Aspects of Jaina Monasticism

Author(s): Nathmal Tatia, Mahendramuni
Publisher: Jain Vishva Bharati
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001332/1

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Booba
Aspects
of Jaina Monasticism
MUNI WANENDRA KUMTARI
DR. NATHMAL TATIA MUNI MAHENDRA KUMAR
(Bombay)

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Aspects of Jaina Monasticism By Dr. Nathmal Tatia & Muni Mahendra Kumar (Bombay) June 1981. 23 cm. 150 pages Rs. 65,00 $ 14.00 tentative
The publication of this book is a prelude to the Encyclopaedia of Jainism that the Jain Vishva Bharti is going to publish shortly.
The treatment is historical and comparative throughout, giving, at the same time, a comprehensive and critical view of the topics selected for exposition.
Really speaking the book contains rare and valuable information regarding the monastic order of the Jainas and its value is all the more enhanced when one finds oneself able to appreciate it among other systems of monastic order. The learned writers of this book have made a detailed and comparative survey of the field of study covered by the topics.
OIB T.T.P.P.
95.0
Jain Education

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ASPECTS
of JAINA MONASTICISM
DR NATHMAL TATIA MUNI MAHENDRA KUMAR (Bombay)
Published
Under the Auspices of JAIN VISHVA BHARATI, LADNUN-341306, RAJASTHAN, INDIA
om
Today & Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers

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COPYRIGHTS © JAIN VISHVA BHARATI, LADNUN (RAJASTHAN), INDIA
First Published, 1981
Rs. 65.00 US $ 14.00
Composed by: B.N. Printers 4240, Budh Nagar, Rampura, Delhi-110035 Printed at : Regent Printers & Packers, 69, Moti Nagar, New Delhi-110015
Published under the auspices of Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun, Rajasthan (India) by Shri R.K. Jain : Today & Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers 24-B/5, Desh Bandhu Gupta Road, Karol Bagh, New Delhi-110005

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अज्ञानतिमिरान्धानां ज्ञानाञ्जनशलाकया । चक्षुरुन्मीलितं येन तस्मै श्रीगुरवे नमः ॥
आगमपुरिसस्सेव
तुलसीगुरुसत्णो । पसाएण विणिम्मित्ता सत्थमेयं समप्पियं ॥ १ ॥
तस्स जुगप्पहाणस्स तस्सेव जा दयाकिई ।
धी तग्गुणमुद्धा
सद्धा विणण य ||२॥
जव विजय तिथं सिरिभिक्खुगणेसिणो । तावमेसा मरालीव कीलेज्जा कइमाणसे || ३ ||

आगमपुरुषस्यैव
शास्तुः श्रीतुलसीगुरो: । प्रसादेन विनिर्माय शास्त्रमेतत्समर्पितम् ।।१॥
तस्मै युगप्रधानाय
तस्यैव या दयाकृतिः ।
श्रद्धया विनयेनापि
धिया तद्गुणमुग्धया ॥२॥
यावद्विजयते तीर्थं श्रीमद्भक्षुगणेशितुः । तावदेषा मरालीव क्रीडतु कृतिमानसे ||३||

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To
Yugapradhāna Acārya-Sri-Tulasī, the scripture incarnate,
this work, the creation of his own grace, is most respectfully
dedicated in humility,
and in appreciation of his great virtues.
May this work
delight the learned all through the dispensation
of
Ācārya Bhikṣu !

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PUBLISHERS' NOTE sub
The contents of the present book have been primarily written for the Encyclopaedia of Jainism that the Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Rajasthan), is going to publish. The project of the publication of the Encyclopaedia of Jainism is, of course, vast and needs collaboration of the scholars from various branches of learning. Hence it is felt necessary that the contents of the present book may be placed before as many scholars as possible for suggestion and cooperation. To achieve this objective the publication of the matter in a book-form has been considered desirable.
Really speaking the book contains rare and valuable information regarding the monastic order of the Jainas, and its value is all the more enhanced when one finds oneself able to appreciate it among other systems of monastic order. The learned writers of this book have made a detailed and comparative survey of the field of study covered by the topics. It is hoped that the readers of the book will feel enlightened by acquainting themselves with the facts contained in the book.
I feel highly elated to extend my heartfelt thanks to Dr Nathmal Tatia and Muni Mahendra Kumar for their hard work which is evinced in every line of the work they have done. My thanks are also due to the Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Rajasthan), which has been devotedly designing such projects under the holy inspiration emanating from Ācārya Sri Tulasi for entrusting the publication work to us.
May, 15TH, 1981
R.K. JAIN

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PREFACE
The publication of this small book is a prelude to the Encyclopaedia of Jainism that the Jain Vishva Bharati is going to publish shortly. It is intended to give an idea of the style of presentation of the subject to be treated of in the Encyclopaedia. The treatment would be historical and comparative throughout, giving, at the same time, a compehensive and critical view of the topic selected for exposition. The chapters of the present book are thus only a part of the article to be written for the Encyclopaedia under the main entry acāra that would describe in detail the nature and principles governing the monastic and the lay orders of the Jainas.
We give below an outline of the plan of the Encyclopaedia of Jainism for the consideration of our readers, inviting suggestions from them for the improvement of the plan as well as the style of treatment and presentation of the subject matter.
A Brief Sketch of the Encyclopaedia of Jainism
1. Critical studies of the different aspects of Jainism and its contribution to the different branches of Indian thought and culture have come out and enriched our knowledge of the learning and culture of ancient India. Exploration of the Jaina Sastra Bhandāras has revealed, in addition to the literature pertaining to Jainism, a number of very important Brāhmaṇical and Buddhist texts which were hitherto deemed irrecoverably lost. Another unique feature of Jainism has been an absolutely unbiased representation of non-Jaina views and extensive quotations from texts which were otherwise lost. A compilation of such views and texts with their critical evaluation from the Jaina standpoint would be a very valuable contribution towards the reconstruction of the history of the religious and philosophical movements that took place in ancient times. For a total and comprehensive view of the contribution of Jainism to Indian thought and culture, a work of reference is urgently in demand which could bring before the scholars of Jainism at one place the vast knowledge accumulated over a century and a half of intense scholarly effort and also give valuable new information from works so far not brought to sufficient light. Our plan of the Encyclopaedia of Jainism would meet this demand of the gradually increasing number of scholars and readers interested in Jainology.

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2. A number of important attempts, though with very limited aims, have been made in the past for compiling works of the nature of a Jaina Encylopaedia. The Abhidhana-Rajendra, for instance, in seven volumes, is a gigantic work in which original Prakrit and Sanskrit Svetambara texts have been quoted in extenso, sometimes in full, to explain the technical terms of Jaina philosophy. Similarly the JainendraSiddhanta-Koșa, in four volumes, and the Jaina Lakṣaṇāvalī, in three volumes, are valuable works of reference in the same field based mainly on the Digambara texts and summarising mostly the work done on the texts they have quoted, giving a critical study only in a limited number of cases with Hindi versions. The Jaina Siddhanta-Bola-Samgraha, in eight volumes, is also a valuable work written in Hindi, which introduces the reader to the rich heritage of Jaina technical terms in a style which is easy to understand. The Prakrit Proper Names, composed in the style of the Dictionary of Pali Proper Names, though not as informative as the latter, is another work which can be regarded as complementary to the above works of reference. But there still remains the vital necessity of an encyclopaedia in English covering the entire range of Jainology, where articles are written in a style which is lucid and reliable for accuracy and insight. The Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics edited by Hastings, The Hindu World by Benjamin Walker, and the two volumes of The Great Ideas-A Syntopicon (published in the series of Britannica great books) may serve as models for our work.
3. The Encyclopaedia of Jainism will contain enteries representing broad subjects on which articles are to be written by experts covering the entire topic with necessary references. We give here a tentative list of such subjects, about 550 in number. The entries comprise Sanskrit, Prakrit and English terms-all arranged in the order of the Roman alphabet. Adequate care has been taken in the selection of the entries so that no important subject is left out and no unimportant subject is entered, in order to make the Encyclopaedia fully representative and at the same time avoiding unnecessary augmentation of the bulk. Calculating the average length of each articles at ten pages, the total number of pages in the Encyclopaedia is estimated at 4500. The question of the space to be allowed to each entry is very difficult to decide in advance. The principle should be that no vital information is left out, but all information is given as concisely as possible.
4. The reference works on Jainism published up to date are almost all written in Hindi and as such are of little use to the foreign scholars working in the field of Jainism. It has, therefore, been decided to write the Encyclopaedia in the English language.
5. The tentative list of entries that the Encyclopaedia is intended to comprise is given below:

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Abhāva (Negation) Abhavya (Incapable of Liberation) Abhiseka (Aspersion, Ablution) Abrahmacarya Ācāra Ācārya Adhyātma Aeon (Ages of the World) Aesthetics Āgama (Scripture) Agurulaghu āhāra Ahimsā, Himsā Ajñānavāda (Agnosticism) Ākāśa (Space) Akriyāvāda Alchemy Allegory and Allegorical Inter
pretation Altruism Amārighosaņā Amusements Ananumodanā (Non-cooperation) Anatomy Anekantavāda Angavijjä Animals Animism Antarālagati Anukampā Anuprekşā (Contemplation) Anuyogas Anuyogadvārāņi Apabhramsa language & literature Aprigraha (Non-possession) Apavāda Ārādhanā, Virädhanā Ārambha, Samārambha, Samr
ambha Ārati Architecture Ardhamāgadhi (Language) Arham
Army Art Arthakriyākāritva Ārya, Anārya Asamjñin Āsana (Posture) Asatya Asceticism Asrava (Influx of Karmans) Āstika, Nāstika Astikāya Astral body Astrology Astronomy Atheism Atisaya Atithisamvibhāga Atman, Anātman Atomic Theory Auspicious Signs and Symbols Avidyā (Nescience) Avirati (Absence of Vows) Āyāgapattas (Votive Slabs) Ayurveda (A Medical System) Bāla, Pandita Bandha (Bondage) Baptism Being, Becoming Benevolence Bhakti Bhaņdāras (Libraries) Bhāṣā (Speech) Bhāşyas (Commentaries) Bhattāraka Bhāvanā (Maitri, etc.) Bhiksācaryā (Madhukari, Gocari,
etc.) Bījamantra Biographies Biology Botany Brahmacarya and Brahmacārin
(Celebacy and Celebates)

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Brahmavihāra Buddha and Buddhism Buddhi (Four Kinds of Intellect) Caitya (Temple) Caityavāsin Cakravartin (Universal Monarch) Calendar Calligraphy Cāritra Casteism Catechism Categorical Imperative Cāturyāma Caubisis Cause, Casuality (Theories of) Caves Chadmastha (A person in the
state of Bondage) Chandas (Prosody, Metres) Channels of the Subtle Body Charitble Institutions Charity Charms and Amulets Chemistry Chronology Circumambulation Civilization Clairvoyance Commemoration Volumes Constitution (of the Monastic
Order) Conversion Cosmogony Cosmography Cosmology Councils & Synods Creation Crime Crystal-Gazing Cūrnis Custom and Convention Dāna Danda
Daņdaka Darśana (Constituent of Moksa
mārga) Dayā (Pity) Death Debates Determinism Devotional Songs Dharma (religion, element of
existence, adjunct) Dhuta Dhyāna (Meditation) Digambaras Diksā Divination Dosa (faults), Ācāradosa, Ādhā
karmādidosa, Aticāra Dowry Dravidians Dravya, Bhāva Dravya-guna-paryāya (Substance,
Attribute, Mode) Dravya-ksetra-kāla-bhāva (Subs
tance-space-time-mode) Dreams and Sleep Dress Drinks, Drinking Drsti (Vision) Drstivāda Dualism Dynasties Earth, Earth-Gods Eclecticism Eclipses Education
Ego
Embryology Emotions Ends and Means Epics Epigraphy Epistemology (Jñanamimāınsa) Erotics

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Error (Theories of) Error and Truth Eschatology Eternity Ethics and Morality Etymology (Niryukti) Faith
Fasung
Fatalism, Fate Fear, Fearlessness Festivals Fine Arts First Sermon Folklore Forgetfulness and Forgiveness Free will Gaccha Games
Gana
Ganadhara and Ganadharavāda
(Apostles and their Initiation) Gāndhi, M.K. Gati Gems, Precious Stones Geography Geology Good Gods and Goddesses Good and Evil Gośälaka, Mamkhaliputta Gotra (Family Status) Grammar (Vyakarana) and Gra-
mmarians Granthāvali (series of publications) Granthi (Complex) Gunasthana, Jivasthāna (Stages of
Soul, or its Evolution) Guru Health and Hygiene Heavens, Hells Heredity Heresy Heretics (of Mahāvīra's times)
Hierarchy History--Origin, Spread, Develop
ment Hospitals Householders and Housewives (in
the Āgamas) Humanism Humanitarianism Human Types Iconoclasm Idealism Identity Idolatry Immaculate Conception Immortality, Conditional Immorta
lity Incarnation Inscriptions (Silālekha) Isvara (God) Jāvas Jina (Victor) Jiya Jīvadayā Jñana Kalās (Arts) Kalpataru Karmabhumi Karunā Kaşāya (passion) Kāvya (Poetry) Kāyotsarga (Abondonment of
Body) Kings, Queens and Princes in the
Āgamas) Kosa (Lexicon) Kriya-Akriyā (Action, Non-action) Kşanabhangavāda Kula Kūtasthanityatā Labdhi (Attainment) Labdhidhāri Sadhus (Mystic Saints) Lanchanas Law

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Legends and Stories Leśyā (cf. Abhijäti) Life Lipi (Alphabets, Scripts) Literature Logic and Logical Literature Mahāpuruṣa Laksaņas Mahāśilākantaka and Rathamusala
Samgrāma Mahāvīra Mahâvrata (Great vows) Maitrī Mallī (Tirthankara) Mangala Mantra (Incantation) Mantra-Vyākaraṇa Manuscripts Mārga (Path) Mārganāsthāna Marriage Materialism Mathas Mātņkā Mātrkāpada Matter (Pudgala) Meat-eating Meditation Memory Metaphysics Mind Miniatures Ministers Miracles Mithyātva (Perverted Attitude) Moksa (Liberation), Mokşamärga Monasteries Monks and Nuns (eminent in the
Āgamas) Monolyths Motive Mudita (Pramoda) Music and Musical Instruments Muslim Patronage
Mysticism Naiyāyika Namokkāra-mantra Narratives Nava-tattva (Nine Categories) Naya (Instrument of Partial
Comprehension) Nidāna Nigoda (lowest form of life) Nihnavas Niksepa Nirgranthas. Nirjarā (dissociation of karmas) Niryuktis (Prakrit verse commen
tary) Nirvāna Niśītha Nitiśāstra (Ethics) Niyati No-kasāya, No-jīva, No-karma, etc.
(minor passions, etc.) Nudism Numerals Obsequies Occult Sciences Olisboi Om Omens Omniscience One and Many Ontogeny and Phylogeny Ontology Ordeal Padmavati Paintings, Painted Covers Palmistry Pañcakalyānaka Pantheon Papa (Sin) and Papasthāna Paramātman Parigraha (Possession) Parijñā Parināminityatā (Endurance
through Change)

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Parisaha (Sufferings) Pārsva Pārsvāpatya Paryāpti Pāşanda Pāsatthā Passivity Paśyattā Pattāvali Perception Pessimism and Optimism Philanthropists Physicians Physics Physiology Pilgrimage Piñjarāpolas Pleasure and Pain Pluralism Poetics Polity Polygamy Posadha Prakrits, Language and Literature Pramāņa (Organ of knowledge) Prāņa (Vitality) Prāņātipāta (Synonyms and Names) Pratimā (Pkt. Padimā, icon) Pravacanamātā (Scriptural
Matrices) Pravrajyā, Upasampada (Initiation) Pravștti, Nivrtti Prayer Preksä (Prolonged Vision, Intro-
spection) Presentation Volumes Priests and Sevakas Prostitution Psychology Pūjā Punishment Punya (Merit) Purāņa
Puruşārtha Pūrvas Quantum Theory Rāga-dveșa (Attachment and Ani
mosity) Rātribhojanāvirati (a vow not to
eat at night) Rddhi Reality Re-incarnation Relations Relativism Relativity Religion Republics Rites and Rituals Rosaries Royal Patronage Rşabha (the first tīrthankara of
the Jainas) Rucaka-pradeśa Rulers Sabdabrahmavāda Sacraments Saints and Martyrs Saivism
Śāktas
Salākā-purusas (Eminent Perso
nages) Šalya (thorn) Samādhi (Ecstatic Trance) Sāmānya (Universal)-Viseșa (Parti
cular) Samāropa Sama, Samvega, Nirveda, Anu
kampā, Āsthā Samatā (Equanimity) Samavasaraņa (Samosarana, Holy
Assembly of the Jina) Samavāya (Niyati, Puruşärtha, etc.) Samgha (Monastic Order) Samgrahaņi (gāthås) Samhanana (osseous structure)

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Samharana
Steya (Stealing) Samjñā (Instincts, etc.)
Sthāna ka Samkā, Kamkhā, Vicikicchā
Sthavira (Ten Classes of Elders) Sāmkhya
Stotra, Stuti, etc. (Hymns) Samlek hanā
Stūpa Samsayavāda (Scepticism)
Sub-consciousness Samudghāta (Exteriorization) Subha, Aśubha, Suddha (MeriSamvara (Stoppage of Karmic torious, Demeritorious, Pure) Inflow)
Subjectivism Samyaktva
Suffering Samyama (Restraint)
Suicide Sarāks
Svādhyāya (Study of Scriptures) Sarasvati
Svetāmbaras Sarira (Audarika, etc.) (Gross Body) Syādvāda Sarvajña (Omniscient)
Tabbās Satya (Pkt. Sacca) truth
Tämra-patra (copper-plate) Satyāgraha
Tantra and Tantrism Sayings
Tapas (Bāhya and Abhyantara Schism
Penance, External and Internal) Science
Tattvārtha Scientific Methods
Teleology Sculpture
Telepathy Sects, Subsects
Temples Self-Discipline
Theism Self-Mortification
Thokadās Self-Realization
Țikās (Commentaries) Sense-Organs
Time (Kāla) Shamanism
Tirtha, Tirthasthāna Siddha (Emancipated)
Tirthankara Siddhasilā (the abode of the libera- Tithis, their importance, influence ted souls)
on health Siksāpada
Tolerance
Town and Village (in the Āgamas) Social Culture (Dance, Drama, etc.) Transcendentalism Sraddhā
Tripadi Sramana Samsksti
Triratna Śramaṇopāsaka (in the Āgamas, Ugrā, Bhogā etc. Disciple of Ascetics)
Untouchability Sramanopāsikā (in the Agamas) Upamā Sreşthins
Upasarga (Calamity) Śripujya
Upāśraya Śrutakevalin (knower of scriptures) Upayoga (Experience) Srutvākevalin, Aśrutväkevalin
Upeksā
Sin

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оппен
Vācanā (Exposition)
Vows Vainayika
Vyasana Vaišeșika
Vyavahāra, Niscaya Vaisnavism
War and Peace Vaiyārsttya (Respectful Service) Warriors Varganā (a molecule having infinite Weights and Measures atoms)
Women Varuna
Writing Material Vedana (Feeling)
Yajña (Sacrifice) Vedānta
Yaksas and Yaksinis Vedas
Yantra (Mystical Diagram) Vegetarianism
Yāpaniya (A class of the Jaipas) Vernaculars
Yati Vidyās
Yātrā Vijñaptipatras (Scrolls)
Yaugalika (Twins) Vipaśyanā
Yoga Virtue and Vice
Yogasatya Virya (Power)
Yoni Vivekakhyāti (a theory of error) Zoology

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INTRODUCTION
1. Vidyā-avidyā, jñāna-kriyā
The rites and rituals of early Brāhmaṇism, specially the sacrificial cults. gradually lost their relevance and were replaced by different types of ceremonies that were conducive to social welfare. At this stage, the ancient rites and rituals and also the activities of social welfare came to be dubbed avidyā, whereas self-knowledge that was considered as leading to spiritual liberation was called vidyā. The following assertion of the Isopanışarl obviously represents such uses of the terms vidya and avidyä.
andham tamah pravisanti
ye’vidyām upāsate / tato bhūya iva te tamo
ya u vidyāyām ratāḥ// anyad evāhur vidyayā
anyad āhur avidyayā/ iti suśruma dhirāņām
ye nas tad vicacakṣire// vidyām cāvidyām ca
yas tad vedobhayam saha/ avidyayā mộtyum tirtvā
vidyayāmstamasnute//
Into blinding darkness enter those who worship avidyā (that is, who engage themselves in formal ritualism, being indifferent to the cultivation of vidyā or knowledge), while those who delight in knowledge (being indifferent to the social duties, daily or occasional) virtually enter into still greater darkness.
Distinct, indeed, they say, is the result of vidyā and distinct, they say, is the result of avidyā. Thus have we heard from the wise who have explained these to us.
He who knows the two, namely, vidyā and avidyā, together is bound to cross death by means of avidyā and attain the immortal through vidyā.
The above passage of the Isopanişad lays down the efficacy of vidyā (meaning self-knowledge, atmopāsanā) and avidyā (meaning the

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totality of the duties and responsibilities of varṇa and aśrama, varṇāśramadharma-jātam), when they are coordinated. One who appreciates the validity of vidya and avidya as the two mutually coordinated essential aspects of the path of liberation does not enter into the blinding darkness as mentioned above.2 There is thus the equipollence of vidya and avidya, that is, knowledge and action. Neither is to be discarded at the cost of the other. In other words, an ascetic can pursue his path without interfering in or undervaluing the importance of the householder's life. In fact, a householder also can attain the highest liberation by honestly pursuing his vocation and simultaneously cultivating self-knowledge and comprehension of the uitimate essence of the Vedas (Vedanta). This equipollence is illustrated by the incompetence of a bird to fly with one wing (na hy ekapakṣo vihagaḥ prayāti). In the Hārīta Smrti,4 the coordinated practice of tapas (austerity) and vidya (knowledge) is explained as the path of liberation by means of two illustrations as follows:
yatha ratho'śvahīnas tu yathāśvo rathihinakaḥ/ evam tapaś ca vidya ca samyutam bhaiṣajam bhavet// yathannam madhusamyuktam madhu va'nnena samyutam/ ubhābhyām api pakṣābhyām yatha khe pakṣiņām gatiḥ// yathaiva jñānakarmabhyām präpyate brahma śāśvatam/ vidyatapobhyam sampanno brāhmaṇo yoga-tatparah// dehadvayam vihāyāśu mukto bhavati bandhanat/

na tatha kṣīņa-dehasya vināśo vidyate kvacit//
Even as a chariot without a horse or a horse without a charioteer is inoperative (while both together are capable of the desired movement), so austerity and knowledge together prove an effective medicine for the patient involved in samsara. Even as food mixed with honey or honey mixed with food is conducive to health, even as a bird can fly in the sky by means of both the wings, or even as knowledge and action jointly lead to the realization of Brahman, similarly does a brāhmaṇa endowed with knowledge and austerity and by being engaged in meditation immediately attain liberation from bondage, leaving

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behind his twofold mortal body. He is no more subject to metempsychosis being freed from the embodied existence.
From the above account of vidya and avidya as constituting the pathway to liberation, it is evident that the meaning of avidyā underwent a great change in that its original emphasis on activities of social welfare gave way to the pursuit of moral and mental purification in later times. This new ideology comes very near to that of the Jainas and the Buddhists who gave a complete code of monastic life, called samyagdarśana (right view of things), samyagjñāna (right knowledge of things) and samyakcā ritra (right conduct). The Brahmanical emphasis on the householder's life as an essential support to the monastic order continued to enjoy its validity unabated among the Indian religious codes including the code of some sections of the Jainas. The Buddhists, however, had given a new orientation to the householder's life in consonance with their bodhisattva ideal in the light of their pāramitās (perfections in the practice of charity, moral precepts, etc.). It is interesting to note in this connection that Bhadrabahu in his Avasyaka-Niryukti,5 following the ancient tradition, gives a number of illustrations to explain the efficacy of the coordinated cultivation of suya-nāņa (scriptural knowledge) and caraṇa (conduct), leading to nivvāņa (liberation).? A person, well-versed in the scriptural lore, is not capable of attaining liberation in the absence of the practice of austerity and self-restraint.8 Even as a ship, though helmed by an expert captain, is not capable of crossing the great ocean and reaching the land desired by the maritime trader in the absence of a favourable wind, so does a person never succeed in crossing the ocean of samsăra being bereft of the merit of good conduct.9 Even as the blind cannot be gifted with vision by a million lamps, so for a person bereft of good conduct the study of the vast scripture is useless and futile. 10 On the contrary even the scanty study of the scriptures brings enlightenment to a person of good conduct, just as a single lamp is powerful enough to reveal objects to a person endowed with eyesight. Even as a donkey bears in vain the burden of the load of sandal-wood without enjoying its fragrance, so does a learned person bereft of good conduct bear in vain the burden of his knowledge without attaining liberation (which is the resultant of knowledge co-ordinated with good conduct).11 Futile indeed is knowledge without action, and so indeed is action without knowledge; a lame man though endowed with eyesight is burnt to ashes in conflagration (being unable to run away), and similarly a blind man meets the same fate though capable of running.12 It is the conjunction of knowledge and action alone that leads to the desired result; a chariot cannot indeed move by means of a single wheel; the blind and the lame could escape from the conflagration by helping each other out of the forest.13 The Avasyaka Niryukti now concludes that the triad of know

