11; 2.1 11-8; 4.2.7.7; 5.3.2.6-73; 7.1.6.3; 7.6.15.9%3;
8.8.1.11; 8.9.13.2 I have followed the division of Rgveda into Mapdala, anuvāka,
Sukta and Re. 9. Rgveda 7.5.13.7. 10. Rgveda 3.3.4.7.
प्रवाच्यं शश्वधा वीर्य तदिन्द्रस्य कम यदहिं विश्वत् ।
वि वज्रेण परिषदो' जधानायनापोऽयनमिच्छमानाः ॥ ll. Rgvedu 7.2.4.5 ; 7.6.12.6. 12. G. C. Pande ; Studies in the Origins of Buddhism; 1957 ; Page 261 13. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra 21.12.
अहिंस सव्वं च प्रतेणगं च, ततो य बंभ अपरिग्गहं च ।
पडिजिया पंचमहव्वयाणि, चरिज धम्मं जिणदेसियं विऊ॥ 14. E. J. H. Mackay; Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro; 1937,
Vol. 22 ; Seal No. 413 on plate No. XCIV. 15. H. Heras; Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean culture; 1953;
Figures 29 and 30 on pages 172, 173. 16. H. G. Wells; Outline of History ; 1931 ; Figure on Page 222. 17. V. Gordon Childe; The Dawan of European Civilization;
19503; Figures 10 on page 26. 18. D. A. Mackenzie ; Myths of Pre-Columbian America; Figure 3
on Plate facing page 256 19. Rgveda 1.7.3.12
न्या'विध्यदिलीबिशस्य दुलहा वि शृङ्गिणमभिनच्छुष्णमिन्द्रः। यावतरो' मघवन्यावदोज़ो वजेण शत्रु'मवधीः पृतन्युम् ॥

Page #51

5. JANA-REPUBLICS OF BHÂRATA We have very very briefly dealt with the main motie vating fundamental factors that gave birth to the economic,
social and political institutions of the region. Institution of
Our purpose is not to give a description of Jana
them but only to discover the basic forces underlying them. The present subject has briefly been touched just before but the subject deserves more detailed examination.
The word "Jana” may be traced to Jan in the sense of "to generate, beget, produce, create, cause, to be born".! It carries the sense of consanguinity. Jana means man.' Nay, it means more than that. The word Jana signifies all the living beings. In the composite sense, it means the people or the human race. It is used in the sense to produce, to give birth, to generate. The word, thus, indica:es inseparable relationship with its parent--the human pair or the earth. When a Jana is said to belong to the human race, his blood relationship or consanguinity is intended. It, thus, suggests its affinity to a social system based on matriarchy. When a Jana is referred as a member of the people inhabiting a certain territory ; that suggests his affinity to a political system based on territoriality.
Rgveda describes Jana' as a hostile individual and a hostile institution of the Brāhmaryans. Brāhmaryan Rși curses the Jana (man) who does not present oblation to Mitra and Varuņa, who injures and does them wrong. Āświns are prayed to humble the Jana (man) who makes no ablations but is still respected (perhaps for his wealth) and to take away the life of the Paņi for the pious man. Here

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( 25 ) Paņi is referred as a Jana. Vipra, the pious man, is not a Jana. We learn from Rgveda that Paņi was an important pre-Aryan Bhārtīya tribe known for its wealth and adventures, in the country and on the wide Seas. They had been annihilated on mass scale by Indra for plunder of their wealth.” Here the word Jana may also refer to Paņi-jana ; the republic of the Paņis when two Janān (men) were exerting themselves against each other, the great diplomat Indra follows the policy of divide and rule and takes the side of one jana (man) and plundering his hostile jana's cattle, gives them over to his associate. Rși Bhārdwāja does not love to give the epithet jana to Indra. Jana is false and useless, Indra is not a false or useless jana. He had slain Chumuri, Dhuni, Pipru, Sambara and Susna. These Dāsas and Dasyus belonging to the Ali race were Janāh whom Indra had slain in battle. They do not represent mere individuals but the large masses of Brahmāryan adversaries. It appears certain that they were the leaders of their respective Janab or republics. Their annihilation refers to the annihilation of their armies and the consequent ruination of their republics.
The Jana (man) who sits, walks, sees us (the Brāhmāryans) of these we (Brahmāryans) shut up the eyes ; they be as unconscious as mansion, is the curse wrought by a Brahmāryan worshipper of Indra. The Brahmāryan magic is also directed against the Bhārtīya Jana who is of diabolical nature, who seeks to do evil to Brahmāryans, may he incur that evil." Asuras have been depicted as possessing diabolical nature in Vedic Samhitās and later Brābmaņical literature. Here Jana has been equated with Asura. Asuras were irresistible heroes. Jana cannot harm the command and rightful empire of Indra." Jana does not mean a single individual here but a plurality of people. Jana

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( 26 ) here refers to people or their republics. Asuras were mighty heroes and great city-builders. Brahmāryan Soma is asked to copy the might and habit of his adversary, the Jana. He is to manifest his might like Jana. He is to enter a cup as a Jana enters a city.18 Indra was not only Vţtrabā but Janabhakşa or devourer of Janas. Janas cannot refer to his own kinsmen but only to his adversaries,14 Rsi Bhardwāja originally belonged to hostile Jana of Indra but he was won over by Indra against his own Janas. He prays Indra to humble that Jana who thought himself as the greatest.16 And the greatest enemy of Indra was Vợtra. Soma has been compared to a Rajasthani Jana. As water revives a Jana in desert-Waste ; similarly Soma increased Indra. This Ķc preserves the reminiscences of these Brahmāryans, who lived on the banks of the Saraswati river near about the desert-Waste Rangmahal area in Ganganagar District of Rajasthan State where sand-dunes are very prominent. Saraswati water gave life and health to the Rajasthani Janas who were later conquered by the Brahmāryan forces. This also indicates that this part of Rajasthan had a republican system. Soma, invigorating Indra and through him, drove off the Janam who loved not the Brahmāryan Devas,17 The Brahmāryans called those persons Dasyus who worshipped not the gods. They were followers of other rites, did not offer sacrifices, were non-believers in Brahma and were avratās and anyavratās,18 The Brahmäryans were not satisfied by denouncing and reviling their Bhārtīyan adversaries only to this extent. They called them non-men. It is a bit concession given by Sāyaṇa to the converted Bhāratīyans that he commented the word 'Amānuşa' as enemy of mankind, i. e. the Asuras and the Rakšaşas. 30 But this is a travesty of truth. In the word Āmanuşa, the prefix 'a' denotes negative sense. Even Sāyaṇa is compelled

Page #54

( 27 )
to relate the Janah with Asuras and Raksaṣas. We, thus, find intimate relationship between the Jana institution and the Asura people. It is true because Jana was the political institution of the Asuras. Asuras were not human being to the Brahmaryans, so were Janas; the Bharatiya people. They identify Janas with Asuras and Jana-republics with Asura political institutions.
The Brahmaryan sage accepts hundred Dāsas from the Dāsa Balbhūta, the cowherd. The word 'Janah,' in this Jana-republic, An context, has wrongly been commented upon Asura Institution by Sayana as 'We'." It should be commen. ted as "Hostile men". The worshipper here is only one and not many. The translation 'associates of Balbhūta are thine, O, Vayu' would give better sense. That man is victorious over Janan whom Maruts defend."" Sāyaṇa translates the word 'Janan' as 'other men'." Indra's help is sought by the Brahmāryans to destroy their adversaries and hostile people, the Janan."4 They were malavolent." The wealth of the Bharatiya people was famous with the Brahmāryans. The devotees pray Indra to give them wondrous wealth as possessed by their adversaries, the Janan.26 Mitra and Varuna are asked to keep back the hostile people (Janan) who check the advance of the Brahmaryan troops." When the Jana forces of the TenRepublics confederation met the Brahmaryan forces in the first battle on the banks of Paruşni; Meruts killed twenty one Jana leaders.28 The word Rājā has till now been wrongly translated as King. It means a leader' as shown later. The Ten-Republics Confederation was composed of Purus, Yadus, Turvasa, Anus, Druhyus, Ajās, Sigrus, Yaksas, Vṛchivants and Matsyas.29 Ajās, Sigrous and Yakṣas under the leadership of Dasa Rājā Bheda fought the last battle of Dasrajña War on the banks of Yamuna.30

35

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( 28 ) Ajās, Sigrus and Yakşas were non-Aryan pre-Aryan Janas. All the ten members of the confederacy were collectively known as Bharatās. They were pre-Aryan non-Aryan Bhārtīya Janas or peoples organised into republics who confederated together during the troublous times of national peril. The Brahmāryans put to permanent sleep, the Bharatiya people (Janās) on mass scale.81
The Brabmāryans enjoyed the wealth of their hostiles (Janânām). When Maruts scattered them and their sages terrified them.32 Indra also knew the wealth of these hostile people (Janānām) who made no offerings; he was to plunder the wealth of those people for his followers.98 The Brahmāryan militarists were the grievous oppressors of their hostile people (Janānām); Agni's help is also sought to consume the foes who come against the Brahmāryans,84 These hostile people (Janānām) are said to have flung calumny on the Brahmāryan people. 35 Indra's terrible thunderbolt falls upon the troops of the hostile people (Janānām) in terrible battle.36 Indra has to demolish the strong cities of the hostile people (Janānām) and has to baffle their devices. Sāyaṇa also translates Janānām' as 'Satrūnām' the adversaries, in this context.37 This Ķc refers to the devices of Asuras and their strong iron cities in Punjab and Rajasthan. Soma is also asked to overthrow the strength of the hostile people (Janānām) who challenge the Brahmāryans.38 This suggests that the Brahmāryan invaders, overdrunk, wrought violent destruction of the Bhāratīya people. Indra is prayed to make the regions of heaven, of mid-air for the oppressive race (janāya) (of the Rakşaşas).98
We have two important concepts in Rgveda and later Vedic literature; Pañchajanāh and Pañcha kşitînām. Both

Page #56

( 29 )
are co-related. One signifies people; the Pañchajanah and Panchakṣitinam other their territory. Pañchakṣitīnām does not mean five classes of men or beings as given by Sāyaṇa. Indra is said to rule over five dwellers on earth. Here significance of territory is indicated. Treasures of the Five Territories in the hands of Indra. This referes to the final Brahmaryan victory over Bhārata. The prominent five republics were subjugated and Indra became the complete master of all wealth contained in them. Then his companions want a share in that wealth. They pray Indra to bestow upon them the Wealth of five Territories. These Five Territories were full of the objects of sustenance which the Brahmāryans hitherto lacked. Indra is asked to plunder and bring those for them.10 Word 'Kşiti' means 'abode, dwelling habitation, earth.'42 Word 'Kşiti' in conjunction with the word 'Pañch' definitely indicates five territorial units of the Brahmaryan adversaries.
The principal adversaries of the Brahmaryan foreign invaders in the Dasrajna War were Pañchajanah. Panchajanah means Five Peoples. Authors of Vedic Index have examined view of several scholars. They have rightly rejected Sāyaṇa's interpretation that Panchajanāh mean four Varnas and Niṣāds. Zimmer's view appears to be correct that Pañchajanah mean five tribes of Anues, Druhyus, Yadus, Turvaṣas and Purus.18 A. C. Das agrees with this definition and holds Sāyaṇa wrong.'1 As referred earlier; these Pañchajanah were non-sacrificing pre-Aryan non-Aryan Bharatiya peoples. They paid indemnities of War and made reparations."
44
45
Some territories have been referred by their separate names in Ṛgveda. Yadva-Jana and Bharata-Jana have been specifically mentioned.
were
They territorial units. The names were given to
People and Territory

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( 30 ) the country or a part of it. Yādva-Jana and BhārataJana respectively mean Yadu country and Bhārata country. Those who were citizens of the particular were also known by the name of the country. The citizens of Yădva-Jana were Yadus and that of Bhārata-Jana Bharatās. Jana here means the people of the country. These Five Peoples (Pañchajanāh) inhabited the Five Territories (Pañchakşitînām). These Peoples' Territories may rightly be called Jana-republics.
The executive organ of the Jana-republic was Parişada. Indra destroyed the Parişada of the Asuras. These Parişadas
possessed great riches. Big granaries at Parişada
Harappa and Mohenjodaro testify the fact that Bhāratīya peasants also produced for the community. The large surplus belonged to the community. The community carried on international trade which brought it untold riches. This wealth belonged to the Republic which was managed by the Parişada. The Brahmāryans desired to own these permanent riches of the Parişadas.48 The Parişada managed the functions of the society. As seen earlier, each self-organised and self-sufficing villages and towns managed their own affairs. This shows that Parişada was responsible to the general body which constituted of adult people. It was in all probability elected or selected by the people.
The supreme authority of the Jana-republic was known as Rājan. This word is formed of the word 'Jan' with
prefix 'ra'. "Rā' is used in the sense of Rajan-the highest Executive of * yield or surrender.“7 The person who Republic
surrendered or renounced his life in the service of the Jana was called Rājan. This word may also be traced to v Rāj to shine's in the sense of anything the chief or best of its kind. One definition given to this word is

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( 31 ) Rājā' Praksti Ranjanāt' meaning 'he whose duty or nature is to act for the happiness of the people'. This definition also suggests that Rājan renounced himself in the service of the people. Rājan was not a hereditary office. He was elected and re-elected by the people.50 Rājan is known to have been elected and re-elected in Atharvanic age ; hence it is safe to conclude that he must have also been elected and re-elected in Rgvedic times and before. The epithet Rājā has been given to the leaders of the Ten-Republics Confederacy in Ķgveda. The institution of Rājan was the ultimate extension of the institution of Jana. The best, the most illustrious, the greatest, the senior-most, highest among leader, supporter of the people, shining and radiant Jana was the Rājan of the realm.
The institution of Rājan has its equivalent in the Avestic institution of Rastar 'Leader', raz 'to lend straight', The Latin word rego means 'to direct,51 The word Rājan carried the meaning of a leader, a director. When the Irānāryans had to wage bitter wars against the Dāsa, Dušyus and Asuras in Iran; they came in contact with this Asura institution of Rājan who was the highest executive of the Asura-Jana-republics. The civilization and culture of Iran was almost similar to that of Bhārata in this age.58 Iran was the far Western Province of Bhārata. When the Brahmāryans advanced towards Bhārata from Iran in the later half of second millenium B. C., they had to face defeats at the hands of Asura troops an all the fronts. They pondered over the causes of their defeat and found that the inherent great power resting in the institution of Rājan was responsible for Asura victories. They then borrowed this non-Aryan institution of Rājan and were victorious in further battles.53 Divodāsa Atithigvā was the first Brahmāryan Rājan.* This Brahimāryan evidence

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(
32
)
convincingly proves that the institution of Rājan was an Asura political institution. Jana, Parişada and Rājan seem to be the hierarchy of Asura political institutions in Bhārata before the alien Brahmāryan invasions.
Bhārata was since ages enjoying a political system of Jana-republics in her self-sufficient and self-organised villages
and towns. These territorial republics were No Central Political
local. There was no central authority to Authority
keep them in tact and harmony. They readily confederated together during periods of great exigencies. Brahmāryan , military onslaughts provided such a national emergency and Ten-Republics Confederacy was the result. The political mechanism had some other powerful adjunct which reduced the use for violence to the minimum. Central authority is needed only for the use of the methods of violence to keep the society in tact. Egypt also enjoyed such dispersed local republics till the Twelfth Dynasty. But confusion arose and the republics did not work in harmony. The kings of the Twelfth Dynasty restored centralised Government.56 The powerful adjunct that kept such a vast society in tact with minimum force must have been a very powerful one going to the very root of the basic way of life of the people. Unless the basic principles and convictions are voluntarily accepted by the people at large as guiding forces in their daily lives; the need of violence can not be ruled out. The basic way of the people of the region must have been of a very deep and permanent character.
References 1. Mopier Williams ; Sanskrit-English Dictionary ; 1956 ; Page 410. 2. Rgveda 1.8.6.1; 1.2 3.2.8.; 2.3.1.4 ; 5.5.9.6; 5.6.8.2; 6.4.6.1 ;
7.2.3.6-8; 7.3.22.5; 8.1.4.12 ; 8.1.5.33; 8.1.5.39; 3. Rgveda 1.7.5.5; 1.8.2.12 ; 1.9.7.3-6 ; 1.11.2.1 ; 121.1.12 ; 1.23.9.8;
2.2.9.2; 3.4.8.2; 3.5.6.1; 6.6.6.3; 8.3.7.14 ; 1.6.2.14; 1.13.2.3-4 ; 1,23.13.1; 1.24.12.4 ; 4.1.9.5; 5.1.2.6 ; 5.2.2.2 ;

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( 33 5.5.10.4; 6.1.1.5%; 6.1.7.1; 6.1.15.19; 6.3.13.4; 1.3.16.33; 7.4.8.2; 7.5.4.6; 7.5.5.2; 7.5.9.1; 8.1.5.133; 8.3.3.10%; 8.3.7.33; 8.4.4.4; 8.7.5.3; 8.10.10.6; 9.5.2.3 ; 9.5.2.6;
9.7.9.14; 4. Rgveda 1.9.5.11; 1.12,5.2; 1.16.8.19; 2.1.4.1; 5.1.14.23; 5.2.7.23;
5.3.1.1; 6.2.1.1; 6.4.5.8; 7.4.7.5; 7.5.19.5; 8.7.5.10;
9.3.1.28; 5. Rgveda 1.24.7.7; 4.1.5.5; 9.5.11.12; 9.6-1.36%3; 6. Rgveda 1.18.2.9; 7. (1) Rgveda 1.24.3.3.
किमत्र दस्रा कृणुथः किमासाथे जनो यः कश्चिदहविर्महीयते ।
अति क्रमिष्टं जुरतं' पुणेरसुं ज्योतिर्विप्रीय कृणुतं वचस्यवे' ।। (2) Rgveda 8.9.1.7. 8. Rgveda 5.3.2.8.
सं यजनौ' सुधनौ' विश्वशर्धसाववे दिन्द्रो' मघवा गोषु शुभ्रिषु ।
युजं ह्य १'न्यमकृत प्रवेपन्युदि गव्यं सृजते स त्वभि धुंसिः 9. (I) gveda 6.2.3.8. (2) Wilson, on the authority of Sayana, translates 'Na Mithi Jano
Bhut' as "No engenderer of that which is in vain". This is wrong.
H. H. Wilson ; Rgveda; 1927; Vol. IV, page 31. (3) Rgveda-Samhita; Vedic Samsodhana Mandala; Vol. III, p. 71. 10. Rgveda 7.3.22.6. 11. Rgveda 8.3.6.13. 12. Rgveda 8.9.13.11. 13. Rgveda 9.5.3.5; 9.7.4.10. 14. Rgveda 2.2.10.3. 15. Rgveda 6.2.4.12. 16. Rgveda 6.3.11.4. 17. Rgveda 9.3.3.24. 18. Rgveda 1.10.1.8; 1.23.11.3%; 6.1.14.3; 6.4.1.11; 8.8.1.11: 9.2.17.2. 19. Rgveda 2.1.11.10; 8.8.1.11; 10.2.6.7; 10.2-6.8; 13.8.5.8. 20. Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Vol. II Page 39%; Vol. III page 8513
___Vol. IV Page 344. 21. Rgveda.Samhita (V.S.M.); Vol, III Page 768

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22. Rgveda 1.11.7.13. 23. Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Vol. I Page 440. 24. Rgveda 5.1.3.11 ; 5.3.1.2 ; 6.2.5.1 ; 6.4.3.4 ; 6.6.7.5; 7.26 2;
8.7.1.16. 25. Rgveda 6.4.6.15. 26. Řgveda 6.2.5.1 ; 27. Rgveda 7.6.6.1. 28. Řgveda 7.2.1.11.
एकं च यो विशति च श्रवस्या वै'कर्णयोर्जनात्राजा न्यस्त':।
दस्मो नसनि शिंशाति बहिः शूरः सर्ग मकृणोदिन्द्र एषाम् ।। 29. K.C. Jain ; Pre-Ãryo-Brahma Bharatās of Bhārata. Only Summary
is given on page 121 in Proceedings of Twenty-third
Session of Indian History Congress, Aligarh. 30. Řgveda 7.2.1.18-19 31. Ķgveda 7.3.22.7. 32. Rgveda 1.12.2.2 ; 4.1.4.9; 7.4.1.24 ; 8.1.1.4. 33. Rgveda 1.13.8.9. 34. Ægveda 3.2.6.1. 35. Řgveda 3.3.3.1. 36. Rgveda 4.2.6.17. 37. (1) Rgveda 6.4.2.9.
(2) Řgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Vol. III Page 148). 38. Rgveda 9.2.28.4. 39. (1) Řgveda 6.2.7.8. (2) Sayana translates Janāya' as Janasya Rakşaşadeh' Rgveda.
Samhita (V.S.M.); Vol. III, Page 90. 40. Þgveda 1.2.4.9. 41. Rgveda 1.23.12.3; 5.3.3.2; 6.4.3.7. 42. Monier-Williams; Op. cit.; Page 327. 43. Macdonell and Keith; Vedic Index ; 1958 ; Vol. I Page 466-468. 44. A. C. Das; Ķgvedic Culture ; 1925; Pages 32, 45, 46, 67, 111, 45, Rgveda 3.5,6,8.

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( 35 ) 46. Rgveda 2.1.4.7.
स यो व्यस्थादभि दर्शदुर्वी पशु३ति स्वयुरगोपाः ।
अग्निः शोचिष्मा अतसान्युष्णकृष्णव्यथिरस्वक्ष्यन्न भूमं ॥ 47. Monier-Williams; Op. cit., Page 87. 48. Siddheswar Varma ; The Etymologies of Yāşka ; 1953 ; Page 17. 49. Monier-Williams; Op. cit., Page 872. 50. Atharvaveda 3.4.2 ; 6.88.3. 51. (1) Siddheswar Varma; Op. cit., Page 57. (2) Ardeshir Eramji Khabardar ; New Light on the Gathas of
Holy Zarthusthra ; 1951 ; Page 758. 52. E. E. Herzfeld ; Iran in the Ancient East; 1941 ; Pages 170. 190. 53. A. B. Keith ; Rgvedic Brāhmaṇas ; 1920; Aitareya Brāhmaṇa;
1.14 ; Page 117. 34. Rgveda 1.10.3.10. 55. H. Frankfort ; Op. cit., Page 87.

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6. THE SRAMANIC WAY
at
We find a remarkable homogeneous culture and civilization, broadly speaking, throughout the vast region stretchSpiritual ing from Egypt to Bharata, stronger Experience certain points and weaker at others, with necessary variations conditioned by Geography and Geology, with no other culture opposed to it in any other part of the world till the rise, growth and hegemony of Aryanism. Such a significant and deep homogeneity could not be wrought and maintained by mere secular forces. There was something deeper, more serene, fundamentally permanent that governed these forces and gave life, cheerfulness and vivaciousness to the material activities of the people. That underlying force of values, principles and standards forged their social ideology that determined the nature of their basic way.
Human society, through its long experiences, developed an understanding that in the motely of these ever-changing events, there is something permanent without which the changes would be unmeaningful. There is grief, suffering and woe which none cherishes; then why bring grief, suffering and woe to a fellow human being, nay, to any being on earth enjoying life. The discovery of the identity of something permanent in the plurality of living beings became the foundation stone of the human society. The permanent substance came to be called Atma or Soul. The discovery of soul was the result of the dialectical historical efforts of the mankind. Human efforts conditioned the nature of society. The efforts of individual members of the society reduced the woe and suffering of his fellow

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( 37 ) beings to the minimum. The ideal individual efforts began to be directed to the end which would cause the least suffering to the other living beings. This second discovery of the Efficacy of Effort became the driving force of the Soul. These two discoveries combined, led to the third discovery of the Transmigration of Soul. If Soul is a permanent substance, it has the capacity to attain its fullest purity. This led to the Fourth Discovery of Siddhi or final attainment. These four discoveries together constitute the fundamental basis of the Ideology of Spiritualism.
The Egyptians believed in soul, its transmigration to future life and its final attainment. When an Egyptian Egyptian died, he went to his ka.' This was his Spiritualism material body after death. The actual personality of the individual in life consisted of visible body and invisible intelligence. The Visible and the Invisible was depicted in one symbol—the human-headed bird with human arms. This signified the fact that the material or physical existence of the individual is best typified in the animal while his spiritual existence in his innate intelligence, This bird-man is called 'ba'. "Ba' has commonly been translated as Soul. This symbolism of bird-man is of great far-reaching significance. Egyptians held the animal sacred. The immigrant Asiatic people engrafted a more elevated form of belief. 'They believed that animals had certain attributes of divinity. They had 'Souls' just like men. This symbolism definitely establishes the unity and oneness of spirit in animal and man. It is quite certain that the Egyptians believed in body and intelligence ; Matter and Spirit.
These spiritual beliefs of the Egyptians are contained in the book "The Manifestation of Light" miscalled "Book of the Dead.' The essential parts of this Book

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( 38 ) originated in the most ancient times. This book claims to be a revelation from Thoth. The oldest monumental evidence of the existence of Thoth is available in the oldest existing Egyptian temple belonging to the reign of Chefren (Shafra), the builder of the second pyramid. He belonged to the Fourth Dynasty and lived Circa 2800 B. C. Thoth is the same as Tet. Tet was son of Menes (Narmer of Petrie and Breasted) who flourished Circa 3350 B. C. This Thoth was later regarded as essentially the god of learning; he was the master of the words of god i. e. the heiroglyphs ; he was the scribe and messenger of the gods; he was the measurer of time and the Mathematician. Hesepti or Hesep is mentioned in several copies of the Book as the author of the two of its most important chapters. Thoth or Tet and Hesepti or Hesep, the plebians, certainly do belong to the first Dynasty and lived also during the times of Menes. The first peaceful colonisers of Egypt under the leadership of Menes, as just later shown, came from Bhārata. Hence it may safely be alluded that the Bhāratīyan immigrants brought the truths contained in the Book with them in the middle of the fourth millennium B. C.?
The most ancient original chapters of the Book contained the fundamental conceptions of the continuance of soul after death. The thought of the future life occupied a very large space in the Egyptian thought. It was felt so real and so substantial that no subsequent thought about future life could match it. This process of birth and rebirth re-iterated until a mystic cycle of years became complete, when finally the good and the blessed attained the crowning joy of union with God. God, a later interpolation, in this context, is a pure spirit, perfect in every respect-allwise, almighty, supremely good. God is not abstract and

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(39) 'he doth not manifest his forms. He was neither the ‘God' of the Christians nor the 'Personal Brahma' of the Brahmāryans. He was the purest spirit of the Individual, good and blessed, attained due to continuous spiritual efforts after numerous mystic cycle of years. Then he became 'Single among the gods' and 'lord of the gods', 'god' meaning less purer spirit than the Purest but higher than the average individual. The earliest Egyptains attempted to attain this true and full perfection of his being. The purest soul was the self-existent deity. Thus we find that the final aim of the Egyptian was the attainment of full, perfect, purest and everlasting personality till the later part of third millennium B. C.
The full and final purest attainment was achieved by the self-propelled individual effort. What were the guiding principles of this individual effort ? The ideal life of an ancient Egyptian is best given in 125th Chapter of the Book. This chapter 'Hall of Truth' is very significant. Temples, priests and gods were a later growth. The indivi. dual at his death appears befor Osiris in the 'Hall of Truth'. The earliest monumental evidence of Osiris (Asura) occurs along with that of Thoth as alluded to earlier. Osiris also came to Egypt with the earliest immigrants under the leadership of Menes. Animals were sacred to Osiris. The original reading of the word Osiris is 'Us-yri' in the sense of the 'Occupier of the Highest Seat. The word "Us-yri' very intimately resembles the word "Asura' of Bhārata. The word Asura signified a pre-Aryan Bhāratīya institution. The Irānāryans borrowed this epithet for their leaders Agni, Indra, Varuņa and otherss in the beginning but after the separation, the Brahmāryans later abondoned its use for the illustrious, powerful, shining and great leaders of their Dāsa and Dasyu adversaries. The Brahmāryans were accustomed

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to the arbitrary kind of word-analysis. They created the word 'Sura' in an unjustified manner by isolating the initial 'a' from 'asura."6 They, then, applied the word sura for their Ganapatis and word asura for the Rājās of their adversaries. The Asuras were self-sacrificing people. The legend of Osiris is centred round the self-sacrifice of Osiris himself and his regeneration. Osiris was regarded as the highest spiritual personage in Egypt and Pharaoh was his subordinate. When the spiritual culture of Egypt began to decline, the later Pharaohs began to call themselves the son of Osiris or living Osiris." Osiris was the highest spiritual saint of Egypt and after his death, another such personage occupied his seat. The cult of Osiris was the most important cult in Egypt because it belonged to all the classes from the highest to the lowest.
Osiris, by practice and precept, taught the people of Egypt certain basic truths. When the individual at his death went before Osiris, he claimed a better future life because he had lived according to
Egyptian Spiritual Tenets
the way taught by him. That basic way contains fundamental truths which I classify as follows:
1. Tenets of Non-Violence.
I have not slain.
I have not given orders to slay.
I have not ill-treated animals.
I have not driven cattle from their pastures.
I have not hunted the birds.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. I did not take away food.
8.
9.
10.
I have not caught fish in the marshes.
I have not made anyone weep.
I have not done violence to the poor.
I have not made anyone sick.

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11. I have not made anyone suffer. 12. I did not stir up strife. 13. My voice was not very loud. 14. I was not an eaves-dropper. 15. I have not held up the water in the season. 16. I have not dammed running water. 17. I have not put out a fire that should have stayed alight.
II. Tenets of Truth. 18. I did not speak lies. 19. I did not make falsehood in the place of truth. 20. I was not deaf to truthful words. 21. I did not multiply words in speaking. 22. My mouth did not wag. 23. I did the truth (or righteousness) in the land of Egypt.
III. Tenets of Non-Stealing. 24. I did not steal. 25. I did not steal temple endowment and property. 26. I have not stolen the cattle of gods. 27. I did not diminish food in the temple. 28. I have not harmed the food of the gods. 29. I have not falsified the measure of the grain. 30. I have not added weight to the scales. 31. I have not taken the milk from the mouth of
children
IV. Tenets of Continence. 32. I did not commit adultery with women. 33. I did not commit sex-pollution.
V. Tenets of Non-Possessiveness. 34. I did not rob.

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35. I did not rob one crying for his possessions. 36. My fortune was not great but by my (own)
property. 37. I was not avaricious. 38. My heart devoured not (coveted not).
Ancillary Tenets. 39. I did not stir up fear. 40. I did not wax hot (in temper). 41. I did not revile. 42. I was not puffed up, 43. I did not blaspheme the god. 44. I did not do any abomination of god. 45. I have satisfied the god with that which he
desires. 46. I gave bread to the hungry, water to the thirsty,
clothing to the naked and a ferry to him who was
without a boat. 47. I made divine offerings for the gods. 48. I am one of pure mouth and pure hands.
Right Knowledge. 49. I have not known what is not.
Fm
Right Conduct. 50. I live on righteousness (samyaktva), I feed on the righteousness of my heart.
Final aim. 51. I am blameless.
These injunctions are self-speaking. Their human values are obvious. Life is sacred as soul resides in all living beings. The recognition of soul in animal kingdom is significant. It is for this reason that animals were sacred

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( 43 ) to Osiris. The religious calendar of the Egyptians contained a number of fasts, some of which lasted from seven to fortytwo days. Throughout the whole duration of every such period, the priests (or anybody undergoing such fasts) were required to abstain entirely from animal food, from herbs and vegetables and from wine. Their diet on these occasions can have been little more than bread and water. Some of the tenets of non-violence are very subtle and go very deep. Non-eating of vegetables, abstinence from violence to water and fire indicate that the Egyptians considered Vegetable Kingdom, Water-bodies and Fire-bodies to possess life. Greed, expropriation and exploitation are denounced. They believed in freedom from fear, balance of tempers, futility of blasphemy and reviling of others, harms of flattery and illspeaking, help of fellow citizens and purity of speech and conduct. He acquired Right knowledge and was sincerely effective to practically implement it in life. He made supreme efforts to achieve his final attainment.
The Sumerians believed in Soul and its life after death. Purer souls went to the Island of the Blest after death.
The Island of the Blest may be compared to Sumerian Spiri. heaven. The darker souls went to the tualism
Nether Worlds ; a dark, gloomy and damp place meant merely to trouble the living.10 The Sumerians believed in the plurality of souls. They had firm beljef in the immortality of the souls.11 Immortality was the permanent and ever-happy existence of the soul.
The Sumerians are described as pessimisted people unlike the optimistic Egyptians. I do not think the Sumerians to be a pessimistic people. In spite of the lamentation rituals and penitential hymns, they believed in the immortality of soul through self-suffering. The righteous man bore sufferings with joy. Whatever suffering may come and

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( 44 ) however unjust it may seem ; the righteous man confesses his sins and awaits his liberation from suffering. When liberation is achieved, the suffering is turned into joy. The suffering of the Sumerian originated from his convictions in self-control, conscious effacement, fellow-feeling and in the living belief in immortality. The Sumerians did not enjoy life because they did not want to usurp to themselves alone the material benefits ; thus depriving their fellow beings of them. They believed that self-suffering would make their souls purer accompanied with the firm assurance that the fruits of their suffering would ripen in a better future life. They extended the quality of their suffering to this extent that they accepted voluntary death in the assurance of a life to come. The famous excavator of Ur, Sir Leonard Woolley had dug many graves, which he calls Royal Cemetery, wherein many dead bodies are found in straight and happy postures. Some bodies of women are wearing ornaments of gold, lapis lazule, silver and other precious metals. No single grave has any figure of a god. The graves contain many dead bodies indicating voluntary group deaths. So many people could not be forced to accept death on the expiry of a single person ; royal or otherwise, to accompany him in the future life. Woolley also concedes that all this paraphernalia indicates that the dead persons had belief in future life.18 Compulsory death at the order of some one else does not bring a happy future life. It is only voluntary suffering that assures a better future life. This phenomenon goes very deep and nearer to the Jain belief in Samlekhanā Samthārā (Voluntary spiritual Death).
Gilgamesh was the fifth ruler of the first post-diluvian dynasty of Uruk. He was ordained to enjoy kingship but

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not the permanent immortality which he cherished most. He took to journey through the forest along with his friend Enkidu whom he lost in the middle of the journey. Gilgamesh repented his friends' death very much and set out in the search for everlasting life. He reached the shores, with the help of a ferryman, of the land of Dilmun. He went to Utnapishtim who alone possessed the everlasting life. Utnapishtim imparted Gilgamesh these immortal words of wisdom, "There is no permanence. All men are to die. Despiseworldly goods. Save your soul alive. Abhore...sins.and transgressions." This was the mystery, the secret revealed by Utnapishtim to Gilgamesh. The land of Dilmun, to which Gilgamesh went, was a country pure, clean, bright, where raven utters no cries, the lion kills not, the wolf snatches not the lamb, unkonwn is the kid-devouring wild dog, unknown is the grain-devouring, (unknown) is the widow, without the sickeyed, the sick-headed, without old man and woman, having no wailing priests and singers.
The city of Dilmun was situate on the mouth of the rivers and possessed furrowed fields and farms. Dilmun was situate to the East where the sun rises. Uruk was at a distance of forty-five days' journey to the West by sea from Dilmun. There one day was equal to one month. Grain was cultivated abundantly there. The orchards of Dilmun were full of cucumbers, apples, grapes and various other plants.16 Sumerologist Dr. Kramer identifies Dilmun with the land of Indus Valley civilization.18 Bhārata was the land of non-violence, peace, abundance and immortality referred to in these Sumerian accounts in the beginning of the third millennium B.C. Ancient Sumer looked to Bhārata for spiritual guidance.
A pure and clean life was attained by an individual soul through his or her personal efforts. He had to follow

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46
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an ethical code of conduct. He had to Sumerian Spiri. tual Tenets
Flo adhere to strict moral standards. Misfor
tunes came as results of moral transgressionssuch as lying, stealing, defra uding, maliciousness, adultery, coveting the possessions of others, unworthy ambitions, injurious teachings and other misdemeanours.17 The Sumerian spiritual tenets are, like the Egyptian, not available at one place. They have been collected from various places and have been re-arranged in order here.18
1. Tenets of Non-Violence. 1. Shedding of blood is sin. 2. Bringing of estrangement between father and son,
son and father, mother and daughter, daughter and mother, mother-in-law and daughter-in-law, dautherin-law and mother-in-law, brother and brother, friend and friend, companion and companion is
a sin. 3. Keeping a person bound as a captive and a
prisoner is a sin. 4. The avoidance of light to a prisoner and torture
to him is a sin. 5. The neglect of father and mother and insult of
elder sister is a sin. 6. Causing separation of a united family is a sin. 7. Overstepping the just bounds is a sin. 8. The following of the path of evil is a sin. 9. Be helpful, be kind to the servant. 10. Not releasing a freed man out of the family is
a sin. 11. Setting himself up against a superior is a sin. 12. Tyranny, cruelty and oppression are sins, 13. Protect the maid of the house.

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11. Tenets of Truth. 1. Speaking 'no' for 'yes' and 'yes' for 'no' is a sin. 2. Frank mouth with a false heart is a sin. 3. The teaching of impure and instructing of im
proper is a sin. 4. Drawing a false boundary, not drawing the right
boundary is a sin. 5. Slander is a sin. 6. Speaking of evil is a sin. 7. Boasting and speaking in anger is a sin. 8. Speaking of low and unkind words is a sin. 9. Seeking of right and avoiding of wrong is a
buman virtue. 10. Speaking of 'yes' with mouth and 'no' with heart is a sin
III. Tenets of Non-stealing. 1. Using of false weights is a sin. 2. The removing of limit, mark or boundary is a sin. 3. To possess the neighbour's house is a sin. 4. Stealing of a neighbour's garment is a sin. 5. Taking of wrong sum and not taking the correct
amount is a sin. 6. Cheating and defrauding are sins.
IV. Tenet of Continence. 1. Polygamy is a sin.
V. Tenets of Non-Possessiveness. 1. Giving too little and refusing a larger amount
is a sin. 2. Not giving the promised is a sin.
The spiritual tenets followed by the ancient Sumerians clearly reveal their basic spiritual character. The Bumerians

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( 48 )
Bharatiya
acheived Immortality through personal efforts ; not by the grace of God or Brahma. They moulded their earthly institutions in consonance with their basic beliefs. Bhārata is the birth place of the ideology of Spiritualism.
We do not possess extant literature of the Spiritualism Pre-Aryan Bhārata. The Harappa script, even if rightly deciphered, may only help a little.
The present Bhāratīya spiritual thought may be divided into three currents; the Brāhmaṇic, the Buddhist and the Jainist. The later two thoughts are well known as Śramaņa ideologies distinguished from the Brāhmaṇı ideology. The Jain and Buddhistic tenets are essentially similar. Both believe in the spiritual tenets of Non-Violence, Truthfulness, Non-Stealing and Perfect Continance. Buddha replaces non-possessiveness or Non-attachment by Liberality. The other spiritual tenets of both are strikingly similar.19 The Jain thought is pre-Buddhistic. Twenty-third Tirthamkara Pārsya preceded Buddha. Pārsva is now accepted as a historical personage.20 Buddha fully accepted the Chaujjāma of Pärśva. Buddha devoloped his religion on the foundation of the Chaujjāma of Pārsva. The Chaujjama of Pārsva was developed into Pañcha-Mahāvrata of Mahāvīra. Of these two Śramaņic thoughts, we may safely rely upon Jaina Sūtras to represent the pre-Buddhistic spiritual thought.
Upanişads represent the Brāhmaṇical spiritual thought. As seen later, the Brāhmaṇas did not accept spiritualism truthfully. They borrowed spiritual thoughts from their pre-Aryan adversaries, now friends, in a perverted manner. They never honestly accepted the Doctrine of Non-Violence. The word Ahimsā occurs only once in the Pre-Mahāvīra Upanişad, the Chhāndogya Upanişad. Non-Violence and

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Truthful-Speech, here, are enumerated amongst the gifts of the priests. Chhāndogya recommends only the truthful speech, not the truth in entirety. The gift of non-violence is done away with by another reference in the same Upanişad where violence is permitted at holy places. The preUpanișadic Vedic thought is purely materialistic. Hence we cannot look to Upanişads for comparing the Bhāratīya spiritual thonghts with those of Egypt and Sumer.
When the Brahmāryans penetrated the frontiers of Western Bhārata, we find asecetics and Yogīs surviving from pre-vedic and pre-Aryan times. They are called “Munis' in Vedic literature and Sramaņas in the age of Buddha and Mahāvīra. Muni was to the Rgvedic culture an alien figure. Asceticism is directly opposed to the entire Weltanschauung of the Rgveda-Samhitā. The Śramaņa sects held towards the world an attitude of ascetic pessimism, disbelieved in a personal cause or creator of the universe, accepted plurality of souls and an ultimate distinction bet. ween Soul and Matter, regarded the world of common sense as real as due to one or more real factors at least partly independent of the soul, and consequently regarded as indispensable for salvation some form of strenuous practical discipline aiming at affecting a real alteration in the situation of Things. The Śramaņic culture was ascetic, atheistic, pluralistic and 'realistic' in content. This comes out clearest from a consideration of the earliest faith of the Jainas—one of the oldest living surviving sects of the Munis. The preUpanişadic materialistic (Pravștti-Dharmic) Vedic thought later evolved pseudo-spiritual thought (Nivștti-Dharmic) mainly through the influences of the Muni Sramaņa culture, in pre-Buddhistic times, within its fold. 23
The Achārārga is the most ancient extant Jaina Sūtra going probably to fourth century B. C. The Pre-Aryan

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( 50 ) spiritual ideology of the Muni-Śramaņa culture of Bhārata, in its pristine glory, has been preserved in this Sūtra. Mahāvīra's followers moulded in the past and mould in the present their conducts according to the precepts ordained in this Sūtra. We learn from Uttarādhyayana Sūtra that Pārşva and his follower saints followed the same code of conduct which was later followed by Mahāvīra and his follower saints. The Achāra of both the Tīrthamkaras was of the same quality. The integrity of the precepts enjoined upon saints in the Achārānga Sūtra, thus goes back to the Ninth century B.C. Vrṣabha has been unanimously accepted as the First Tīrthamkara. Rgveda knows Vọṣabha who differentiated between Spirit and Matter, 24 Āchārānga differentiates between Spirit and Matter. Achāränga, therefore, is entitled to more weight and authority from the scholars than it has hitherto been given.
The pre-Brahmāryan Bhāratīyan, firstly, believed in Soul,25 They divided the world in six substances : Dharma (Motion), Adharma (Immobility), Space, Time, Matter and Souls. The characteristic of Soul is knowledge, faith, conduct, austerities, energy and realisation. The characteristic of Matter is sound, darkuess, lustre, light, shade, sunshine, colour, taste, smell and touch. Dharma, Adharma and Space are each one substance only ; but time, matter and souls are an infinite number of substances. 28 In the final analysis, the first four substances are included in the category of Matter. The world, thus, remains constituted of Soul and Matter or Spirit and Matter. Secondly, they believed in the doctrine of the transmigration of Soul. A soul that does not comprehend and renounce the causes of sin takes manifold births.? All living beings owe their present form of existence to their own Karma (effortiveness). Imperfect men whirl in the cycle of births, old age and

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death.28 The Bharatiyan divided the Samsara (World), where the souls whirled in Lower Regions, Central (Earthly) Regions and Upper Regions. The Egyptians divided the world into Hades, Earth and Heaven and the Sumerians into Nether World, Earth and Heaven or the Land of the Blest. Thirdly, Bhāratīyans believed in the doctrine of Final Attainment. The awakened persons having RightView (Samyaktva) 29 shall, one day or the other, have Final Attainment. Salvation and Liberation are imperfect words which do not carry the full significance of the concept of Siddhi. The nature of the State of Siddhi is inexpressible in words. The path of births is quitted.30 Soul completely detaches itself from Matter. It is the state of spiritual perfection and consummation of knowledge. Siddhi is known to the Egyptians as Blamelessness and to the Sumerians as Immortality; though the contexts make them only a diluted Siddhi. The Bharatiyans, fourthly, believed in the doctrine of Karma (Effortiveness). The Soul is inherently free. It is free to do good or evil. Matter is bondage and bondage is Samsara (World). The freedom of soul rules out any interference by one soul in the freedom of the other soul. All the living beings are like one's own self.31 No exterior force bestows upon man, Siddhi. A man has to earn it by his own incessant and persistent right and personal efforts. The Right Knowledge in Truth and Existence is the first requisite. The second requisite is Right Faith. The third requisite is Right Conduct. The path of Right Conduct, with Right Faith in the final aim and the path leading to it, armed with Right Knowledge leads to Final Attainment. The Right Effort, thus, is of supreme importance
in life.
Āchārānga Sūtra is the embodiment of the docrines of Right Effort. Āchāra means Right Effort. The causes

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of sins and transgressions have to be removed Bharatiya Spiri.
iri- by following the spiritual way. This ideal tual Tenets.
right way is prescribed for a Muni (Saint). He follows these spiritual tenets in totality. A householder follows these spiritual tenets only partially. There is only the difference of degree, not of the content. The path is one and the same for both. Bhāratīya Spiritual Tenets are thus prescribed in Āchārānga Sūtra.
1. Tenets of Non-Violence'' 1. Do not injure earth-bodies. 2. Do not injure water-bodies. 3. Do not injure fire-bodies. 4. Do not injure plants 5. Do not injure animals. 6. Do not injure wind-bodies. 7. The learned kills not, nor causes other to kill,
nor consents to the killing of others. 8. Walk carefully to avoid injury to others. 9. Purify mind to control blamable actions. 10. Speak carefully not to hurt others. 11. Lie down carefully to avoid injury to others.
11. Tenets of Truth" 1. Nirgrantha practises Truth constantly. 2. Nirgrantha accepts Truth in totality. 3. Speak with deliberation to avoid falsehood, 4. Be not angry. Anger brings falsehood. 5. Be not greedy. 6. Fear not. 7. Renounce mirth.
III. Tenets of Non-Stealing88 Taking the life of others is thievery.
1.

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( 53 ) 2. A Nirgrantha does not accept anything without
being given. 3. Nirgrantha begs after deliberation for a limited
ground. 4. A Nirgrantha consumes his food and drink with : permission. 5. A Nirgrantha should take ground only for a
limited period. 6. The grant should be constantly renewed.
IV. Tenets of Continence 96 1. A Nirgrantha renounces all sexual pleasures. 2. There should be no discussion of topics relating
to women. 3. The lovely forms of women should not be
contemplated. Former sexual pleasures and amusements should
not be recalled. 5. Eating and drinking too much, eating of highly
seasoned dishes and drinking of liquors is for
bidden to a Nirgrantha. 6. A bed affected by women, animals or eunuchs
should not be occupied.
v. Tenets of Non-Possessiveness"? 1. The Nirgrantha renounces all possessions, all
attachments. 2. There should be no attachment to pleasant and
unpleasant sounds. 3. There should be no attachment to agreeable and
disagreeable forms. 4. There should be no attachment to agreeable and
disagreeable smells.

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( 54 ) 5. There should be no attachment to agreeable and
disagreeable tastes. 6. There should be no attachment to agreeable and
disagreeable touches. 7. A Nirgrantha should not accept food more in
quantity than required. These five tenets or Pañcha-Mahāvratas are ordained for a Nirgrantha, a Muni, a Saint. He shall follow the precepts of non-violence, truth, non-stealing, continence and non-attachment in totality without any exception in any condition at any time or place whatsoever. But every member of the society can not become a Saint. Ordinary householders cannot completely follow this path. They may tread a part of it but the path is the same. A householder follows these tenets in diluted forms. We have seen many more tenets being followed by the Egyptians and the Sumerians. Non-cruelty to cattle, birds and fish; bringing not tears and suffering to others; falsification of weights and measures ; adultery and sexual pollution ; robbery, avarice and covetousness; reviling, puffing and blaspheming; and many more such other tenets, followed by Egyptians and the Sumerians, are only lower forms of one or the other of the above Five Supreme Tenets or Great Vows. The Spiritual precepts were practised in totality without exception in Bhārata. The ordinary citizens followed Smaller Vows or Annvratas38 just like the Egyptians and the Sumerians.
We, thus, find that the basic spiritual way of the people inhabiting the region was founded upon the basic doctrines of non-violence, truth, non-stealing, continence and non-possessiveness. This basic way increased the everprogressive free spirit of the person. The man is inherently

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free and fullest freedom is his final goal. The free man completely depended upon his free personal efforts, unaffected by any external agency, to attain his goal. His liberation or salvation did lie with bim alone and nowhere else. The central driving force of the ancient Bhāratīyans, Sumerians and Egyptians was Right Personal Effort. Their society may be called Effortive Society; their culture, Effortive Culture and their civilization, Effortive Civilization. Theirs' was the Effortive Way. We may, therefore, rightly, call the pre-Aryan society of the region, the śramanic (Effortive) Society and its way, the Śramaņic (Effortive) Way.
References 1. J.H. Breasted ; Development of Religion and Thought in Ancient
Egypt ; 1959; Pages 52, 55, 56, 418. 2. (1) G. Rawlinson ; Op. cit.; Vol. I. ; Page 136, Vol. II Pages
38, 31, 28. (2) M. A. Murray ; Op. Cit. ; Pages 330, 161. 3. G. Rawlinson ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. II. Pages 39-40; Vol. I. Pages 314,
314 Note No. 3, 319. 4. M. A. Murray ; Op. cit.; Page 165. 5. Rgveda ; 1.6.2.14 ; 1.21.12.4 ; 1.23.10.1 ; 2.3.5.10; 5.2.1.1; 5.2.13.1;
5.4.7.11 ; 5.6.11.6; 7.2.13.3 ; 7.4.1.24 ; 8,5.12.1 ; 9.4.6.1. 6. J. Przyluski and Others; Op. Cit. ; Page 132 Note I. - 7. M. A. Murray; Op. cit.; Pages 165-167. 8. Tames B. Pritchard; Ancient Near Eastern Texts : Relating to
the Old Testament; 1955 ; Pages 34-36.
The re-organisation of the Tenets is mine. 9. G. Rawlinson ; Op. cit. ; Page 439. 10. Morris Jastrow; Aspect of Religious Beliefs and Practice in
Babylonia and Assyria ; 1911; Pages 149, 351,
353, 355. 11. H. F. Talbot ; Babylonian and Assyrian Literature ; Pages 117,
198 12. S. Moscati ; Op. Cit. ; Pages 31, 45.

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13. L. Woolley ; Excavations at Ur ; Pages 55, 58 and Chapter III
"The Royal Cemetery". 14. N. K. Sanders ; The Epic of Gilgamesh ; 1960 ; Pages 15, 104, 109. 15. James B. Pritehard ; Op. cit. ; Pages 38-40. Enki and Ninhursag:
A Paradise Myth. 16. Dr. Kramer ; Hindustan Times dated 15-1-1962 ; Page 3. 17. M. Jastrow ; Op. Cit. ; Page 377. 18. M. Jastrow ; Op. cit.; Pages 307-309, 389-390. 19. H. Jacobi Jaina Sūtras ; (S. B. E. Series) Vol. XXII; Pages xxii
xxiv. 20. H. Jacobi ; Jaina Sutras ; (S. B. E. Series) Vol. VL; Page xxi 21. Dharmanand Kaushambi; Parşvanātha Ka Chāturayāma Dharma
(Hindi) 1957 Pages 30-31. 22. Chhāndogya Upanişad ; 3.17.4 ; 8.15.1. 23. G. C. Pande ; Studies in the Origin of Buddhism ; 1957; Pages
257-261. 24. ægveda ; 7.6.12.6.
स रे'तोधा वृषभः शव॑तीनां तस्मिन्नात्मा जगतत्तस्थुषश्च । __ तन्म ऋतं पातु शतशारदाय यूयं पात स्वस्तिभिः सदा नः ॥ 25. Äehārānga Sūtra 1.1.1.5 26. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra ; 28. 6-12. 27, Acharãiga Sutra ; 1.1.1.6.
Sütrakrtānga Sūtra 1.2.2.2 ; 1.2.3.18. 29. Achāränga Sūtra ; 1.4.4.3-4.
Achārāóga Sutra; 1.5.6.4 ; Book II Lecture 16. 31. Ächārānga Sūtra ; 1.3.3.1.
Uttarādhyayana Sūtra ; 28.2.28.30. 33. Āchārānga Sætra; 1.1.2.6; 1.1.3,7. 1.1.4.7; 1.1.5.7; 1.1.6.6 ;
1.1.7.5; 1.3.2.4 ; 2.15.1.1-5. 34. Achärānga Sūtra ; 1.3.2.1 ; 1.3.3.3 ; 2.15. '.1-5. 35. Āehārānga Sūtra ; 1.1.3.7 ; 2.15.3.1-5 36. Âcharānga Sutra; 1.5.4.4 ; 2.15.4.1-5. 37. Achāränga Sätra ; 1.2.5.3; 2.15.5.1-5. 38. R. C. Jain ; Ancient Egypt and Aņuvrata (Hindi) ; Acharya Sri
Tuisi Abhinandana Grantha ; 1962 ; Pages 103-112. The Egyptian and Bharatiyan spiritual tenets have been comparatively studied in this paper,

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7. THE ORIGINS We have obtained, substantially fair, picture of the pre-Aryan Šramanic Society inhabiting the vast region
stretching from Egypt to Bhārata. The Introductory
origin of this society has engaged the labours of various scholars. Only tentative solutions have been offered and this is also one of them.
We have not been able to excavate the base of the Indus pre-historic cities. The foundations of the cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro are still submerged in water and the lowest level has not yet been contacted. If the scientists accept the challenge of History; drain off the water and bring to life the culture hidden under water ; the world may witness more startling discoveries than the archaeologists have been able to give hitherto. But we have to rest at what we know.
The lowest level of the Sumerian culture and civilization has been excavated. The al-Ubaid period of the pre-flood age Original Home of has been unearthed to history. The Sumethe Sumerians rians of this period appear to have intimate contacts with the remote regions on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. Their peculiar painted pottery spread to the northern limits of Mesopotamia and was thence carried eastwards to the valley of the Orintes river and to the shore of the Mediterranean, witness to a far fung trade ; and actually in the house ruins under the Flood Silt at Ur, two beads made of amazonite have been found ; a stone of which the nearest known source is the Nilghiri hills of Central India ; It was a fairly sophisticated community that could import its luxu

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ries from lands so far away. In some of the graves dug down the Flood Silt; there were terracota figurines of the type also found in the al'Ubaid house ruins; they were always female and nude. These terracota figurines were made in the vase factory occupying the area in the last phase of the al'Ubaid period. The chronology of this period may only be conjectured. We have a fairly reliable evidence of the first Lugal Mes-an-ni-pad-da placed Circa 2700 B. C.1 He was preceded by Jamdat-Nasr period which may be identified with the first Erech Dynasty. The First Erech Dynasty had 12 Lugals but their reign is given to be of 2310 years. Even if we allow 35 years to one Lugal, we roughly have 420 years. Jamdat-Nasr period was fairly long one and four hundred years may reasonably be assigned to it. That brings us to 3100 B. C. Jamdat-Nasr period was preceded by Uruk period which also lasted for a considerable length of time. We may not assign to this period less than 400 years. We may allow one hundred years for the periods of transition, for draining of the flood and re-settlement of the people on the land which had witnessed so great a memorable havoc in history. It appears reasonable to fix Circa 3600 B. C. the age of the Flood. Objects of luxury and art point to a developed and progressive stage of society which may have taken a fairly long time to arrive at that stage. The immigration of the original settlers of Sumer from some foreign land appears to have been in the beginning of the fourth millennium B. C.
The foundation of the culture of Sumer is of prime historical importance. Admittedly, the earliest immigrants to Sumer came from some foreign land. Speiser maintains that they came by Sea, from the East. S. N. Kramer's view is that they came from the mountains of the east."

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( 59 ) The plausible theory put by H. R. Hall regarding the origin of the Sumerians is that they were an Indian race which passed certainly by land, perhaps by Sea, through Persia to the valley of the two rivers. It was in the Indian home (perhaps the Indus Valley) that we suppose for them that their culture developed. There their writing may have been invented and progressed from a purely pictorial to a simplified and abbreviated form, which afterwards in Babylonia took on its peculiar 'cuneiform' appearance owing to its being written with a square-ended stilus on soft clay. On the way they left the seeds of their culture in Elam.3
The one or the other aspect may be emphasised but it appears to me almost certain that the first Bhāratīya immigrants went to Sumer, not by land but by Sea. All the scholars on this subject have employed the legend of Oannes, told by Berossus, to reach their conclusions. Oannes was the supreme leader of a race of people, half-human and halffish came from the Persian Gulf and settled in the cities of Sumer. He introduced the art of writing, of agriculture and of working in metal and 'since that time no further inventions have been made.' They were the first to build houses with bricks. They made the brick-houses in the day and returned to their fleet in the night. This shows that they were the expert mariners skilled in the art of engineering. They had to drain off the marshes and raise a new city. This was a tremendous task of great magnitude. Susa was the seat of power in Elam. Though the people of Ancient Persia were non-Aryans (the Anariakot of the Greeks) and were of the same race that inhabited Bhārata, still they were not so great engineers as their co-citizens of the river-port cities of Harappa and Mohenjodaro were. If the Bhāratīyans would have first gone via Elam, they would have left the monuments of the same engineering skill at

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Lagash, Nippur, Isin, Kish and Khafaje but we do not find any such monuments at these places. It appears that the two rivers were unbridgeable in those days and it was very difficult to cross them to complete such big engineering feats. The first immigrants, therefore, appear to have gone through sea; laid the foundations of civilization and culture there which their compatriots who went through the land routes after, helped to develop. We have earlier seen that the art of masonry at Mohenjodaro was advanced to that of Sumer by 500 years. These characteristics of the earliest Bhāratīya immigrants to Sumer suggest that they were the famous Panis of the Ahi race. Panis were great builders, expert engineers, well-experienced in trade and commerce, highly educated and intelligent, masters of oceanic waters and great expanders of culture and civilization. They were the fore-runners of Bharatiya Śramanic culture and civilization in distant lands and skies. These earliest contacts of the Panis with foreign lands continued for centuries. The later contacts of pre-Sargonid, Sargonid and later-Sargonid Sumer with Indus cities proves the continuity of their earlier contacts.
Original Home
The Bharatiya community in the beginning of the fourth millennium B.C. appear to be astonishingly full of great hopes, gigantic adventures and a living missonary of the Egyptians spirit. They were very successful in laying foundation of the great civilization of Sumer. The intermixture and intercommunications between the two nations developed the Bhāratiya international trade very largely which ultimately gave impetus to agriculture, industry and internal trade at home. That accelerated the process of their material and spiritual progress. Another group of the Bharatiyan expert mariners, led by great engineers and accompanied by spiritual leaders, chartered their vessels on the unchartered waters to the south of their friendly waters

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( 61 ) and reached the shores of Egypt in the middle of the fourth milennium B.C. Their supreine leader was Menes, remembered by later scribes as the first king of Egypt. He fonded the city of Memphis. He drained the river flowing near it and diverted its course.' He raised the dam to protect the city. The city of Memphis was built on the drained-land. He excavated a lake on the north and west sides of the city. Menes and his engineers successfully altered the course of so big and troublous a river as Nile, ; draining off the drenched land and building of a great city clearly prove that they were great experts in advance science of engineering.
As noted earlier; five periods of the Old Republic (five dynasties of the old kingdom) were marked for peace and progress. There were big works of construction, flourishing international trade and great spread of spiritual doctrines. These cannot be possible in times of troubles. Historians agree that all these periods were the periods of great peace, prosperity and progress in Egyptian history but they affirm that Menes occupied Egypt by force. He was the first king of the United Lower and Upper Egypt and this unity was brought by military conquest. No Egyptian record speaks of any military conquest, nor there is any legend to that effect. This conjecture is based on the interpretation of an important monument, the slate palette of Narmer. The plate if interpreted in the light of the Egyptian culture and civilization of those times gives a different reading. Menes had to eject many agriculturists from the land inundated and cultivated by the the Nile waters where the city of Memphis had to be found. The scene on the obverse shows him holding the hair of the leader of the people who opposed the master-plan of Menes. Menes is not in an act of killing him as he does not have any weapon of killing, The followers of the opposing leader run away. The birth

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of papyrus plants and human head emerging from the same pool of water are depicted under the control of a peaceful animal, the falcon. The falcon is depicted serene who controls the tongue of the human head. Menes is flanked by a spiritual personage. All these are superimposed by the two bull heads. In the middle of the two bull heads, flame is burning in a protected house. This representation indicates that the spiritual power of the great personage, Vrsabha of Bhārata who achieved Final Attainment and who in art is represented by Bull, was held supreme. Burning flame is the spiritual light ever radiant. The Reverse shows a bull standing in peace with a naked individual lying in the lowest part of the monument. Then two animal bodies with two big serpent heads roped by two men are shown. Above it, Menes is depicted in full glory of success. Headless beings depict powerless opponents. The uppermost portion contains two bull heads with a bigger flame burning in a protected house in the middle. This artistic representation indicates that the people belonged to the Ahi race of Bhārata who brought spiritual light to the United land of lower and Upper Egypt.
These immigrant settlers of Egypt remember their original home as the land of Punt. Land of Punt has been
identified with Somaliland or South Arabia. The land of Punt
But none of them was so renowned for culture and civilization in that ancient past to have attained that high engineering skill and great spiritual tradition which distinguished these people. Sumerian influence on Egypt is visible during the times of Menes but no sign of contact of Sumer with Egypt has been found in later times. The Sumerian influence might have been carried to Egypt via southern Arabia or Somali coast. It appears that Egypt, in a period of intensive creativity, became acquainted with

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( 63 ) the acheivements of Sumer, that it was stimulated ; and that it adapted to its own rapid development such elements as seemed compatible with its efforts. In Egypt, signs of contact with Sumer almost cease after Narmer or Menes times. The art objects of the Sumerian influence, the serpent-naked lions, intertwinned snakes and composite and other motifs are also found at Mohenjodaro. It seems probable that the people who introduced art in Sumer took that art to Egypt also and hence the similarity. But the contact of Sumerian art with Egypt at some point in South Arabia or Somali coast does not make that art of Arabia or Somaliland. It did not belong to any of these two regions. It was brought from somewhere else. Nobody claims the colonisation of Egypt by Sumerians. We have to look to some other land. Fortunately the word Punt itself provides the answer. The root of the word is Pwn, the T being the usual feminine ending for å foreign country. It may also indicate the origin of the Phænician, the coast people of Palestine and Punic, of the North Africa. The Pwn may be identified with Paņi of Bhārata. Punt means 'country of the Paņis'. Paņis were great sea-faring people of Bhārata. Paņis were the first foreign immigrating settlers of Egypt who gave her art, science, culture and civilization. Menes expedition may be placed in the middle of the fourth millennium B. C,8
Father Heras has, admirably well traced the origins of the Sumerian and the Egyptian civilizations to pre-Aryan Bhārata. He has compared the archäological evidence of the Three Great civilizations. But the archæological evidence is not alone to prove these conclusions. Similarities of economic and social conditions in this vast region bear remarkable similarities. Freedom of the individual, foundation of the family, status of women, formation of

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social classes and the pattern of agriculture and industry go a long way to prove affinity and brotherhood of the people of all the three countries. The development of republican political institutions further prove the homogeneity and similarity of cultures. The best and the last proof comes from the common basic standards of ethics, philosophy and conduct. The basic way of life of the people in this vast region was strikingly founded on a great spiritual ideology. The whole fabric of society was constructed on the basic Śramanic Way. If the new peaceful settlers of Sumer and Egypt came from some other land ; that land could not but be the land of Bhārata. Paņis took the Bhāratīya culture and civilization to West Asia, Egypt and the Mediterranean, and even to further lands.
References. 1. Sir Leonard Woolley ; Excavations at Ur; 1955; pages 30-31,
33 ; Plate 2 facing page 37; pages 37-39, 252. 2. S. Moscati ; The Face of the Ancient Orient; 1960; Pages 20-21
Foot Note 2. 3. H. R. Hall; The Ancient History of the Near Eaet; 1960; P.
173-174. 4. Herodotus; The Histories ; 1955 ; Page 138. 5. M. A. Murray; The Splendour that was Egypt; 1959 ; Plate
LXVIII on page 196. 6. H. Frankfort ; The Birth of Civilization in the Near East ; 1954
Pages 110-111. 7. M. A. Murray; Op. cit.; Page XXI. 8. M. A. Murray; Op. Cit. ; Page 330
Breasted places Menes Circa 3400 B. C. Frankfort places Sumerian contacts with Egypt Circa 3000 B.C. as the JamdatNasr art objects have affinities with Slate Palette of Narmer. If Narmer is identified with Menes, his time comes to Circa 3000 B. C. Frankfort does not appear to identify Narmer with Menes as his theory is plausible only if both
are two persons. 9. H. Heras; Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterraean Culture ; 1953;
Chapters II and III.

