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ledge (nāna), austerity (tava) and self-restraint (samjama) is necessary for the attainment of liberation according to the discipline propounded by the jinas; knowledge reveals the truth, austerity cleanses the soul of its impurities, and self-restraint protects the soul against incursion of fresh impurities. 14
The vidyā-avidyā issue has also a social significance. The sacrificial cult of the Vedic priests gradually lost its impact and gave way to philosophical speculations, Contradicting R. Garbe, Winternitz asserts that the awakening of philosophical speculation came before the period of the Brāhmaṇas. He further says in this connection that “In some hymns of the Rgveda doubts and scruples already arose concerning the popular belief in gods and the priestly cult. These sceptics and thinkers, these first philosophers of ancient India, certainly did not remain isolated ... We are not, however, likely to find these oldest philosophers of ancient India among the priests, who were engaged in the science of sacrifice.... We can scarcely imagine that the brāhmanas, who lived by the sacrifices, had many men amongst them who doubted the existence of Indra himself, and raised the question whether there was any sense in sacrificing to the gods...... The fact that the warrior-caste was closely connected with the intellectual life and the literary activity of ancient times is proved by numerous passages in the Upanişads, in fact already in the Brāhmaṇas."15
This emergence of the warrior-caste or the kșatriyas as philosophers is also confirmed by the advent of the religious reformers like Mahāvīra and Buddha who were kşatrijas. There was perhaps a popular feeling among the people of those days in favour of the kşatriyas as protagonists of new thinking which rejected ritualism and the sacrificial cult as vain superstition. There was perhaps anti-Brāhmaṇical leaning among them. This is confirmed by the miraculous episode of the tranfer of the embryo of Mahāvīra from the womb of the brāhmaṇī Devānandā to that of the ksatriyāni Trisalā, as mentioned in the Kalpasūtra of the Svetāmbara Jainas.16
2. Śramaņa-brāhmaṇa
According to the Dhammpada, the brālumana is one who has put aside his evil propensities; a samaņu (śramaņa) is so called because of his equanimous conduct (samacariyā); a pabbajita (pra vrajita) is so designated because he has put away his impurities. 17 Similarly, in the Uttarajjhayaņāni 18 a samana is defined as a person practising equanimity (samayā, Skt. samatā); a bambhana (Skt. brāhmana) as one who cultivates bambhacera (Skt, brahmacarya) - the knowledge of the brahman or the self19 and the entire course of ascetism.20 The terms śramana and brālmana thus stood for the highest spiritual values. The natural antagonism
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