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ledge (nāna), austerity (tava) and self-restraint (samjama) is necessary for the attainment of liberation according to the discipline propounded by the jinas; knowledge reveals the truth, austerity cleanses the soul of its impurities, and self-restraint protects the soul against incursion of fresh impurities. 14
The vidyā-avidyā issue has also a social significance. The sacrificial cult of the Vedic priests gradually lost its impact and gave way to philosophical speculations, Contradicting R. Garbe, Winternitz asserts that the awakening of philosophical speculation came before the period of the Brāhmaṇas. He further says in this connection that “In some hymns of the Rgveda doubts and scruples already arose concerning the popular belief in gods and the priestly cult. These sceptics and thinkers, these first philosophers of ancient India, certainly did not remain isolated ... We are not, however, likely to find these oldest philosophers of ancient India among the priests, who were engaged in the science of sacrifice.... We can scarcely imagine that the brāhmanas, who lived by the sacrifices, had many men amongst them who doubted the existence of Indra himself, and raised the question whether there was any sense in sacrificing to the gods...... The fact that the warrior-caste was closely connected with the intellectual life and the literary activity of ancient times is proved by numerous passages in the Upanişads, in fact already in the Brāhmaṇas."15
This emergence of the warrior-caste or the kșatriyas as philosophers is also confirmed by the advent of the religious reformers like Mahāvīra and Buddha who were kşatrijas. There was perhaps a popular feeling among the people of those days in favour of the kşatriyas as protagonists of new thinking which rejected ritualism and the sacrificial cult as vain superstition. There was perhaps anti-Brāhmaṇical leaning among them. This is confirmed by the miraculous episode of the tranfer of the embryo of Mahāvīra from the womb of the brāhmaṇī Devānandā to that of the ksatriyāni Trisalā, as mentioned in the Kalpasūtra of the Svetāmbara Jainas.16
2. Śramaņa-brāhmaṇa
According to the Dhammpada, the brālumana is one who has put aside his evil propensities; a samaņu (śramaņa) is so called because of his equanimous conduct (samacariyā); a pabbajita (pra vrajita) is so designated because he has put away his impurities. 17 Similarly, in the Uttarajjhayaņāni 18 a samana is defined as a person practising equanimity (samayā, Skt. samatā); a bambhana (Skt. brāhmana) as one who cultivates bambhacera (Skt, brahmacarya) - the knowledge of the brahman or the self19 and the entire course of ascetism.20 The terms śramana and brālmana thus stood for the highest spiritual values. The natural antagonism

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between the śramana and the brāhmana as mentioned in Patañjali's Mahābhāş ya21 appears to be a later development. This antagonism is found accentuated in works like Srīmacchankara.digvijaya, 22 where samnyāsa representing śramanism and agnihotra representing brāhmanismi are juxtaposed as antagonistic creeds.
An important problem in this connection arises as regards the genesis of this natural antagonism. In the Asokan inscriptions,23 as in the early Jaina and Buddhist scriptures as shown above, the śramanas and brāhmaṇas occupy an equally respectable position. Of course, the Jainas and the Buddhists as well as other ascetic sects were totally opposed to the sacrificial cult of the brāhmaṇas and their other rituals and formalities. They also did not consider the householder's life as suitable for the spiritual pursuits. But they had no antagonistic feeling against it. However, in course of time, specially on account of the very high position occupied by the ascetic communities, specially in the times of Asoka, and on the advent of powerful religious leaders, there appears to have grown up a sort of rivalry between the ascetic's life and the life of the householder. Such development is also attested by the unqualified praise bestowed on the householder's life in the Manusmrti 24 and the Mahābhārata.25 It is, however, interesting to note in this connection that in Jainism even a householder is considered capable of attaining the highest liberation,26 and also as superior to a monk in special cases.27 Neither Jainism nor Buddhism took a pessimistic or negative view of worldly life, as wrongly assessed by some modern scholars, specially the western savants.
The śramana-brāhmana antagonism was thus purely ideological and not based on class or caste pattern. Both Sankara and Mandana were Brāhmins. But they differed in ideology, the former advocating renunciation and spiritual emancipation, and the latter propounding rites and rituals for worldly welfare and attainment of heaven. Thus viewed, Sankara may be taken as an exponent of śramaņism and Mandana of Brāhmaṇism. Indian political thought also evinced such patterns. While emperors like Asoka and Harşavardhana were inspired by the Sramanic ideals, King Pusyamitra and the Gupta emperors who performed horse sacrifices were followers of the Brāhmaṇic ritualism. In modern times, in our struggle for independence, these two political ideologies were distinctly discernible in the stands taken by Gandhi and Tilak.
3. The Sangha
The sangha occupies a very important place in Jainism as well as in Buddhism. It is one of the three gems in Buddhism, the other two being the Buddha and the dhamma. This triad of gems is fully described

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in the Digha Nikaya.28 The essential characteristics of the sangha are described there as follows:
suppatipanno bhagavato sāvakasangho, ujuppatipanno bhagavato sāvakasangho, ñāyappaṭipanno bhagavato sāvakasangho, sāmīcippatipanno bhagavato sāvakasangho, yad idam cattrāri purisayugani aṭṭha purisapuggalā, esa bhagavato sāvakasangho āhuneyyo pahuneyyo dakkhineyyo añjalikaraṇīyo anuttaram puññakkhettam lokassa' ti.
Rightly established on the path, upright, just, and law-abiding indeed is the Order of the Lord's disciples, represented by four couples, that is, eight personalities (four on the path of sotapatti, etc., and four established in the fruit of sotapatti, etc.), who are worthy of honour, of hospitality, of gifts, and of reverence, being the supreme fertile ground of merits for the world.
The supreme excellence of this triad of gems 29 is brought out in its full glory in the Ratanasutta of the Suttanipāta.
The sangha is held in highest esteem in Jainism too. Its glory and importance are brought out in the Nandisutra in its initial hymn of fifteen beautiful verses. We are tempted to give a free translation of the verses for the benefit of the reader in order to enable him to compare the Jaina and Buddhist concepts of sangha.
"May the well laid-out city of sangha give us shelter, where buildings are made of a great many virtues and filled with gems of scriptures, where the pathways are made of pure faith, and boundaries protected by the invulnerable ramparts of good conduct(4).
"May the wheel of sangha be always victorious without a rival, the wheel of which self-restraint constitutes the hub from which radiate the spokes of austerity, the right faith being its felly (5).
"May the chariot of the blessed sangha be triumphant, with its banner of sila (moral virtues) flying on the crest, with the steeds of penance and morality duly harnessed with sweet and auspicious chant of scriptural incantation surcharging the environment (6).
"May the lotus of sangha flourish in its fullness, rising above the mass of water polluted with the mud of karman, with its long stalk made of the gem of scripture, with its steadfast pericap of five great vows, with its pollen consisting of virtues, surrounded by the bees of the laity gathering honey of spirituality from it, blossoming forth by the rays of the jina-sun, the community of the ascetics making up its thousand petals (7-8).
"May the moon of sangha shine in its glory with its insignia of penance and self-restraint, never eclipsed by the rahu of the doctrine

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of akriya (inaction), with its pure radiance of unclouded faith manifest in full (9)
"May the serene and tranquil sun of sangha shine in glory in the world eclipsing the lustre of the heretical teachers, with its hue, effulgent with the power of austerity and glowing with the light of knowledge (10).
"May the unruffled vast ocean of sangha flourish for ever, never transgressing the felly of forbearance, (devouring the evils) by its seamonsters of scriptural study (11).
"(To the great Mountain Meru) with its fourdation of the diamond of great right faith firmly fixed deep down into the earth), with its golden girdle adorned with the gem of majestic righteousness (12), strewn over with the golden slabs of morality, possessed of bright and luminous variegated peaks, citrakūta, and also the heights of mental purity, cittakūta, heavily perfumed with the fragrance of the moral purity of the charming odour of the heavenly garden (13), with beautiful caves of compassion for living beings, teeming with dauntless lions of great ascetics, with its caverns and grottos full of the gems of shining herbs, with melting metals of a thousand logical probanses (14), with beautiful garlands of fountains of streaming water of excellent self-mastery, with its crevices resounding with the dancing peacocks of multitude of lay disciples singing joyously (15), with its summits radiant with the lightning of the effulgence emanating from the great ascetics bowed down in humility and modesty (offering homage to arahantas and siddhas), with its orchards teeming with kalpa-trees (of ascetics) laden with flowers and fruits of multitude of virtues (16), I offer my homage bowing down in humility to the Mountain Meru, the Order of monks and nuns, with its peaks shining like brilliant and pure cat's-eye stone of the gem of excellent knowledge (17)."
The above-mentioned passages clearly demonstrate the importance of sangha as an organization of the Jaina and Buddhist monastic orders. Of course, in ancient times, there were ascetics who wandered alone and practised austerities and penances to attain salvation, without affilating themselves to any particular Order. But the emergence of well-knit organizations of monks and nuns took place when great leaders like Mahāvīra, Buddha, or Makkhali Gosāla made their advent and founded tirthas, that is, fords to walk across the samsāra.
4. Selection of Aspects
Our selection of aspects does not follow any pre-conceived plan. The topics are selected at random, the purpose being only to give an idea of the varieties of topics that we should like to treat of under the

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entry "ācāra' in the forthcoming Encyclopeadia of Jainism. We do not want to give a summary of the chapters here, as they themselves are brief accounts of topics they deal with.
We should like to inform the readers that the texts quoted in chapters X and XI are mainly based on the critical editions published by Dr. L. Alsdorf, W. Schubring, and Yuvācārya Mahāprajña. We are sincerely grateful to these great scholars of Prakrit and Jainology whose contributions to the subject would ever remain valuable. We should also express our thanks to Shri R.K. Jain of Today and Tomorrow's Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, who so kindly undertook the publication. Our thanks are also due to Shri RS. Soni for his kind cooperation in the arduous work of correcting the proofs and seeing the publication through the press.
We thank Dr. S.C. Jain for preparing the bibliography and the indexes giving full particulars and thereby enhancing their utility. Our thanks are also due to the sisters of the post-graduate department of the Jaina Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Rajasthan), namely Kusum, Savita, Usha, Chetana, Subhash and Jayavanti for their co-operation in writing some of the chapters.
References
1 Verses 9-11. 2 vidyāmātmopåsanäm avidyam varņāśrama-dharma-jātam anyonyasamuccitam
etad ubhayam yo moksopāyatvena veda jānāti nāsävandhata mah pravišati.
(Yājñavalkya Smrti, Aparārkā Tīkā, p. 959). 3 Ibid., p. 960; quoting the following verse from the Yogayājñavalkya :
svakarmaņām anuşthānāt samyag ātmanidarśanāt/ vedāntänām parijñānād
gshastho'pi vimuccyate/ 4. VII. 9-12. 5 Verses 93-103. 6 Sūyagado, 1. 12. 11. (= Amgasuttāni, I, p. 329). 7 Cf. Āvaśyaka Niryukti, verse 93 :
sāmãiyamāsyam suyanāņam jāva bindusārāol tassavi sāro caranam
Sāro caranassa nivvāņam// 8 lbid. verse 94. 9 Ibid., verse 97. 10 Ibid., verse 98. 11 Ibid., verse 100, 12 Ibid., verse 101. 13 Ibid., verse 102. 14 Ibid., verse 103.
ņāņam payāsayam sohao tavo samjamo ya guttikaro/

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XXV
tinha mpi samāoge
mokkho jiņasāsane bhanioll 15 A History of Indian Literature, vol. I (2nd edition, 1972), pp. 225-227. 16 Sūtras no. 16 ff. 17 XXVI. 60 :
bāhitapāpo ti brāhmano samacariyā samaņo ti vuccati/ pabbäjayam attano malam
tasmā pabbajito ti vuccati// 18 XXV. 30. 19 Cf. Āyāro, III. 1. 4.(J.V.B.) 20 Cf. Ibid., IV. 4.44.(J.V.B.) 21 II. 4.9. 22 VIII, verses 30 and 31 :
kva brahma kva ca durmedhāh kva samnyāsaḥ kva vā kalih/ svädvannabhakşakāmena veşo'yam yoginām dhệtaḥ/ kva svargah kva duräcārah kvāgnihotram kva va kalih/ manye maithunakāmena
veşo'yam karmiņām dhệtah// 23 D.C. Sircar : Inscriptions of Asoka (Publication Division, Ministry of Informa
tion and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, Delhi, April, 1967), p. 24. 24 VI. 89-90 25 Sāntiparva, XXIII. 5. 26 Tattvārtha Sūtra, X. 7. Also Uttarajjhayaņāņi, XXXVI. 52. 27 Uttarajjhayaņāņi, V. 20. 28 II, p. 75. 29 It is interesting to note in this connection that the Jaina triad of gems (ratna
traya) refers to samyagdarśana. samyagjñāna and samyak caritra (see Puruşārthasiddhyupāya, verses 209, 220) and not the buddha, dhamma, and sangha as in Buddhism. The Jaina counterpart of the Buddhist triad of gems (tiratana) is the tetrad of arahanta, siddha, sāhu and dhamma-which are called mangala, loguttama, and sarana (see Padikkamanajjhayana, 12-14). It is evident that in this Jaina tetrad the arahantas and the siddhas jointly correspond to the buddhas and the sūhus to the sangha of the Buddhist triad. In the Jaina incantation the following is recited instead of the Buddhist "buddham saranam gacchami, dhammam s. g., sangham s.g. :
cattari saranam pavajjāmi-arahante saraņam pavajjāmi, siddhe saranam pavajjāmi, sāhū saranam pavajjāmi; kevalipaņņattam dhammam Saranam pavajjāmi. (Ibid., 14).
The Prakrit expression pavajjāmi (Skt. prapadye) in place of Pali gaccāmi deserves notice. The influence of the prapatti concept of the Bhakti cult is obvious on the Prakrit expression pavajjämi.
For the doctrine of prapatti see Krishna : Myths, Rites and Attitudes, edited by Milton Singer, University of Chicago Press. Chicago and London, 1964, pp. 157-59.

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CONTENTS
PAGES
iii-iy
vii-Xv
xvii-xxv
Dedication Publishers' Note Preface Introduction The Five Vyaraltāras or The Sources of Monastic Legislation Meaning and Literary Sources---1; The Five Sources, Agama, Suya, Ānā, Dhäranā, Jiya-1-2; In Buddhism – 3; In Brāhmanism-3-4.
1-5
.
II
5-10
The Sāmācārī or The Ten Rules of Monastic Deportment
Meaning ---5; The Ten Sämācāris : Icchākāra, Micchākāra, Tahakkära-6; Āvassiyā, Nisīhiyā, Appucchanā, Padipucchanā -7; Chandaņā, Abbhutthāņa, Uvasampayā -8; Important aspects of the Sāmācāri - 8-9.
III
11-13
The Asamāhitthānas or The Twenty Occasions of the Inibalance of mind
According to Ayāradasāo -- 11; In Buddhism - 12; In Brāhmanism -13.
14-20
IV The Sabalas or The Twenty-One Types of Monks with
Tainted Conduct
Meaning -- 14; Twenty-one Sabalas : Hatthakamma, Mehuna-padisevaņā -- 15-17; Räibhoana, Ahākammabhoaņam, Räipimda-bhoanam, Kiyam, Enjoyment of a given-up article repeatedly --- 18; Changing gana more than once within six months, Crossing naveldeep stream thrice a month, Practising deceit thrice a month, Accepting food from him who has offered residence, Committing injury to life deliberately, Telling a lic deliberately, Taking deliberately what is not given, Deliberately standing, lying down or sitting on live earth, The above acts on earth wet with live

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xxviii
V
water and covered with live dust, The same acts on a live stone slab etc., To partake of deliberately the root, bulb, stem, skin, sprout, etc., Crossing navel deep stream ten times a year, Practising deceit ten times a year, Partaking of asana, pāṇa, khāima, etc., deliberately taking it from hands or pot, or ladle, or utensil moist with live water-- 19-20.
The Four Stages of Sin
In Jainism-21; In Buddhism-22-23; In Brahmanism -24; In Modern Law-25; Conclusion-26.
VI Asāyaṇā or Disrespectful Conduct
VIII
Thirty-three types of äsāyaṇā according to Ayǎradasão-27-28; Thirty-three types of asāyaṇā according to Avaśyaka Sūtra--29; In Buddhism, In Brahmaņism-30.
VII Ganisampadă or The Qualifications of the Ganin (Religious Head)
Qualifications according to Ayāradasão: Ayāra, Şüya, Sarīra, Vayaṇa- 31; Vāyaṇā, Mati, Paoga, Samgaha-Pariņṇa-32; Vinaya-paḍivatti of the Acarya: Acara-Vinaya, Sūya-Viņaya, Vikkhevana-Vinaya, Dosa-nigghāyaṇa-viṇaya -33; Vinaya-padivatti of the Antevasin Uvagaraṇa-uppāyaṇayā, Sähillaya--33; Vannasamjalanayā, Bhara-paccoruhaṇaya-34; In
Buddhism-34-35.
Ctttasamāhiṭṭhāņas or The Ten Stages of the Concentrated Mind
Introduction-36; The Ten Stages: Dhamma-cintă -36; Memory of one's own past lives, Veritable dreams never experienced before, Unprecedented vision of deities, Clairvoyance, Clair-intuition--37; Power of telepathy, Pure and perfect knowledge, Pure and perfect intuition, Pure and perfect disembodied existence-38; Versified summary --- 39-40.
IX The Four Monastic Courses
1 Sthavira-kalpa or the Course of the Elders :
(i) Initiation and Ordination; (ii) Training; (iii) Comprehension of meaning-42; (iv) Life of a Wanderer-43; (v) Consummation-44; (vi) Itinerary--- 45-55; (vii) Deportment-56-58.

PAGES
21-26
27-30
31-35
36-40
41-85

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PAGES
2 Jina-kalpa or the Course of the Victors :
(i) The basic conditions-59; (ii) Tulanā -- 60; (iii) Bhāvanā; (iv) Parikarma--61; (v) Monastic Outfit; (vi) Posture; (vii) Adoption of the Victor's Course; (viii) Forgiveness and its merits; (ix) Admonition to the Successor - 62; (x) Admonition to other Monks; (xi) Departure; (xii) Deportinent-63-65; (xiii) Essen
tial Features -66-68. 3 Parihāraviśuddhika or Suddhaparibārika or Puri
fictory Cooperative Course : (i) Introductory; (ii)Extension of the Rules of Victor's
Course and their Exceptions--69-72. 4 Yathālandaka or the Time-bound Course :
(i) Meaning -- 7.; (ii) Points of Agreement and Depar
ture - 74-77; (iii) Jina-kalpa -78-80. X The Ideal Monk XI The Victor's Penance
Appendix : A Note on the word Monasticism Bibliography Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words English Words
87-95 96-107
108
109
113
135

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I
THE FIVE VYAVAHARAS
MEANING AND LITERARY SOURCES

or
The Sources of Monastic Legislation
The expression vyavahāra is used in two senses. Firstly, it means the sources or the authorities of legislation, and secondly, it stands for the subject matter of legislation, viz. the common sense monastic propriety (abhavamto, abhavamtito (abhavantiko), ābhāvaṇā), and the rules of expiation (prāyaścitta).1 Here we are concerned with the former, viz. the sources or the authorities which are five in number, and discussed in the Bhagavati Sutra,2 the Thanam,3 and the Yavahāra Sutra. They are: (i) āgama, (ii) suya, (iii) āṇā, (iv) dhāraṇā, and (v) jiya-arranged in order of importance. The Vyavahara Sutra,5 in this connection, says: "Where the agama is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the agama; and where the agama is not available, but the suya is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the suya; and where the suya also is not available, but the āṇā is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the āṇā; and where the ana too is not available, but the thirana is available, the justice is to be meted out
according to the dhāraṇā; and where the dhāraṇā also is not available, but the jiya is available, the justice is to be meted out according to the jiya...; the samaṇa-niggamthas are devoted to the agama, and so the samaṇa-niggamtha, meting out justice according to the fivefold sources of legislation, completely datached and dispassionate, is the true executor of the Lord's command." A brief account of the five sources is given below.
THE FIVE SOURCES
1. Agama: Under the first source or authority, called agama, are included the personages conversant with the eleven Angas and the fourteen Purvas or at least ten or nine of them (Purvas) and also those who are possessed of the powers of telepathy, clairvoyance and omniscience.
In the absence of the power of directly apprehending the mental conditions of the delinquent monk, the confessor ācārya has to depend on his own scriptural learning and experience and power of discerning the truth of what he is told by the confessing penitent. The confessing monk is to be exhorted to reveal the truth. The qualifications of

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2
The Five Vyavahāras
the competent confessor are elabo- of the occasions of expiation are rately discussed in the Vyavahāra- considered by him thoroughly in the Bhāşya.8 Among these, the eight- light of the relevant texts and the fold GANISAMPAYA" and the four- necessary sanction is conveyed to fold VIŅAYA-PADIVATTI10 occupy the expiator through an experienced a central position.
monk who witnesses the expiation. The first and foremost authority 4. Dhāranā : Under the authoof monastic legislation is thus the rity of dhāranā fall those rules of āgama 'scripture' or those who are expiation which are formulated after conversant with it in full or in part, a thorough consideration of the releat least upto the ninth Pūrva.
vant texts. These rules derive their 2. Suya : The sūtra containing
validity from the ancient texts as the fivefold vyavahāra, that was
interpreted by able exponents of the extracted from the twelve Angas by
principles of monastic conduct.14 Bhadrabahu, who possessed the Such rules are conveved to the disknowledge of the fourteen Purvas, ciples by the elders according to even as butter is churred from milk,
milk,
the
their capacities for application in is called suya (Skt. śruta).11 The
different cases. These principles suya consists of the Kappa (Brhat
are called dharaņā because they are kalpasūtra) and the Varahāra (Vya
meant to be retained in mind for vahārasūtra). The dispensing of
application as and when occasions justice according to the suya is
arise. 15 suya-vavahára. 12
5. Jiya (Skt. jīta) : The This is the second authority; in
fifth order of importance, of monastic
authority of monastic legislation is legislation.
jīya which stands for the customs 3. Anā: The third authority of and conventions that are firmly monastic legislation is ānā, that is established on account of their the concurrence or sanction of a repeated practice by the eminent competent ācārya who must be äcāryas of the Order through the possessed of the GANISAMPAYA and
ages. 16 The expiations prescribed VINAYA-PADIVATTI. Such sanction by a particular ācārya on specific becomes necessary when a monk, occasions and duly imitated by on the eve of undertaking bhak- others in similar cases are carefully tapratyākhyāna (renunciation of recorded for future guidance. Such aliment), wishes to pluck off what- records constitute the corpus of the ever thorns of passions and monas- jīya law.17 The jīya (custom or contic irregularities niay be vitiating vention) which is vicious (sävajja) his conduct and expiate them. If the in any way is not commendable ; it ācārya competent to give the sanc- is only the immaculate (asăvajja) tion is residing elsewhere at a dis- jîya which conformns to the basic tance, the occasions of the expiation moral and religious principles that are conveyed to him through a is accepted as an authority in qualified monk. 18 The pros and cons monastic Jurisprudence."

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In Brāhmanism
3
IN BUDDHISM
4. Sadācāra (the conduct of the
pious men). The customs and conCorresponding to these five fun- ventions prevalent among different damental bases of monastic con- peoples at different places also fall duct, there are the four great under this category, provided they sources (mahāpadesas) that were do not go against the fundamental considered as authoritative in Bud- moral principles of the Srutis and dhism, although the final authority Smrtis. rested on their consistency and con- 5. Self-satisfaction, i.e., congruence with the original Sutta and science (of course, governed by the the Vinaya. The four mahāpadesas foregoing sources).20 or ihe great sources of monastic Kumārila, in his Tantravārtika law as given in the Mahaparini- on Šābarabhāşya21 has discussed at bbāņa Sutta of the Digha Nikāya19 length the problem of self-satisfacare as follows:
tion, which, according to him, is
valid and dependable only if it was 1. The law coming forth straight born of the will purified by the faithfrom the Buddha himself.
ful observance of the Vedic Norm 2. Rules formulated by the
in its entirety. In this connection, sangha (Order) consisting of elderly
Kumārila refers to Kālidāsa's dicand learned monks at a particular
tum that in matters of doubt, the monastery.
inner spiritual urge of a truly pious
man is a dependable guide.22 The 3. Rules originating from the deliberations of very learned elderly
propriety or impropriety of an act of monks.
conscience is to be judged by the
inclinations and propensities of the 4. Rules laid down by a very
person, and not merely by the learned pontiff of a reputed monas
nature of the act. This point is tery.
made clear by Kumārila when he IN BRAHMANISM
asserts that only that act which is
strictly in conformity with the pious The Brāhmaṇical law-givers like
acts of the holy men is to be consiManu and Yājñavalkya have very
dered religious, and not simply on clearly defined the ultimate sources
account of its resemblance with of dharma or Law. Manu enume
that of an enlightened person.23 rates them as follows:
Yājñavalkya24 adds another
important source, viz. the worldly 1. The entire Vedic corpus.
desires for universal welfare inspi2. The Smrti literature com- red by the right will and intention. posed by rșis like Manu and Yājña
This is of course in consonance with valkya.
Manu's dictum that all the vows 3. The sila (religious and moral and religious practices are born of vows) of persons who are fully con- will (samkalpa). All the worldly versant with the Srutis and Smrtis. desires (kāma) and sacrifices have

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4 The Five Vyavahāras
also their origin in this will (samkalpa).25 Manu however does not accept any activity as completely
References
1 Vyavahara-Bhāṣya, X, vv. 58-59; 181; 200.
2 Amgasuttāni, vol. II, p. 364 (J.V.B.) Bhagavati Sūtra, VIII, 8.30.
3 Amgasuttāni, vol. I, pp. 582-583 (J.V.B.) Thāṇam, V. 2.24.
4 Uddesaka X, sūtra 3; VyavahāraBhāşya, vv. 51-724.
5 X. 3.
6 Vyavahāra-Bhasya, X, vv. 218-221.
7 Ibid., v. 226.
8 X, vv. 243-334.
9 Ibid., vv. 252-296.
10 Ibid., vv. 301-328. 11 Ibid., v. 603. 12 Ibid., vv. 604-608. 13 Ibid., vv. 610 ff.

free from worldly desires, which he unambiguously declares to be unelevating.26
14 Ibid., vv. 683-684. 15 Ibid., vv. 687-689.
16 Ibid., v. 693.
17 Ibid., vv. 706-707; 713. 18 Ibid., v. 715.
19 Vol. II, pp. 96-97 (Nalanda). 20 Manu Smrti, II. 6; 12. 21 I. 3.7.
22 Abhijñānaśākuntalam, I. 22.
vartate
sa
23 tatra yah karya-rūpeṇa śistānevānudharmo kevalo eva netaraḥ pranimatragaḥ-Tantravārtika, p. 128 (Anandaśrama Edn.).
24 Yajnavalkya Smrti, I. 7. 25 Manu Smrti, II, 3.
26 kāmātmatā na prasastā, na caivehasty akāmatā-Manu Smrti, II. 2ab.