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8. THE PRE-OLYMPIAN ÆGEAN SOCIETY
The fourth great culture of the region was the maritime Ægean culture having its seat of power in the island of
Crete and spread over far and wide in the Ægean Culture
* Cyclades and the Greek Mainland. The neolithic phase was succeeded by the Minoan civilization in Crete. The Minoan metal age explicitly shows Asiatic traits. Some indeed might have been transmitted via Egypt but the Minoan metallurgy is based entirely in Asiatic traditions. The Egyptian and the Anatolian influences joined together in creating the Minoan civilization. But the Minoan civilization was not brought ready made from Asia nor from Africa, but was an original native creation wherein Sumerian and Egyptian techniques and ideas were blended' to form a novel local civilization.
This culture intruded into Greece from Western Asia and North Africa Circa 3000 B. C. Herodotus informs us Original Earliest that in the pre-Hellenic times, the PhoeniImmigrants cians, who originally came from the coasts of the Indian Ocean, carried on maritime trade in the Mediterranean and were settled on the coastal port-cities of Palestine. Loaded with Egyptian and Assyrian goods, they called at various places along the coast, including Argos, in those days, the most important of the countires*; which afterwards came to be known by the name of Greece. He narrates an incident of the abduction of a king's daughter in the fifteenth century B. C. It appears that the Paņis of Bhārata, who colonised Egypt and Sumer, extended their exploits to the Mediterranean and took Sumerian and Egyptian cultures in that region Circa 3000 B. C. Paņis conti

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nued to be expert mariners, great Sea-farers, well-experienced in international trade and courageous adventurers. They contributed most to the creation of the Minoan civilization,
The Minoan communities were self-sufficing. Agriculture produced sufficient for consumption and surplus for
supporting trade and industry. Internal Economic and Social Conditions trade got big stimulation. International of the Minoan trade increased the wealth of the people. Sociсty
Knossos was an extensive town of twostoreyed houses. This non-Greekāryan civilization was homogeneous. They were peaceful folk and possessed a higher culture than the Greekāryan. The Ægean Society was founded on the freedom and equality of sexes. Both sexes mixed freely in sport and public functions. They enjoyed open air life of peaceful character. Ethnically, they belonged to the Mediterranean stock as distinguished to the Nordic Stock“ which later brought violence and destruction to Greece and the Cyclade.
· The Minoan script has not been satisfactorily deciphered and we have not knowledge of the Minoan political society from the original sources. Lewis H. Morgan a sympathetic Āryan Scholar, who carried on intensive and vast researches about the nature of ancient society, has given the results in his monumental book 'Ancient Society'. His researches are the foundations of the Marxian theories of Family, Private Property and the State. Morgan maintains that the Greek society was organised in small republics and the Greek citizens had the right to elect and depose their chiefs from the earliest period to the upper status of Barbarism. He believes the commencement of this status with the smelting and manufacturing of Iron. The status of civilization commenced with the use of a phonetic alphabet and the

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production of literary records." Iron was known to the Middle Minoan period in Greece Circa 1700 B. C. Iron is represented by a ring from a Middle Minoan tomb in the Mavro Speleo cemetery, but was not used industrially before 1200 B. C. The Greekaryans were the first to invent the industrial manufacturing processes of iron. About 1200 B.C., these peoples of the Sea, armed with the new and powerful weapons of the Iron Age, pour into the Near East from Greece and the Ægean Islands. Iron-working spread all over Western Asia, the Caucasus and Eastern and central Europe by 1200 B. C. The manufacture of iron was very early succeeded by phonetic writing. Phoenicians had the alphabet first and the Greeks learnt the art of writing from them. The original alphabet was made circa 1000 B. C.? Morgans' assigning of 5000 years, more or less to the period of civilization, appears to be arbitrary and unfounded ; only conjectural.
Morgan further maintains that among widely separated tribes of mankind, horn have been made the emblem of office
and authority, suggested probably, as Taylor Elective Republics.
intimates, by the commanding appearance
of the males among ruminant animals bearing horns. May be, bull was the best horn-bearing animal. He was the symbol (Lānchhan) of Vrşabha, the first spiritual personage known to mankind, whose creed of spiritualism was widely accepted by a large majority of the then mankind. We get a peculiarly startling corroboration of this hypothesis from a bronze statue of 'Reshef' belonging to the 12th century B. C. discovered at Alasia near Enkoni in Cyprus. The statue has two significant horns. This Reshef of Western Asia has been identified with Rşabha of Bhārata who was the common inherited god of the Phoenicians, Amrorites and the Arameans. He was a deified

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personage of history belonging to a hoary past beyond any historical date but he was a very popular god in Egypt, Western Asia and the Mediterranean Circa 3000 B. C.10 The horns of Consecration had intimate relationship with the cult of Mother Goddess in Minoan Greece. The horns were accepted even in the neolithic Greece and Ægean as a symbol of spiritual power and authority. Morgan discovered the importance of Horns in the right of election and deposition of a sachem of an Iroquois Gens. Installation of a sachem was symbolised as “putting in the horns' and his deposition as taking off the horns'. This practice was followed by Minoan Greece and Ægean Circa 2500 B. C. Thus we may safely conclude that the political system obtaining in the self-sufficient communities of Greece and the Ægean was of an elective republican type.
The neolithic Cretans believed in the cult of Reshef and Mother Goddess. When the Greekāryans established
their authority in Greece and the Ægean, Rşabha Cult
à great Greek, Dionysus, son of Zeus and Persephone, developed a religion which was savage and repulsive in original form. He was the god of primitive tribal Greek agriculturists following the ways of Gaņapati Indra in tribal drinking of wine. Dionysus was a great success in Greece. But under the new set of circumstances, that could not continue for long and another great Greek, Orpheus of Crete, influenced by the spiritual way of life gave the Greek religion an ascetic content. Orpheus be. lieved in soul and its transmigration. The Orphics believed that Man is partly of earth and partly of heaven, meaning thereby that Man is the union of Spirit and Matter. They believed that by a pure life, the heavenly part is increased and earthly part decreased. The soul in the next world achieved salvation. The Orphics abstained from animal

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( 69 ) food. It is certain that Orphic doctrines contain much that seems to have its first source in Egypt and it was chiefly through Crete that Egypt influenced Greece. Orpheus was torn to piecesls for reforms in the Olympian religion. Orphism was the Greek spiritual revivalism as Buddhism was the Bhāratīya spiritual revivalism.
The belief of Orphism in Soul, Effortivism, Transmigration and final Attainment are not only peculiarly Egyptian but, significantly enough, strikingly similar to the Bhāratiyan beliefs, and also with the Sumerian beliefs. The same Paņis, who took these beliefs to Sumer and Egypt, took them to West Asia and the Mediterranean. If these beliefs went to Crete via Egypt, they must have gone during the period of old republic in the beginning of the third millennium B. C.
The economic and social conditions of the Ægean and Greece is peculiarly similar to that of the rest of the Śramanic region. The clective republican political institutions are also of the same pattern. The Basic Way confirms to the basic way of the region. But it had its own individuality. Minoanisin stands by itself in history. Hence it may be rightly called an insular offshoot of an extensive Śramanic society.
References 1. V. Gordon Childe ; The Dawn of European Civilization ; 1950;
P. 20. 2. Herodotus ; Op. cit. ; Page 13. 3. V. Gordon Childe; Op. Cit. ; Pages 22, 27. 4. N. G. L. Hammond ; A Hisiory of Greece ; 1959 ; Pages 27, 30, 39. 5. Lewis H. Morgan; Ancient Society ; 1958; Pages 11, 231. 6. (1) V. Gordon Childe; Op. Cit. ; Pages 22, 28.
(2) S. Moscati ; Op. cit.; Pages 164, 297.

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( 70 ) (3) D. H. Gordon; The Pre-Historic Background of Indian
Culture ; 1958 ; Page 154. 7. E. B. Taylor ; Anthropology ; 1930 ; Pages 138-139, 8. L. H. Morgan ; Op. cit. ; Page 38. 9. L. H. Morgan ; Op. cit.; Page 73. 10. R. G. Harshe; The Historic Importance of the Bronze Statue of
Reshef Discovered in Cypress ; Bulletin of Deecan College Research Institute Vol. 14 ; Pages 230-236;
1952-53. The Figure of Reshef has also been given in the beginning. 11. (1) V. Gordon Childe ; Op. cit.; Figure 10 on Page 26 ; (2) D. A. Mackenzie ; Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe ;
1917; Page 309. “Horns of consecration were originally the horns of the sacred
bull." 12. V. Gordon Childe ; Op. Cit. ; Page 17. 13. Bertrand Russell ; History of Western Philosophy; 1954 ; Pages
32-35.

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9, THE PRE-AZTEC AMERICAN SOCIETY
The earliest immigrants, in point of time, to America were the Quatzalcoatl people. Quatzalcoatls mean "feather
Quatzalcoatl ed serpents” or “bird-serpents'. They came
Immigrants from the East and departed eastward. Quatzalcoatl was the leader of these first immigrants, the earliest inhabitants of the land.
What was the ethnie stock that they belonged to ? Votan was, like Quatzalcoatl, the first historian of his people, and wrote a book on the origin of the race, in which he declares himself a snake, a descendant of Imos, of the line of Chan, of the race of Chivim. 'Chan' signifies snake. Chivim refers to Tripoli, and that is the same as Hivim or Givim, the Phænician word for snake, which again refers to Hivites, the descendants of Heth, son of Canaan. Votan expression means 'I am a Hiviti from Tripoli.' Votan peoples were the sea faring people and expert international traders.
Mackenzie rejects the theory that Semites or Celts or Norsemen or any other people first discovered America,
Original Scholars, Mackenzie including, hold the view
Home that the Phoenicians were the first immigrants to America. The question remained debatable for pretty long time whether Phoenicians reached America via Atlantic Ocean or via Pacific Ocean. The latest view is that the Phoenician navigators reached America through Polynesia via Pacific Ocean. Phoenicians were the original Paņiss of Bhārata who belonged to the Ahi or Nāga race of Bhārata. The inseparable association of the Quatzalcoatl people with Snakes clearly identifies them with the Paņis of the Ahi race.
The Quatzalcoatl people believed in peace, penance, chaste life and ordered progress. Thy introduced agricul
Their ture, industry, and art of Government. They Beliefs
were opposed to war and human sacrifice. Their leader Quatzalcoatl lived a chaste life, practised

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( 72 ) penance. He abstained from intoxicating drinks and was a celibate. He hated war and violence and instead of offering up in sacrifice animals or human beings, he offered bread, roses, other flowers, perfumes and incense. The culture-hero Quatzalcoatl is represented in art sitting in a meditative mood in Padmāsana posture with eyes closed having two hooded horns“. The horn emblem was taken to America by the Paņis who took the same to Sumer, Egypt and Crete. They were the group of people who first arrived on the continent, later to be known as America, driven by that mighty current that set out from India towards the East. The figure of the representative Paņi depicts a robust trader, standing erect, with folded hands having Rajasthani features and whose head is adorned with a Marwari Pugaree (Headdress). May be, Paņis of Rajasthan, having their seat of power at Arbuda (Modern Mount Abu) sailed off to America from some Indus port.
It is difficult to determine the time when this immigration took place. Buddhist immigration may readily be Paņic Immigration ruled out. Even if some figures show BuCirca 2000 B. C. ddhist influence that may be later. Buddhist immigrants started their sojourns after the time of Ashoka and during that age there was neither the supremacy of the Paņis nor of any other member-tribe of tbe Ahi race. They had completely been annihilated by the invading Brahmāryans long ago, by the end of the first and the beginning of the second millennium B. C. Minoan art is more natural than the Egyptian or the Mesopotamian and the American art is still more natural than the Minoan. the impulse from fresh navigation to the unchartered waters could have come only after the Minoan civilization had attained its youth Circa 2000 B. C. I fix the Guatzalcoatl immigration to America Circa 2000 B. C.

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( 73 ) Morgan has proved the right of election of the sachems and chiefs and also their deposition prevalent among the
Pattern of Iroquois Genes in North America. Also the
Society use of Horn as a symbol of power and authority. It appears that the Horn that travelled to America with the Quatzalcoatl people came to be accepted as a symbol of power and authority in America which continued to hold its power till comparatively modern times though in a bit altered circumstances and social conditions. The horn that was primarily associated with requblicanism began to be associated with collective tribalism but that story is told later. We have no evidence of self-sufficient village communities, economic and social conditions of the people and the nature of political institutions in ancient America; still a hypothesis may be offered that people who founded republican economic, social and political institutions in Sumer, Egypt and Crete could not but establish similar institutions in America. The startling similarity of the basic way of Quatzalcoatl people with those of the vast Śramaņic society leads us to believe that they were also a part of that society and developed similar institutions in America. But more researcbes are needed for definite conclusions.
References.
1. D. A. Mackenzie: Myths of Pre-Columbian America; Pages 265-266,
2. (1) A. C. Dass; Rgvedic India; 1927; Page 192 ff.
(2) A. C. Dass; Rgvedic Culture; 1925; Page 88. 3. Rgveda 1. 7. 2. 11; 5. 3. 8. 6-7; 7. 1. 6. 3. 4. D. A. Mackenzie; Op. cit.; Pages 257-258; figure 3 on Plate facing
Page 256. 5. History of Mexico (Mexican Government Publication ) Page 3
Quoted on Page 16 of Chamanlal's 'Hindu America', 1956. 6. D.A. Mackenzie; Op. Cit.; Figure faces Page 28.

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10. THE RESUME
The foregoing discussion brings out the basic characteristics of the pre-Aryan Śramanic Society quite clearly. We may now resume the fundamental conclusions thus arrived at.
The economic condition of the region was thriving and prosperous. An individual was the economic unit. He was free and independent. He worked for the happiness of his family and the community. The individual enterprise in agriculture and industry gave rise to private property. Mutual destructive competition was not allowed hence there was no accumulation of private wealth. The surplus agricultural and industrial produce belonged to the community. The international trade was the business of the community and not of the private enterpreneur. The economy was a happy blend of the individual and communal enterprises.
Family was the social unit. Men and women enjoyed equal social status and prestige. The succession to the private property of the family went to the family members. The descent was largely matri-lineal as a rule. Patri-lineal descent was also in vogue in certain parts. Marital relations were monogamic. Polygamy was socially prohibited. Women freely took part in economic and social activities. They enjoyed free life in sports and recreations. They were equal partners of men, with respect and prestige, in the social progress of the realm.
The political institutions were developed on the republican pattern. The region had numerous self-organised and self-sufficient local republics without any central force to keep their homogeneity and unity in tact. All the adult members formed the Assembly who chose their leader. The

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administration was carried on with the active consent of the people. The administrators were self-less people of spiritual bent who actually practised self-control and renunciation.
All these economic, social and political institutions had sprung from the living faith in the tenets of spiritualism. Spiritualism may be defined as the feeling of identity in freedom of the self with the other living beings and objects, People believed in the existence of Spirit, its supremacy over Matter, Effortivism and Final Attainment.
Bhārata was the epi-centre of this vast Śramaņic Society. Paņis of the Ahi Race imbued with a driving force were the main founders in the regions of Greece, the Ægean, Egypt and West Asia. They carried the śramanic civilization to American continents also. They took the flag and tents of Rşabha to the then known world.

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CHAPTER II
UTTARAKURU-THE ARYAN CRADLE-LAND
1. NATURE OF ĀRYOLOGY We call the mother of Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Sanskrit and other allied languages Aryan. They were called Indo The Basic European because these languages were spoken Āryan Language in the continent of Europe and the subcontinent of India. Some Scholars substituted the word Germanic to represent the European Languages and called it Indo-Germanic. Maxmuller gave this language its present name—the Aryan Language. He maintains that the Aryan in scientific language means nothing but language and is utterly inapplicable to race. He chose this word from Rgveda, the oldest extant Aryan literature. But this word does not occur earliest in Rgveda. The word 'Arya' was known to the Harri people in Western Asia long before the Vedic Aryans finally occupied Bhārata and redacted Rgveda in the present form.
The undivided people who spoke the Aryan language were nomads. They lived in collectives. They were hard
mountainous people. They were mainly Āryan Race
pastoral people. The guiding principle of their economy was usurpation and exploitation. They were very active, courageous and martial people. Their chief domesticated cattle in war and peace was horse. They developed patriarchal system. They derived their beliefs from the phenomena of Nature. Their way revolved round unhampered material well-being and prosperity.

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( 77 ) When these people crossed the frontiers of their habitat and spheres of influence and came in contact with people with a different way of living; there were naturally reactions and interactions. Race is a modern conception indicating community of certain similar, external features of a group of human beings. Different Āryan and non-Aryan races speak different Aryan languages. Hence to call those who speak Aryan languages of Aryan race would be unscientific. The Greeks of the Mediterranean race and the Persians of the proto-Australoid race spoke and speak Aryan languages but they do not belong to Nordic or Aryan race. Aryans cannot be equated with Nordic race. Hence there is no such race as Aryan.
Several modern scholars understand by Arya a distinct culture and civilization. Aryan culture and Aryan Āryan Culture .... civilization have become watchwords of racial
superiority bordering arrogance. But Aryan culture and civilization has so much been reacted and interacted upon that it has become very difficult to find pure Āryan culture and civilization. When Greekāryans reached Greece; they met a strong, powerful and superior pre-Hellenic culture there. The mingling ot the two cultures was so organic and chemical, that it is not easy to separate their independent elements. West Asia in the age of the Aryan people of mountians celebrates the triumph of its culture though it politically decayed. Bhārat repeats the same history
But the Aryan in its fundamentals still persists through the course of forty centuries. I understand by Aryan, a The Āryan Way, the Aryan Way. The undivided Aryans
had developed in their own peculiar way, conditioned by geological and geographical environments, their customs, manners, institutions and beliefs which
Way

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78
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fatefully influenced the later course of history. This Āryan Way migrated to Europe with Europāryans; to Asia with Asiāryans; to West Asia with Hittitāryans and Iranāryans and to Bbārata with Brahmāryans. The people who took this Aryan Way to different lands were the chief ancestors of most Europeans, most white Americans and European colonists of today as well as of the Irānians and Brāhmaṇas. The Aryan Way still rules or is very powerful in almost all the countries of the world of today. Studies in the nature of Āryology, thus, reveals the basic Aryan Way.

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2. VARIOUS THEORIES OF ĀRYAN CRADLE-LAND
If we have to know a certain people, we must first know the land in which they live. Geological and geographical factors go a long way in moulding the nature of a certain people. If we scientifically know the habitat; we fairly correctly may know the inhabitants also.
Various theories regarding the Aryan cradle-land are in the field. We here recapitulate the basic arguments of each theory
Penka, on the evidence of philology and pre-historic German Home archaeology, infers that Germany was the
Theory original Aryan home. Penka's followers have now abandoned the philological argument.
Nehring studied extensively the antiquity of Tripolje Western Europe pottery which may be dated in third Home Theory millennium B, C, and formulated his view that South Russia extended far beyond to the West is the original Aryan home.
Brandenstein evolved the method of applied semasiolgy South Urai and came to the conclusion that the NorthHome Theory Western Kirghiz Steppes to the South of Urals is the original home. His linguistic argument differs from the archaeological argument of Nebring only in this respect that he takes the Tripolje region as an interim home of the west Aryan tribes.
Similarities have been discovered between the Aryan South Russia language-groups and the Finno-Ugrian Home Theory language-groups. The original seat of the FinnoUgrians was in central Russia.

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( 80 ) Moller has established similarity between Aryan and Semitic languages. If the Aryans had contacts with the people of central Russia and Arabia; then, naturally, South Russia may rightly claim to be the original Aryan Home,
The evidence of linguistic palæontology so masterly evolved by Schrader also points to South Russia as the original Aryan Home.
Maxmuller, Cuno and Taylor, the chief propounders Central Asia of the central Asia home theory, advance Home Theory mainly three arguments. Firstly, that our knowledge about the Aryan is mainly derived from the Vedic literature. The common ancestors of the Irāniāns and the Vedic Indians must, therefore, have lived together for a long time in a common habitat. Secondly, that these Aryans were pastoral nomads and domesticated cattle. Hence, their habitat must have been a vast stretch of steppy lands. Thirdly, that they mention winter and coldness in a prominent manner. This shows that they inhabited a colder region. Central Asia answers all these conditions; hence it was concluded that Central Asia was the original home of the undivided Aryans, Maxmuller gave support to this theory.
P. Giles propounded the theory that the Aryans, a Central Europe settled people, lived peacefully in the regions Home Theory now kuown as Hungary, Austria and Bohemia based on the evidence of flora and fauna.
Several early European and Indian scholars believed Sapta-Sindhu that Sapta-Sindhu was the original Aryan Home Theory Home. European scholars and majority of Indian scholars have abandoned this theory but a few Indian Scholars still cling to it. Their main arguments are :
1. Vedic Aryans do not have any memory of their
foreign original home,

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2. Vedic Sanskrit has the largest number of vocables found in Aryan languages.
3. Aryans did not leave any literary records in the intervening countries.
4. Sacrificial rituals developed in Punjab.
5. Archaic character of the Lithuanian language is due to the unprogressive character of the people speaking it.
6. Evidence of flora and fauna is not conclusive.
7. Geographical data of the Rgveda clearly show that the Punjab and the neighbouring regions constituted the home of the people who composed these hymns.
The evidence of Mythology is also put forth. SaptaSindhu Home theorists, peculiarly enough, have not attempted archaeological, anthropological and geographical evidences. They put forth the geological evidence in a speculative and conjectural manner.
B. J. Tilak propouned his famous theory of the Arctic Home of the Vedas. He interpreted Vedic and Avestic myths in the light of geological and geographical evidences. He has also drawn upon the science of comparative mythology.
Arctic Home Theory
We, thus, find that the problem has been tackled with from one standpoint or the other but no attempt seems to have been made to judge the problem from all available We proceed to investigate the problem with the help of evidences supplied by relevant sciences. The above arguments would be discussed during the course of the investigation.
tests.

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3. LINGUISTIC TESTS
Scholars of comparative philology were the original pioneers who first took up the problem of Aryan Cradleland. As the original discovery was made in India by Sir William Jones and Sanskrit, though wrongly, was considered the eldest sister of the Aryan languages; naturally, scholars leaned towards India to locate the original Aryan habitat.
Position of Sanskrit
Sanskrit is the most powerful, most scientific and progressive of all the Aryan languages. The most ancient extant Aryan literature is preserved in Rgveda. The hymns of Rgveda and the Gathas of Avesta are very similar and one can be very easily rendered in the other language. The Avestan Gathas are dated Circa 1000 B. C. Ṛgveda in its present form is more or less contemporaneous to Avestan Gathas. Hence Ṛgveda can not be dated earlier than 1000
B. C.1
As referred earlier, the word 'Arya' was known to the Harri people, a tribe of Mittanis. Records of treaties between the Hittite King Suppiluliumas and the Mittani King Mattiwaza son of Dusratta have been excavated from Boghaz-Keui, the Hittite Capital. This event occurs in 1365 B. C.s This document contains the formula 'ilani' Mi-it-tra-as-si-ia-an-na ilani U-ru-w-na-as-si-il ilu In-da-ra ilani Na-sa-at-ti-ia-an-na.4 Here undivided Aryan Devas are clearly mentioned. Varuņa is the leader of Aryan Devas, Indra occupying the third place. At about the same time, we find Irānāryan looking names ruling in Syria. El-Amarna clay tablets reveal such names as Artamnanya, Arzawiya, Yasadata, Śuttarna etc.
The Dispersal of Aryan Languages.

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( 83 )
This archaic Irānāryan speech-forms are clearly older than the oldest Avestan or Sanskrit known to us."
Kassitāryans established their rule over South Mesopotamia in the Eighteenth century B. C. Hittitaryans occupied Anatolia in Asia Minor Circa 1950 B. C. Both spoke Aryan dialects. Hittite is known as the oldest Aryan dialect.
Minyans were the first Aryans to reach Greece. Minyan ware are found at Troy and Boghaz-keui in the fifteenth century B. C. Minyans were warlike people who established their hegemony in Greek mainland but they did not exterminate the indigenous people and coalesced with them. They formed the vanguard of Greek Aryans who coalescing with the original inhabitants formed the Mycenaeans. These invading Greekāryans who offered friendship to the original people of the Titan-cult extended their power to Thessaly province Circa 1505 B. C. It appears fairly probable that the Greekāryans entered Greek mainland in the sixteenth century B. C. These Greekāryans were familiar with certain Aryan words such as Zeus, Eros, Ouranus, Helios and several others.
Lithuanian is certainly the most archaic Aryan language. The influence of the Lithuanian speech-forms in pre-historic times extended much further still to the east.
Asiaryans bifurcated in two parts in central Asia. Hittitaryans occupied Asia Minor Circa 1950 B. C. Irānāryans reached Northern Iran Circa 2000 B. C.
The existence of Aryan languages in Iran, Asia Minor. Greece and Lithunia during the beginning and middle of Second Millennium B. C. suggests that the land of their common origin should not be far removed from these areas. The archaic character of the Lithuanian language and its further unprogressiveness may be ascribed to the uneventful

The
The

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and docile national life of the Lithuanian people but even if we concede the migration of the Aryan language from Sapta-Sindhu, it could travel to Lithuania either via Iran and central Russia or Via Asia minor and Greece. It must have started its migration not earlier than the middle of Third Millennium B. C. from its original home. During the Sargonid and Hittite age of this region; we witness great politic and military upheavals. This is the age of brave, adventurous and progressive people in West Asia. We must have witnessed in this region a progressive, flourishing and living Aryan language. But that is not a fact. We find no trace of any Aryan language, in Mesopotamia in this age. The Kassitaryan lonely word 'Surias' in the sense of sun, is found in the Eighteenth century B. C. That is a very poor piece of evidence to establish even the existence of an Aryan language even in the Eighteenth century B. C. But, paradoxically enough, we find Hittitāryans' language in Anatolia, richer than the Kassitāryans' language, Circa 2000 B. C. Though the Aryans, the people of the mountains, politically subjugated Mesopotamia; Mesopotamia, despite its political decadence, celebrates the triumph of its culture. This implies that the Aryans in Mesopotamia accepted the culture including language of their subjects during this period. These virile Aryans politically subjugating but culturally being subjugated could not be a fit vehicle for propagating their mother Aryan language to Asia Minor and Central Russia.
Sanskrit and Greek languages are the co-mothers of the sciences of comparative philology and comparative mythology. The attested extant Greek literature may not be dated later than Eighth
Century B. C. The Greek language which belongs to the group of the Aryan languages, exhibits clear
Greekaryan and Brahmaryan Languages

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( 85 ) influences of the pre-Greek language spoken by the pre-Greek Mediterranean people. These influences are foreign to the Greek languages. The Greekāryans appear on the Greek mainland in the Sixteenth Century B. C. The famous battle of Troy was fought and won by the Greekāryans Circa 1183 B, C.9 Minyan ware is found earliest at Troy at lowest layers of Troy VI Circa 1300 B. C.16 This clearly proves that Greek culture flowed from West to East, not from East to West. The speakers of the mother Aryan language did not reach Greece via Asia Minor. They came to Greece from the North.
We here witness a parallel course of history during Aryan migrations. Europāryans from their original home travelled to the West. The inactive and docile people remained in the Lithuanian region and the virile and the brave poured down on Greece similarly as the peace-loving Varuņa people remained in Iran and the war-mongering Indra people advanced towards Bhārata. That also accounts for the virility and progressiveness of the Greek and Vedic Sanskrit languages.
Vedic Sanskrit does not give the truest picture of the Lithuanian, mother Aryan language. Hittite is the oldest most Archaic known Aryan dialect, Of all the living Aryan languages of the present day world; it is Lithuanian, not Sanskrit, that has kept closest to the basic idiom reconstructed by comparative philology. K. M. Munshi advanced a theory that the Vedic Sanskrit has the largest number of vocables found in the Aryan languages. Vocables of the Aryan speech not common to other Aryan languages of Asia and Europe are found in Vedic Sanskritai. No attempt was ever made by any Indian Home theorist to illustrate this thesis by comparing Vedic Sanskrit vocables with common vocables of Europāryan languages. Avestan and Vedic

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( 86 )
Sanskrit have numerous common vocables. Greek and Vedic Sanskrit have not a small number of common vocables. The Aryans had no script of their own. Pre-Greekāryan script and language influenced much the Greekāryan language and gave its vocables a particular mode and direction. The Brahmaryans adopted proto-Brahmi script of the protoAustraloid for their speech Circa 1000 B. C. The vocables of the Brahmaryan speech were largely shaped by the Austric language. The comparative study of Austric and Vedic Sanskrit languages reveals sufficient Austric influences over Sanskrit. The Cerebrals and inflexion of nouns in IndoAryan (Brahmaryan) languages are the influences of the Austric language. The first Aryan literature, Rgveda, has no word for a large number of plants, animals and unknown products of the new country. They acquired important loans from the languages of the non-Dravidian populations with whom they first came in contact.12 The Aryan languages in Greece and Bharata came in contact with richer and superior pre-Aryan foreign languages and hence attained big progress while the Lithuanian had no such pre-Aryan linguistic contacts. This accounts for the deviation of the Sanskrit and Greek languages from the basic Aryan idioms while the Lithuanian remained nearest to them. Their vocables took particular shapes owing to different environmental conditions. The history of pre-Aryan linguistic influences in the development of the Aryan vocables challenges the patience of expert linguists.
of the Aryans in this age What Aryan literary records Records in Bharata, Iran and Greece available are not pure Aryan records. They are preponderantly and overwheImingly influenced by the language and culture of the preAryan people. Ṛgveda is the product of the Aryans and the
The literary records Aryan Literary are very few.

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( 87 )
Bharatiyans. Homer's Illiad and Odessey reveal large Minoani influences. If the so-called Aryan records are subjected to scientific scrutiny; very little Aryan would remain in them. Āryan literacy records in West Asia are not found mainly for the reason that Aryan during their itinerary succumbed to the superior cultures of their adversaries. We possess the pre-Vedic Hittite literary records. Vedic Sanskrit exhibits a strong influence of the pre-Aryan Austric language like the Hellenic Greek which reveals stronger pre-Hellenic Minoan influences.
Linguistic evidence so far discussed clearly indicates that the original Aryan cradle-land must be somewhere nearer and to the east of the pre-historic
Results from Linguistic Evidences
Lithuanian region. That region must be equidistant to the North of Anatolia and Iran. No people would migrate from milder regions to rough regions. No nomadic migrations in Asia have been noticed in history from South to North. If South Russia Home theory is conceded, the migrations would have to be towards North-east to China and towards North-West via Central Russia to Lithuania which is prima facie improbable. The migrating people seeking better homes do not go to rougher regions leaving behind pleasant and congenial habitat. South Russia affords better living conditions than the Northern regions. Northern regions, not South Russia, could be a better home for pastoralists. The Semitic Sargon of Agade's rule was established in Northern Mesopotamia Circa 2300 B. C.18 This was the first Semitic rule under which Sumer and Agade, Northern and Southern Mesopotamia were united. The Semitic and Aryan languages must have come in contact with each other in Northern Mesopotamia, the influence of the Aryan language emanating from South Russia. But that does only prove that in that period,

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( 88 ) Aryan language existed in South Russia; not that it was the original Aryan Home. Aryans had come down to this region in this period from their original home. The linguistic evidence proves South Russia, the second Aryan Home. The face of the Aryans in South Russia was towards further South and not towards North in their succeeding itinerary as all the nomadic migrations, from central Asia and above, have been to the Western and Southern regions. Hence the area to the East of Lithuanian region parallel to it or a little North above should be the original habitat. This is the vast steppy land just to the South of Ural mountains extending to the East Coast upto sea. This region may be located to the South of circumpolar region and to the North of Caspian and Aral Seas. It covers the Northern parts of the mountainous Eurasian Steppes and the Southern parts of the thick Siberian forests extending upto the Eastern Sea Coast.
References
1. B. K. Ghosh; The Āryan Problem (Vedic Age); 1957; Page 203.
Will Durant; Our Oriental Heritage; 1954; Page 286. 3. S. Moscati; The face of the Ancient Orient; 1960; Page 190. 4. S. Piggot; Pre-historic India; 1950; Page 250. 5. B. K. Ghosh; Op. Cit.; Pages 204-205. 6. V. Gordon Childe; The Dawn of European Civilization; 1950;
Pages 71-73, 7. Robert Graves; The Greek Myths; 1957; Vol. I Page 42, 8. S. Moscati; Op. Cit., Page 156. 9. (1)J. B. Bury; A History of Greece; Page 42.
(2) N. G. L. Hammond; A History of Greece; 1959; Pages 39-40. 10. V. Gordon Childe; O. Cit. Pages 36, 46. 11. K. M. Munshi; The Glory that was Gurjardesha; 1943; Page 81. 12. J. Przyluski, Sylvain Levi and others; The Pre-Aryan and Pre.
Dravidian in India; 1929; Pages XI, 4., 40. 13. V. Gordon Childe; New Light on the Most Ancient East; 1958,
Page 10.

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4. ARCHAEOLOGICAL TESTS
The science of archaeology is assuming greater and greater importance since the beginning of the last century. Literary records do not go beyond 1000 B. C. Material relics in the forms of inscriptions, seals, tablets, paintings and architecture are the only guide in determining the picture of pre-historic cultures and civilizations. Archaeology is our best friend and guide in giving us that picture.
Material
Relics of Culture
Pottery provides the best evidence of the pattern of culture of a particular people. The change in the form and pattern of a particular pottery generally indicates a change of culture. As indicated earlier, Minyans were the first Aryan people to arrive in Greece. Fine greyware found of Greek archaeological sites has been termed by archaeologists as Minyan Ware. This Grey ware has been foud in the lowest layers of Troy VI which has been dated between 1500 and 1300 B. C. The Mycenaean period on the Greek mainland begins with the end of Middle Helladic and coincides with the Late Helladic culture. Late Helladic culture is dated Circa 1400 B. C. Greyware is found at the Mycenaean sites on the Greek Mainland.1
Greyware Pottery
Pattern
Tripolje culture is spread widely in the basins of the and Dnieper rivers. Sherds between period I & II' Circa
Sereth, Pruth, Dniester, Bug of Grey Ware have been found 1800 B. C.
Greyware like Minyan is also found contemporary to the Troy III finds at the Hittite Capital Boghaz-Keiu. Grey Wares technically allied to the Minyan are certainly

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( 90 ) characteristic of Northern Iran. At Anau II and Hissar II in Northern Iran; greywares appear for the first time. These culture periods are dated Circa 2100 B. C. These greyware people are subsequently found further east at Shah Tepe, Turang Tepe, Namazgo Tepe and Askabad. The traces of the same folk have been found in Afghanistan, at Nad-i-Ali.
The people connected with the greyware were new and warlike invaders of martial character organised in tribal
collectives who violently destroyed the Greywar: People And their indigenous cultures and civilizations. These Associates.
.: collectives tamed sheep and horses as is evident from numerous bones of sheep and horses found in Tripolje region. The herds and flocks of cattle were commonly owned. The tribal collectives were presided over by supreme tribal leaders, Chieftains' house at Feldeleseni in Tripolje region; princely tombs at Maikop and Tsarkaya in Russian Turkistan; Turang Tepe in Northern Iran; Alaca Huyuk in Asia Minor; and less royal tombs at Hissar III and Shah Tepe clearly reveal the collective and martial character of these tribes and their leaders. Their chief woapon of war was battle-axe. Multiplication of weapons was the chief instrument of these patriarchal War-lords who constantly waged wars to gain military conquests and political supremacy for the preservation and growth of their tribal collectives. The violent upheavals of cultures in these times, attested by archaeological finds, tell the same and similar story everywhere in these regions.
These intrusive barbarians earlier having connections with Hissar III-Anau III complex of cultures advanced Their Martial towards Bhārata region. Shahi Tump is an Character Indus site. A grave of a warrior has been

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dug at Shahi Tump and its nearest parallels, significantly enough, came from the graves of the chieftains of barbarian tribes possibly of Ganapatis; Iudra, Bșhaspati or any other beyond the fringe of the oriental urban civilization at Maikop and Tsarkaya in South Russia. The grave bas yielded a shaft-hole battle-axe and a copper spear. These were the times of unprecedented troubles and vigorous movements in the first half of Second Millennium B. C."
The pottery patterns in this period in Western Bhārata reveal a distinct intrusive, voilent and foreign culture. In Arachosia and Gedrosia regions, the pottery patterns at Quetta, Amrinal, Kulli and Zhob valley are found remarkable similar. The ware at Quetta ranges from pinkish white to greenish. Two fragments from fine shallow bowls of grey ware have been found. It seems comparable to that represented at Susa I, Giyan V, Sialk III and Anau I and II in Russian Turkistan. Amri-Nal ware exhibits green tinge. A limited number of vessels of grey or even drak brownish colour have been found. Grey pottery recalling the fragment from Shabi Tump, have been found from sites near Bampur and in Sistan showing Kulli contacts. Shahi Tump graves have yielded greywares. These vessels form one of the most interesting links between West and East, from the borders of Syria to the Indus. Zhob Valley and other sites have proved the arrival of nomadic, horse-riding herdsmen with violent military weapons ruthlessly destroying the indigenous peaceful population.
Further east to Bhārata, painted Greyware is found at many sites in the Sutlej and Ghaghar basins. Hastinapur has abundantly yielded this ware. This pattern is a continuation of the painted and plain greywares in Western Asia and Southern Europe. This ware is later than the Harappa

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( 92 ) Ware. This ware may be placed between 1500-600 B. C. At Hastinapur, this ware is placed between 1100-800 B. C'.
These violent invaders in search of abundant wealth and prosperity wielded very fierce and efficient weapons in their
Fire-The wars against the indigenous people. But the Most efficient best of their military weapon was Agni Āryan Weapon (Fire). They were very efficient scientists in organising fire brigades in their military system. The 'throneroom'; may be assembly Hall, in the palace at Knossos in Crete was swept by fire which destroyed the palace. It was destroyed by fire by the Mycenaean invaders who were hybrid people composed of Hellenes and pre-Hellenes, the former preponderating. The centres of the Mycenaean power, in turn, were also looted and destroyed. At Mycenae, all the buildings with the citadel were plundered and fired. These invasions of the Achaeans and the Dorians were very violent. The burnt layer at Eutresis is followed by the Minyan ware which covered most parts of peninsular Greece during the course of the Middle Bronze Age. In the last period of the Middle Bronze Age, the House of Tiles at Lerna was burnto. The city of Troy was also burnt. These inhuman barbarian war-lords resorted to raiding, arson and pillaging in North Baluchistan. There is evidence of burning at the end of the Rana Ghundaii IIIc phase. The last phase of Zhob ware settlement was burnt down. Its tell is still called Sohr Damb, the Red Mound, from its fire-reddened soil. At Dabarkot the upper 6 feet of the tell showed no less than four thick ash layers, implying repeated destructive conflagrations of the later settlements. One of the later settlements at this site was that of Harappa folk". This was the region of Vștras, Dāsas and Daśyus. They met a cruel, gruesome and inhuman end at the hands of the invading greyware people. Agni was the most supreme and best of Gaņap atis

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( 93 ) who helped his people in establishing political hegemony through military conquests in Greece and Bhārata.
This is the picture of the migrations of the greyware people constructed by archaeology. The pottery patterns and human cum animal material remains discovered in Greece, South Russia, Poland, Ukraine (Tripolje), Asia Minor, Iran, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Bhārata tell a remarkably similar story.
The greyware culture. painted or plain, exhibits certain remarkable traits. This is foreign to these regions. This Greyware people is violent and warlike. Its economy is
are Åryans based upon the collective ownership of herds of cattle, Horse is distinctly associated with it. It developed military organisation par excellence. It possessed newest and best weapons of war. It forced its suzerainty over the prior peaceful culture. This archaeological picture accords well with the literary pictures of the Hellenes and the Brahmas painted in Greek aud Brāhmaṇic accounts of the heroic ages Circa 1000 B. C. and later. These people are the Wiros or Aryans of history.
This archaeological picture demolishes many of the original home theories. Modern supporters of Penkas' theory Archaeological still cling to the evidences of pre-historic Conclusions archaeology. They laid much stress on geometric pattern on prehistoric pottery in Central Germany. Similar patterns on the pre-historic pottery have also been discovered in South Russia, Poland and Ukraine. The evidence is not sufficient to justify the claim of Germany to be the Aryan original home.
Nehring dated the Tripolje culture in the Third Millennium B. C. but it has been proved wrong by V. Gordon Childe. He dates the stage 1 of Tripolje culture not earlier

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than 1900 B. C.12 Similar pottery is found at Anau in Russian Turkistan which is definitely earlier than the Tripolje pattern. Brandenstein is correct in holding Tripolje as second Aryan home in Europe after partition of the undivided Aryan collective.
Asiāryans bifurcated from their South Russian home. One branch went to Anatolia North of Caspian Sea and crossing over the Caucasus mountains. The second branch crossed the Pamir range to Iran. A part of these people went to the West known in history as Hurrians whose one branch was that of Mittanis. The Anatolian Hittites and the Mittanis know Indra whom the Europāryans do not know. Indra is not a Greek leader like Zeus or Ouranos. This fact alone clearly proves that the personality of Indra was evolved after the Europaryans had separated from the undivided Aryan stock. Hittites could reach Anatolia only through the North Caspian route. The original home, naturally, then, shall be still to the north of Caspian and Aral Seas. Tripolje culture on the Dnieper basin must place this region still northern-most to avoid the contacts of the Europāryans and the Hittitāryans. If we extend the area arrived at by Brandenstein eastwards and northwards south of the Ural mountains; we get the original Aryan cradle-land. This accords well with the conclusion arrived at by the linguistic tests.
K. M. Munshi gives an interesting chronological table of Aryan migrations from Sapta-Sindhu to West Asia. He places Indus Valley culture Circa 3500-3000 B. C., rise of Atharvan tradition Circa 2500
Migrations from SaptaSindhu theory
of Varuna
examined B. C., rise of Rgvedic tradition of Varuna worship Circa 2200 B. C., first movements worshippers to West Circa 2000 B. C., taming of horse by Aryans in North Persia Circa 2000 B. C., rise of Indra cult

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in North Persia Circa 1900 B. C., founding of Aryan kingdoms by Mittanis, Hittites and Kassites Circe 1800 B. C., Vedic period Circa 1500-1400 B. C., Parasurams' conquests Circa 1400-1300 B. C. and close of the Vedic period Circa 1000 B. C.18
This itinerary does not take into account the presence of the Aryans into South Russia, Lithuania and Tripolje regions. Presence of Aryans in Greece. so significant a historical event, has been totally ignored. The rise of Indracult in North Persia is a useful admission. Indra travelled to West with Varuņa upto Asia Minor. But why Varuņa, and not Indra, travelled along to Greece has not been explained. Indra was denounced in Iran as a Deva (in the sence of a demon ), then how could he travel along with Asura ( in the sense of illustrious god ) Varuņa to Boghaz-Keui ? If after the Varuņa-Indra war or the Deva-Asura War, as held by India Home theorists, the defeated Varuņa followers, the Asuras, travelled to Iran, the victorious Indra followers, as suggested, would not go under the leadership of their vanquished enemies. Moreover history knows no instance where the defeated people go to foreign countries, colonise it and found important kingdoms. Bogha z-Keui proves harmonious relations between Varuņa and Indra, the schism between the two occuring after this event. Divodāsa's conquests are placed Circa 1400 B. C. Indra, as his senior, helped Divodása in gaining victories over Dāsas and Daśyus". The historicity of Parsurama's conquests may be questioned, but the conquests of Sudās, grandson of Divodāsa and son of Pijāvana, as senjor of Indra,26 is recorded in Rgveda. Indra had his first valorous deeds with Vọtra in Irānian mountains. After this event, Indra was brought by Vasisthas to the Punjab regions from afar across the Vaišanta. He crosses the Sindhy river with Sudās.18 This definitely proves

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that Indra, with great military prowess, poured down upon Bhārata from Iran in the later part of the second millennium B. C., the past memory of which preserved in Rgveda, Munshi's theory, thus, does not stand to archaeological tests, and as shown previously, to linguistic tests. It rather proves the theory that war-mongering Indra people invaded Bhārata from Iran which is attested by archaeology and also by Rgveda.
The above archaeological account reveals that the Āryan culture was the resultant of the social development of the
.. pastoral hunter-fishers. The tribal warfare and Conclusion
multiplication of weapons, patriarchal households, greater mobility and intensified military activities would be the consequences of the economy of the everexpanding tribal people. Men were exalted over women for the material growth and prosperity or the ever-moving, ambitious and adventurous tribal society and for wielding metallic and non-metallic weapons in wars against their opposing adversaries. These pastoral, warlike and patriarchal societies of the Wiros or the Aryans with new interests, material and social, began their historic migrations from their orginal habitat Circa 2500 B. C.
References. 1. V. Gordon Childe; D. E. C.; Page 70. 2. V. Gordon Childe; Op. Cit; Pages 137, 145. 3. V. Gordon Childe; Op. cit.; Pages 36, 73.
S. Piggot; Op. Cit; Pages 57-63. 5. B. B. Lal; Ancient India No. 9; 1953; Page 90. 6. S. Piggot; Op. cit.; Pages 73, 84, 111, 121.
B. B. Lal; Excavation at Hastinapur and other Explorations; Anci
ent India No. 10-11; Pages 147, 150. 8. Donald A. Mackenzie; Myths of Crete and Pre-Hellenic Europe;
1917; Page 124. 9. N. G. L. Hammond; Op. cit.; Pages 39, 40, 74.

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10. Donald A. Mackenzie; Op. cit.; Page 118. 11. S. Piggot; Op. Cit.; Pages 123,215. 12. V. Gordon Childe; Op. Cit.; Page 145. 13. K. M. Munshi; Op. Cit; Page 85. 14. Rgveda 2. 2. 1. 11; 6. 3. 3.5; 7.2.1. 20; 7. 2. 2.8; 4. 3.9.20%;
6.4.4.21; 9.3.1.2. 15. Rgveda 7. 2. 1. 16.
अध वीरस्य शृतपामनिन्द्रं परा शर्धन्तं नुनुदे अभिक्षाम् ।
इन्द्रो' मन्युं मन्युम्यो' मिमाय भेजे पृथो वर्तनि पत्य॑मानः ॥ 16. Rgveda 7. 2. 16. 2-6.
दूरादिन्द्रमनयन्ना सुतेन तिरो वैशन्तमति पान्तमु_ग्रम् । पाशद्युम्नस्य वायतस्य सोमात्सु_तादिन्द्रो'ऽवृणीता वसिष्ठान् । एवेन्नु के सिन्धुमेभिस्ततारे वेन्नु के भे दमे भिर्जधान । एवेन्नु के दाशराज्ञे सु दासं प्रावदिन्द्रो ब्रह्मणा वो वसिष्ठाः ।। जुष्टो नरो ब्रह्मणा वः पितृणामक्षमव्ययं न किला रिषाथ । यच्छक्करोषु बृहता रवे णेन्द्र शुष्ममदंधाता वसिष्ठाः ।। उयामिवेतृ ष्णाजो' नाथितासोऽदो धयुर्दाशराज्ञे व_तासः । वसिष्ठस्य स्तुवत इन्द्रो' अश्रोदु रु तृत्सुंध्यो अकृणोदु लोकम् ॥ दण्डाइवेदोअर्जनास असन्यरिच्छिन्ना मस्ता अर्मकासः । अम॑वञ्च मुरएता वसिष्ठ आदितृत्सूनां विशो' अप्रथन्त ॥

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5. GEOLOGICAL TESTS
The formations of the earth determine the natural conditions of a particular region. Geology is the mother of geography. Geological conditions determine Geological conditioning of Phy- the way of living of the people inhabiting a particular region. Three of the Home theories, the Artic, the central Asian and the Sapta-Sindhu, employ geological arguments.
sical Life.
The Aryans were the hardy people of the mountains. The leaders of the undivided Aryans, Agni, Pārjanya and Soma and the Asiaryan leaders, Indra and Maruts, are very closely connected with mountains. They know vast and self-sustained mountains. Maruts and Indra shatter the mountains. Maruts are residents of mountains. Indra is born on the skirts of the mountains. Indra fought his battles with Sambar and other Dāśa and Daśyu chiefs on mountains.1 Soma is born in mountains and resides in mountains. Indra drinks Soma on the day of his birth.3 The father of Soma is Pārjanya. Thus Soma precedes Indra. Pārjanya is known to undivided Āryans."
The Aryans were pastoral nomads shepherding big flocks and herds of cattle. Their cattle were reared on mountains. The waters of the mountains nourished their cattle. They grazed upon good pastures. They loved those pastures which flourished with abundant fodder. They despised regions of extreme heat. They tended their cattle on the widespread grassy lands of cooler climates."
The Aryans were hunters on lands and fishers on watery places. Agriculture appears to be their secondary avocation. This sort of economic life of the undivided

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Āryans shows that they must have been living on vast steppy lands which grew abundant grass to maintain their numerous cattle.
The geological grounds advanced by Tilak and Das seek to prove some geological references in Ķgveda. Tilak
draws heavily on Rgveda and Avestic eviTilak's Geologi. cal Arguments dences pertaining to dawns, days and nights, examined
months and seasons, certain Vedic and Avestic myths and also comparative mythology. He draws the conclusion that before the close of the Fourth Ice age, which he places at 8000 B. C. following the American geologists, the circum-polar Arctic region provided a congenial and pleasing climate and Aryans began their migrations in the post-glacial period Circa 8000 B.C. His theory suffers from three defects, firstly, no scientific investigations of the Arctic region to discover the effects of the Fourth Ice Age have ever been made. Secondly, no geologist places the end of the Fourth Ice Age period earlier than 20,000 years. Tilak has given the close of the Fourth Ice Age at 8000 B.C. but he has not given the age of its beginning. The beginning of the Fourth Ice Age must have been accompanied by intolerable cold and the region by and by must have become uninhabitable. The inhabitants must have begun their migrations at the advent of the Fourth Ice Age. The beginning and not the close of the Fourth Ice Age is relevant for the present enquiry. Tilak's theory suffers the defect of not giving the age of the beginning of the Fourth Ice Age. Thirdly, the phenomena mentioned by Tilak may even presently be observed and the people living in comparatively less cooler regions when on a journey to north may witness long dawns, long nights and long days. The researches of Tilak only bring out the truth that the original Aryan people lived in the

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vicinity, to the south, of the circumpolar region and know its natural environments. The regions in which they lived were cold but still habitable.
He
A. C. Das, foremost among Sapta-Sindhu theorists, developed his geological argument on the references of certain Ṛgvedic hymns mentioning sea. maintains that Eastern Sea is mentioned in Ṛgveda alongwith four seas and Saraswati river flowed from the Himalayas to the ocean. He refers to two maps of H. G. Wells.
Das's Theory of Four Seas
The Rgvedic references mentioning the Eastern and the Four Seas appear in the Tenth Mandal of Rgveda. The theosophic and cosmogonic speculations of "gveda only appear in the Tenth Mandal which indicate remarkable similarity to the theosophic and cosmogonic hymns of Atharvaveda. The age of Atharvaveda may be placed Circa 800 B. C.10 The Tenth Mandal of the Rgveda cannot be placed earlier than 800 B. C.
The Fourth Ice Age map shows a vast stretch of ice wherefrom the Himalayas rose later. The Southern Sea
joins the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. To the North is a stretch of land comprising Eastern Afghanistan, Kashmir, upper Punjab, Tarai regions North Bihar, North Assam and Burma. To the West is a small stretch of ice where a part of Suleman ranges later arose. To South-West, there are vast long-stretching land regions. The later Wells' map indicating later paleolithic age about 35000-25000 years ago shows the Pamir range, the Suleiman range and the Himalayan range come into existence. Lands upto Allahabad, South Bihar, Banga, Anga and Kalinga have become populated. Ceylon is still unseparated from Indian mainland. Sea remains in West Gujerat and South Punjab. There is

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( 101 ) no Sea to the North, the East and the West. Das has constructed his own geological map,11 but his own map does not show any sea to the West of Sapta-Sindhu region. If at all any icy stretch which may be called a Sea existed to the West of Sapta-Sindhu regions, it existed long before 50,000 or more years. The Deccan beyond the Vindhyas was surrounded by seas on all the four directions but nobody assigns that region the credit of being the original Aryan home. Řgvedic Āryans did not even know of it during these times.
The references to Samudra, given by Das, do not relate to the boundary of any country. Das failed to detect a reference to four Seas in the Ninth Mandal of Regveda. Soma is prayed to pour upon the worshippers four oceans of riches from every side. Similarly Indra is the filler of four seas in Rgveda 10.4.5.2. The institution of Muni is a preAryan Bhāratīya institution. They are spoken as residing in the Eastern and the Western Seas. Some Aryan adventurers might have travelled to the Bay of Bengal before its final Brahmāryan occuptation and brought the knowledge of the region they were later to occupy. They had earlier navigated in the Arabian Sea. This may as well be the geographical knowledge of the land of their occupation. The reference of the Eastern and the Western Seas do not signify any geological importance. Manu defines Åryāvarta as the region between the two mountains (the Himalayas and the Vindhyas) as far as the Eastern and the Western oceans.13 This dos not prove that Manusmriti was existing 20,000 years before.
Das also maintains that river Saraswati Howed directly to Sea from its origin in Himalayas and never joined the
river Indus. Rgveda also maintains that Saraswati River
Saraswati flowed to the ccean.14 Das con

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cludes from this reference that as the river Saraswati loses itself into the sands of the desert of Rajputana; that a Sea once existed there and actually covered a very large portion of modern Rajputana extending as far South and East as the Aravalli mountains.15
Let us consider the relationship between the river Sindhu and river Saraswati. The word Sindhu in Rgveda generally means a river.16 Agni is spoken of as the leader of rivers (Netā Sindhūnām). Mitra and Varuna have been referred as powerful lords of rivers (Sindhupati kṣatriyāh)).1 It is very seldom that Sindhu is referred as a proper river. In some contexts where it is referred as a proper river; it is of smaller significance. Saraswati, beyond doubt, is the biggest river of Rgveda.
Sapta-Sindhavah means seven rivers. It is contended that at one place it means a definite country." Sāyaṇa Sapta-Sindhavah interprets the relevant pada as 'the banks of not a country the seven rivers'. Indra is said to bring enrichment on the seven rivers. 19 Indra in relation to rivers
brings enrichment in the shape of more waters. This hymn does not indicate any region nor any country but only eulogises the quality of Indra as rain bringer.
Saraswati is a large river. Her banks were largely populated. Famous Rgvedic Panchajanah, the five preAryan, Bhartiya republics, were located in the Saraswati region. Saraswati is best of all the rivers, the most mighty of rivers, the chief and purest of rivers. Saraswati is the mother of the Sindhu and of those rivers that flow copious and fertilizing, bestowing abundance of food and nourishing the people by their water. Saraswati has seven sisters20. This clearly reveals that the Saraswati river occupied the most prominent position among the rivers of the region. Thus

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Saraswati enjoys a position of superiority over the Indus, and even if the two rivers had joined together, the joined stream flowing to the Sea would have been known by the name of Saraswati, not by the name of Sindhu. Hence there was no region as Sapta-Sindhavah.
It appears certain from geological evidences that the formations of solid earth in Sind had taken place before the Sar 18wati full rise of the Himalayan system. The most Region ancient river from which the Brahmaputra, the Ganges and the Indus trifurcated later is known by the name "Sivālike'. This old river is believed to be the successor of the narrow strip of the sea—the remnant of the Himalayan Sea left after the main uplift of those mountainsas the latter gradually withdrew, through the encroachment of the delta of the replacing river from Nainital, Solan, Mujjafarabad and Attock to Sind.
The Saraswati river in Vedic times flowed to the ser through Eastern Punjab and Rajputana. We find Indus and Saraswati rivers as two distinct and separate rivers in Vedic times flowing to the Sea.
The records of the third century B. C. show that Indus flowed more than 80 miles to the East of its present course, though the now practically dry bed of a deserted channel, to the Rann of Cutch, which was then a gulf of the Arabian Sea. . An old river bed, the Hakra or Sotra (Ghagghar) or Wahind, more than 600 miles in length, the channel of a lost river, is traceable from Ambala near the foot of the Himalayas through Bhatinda, Bikaner and Bhawalpur to Sindh. It is probably the old bed of Saraswati at a time, when it and the Sutluj flowed independently of the Indus to the sea i. e.; the Rann of Cutchal. These geological accounts conclusively prove that there was no Rajputana Sea during

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the period contemplated by Das. Sind had come into existence side by side the rise of Himalayas and both the Indus and the Saraswati had independently flowed to the Rann of Cutch in the Arabian Sea. Saraswati flowed to the Rann of Cutch in historical times. It was lost in the desert sands of Bikaner in post-Vedic period. The geological evidence put forward by Das so vehemently, does not go to prove his thesis.
The fundamental mistake that Tilak and Das laboured under is that they used the geological epithets of the Vedic literature in proving only the region and not the habitat of the people. The aim of their enquiry was to locate the habitat of the people, but the people they forgot. The correct line of enquiry would have been to know the characteristics of the people first and then to find out the probable region where such people could inevitably live. The hardy mountainous pastoral nomads could not be brought up in the pleasing congenial climate of the Sapta Sindhu hot plains. The map constructed by Das includes the hilly tracts of South Russia beyond the Himalays in the boundaries of his Sapta-Sindhu region. This is the region given by Das as the Irānāryans; Airyana Vaejo. This region takes us to the Southern fringe of central Asia. But this is not the region of Indus or Saraswati. Das thus stands demolished by himself.
Rgveda mentions the prevelance of a cold climate in the original Aryan Home. Aryans know of Hima or winter. They counted the number of years by reference
Cold Climate
to so many Himas or winters. The cold climate could not have been so extreme and severe as to forbid all life. It should have been a tolerable cold climate which could give birth to robust, optimistic and life-loving people. This cold climatic region should have been in the

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vicinity of a region where very severe life-prohibiting cold climate prevailed and which also occasionally visited the inhabited cold region. The Irānāryan myth of the visit of Angra Mainyu to Airyana Vaejo and the creation of a very severe cold climate may satisfactorily be explained in this light. The Airyana Vaejo or the orginal Aryan habitat was a tolerably cold region frequented by severe cold winds and gales. The area of the Sapta Sindhu plains, or the area to the north beyond the Himalayas around the Pamir range does not satisfy these conditions. Northern parts of central Asia beyond the Pamir range and the southern parts of the very cold circumpolar regions satisfy thase conditions.
Angiras is the first and the greatest Aryan Ganapati. He is the father as well as the son of Agni. He separated the burn
e ing individual charcoal from the Mass fire. Invention of Agni From Mass When the first Angārā was born, it greatly Fires
accelerated the Aryan economy and revolutionised their way of living. Ķgveda makes numerous references to such mass fires. The woods and trees are called the hairs of the earth. Agni, the kind kinsman of the water, consumes the forest and when excited by the wind, traverses the woods and shears the hairs of the earth. Imperishable Agni blazes amidst consuming forests. Agni is consumer of many forests, as an animal is of fodder. Undivided Aryans valued forests and fodder alike; fodder for feeding their cattle and forests to keep their cattle and themselves warm and protected. The Aryans considered Agni, the asylum of all and Agni appeared to them very beatiful when generated in woods. The destroying energy of Agni is like the prowes of a hero. Agni, irresistable and fearful, consumes the forests. Agni, rapid as a horse, is the consumer of the forests and is spontaneously known among the Devas, the Aryan leaders. Agni fanned by the wind consumed the forests. These refe

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rences clearly indicate that the Aryans knew thick blazing forests. The fodder-producing steppy lands and the thick forests covered the Aryan habitat. The northern parts of the Āryan habitat, the Tundras, were populated by thick forests Circa 3000 B. C. or so. The phenomena of recurrent mass fires may happen only in thickest forests. Central Europe, Bhārata and Central Asia did not possess thick and extensive forests. The Aryan Cradle-land covered steppy regions and thick forests. This geological evidence afforded by Rgveda, excludes the possibility of the claims of these regions to be the Aryan Cradle-land.
Rgveda preserves certain remniscences of the geological conditions obtaining in the Aryan Cradle-land in the present Pregent Geological geological age. The present formations of the
Formations Earth had taken its shape not earlier than 20,000 years ago. It may be that the remnants of the Tethys Sea in the shapes of separate shallow pools of water at some places became habitable Circa 7000 or 10,000 years back. It is completely futile to try to discover in Rgveda some thing of the pre-Fourth Ice Age. Øgvedic geological references, when tested in the light of the present geological formations, sufficiently establish that the vast stretches of the south Ural regions claim to be the Aryan Cradle.land.
References
1. Ķgveda 1.8.3.7; 1.12.1.3; 4.2.7.3; 4.2.10.6; 5.4.10.5; 6.3.3.4 ;
8.2.2.4 ; 8.2.1.28 ; 8.2.2.5; 8.10.1.12 ; 8.10.3.2; 8.10.5.4 ; 2. Ķgveda 5.3.11.4 ; 9.3.2.4 ; 9.4.18.10; 9.5.10.4 ; 9.6.2.9 ; 3. Řgveda 3.4.10.2. 4. Kgveda 9.4.15.3. 5. F. Maxmuller ; The Vedas ; 1956 ; Pages 111-114. 6. Rgveda 1.8.7.7 ; 6.3.5.7 ; 8.6.3.30 ; 9.4.13.3. 7. B.G. Tilak ; The Aretic Home of the Vedas; 1956, Pages 13, 421. 8. H.G. Wells ; An Outline of History; 1931 ; Pages 77, 84.

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9. Rgveda 10.4.5.2; 10.11.8.5.
10. A.B. Keith; The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanisads; 1925, Pages 6,20.
11. A.C. Dass; Rgvedic Culture; 1925; Map faces Page I. 12. Rgveda 9.2.9.6.
34: agaieagzì card ala fggaa: 1 endaza agfami: 11 13. G. Buhlar; The laws of Manu (S.B.E. Series); 2.22; Page 33. 14. Rgveda 7.6.6.2.
xy_á gjafa adà fuẻ: 1 £grar fqvci fay: 11
15. A.C. Das; Rgvedic India; 1927, Page 7.
16. Macdonell and Keith; Vedic Index; 1958; Volume II Page 450. 17. Rgveda 7.1.5.2; 7.4 9.2.
18. (1) Macdonell and Keith; Op. Cit.; Volume II Page 424. (2) A.D. Pusalkar; Aryan settlements in India (in Vedic Age); 1956; Page 243.
(3) Rgveda 8.4.4.27.
aaanden gaat af'casa furygı adefaed gfagen Ama: 11
19. Rgveda Samhitā (V.S.M.); Vol. III Page 674.
20. Rgveda 2.4.9.16; 6.5.12.10; 6.5.12.12; 7.3.3.6; 7.6.6.2; 7.6.7.1; 8.4.1.18;
21. D.N. Wadia; Geology of India; 1953; Pages 55, 389, 390. 22. Rgveda 1.12.1.4; 3.2.11.1; 5.1.9.4; 6.1.3.3; 6.1.6.5; 7.1.7.1.; 8.5.10.1.

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6. ANTHROPOLOGICAL TESTS
The origin of the science of Anthropology is comparatively later but its contributions to human knowledge are
remarkable. It has given us an insight into Body-Structure
the many knotty problems which had been confronting of late the philologists and the historians alike. A group of people shape a particular body-structure in a particular region. Anthropology studies the body-structure of different ethnic groups.
Mankind, in anthropological terms, is divided into five main groups ; having many sub-groups; the Australoids, the Mediterraneans, the Mongoloids and the Nordics. The Negroids are recognised by their wooly hair, narrow head, broad nose, strong prognathism, dark brown skin colour, medium stature and broad face. The Australoids possess wavy hair, long head, broad nose, strong prognathism, dark brown skin colour and medium stature. The Mediterraneans are characterised by wavy hair, long head, medium stature, slight prognathism, dark white colour of the skin and slight build. The Mongoloid characteristics are straight hair, broad head, medium nose, light brown skin colour, below average stature and broad face. The Nordics are characterised by wavy hair, narrow head, narrow nose, slight prognathism, yery fair skin colour, tall stature and blond eyes. Anthropologists borrowed the word Nordic from the German home theorists. Norway is situate in the northern most part of Europe. The Nordic home comprises Norway, Sweeden, Finland, Denmark and British Isles. The people of northern Europe were originally called the Nordics, later, this word began to be applied to the Aryans. In this context,

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the word Nordic has now become inapplicable. The word Uraloid appears to be nearer the truth. It is exact and scientific.
The stature and skin colour of a particular racial stock provides the best distinguishing features. The formation of head, whether a particular stock is dolichoArya-Varna and Das-Varna cephalic (narrow-headed) or brachycephalic (round-headed), has also been accepted as a standard of measurement. Regarding the skin colour of the Aryans and their adversaries; Ṛgveda gives us an accurate picture. The Aryan Usas are white-complexioned. Agni is golden-haired. Indra and his friends are white-complexioned. Indra is of goodly features. Maruts are handsome-chinned. Indra is protector of the Arya Varna'. In contrast to the AryaVarņa stands the Dāsa-Varna. Dāsas were black-skinned. Indra protects Arya-Varna and consigns Dāsa-Varna to the cavern. Agni consumes the cities of his foe who are dark-complexioned. Soma drives off the dark-skinned. Indra, the slayer of Vṛtra, the destroyer of cities, has scattered the black-sprung servile hosts. This description clearly reveals that the Aryan and the Dasas were two distinct and independent large ethnic groups arrayed against each other. If the Aryas and the Dāsas had been of the same blood and descended from one ancestor; Svetavarņa could not be the monopoly of Aryas alone. Both Aryas and Dāsas would have been white comlexioned or dark-complexioned. Rather, looking to the climatic conditions of the Sapta-Saraswati region; both would have been dark-complexioned. Two distinct colours in Ṛgveda clearly indicate two distinct ethnic groups.
The black-skinned ethnic group was wide spread. Sumerians were dark-headed people. The Egyptians were

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)
black people. Osiris, the most ancient Black-skinned Ethnic Group
Egyptian god was black-coloured. The from Greece to Minoans of Crete seem to have been brownish. Bhārata
Cretan men in ancient paintings of Crete are represented black. Pre-Aryan Greeks were called Pelasgians. The word itself means, 'the dusky ones'. They were dark-colouredo. The land to the south-west of Bhārata was known as Gedrosia, meaning the land of the blacks. Thus we find that the people inhabiting the vast regions of Greece, Cyclades, Egypt, Western Asia and Bhārata were darkskinned.
Father Heras holds that this black-skinned ethnic group is the Mediterranean type. It is most numerous of Proto-Australoids the four definite types of skulls discovered and Mediter
raneans among the few human remains unearthed 1. Lingiustic
Evidence at Mohenjodaro. He equates the Mediterranean type with the l'ravidian ethnic type in India which bears nearest resemblance to that of the ancient Sumerians. The Mediterranean type is dolichocephalic. This type is found in Asia Minor, Egypt, Cyclades, Crete and Greece." Father Heras completely ignores the Proto-Australoid skulls found at Mohenjodaro. He failed to attach due significance to their comparative ethnic values. S. K. Chatterjee, mostly on linguistic grounds holds, “The Austric protoAustraloids were spread over the greater part of India in the Indus and the Ganges Valleys when the Aryans first met them...... The land was inhabited by people of the two different language-cultures, the Dravidian speakers and the Austric speakers, which gave the Aryan speech its greatest opportunity. Jules Bloch the great linguist, does not agree with this hypothesis and remarks, “Cerebral ! form, which represents normally in Vedic intervocalic d, disappears from classical Sanskrit...... Another fact all

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eged is the progressive extension of ļ in classical Sanskrit at the expense of r, used almost exclusively by Vedic in accord with Iranian......Munda possesses ! just as Dravidian ...... Dravidian ignores reduplication and the reduplication in Munda has only intensive and conative values. ... ... The classification of Dravidian nouns into Mahat (great' and ‘Amahat 'small' (the first category includes gods, demons and men; the second, animals and things) differs from the Munda classification into Animate and Inanimate", and concludes, “In the present state of our knowledge, there is nothing which permits us to affirm that the aspect assumed by Aryan in India is due to its adoption by a population speaking Dravidian languages. If there is any substratum at all, it can be searched for equally well in other families, specially in Munda.” Discussing the affinity of the Bruhui language, the so-called remnant Dravidian language in Balochistan, with the Indo-Aryan or Munda, he holds, “Even if in our imagination we fill up the entire gap between Balochistan and Deccan, the natural links would be the coastal regions of the lower Indus and Gujarat ; in fact certain invasions have followed the same path. The plains of the Punjab and the valley of Ganges which are preeminently the lands of Sanskrit will however remain outside the continuous zone thus reconstructed, and nothing stands in the way of supporting that the territory has been occupied by non-Dravidian languages before the IndoEuropean invasions." And finally he inclines to the view, “Dravidian like Sanskrit may have takan loans of vocabulary from Munda." Munda or Kolarian is a branch of the Austro-Asiatic family spoken by the proto-Australoids of India during the period of Aryan invasions Mohenjodaro and Harappa fall within the proto-Australoid zone.
This linguistic evidence is corroborated by archæological and ethnological evidences. The Sumerians were

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2. Archeological an :Indian race which passed certainly by
Evidence land, perhaps also by sea, through Persia to the Valley of the two rivers. It was in the Indian Home (perhaps the Indus Valley) that we suppose for them that their culture developed. The Sumerian civilization was built up from elements derived from all three sources, alUbaid, Uruk and Jamdat-Nasr, and only took on its characteristic shape after those three sources had amulgamated and by the Dynastic period had merged their individuality in a civilization common to all. The Dynastic period begins Circa 2700 B. C. It was in this period that Sumerian civilization was carried from their early settlements on the fringe of the Persian Gulf to the mountains of Anatolia and to the shores of the mediterranean Sea. The race movements from the very beginning to 2700 B. C. appear to be from East to West ; from Bhārat to West Asia.
The contacts of Sumerians with the people of Anatolia and the Mediterranean Sea seem to have accelerated the two way traffic. We witness eastward movements of the Mediterranean people. In the Baghdad region a type of painted pottery called 'Scarlet-Ware', with some affinities to its predecessor, Jamdat-Nasr pottery has been found. This pottery turns up again in Susa and in south Baluchistan. We witness the earliest agricultural communities in the regions of Baluchistan, Makran and Sind which show from the beginning significant links with the ancient Bronze Age cultures of the regions farther west. When the peasant potters arrived in Makran, Baluchistan and Sind regions of Western Bhārata ; from the high plateau of Iran, having links with Western Asia; the whole of Bhārata was popoulated by the great basic pre-Aryan and Pre-Dravidian20 people of India who spoke the Austric speech. These earliest new arrivals of advanced agricultural classes appear to have

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come from the Mediterranean region. These peasant-farming communities had as their neighbour the remarkable Urban civilization of the Punjab-Sind regions watered by the Saraswati system. They must have belonged to the Mediterranean racial stock; of course, carrying with them the ethnic influences of the proto-Austroloids of the midregions due to social inter-mixtures. Thus it becomes farily certain that the people who migrated to West Asia from Bhārata before the advent of the West Asian peasant-potters belong to the pure proto-Austroloid stock.
It is wrong to assume that the skulls excavated at Mohenjodaro show distinct Mediterranean or proto-Austroloid 3. Ethnic features. D. N. Majumdar maintains that
Evidence 'most of the skulls out of the skulls belonging to Mohenjodaro) can be traced to a mixture between these racial types, the proto-Austroloid and the Mediterranean. The proto-Austroloid is normally dolichocephalic,' and concludes, “That the earliest inhabitants of India were the protoÀustroloids who had assimilated or had been assimilated by an early Mediterranean stock, and here and there with a brachycephalic elements.”}] The great ethnologist, Hutten, suggests that the Aryans had their conflicts with the tribes of proto-Austroloid affinities.1a It appears that the mediterranean and the proto-Austroloid stocks commingled together for centuries and exchanged mutual influences. The people of Asia Minor and the adjoining regions preserved their predominantly Mediterranean features and so did the people of Bhārata their predominating proto-Austroloid features.
The Indus script has not so far been satisfactorily deciphered. Father Heras has read Cen-temiz or old Tamil Proto-Brahmi of Circa 500 A. D. in the Indus script but Script
his reading lacks all sound philological methods. This script, called Sindh-Punjab script by S. K
8

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( 114 ) Chatterjee, has affinities or resemblances outside India with the Elamite script and with those of the ancient Crete and Cyprus. This script appears to be like the earlier forms of Maurya Brāhms of the fourth-third Century B. C. It was probably in the 10th century B. C. that the Ancient SindhPanjab script of the non-Aryans was adopted for the Aryans Speech. The Mauryan Brāhmi script is the bearer of the Asokan Eastern Prakrit, the older form of the ArdhaMāgadhi Prakrit of the Jains. This has no r but only 1. Classical Sanskrit and Pali have both r and l. The basic dialect of the Vedic (Rgvedic specially) speech had only the r sound—Indo European r and I both featuring in it as r-as in Iranian (Old Persian and Avestan). The matter of r and I formed an important point in dialectical diversity. This difference of r and 1 does not signify only an evolutionary stage of the Aryan language but goes to the very roots of the languages which divided the Aryan and the pre-Aryan racial stocks.
The Ardha-Māgadhi language of the Jain texts may be post-Asokan Prakrit; but even before that age, the Prakrit r and 1-Tho was a living language with Mahāvīra and Dividing Line of the Ethnic
ne of Pārsva; the twenty-fourth and the twentyGroups
third Tirthamkaras respectively. Classical Sanskrit had not fully evolved by then but was in the process of evolution, Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa is post-pārsva not having been redacted before 800 B. C.14 The age of Pārsva is 877-777 B. C.16 The basic difference in speeches of the two hostile groups in the form of r and 1 existed in this age. The Asuras speak "he-lavo" to mean 'Ho', enemies'. It was denounced by the Brahmāryans as they considered that it should have been pronounced as 'he' rayo'.16 It was for this reason that the Brahmāryans denounced their adversaries as Asuras, Dāsas, Daśyus, Paņis

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;
and others as Mşdhịa-Vāch, meaning "the speakers of Hostile Speech." The language that used 1 for r was the pre-Aryan lauguage whose script the Brahmāryns adopted. That language must have been the ancient Prakrit, forerunner of the Asokan Prakrit which was the language of the Saraswati Ganjetic plains where the Brahmāryans first came in contact with the people of the land. Satapatha Brāhmaṇa was redected in the Ganjetic plains, which, according to S. K. Chatterjee, was predominated by the Austric people. We may fairly suggest that these Austric people spoke the ancient Prakrit language. The comparative study of Prakrit and Vedic languages have proved a very close relationship of the two languages. The Rgvedic language had the earliest contacts with Ancient Prakrit.17 No contact of Rgvedic language with the Dravidian has so far been proved. Dr. Pischel holds, “The affinity of the Prakrit languages with the middle and new Indo-Aryan popular dialects is not weeker than that with the Vedic language."18 Thus we find that the Mediterranean people who came to Bhārata from the West submerged into the main proto-Austroloid stock and largely accepted their culture and civilization though contributing their specific features to the common stock. The Proto-Austroloid stock, culture and civilization remained the predominating one.
The origin of the Mediterranean race is a burning problem with the anthropologists. Sergi advanced his nowel Origin of the theory of the North African origin of the Mediterraneans
8 Mediterranean race. Some ethnologists incline from the Proto Austroloids to the view that the home land of the stock was Punt of the Egyptian records.19 It is also held that the Mediterranean stock came to Greece across Ægean from Asia Minor speaking pre-Hellenic language. This shows that the original fathers of the Mediterranean stock came

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These
from the East. By origin, it is not suggested that the one stock issued forth of the other. It simply means that the Mediterranean stock that afterwards became widespread and influential in a very wide area was first moved into action by the powerful migrations of the proto-Austroloids. The robust and adventurous Sea-faring Panis from Bhārata gave North Africa, Asia Minor, Greece and the adjoining countries a moving spirit that the whole of the Mediterranean region began throbbing with life and activities. people, shaped by the natural environments of the Mediterranean, came to their own and began their life as pioneers of culture and civilization. It is only in this sense that the origin of the Mediterranean is traced to the people inhabiting the Punt-land. Panis, the historical adventurers on the foreign vast seas, were the original founders of the Mediterranean race of history. The Punt-land or Pani-land, as shown supra, may be located in Bharata. Thus we find that the basic content of the culture-region from Greece to Bharata, including Egypt and Western Asia, appears to be proto-Austroloid. The Mediterranean race is later in age to the proto-Australoid race. This region is the home of the two racial stocks; dark-skinned, smaller in stature and longheaded known as the proto-Austroloid and the Mediterranean.
The white-complexioned, very fair coloured, brachycephalic Aryan people could not originate in these regions. White people could emanate only in colder Origin of Ārya-Varna climates of mountaineous regions. People inhabiting the Himalayas and Pamir ranges are not known for their white colour. The people beyond the Caucasus and the Pamirs are found to be white-complexioned and brachycephalic. The fair coloured Aryans belong to the Uraloid stock. The hardy people of the mountains possess a taller stature than the people of the plains. Aryans had

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white colour, round heads and tall stature. This anthropological evidence also points to the south Ural region in northern Eurasia beyond the frontiers of the Śramanic culture-region as the original Aryan Home.
References. 1. Rgveda. 1. 9. 6. 3; 1. 9. 2. 6; 1. 13. 6. 1; 1. 15. 7. 18; 2. 2. 1.6; 3. 3. 3.
3; 3. 3. 5. 6; 2. Rgveda. 1. 19. 4. 8; 2. 2. 1. 4; 2. 2. 9. 7; 7. 1. 5. 3; 9. 2. 17. 1; 3. H. Heras ; Studies in Indo-Meditarranean Culture; 1953 Vol. I
Pages 466-470. 4. H. Heras; Op. cit.; Pages 445-451 5. S. K. Chatterjee; Race Movements and Per-Historic Culture (in
Vedic Age); 1957; Pages 153, 156. 6. J. Jules Bloch; Sanskrit and Dravidian (Part II in Pre-Aryan and
Pre-Dravidian in India), 1929, Pages 37, 41, 45, 58, 59. 7. H. R. Hall; The Ancient History of the Near East; 1960; Pages 173.
174. 8. Sir Leonard Woolley; Excavations at Ur; 1955; Pages 50-51, 89, 252. 9. S. Piggot; Op. Cit. Pages 60, 67. 10. D. H. Gordon ; Pre-historic Background of Indian Culture; 1958
Page 35. 11. D. N. Majumdar; Races and Cultures of India, 1958; Pages 36, 45. 12. J. H. Hutton; Caste in India; 1961; Page 155. 13. S. K. Chattarjee ; Indo-Aryan and Hindi; 1960; Pages 45, 51, 53. 14. A. A. Macdonell ; History of Sanskrit Literature ; 1958, Page 202. 15. H. C. Roychowdhari; Political History of Ancient India, 1925;
Page 97. 16. Satapatha Brāhmaṇa ; 3. 2. 1. 23-24 17. B.J. Doshi (Editor), Dhanpala’s Pâia Lachchhināmāmalā ; 1960
P. 7-9 18. R. Pischel ; Comparative Grammar of the Prarkit Language; 1957
Page 5. 19. Donald A. Mackenzie ; Op. cit.; Pages 57, 147 20. N. G. L. Hammond ; Op. cit.; Pages 35-40.

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9. FLORA, FAUNA AND ANCILLARY TESTS
A pleistocene Sea, a part of the Tethys Sea which divided the ancient world in North and South, covered the
Sindhu, Saraswati and Ganjetic trough at the Geological Formations of Saraswati- foot of the Himalayan range. This sea was Ganjetic Plains.
me gradually filled up by the waste of the high lands and the alluvium brought down by the Himalayan rivers and two large rivers of central Bhārata, viz, Sone and the Chambal. Most of the Ganjetic trough became firm and dry enough to be habitable for man only 5000-7000 years ago! As and when the marine sedimentary deposits raised land in this Seabed ; the people living on the shores, mostly of the South and the East, occupied it and raised new settlements. In that hoary past ; this region was populated by the ancestors of the Austroloids ; the Mediterraneans coming later in contact.
These people were hardy, enterprising, imaginative, progressive and highly cultured. The Saraswati-Ganjetic plains link the Himalayan system with the Deccan as evidenced by valuable geological records burried beneath the mantle of clay and sand. It has no mineral resources but its agricultural wealth and fresh under-ground water stored in the more porous and coarser strata, accessible by ordinary wells and tube-wells, are the highest economic asset of Bhārata. Though devoid of records other than those of the yesterday of geological time, these alluvial plains are the stage of the main drama of Bhāratīya history since Aryan occupation and before.
The Saraswati-Ganjetic plains were the main centres of the food producing economy of Bhārata. Neolithic agricultural system was developed on the deltas of large rivers of Nile,

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Giles
( 119 ) Euphratis-Tigris and Saraswati-Ganges. The food producing economy began to spread from its epi-centre in the Fertile Crescent. It reached Bhārata Circa 3500 B. C., Greece and Egypt Circa 4000 B. C. and Central Asia and the northern regions Circa 2500 B. C.8 The archaeological excavations in Bhārata and Egypt may take this period earlier by atleast 2000 years.
P. Giles bases his theory mainly on the Flora and Fauna argument. His Wiros or Aryans knew the ox and
the cow, the sheep, the horse, the dog, the pig Flora, Fauna Arguments of and probably some species of deer. The ass,
the camel and the elephant and the lion or tiger was unknown to them. They were familiar with corn hence they were a settled, and not a nomadic, people. This conclusion of settled life is unwarranted as the whole Aryan literature and history, supported by archaeology, is replete with evidences that the Aryans were a constantly migrating people till they finally occupied countries from Greece to Bhārata. His theory has not been accepted by scholars because it does not at all take other factors into account.
The Indian Home theories do not attach much importance to the flora and fauna argument. The counterargument of the non-mention of salt in Rgveda is also advanced. It is true that the argumentum ad silentium does not go much far but silence, where speech is necessary, is a crime. Hence this ground deserves serious consideration.
When the Brahmăryans finally defeated their Austricspeaking adversaries, they made freindship with them and
both the groups coalesced with each other. Brahmāryan Borrowing of The evidence of such coalescence is afforded Flora, Fauna and by the linguistic influences of the vanquished other Terms
speech on the victor tongue. The culture of a defeated but living nation sharply reacts against its

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material subjugation. Vedic Sanskrit language affords extensive examples of borrowings from the pre-Aryan Austric language. This is very well established in the names of the Flora, Fauna and other articles previously unknown to the Vedic people.
The Brahmaryan language, the Vedic Sanskrit, did not have words for these plants: Bamboo, Coconut, Mustard, Rice, Guḍa, Banana, Cotton, Gourd or Melon (Ikṣu), a type of Coloquintida (Tumbā), Ficos glomerata (Udumbara), Betel, Pumpkin, Lime and Rose-apple (Jambu). She did not have words for these living beings-Mosquito, Rat, Elephant (Gaja and Matanga), Rhinoceros, Pigeon, Crow, Snake, Brinjal, Peacock and Domestic Fowl". The Austric speaking Bhāratīyans also loaned to their victors words like Bāņa (Arrow), Bāla (hair), Kambala (Woolen stuff), Sälmali (Silk Cotton), Plough or stick (Lāñgala, Lañgula, Liñga), Twenty-based Numeration (kodi), Full Moon (Rākā), New Moon (Kuhu) and Pleiades (Mātṛikā).
The ancient names of the various provinces of Bhārata are of the Austric origin. Kośala-Tośala, Añga-Vañga, Kalinga-Trilinga, Utkala-Mekala and Pulinda- Kulinda are the geographical nomenclature in pairs. Kośala-Tośala, Añga-Vanga and Kalinga-Trilinga cover the greatest part of Eastern Bhārata. Utkala-Mekala and Pundras cover the central Bharata. Pulinda along with Andhra, Pundra, Sabara, Mutiba cover the Deccan Peninsula. Kulindas are the Himalayan people. Bhulinga, Kamboj, Şalva and Udumbaras were the Punjab-Sindh provinces. The process of formation of these names is foreign to Aryan; it is foreign to Dravidian; it is on the contrary characteristic of the vast family of language which are called Austro-Asiatic and which covers in Bharata the group of the Munda

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( 121 ) languages often called also the Kolarian?. The Munda or Austric language, secluded in a part of Bhārata today, was widespread throughout Bhārata in those times. The people, speaking the Austric languages, were the original masters of the whole of Bhārata before the violent intrusion of the Aryan invaders.
The Austric origin of these words reflect the culture and civilization of the proto-Austroloid pre-Aryan people of Austric Culture. Bhārata. The aforesaid Austric words suggest
Pattern that pre-Aryan Bhāratīyans belonged to Abi and Ikşavaku races. They were mainly urban people enjoying settled life. They had developed the art of agriculture. They took to plough cultivation. They were the first discoverers of the cultivation of rice. They raised cotton and sugar crops. They manufactured sugar from cane. The art of weaving was an Austric invention. They wore fine clothes. They led a life of material comforts and luxury. Their military weapon was bow and arrow. They were the first to domesticate and train the elephant. Their social structure was based on matriarchy signifying prestige and power of womanhood in equality with men. Their philosophy was based upon the conception of existence as Animate and Inanimate. This Austric-Way stands in direct contradiction to the Aryan-Way. The Austric-Way is no other than the Sramaņic-Way. Both are one and the same thing.
Rice was the chief staple food of the Eastern Bhārata. It was not grown in Iran. Rice cultivation was invented
in pre-historic neolithic Bhārata. It travelled Rice
to China by way of the Yangtze about 2000 B. C.8 The Aryans did not come in contact with rice even in south Russia or Iran. Rice gained great importance with

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the Brahmāryans in later history. It became the chief sacrificial and propitiatory grain. This position was earlier occupied by barley. If the Brahmāryans had known it earlier ; they would have hailed it as the best food.
Aryans had domesticated and tamed horse. Ass was a popular animal, even for military purposes, in Western Asia. Horse was the chief instrument in gaining military victories for the Āryans. Camel was an important animal in Northern Rajasthan and the Elephant in Eastern Punjab where the principal Aryo-Bhāratīyan Wars were fought. The unpopularity of the Ass, the Camel and the Elephant with the Aryans accounts for their foreign origin. The evidence of the flora, the fauna and the other ancillary subjects shows that the Aryan culture was quite foreign to the original people of Bhārata. Anthropology and Austric Linguistics provide the best proofs for this thesis. This evidence takes afar the Āryan Cradle-Land beyond the frontiers of North Iran, the Hindukush and the Himalayas.
References 1. D. N. Wadia; Geological Background of Indian History (In Vedic
Age); 1957; Page 82. 2. D. N. Wadia ; Op. cit. 3. B. Subbarao ; Op. cit., Figure No. 2 facing Page 7. 4. J. Perzyluski and others ; Op. cit., Pages XXI ff ; 4ff ; 154 ff. 5. J. Perzyluski and others; Op. cit., Page XXVI ff, 130. 6. S. K. Chatterjee ; Race Movements and Pre-historic Culture (In
Vedic Age); 1957 ; Pages 150-151. 7. J. Porzyluski and others; Op. cit.; Page 95. 3. S. Piggot; Op. cit.; Page 43.

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8. MYTHOLOGICAL TESTS
Our ancient traditions preserve an elaborate account of ancient geography. Certain myths refer to ancient
Mythico. geographical names. Ancient geography has Geography also been mytholised. Mythico-geography also reveals startling relevant facts.
Jain, Buddhist and Brāhmaṇical texts locate Mount Sumeru (Sinery of the Buddhists) in the middle of the earth which means the continent they knew. Buddhists locate Pubbavideha or Eastern continent to the east of Sumeru, the Apargodāna or Apargoyana continent to the west, the Uttarakuru continent to the North and the Jambudvipa continent to the South. Mahabhārata calls the Western continent as Ketumala and the Eastern continent as Bhadrāśva but retains the name Uttarakury for the Northern continent. Continent here means Division. Buddhists identify Jambudvipa with Bhārata but Jain and Brāhmaṇa texts locate Bhārata-Varşa as the Southern Varşa or part of Jambudvipa. Mount Sumeru has been identified with the Pamir range. The Brāhmaṇical tradition tells us that the Harivarşa country is bounded in the South by the Himalāyan mountains and in the north by the Nişadha mountains to the north of which is Ilāvstavarşa country in the central region of which stands the grand mountain Sumeru. The region to the north of the Sumeru mountain is known as the Uttarakuru country. Jain and Brāhmaṇical traditions identify Jambudvipa with the whole continent while Buddhist traditions take it to be the southern region of Mount Sinery. The Buddhist Jambudvipa includes in its boundaries the Harivarşa country, the Nişadha mountain and the southern region of Ilāvştavarşa. Harivarşa

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( 124 ) is identified with Hirat and the Nişadha mountain with the Hindukush. River Sitā of Brāhmaṇical tradition and river Sitodā of Jain tradition is located to the north of Nişadha mountain which is identified with the Yarkand river. Devakuru region of the Jain tradition is situate north of the Nişadha mountian on the east-west banks of the Sitodā river. The Uttarakuru region is situate to the north of the Sumeru mountain and to the South of the Neel mountain. The largest and the biggest mountain to the north of the Pamir range is the Ural mountain. Neel mountain of the Jain tradition may be identified with the Ural mountain.
The word 'Uttara' means upper, higher, northern, distant, excellent and superior. The first Aryan invaders Meaning of the of Bhārata, the Tștsus, after their victory over
Word 'Uttara' Bhārata, coalesced with their adversaries, the Purūs and the Bhartas and formed the Kuru tribe. They still preserved the reminiscences of their original land which was like a paradise to them known as Uttara kuru which means the distant land, to the North, of their excellent ancestors. The converted Bhāratīyanas were the junior partners in the tribe who, as new converted enthusiasts do, gladly accepted that foreign land as their own.
The earliest literary evidence provided by Vedic literature comes from Aitareya Brāhmaṇa. The lands of
Uttarakuru the Uttarakurus and Uttaramadras are Colonisation situate beyond the Himavanta. According to the Pali tradition, the people originally coming from Uttarakuru colonised the land which extended from Saraswati to Ganges; hence the name kuru. Kuru Kingdom consisted of these three parts : Kurujañgala, the Kuru-land proper and Kuruksetra. The Uttarakurus were the foreign intruders who, as is common with the new colonisers, retained the memory of their original land in

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giving the name Kuru-land to their newly won Bhāratiya territories. This Pali tradition is retained in Panchasūdani Atthakatha composed by Acharya Buddhaghosa who was a high caste Brāhmaṇa, learned in four Vedas, converted to Buddhism. He flourished in fourth century A. D. This shows that the Uttarakuru country was known as real till fourth century A. D. even to the Brāhmaṇas.
The Brāhmaṇical tradition as contained in Manusmriti also corroborates the event of Brāhmāryan colonisation. The region between the rivers Saraswati and Dşşadavati was first colonised by the people coming from Uttarakuru. The Aryan leaders were known as Devas. The land which lies between the best and illustrious rivers Saraswati and Drsa davati is called Brahmāvartādesa which has been founded by Devas. The phrase "Deyamirmita' does not mean 'created by gods' as suggested by George Bublero. The land already existed when the Asuras inhabited it. Powerful people's republics of the Asura Panchajanāh flourished on their banks. What the Devas did was to create a home for themselves in this region which they had widely covered after their military conquest. The word 'Brahmāvarta' means the land covered by the Brahma people or the Brahmāryan foreign invaders. Only foreign people found thier colonies in the lands of their military conquests and cover it, after physical subjugation, by their political and administrative system. The founding of British Colonies in America and Bhārata and covering of these colonial lands by British invaders is a parallel event of modern history. That the colonists may settle and make their conquered land as their permanent home is proved by the American example in modern history and the Brahmāryan example in ancient history. The Uttarakuru intruders colonised the Saraswati-Drşadvati region and then made it permanent home.

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Puraravā- Vedic mythology also corroborates the Urvasi Legend above geographical location of the Uttarakuru region. We first take the Purūravā-Urvaśī legend.
Purūravā was an ancestor of Purūkutsa; the leader of the famous Purū republic; a confederating unit is Dāšrājña War. He appears to be a very powerful and influential leader in the region. The Brahmāryan military furces had, during his times, advanced from Iran upto Gāndhāra (Modern Afghanistan) under the military command of Indra and Divodāsa. The shrewd Brahmāryan leader devised the policy of divide and win. He chose the most beautiful and charming lady, Urvašī, of his tribal collective to ensnare the powerful hostile leader and win him to their side against his Bhāratīya kinsmen. She stayed with him for four years and bore him sons. He was won by her to the side of the Brahmāryan Devas to fight the great battle for victory against the Daśyus'l. He was converted to Brāhmaṇism and baptized by being given the sacrificial (tribal) Agni by the Gandharvas, the Brahmāryans of Gāndhāra or Arachosia?. These Gandharvas, the descendants of Angirasa and Atharvan3, were incharge of the Fire Brigade of the Brahmāryan military organisation. Gandharva country is identified with Gāndhāra?4.
The temporay friendship of Purūravā and Uryasī, lasting only four years, have been given in greater detail in postVedic Brāhmaṇical literature. The story of their carnal enjoyments in different countries and on various river banks, forests, gardens and mountains, during their itinerary, is a masterpiece of beautiful, thrilling and romantic events which has captured the imagination of the poets of all the ages. The Purāņic tradition narrates, with graphic description, that Purūravā enjoyed with Uryaśī in Chaitraratha forest, at

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Alakāpuri situate on the banks of Mandakinī river, in Badrināryaṇa and Nandan forests, on the peaks of Gandhamādana mountain, on the summit of Mount Meru, in Uttarakuru regions and on Uttarachala or the northern most mountain. The linguists may find out the phonetic relationship betweed Uttarachala and Ural as they have found out between Sumeru and Pamir or Kaśyapameru and Kashmir. During the long course of phonetic changes for centuries, t might have dropped first making it Urachal and finally ch might have also dropped down leaving it as Ural. Greek geographers knew Uttarakuru till third century B. C. They might have also known the mountains north of Uttarakuru. Ural appears to be a later adaptation of the word Uttarachala, The Uttarachala of Brahmaṇical tradition may be identified with Neel of Jain tradition and Ural of modern geography. Alakāpuri, Mandakinī river and Chitraratha forests are located in Himalayas. Gandhamadana mountain is situate to the West of Mount Meru16. Pururava, enticed by Urvasi, after his romantic journey to her original home, was brought back to Gāndhāra to fight against his own brethren for the kins of Urvaśī.
Arjuna, avatara of Indra, on the occasion of the post-victory Horse Sacrifice set out for Victory-All. He crossed the Himalayas went to the country of Digvijaya of Arjuna And Kimpurusas, arrived in Hataka country and Parikṣit then went north to Harivarṣa. That was Uttarakuru country. Arjuna went upto its boundary and accepted gifts there". His descendant Parikṣit conquered Bhadrāśva, Ketumāla, Bhārata, Uttarakuru, Kimpurușa and all the Varṣas and accepted gifts there1. Parikşit flourished Circa 900 B. C19. Aitareya Brahmana may be placed Circa 800 B. C20. Thus it appears quite certain that Uttarakuru was known as a real country in this age and the reference of

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( 128 ) Uttarakuru in Aitareya Brānmaņa is quite historical. The ancient geographical traditions; Brāhmaṇical, Bauddha and Jaina; also belong to this period. The historicity of the Uttarakuru region should be accepted beyond doubt.
The Greek hostorians have accepted the existence of the Uttarakuru region as a real countrya. Greek geographer Uttarakuru Ptolemy knows Kashmir as Asmiraja. As regaWith Greeks rds the name Ottorkorrha, applied by Ptolemy to a town and a people and a range of mountains, is traced without difficulty to the Sanskrit-Uttara kuru, viz, Kuru of the North. Ptolemy gave it a place within the domain of real geography. The land of the Hyperboreans is a western repetition of the Uttarakuru”.
The Greek mythology has given the land of the Hyperboreans a semi-mythical character. Midas was a pleasureloving king of Macedonian Bromium. One day the debauched old satyr Sileius was taken before Midas to whom he told the story of the land of the Hyperboreans, a paradise on earth, which was an immense continent lying beyond the ocean stream, altogether separate from the conjoined mass of Europe, Asia or Africa. This land can not be the Atlantic continent, as suggested, because the existence of any such paradise on earth is not known to geology, archaeology or history. To the colonisers, the sweet memories of their original home is always a heavenly joy. Ocean stream may have been the memory of the just dried up Tethys Sea; the continuum of whose certain pools on vast stretches of lands might not have allowed the obliteration of it from human memory. The land of the Hyperboreans refers to the Greekāryan Cradle-land beyond the Caspian Sea.
Another Greek legend, the enchainment of Prometheus by Zeus, reveals the memory of a past adventure. Zeus

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Finchainment and his associate Devas had begun mixing with of Prometheus the pre-Greek men. Devas begot many children on mortal women. Zeus was father of gods and men. But Zeus decided to extirpate the whole race of man. "Prometheus, the illegitimate son of Hera, the pre-Greek lady who married Zeus, not by Zeus, but by the Giant Eurymedono4 opposed this move. Zeus had Prometheus chained naked to a piller in the Caucasian mountains exposed to cruel frost, cold and vultures. Greek islanders still carry fire from one place to another in the pith of giant fennel, and Prometheus' enchainment on Mount Caucasus may be a legend picked up by the Hellenes as they migrated to Greece from the Caspian Sea 26. Greekāryans, and Brahmāryans both remember the region beyond to the north of Caspian Sea as their Cradleland. This is the Uttarakuru country.
References
1. Rai Krishnadas (Quoted in) Jambadiva-Pannati-Samgaho edited
by A. N. Upadhye and Heeralal ; 1958; Pages 138-142 (Intro
duction). 2. A. N. Upadhye and Hiralal Jain ; Tiloya-Ponnati; 1956 ; 2138
2139; Vol. I Page 416. 3. A. N. Upadhye and Hiralal Jain ; Jambūdiva-Paņņati-Samgaho;
6. 2-3; Page 100. 4. M. Monier-Williams; A Sanskrit-English Dictionary; 1956 ;
Page 178. 5. R. C. Jain ; Origin of the Kuru Tribe ; read before All India
Oriental Conference, 1961 Session at Srinagar, 6. A. B. Keith ; Rgveda Brāhmaṇas ; 1920; Aitareya Brahmaņa
8, 14 ; P. 331. 7. Uttarakuruto agatamanussehi Āvasitappadeso kururattham to
nāmam labhi Papanchasüdani comentary on the Majjhima Nikaya; . Page 266 ; published by the P. T. S. London.
I am grateful to Dr. B. C. Law for so kindly supplying me this reference.

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8. Manusmrti 2.17
सरस्वती इषदीत्योर्दै वनद्योयंदन्तरम् ।
तं देवनिर्मितं देशं ब्रह्मावर्त प्रचक्षते ॥ 9. G. Buhler ; The laws of Manu; Sacred Books of the East Series
Vol. XXV Page 32. 10. Rgveda 10. 8. 5. 11-12-16. 11. Rgveda 10. 8. 5. 7. 12. Harivamsa 26. 41-42. (Gita Press Gorakhpur Edition) 13. D.D. Koshambi; Indian Studies--Past and Present; Vol. I
Page 147. 14. B. C. Law; Historical Geography of Ancient India; 1954 ;
Page 76. 15. Harivamsa 26. 5-7. (Gita Press Gorakhpur Edition) 16. D. Rajaram Patil ; Cultural History from the Vāyu Purāpa ;
1946; Pages 286, 302, 305. 17. Mahābhārata (Critical Edition); 2. 25. 1-3-7-11. 18. Sri Madbhāgavata Mahāpurāņa (Gita Press Gorakhpur Edition);
1.16. 12; Page 123. 19. H. C. Roychowdhari ; Political History of Ancient India ; 1925;
Page 36. 20. A. A. Macdonell; A History of Sanskrit Literature; 1958;
Pages 202-203. 21. Motichandra ; Geographical and Economic Studies in the Maha
bhärata; Upāyana Parva ; 1945 ; Pages 83-84. McCrindle's Ancient India as described by Ptolemy; 1927;
Page 305. 23. Robert Graves ; The Greek Myths ; 1957; Vol. I Page 281. . 24. Carl Kerenyl ; The Gods of the Greeks ; 1958; Page 187. 25. R. Graves ; Op. cit.; Vol. I Pages 145, 149.

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9. THE RESUME We have treated the much controversial subject of the Aryan Cradle-land in an organic critical method. The comparative study of all the relevant sciences point to one and the same conclusion. We may, now, resume the conclusions of our enquiry :--
1. The Aryan does not signify either a race, language or culture. It is a Way.
2. All the theories regarding Aryan Cradle-land, so far, have been one sided. None comprehends all the relevant evidences thrown open by various sciences.
3. Sanskrit is the youngest and the most robust among the daughters of the original Aryan Language, now lost to humanity, Word Arya' is first found in Hurri dialect of the Hittite language which is archaic The Lithuanian is the most archaic language which has kept closest to the basic idiom reconstructed by comparative philology.
4. The existence of Aryan languages in Iran, Asia Minor, Greece and Lithuania during the beginning and middle of Second millennium B.C. point north to the Caspian Sea for their common origin.
5. The Aryan Greyware, painted or plain, is found in Bhārata, North Iran, Asia Minor, Crete, Greek Mainland, Ukraine and South Russia. The graves of military warriors, bones of the horses and weapons of War are also found at these archaeological sites. The direction of these migrations is from North to South, not from East to West or South to North,

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( 132 ) 6. The Āryans were the people of the mountains. The hot plains could not be a suitable region for their origin. They love the cold climate and derided the hot one. A part of their original habitat was covered with vast thick forests where mass fires occasionally existed.
7. The Aryans belonged to a human race, the fairest and the tallest. Their adversaries were. dark-complexioned and short-statured.
-.8. The Aryans did not have words for several plants, animals and other objects when they were first found in
Greece and Bhārata. They had previously never come --across with them. Aryans' newer contacts with them point to their foreign origin.
9. The common mythological legends of the Greekāryans and the Brahmāryans look to a region in the North beyond the Caspian Sea which they remember as a paradise and a past Home.
10. Ancient geography locates a real country beyond the peaks of the Pamir mountain where every Aryan would like to reside and enjoy. That is the land of Uttarakuru, remembered as a real country till fourth century A. D.
This region may be located to the South of Circumpolar region and to the North of Caspian and Aral seas. It covers the northern parts of the mountainous Eurasian Steppes and the Southern parts of the thick Siberian forests, exteriding upto the eastern Sea-Coast. This region was known to the ancients as Uttara kuru. Uttara kuru,: thus, ' appears to be the Aryan Cradle-land,

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CHAPTER III GAŅA-THE BASIC ĀRYAN SOCIETY
The Aryan society in their original home had increased in power and numbers. It began to seek fresh homes and'! Separation of pastures new. The first brother. to separate
the Aryans was the Europārvan: Circa 2500 B.C. A: branch of them reached: south the Danube: in the middle ofy. the second millennium B. C. The Asiāryans reached Central Asia in the later part of the third millennium B: C. Their: two branches, the Hittteāryans and the Irānāryans, reached: Anatolia and Iran Circa 2000: B. C. The Brahmāryan : contacts with Bhārata may be placed in the middle of the : second millennium B. C. The Aryans had developed their peculiar institutions before thier contacts: with the Sramaņic: society in Europe, Egypt, the Western Asia and Bhärata. It is of prime importance for the re-interpretation of the march of humanity since the dawn of history to re-study the natureof these institutions.
The remote ancestors of the Aryan nation passed through the states of savagery and barbarism. Their : basio, common society was Gaņa. Gens, genos and Gaņa in Latin,. Greek and Sanskrit signify one and the same society... Rgveda is the oldest Book of the Aryan society. The : institution of Gaņa occupies a significant place in it
Word Gaņa is traced by Yaşka to v Gan 'to count.' It has its Europāryan parallel in ger( + n) - to gather'. The
first letter 'g' of the word Gaņa may be Gana-an Artificial traced to v gam in the sense of going, moving, Aggregation
having sexual intercourse with; or standing

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( 134 ) in connection withs. The word Gaņa refers to a group of persons, constantly moving, joined together by compulsion of environments. Gaņa is an artificial aggregation of human beings founded on counting of numbers of those who so joined. Gaņa, thus, presumes the existence of certain other entities which join together to form a particular Gaņa. Rgveda does not specifically mention them but some pointer may be gleaned from Sāyaṇa's commentary. Though Sāyaṇa did not truly understand the social significance of this basic institution which had long gone absolute still some lingering tradition might have survived in his age. He maintains that every Gana was constituted of Seven Samudāyas“. Samudāya has the meaning of 'coming together, junction, combination, collection, aggregation.6 Samudāya is an artificial aggregation of human beings for common purposes. Seven such different aggregations went to constitute a Gaņa. These different Samudāyas carried on different political and social activities in their own particular way. They might have been differently calculated for common purposes within the Gaņa for its efficient working. The fruits of economic and social activities of the federating Samudāyas might have developed a technique of planning to separately calculate them and assign the value of the labours of each one of the Samudāya. As these Samudāyas bad aggregated together for common material growth and prosperity ; this technique was evolved to estimate the qualitative additions to their means of prosperity and happiness. The different Samudāyas considered it profitable to carry their activities in common. The common institution, thus, originates from the mutual contract of different Samudāyas for common pursuits. It was called Gaņa.
Before the word Gaņa began to be applied to the artificial aggregation of the human beings; it was understood

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quite differently. The Aryans were experts Gana-An Aggre
e in the art of the domestication of cattle.
Their original home was an ideal home for the rearing, upbringing and the domestication of the cattle ; the cows, the camels, the horses and others. The different Samudāyas had their own different herds of cattle in charge of an individual shepherd headed by a chief-shepherd. These herds of cattle were konwn as Gaņas. The concept Gaņa primarily came in vogue for counting the cattle comprised in a herd. Indra sends for a hundred camels and two hundred cows from the Gaņas of camels and cows for giving. Soma excites the praise of all like a swan entering its own Gaņa.? Gaņa, in its origin, is a collectivity of the cattle where one member is an inseparable part of the whole with no independent individual existence. They lived under the command of the Shepherd who had complete right over their life and death.
The different shepherds alongwith their cattle Gaņas felt the compelling necessity of coalescing together for their Transfer of the
the more efficient economic activities which gave concept to Human rise to the office of the Head-Shepherd. Society; Shepherds The Head-Shepherd of the different Gaņas became Gaņa. had unrivalled power over his different paties
subordinate cattle Ganas and the individual shepherds. In course of time, various head-shepherds of different Gaņas came in contact with each other. Their societies became unwieldy and they occasionally might have come in conflict against each other. The defferent head-shepherds alongwith their subordinate shepherds further felt the efficacy of federating together. The newly formed society became enlarged with numerous cattle. The different berds and their cattle need not now have been counted separately. The fusion was chemical and complete identity was established

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( 136 ) amongst the coalescing members. The epithet Gana was, then, transferred from the cattle to their masters who had been brought up in the same atmosphere of collectivity and supreme authority. Shepherd may be understood as Paśupati, the head-shephered as Samudāya-pati and the shepherdin-chief as Ganapati. Ganapati was the supreme power and authority over his tribal collective ; the Gaņa. This primeval! institution of the Āryan Gaņa is their first experience in the organisations of their tribal collectives. The Aryan people voluntarily surrendered themselves as parts of the collective. machine.
Višwedevas, Brhaspati, Indra, Soma, Puşan, Agni and Maruts were all Ganapaties. Indra loosens his steeds, sits in his Gaņa and drinks Soma. Indra is sought to be satisfied by amiable members of his Gaņa. Puşan acquires the desired cattle for gratifying his Gaņa.° și Syāvasva invokes the Gaņa of Agni and Viśāḥ of Maruts,to Sāyaņa" wrongly relates the word Ganam with the silent word Maruts as he later in this very Řc comments the word visāḥ also as Gaņa (of the Maruts). Word 'sardhantamā? may also go with the word Gaņam. Word Gaņa relates to Agni. in this context. Gaņas of Maruts are very frequently referred to in Rgveda.1Rşi Avatsara prays Viswedevas and adores their Gana obtaining thereby his desired objects in both the worlds from the Gaņa after the destruction of the foes.15 Bịhaspati, with the help of bis Gana, destroyed malignant Vala and drove forth the cattle,14 The event refers to the plundering of the cattle of Vala by Bșhaspati and his Gaņa. This description significantly establishes that the members of a Gana were real human beings. They acted like human beings for material objects.
The original Aryan home possessed thick forests where mass fire was not an uncommon phenomena. It appears

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that the undivided Aryans learned the use of domestic fire there. The great scientist who separated the first Angārā from the mass fire came to be known Angiras. Agni and Angiras are many times referred as interchangeable words. Angiras had his own Gana. As referred above, Brhaspati killed Vala with the help of the Angiras-Gana. Agni comes in contact with the aggregation of the human beings and manifests them.15 Here Gana is equated with the whole world, the aggregate of human beings. To the ancient Aryans, their own limited society was the whole world.
The leader of a Gana was known as Ganapati". He is Pati, the protector or master of the Gana. The word Pati may be traced to Pa or Palu 'to protect'.. Ganapatithe Protector Its Europāryan parallel is 'poti-s' 'master',
and Master
:
and Latin parallel is 'patis' 'capable"1?. Ganapati, like his original father the Shepherd-in-chief, was the sovereign of his subjects. He had full and undisputed authority over the members of his Gaņa. They had to fight the hard forces of nature which nobody alone could successfully do; hence the Gana members willingly developed the sense of common discipline to the orders of Ganapati. The merger of the collective will of the Gana-members in Ganapati made him an undisputed sovereign dictator.
Word Ganapati has been very rarely, only twice, used -in Rgveda and only once in its oldest genuine portion. All' these Ganapaties, Indra, Bṛhaspati, Rudra, Maruts, Varuna, Mitra, and Agni and a host of them, are designated as Devas in the Rgveda and the later Vedic literature. Rgveda fortunately retains a happy memory of these Devas as real leaders of real human beings. Their celestialisation is a later phenomenon.

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Word Deva is traced to ✓ Dip or Dyut in the sense of a god'. Its Europāryan parallel is 'deiuo' 'to shine'.
Devas-the Its Avestan parallel is 'Daive' used in the Sub-leaders sense of a demon. It is also traced to „Dā.18 Monier-William used the word 7Dip in the sense of 'to blaze, flare, shine, be luminous or illustrious; the word ✓Dyut in the sense of 'to shine, be bright or brilliant and VDā in the sense of 'to give, bestow, grant, yield, impart, present, offer to, to give back. He uses the word Deva in the sense of 'heavenly, divine (also said of terrestrial things of high excellence).19 He is not oblivious of the terrestrial meaning given to this word before its celestialisation. The terrestrial meaning of the word Deva is a shining, excellent leader of men with a capacity to bestow upon them wealth and riches. Rgvedic evidence abounds in the terrestrial meaning of the word Deva.
Deva Agni is bestower of progeny, riches, dwellings, food and wealth. He is enemy of Rākşaşas, avoider of injuries to the worshipper, guide of devout men, slayer of Vộtra and protector of menol Agni sits alongwith men in the chamber of sacrifices, stands in presence of all beings, is the guest of mortals and is well pleased by the sacrifice of man. Agni is god amongst mortals. Agni is not a god over mortals. Agni resides with men as their leader”. Deva Indra rescues kine, lets loose seven rivers, slays Rākşaşas, is giver of felicity, demolisher of 99 cities of Sambara, slayer of Vrtra, exhilarates himself by drinking Soma, conqueror of the world8. Similarly other Devas such as Varuņa,* Rudra", Mitra," Maruts"?, Savitri*, Pusān”, Bphaspati,so Soma,91 Brahmaņaspati", Tyaşțrios, Nāsatyas', Aryamāņa,96 Aditis. Ādityas87, Parjaņya, 98 Vişnus! Heaven and Earth", also display human activities with human passions and sentiments.

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Deva Savitri bestows upon the Brahmāryans wealth of both bipeds and quadrupeds along with ample beneficial and delightful riches. The deva brings them slaves and cattle. Devas including Mitra and Varuņa drink. Soma and fulfil the desires of their subjects. Deva Puşān brings happiness and felicity to his followers and is ever associated to their economic and social activity, the Yajña. Deva Agni is subduer of foes and procures wealth, food, strength and hence long life for his followers. Deva Indra brings Soma, vanquishes the enemies and brings wealth. Brahmanaspati is renowned amongst the gods and is supreme above all. He is the supreme authority over all the Guņa-members and is chief of all the nobles; the lower Guņa-leaders. Bịhaspati is the destroyer of Vţtra and other Asuras and giver of wealth, cattle and progeny. Deva Tvaştri is possessor and bestower of wealth and all other things necessary for preservation. He is the begetter and nourisher of numerous progeny. Deva Āryamān distributes the precious wealth. Deva Aditi preserves the followers. Deva Soma baffled the devices and the weapons of the Paņis, the malignant secreters of the stolen wealth and the cattte. Deya Rudra also brings happiness. Deva Vişņu bestows houses upon his followers. Deva Parjaņya bestows upon them three-storeyed dwelling and felicity. Deva Soma hastens and fills the sacrifical vessels and flows to Indra and is honoured by all the Devas. Many of these devas rose to the eminence of the leadership of the Gaņas and became Gaņapti. A majority of them were satisfied with a lesser role under one or the other Ganapati. These devas were the active partners in the economic and social activities of the Gaņa-members. In the tribal collective stage, they amassed large wealth for the collective and produced numerous children to augment the fighting man-power of

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('140i)
..
!
the Gans. Those were the days of promiscuous sexrelationship. They lived just like other human beings." They led their followers from victory to more and more victories, annihilating their adversaries to augment their common happiness-and prosperity. They were the guide, freind and philosopher of the Gana-members; hence they enjoyed an exalted position. The Gana way of life of the primitive Aryans clearly exhibits the division of society into high and low, the ruler and the ruled, the favoured and the non-favoured with clear class distinctions. but homogeneity in the larger sphere was maintained due to the necessities of the nature of their primitive society; nomadic and barbario... At the base, as usual in history of mankind, is the common man. He is shepherded by a more adventurous and more ingenious leader, the Deva, Ganapati, the Chief Shepherd, exercised sovereign authority over all the devas and his subjects. Gaņas were tribal collectives. Ganapati was the Supreme Tribal Chief.
"
1
This original Aryan society travelled both to Bhārata and Greece. The most ancient Greekäryan society was based on tribal communities. Their villages Gana in Greece are habitations of a genos, i.e. of a clan. Both groups of the Dorian invaders were organised on a tribal basis. The invading Dorians fought in separate tribal regiments and they divided up the land, snatched by force from their adversaries as a booty won by spear, on a tribal basis. The Chief of 'the genos (Ganapati of Rgveda) had the power of life and death over all who belonged to the genos: These genos or village communities are not, as they were in the Asian foreworld, isolated and independent (the Asian village communities were republics as discussed earlier); they are part of a larger community which is called the phyle or tribe. The organisation of 'clan and tribe,

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with the intermediate unit of the phratry, was a framework derived from Āryan forefathers, shared : at i least by other Āryan races. We find the same institutions famong the Romans and the Germans. The Chief of the tribe was known as Basileus. He was atonce chief priest, the chief Judge and the supreme war-Lord of the tribe. He exercised a general control over religious ceremonies. These Greekāryan institutions may well be identified with the institutions of Gana and Gaņapati ; the Tribe and the Tribal.Chief.
The Literary evidence definitely proves the institution of Gana : amongst the Aryans in the later part of the second millennium B. C. The archaeological evidence, discussed earlier, corroborates this literary evidence and proves the prevalence of the Gaņa institution amongst the Aryan in the second millennium B. C. and the later part of the third millennium B. C. Morgan maintains that Gana was the most ancient Āryan Society. When the undivided Aryans began to separate, 'they had the Gama' form of Society. Gana, headed by Ganapati, was the basic society of the undivided Aryans.
References 1. Lewis H. Morgan ; Ancient Society ; 1958; Pages 7, 62, 428. 2. Siddheswat Varma ; The Etymologies of Yaşka ; 1963 ; Page 69.
3. Monier-Williams; Sanskrit-English Dictionary 1956; Page 341. -. 4. (1) Rgveda 5. 4. 9. 11
(2) Rgveda-Sanhitā (V.S.M.);- Voll'II Page 898
गणंगणं तं तं सप्तसप्तमुदायात्मकं गणंगणं च । 5. Monier-Williams ; Op. Cit. ; Page 1167 6. (1) Rgveda 8. 6. 4. 31
अध यच्चारथे गणे शतमुष्टी चिक्रदत् । अध श्विलेषु विशति शता॥ (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V. S.M.); Ops Cit. ; Vol. III Page 768
Sayaņa translates «svitneșu' as: goyuth eșu' which may also
be translated as "goganeşu'. 7. Rgveda 9.2.8: 3
आदो' ह सो यथा' गणं विश्वस्यावीवशन्मतिम् । प्रत्यो नागोभिरष्यते ॥

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( 142 ) 8. (1) Rgveda 6.3.17.1; 1.5.6.7; 1.2.3.8 - इन्द्र पिब तुम्यं सुतो मदायाबस्य हरी वि मुंचा सखाया । उत प्र गाय गण प्रा निषद्याथा यज्ञाय गृणते क्यो' धाः ॥
. 6.3.17.1 (2) Atharvaveda 19.13.4; 20.40.2 9. Rgveda 6.5.7.4
पूषणं न्व?' जाश्वमुपस्तोषाम वाजिनम् । स्वसुर्यो जार उच्यते ॥ 10. Rgveda 5.4.12.1.
अग्ने शन्तुमा गणं पोष्टरूवमेभिरजिभिः ।
विशो अद्य मरूतामवहवये दिवश्चि द्रोचनादधि । II. Rgveda-Samhita (V. S. M.); Op. Cit. ; Vol. II Page 910 12. Rgveda 1.8.3.15; 1.11.7,12; 1.14.3.7; 5,4.8.13-14 ; 5.5.5.13;
6.2.1,24; 7.4.1.7; 7.4.31; 8.10.1.12; 9.5.11.17; 10.11.9.7. 13. Rgveda 5.3.12. 12.
सदापूणो यजतो वि द्विषे वधीद्वाहुवृक्तः श्रुतवितों' वः सचा ।
उभा स वरा प्रत्येति भाति च यदी गणं भजते सुप्रयाभिः ।। 14. Rgveda 4.5.5.5.
स सुष्टुभा स ऋक्वता गणेन वुलं रोज फलिगं रवेण।
बृहस्पतिरूस्त्रिया' हव्यसूदः कनिक्रदद्वावशतीरूदा'जत् ।। 15. Rgveda 5.1.1.3. 16. Rgveda2. 3. 1. 1.
गणनां त्वा गणपति हवामहे कविं कवीमामुपमश्रवस्तमम् ।
ज्येष्ठराज ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणास्पत आ नः शृण्वन्तुतिभिः सीद सादनम् ।। 17. Siddheswar Varma ; Op. Cit. Page 89. 18. Siddheswar Varma; Op. Cit. ; Pages 109, 120.. 19. Monier-Williams ; Op. Cit. ; Pages 481, 500, 473, 492. 20. Rgveda 1.7.1.1; 1.7.1.9; 1.11.1.3; 1.19.1.1; 1.19.2.3; 4.1.8.33;
7.1.15.12%3 7.1.16.11; 8.3.7.24. 21. Rgveda 1. 12. 7.5%; 3. 2.8.4; 6. 1. 14. 5. 22. Rgvedal.15.1.13; 1. 15.12.14; 2. I. 3.1; 2. 1.4.1; 4.1.
2.10. 23. Rgveda l. 7.2.12%; 1. 19. 3. 11; 1. 13. 11. 19%3; 8. 9. 12.6. 24. Rgveda l. 20. 3.4; 2. 3. 6. 1. 25. Rgveda 3.3.3.2 26. Rgveda l. 20. 3. 4. 27. Rgveda 6.2.1.24; 7.4.1.7 and many others. 28. Rgveda 1. 18. 4. 1; 4. 5.8.1; 5. 3. 10. 33; 7. 3. 2. 10. 29. Rgvedal.20. 5. 1.