Page #37

II
THE SĀMĀCĀRĪ
or The Ten Rules of Monastic Deportment
LITERARY SOURCES
yācāra; and, thus, sāmayācārika
means the practices based on popuThe topic of sāmācārī appears lar conventions that are found in the Bhagavati Sūtra 1 Sthānānga, 2 in the Smộti texts which derived Uttaradhyayanas, Āvaśyaka Nir- their validity from the Vedas.14 yukti4 and Bhāsya of Jinabhadra In the Buddhist scripture the with Cürni, 5 Brhatkalpa-Bhäsya,6 word samici which means right or Mülācāra,? Sri-Pañcāśaka-Prakara- proper conduct may be taken as na8 of Haribhadra with Abhaya- equivalent to the sāmācārī of the deva's Commentary, and Pravacana- Jainas. This is evident from the sāroddhāra9 with Vștti. Yaśo- characterization of the monastic vijaya, in his Sāmācārī- Prakarana Order as sämici-patipanno, that is, with auto-commentary gives a criti- following the right course, the cal exposition of the subject.
other qualifications in this context
being supațipanno (well-behaved), MEANING
ujupațipanno (of straightforward Explaining the expression sämā- behaviour), and ñāya-pațipanno cārī, Ācārya Malayagiri, in his (judiciously disposed).15 commentary on the Avašyaka Nir The Mūlācāra explains sāmācāra yukti10 says : samācāra stands for as equanimity (samadā), or right right conduct, that is, the set of conduct (sammācāro), or unvarying activities performed by the cul- and uniform conduct (samo ācāro), tured; the expression sāmācārī is or the conduct common to the derived from samācāra. 11
entire monastic Order (savvesim The word sämācārī may be sammāņam).16 compared with the expression Sāmācārī stands for the general sāmayācărikaḥ of the Āpastamba conduct, behaviour or deportment Dharmasūtra12 and the Gautama of the monastic Order. It has no Dharmasūtra. 13 The Mitākṣarā fixed content. It falls in three Vrtti on the Gautama Dharmasūtra categories, namely, (1) the ogha defines sāmayācārika as follows: which is derived from the 20th The word samaya stands for popular Präbhrta (called Oghaprābhrta) of convention; the practices based on the 3rd Vastu (called Ācāra) of the such conventions are called sama- 9th Pūrva, and is embodied in the

Page #38

6
The Sāmācārī
Oghanir yukti, (2) the tenfold sämā- tary act. This aspect of monastic cāri (that we are going to expound behaviour is characterized by the below) based on the XXVIth expression icchākāra, which stands chapter of the Uttarādhyayana, and for the principle of 'voluntarism'. (3) the padavibhāga-sāmācārī which In brief, all monastic acts are is contained in the Cheda Sūtras absolutely voluntary and self-imwhich are derived from the same posed. This is the general rule. A 9th Pūrva as mentioned above.17 monk should be absolutely indepenThe Mülācāra18 identifies the ten- dent and self-supporting. He fold Sāmācāri with ogha-sāmācārī should not seek any help from a and includes all other sāmācārīs fellow monk as far as possible. He under the padavibhāga-sāmācārī. should exert himself fully without This is also the view of Sāntisūri, sparing any of his abilities in the the commentator of the Uttarā- performance of his duties towards dhyayana Sūtra. The Praracana- the welfare of the organization.22 sāroddhāra19 designates the tenfold Although the monastic Order is sāmācāri as cakravāla-sāmācārī, thus supposed to be a purely volunwhereas according to the Brhat. tary organization, yet occasions kalpa-Bhāsya, 20 the sāmācāris other may arise when a monk is to be than the tenfold sämācāri fall warned to behave in accordance under the cakravāla-sāmācārī Pre- with the rules. Such warning is an cisely speaking, the daily routine application of the äjñā or the comduties of a monk constitute the mand. In case a monk is recalcicakravāla-sāmācāri. 21
trant, some sort of coercion is also The ten rules of monastic possible. In brief, an Order may deportment appear to have been be either a voluntary organization formulated in consonance with the (icchāk ārī), or guided by the counspiritual vigilance (apramattata) of sel of the Head (ajñākāri), or a monk who is expected to be in the
forced to act properly (balābhiyoseventh gunasthāna (stage of spiri- gakārī).23 tual development) called apramatta. Every act of his should be preceded (2) Micchākāra (Skt. mithyākära) : by an awareness that he is going to In case of lapse, a monk has to engage himself in a particular acti- self in a particuiar acti- retrace and repent for the miscon
retrace and vity concerned with monastic life. duct. This is called micchākāra 24 The ten rules are as follows seriatim:
(3) Tahakkāra (Skt. tathākāra)
'Assent' : THE TEN SĀMĀCĀRIS
On occasions of the sermons or
any other instructions by the pre(1) Icchākāra (Skt. icchāk āru):
ceptor the disciples are to give their No coercion or compulsion is complete assent with humility. This desirable in monastic deportment is called tahakkāra, i.e., the accepwhich should be absolutely a volun- tance of the preceptor's words. 25

Page #39

The Ten Sāmācāris
7
(4) Āvassiyā (Skt. āvasyaki) 'leav- entry into and exit from a temple ing the abode for necessary work': of the jina jināyatana) or the abode
of ascetics (yatinivāsa).30 The word When a monk has to move from uttered at the entry was nisidhikā his abode for some necessary duty, and that uttered at the exit āsīdhihe has to be aware of that act. kā. For the ascetics it was specifiSuch awareness is technically called cally prescribed that they should āvasyaki kriyā meaning that he is observe these formalities while occuimmediately going to engage him- pying a place or eating or going to self in that act.26
bed or going out for any necessary
purpose.31 The words used here (5) Nisīhiyă (Skt. naisedhiki):
are asahi and nisahi respectively, On the completion of that act,
which are obviously derived from
āvassai and nisihiā. when he returns to his abode, he
This is also has to be aware that he has com
confirmed by the use of the exprespleted the duty. This is technically
sions āsiä and nisīhīă in the Mülcalled nisidhikā.27 The āvasyaki is
ācāra,32 in connection with the ten mainly concerned with samitis
sāmācārīs enumerated there. In the whereas naisedhiki is related in
Bhagavati Ārādhanā,33 the same essence to guptis. In brief, they
words (nisīdhiyā, āsiā) are used in represent the positive and the nega
the same sense. tive aspects of monastic beha
Pandita Ašādhara exposes the viour. 28
spiritual aspect of these two formaIn this connection the Āvaśyaka
lities and confirms his view by quotNiryukti says that there is no
ing a number of verses from earlier essential difference between āvassai
texts. Two of these verses are as and nisihiā. Their difference, if follow any, is morphological and not
“The nisahi is truly observed by semantic. The formality of āvassai him who has established himself in is observed while going out, where
his soul or has withdrawn himself as that of nisihiā is observed while from all passions ; in the case of returning from outside. Both others it is a mere formal utterance. these acts are imperative and are Similarly, only the ascetic who has not different in essence or content. renounced all desires is the observer The purpose of these two observan- of asahi in the true sense of the ces is to cultivate vigilance or term ; such an ascetic is not only awareness of anything that is done an utterer of the word asahi (but a or of any idea that may cross the sincere practitioner of the spirituamind. There is, thus, an essential lity embodied in the word)" 34 identity between the two monastic (6), (7) Appucchaņā (Skt. Āprcchanā) practices 29
and Paạipucchaņā (Skt. Pratiprcc• In comparatively later times, hanā): the practice of these formalities Similarly a monk has to seek the a ppears to have been extended to permission of his superior for an

Page #40

8
The Sāmācārī
act he has to perform for himself or for others. These formalities are called äprcchanā and pratiprcch- anā.35 Āprcchanā is sometimes explained as initial permission and pratiprcchanā as confirmation of that permission or obtaining a fresh permission for what has once been refused. 36
(8) Chandaņā (Skt. Chandanā) :
The eighth type of deportment, chandaņā, is concerned with the invitation of the superior or the fellow monks to take what has been brought, as a monk should not keep anything secret.37
(9) Abbhutthāna (Skt. Abhyutthāna) or nimamtanā (Skt. nimantraņā):
Rendering services to the organi- zation in respect of food, medicine, robes, etc., is called abbhutthāna.38 Sometimes, the expression nimamt- aņa is used in place of abbhutthāna. Nimamtaņā means permission of elders regarding what is to be acquired for them.39
of services which are not available in one's own gaņa.
As regards special study,41 it can be necessary for three reasons, viz. for (i) strengthening the knowledge of what has been studied in one's own gana; (ii) the filling up of the lacunae in the text ; or (iii) the study of a particular text which is not possible in one's own gana. These three purposes are respectively called vattaņā (Skt. vartană), anusamdhanā (Skt. anusandhanā) and gahanam (Skt. grahanam),42 and they fall under jnanaupasampad. Similar purposes may also relate to darśana-upasampad, i.e., going to another gana in order to get clarification regarding darśana (faith). Similarly, one can go to another gana for offering specific services (vaijāvrtja) and performing penance (kşapaņā).43
The above mentioned rules of deportment throw welcome light on the spirit of the monastic organization which was an absolutely voluntary society devoted to selfservice and service of the fellow monks. Theoretically, no monk enjoyed a right for getting service from any other monk. What each monk was entitled to was the duty to serve himself and the fellow monks. Of course, each monk was required to offer voluntary service to his superiors, who, however, did not demand, theoretically, any such services as a matter of right.
Another important aspect of the sāmācārī is the vigilance which a monk was expected to cultivate. At the time of undertaking any
(10) Uvasampayā (Skt. Upasam- pada):
The last type of deportment is called uvasampayā which means approaching a teacher in another gana (group) for acquiring special knowledge on a particular subject for a limited period. 40
Among these ten deportments, the last, viz. upasampadā deserves a detailed exposition. It is resorted to when another gaņa (group) of monks is to be approached for a specific purpose, such as special study of a scripture or special kind

Page #41

necessary duty, he was expected to remain fully aware of the act, technically called avassiyā, until it was
completed; and on completion
also, he was to detach himself formally from the act, which was technically called nisīhiyā. In case of lapse, he was to retrace and repent (micchākāra). The monk was to give assent (tahakkāra) to whatever was done by his superiors or the organization, which implied that every member of the organization fully participated in the activity of the monastic society. The monk was to invite (technically called chandana) the fellow monks to partake of what he collected in his begging round and ask them for any further requirements of theirs (technically called nimamtaṇā) that he could
References
1 XXV. 7.555.
2 X. 102.
3 XXVI.
4 V. 665.
5 Pp. 341-354.
6 Vv. 1378-1623.
7 IV. vv. 125 ff.
8 XII.
9 Vv. 760-767.
10 V. 665.
11 samācaraṇam samicarah-siṣṭācarikarya-kalapaḥ, samācāra eva
taḥ
sāmācāryam...
12 I. 1. 1.
13 1.8.11.
14 pauruşeyi vyavastha samayaḥ, tanmūlā ācārāḥ samayācārāḥ, teşu bhavaḥ samayācārikāḥ smärtä dharmaḥ.
15 Anguttara
Nikaya, II, p. 60
(Nālandā).
16 samada sāmāyāro sammācāro samo vā āyāro/savvesim sammāņam sāmācaro du acaro//-Muläcăra, IV,v.123.

The Ten Samācārīs 9
meet in his next begging round. The monk was required to obtain the permission of the Head for engaging himself in any act concerned with himself or the Order. This was technically called apucchanṇā (seeking permission). In case a fresh approval of the superior monk or the organization was to be taken, it was called the act of paḍipucchaṇā (confirmation).
This system of sāmācārī throws light on the cohesive character of the monastic organization. In fact, it was a voluntary body, governed by rules framed by itself, and practically with no authority to enforce them. It was the good will of each monk that worked as an impelling power behind the administration.
17 Malayagiri's commentary on Avaśyaka Niryukti, v. 665,
18 IV, v. 124.
19 Vv. 760-761.
20 Vv. 1381, 1624.
21 Brhatkalpa Bhasya, v. 1265 Commentary.
22 Avaśyaka Niryukti, vv. 668-669. jai abbhatthijja param kāraṇajãe karijja se koi/tatthavi icchakäro na kappai baläbhiogo u//abbhuvagayammi najjai abbhattheum na vattai paro u/anigühiyabalavirieņa sāhuņā tāva hoyavvam//
23 Malayagiri's commentary on Avaśyaka Niryukti, v. 677.
24 Avaśyaka Niryukti, vv.. 683-688; Mūlācāra IV.v. 126; Uttarajjhayaṇāņi, XXVI. 6.
25 Avaśyaka
Niryukti, vv. 689-690; Mūlācāra, IV. v. 126; Uttarajjhayaṇāņi, XXVI. 6.
26 Uttaradhyayana Bṛhadvṛtti, p. 534. 27 Ibid., p. 534.

Page #42

10
The Sāmācārī
28 Avaśyaka Niryukti, vv. 694-695. 29 avassaim ca nimto jam ca aimto
nisihiam kunai/vañjaŋameam tu duhā attho puņa hoi so ceval/-Āva
śyaka Niryukti, v. 692. 30 Anagäradharmāmsta, VIII, v. 130. 31 Bhagavati Ārādhanā, Vijayodayā
tikā on v. 150. 32 IV, vv. 126-127. 33 V.2056. 34 Anagăradharmāmsta, VIII, p. 641. 35 Āvasyaka Niryukti, v. 697.
36 Ibid., v. 697 ab. 37 Ibid., v. 698 c; Mūlācāra, IV, V, 128,
Uttarajjhayanāņi, XXVI. 6. 38 Uttarajjhayanāni, XXVI. 7. 39 Āvaśyaka Niryukti, v. 697d; Mūla
cāra IV, v. 128. 40 Ibid, vv. 698-700 ; Mūlācāra, IV,
v. 128 ; Uttarajjhayaņāņi, XXVI. 7. 41 Ibid., vv. 701-702, 42 Ibid., vv, 698-699. 43 Ibid., v. 699 cd.

Page #43

III
THE ASAMAHITTHĀŅAS
or
The Twenty Occasions of the Imbalance of Mind
The first chapter of the Ayāradasão deals with twenty occasions of the imbalance of mind, which are as follows:
THE TWENTY OCCASIONS
1. Walking quickly (davadavacārī) without circumspection. Though the explicit reference is to walking alone, other kinds of activities are also implied. Such implication is also to be understood in the cases that follow.
2. Walking without wiping off the place with the broom (duster, rajoharana).

3. Walking by badly wiping off the place with the broom.
4. Use of additional beds and seats.
5. Reproaching or insulting one's superiors in rank (rātiņia-paribhāsī).
6. Finding fault with (the conduct or morality or intellectual competence of) one's superiors.
7. Causing injury to one-sensed beings (such as vegetation) for the sake of one's enjoyment and embellishment (bhuo vaghāie).
8. Becoming inimical. 9. Becoming angry. 10. Indulgence (pitthimamsie).
11. Repeated self-assertion (arro
in backbiting
gance).
12. Raising of new unraised disputes (ahigaraṇa).
13. Raising of the condoned and settled old disputes.
14. Study of the scriptures at prohibited periods.
Or
Study of the prohibited scrip
tures.
15. Moving with hands and feet not properly dusted or wiped off.
16. Shouting loudly.
17. Creation of dissension. 18. Instigation of quarrels. 19. Engagement in eating from sun-rise to sun-set.
20. Not preserving equilibrium of mind during the begging tour.
These occasions of mental imbalance can roughly be distributed over the first three samitis, namely, irya, bhāṣā and eṣaṇa. The number twenty here is arbitrary, because there can be many other occasions with reference to different sense-organs, objects and passions. In fact, there can be as many types of loss of self-control or self-possession as there are causes and conditions of the disturbance and agitation of the mind.
In the Digambara tradition, these imbalances are not specifically

Page #44

12
The Asamāhițțhāņas
mentioned. But in the Mulācāra,1 Similarly, in place of the occathe expression asamāhi is found in sion of imbalance no. 7, there is the the same sense. This indicates the păcittiya no. 11 which reads bhūtaimportance of the topic in monastic gamapatavyatāya păcittiyam, that conduct, which appears elaborated is, for destruction of vegetable by the Svetāmbara elders.
growth there is an offence of expi
ation. It is interesting to note here IN BUDDHISM
that although, in Buddhism, the Let us now see how such imbal- vegetable growth is not due to the ances have found a record in the existence of soul or life in it, their Buddhist monastic code which was monastic code prohibits destruction definitely influenced in some way of vegetation, most certainly under or other by the life led by the Jaina the influence of the Jaina view of monks and nuis in those days. the vegetable kingdom as possessed
The first occas on of imbalance of life and soul. may be compared with several sekhi- The occasion of imbalance no. ya dhammā (rules connected with 10 may be compared with the pācitraining prescribed for the Buddhist ttiva no. 3 which says; bhikkhumonks and nuns). For instance, pesuññe păcittiyam, that is, there is the sekhiya dhamma no. 5 prescribes an offence of expiation in backbiting that a monk should learn to enter a or slandering. house, completely self-possessed and Again, the occasion of imbalance not indulging in careless movement no. 13 finds its very close parallel of his limbs. Again no. 11 prescri- in the pācittiya no. 63 which runs as bes that he should not enter the follows: yo pana bhikkhu jānam house with a wavering body (kāya- yathādhammam nihatādhikaranam ppacālakam) or with body stiffened puna kammāya ukkoțeyya, pācitti(Khambhakato).
yam which means "whatever monk Corresponding to the occasion should knowingly open up for a of imbalance of mind no. 5, there is further act a legal question settled the Buddhist pācittiya no. 2 which according to rule, there is an offence reads on asavāde păcittiyam. Here of expiation." This rule provides omasa means reproach or insult. an insight into the legal disputes The etymology of the word is not that were a common feature of the known but the commentary explains monastic organizations of those it as 'insulting' by pointing out to days. the birth, name, family, profession, Similarly the 16th imbalance has etc., of one's superiors. In the Cūrņi a parallel in the 13th sekhiya dhaof the Āyāradasāo there is the men- mma, the 17th in the 10th sanghādition of eight madasthānas (sources sesa. of pride), namely, jāti 'birth', etc., in this conneccion. There is, therefore, IN BRAHMANISM no doubt that there is a very close, In the Brāhmanical texts on the relation between these two concepts. yatidharma, and the duties of a

Page #45

brahmacärin, similar rules are for prescribed. A brahmacarin, instance, is asked to be self-possessed and self-controlled and very careful while collecting alms. In the Yajnavalkya-smrt,2 it is said that an ascetic should beg food, being wakeful (apramatta). There are some chapters in the Smrti literature, that are exclusively devoted to yatidharma. For instance, in the Vasistha
References
1 IV. v. 171.
2 II. 58.

In Brāhmaṇism 13
smrti, there is a full section on yatidharma where paiśunya (backbiting), matsara (envy), abhimana (pride), ahankära (egotism), asraddha (absence of faith), anarjava (crookedness), ātmastava (self-praise), paragarhā (condemning others), dambha (deception), lobha (greed), moha (delusion), krodha (anger) and asuya (repugnance) are mentioned as the disqualifications of an ascetic.
3 Sutras 244-267.

Page #46

IV
THE SABALAS
or The Twenty-One Types of Monks with Tainted Conduct
MEANING
vaikkama (infringement) and atiyāra
(violation of the rule and perpetThe Prakrit expression sabala is ration of the offence). But as soon identical with the Sanskrit world śab- as he indulges in anāyāra (misconala meaning spotted or variegated. duct), he falls down from his life of Here it means a taint, blemish, cor- a monk. Here atikkama stands for ruption or infection. A monk whose the desire for some offence, vaikconduct is tainted or corrupt is also kama for the preparation for that called sabala.
offence, atiyāra for committing that In the Anguttara Nikāyal of offence, and aņāyāra for enjoying the Buddhists, the terms khandakāri that offence and addiction to it.3 (maker of splits), chiddakārī (maker As distinguished from the aboveof holes), sabalakārī (maker of mentioned case of mūlagunas, there taints), and kammāsakārī (maker are offences relating to the uttaraof spots) are given as the antonyms guņas (secondary rules), viz. ādhākof santatakāri (acting consistently) kama (acceptance of food prepared and santatavutti (behaving consis- for oneself), etc., which do not tently). Here sabala is obviously a make the offender fall down from person of bad conduct (dussila). his monkhood even if he passes Similarly, the negative expressions through all the four stages of the akhandāni, acchiddāni, asabalāni, offence, but makes him only sabala akammāsāni are also used in the tainted). Dĩgha Nikaya.2
Another criterion of distinguiA distinction is made between shing the sabala from the acarittī a monk who is sabala (tainted) and is that the former is the perpetraa monk who is fallen from his tor of offences that deserve only monkhood (acaritti). So far as the one of the first seven categories of mūlaguņas (basic qualifications, or Prāyaścitta (expiation) and not primary rules, viz. the five great any from the last three beginning vows, mahāvratas) are concerned, a with the müla, while the latter is monk is called tainted so long as he the doer of sins punishable with indulges himself in atikkama (trans- any of the last three prāyaścittas gression, pollution of the mind), according to their gravity.