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80. Rgveda 1. 24. 11. 8; 6. 6. 12. 3. 31. Rgveda 9. 1. 3.1 ; 9.1. 6. 7; 9. 2. 13. 6; 9. 2. 18. 2; 9. 4. 14.5. 32. Rgveda 2. 3. 4.11. 33. Rgveda 2. 3. 8. 4 ; 3.5. 1. 12; 3.5.2. 19. 34. Rgveda 4. 2. 4. 1. 35. Rgveda 4. 3. 9. 24 36. Rgveda 1. 24. 11. 8; 9. 4. 14 5. 37. Ķgveda 7. 3. 2. 6. 88. Rgveda 7. 6. 12.2. 39. Rgveda 7. 6. 11. 3. 40. Rgveda 9.4. 14.5 41. N.G.L. Hammond; A History of Greece ; 1959; Page 81. 42. J. B. Bury; A History of Greece ; Pages 45, 46.

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CHAPTER IV
YAJÑA-THE ARYAN TRIBAL ACTIVITY
1. THE ORIGIN
Yajna is the most important Aryan institution. Yajña, from its very inception, had been the foundation of the Yajña-The foun- Aryan culture and civilization. It has been dation of Aryan
Culture and equated with the Aryan Way of life and Civilization had become a symbol of their culture and civilization.1
Its
Word Yajña has been traced by Yaşka to Yaj 'to worship'. Its Europaryan parallel is rag 'to honour'. Avestan parallel 'Yazaiti' means 'he worships'. MonierWilliams means by 'Yaj' 'to worship, adore, honour, to consecrate, hallow, offer." Worship and offer carry the sense of surrender. In the context of Gana Society, it carries the meaning of surrender or submission to the Gaņa. Yajña, thus appears to be the activities, in economic and social context, of the primitive Aryans pursued for and surrendered to the society.
Yajna is and was the Aryan activity around Fire. Fire is the spirit of Yajña. Yajña is Agni. Agni is the originator and regulator of Yajña.1
The discovery of Agni was a great social revolution in the primitive Aryan life. Agni originally was not known to them. Agni was hidden in secret. It took refuge from wood to wood. It was churned with great force; hence the Agni is called the son of strength. Agni was discovered by Angiras". We have earlier noticed that in the original home of the Aryans, mass fires
Birth of Agni

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existed in the woods. They could not be availed of by those people who witnessed these forest mass fires. But the daring Aryans had such scientists who wanted to know the phenomenon of fire. It might have been that some burning charcoal (Angārā) became separated from the mass fire. It might have come in contact with some animal flesh. That might have been tasted by some people who relished it better than the raw flesh. It might have also been possible that some people might have tried for long to separate a part of the burning mass fire and carried on experiments with it and found it more helpful to their better existence. But the separation of Angārā (a piece of burning charcoal) from the mass of forest fire facilitated the use of fire for human purposes. In course of time, the leader of the people who effected this scientific discovery came to be identified with it and was given the name Angiras. As Angārā enhanced his social power and prestige, hence he began to be known as the son of Angārā. This monumental discovery was made by the Angiras Gana.
Angiras is son of Angārā. Agni is born of embers of fire, of blazing embers.' Yaşka derives the word Angiras from Angar (live coal). Its Europāryan prototype Aǹgiros means 'Messenger.' Its Greek parallel angellos also means 'messenger." Angiras has been equated with Agni. Agni is Angiras." Angara is the father of Angiras and Agni.
8
Angara, the separated individual fire, was first employed for domestic purposes. By and by, its use for social purposes was also discovered. It greatly helped the metallurgical industries of the Aryans, specially for the manufacture of hunting and fighting weapons. Word Angārā, and also the word Angiras, may be traced to Ang 'to go' Durga also considered it to be a verb of movement. Angārā went out of the body of mass fire, hence it came to be
10

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( 146 ) known as a 'limb' of it.10 When Angārā or Angirasāh moved throughout the whole Gana ; when they had been universally adopted to social uses; when they led the Aryans to prosperity and enhanced their capabilities; when helped their people to subjugate their adversaries ; they were given the exalted epithet of Agni. Agni may be traced to Vag 'to move'. Yāşka traces it to (1) Agra + vni ‘he who leads to the front or (2) Ang + vni 'he who reduces (everything) into subjection.' He also derives it from E (=a) + VAñj or ✓ Dah (=g) + Vní (=ni) 'one who moves, shines and leads'.11 The tribal sense is very clear. Agni was a great and illustrious driving force that led to Aryan progress and prosperity. Brhaspati was son of Ganapati Argiras (or Agni).12 Angiras-Gaņa was very famous for its knowledge and brilliance in that age 18
Agni is chief of Angirasas. It is best of them. Agni is the first Angirā ķşi. As Agni was discovered by the
Angiras-Gaņa; it soon assumed its social Birth of Yajna
character. Gaņa Way was a homogeneous collective way of life composed of persons engaged in similar common pursuits. Agni was helpful to Gaņas in their material life. It gave them good food, shelter from the ravages of ferocious animals and health. It helped them in clearing fields to get more food. It, by and by, came to be used for metallurgical purposes and gave them good weapons for developing their economic life and for the subjugation of their adversaries. Agni, in the very circumstances of nomadic life, assumed very great significance with the primitive Aryans. Its collective social use in course of time developed into the institution of Yajna.
Agni is the first and the most ancient priest. He is the leader of Yajña. Devas depended entirely on Agni

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( 147 ) to recieve their shares in Yajñas. Devas are referred to as bagnijivhāh'.18 Agni was not only a leader but was the chief of the leaders. 17
Potdar mentions that sacrifice was created by god, on the authority of Rgveda 10. 5. 5.7. Devas are said to be 'rtasya yonim' as well as “agnijivhāḥ' in this hymn. Even if we equate rta with Yajña, which is disputable, even then their qualification of being dependant on Agni clearly explodes this theory. All the gods were not responsible for the origin of Yajña. Angirā-Gaya alone was the originator of Agni and mainly the developer of Agni into a social institution in various Aryan Gaņas, hence, this AngirāGaņa may rightly be credited with the fatherhood of the institution of Yajña.
Yajñu, thus, became the collective activity of various Āryan Gaņas. Members of the Gaņa and Gaņa leaders, the
Ganapatis and Devas, both participated in Yajña is Tribal
bal the ganic activities, the Yajñas. When Activity
Yajña was actually performed, Agni or Indra sat down on the sacred grass by the side of the sacrificers. Soma was drunk and the victim was offered.18 Food was presented to the person of the Deva. The wealth of the Yajña was invariably offered to the leader of the Gaņa so that his vigour and strength may be well augmented.19 This cellective activity was commonly pursued to obtain riches, food, cows, horses, cattle, male progeny, wealth, fame, victory in battles, strength and long life. We, thus, find that Yajña was the tribal activity of the most ancient Aryan Society the Gaņa in military, economic and social spheres.
References 1. K.R. Potdar ; Sacrifice in the Rgveda ; 1953 ; Pages 269, 272. 2. Siddheswar Varma ; Op. cit.; Page 50. 3. Monier Williams ; Op. Cit.; Page 838.

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4. Rgveda 3.1.3.4 ; 3.2.1.3; 4.1.7.3.
5. Rgveda 5.1.11 6.
स्वाम॑ने॒ अङ्गि॑रसो॒ गुहा' हितमन्व॑विन्दन्छश्रियाणं वने वने । स जायसे मथ्यमानः सहो' म॒हत्वामा 'हुः सह॑सस्पु॒त्रम॑ङ्गिरः ॥
6. Aitareya Brāhmana 3.34.
7. Satapatha Brahmana 4.5.1.8.
8. Siddheswar Varma Op. Cit.; Page 27.
9. Rgveda 4.13.15; 4.1.9.7; 5.1.8.4; 5.2.7.1; 6.1.2.20; 6.2.1.11; 8.7.1.2; 8.8.5.11; 8.8.6.5; 8.10.9.17.
(1) Monier-Williams ; Op. Cit. ; Pages 7-8. ( 2 ) Siddheswar Varma ; Op. Cit. ; Page 123. 11. (1) Monier-Williams ; Op. Cit. ; Pages 4-5. (2) Siddheswar Varma ; Op. Cit. ; Pages 25, 94.
10
12. Rgveda 2.3.1.18.
13. Rgveda 4.5.5.4-5.
14. Rgveda 1.15.1.6; 7.1.11.1 ; 6.2.6.10.
15. Rgveda 2.1.5.1 ; 3.2.3.4 ; 3.2.11.1.
16. Rgveda 1.9.1.14; 3.5.1.10; 6.2.6.11; 6.5.1.2; 6.5.3.13; 7.4.11.10. 17. Rgveda 5.1.4.5.6.
13. Rgveda 1.23.13.4 ; 6.1.15.16.
अयं य॒ज्ञो दे॑व॒या अ॒यं मि॒येध॒ मा ब्रह्मण्य॒यमिन्द्र॒ सोम॑ः । स्त॒ीणि॑ ब॒र्हीरा तु श॑क्र॒ प्र या' ह॒ पीबा' नि॒िषद्य॒ वि मु॑चा हरी' इ॒ह ॥ अग्ने॒ विश्वे॑भिः स्वनीक द्वैरूर्णाव॑न्तं प्रथ॒मः सीद॒ योनि॑म् । कुलायिनं घृ॒तव॑न्तं सवि॒त्रे यज्ञं न॑य॒ यज॑मानाय साधु ॥ 19. Rgveda 1.23.9.11 ; 6.3.17.5; 7.1.16.2.

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2. YAJÑA–THE MILITARY ACTIVITY
We have seen that Yajña was the Aryan tribal activity in peace and war. The Samgrāmic activities of Military Activity the Gama was also known as Yajña. The
of Gaņa Āryans were experts in military science and they had big factories for the manufacture of arms and weapons. They had very efficient military weapons. Yajña is said to strengthen the thunderbolt of Indra for the slaying of the Ahi.' Here Yajña refers to the ordnance factory of the Aryans that gave efficient military weapons to them for the annihilation of their adversaries on the battle-fields. Yajña, aided by Agni, destroys hostile men.' Yajña here refers to the ever-armed Gaņa which is contantly engaged in military activities against its foes. This everarmed Gaņa goes to war under the commandership of Ganapati Agni or Ganapati Angiras equipped with fire and other weapons to destroy the enemy forces. The incessant battles with other groups ; before the Aryan contact with the Abi, Minoan and other races of the śramaņic society, was the regular feature of the Aryan Gaņa society for its preservation and growth.
The institution of Gana at several places in Rgveda, Atharvaveda,' Yajurvedao and Mahābhārata signifies the Gana means an sense of an Armed Militia. Wilson, Keith Armed Militia
itia and Griffith follow Sāyaṇa for their translations of Ķgveda, Taittirīya Samhitā Atharvaveda and Yajurveda. They translate Gaņa as 'a troop' or 'a Company'. As martial activity was the main function of the Primeval Gaņa; it was also understood in the sense of military organisation. The primary function of the Gaņa militia was to protect Yajña - the Ganic economic and

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( 150 ) social activities. Its second function was to destroy foes and increase the wealth of the Gaņa. The whole Ķgveda is replete with instances of the victories of Gaņapatis like Agni, Indra, Bșhaspati and others over their adversaries ; the wholesale plunder of their wealth and continuous additions to their material prosperity.
The Aryan military forces were very well equipped with arms and weapons. The chief military weapons of Arms and these Gaņas were bows, arrows and quivers.' Weapons Their military industry was very prosperous under the direct charge of the Rşis. They associated themselves in actual battles with Indra and Agni. They engaged themselves in the production of weapons and equipped the Gaņa with weapons. The domesticated horses were soon trained for military adventures and the Gaņic Āryans had possessed military steeds in abundance. The other weapons, though used rarely, were the sword, the spear and the axe.10 Army was constituted of foot soldiers and charioteers.11 Thunderbolt appears to have been amply used by the Brahmāryans in subjugating Bhārata. All other weapons appear to have been used by the Aryans who went to Greece, Anatolia, Babylinia and Iran but not the thunderbolt. It appears that this weapon had been invested by the Brahmāryans only duriug their invasions on Bhārata.
Agni was the best weapon of the Aryans. The first and foremost Āryan Leader, Angiras, was successful in Agni-The best inventing fire-weapons. Rgveda has the Weapon
epon clearest memory of the mass fires!? that finally led to the invention of Agni as a weapon. Agni played the most important part in Aryan life. Agni had consistently been the helper of the Arya.18 The wielder of fire, Angiras, had his own separate Gaņa. Gaņupati Indra and Ganapati

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18
Angiras had close associations. They have also been identi fied in Ṛgveda. Agni is Indra. Agni singly and also alongwith Indra has been referred in Ṛgveda as discomfiter of foes, destroyer of adversaries, 18 victorious in battles," repeller of enemies18 and scatterer of foes.19 Agni is slayer of Rākṣasas, Dasyus." Agni, like Indra, is the slayer and the leader of the slayers of Vṛtra." The slaying of Vṛtra is the Aryan feat par excellence. Agni consumed the Dāsa chief Jarutha and forced open the doors of Panis.23 Agni over-threw and consumed the Aryan adversaries and their forts and cities." Agni over-threw ninety cities ruled over by Aryan adversaries. It appears that they were the forts
of Dasa Sambara and his associates.
Agni, taking part in military operation, refers both to the fire-weapons wielded in actual battles and the wielder of the fire-weapons. When the actual effect is referred; it refers to the destruction wrought by Agni as a fire-weapon. When the foes are killed, consumed or driven or when the cities are burnt, it refers to the feats of fire missiles. When Agni acts, it refers to the
Commander of the Aryan Fire Battalion of the Army Division. When Vṛtra is slain, Jaruth is killed; it is the commander, may be Angiras, that is meant. When Indra advances his emblem in battles, Agni summons Devas", perhaps to the help of Indra with their various weapons. Agni drinks Soma with Indra and wields thunderbolt like him along with other weapons. Agni, the archer, ascended the chariot and wielded blazing arrows from his dreadful bow after the Aryan adversary". Perhaps man-destroying Rudra wielded fire-weapons. Agni defeated the Aryan adversaries in battles for gaining gold".
Agni-The weapon Wielder
In Sukta 8. 5. 9., the deity is Agni and in Sukta 8. 5. 10., the deities are Indra and Agni. Rşi in both the Suktas is

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( 152 ) Nābhāka. Both these Suktas, except the last Rc in the later Sukta, contain the refrain "May all our adversaries perish." This proves the high importance of Agni in winning wars. Commander Agni is only next to Indra in Rgvedic society. Weapon Agni is the most important of all weapons to destroy the Aryan adversaries.
Archaeology corroborates this importance of Agni as a weapon. Greekāryans' invasions were very violent and they
w used very profusely the fire-weapons in Archæological Evidence of Agni battles. At Mycenae, all the buildings within as Weapon
on the citadel were plundered and fired. The Mycenaean residence at Pelikāla in Ithaca became a cemetery. Similarly we find the profuse use of fire-weapons by the Brahmāryans in Iran and Bhārata. Villages in Gedrosia were inhumanly burnt. Rana Ghundai III records its destruction by fire. The sohar-damb settlement at Nal was so violently burnt that its name sohar-damb meaning 'burnt red' still persists and stands testimony to Brahmāryan brutality and savagery. Use of fire in military operations by the Grey-Ware people who were none other than the Aryans in Greece, Western Asia and Bhārata have been previously dealt with.30 The Āryan military industries manufactured in sufficient numbers efficient and effective fire-weapons which gave them easy victory over their adversaries.
The military activity of the Gaņa was known as Samgrāma. Samgrāma originally means 'Assembly', whether in
peace or warsi as peace and war had not Samgrāma Military bifurcated in those times. They were activity
undivided brothers. War was considered the only means of establishing peace which to them meant only the welfare and prosperity of the individual Gaņa to the exclusion of the whole of the rest of the world. Samgrāma means, according to Monier-Williams, “An

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153 )
Assembly of people, host, troop, army" and also "battle, war, fight, combat, conflict, hostile encounter with." Samgrāma is a compound word of Sam to grāma. Grāma means according to the same scholar, "a village, hamlet, the collective inhabitants of a place, community, a number of men associated together, multitude, troop." Prefix 'sa' is used in the sense of "with, together or alongwith, having, containing, having the same.38 Yāşka also traces the word to Sam + grāma in the sense of, "in which two groups come together”, “Sam' going back to Europāryan 'Som' 'with' and 'grāma' to Europāryan 'grem' 'to bring together'.88 The epithet grāma indicated the same meaning in territorial sense what the epithet Gaņa indicated in social sense. Grāma was the tribal collective living in a specified area. When it developed by additions and accretions of members, it became Samgrāma. As the tribal collective living in a specified space had not known peace and war, at that stage, in separate contexts; the epithet meant only a developing society. When in a later civlized stage, the function of war was separated from the function of peace; it came to signify battle or war only as it was the only known and accepted mode of tribal preservation and growth. Sarigrāma means ever-armed Gaña. Yajñas gave unfailing wealth to Aryan Gaņas. The Gaņa wealth was protected by the military might of the Ganapatis,84 Yajña is protected by Gaņa. 25 Gaņa and Ganapati are the bestowers of wealth obtained by powerful arms.86 The association of Yajña with weapons and Gaņa is significant. The Aryan military activities were Yajñas pursued by the Gaņas. Yajña is the Ganic military activity.
These Āryan Gaņas mainly acted as ever armed tribal military organisations in their migratory stage till they

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154 )
conquered the settled regions and permaGreekāryan. nently established their sovereign power. Military Victory
Minyans were the first Greekāryan people
who violently intruded into Greece. Achaeans were the Greekāryan militarised people who descended down from the regions of the Danube Circa 1500 B. C. with long swords, round shields and brooches. They, by sheer military supremacy, made themselves the masters of Greek Mainland and the Cyclades in the twelfth century B. C. These people were organised in genos, a clan, inhabiting villages. More important than both was gathering of the people. This assembly was not yet distinguished as an institution from the Army. It was homogeneous society in times of peace and war. It comes very near to Samgrāmmic Gaņa. All these institutions were derived from the old Āryan gatherings in good old days of Āryan fore-fathers.87 This historical description of the Greekāryan foreign invaders of Grete and Mainland singularly exhibits the historical persistence of the institutions of the original Aryan Gaņa, ever armed and pursuing collective military activities. Yajña is the collective activity of the Gana and, in military contexts, is the military activity of the invaders. Greekāryans carried on their Yajñic military activities in the same manner as their forefathers did. Roman Gens and their military activities were modelled on the Greek pattern.
We find the established power of the Kassites in sou. thern Mesopotamia, of Hittites in Anatolia and of Hurrians in
Upper Mesopotamia in the first of the second Asiāryans
yang millennium B. C. These peoples of the Military
mountains had descended down from south Activities
Russian Steppes to Western Asia. They had dominant noble upper class.88 They were presided over by a chieftain. These mountainous people came like bar

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( 155 ) barrians from a state of nomadism with a social structure based on the predominance of limited noble class who control the means which determine military success : the horse and the chariot. They were the leaders of an ever-armed homogeneous organised society who had unity of purpose in military activities. The tribal will and power for victory was the main guiding force on battlefields.
The historical success of the Brahmāryans in Bhārata also indicate the same Gamic features which we have earlier
discussed in detail. The whole of Rgveda Brahmaryan
stands testimony to this Aryan social structure. Military
Indra, Bșhaspati, Brahmaņspati, Maruts and Activities
several other Ganapatis preside over the Devas and cominon masses. Their military success has been amply and repeatedly sung in Rgveda. Ķgveda is the only source which provides us with literary evidence regarding the most ancient Aryan society with singularly persisted also amongst the Brahmāryans till their final military victory in Dāsrājña War circa 1150 B.C. This discloses a remarkable similarity of military activities based on a similar social pattern from Greece to Bhārata.' The sons of Aryans in this vast region of the earth display similar traits. They all alike annihilate the ancient cultures and civilizations definitely superier to their own on the strength of efficient tribal military organisation based on Gaņa social system. Yajña was their tribal military activity. Aryan victory was a sheer Yajñic military conquest.
References
1. Rgveda 3. 3. 3. 12.
यज्ञो हि त इन्द्र वर्धनो मूदुत प्रियः सुतसोमो नियेधः । यज्ञेन यशर्मव यज्ञियः सन्यज्ञस्ते वर्जहिहत्य पावत् ॥

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2. Rgveda 5. 1. 3. 5.
न त्वदोता पूर्वो' अग्ने यजी यान काव्यैः परो अस्ति स्वधावः ।
विशश्च यस्या अतिथिर्भवा'सिम्स यज्ञने' वनवद्देव मन् ि ।। 3. Rgveda 1. 17.2.3; 5.5.2.23; 5. 4 9. 11 and several others. 4. Atharvaveda 13 4.8; 19. 13. 4 and others. 5. Yajurveda 18. 45; 17. 35 and others. 6. Mahabharata (Cr. Ed.) 1. 2. 16-17. 7. (1) Rgveda 2 3.2.8; 8. 2. 2.4; 10. 9. 4. 3.
(2) Atharvaveda 19. 3. 4... 8. Rgveda 5. 3. 12. 12.
सदा पृणो यजतो वि द्विषो वधीबाहुवृक्तः श्रुतवितर्यो' वः सचा' ।
उभा स वरा प्रत्येति भाति च यदी गणं भजते सुप्रयाभिः । 9. Rgveda 5. 6. 7. 5. 10. Macdonell and Kieth, : Vedic Index ; 1958 ; Page 417. 11. (1) Rgveda t. 2. 1. 8.
(2) Atharvaveda7.62.1 12. Rgveda l. 12. 1. 4 ; 3. 2. 11.1; 5. 1. 9.4; 6. 1. 3. 3.; 6. 1. 6.5%8B
7.1.7.1; 8.5. 10. 1. 13. Rgveda4.1.4.2%
38. 10.10.1. 14. Rgveda 2.1.1.. 15. Rgveda3.1.12.4%3 4.1.3.1; 4.1.4.11; 6.2.1.22%3 8.5.8.2. 16. Rgveda l. 16. 4.33; 5. 1. 4. 5. 17. Rgveda 3.2.4.23; 5. 1. 4.6. 18. Rgveda 3.2.3.1; 32.12.1. 19. Rgveda 4. 1. 4. 1-2. 20. Rgveda 3.2.3.1%; 4.1.4.1; 5.1.2.9.10% 6.2.1.29; 6.2.1.
48; I. 13. 3.33; 4. 1. 3. 15%; 4. 1. 4. 15; 8.4. 3. 14. 21. Rgveda 5. 1. 4.6%; 5. I. 14.4; 6.2.1. 15%; 7. 1. 5.6; 7. 1.6.33;
8.5.9.83 22. Rgveda 1.8. 1.83 1.11.2.6%; 1. 13. 1.33; 1. 13. 5.43; 1.16.3.
33; 3. 1. 12.4; 3.2.4.1; 3.2.8.4; 6.2. 1. 48; 8. 5.8.2. 23. Rgveda 7. 1. 1.7; 7.1.9.23; 10. 6. 12.33; 24. Rgveda 1.4.1.53 1.16.4.8; 3. 1.12.6%3 3.2.3.43; 3.2.6.13
4.1.4.4; 4.1.5.43; 6, 1. 5.4; 7. 1. 1.7; 7.1.6.1; 8. 4. 3. 14. 25. Rgveda 7. 2. 13.3%3 6. Rgveda1.12.7.53 1,16.4.831. 16.3.23 1.4.3.1034.1.4.43;
5.1.2.33; 5.1.2.93 6.1.8.5%3; 8.5.8.43; 8.7.10.11. 27. Rgveda 1.12.75%3 5.1.1.11, 28. Rgveda 4. 1. 3.6%3 29. Reveda 1. 11.2.5.

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30. First Chapter - Archeological Tests.
31.
Atharvaveda 4. 24. 7; 31. 1. 56.
32. Monier-Williams; Op. Cit.; Pages 1129,373, 1111. 33. Siddheswar Varma; Op. Cit.; Page 53.
34. Rgveda 3. 2. 14. 6.
व्रातंव्रातं ग॒णंग॑णं सुश॒स्तिभिर् गनेर्भामं म॒रुता मोर्ज ईमहे । 'दश्वासो अनव॒भ्ररा' घसो गन्ता' रो य॒ज्ञं वि॒दथो॑षु॒ धीरा' ॥
35. Rgveda 1.14.3.4.
स हि स्व॒स्त्रत्यूष' दो युवा' गणोद' या ईशानस्तविषीभि॒रावृ॑तः । प्रसि॑ स॒त्य ऋण॒यावाने द्यो स्या प्रि॒यः प्रा' वि॒ताथो॒ वृष' गणः ॥
36. Rgveda 5. 5.2.2
37. J. B. Bury; Op. Cit.; Pages 45, 47. 38. S. Moscati; Op. Cit. ;5 Pages 154-15.

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3. YAJÑA-THE ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
As Yajna was the tribal activity of the Gana collective as a whole, we do not find independent references to the different spheres of military, economic and Yajfic Economic Activity social activities. They are all blended together. Where we find reference to economic activity, we find references of social and military activities also and so on and so forth. The Ṛgvedic hymns give us a clear picture of the economic activities of the Gana inspite of their association with the other activities. We discuss a few representative hymns here.
Indra grants the accumulated wealth of his Gana to his Gana members. The food and riches of the subdued adversary have been won by the Gana-members with the assistance of Ganapati and thrown into the common hotchpot. Yajña, here, refers to accumulated tribal wealth. Yajna offers adoration to Aświns who in return gives food and riches. Here Aświns claim the whole fruit of the Yajña as Ganapati who reserves his right to give them back to the members. The adorable Tanunapāt proceeds to Yajña and combines with the oblation, bearing (for the sacrificer) infinite abundance of food.a When the Gaṇa society is engaged in any tribal activity, the god or Ganapati provides all the members of his Gana sufficient food so that the fruits of the tribal activity may not suffer. Here the sacrificer in singular represents all the members of the Gana engaged in tribal activity. The Gana members pray mighty Ganapati Agni to help them for the uninterrupted completion of their Yajñic activity which the producer of cows, of sheep, of horses, of food and progeny,

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long continued, affluent, wide-based and held in full assembly." The basic Āryan industry, the domestication of cattle, in actual production is given here. Shepherd-in-chief (Ganapati) Agni is to help his subordinate Devas (high Shepherds) who were separately incharge of the rearing of cows, of the sheep and of horses. This tribal productive activity helped the Aryans to augment their cattle wealth. Agriculture was a minor industry with the primitive Aryans. We find numerous references in Ķgveda where the food of the adversary is plundered to be distributed among the Gana members. This shows that the Aryan agricultural industry gave them deficit production. The Aryans in that stage did not know of international trade, hence they could not import food from any foreign country, hence they took to the plundering of food supplies. But, in spite of a deficit food-producing industry, they had it all the same. The minor agricultural activities of the Aryan Gaņa under the leadership of the Ganapati has to be preserved for full yields. The social activity of the Gaņa in producing children was the result of promiscuous sex-relationship amongst the Gaņa-members with which we hereby subsequently deal with. Yajña pleases minor Devas and Ganapati Agni who bestows upon the Gaņa abundant food and great wealth."
Gana members offered all their produces to Ganapati for the Gana. The production was tribal and belonged to
the tribe. The worshipper, the representative Yajñic fruits
Belong to of the Gaņa people, offers the fruits of his whole Gana
Yajña to Gaņa pati Agni who accepts it. Of course, in return, the Gana members want to obtain back many sorts of food. A Gaņa-member offers less but desires to obtain more. This is the very foundation of the basic Yajñic activity of the Āryan Gaņa. If the production is

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only tribe-centred, more cannot be given back. More can be given back only when the tribal wealth is augmented by loot and plunder, the barbaric form of exploitation, of other people who were necessarily foes. The specific aim before the Gana-member to surrender his labour to Gana and Ganapati was to increase the military might of the Gaṇa so that a powerful Gana may devour the lesser Gana and increase its wealth. The ultimate aim of Yajnic activity is to get thousandfold in return. Yajna is specifically offered to Indra and Varuna' with the strings that they had to pay back in food. Yajña is offered to Indra and Viṣṇu under condition of a mutual contract that they would return it with wealth. They had also to provide them safety and protection. Heaven and Earth are promoters of Yajña. They are bestowers of wealth, of renown, of food, of male posterity, combined together." Yajna and material prosperity go together. Agni harnesses his brilliant protecting (steeds to his car), brings Devas. The Yajnic wealth proceeds to Agni who is the giver of abundant food.10 Yajnic activity is protected by the Gana charioteers under the leadership of Devas and supreme commandership of Ganapati Agni. The whole fruit of this Yajñic economic activity belongs to the Gana. Of course, a liberal donation in return is always attended with.
The ultimate aim of this Yajnic economic activity has been referred above. The Gana-members do not produce and surrender the whole only for getting back the same amount or less on account of certain deductions to be spent for the functions of State of the Gana. That is not a profitable business. They surrendered the fruits of their labour under a sepcific covenant that they would be given back more than they had contributed to the Ganic fund. Gaṇa-members were
Contract of Thousandfold
Return

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( 161 ) also not satisfied with a reasonable profit. They wanted thousandful in return. Indra was offered Yajñic viands on the condition of returning thousands and hundreds of cows." They want from Indra thousand benefits, thousand kinds of food, thousand sorts of wealth and thousands of horses. They solicit from Indra a thousand well-trained, swift-going horses, a hundred jars of Soma Juice, thousands and hundreds of cattle,18 and sufficient riches. Indra is to come with thousands of riches by very powerful conveyances24. Fierce Indra is to cast fatal weapon on the mischievous mortal to grant them food, wealth and blessings in thousands. Varuņa, Mitra and Agni give excellent food and thousands of riches. Agni is subduer of foes. He is to procure for the Gaņa-members thousandfold wealth that they may thence obtain food, strength and long life17. Food gives strength and strength gives long life. Riches are obtained by the martial exploits of Agni and then he is able to secure thousand-fold return to the Gaņa-labourers who had surrenderd all their labours to the Gaņa pati. The Ganas organised collective Yajñas to augment in fullness their weatlh18. Yajña is, thus, also, the tribal economic activity of the Gaņa.
This is a clear picture of the economic organisation of the primitive Aryan Gaņas. Gaņa was a complete homogeneous economic unit. Members of Gaņas offered' all their productions, possessions and obtainments to the symbol of their Gaņa, the Ganapati''. All the members of the Gaņa were conscious that if their leader would be a well-satisfied hero, great in strength and vigour with intelligence and foresight and able to lead them to victory against enemy Gaņas and other people ; he would successfully lead them to amass more wealth ; to have more cattle and to possess more efficient means of productions that they would enjoy better
11

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( 162 ) material satisfactions. It was on the express contract of getting thousandfold in return from the leader for whatever they offered to him. In the primitive nomadic State ; agriculture and industry afforded lesser possibilities and opportunities. Hence the main burden of enhancing and growing the economic life of the Gaņa fell upon plunders and battles. Only that Sudeva was accepted as a successor of previous leader who could lead the Gaņa more successfully to loot and pillage. No body could claim the office of Ganapati by inheritance or otherwise. He became the Gaņapti who could force his leadership by his superior qualities of taking forward the gaņa to material prosperity.
The fundamental basis underlying the institution of Yajña in its original state simplifies itself like this. The
sacrificer offers his food, cattle and wealth to the Yajña-The Primitive mode Deva, not selflessly or without any purpose but of exploitation
for definite promise given to him by the Deva that he would return it in thousand fold. Yajña, thus, incorporates in itself three essentials; the sacrificer, the sacrificed and the acceptor of sacrifice. Sacrificer does not sacrifice himself but somebody else as another human being, another horse, ox or goat or grains and ghrta to his Deva; not for nothing, but for getting them in thousandfolds. This is clearly a contract theory not without consideration and very clearly advantageous to the promisor or offerer. Sudeva Angiras instituted this tribal way as he sought in it greater potentialities for the display of his qualities of leadership. He and his successor Ganapatis had not to engage themselves in any productive activity demanding sweat and labour. They had only to protect and provide safety to Gaņa economic activities and augment the Gaņa productions by accretions from loot and plunder. Gaņa members wanted more. Ganapati wanted still more.

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The Greekāryans had annexed immense wealth and rich lands from their adversaries whom they reduced to the status of serfdom, the status of a Vedic Dasa. The conquered land was divided among the various genos or tribes. The soil did not become the private property of the individual. The land was inalienable. The land belonged to the whole community but not to any particular member20. Brahmaryans under the leadership of Indra and other Ganapatis similarly obtain lands and riches already alluded to. Economic activity, both of the Greekāryans and the Brahmaryans, was tribal. We thus find the very basis of the institution of Yajña, the economic tribal activity, in its origin, in the most ancient past is based clearly on violence and exploitation in their rudest form.
References
1. Rgveda 1.19.7.7.
व॒नोति हि सुन्वन्क्षयं परीणसः सुन्वा॒नो हि । ष्मा॒ यज॒त्यव॒ द्विषो' देवानामव॒ द्विषः ॥ सु॒न्वा॒न इरिसषासति स॒हस्रा ' वा॒ज्यवृ॑तः । सुनवानायेन्द्रो' ददा स्या॒भुवं॑ र॒यिं ददात्या॒भुव॑म् ।। 2. Rgveda 1.24.2.1.
3. Rgveda 1.24.9.2.
4. Rgveda 4.1.2.5.
गोम' अग्नेऽव॑म अ॒श्ववे॑ य॒ज्ञो नृ॒वत्स॑सा॒ सद॒मद॑प्रमृष्यः । sara षो असुर प्रजावन्दी॒र्घौ र॒यिः पृ॑थि॒बुध्नः स॒मावा'न् ॥
5. Rgveda 3.1.1.22.
6. Rgveda 6.1.10.6.
इ॒मं य॒ज्ञं वन' घा अग्न उ॒शन्यं त॑ सा॒नो जु॑हुते ह॒विष्मान् । भ॒रद्वाजेषु दधिषे सुवृ॒क्तिमवीर्वाज॑स्य॒ गध्येस्य सातौ ॥ 7. Rgveda 6.6.7.1.
श्रुष्टी वां' य॒ज्ञ उद्य॑तः स॒जोगा' मनुष्वदुवृक्तर्बहिषे यज॑ध्यै । आ य इन्द्रावरु॑णावि॒षे अ॒द्य म॒हे सु॒म्नाय॑ म॒ह आव॒वत॑त् ॥

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( 164 ) 8. Rgveda 6.6.8.1.
सं वां कर्मण समिषा हिनोमीन्द्रा'विष्णू अपंसस्यारे अस्य ।
जुषेयां यज्ञं द्रविणं च धतपरिष्टैनः पथिमिः पारयन्ता । 9. Rgveda 6.6.9.5.
मधु नो द्यवा'पृथिवी मिमिक्षतां' मधुस्चुता मथुदुधे मधुव्रते।
दधा'ने यज्ञं द्रवीण न दे वता महि श्रवो वाज॑मुझमे सुवीयम् ।। 10. Rgveda 7.1.16.2
स योजते अरूषा विश्वभो'जसा स दुद्रवत्स्वा'हुतः।
सुब्रह्मा' यज्ञः सुश्मो वसूना दे व राधो जना' नाम् ।। 1. Rgveda 8.8.9.1.
पुरोळाशं नो अन्स इन्द्र सहस्र मा मर । शता च शूर गोना'म् ।। 12. Rgveda 8.8.9.1.
सहस्र" इन्द्रोतयो' नः सहस्र मिषो' हरिवो गुर्ततमाः ।
सहस्र रायो' मादयध्यै सहस्रिण उप॑ नो यन्तु वाजा': ।। 13. Rgveda 4.3.11.17-18. 14. Rgveda 6. 2. 3. 11. 15. Rgveda 7.2.8.3.. 16. Rgveda 7.4.7.3. 17. Rgveda 1.24.10.8.
अवो'चाम निवचनान्यस्मिन्मानस्य सूनुः सहसाने अग्नौ ।
वयं सहस्र मुषिभिः सनेम विद्यामे षं वृजनं जोरदा'नुम् ।। 18. Rgveda 3.2.14.6. 19. Rgveda 5.4.8.14 ; 5.6.7.5; 7.1.9.5. 20. J. B. Bury ; Op. Cit. ; Page 46.

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4. YAJÑA-THE SOCIAL ACTIVITY
The Aryan social system in the Gana period was very simple. There were no Varna, no castes, no Aśrams and no other social distinctions. Aryan society
Unitary Society was a homogeneous individual unit. The division of Gana into common man, Deva and Ganapati was based upon natural qualities of the members. The science of sociology had rare material to study in that age. The only aspect of sociology, the relationship between man and woman or sex-relationship existed, the study of which unravels interesting.
When the Aryans, in their working hours, had finished their day's labour and returned to their Gana; they had ready their common meals and common
Common Meals:
Common Dirnks: drinks. They believed in the joys of life Common Enter here and only here. When the dancing
tainments
provided her with
night visited them, they the best entertainments. The whole Gana, all men and all women, old and young, the youngsters only witnessing, without distinction of father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister or any other agnate or cognate relationship, met together with singleness of mind and purpose. Primarily these festivities were organised daily. These popular
festivities were called Samana.
Yaşka explains the word Samana as an epithet of Yoşa in the sense of unanimous. He explains Yoṣā as a
'young women' tracing it to yu 'to mix', literary "mixing with a male."
Its Euro
pāryan parallel is Jeus-'young." Word Yoşă may be a compound word formed of ya+uşa. Ya may be used in the
Samana Festivities

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( 166 ) sense of restraining. Uşā may be traced to Duchchha in sense of brightening, shining' or to Vas in the sense of 'love'. Its Europāryan parallel is us to brighten' and Avestic parallel is usaiti—be brighten up',' Those shining, bright and loving ladies who brightened up the youth of the Gaņa wers called Uşās. Yaska etymoliges the word “usa' from the Rgvedic Rc 1.16.8.1 wherein ‘uşā' is described as the most excellent luminary of all luminaries, the wounderful and diffusive manifester. Uşās loved the whole world and whole world loved them. The ordinary women who had “restrained beauty ; less shining, less bright and less brightening were called Yoşās. The sense here clearly is that all males and all females met together with one mind, with unanimity having singleness of plan and purpose. Yāşka has taken the epithet “Samaneva Yoşa’ from the Rgvedic Ķc 4.5.13.8. He appears to be wrong in taking the principal word as 'Samanā.' This may well be Samana. 'Samanā' is an adjective and does not connote an institution. This fits in well with the historical context. It may be that during the seventh century B. C., when Yāşka flourished, people might have begun to deride the primitive Samana institution which might have forced him to give an unreal and different interpretation to suit his times. Samana' is a proper noun, not an adjectival epithet of Yoşa. Samana signifies 'Communal Festival' where all partaking members of the community were of one mind. Sāyaṇa, following Yāşka, interprets the word "Samaneva' as 'Samānamanaskāḥ'. Wilson translates this word as 'devoted' and 'Yoşa' as wife. Word 'Pati' does not occur in the hymn. Sāyaņa and Wilson have wrongly imported the word 'Pati' in the sense of husband in their commentary and translation respectively. Yoşa does not mean a wedded wife but, as

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hereby given, means any young women inclined to have sexual intercourse with any male of the society. Sāyaṇa and Wilson reflect the notions of their age; they do not faithfully interpret the age in which these institutions existed. It may not be their fault as they lacked the value of chronological history.
came one.
In this collective Samanic festivity, all the members went into the Gana chamber around the Gaņa fire glowing with ghee and embraced each other as riverine water embraced the fields and ghee embraced the fire1. They all beThese Gaṇa-members were the primitive chariotsdesiring Aryans. Sāyaṇa takes the word 'Samana' as a noun in the sense of Yajña. Samana and its best and the highest festival Puruşamedha was only a social form of Yajña, highlighting felicitous Ganic social activity just to be discussed. Sāyaṇa concedes Samanic activity to be a Yajnic activity. The Ganic Chamber had only one door to the East and had walls on all the other three sides. When all the Gana members collected together for marrymaking in the Samana; Soma reached them in abundance calling aloud at the Samana like a ministrant priest. All the members taking part in Samana felicities profusely drank, danced and made loud and shouting voices. Sāyaṇa, as usual, here also translates the word Samana as YajñaR. Gana-people are victorious in battle under the leadership of Ganapati Indra. The whole tribal collective lauds his heroic conquest. There is communal festivity. Indra, alongwith other Gana-members is Soma-drunk. He, alongwith his Gaṇa-members, is vary happy on receiving the vast spoils of war which could very well fill a well. That was an event of great Ganic festivity. Sāyaṇa, in this Rc also, translate the word 'Samana' as a noun in the sense of battle, not in the sense of Yajna." It shows that communal

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( 168 ) festivity in peace ; communal festivity before the beginning of war and communal festivity after the victory in war was an important feature of the Samana festival. They were all Yajñas for the primitive Aryans.
'Yoşā' is mentioned together with her ‘Sakhā' in Samana. The bowstring, drawn tight upon the bow, and making way Yoga : Uşa: in battle, repeatedly approaches the ear (of
Urvaşī the warrior), as if embracing its friend (the arrow), and proposing to say something agreeable, as a Yoşā whispers to her Sakhas. The voluptuous Āryans even in battle could derive the strongest stimulus to fight unto death from their Samanic reminiscences of sexual delights. Sāyaṇa wrongly translates "Sakhā'as Pati. It simply means “a male friend' which very well fits in this context. Sāyaṇa translates Samana as battle. Battle was equally a source of joy to the primitive Aryans as it was preceded and followed by masses in merrymakings. Sāyaṇa, at least at one place, corroborates our interpretation. Wilson translates the particular Rc as “As a woman who shows no partiality wins her lovers to her, so Indra confers periods of time on mankind (mark, manuşaḥ, not Janānām); It is Indra who has performed that knowledge-giving achievement, therefore he is renowned ; Indra's gifts are worthy of praise.” Yoşā's conduct was an ideal conduct to the primitive Aryan. She is not to show special favour or isolated love to any one particular individual. She has to show impartial love to all the Gaņamembers congregated together in the Gaņa-Sadana or GaņaHall. Sāyana translates “Samaneva" as "Samānamanaskā Yoşidiva's in the sense of 'woman having similar mindedness for all the lovers' which Wilson translates as above. This reference unambiguously testifies that Samana was an insti. tution of communal festivity where all the males and all the

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females enjoyed sexual happiness without any distinction of father and daughter, mother and son, brother and sister or agnatic and cognatic relations.
Women, in the communal context, were known as Yoşās. More beautiful damsels amongst them were known as Uşās. Uşā in Rigveda is depicted as brilliant and attractive maiden dressed in variegated colours, ever joyful dancing with her breast open, effulgent in pearless beauty, radiant with her lover, charming and resplendent.10 Pischel and Geldner suggest that they belonged to the hetaera class of society. The division of the society in hetaera and non-hetaera classes is a later phenomenon. In the Gaņa age, this was the general stage of the women in Aryan primitive social organisation. What came to be looked down in later times on the division of the society was approbated and revered in the undivided state of society. Uşā animated her lovers in the Samana??. Urvašīs were the best amongst Uşās. They could not bind themselves to any particular man. They belong to the whole Gaņa. Urvašī, the Gaņikā, was the mother of illustrious sage Vašiştha's but his fatherhood is ambiguous and doubtful. Urvašī, the Miss Āryan, was also used to ensnare the effective enemy leader as in the case of non-Aryan Purūravā.
All the Devas were of similar mind and similar wisdom in the Gaņa-gatherings. Devas had also been samanized;
Tribal not, that they were of one mind; but that Festivities they were of Samana ideas, fully charged with Samanic way and conduct. Maruts visit Samana with one mind. All the Devas are of one mind in the Samana. Priests possessed Samanic accord. All the Devas visit Samana as Samana-minded. All the Gaņa-members were of Samanic accord. Viswedevas come to Gaņa-gathering with

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( 170 ) Samanic mind4. Thus we find that all the Gana-members, their lesser leaders, the devas and Ganapati all possessed Samanic mind. They all participated in Samanic festivities with one mindedness, with full accord, with like wisdom. The word 'Samanasaḥ' in these contexts, means 'of one mind or of one accord or with one mindedness. It is here used in the technical sense of Samana social institution. It indicates the idea of collective Gaņa-festivity. It appears, in these contexts, to mean 'with Samana thinking, with Samanic view'.
Roth renders the word Samana either 'battle' or 'festival'. Pischel thinks that it was a general popular festivity to which women went to enjoy themselves, poets to win fame, bowmen to gain prizes at archery, horses to run races, and which lasted until morning or until a conflagration, caused by the fires kept burning all night, scattered the celebraters18. I agree with Pischel that males and females met together in Samana for sexual and earthly enjoyments. But his other deductions are far-fetched. No poets want to win fame in Samana. The two Ķgvedic references (2.2.5.7 and 9.6.1.4) do not lead us to this conclusion. In the first Rc, all the Gaņa-members, led by Somahuti, of the race of Bhrgus, laud the heroic deeds of Indra after his victory in battle. In the second RC, Soma calls aloud in the Samana. Metaphor aside, all the Gaņa-members intoxicated by liquor spoke in loud voices. No single poet appears in these Rcs. Also, no bowman went to the Samana for gaining prize in archery. In the reference Rgveda 6. 6. 14. 3-5; the first two Rcs use the epithets Yoşā and Sakhã in Saman' and 'Samaneva Yoşā' in the sense above given. They are used as a simile. In the third şc; the word Samana is rightly used in the sense of battle as an adversary warrior is struck in the back and no adversary could be allowed to join the Samana for being

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( 171 ) struck in the back by the Gaņa archer. No show of proficiency in archery at the Samana is intended here. We do not find any evidence of horse-races in Rgveda. The Samana festivities took place only in nights where horses had nothing to display. In the reference Rgveda 9. 5. 11. 9., the speed of vigorous and thousand-streamed Indu is compared with that of the horse. Samana was a sort of modern Bombay night club where all the partaking members join Āryan felicity and happiness for the whole of the night in glamorous lights. I agree with Pischel that Āryans in their Samana festivity enjoyed till morning in the company of lights caused by fires which kept burning all night. The Samana festival has parallel festival in Greece where young girls mixed freely with the strangers. It appears that Greekāryans and Brahmāryans took this Gaņa festival of Samana with them which they had inherited from their common forefathers, to their new regions. · A. C. Das concedes that Samana was a popular institution. Men and women gathered there who had their own axes to grind. They afforded recreation, relaxation and amusement. The Samana fair was organised at intervals for social merriments!?.
This state of sexual relationship is very correctly reflected in the epithet Jāra. Jāra means a male human
being who is the lover of any woman in the of Jāra society. This word does not carry the sinister meaning of a voluptuous unsocial element. The sinister meaning appears to have been attached to this word after the Aryans took to settled life and were influenced by the superior cultures of their adversaries. Jāra means a lover of maidens, a youthful gallant, Devas Vāyu, Soma, Savitri, Varuņa, Mitra, Agni and Āświns are all Jāras.
Concept

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( 172 )
Aświns are
as lavish as
his sleeping
Agni is the lover of maidens. youthful gallants. Gallant Vayu awakens beloved. Savitri is the lover of maiden (dawns), the abode of Mitra and Varuna. Soma is praised like a lover praised by his beloved.18 It is very significant that words Jāra and Yoşa come together in the hymn (Rgveda 9. 2. 8. 5). Yoṣā belonged to Samana. Also her lover the Jara belonged to Samana.
The institution of Samana was of great importance with the undivided Aryans. It was a comprehensive communal festival. In the earliest stages, when Gaņas were a small body, Samana festivities were held usually. When Ganas grew larger; they were held occasionally. Samana was the Aryan social Yajña.
Gana life was divided into economic and social activities. Yajña in economic and social spheres symbolised the Gana activities in peace. But peace needed constant protection of Arms which became a regular feature of evolving Gana life. Economic Yajña, Social Yajña and Military Yajña gave birth to the Gana institution of Purusamedha. Puruşamedha was a form of most ancient Yajña, acted upon during tribal emergencies, by Aryans. Puruşamedha originated amongst Aryans and was practised by them only.
R. D. Karmarkar gives an interesting sociological interpretation to this primeval Yajña, the Puruşa medha.19 He does not mention Puruşamedha, but if Horse became the representative of Man in later times and Aswamedha took the place of Puruşamedha; it may throw some light on the social aspect of this primeval Yajña.
Sociological Interpretation of Puruşamedha.

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( 173 ) When horse is killed in Aswamedha, the Chief Queen along with King's other three wives and a maiden, attended by four hundred female attendants, comes to the dead horse ; there is an obscene ceremonial recorded by Vājasaneyisamhita and Kșsna-Yajurveda Samhitā. The chief queen had to lie down with the dead horse under one cover in a state of actual sexual intercourse. The learned author concludes from this ceremonial that, in that hoary past, there obtained mass sexual intercourse without any idea of father, mother, son, daughter and sister. Devas took part in this promiscuous sexual intercourse in the presence of fire by the side of the altar itself. He finds this event as a social reality.
This institution of Puruşamedha is well recollected in Šāåkhyāyana Srauta Sūtra where the chief lady is given as lying down with the dead man in a state of sexual intercourse. It preserves in its chapter on Purusamedha” the practice of human sacrifice in ancient times which was faithfully continued in the later Aswamedha. The obscene ceremonial which was a prominent feature of Puruşamedha also continued alive in Aswamedha.
What is, then, the real character of Puruşamedha ? Keith, along with other scholars, believes in the existence of human sacrifice at some period of history, but he is unable to give its real character. He, like other scholars, gives only the ritual character of the institution as contained in the ritual literature i. e. later Vedas, Brāhmaṇas and Sūtras. **
☆gveda preserves the memory of ancient human sacrifice in the famous Puruşasūkta. Puruşa or Prajāpati was sacrificed by Devas. 28 Taittīrīya Brāhmaṇa elaborates it. It refers to the diffusion of Prajapati in the beings and his restoration to life through horse-sacrifice. 24 This ritual

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( 174 ) contains a great historical truth. Human sacrifice is superior to horse-sacrifice and what is not reached by the horsesacrifice is reached by human sacrifice.a5 It is expected to obtain universal pre-eminence. 26
The best could be obtained by sacrificing the best. And the best was sacrificed. Sukla Yajurveda still preserves the Sacrifice of identity of the victim who was sacrificed to
Ganapati obtain universal supremacy which meant in the ancient times the victory of one group over another. It is possible that this human sacrifice existed even in those immemorable ancient times when Samydāyas had not coalesced into Gaņas. But when Gaņa institutions were widely established, we find surer evidence of the existence of human sacrifice. When Gaņas existed in relation to each other in a warring state; the physical power of the Ganas had perforce to be increased. And there could be no better person than the Ganapati to effect it; hence it was he who had to be sacrificed. Only his sacrifice could increase the inherent power of the Gaņa to ensure victory over their adversary. The first human victim in Human Sacrifice was the Ganapati.
The victim of the Human Sacrifice is clearly addressed as Ganapati of the Gaņas; lover of the beloved and the Lord of Treasures. He is the supreme authority over the Gaņa ; its female members and riches. And this is very significant. This Mantra has not received the due attention of the Scholars it rightly deserves.
Ganapati was presented with the riches and females of the Gaņa so that he may enhance his inherent power and energy. Women and riches were the only stimulants known to the primitive Aryans. Ganapati was the symbol of the tribal collective. When the power and energy of the Gaņa

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had to be raised to the highest level to meet the exigencies of war with the foreign enemy ; the tribal collective's morale had to be immensely increased. Then the minor leaders the Devas considered the sacrifice of the Gaņapati inevitable to give that supreme incentive to the Gaņa. The tribal feast prepared with the blood and bones of the immolated Gaņapati was commonly participated by all the Gaņa-members. With the blood and bones of Ganapati in his person, every member of the tribal collective became Ganapati and with such high spirits ; the whole self-acting armed Gana went to the battlefields to smash the adversaries and win victory. The best soldier of the newly formed Gaņa formed with the remaining members of the two opposing Gaņas became the new Ganapati. And this process was repeated as many times as the necessities of the situations warranted. This obnoxious practice of human sacrifice was not only very natural but the only known stimulus to the Gaņa which truly helped in the augmentation of the prosperity of Gaņas through millenniums,
Keith believes the shedding of human blood in the Purusamedha and also that the victim was eaten.* This
Eating of also explains the diffusion and unification of Human Blood Prajāpati. Purusasūkta of Rgveda also stands explained. Devas are none else than the minor leaders of the Gaņa and victim, the Puruşa, is none else than the supreme authority of the Gaņa, the Gaņapati.
The obscene Ceremonial referred to above describes in detail the acts of Mahişi, Kumāri, Vāvāta and Parivrkta ; referred to as four chief queens of the sacrificer king. Also that Mahişi lied in state of sexual intercourse with the victim. What does this ritualisation indicate ?
Kumāri means a maiden.29 It has been used only once in gveda in the sense of an adolescent persons. The present

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( 176 ) context indicates that a Kumāri referred to in Aśvamedha ceremonial had already been enjoying sexual intercourse with Promiscuous Sex. man, one or more than one. Vāvātā has not
Relationship at all been referred to in ßgveda. MonierWilliams gives the word the meaning beloved, dearl. She appears to be a woman endeared by all; an over-sexed woman. Parivěktā is an avoided or despised womans. This word has been only once used in this sense in Ķgveda.83 Word Mahisi is of greatest significance in this context. It means a woman of high rank34. It has been used thrice in Ķgveda. In two contexts, the word has been given the meaning of 'mighty' and 'vast' by Wilson on the authority of Sāyaṇa35. In the third context, it has been translated as 'queen'. In this Ķc, word 'Vadhu' appears in the sense of Indra's wife who is devoted to her lord and attends him when he brings his aocompanying Mahişi. Indra had only one queen the Indrāni and the Vrsakapi hymn narrates the jealousy of Indrāni who had always been a tormented wife due to the voluptuous nature of Indra. This Mahişi is not the chief queen of Indra, the Indrāni, but appears to be a most beautiful public damsel with whom Indra might have been enjoying love affairs. Word Mahişi means most beautiful, most attractive, most gallant and mighty. She was the chief lady of the Gaņa.
These four kinds of women appear to be the four categories of womanhood in the Gaņa. If they are given the meaning of queens of the king; the meanings of these words appear strange in the context. It is obnoxious for a king to have a wife known as Kumāri ; or to have a queen publicly famous for her over-sexuality or a despised queen. It appears that four of the many queens of a Horse-Sacrificing king were given these ritualistic epithets for that very purpose. It appears unnatural for a king to subject his dear queens,

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( 177 ) including his chief queen, to such an ignoble custom if the rite had not been a long continuing custom. If it was a long continuing practice ; then the practice might have followed for the fear of the denial of rítualistic fruits. This definitely points to an actual state of affairs in the remotest ancient times when Gaņa women were divided only on the grounds of the degrees of their sexuality rather than on relationship of husband and wife.
The obscene ceremonial points towards two historical events. Firstly, when the Ganapati was sacrificed, there was great jubilation. Members of the Gaņa took to large scale festivities; cornmunal feastings and promiscuous sexual intercourse. This is clearly evidenced by the dialogues between the women, the Vāvātā etc., and men, the Adhvaryu, etc., with a sight on the sexual organ of each other. Secondly, he was the lord of all riches and he was entitled to have sexual intercourse with any and every woman of the Gaņa. The best and the most beautiful woman of the Gaņa, the Mahişi, was for the Ganapati. When this real state of affairs was later ritualised; both these events were blended together and transmitted to posterity in the performance of this obscene ceremonial.
Iranāryans did not know of Aśvamedha as contained in Vedic ritual. Though ritualisation of Aryan institutions had begun during their sojourn in Iran ; it had not yet largely developed. We do not find any mention of Ašvamedha in Avesta. When Brahmāryans after their final victory in Dāsrājana War, settled in Brahmävarta ; the original sipritual forces of Bhārata reacted upon the Āryan institutions. The Aryans had to change the character of their institutions to suit their changed conditions of life in Bhārata to cement their victory. Many Bhāratīyans were converted to Brāhmanism who took with them their original spiritual
12

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( 178 )
86
culture in that new fold. The obnoxious practice of Puruşamedha was largely abundant and substituted by Aśvamedha. Whatever lingering vestiges of Puruşamedha were retained, were in the ritualistic form. Instead of the sacrifice of Ganapati, the sacrifice of a purchased Brāhmaṇa or Ksatriya could also do. The head of a man along with the heads of horse, ox, sheep and goat continued to be placed on the bottom layer of the brick-altar to impart stability. The state of promiscuity was reflected in the enactment of the obscene ceremonial and the attending dialogues. We find performance of Puruşamedha, in its ritual form, in Bharata Circa 200 B.C. which is conclusively proved by the excavations at Kausambi.38 King Pusya Mitra performed this Puruşamedha in historical times.
Puruşamedha, in its original form, was the social activity of a tribal collective. This social aspect of the Yajña, the Gaṇa-activity, clearly proves, firstly, that the whole society believed in and acted upon the utility of promiscuous sex-relationship; secondly, it acted as a self-acting armed organisation to establish its supremacy over the known neighbouring surroundings. This age depicts the life of a Gana as an ever-growing and ever-developing institution.
This social state of Gana promiscuity during the ancient times gets further corroboration from Mahabharata. Some legends throw startling light over it.
and Kunti
Surya proposes to Kunti to have sexual intercourse with him in her maiden state. She objects to it on the Legend of Surya ground that it may not be against Dharma but if it was religious, she was prepared to cohabit with him during her menstruation period and she was prepared to satisfy his desire. Surya, removes her objection by tracing her maiden state, Kanya to Kan 'to

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( 179;
Mother
desire', that she was always free, that father, mother and other collaterals had no right to interfere in her desire ; that a virgin has the right to cohabit with a person of her choice. All the females are free and so are males ; This is the normal course of the world; all others are unnatural barriers. She would not transgress Dharma by cohabiting with him.39 Kunti cohabited with Deva Sūrya (Savitri of Vedic Age.)
A Brāhmaṇa caught hold of the hands of Svetaketu's mother and took her away in the presence of his father
Uddālaka. Svetaketu became angry. Legend of Svetaketu's
Uddalaka told him not to be angry because
this was the ancient Dharma Women of all Varņas are free as cows and animals.40 There were no restrictions on women in ancient times. They could cohabit with anybody at any time if they so desired. At that time, if the women discarded their husbands and behaved as they pleased, right from their unmarried state, it was not considered irreligious; that indeed was the Dharma. This ancient Dharma is still practised by the birds and animals who are free from sexual jealousy. This Dharma visualised by the ancients is respected by the sages and still prevails in the Uttarakuru. This practice favourable to the women is eternal Dharma.“ We may not forget that Uttarakuru was the original home of the Aryans.
Promiscuity was the general Dharma or the social code of the Aryan conduct in their original home--the land of Uttarakuru. This Dharma was accepted by the Rșis as a social law till the times of Uddalaka. Uddālaka and Śvetaketu flourished during the age of Janaka of Videha who flourished in the seventh century B. C.42 This is perfectly clear that the Promiscuous state of sex-relationship continued from the earliest times to the seventh century

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(180) B. C. amongst the Brahmāryan in Bhārat. Śvetaketu, later, might have ordained monogamy.
Balbikas indulged in sexual pleasure in the presence of everybody and with anybody, even with close relations, Other Instances with father, mother, son, mother-in-law of Promiscuity maternal uncle, daughter, grandsons and kindred and also with friends, guests as well as slaves. Women are shameless and know no bounds in sexual pleasures. Intoxicated with liquor, they dance in public, discarding their clothes and with no restraint over the sex life, they indulge in it at their caprice. People of Karņa, son of Sürya from Kuntí, enjoyed sex-liberality." The Brahmāryans took this social custom to central Bhārata. Deva Agni had sexual intercourse with the daughter of Mahismata 45 of Mahişmati and introduced this Dharma in that region also.
Laxity of morals bordering promiscuity persisted during post-Vedic times also. Agni had sexual intercourse with the wives of six of the Saptarşis: 46 These Saptarsis were the protectors of the Brahmāryan kingdom when the son of Durgāha was in bonds. This alludes to Dāsrājña War which was fought Circa 1150 B.C.47 The Rgvedic Saptarşis are Bhardwāja, Viśwāmitra, Vaśiştha, Kaśyapa, Atri, Bhrgu and Angiras, Indra had sexual intercourse with Gautama's wife A halyā.18 Varuņa abducted the wife of Brāhmaṇa Utathya.49 Viśwāmitra, Ušīnara, Divodāsa and Haryašva had sexual pleasures with Mādhavi, who regained virginity after each set of cohabitations and begot sons for them upon her.60 Matsyagandhā begot Vyāsa from Parāšara in maiden state and Chitrāngada and Vichitravīrya from Santanu after marriage.62 Vyāsa was born after the so-called Mahābhārata War.62 Hence he cannot be placed earlier than 1000 B.C. He is not mentioned in gveda which was redacted Circa

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1000 B.C. Morgan also maintains that monogamy in the Aryan family (race) was not permanently established until after civilization commenced 53 Circa 1000 B.C. Altekar is wrong in holding that the traces of promiscuity that we get in the epic have to be referred to pre-Vedic times." They may easily be referred to the post-Vedic times, till, at least, the Upanisadic times.
We, thus, find historical relationship of Promiscuity with Puruşamedha (Human Sacrifice). Puruşamedha was not only practised by the Aryans in Bharata but by their European kinsmen also. It was a universal Aryan institution.55
Promiscuity and Puruşamedha were the regular features of the Greekāryan Society. Zeus is the greatest Greekāryan god who may be identified with Dyaus of gveda. Then gods and men lived together. Zeus was father of gods and men. Dynosus and Herakles were born to him from mortal wives. His real spouse Hera was his sister others being Dione, Europa, Metes and Eurynome. Hera, separated from her former husband and bathing in the spring of Kanathose, like Madhavi, regained virginity. She could bear children even without Zeus. Typhaon of Delphi, Ares and Hephaistos were such children of Hera but not from Zeus. Hera, in her maiden state, like Kunti, had sexual intercourse with Eurymedon and like Karna, conceived a son of himPrometheus. He took to wife two daughters of Gaia, his grandmother, sister of his mother Rhea, Themis and Mnemosyne. Helena, the prime cause of Trojan War, was born of the illegal sexual union of Zeus and Nemesis. Zeus begot Leda wife of king Tyndarlos of Sparta, by illegal sexual intercourse, Kastor and Polydenkes. Persephone was born to Demeter, sister of Zeus, from Zeus who later ravished his own daughter, Persephone. Zeus coupled with his own
Promiscuity and Puruşamedha in
Greece

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( 182 ) mother Rhea. Pallas Athene was born of Metes, wife of Zeus, but by Zeus or by Pallas or by Brontes is not certain. Zeus had love games and sexual intercourses with lo, Leto, Kallisto, mother of Britomartis, Maia, Selene and Niobe, the first mortal women to be loved by Zeus. Zeus had sexual intercourses with any and all women. Man had the right to bestow progeny upon all women.56
Aphrodite was born in Sea. She took pleasures only in Nerites, son of Nereus but on his refusing to accompany her to Olympus, Eros went with her. She had illegal loves with Ares, Hephaistos was her husband and Pygmalion, her lover. She cohabited with Anchisis, the mortal man, Hermes was her brother and lover and both gave birth to Eros. Eros was son and lover of Aphrodite. She was daughter of either Ouranos or Zeus. Priapos was her son from Hermes or Dionysus or Adonis or Zeus himself. Priapos was father and son to Hermes. 67
Apollon was son of Zeus from Leda. He had his paramours is boys and girls. He loved maiden Daphne. He coupled with Dryope. Virgin huntress Kyrene was ravished by Apollo. Koronis was his beloved.88 The same story is repeated in the lives of Poseidon, Helios, Prometheus, Dionysos aad Gaia. Gaia, the mother of all Greek Devas, wife of Ouranos, was loved by Pantos and Helios.69 All these Greek heroes and commanders existed a bit earlier or later than the famous Trojań War fought Circa 1183 B. C.60 This description clearly discloses the state of sex-relationship in the Greekāryan society by the end of second millennium B.C. There was no restriction of sexual intercourses with father, mother, grandfather, grandmother, son, daughter, sister, brother, cognates, agnates, guests and any member of the society. Promiscuity reigned supreme in the Greekāryan society in this age.

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( 183 ) We find traces of Puruşamedha in Greekāryan society in this age. Kouretes people were banished by Zeus to under-world They came like spirits. They attacked the playing boy, tore him into seven pieces, roasted it over the fire. The child was horned. It shows the sacrifice of a sacred boy. The horns were the emblem of spiritual power and authority in the pre-Olympian Greece. The horns are those of the bull and bull was the manifestation of the supreme God for the ancient Cretans. Learches was slain by Athamas and thrown into a cauldron of seething water.63
We find the echo of the sacrifice of Gaņapati in Greek legends also. Ouranos has been identified with Varuņa," a
Ganapati. Ouranos was sacrificed and from Sacrifice of Ganapati in his blood drops were born the three Erinneys Greece
and also Aphrodite referred to above. He is sacrificed by his son Cronus. The Hittites know Cronus as Kumarbi and Ouranos as Anu.65 Hades, Poseidon and Zeus, counterparts of Mitra, Varuna and Indra ( Indra is son of Dyaus ) represent the three Hellenic invasions; Ionian, Aeolian and Achaean. Early Hellenic chieftains who became sacred kings of the oak and ash cults took the titles Zeus' and 'Poseidou' and were obliged to die at the end of their set reigns. The myth of Zeus' annual death lingered on in Christian times. It was due to the title of Zeus' born by petty kings who had to be sacrificed at a set time. Aeolian chiefs were duly sacrificed at the end of their reigns. The victory of the Achaeans ended the tradition of Royal Sacrifices but the human sacrifices even continued till later times. In Arcadia, boys were still sacrificially eaten even in the Christian era.97
The Aryans lived in a constant state of warfare. They needed male progeny for fighting battles. The position of

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women in such a nomadic, war-mongering, barbaric society. seeking pastures new cannot but be insignificant. Their only function is to constantly work as a child manufacturing factory. Aryans always cherished sons, never daughters. Ganapatis and Devas produced sons. Zeus had the right to produce sons on all women. Indra also enjoyed the same right. Abundance of sons is constantly prayed for in Rgveda, alongwith cattle and land, but no desire for daughters is expressed. The desire for sons is natural in a patriarchal organisation of society. 68 The Greekāryans also revered the male side of life. Their society was also patriarchal.69 Women, like other members, are subservient to the patriarch. Ganapati is the earliest patriarch.
The crystallisation of this state of Aryan social affairs is found in the Aryan word ‘Manuş'. It may be traced to
.. vman, in the sense of 'to think, believe, Significance of
the Word imagine, suppose, conjecture, appear as, pass •Manuş"
ut for.709 Manu is he who is supposed or imagined to exist. In earlier times, the word Manu stood for the whole manhood, not including womanhood. Then it came to, in later times, signify the representative Man, the father of man in the sense of a real individual.72 Words Manuşa, Manuşya, Mānava, Mānuşa, and other derivatives of the word 'Manus' invariably mean Mankind, not including womankind." The partiarchal Aryan Society having promiscuous social state had no interest in knowing as to who is the son of whom. He belonged to the whole society (Gaña) as an inseparable part of it, not independent of it. Who placed the seed and who gave birth was of no significance to the ancient Aryan Society.
These social institutions of the undivided Aryans pursued tribal activities which were known as Yajñas to the

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primitive Aryans Yajña was Ganic activity in Military, economic and social spheres. Collectively, Yajña was the tribal activity of the Gaņa.
References 1. Siddheswar Varma, Op. Cit. ; Pages 66, 82. 2. Moiner-Williams ; Op. Cit. ; Page 838. 3. Siddheswar Varma ; Op. Cit.; Pages 14.42, 116. 4. (1) Rgveda 4.5.13 8.
अभि प्रवन्त समनेव योषा': कल्याण्य१': स्मय॑मानोसो अग्निम् । घृतस्य धाराः समिधो' नसन्त ता जुषाणो हर्यति जातवेदाः ।। (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.) Op. Cit. ; Vol. II Page 716.
(3) H. H. Wilson ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. III Page 112. 5. (1) Rgveda 7.1.2.5.
स्वाध्यो३' वि दुरो' देवयन्तोऽशिश्रयू रथयुर्दे वेताता। पूर्वी शिशुं न मातरा' रिहाने समग्रुवो न समनेष्वजन ॥ (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); op. Cit. ; Vol. III Page 272. 6. (1) Rgveda 9.6.1.47.
एष वनेन वयसा पुनानस्तिरो वपा'सि दुहितुर्दधानः । वसानः शमंत्रिवरूथमप्सु होते व याति समनेषु रेमन ॥ (2) Rgveda-Sainhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit. ; Vol. IV ; Page 218. 7. (1) Rgveda 2.2.5.7.
प्र ते नाव न समने वचस्युव ब्रह्मणा यामि सर्वनेषु दाधूषिः ।
कु विनो अस्य वचंसो निबोधिदिन्द्रमुत्सन वसुन: सिचामहे ॥ (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit. ; Vol. II Page 68. 8. (1) Rgveda 6.6.14.3-4.
वक्ष्यन्तीवेदा गनीगन्ति कर्ण प्रियं सखायं परिषस्वजाना। योषेव शिङ्क्त वितताधि धन्वज्या इयं समने पारयन्ती॥ ते आचरन्ती समनेव योषा' मातेव पुत्रं विभृतामु पस्थे ।
अप शन्विध्यतां संविदाने आन।' इमे विष्फु रन्ती अमित्रान् ।। (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit.; Vol. III ; Page 256. 9. (1) Rgveda 8.7.3.9.
समनेव वपुष्यतः कृणवन्मानुषा युगा। विदे तदिन्द्रक्षेतनमध श्रुतो भद्र इन्द्रस्य एतयः ।। (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit. ; Vol. IV + Page 819.

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( 186 ) 10. Rgveda 1.14.8.4; 1.14.8.10%; 2.2.17.1. 11. V.M. Apte ; Social and Economic conditions in the age of the
Rc-Samhita ; in Vedic Age ; 1957 ; Page 391. 12. Rgveda 1.9.5.6. 13. (1) Rgveda 7.2.16.11.
(2) S. R. Shastri ; Women in the Vedic Age ; 1951 ; Page 03. 14. Rgveda 1.24.7.8; 6.1.9.5; 7.3.10.2-4; 7.6.23; 8.4.7.5.
उत ने ई मरूतो वृद्धसेनाः स्मद्रोदसी समनसः सदन्तु । पृषदश्वासोऽवनयो न रथा' रिशादसो मित्रयुजो न दे वाः॥ ध्वं ज्योतिर्निहितं दृशये के मनो जविष्ठं पतयत्स्वन्तः । विश्वे देवाः समनसः सकेता एक ऋतुमभि वि यन्ति साधु । प्र यज्ञ एतु हेत्वो न सप्तिरूद्यच्छध्वं समनसो घृ ताचीः । स्तृणीति बहिरध्वराय साधूवर्वा शोचींषि देवयून्यस्थुः ।।
आ पुत्रासो न मातरं विभुत्रा : सानौ' देवासो बहिर्षः सदन्तु । मा विश्वाची' विथ्या मनवत्वग्ने मा नो दे वताता सुधस्कः ॥ ते सोषपन्त जोषमा यजत्रा ऋतस्य धारा': सुदुधा दुहानाः । ज्येष्ठं वो अद्य मह आ वसूनामा गन्तन समनोसो यति छ । पीवो' अन्नों रयिवृधः सुमे धाः श्वे तःसिषक्ति नियुता'ममिश्रीः । ते वायवे समनसो वि तस्थु विश्वेन्नरः स्वपत्यानि' चक्रुः ।।
आ नो" अद्य समनसो गन्ता विश्वे' सजोषसः ।
ऋचा गिरा मरूतो देव्यदिते सदने पस्त्ये' महि ॥ 15. Macdonell and Keith ; Vedic Index; 1958 ; Vol. II Page 429. 16. Macdonell and Keith; Op. Cit. 17. A.C. Das; Rgvedic Culture ; 1925 ; Pages 233-234. 18. Rgveda 1.12.2.4; 1.17.2.18; 1.20.1.3; 1.21.13.4; 9.2.8.5. 19. D. R. Karmarkar ; The Asvamedha-Its original Signification ;
A.B.O.R.I. ; Vol. XXX; Pages 332-345. 20. Sankhayāyana Srauta Sūtra 16. 13. 7-8; Translated by W.
Caland and Edited by Lokeshchandra ; 1953 ; Page 456. 21. Sankhyāyana Srauta Sutra; Chapters 16. 10 to 16. 14 Pages
452-459. 22. (1) A. B. Keith ; The Religion and Philosophy of the Vedas
and Upanişads ; 1925; Pages 347-348. (2) A. B. Keith ; The Veda of the Black Yajus School ; 1914 ;
Pages CXXXVII-CXL 23. Rgveda 10. 8. 5. 16 24. Taittiriya Brahmana 3.9.8

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25. Sankhyāyana Srauta Sutra ; Op. Cit. ; page 432
26. Griffith; The Texts of the White Yajurveda; 1957; Page 303 27. Sukla-Yajurveda 23. 19
गुणानां त्वा ग॒णप॑तिऽ हवामहे प्रियाणां त्वा प्रियप॑तिऽ हवामहे निध॒नां त्वा निधिमतिऽ हवामहे वसो मम । श्रहमजानि गम धमा gag 11
canf
28. A. B. Keith; The Veda of Black Yajus School, 1914; P. CXXXVIII
29. Monier-Williams; Op. Cit.; Page 292. 30. Rgveda 8. 5. 1. 8
31. Monier-Williams; Op. Cit.; Page 947 32. Monier-Williams; Op. Cit.; Page 601 33. Rgveda 10. 9. 13. 11
34. Monier-Williams; Op. Cit.; Page 383
35. Rgveda 5.1.2.2; 5.2.11.7; 5. 3. 5. 3.
36. Sankhyayana Srauta Sutra ; Op. Cit. ; 14. 10. 9; Page 453
37. Satapatha Brāhmaṇa 7. 5. 2. 1.
38. G. R. Sharma ; Excavation at Kaushambi ; 1960; Page 15.
39. Mahabharata (Cr. Ed.) 3. 291. 8-16.
40. Mahabharata; 1. 113. 11-13
41.
Mahabharata; 1. 113. 3-7.
42. H. C. Roychowdhary ; Op. Cit.; Pages 49, 52.
43. Mahabharata; 8. 27. 75-85.
44. Mahabharata ; 8. 30. 83, 86-87
45. Mahabharata; 2. 28. 24
46.
Mahabharata ; 3. 214. 7-17
47.
R. C. Jain; Origin and Chronology of Bhṛgus; to be published Shortly in A. B. O. R. I.
48. (1) Mahabharata; 12. 258. 47-84
(2) Satapatha Brāhmaṇa 3. 3. 4. 18
49. Mahabharata (Bombay Edition) 13. 154
50. Mahabharata; 5. 114. 16; 5.115. 7. 15; 5. 115. 17. 20; 5.117.16-17. 51. Mahabharata; 1. 99. 9-12
52. I Consider Mahabharata the epic-ization of the Dasrajna War 53. L. H. Morgan; Op. Cit.; Page 477.
54. A. S. Altekar; Position of Women in Hindu Civilization; 1956 Page 31.
55. I. Eggling; Satapatha Brahmaņa; Sacred Books of the East Series: Introduction to Part V; Pages XVII, XVIII, XXXIV; 1900

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56. Carl Kerenyi ; The Gods of the Greeks ; 1958 ; Pages 26, 35.
84, 86, 140, 94-95, 99, 100, 140. 57. Carl Kerenyi ; Op. cit.; Pages 62, 66, 69, 152, 156. 58. Carl Kerenyi ; Op. Cit. ; Pages 115 ; 123, 125, 238. 59. Carl Kerenyi ; Op, Cit. ; Pages 18, 46, 161. 60. J. B. Bury ; A History of Greece ; Page 42. 61. Carl Kerenyi ; Op. cit.; Page 224. 62. Carl Kerenyi ; Op. cit.; Page 97. 63. Carl Kerenyi ; Op. cit.; Page 233. 64. F. Maxmuller : The Vedas : 1956 ; Page 108. 65. Robert Graves ; The Greek Myths ; Vol. I Pages 38-39. 66. Robert Graves ; Op. cit.; Vol. I Pages 43, 165, 211. 67. Robert Graves ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. I Page 43. 68. V.M. Apte ; Social and Economic Conditions (Book V in
Vedic Age); 1957; Page 390. 69. N.G.L. Hemmond ; A History of Greece ; 1959; Page 39. 70. Monier-Williams ; Op. cit. ; Page 783. 71. Rgveda 1.8.1.19; 1.13.7.16; 1.16.9.2; 1.20.6.9; 2.4.1.13;
4.3.5.1 ; 5.4.1.6 ; 8.7.4.1. 72. Rgveda 1.6.3.4; 1.9.2.1; 1.8.1.7; 1.10.1.1 ; 1.19.5.1 ; 2.12.5.
6-8; 3.1.2.1; 3.2.13.2 ; 4.1.1.9; 5.1.3.4; 6.1.41; 7.1.8.2; 8.4.3.13. 1.11.2.4 ; 2.2.7.1 : 4.1.1.13 ; 7.5.19.5; 4.5.2.1 ; 8.4.10.3. 2.1.2.2 ; 5.4.8.4 ; 6.1.12.2; 6.2.1.3 ; 7.1.4.1 ; 8.4.3.26; 8.6.4.12 ; 9.1.12.7.

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CHAPTER V
GANA IN HISTORY
1. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS
We are, now, in a position to recapitulate the main characteristics of Gana. Fortunately, Atharvaveda preserves a faint recollection of these characteristics. Sāyaṇa includes the following passages of Atharvaveda into GanaKarmāņi; the functions of the Gana. Griffith translates the passages as follows :
"Intelligent, submissive, rest united, freindly and kind, bearing the yoke together. Come, speaking sweetly each one to the other.
I make you one-intentioned and one-minded. Let what you drink, your share of food be
common: together, with one common bond I bid you. Serve, Agni, gathered round him like the spokes
about the chariot nave.
With binding charm I make you all united.
obeying one sole leader and one-minded.""
The following two Ṛgvedic hymns also throw light upon the subject:
"To him I show my ten extended fingers. I speak the truth. No wealth am I withholding.""
"These, thy Gaņās, who stand before thee to distribute wealth, entertain towards us kindly intentions, offering unlimited riches: bright-born goddess, (who are) sincerely praised for (the gift of) horses."
These references disclose the real nature of the Gana. Gana was a unit; it was a human assemblage; a human

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( 190 ) collective. They were one-intentioned and one-minded which indicates the tribal character of the Gaņa. All obeyed one sole leader, the Ganapati. Devas, like Agni and Uşā, served the Gaņa. All wealth belonged to the Gaņa which was distributed amongst the Gaņa-members according to the accepted principles of the age. Gaņapati had sovereign control over the members and wealth of the Gaņa. Horses and chariots were of prime importance to the Āryan Gaņa. Food and drink were common. All the Gaņa-members had to 'offer' all the wealth they earned in times of peace or as spoils of war to the Ganapati. Men and women had singleness of purpose. Acquisition of wealth and victories in battles was the common bond. They accomplished everything with joint labour in their Yajñic activities. The functions of the most ancient Aryan Society, the Gaņa, were founded upon commonalty.
The main characteristics of the Gaņa are :
1. Gana was a tribal collective. A Gaņa-member had no individual independent existence. He existed only as a part of Gaņa collective.
2. Gana was the supreme owner of the means of productions in agriculture and industry. The individual production had to be offered to the Gaņa for increased tribal prosperity. . 3. Wealth and property of the Gaņa was commonly owned. It was commonly distributed. The basic standard was the integrity, unity and strength of Gaņa.
4. The military, economic and social activity of the Gana were tribal. These tribal activities were known as Yajñas.
5. There was no family, no marriage, Gana-people enjoyed promiscuous sex-relationship.

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( 191 ) 6. The supreme political authority of the Gaņa was centred in Ganapati. He was the supreme autocrat. But minor leaders, the Deva, also wielded effective political power, especially during the periods of national emergencies in Gaņa-life. Devus acted as members of Gaņa-council.
7. There was no election or selection of Ganapati. The best hero in a tribal war amonst the Devas emerged as the next Gaņapati.
8. Gaņapati assumed the name of his Gaņa. The name signified the name of the tribal collective. It was a continuing office. Various Gaņapaties of the same name presided over a Gaņa through the long course of history.
9. No religious rites had been developed in this ancient stage of society. The leaders were beginning to develop natural Magic but it was still in a nascent form.
10. Gana was continually in the process of growth. It was a self-acting military organisation. Widely diffused Gaņas were getting to be unified generally by acts of war. The strangers and foreigners, after their defeat, were assimilated in the victorious Gaña. No distinction was further observed and all the members, old and new, became inseparable parts of the steelframe Āryan tribal collective.
References 1. Atharvaveda 3. 30. 5-6-7 ज्यायस्वन्तश्चितिनो मां वी यौ'ष्ट संराधयन्तः सधुरारन्तः । अन्यो अन्यस्मै वल्गु वदन्त एतं सघ्रीचीनान्व: संमनसस्कृणोमि ॥ ayat gar ng at's #: Ayia utaa' reat' gafsh 1 सम्यञ्चोऽग्निं संपर्यतारा नाभिमिवाभितः ॥ सध्रीचोनान्वः संमैनसस्कृणोम्येकश्नुष्टोन्स वननेन सर्वान् । देवा इवामृत रक्षमाणाः सायंप्रातः सैमनसो वो' अस्तु ।

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( 192 ) 2. Rgveda 10. 3. 5. 12
यो वः सेनानीमै हतो गनस्य राजा वातस्य प्रथमो बभूव ।
तस्मै' कृणोमि न धना' रूणमि दशाहं प्राचीस्तद्वतं वदामि ॥ 3. Rgveda 5. 6. 7. 7.
यच्चिदिध ते' गना इमे छदयन्ति मघतये । तरि चद्वष्टयो दधुदंदतो राधो प्रह'यस सुजाते अश्वसूनृते ॥॥

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2. MORGAN ON GAŅA Morgan maintains that the principle branches of the Aryan family (race) were organised in gentes, when first Gaņa Society
known historically, sustaining the inference say that when one undivided people, they were thus organised. Homer's are the most ancient literary records to Morgan. Rgveda seems to have been unknown to him. He considers civilization to have commenced with the Asiatic Greeks with the composition of the Homeric poems about 850 B. C. and among the Eruopean Greeks about a century later with the composition of the Hesiodic poems. The Grecian society till this time lived in the gentile society in which they had lived from time immemorial. The people were now seeking to transfer themselves out of this gentile society into a political society based upon territory and upon property. This political society had begun to be established in the sixth century B. C. The Grecian gentile social organisation persisted till that period. The chief characteristics of the Grecian genos are :
1. Common religious rites,
2. A common burial place. Grecian Genos
3. Mutual rights of succession to property of deceased members.
4. Reciprocal obligations to help, defence and redress of injuries.
5. The right to intermarry in the gens in cases of orphan daughters and heiresses.
6. The possession of common property, an archon and a treasurer. 7. The limitation of descent to the male line,
13

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( 194 )
8. The obligation not to marry in the gens except in specified cases.
9. The right to adopt strangers in the gens.
10. The right to elect and depose its Chiefs.
The Roman and Iroquois Gens had almost similar patterns with insignificant differences."
Tribal Nature
The items Nos. 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 are self-evident. They are tribal in nature. Morgan has given these characteristics of the Grecian gens in the first half of the first millennium B. C. The Greekāryans had by that time coalesced with the Cretan and pre-Olympian people of Greece and the Egean had assimilated many of their habits, customs, laws and institutions. These characteristics are of the Grecian gens formed after such admixture and commingling of two opposite cultures; the one superior in arms and the other superior in peace. The Greekāryans begun a settled life after Dorian military conquests finally established their political suzerainty Circa 1000 B. C. Till that time, property belonged to the genos, not to any member of it. When the individual families comprising a genos began to assert their independence due to the impact of new forces; the authority of the genos over the tribal property began to grow weaker. The pre-Aryan Greeks had developed the institutions of private property. The Greekāryans had now vast control over lands and other natural resources. Every family could be independently satisfied. The environment of the hardships of nature and want of material objects had gone. Progress and prosperity had downed. The Greekāryans borrowed the system of private property and succession from their vanquished adversaries. The incorporation of the right of succession in the Grecian gens is a foreign intrusion,

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( 195 ) The tribal Greekāryan society had promiscuous sexrelationship. There was no marriage as such. Nobody
could assert that he is the son of such Borrowing of
Family and and such person. Paternity of children is Marriage System
unknown to the institution of gens and can never be deterimined. But this animal Dharma soon came to be regarded as reprehensible and abhorrent. Their new hosts were superior to them in human Dharma. This ancient Dharma began to disintegrate in Greece, as also in Bhārata. Monogamy was practised in the pre-Aryan times in the region and polygamy, even, was strictly prohibited. The Aryans in Greece, West Asia and Bhārata began to abandon this animal Dharma. Monogamy presupposes the existence of another family. It decides paternity, impossible in gens. This region did not know the punaluan system of marriage. Marriage between brother and sister born together (the Yugalics of the ancient hoary past) had long gone obsolete. When the Āryan families became smaller, they had to find other families for boys and girls to marry. As the system of family was patriarchal; it was considered useful to retain the orphan daughters and heiresses in the family to check the going out of the family property that they were allowed to marry in the gens. The adoption of the family system and the institution of marriage outside the family were also borrowed by the Aryans from the pre-existing social system.
The Greekāryans brought the tribal system of society when they poured down upon Greece south of the Danube.
They had no experience of political society And of Private property and based on private property and territoriality in
the sixth century B. C. The local elective republics pre-existing in Greece, Egypt, West Asia and Bhārata were the independent constiuents of a widespread
Succession

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( 196 ) democratic homogeneous society without central authority but indissolubly bound together by force of spiritual ideology. The republican institutions reacted upon the Aryan tribal institutions. The Greeks remembered that those of them who first settled in Greece adopted that body of laws which they found already established by the inhabitants ; in like manner also those who now live near them have the very laws which Minos first drew up. The Greeks borrowed the institution of Ephori (elected chiefs), senate and public franchise from the Minoan Cretans4. The Cretan institutions of Koouoi and council were the forerunners of the Greek institutions of Ephori and Senate. These Cretan local republics introduced the element of election and deposition of chiefs in the Greekāryan genos system.
Morgan concedes that this right of election and deposition in the Grecian gentes in the early period persisted
Borrowing of from ancient times. Presumptively, it was Elective System possessed by them while in the upper states of Barbarism. Each gens had its archon, elective or hereditary is a question. Morgan missed the actual historical process. He wrongly assumed that the inhabitants of Greece of the Minoan race were the same as the Hellenic Greeks. The presumption of the Hellenic race in Greece from times immemorial has been disproved. The preHellenic elective system in Greece belonged to the nonAryan pre-Aryan Minoan Greeks.
Though the victorious three Dorian tribes were subdivided into the old pattern of gene and staitoi (equivalent to phratries) they began to re-orient their institutions from family to state. Women were being largely segregated from men. Though the framework of tribes, phratries and Gene subsisted, its political significance began to grow

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( 197 ) weaker and weaker. The Dorians had reduced the earlier population to serfdom and slavery who belonged to the non-enfranchised class. Only the warrior class was a franchised community. The weakening of the Dorian tribal organisation gave birth to the concept of polis which, according to Aristotle, is a partnership of several villages which already possess the dimensions of virtual complete self-sufficiency. When many villages so entirely join themselves together as in every respect to form but one society ; that society is a city (polis). Such Dorian city states were that of Sparta, Corinth and others.
The power and authority of Basileus began to wane in the new set of circumstances. Sparta displaced it by dual kingship and then by Ephorate. Five ephors were elected by the Assembly of the People, people meaning only the Āryan people not the vanquished serfs and slaves. It can not be called kingdom, oligarchy or clemocracy. It was Aristocracy, rule by a few chosen tribal leaders; the Aryan Devas. But, significantly enough, this was the first impact of pre-Hellenic elective republican system.
Early in the seventh-century, the Athenjan republic was an aristocracy and the executive was in the hands of three annually elected officers, the archon, the king and the polemarch. Basileus was the king in charge of religious functions. Archon was the supreme judge in all suits, Polemarch was commander-in-chief also having Judicial duties."
Solon created the institutions and constructed the machinery of the Athenian democracy that could not work. This Aristocracy was replaced by Tyranny. Cleisthenes, reconstructed tribes from demes. Both the tribes and the demes were corporations with officers, assemblies and

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( 198 )
corporate property. Athenian council was a popular representative body of the enfranchised Athenians. The Athenian republic was a sort of Tribal Democracy.
Morgan is not sure that the right of election and deposition of the chiefs obtained in the Greece in the first half of the first millennium B. C. The republican traits that the Hellenes borrowed from their Minoan adversaries did not lead them to evolve a people's republic but gave them only a Tribal Democracy. The victorious nations are not in the habit of leaving their basic institutions and the Hellenes, like the Brāhmaṇas, were no exception. They retained their withering gentile organisations and adapted themselves to the forces of time and the environment of the land. That they never did with conviction and faith. They never enfranchised the whole people and no republic can be established without the willing co-operation of all the people inhabiting the land. The Greek experiment of Tribal Democracy was, therefore, a failure.
The ideas of family, private property, succession and republicanism are foreign to the basic conception of gens or Gaņa. The Tribal collective system pre-supposes commonalty. Tribal property, unfathered children and undisputed loyalty are the basic characteristics of the gens or Gaņa. The Greekāryans, like Brahmāryans, borrowed the ideas of Family, Private Property and the State from the pre-Aryan Minoan culture and civilization.
References 1. L. H. Morgan ; Op. cit.; Page 488. 2, L H. Morgan ; Op. cit.; Pages 221-224. 3. L. H. Morgan ; Op. cit.; Pages 228-229, 70, 292-293. 4. Aristotle ; Republic ; 1923 ; 1272 a ; Pages 57-58. 5. L. H. Morgan ; Op. cit.; Page 231. 6. Aristotle ; Op Cit.; 1252 b; Page 3. 7. J. B. Bury ; Op. cit.; Pages 163-164.

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Hindu Polity
3. JAYASWAL ON GANA The celebrated eminent scholar of the East, K. P. Jayaswal, has dealt with this Gaņa problem in his Monu
... mental work 'Hindu Polity'. He has tried
to establish his political thesis that Monarchy was the earliest form of Government in Ķgvedic and later Vedic times. The republican form of Government developed later. He considers the Gaņa as the ancient term for Hindu republic.
Jayaswal was initially inspired by the use of the word "Gaņa-rāyāņi' in Achārāņga Sūtra, a Jain Anga.' It means
- Gaņa-rājās. Only two republics of note Gana-rāyāpi
* existed Circa 600 B.C.; one of the Vajjis and the other of the Sākyas, a part of Košala. The Lichchhavis, a part of the Vajji Confederacy, had 7707 Gaņarājās, each Gaņa-rājā presiding over a small administrative unit. They formed a confederacy with nine Malla and Eighteen Gaņa-rājās of Kāší-Košala. We have earlier discussed both the terms, the Gaņa and the Rājan, and they are contradictory to each other. How their amalgamation took place is an interesting chapter of history,
When the Aryan Devas and the Bhāratīyan (Imam was the Western-most part of Bhārata in that age) Asuras were fighting the Asuras defeated the Devas. The Devas said, 'It is on account of our having no Rājā that the Asuras defeat us. Let us make a 'Rājā'. This state refers to the wars which the invading Iranāryans and Brahmāryans had waged with the local inhabitants of the land. Jayaswal concedes that this historical reference is to the tribal stage of the Aryans in Bhārata. Jayaswal has failed to appreciate

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( 200 )
the real significance of the event. He wrongly translates the word 'Rājā' as 'King', as is traditionally done and completely misunderstands the real nature of the Aryan Tribal Society. He did not know that Gana was the basic Aryan Society. He gave a completely wrong definition to the word Gana. He disagreed with Monier-Williams and Dr. Fleet who translated 'Gana' as 'Tribe'. He gives the word 'Gana' the meaning 'numbers'. Gaṇa-rajya, to him, means 'rule of numbers'. It was the Rule by Assembly'.
Gana was the artificial aggregation of numbers but the numbers did not rule; rather they submitted themselves to the rule of Ganapati. The 'numbers' had their 'master'. The warring and ever-migrating Aryans could not afford the civilized, settled niceties of election, re-election and deposition of their rulers. They needed ruthless, hard discipline which they amply had. Since Jayaswal, the concept Gana has been rightly given its tribal imports. The tribal stage of the invading Devas referred to in the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa clearly is the Aryan Gana society, fully discussed earlier. That Gana society had no elective element. Gana had its Ganapati, a steel frame autocratic patriarch. The tribal Aryans did not borrow the institution of kingship from their non-Aryan pre-Aryan Bhāratīya adversaries. They borrowed the institution of 'Elective Republic'. But the Aryans in Bharata, like their brothers in Greece, did not borrow in full the institution of Peoples' Republics. They retained the body of their basic Gana society and only introduced a bit of elective system to appeal to the mass members of the society. Rajan is to remain firm and hold the state like (Ganapati) Indra and (Ganapati) Brahmanaspati. The state held by him, the Rajan is made firm by Varuna, Bṛhaspati, Indra and Agni". The power and authority of the Gana and Ganapati has been kept intact. Shrewd politician, Indra,

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( 201 ) to appease the discontent of his subjects, allowed them this small concession to elect one of them as his equal in status on account of the exigencies of war. Divodāsa was the non-Deva common leader of the Aryan fighting Dāsas, Daśyus and Asuras in Iran, Arachosia and Gedrosia, and also probably in Bhārata ; and he was the first elected leader (Rājan) of the Brahmāryans. But his authority was limited by the powers of Gaņapatis. He was, all the same, first Gaņa-rājāio ; the curious blending of two opposite elements in political history; the institutions of Autocracy and Republicanism.
This Rājan or Gana-rājā was elected in the Samiti. We know pre-Brabmāryan Parişada of the Asuras. Parişada
was the elected assembly of Pañchajanāh Samiti
and other Bhāratīya republics. Parişada was known as Samiti in Atharvanic times. We know Samiti of the Pāñchāla or Košala republic which was constituted of Philosophers and statesmen. Pravāhaņa Jaivali ; supreme leader of Kośala republic, is only a Rājanya-bandhu." Rgvedic Brahmāryan had known the Parişada of their Pañchajanāh and other republican enemies. When they advanced towards east and came in contact with other republics of eastern Bhārata, they came in contact with the Samiti institution of their adversaries whom they defeated in battle or won their loyalties by conversions. The institution of Samiti is referred in Tenth Maņdal of Rgveda and in Atharvaveda, both of them belonging to Circa 800 B, C. Eastern Bhārata had great and vast republics flourishing in this age. The institution of Samiti may have been borrowed by the Brahmāryans in that age.
It does not appear probable that Samiti comprised all the people and that they exercised their franchise. The

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Atharvanic Suktas, relied upon by Jayaswal, bear the heading 'Rajñah Samvarṇam'. The word 'Varana' may be traced to Vr in the sense of 'willing, accepting'. This word does not convey the sense of direct representation. It appears that one of the great Devas was presented to the grand Council of Limited Nobility er Devaganas and he was accepted by them as their Rājan. May be, like its Greek counterpart, the institution of Ganapati might have evoked resentment due to the impact of the new set of circumstances and appeal to the wider section of society was made. That might have been Aristocracy of the Greek type. The word Varna or Samvarna do not carry the sense of election. We may not forget that the hegemony of Indra, Varuna, Bṛhaspati, Brhanaspati and Agni was still preserved.
Jayaswal also refers to Janapadas and Mahājanapadas in the sixth century B. C. Most of the Mahajanapadas, by that time, had adopted the system of absolute monarchy. The assemblies, if at all, enjoyed only advisory character. Only one or two retained their old, but diluted by the Aryan tribal way, republican system. All the pre-Olympian republics in Greece and the Ægean had been annihilated by the beginning of the first millennium B. C. Bhārata was too big and vast than the compact region of Greece and the Ægean. The Brahmāryans met great resistance from the Eastern republics of Bharata. Janaka of Videha, crossed over to the enemy camp and established monarchy, after shaking off the old republican system. The republican Lichchhavis, assisted by the republican Kāsīs, over through Videhan monarchy11 and rejoined it to its parent Vajjian republican confederacy. These republican states had to wage constant wars with the Brahmaryan tribal collectives for nearly four or five centuries. They could not maintain their peoples' republican
Janapada and Mahajanapada

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( 203 ) character as the secrets could not be maintained. Their republics per force became circumcised, Now all the people could not be associated. Only heads of the villages or other units could be consulted. That explains the existence of 7707 Lichchhavi Gañarājās. The Eastern republics borrowed the Brahmäryan institution of Gaņa, to some extent, to give effective military opposition to the foreign invaders while retaining their republican character of cohesive leadership. It is to this character of Vajjian republic that Buddha refers to the Magadhan chancellor through his disciple Ananda in his famous dialogue contained in Dīghani kāya ; Mahäparinirbāna Sutra. It is an irony of history that the victors in Greece developed the political institution of Tribal Democracy while in Bhärata ; the vanquished developed the institution of Republican Oligarchy. The vanquished in Greece did not survive to accomplish that. That accounts for the further historical events of Bhārata and Greece (and consequently in Europe, America and Australia) in different directions.
We, thus, find that the Gaņa-Way is the tribal way. Its association with Republic Way gave birth to two hybrids, in Greece and Bhārata, the Tribal Democracy and the Republican Oligarchy. The Gaņa-Way was triumphant in Greece. It hopelessly met with disaster in Bhārata.
References 1. K. P. Jayaswal ; Hindu Polity ; 1955; Pages 77-78. 2. K. P. Jayaswal; Op. cit.; Page 48. 3. Bcniprasad ; Political Theory and Administrative System
(Chapter XVII in The Age of Imperial Unity); 1953 Page 331. 4. B. C. Law; North India in sixth Century B. C. (Chapter I in
Age of the Imperial Unity); 1953 Pages 4, 7. 5. Aitareya Brahmaņa ; 1.14. 6. K.P. Jayaswal ; Op. cit.; Page 184.

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7. K.P. Jayaswal ; Op. Cit. ; Pages 22, 24. 8. (1) S. B. Chawdhari ; Ethnic settlements in Ancient India ;
1955; Page 23. He has given illustrations of Gaņas of Bhadras, Rohitakas, Āgneyas, Malvas, Kachhadas, Sārsvatas, Audumbaras, Yaudheyas, Kashmiras and others. The use of word Gapa
according to him, bears a tribal import. ) R. S. Sharma; Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient
India ; 1959; Page 82. 9. Atharvaveda 6.88.2. 10. Rgveda 1.10.3.10. 11. (1) Chhāndogya Upanişad 5.3.
(2) Byhadāraṇyaka Upanişad 6.2. 12. H.C. Roychowdhary; Op. cit.; Pages 83-84.

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4. WEST ASIA AND EGYPT
The peaceful progress of Sramaņic society in Sumer and Egypt begins to disintegrate due to the impact of the Materialista Semites; the Desert Materialists. Fifth of the Desert dynasty in Egypt is marked by immense increase in travel and trade. Egypt was steadily increasing in wealth. There was spread of luxury among the lesser people. There was also spread in education. Egypt enjoyed ordered peaceful progress. The Sixth Dynasty is remarkable for trading expedition with military escorts. Caravans travelled to the South and to Punt.' Then the Dark Period of Egyptian history begins. The Sinaitic people, probably Syrians, were in the possession of Egypt in the first Intermediate Period comprising Seventh to Tenth Dynasties. Though there were still expeditions in the beginning of the Middle Kingdom (We may now call Pharaohs as Kings, not the republican leaders) to the land of Punt but the Desert Materialism began to react strongly and Egypt took to military methods Circa 2100 B. C.
Sumer had different independent republican States at Ur, Kish, Erech, Lagash and Agade. The ordered peaceful progress under the republican Šramaņic society continued till the Semitic Sargon of Agade, violently subjugated the region of Sumer and Agade and unified it. This even took place Circa 2380 B. C. Sargon, with his bow and arrow, achieved military success over his civilized and peaceable adversaries. Amorite Hammurabi won military success over Babylon Circa 1783 B, C, to be violently displaced by the Aryan Kassites Circa 1530 B. Ç.'

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( 206 ) Sumer and Egypt were under the physical occupations of the Materialists of the Desert when Materialists of the Materialists of the Mountains poured the Mountains.upon West Asia Circa 2000 B. C. We find Asiāryans occupying West Asia in Anatolia and Iran. Irānāryans and Hittitāryans respectively reach Anatolia and Iran Circa 2000 B. C. The whole second millennium in Western Asia is a life and death struggle between the forces of arms and the forces of peace and the later, in spite of its physical subjugation, ultimately triumphed. The Hittites consolidated a great power in Asia Minor and the adjoining regions. The Irānāryans trifurcated into the Kassites, the Hurrians and the Brahmas. The Hurrians; Mittanis were a constituent of them; took possession of Northern West Asia.
These materialists of the Mountains were the nomadic, barbarian hordes, with horse and chariot who avalanched
West Asia. The Hittites persistently followed Hittites
their original characteristics marked by infiltration of environmental factors. The reactions of the local culture and civilzaton influenced them earliest. The Hittite King is a primus inter pares a chief with limited powers and controlled by an assembly of nobles which confers his authority on him and can deprive him of it. The preisthood of these people is divided into sacrificers, cantors, sorceres, diviners, attendants or vergeres according to their character and function. The procedure of the sacrifice ( Yajña ), the cardinal feature of the celebration, is governed by a complex casuistic system which the texts faithfully document; food and drink, selected and purified in accordance with detailed and meticulous rules, form the offering. Human sacrifice (Puruşamedha ) was probably prevalent amongst them. They had patriarchal system,

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Their social organisation consisted of the two classes; the freemen and the slaves."
Hurrians
The Hurrians infiltered into North Mesopotamia about 2300 B. C. though their political success is marked Circa 2000 B. C. They established the State of Mittani Circa 1500 B. C. They had hereditary monarchy surrounded by a restricted noble class controlling the means of warfare and sharing out the land in feudal type. They also longed for male progeny, not the female, like their other Aryan brothers. The Hittite, Hurrian treaty between the Hittite King Suppiluliumas and the Hurrian king Mattiwaza, son of Tusharatta in 1365 B. C. display Aryan names such as Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatyas along with Ishtar. The very culture which possesses such a great expansive force is also highly receptive to foreign influences. The Hittite works drew their inspirations from Hurrian sources."
The Amorite Samsu-iluma was ingloriously defeated by the Kassites who established themselves as the sole rulers and heirs of the Babylonian empire. Kassites They were good fighting men. But they soon
succumbed to the riches of the soil and became luxurious people. The Kassite King, Kuri-galzu II who reigned about 1400 B. C. was an impassioned builder. He erected many monnments at Ur and other southern cities. The Kassite barbarians were very unclutured people who learned civilization from their conquered subjects. The tenacity of power by them for so many centuries points to a health and vigour in the Kassite rulers. They adopted the religion, art and culture of their adversaries."
Egypt had become a weaker state during the reigns of the fourteenth and fifteenth dynasties of the Second Inter

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( 208 ) mediate period. The period of the sixteenth Dynasty of the Second Intermediate Period and dynasty seventeenth of the
New Kingdom remarkable for the occupation Hyksos
of Egypt by the Hyksos kings about 1738 to 1587 B. C. These Hyksos Kings are also characterised as Shepherd Kings of Egyptian history. They were the Hittites; the men of ignoble race, barbarous and cruel. Wherever they penetrated, they spread ruin and desolation around, massacred the adult male population, reduced the women and children to slavery, burnt the cities and demolished temples. They indiscriminately razed all the Egyptian temples to ground. But this purely destructive time was followed by one of reaction and to some extent of reconstruction. They borrowed the superior civilization of those whom they conquered and adopted their art, their official language, their titles and the general arrangement of their court ceremonial. After throwing out the Hittites from the land of Egypt; the Egyptians came to terms with the Aryans of Asia and developed friendly relations with them. Thothmos IV of the Eighteenth Dynasty asked for the daughter of Artamama, the Mittani King, in marriage and concluded a formal alliance with them. Egypt afterwards developed the state technique of their neighbours. It took to materialistic means with short interludes of spiritual revivals as in the time of Amonhotep IV, also known as Akhenaton. Materialistic reaction overpowered Egypt. Military became their strength which removed cultural distinctions between them and their neighbours. They came to terms with each other.
The Aryan in West Asia; the Hittites, the Hurrians and the Kassites; quarrelled amongst themselves and
became weaker. The region witnessed Internecine
relis political and social decadence but the basic Aryan Quarrels
original culture truimphed over that of the

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Materialists of the mountains. The process of absorption and commingling had created a new society. The Aryan society in West Asia during the second millennium B. C. tried hard to preserve its basic institutions of tribal collective (Gana), absolute kingship (Ganapati), the power of the Limited Nobility (Devagaņas), their military technique, institution of sacrifice (Yajña) and others but they were, in course of time, overwhelmed by the original cultures and civilization of their adversaries. Their adversaries had learnt the art of military warfare from them. A great moral degeneration set in the Aryan society in the twelfth century B. C. They lost all initiative, all courage and all faith. The original inhabitants of Assur, a part of the Kassite Kingdom of Babylonia, gained military supremacy in this age. Assyria became a great power about 1100 B. C. under Tiglath-Pilesar I. He ended the Kassite rule and carried his arms to the source of the Tigris. The Hittites had become weaker due to military onslaughts of the 'Materialists of the Sea' from the Mediterranean Sea. Tiglath-Pilesar defeated the Hittites and penetrated to the Mediterranean Sea.10 Barring the brief intervention of the Aramaen hordes, the Assyrian glory continued till the middle of the first century B. C.
The Assyrian rise of power was the culmination of the process of absorption of the two opposite cultures. Not only
Aggyrian the Aryan culture in West Asia was defeated
Reaction but also the Aryan military was destroyed by the Assyrian materialistic reaction. Assyria developed military power at the cost of her ancient spiritual traditions. The Sumerian ideal became perverted in the Assyrian society. The Sumerian ideal of inviolable peace gave way to Assyrian ideal of violence and exploitation. But a spiritual society can not absorb the best qualities of a Materialistic society. Assyria gave way to Aryan Persia.
14

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( 210 ) The names Assur and the Assyrians remind us of the Asuras of Bhārata. That may also remind us of Osiris of Egypt and Anu of Sumer. It is probable that the bosom of a small patch of territory might have continued to cherish the name and traditions of the ancient Asuras who were the pioneers of spiritual cultures and civilizations in the vast Śramaņic region. The conflict of West Asia and Egypt in the second millennium B. C. is the conflict of the Gaņa or Āryan Way and the Jana or Šramaņic Way. The confluence of the opposites took place but none emerged. victorious. Both died down in West Asia and became oblivious to history. Greece records the ultimate triumph of the Aryan Gana-Way while Bhārata that of the Sramaņic Jana-Way.
References
1. M. A. Murray; Op. cit.; Pages 17, 19. 2. S. Moscati ; Op. cit.; Pages 60, 64. 3. (1) B. K. Ghose; The Āryan Problem (in Vedic Age); 1957
p. 206. (2) Stuart Piggot ; Pre-Historic India ; 1950; Page 63. 4. S. Moscati ; Op. cit.; Pages 160, 169, 180. 5. S. Moscati ; Op. cit.; Pages 189-191. 6. Leonard Woolley ; Excavations at Ur ; 1955 ; Pages 197-198. Note: Hall thinks (The Ancient history of the Near East)
that Samsu-iluma had quarrels with Iluma-ilu, master of the coast of the Persian Gulf, "the land of the Sea', who joined together in the reign of his son Ammizaduga, who was thrown out of Babylon by the Kassite King Gandash. Woolley seems to be correct. Enemies
derive benefit from the times of troubles. 7. H. R. Hall; The Ancient History of the Near East; 1960;
P. 202. 8. G. Rawlinson ; History of Ancient Egypt; 1881; Vol. II
Pages 190-192. 9. Leonard Woolley ; A Forgotten Kingdom ; 1953 ; Page 121. 10. Percy Sykes ; A History of Persia ; 1958 ; Pages 83-84,

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CHAPTER VI
VRATA-CONFEDERATION OF GANAS
When the primitive undivided Aryan savages were socially divided into pastoral and non-pastoral people, new Confederation forces of social expansion set in. Those of Ganas Gaņas who owned large herds of cattle were materially superior to those who did not possess cattle or possessed them in insignificant numbers. The materially superior class has a tendency to grab the inferior class and that is the prime motive of offences and wars. Internecine wars between Ganas have already been alluded to. When this warfare grew; the weaker Ganas for their protection and the stronger Ganas for their further victories joined hands together for common purposes. This was a loose confederation of Ganas for achieving victories in wars. Gana was the prime social institution of the undivided Aryans. This higher Aryan confederative social organisation is remembered in Ṛgveda as Vrāta.
Word Vrata is connected with
Vr in the sense of 'to choose, select, to like better than, prefer to.' Vrata means a multitude, flock, assembly, troop, host, association and guild. It has Latin, Slave, German and Anglo-Sexon equivalents. Word Vrata refers to an Aryan institution before their separation from their original home.
This word occurs in Rgveda, in different derivatives, only eight times. It refers to some institution or organisation of the Aryan society. The oldest section of Ṛgveda contains the significance of this word Vrāta. The occasion is Aśvamedha. We have earlier seen that Asva was later substituted for Man during the Ritualisation

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Age. If we substitute Man for Horse, the picture becomes very clear. Gaņapati, to be sacrificed in Puruşamedha for success in War, is followed by car. Men and cattle attend him. The loveliness of maidens (waits) upon him. Groups of Ganas (Vrātāsaḥ) follow him and seek his friendship. Devas themselves have been admirers of his vigour,' the vigour that was to bring the groups of Aryan Gaņas victory in war. Sāyaṇa defines Vrāta as a group and illustrates it as a group of Gaņas of Vasu and other Devas. Different Gaņas of Devas of Aryan leaders joined together to form the Vrāta for success in war. Various Vrātas formed of various Gaņas together with all their might in men and materials were in the service of Ganapati who was known as Vrātaspati or Vrātasāhā during the confederation period. Of course, also, during this confederation stage, all the beautiful and lovely maidens were also at his service to render all happiness to him at any time he so desired.
Ganapati was the supreme war lord of the Gana. When several Gaņas joined together, one of the Ganapatis
had to act, under the circumstances, as Vrātaspati
the supreme war lord of all the Gaņas and Ganapatis. He, then, was known as Vrātaspati. Rgveda uses the word Vrātasāhāḥ," for this office. Aryan heroes are referred here as powerful and mighty leaders of Vrātas. The deities in this Sūkta are Weapons, Persons and Implements employed in War. The Ķc refers to the guards (of the chariot), revelling in the savoury (spoil), distributors of food, protectors in calamity, armed with spears, resolute, beautifully arrayed, strong in arrows, invincible, of heroic valour, robest and conquerors of Vrātas. The word 'Pitarah' has been commented by Sayaņa as 'rathasya pālayitāraḥ' and translated by H. H. Wilson as 'The guards'. It should

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mean father, owner or the occupier of the chariot implying thereby the military leader who occupies the chariot. This old Ķc recollects the memory of a war between two Vrātas. The military leader of the Vrāta organisation was known as Vrātaspati who conquered the hostile Vrāta.
Gaņa and Vrāta are referred to in Rgveda as two institutions simultaneously existing. It appears that during peace times, some of the War-time Vrātas continued to carry on as before while some Vrātas disintergrated into Gaņas ; the necessity of joining together being over. Maruts were Ganapatis and perhaps Vrātaspatis also. They are the dispensers of unfailing wealth. They actually participated in the Yajñas of the Gaņas and Vrātas." Rgveda also refers to Panchayrātāḥ. Sāyaṇa comments the word as 'Pañcha Janā manusyā' and H. H. Wilson translates the word as five kindred sacrificing races. Whether this work PanchaVrātāḥ refers to the aforesaid Pañcha-Janāḥ is not clear from the context. Perhaps both are different. Even assuming both to be identical ; the sense of 'group' is quite clear, Pañchajanāḥ as discussed earlier were pre-Aryan Bhāratiya republics who were composed of different units. Brahmāryns kew the institution formed of the composition of various units as Vrāta and they gave the same term during the ritualisation period to the similar institution, though not in essentials, of their adversaries who later coalesced with them. Vrāta, in essence, definitely means here a group formed of independent separate units.
Words Gana and Vrāta occur together in two hymns.? In both the contexts, they signify two separate institutions. Sāyaṇa interprets the word Vrāta as Group or Troop and the word Gaņa as a unit formed of seven Samudāyas. Wilson translates the word Vrāta as Assembly or Troop and

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the word Gaņa as Company. This clearly indicates that the institution of Vrāta was a higher institution formed of smaller institutions.
Vrāta is Samgha—a federation or a confederation. The Gambling-Hymn (Rgveda 10.3.5) throws sufficient light on these two institutions. The Akşa is compared to a great military leader (Senānirmahats), the Gaņa leader (Gaṇasya rājā) and the chief of the Vrāta (Vrātasya prathamo). Though Sāyaṇa paraphrases Ķce in a slightly different manner; he admits the difference between Gaņa and Vrāta.
The difference, according to him, is slight. The epithets Gaṇasya rājā and Vrātasya prathamo are very significant. The conception of Gaņa-rājā bas been examined earlier. Vrātasya prathamo refers to the first citizen of the Vrāta. These two institutions were popular among the Brahmāryans during their offensive stage in Bhārata and also a little afterwards, though undergoing some modifications later due to local influences. Sāyaṇa was so far removed in time from the actual events that he could not appreciate the real difference between these two institutions and also their real character though he recognised the difference between the two. Gaņa is the unitary institution while Vrāta is a confederation or Samgha.
The social system of the Greekāryans was also organised into gens, phratry and basilia (tribe). The gens was also
, known as patry. Phratry was the intermediate Phratry and Phratriach in unit between gens and tribe. Originally when Greece
the gens were fighting with each other ; there was no question of co-existence of two gens. One gens shall not exist separately; it has to be amalgamated with the other through consent, rarely, through war generally. But after a long course of history ; the neighbours gens learnt the futility of war and thought it beneficial to join together to

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( 215 ) ward off common danger and common enemy. The neighbourly relations of two gens was cemented by advance of time and the females of the gens, which had sex-relations limited to the males of their gens, began to have sex-relationship with the males of the neighbourly gens and vice versa. That later developed into the males and females of one gens marrying the males and females of the other gens. That might have been necessitated during the period when the horrors and unpleasantness of promiscuity began to be experienced giving rise to new customs and institutions. They, in turn, might have helped in the peaceful existence of different gens who had learnt the art of forming phratries or brotherhoods during the periods of common emergencies. These phratries were less fundamental and less important than the gens and the tribe but it was a common, natural and perphaps necessary stage between the two The religious, rather social, life of the Grecian tribes had its centre and source in the gentes and phratries. Some of the religious rites originated in these social aggregates and they were nurseries of religion. The events of this extraordinary period, the most eventful in many respects in the history of the Aryan family, contributed much to the formation of the new society later. When the society was in the undivided gentile stage, its chief was known as Archon, When several gens coalesced together to form together, both the institutions began to have their separate chiefs. The chief of the gens or patry came to be known as patriarch and the chief of phratry was designated as phratriarch. The archon means the chief, the Master. The Sanskrit word 'Pati' gives almost the similar sense. This meaning becomes still clearer when we find striking similarity between the offices of patriarch (Party + Archon) and Ganapati ; and also, between the office of Phratriarch (Phratry + Archon) and Vrātaspati.

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( 216 ) The undivided Āryans had forged the institutions of gens and Phratry or Gaņa and Vrāta. Words Vrāta and phrata are easily interchangeable as regards their nomenclature and function, When Aryans reached Greece and Bhārata ; they took these institutions with them. Ph' might have been substituted for 'V' which is not impossible 'according to linguistic rules. Vrāta and phratry, both, were the tribal confederation of the Aryan Gaņas in Bhārata and Greece during and after their military victory over the original inhabitants.
References 1. Monier-Williams ; Op. Cit. Pages 1007, 1043. 2. Rgveda 1.22.7.8.
अनु त्वा रथो अनु मर्यो अवभिनु गावोऽनु भगः कनीनाम् ।
अनु वातासस्तव सख्यमी'युरनु देवा ममीरे वीर्य' ते ॥ 3. Rgveda-Sanhită (V.S.M.); Op. Cit. ; Vol. I Page 974.
वातास: वाताः संघात्मकाः अन्ये अश्वसमूहाः वस्वादिदेवगना: 4. (I) Rgveda 6.6.14.9.
स्वाष सदः पितरो' वयोधाः कृच्छ्रश्रितः शक्ती'वन्तो गभीराः ।
चित्रसेना इषुबला अमृध्राः सतोवीरा उरोवो वातसाहाः॥ (2) Rgveda-Sainhiti (V.S.M.); Op. Cit. ; Vol. III Page 258, (3) H.H. Wilson ; Rgveda ; Vol. IV Page 119. (4) Monier-Williams; Op. Cit; Page 1212. He gives the word
'Saha' meaning 'powerful, mighty.' 5. Rgveda 3.2.14.6
वातं'वातं गणंगाणं सुशस्विभिरयनेमि मुस्तामोज ईमहे ।
पुषदस्वासो अनवभ्रराघसो गन्तारो यज्ञं विदथे'गुधीरा ॥ 6. (1) Rgveda 9.1.14.2
गिरा यदी सबंधवः पञ्च बाता' अपस्यवः ।
परिष्कृ ण्वन्ति धर्ण सिम् ॥ (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.) Op. Cit.; Vol. IV. Page 23. (3) H.H. Wilson ; Rgveda ; Vol V; Page 212.