Page #47

Meaning 15
An offence is committed in the pot. Here also there is an stages starting with the intention. offence of dukkața. But now if he The penalty prescribed is in accor- shakes (phandāpeti) it, he commits dance with the stage of the offence. a grave offence called thullaccaya For instance, for the initial stage (a serious transgression). Further. of intending to do some offence, it if he removes the pot from the is sufficient to confess the guilt as a place, and appropriates its contents, dukkada (wrong-doing). And at a he commits the gravest guilt called later stage, some higher penalty is pārājika which makes him liable to necessary. This principle has been be expelled from the Order.5 accepted also in the monastic code Now let us enumerate the of the Buddhists. Let us here offences called sabala (taint) as conquote the second pārājika concer- tained in the second chapter of the ned with adinnādāna (stealing) and Ayaradasāo, mentioning similar see how different penalties are ideas, if any, in the Buddhist prescribed for the different stages. code.
yo pana bhikkhu adinnam theyyasarkhātam ādiyeyya, yathārūpe THE TWENTY-ONE SABALAS
e râiano coram gahetvā 1. Hatthakamma (masturbation). hanevyum vā bandhey yum vā pabbā- This is comparable to the jeyyum vă oro'si bālo'si mūļho'si hist sanghădisesa no. 1 which reads: theno'sīti tathārūpam bhikkhu sañcetanikā sukkavissathi sanghāadin nam ādi vamāno ayam pi diseso (intentional emission of pārājiko hoti asamvāsoti.4 semen is a matter entailing the (Whatever monk, with an intention
penalty to be imposed by the to steal, should take what has not sangha). This is a very heavy been given to him, in such manner
punishment, next only to the one of taking as kings, catching a thief, prescribed for the pārājika offence flog him or imprison him or banish which is the gravest. The emission him, saying: "you are a robber, is effected by using the hand (hatiyou are foolish, you are wrong, you hena upakkamitvā). are a thief", even so a monk taking 2. Mehuņa-padisevanā (sexual interwhat is not given him, is also one course). who is párājika (defeated), is asam- This is comparable to the vāsa (not worthy of living together Buddhist pārājika no. 1 amended as on account of the diversity of be- "yo pana bhikkhu methunam dhamhaviour, purpose and training). mam pațiseveyya antamaso tiraccha
Now suppose a monk intends to nagatāya pārājiko hoti asamvāso" steal some thing which is hidden (whatever monk should indulge in under ground. He seeks for a com- sexual intercourse even with an panion or he seeks for a hoe or a animal is one who is pārājika 'defeabasket or goes towards the hidden ted' and is no longer fit to live with treasure. At this stage the offence the sangha), commuted into sanghais dukkata. Again, he lays hold of disesa in connection with the case

Page #48

16
The Sabalas
of the upāsikā named Saddhā.6 and ends in the satisfaction of the
In Jainism, as in Buddhism, the offender. sexual intercourse is one of the The above-described two offences gravestsins. But its gravity is are elaborately treated in the first reduced under special circumstances. few sūtras of the Niśitha Adhyayana If such an offence is committed and the Bhāşya and Cūrni on them. under an unavoidable necessity and This treatment has an astonishing has a strong ground and justifica- affinity with that of the relevant tion (sälamba) and is accompanied text of the Päräjika-Pāli. This affiwith utmost self-control (jayaņā) nity is certainly not accidental but and remorse, its gravity was com- presupposes a commɔn mənastic muted from that of the pārāñcika code that was prevalent in the days into the one of a śabala.
of the Buddha and Mahavira and The above-mentioned two śaba perhaps formilated in still earlier las (taints) are much discussed in times. We do not, of course, know the monastic code of the Jainas the exact nature of the language in and the Buddhists. The discussions which that common code was are sometimes carried on in written. But there is no doubt that great detail. In some cases the the language in which the above line of demarcation between offen- texts have come down to us is a ces that are to be considered as direct descendant of that common cases of sabala or acaritti is very language. thin. The principle of benefit of The expression sabila is not doubt is often applied in such cases. found in the above mentioned sense The last stage of offence, viz. of a moral taint in Brāhm inical anācāra, is the crucial test. The literature. Almost an exact definition of anācāra is difficult equivalent of it is found in the word issue. If the result of an offence is avakirņa (which is a similar offence) freely enjoyed without any com- or avakirnin (the offender). The punction, it is anācāra. The defini- word avakirņa means 'scattered' or tion paribhoge anāyāro means that 'spread over' which comes very near as soon as the offender begins to to the meaning of the word śabala relish the result of his offence he "spotted, variegated'. commits anācāra. Sometimes the We quote below Manusmrti? on word āsvādana is used in place of the subject : paribhoga. Amitagati's statement “The avakirnin shall sacrifice to "vadant yanācāramihātisaktatām" Nirsti at night, at the crossroads, (that is, the unmitigated and abso- a one-eyed ass by the ritual approlute attachment to the result of a priate to sacrifices of cooked crime is anācāra) is impressive. It food (118). is thus the psychological factor "Having offered oblations in fire, that is most important in determin- he shall finally pour oblations of ing the gravity of an offence which ghee to Vāta, Indra, the Teacher, starts with the intention and motive and Agni, with the Rk verse

Page #49

"sama", etc. (119).
"Those who know dharma and utter the Veda say that it is a breach (atikrama) of his observance if a twiceborn who has undertaken the observance intentionally emits semen (120).8
"To the Maruts, to Puruhūta (Indra), to the Teacher, and to the Fire, to these four passes the Brahmic glory of the man bound by the observance, who is an avakirṇin (121).
"When this sin has been committed he shall clothe himself in the ass's hide and go begging to seven houses, proclaiming his act (122).
"Subsisting on a single meal consisting of the alms received from there and ritually cleansing himself at the three periods (morning, noon and evening), he is purified after one year (123)".
Dr P.V. Kane, in his History of Dharmasastra, tracing the genesis of the idea of avakirnin, writes as follows:
"The most reprehensible act in a brahmacarin was to have sexual intercourse with a woman. The Taittiriya Aranyaka10 speaks of the prayaścitta for such a brahmacārin who is called avakīrṇin. The Gautama Dharmasutrall quotes the Taittiriya Araṇyaka..., and further provides that he should kindle fire at midnight on a new moon day and then offer two ajya oblations by way of penance...The Baudhayana Dharmasutra 12 contains the same rules. Jaimini13 prescribes that ordinary (laukika) fire is to be used for the pašu to be sacrificed (viz. ass to Nirrti which is symbolic

The Twenty-one Sabalas 17
of the stupid lapse the student is guilty of) and Sabara quotes a Vedic passage that 'a brahmacarin who has become avakirnin should sacrifice ass to Nirṛti'. The Apastamba Dharmasutra,14 Vasistha Dharmasutra,15 Manusmrti16 and Yajnavalkyasmrti17 contain a similar provision. The Manusmrti18 and Visnu DharmaSūtra19 prescribe that a brahmacarin so guilty should for one year wear the skin of the ass, should beg for food at seven houses announcing to them his lapse, should bathe thrice and then only he becomes pure."
as
The above treatment of the subject clearly shows the different patterns of punishment prescribed in Jainism and Buddhism on the one hand, and Brāhmaṇism on the other. Another important aspect of the subject that draws our attention is the bewildering details found in the Jaina and Buddhist texts opposed to the simplicity of the offence in the Brahmaṇical literature. Dr I. B. Horner, in her Introduction to The Book of the Discipline20 (Vinaya Pitaka) has characterized the relevant passages as 'crude', and has raised three points in this connection. "In the first place", she says, "they were neither spoken nor written down for a general public, but were intended only for the devotees of celibacy. Secondly, the motive which led to their being uttered or written down was not a desire to shock, but the need to prevent unchastity. Thirdly, the pattern on which the compilers of the Suttavibhanga worked was one of almost unbelievable detail, for in

Page #50

18
The Sabalas
their efforts to be lucid, case after in the Brāhmaṇical way of life. This case of possible or actual deviation was evidently responsible for the from the general rule was investiga- comparative lack of sexual aberrated, penalised and perpetuated. tions mentioned in the Brāhmanical Hence it cannot justly be said that literature. The absence of intensive the tendency to be detailed is moral and spiritual programmes greater or more insistent in one was also perhaps responsible for pārājika, or in one sanghādisesa those aberrations in the life of than in others. Such lack of restraint monks and nuns who mostly found as is found may be embarrassing to themselves divorced and isolated us, but it must be remembered that from the common run of mankind. early peoples were not so much The Jaina ācāryas were aware of afraid of plain speech as we are. this fact and recommended a heavy No stigma of indecency or obscenity daily routine for their monks and should therefore be attached to nuns to ward off the vagrancy of such Vinaya passages as seem un- their minds. necessarily outspoken to us. For A fter this long digression, we they were neither deliberately come to the other sabalas beginning indecent nor deliberately obscene. with the third. The matters to which they refer 3. Rāibhoaņa (taking food at night). had to be legislated for as much as This is comparable to the Buddhad matters of theft and murder, of hist pācittiya no. 37 : yo pang choosing sites for huts and vihāras.” bhikkhu vikāle khádaniyam vā These passages, however, are regar- bhojanijam vā khādeyja vā bhunded by her interesting historically, jeyya vā pācitriyam. Here a monk scientifically and psychologically, is prohibited from taking food in even psycho-analytically, because the afternoon. In the Yājñavalk yathey might be of value to anyone smrti21 a yati (ascetic) is allowed to making a detailed comparison of beg food only in the fourth quarter Eastern and Western monachism of the day. It follows, therefore,
But the question remains why that the Buddhists and the Brāhthe subject is treated so elaborately maņas also did not allow taking in Jainism and Buddhism whereas food at night. it finds a very brief representation 4. Ahākamma-bhoaņam (taking food in the Brāhmaṇical discipline. One prepared for the monk). of the reasons was perhaps the 5. Räipimda-bhoanam (taking food admission in the monastic organi- offered by the king). zations of persons irrespective of 6. Kīyam (purchased), pāmiccam their age and worldly experience by (borrowed), acchijjum (snatched), the Jainas and the Buddhists. There aņisittham (not disowned), ähattu was, however, an intervention of dijjamānam (offered as carried from two stages of life, viz. those of the elsewhere for the monk). grhastha and the vānaprastha bet- 7. Enjoyment of a given up article ween the brahmacar ya and samnyāsa repeatedly

Page #51

The Twenty-one Sabalas
19
8. Changing gana (group) more than hist pācittiya no. 1: sampajānamuonce within six months.
sẵvāde pặcittiyam (in telling a cons9. Crossing navel deep stream thrice cious lie, there is an offence of a month.
expiation). This is comparable to the Budd- 14. Taking deliberately what is not hist păcittiya no. 53 : udake hasa- given. dhamme pācittijam which is explai- 15. Deliberately standing, lying ned as if the monk immerses the down, or sitting on live earth (anampart above the ankle in the water, tarahiyā). or draws it out or swims, there is 16. (The above acts) on earth wet an offence of expiation'. In this with live water and covered with live connection the practice of taking dust. bath by a monk also deserves atten- 17. The same acts on a live stone tion. The păcittiya no. 57: yo slab, a clod of earth, worm-eaten pana bhikkhu prenaddhamāsam timber, and a place infested with nahāyeyya pācittiyam (whatever living organisms, eggs, beings possemonk should bathe at intervals of ssed of two or more senses, seeds, less than half a month, there is an vegetation, dew or hoar-frost, ants, offence of expiation).
fungus, moist earth, spider's web.22 10. Practising deceit (māitthāna) 18. To partake of deliberately the thrice a month.
root, bulb, stem, skin (bark), sprout This is comparable to pācittiya (shoot), leaf, flower, fruit, seed, no. 73...mohanake păcittiyam. Here vegetation. mohanaka means cheating, deceiv- This is comparable to the Budding, pretending.
hist pacittiya no. 11: bhastagãmaThis comparison may throw pātavyatāja pācittiyam (here bhūtalight on the meaning of the Prakrit gāma ‘vegetable growth' refers to word māitthāna which is probably five kinds of bīja (seed), viz. mula derived from the Sanskrit māyā bija (propagated from roots), khan
dha-bija (propagated from stems), 11. Accepting food from him who phaļu-bija (propagated from germs), has given residence (sāgāria-pimda). agga-bija (propagated from cutting), 12. Committing injury to life deli- bīja-bija (propagated from seeds). berately (without any sufficient This can be compared with Dasareason).
veyāliya23 where the expressions This is comparable to the Budd- used are agga-bīya, mūla-bīya, porahist păcittiya no. 61 : yo pana bhi- bīya khandha-biya, bīya-ruha, etc. kkhu sañcicca pânam jīvitā voropeyya 19. Crossing navel deep stream ten pācitti yam (whatever monk should times a year (Vide sabala no. 9). intentionally deprive a living thing 20. Practising deceit ten times a of life, there is an offence of expia- year (Vide sabala no. 10). tion).
21. Partaking of asana (food), 13. Telling a lie deliberately.
pāņa (drink), khāima (dainties) or This is comparable to the Budd- sāima (spices), deliberately taking

Page #52

20
The Sabalas
it from hands or pot, or ladle, or
utensil moist with cold (live) water.
References I II, p. 200.
dream. Yājñavalkya-smrti, III, 279 2 II, p. 65; III, p. 190.
9 Vol. II, part I, p. 374. 3 Vide Mülācāra, XI, 11, with Vasu- 10 II. 18.
nandi's Commentary. Also Ayaradasão 11 III. 7. 1-4. Niryukti, vy. 12-14, Cūrņi : padisuņaņe 12 IV. 2. 10-13. atikkamo, padabhede vatikkamo gah- 13 VI. 8. 22. ane atiyāro, paribhoge aņāyāro. For 14 I. 9. 26. 8. further discussion of the issue, vide the 15 23. 1-3. next article "The Four Stages of Sin.” 16 XI. 118-21. 4 Pārājika Pāli, p. 55.
17 III. 279. 5 Ibid., p. 58.
18 XI. 122-123. 6 Ibid., p. 49,
19 28. 49-50. 7 XI. 118-23
20 Part I, p. xxxvii. 8 If one unintentionally emits semen by 21 III. 58 with the Aparārka-ţikā.
day or by night one should perform a 22 Cf. Dasaveyāliya, VIII. 13-15. lighter penance, ligther still if in a 23 IV. 8.

Page #53

THE FOUR STAGES OF SIN
IN JAINISM
the Cūrni on the Ayāradasão Nir
yukti,2 the above four terms are The problem of sin or monastic explained as follows: crime that we are going to consider
tattha padisunane atikkamo, padhere will be discussed from the
abhede vatikkamo, gahane atiyāro, standpoint of monastic conduct.
paribhoge aņāyāro. What is considered as the gravest stage spiritually is sometimes con- The implication is that as soon sidered as almost negligible monas- as countenance is given to an tically. For instance, a person offence, one arrives at the first falls down to the lowest level of stage called atikrama. The second spirituality as soon as his mind is stage, called vyatikrama, consists in polluted by passions. But such a fall from the station of monastic pollution is not considered a grave discipline (padabheda). In the third offence in the monastic code of stage, called aticāra, the offence is crimes and punishments. In fact, committed (say an act of theft), and in the Canon Law, pramāda or the finally in the fourth stage, called sway of passions and non-vigilance anācāra, the offender starts taking of mind is not considered a punish- great pride in his achievement. able offence. An ordinary monk is Vasunandi, in his commentary on like a miserable person plunged the Mulācāra, 3 explains atikramana upto his ears in debt and cannot be as the monk's desire for worldly seriously taken to task for every act pleasures (vişayābhikānkşā), vyatiof mental pollution that he may kramana as acquisition of ways and indulge in. The only punishment means (upakaraņārjanam) for succeprescribed for such an offence is ssful operation, aticāra as disregard confession (ālocană) and retracing of vows (vrataśaithilyam), a bit (pratikramana) 1 The Jaina monas- licentious behaviour (işad asamtic legislators consequently recogni- yama-sevanam), and anācāra as sed four stages of a monastic offence, breach of the vows (vratabhanga) namely, atikrama (transgression, pol- and absolutely wayward behaviour lution of the mind), vyatikrama (sarvathā svecchayā pravartanam). (infringement), aticāra (violation of A very lucid exposition of the the rule and perpetration of the above-mentioned four stages of an offence), anācāra (misconduct). In offence is given by Amitagati in his

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22
The Four Stages of Sin
Paramātma-dvātrimśikā,4 which runs IN BUDDHISM as follows: kṣatim manah-suddhi-vidher ati- In Buddhist monasticism also
kramam similar stages are distinguished for vyatikramam silavrter vilangha- the purpose of meting out different
nam; categories of punishment. For inprabho 'ticāram vișayeșu var- stance, if one digs a pit for a man
tanam saying : ‘falling into it he will die,' vadant yanācāram ihā tisaktatām. there is an offence of dukkata
(Atikrama, they say, consists in (wrong-doing); the man falls down the pollution of the texture of the into it, there is an offence of dukmind; vyatikrama in crossing the kața (wrong-doing); in falling down barriers of vows; aticāra, O Lord, in a painful feeling arises, there is an indulgence in the pleasures of the offence of thullaccaya (grave transworld; and anācāra in excessive gression); if he dies, there is an attachment to them.)
offence involving pārājika (defeat). The above-mentioned four stages Again suppose one digs a pit withcan be illustrated in the case of out a purpose and says of whoever the ādhäkarma offence. Suppose a falls into it, he will die', there is devotee closely related to the monk an offence of dukkata (wronginvites him to his house for offering doing); a man falls down into it, food specially prepared for him. there is an offence of dukkata The monk (1) accepts the invitation, (wrong-doing); in falling down a (2) proceeds towards the place with painful feeling arises, there is the his bowl, enters the house, and offence of thullacaja (grave transgreextends his bowl, (3) accepts the ssion); if he dies, there is an offence 'food', returns to the abode to in- involving pārājika (defeat).? form his superior, starts eating, and Let us take another case. A finally, (4) swallows the food. Here monk commands another monk acceptance of invitation is atikrama. saying 'deprive so and so of life', The monk's movement towards the there is an offence of dukkata house upto the extension of the wrong-doing) for the commander; bowl is vyatikrama. Acceptance of the monk commanded, thinking the food upto the start of eating is this is the person (to be deprived of aticāra. Actual swallowing of the life), kills him, there is an offence food is anācāra.5
involving pārājika (defeat) for both; The punishment prescribed for but in case he, by mistake, kills the first three stages mentioned another person (not intended to be above is heavy one month (māsa- killed), there is an offence involving guru) austerity divided into three pārājika (defeat) for the murderer, grades of increasing intensiveness. there being no offence for the instiThe punishment for the fourth gator. 8 stage in heavy four month (catur- The above account is from the māsa-guru) austerity.6
Pali Vinaya Pițaka. In Sanskrit

Page #55

In Buddhism
23
Buddhism, the offence of killing is (pramatta-yogāt ptāņavyaparopanam very precisely defined by Vasuban- himsā). The expression 'pramattadhu in his Abhidharma-kośa. Tak- yoga' represents the essence of the ing away of life (prāņātipāta), definition. The concept of pramāda according to him, is an aforethought is very wide as it comprises eight killing of another person unerr- factors, namely, (1) ignorance, (2) ingly. This definition clearly sets doubt, (3) wrong notion, (4) attachforth three factors of genuine ment, (5) hatred, (6) unsteady vigiloffence of killing, namely (1) fore- ance, (7) disrespect for principles of thought, (2) separate identity of the righteousness, and (8) perversity of person to be killed, and (3) killing mental, vocal, and physical actiof the iniended person. If any of vity. 12 The scope of pramāda, thus these factors is wanting, it will not interpreted, is so wide that any be a case of genuine killing.
mental or moral lapse, however In this connection, Vasubandhu small or covert, on the part of the enters a caveat against the Nirgran- doer is bound to make him incur tha philosophers who attributed the offence of violence (himsā). An sin to the killer of a living being act may be voluntary or involuneven if such killing was not preme- tary. The moral character of a ditated on the analogy of fire that voluntary act is obvious, but that burns the limb of a person, whether of involuntary acts not is so. he puts it into fire intentionally or They may spring forth from subconunintentionally. 10 This definition of scious propensities that are rooted in killing would, according to Vasu- passions and perversities. The Jaina bandhu, make sin a mechanical philosophers characterize such invoaffair bereft of any spiritual signi- luntary acts as covertly immoral ficance. Simply looking at a beauti- and as such make its perpetrator ful maiden or touching her without incur offence. Thus, for instance, any mental pollution would be an if a person has not taken the vow act of sin. The example of fire is of desisting from violent activities absurd according to him. It can- through thought, speech, and body, not prove the validity of the defini- he incurs offence for all kinds of tion.
activities that he may be engaged Vasubandhu's definition of prān- in voluntarily or involuntarily or ātipāta appears to be influenced by even tacitly at the subconscious the early Buddhist conception as level. The vow, according to the explained above on the basis of the Jaina philosophers, brings about a Vinaya Pitaka.
sort of moral purity which saves Let us now see how the Jaina him from perpetrating sinful acts thinkers look at the problem Umā- even in thought, much less in pracsvāti in his Tattvärthasütra, 11 tice. This is a very wholesome moral defines himsā (violence, injury) as principle accepted in some way or taking av ay of life under the sway other by all systems of thought beof non-vigilance rooted in passions lieving in spirituality and asceticism.

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24
The Four Stages of Sin
Vasubandhu's criticism of the blood drawn. Therefore one should Jaina definition of himsā is thus not threaten a brāhmaṇa with assafound to be inspired by an incorrect ult nor strike him or draw his appraisal of the Jaina philosopher's blood.” The Gautama Dharmastandpoint. The definition of prān sūtra15 has a similar dictum, viz. ātipāta given by him obviously that threatening a brāhmaṇa with pertains exclusively to the social assault in wrath prevents entry into life and the formal code of monas- heaven for a hundred years (or leads tic conduct. It is not applicable to hell for a hundred years).16 to the spiritual life. The Buddha, The Manusmrtį17 also repeats as is well known, attached supreme the same dictum. It is thus clear importance to the mental act. The that Brāhmanism also recognized very opening verse of the Dhamma- the stages of a sin. pada lays down that it is the mind Another aspect of the Brāhmathat predominates everything; it is nical law concerning punishment the mind that transcends all; it is may be mentioned here. The Brhathe mind that pervades every thing; tpārāsarg18 and Kautilya's Arthaif one speaks or acts with a polluted śästra19 lay down that the award mind, suffering surely pursues him of punishment must be regulated by even as the wheel follows the foot a consideration of the motive and of the ox which draws the cart.13 nature of the offence, the time and We do not mean to accuse Vasuban- place, the strength, age, conduct dhu of any purposeful deviation (or duties), learning, monetary from the Buddha's Norm, but only position of the offender and by want to assert that his definition is the fact whether the offence is intended to satisfy the popular repeated.20 . conception, and the legal formalities The right of private defence of of the monastic order.
person or property from an ätatā
yin (desperado) was recognized by IN BRĀHMANISM
the Brāhmaṇical Dharmaśāstra After this digression which was works. Aparārka (on Yājñavalkyanecessary to define the Buddhist smrti21) remarks that persons have and Jaipa positions on the issue of to be regarded as ātatāyin while himsā, let us now consider the Brāh- they are about to set fire or to kill maņical view of the stages of a sin or are in the act of setting fire or crime. The Taittirīya Samhitāl4 or killing and the like, that where says: "He who threatens a brāh- it is not possible to prevent them mana should be fined a hundred, he from doing what they intend to do who strikes a brāhmaṇa should be except by killing them, there only fined a thousand, he who draws the texts allow killing, but where blood would not reach (or find) the it is possible to prevent them abode of pitrs for as many years as by merely wounding them with a the dust particles that may be made weapon or stick, killing them into a paste by the quantity of would be an offence.22

Page #57

In Modern Law 25
been distinguished thus: "Two categories of criminal homicide are recognized: murder (those committed with malice afterthought) and manslaughter (all criminal homicides that are not murder)... In the modern law two divisions of manslaughter are recognized voluntary and involuntary. The most important type of voluntary manslaughter consists of sudden killing in anger or "heat of passion" by one who has suffered serious provocation from the deceased. Not all provocations are legally adequate to reduce a homicide from murder to manslaughter. (Cf. Apararka's view quoted above). Blows or other physical injuries inflicted on the accused by the deceased may be regarded by the jury as adequate. The killing of one found committing adultery with the slayer's wife may also amount to voluntary manslaughter. In most AngloAmerican jurisdictions mere words, however insulting, do not constitute adequate provocation; but in a few U.S. jurisdictions, as well as in England and Wales since the Homicide act, 1957, a contrary rule obtains. The proper definition of involuntary manslaughter has been the subject of considerable controversy. It was asserted by the common-law commentators that any killing resulting from commission of an unlawful act is a criminal homicide. This offence was murder if the unlawful act was a felony, but manslaughter, if a misdemeanour. Involuntary man
Murder and manslaughter have slaughter may also be committed
IN MODERN LAW
The above-described stages of sin or crime and the attitude of the Indian law-givers to crimes and punishments find striking parallels in modern law. We should like to illustrate our point with reference to the crime of homicide in English law.
a
In modern English law-books the crime of homicide is considered as having four distinct stages, namely, assault, aggravated assault, manslaughter, and murder. Assault stands for violent attack with physical means as blows or weapons. Aggravated assault is regarded as more heinous than common assault. It is an assault combining an intent to commit crime other than that involved in the mere assault itself. Manslaughter is the unlawful killing of a human being without expressed or implied malice. Murder means the killing of a person secretly or with concealment as opposed to an open killing. The first-degree murder deserves either capital or severe punishment because of being willful and premeditated, being committed with atrocity or cruelty (as by poisoning, starvation, mayhem, or torture), being committed in the course of the commission of a serious felony (as arson, burglary or kidnapping), or being committed after lying in wait for the purpose of killing the victim. The second-degree murder is all other murder not classified as firstdegree murder.23

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26
The Four Stages of Sin
when, without intent to kill, the from the Jaina, Buddhist and actor engages in unjustifiable dan- Brāhmaṇical ancient literature and gerous behaviour resulting in death its comparison with modern law to another,"24
should throw ample light on the
essential unity of all legal specuCONCLUSION
lations by the thinkers all over the
world, concerned with religious, The above brief account of social and cultural welfare of grades of crime and punishment mankind.
References
1 Brhat-kalpa-Bhäşya, Verse 1655. Mala- dveşo'navasthanam smrter dharmes
yagiri, commenting on this verse, says: vanādarah. yoge duşpranidhanam ca manasā 'panne' pyaparädhe nästi tapah- pramādo'stavidhah smstah; tena yogāt prāyaścittam sthavirkalpikānām. ālo- pramattah syad apramattastato cana-pratikramana-prayascitte tu tatrā- 'nyathā. pi bhavata iti mantavyam.
13 manopubbangamă dhammā manosetthā 2 Vy. 12-14.
manomayā; manasā ce padutthena 3 XI. 11.
bhāsati vā karoti vä, tato nam dukkham 4 Verse 9.
anveti cakkam va vahato padam. 5 Vyavahāra-Bhäşya-pithikā, pp. 44-46. 14 Il. 6. 10. 1-2. 6 Ibid., gāthā 44 (p. 18 a), with Malaya- 15 HII. 3. 20-22. giri's ţikā.
16 P.V. Kane : History of Dharmaśāstra, 7 Pärājika Pāli, p. 94.
Vol. II, part I, pp. 151-52. 8 Ibid., p. 92.
17 X1. 206-07 9 Abhidharma-kosa, 1V, 73 ab: prắna- 18 P. 284.
tipātaḥ sancintya parasyābhrānta-mara- 19 IV. 20. nam.
20 P.V. Kane : op. cit., III, pp. 391-92. 10 Ibid., Bhāşya : abuddhi-pūrvād api 21 III. 227.
pranivadhāt kartur adharmah, yathā 22 P.V. Kane: op. cit., pp. 517-18.
agnisamyogād dāha iti nirgranthāh. 23 Webster's Third New International 11 VII. 8.
Dictionary, 1976, s.v. murder. 12 Svopajña-Bhāşya-ţikä on Tattvärtha. 24 Quoted from Encyclopaedia Britan
sutra, VII. 8, p. 65 : ajñānam samsayas- nica, 1973, Vol. II, p. 647. Portion in caiva mithyājñānam tathaiva ca; rāgo brackets is ours.