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। 217 ) 7. (i) Rgveda 3.2.14.6 ; 5.4.9.11.
शर्धशर्ध व एषां वातं वातं गणंगणं सुशस्तिभिः ।
अनु कामेम धीतिभिः॥ (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit; Vol. II Pages 287, 898.
(3) H.H. Wilson ; Rgveda ; Vol. III Pages 21-23, 244. 8. (1) Rgveda 10.3.5.8 ; 10.4.15.5
त्रिप चाशः कळति वात एषं देवईव सबिता सत्यधर्मा । उग्रस्य॑ चिन्मन्यवे ना नमन्ते राजा' चिदेभ्यो नम इत्कृणोति ।। पुनः पितरो मनो ददातु दैव्यो जनः।
जीवं नातं सचेमहि ॥ (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit.; Vol. IV; Pages
393-471. 9. (1) Rgveda 10.3.5.12.
(2) Regveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit. Vol. IV ; Page 394. 10. Lewis H. Morgan ; Op.Cit. ; Page 247.

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CHAPTER VII
BRAHMA-THE ĀRYAN UNIVERSAL
TRIBAL SOCIETY 1. INSTITUTION OF BRAHMA The invasion and conquest of the highly developed, greatly cultured and spiritually civilized people from Greece
to Bhārata by the barbarous nomadic Aryans śramanicMaterialistic started the ancient process whereafter the Contacts
materialist north has swept down violently upon the settled and peaceful south. The Aryans poured down upon the Minoans, the Mesopotamians and the Bhāratīyans. These Aryans possessed strong physiques, a hearty appetite in both solids and liquids, a ready brutality, a skill and courage in war. They fought with bows and arrows, led by armoured warriors in chariots, who wielded battle-axes and hurled spears. They wanted land and spasture for their cattle; their word for war said nothing about national honour, but simply meant 'a desire for more cows'. Egypt, west Asia and the Mediterranean people had earlier contacts with the Materialists of the Desert while Bhārata remained safe for long even after the Āryan occupation. The peaceful society of Greece, Egypt and West Asia began to founder earlier under their barbaric pressures. Bhārata enjoyed the continuity of her Śramanic Society till its first Aryan contacts in the fourteenth century B. C. It is for this reason that while the Mesopotamians and the Egyptians took to military life earlier, we find the absence of defences and military preparations for a pretty long times, and it is only very late that defensive citadels at Harappa and Mohenjodaro’ were raised. But they were too weak for the

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onslaughts of the Aryan military might. The Aryan tribal collectives had attained their highest power when they poured down upon Greece, West Asia and Bhārata.
We have earlier noticed that the Aryan Institutions and beliefs met with disaster in West Asia. The Gramanic Separation Way of the Asuras had conquered the materiof Brahmas alistic way of the Aryans. The main body of the Aryans in Iran adopted the Asura Way. Gaņapatis Varuna and Mitra, alongwith their followers, had become largely influenced by the Asura Way. They later came to be known as Asura-gods. But a section of the Irānāryans could not happily digest this defeat. They organised themselves under the commandership of ferocious, violent Indra. These Irānāryans possessed the institutions of Gaña, Ganapati and Yajña, inherited from their forefathers. It was against the horrors of social Yajñas, with cruel animal sacrifices that Zarthusthra of Iran, later, like Mahāvīra and Buddha in Bhārata and Orpheus in Greece, organised opposition. The Indra led Aryans could not make peace with the superior Asura influences on their compatriots. They still exalted violence and exploitation for their further victories. The disintegration of the materialistic Aryan power under the force of the superior original spiritual culture caused a schism in the undivided Irānāryan Society. The schism was, as held by some scholars, not the result of differences in beliefs; that a section believed in Naturegods and the other in Abstract Deities. The ideological differences do not lead people to military invasions of foreign lands. The historical forces in West Asia caused the Schism in the Irānāryan Society, Varuna-led Irānāryans remained behind in West Asia. The more ferocious, the more violent, the more exploitative and the more military-minded section reorganised and led by Indra, retaining the ancient insti

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tutions of Gaņa and Yajña in their savage forms, advanced towards the East; alongwith a minority of Varuņa-led people. These Indra-led Irānāryans of West Asia, with hope, purposes and persistence, with a scientifically organised superior military power, invaded Bhārata with all their physical might. They are the Brahmas of history.
The growth of the numerous Gaņa organisations developed into a larger social entity, the Brahma. Brahmaņas
en pati is Ganapati, of not only one Gaņa, like Growth of the Institution of Bịhaspati, but of all the Gaņas coalesced Brahma
14 together. He is the most supreme of the Brahma, so formed by the coalescence of all the Gaņas. He is the great protector.* Agni is parent of Yajña.* Agni is Angiras. Angiras is father of Bịhaspati. Bphaspati is Brahma. Brahma, hence, is father of Yajña. Yajña, the tribal activity, does not exist without Brahma, the universal tribal collective and Bșhaspati, the tribal chief. Brahmanaspati, as later shown, is greater than Bșhaspati. We, thus, find that Brahma is an enlarged Gaņa, having enlarged tribal activity and presided over by an enlarged Ganapati.
The etymology of the word Brahma supports this view. The word Brahma derived from vBșh 'to grow great or strong, to expand, to increase." Yaşka connects it with Brhat' and 'Brdh' in the sense of 'eminent, high, enlarged.' It has its Avestan equivalent bere za nt meaning "lofty' 8. Vedic Byhantam is equivalent of Avestic 'Berezantemo. Word 'Barhis' is also derived from vběh which is equivalent to the Irānian Baresme (Barsom) thus connecting it with Brahma. Barsom and Barhis are identical terms10. Brahma, thus, appears to be an enlarged entity. As Brahmanaspati is jyeştħarāj of Brahma ; in this context, it is an enlarged society formed of smaller social units, the Gaņas.

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When the Brahmāryans established their undisputed suzerainty over Bhārata after the crushing defeat of the
Spiritual Bhāratīyans in the Däsrājña War Circa 1150
Reaction B.C.; they followed the fruitful policy of commingling with the original inhabitants. Many people also became converted to their way of life who took with them their Śramaņic Way of life. Conditions of comparative peace in Bhārata gave opportunities to the Aryans sages to take to spiritual culture. They had some contacts earlier with this culture in Iran but the exigencies of warfare did not leave them sufficient time to realise its values. When the Brahmāryans took to settled life of peace, prosperity and happiness, they began to feel the vulgarity and repulsiveness of their culture based on violence and exploitations. They could not successfully carry on in their new environments with their old beliefs. The impact of the great spiritual culture of Bhārata was reacting upon them with high force which they could not withstand. The victors also never totally leave their basic ideas and institutions. Hence began à curious amalgamations in history. They had to consign to oblivion the hateful deeds of violence of their Gaņas and Ganapatis, Brabmas and Brahmaņaspatis from the memories of the people. They had come in contact with the spiritual leaders of Bhārata ; the Munis and the Siśnadevas. They wanted to raise their materialist leaders still higher. They made them heavenly gods having their seats beyond the horizon of earth, never again to be physically contacted as hitherto for. The actual human beings and their activities were celestialised. Devas and Ganapatis became celestial gods, their Yajñic tribal activities became related to heaven. The Brahmāryans made Indra, Brahaspati, Soma, Varuna and other Ganapaties the gods of heaven and their human wars with their adversaries as heavenly activities in relation

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to phenomena of Nature. The Greekāryans also followed the same path. Gods and men lived together in the past. Gods had aspirations and sentiments just like human beings. Homer and Hesiod celestialised them and made them heavenly gods and their human activities were transferred to their heavenly activities interpreted as phenomena of nature. This Aryan process in two lands, so widely apart, reveals the basic pattern of the Aryan society and their adversaries' Śramaņic Society which similarly reacted in both lands upon the violent intruding cultures. The Greek and Brahma Rșis became great taskmaster in the art of Mythology. The science of Mythology or Comparative Mythology was born much later and was the product of intellectual master-minds to whom history or pre-history did not exist. Myth is the hybrid child of the retracing materialism and the perverted spiritualism. Myth may be defined as the 'Description of human activities in a celestialised form.'11
The spiritual reaction that began to set in the Āryan thinking did not stop at that in Bhārata. It completely
stopped at mytholisation stage in Greece. Ritualisation of Brahmāryan The Greeks kept alive their social organiInstitutions
sations of genos, phratries and tribes in their original form ; though changed in the circumstances wrought by time and space. The Brahmāryans adopted a different course. They did not further keep their social institutions in the original form as they were felt burdensome and retardative under the new set of circumstances. So the Brahmāryans decided to change their social institutions of Gana, Yajña and Brahma and related them to their heavenly gods. The Greeks did not do that. This process led to the Ritualisation of the Institutions of Gana, Yajña and Brahma. in Bhārata.
The Ritualisation Age of the Brahmāryan institutions began after the Dasrājsa War. Rgveda was redacted in Circa

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1000 B.C. The Brahmāryans had 150 years to ritualise their institutions which they have depicted in Rgveda. The constitution of the Brahmāryans had changed now. In their society were absorbed many Bhārtīyan elements. Many convert Bhārtīyans became Rgvedic Rşis. It was a mixed society composed of the coalescing elements of the victors and the vanquisheds who accepted the hegemony of the victors' way with mutually accepted changes. Ķgveda faithfully depicts the Aryan institutions in this ritualised form.
Ritualisation went still further in Atharyanic times. Tenth Mandala of Rgveda is a later addition to it. Its theme is Atharvanic, hence it appears to have been included in the ancient collections of Rgveda when Atharvaveda was redacted. Atharvaveda is the final product of a redactorial activity much later than that of Rgveda. Sāmaveda and Yajurveda were redacted earlier than Atharvayeda. Atharvanic theme finds echo in Satapatha and Aitareya Brāhmaṇas. It is probable that Atharvaveda was redacted in the later part of the Ninth or earlier part of the Eighth Century B. C.
If we minutely screen the Vedic hymns and thereby are able to remove the gloss wrapped over real events; we Method of may discover the truth. Apart from the
Analysis accepted facts of Aryan history; the Āryan way itself would help us in sifting the corn from the chaff. This method of Analysis may help us in rightly interpreting Rgveda and the later Vedic Literature.
Take the beginning Ķc of the Rgveda.18 H. H. Wilson, following Sāyaṇa, translates it thus, “I glorify Agni, the
high priest of the sacrifice, the ministrant, Purohita
who presents the oblation (to the gods), and is the possessor of great wealth”. Agni is Purohita of the Yajña, the Deva, the Rtvij and possessor of great wealth.

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(224) It gives the full picture of the Āryan Way of life condensed in one Rc. The words Rtvij and Hotāram are used in this Ķc in the sense of priest-hood ; hence the meaning of the word 'Purohita' as priest may easily be ruled out. Agni is Deva, a leader but he is also Purohita. Yāşka traces the word to Puras + hita' literally, 'placed before',14 meaning the man who sits in front or the foremost man. Purohita, then, means foremost Deva; the supreme Deva. Agni is the associate of men (Purohita) sitting in the East, east signifying the foremost or the first. Agni is Purohita at a Yajña and of a Yajña. Heaven and Earth are also Purohita at Yajña.16 Agni is Purohita by birth.18 Agni is Purohita of gods including Rudras and Vasus and also of men. Brahmaṇspati, the supreme Leader of the Brahma, and Sūrya are also Purohitas of gods. Sāyņa comments the word as 'placed in front of' and Wilson similarly translates it.? Agni rides in the same car with Indra and gods.18 Purohita Sūrya is slayer of Asuras.'' Purohita Brahmanaspati is renowned in battle.20 Purohita was not only a hero of peace but also of war as War and Peace were undivided to the ancient Aryans. Purohita, in this Ķc, is said to possess great wealth. He is not a heavenly being but a living being of this earth. Association of material wealth with the supreme Leader of Yajña makes the sense of the Řc very clear. Purhoita, hence, in this context means Ganapati. Yajña is tribal activity in war and peace. This Ķc glorifies Gaņapati Agni, the supreme leader of the Aryan military, economic and social tribal ( Yajñic) activities resulting in the amassing of large material wealth to be distributed by him, as Rc 3 of this Sūkta sings, for fame and progeny. We, through this analytic method, get a real and truthful picture of the Aryan institutions of Yajña, Deva, Ganapati and others in this Rc.

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Viswamitra
Viswamitra was the supreme commander of the Bhārtīya Dāsrājña Confederacy against the Brahmaryan Tṛtsūs and others. He was, enemy of Indra, the Supreme Commander of the Brahmaryan forces. Both stood against each other in the battlefield. Hence Viswamitra could not address any prayer to Indra before this historical event. Viswamitra after his defeat; surrendered his people to him; crossed over for Aryan favour and made treaty with Indra so that his Bharata race may not be further annihilated. Brahma of Viswamitra so acts to the wielder of the thunderbolt for again being opulent". The prayer is only for material gain and that is the unravelling key.
It is
numerous
fortunate that Ṛgveda contains references to the institution of Brahma. It has been Vedic Meaning of conceded by Sayana and modern Brahma
scholars, Western and Eastern both, that the word Brahma is used in Ṛgveda in the materialistic sense of food, wealth, progeny and prayer". Wherever the word has been translated as Prayer, that 'prayer' is also for food, cattle, progeny and other material wealth, The word Brahma has not so far been commented as 'Highest stage of Tribal Collective', or 'Supreme Tribal Collective', or 'Universal Tribal Collective.' This connotation of the word Brahma is also very clear from Ṛgveda.
15
References
1. Will Durant; Our Oriental Heritage; 1954; Page 397.
2. R. E. M. Wheeler; The defences and cemetery R 37; Ancient India No. 3; 1947; Pages 58 ff.
3. Rgveda 2. 3. 1. 1
4. Rgveda 3. 1. 3. 4.

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5. Rgveda 2. 3. 1. 18 ; 4. 1. 3. 15; 5. 1. 10. 7. 6. Taittiriya Samhita; 3. 1. 1. 4 7. Monier-Williams; Op. cit.; Page 735. 8. Siddheswar Varma; Op. cit.; Page 49. 9. A. F. Khabardar; New Light on the Gathas of Zarth usthra;
1951 ; Page 751. ). James Hastings; Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics ;
Pages 424, 797. 11. (1) V. M. Apte; Religion and Philosophy (Age of Re-Samhitā)
in the Vedic Age, 1957 ; Page 361
Apte gives this interesting description of Rgvedic Myth«When the imagination interpretes a natural event as the action of personified being resembling a human
agent, a myth is born." (2) F. Maxmuller ; “The Philosophy of Mythology", appended
to Introduction to the Science of Religion (London 1875); Pages 353-355 quoted in Ernest Cassirer's language and Myth,' 1945; Page 5. Maxmuller defines myth as "Power excercised by language on thought in every possible sphere of mental activity. “These idealist scholars do not take
historical events into consideration. 12. M. Bloomfield; The Atharvaveda ; 1899 ; Page 2. 13. Rgveda 1. 1. 1. 1.
ऊँ अग्निमी'ळे पु रोहितं यज्ञस्य देवम त्विन'म ।
हातारं रत्नधातमम् ॥ 14. Siddheswar Varma ; Op. cit ; page 48. 15. Rgveda 1. 9. 1. 10; 1. 9. 1. 12; 1. 19.2. 4; 6.5.9. 4 ; 8. 4. 7. 1;
9.3. 6. 5. 16. Rgveda l. 15. 1. 6. 17. (1) Rgveda 1. 11. 1. 3 ; 2. 3. 2.9 ; 3. 1. 2. 8 ; 3. 1. 3. 2;
(2) Rgveda-Samhitā (V. S. M.); Op. Cit. Vol. II Page 188, 191
(3) H. H. Wilson ; Rgveda ; Vol. II Pages 198, 199. 18. Rgveda 5. 1. 11. 2. 19. Rgveda 8. 10. 8. 12. 20. Rgveda 2. 3. 2.9.

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( 227 ) 21. Rgveda 3. 4. 15. 12-13.
य इमे रोदसी अोभे अहमिन्द्रमतुष्टवम् । विश्वामित्रस्य रक्षति ब्रह्मदं भारतं जनम् । विश्वामित्रा अरासत ब्रह्मेन्द्रा'य वृत्रिणो' ।
कदिन्नः सुराधसः ॥ 22. (1) Rgveda 1.3. 3.43 1.8.2.4;2.2. 1. 14; 3. 1.8.23; 6. 3. 12.
3; 6.2.1. 36%3.7.2.14.11; 8. 1. 3.9; 9.5. 1. 14 and several
others. (2) V. M. Apte ; Sanskrit-English Dictionary ; 1958 ; Vol. II;
Page 1173. Maxmuller and Wilson in their translations of Rgveda give these meanings.

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2. MILITARY BRAHMA
The Brahmaryans were engaged in constant military combats with their adversaries. The warriors had Brahma Brahma is as their armour. All the Devas of the Brahma destroyed the Brahmāryan adversary, whether
Armour
an unfriendly relative or a stranger.1 The deities in this Sukta are weapons, persons and implements employed in war. Neuter Brahma understood as prayer or priest does not fit in the conditions of war. The Brahmaryans, protected and guided by Brahma, conquer the cattle, the wealth, the food and the adversaries with the help of the bow, the arrows and the horses. The Brahma here means the universal Tribal Collective, self-armed, engaged in battle with the enemy.
Brahamanaspati is Brahma. He is the destroyer of unrighteous enemies, the repairer in combat, the consumer Brahmanaspati- of foes, the victor in battles and the humiliator The Supreme of adversaries. He shoots with bows and
Leader of
Brahma arrows and has swift horses. He is the hater of Asuras (the Austric people). The follower of Brahamanaspati overpowers his enemies by his strength. Powerful Asuras are overcome in battle by the might of Brahmaņaspati. He proceeds resolutely against the hostiles. The members of Brahma and the whole Brahma wins victories in battles under the military commandership of Brahmanaspati.
Brahmanaspati drives away those adversaries who interfere in Yajña, the tribal activity of Brahma and leads the members of his Brahma to Yajña. He makes it safe for the members of his Brahma to carry on tribal activities

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unhindered. He protects them from malevolent men, the Asuras and is also armed with thunderbolt like Indra. He is the destroyer of Vala. Brahmanaspati discharges all the functions of Bṛhaspati, a Ganapati only, rather with more fierceness. Brahmanaspati and Bṛhaspati are interchangeable in Ṛgveda and display similar functions. It appears that Bṛhaspati, the Ganapati, raised to the higher status of the leader of all the Ganas joined together in Brahma, became Brahmanaspati.
The members of Brahma were assailed by their powerful adversaries," who interfered in their activities. The whole Brahma requested their military commanders, the Devas, to move against the adversaries with the resolute common will and might of the Brahma. Here Brahma is actively associated in the act of annihilation of the marching enemies under the commandership of Brahmanaspati and Indra. This Rc
records an event of actual warfare.
Self-armed
Brahma
of Brahma
Agni, as a weapon and a commander, of Gana has previously been discussed. Agni is the purifier of Brahma.® Agni-Purifier Sāyaṇa comments Brahma as 'multiplier of progeny and others." The word 'others' includes cattle, women, wealth, fame, long life and male progeny. Ganapati Agni was also the most useful and effective commander of Brahma. Agni is Angiras. Angiras is Brahma. Brahma is purified and developed by Agni.
Brahma in
In the Atharvanic age, the Brahmaryan tribal collective had, which was undivided still, functionally divided itself into Brahma and Kṣatra but its homegeneity Atharvaveda was tried to be maintained. Kṣatra was winning more importance. Its power now has begun to be advertised as imperishable; still Brahma nominates. The

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foremost in the Brahma is its dictator. The Brahma is quickening whose head is the conquering Purohita." Griffith translates the word Purohita as President who is foremost just like the Ganapati or the tribal Chief.
The Bhārtīyana adversaries assailed the Brahmāryans from all the points. They wronged their Brahma. Agni is commanded to trouble them and turn them away. The Brahmāryan magician smites them backward. Here the trouble is earthly. The omnipotent, omniscient and all pervading neuter Brahma is not affected by the onslaughts of those who do not believe him. The 'prayer' also is not affected by the misdeeds of the Asuras. It is the physical Brahma, the tribal institution, that is so adversely affected. The evil has to be warded off to keep the purity and strength of the tribal collective in tact.
Yajurveda represents ritualisation par excellence of the Brahmāryan tribal institutions. The gloss is much more Brahma in Sukla here. Still very deep down; we have
Yajurveda gleanings of the material aspects of the Aryan institutions. Agni is Brahma and Guide of Yajña. He is free-giver. His real aid is sought®. Here the leader is equated with the society he leads. He as leader renders aid in tribal (Yajāic) activities of the society (Brahma). Brahma is the Brahmāryan tribal organisation to Yajurveda also. The first overlord of Brahma is Bịahaspati. Indra and Agni drive away Brahmāryan foes to every side. The subordinate Devas upraise them, cause depression of their foes and increase the material prosperity of the Brahmall. The annihilation of foes by brutal methods and the increase of the material prosperity by exploitative methods can not be the functions of Brahma, the Highest Principle, or Brahma, the Prayer. That makes both of them ridiculous.

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Violence and exploitation go with human societies, not with the societies of celestial gods or The God. Brahma, alongwith Kṣatra, is physically protected by Agni, Surya, Yajña, Prajapati and others. Brahma, alongwith Kṣatra, is cleansed by Soma, with wine, pressed, filtered for the banquet; Soma, the giver of food and enjoyment. Devas and Agni dwell in that benign country where Brahma and Kṣatra together in accordance move". Though the Brahmāryan tribal collective is divided into Brahma and Kṣatra, still their identity and unity is tried to be maintained for material prosperity by the Devas under the Brahmapati-ship of Agni.
Taittiriya Samhita also preserves some relics of the ancient original character of Brahma. Bṛhaspati is the Brahma of Devas and by Brahma, he unites the Yajña. The Brahma is Deva-made." The leader of the Brahmaryan society are the builders of the Brahama; their tribal society. They develop and strengthen their society. Brahma, here, does not create Devas but the Devas create Brahma. The Atharvanic hymn 3.19.1., discussed earlier, occurs in this Samhita1 in part and signifies the supreme Brahmaryan tribal collective.
Brahma in Taittiriya Samhita
Brahma is victorious; verily they go winning the world of heaven by the Brahma.15 Heaven is the most glorified verson of the earthly joys. The life in heaven is free from all material imperfections, bodily frailties, want of satiating objects and earthly cares. Brahma wins for its people the fullest material prosperity and enjoyments.
A legend given in Kauṣitakī Brāhmaṇa of Ṛgveda throws much light on the martial aspect of Brahma. Indra said, "Having conquered and slain Vṛtra, this is my Soma drinking alongwith you."
Indra-Brahma Legend

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'Smite', Brahma said to him, encouraging him, he said, "Having conquered and slain Vṛtra, this is my Soma drinking with you." 10 Here Indra drinks Soma with his Brahma and the Brahma drinks Soma with his Indra, This legend narrates the after-victory Samanic festivities of the victors in the Indra-Vṛtra War. Indra was the Brahamaryan Supreme military commander and Vṛtra was the supreme leader of the Ahi Republic of the mountainous regions. Indra-Vṛtra War is a historical truth which is the theme and spirit of Rgveda. Rgveda is the Glorification Volume, presented posthumously to Indra by Ṛsis for his great victory against Vṛtra. After this great historical event, the whole Brahmaryan Tribal Collective, the Brahma, and its supreme military Commander, Indra, made mass festivities; the rank and file and leaders all in common, drank Soma effusively attended by mass singing, mass dancing and mass enjoying.
Brahma, the ultimate Aryan Society, displays military activities. Brahma Society had come in existence before the Aryan contacts with Bharata when the Aryans had to fight battles in the beginning with the mountainous people, fhe Vṛtras, Dāsas, Daśyus and others in Iran, Gedrosia and Arachosia. Brahma was the self acting armed society of the Aryans.
1. Rgveda 6.6.14.19.
References
at a: eat a¿'oì aga faszył faraidfa i दे॒वास्तं सर्वे' घुर्व॑न्तु॒ ब्रह्म॒ वम॒ ममान्त॑रम् ॥
2. Rgveda 2.1.1.3.
3. Rgveda 2.3.1.9-11; 2.3.2.8-13; 2.3.3.3; 2.3.41-2.
4. Rgveda 1.8.5.3; 1.5.1.3; 1.8.5.8.; 2.3.2.3. 5. Rgveda 7.6.8.9.

gu ai' majoregà gg fandèrar'a apaon' graft i face fat' faqa g'adizqeanqï ag¶14er'āt: 11

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6. (1) Rgveda 9.3.7.23.
यते' पवित्रमचिष्यग्ने वितिमन्तरा । ब्रह्म तेन पुनीहि नः ॥ (2) Rgveda-Samhitā (V.S.M.); Op. cit.; Vol. IV Page 112.
(3) K.R. Potdar; Sacrifice in the Rgveda ; 1953 ; Page 132. 7. Atharvaveda 3.19.1. 8. Ralph. T.H. Griffith ; The Hymns of the Atharvaveda ; 1916 ;
P. 109. 9. Sukla Yajurveda ; 4. 11. 10. Sukla Yajurveda; 14.28. 11. Sukla Yajurveda ; 17.64. 12. Sukla Yajurveda ; 18. 38-44 ; 19,5 ; 20.25. 13. Taittiriya Sahitã; 1.5.4.3 ; 1.6.4.3 ; 2.6.7.4. 14. Taittiriya Samhitā ; 4.1.10.3. 15. Taittiriya Samhita ; 7 5.7.4. 16. (1) Kausitaki Brahmaņa ; 15.2.
(2) A. B. Keith ; Rgveda Brāhamaņas, the Aitareya and the
Kausitaki Brāhmaṇas of Rgveda ; 1920 ; Page 428.

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3. THE ECONOMIC BRAHMA
The military activities of the Aryan Tribal collective, the Brahma, were mainly motivated by the insatiable desire Augmentation of for winning more lands, more cattle and more riches.
Brahma-Wealth
The principal military feat of Indra was to annihilate Vṛtra and all that which went with the name of Vṛtra, his whole economic and social organisation. Indra is 'brahmavāḥ;' the guide of Brahma. Brahma is food. The guide of Brahma slays Vṛtra for food; i. e., for material prosperity. Food is offered to Indra, the guide of Brahma.1 Food represents material might. Indra augmented the wealth of Brahma in cattle, progeny and food by loot and plunder of their adversaries. But he also needed, in return, his own augmentation for further efficient feats of loot and plunder. For that the whole might of Brahma; all the resources of the Brahma were at his disposal. Brahma is the source of augmentation of the strength and might of Indra. Sāyaṇa translates Brahma as Food' which may be equated with 'Material Might'. No mataphysical interpreation has been given to the word 'Brahma', here, even by the Brāhmaṇa High Priest.
Indra is prayed to bring all that wealth comprising of cattle and horses to the Brahma, before it be known to others lest they may take it away and Indra people may remain devoid of them. The word Brahma, here, has been commented as Food by Sāyaṇa and translated by Wilson in the same sense. Both do not attach sufficient significance to the word 'pra' used before 'Brahma'. Word 'pra' is mostly used in connec
Economic Power of Brahma

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tion with a verb and rarely as a separate word but this hymn illustrates the rare use of the word 'pra' as a separable adverb. It is used as indeclinable in the sense of before, forward, in from, on' etc. In masculine, feminine and neuter or adjectival sense, it means “filling, fulfilling. Native lexicographers permit its use in the sense of 'ut-karşa, sarvatobhāva, ut-path' and also source or origin. The word pra, here, along with Brahma, should mean ‘filling the Brahma, of the Brahma.' Hence the Ķc should be translated as follows :
“May be obtain, Indra, that wealth which comprises
cattle and horses of Brahma, before it be known to others." The hymn clearly, establishes the economic power of the Brahma : the Aryan Universal Tribal Collective.
Indra drinks Soma and engages himself in combats with enemies to protect Brahma and Yajña. Brahma and Indra-Protector Yajña significantly occur here together. The of Brahma
and Yajña actual battle on the battle field is resorted to protect Brahma and Yajña. The slaying of Vitra was a pre-condition for the growth and prosperity of Brahma and Yajña. Ephemeral Brahma and ritualised Yajña do not need actual warfare. It is only the Brahma composed of human beings and Yajña, its tribal activities, that need the physical protection of arms.
The all-pervading Soma excites the Aryans day and night. He is productive of proseperity. When Indra is Somadrunk, he is solicited to make Brahma productive of progeny and riches.? Sāyaṇa comments the word 'Brahma' as 'parivrờhana karma', which means “enlarged action.' Sāyaṇa may not be very explicit. The 'enlarged action'. definitely is productive of progeny and riches, but the enlarged action' of whom? The answer may be the

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( 236 ) ‘enlarged action of the ‘enlarged Gaņis' which is Brahma. Brahma incorporates in itself all the constituent Gaņas. "Parivrờhana karma' of the whole society is productive of riches and progeny. This very significant hymn points towards Yajñic (tribal) economic and social activities. Tribal economic activities bring great riches. Tribal social activities in the promiscuous state of sex-relationship in the tribal society result in the en masse production of progeny. Yajña in the sense of tribal activity during the Brahma stage of collective life of the Aryan society definitely points to higher stage of Aryan Gaņa organisation.
The Irānāryans and the Brahmāryans had to wage hard battles in Iran, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Western Bhārata. Panis, Kine for This region, specially the mountainous region
Brahma was inhabited by Ahi sub-race. Vstras were the important constituent of this race. Paņis also belonged to it. Panis are referred as Dāsas and Daśyus in Rgveda just like Vộtras and Rākşaşass. Paņis were very rich people whose wealth Indra plundered for his people. These paņis, in retaliation, had taken away the kine of Brahma. Indra slew these humbled Daśyus and recovered the kine for the Brahma'. The word used in the Ķc is 'Brahmaņe'. Sāyaṇa comments upon the word as Angiras Brāhmaṇa caste' (Brāhmaṇajātibhyo angirobhya). Wilson retains the word itself in his translation. Sāyana's interpretation is manifestly untenable as there was no Brāhmaṇa caste, Angiras or others, in the ḥgvedic age. The historical event referred to here took place much earlier than the famous Dāsrājña War. When the Brahmāryan society was a homogeneous Brahma ; it had even not yet divided into Brahma and Kștra. Indra recovered the kine for this unified society, the Brahma. Indra did not recover kine for Brahma ; the Ultimate Reality or the Highest Truth ; or Prayer. He recovered

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the kine for those to whom they belonged. Brahma, in this context, shall mean only the Universal Tribal Society and nothing else. Kine were recovered for the Universal Tribal Collective of the Brahmaryans.
Atharvaveda
Atharvaveda has also many references to economic Brahma. Sukta 3.20 of Atharvaveda is created for obtaining Brahma in riches and prosperity. Agni is invoked to strengthen Brahma and Yajña so that the riches may be possessed1o. Agni stimulates tribal economic (Yajñic) activity which results in accumulation of wealth of the Tribal Collective (Brahma).
If a person identifies his interest with the interests of Brahma, his power immensely increases. He gains the friendship of the learned and also the supreme leadership. He wins Agni. He, thus, becomes participator in the social fruits of Yajna. He resides with Devas. Brahma owns all the lands and the cattle. The whole Brahma and its constituents or leaders (Brahmas) bestow upon the new member sight, progeny and life. Brahma is sole owner of all the golden treasure-chests. The rich and prosperous castle of Brahma is never subdued. The whole Brahma resides in the fort.11 The spirit of these hymns is inherently materialistic. Lands, cattle, progeny, riches and military fort are all mundane objects of this real earth. The material benefits of joining the Brahma society are vividly enumerated here. The Brahmaryan adversaries after their final crushing military defeat had begun to amalgamate in the Brahmaryan society in the Atharvanic age. The process of mass conversion of the Bhartiyans to the Brahmaryan fold began in fullest swing. The person spoken of here is. probably a new Dāsa or Daśyu convert to the Brahmāryan. fold who finds much scope for material prosperity there.

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Brahma, in the sense of Brahma, the phenomenal creator, here, does not fit in the contex.
The Bhrgu, the Yatīs and Praskaņva faught amongst themselves for booty. Indra used his hero's strength and kept in tact the homogeneity of Brahma." The fight between the different sections of Brahma society was a disintegrating factor to the homogeneous existence of the society. Economic factors often do cause disturbance and disintegration. Indra's might had 'first regard for the Brahma' and reconciled the disturbing event. Brahma in the sense or Prayer does not make any sense.
Physical strength of Indra is heightened by Soma and Brahma. Brahma is the exaltation of Indra every day. Indra had all the material resources of Brahma at his disposal for his personal use. He was materially a fully. satisfied leader. Brahma is the source of the prosperity of Indra. Brahma is always ready for the prosperity of Indra.13 These hymns depict the earthly life of Indra when he actually fought battles with his foes. He, as Ganapati, and also as leader of Brahma, enjoyed all material pleasures and joys that could be provided by his tribal ( Brahmic ) society.
Taittiriya Samhita equates Brahma with 'Draviņam'.14 Draviņa means movable property, substance, goods, wealth, money, strength and power.15 Brahma signifies total physical and material power. Brhama is Economy.
Brahma in Taittiriya Samhita
Brahma is born first, Agni and Brahma are the beginning of the Yajña. Bṛhaspati is Brahma. Bṛahaspati is the Brahma of the Devas. Bṛhaspati as Brahma wins Yajña, cattle and progeny.16 These references give a condensed history of the Aryan life. The tribal society, the Gana and Brahma, is first of all organised. The separation of Angārā from the mass

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fire by Angiras or Agni is the next stage. Agni, a member of Brahma, discovers the science and art of Yajña for the benefit of the Tribal Society. Bṛhaspati is the first Ganapati but he is a very ambitious and expansionist Ganapati and evolves himself to Brahmnaspati. Bṛhaspati is the leader of all the Devas of the Brahma. Bṛhaspati, son of Angiras or Agni, makes the tribal (Yajnic) activity most successful resulting in increased wealth and progeny. Rși never forgets Brahmic progeny, the fruit of the promiscuous sex-relationship, the Animal Dharma, widely prevalent in the tribal society.
A legend of great cultural importance is given in Sukta 7. 3. 9. of Taittirīya Samhita. The legend says that Virāj (Vitality) dividing itself stayed among the
Viraj Legend Devas with the Brahma, among Asuras with Anna. The Devas desired, "May be acquired both the Brahma and the Anna." They indeed acquired both the Brahma and the Anna and became resplendant and eaters of food1. Brahma is used in a sense of possession; the possession of the Devas. The primitive Aryans were cattle-rearing people. Brahma means cattle. The Devas gained their vitality from their cattle (Brahma) who constantly lived (stayed) with them. Cattle (Brahma) was the source of power and strength of the Devas. The vitality of the Asuras came from Anna. The Aryans were pastoralists and the Bhārtīyans were agriculturists. The Brahmāryans after victory adopted a major portion of the cultural traits of their victims. The Brahmaryans borrowed the efficient methods of Bhāratīyan agriculture and took to cereal foods. They were non-vegetarians till at least sixth century B. C. eating the flesh of cow, ox, horse and other animals. The economic avocations and the eating habits of the Aryans and the Bhartiyans are reflected in this legend.

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We, thus, find the Brahma carrying on extensive economic activities. Its association with Yajña gives it an explicit material character. The functions of the Brahma in economic sphere were very real and vital to the everadvancing life of the Aryans.
References
1. Rgveda 3.4.3.3-4.
इ॒मा ब्रह्म॑ ब्रह्मवाः क्रि॒यन्त॒ आ ब॒र्हिः सीद । वीहि शूंर पुरो॒ळाश॑म् ॥ रा॒र॒न्धि सव॑नेषु ण ए॒षु॒ स्तोमे॑षु॒ वृत्रहन् । उ॒वथेष्विन्द्र गिर्वणः ॥
2. ( 1 ) Rgveda 6.2.8.5.
अस्मै' व॒यं यद्वावान॒ तद्वि॒विष्म॒ इन्द्रा'य॒ यो नः प्रदिवो अपस्कः ।
सु॒ते सोमे॑ स्तुम॒सि॒ शंस॑दु॒वयेन्द्रा य॒ ब्रह्म॒ वर्ध॑नं यथास॑त् ॥
(2) Rgveda Samhita (V.S.M.) ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. III Page 93. 3. (1) Rgveda 8.2.1.9.
प्र तमि॑न्द्र नशीमहि र॒ गोम॑न्तमश्विना॑म् । प्रब्रह्म पूर्व चिंतये ॥
(2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit.; Vol. III'; Page 566
(3) H.H. Wilson ; Rgveda ; Vol ; Page 22.
4. Monier-Williams; Op. Cit.; Page 652.
5. V.M. Apte ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. II; Page 1052. 6. ( 1 ) Rgveda 8.5.7.1.
प्रेदं ब्रह्म वृत्र 'वाविप्र सु॑न्व॒तः श॑चीपत॒ इन्द्र॒ विश्वा' भितिमिः । माध्यं दिनस्य॒ सव॑नस्य बृत्रहन्ननेद्य॒ पिबा॒ सोम॑स्य बज्रिवः ॥
(2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.) ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. III ; Page 27. 7. (1) Rgveda 9.5.1.41.
स म॒न्दना॒ उदि॑य॒त प्र॒जाव॑तीर्व॒श्वायु॒विश्वा': सुभरा श्रहंदिवि ।
ब्रह्म॑ प्र॒जाव॑द॒यिमश्व॑पस्त्यं पि॒त इ॑न्दो॒ विन्द्रमस्मभ्य॑ याचतात ॥
(2) Rgveda-Samhita (V. S. M .) ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. IV ; Page 174. 8. Rgveda 1.7.2.11; 5.3.2.6-7; 7.1.6.3.
9.(1) Rgveda 1. 15. 8. 5.
यो विश्व॑स्य॒ जग॑तः प्राणतत्पतिर्यो ब्रह्मणे प्रथमो गा अविन्दत ।
इन्द्रो यो दस्यूँरध॑रा॑ अ॒वाति॑र॒न्मख्त्व॑न्तं स॒ख्याय॑ ह॒वामहे ॥
(2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.) ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. IX ; Pages 621-622. (3) H.H. Wilson ; Rgveda ; Vol. I ; Page 158.
10. Atharvaveda ; 3. 20. 5,

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11. Atharvaveda; 10. 2. 21-33.
12. Atharvaveda; 20. 9. 3; 20.49.6. These hymns are taken from Rgveda 8. 8. 8. 1-2 and 8. 1. 3-9-10. 3-4. where the deities are Indra and Aświns.
( 241 )
13. Atharvaveda; 20. 34. 15; 20. 85. 3; 20. 92. 6. 14. Taittiriya Samhita; 4. 3. 3. 1.
15. Monier-Williams; Op. Cit; Page 501. 16. Taittiriya Samhita;
16
17. Taittiriya Samhita; 7. 3. 9. 1.
18. B. Subbarao; Rise of Magadha in Indian History and Archaology; Journal of the Oriental Institute, Baroda; Vol. X No. 4; Page 370.
19. B.K. Ghose; The Age of Re-Samhita (in Vedic Age); 1957; Page 393.

5. 2. 7. 1; 5. 3. 4. 1; 5. 3. 4. 4; 5. 6. 3. 3 i 5. 6. 5. 2; 6. 1. 2. 4; 6. 1. 8. 2; 6. 3. 6. 2; 6. 5. 8. 3; 6. 6. 5. 2;.

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4. THE SOCIAL BRAHMA The Āryan society was one undivided whole in the beginning. It was a unified tribal Collective. Satapatha Brahma-A Unitary Brāhmaṇa recollects the chronological history
Organisation of the division of this unitary society. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa may be placed Circa 700 B. C. Brahma in the beginning was only one and unitary. He felt himself insufficient. Kșatra was created from out of the Brahma. Then Vis was created obedient to Ksatra?. Indra was created as a hero of Ksatra.
When Brahma was the unitary social organisation ; it carried on all social functions. Indra, then was hero of the Brahma and he approved of the actions of the Brahma after hearing the will of the Brahma'. Words Brahma, Brahmaksti and Brahmāņi occur in this Ķc. If Brahma means tribal society, then Brahmaksti would naturally mean the 'actions' of the Brahma and Brahmāṇī, the ideas or will or resolutions of the Brahma. Indra is called Brahmendra', Indra of Brahma. Indra, the wielder of thunderbolt, the chief leader in battles and the resolute oppressor of the foes. Indra is chief leader of the Brahma. He is Brahmaņaspati.
The Brahmāryans had no kind corner in their hearts for their adversaries. Maruts are enjoined upon to enfeeble them. A curse is cast upon them that the heaven may consume them. Soma is also enjoined upon to cast his destroying weapon upon the adversary. These adversaries are called Brahmadvişāḥ, the adversaries of Brahma. Sāyaṇa interprets the word as adversary of Brāhmaṇa“. He manifestly appears wrong as no Brāhmaṇa Varņa or Brāhmaṇa caste existed in that age.

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( 243 ) The Brahmāryan adversaries, Vștras, Rākşaşas, Paņis, Dāsas, Dasyus and other are maligned in Rgveda as
... Brahmadvişāḥ, the haters or adversaries of Brahmadvişāḥ
sa! Brahma. They did not follow the Brahma way of life, were opposed to sacrifices and hated the Brahmāryan acts of plunder and violence". They are rightly termed as enemies of Brahma. They were afflicted, slain and exterminated. They were not opposed to Prayer but to the very institution of Brahma whatever it signified.
All the creatures, the cows, the horse and the man reside in Brahma Kāla is the only everlasting reality.
It is the lord of all including Brahma. Brahma Brahma-A Universal is embraced by Kāla, from Kāla sprang the Organisation
**ement water, sprang the regions, the Brahma?. This depicts the geological phenomena of life on earth. Water is first. Solidified waters take the form of earth. Then life starts on earth. Brahma refers to all life primarily; then to human society.
The thirty-sixth Book Yajurveda contains formulæ— chiefly prayers for long life, unimpaired faculties, health, strength, prosperity, security, peace and contentment of the Pravargya ceremony which is a preparatory rite of the Soma Sacrifice. Here the Sky, the Air, the Earth, the Plants, the Trees, Devas, the Brahma, the Universe and the Peace herself are said to bestow peace. Here Brahma is subordinated to Universe and Peace. From Sky to Devas and Brahma are visible manifestations of the earthly existence. Brahma is lower than universe and peace. Nothing but Peace can bestow peace. Brahma implies a constituent of universe ; a human society.
Brhaspati is Brahma of the Devas and by Brahma, he unites the Yajña. Devas increase the strength and prosperity

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)
of Brahma which sometimes elevates and depletes at other times. Vyāhstis are Brahma. Bhuḥ, Bhuvaḥ, and Svaḥ are Vyāhrtis. Bhuḥ means Earth or Land. Bhuyaḥ means Ether or Atmosphere. Svaḥ means Water, Heaven or Heaven of Indra?. Land and Water are physical objects. Heaven of Indra means the earthly pleasures and joys in an unlimited quantity. Thus, Brahma is a physical or material institution and not the spiritual one.
Agni is Brahma. Yajña is Brahma. Brick (used in Yajñic ceremony) is also Brahma". Brahma is not selfcreated, self-existent ; it has been created. Brahmaņaspati is the Adhipati of Brahma. Brahma is Deva-made and Brahmanaspati-made". This clearly indicates that it was the social organisation that was created or brought into existence by the fusion of all the Gaņas into one society by the leaders and the Ganapatis. No Scholar, Eastern or Western, Vedic or Non-Vedic, ancient or modern, believes that Brahma, the Highest Principle or the Ultimate Truth, was or is Deva-made or Brahmaṇaspati-made.
Though Brahma and Kşatra came into existence out of the unitary Brahma, ; they remained identified and united for a long time in the post-vedic age. Brahma quickens Kșatra and Kșatra quickens Brahma. Indra and Agni were created as the Brahma and the Kșatra. The Brahma was Agni and Kşatra Indra. When created, the two were separate. They spake, 'whilst, being thus, we shall be unable to produce creatures (peoples), let us both become one form'. The two became one form?4. One form of the two is Brahma. The purpose for becoming one was to 'produce peoples,' used in the figurative sense. It means that while separate, they would not be able to win wars and hence would not be able to subjugate people to their subordination. It is only as one

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( 245 ) Brahma that they would be able to enlarge the number of their Dāsas later to be downgraded as Sudras. The highest form of the Aryan Social organisation, the Brahma, is the Universal Tribal Collective.
The institution of Basileia in Greece approaches the Řgvedic Institution of Brahma. Basileja was the highest
Greek collective organisation of the primitive
Basileia Greekāryans. The Europāryan (Indo-European) parallel to the word Brahma is the word "Bhrgh' in the sense of 'high'.16 Only a linguist may help us in giving us a common word for this Āryan highest tribal collective but it is quite certain that the Greekāryans and the Brahmãryans, in their parallel heroic ages, developed these two institutions strikingly similar to each other. The kinship of the words Bhrgh, Basileia and Brahma cannot be lightly laid aside. They must have some sister relationship with each other having their origin from the same mother.
Basileia was the owner of all the wealth. They (the members of Basileia) were living in walled cities and were becoming wealthy through field agriculture, manufacturing industries, and flocks and herds. It was a period of incessant military strife for the possession of the most desirable areas. The economic, social and military activities of Basileja were tribal. The activities of Brahma were also of the same character. The Āryan people in Greece and Bhārata possessed universal tribal societies when they established themselves firmly over the original inhabitants of the lands. The Brahma is, thus, the Universal Tribal Collective of the Aryans.
References 1. Satapatha Brahmaņa ; 12, 7. 3. 12. 2. Řgveda 7. 2. 12. 2.

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ब्रह्म॑न्वीर ब्रह्म॑कृति जुषा॒णो ऽर्वाच॒नो हरि॑भिर्याहि॒ि तूय॑म् । अ॒स्मिन्नु॒ षु॒ सव॑ने मादय॒स्त्वोप॒ ब्रह्माणि शृणव इमा #: ॥ 3.(1) Rgveda 3. 4. 15. 13; 8. 4. 4. 1.
(2) Atharvaveda; 20. 119. 1.
4.(1) Rgveda 6. 5. 3. 2-3.
अति॑ वा॒ यो म॑रुतो॒ मन्य॑ते नो॒ ब्रह्म॑ वा॒ यः क्रियमाण॒ निनि॑ित्सात् । तषि तस्मै॑ वृजि॒नानि॑ सन्तु॒ ब्रह्मद्विष॑म॒भि तं शो' चतु द्यौः ॥ कीमङ्ग त्वा ब्रह्म॑णः सोम गोपां किम॒ङ्ग वाहुरभिशस्ति॒षा॑ नः । किम॒ङ्ग न॑ः पशयसि नि॒द्यमा॑नान्ब्रह्मद्विषे तपु॑णं हे तिम॑स्य ॥
(2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.) ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. III ; Page 195. 5. (1) Rgveda; 2. 3. 1. 4; 5. 3. 10. 9; 6. 2. 7. 8; 6. 5. 3. 3; 3. 3. 1. 17; 7. 6. 15. 1-2; 8. 6. 2. 23; 8. 7. 5. 1.
(2) Atharvaveda ; 2. 12.6.
6. Atharvaveda; 8. 2. 10; 8, 2, 25,
7. Atharvaveda ; 19.53. 8-9 ; 19. 54. 1.
8. Sukla Yajurveda ; 36.17.
9. Taittiriya Samhita; 1. 5. 4. 3; 1. 6. 4. 13; 1. 6. 10.2-4; 4. 6. 3. 4. 10. V. M. Apte ; Op. Cit. ; Vol. II Pages 1202, 1203; Vol. III Pages 1521, 1739.
11.(1) Taittiriya Samhita ; 4. 3. 9.
(2) A. B. Keith ; The Veda of the Black Yajus School ; 1914 ; Vol. II; Page 332 Note 4.
12. Taittirāya Samhitā; 4. 3.10.1.
13. Taittiriya Samhitā; 5.1.10.2-3.
14. J. Eggling ; Satapatha Brahmana; S. B. E. Series 1897; Part IV Page 342; S.B. 10.4. 1. 5. 15. Siddheswar Varma ; Op. Cit. ; Page 49. 16. Lewis H. Morgan ; Op. Cit. ; Page 256.

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5. BRAHMANASPATI
All the Ganas had coalesced together to form the Brahma. The supreme leader of the Brahma was not only a Ganapati now. He became chief Ganapati of all the merging Ganas. Lord of Brahma was Bṛhaspati or Brahmanaspati. Bṛhaspati was the chief Ganapati established the institution of Brahma. The office of Bṛhaspati expanded and it rose to the eminence of Brahmanaspati. The military feats of Brahmanaspati are more fierceful and more violent than those of Bṛhaspati. Bṛhaspati in his new office became Brahmanaspati. He was chief of all the Ganapatis. Brahmanaspati is greater than Bṛhaspati and Indra. Ṛgvedic Sūkta 2. 3. 1 glorifies the institution of Brahmanaspati. He is the chief leader of the Ganas, destroyer of unrighteous enemies, victor in battles, consumer of the foes, the humiliator of the fierce and the destroyer of the oppressor. He by his might, humbled those who deserved humiliation and sent down dead the undescending enemies on their mountain castles and won the mountains (and the castles therein). Brahmanaspati, the Supreme Leader of the Brahma, with all the military might of Brahma under his command, threw open the shut gates of the mountainous castles of Vala and destroyed him.' This historical event occurs in the military exploits of both Bṛhaspati and Brahmanaspati. Bṛhaspati was only a leader of a Gana and kills Vala with the assistance of Gana. Brahmanaspati, not Bṛhaspati, kills Vala with assistance of the military might of Brahma. It appears that this military exploit of Brahmanaspati was later transferred to Bṛhaspati by the Vedic rhapsodist who had, purposely, forgotten the true events of history
BrahmanaspatiThe Supreme Commander

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(248) and made little distinction between Bịhaspati and Brahmaņaspati as is very clearly evident from the internal evidence of Rgveda and the later Vedas. Brahmaņaspati had quick-darting bow and arrows. His weapons gave him fame in battle. The swift horses of Brahmaņaspati, the hater of the oppressor, in his great adventure help him in overcoming the malevolent Asyras. Even a Junior Commander of Brahmaņaspati, with his guidance, overcomes his enemies and defeats his rivals who are very difficult to be overcome in battle. He kept his forces over ready and firm in contending against foes Brahmanaspati protects his people from foes and distress.*
Brahmaņaspati is the Purohita of gods. He was their Purohita because he was foremost amongst them and held Foremost of the frontal position in battle. He could raise Ganapatis
the status of an ordinary member of Brahma and make him illustrious among Devas. Men and their leaders, the Devas, were ordinary human beings and by brave deeds, an ordinary human being could raise himself to the Brahma leadership. Brahmaņaspati protected his forces from the malevolent man. He, for the glory of his subordinate gods, helps gods drive away every adversary. Brahmaṇaspati is Brahma. With Brahmāryans, the social organisation was supreme. Even the supreme leader was subject to it. Here both have been equated.
Vedic Rșis have made Brahmaņaspati and Bșhaspati interchangeable. Their military qualities, of necessity, have been separately preserved but their economic social and other functions have not so clearly been separately preserved. These functions are analysed here performed by one or the other or by both in common.
The Brahmāryan society had supremacy in weapons over its adversaries which gave it astounding victories. The

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( 249 ) Brahmāryan army was well equipped with most modern weapons of the age. Axe, Vajra, bows and arrows, sharpedged weapons and missiles were their chief weapons."
Brahmaņaspati was the creator of the whole Brahma and the original source of all the Devas. He successfully federated all the existing Gaņas and from their chemical fusion, created one all-powerful, all-supreme and the most effective Brahmāryan Tribal Collective. The smaller leaders got their lustre and glory from him. Brahmaņaspati was actively associated with the economic life of his people. He is the giver of wealth, food, cattle, progeny and long life. He is the giver of prosperity and fulfiller of material desires. His singers get heroic sons, wealth, horses, cows and garments from him.
Yajña was the primitive mode of economic production and distribution. It also included plunder of the riches of the Brahmāryan adversaries. Brhaspati is Yajñapati, the lord of the Yajña®. Agni is Yajña. Yajña is Brahma. Agni is Bịhaspati. Thus Agni-Yajña-Brahma-Bșhaspati stand in definite relationship to each other. Agni accelerated Brahmāyan economic activities which grew into Yajña. The economic and social activities known as Yajñic activities solidified the political organisation known as Brahma. Brhaspati thus became Pati or Lord of Yajña and Brahma.
Atharvaveda preserves the Ķgvedic qualities of Bịhaspati. He is a great hero in battles ; killed Vala and defeated his enemies. He used thunderbolt sharpened by Brahma. He is the principal priest and sacrificer. He is the father of Brahma and Devas. He was the giver of cattle, riches, progeny and better life”. Bộbaspati is a military hero, a

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great magician and a great leader who led the Brahma Society to high material prosperity.
Aitariya Brāhmaṇa equates Bṛhaspati with Brahmanas. pati. He is to be pacified for obtaining leadership, children, cattle, beauty and fame. Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa identifies Bṛhaspati with Brahma which means Yajña".
Bṛhaspati was a mortal human being but he was the best among them, their supreme leader. He willingly offered himself and his feudatories, the Devas, sacrificed him in Puruşamedha for the preservation of Prajās1o, his subjects, the constituents of the Brahma over which he rules. As the Gana considered itself the whole universe; so the Brahma also considered itself the whole universe. Brahma, thus, came to be identified with Universal Tribalism. Brahmansapati was the sovereign dictator of this Universal Tribalism. He symbolised in himself all the powers and functions of all the Ganapatis together in a multiplied form, He was supreme of all the Ganapatis.
of a judge
The parallel Greekāryan office resembling this Brahmaryan office of Brahmanaspati appears to be the office of Basileus. The suffix 'us' indicates 'the master' in the sense of Pati. Zeus was the master of gods; Basileus was the master of Basileia. Basileus was the general military commander. Zeus gave him his sceptre. The functions of a priest and were attached to or inherent in his office". He was the chief priest, the chief judge and the supreme War-lord11 like Brahmanaspati. He had the seat of large and choice share of booty taken in offered in sacrifices; just like Brahmanaspati. aided by the council of chiefs and the armed Gana assembly known as Agora. The council of chiefs may be likened to the Brahmic assembly of the Devas. Agora was the armed
honour at feasts, a
war and of food Basileus was
Greek Basileus

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( 251 ) gathering of the people. The assembly of the people had not yet been distinguished as an institution from the army. The functions of peace and war had not yet bifurcated. The word Agora may have similarity with the Ķgvedic words Agriyā and Agrimā!4. The word Agriyā means precedence and the word. Agrimā means the chiefest. It stresses the importance of the members of the Collective.
Basileus, like Bșhaspati and Brahmaņaspati and Council of Chiefs, like Devagaņas, had the first privilege to the wealth and resources of the Basileia ; as the later had that of the Brahma. Basileus ruled according to his will and pleasure by edicts and decrees. He was the supreme Commander in war; the Supreme judge in peace and the Supreme priest. All the tribal powers; in the fields of agriculture, industry, art and culture ; centered in him. All the members of the council were obedient to him like Devas to Ganapati and Brahmaṇaspati. Conflict in their powers came late after the end of the heroic period Circa 1000 B. C.
References 1. Rgveda 2. 3. 1. 1, 9, 11, 17; 2. 3. 2, 3, 8, 9, 13, 14; 2. Rgveda 2. 3. 3.3; 2. 3. 4. 1, 2, 4. 3. Rgveda ; 2. 3. 2.9; 1,5. 1. 1; 1.5. 1.3; 1. 8. 5. 1-3; 2. 1. 1. 3; 4. Rgveda ; 7. 6. 8. 7; 2. 3. 8.9; 2. 3.8.4; 2. 3. 8. 14; 2. 32. 8.;
1. 24. 11. 4. 5. Rgveda 2. 3. 1.2; 1. 24. 11. 8; 4. 5. 5. 6;5. 4. 2.5; 5. 3. 10.8;
6. 6. 12. 3. 6. Sukla Yajurveda; 2. 12. 7. Atharvaveda; 20. 16.5; 20. 88.5; 20.90.2; 8. 8. 19; 18.
3.41; 20. 88. 6; 2. 26.2; 3. 20. 4. 7. 8. 1. 8. Aitariya Brāhamapa; 1. 13; 4. 11.
Satapatha Brāhmaṇa; 3. 1. 4. 15. 10. Rgveda ; 10. 1. 13. 4. 11. L. H. Morgan; Op. cit.; Pages 255-256. 12. J. B. Bury; Op. cit.; Page 46. 13. (1) L.H. Morgan; Op. cit.; Pages 250-252.
(2) J. B. Bury; Op. cit.; Pages 46-47. 14. Rgveda ; 4. 4, 2.3; 5. 3. 12. 9.