Page #59

VI
ASĀYANA
or
Disrespectful Conduct
The third chapter of the Ayāra- oneself, he washes before allowing dasão gives thirty-three types of the superior to do so. āsāyană (Skt. āśātana derived from 11. If on return from the place ā-tv sad causative, meaning de- of easing oneself (viyāra-bhūmi) or stroying, cutting off completely) the place of study (vihāra-bhūmi), 'disrespectful conduct which are as he performs āloyaņā (self-examinafollows:
tion at the completion of the visit)
before allowing the superior to do A seha disciple' commits the
so. offence of disrespect :
12. If he indulges in a talk in 1. If he walks in front of the advance with an outsider who has rāyaniya “superior in respect of come for a talk with the superior. knowledge or monastic standing' 13. If at night or the afternoon, (without any specific reason). the superior asks “Venerables, are
2. If he walks by the side of the you asleep or waking?” and if the rāyaniya (because such walking waking monks do not answer (delimay entail touching the robe or berately). rubbing any limb of him).
14. If on return from begging 3. If he walks too near to the asana (food), pāna (drink), khāima superior.
(sweets), sāima (condiments), he 4. If he stands in front of the performs äloyanā (confession) in superior.
front of another monk instead of 5. If he stands by the side of the superior. the superior.
15. If on return from begging 6. If he stands too near to the asaņa (food), pāņa (drink), khāima superior.
(sweets), sāima (condiments), he 7. If he sits in front of the shows the alms to another monk superior.
instead of the superior. 8. If he sits by the side of the 16. If on return from begging superior.
asana (food), pāņa (drink), khäima 9. If he sits too near to the (sweets), säima (condiments), he superior.
invites other monks instead of the 10. If at the place of easing superior before inviting the latter.

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28 Asāyanā
17. If on collecting, together
29. If he disrupts the address with the superior, asana (food), pāņa being delivered by the superior. (drink), khāima (sweets), säima 30. If he repeats the same story (condiments), he distributes them twice or thrice as has already been without the permission of the narrated by the superior before the
assembly that has not risen up, not wishes, in good quantity.
broken up, not interrupted, not 18. If on collecting asana (food), scattered. pāna (drink), khāima (sweets), 31. If he rubs the bed and the sāima (condiments), he partakes of mat of the superior with his feet them along with the superior, in and walks without begging pardon good quantity (khaddham khadd- in humility and modesty. ham), the vegetable food (dāgam 32. If he stands on, sits on, and dāgam), the dainties (usadham usa- lies down upon the bed and the mat dham), juicy food (rasiyam rasiyam), of the superior. delicious food (manunnam manunnam), 33. If he stands on, sits on, and choice food (manāmam manāmam), Jies down upon a seat which is fatty food (niddham niddham), dry higher than or on the same level and spiced (lukkham lukkham) food. with that of the superior.
19. if he does not respond to There are different arrangements the call of the superior.
of the āsāyanās in different texts. 20. If he responds to such call The following table will show the unmoved from the place where he difference :
is.
ĀDasi
SVV12
HĀVr3
21. If he answers by a counter question like “What do you say?"?
22. If he replies by addressing the superior in second person singular (tumamti) which is an impolite way of addressing the superior.
23. If he answers in a harsh tone.
24. If he retorts (angrily) in the same words as used by his superior.
25. If he attempts to revise the statement of the superior.
26. If he ascribes loss of memory to his superior.
27. If he does not feel elated at the sermon of the superior.
28. If he tries to dissolve the assembly that is being addressed by the superior.

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Āsāyaṇā 29
28
27
29
31
eighty-four according to different calculations. In a similar way, various items are given under the other two categories. 6 In brief, all occasions of disrespectful behaviour or impolite conduct are regarded as cases of āsāyanā.
In the Padikkamanajjhayana of the Āvasyaka Sutra, the thirty-three
āsāyanās are described differently. 29 Here the disrespectful conduct is
30 stated to be in respect of the 30
following: 31+32 32 +33
Arahamta (the adorable), siddha
(the emancipated), āyariya (precepBriefly speaking, in the Samavā- tor), uvajjhāya (teacher), sāhu ya, our no. 27 is missing and our no. (monk), sāhuni (nun), sāvaya 33 is split up into two, viz. 31 and
(layman), (avman
sāvigā (laywoman) 32. In the Haribhadra's Commen- deva (god), devī (goddess), tary on the Āvas yaka Niryukti, on ihaloga (this world), paraloga (the the other hand, our no. 25 is miss- other world), kevali-pannatta-dhaing, and our no. 33 is split up into mma (religion as propounded by two, viz. 32 and 33. The difference the omniscient), sadeva-maņuyāsurin the serial numbers will be appa- aloga (1 he world consisting of gods, rent from the table.
men and asuras 'demi-gods'), savvaThe word äsāyaṇā is used in the pāņa-bhūya-jīva-satta (beings with sense of 'injuring in the Ayāro4. two, three, and four senses, vegetaIn the Mülācāra,5 the expression tion, the five-sensed animals, and āsanā (āsādanā) is used in the same other living beings), kāla (time), sense with reference to the five suya (scripture), suya-deva(the scripastikājas, six kinds of living beings, ture-deity), vāyaṇāyariya (the the five mahāvratas, the eight prava- expounder preceptor) väiddha cana-mātās, and the nine tattvas, (uttered topsyturvy), vaccāmeliya thus making a total of thirty-three (mixing up the texts), hinakkhariya items.
(omission of syllable), accakkhaThere are some other ways of riya (addition of syllable), payahina enumerating the items. For in- (omission of words), viņayahina stance, sometimes the items of (lacking humility), ghosahīņa (imdisregard are counted under the properly accented), jogahīņa (lack categories of jñāna (books of the of mental, vocal and physical scripture), deva (deity), guru steadiness), susțhu dinna (taught (teacher), etc. In respect of deva, beyond the capacity of the student), such items are ten or forty or dutthu padicchiya (learnt with im

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30
Āsāyanā
pure design), akāle kao sajjhão not offend (āsāyayai) him in any (untimely study), kāle na kao way, is a monk worthy of respect. sajjhão (abstaining from study at Such disciple offers due respect to the proper time), asajjhāye sajjhâī- the monks who are superior and yam (to study what is not to be senior in age and monastic standing studied in respect of time, place, and is obedient to them and abides subject, etc.), sajjhâīye na sajjhāi- by their counsel and carries out yam (abstaining from study of what their command. is to be studied in respect of time,
IN BUDDHISM place, subject, etc.). All these are concerned with wrong way of In the Buddhist Vinaya, the acquiring knowledge and are offen- duties of the disciple towards his ces of wrong-doing (dukkada). ācārya are very elaborately given in
The above-mentioned classifica- the sekhiyā dhammā no. 57 to 72. It tions do not appear to be based on has been laid down that the teacher any definite principle. The number should not teach if the disciple is thirty-three is common to three of not properly behaved. the above-stated classifications. The overall impression given by these IN BRĀHMANISM different modes of counting types of disrespectful conduct is that In the Manusnști, 10 the duties attempts were made by different of the student towards his teacher authors at different times to bring are similarly defined. There duties together the occasions of disrespectare laid down for brahmacūrins and misconduct with reference to a and not for the patis. But the particular way of life, based on duties of the patis are not essentiprinciples determined at random ally different, in this case, from
In the Uttarajjha yaņānithe those of the brahmacārins. The duties of a disciple towards his treatment of the subject in the teacher are lucidly given. In the Manusmrti is comparatively fuller Dasycālija Suttas also such duties so far as the relationship between are prescribed. In the same text, the teacher and the taught is conit is laid down that the disciple who cerned. In the asaj unā list there practises modesty in his conduct, are some items which are only inlistens to his preceptor's words directly concerned with teaching, with devotion and a sense of ser- being mainly concerned with the vice, and desires to do as he is general conduct of monks and nuns ordered by the preceptor, and does vis-a-vis the ācārya. References 1 Āyaradasão, III.
6 Vide Abhidhana-Rajendra, Vol. II, p. 2 Samavāyāmga Vrtti, 33.
478 (s.v. āsāyanā). 3 Haribhadriya Avaśyaka Niryukti 71. 18-30, 37-38, 40-47. Vrtti, Pratikramanadhyayana,
8 IX, 2. 17-21. 4 1.6.5. 104.
9 IX, 3. 2-3. 5 II. 54.
10 II. 192-205.

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VII
GANISAMPADĀ
or
The Qualifications of the Ganin (Religious Head)
The subject is treated under three broad heads in the fourth chapter of the Дyāradasão. The heads are: (1) Qualifications of the ganin, (II) Vinaya-padivatti of the ācārya, and (III) Vinaya paḍivattī of the antevasin (student).
I. QUALIFICATIONS OF THE GANIN.
These qualifications are eight in number, viz. (1) āyāra (conduct), (2) suya (learning), (3) sarīra (personality), (4) vayana (diction), (5) vāyaṇā (exposition), (6) mati (perception), (7) paoga (apt application), and (8) samghaparinṇā (comprehensive planning). Of these qualifications, each is subdivided into four kinds as follows:
1. Ayara (conduct): In respect of ayara, the ganin is (a) samjamajoga jutta, constantly vigilant about his behaviour); (b) asampaggahiyaappā (enjoying non-obsession of the mind); (c) aniyata-vitti (homeless), and (d) vuḍdha-sīla (steadfast observer of the vows signifying maturity).

2. Suya (learning): In respect of suya, the ganin is (a) bahussuya (of versatile study), (b) parijiya
suya (deeply familiar with the scripture); (c) vicitta-suya (possessing expertise in his own and alien traditions); and (d) ghosavisuddhikāraa (able to teach correct pronunciation). These qualifications may be compared with those mentioned in the Pali Mahāvagga,1 where a monk is described as bahussuto, āgatagamo, dhammadharo, vinayadharo, mātikādharo, pandito, vyatto, medhāvī, lajjī, kukkuccako, sikkhākāmo.
According to the Gautama Dharmasutra,2 the characteristics of a bahuśruta are-knowledge of the Vedas and the Vedängas and proficiency in logic, history, Purāņas, He should moreover be fully conversant with the duties of a priest and the rules of social conduct.
etc.
3. Sarira (personality): It is also of four kinds, viz. (a) ärohapariṇāha-sampanna (symmetrical); (b) anotappa-sarīra (unreproachable body); (c) thirasamghayana (with strong bone-joints); and (d) bahupadipunnindiya (with perfectly and fully developed sense-organs).
4. Vayana (diction): In respect of vayaṇa, he is (a) ādeya-vayaṇa (of

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32 Gaņisampada
impressive diction); (6) mahura- ber, (v) retention without any bias, vayaņa (of sweet and attractive dic- and (vi) retention without ambition); (c) aņissiya-va yaņa (of unbi- guity. ased diction); and (d) asamdiddha- 7. Paoga (apt application or art vayana (of unambiguous diction). of debate): It is of four kinds, viz.
5. Vāyaṇă (exposition): In (a) application of one's knowledge respect of vāyaṇā, he (a) vijayam after a complete assessment of uddisai (selects the subject matter one's own powers in debate, (b) according to the interest of the application of one's knowledge in disciple); (b) vijayam vāyei (explains debate after a full assessment of the the meaning fully); (c) parinivvāviya parisā (assembly), (c) application of vāei (brings the subject home to one's knowledge in debate after a the disciple); and (d) atthanijjāvaya full appreciation of the environ(exposes the sequence of the sub- ment (khetta) of the debate, (d) ject).
application of one's knowledge in The Prakrit word pariņiyvāviya debate after a full estimation of the can be compared with the Päli nature of the adjudicators, the word pariyāpunana3 which means ability of the opponent and the 'mastery over' or 'accomplishment attitude of the authorities, etc. in'.
(vatthu). 6. Mati (perception): It is also in the Anguttara Nikāya,4 the of four kinds, yiz. (a) avaggaha tathāgata is likened to a cakravar(sense-perception); (b) ihā (specula- tin king who governs his kingdom tion); (c) avāya (determination); through righteousness which conand (d) dhāraņā (retention).
sists of the following five factors: Each of these four kinds is (i) the purpose (attha), (ii) the duty again subdivided into six subvarie- (dhamma), (iii) the measure (mattā ties. Thus the sense-perception Skt. mätrā), (iv) the time (käla), may be (i) quick, (ii) comprehensive and (v) the assembly (parisā). of many things at a time, (iii) com- 8. Samgha-parinnä (comprehenprehensive of the manifold charac- sive planning for the Order): It ter of the thing, (iv) steadfast is also of four kinds, viz. (a) selecperception, (v) unbiased comprehen- tion of a suitable place for the sion, and (vi) unambiguous compre- rainy retreat with sufficient accomhension. The subvarieties of specu- modation for the whole Order lation and determination are exactly including guest monks that may the same as the above-mentioned visit the place, (b) arrangement of ones. The six subvarieties of sufficient outfit such as cot, plank, retention are, however, slightly diffe- bed, mat, etc., for the use of the rent as follows: (i) retention of Order and other inmates, (c) permany things, (ii) retention of the formance of all necessary arrangemanifold character of a thing, (iii) ments at proper times, and (d) due retention of memories, (iv) reten- attention and reverence to all comțion of what is difficult to remem- panions according to their rank and

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Vinaya-padivatti of the Acārya 33
status.
stood by him before and firmly The above eightfold gani-sam- convincing him of the new knowpadā is differently explained in the ledge, (b) to train the student who Pravacanasāroddhāra, and its has thus understood the truth in commentary which gives a number the discipline practised by the of other views from a source which ācārya himself, (c) re-establishing is different from the Āyāradasuo. him in the righteousness from
which he had fallen down, and (d) II. VIŅAYA-PADIVATTI OF
exertion of the ācārya himself THE ĀCĀRYA.
ceaselessly for the welfare, joy, In addition to the above eight forbearance, emancipation, and qualifications, our text gives some continuity of the righteousness. additional ones that easily follow (iv) Dosa - nigghāyana - viņaya from the above-mentioned ones. (discipline qua eradication of pasIt is the duty of the acārya sions). It is also of four kinds, viz. properly to train the student in the (a) calming down the anger of the practice of the discipline (viņaya. angry, (b) calming down the hatred padivatti) which is of four kinds as of the hateful, (c) removal of the follows:
doubt of the doubtful, and (d) (i) Āyāra-viņaya (discipline qua making the student perfectly selfconduct): It is fourfold, viz. (a) possessed and equipoised. deportment qua self-restraint (sam
III. VINAYA-PADIVATTI OF yama-sāmāyāri), (b) deportment qua austerity (tava-sāmāyārī), (c) THE ANTEVASIN. deportment qua communal living The qualifications and the duties (gana-sāmāyārī), and (d) deport- of the ganin are followed by the ment qua solitary life (ekalla- fourfold duties of the student (antevihāra-sāmāyāri).
vāsin) that result from the training (ii) Suya-viņaya (discipline qua received by him from the ganin. learning): It is also fourfold, viz. These duties are : (a) teaching the recitation of sūtras (i) Uvagaraņa-uppāyaṇayā (aqui(suttam vāei), (b) bringing home the sition of outfit): It is fourfold, viz. meaning of the sūtras (attham rãei), (a) acquisition of outfit that has (c) teaching according to the capa- not been acquired, (b) preservation city of the student or teaching what of the old used outfit, (c) augmenis beneficial to the student (hiyam tation of the meagre quantity of vāei), and (d) teaching the sūtras outfit, and (d) proper distribution completely without any residue of the outfit. (nisse sam vāei).
(ii) Sāhillayā (co-operation): It (iii) Vikkhevaņā-viņaya (disci. is also fourfold, viz. (a) to be agreepline qua assurance, by dissuading able in words, (b) to be agreeable in the student from wrong faith). It physical action, (c) rendering physiis also fourfold, viz. (a) training cal comforts to the teacher, and the student in what was not under- (d) being favourably disposed to the
N
.

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34 Ganisampada
teacher in all matters.
tha-Bhāsya. He has to train the (iii) Vannasamjalanayā (appreci- disciples who are also, in their turn, ation of merits). It is also four required to fulfil their duties of fold, viz. (a) appreciation of the alleviating the burden of the true merits, (b) expulsion of the teacher and keep the Order away slanderer, (c) encouragement of from disputes, dissensions and the admirer, and (d) rendering ser- quarrels. vice to the elders.
In the Buddhist Vinaya also the (iv) Bhāra-paccoruhaņayā (alle- monks engaged in quarrels and viation of the burden). It is also dissensions are very severely defourfold, viz. (a) bringing back the nounced. In the Malāvagga,? the deserter to the fold, (b) training Buddha expresses his deep disgust the novice in conduct and rules of against such monks. In fact, he begging alms, (c) exerting oneself segregated himself from the Order in the proper service to the sick for some time in Order to ventilate partners, and (d) exerting oneself his displeasure with internal quarceaselessly and in the right manner rels. The following words of the for fostering forbearance and calm- Buddha give full expression to his ness in respect of the disputes that feeling of joy in secluded life away may arise among the partners, be- from such quarrelsome monks. ing free from attachment or hatred aham khu pubbe äkkinno na phāsu and without partiality, cultivating vihāsim tehi kosambakehi bhikkhühi the spirit of equanimity and bhandanakārakehi kalahakārakehi abiding by the rules of jurispru- vivādakārkehi bhassakārakehi sandence.
ghe adhikaranakārakchi so'mhi etarThe student should behave in ahi eko adutivo sukham phāsu such a manner that his partners viharāmi aññatrera tehi kosambashould desist from wordly duels, dis- kehi bhikkhāhi bhandanakārkehi sensions, quarrels, passions, abusing kalahakārakehi vivādakārakchi bhaone another by using second person ssakārakehi sanghe adhikaranakasingular (tumamtumā), so that they rakehi. may fully practise self-restraint, Formerly, beset by those monks self-control, equillibrium and be of Kosambi, makers of strife, vigilant, being engaged in practis- makers of quarrels, makers of dising penance.
putes, makers of brawls, makers of A critical look at the contents legal questions in the Order, I did of this ajjhayaņa (chapter) would not live in comfort; but now that I show that the concept of ganin here am alone with no other, I am living is very broad. In fact, the ganin in comfort, removed from those has to discharge the function of all monks, makers of strife..makers the classes of five ācāryas, viz. of legal questions in the Order. pravrājaka, digācārya, śrutoddeștā, As regards the sampada or the śrutasamuddeșțā and ämnāyārthavā- qualifications of a ganin, it is to be caka as mentioned in the Tattvār- noted that the Head of an Order is

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Viņaya-padivatti of the Anteväsin
35
expected to exert himself for the initiation (upana yana) and teaching well-being of himself as well as the Vedas and the six Vedāngas others. Such exertion is called and the Upanişads. The acārya ātma-hitapratipatti-sampat and par- confers a new spiritual life on the ahita-pratiprati-sampat respectively disciple, which is undecaying and in Buddhism.8 The Buddha is con- immortal.10 sidered as possessed of both kinds The subject of the qualifications of sampat. He pursued a discipline of the Head of a religious organiza(pratipatti) that enabled him to get tion or an acārya who confers a self-enlightenment by totally eradi- new life by initiating the pupil in cating his own darkness of ignor- the path of mental and moral purifiance. This is ātma-hita-pratipatti- cation was considered an important sampat which is accompanied with part of culture in all branches of infinite compassion (karunā) that Indian thought. This is evident compels him to exert ceaselessly for from the comparative notes that universal welfare, called para-hita- we have been able to insert in our pratipatti-sampat.
treatment of the subject of ganiIn the Manusmrti,9 the fun- sampadā. ctions of an ācārya are given as
References 1 P. 28. 2 1, 8. 4-11. 3 Pali-English Dictionary. S.V. Pariya
pumana. 4 Vol. II, p. 402. 5 Vv. 543-46.
6 IX. 6. 7 P. 383. 8 Vide Abhidharmakośa-Bhāşya, I. 1. 9 II. 140. 10 Manusmrti, II, 148.

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VIII
CITTASAMĀHITTHĀŅAS
or The Ten Stages of the Concentrated Mind
I. INTRODUCTORY
time and the entire range of the
dhammas is comprehended as a The fifth chapter of the Ayara- result thereof. dasão gives a very lucid and simple S uch knowledge has a very close exposition of the entire course of
affinity to what is expressed in the spiritual development, starting with
following utterance of the Buddha the practice of the five samitis (com
when he attained enlightenment portment) and three guptis (res- about the first noble truth called traints), and passing to the various
dukkha (suffering i : idam dukkham stages of knowledge, through the
ariya-saccam ti me, bhikkhave, pubbe practice of meditation. The chapter
ananussutesu dhammesu cakkhum can be considered as one of the ear
| udapādi, mãnam tudapādi, paññã liest Ardhamāgadhi texts embody
udapādi, vijjā udapādi, äloko udaing the essence of Mahāvīra's teach
pädi (on realizing that this indeed ing. It gives in fact the nirgrantha is the noble truth of suffering, there ideology in its simplest form. The arose in me vision, knowledge, eight matrices of the scripture insight, wisdom, light, not heard of (pravacana-mātā) are here held to before at any time). Such expericonstitute the entire course of ence is repeated in respect of the preliminary conduct which is the other three noble truths, viz. the basis of spiritual progress. They are cause of suffering, the cessation of followed by the practice of medita- suffering and the path leading to tion which leads to the various the cessation of suffering. Such stages of enlightenment. These enlightenment is called dhammacastages are briefly ten as described kkhu (the eye that discerns the below :
nature of the truth).
The dhamma-cintă mentioned II. THE TEN STAGES
above is identical with what is 1. At the first stage of the con- called samyag-darsana (right vision) centrated mind, there arises the that is identical with the fourth knowledge of the essential nature gunasthāna. Even as the person of things (dhamma-cintä) that was born blind can see the world as it never experienced before at any is on the sudden acquisition of the

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The Ten Stages 37
eye-sight, so can the soul having experienced the vision see the truth as it is. Such vision is comparable to the stambharā prajñā of Yogadar- śana 2
2. At the second stage, there arises the memory of one's own past lives as a result of the practice of meditation. Such memory did never arise in him before at any time.
This is known as pubbe-nivāsānussatiñāna (memory of the past
in Buddhism, which is the result of meditation.3
In the Yogadarsana, this is called as janmakathantā-sambodha (the memory of the whereabouts
the achievement of stead-fastness in the vow of non-posses- sion (aparigraha-sthair ye janma- kathantā-sambodhah.4 The medita- tion on the samskāras (impressions) can also lead to the memory of the past lives. 5 3. At the third stage, there
veritable dreams that were never experienced before.
The tradition says that Lord Mahāvīra saw ten dreams before attaining kaivalya, which symbo- lized his future achievement.6 (Thāņam, X. 103). The Buddha also is reported to have dreamt five dreams before attaining sambodhi.7
The importance of dream for the steadiness of the mind is reco- gnized in the Yogadarśana8: svapnanidrājñānālambanam ca, that is, the mind of the yogin who has seen a beautiful image of Siva in dream or has a memory of deep pleasant sleep develops steadiness in medita
tion.
4. At the fourth stage, there arises an unprecedented vision of deities, divine supernormal powers, divine radiance, divine majesty.
In the Yogadarśana,' it is said that a yogin is able to meet his desired deities by means of svādhyāya 'recitation of scripture' (svādhyāyād ispadevată-samprayogah). Again in it10 mūrdhajyotişi siddha-darśanam, it is said that the yogin, by concentrating his mind on the light of the suşumnā, gets the vision of emancipated souls who live in the region between the earth and the heaven.
5. At the fifth stage, there arises
rvoyance (ohiņāņa Skt. avadhijñāna) which did never arise before.
This is comparable to the dibbacakkhuñāņa of the Buddhists.11
In the Yogadarśana, 12 tatah prātibhasravana- vedanādarsāsvādavārta jāyante, it is said that extra-sensory perception of subtle, concealed remote, past and future objects takes place by the power of meditation, and it is possible for the yogin to hear, feel, see, taste and smell supersensuous sound, feeling, colour (and shape), taste, and smell.
6. At the six stage, which is not different from the fifth and is rather a necessary concomitant of it, there arises clair-intuition (ohidamsana, Skt. avadhidarśana).
The distinction between ņāņa and damsaņa has been discussed by the great Jaina ācāryas like Siddhasena Divākara, Jinabhadragani Ksamāśramana and also by Yaśo

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38
Cittasamāhitthāņas
vijaya of the seventeenth century Buddhist conception of bodhi, the A.D. The expression darśana equivalent of Jaina kaivalya, also (which is the Sanskrit form of dam- deserves mention in this connecsana) has also a quite different tion. The bodhi is defined by Vasuconnotation. It means the realiza- bandhu in his Abhidharma-kośa, 15 tion of truth as it is without the as the knowledge of the non-rise of services of any other instrument of kleša (affliction) in the future and knowledge. It is direct intuition also the knowledge of its absolute of the truth.
destruction (anut pādakşayajñāne 7. At the seventh stage, there bodhih). arises the power of telepathy Corresponding to this highest (mana-pajjaya-nāna) which never state of knowledge of the Jainas, arose before. The Jogin can there is the highest stage of vipassnow know phases of the mind anā-ñāna (introspective knowledge) of the fully developed rational five- called āsavakkhaya-ñāņa (knowsensed beings.
ledge of the destruction of the This is comparable to the Bud intoxicant afflictions).16 The dhist cetopariyañāņa, 13 that is power of omniscience is also ascriachieved by the power of medita- bed to the Buddha. tion.
In the Yogadarśana, 17 there is In the Yogadarśana, 14 pratyaya- the mention of vivekajam jñānam sya paracitta-jñānam, it is laid which is almost identical with the down that by concentration on the sarvajñatā of Jainism. Such knowmind of others, there arises the ledge is achieved by concentration knowledge of other minds.
on the moment and its sequence 8. At the eighth stage, there (ksana-tatkramayoh samyamād vivearises pure and perfect knowledge kajam jñānam). . that never arose before, and the 9. At the ninth stage, there yogin is able to know the cosmos arises pure and perfect intuition (loka) and the transcosmos or a (kevala-damsana) that never arose cosmos (aloka).
before. The nature of pure and perfect The distinction between kevalaknowledge which is expressed by jñāna and kevala-darśana and their the word kevala-ņāņa is a contro- occurrence in succession is a debaversial issue. Usually kaivalya is table issue. identified with sarvajñatā (omnis- 10. At the tenth stage, which cience). But in the Yoga system is the highest, there arises pure of philosophy, kaivalya is pure and perfect disembodied existence, light of consciousness that has the like of which was never attained nothing to do with knowledge in before. It is the cessation of all the ordinary sense of the term. In suffering. Jainism also, kaivalya is evidently This is the highest attainment purity of the soul cleansed of its called siddhatva. It can be comimpurity of passions (kaşāya). The pared to the anupādise sa-nibbāna

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Versified Summary 39
of the Buddhists, ignoring the negative interpretation that is imposed on the concept by scholars, ancient as well as modern.
5. Free from desires all, Enduring misfortunes,
resigned; The power of clairvoyance he
gets, Engaged in penance and self
possessed.
6.
III. VERSIFIED SUMMARY
The account of the ten stages of the concentrated mind is followed by seventeen ślokas (verses) that contain the summary of the chapter. In consideration of their lucid style and the importance of their contents as giving a complete view of the nirgrantla discipline, we are tempted to attempt a versified rendering of them :
With coloration by austerities
made clean, Shines bright his intuition
pure; Above, below and in front, Does his clear intuition
spread.
1. With mind pure and
passionless, And deeply in meditation
engrossed; Firm in righteousness with
doubts gone, The joy of nivvāņa one
achieves.
7. With coloration restrained in
full, And free from discursive view; Liberated from bondage clean, His soul the mental phases
does know.
8. When the coating over
knowledge, Vanishes in full; The victor does know, The cosmos and a-cosmos too.
2.
With the recollection of lives
past, Never for this world he longs; The highest state of the self, Perceives he in memory deep.
9. When the coating over
intuition, Vanishes in full; The victor does intuit, The cosmos and a-cosmos too.
3. Dreams true forthwith he
dreams, Restrained fully as he is; Crossing the ocean of samsāra
of camsara
soon, Releases himself from suffering
10. When by intensive penance
pure, Freed is he from delusions all; The entire cosmios and
a-cosmos too, Intuits he, restrained in full.
all.
Taking abode in wilderness, And meditating in loneliness; With scanty diet, self
restrained, Gets vision of deities soon.
11. As when pricked on the crest,
A palm-tree dies; So do the karmas wither,

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40 Cittasamâhitthâņas
departs.
When delusion departs for
good.
12. As when the commandant is
killed, The army does flee; So do the karmas vanish, When delusion has for ever
gone.
15. As of the seeds burnt up,
Sprouts do never come; So of the karmic seed decayed, Sprouts of samsāra do never
spring.
13. As fire smokeless,
Is extinct with fuel exhausted; So do the karmas decay, When delusion for ever departs.
16. Relinquishing the body gross,
And the name and status; Also tearing up the life-span
and suffering, Pure he becomes, the Perfect
One.
14.
As a tree with roots dried up, Grows not even though
watered; So never rise the karmas, When delusion for ever
17. Thus enlightened, O long-lived
one, And with mind concentrated; Following the stairs pure, Purity does the soul attain.
References 1 Mabāvagga, p. 13. 2 I. 48. 3 Mahāvagga, p. 71. 4 Yogadarśana, II. 39. 5 Ibid, III, 18. 6 Thäņam, X, 103. 7 Anguttara Nikaya, II, p. 480. 8 I. 38. 9 II. 44.
10 III. 32. 11 Digha Nikaya, I, p. 72. 12 III. 36. 13 Dĩgha Nikaya, I, p. 70. 14 III. 19. 15 IV. 67ab. 16 Digha Nikāya, 1, p. 73. 17 III. 53-54.

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IX
THE FOUR MONASTIC COURSES
The monastic course begins with the renunciation of the world and acceptance of the five great vows, and continues till the end of life without any break. There are rules of monastic life that are to be strictly followed and any breach of them is duly expiated. The monastic course is essentially unitary and single. But it can be distinguished, in its aspect of intensiveness, into several stages that are, from one view-point, four in number. These are known as (1) the Elder's Course (sthavira-kalpa), (II) the Victor's

The word 'elder' (sthavira) is used in the sense of a 'cenobite', i.e., a monk who lives in a 'stem' (gaccha) or a group (gana). The cenobites fall into five categories: (i) preceptor (ācārya), (ii) teacher (upadhyāya), (iii) monk (bhikṣu), (iv) 'senior' (sthavira), and 'junior' (kṣullaka).2
The course of the elders is described under eight main heads viz. (I) initiation and ordination (pavvajjā, Skt. pravrajyā), (II)
Course (jina-kalpa), (III) the Purificatory Cooperative Course (parihāra-viśuddhi-kalpa), and (IV) the Time-bound Course (yatha-landakakalpa). The Victor's Course is formulated in imitation of the one followed by Lord Mahāvīra himself, as recorded in the Ayaro.1 The Elder's Course is designed in view of the limitations of ordinary human beings, the final end, however, being the Victor's Course. In between these two lie the other two courses. A brief account of the the four courses is attempted here..
I
STHAVIRA-KALPA
or
The Course of the Elders
training (sikkhapaya, Skt. śikṣāpada), (III) comprehension of meaning (atthagahana, Skt. arthagrahana), (IV) life of a wanderer (aniyaavāsa, Skt. aniyatavāsa), (IV) consummation (nipphatti, Skt. nişpatti), (VI) itinerary (vihāra), (VII) deportment (sāmāyārī, Skt. sāmācārī), and (VIII) essential features (thii, Skt. sthiti).3
A brief account of these heads is given below, showing the main features of each head.

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42 The Four Monastic Courses
I. Initiation and Ordination (Pravrajya).4
There are two categories of pupils, viz. (i) those who spontaneously (abhisamecca, Skt. abhisametya) accept initiation, and (ii) those who need inspiration and instruction (socca, Skt. śrutvā) from an ācārya. Occurrence of an event such as the memory of the past lives leading to spontaneous renunciation of the world is called abhisamagama, which sometimes takes place without any apparent
cause.
It is the duty of the acarya to attract his audience to the following ways of religious life strictly according to priority:
(i) Yati-dharma: the monastic
(iv) Madya-māmsa-virati: abstinence from alcoholic drinks and non-vegetarian food.
(v) Virati-phala: the merits of abstinence.
(iv) Nava-nava-samvega: ever growing fear of worldly life.
(v) Nikkampaya (nişkampatā): steadiness of faith and austerity
way.
(ii) Śraddha-dharma: the way of including self-discipline and selfthe lay devotee.
control.
(iii) Samyag darśana cultivation of right faith.
(vi) Tava (tapas) twelvefold penance.
(vii) Nijjara (nirjara): acceleration in shaking off the karmic
matter.
(viii) Paradesiyattam (Skt. paradeśikatva-mārgadeśikatva): enhancement of competence in attracting pupils to the right path.8
The acārya incurs offence in case he does not observe the order of priority.5
II. Training (Sikṣāpada).
The next duty of the acarya is to train the disciple in the scripture (grahaṇa-sikṣā), and the deportment (asevana-sikṣā). It appears that at the time of the author of the Brhatkalpa-Bhāṣya the disciples preferred to remain satisfied
with asevana-sikṣā only, the grahaṇa-sikṣā being more or less ignored. This is evident from the lengthy discussion of the necessity and merits of grahaṇa-sikṣā in the Bhāṣşya. The following eight special merits of training in the scripture are given? :
(i) Ayahia (Skt. atmahita): welfare of the self.

(ii) Pariņņā (Skt. parijñā): (a) jña-parijñā-cultivation of knowledge, and (b) pratyākhyāna-parijña-cultivation of renunciation.
(iii) Bhāva-samvara: practice of spiritual self-restraint consequent upon the knowledge of the scrip
ture.
III. Comprehension of Meaning (Arthagrahana).9
A period of twelve years was prescribed for the study of the scripture (sutra-grahana), and another period of twelve years for understanding the meaning of the scriptural texts.10 The pupil here learns to distinguish the varieties of

Page #75

the sutras such as (i) samjñā-sūtrascontaining the technical words, (ii) svasamaya-sutras-concerned with one's own doctrines, (iii) para-samaya-sutras concerned with alien doctrines, (iv) utsarga-sutras-concerning the general rules of conduct, (v) apavāda-sūtras-concerning the exceptions to the general rules of conduct, (vi) hīnākṣara-sutras-containing lacunae of syllables, (vii) jinakalpika-sutras - concerned with the Victor's Course, (viii) sthavirakalpika-sutras-concerned with the Elder's Course, (ix) āryāsūtras - concerned with the nuns, (x) kāli ka-sutras concerned with time, past or future, (xi) vacanãdi-sūtra-concerned with the grammatical number, gender, etc. 11
IV. Life of a Wanderer (Aniyatavāsa),12
After fully mastering the scriptural texts and their meaning, a monk is to travel throughout the length and breadth of the country familiarizing himself with the flora and fauna, and the geographical conditions,13 and the different dialects of the different regions, which are likely to throw light on vocabulary employed in the scriptural texts.14 Moreover, wide travelling gives him an opportunity to verify the contents of the scriptural texts depicting the life and culture of the people in the different parts of the country. Mere knowledge of the scripture is compared to the experience of a person born blind, while the verification of the scriptural descriptions as actually lived by the

Sthavira-Kalpa 43
people is like the achievement of vision for the first time by the blind.15
The merits of visits to the different countries are:
(i) Purification of the faith (damsanasohi): On account of the direct acqaintance with the place hallowed by the occurrence of different important events, such as the birth, renunciation, enlightenment, first sermon, and emancipation (nirvana) of the tirthankaras and other eminent personages (salākāpurusas), the faith is purged and intensified (agāḍha).16
(ii) Confirmation (sthirikaraṇa) of the faith of the followers, the devotees, and the people at large.17
(iii) Efficiency in regional languages (desa): The visits enable the monk to learn different dialects and propagate his religion among the people of the different regions through their own dialects, and attract them to the Order. 18
(iv) Development of Extraordinary Personality (aisesa-Skt. atisaya)19: During the visits to different places, the monk gets an opportunity to develop his knowledge and power of expression, and influence people, who, as a result, imbibe faith in the extraordinary powers of the ācārya. These extraordinary powers fall into three categories: (a) those pertaining to the scripture and its meaning (sutrarthātiśaya), (b) those pertaining to deportment (sāmācārīatisaya), and (c) supernatural powers through cultivation of vidyās or the occult sciences. The third category comprising supernatural powers is

1

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44
The Four Monastic Courses
sometimes considered as falling attract able monks and nuns to his under the first category and thus own Order. On account of his the number of these categories is successful exertion for the prospereduced to two.
rity of his Order, he is installed as (v) Geographical knowledge in- an ācārya on his return from the cluding flora and fauna (janapada- travels. His mature experience is parikṣā)20 : During his wide travels, now fruitful. Now if he is asked the monk gets an opportunity to by his teacher to make journeys to acquaint himself with the social different parts of the country, he is activities of the people and all able to get the assistance of his other aspects of their life, habits new disciples whom he admitted and customs, sources of mainte- during his past travels to those nance of life, and so on.
places.
(ii) Stabilization of the Order V. Consummation (Nispatti).21
(Sthirikarana)24 : Now, for stabiThe consummation is discussed lizing the Order, he properly trains under the following four heads : his disciples in the scriptural lore
(i) Admission of Disciples (Upa- (grahaņa-śikṣā) and rules of monassampadā)22 : During his visits, the tic conduct (äsevana-śikṣā). Under monk (would-be ācārya) succeeds this head, self-estimation and estiin attracting inquisitive people who mation of the followers are also would like to learn the scripture
considered. Along with the consiand its meaning from him. He
deration of the needs of the Order, develops such abilities that people
such as food and outfit, the ācārya flock to him, attracted by his great
is also required to assess his own qualities and traits. The ācārya
ability to sustain the Order in does never speak of himself, but
times of famine and other natural his intrinsic merits spontaneously
calamities. He has to safeguard attract people. because it is the his Order against the moral and nature of such merits to shine spiritual lapses of himself and the bright without any external effort. members of the Order. The Order Those merits are like gems that is also to be acquainted with all are mute and silent, but are esti- possibilities of adverse situations, mated at millions (of rupees) by
and trained in facing such circumsexpert jewellers.23 By dint of the tances with patience and forbeaexcellence of his knowledge and
rance strictly in accordance with conduct, he attracts monks and the rules of monastic conduct, as nuns of other stems to his own fold. far as possible. This is called upasampadā. During (iii) Discrimination in Imparting his travels, he also gets oppor. Knowledge (Padicchuņā): The ācārya tunity, at religious celebrations and should, at this stage, discriminate meetings of monks and nuns, to between the samvigna (genuinely demonstrate his learning, and thus detached from the world) monks

Page #77

and others (such as pārsvastha, i.e., prone to laxity, and the like). To the former, he should impart knowledge of the scripture, and cultivation of faith in the discipline and also give training in the rules of conduct; but to the latter, he should impart only the training in the rules of conduct, and desist from imparting knowledge of the scripture. The reason seems to be that those who are not genuinely detached from the world should be asked to observe the monastic rules and cultivate proper behaviour in consonance with the requirements of the Order. In case they do not conform to the monastic standard, they should forthwith be expelled from the Order.
The Order consisted of the samvignas and the pārsvasthas. The pärsvasthas were again of two kinds: (i) initiated by another parśvastha, and (ii) initiated by a samvigna. The samvignas again fell into two categories, viz. (i) samaņunna (identical with sambhogika), and (ii) asamaṇunna.25
The monk initiated by the parsvastha is subject to alocana with effect from the date of initiation. There were also monks who were originally initiated by the samvigna, but later, on account of lapses, fell down (avasanna) to the level of pārsvastha. Such monks are called samvigga-puraṇa (Skt. purāṇa-samvigna). They are subject to alocană (confession) from the date of their fall.
As regards samvigna, who falls into two categories, viz. samaṇunna

Sthavira-Kalpa 45
and asamaṇunna, the rule is that if he has deserted his own stem, he is to be subjected to alocană from the date of his desertion, and after com-plete purification through proper expiation, such as tapas (austerities), cheda (cutting down of the standing), or mula (re-initiation), he is to be reinstated in the sāmācārī of the stem, called 'Cakravāla'.
(iv) Training in Scripture and Its Meaning (Vacanā)26: After they have learnt the cakravāla sāmācārī in full, the disciples are to be trained in the scripture and its meaning. The ācārya should warn them again and again against the lapses in sāmācārī prescribed for the gaccha and any kind of non-vigilance, but he should always be moderate in warning, and never aggressive.27 But if the monks were found to be recalcitrant and disobedient, they should be expelled with utmost caution (nicchuvaṇā, Skt. niṣkāsanā),28
VI. Itinerary (Vihara).
Unlike that of the practitioners of the Victor's Course29 the itinerary (Vihara) of the elders is unrestricted (apratibaddha) in respect of numerical strength, place, etc.,30 and may be discussed in detail under the following heads:
(i) Time (Kāla): The itinerary. commences at the end of the rainretreat (varṣāvāsa) on the first day. of Margasirṣa under usual circumstances, and continues for eight months. It may commence earlier or may also be delayed in special cases.31

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46
The Four Monastic Courses
(ii) Place (Kşetra) : Proper sur that of the preceptor. If, on being vey of the place is necessary before properly asked, a disciple does not commencing the itinerary. The pre- give a complete and correct inforceptor should consult his stem mation about the place being con(gaccha) or group (gana) before sidered for itinerary, he is guilty of sending monks for the survey work an offence punishable by a light(kşetra-pratyupekşana). Various monthly- penance (māsa-laghu), and expiations32 have been prescribed the whole responsibility of any for the non-fulfilment of this con- inconvenience caused to the group dition.
or the stem falls on him. The preceptor should take In other words, the preceptor advantage of the experience of the and his disciples and guest monks experts in his stem and get the should share the responsibility places covered by the itinerary duly ic surveyed. In the absence of proper
(ii) Inspection Party (Pratyusurvey in advance, his party may
peksakāḥ): For the purpose of surface obstructions like thieves, fero
vey, the inspection parties consisting cious beasts, mosquitoes and insects,
of seven, five, or three monks famines, trials and tribulations,
should be constituted and despatcalamities and misfortunes, and so
ched in different directions. Those on. The places included in his
who are experienced in survey work itinerary may be inhabited by un
proceed on their duty with the percivilized people (mleccha) or un
mission of their Head (ganāvucchechaste women in the garb of nuns
daka). In the absence of such ex(tāpasi). The preceptor should consult both his own disciples and
perts, the Head himself should
proceed. The following are unfit the guest monks (padicchaga) who
for the survey work : (a) attendant might be there at that time, because otherwise he may hurt their feel
(vaiyārsttyakara), (b) novice (bāla), ings, and create dissension that may
(c) old (vrddha), (cl) mortifier (kha
maja, Skt. kşapaka), (e) monoharm his plan of itinerary. In brief,
maniac, such as a book-worni, it is the duty of the preceptor to
(vahamta=Skt. Jogarāhin), and () consult all the monks and nuns, irrespective of their age and monas
non-adept (agītārtha). tic standing, treating the whole Only the adept (gītārtha) discistem or group as one well-knit ples should be engaged in the surorganization. Any kind of discri- vey work. But in the absence of mination in the act of consulting such experts, any among the above on the part of the preceptor was six in order of priority beginning considered an offence that was from the last mentioned, may be penalized by light-monthly-penance commissioned. Such selection on (māsa-laghu).
the part of the ācārya obliges The responsibility of the disci- him to observe different kinds of ples in this matter is not less than penances.

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Sthavira-Kalpa 47
Thus, if he is compelled to of the novices or the physically commission an attendant or a infirm monks should be supplemennovice or an old monk, he has to ted respectively by experienced observe heavy-four-monthly penance and physically strong ones (cauguruka), whereas in the case of (vrsabha).35 the last three, viz. mortifier, mono- This procedure of despatching maniac, and the non-adept, he has surveyors in different directions to observe “light-monthly-penance" makes separate provisions for the (laghu-māsa). The reason is that monks living in the stem (gacchathe absence of such monk from the vāsī), and the monks practising Order causes some disadvantages, the Time-bound Course attached such as difficulty in begging food to stem (gaccha-pratibaddha-yathāand medicine for the ailing monk Tandika). The stem should desin the absence of attendants, or the patch at least three monks in one assistance (though illegitimate) of direction, while the latter (i.e., the deities or the common men in the gaccha - pratibaddha - yathālandika) absence of the mortifier whom the only two in one particular direcdeities and the common people tion. As regards the remaining might favour, and so on. Likewise three directions, it is the responsithere are many a disadvantage like bility of the Head of the stem to inefficiency on the part of such send surveyors in the other three commissioned monks on account directions for the stem itself and of their physical infirmity or intel- the yathālandika group.36 lectual immaturity or unilateral (iv) Survey (Pratyupekşana) : interest, and the like 33
The duties of the survey parties inThe above-mentioned six types cluded a survey of proper places of monks should be given specific for easing nature (sthandila), faciinstructions before being commis- lities of drinking water, resting sioned. For instance, the non- places, availability of alms-food, the adept should be given proper ins intermediate short distance resting truction in the deportment prescri- places, climate, the route of the bed in the Ogha-Niryukti (i.e.,ogha- itinerary, and such other matters.37 sāmācārī).31 If a non-adept is not The members of the yathālanavailable, the mono-maniac (vaha- dika parties followed their daily inta) should be advised to give up his routine as usual, whereas others angularities and mania before being did not engage themselves in study, despatched on duty. In his absence but collected food from a nearby a mortifier is to be asked to give village. The latter do their Survey up his mortifictory practices. As work in the afternoon, which incluregards the attendants, they should ded occupation of an abode, perforbe asked to leave a complete mance of the daily duties (āvaśyaaccount of the pivotal families ka), and evening study, and resting (sthāpanā-kulāni) specially devoted and sleeping for two quarters. Opto the Order. Similarly the party tionally, instead of sleeping, they

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48 The Four Monastic Courses
might continue their study or meditation till morning. At the end of the first half quarter of the day, the group went out on the begging tour. This exceptional case of begging in the forenoon is defended on the ground that the newcomers should cultivate acquaintance with the families of the almsgivers and ascertain the availability of suitable abodes for the Order that might include the place in their itinerary. Such begging can be done also in the middle and the last quarters of the day for the aforesaid purpose, and also to ascertain the availability of yoghurt, milk, butter, molasses, porridge (khira), etc., for the infant (ataraṇa), ailing, decrepit, mortifier, and guest monks.38
It is interesting to note in this connection that the alms-giving families were differently designated in respect of their faith or absence of it in the monastic Order. Thus the expression dina-śraddha stood for the families which were by nature inclined to offer alms to the Order. Similarly, abhigama-śrāddha stood for those families that practised aṇuvratas, samyaktva-śrāddha for the people who were established in the fourth guṇasthāna called avirata-samyagdṛsti. There were families that professed wrong faiths (mithya-drṣṭi-kulāni), and again, families called māmāka who prohibited the entrance of monks in - their houses; again there were those called aciyatta, who were unsympathetic towards the monks. It was the duty of the survey party to distinguish such families for the

purpose of the itinerary of the Order to particular places.39
As regards the selection of abodes (upāśraya), the rule was that the abodes that were built or repaired or reconditioned for the Nirgrantha Organizations or for the śramaņas in general, were not considered acceptable. In those days, the śramana community comprised the Tapasas (hermits), the Sakyas (Buddhists), the Parivrajakas (wanderers), the Ajivikas (the followers of Gośālaka), and the Nirgranthas (i.e., the Jaina monks and nuns).40
Regarding the location of the abode, it is explained with reference to the different parts of a bull lying down facing east and inclined towards the left. If the abode was located at (the space occupied by) the horns, it was likely to be a source of quarrels; if at the feet, there would be lack of stability; if at the rectum, there was the likelihood of abdominal disorder (puttaroga); if at the tail, there was the likelihood of eviction; if at the mouth (throat), there would be abundance of food; if at the head or the hump, there would be abundance of outfit, reception, and worship; if at the shoulder or the neck, there would be rush of incoming monks and nuns; if the abode was selected at the space occupied by the abdomen, the order would enjoy all amenities in their fullness (dhāya, Skt. dhrāta),41
As far as possible, the abode should he selected outside the village in a caitya of a temple (devakula). If such abode was not available, an abode inside the village

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Sthavira-Kalpa 49
might be selected with the permi- (v) Guest Monks : Great care ssion of the owner.42 For the us- was taken for the comforts of the able (prāyogya) equipments such guest monks. If there was no as cot, mat, spittoon, etc., and the accommodation, an even number use of the spots of the abode for of monks could be transferred to easing oneself, washing robes, and other abodes to accommodate the so on, express permission was need guests. But if the abode was eared. In the absence of an express marked in advance for particular permission, it would be taken as monks, the guest monks were appimplied, on the analogy of the rised of the fact. But if, in spite example of hospitality (bhojana- of such apprising, the guest monks drstānta), which automatically continued to occupy the abode, included all aspects of lodging and they were liable to a light-monthly boarding.43
penance (laghu-māsika). 47 As regards the owner's query (vi) Selection of Site for Cemeabout the duration of the stay, no tery: Another important part of
te answer was to be given, or the survey work was the selection
decision could be left to the of cemetery (mahästhandila). Malaowner himself or the ācārya, accor- yagiri48 here mentions that selecding to the circumstance, though tion of a suitable place for disposal ordinarily the duration was only of dead bodies was an important one month. The numerical strength item of town planning in those of the monks was to be kept inde- days. In fact, the planning started finite by comparing the function of with such selection as the first the ācārya to that of the ocean item. which constantly expands and con- As regards the location of the tracts and has the capacity to acco- cemetery, the following diagram mmodate all that may seek shelter. will illustrate their directions in There are, however, expiations order of priority : prescribed for the unauthorized use of the equipments,44 and also for defining the duration of the stay, or the numerical strength of the monks in advance.45
If the owner himself happened to select the particular monks for stay or propose a particular number irrespective of who those monks were, that was tantamount to lack of permission. Monks should not accept such abode under ordinary circumstances. But if no other
4 suitable abode was available, they could use such abode 46
NW
Sh