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CHAPTER VIII THE ĀRYAN WAY
The material environment conditions the basic way of a people which, in turn, projects the form of their economic,
Material social and political institutions. We have Conditioning discussed the economic, social and political institutions of the Aryans from their earliest stage of savagery to the latest stage of barbarism. We find a remarkable continuity in these historic institutions in time and space. We have now to know the basic way from which these institutions originated.
The Aryans upto the last stage of their barbaric civilization and culture had not developed the idea of religion and Supreme God. There was no necessity for such invention. Their Basic Way may, at the best, may be called the primeval beliefs of the Aryans which gave material shape to their institutions,
The basic object most intimately related to the foundation of the life of the most ancient Aryan people was Importance cattle. Aryans reared them in herds. The
of Cattle most ancient Āryan civilization was shepherdic civilization. The effects of the fourth Glacier Age was still a living memory with them. Nature had become very unkind to them and they had to struggle very hard for their very existence in their original home. The principal phenomena of external visible nature shaped the basic way of Aryan life.
The principal activites of nature that effected the Aryan way were the Heaven, the Sun, the Dawn, the Fire,

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( 253 i the Waters, the Rains and Thunders, the Cattle and the Earth. Earth and Cattle were their immediate companions.
Phenomena The others lived far apart but were consi.
of Nature dered as immediate neighbours by the Aryans. The unkindness of Nature generated fear. But Fear did not depress the hardy Aryans. They set on task to befriend these powerful neighbours and derive from them the utmost advantage.
Dyaus stood aloft above all the phenomena of Nature. He was the father of all. Parjanya was the force of thunder, storm and rain ; Agni, the force of heat ; Sūrya, the force of light and Varuna was the force of Waters. Bhaga symbolised wealth and cattle. Prthvi was the mother of all. Aryan man was very intimate with these forces of nature ; the Sky, the Sun, the Fire and the Waters. The firmament, Dyaus, the father of all, was a living unit with the undivided Aryans. It was an undivided whole. The whole, vast firmament, starry during nights, presided over by sun in the day and by moon in the night, was a reality with the Aryans. Sun and Moon were the most supreme. The other phenomena of Nature were their subjects. With firmament above and the steppy cold lands below; the Aryans developed themselves in the order of the Master and his Subjects, Shepherd and his Cattle.
Aryans in the third millennium B. C. tended flocks and herds of cattle. They had to cry aloud to gather their
cattle. The call symbol 'ha', 'he', and 'hava' Name=Thing
became their principal art. This call symbol helped in maintaining the collectivity of the unit in tact. It invited the cattle to come and the cattle, hearing the call symbol, did actually come. This phenomenon gave the barbaric Aryan primitive philosopher the idea

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that the word can act for thing. It helps in the movement of thing according to the expressions of the word. He gave some subjective thought to the art of communion. A sweet word brought favourable reactions while a harsh word gave repelling experience in contacts with man and nature. Word had effect on Thing. The barbaric Aryan primitive philosopher, at the second stage of his thinking, commited a fundamental blunder. He identified word with Thing. The The word sheep is Sheep itself. The as the Thing itself. Giving a
word fire is Fire itself. word gives the same effect Name is getting the Thing.
The barbaric Aryan primitive philosopher brought, to his and worlds' misfortune, phenomena of Nature to man with whom he was closely related. He
Theory of Descent
He
saw the vast sky around him and the greatest amongst the Aryan barbarians was given that name. became Dyaus, He experienced the effects of storm, rain and thunder in his daily life and the Aryan barbarian leader alike received the name Parjanya. He had learnt the use of individual fire for his daily use. The fire expert or the the scientist got that name,; Angārā or Agni or Angiras. The Sun gave them warmth, light and life in daily routine; hence the leader possessing these qualities came to be called Sun. Pṛthvi was the mother of all and the elderly ladies giving motherly love to the younger folk came to be known as such. Dawn was the most attractive and pleasuregiving phenomena of Nature. The most beautiful amongst the young Aryans ladies were given the epithet, Uṣās. These various names were given to the different constituents of Aryan community with the belief that the person so called would imbibe the qualities of that aspect of Nature from which the name has been adopted. It gave them great stimulus. The person thinking himself Parjanya acted

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like Parjanya and considered himself the incarnation of Parjanya and in course of time Parjanya itself. Similar was the case with Dyaus, Uşā and others.
This aspect of the phenomenon of nature stands in special relationship with the Aryans, Bhaga signified
w productive capacity of Sun. Sun, like Bhaga -The Sun
" Fire, was of utmost importance to Aryans for their economic life. In the northern mountainous regions, Sun had special charm and utility. It helped them in their migrations and in the rearing of flocks and herds of cattle. Sun was their effective agent in transforming their hunting and food gathering life to that of cattle-rearing life. Cattle could prosper there where Sun was bountiful. This aspect of Sun was called Bhaga. Bhaga is an Aditya like Sun. Bhaga is Savitri.? Bhaga is Cattle.' Cattle was wealth. Āryans knew only cattle as wealth. Cattle are known as wealth even today in certain parts of Rajasthan, Punjab and Gujerat. Bhaga was wealth. What is enjoyable (Bhajanīyam) is Bhaga. Sāyaṇa comments it as Wealth or Food but it may denote Cattle also. When Bhaga was later ritualised; it became Deva of Wealth, of riches. Bhaga is sustainer of world and giver of riches. Bhaga is faithful promisor of wealth, giver of cattle and horses, wealth and riches. Bhaga comes with wealth. Adorer invokes Bhaga for protection and solicits him for wealth. Bhaga distributes desirable wealth. Agni as Bhaga rulest over wealth. Bhaga comes to sacrifice as fleetest coursers run to battle. Bhaga is lord of wealth and conquerer of riches. Bhaga, apportioner of wealth, comes with abundance and protection. Bhaga is bestower of Prosperity. Bhaga is giver of riches. Verily, Bhaga, to be adored by men who, abounding in wealth, distributes treasures. Mother of Bhaga, Āditi, is adored to give riches which Bhaga may

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( 256 )
preserve ever in keeping. Savitri and Bhaga are distributors of precious wealth Rc 5. 4. 5. 1 establishes relationship of Savitri and Bhaga as givers of wealth which was cattle alone to the Aryans. The adorer expects to receive from Bhaga that which is excellent, all-sustaining, destructive of foes. Bhaga is grantor of enjoyments. Bhaga was enjoyment and enjoyment was object of adoration with the Aryans. Cattle provided enjoyment to the Aryans and hence was adorable. The name of this aspect of Sun was transferred to Cattle in general. Cattle came to be known as Bhaga.
wana.
As Cattle was known as Bhaga, the possessor of the collectivity of Cattle was known as Bhagavantaḥ or BhagaA female possessor of cattle is called Bhagavati. Cow was Bhagavati as she was rich in milk. The desire of ancient Aryans was as insatiable as the fire of the ocean which could be appeased only by splendid affluence (Bhaga).
When Nature-Names were usurped by the primitive Aryan Leader; the Aryan Gana, a social entity, became founded on unequal basis. Inequality is at the base of the most ancient Aryan social organisation. These leaders or Devas and Ganapatis had to be satisfied, to be invoked. Aryan philosophy had been founded. Word was thing itself. A cattle offered to fire invoking the name of Agni was Agni's and invoking the name of Dyaus was Dyaus'. It was called the property of Dyaus and it at once became his property. It was offered. Dyaus had not to earn it. Men offered cattle. Devas accepted them. Yajña came into existence. 'He' or 'Hava' was the chief instrument that effected this revolution.
Hava means 'a call'. Its Europaryan parallel is ghan'to call'. Hava was originally a call to the cattle. Call or

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( 257 ) 'name' served the purpose of Thing. Hava is the showerer of material benefits. The art of Havaḥ was later extended
to the phenomena of Nature also. Indra Haviam
comes to Havam. Indra and Varuņa grant protection on the Havam of Vipra." Indra comes with numerous bounties and abundant food hearing Havam." Agni and Aświns immediately act upon the Havam of Praskaņva and Kanvas respectively. 18 Havam pleases Angiras.14 Havam brings Saraswatí to Yajña.16 Indra, on hearing Havam, comes bearing thunderbolt, drinking Soma, bestowing cattle, granting manly and multiplied progeny.18
Devas, in those ancient times, were real human beings who were the minor leaders of the Āryan Gaņas under the Supreme Leadership of Ganapati ; the real human hero. When Devas were celestialised; these celestialised human heroes might have been transferred along with their human activities to celestial regions. The primitive Aryans supposed to have direct dealings with the phenomena of Nature. But they did not believe in the worship of celestial bodies or of the phenomena of Nature. They believed in power and energies. The power and energies of the phenomena of Nature was supposed to have been gained by the Aryan Devas by exercising the Art of Haya. An interesting historical event depicting the belief in the efficacy of this art may be found in Greek history. Athamas, the Æolian king himself represented the thunder-god like his predecessor Ixion.18 The Āryan Gaņa leader became Devas endowed with the qualities of the phenomena of Nature. The Ganapeople in return, could call their leaders (Devas) for increased tribal activities for the growth and prosperity of the Gaņa. The Call (Hava) and tribal activity (Yajña) became inseparable. Hava was the best instrument of the primitive Aryans in effecting economic and social revolution. This is the
17

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primitive Aryan philosophy of Havism. Havism, thus, is a social theory of increasing material power and energy of the primitive Aryan Tribal Collective.
Oriental scholars believe that undivided Āryans had developed the conception of anthropomorphic, an unscientific
term indeed, deities such as Dyaus, Parjanya Doctrine of Morphomotheism and others. We also learn from these
scholars that men and devas lived together, dined together, played together and fought in battles together till the Greekāryans reached mainland Greece and the Brahmāryans reached the Frontiers of Bhārata in the middle of second millennium B. C. Both the theories cannot be correct. If men and gods lived together ; there is no sense in giving human form to the phenomena of nature. If we correctly study chronological history, we find that it was actually not so done. Phenomena of nature were not conceived in anthropomorphic forms till the Āryan institutions, by impact of the cultures and civilizations of their adversaries in Greece and Bhārata, were not celestialised. It is only in the Ritualisation Age Circa 1000 B. C. that the conception of the celestialisation of human activities was evolved. The actual position really was vice versa before this age. The phenomena of nature were not given 'humanity'le in that age ; but the humanity was given the names of the phenomena of Nature. This we may call Morphomotheism. Morphomotheism may be defined as "The assumption by a human being the energy and qualities of the object of Nature, considered to have descended in him." It means .giving man the form of Nature.' Undivided Āryans believed in Morphomotheism and not in Anthropomortheism before Circa 1000 B. C.
Ganapati Indra was the supreme Brahmāryan leader in the middle of second millennium B. Ç. and onwards. He

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( 259 ) : assisted Divodāsa and Sudas, the great Brahmāryan conquerors, in establishing Brahmāryan suzerainty over Bhārata. He actually fought battles against Výtras, Paņis and other Bharātīyan people. He ate and drank with his people. He married or took io concubinage Narmadā, widow of Purukutsa, the Pūru, a leader of Dāsrājna War. But we do not find Indra in Greekāryan History. There we find Zeus, Brahmāryan Dyaus, the Greekāryan tribal leader who feasted together with men and won wars against the native people. He married the beautiful native queen Hera. Zeus and his other colleagues lived on exploitation.30 The material qualities of Zeus and Indra are strikingly similar. Indra did not belong to the age of undivided Aryans hence he did not travel with the Greekāryans. We find Indra in the Asiāryan period as evidenced by the Boghaz-keui inscriptions. It appears that the institution of Indra developed after the separation of the Europāryan brother and during the Asjäryan stage. He assumed greatest importance during the Bralmāryan period. He is the supreme lord of the Ķgvedic Āryans. It appears that some important functions of Dyaus were transferred to Indra, Indra is referred as son of Dyaus. He is like Dyaus with the thunderbolt. Dyaus and Prthvī, progenitors of Indra, trembled at the time of the birth of their son Indra. Dyaus invigorates the manhood of Indra. Dyaus and Pythvī were generated first. Dyaus is father21 Dyaus consumes the Aryan adversaries and is the giver of renown, food, male posterity, riches and property. We, thus, find the human characters, similarly placed, acting the similar drama in Greece and Bhārata in the person of Dyaus in Greece and son of Dyaus in Bhārata. They are morphomortheistic men and not anthropomorphic dejties. The Olympic and the Brahmic anthropomorphic nature

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religions were the growths of later ritualisations of the Greekāryan and the Brahmāryan institutions which forms a separate subject of study.
Āryan leaders believed in the efficacy of Word. If the word indicating the great forces of Nature could endow them
Science of with superhuman powers, then, the Word Chhandopathy could work other wonders also. The word was believed to have the force of healing diseases, bringing prosperity, long life, cattle and posterity. It could ward off misfortunes and calamities. The wielding of these powers of the Word gave great strength to the Aryan leaders over the common masses of the Gaņa. This force inherent in Word is named Chhanda.
'Chhandas' may be traced to Chhādy to cover'. Its Europāryan parallel is shed—'to cover"? The word pertains to that activity which covers' or disguises the reality. The reality is different. That reality is supposed to be achieved by the Chhanda method or the covering method. Name is 'a cover' for the reality, the thing. Monier-Williams gives it the meaning "alluring, inviting' also desire, longing for'. It also came to mean the sacred hymn of Atharvaveda as distinguished from those of Rgveda, Yajurveda and Sāmaveda. It means incantation-hymn." Chhandas are repeated for obtaining wealth. Brahma recites Cbhandas for engendering delight of the Devas.24 Haya, scientifically organised, is Chhanda.
Chhandas are Atharvanic hymns. Ķc, Sāma, Yajus and Chhanda originated from Yajña.26 Ynjña, the tribal activity, is the progenitor of Ķc, Sāma, Yajus and Chhandas. Here Chhandas definitely refer to the fourth Veda. Atharvaveda uses this word in the sense of magical hymns. 28 Rc is the outer from while Chhanda is the inherent force,

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( 261 ) Řc is body while Chhanda is its soul. Rc is inferior to Chhanda and Rtvij is inferior to Brahmā. Hence Rgveda is inferior to Atharvaveda. Yajña produced RC and Chhandas. Yajña was the military, economic and social activity of Gaņa for the growth of material prosperity and male posterity. The primitive Aryans believed that the art of Chhandas would help them much in economic and social growth.
Maxmuller maintains that sacrifice was a very natural occupation of the Vedic savages. 97 By Vedic', in this Yajña-- Parent of context, he means Āryan. Primitive Aryans Chhandopathy needed great stimulus to win victories in war or to avert natural calamities. Āryans believed in the vast mighty powers of the phenomena of Nature. The easiest way to obtain that stimulus was to devour that force. That force had its human representative with them ; hence the social institution of Puruşamedha came into being. It was believed that if the Gaņa ate the flesh and blood of the Ganapati, his qualities would be transferred to the whole Gaņa. The mana of the sacrificed would give that needed stimulus. The general feast prepared from the flesh and blood of Gaņa pati was attended by Chhanda singing and dancing. The Chhanda singing was the vehicle that transferred the qualities of the sacrificed Ganapati to the members of the Gana. Various kinds of cattle were sacrificed ; their flesh and blood eaten, accompanied by appropriate Chliandas, to secure freedom from fear; to bring advancement, offspring, cattle heroes ; to get prosperity, long life for themselves, their cattle and their children, for sexual vigour ; for getting food and cultivated fields; kinedom and milk ; to get a firmly built house and manifold material pleasures ; and also to burn unfriendly persons, thieves and foes and for killing enemies in battlesa8. Whether

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( 262 ) these acts transferred the qualities of the dead or not to the eaters; perhaps it did not ; but it provided a great stimulus to the Gaņa members who positively believed in the efficacy of this art. This stimulus goaded them strongly to action and that action gave them success. Whenever they failed, they believed that the Chhanda might not have been correctly repeated; as in the case of transferring energies of Nature to Indra and Vộtra by repeating wrong Chhandas ; and that gave them sufficient consolation in their defeat. Chhanda vulgarity was ritualised later, but in its earliest stages, the art of Chhanda recitation or Chhandopathy, was an efficacious method, in the social process, in bringing total social accord and in providing strongest stimulant of action for achieving material objects.
Chhandopathy is the parent of all magic; white, black or natural; homeopathic or contagious. The eminent Chhandopathy:
scholar J. G. Frazer in his monumental work The parent of The Golden Bough' has very clearly enunciaMagic
agric t ed the principles and practices of magic. Magic is based on two principles. One, that like produces like and second, that Things which livve once been in contact with each other are always in contact. The first is the law of Similarity and the second is the law of Contagion. Charms based on the law of similarity be called Homeopathic Magic. Charms based on the Law of contagion may be called contagious Magic. Magic is based on the misapplications of the association of ideas hence it is a spurious science and a bastard art.29
Though Frazer has not gone into the historical causes of the origin of Magic, he has recorded many interesting data about Magic. He gives several instances of savage beliefs. Savage is unadle to discriminate between words and things. He fancies that a link between a name

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( 263 ) and the person or thing denoninated by it is not a mere arbitrary and ideal association, but a real and substantial bond. He gives appalling instances of Human Sacrifices where the decaying man-god or King was sacrificed and eaten so that his soul may be transferred to his vigorous successor. Kings were believed to possess magical powers by virtue of which they could fertilise earth and confer other benefits on their subjects. This view was shared by the ancestors of the Aryans from Ireland to India. Āryans roamed the wide steppes of Russia or in central Asia with their flocks and herds, they may have worshipped the god of the blue sky or cloudy firmament and the flashing thunderbolt.80 But Frazer missed the historical event the primitive Āryan philosopher gave the names of the phenomena of Nature to the leaders of humanity to possess superhuman energy and power which later on gave birth to the spurious science and bastard art of Magic.
Chhandopathy, in its original stages, remained related to its parent, the Yajña, the economic and social activities of the primitive Aryans. The stimulus provided by it accelerated their economic and social growth. Āryans did not know the spiritual forces of penance, contemplation and meditation. They readily accepted the material forces of their outward belief in Chhandopathy. When this art got deep-rooted amongst them and began to be considered an efficacious method ; its scope was extended from the terrestrial domain to the ethereal domain. It came to be believed that forces of nature could be coerced to yield material benefits. Gaņa leaders were intellectually advanced to the common masses and by keen observation and repeated experience had known the working of certain phenomena of Nature. Rain was the prime necessity of the savage Aryans. Ganapati had assumed the role of the guide of the Gaña and

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it had become his prime duty to work for the material prosperity of the Gaņa. Gaņa needed rain for agricultural purposes. The art of agriculture probably reached the original Aryan home Circa 2500 B.C.31 Probably the agriculture travelled from Mesopotamian regions to the North in the Southern Uttarakuru country due to contacts of the former with the later which later on provided them with a strong incentive to migrate. Now Rain became an essential factor in the economic life of the primitive Aryans. The Ganaleader was supposed to possess this quality of rain-making also which he assured his subjects to exercise effectively. He had cleverly learnt the laws of Seasons which he used effectively to strengthen his status and power. Ganapati, as Parjanya, chanted Chhandas to bring down Rain from the ethereal Parjanya in appropriate seasons and the rain did come. Ganapati Parjanya became rain-maker also. Agni was coerced by praises to serve men. Indra is subdued by overpowering praises. By recitations, the adorers became possessed of Indra. Ganapati Indra, in return, is the subduer of all.82 Chhandas subdue natural phenomena. Morphomotheistic Indra, the Ganapati, functions as the subduer of all as he is in constant communion with Indra in the ethereal regions. Natural Magic is born. Control of Storms, Thunders, Cold, Heat and other aspects of Nature flow from this belief in the efficacy of Chhanda.
Chhandąs were charms or spells of Natural Magic. They were sung to obtain food, material prosperity and victory in battles. Atharyaveda is the Veda of Spells or Charms. Brahma is Spell and Brahmaveda is the Veda of Spells. Brahma is the Lord of Sorcerers. Rgveda also exhibits this under-current of Natural Magic. Indra sits with Gaņa-members who sing to him for obtaining food. Angirasas sang to Indra and through his help recovered

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their cattle. Agni was magnified by the songs of the adorers. Kuśikas sing to Vaisvānara for wealth who is bountifull and frequenter of Yajña. The ancient adorer sings to Nāsatyas who come with food and vigour. Āświns are sung to bring prosperity to the conductors of Yajña". It may be disputed that these are not spells or charms but simple prayers. The essential difference between a Spell and a Prayer is that the object and the subject in the former are one entity while fn the later they are two. Word and Thing are identified in the former while they are distinct from each other in the later. In the above quoted hymns ; Agni, Indra and Nāsatyas live with the people. Yajña is here a material activity producing food and wealh. Rgveda is replete with instances where Devas and People play, work and sing together and carry on economic and social activities in Gaņas. The Chanting of Chhandas is a living compliment of real activity born of belief in the efficacy of word and the belief in the identity of the word and the Thing signified by such word. That material help also descends from the phenomena of Nature is also born of this belief. Some eminent scholars including Maxmuller and Murray hold that primitive Aryans believed in Nature Religion. According to Maxmuller, ancient Aryan religion took its origin from a poetical interpretation of the great phenomena of nature personified and named as the chief agents of the eternal physical drama. According to Murrary, Olympian Religion is a Nature-Religion.34 Aryan Devas lived together with their Gaņa-members before they settled in Greece and Bhārata. They never prayed to their Devas. They commanded their Devas who, in turn, commanded, but did not pray to the forces of Nature which quality was believed to have been possessed by the Gaņa-leaders. This was not religion, much less, Nature-Religion. This was simple Natural Magic. The

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art of prayer was born when the Aryan leaders, the Devas and their basic institution, the Yajña, were ritualised. Then, Spell was also ritualised into Prayer to be a vehicle of ritualised Yajña to ritualised Devas.
The Aryans actively commanded the service of Chhandopathy for material prosperity and for the annihilation of adversaries. It was as much a living institution with them as Yajña (Sacrifice) and Yuddha (warfare). It did not develop beyond the stage of Natural Magic till the Aryns came in contact with superior cultures in Greece and Bharata. Chhandopathy, like Yajña. was later ritualised in White and Black Magic after the Aryans had finally settled in these regions,
The primitive undivided Aryans believed in the theory of identity of the word and the thing it represented. Their theory of Havism increased the power and potency of their tribal collective. The power and energy of the phenomena of nature 'entered' in the bodies of Gana-leaders. This may be called the Doctrine of Morphomotheism. They had invented the art of Chhandopathy out from the theory of Havism. The art of Chhandopathy, finally, led them to the science of Natural Magic. This was the basic foundation of the Aryan thought before they came in contact with Śramanic cultures and civilizations in Greece, Egypt, West Asia and later in Bharara. These basic Aryan beliefs grew out of the physical conditions in the Aryan Cradle-land. They, in turn, helped the Aryans to develop their basic social institutions of Gana and Ganapati, Deva-hood and Yajña and later, Brahma and Brahmanaspati or Basileia and Basileus. This basic Aryan Way is the foundation of naked Materialism that later engulfed the whole World.

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( 267 ) References
1. Rgveda; 5.6. 10. 3. 2. Rgveda; 6.3.5. 5. 3. Rgveda; 1. 6. 1.5%33. 3. 1. 183; 3. 5.1.21; 1. 14. 7.7%32.2.6.7. 4. (1) Rgveda%; 5. 1. 7.83; 8.7.2.7; 9.6. 1.44. (2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit. ; Vol. III ; Page 8133;
Vol. II; Page 745 ; Vol. IV; P. 233. (3) H. H. Wilson ; Rgveda ; Vol. V; Page 321. 5. Rgveda; 7. 3.8.2, 3, 5,6; 7.3. 5.6; 4. 3.9.24; 5.2.2.2%3
2. 1.1.73; 5.3.9.4%; 5.3.10.5; 5.4.2.6%3 5.4.7.113; 5. 3. 9. 11; 6. 4. 6. 14; 7.3. .1; 7. 3. 7.23; 5.4.5.13;
5.6.10.13; 8.10.9.6. 6. Rgveda; 1.21. 2. 10; 1.21. 2. 11; 2. 1. 11.21; 2.2.4.10%B
2.2.5.9; 2.2.6.9; 2.2.7.93 2.2.8.9; 2.2.9.9%; 3. 3.7.5%3 3.5.2.17; 5.4.4.5; 6.1.13.23; 7.4.9.43;
8.5.1.11; 1.20.1.599.7.6.13. 7. (I) Rgveda: I. 22.8.40; 3. 3. 1. 19; 3. 5.9.113; 7.3.8.4, 5.
(2) Rgveda-Samhita (V.S.M.); Op. Cit.; Vol. I; Page 1007. 8. Siddheswar Varma ; Op. cit.; Page 85. 9. Rgveda 8. 3. 1, 31-33. वृषायमिन्द्र ते रथ उतो ते वृषणा हरी' । वृषा त्वं शतकृतो वृषा हवः ।। वृषा नावावूषा मदो वृषा सोमो अयं सुतः। वृषा यज्ञो यमिन्वसि वृषाह। वृषा त्वा वृषणं हुवे वर्जिञ्चित्रामिरुतिमिः। वावन्थ हि प्रतिष्टुतिवृषाहवः ॥ 19. Rgveda : 8. 1. 3. 14 ; ४. I. I. 27.
कदुस्तुवन्त ऋतयन्त देवत ऋषिः को विप्र ओहते। कदा हवं' मघवन्निन्द्र सुन्वतः कटु' स्तुवत आ गमः॥ य एको अस्ति दसना मुहाँ उग्रो अमि व्रतैः ।
गमत्स शिप्री न स यो'षदा गंमद्धवन परि वर्जति ॥ 11. Rgveda ; l. 4. 6.2
गन्तारा हि स्थोऽवस हवं विप्रेस्य माव॑तः । धर्तारा' चर्षसीनाम् ॥ 12. Rgveda I. 6. 7.8.
आ घा' गमद्यदि श्रवत्सहनिर्णा'भिरूतिभि:। वाजेभिरुपं नो हव॑म् ।।
13. Rgveda ; l. 9. 2. 3; 1. 9. 4. 2. प्रियमे धवदंत्रिवजातवेदो विरूपवत् । अङ्गिरस्वन्महिव्रत प्रस्कण्वस्य श्रुधी हवम् ॥
विवन्धुरेणं त्रिघृता' सुपेशंसा रथेना या'तमश्विना । कण्वा' सो वां ब्रह्म कृण्वन्त्यध्वरे तेषं सु शृणुत हर्षम् ।।

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( 268 ) 14. Rgveda; 4. 1. 9. 7.
अस्माकं जोष्यध्वरमस्माकं यज्ञमङ्गिरः। अस्माकं शृणुधी हवम् ।। 15. Rgveda ; 5. 3. 11. 11. ___ था नो दिवो बृहत: पर्वतादा सरस्वती यजता गंन्तु यज्ञम् ।
हवं दे वी जुजुषाणा घृ ताची' शरमां नो वाचसुशती शृणोतु ।। 16. Rgveda ; 6. 2.8. 4.
गन्तेया'न्ति सर्वना हरि भ्यां बनिर्बज' पपिः सोम ददिर्गाः ।
कर्ता बीरं नयं सर्व वीरश्रोता हवं गृणतः स्तोमवाहाः ॥ 17. Sten Konow; Indo-European Religious Ideas in Ancient India
A.B.O. R. I. Vol. VIB Page 66 18. R. Graves; Op. Cit.; Pages 230, 209. 19. Gilbert Murrary; Five Stages of Greek Religion ; 1946 ;
Page 12. 20. G. Murrary : Op. Cit. Pages 14, 58. 21. Rgveda ; 4. 2. 7.4; 4.2. 7. 13; 4. 2. 7.2; 8. 3. 3.8; 6.4. 5.
22%3; 1. 14. 5.4; 6. 5. 3.23; 6. 6. 9. 5-6. 22. Siddheswar Varma ; Op. cit.; Page 69. 23. Monier-Williams ; Op.Cit.; Pages 404-405. 24. Rgveda 6. 1. 11.33; 9. 7. 10.6%3; 25. (I) Rigveda 10. 7.6.9.
(2) Atharvaveda; 19.6.133; 11.7.24. 26. Atharvaveda; 4. 34.1; 5. 26.5%; 6. 124.1; 11. 7. 8. 27. F. Maxmuller ; The Vedas%3 1956; Pages 55. 28. Atharvaveda; 6.75. 1-3; 7.35. 1.3; 1.15. 1-3; 6.15. 1-3; 6.54.
1-3; 5.6. 1-3 ; 6.40. 1-3; 2.16. 1-5%; 2.17. 1-73; 11. 1.5; 1. 31. 1-4 ; 4. 34. 2-4; 9. 5. 31; 4.11.1,
6, 10; 9.4 19; 10. 10.6; 9. 3. 4, 10, 18. 29. J.G. Frazer ; The Golden Bough ; Pages 14-15. 30. J.G. Frazer ; Op.Cit.; Pages 321-322,350, 363.367; 117, 928. 31. B. Subbarao ; The personality of India ; 1958; Figure No.
facing page 7. 32. Rgveda%3 3.2.11.3: 8.3.1.6: 8.7.8.8: 1.15.12.19. 33. Rgveda; 1.24.2.83; 1. 17.2.1; 2.2.9.5%; 3. 1. 5.23; 3. 2. 14. 13
6.2.17.1. 34. (1) F. Maxmuller ; Op.Cit.; Pages 54-55.
(2) G. Murrary; Op. Cit. ; Page 68.

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CHAPTER IX
THE MARCH OF 'MANKIND'
1. THE ARYAN SOCIETY CIRCA 1000 B. C.
The Pre-Aryan Śramanic Culture stood completely annihilated at the hands of the Aryau Tribal organisation. Annihilation of Freedom was displaced by tribal will, matria-. Śramanic Culture rchy by patriarchy, free economy by Yajnic economy, republicanism by tribalism and spiritual values by material values. After the Trojan war Circa 1183 B. C. and Dasrajña war Circa 1150 B. C.; the Aryan power entrenched itself securely on their new won lands Circa 1000 B. C. Since Circa 1000 B. C., the civilization of Morgan and Marx begins.
The whole world today is under the hegemony of the Aryan Way. The Śramanic way exists but as an undercurrent and as a lingering tradition. The Aryan race has gone. It submerged in the original peoples it sudjugated. As peoples, we do not know the pure Brāhmaṇas, the pure Greeks, the pure Europeans, the pure Dravidians, the pure Australoids and so on and so forth. They have all mixed up with each other. In spite of some traces of distinctiveness, we find the whole race, a mixed up race, barring a few abdurate instances of the retracing white community. But the Aryan Way still persists.
·
(The Sramanic and the Aryan Way both stood perished in West Asia. The Aryan Way completely triumphed in Greece and later on, through Greece, in Europe and still later in America, Australia, Africa and other parts of the world. The Śramanic Society was completely annihilated

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(270) in Bhārata but Śramaņism ultimately triumphed over the Aryan Tribal Way though it left distinct marks on the Śræmņic society in later times. The Śramaņic and tribal forces faced each other in this state Circa 1000 B. C. The further march of 'Mankind' reveals the actions, reactions and interactions of these two forces each other.

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2. THE AGE OF TRIBALISM: 1000 B.C. TO 300 B.C.
The Greekāryans, when they reached the frontiers of Mainland Greece south of fhe Danube Circa 1500 B. C., śramanic-Aryan brought with them their patriarchal tribal
Coalescence system formed of genos, phratry and tribe. The Europāryans reached Italy also Circa 1500 B. C. with similar institutions, which later came to be known as gens, curia and tribe. They developed on the Greek pattern with minor local variations.' The Brahmāryans in Bhārata had inherited the tribal institutions of Gaņa, Vrāta and Brahma from their Aryan forefathers. These Aryans had borrowed the Sramaņic system of family, private property and republics to their patriarchal tribal system.
The Greek society adapted itself to changed circumstances. The dictatorial authority of Basileus could not be
Rise of maintained for long and his centralised Monarchy power had to be divided amongst the power. ful chieftains which gave rise to the Greek systems of aristocracy, tyranny and oligarchic republicanism ; miscalled democracy. The tribal economy persisted till 600 B. C. in one form or the other but independent powerful families were rising with their own private properties. The individualistic methods in agriculture and industry were gaining grounds. Women became consigned to the four walls of the homes. The system could not check mutual strifes and internecine quarrels, Chaos and anarchy became the order of the day. The Greek tradition was rooted in the pattern of tribal society guided by the tribal chief or chiefs. It looked towards a powerful person owning large estates, big industries and controlling a large number of human beings. The Greek tribal system developed into the

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monarchical system. The Greeks gave away their farcical acceptance of republicanism which they had adopted due to local pressure. The office of Basileus was restored in a new form. Kingship became firmly transplanted in Greece with Philip and Alexander.
The republics of Wester Bhārata were completely routed by the Brahmāryan forces in Dāsrājña War. When they advanced towards east, they found great republics of Košala, Videh, Kasi and the Vajjians. The Brahmāryans also took to the farce of elective republican system. They probably had Divodāsa, Sudas and Paríkşita in that line but they soon abondoned the system. They could not implant success ful monarchies of their own in Bhārata due to the effective opposition of powerful Bhāratīya republics. They adopted the policy of penetration. They convered the republic of Videha to monarchy under Janaka which continued for a few dynasties to be replaced and absorbed by the Vajjian republican confederacy. The original republican system, even with changes due to the impact of Aryan tribal system, could not long persist. Ajātaśatru, the first Śramaņic monarch, gave them a death blow. Śramanic monarchy continued till Asoka. The Brahmaņa Puşyamitra was the first Brahmāryan king to establish monarchy Circa 150 B. C. He performed Aśvamedha. The penetrations and inter-penetration of Śramaņism and Tribalism into the fold of each other ended in establishment of Monarchy.
The Bharatiya parallel repeated itself in the Etruscan political revivalism in Etrusia, northern parts of Italy. The
Romanāryans had established their power in soucito Italy but they could not entrench themselves in Italy as strongly as the Greekāryans did in the Mainland, Greece and the Ægean. The original inhabitants of Greece, the Ægean and the adjacent Asiatic regions were dissatisfied
The Etruscans

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( 273 ) with the new regime. The original inhabitants of Italy, reinforced by their neighbouring compatriots, established their power over the Romanāryans Circa 700 B. C. or a little earlier. They were the Etruscans of history. The consensus of opinions of the various scholars now veers round the view that the Etruscans were the pre-Aryan original inhabitants of Etruria who were strongly and materially reinforced by their pre-Aryan, Ægean and Asiatic neighbours to power and hegemony over the Romanāryans. Their language was pre-Aryan (Pre-Indo European). The twelve great cities of Etruria formed a league. The people elected a lictor for the fasces (a city) and a sacerdos on the occasion of the meeting of Etruscan states. The magistrature was also elected. The Etruscan states were small regional states similar to those of the self-sufficient, self-governed republican villages and towns of the Śramaņic region. The Etrurian republics had displaced the Aryan system of tribal dictatorship. The Etruscan society had no great differences of social levels. They followed matriarchal social system. Women were free, took part in public banquets and enjoyed social equality. They believed in the terrestrial, the celestial and the underworld. The belief in the transmigration of souls became progressively more established and definite under Minoan influences. They upheld the consoling doctrine of salvation. The Etruscan eschatological beliefs owe to the diffusion of orphic doctrines. They had certain traits of the Greek gentile life and belief in, what is miscalled, Anthropomorphism. This description of the Etruscans clearly signifies that they were the original people of the land having Śranmaņic traditions, beliefs and institutions. The Aryan tribal beliefs and institutions also penetrated them as they did in the original republican institutions and beliefs of Bhārata. The Etruscan social system had some similarities with Vajjian
18

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republic confederation. The Etruscan power deteriorated when the Greek of Syracus in Sicily destroyed the Etruscan fleet in 474 B. C. The northern Gaulic raids destroyed the Etruscan power in 390 B. C. The Northern Gauls and the Greeks of Southern Italy who were both of the Aryan stock, finally destroyed Etruria“.
The Romans of South Italy had the gentile system of the Greek pattern. They had the Greek aristo
cratic system Circa 500 B. C. They were The Romans
divided into the aristocrats and the common citizens, the patricians and the plebians. The unitary system of the tribal chieftainship gave way in favour of two consuls. The council of Nobility was known as Senate. Later, the consulship developed into Censorship and the Senate into popular assembly. The three Punic Wars between 262-146. B.C. undermined Roman power. Romans based their state on the Aryan methods of violence and exploitation, Slavery in Rome was more savage than of Babylon. They enjoyed in public festivities of gladiatorial combats. Human sacrifice obtained amongst them. Roman history, like the Greek history, was the history of war, violence, abundance of captives and exploitation. Monarchy was firmly established in Rome in the later part of the first century B. C.
The Aryans in West Asia submitted to the Assyrian power in the later part of the second millenninm B.C. The republican institutions had long ceased to exist due to the incessant tribal onslaughts of the Materialists of the Desert and the Materialists of the Mountains. Assyria developed monarchy. The Persian Monarchy under Cyrus destroyed the Assyrian Monarchy. Egypt also did lay at the feet of Persian monarchy in the sixth century B.C. The Aryan tribalism in its developed stage of monarchy was triumph

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( 275 ) ant in West Asia and Egypt by the middle of the first millennuim B. C.
What is that basic force that wrought Birth of the Institution of this change in the Aryan tribal system ? Religion
My answer is : Institution of Religion. When Ur, the great capital city of Sumer, having a population between 2,50,000 to 5,00,000 human beings, had passed through Isin and Larsa periods; the Great Hammurabi of Babylon, the first Amorite king, reduced it to subjection. This was the last Semitic rule of Sumer and Babylon. Then the great Aryan Warrior bands from the land of Elam in Iran annihilated the civilization of Babylon and Ur. The Semitic race was completely annihilated. It took to flight to the West. This event happened. Circa 1700 B. C. The Semitic race had been in Aryan contacts for pretty long times. It had experienced the social efficacy of the Aryan social organisation of tribal collective and its single supreme leader who was the giver of all earthly material happiness to his subjects. It also had long contacts with Bhāratīyan and Egyptians spiritual civilization and more with its ethical aspect in Egypt. But a defeated society could not be kept in unison on material grounds alone because immidiate material prosperity could not be promised to the disintegrating society for lack of State power. Under the new pattern, only material promises could keep the social unity in tact. These Semites had known that the highest stage of personal spiritual practice led to unending happiness and bliss but that was now a receding doctrine under the new set of circumstances. When a ruling society faces disintegration and fails to keep social homogeneity through military power ; it is out in search of a new force. The Semites did the same. They deformed materialism and

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)
perverted spiritualism to the subservience of materialism. A hybrid child is born. The child has been christened Religion. Religion is a material concept, born of deformed father and preverted mother, to keep the tribal society in tact and to save it from disintegration. The Semites led the Āryans in the invention of the Science of Religion and Godology. The social conditions of the disintegrating Semitic society gave birth to Judaism, the first and the oldest living religion. The word religion, etymologically, means that which binds man back or holds him on to the source from which he derived his being. Word 'Religion' has its Sanskrit equivalent in the word 'Dharma', which, etymologically, means that which supports. The function of Religion is to bind the member of the society to it for material growth and to save the society from disintegration. Religion kept alive the faith of the members in society so that it may command their full faith and support for its future existence.
Judaism originates with Abram later changed to Abraham. Abraham literally means the father of a multi
tude'. Abraham became the founder of a Judaism
new nation, chosen by God. Abraham's god was essentially and ethical god to whom doing of justice and righteousness was of supreme concern. He named his God YHWH" which literally means 'He is that He is.' The institution of Ganapati, the Supreme leader of the Aryan tribe, is first celestialised by the non-Aryan Semitic Abraham and as Ganapati, in the new Semitic social conditions, fails to deliver goods to his people in this world ; he is transferred to the unknown other world, where he promises to deliver all those goods which he delivered them in this real world. Ganapati and Abraham both are masters or fathers of their Multitudes. Tribalism is celestialised as Heaven and Tribal Chief as God of Heaven. Those

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who believe in them are His Chosen People. Material circumstances forced the people to accept this fraud as reality as it helped them to unite, if not in fulness, at least in part; if not for ever, at least for the present. National unity, though artificial and short-lived, was forged. Thus a non-Aryan race exploited an Aryan institution first. Judaism, the first principal world religion, was born in the middle of the second millennium B. C. Judaism was the Religion of Coming Tribalism.
When we enter the period comprised in the present Chapter; we find kind David and King Solomon ruling in Israel Circa 990 B. C. and 960 B. C. respectively. The tale of Judaic social exploits is the tale of murder, blood, wars, slavery, subjugation of women, usurpations, assasinations, fratricidal murders for throne, religious conflict, taxation and exploitation for three centuries. Judaic religion was the newly-discovered aid to the story of jewish violence and expliotation.
Gods and men with the Greeks were humao beings before the Trojan War. After the Trojan War; Gods were celestialised. They were the tribal Chieftains who now showered abundant bounties from heaven on their Greek people. The Greeks believed in Polytheism under the sozerainty of Zews. The Greek religion was the tribal religion of Olympian gods. Orphism was the religion of the original inhabitants of Greece converted to Aryanism who accepted Greek institutions. Pythogoras gave it great impetus. Orphism was spiritual revivalism in Greece as Buddhism was in Bhārata, though the later was not the religion of the Aryan converts but of the pre-Brahmāryan original people of Bhārata. At the end of the period under enquiry; Rome was under the pagan religion of Mithraism influenced by Zoroastrianism of
Religion in Greece and
West Asia

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Persia. Persia, during this period, followed the Irānāryan sacrificial religion originated by Zarthusthra.
The second prinicipal world religion is Brāhmaṇism. Bhārata was the strongest Seat of Spiritualism during the
momen period of Śramanic hegemony. The BrahmāBrahmanism
ryans after victory in Dāsrājña War settled in Bhārata. They converted en masse the original inhabitants to their social order. The highest Brahmāryan tribal collective, the Brahma, first disintegrated into Brahma and Kşatra and later ino Brahma, Kșatra and Vis. The vanquished Dāsas and Daśyus were admitted to the Arya'n fold as the Fourth Class later to be downgraded as Sudras. The office of Ganapati and Brahmaṇaspati developed into the office of Prajāpati. The Bhāratīyan converts had taken their spiritual beliefs with them in their new fold. The Bhāratīyan spiritualism reacted very strongly on the Brahmā. ryans. They could not withstand its force. The Brahmāryan leaders Agni, Indra, Varuņa, Rudra and others, began to be detested for their acts of violence and moral degradations. They began to lose their importance. But they were the base of the Brahmāryan culture and civilization. They had not to be completely done away with. They were celestialised by the expert Rșis and Brāhmaṇa priests. The institutions they represented were ritualised. But the secret of this development was only known to the expert Brāhmaņas. Yajña, therefore, became their exclusive concern in this changed age and the intricacies of Yajña formulae gave them special privilege and authority. But the secret worked for a very short time.
When the Vedic Aryans made Bhārata their home, they were fully a materialistic people. They were full of joie Celestialisation be vevre. They were not interested in the and Ritualisation life after death. They had no special

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doctrines about it.10 The ritualised sacrifices, bringing affluence of riches in Dāna, accelerated their material progress and happiness and the disintegrating society remained united by sacrificial loot and plunder. Yajña was ritualised. Devas and Ganapati were transferred to the other world. Terrestrial Devas sacrificed Ganapati. Celestial Devas sacrificed celestial Prajāpati who is the same as Puruşa," definitely of the Puruşamedha. But this change also proved wanting and could not fully integrate the newly formed Brahmāryan society. Then the Brahmāryan gods became relegated to the secondary position so much so that they, Indra, Rudra, Bșhaspati and others, became attendants of the non-Aryan spiritual leader Ek-Vrātya highly eulogised in the Fifteenth Kānda of Atharvaveda. This was the complete surrender of the Brahmāryan material faiths and beliefs to the spiritual traditions of Bhārata.
The Brahmāryans did not know the spiritual truths and did not believe in them. Though they had earlier come
in contact with spiritual doctrines in Iran; they Borrowing of
Spiritual were so much busy in planning their military Doctrines
conquests that did not leave them sufficient time to ponder over them. When they peacefully settled in Bharata and found the institution of ritualised Yajña wanting, they held disputations amongst themselve but could not find the real solution. They could not discover the secrets of spiritual doctrines. They sensed the immediate impending disintegration of their society. They went to Ikşavāku leaders for knowing the secrets of spiritualism. They learnt the doctrine of Ātmā from Aśvapati Kaikeya. He taught the Doctrine of Atmā to five learned Brāhmaṇas, sent by Uddālaka Āruņi. Pravāhaņa Jaivali imparts the knowledge of the Doctrine of Transmigration of Soul to

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( 280) Brāhmaṇa Gautama. These Doctrines had originated in son-Brāhmaṇical circles. Brāhmaṇas never knew these don trines which they first learnt from Kșatriyas.1 King Janaka of Videha; the non-Aryan Ikşavāku friend of the Brahmāryans, and Ikşavāku Ajātasatru of Kasi were wellversed in the science of spiritualism which they taught to their new Brahmaņa friends.
The leaders (miscalled kings) of Kāśī and Kośala belonged to the Ikşavāku race. The Videhans were related to Vaiślīs. Lichchhavīs and Mallas who descended from Ikşavākuls. Ikşvākus included amongst them, along with others, the Pūrus, who were Asuras?4. Manu considers them Vrātyas. Ikşavākus were non-Aryan pre-Aryan Bhāratīya people. The Brahmāryan Rșis had their first lessons of spiritualism from the pre-Aryan Bhāratīya spiritual leaders who had earlier made friendship with them.
The effect of the acceptance of these spiritual doctrines by Brāhmaṇa Rșis was far-reaching. They accepted the doctrines of Soul, Effortivism, Transmigration and final Attainments. But a victor society never abandons the basic character of its Way and its institutions. The basic Brahmāryan tribal society had developed into the institution of Brahma. The Brāhmaņa Rșis accepted the spiritual doctrines within the framework of universal tribalism, the Brahma. It had comprehended in itself all the members belonging to it. Brahma was now created as a Universal Entity, the Ultimate Principle and All-comprising Existence. The individual soul is not free but a part of this Brahma. The effortiveness (Karma) does not lead to free and independent individual salvation but leads only to the merger of the soul into Brahma. The Doctrine of Karma was accepted per force by the Brāhmaṇas. If the Soul and

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Brahma were two entities; one cannot reach the other without effort. If Karma is accepted, the theory of transmigration of soul is А. necessary corollary. The Brahmaryan spiritualised Brahma is only a projection of the Aryan Tribal Way that finds its expression in the Upanisads. The qualities of the tribal collective and its sole master the Ganapati or Brahmanaspati have been preserved in tact in this new religion. Spiritual Brahma encompasses the whole world as Brahma, the Uuiversal Tribal Collective, did. The member of the Gana was only a part of the tribal machine, not an independent unit. Similarly, men do not get their personal salvation but only merge in Brahma. The division of Brahma in Neuter Brahma and Personal Brahma was a later innovation. The new Brāhmaṇical religion is born. The disintegrating Brahmaryan society developed this new material religion to preserve the integrity of the Brahmāryan society. The naked Brahmaryan materialism is dead but the new doctrine does not represent pure spiritualism. This is perversion of spiritualism. This is spiritual reaction. The Upanisads propagate the Doctrine of Spiritual Reaction.
The disintegration of the Brahmaryan society was not of the Semitic or the Greek type. Semitic social disintegration was born of defeat. Greece was small country with a smaller population. The Greekāryans could widely overspread the whole Greece with confidence and courage with little opposition from the original population. But Bhārata was a vast country with widely spread large population. They could not be kept physically subjugated for long. The Brahmaryans, rightly, adopted the policy of assimilation of the original people into their fold by large scale conversion. The problem of the disintegration of the Brahmaryan society was projected by this new social factor. The older way, unchanged, could not persist for long. The ever developing

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( 282 ) newer and newer Brahmāryan society needed newer methods to consolidate her triumphs in social sphere and ultimately discovered the powerful adjunct of the Brāhmaṇical religion for the integration of its mixed society. Brāhmaṇism is the religion of Tribalism in Triumph.
The third principle world religion, the Buddhism, arose in Bhārata Circa 600 B.C. Buddhism accepts the indepen
dence of the individual soul, its transmigBuddhism
ration to different births and rebirths and its final liberation. Buddhism substantially differs from Jainism and Brāhmaṇism in its conception of Soul. Buddhism Soul is an ever-changing phenomenon. The Buddhist Moksa is neither the personal perfection of Jainism or merger in Brāhmaṇic Brahma but it is extinction (Sūnya). It is for this reason that Buddhism is considered to be nearer the materialistic doctrine of communism. It is the quality of matter that ever changes. Change is partial extinction.
The complete change is complete extinction. If complete extinction is the result of complete change ; the end is materialistic. The end is always similar to the means, hence the framework of Buddhism is materialistic. That was the Brāhmaṇical influence of the Gana way on the original Bhāratiya spiritual culture. Both Sramaņic religions, the Jainism and the Buddhism, were influenced by the Gaņa Way ; Jainism a bit lesser than Buddhism. That resulted in the Buddhist, as well as Jainistic, institutions of Samgha. Buddha accepts Non-Violence, Truth, Non-Stealing, complete abstinence and non-possessiveness as the basic foundations of his religion. The basis is spiritual, the framework is materialistic and the end also similar.
• The cause of the rise of Buddhism is the same. The original Bhāratīya society began disintegrating due to the

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Šramagic impact of Brahmāryan forces. Buddha consiRevivalism dered that the old śramaņic way is not effective to meet the new situation. He evolved a new technique out of the best elements of the two that appealed him most. It succeeded in the begining. It also spread beyond the frontiers of Bhārata as it imbibed the spirit of Brāhmaṇical laxity and adaptiveness. Buddhism played the role of the Religion of Spiritual Revivalism. Later Buddhism tended more and more towards Brāhmaṇism. Buddha was accepted as an Avatāra of Brāhmaṇical hierarchy of the Descent of Personal Brahma. Buddhism in Bhārata finally merged in Brāhmaṇism though it exists as an independent powerful religion in other parts of the world.
The new forces were giving newer shape to the Aryan Tribalism. The family was becoming more and more
independent. The families of ruling classes Religion-A Materialistic were amassing more and more private wealth Adjunct
in agriculture and industry and this process was greatly accelerated owing to free or almost free labour of the serfs and slaves recruited from the original subject population. Women were segregated to the home. The private mode of production displaced the communal mode of internal and international trade and commerce, and brought in the era of private trade and commerce. New trade, internal and international, was getting to become the exclusive concern of the private individuals. The tribal society had no use of it. The tribal chiefs and their followers in the beginning and common merchants and traders monopolised them as their private concerns. The institution of private property now was hardening and becoming more important. The aristocrats and the oligarchs were the new growing classes who were fastening their strangle-hold on the growing private economy of the country. The powerful

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adjunct of religion was giving social sanctity to all such acts. It was the chief weapon in assigning divine role to the new master. They, thus, kept the multitude of humanity strongly bound to the new masters. The tribal collective with its social cohesiveness continued. The Yajnic form of production continued. The serfs, the slaves, the common merchants and such others that formed the new social class were exploited for the benefit of the new rulers. The state .assumes the role of the Brahma or Basileia. The aristocratic and the oligarchic class assumes the role of the Devas and Gana. The common people to be exploited in the new society had increased due to the additions of the banquished adversaries. They were the general Gana people. The foreign lands and people had to be looted and exploited for the benefit of the new ruling class, a minor share going to the common masses. The tribal social way with all its essential ingredients continued in the new form of the Aryan Tribal Society that it was assuming Circa 300 B.C. or near about. The Grecian tribal poly-archonies formed monoarchony or monarchy under one archon-chief. Ganarajya in Bharata gave way to Ek-rajya. Ek-rāt or Samrat became Bhupati and Adhipati as the sole sovereign power.
References
1. L. H. Morgan; Op. Cit.; Pages 292-293.
2. G. R. Sharma ; Excavations at Kausāmbi; 1960; Page 15.
3. M. Pallottino; The Etruscans; 1956; Pages 71, 132-135; 151-152; 170-171.
4. H. G. Wells; Outline of History; 1931; Page 417.
5. L. Woolley; Excavations at Ur; 1955; Page 195
Esidore Epstein maintains in his book 'Judaism' Page 11 that the event took place Circa 1900 B. C. on the authority of Woolley's Book 'Ur of the Chaldees' which he later revised in this book.
6. P. T. Raju; Religion and Spiritual Values in Indian Thought; A. B. O. R. I.; Vol. XL; 1959; Page 304,

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( 285 ) 7. Holy Bible ; 1935; Genesis 15. 7 Page 10 and Exodus 3.4.
P. 46. 8. Esidore Epstein ; Judaism; 1959; Pages 12, 14, 16. 9. H. G. Wells ; Op. cit.; Pages 261, 264. 10. V. M. Apte; Religion and Philosophy (The Age of Rc-Samhita)
in Vedic Age; 1957 ; Page 381. 11. A. B. Keith ; The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and
the Upanişads ; 1925; Page 443. 12. (1) M. Winternitz; A History of Indian Literature ; 1958;
P. 201. (2) S. Radhakrishnan; The Principal Upanişads ; 1953 ;
Chhandogya Upanişad 5. 11. Pages 434-436. 13. B. C. Law; Tribes in Ancient India ; 1943 ; Pages 56, 77, 109,
298, 299. 14. (1) Šatapatha Brāhmaṇa 6. 8. 1. 14; 13. 5. 4.5.
(2) Banerjee-Shastri ; Asura India ; 1926; Page 82. 15. G. Buhlar ; Laws of Manu (S. B. E. Series); 1886; 10. 21-23;
Pages 406 407

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3. THE AGE OF FEUDALISM
(300 B. C.-1500 A. D.) Feudalism, the newer form of tribalism, entrenched itself strongly in the world Circa 300 B. C. Greece and
Bhārata developed strong monarchies. Rome Monarchy
was on the way and Octavion became the first monarch of Rome by the end of the first century B. C. Monarch was the sovereign owner of the country and the people. He, by his edicts and decrees, could make laws governing the economic and social life of the people. He was the embodiment of the State and all political powers vested in him. The nobles and the common people derived their powers from the sovereign. All the secular powers centered in him. The priest gave him the divine powers. The monarch was pronounced the God incarnate, higher than Ganapati or Brahmaņaspati, Indra or Prajāpati. The centralisation of secular and divine powers gave him strength, prestige and authority. Republicanism was a soothing factor and it largely tempered the autocratic powers of the Basileja or the Brahma but it could not survive even by penetrating the Āryan tribal society. Rather, the Aryan tribalism reacted more violently and harshly in its newer form of Feudalism.
The monarch was supported by the feudal nobility who owned large estates and slaves. The gradation went down to the petty land owners who acted as the local agents of the feudal nobles and the monarch. The land ceased to be the communal property. It nominally vested in the monarch and actually in the real holder. The industry and commerce had not yet powerfully developed but they

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were also the property of the private persons subject to the jurisdiction of the Nobility and the monarch. The family and the private property, the backbone of the republican system, went into the service of tribal feudalism and gave it strength and power but the freedom that they carried with them ultimately undermined the feudal system. The priesthood and the nobility; undivided in early times, though now divided, still joined hands together and gave strength and power to each other. The priest gave real power to the nobility. He was a man of the masses and he by his professions kept the common people bound to the feudal system. These monarchs, aided by nobility and priesthood, carried military expeditions to foreign countries for material benefits. The empires were formed and the victorious monarchs became emperors.
Chandragupta was the first Bhāratīya emperor' who extended his frontiers beyond Bhārata annexing the Greek colonies. Emperor Asoka was first the emperor of violence who afterwards became the emperor of peace. The Brā. hmaņa and Kşatriya emperors of Bhārata also extended their empires in South-East Asia. Greece had adopted monarchy during the times of Philip. Alexander was the first Greek emperor.
The Roman society stood at the brink of paralysis in the first century B. C. Palestine and Syria followed Judaism. Greece was under the spirituo-Olympiac influence of Orphism and Olympianism. Both the regions of Greece and coastal West Asia were torn by internal chaos and strife. The common people were suffering great hardships. The violence and exploitations of the Roman ruling classes was bringing in large social disintegration. The Jews were divided into the Right and the Left and the leftists were mingling and assimilating with the Greeks and the Helleni

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sed people. Judaism had lost its vitality due to the inherent weakness resulting from Judaic acts of violence and exploitation. It was unequal to the situation to give the large masses succour and happiness. A great Jewish leader, Jesus of Nazareth, the seed rather than the founder of Christianity, arose.1 The doctrines of Christ were at first preached by Jews to jews as a reformed judaism. Christianity was the synthesis of three forces: Greek philosophical beliefs, Judaic conception of morals and history and certain theories, more specially as to salvation, of the kindred cults of the Near East joined together to give birth to Christianity. The theory of salvation was new in Christianity though in part. traceable to Orphism. The East in this age meant the east of Mahavira and Buddha whose doctrines of Soul and its salvation had gained much prominence when Jesus was born.
2
Christianity
The central theme of Jesus' teachings was the Universal fatherhood of God, the Chief Shepherd, and coming on earth the Kingdom of Heaven. He taught that God was no bargainer; there were no chosen people and no favourites. He condemned all private property and personal advantages. Then arose Paul, a Roman citizen, the real founder of Christianity who created Christian theology. What Jesus preached was a new birth of the human soul, what Paul preached was the ancient religion of priests, altar and propitiatory bloodshed. Christianity became tolerant of private property; it accepted wealthy adherents; condoned the institution of slavery and admitted Aryan gentiles to Christian fold. Christianity accepted the creed of the Sword. Constantine, the Great, emperor of Rome, used Christian monograms, perhaps in connivance with priests, upon the shields and banners of his troops and claimed that God of the Christians had fought for him in his complete victory at the battle of Milvian Bridge in 312 A.D.3 with the

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applause and enthusiastic support of the Christians; he established himself as an absolute monarch of Rome. Christianity Milvianised, discarded its ethical and spiritual contents. Aryan Mithraism of Pagan Rome and Christianity joined hands and Mithraism triumphed when Mithraistic Constantine' was converted to Christianity. Mithraism forcefully loaned materialistic influences to Christianity. The Roman and Greek society coalesced together and joined the original leftists Jews to make a homogeneous society. Christianity became a great unifying and organising force within its own communion, The Christian God, the Chief Shepherd, saved the materialistic Europaryan society from disintegration and paved the way for its world domination. Chrstianity, the fourth world religion, is the Religion of Tribal Consolidation.
Constantine made Byzantine his new capital. The Roman Empire, by and by, came to be divided into the Western and the Eastern. The Eastern is also known as the Byzantine Empire. Both the parts in fifth century A. D. virtually became independent of each other. The Holy Roman Empire finally collapsed in the seventh Century A.D.
Islam
Central Asia, Afghanistan and West Asia enjoyed prosperity and progress in this age. West Asia was far ahead of Europe under the Persian Sassanid empire. Zoroastrianism held sway in West Asia. The Syrian society had much decayed under the Sassanids. Christianity had corrupted the society in the West. The traditions of the Zoroastrian Magi were decaying in the Near East. Mohammad welded the Arab people into monarchy which had singularly little spirituality. He founded a religion with spirit of kindliness, generosity and brotherhood as its main theories". Islam was a more simple, natural and understandable ethical religion. It saved the
19

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( 290 ) Semitic society from disintegration and established social unity and cohesion. Islam established its world hegemony by the sheer force of the Sword. Islam is the Religion of Fighting Semitism.
Darkness dawned over the European social order after the collapse of the Roman Empire. The European society
Lowest Ebb of was at its lowest ebb, materially, morally and European Culture intellectually, during the Eighth century A. D. The Christian Monastic order was the only burning light in Europe in this age. Small feudal lords with the assistance of Christian priests, who also sometimes became the feudal lords, consolidated the economic and social life of the people. No organised grand monarchy or empire existed in Europe. But one revolutionary event was beginning to penetrate Europe. He was Aristotle. Aristotle had separated Greek philosophy from the Greek religion. Aristotallian Greek Philosophy and Reason attracted the intellectuals of the disintegrating Christian Society.
Islam was the driving force of the age. It was extending its frontiers to the East into Bhārata; to Central Asia and to the West in Europe. Christian-Islamic conflicts in Europe increased. There were Christian crusades against the growing Islamic hegemony. The great Mongolian, Changez Khan and his successors kept a large part of Europe under their feet in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries A.D. West Asia and a part of Eastern Europe was under the Muslim feudal monarchs. The Muslim empires flourished in Bhārata. But a new social factor was beginning to rise in Europe which later spread over the whole world. The European feudal system was establishing organised monarchies on the one hand and the free common people were shaping their own destinies on the other, Industrial

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( 291 ) production was increasing. Money was highly developing trade and commerce. People were taking their enterprises to the sea and the international trade in the West was vigorously extending Industrial revolution takes place in Europe. Europe witnesses literary and artistic renaissance. The institutions of the family and the private property were largely enhancing the people's power and authority. The independence of the human spirit was asserting itself. People asked for share in the fruits of feudalism. The principle of the association of people's representation was recognised. Parliament was gaining more power for the people in England. Feudalism as a state theory had begun to wane in Europe in the fourteenth century A. D. Feudalism engaged in many religious and secular wars for winning territories but the method was day by day growing outmoded. The industrial progress was enhancing the power of money over that of the land and that became an attractive God of the newer society. Feudalism had now to assume a newer shape. Money becomes God.
The essence of feudalism exhibits the same Āryan tribal characteristics. The nobility headed by monarchy
Features of and the priesthood are the beneficiaries. The Āryan Feudalism common people are partly also the beneficiaries in the loot and plunder of the foreign people and from the foreign countries. Serfs and slaves are exploited in agriculture and industry. The common people do not enjoy the same share of the tribal feudal economy as they did in the Gaņa age. Their share is reduced and the share of their new Ganapati and Devas is increased. But they had to work for internal tribal production and act as mercenaries in war against the foreign people. That causes dissatisfaction. They are still the inseparable parts of the feudal tribal machine with lesser profits. The days of the

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(292) 'thousandfold profits' had gone for ever. The economic activities are still tribal. Feudal tribal laws govern the distribution of fruits of agriculture and industry in which the common people had the least, the bearest subsistence, share. Their labour is exploited by the feudal tribal Chiefs. Feudalism is a total machine in which every component part has to fit in accordance with the feudal Paramountcy theory.
Muslim feudalism died in Europe by the end of our period. It was very strong in West Asia and Bhārata. The Brāhmaṇical feudal lords could not check the advance of Muslim feudal lords. The Moghul empire was at its highest bloom by the end of the period. The European feudalism could not restore the glory of the Roman Empire. The new forces had undermined the vitality of Feudalism in Europe and was now becoming the main driving force of history and in Europe, first of all, feudalism, assumed its newer shape.
References 1. H. G. Wells; Op. cit.; Page 35. 2. Burtrand Russell ; Op. cit.; Pages 328, 344. 3. H. G. Wells ; Op. cit.; Pages 529,531, 541-542, 549. 4. Fraz Cumont; The Mysteries of Mithra ; 1952; Page 200. 5. H. G. Wells; Op. cit.; Page 611.

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4. THE AGE OF CAPITALISM
(1500 A. D. - 1962 A. D.) We now enter our own age. Money was primarily the means of exchange in the Feudal Era. It assumed a Money Becomes newer form and became the means of social
Capital production. That gave money great vitality and social force. Land was getting subservient to money. Money dominates the world like God. The age of capitalism brought a fiercer, more ruthless and more violent ruling class till now known to history.
Money assumed the shape of capital with the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in Europe. A few serfs and slaves could be exploited in an extensive field. Industry aggregated a mass of nuinbers within a limited space. They could be socially organised now. The remuneration of the labourer was made more attractive than the subsistence level of the field labourer. The working people saw a new hope and the ruling class a better heavenliness in industry. The feudals joined the new social order. Industry and more efficient industry became the life slogan of Europe.
The capital accumulated with great industrialists. The working class was getting envious of the big fortunes of their masters. The dissatisfaction was mounting. The international land-routes had given way to international sea-routes. The adventurous people were sailing to unknown parts of the world. New countries were discovered and brought nearer. The people took their international trade to foreign countries. Their military might had also increased with the newer inventions of science. Religion was at their disposal to act as the cementing force between them and the military and

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the priest, brought fabulous wealth to the entrepreneurs. International trade paved the way for the pioneers to settle in newly discovered lands and actively take part in the state life of those countries. Bribe and oppression gave them political power and ultimately they subjugated the countries they primarily went for trade. Trade facilitated the way of Capitalism to assume its higher form of Imperialism.
The British, the Dutch, the French and other minor powers of Europe established their imperialistic holds on Asia, Australia and America. The capitalists
Imperialism in Australia and America assumed independence from their mother country in due time. The materialistic gains brought from the colonial countries largely accelerated the economic progress of the capitalist countries. Their own working people also benefited from this wealth of imperialist loot and plunder. They also became partners and shareholders in the growing economy of their home country. The whole world was divided into capitalistic spheres of influence. Some other nations had also advanced in capitalist mode of economy. They wanted larger spheres for their growing economy and conflict within the capitalist world arose. Competition in production took the form of competition in arms. The rival camps violently clashed and first World War was the result. The vanquished capitalist nations lost their colonies and that event reacted very sharply upon them. That reaction led to fascism and the Second World War.
Capitalism was assuming a new shape in America. When the British colonies declared their independence from the mother country, they had established them
Capitalist Monopolism selves as capitalist power. The Americans were the greatest beneficiaries of the first world war. Their giant industries saw their heaven, not in competition but in

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( 295 ) Coalescence. The big industrial concerns federated together and created largely single unit for every sphere of industry. The American Capitalist Monopolism assumed even a harsber shape than Imperialism. .. Capitalism bad a very brief span of life compared to feudalism. The very process that originated it brought its recession. It needed newer and newer scientific inventions for its growth and prosperity. Scientific inventions brought more and more human freedom. The man began to assert himself. Freedom of man, freedom of family, freedom of knowledge and freedom of the peoples became the watchwards with the conscience-regaining humanity. Naked exploitation and violence were not only a Neuter Brahma but a Personal Brahma to the seething humanity. They constantly lived with them.
The receding Capitalism could not withstand the onslaughts of human freedom. The vitality of Religion had Communism om withered away. God of Religion abdicated
and the God of Capital ascended the throne. Exploitation of the foreign people was not a paying concern. It was sheer brutality and disgraceful inhumanity. The dying capitalism assumed the newer form of Communism. Communism is the highest stage of Materialism.
The Āryan tribal way still persists. Capitalism is the most developed form of tribalism. Brahaņaspati, Basileus and Capitalist Monarch had been consigned to the museum Tribalism
of history. But the fiercer Ganapati-ship, the Capitalist class, had come into existence. There is no freedom in the capitalist mode of production. Capitalist economy thrives only within the steel framework of the capitalist state Laws. A free, humanitarian capitalist not confirming to capitalist laws and policy can never thrive.