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50 The Four Monastic Courses
The results of selection of these particular abode being used by directions for the cemetery are other parties of monks who might respectively as follows:
be in urgent need of that abode. In
both such cases, the members of the SW1 Abundance of food and survey party incur offences, such as
the consequent atmos- blameworthy command (ājñādayaḥ phere of tranquillity and doşāh) expiable by a light-monthly peace.
penance.51 S2 Paucity of food and drink. On the completion of the survey
3 Theft of equipments. work, two members of the party SE4 Mutual bickerings, and returned to the ācārya, and submit
the resultant chaos. ted their report confidentially to NW5 Disputes and quarrels. him in the night, so that nobody E Dissension and split in else might overhear. Such precauthe organization.
tion was taken in order to avoid Ny Health hazards.
controversy (asamkhada=kalaha) NE; Fatal misfortunes.
that might arise in favour or against
the selection of a particular place Random selection of sites for or abode. The reporter incurs cemetery led to bad consequences offence, if he divulges the report to mentioned above, and they (survey others, which is expiable by a lightparty) incur penance of the category monthly-penance.52 of "Four-months' uncommuted”
(ix) Selection of Abode : It is (caturmāsa-anudghāta), and also the
the prerogative of the ācārya to faults concerned with command
decide upon the selection of the (ājñā), etc., and disservice (vira
place, keeping in view the amenities, dhanā) to the Order 49
specially facilities for the obser**(vii) Abodes for Time-bound
vance of the daily routine of study, Penance : The abodes selected by
meditation, etc., and the availability the above-mentioned survey party
irty of alms at proper time. Different
of al are generally not suitable for the
monks may like different places observers of the Time-bound
according to their personal interests Penance (yathālandika), because of
such as availability of delicious the latter's specific and special
food, or better opportunity for conrules of begging alms and selection
ducting recitation of the scripture, of abodes that are not subject or devoting themselves to the deep to repair, reconditioning, etc.50
understanding of it, and so on. The (viii) Return of Survey Party : acārya, however, has to keep in As a general rule, the survey party view the overall interests of the should not make any commitment organization and strict observance as to their return to the places sur- of the rules prescribed.53 Here, the veyed, because such commitment ācārya is guided by the example of may not be fulfilled for various cau- the donkey (cuuthassa) that, if ses, or may stand in the way of the overfed, would jump and break the

Page #83

earthenware, and if underfed, would become too weak to carry them.51 Special care of health is prescribed for a monk above fifty-five, who may need special food to preserve his health. For the old and convalescing monks, suitable places (other than the place selected for the whole Order), in accordance with their convenience, were selected, and they were put in charge of an adept (gītārtha) monk. The convalescing monks were recalled after their full recovery which might take 5, 10 or 15 days.55
(x) Departure from Abode : While leaving the abode, proper permission of the house-owner was necessary; otherwise a light-monthly-penance (laghuka-mäsa) was to be observed as expiation.56 This permission was considered necessary as a popular custom and expression of gratitute. Departure from place without informing the owner might also entail suspicion in the mind of the house-owner and also the neighbours. Non-observance of such customary duties was calculated to have an adverse effect on the future of the Order. The departure of the Order should not be too abrupt to cause suspicion in the minds of the people of the place or any member of the house-owner's family. Nor should the date of departure be divulged in advance to prevent dislocation of the routine programme of the people and their indulgence in carnivals (pāhudia, Skt. prabhṛtikā) to celebrate the occasion.57
(xi) Procedure for Seeking Permission: In order that the depar

Sthavira-Kalpa 51
ture did not appear too abrupt, it was necessary to keep the houseowner and the local people aware that the survey parties had been despatched and the Order was waiting for their report. The conditions favourable for departure should also be impressed upon them gradually, so that they might be psychologically prepared for the day of the farewell. And on the eve of the departure, the house-owner should be entertained with religious stories, which could result in his prayer for conferring ordination on him, or accepting him as a lay devotee partially observing the vows (anuvratin or deśa-virata), or his being confirmed in right faith (darśana-śrāddha) that is an equivalent of the fourth gunasthāna (avirata-samyagdṛṣṭi) or at least becoming an admirer of the Order, desirous of offering his services to it.
(xii) Time of Departure: As regards the exact hour of departure, it would depend on the distance to be covered. Ordinarily, the Order moves after the first two quarters of the day. But depending on the distance, the itinerary may start at the end of the first quarter or during the first quarter itself after inspection (pratilekhana) of the outfit, or immediately after or even before the sunrise,58 if the distance was too long, and the Order was likely to suffer from thirst, fatigue, and other privations. But if any particular monk, khagguda 'drowsy or sluggish or punctilious', was unwilling to violate the rule, he might be allowed to start

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52 The Four Monastic Courses
later on, having been apprised of the destination.
The date and time of departure are fixed considering the lunar days (tithi), such as nandā, bhadrā, etc., the astrological divisions (karaṇa) of the day such as bava, bālava, etc., and the constellations (nakṣatra) that are favourable to the leader of the Order. The advance party consists of the adept (gitärtha) monks, who were capable of reading the omens.59
At the time of departure, the ācārya should appreciate the services rendered by the house owner, and encourage him for further services to the Order. The other monks should pack up their outfit behind a curtain (cilimili),60 set up for the sake of privacy. The transport of the outfit should be entrusted to physically strong monks, sparing as far as possible the infant, old, and ailing monks, allowing the latter to carry their own usual minimum (ahājāyam) outfit.61 In the Order there were usually some predetermined (abhigrahika) monks who were used to carry the excess outfit of the infant, old, and sick monks.62
(xiii) Expiation for Overstay: On the itinerary the Order could halt at a suitable place for the prescribed period of one day only, and penance was prescribed for any overstay, with which increased the length of the stay.63 Six gradually intensive kinds of penance (tapaḥ)64 are prescribed for the halts of two to seven days; for a halt beyond seven days, the expiations called cheda, múla, anavasthā

pya and pārāñcika were prescribed for stays of 8, 9, 10 and 11 days respectively.65
According to some texts, a harsher punishment was prescribed for such overstays. The harshness of the punishment varies directly with the status of the monk. For instance, for a similar overstay, "heavy four-monthly-penance" is prescribed for the ācārya, "light one-monthly-penance" for a bhikṣu (ordinary monk),66
The chief reason for this punishment was the probable inconvenience caused to the house-owner at the next stay, and to the Order itself on account of the sudden change in the schedule of pre-arranged itinerary. In addition, such overstay could result in the Order's undue attachment to the place or people of the locality.67
(xiv) On Arrival: On reaching the destination, the adept should read the omens while entering the abode, exactly as he did at the time of departure from the previous place. A senior member of the advance survey party should greet the ācārya who should then express his appreciation of the house-owner for offering residence to the Order.68
(xv) Maryādā or Sāmācārī 'Deportment' The first item now is the allotment of space to the monks according to their seniority. For the ācārya, three apartments called nivāta (unbreezy), pravāta (breezy), and niväta-pravata (unbeeezy-cumbreezy) were reserved, and for other monks, proper accommoda

Page #85

Sthavira-Kalpa
5:3
etc. 69
tion was allotted strictly according pride, deceit' and greed (koha-māņato seniority. The Order was now máyā-lohilla), peeper (kouhala) and made acquainted with the wishes of studious (padibaddha) monks should the house-owner in respect of the never be sent to the pivotal place for the sick monks, the site families.73 For, the indolent and for easing oneself, washing pots, drowsy monk, if they reached there place for study and meditation earlier, would incur the blemish of
virähaņš (Skt. virådhanå)-disser(xvi) Sthăpanā : The next item vice to the ācārya, etc., because of importance was sthāpanā, i.e., they would not be able to get the acquaintance with the families required material; and in case they according to their devotion to the reached there late, they would incur Order, falling under the categories the blemish of ussakka (Skt. utşvaşmentioned before.70 The item is kana), i.e., late cooking, because in called sthāpanā, because the adept that case the food would be cooked monks properly point out (vyavas- for them after the usual time; and thāpayanti) the families that were they would also be responsible for to be approached or avoided for the blemish of (thavaņā, Skt. sthāthe purpose of alms.71 This act panā) - storing food beforehand. In fell within the duties of the mem
the case of a monk going earlier for bers of the survey party. Special alms, there is also the possibility of routes were prescribed for going to not getting anything whatsoever these families for alms. It was
(alābha), and also the almsgiver's only a particular group of adept cooking food earlier avasakka (Skt. monks engaged in special services
avaşvaşkaņa), or getting inferior to the ācārya and old and sick
material that is unhealthy for the monks, who was allowed to go to
ācārya or the sick monks. Again, the pivotal families (sthāpanā-kula).
if the monk was gluttonous, he Such families were known as aisesi
would either serve the ācārya with (Skt. atiśeși), i.e., extraordinarily
cold food, if he collected the food devoted to the Order. The reason
for the ācār ya before collecting the is that the entry of more than one
same for himself, or would incur group for special diet, medicine,
the offence of avaşvaşkaņa, if he etc., could cause annoyance (cama
entered the select families before dhaņā) to the family, resulting in
time. In case he collected food for the non-availability in future of
himself at the outset, he would those articles72 for the ācārya
reach the pivotal families late, and and the old, sick, and the guest
if, in order to avoid this delay, he monks.
collected food from the pivotal (xvii) Monks unfit for Service families before collecting for him(veyāvacca, Skt. vaiyāvsttya) : Indo- self, he would not get sufficient lent (alasa), gluttonous (ghasira), food to fill his own belly, which drowsy (suvira), mortifier (khamaga), would result in chronic (anāgādha) swayed by the passions of anger, or acute (ägādha) ailments (pari

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54 The Four Monastic Courses tāpa).74
sinful both for the alms-giver and Similarly the mortifier and the the monk to give and take what was monks under the sway of the pas- 'impure' (i.e., not in conformity sions would also incur such offen with the basic rules of the scripces for reasons which are obvious. ture). But in circumstances of The mortifier may collect necessary famine and other exigencies, it was alms for his ācārya, and nothing considered positively wholesome to for himself. The monks under the offer or receive what was even no sway of passions may anger the strictly according to the rules, on alms-giver, and thus do harm to his the analogy of alms offered and religious faith. The peeper and accepted for the sick monks.76 studious monks may also incur the The usable (prayogya) food and offences of avaşvaşkaņa and abhis drink fall under two categories : (i) vaşkaņa (=utsvaşkana) as already samcayia (Skt. sañcayika), i.e., explained in the case of the indo- storable, such as ghee, molasses, lent, drowsy and gluttonous atten- sweets, etc., and (ii) asamcayia (Skt. dant monks.
asañcayika), i.e., non-storable such (xviii) Monks fit for service : In as milk, yoghurt, boiled rice, soup, order to avoid all these blemishes etc.. The usables of the first cateand offences, it is necessary that the gory should be accepted only at attendant monk should be free from intervals when unavoidably required all the above-mentioned defects, for the sick and the guests, while and should positively be (a) kada- those of the latter category can yogi (Skt. krtayogin), i.e., experien- be freely accepted for daily use ced and adept, (6) nāya-sīlāyāra from the pivotal families (sthāpanā. (Skt. jñāta-śīlācāra), i.e., well-versed kula).77 in the vows and the cakravāla-sām- (xx) Deportment at Begging of ācāri, (c) gurubhattimā (gurubhakti- Food and Drink (Bhaktapāna-grahane mān), i.e., devoted to the guru, and sāmācāri): The monks should pro(d) vinīta, i.e., modest. These quali- perly consider the following points fications of the attendant monks while going to the alms-giver: are considered very valuable for the (a) The quantity of rice, etc., welfare and prosperity of the Order (davvappamāna) cooked there. because such attendants are capable (b) Counting (ganaņā) the meaof infusing faith in the alms-giver sures of ghee, etc., used there or and also train him in rendering pro- counting of number of persons who per service to monks and nuns, dine there. among whom there can be practi- (c) The salty dainties, conditioners of different intensive cour- ments, etc, or curry (khäria). ses requiring special knowledge on (d) Incensed or flavoured (phothe part of the alms-giver to satisfy dia) with pepper, jiraka (cumin their needs.75
seed), etc.. (xix) Pure and Impure Alms : (e) The proper time (addhā) In the conditions of bounty, it was when alms are available there.

Page #87

under
Only a single party should enter the house, because the entry of more than one party is likely to entail fifteen blemishes of preparation, udgama-dosa (beginning from ādhākarma and ending in anisṛṣṭa, the blemish called ajjhoara (Skt. adhyavapuraka) being included miśrajāta)78. (a-b) Concerning the quantity of the edible, etc., it is laid down that a full meal could be accepted if the food was cooked regularly for a fixed number of ten persons. But a monk is not allowed to go to such families on the next day, because the alms-giver may add some more quantity to the usual one in order to accommodate such monk, and consequently incur the blemish of ajjhoyara.79 But if the food is cooked for an indefinite number of persons, may be ten or even less, irregularly, a monk is permitted to go there for alms everyday without break. (cd) The same rule applies with regard to the salty dainties and dainties incensed with pepper, jiraka (cumin seed) and other condiments. (e) As regards time, it should be strictly observed, because otherwise the blemishes of avaṣvaṣkaṇa and utṣvaşkana may be incurred.
(xxi) Divisions of the Jaina Order and Commensality: The Brhatkalpa Bhāṣya80 gives a very valuable information of the days of its author, regarding the divisions of the Jaina Order into different gacchas (stems). The Bhāṣyakāra characterizes his own gaccha as samvigga (Skt. samvigna) and those of others as asamvigna. Among the samvignas again, there were two

Sthavira-Kalpa 55
branches sāmbhogika81 (commensal) and asāmbhogika (noncommensal).
The samvigna monks should not go to the families entertaining the asamvignas, because fifteen blemishes are likely to be incurred there. In special circumstances, for the sake of the old and the sick monks, one could go to such families and receive alms, provided they were absolutely pure and permissible strictly according to the rules.
In the case of non-commensal samvigna new-comers (āgantuka), the rule is that the pre-settled (vastavya) monks might agree to allow them to go to the pivotal families and sustain themselves by means of accepting residua from unfamiliar houses (ajñātoncha),82
In the case of the pre-settled monks being intolerant, the pivotal families might be equally divided for the purpose of alms among the new-comer gacchas (stems) and the pre-settled ones. But, in case the new-comer gacchas were tolerant, they might take to the prac
tice
of accepting residua from unfamiliar houses (ajñātoñcha), allowing the pre-settled ones to go to the pivotal families.
All the above rules were applicable to the Order of nuns also.
If it were not possible to accommodate the commensal party of new-comers in the same abode, they might be accommodated in a separate abode. In such case, the junior ācārya (avama-ratnādhika) and his party should go to the abode of the senior one to take

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56
The Four Monastic Courses
meal along with him. If any mem- prescribed for the sthavira-kalpa, ber or members of the party of vide the chapter “The Ten either ācāryas were unwilling on Sāmācārīs. account of ill-health or immaturity, The observance of all the ten they were allowed to finish their rules or only a few of them would meal at their own abode, and then depend on the status of the practileaving behind the immature mem- tioner. For instance, the deportbers, others would accompany the ment of tahakkāra is not applicable junior ācārya to the abode of the to the ācārya or the Head of the senior one.
gana or the gaccha as he has not In case, the junior ācārya him- to confirm his faith in any of the self was physically unable to go to instruction or sermon delivered to the senior acārya, or unable to wait others by the subordinate monks. upto that time or there was none In addition to the tenfold sāmā. else competent to give necessary cārī there is another consisting of instruction in deportment or con- 27 items84 that would be described fession (alocanā) to the immature in connection with the practice of members, then the two cāryas the Victor's Course. 85 It, however, might take their meals separately. deserves a brief treatment here so But if the senior ācārya were pleased far as the practitioners of the Elder's to do so, he might go to the abode Course are concerned. of the junior ācārya for the purpose (1) Knowledge of Scripture of the meal (samuddeśārtha).83 (Śruta): The minimum study expec
In case, there were more than ted of the practitioners of the one party of new-comers, the pre- Elder's Course is cultivation of the
eight scriptural matrices (pravacanaexperienced attendant monk (vaiyā māta), viz. five comportments yrttrakara) to accompany his coun- (samitis) and three restraints (gupterpart from the new-comer party or tis) of mind, speech and body. The parties for the purpose of collecting maximum extent is the entire alms. In such case, the experienced scripture including the fourteen monk should reduce proportionately Purvas. 86 his own share of alms in order to (2) Bone-joints (Samhanana): accommodate the new-comers. All the six types of bone-joints are It was generally prohibited to
possible. Forbearance (dhști) may go to the families devoted to asam-
be either strong or weak, 87
he vignas. But in extreme cases of
(3) & (4) Trials and Tribulanecessity for the sick monks, such
lions (Upasarga), Calamities and families could be approached for
Misfortunes (Ātanka): They may food and drink that was worthy of
be able or unable to tolerate them.88 acceptance.
(5) Sufferings (Vedanā) : They VII. Deportment (Sāmācārī)
may or may not be able to tolerate As regards the tenfold sāmācāri them. 89

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Sthavira-Kalpa
57
(6) Numerical Strength (Kati janāh) : The minimum strength of a gaccha is 3, the maximum strength being fixed at 32,000 as was the case with the Order of Rşabhasena, the first ganadhara of the first Tir. thankara, Lord Rşabha.90
(7) Place for Easing oneself (Sthandila) : The first type of stha ndila, viz. anāpātam-asamlokam (i.e., not frequented by people, nor exposed to their sight), is prescribed. In exceptional cases, other types of sthandilas were permissible. 91
(8) Abode (Vasahi): The act of wiping alone was permissible, but
ut in special circumstances possessiveness and reconditioning (or repairing) were also allowed.92
(9) Duration of Stay (Kiyaccira): It could be shortened or lengthened according to circumstances.93
(10)-(19) Easing oneself' to 'How many would stay' (uccūra to ratsyatha kati janāh):94 Considerable relaxations were made in these rules under special circumstances, Malayagiri disposes of all these items by the cryptic statement : 'In all these cases, the prohibition is effective, if there is no special reason for the violation of the rule; that is, in ordinary circumstances, the monks and nuns continue to stay but they may resort to exception if there was any valid reason, with utmost care and caution.95
(20)-(27) 'Begging of Alms' to the 'Victor's Course' (bhiksācaryā to jinakalpa): Similar relaxations are also provided in item nos. 20 to 27.96
VIII. Essential Features (Sthiti)
The general principle in considering the items under the 'Essential Features' is that the restrictions peculiar to the other three courses (kalpas) 97 are not applicable here, inasmuch as the latter are practised only by specially qualified monks who belong to the first or second generation of the tirthankaras (founders, to be precise, the revivers of the religion).
(1)-(11) 'Place of birth,' etc. upto Meditation' (Kșetra upto dhyāna): These are practically the same as in the Victor's Course and can be understood by common sense, with necessary alteration of details that follow spontaneously from the general rules of conduct.
The reader will do well if he goes through pp. 66-69 before reading this dvära of essential features.
(12) Number (Gananā): At the stage of initiation, the minimum number may be nil at a particular time, or one, two or three upto the maximum of 2000 to 9000; and the minimum number of those engaged in practice may be 2000 koți and maximum 9000 koți, 98
(13) Secret Resolve (Abhigraha) : Such resolve pertains to (a) the substance (drovva) substance (dravya), or (b) the place (kşetra), or (c) the time (kāla), or (d) the mode (bhāva).
(a) As regards the substance, the resolve refers to the nature of the food to be accepted and also the mode and the instrument (ladle, etc.) of offer.99
(b) The place refers to the lanes, where the alms-giving houses and families are situated. Such

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58
The Four Monastic Courses
lanes may be visited in movements They are to be understood as comthat are ; (i) straight (rivi), (ii) up prising the other four, viz. (i) śikṣāand down (gatvā pratyāgatikā), panā 'training', (ii) upasthāpanā 'or(iii) zigzag (gomutrikā). (iv) grass- dination', (iii) sambluñjanā 'comhopper-like (patanga-vīthikā), (v) mensalism', and (iv) samvāsanā 'corectangular (pedhā), (vi) semi-rec- habitation'. This is technically called tangular (ardhapedhā), (vii) interna- sacittadravya kalpa, i.e., deportment lly spiral like a conch (abhyantara- in respect of animate beings. All sambuka), and (viii) externally spiral these functions can be transferred like a conch (bahiḥ śambukā), 100 The to other competent ācārya in case resolve about the 'spatial measure of personal inability on account of of the food and the 'houses situa- ill health or other reasons. 104 ted in the village of monk's sojourn (16) Expiation for Mental Indulor any other also fall under the gence (Manasā āpattih) : Unlike the item of 'place’.101
practitioner of the Victor's Course, (c) As regards time, the resolve a monk observing the Elder's is made about the hours of the Course, is exempted from expiation begging round which may be for mental indulgence in sin, techeither usual time, or any time, nically called atikrama.105 The before or after it. The reason reason given is that such monk is in favour of begging before or like the miserable person plunged after the usual time is the avoi- deep in debt, who will never be dance of the inconvenience to the able to repay. If such monk was givers and recipients such as paupers subjected to expiation for every and habitual beggars, and the deme- mental indulgence, there will be no rit of the usual time is the possibi- end of the matter. He is, however, lity of incurring the blemishes rela- liable to the expiations of ālocană ted to the activities of the house- (confession) and pratik ramana holder before and after the act of (retrace).106 giving (purah-karma, paścăt- (17) and (18) Exception (Kärana) karma).102
and Avoidance of Physical and Medi(d) As regards the bhāvābhi- cal Treatment (Nispratikarma): graha, it refers to the various Unlike the observer of the Victor's modes of the giver's movements or Course, 107 the practitioner of the postures that are to be satisfied Elder's Course, in a special circumsstrictly according to the resolve of tance, could deviate from the genethe monk. For instance, if the ral rule and take resort to physical resolve is to receive food from the care and medical treatment. 108 hands of the house-holder who is (19) and (20) Time of Begging weeping or shackled and so on, Food and Departure (Bhaktam panthat is an example of 'bhāvābhi- thāh) : Such exceptions are also graha'. 103
applicable to the case of the time (14) and (15) Initiation (Pravrā- of begging iour, and departure janāanb Tonsure (Mundāpanā): from the place. 109

Page #91

Jina-Kalpa
59
JINA-KALPA
Or
The Course of the Victors
Resolute Conduct and Resolute Victor's Course, (ii) suddhaparihāraDeath
kalpa or Purificatory Cooperative The highest end of monastic
Course, and (iii) yathālanda-kalpa
or life is spiritual elevation and per
Time-bound Course, while fection of the self, and preparation
under the latter come the following
three : (i) bhatta-paccakkhāna or for dying in peace. These ends received proper treatment from Suspension of aliment, (ii) imgini the philosopher-saint Socrates, and
or limited suspension of movement, were also dealt with in the state
and (iii) pāovagamana or peniten
tial death (absolute suspension of ment of Cicero and the great essayist Montaigne who devoted a long
movement). essay to the subject that to philo
1. The Basic Conditions sophize is to learn to die. According to Cicero, "to study philoso- The most essential features of phy is nothing but to prepare one's the Victor's Course is an eremitical self to die.” 110 Socrates, in con- life as distinguished from the life in versation with his friends in prison the cenobitic organization. A conwhile awaiting death, tells them crete knowledge of the principles that “the true votary of philosophy of monastic life and a penetrating is always pursuing death and dying." insight into the nature of truth is He tries to prove to them, by his essential for the aspirant to this action as well as by his words, that form of highest spiritual disci"the real philosohper has reason pline. to be of good cheer, when he is about to die."111
The following are the basic conTwo very significant terms have ditions of initiation into the Vicbeen used to denoie the intensive tor's Course : perfection in physical course of spiritual discipline, each and mental forbearance, power of consisting of three stages. These enduring austerities, and a strong terms are abhyudyata-vihāra and physique capable of bearing all abhyudvata-maraņa, ie., fresolute hardships, and freedom from conduct' and (scriptural prescrip- fear.113 Only the persons possessed tion for ‘resolute death.'112
of these qualities in full are entitled Under the category, represented to leave the monastic organization by the former, fall three intensive and retire into the life of the Victor courses, viz. (i) the jina-kalpa or (jina).