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The whole economy is tied up to the Great Giant of Finance. His shape is more pronounced and clearer in the capitalist Monopolism. The masters of Finance stand as one unit and direct the pattern of economic and social activities. The Conservative or the Labour, the Republican or the Democrat have no meaning. They are not two but only a single whole. State policies aided by giant capitalist foundations mould the social life of the people. This is only a modern form of the ancient Yajnic military, social and economic activities. The national homegeneity of the different countries is strictly maintained in a tribal way. White man does not like to be polluted by others. The rest are to live apart and segregated from him. The Gana-people of the capitalist countries are corrupted and bribed by the colonial exploitation. They do not derive 'thousand-fold' benefits for their Yajnic activities but only ten-fold. Their wages are roughly only ten times the wages of the colonial labour. Of course, the middle men and smaller bourgeois merchants derive benefits from one thousand-fold' to 'four thousand-fold' like the ancient Aryan Devas. The ancient Aryan Tribal Ideology of Brahma, Yajña and Brahmanaspati still persist in their newer capitalist garbs. The European capitalist people headed by America live under the rule of capitalist Tribalism.
Communism has done away with the materialistic weapon of God and the materialistic fraud of Religion. It has also realised the inefficacy of loot
and plunder of the foreign people. But the communist society stands as a unitary collective machine. The people are only inseparable parts of the society. Their salvation lies in their complete merger with their collective organisation. The communist people have to act strictly in the collective way. Their economic
Communist Tribalism

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( 291 ) and social activities are determined and planned by the communist society. The communist people have to undergo immense sacrifices in present to bring the Christian kingdom of Heaven on earth in future. The communist heaven is promised to keep the social integrity in tact. But the communist sacrifices have one spiritual content. People sacrifice their material happiness, not only in future, also to save themselves from the capitalist threat. That is self-sacrifice quite opposed to the sacrifice of others for ones' own benefit. This spiritual content of violently effacement has penetrated the communist collective activities. Communism today presents a spirituo-materialist picture. Communism is the doctrine of Receding Tribalism.
Russian communism faithfully follows the path of Marx and Lenin. The Chinese communism seems to have deviated from the communist way and considers the foot and plunder of the foreign people essential for her preservation and growth. These differences apart, communism is the highest stage of Aryan tribalism. The communist society presents on exact replica of an ancient Āryan tribe or Brahma though in a very enlarged form. Military activity of Communism is tribal. Its economic and social activities are fundamentally Yajñic, though with a spiritual underCurrent here and without it elsewhere. The Gaņa-people of the communist state deserve all the highest praise of the whole humanity. They practice self-sacrifice, though under compulsion. The communist people live under the rule of Communist Tribalism.

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5. THE ROLE OF RELIGION We have earlier discussed the historical conditions in which the principal world religions took their origin. They Principal were the principal adjuncts for the survival, Adjunct not growth, of the decaying tribal social system. The growth was brought by the penetration of the free spirit in the tribal way which contradicted the existing tribal system in one form or the other. The tribal thesis through the long course of 3000 years' life of Tribalism had throughout been opposed by the Gramaņic antithesis which forced the tribal Thesis to assume newer form. The anti forces attained more liberty in the newer tribal forms though subjected to still more and more violent and exploitative methods. The history of the last three thousand years is the history of the self-sacrifice of the spiritual forces under the violent and exploitative oppression of the material forces. The greatest weapon in the armoury of materialism has been Religion. Religion is not the opium of the people. It is much more. It is Materialism incarnate. It was nectar of the tribal rulers and the poison of the oppressed people.
Judaism kept the jewish race; which was a mixed race of the Semitic Babylonians, Medes, Samarians, Egyptians, Reactionary Role Ammorites and Moabites; integrated for a. of Religions few centuries in a home of its own but it soon disintegrated. Though Christianity was born of it, it also could not integrate the jewish society though it extended all help and friendship to its parent society through the long course of history.
Christianity assumed greater importance after the state patronage of Constantine. When Europe plunged into the dark ages Circa 800 A. D., it became the main driving and

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cementing force of the people. It identified more and more with the violence and exploitation of the feudal lords of the later parts of first millennium A. D. and the earlier part of the second millennium A. D. The thinking people leaned more and more towards the Greek Thought. The great literary and artistic renaissance in Europe revolutionised the thoughts and ways of the common masses. This renaissance reacted upon the religious church vehemently. Pope, the head of the Chirstian Church, had identified himself with some ruling monarchs which aroused dissatisfaction amongst the other ruling monarchs who had no good relations with the Pope's friendly monarchs. A rift occurred in the Christian church dividing it into the Catholic and the Protestant church. Pope till now was the undisputed sole head of the whole Christian church but the Prostestant Reformism provided opportunity and the Protestant monarchs replaced Pope as the head of religion within their territories. The strained relations between the two branches of the Christian church continued roughly till feudal times. During the age of Capitalism, both the Churches joined hands. They had found fresher avenues for their display in the newer lands to which they accompanied their political masters. The capitalist and the Imperialist took the Church with him into his new colonies. Second only to military power, it played a very important historical role in strengthening imperialist strongholds in the colonies. Its important role also continued when the capitalist Monopolism sought political influences, not through sword but through trade only. Sword and Bible were the inseparable companions of the imperialists, while Bible alone travelled with the Monopolists. Religion has ceased to function any important role in the present century. Christian Russians gave a death blow to Christianity.

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Brahmanism consolidated its society in the second century B. C. when the mixed Hindu society was founded. The Brahmāryans and the converts from the original population laid the foundation of the Hindu Society. Brahmā, the Prajapati, was the highest Brahmaryan deity. The mountainous Vṛtra and allied people converted to Brahmapism developed their own deity Siva, out of the ruins of Ek-Vratya and Rudra. The plains and the coastal Yadu, Ikṣavāku and other converts raised their deity Vişnu and Kṛṣṇa. All these three sections carried on religious conflicts and battles amongst themselves in the beginning in the first part of the first millennium B.C. but ultimately joined hands and formed the Hindu Trinity. The rule of the Gupta monarchs was the hall-mark of the Brāhmaṇical religion. Brāhmaṇism worked on the ideological and the practical plane to strengthen the foundation of Gupta monarchy. It voilently suppressed the original Śramanic religions, Jainism and Buddhism. The later finally succumbed to the Brāhmaṇical onslaughts and completely merged into it. Brāhmaṇism began to decay in the Eighth century A.D. Sankara raised it from the terrestrial to the ethereal plane. He left all hopes of Brāhmaṇical terrestrial rule. He gave Hindu society an organisation with no foundation. When the Muslim feudal lords invaded Bharata; the Ksatriya feudal lords could not stand united against them. The Brahmanical feudals surrenderd to their Semitic compatriots; the materialists of the deserts. Brähmaṇa priests also cooperated with those Muslim monarchs and their feudatories who sought their assistance. When the capitalist rule overpowered Bhārata; Brāhmaṇism and the Brāhmaṇa priests came out first to help the imperialist administrators to rule themselves. The imperialists were in the dire need knowing the customs, manners, usages, law, religion, art and

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(301 ancient cultures of their subjects which the Brāhmaṇa priests readily and heartily gave. Brāhmaṇism could not much help its own feudalism in later times but it extended all help to the feudal forces, local or foreign that it could. It whole-heartedly cemented the foreign capitalist forces. It had no chance to help the local capitalism as it never grew independently of the foreign capitalism. It grew only as a stooge of foreign capital, protected by the foreign sword. Brāhmaṇism played only an inglorious part in the Independence struggle of Bhārata. It is now a dying phenomenon.
Buddhism arose in Bhārata. Mahāyāna Buddhism went to foreign lands and adapted itself to the conditions of the lands of its adoption. Hinayāna Buddhism grew weaker even in Bhārata. Buddhism claimed the patronage of monarchs in China, Burma and some countries of south East Asia. It has ceased to be a driving force now.
Islam, the greatest fighting religion of feudalism, cemented the Muslim solidarity in the feudal age. It accompanied its political masters to distant lands of central Asia, Europe and Bhārata. The land of its origin, Arabia and West Asia, went under its hegemony very early. The most glorious chapter of Muslim feudal history belongs to Islam of West Asia and Bhārata. Capitalism grew on the ruins of feudalism. Islam was the greatest supporter of feudalism, hence it suffered most at the rise of imperialism. Islam could not play a revolutionary role in converting its feudal lords to the capitalist way. The new forces crippled Muslim feudal power and it, by and by, went under the control of the imperialist rule. Though the nominal independence of the Muslim monarchies was preserved ; like the Princes of States in Bhārata ; but for all practical

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(302) purposes, they were under the capitalist and the imperialist domination. The decaying Islamic feudalism is still taking its last breaths in certain part of the Arab world but it is impotent and lifeless. The Islamic feudalism succumbed to British Imperialism in Bhārata. Islam became the stooge of foreign Imperalism in the age of Capitalism. It has ceased to be a driving social force.
Religion played the role of a materialist institution on the long drawn stage of world history. It has no role to play now. It ceased to be a force against social disintegration. It has no driving force left now to change the dying tribal Aryan society to a newer form. Its highest form, the communism, has accepted the force of spiritualism in its foundation. Spiritualism has powerfully penetrated into the domain of Materialism in a direct and pronounced manner. When the Spirituo-materialist socialist society, under the banner of communism, will shake off its tribalism and establish the purest communist society; that communist society shall be wholly founded on spiritualism. Spiritual Communism is the ultimate end of humanity.

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6. THE EPILOGUE
Matter has admitted defeat at the hands of Spirit. I foresee a human society where men will respect men, nay
Picture of all forms of life. Man will stand fully erect Future Society in freedom. The family would be independent, self-contained and self-sufficient. The material needs of the family would be fully satisfied and the rest of the economic wealth shall belong to the society. Production and distribution would be planned in a harmonious mixed way of private and public enterprises. Internal and international trade would be controlled by the society. All the members of the society would be free and equal without any distinction of caste, creed, colour and sex. There would be no national frontiers. All the mountains, rivers and seas shall belong to the whole humanity. The leaders of society would be simple people of Šramanic frame of mind, whose power and authority would not emanate from wealth, learning or other material manifestations bạt from selfcontrol, right knowledge and spiritual conduct. Religion and God are dead. Ever-pure and ever-progressive force of Spiritualism has dawned. That shall lead us to spiritual communism i. e. Sramaņism.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Original Texts
1. Āchārānga Sūtra 2. Aitaraya Brābmaņa 3. Atharvaveda 4. Bșhadāraṇyaka Upanişad 5. Chhāndogya Upanişad 6. Hariyamsa (Gita Press, Gorakhpur) 7. Holy Bible 8. Madbhāgwata Mabāpurāņa (Gita Press, Gorakhpur) 9. Mahābhārata (Bombay Edition) 10. Mahābhārata (Critical Edition, Poona) 11. gveda 12. gveda-Samhitā (Sāyaṇa Bhāşya) 13. Sankhyāyana Šrauta Sūtra 14. Śatapatha Brāhmaņa 15. Sukla Yajurveda 16. Sūtrakrtānga Sūtra 17. Tattiriya Brāhmaņa 18. Tattiriya Samhitā 19. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra II. Reference Works. 1. Altekar, A. S.; Position of Women in Hindu Civilization;
1956; Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 2. Apte, V. M.; Sanskrit-English Dictionary; Three
Volumes ; 1956 ; Prasad Prakashan, Poona. 3. Aristotle ; Republic ; 1923; J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd.,
London. 4. Banerjee-Shastri, Anandprashad; Asura India; 1926;
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(305 ) 5. Breasted, J. H.; Development of Religion and Thought
in Ancient Egypt; 1959; Harper & Brothers, N. York. 6. Bloomfield, M.; The Atharvaveda ; 1899; Verlag von
Karl J. Trubner, Strassburg. 7. Buhlar, G.; The laws of Manu ; S. B. E. Series ;
Vol. XXV ; Clarendon Press, Oxford. 8. Burry, J. B. ; A History of Greece ; Modern Library,
*New York. 9. Cassier, Earnest ; Language and Myth ; 1945; Dover
Publications, New York. 10. Chamanlal ; Hindu America ; 1956 ; V. V. Research
Institute, Hoshiarpur. 11. Chatterjee, S. K.; Indo-Aryan and Hindi ; 1960 ;
Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyaya, Calcutta. 12. Childe. V. Gordon ; The Dawn of European Civilization;
1950 ; Routledge and Kagan Paul, London. 13. Childe, V. Gordon ; New Light on the Most Ancient
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Calcutta. 18. Doshi, B. J. ; (Editor) : Dhanapala's Pāia Lachchhīnā
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20. Eggling, J.; Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa; S. B. E. Series; 5 Volumes; Clarendon Press, London.
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21. Epstein, Esidore; Judaism; 1959; Penguin Books Ltd. U. S. A.
22. Frankfort, Henry; The Birth of Civilization in the near East; 1954; Williams and Norgate Ltd., London. 23. Frazer, J. G.; The Golden Bough; 2 Volumes; Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London.
24. Gordon, D. H.; The Pre-Historic Background of Indian Culture; 1958; Bhulabhai Memorial Institute, Bombay. 25. Graves, Robert; The Greek Myths; 2 Volumes; 1957; Penguin Book.
26. Griffith, Ralph T. H.; Hymns of Atharvaveda; 1916; E. J. Lazarus & Co., Benares.
27. Griffith, Ralph T. H.; The Texts of the White Yajurveda; 1957; B. N. Yadav, Benares.
28. Hall, D. R.; The Ancient History of the Near East, 1960; Metheun & Co. Ltd., London.
29. Heras, H.; Studies in
1953; Indian
Culture; Institute, Bombay.
Proto-Indo-Mediterranean
Historical Research
30. Herodotus; The Histories; 1955; Penguin Books. 31. Herzfeld, E.; Iran in Ancient East; 1941; Oxford University Press, Oxford.
32. Hammond, N. G. L.; A History of Greece; 1959; Clarendon Press, Oxford.

33. Hastings, James; Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; T & T Clark, Edinburgh.
34. Hutton, J. H.; Caste in India; 1961; Oxford
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35. Jacobi, Hermann; Jaina Sūtras ; S. B. E. Series ; Vol. XXII; Clarendon Press, Oxford.
36. Jacobi, Hermann; Jaina Sūtras; S. B. E. Series; Vol. VL; Clarendon Press, Oxford.
37. Jastrow, Morris; Aspect of Religious Beliefs and Practice in Babylonia and Assyria; 1911; G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York & London.
38. Jayaswal, K. P.; Hindu Polity; 1955; Banglore Printing and Publishing Co. Ltd., Banglore.
39. Kaushambi, Dharmanand; Pārsvanatha Ka Chaturyama Dharma (Hindi) 1957; Hemchandra Modi Pustakamala Trust Bombay.
40. Keith, A. B.; Rgvedic Brāhmaṇas-Aitaraya and Kausitaki Brahmanas; 1920; Harvard University
Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.
41. Keith, A. B.; The Religion and Philosophy of the Veda and Upanisads; 1925; Harvard University Press, Oxford, Massachusetts.
42. Keith, A. B.; The Veda of the Black Yajus School; 1914; Harvard University Press, Oxford, Massachusetts.
43. Kerenyi, Karl; The Gods of the Greeks; 1958; Penguin Books.
44. Khabardar, Ardeshir Framji; New Light on the Gathas of Holy Zarthusthra ; 1941; Author, Bombay.
45. Law, B. C.; Historical Geography of Ancient India, 1954; Societie Asiatique de Paris, France.
46. Law, B.C.; Tribes in Ancient India ; 1943; Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona.
47. Lokeshchandra ; Sāṁkhayāyana Śrauta Sūtra.

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(308 48. Mackay, E.J.H.; Further Excavations at Mohenjodaro;
1938 ; Manager, Publications, Govt. of India, New
Delhi. 49. Macdonell, A. A.; A history of Sanskrit Literature ;
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Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi. 51. Mackenzie, D. A.; Myths of the pre-Columbian
America ; Gresham Publishing Co. Ltd., London. 52. Mackenzie, D. A.; Myths of Crete and pre-Hellenic
Europe ; 1917 ; Gresham Publishing Co. Ltd., London. 53. Majumdar, D. N. ; Races and Cultures of India ; 1958 ;
Asia Publishing House, New Delhi. 54. Majumdar, R. C. (Chief Editor) The Vedic Age ; 1957 ;
Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay. 55. Majumdar, R.C. ; Age of Imperial Unity ; 1953
Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay. 56. Maxmuller, F; The Vedas ; 1956 ; Shushil Gupta
(India) Ltd., Calcutta. 57. Mc "Crindle's ; Ancient India as Described by Ptolemy;
1927 ; Chukkervurty, Chatterjee & Co. Ltd., Calcutta. 58. Monier-Williams; Sanskrit-English Dictionary; 1956 ;
University Press, Oxford. 59, Morgan, Lewis H. ; Ancient Society ; 1958 ; Bharatiya
Library, Calcutta. 60. Moscati, S.; The face of the Ancient Orient ; 1960 ;
Routledge & Kagan Paul, London. 61. Moti Chandra ; Geographical and Economic Studies in
the Mahābhārata ; Upākhyāna Parva ; 1945 ; The U. P. Historical Society, Lucknow.

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(309) 62. Munshi, K. M.; The Glory that was Gurjardesha ;
1943 ; Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan, Bombay.. 63. Murray, Gilbert ; Five Stages of Greek Religion ;
1946 ; Watts & Co., London. 64. Murrary, M. A. ; The Splendour that was Egypt ; 1959;
Sidgwick & Jackson Ltd., London. 65. Narayana, J. P.; Āchārya Śri Túlsi Abhinandana ;
Grantha ; 1962 ; Achārya Sri Tulsī Abhinandana
Grantha Samiti, Delhi. 66. Pallattino, M. ; The Etruscans : 1956, Penguin Books. 67. Pande, G. C. ; Studies in the Origins of Buddhism;
1957; University of Allahabad, Allahabad. 68. Patil, D. Rajaram ; Cultural History from the Vāyú
Purāna ; 1946 ; Deccan College, Poona. 69. Perzyluski, J., Sylvain Levi and Others ; The Pre
Aryan and pre-Dravidian in India ; 1929; University
of Calcutta, Calcutta 70. Piggot, Stuart ; Pre-Historic India ; 1950 ; Penguin
Books. 71. Pischel, R.; Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit
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Relating to the old Testament ; 1955; Princeton Uni
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George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London. 75. Rawlinson, George ; History of Ancient Egypt : 1881 ;
Vol. I & II ; Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., London.

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80. Sontakke, N. S. & C. G. Kashikar; Rgveda-Samhita; 5 Volumes; Vaidika Samshodhana Mandala; Poona. 81. Subbarao, B; The Personality of India; 1958; M. S. University of Baroda, Baroda.
82. Sykes, Percy; A History of Persia ; 2 Volumes; 1958; Macmillan & Co. Ltd., London.
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( 311 ) 90. Wheeler, Mortimer ; The Indus civilization ; 1953 ;
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Srinagar Session 7. Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 1960, Aligarh
Session.

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Page #340

APPENDIX I
EXPLANATION OF SOME WORDS
1. ARYA The word "Arya" has not been used in the sense of language or race. It has been used in the sense of way. The people following this particular way are known as Aryans. The people following the Aryan way in different regions are designated by that particular name such as Europāryans, Asiāryans, Irānāryans and Greekāryans. The Āryan people that advanced from Iran to Bhārata in the east gave the region of their conquest the name of Brahmāvarta. They constituted the Brahma collective hence they are called Brahmāryans. The words Indo-European, Indo-Germanic, Indo-Iranian and Indo-Aryan are essentially linguistic concepts.
2. ŚRAMAŅA Word śrama means effort of the spirit ; the inner effortivity. Suffix "Ņa" conveys the sense of "right". Śramaņa means right inner-effortivity or a person following the way of right inner-effortivity. Śramaņism is the ideology of the Śramaņic way. Sramaņalogy means the science of the Śramaņic way.
3. BHĀRATALOGY Though "Egypt" is a modern word, Egyptology has been accepted by the scholars to mean the science of culture and civilization of ancient Egypt. The science of the preAryan culture and civilization of Greece is known by the name of AEGEOLOGY. The science of the ancient culture and civilization of Iraq is known by the name of Sumero

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( 314 )
logy. Indology would mean the science and culture of the Aryan Bhārata after the Brahmāryan conquest. There is no word to indicate the pre-Aryan ancient culture and civilization of Bhārata. Rgveda tells us that the people of Bhārata whom the Brahmāryans annihilated were known as Bhāratas. The word Bhāratalogy, hence, has been coined to indicate the science of the pre-Aryan ancient culture and civilization of Bhārata.
4. MORPHOMOTHEISM Anthropomorphism means giving human shape to the elements of Nature. But the original life of the most ancient undivided Aryans points towards quite an opposite phenomenon. They copied nature. Their leaders assumed to themselves the names of the elements of nature believing that they would thus imbibe in themselves the energies and forces possessed by those elements of nature. The phenomena of nature were not given humanity, but the humanity or their leaders were given the names of the phenomena of Nature. This is the Doctrine of Morphomotheism.
5. HAVISM Havism means the art of calling. It was exercised to call the leaders of the society. It was also exercised to call the energies and forces of the elements of Nature with the supposed belief that they would really come to the caller.
6. CHHANDOPATHY Hava scientifically organised is chhanda. Word, Chhanda to the Aryans, meant Thing. Chhañda was considered the inherent force of the word. Name was considered the cover of reality, Chhanda means 'cover', that which disguised reality. The reality was supposed to be achieved

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( 315 ) by the Chhanda method or the covering method. Chhañdopathy, thus, means the art of Chhanda recitation for social and individual good.
7. RITUALISATION AND CELESTIALISATION
Yajña is considered as a ritual art and Devas as celestial beings. But the concepts of Yajña and Deva originally signified quite different institutions. Yajña was the tribal activity of the Aryans. Devas were the human leaders of the Aryan common masses. When the Aryan institutions came under the influence of Śramaņic values, these institutions had to change in the changed circumstances. The actual tribal activity was ritualised. The art of Havism and the science of Chhañdopathy facilitated this change. The human devas became celestialised as their erstwhile human glory could not be maintained in the changed times. Ritualisation of yajña and the celestialisation of Devas is a dialectical historical process.

Page #343

Page #344

GENERAL İNDEX
1. Abraham 276. 2. Achaeans 92, 183. 3. Achārāiga Sutra 49, 50, 51, 199. 4. Acropolis 3, 5. Adhvaryn 177, 6. Aditi 138, 139, 255. 7. Adonis 182. 8. Ægean X, 65, 115, 194, 202, 272. 9. Ægeology 3, 10. Afghanistan 289, 11. Africa 269, 12. Agade 18, 205. 13. Agni 28, VIII, 39, 92, 98, 102, 105, 136, 137, 138,
139, 145, 146, 150, 159, 160, 171, 172, 180, 200,
202, 220, 223, 224, 229, 238, 254, 265, 278. 14. Agora 251, 15. Agrimā 251, 16. Agriyā 251, 17. Ahalyā 180, 18. Ahi 19, 25, 60, 71, 72, 75, 149, 19. Airyana Vaejo 104, 20. Aitareya Brāhmaṇa 124, 127, 223, 250, 21. Ajās 27, 22. Ajātasatru 272, 280, 23. Alasia 67, 24. Allahabad 100. 25. Alexander 272, 287, 26. Altekar, A. S. 180.

Page #345

( 318 ) 27. Al-ubaid 7, 57, 58, 111, 28. Ambala 103, 29. America 125, 203, 269, 294, 30. Amorites 67, 298, 31. Amri 91, 32. Amāņuşa 26. 33. Anatolia 83, 84, 87, 94, 150, 154, 206. 34. Anau 90, 91, 94. 35. Ananda 203, 36. Anchisis 182, 37. Andhra 120, 38. Arga-Vanga 120, 39. Angārā VIII, 137, 238, 254, 40. Angārāland VIII, 41. Angra Mainyu 105, 42. Angiras 105, 126, 136, 145, 146, 159, 162, 180, 220,
- 229, 236, 254, 264, 43. Anna 239, 41. Anthropology 4, 108. 45. Anthropomorphism X, XI, 258, 259, 46. Aņu 19, 27, 183, 210. 47. Aparagodāna 123, 48. Aphrodite 182, 183. 49. Apollon 182, 50. Arabja 62, 63, 80, 301, 51. Arabian Sea 100, 103, 104. 52. Arachosia 90, 91, 93, 126, 201, 232, 236, 53. Aral Sea 88, 54. Armaeans 67, 209, 55. Aravalli 102, 56. Arbuda 72, 57. Arcadia 183, 58. Archaeology 4, 89, 112,

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( 319 )
59. Ares 181, 182. 60. Aristotle 197, 220. 61. Arjuna 127. 62. Artamama 208. 63. Artamānya 82, 64. Arzawiya 82, 65. Aryamāņa 138, 139. 66. Aryans 95, 98, 105, 109, 119, 121, 150, 152, 159,
174, 177, 184, 257, 274. 67. Aryan cradle-land VIII, 76, 79, 117, 131, 266, 68. Arya-Varna 109, 116. 69. Aryan Way II, IV, VII, IX, XI, 76, 210, 252, 269,
281.
70. Aryanism 4, 277. 71. Āryāvarta 101, 72. Aryology 4, 76, 73. Asia 64, 87, 105, 294, 301, 74. Asia Minor 83, 93, 110, 113, 115, 206, 75. Asiāryans 94, 98, 133, 206, 259. 76. Askabad 90, 77. Asmiraia 128, 78. Asoka 72, 272, 287. 79. Assur 209, 80. Assyria 209, 81. Asuras 19, 25, 26, 31, 27, 39, 95, 114, 125, 201, 210,
219, 224, 228, 239, 280. 82. Aśvamedha 172, 173, 176, 177, 178, 211, 272, 83. Aśvapati Kaikeya 279, 84. Aświns 24, 158, 171, 172, 257, 265, 85. Athamas 183, 86. Atharyaveda IX, 149, 189, 201, 223, 249, 260, 261,
279. 87. Athene 182,

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88. Atlantic Ocean 71,
89.
Atma 36, 279,
90.
Attock 103,
91.
Atri 180,
92.
93.
94.
95.
96.
97. Avatara 283,
98.
99.
100.
11.
12.
13.
Australia 269, 294, Australoids, 106, 118.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
( 320 )
Austria 80,
Austric Language 121, Austro-Asiatic 120,
Avatsara Ṛşi 136,
Avesta 82, 83,
Axe 249,
B
1. Babylonia 59, 150, 205, 209, 275, 298,
2. Baghdad 112,
3. Balhikas 180,
4.
Balbhuta 27,
5.
Balochistan 7, 111, 112,
6. Banerji, Rakhaldas 3,
7. Banga 100,
8.
Barhis 220,
9. Basileia X, 214, 245,
10.
Basileus X, 197, 250, 251, 272, 272, 295,
Bay of Bengal 100,
Bampur 91,
Bärson 220.
Bauddha 128,
Bhadrāśva 123, 127,
Bhaga 255,
Bharatas 28,
Bharadvaja Rși 25, 180,
Bhatinda 103.

Page #348

(
321 )
20. Bhārata II, IX, X, XI, 36, 39, 48, 49, 59, 62, 63, 64,
75, 91, 93, 96, 110, 112, 120, 123, 133, 140, 154, 177, 195, 201, 203, 216, 221, 265, 271, 273, 300,
302, 21. Bhäratīyans 87, 124, 199, 230, 239, 259, 275, 22. Bhāratalogy 3, 23. Bhawalpur 103, 24. Bhulinga 120. 25. Bhrgus 170, 180, 238, 26. Bheda XII, 27, 27. Bible 299, 28. Bihar 100, 29. Bikaner 103, 104, 30. Bloch, Jules 110, 31. Boghaz-Keui 82, 83, 89, 95, 259, 32. Bohemia 80, 33. Book of the Dead 37, 34. Brahma IV, VIII, X, 26, 206, 218, 220, 222, 224,
228, 230, 232, 234, 236, 238, 240, 243, 247, 260,
264, 266, 271, 278, 280, 281, 296, 35. Brahmadvişāḥ 242, 36. Brahmaputra 103, 37. Brahmaņaspati 138, 139, 154, 155, 200, 202, 220,
224, 228, 247, 248, 250, 251, 266, 278, 281, 295,
296, 38. Brahma-Veda 264. 39. Brandenstein 79, 94, 40. Brahmāryan VIII, 9, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 39, 101, 119,
122, 129, 133, 150, 152, 154, 171, 177, 180, 198, 201, 202, 221, 222, 223, 228, 229, 236, 249, 258,
260, 271, 281, 41. Brahmā varta 125, 177, 42. Brāhmi script, 3,

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(322) 43. Brāhmaṇism 177, 278, 300 44. British Isles 106, 45, Bșhaspati 91, 136, 137, 138, 146, 150, 154, 200, 202,
220, 221, 229, 230, 238, 247, 248, 250, 251, 46. Breasted, James M. 2, 38. 47. Britomartis 182, 48. Brontes 182, 49. Bruhui 111, 50. Buddha 48, 203, 219, 283, 51. Buddhaghosa, Acharya 125, 52. Buddhism, VI, 277, 282, 283, 300 53. Bug river 88, 54. Burma 301, 55. Byzantine 289.
с
1. Canaan 71, 2. Capitalism II, 293, 3. Caspian 88, 94, 128, 129, 4, Caucasus mtns 94, 128, 5. Celestialisation XI, 278, 6. Celts 1, 71, 7. Cen-Temiz 113 8. Ceylon 100, 9. Chaitraratha forest 126, 10. Chambal 118, 11. Champillion, Jean F. 2, 12. Chandragupta 287, 13. Changez Khan 290, 14. Chatterji, S. K. 110, 115, 15. Chaujjāma 48, 16. Chefren 38, 17. Childe, V. Gordon 93, 18. China 121, 301,

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19. Chitrangada 180,
20. Chivim 71,
21.
Christ 288,
22. Christiamty 288, 289, 290, 298, 299.
23. Chrodhic VII,
24. Chumuri 25,
25. Chhanda 260, 262, 265,
(323)
26. Chhandopathy X, 260, 262, 263, 266. 27. Chhandogya Upanisad 48,
28.
Cleisthenes 197.
29. Communism, II, 295, 296, 297, 302,
30. Community-halls 12,
31.
Constantine 289.
32. Corinth 197,
33. Crete II, 65, 69, 92, 109, 110, 114, 183, 196.
34. Cronus 183.
35. Cunningham, George 3,
36.
Cuno 80.
37.
38. Cyprus 67, 114,
39. Cyrus 274.
Cyclade III, 66, 110, 154

Ꭰ
1. Dabarkot 92.
2. Danube 133, 154, 195, 271.
3. Das, A. C. 99, 104.
4. Dasyus 19, 25, 26, 31, 39, 92, 95, 98, 114, 126, 151, 201, 232, 278.
5. Dana 279.
6. Dāsas 19, 25, 31, 39, 92, 95, 98, 109, 114, 151, 201, 232, 245, 278.
7. Dasarājña War 19, 21, 27, 126, 154, 180, 221, 222, 236, 259, 269, 272, 278.
8. Dasa-Varna 109.

Page #351

( 324) 9. Daphne 182. 10. Delphi 181. 11. Demeter 181. 12. Denmark 106. 13. Devas XI, 105, 125, 126, 128, 171, 189, 199, 223, 239,
260. 14. Devagaņa 209. 15. Devakuru 124. 16. Dharma 179, 195, 239, 276. 17. "Dhuni 25. 18. Dilmun 45. 19. Dione 181. 20. Dionysus 68, 181, 182. 21. Divodasa XII, 95. 126, 180, 201, 259, 272. 22. Dnieper river 88. 22. A. Doctrine of Karma 280, 23. Dniester river 88. 23. A, Doris. 197, 24. Dravidian language 111, 120. 25. Dravidians 269. 26. Drşadyati 125. 27. Druhyu 19, 27. 28. Dryope 182. 29. Duperron, Anquetil 2. 30. Durgā 145. 31. Dushrata 82. 32. Dyaus 181, 253, 254, 255, 256, 258, 259.
E 1. Earth 138. 2. Egypt III, 36, 40, 41, 49, 61, 64, 110, 133, 195, 205,
206, 207, 210, 273, 298. 3. Egyptology 2. 4. Ek-Vrātya IV, 21, 279, 320.

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(325)
5. El-Emerna 82. 6. Elam 59, 275. 7. Enkidu 45. 8. Ephori 195. 9. Erech 58, 205. 10. Eros 83, 182. 11. Etrusia 272, 273, 274. 12. Euphratis 119. 13. Eurasia 117. 14. Europe, 133, 203, 269, 290, 291, 398, 300. 15. Europā 181. 16. Europāryans VIII, 94, 133, 137, 138, 145, 166, 245,
256, 259, 271. 17. Eurymedon 129, 181. 18. Eurynome 181. 19. Eutrèsis 92. 20. Evans, Artheser 3.
1. Fascism II, 2. Fauna 118, 119, 3. Feldeleseni 90 4. Feudalism II, 286, 291. 5. Finland 106, 6. Finno-Ugrians 79. 7. Flaura 118, 119. 8. Frazer, J. B. 262, 263.
1. Gaia 181, 182. 2. Gaņa VIII, IX, X, 133, 134, 136, 137, 140, 144, 146,
147, 149, 150, 153, 154, 155, 161, 162, 166, 170, 172, 174, 176, 189, 190, 193, 200, 210, 211, 213, 216, 219, 221, 222, 236, 247, 256, 260, 261, 263, 266, 271, 291

Page #353

3. Gaṇakarmāņi 189.
4. Ganapati 68, 91, 92, 105, 136, 137, 140, 146, 147, 149,
153, 158, 161, 162, 165, 174, 177, 18, 184, 190, 200, 202, 209, 212, 224, 229, 244, 147m 251, 257,258, 261, 263, 266, 276, 278, 291.
5. Gaṇa-rajas 199, 201, 203, 214.
6. Gaṇa-rāyāņi 199.
7.
8. Gandhara 126.
( 326 )
Gandhamadanaimts 127.
9. Ganges 103, 118, 124.
10. Ganganagar 26.
11. Ganges 274.
12. Gautama 280,
13.
23.
24.
14,
Genos 133.
15. Gens 133, 154, 214
16.
Geography 4, 123.
17. Geology 4, 98, 106,
18. Germany 93.
19.
20. Ghose, A. K, 3.
21.
Gilgamesh, 45.
22. Giles, P. 80,
Giyan 91.
Gondwanaland VIII.
Gedrosia 90, 93, 110, 152, 201. 232, 236,
Ghagghar Valley 91, 103.
25. Gothic I.
26. Greece III, 65, 68, 93, 95, 115, 129, 150, 195, 202, 203, 216, 265, 272,
27. Greekāryans 85, 129, 140, 152, 163, 171, 188, 182, 183, 194, 195, 198, 114, 222, 245, 258, 260, 271, 281.
28. Greyware people, 89-93, 131.
29. Griffith R. T. H. 149, 189.
30. Gujerat 100, 111.

Page #354

7 327 )
1. Hades 183. 2. Hakra 103. 3. Hall, H. R. 3, 59. 4. Hamilton, Alexander 2, 5. Hammurabi 205. 6. Harappa 11, 59, 91, 92, 111, 218. 7. Harappa script 48, 57. 8. Harivarşa 123, 127, 189.
9. Hastinapur 91. 10. Hātaka 127. 11. Hava 257, 260. 12. Havism X. 13. Heaven 138. 14. Helios 83, 182. 15. Helen 181. 16. Hellenes 198. 17. Henotheism XI. 18. Hera 129, 181. 19, Heracles 181. 20. Heras, father 63, 110, 113. 21. Hermes 182. 22. Herodotus 8, 65, 23. Hesepti or Hesep 38. 24. Hesiod 222. 25. Heth 71. 26. Hieroglyphic script 2, 38. 27. Himavanta 124. 28. Hinayāna Buddhism 201. 29. Hindukush 122, 124. 30. Hissar 90, 91. 31. Hissarlik 3. 32. Himalayas 100, 103, 104, 118, 122,

Page #355

( 328 ) 33. Hittitāryans 83, 94, 133, 206. 34. Hittites 85, 94, 95, 154, 183, 206, 207, 208, 209, 35. Homer 193, 222
Horns 21. 37. Hungary 80. 38. Hurrians 76, 82, 154, 206, 207, 208. 39. Hyksos 208. 40. Hyperboreans 128. 41. Hyphaistos 181, 182.
36. Horned
1. Ignis VIII. 2. Ikşvāku XII, 280. 3. Ilāvratavarşa 123. 4. Imperialism 1, 294. 5. India 265. 6. Indra 20, 27, 28, 39, 68, 82, 85, 91, 94, 98, 102, 133,
136, 137, 139, 147, 149, 150, 154, 159, 161, 163, 170, 176, 183, 200, 202, 207, 219, 221, 225, 232, 234, 256,
258, 278, 7. Indrāņi 176. 8. Industrial revolution 293.
9, 10 182. 10. Iran 7, 83, 85, 87, 93, 121, 150, 206, 219, 232, 236,
278. 11, Irānāryans 14, 31, 104, 105, 133, 177, 206, 219, 236,
278. 12. Ireland 263. 13. Iroquois Gens 73. 14. Ishtar 207. 15. Islam 289 16. Ithaca 152. 17. Italy 271, 276.

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(329)
1. Jacobson 18. 2. Jainism 282, 300. 3. Jambūdvīpa 123. 4. Jamdat-Nasr 12, 58, 111. 5. Jana 19, 24, 25, 32, 210. 6. Janaka 179, 202, 272, 280. 7. Janapada 202. 8. Jāra 171. 9. Jarutha 151. 10. Jayaswal K. B. IX, 199, 202. 11. Jesus 288. 12. Jones, Sir William IX, 1, 82. 13. Judaism 276, 177, 288, 298.
K
1. Kalióga 100. 2. Kalinga-Trilinga 120. 3. Kallisto 182, 4. Kamboj 120 5. Kanyā 178. 6. Kanathose 181, 7. Karma V, 8. Karmism V, 9. Karamarkar, A. D. 172, 10. Kashmir 127 11. Kāśí 202, 272, 280. 12. Kassitāryans 83. 13. Kassites 95, 154, 205, 206, 207, 208, 109. 14. Kaśyapa 180, 15. Kaśyapameru 127, 16. Kaster 181.

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(330) 17. Kathenotheism KI. 18. Kaušāmbi 178. 19. Kausitaki Brāhmaṇa 231. 20. Keith A.B. 149, 175. 21. Ketumatal 123, 127. 22. Khafage 60. 23. Kimpuruṣas 127. 24. Kirghiz steppes 79. 25. Kish 205. 26. Knossos 3,92. 27. Kolarian 121. 28. Koovoi 196. 29. Kouretes 183. 30. Košala 199, 201, 272, 280. ! 31. Kośala-Tośala 120. 32. Kramer S. N. 45, 58. 33. Krşņa XII, 300. 34. Kșatra 229, 236, 242, 244, 278. 35. Kulli 91. 36. Kumāri 175. 37. Kumarbi 183. 38. Kuntī 178, 179, 180, 181. 39. Kuri-galzu 207. 40. Kuru 124. 41. Kuru Jangala 124. 42. Kuruksetra 124. 43. Kuśikas 265. 44. Kyrene 182.
1. Lagash 60, 205. 2. Lall, B. B. 3. 3. Larsa 275. 4. Latin 1.

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(331) 5. Learchas 183. 6. Leda 181, 182. 7. Lerna 92. 8. Leto 182. 9. Lichchhavis 199, 202, 203, 280. 10. Linguistics 2, 82, 110. 11. Lithuania 83, 85, 87, 95. 12. Lugal 18, 21, 58.
м 1. Maat 17. 2. Macedonian Bromium 128. 3. Mackay, J. H. 3. 4. Mackenzie, D. A. 71. 5. Mādhavī 180, 181. 6. Magadha 203. 7. Magi 289. 8. Mahābhārata 123, 149, 178. 9. Mahājana pada 202. 10. Mahāparinibbāņa Sutta 203. 11. Mahāvīra 48, 50, 219. 12. Mahāyāna Buddhism 301. 13. Mahişi 175. 14. Mahismat 180. 15. Māhizmati 180. 16. Maia 182. 17. Majumdar, D. N. 113. 18. Maikop 90, 91. 19. Makran 112. 20. Malla 280. 21. Mandākini river 127. 22. Manu 101. 23. Manusmeti 125. 24. Manifestation of light 37.

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( 332 )
25. Manus 184. 26. Marshall, John 3. 27. Maruts 27, 28, 98, 108, 137, 138, 154, 169, 242. 28. Mārawāļl Purgarī 72. 29. Marx II, IX, 269. 30, Materialism 205, 266, 282, 283, 295, 298, 302. 31. Matriarchy 14, 24. 32. Matsyas 27. 33. Matsyagandbā 180. 34. Matter 37, 303. 35. Mattiwaza 82, 207. 36. Mauryan Brāhmi 114. 37. Maxmuller IV, X, 2, 76, 80, 261, 265. 38. Medes 298. 39. Mediterranean race 106, 110, 112, 115, 116, 118, 218. 40. Mediterranean Sea III, 64, 209. 41. Memphis 61. 42. Menes 16, 38, 61, 62. 43. Meru mts. 127. 44. Mesopotamia 57, 83, 84, 87, 154, 206, 218, 264. 45. Messanipada 59. 46. Metes 181, 182. 47. Midas 128. 48. Milvian Bridge 288. 49. Minoans 67, 109, 110, 196, 218. 50. Minyans 83, 89, 92. 51. Mittani 82, 95, 206, 208. 52. Mithra ism 289. 53. Mitra 24, 27, 102, 137, 138, 139, 159, 171, 172, 183,
207, 219. 54. Mnemosyne 181. 55. Moabites 298. 56. Moghul empire 282.

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( 333 )
57. Mohammad 286. 58. Mohenjodaro 21, 57, 59, 60, 63, 111, 113, 218. 59. Mokaşa 282. 60. Moller 80. 61. Monarchy 272, 274. 62. Mongolids 106, 108. 63. Monier Williams 144, 152, 176, 200, 260. 54. Monogamy 14.
Monopolism 294. 66. Morgan, Lewis II, IX, 66, 68, 73, 141, 181, 193, 194,
198, 269. 67. Morphomotheism X, 258, 259. 68. Mrdhravāch 115. 69. Mujjafarbad 103. 70. Munda language 111, 121. 71. Muni VI, 20, 21, 101, 221. 72. Munshi, K.M. 94, 96. 73. Mutiha 120. 74. Mycenaeans 83, 89, 92, 152. 75. Mythology IV, 2, 123.
1. Nābhāka 152. 2. Nad-i-ali 90. 3. Nāga 71. 4. Nainital 103. 5. Nal 91. 6. Namazgo Tepe 90. 7. Nandana forests 127. 8. Narmadā 259. 9. Narmer 61, 63. 10. Nāsatyas 138; 207, 265. 11. Negroids 108. 12. Nehring 79, 93.

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( 334 )
13. Nemesis 181. 14. Nemi XII. 15. Nereus 182. 16. Nerites 182. 17. Nesutneler 16. 18. Nilāghīri Hills 57. 19. Niobe 182. 20. Nippur 60. 21. Nişadha 123, 124. 22. Nomarch 16. 23. Nordics 106. 24. Norsemen 71. 25. Norway 106.
1. Oannes 59. 2. Octavian 286. 3. Olympus 182, 259. 4. Orientis river 57. 5. Orpheus 219. 6. Orphism IV, 68, 69, 277, 287. 7. Osiris 21, 39, 40, 43, 109, 110, 210. 8. Ottarakarrha 128. 9. Ouranus 83, 94, 182, 183.
1. Pacific ocean 71. 2. Palestine 63. 3. Pallas 182. 4. Pamir Mtns 94. 105, 116, 123, 127. 5. Pāñchāla 201. 6. Pañchajanah 19, 28, 102, 125, 201, 213. 7. Panchakşitinām 28. 8. Pancha-Mahāvrata 48.

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( 335 )
9. Panchasüdani Atthekatha 125. 10. Pañcha-Vratāḥ 213. 11. Paņis, 19, 24, 25, 60, 63, 64, 65, 69, 71, 75, 114, 116,
139, 151, 259. 12. Parāśara 180. 13. Paraśurāma 95. 14. Parīkṣita 127, 272. 15. Parişad 19, 30, 201. 16. Paruşņi 27. 17. Parivrktā 175, 176. 18. Patriarch 184, 215. 19. Paul 288. 20. Pārjaņya 98, 138, 139, 253, 254, 258, 21. Pārsva Tirthankara 48, 50, 114. 22. Palasgians 110. 23. Pelikala 152. 24. Penka 79. 25. Persephone 78. 26. Persia 94, 95, 112, 209, 278. 27. Persian language 1. 28. Petrie, Elenders 2, 38. 29. Pharaoh 8, 16, 21, 40. 30. Phoenician 63, 67, 71. 30A. Philip 272, 287. 31. Philology II. 32. Phratriarch 214, 215, 33. Phratry 214, 216. 34. Piggot, Stuart 19. 35. Pijāvana 95. 36. Pipru 25. 37. Pischel R. 115, 169. 38. Poland 93. 39. Polemarch 197.

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40. Polydenkas 181. 41. Polynesia 71. 42. Pope 299.
43.
Poseidon 182, 183.
44.
Potdar K.R. 147.
45.
Prajapati 173, 278, 286, 300. Prasakanva 238.
46.
47. Pravahaṇa Jaivali 201, 279.
48. Prākṛta 114.
49. Priapos 182.
50.
Prometheus 129, 182.
51. Promiscuity 179, 180, 181. 52.
Proto-Australoids 110, 115, 116.
( 336 )
53. Proto-Brahmi script 86, 113. 54. Pṛthvi 253, 259.
55. Pruth river 88.
56. Ptolemy 128.
57.
Pubbavideha 123.
58.
59. Pundra 129.
Pulinda-Kulinda, 120.
60. Punjab 28, 100, 111.
61.
62.
Punt 62, 115, 116, 205.
Purandara Indra IV.
63.
Purāņas XI.
64.
Purohita 223.
65. Pūru 19, 124, 126, 259, 280. Purukutsa XII, 126, 259.
66.
67. Pūruravā 126, 127, 169.
68. Puruşa 173, 175.
69. Puruşamedha 167, 172, 173, 175, 178, 181, 183, 206,
250, 261.
70.
Puruṣasukta 175.
71. Püşan 136, 138, 139.

Page #364

72. Puşyamitra 178, 272.
73. Pygmallion 182. 74. Pythagoras 277.
1. Quaztalcoatl 71. 2. Quetta 91.
1.
2. Rajasthan 28.
3.
R
Rajan 30, 200, 201, 202.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
( 337 )
Raksasas 19, 26, 27, 137, 150, 236, 243.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8. Rastar 31.
9. Republican system 16.
10.
Ṛgveda iv, ix, xii, 49, 50, 81, 86, 95, 96, 100, 101, 109, 133, 136, 149, 150, 154, 173, 176, 181, 193, 201, 225, 232, 235, 243, 260.
Rhea 181, 182.
Rice 121.
Rāma 15.
Rana Ghundaii 92, 152.
Rangmahal 26.
Rann of Cutch 103, 104.
Ritualisation 278,
Romans 141, 154. Romāryans 272,
16.
Rosetta stone 2,
17. Rṣabha 67, 68, 75,
18. Rtvij 223,
19. Rudra 137, 138, 139, 224, 278, 300,
80.
Russia 87, 88, 93, 95, 104, 121, 263.
S
1. Samkara 120, 2. Šākyas 199.

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( 338 )
3. Šalva 120. 4. Samana 165, 166, 168, 170, 172, 5. Samarians 298, 6. Sāmaveda 223, 260, 7. Sambara 25, 98, 137, 151, 8. Samgha 214, 282, 9. Sasgrāma 149. 10. Samiti 201, 11. Samlekhanā Sasthārā 44, 12. Sams-ul-ulema 207, 13. Samudāya 134, 213, 14. Sankara 300, 15. Sānkhyāyana þrauta Sūtra 173, 16. Sanskrit 1, 82, 83, 17. Sāntanu 180, 18. Sapta-Sindhu 80, 81, 94, 98, 100, 101. 103, 104, 19. Sarasvati 26, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 118, 124, 257. 20. Sargnn 84, 87, 205, 21. Sassanids 289,
Satapatha Brih naņa 114, 223, 242, 250, Sāvitrī 138, 139, 171, 172, Sāyaṇa 27, 29, 136, 166, 168, 176, 189, 213, 214, 223,
224, 225, 229, 234, 235, 236, 255, 25. Schlegal, Fredrich, 2,
Schliemann, Heinrich 3, 27. Schrader 79, 28. Selene 182, 29. Semites 71, 175, 198, 30. Senate 196. 31. Seracus 274, 32. Sereth river 88, 33. Shahi Tump 90, 91,

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(339)
34. Shah Tepe 90, 35. Sialk 91, 36. Sicily 274, 37. Siddhi 37, 51 38. Sigrus 27, 39. Sindh 103, 112, 40. Sindhu river 95, 118, 41. Śiśnadevas 29, 221, 42. Siśnadevis 20, 43. Sistan 91, 44. Sītā river 124, 44A. Sītā 15, 45. Śivālika 103, 46. Smith, Vincent IX, 47. Sohar Dumb 92, 48. Solon 197. 49. Soma 26, 98, 136, 137, 147, 171, 172, 221, 232, 235,
238. 50. Somabuti 179. 51. Somaliland 62, 63. 52. Sotra 103. 53. Solomon 277. 54. Soul V VI, 37, 282. 55. Sparta 181, 197. 56. Speiser 58. 57. Spirit 37, 303. 58. Spiritual Communism 302, 59. Srama V. 60. Śramaņa V, VI, 20. 61. Śramaņalogy 4. 62. Šramaņism 4, 270, 272, 303. 63. Śramaņic region II, 117, 210, 273. 64. Śramaņic society V. XII, 205, 222.

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( 340 ) 65. Śramaņic Way II, III, 210, 221, 269. 271, 283. 66. Śramaņopāsaka VI. 67. Sudas, XII, 95, 259, 272. 68. Śūdras 245, 278. 69. Sumeru Mt 123, 127. 70. Sumer, 15, 47, 49, 59, 62, 63, 210, 273. 71. Sumerology 3. 72. Suppiluljumas 82, 207. 73. Sura 40. 74. Surias 84, 75. Sūrya 178, 179, 180. 224, 253. 76. Šuşna 25. 77. Suttarna 82. 78. Sutlej 91, 103. 79. Susa 59, 91. 80. Svetaketu 179, 180. 81. Sweden 106. 82. Syāvasva Rşi 136. 83. Syria 82, 205, 287.
1. Taittiriya Brāhmaṇa 173. 2. Taittirīya Samhitā 149, 231, 238, 239. 3. Taylor, E.B. 67. 4. Taylor J.F. 3. 5. Tethys Sea 106, 118, 128. 6. Themes 181. 7. Theo-nomism XI 8. Thompson, A.D.R. Campbell 3. 9. Thoth 38, 39, 10. Thothmos 208. 11. Tiglath-Pilesar 209. 12. Tigris 119, 209. 13. Tilak, B. G. 81, 99, 104.

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( 341 ) 14. Transmigration of soul 37, 279. 15. Trasadasyu XII 16. Tribal 140, 144, 155, 163, 169, 184, 203, 218, 230,
235, 237, 245, 270, 273, 281, 283. 17. Tribal Collective X, 147, 161, 230, 232, 234. 18. Tribulism 271, 272, 274, 276, 282, 286, 295, 297. 19. Tripoli 71. 20. Tripolje 79, 89, 93, 94, 95. 21. Trojan War, 181, 182, 269, 277. 22. Trtsus 124, 225. 23. Troy 83, 85, 89. 24. Truth VII. 25. Tsarakaya 90, 91. 26. Tundras 106. 27. Turang Tepe 90. 28. Turkestan 94. 29. Turvaša 19, 27. 30. Tushratta 207. 31. Tvaşțr 138. 32. Tyndarlos 181. 33. Typhaon 181.
1. Uddālaka Aruņi 179. 2. Udumbara 120, 3. Ukraine 93. 4. Universal Tribal Collective (or society) 218, 225, 235,
237, 281. 5. Upanişads IV, 281. 6. Ur, 44, 57, 205, 275. 7. Urāchala 127. 8. Urals 79, 88, 94, 106, 117, 124, 127. 9. Urvaśī 126, 168, 169. 10. Urnk 12, 44, 45, 58, 111.

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(342 ) 11. Uşas 109, 166, 168, 169, 254, 255. 12. Usinara 180. 13. Us-yri 39. 14. Uttarakuru vii, viii, 123, 124, 127, 179, 264. 15. Uttaramadras 124. 16. Uttarāchala 127. 17. Uttarādhayayan Sūtra 50. 18. Utathya 180. 19. Utkala-Mekala 120. 20. Utnapishtim 45.
1. Vadhū 176. 2. Vaiśāls 280. 3. Vaišanta 95. 4. Vaiśvānara 265. 5. Vajjis 199, 202, 272, 273. 6. Vajra 249. 7. Vala 137, 299. 8. Varuņa 24, 27, 39, 82, 85, 95, 102, 137, 138, 139, 160,
161, 171, 172, 180, 200, 202, 207, 219, 221, 253, 257,
278. 9. Vasiştha 95, 169, 180. 10. Vasus 224. 11. Vats, M, S. 3. 12. Vāvātā 175, 176, 177. 13. Vāyu 27, 171, 172. 14. Vichitravīrya 180. 15. Videha 179, 202, 272, 280. 16. Vipra 25, 26, 257. 17. Virāj 239. 18. Visāḥ 136, 242. 19. Vişņu 138, 300. 20. Viśvāmitra 180, 225,

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( 343 )
21. Viśvedevas 136. 22. Vrtta VIII, XI, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, 217. 23. Vrchivants 27. 24. Vrsabha 20, 22, 50, 62, 67. 25. Vrşa kapi 176. 26. Vetras 19, 22, 92, 95, 109, 137, 139, 151, 231, 232,
234, 235, 236, 243, 259, 262, 300. 27. Vrātaspāti 212, 213, 215, 28. Vyābrtis 244. 29. Vyāsa 180.
1. Wells, H.G. 100 2. West Asia 112, 133, 195, 206, 218, 269, 274, 275,
289. 3. Wheeler, Mortimer 3. 4. William Jones IV, VIII. 5. Wilson, H. H. 2, 149, 167, 168, 176, 212, 223, 234. 6. Wooley, Leonard 3, 44. 7. Wiros 93, 119.
1. Yadu xii, 19, 27, 300. 2. Yajña Intr. VIII, 19, 139, 145, 146, 147, 149, 153,
155, 158, 161, 162, 167, 168, 172, 184, 185, 206, 213, 219, 220, 222, 223, 224, 228, 230, 235, 238, 240, 243,
249, 250, 257, 260, 261, 263, 265, 266, 278, 279, 296. 3. Yajurveda 149, 174, 223, 230, 243, 260. 4. Yaksa 27. 5. Yamunā 27. 6. Yangtze 121. 7. Yarkand 124. 8. Yasadatta 82.
9. Yāşka 133, 144, 145, 153, 165, 166, 220, 224, 10. Yati VI, 238.

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11. Yogi 20.
12.
( 344 )
Yoṣa 165, 168, 169, 170, 172.

Z
1.
Zarthustra 219, 278.
2.
Zeus 68, 83, 128, 129, 181, 182, 183, 250, 259.
3. Zews 277.
4. Zhob 91, 92, 94.
5. Zoroastrianism 277, 289.

Page #372

ERRATA
CONTENTS
Page Line
5 II 25 III 4 III 36 IV 14
29 VI 4 VI 8 VI 18 VI 21
Incorrect Institution. Aryan Weaton. Caņa Samgrā-Mamilitary Paņi's-Kine Hsvism Aryan 300 B. C.1500 A, D.-1962
Correct Institutions. Aryan Weapon. Gana Samgramā-Military. Paņi skine Havism Aryan 300 B. C-1500 A. D. 1500 A. D.-1964 A. D.
V
III III
III
V
VI
VI
INTRODUCTION 29 Subhuman
Sub-human 20 in surmountables insurmountable 30 Religion
Region. 31 Extent
extant 29 Preferred
Prefer 22 did care
did not care 23 Joined
Join Scientists
scientists 30 Proto-Austic
Proto-Austric 5 Scientists
scientists 7 this
his. 36 from
form 36 Maxmuller
Maxmiller 1 too 5 & 15 Anthropomortheism. Anthropomorphism.
VI
VII
IX
1
Two
XI

Page #373

1
346
)
XI
26
Page Line Incorrect XI 12 immitaion
28 the XI 35 Bharata
21 Indas 27 culture 17 pleasant 13 simth
23 literary 10 10 Historiea 14 3 wich
9 steallites 14 31 Counenbinage 15 3
01 22 7 theraby
13, 16 desert-Waste 274 being 27 22 Janan
26 Meruts
22 Satrūnām 2921 view 29 24 Aņues 29 25 Turvaşas 29 25 Purūs 31
Runganāt 31 13 leader
11 K. C. Jain 14 Gveda
1 Sramaņic cast Bumerians
3 ethnie
22 Ashoka 82 Last Artamnānya
Correct immitation Omit Bhārata Indus Culture peasant smiths titular Histories which steatites Concubinage
10 thereby desert-waste beings Janān Maruts Śatrūņām views Aņus Turvašas Pūrus Rañganāt Leaders R. C. Jain Rgveda Śramaņic Sumerians ethnic Asoka. Artamanya
27
28
34
36 47
31
72

Page #374

Page Line Incorrect
83
28 Lithunia.
91
11
Amrinal
95
Parasurams
101
Regveda
103
Sivalika
103
104
114
118
125
129
133
139
154
175
3
13
11
16 Sind
1
sind
6
Panjab
11
Seabed
15
8
8
12
24
28
28
33
31
175
175
179
180
15
180
21
180 Last
181
16
181
28
203
12
238
26
258
31
272
29
273
274
3
2

Devamirmita
Cancasian
Hitteāryans
Guna
Gens
Vāvāta
Parivrkta
gveda
( 347 )
Promiscuous
Mahiṣmati
Durgaha
veda
Dynosus
Helena
Mahaparinirbana
Brahama
Anthropomortheism Romanaryans
-do
Greek
Correct
Lithvania.
Amri, Nal
Parasurama's
Rgveda Šivālika
Sindh.
Sindh.
Punjab
seabed
Devanirmita
Caucasus
Hittitary ans
Gaṇa
Genos
Vāvātā
Parivṛktā
Rgveda
promiscuous
Māhiṣmatī
Durgahā
Rgveda
Dionysus
Helen
Mahāparinibbāṇa
Anthropomorphism Romāryans
-do
Brahma
Greeks.

Page #375

Page #376
INSTITUTE OF BHARATALOGICAL RESEARCH SRI GANGANAGAR (RAJASTHAN