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60 The Four Monastic Courses
I]. Tulanā (Comparative Estimate) undertake the Victor's Course pro
vided he is physically fit to travel Here the Victor's Course starts. and lead a solitary life indepenThis is in fact the counterpart of dently of assistance from anybody the sixth dvāra, called vihāra, of thc else. But if, in spite of the good Elder's Course. The first five dvāras conditions of the vital powers, he mentioned under the Elder's Course finds himself incapable of leading a are common to both the Courses, solitary life on account of his phybeing the basic preliminaries of the sical infumity, he is advised to monastic courses in general.
retire to rddhārāsa 'the monastery Through tulanā or "consider- of old monks'. 114 ation of the pros and cons of such (3) Thirdly, tulană, in its aspect retirement, and a relative estimate of estimation or test of the abilities of its consequence', the aspirant of the possible successor, who is would take the final decision to appointed temporarily on trial to adopt the Victor's Course. Tulanā discharge the duties of an ācārya,115 has a number of aspects :
is concerned with the future of the (1) Firstly, it refers to the offi- monastic organization which should cers who are fit for higher penances. be given the highest priority, if The usual qualification of an as- necessary, by sacrificing one's perpirant to the Victor's Course is the sonal spiritual ambitions. 116 The status and position of the monastic cause of the organization should in officers, viz. ācārya, upadhyāya, pra- no case be allowed to suffer. The vartaka, sthavira, and gaņāvacche- charge of pessimism, fatalism and daka.
escapism levelled against the Indian (2) Secondly, tulanā has refe- monastic Order is thus found to rence to mental and physical abili- have no valid ground. ties of the aspirant. With the (4) Fourthly, the most imporadvancement in spiritual life, there tant precondition of undertaking comes a stage when several avenues an intensive course of penance is of intense spiritual endeavour pre- a penetrating self-estimate (tulanā) sent themselves. But the aspirant in the following five praśasta bhārahas to be very cautious in selecting nâs (wholesome thoughts), 117 i.e. the alternative that is most suitable concrete tests which determine the to him. The condition of health, propriety of leaving the monastic the power of forbearance and the Order for the sake of personal prospects of longevity are to be emancipation : (i) tava, (ii) satta, considered carefully. If it is found (iii) suya, (iv) egatta, and (v) bala. that the vitality is meagre, the as. (i) Tava (Skt. tapas)118 : The pirant is to undertake any one of conquest of hunger and thirst is the three ways of the spiritual pur- the first test, which may consist in suit of death. But if the vital fasting even for a period of six powers are intact and a long life is months at a stretch, if that became clearly envisaged, the aspirant may necessary.

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(ii) Satta (Skt. sattva)119: The second item is the conquest of fear and sleep. For the conquest of fear, the aspirant should practise kayotsarga 'detachment from body and concentration on self' at various places including the cemetery. He should remain vigilant and avoid sleep, thus mostly keeping himself at the stage of the seventh guṇasthāna, called apramatta 'freedom from wakelessness'.
(iii) Suya (Skt. śruta) 120: He should practise the recitation of the scripture with uniform speed and carefulness so that even in the absence of any device for measureing time, he is in a position to measure time by means of the length of the scriptures recited. The implication is that not a single moment should pass unnoticed, and there should be no lapse of vigilance. His familiarity with the contents of the scripture should be deep and penetrating so that the distinction between the self and the faculty of knowledge is obliterated.
It
(iv) Egatta (Skt. ekatva): means complete spirit of renunciation and withdrawl into solitude, isolating oneself from all external relationships, including those with the preceptors and close colleagues.121
(v) Bala (or endurance of upasarga) It stands for the unlimited tolerance of hardships, dissociating oneself completely from all worldly ties, with extraordinary power of forbearance.122 Such hardship may be physical as well as mental. The aspirant starts with
a
strong

Jina-Kalpa 61
physique which gradually, on account of the penances like fasting, is attenuated and becomes weak; but this weakness is compensated by the augmentation of the power of dhrti 'forbearance, tenacity'. In other words, the yogin's mental forbearance varies inversely with the decrease of his physical strength.
This self-assessment (tulana) has two other counterpats, viz., bhāvanā and parikarma.123
III. Bhāvanā (Self-contemplation)
Bhāvanā124 is the practice of self-contemplation leading to the conquest of the senses and passions, and rectification of conduct and activities of mind, speech, and body.125 Bhāvanā, in essence, is the cultivation of the spiritual values for the elimination of the passions.
IV. Parikarma (Purification)
The consummation of self-estimation (tulana) and self-contemplation (bhāvanā) is parikarma, i.e., purification. Parikarma has two concerned aspects: Firstly, it is with the purification of the soul through the conquest of the senses, passions and the rectification of one's conduct, mental and physical. Secondly, at a higher stage of penance, which may be immediately followed by the adoption of the Victor's Course, it is concerned with the reduction of the quantity of outfit and paraphernalia, and suspension of aliment as far as possible through a stricter observance of the rules of begging food, and im

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62 The Four Monastic Courses
posing on oneself secret resolves habitat. He has now to practise (abhigraha) to test one's capacity physical posture of ukkudua (Skt. for the most extreme form of self- utkuțaka squatting) only, and not mortification, finally leading to fas- any other kind. 128 ting upto death technically called, abhyudyata-śāsana or abh yudyata- VII. Adoption of the Victor's Course marana.
Ordinarily the Victor's Course The first aspect of parikarma is is adopted in the presence of a achieved by the five praśasta bhā- tirtharkara or a ganadhara or a yanās126 or tests mentioned above. monk versed in fourteen or ten
In the second aspect of parikar- pūrvas, or in the absence of any of ma out of the four basic necessities these, under a banyan tree or an of life, viz. (i) shelter, (ii) medicine, aśoka tree, or other suitable trees. (iii) outfits such as garments, and Before the adoption of such (iv) food, the aspirant has already Course, a competent ganin who done away with the first two, and has headed the organization tempois now bent upon reducing the last
rarily on trial should be placed in two. Besides the reduction and
charge of the organization. In final elimination of monastic out- case the aspirant himself is not a fits, the most important item of
gamin, the formality of placing parikarma is the begging of food
another ganin in charge would not which is now restricted in various
be necessary. ways, including its quality, by the aspirant. In monastic life one is to VIII. Forgiveness and its Merits be very careful in respect of begg.
Then the aspirant should appro
Then the ac ing food-pindaişaņā. He is now ach the monastic organization for absolutely indifferent about the mutual forgiveness. On the comquality of the food, remaining satis- pletion of the ceremony of forgivefied even with stale and insipid ness, the aspirant is freed from the inferior quality of grains easily emotional thorns and passions. available everywhere. Health is The formality of forgiveness confers now no concern for the aspirant.
six merits, viz. (i) absence of thorns His spirituality sustains him
of deceit, etc., (ii) humility, (iii) illthrough this great spiritual ordeal.
umination of the spiritual path for V. Monastic Outfit (Upakarana)
the practice of others, (iv) freedom
from burden of crimes committed As regards the monastic outfit in the past, (v) solitude on account like robe, bowl, etc., he does not of his isolation consequent upon accept the new ones until the old
forgiveness, (vi) absence of attach
forgiveness. (vil ab ones are out of use and new ones
ment on account of the dissociation are offered. 127
from the Order of disciples. 129
VI. Posture
The aspirant has now no fixed
IX. Admonition to the Successor 130
Before departure, the aspirant

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Jina-Kalpa 63
gives the following admonition to He proceeds alone towards a place his successor :
fit for his monthly resort. He can "You should nourish the orga- travel only upto the end of the nization with enthusiasm according third quarter of the day, and has to to the prescriptions and prohibi- stop wherever he is at that time, tions. You should not mind my without proceeding any further. leaving the organizaton, because this is the traditional way of tea
XII, Deportment (Sāmācārī) chers and disciples, as you have also This is the counterpart of the to leave the organization after seventh dvāra of the Elder's Course. transfer of charge to an able succe- Out of the ten sāmācāris, 132 the ssor in due course.
five, viz. icchākāra, tahakkāra. “You should not fail in your padipucchana, chamdaņā and nimaduty to offer due reverence to your mtaņā, stand excluded for a jinakalseniors in learning and standing, pika (follower of the Victor's and to those worthy of respect. Course), because these are neceYou should also encourage the ssary only when a monk lives in a monks for the performance of aus- society of monks. The remaining terities (tapas), learning the scrip- five are resorted to as and when tures (svādhyāya), and service to necessary in connection with his the organization (vaiyāvsttya) daily duties and association with according to their capacity for the the householders. 133 This number attainment of 'freedom from kar- can be reduced to three, viz. avāsimic bondage' (nirjarā)."
yā, nisīhiyā, and uvasampayā, in
special cases. 134 X. Admonition to other Monks131
In addition to the above ten “Do not belittle your new pon- types of sāmācārī, there are others, tiff on the ground that he is junior called cakravāla that may become or equal in standing, or less learned necessary in the daily routine of the than yourselves, and do not think jinakalpika. Additional rules of that you are not bound to obey conduct are discussed under the his orders and direction on those following twenty-seven heads : 135 grounds. He is now your Head in (1) Knowledge of Scriptures my place and should be duly. hono- (Sruta): The minimum scriptural ured by you on account of his knowledge required of an aspirant superior qualities and abilities. to the Victor's Course is his acquaYou should offer complete obedi- intance with the third vastu (secence and loyalty to him."
tion) concerned with ācāra, in the
ninth Pūrya known as PratyākhXI. Departure
yāna. This is necessary because After giving such admonitions, a study of this text enables the the aspirant for the Victor's Course aspirant to know the proper time leaves the organization with his for undertaking the Victor's outfit, like a bird with its wings. Course. The maximum range of

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64 The Four Monastic Courses
scriptural knowledge of such an aspirant is the study of the ten Purvas in part only, because a complete knowledge of the ten Purvas would rather disqualify him for such undertaking on account of the fact that such an ascetic could effect greater dissociation (nirjarā) of karmic matter through higher services to the dissemination of scriptural knowledge and doing social service.136
(2) Bone - joints (Samghayaṇa, Skt. Samhanana): The aspirant to the Victor's Course should be possessed of a strong physical structure with joints characterized as vajaṛṣabhanārāca samhanana, 137 This gives him the necessary power of forbearance (dhrti) which is of the nature of mental steadiness as unshakable as the wall made of vajra (the material as hard as the diamond or the thunderbolt of Indra),138
(3) Trials and Tribulations (Upasarga): These may occur or may not occur, but the aspirant always has to remain prepared to endure them with equanimity and patience.139
(4) Calamities and Misfortunes (Atanka): These also may arise or not, but the aspirant has always to remain prepared to bear them.140
-
(5) Sufferings (Vedana): This is of two kinds: (i) self-imposed (ābhyupagamiki), being due to the undertaking of the Victor's Course, and (ii) earned (aupakramiki) on account of the past karman. Under the first category are the routine plucking of hair, the austerity of exposure of body to the sun, and

so on; under the second are included various diseases, old age, and other painful sufferings earned due to the past karman.141
(6) Number (Kati janaḥ): There can be only one aspirant living alone,142 without any companion aspirant, as he has to live a solitary life, both physically and spiritually.
(7) Place for easing oneself (Sthandila): This is considered with reference to a place that is frequented or not frequented by people, and that is exposed and not exposed to their sight. The various combinations of these alternatives would give rise to four situations. 143 The only one among these prescribed for the aspirant is a place which is neither frequented nor exposed to sight. Such a place is also suitable for depositing worn - out garments. 144
His excrement is meagre and unbroken (whole) giving no occasion for besmearing the body, on account of his scanty and dry food.145 He never uses any other kind of place for easing himself or depositing his worn-out garments or any other kind of activity, even if he has to stop them for a very long period on account of natural calamities or periods of trials and tribulations. This extreme form of hardship is relaxed in the case of the monastic Course of the Elders.146
(8) Abode (Vasati): The aspirant to the Victor's Course should have no possessiveness to the abode nor should he indulge in any kind of reconditioning it such as painting or embellishing. In the sthavi

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Jina-Kalpa 65
ra-kalpa also this is prohibited, al- secret resolve (vide parikarma) 153 though wiping of the place is per- for food and drink, (23-24) refusing missible for them.147 The aspirant sticky (or oily) and accepting only to the jinak alpa does not plug up non-sticky edibles and drinks, such the holes, nor does he interfere if as dry pulse and gram and gruel.154 the abode is being demolished, nor (25) Avoidance of Ācāmla : He does he close the doors or bolt should avoid acidic and sticky nonthem. The sthavirakalpikas, how- acidic drink and food. 155 ever. can undertake such acts under (26) Avoidance of padimā : He special unavoidable circumstances, avoided the intensive courses of but not out of whim (darpa).148 fasting for month, etc., or penances
(9-15) Kiyaccira-uccăra-praśra- called bhadra, mahābhadra, etc. 156 vana-avakāśa - trnaphalaka-samrakșa- (27) Māsakalpa (Conduct during ņa - samsthāpanā: He does not Monthly Stay) : (a) Division of a accept an abode with any precondi
village or town was made into six tions laid down by the owner, such avenues for the purpose of begging as (9) duration of stay, (10-11) res- so that he could visit any one of triction about the place for easing these each day without any fixed
these each day without a oneself of stool and urine, (12) res
order, in order to be easily able triction in respect of seats, (13) res
not to allow prior knowledge of triction about using straw, wood- his visit to the prospective almspieces, etc., (14) protection of fields
giver, who may unwittingly indulge from being grazed by cattle, and in adhākarma, etc., in respect of (15) repair of dilapidated abode 149
dry or fried food (avagāhima), (16-19) Prābhrtikā-agni-dīpaka- which will remain nútika (unaces avadhāna : He should not take table) for a period of three days.157 abode in a place where (16) sacri
On being asked by a disappoinfices are performed, or (17) a lampted housewife about the reason of is burning, or (18) fire is kindled, not obliging her with acceptance of or (19) he is asked to look after the
food, the ascetic may keep silent
food, the ascetic ma abode. 150
or observe as follows: "Uncertain (20) Vatsyatha kati janāḥ : In indeed are the abodes (and tours) case the house-owner expresses the
of the ascetics, just as those of the least hesitation in offering a place,
bees, cattle, birds, and autumnal he should not accept the offer.
clouds."'158 For, the abode may already be over-crowded, and the owner may
(b) The reason of such division fsel embarrassment in allowing
is that the jinakalpika has to repeat hint to stay. 151
his visit to the first vithi (avenue) (21-24) Bhikṣācaryā-pānaka-lep- on the seventh day. 159 aleja-(alepa): This is concerned (c) At the same village or town, with going out for begging food
there can sojourn seven jinakalpior drink and acceptance of them, from a smeared hand or pot.152
kas in the maximum. No two jina(21-22) He goes out for begging in kalpikas should visit the same vithi the third quarter of the day with a (avenue) simultaneously. This is

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66 The Four Monastic Courses
a rule to be rigidly observed. They divisions, there being only four out do not converse with each other. of six, viz. suşama-suşama, suşama,
suşama-duşama and duşama-suşma,164 XIII. Essential Features (Sthiti)
apportioned according to the Now we come to what is the regions. Specifically speaking, the counterpart of the eighth dvāra fourth division occurs in the regi(head) of the Elder's Course called ons of the Mahāvideha, and there sthiti (essential features), which is only the jinakalpika can be born explained under 20 subheads : 160
and adopt and practise the Course. (1) Kșetra (Place of birth and There are, however, exceptions in place of adopting and practising the respect of the regions and the diviintensive conduct of the Victor's sions of time-cycle, so far as the Course): Both these places should adoption and the practice are conbe situated in any of the karma- cerned. Suppose a would-be jinabhūmis. 161 So far as the latter (the kalpika is born in the Mahāvideha, place of adopting and practising) but is carried away by some divine is concerned, it may take place agency to another region where the outside the karmabhūmis, in the cir- divisions of time-cycle may be diffcumstance of the aspirant's being crent. In that case, the adoption carried away outside the karma- and the practice are possible in all bhūmis by some god (sāharuņa, Skt. the six divisions, according to the Samharana). 162
circumstance.165 (2) Kāla (Time of birth, adop
(3) Căritra (Monastic Stages) : ting and practising jinakalpa): His
There are five monastic stages, viz. birth and adopting are necessarily
(i) sāmāyika 'initiation', (ii) chedoin the third or the fourth ara (divi
pasthāpanīya 'ordination or confirsion) of the avasarpiņi (descending)
mation', (iii) parihāraviśuddha 'intime-cycle, while his practice may
tensive conduct of Purificatory continue into the fifth division. In
Cooperative Course' (iv) sūksmathe utsarpiņi time-cycle, the posi
samparāya 'the stage where the rise tion is just the reverse. In other
of subtle passions only is possiwords, the birth is possible in the
ble' (which is identical with the second, third, and fourth divisions,
tenth gunasthāna),166 and (v) yawhile the adopting is possible only
thākhyāta the highest state of in the third and the fourth division.
monastic life' 167 The adoption and practice are not possible in the second division, be- An aspirant established in the cause the monastic Order (tirtha) first or the second monastic stage is itself has not come into existence qualified to adopt the Victor's in that division, as it is possible Course.168 The tradition says that only in the third. 163
the second stage was introduced by In the Jain cosmography, there Lord Mahā vīra for the first time, are regions where avasarpiņi and and it was prevalent in the times utsarpini do not occur in all their of Rsabha as well, there being

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Jina-Kalpa 67
no such stage in the times of the study of any new scripture, but the other tīrtharkaras. It is inter- properly retains his memory of the esting to note in this connection previously studied scripture intact, that in the Buddhist monastic orga- in order to preserve the balance nization, there are similar stages and steadiness of his mind.174 known as pabbajjā and upasampa
(7) Veda (Sex): The aspirant da 169 the latter corresponding to must be a male or possessed of an uvatthāna (or chedo pasthāpanīya) of
unafflicted neutral sex, the female Mahāvīra.
sex thus being excluded. During Apart from the question of
the practice of the Victor's Course, adoption of the Victor's Course,
he remains either possessed of the there is the issue of the higher sta- sex (saveda) or can become sexless ges called sükşma-samparāya and
(aveda)175 on the achievement of yathākhyāta of the ladder of subsi-
f subsi- the higher spiritual state (i.e., the
the dence170 (upasamaśreni).171 The
ninth gunasthāna) in the ladder of aspirant to the Victor's Course, it subsidence (upaśama-śreni). should be noted in this connection, (8) Kalpa (Practice), compulsory cannot ascend the 'ladder of destruc
(sthita) or optional (asthita) : There tion' (kşapaka-śreni) which is possi
are 10 practices (kalpa) which are ble only for the practitioner of the
to be compulsorily followed by the Elder's Course.
monastic Orders of the first and the (4) Tirtha (Religious Reign) :
last tirthankaras. Some of these The Victor's Course is possible
practices are, however, optionally only during the currency of the reli
observed by the followers of the gious rule established by a tirthan
remaining twenty-two tīriharkakara. It cannot be possible either
ras.176 But as the practitioners of before the advent of such rule or
the Victor's Course can belong to after its extinction. 172
the Orders of all the tirthankras (5) Par yaya (Standing): It is two
they fall under both the categories, fold: (i) grhi-paryāya 'the length of
viz. those observing the practices householder's life'; and (ii) yati
compulsorily or those doing so opparyāya 'the length of monastic life'.
tionally, according as they belong The former is identical with janma
to the Orders of the particular tīrparyāya, because it is calculated
thankara, 277 from the date of birth. The aspirant's age must be 29 in the minimum 173 (9) Linga (Monastic Equipmentand his minimum monastic standing Physical and Spiritual): So far as must be 20. Thus calculated, if a the physical equipments (dravyaperson gets ordination at the age linga, such as robe, pots, broom, of 9, he has to wait at least for 20 etc.) are concerned, the practitioner years for adopting the Victor's may or may not be possessed of Course.
them, but he is necessarily posse(6) Agama (Scriptural Study): ssed of the spiritual equipment. The aspirant does not undertake bhāva linga, such as the mahāvra

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68 The Four Monastic Courses
tas (the great vows), the samitis mer case is one, two, three, etc., and the guptis. At the time of ini- while in the latter it is 2000.181 tiation, he has both these kinds of (13) Abhigraha (Secret Resolve): equipments, but later on he may be The practitioner of the Victor's dispossessed of the physical equip- Course does not make occasional ment, and left with only the spiri- secret resolves pertaining to beggtual one, which is the essential fea- ing, etc., as the Victor's Course ture of the practitioner.178
itself is a lifelong resolve.182 (10) Leśyā (Colour Indices): Ini (14 and 15) Pravrājana, Mundātially the practitioner of the Vic- pana (Initiation and Tonsure or tor's Course has necessarily any of Hairplucking) : He does not initiate the three benevolent leśyās and or give advice to any ordinary none of the three malevolent ones. candidate. But in a special case of But later on he may change to any an extraordinary candidate who is one of the six. The practitioner, sure to adopt a monk's life, he may however, would not sink to the recommend him to competent leardeeper levels of the malevolent loss ned monk (gītārtha) for initiation. yās, and also would not continue to Similarly, he would not accept a be there for a long period. 179
candidate for hairplucking.183 (11) Dhyāna (Meditation: The
(16) Minimum Expiation : He is practitioner, at the time of initia
itio liable to the third category of tion, is in a state of gradually dee
punishment, viz. anugghāya, i.e., pening meditation on the nature of
caturguruka for even mentally things (dharma-dhyāna), but later
indulging in a subtle act of transon he may fall down to the inauspi- gression (aticära). 184 cious (aprašasta) categories of (17) Käraña (Unexceptional Condhyāna, viz. meditation on account
duct): His conduct is not liable to of painful experience (ārta) or the
any exception or change under eruption of the passion of anger
any circumstance (kāraņa), such as (raudra). But this fall is not going to another ācārya for knowmostly so deep as to be capable of ledge, and so on.185 producing a resultant (anubandha) (18) Nispratikarna (Avoidance in the future, because of the pre- of Physical Care and Medical Treatdominance of virtuous propensities ment): He does not even clean his in bim, 180
eyes or take any medicine for any (12) Gananā (Number): At the ailment.186 stage of initiation, the maximum (19) & (20) Bhaktam (Time of number of such practitioners may begging food) and panthāh (deparbe upto 900 at a particular mo- ture) : He should perform these ment, but the maximum number duties in the third quarter of the of those engaged in practice may day, 187 devoting the remaining be 9000 at a particular moment. quarters mostly to the practice of The minimum number in the for- kāyotsarga. As regards the second

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Pariharavišūddhika or Suddhaparihārika 69
duty of departure from the place, for a longer time or even permait would depend on his health and nently at a particular place under capacity to move. He does not such circumstance.188 incur any blame if he has to stay
III
PARIHĀRAVIŚUDDHIKA OR SUDDHAPARIHĀRIKA
or Purificatory Cooperative Course
I INTRODUCTORY
The order of treatment of Victor's Course as given in the Brhatkalpa Bhāsya, 189 and followed by us in our above description, is applicable to the Purificatory Coopera- tive Course (pariharaviśuddhika) as well as the Time-bound Course (yathālandaka). We should therefore note here only the points of departure from the Victor's Course. 190
II Extension of the Rules of Victor's Course and their Exceptions.
(1) Place and Time of Practice : The practice of the Purificatory Cooperative Course is possible only in the reign of the first and the last tirtharkaras, who are born in the last part of the third and the fourth periods of the descending time. cycle.
As regards the regions of such practitioners, it is possible in the ten regions of Bharata and Airāvata.
(2) Period of Floruit : In the reign of Rşabha, the first tirthan- kara, it flourishes for one hundred thousand pūrvas 191 only of the third period, while it lasts for several scores of years in the reign of the
last tirtharkara.192 But the maximum duration of the practice of the Course by the practitioner is one púrva-koți less 29 years, because his longevity is one pūrva-koți and he cannot adopt the practice before he cannot adopt the practice is 29. Similarly, a disciple initiated by such practitioner will also be able to practise the Course for the same number of years. Thus the total length would come to two pārva-koțis less fifty-eight years.
In the same way, in the reign of the last tirtharkara, the maximum duration of the practice of this penance by a particular aspirant can be 100- 29=71 years. This is calculated on the presumption that the practitioner lives for full 100 years, which is the maximum length of life in the period under reference. The total length in this case would be 71+71=142 years.
The reason of the discontinuance of this Course beyond the second generation of the tirtharikara is that only the jina himself or the disciple initiated by the jina can initiate an aspirant into the practice of this Course. A disciple's disciple. (sthāpita - sthāpaka) cannot do so.193

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70
The Four Monastic Courses
(3) Qualifications : The aspirant nions. In addition to this, he is also to this Course must be perfectly advised by the tirtharkara on the established in samyag - darśana acceptable food (dravya), the place, (right faith), and samyak-căritra and the period for monthly stay (right conduct). As regards the (māsa-kalpa) or the stay during the scriptural knowledge, he must be rainy seasons (varşāvāsa), and also conversant with the nine Pūrvas in
the control of the passions like anger, the minimum, and with the ten Pur- the abandonment of embellishment,
the abandonmen vas less a part in the maximum. He the leśyās, and meditation (dhyāna), must also be familiar with the five and such other items of mental and Vyavahāras (the sources of monastic moral discipline. law),194 and the twofold kalpa
(5) Abhigraha (Secret Resolve): (conduct), viz. (i) The Course of As regar
regards the acceptance of food the Victors (jinakalpa), and (ii) the and drink and outfit, he adopts the Course of the Elders (sthavira
same procedure as prescribed kalpa), or the twofold sthāpanā- for the Victor's Course (jinakalpa (conduct qua commissioning kalpa). a monk), viz. (i) akalpa-sthapana- (6) Time of Adoption and the kalpa (non-commissioning of un-
Numerical Strength of Groups : The
N, trained monks), and (ii) śaikșa
aspirants adopt this Course not sthāpanā-kalpa (commissioning of long after the sunrise, after finishing trained monks).195
the act of confession (āloyaņā) and He is also possessed of consum
disowning the wrong doing (mithyāmate knowledge of the ten catego
duşksta). Now they form three ries of expiations (prāyaścittas).
groups, each consisting of nine The aspirant knows, by the
monks in the minimum power of his extraordinary scrip
The duties among the nine tural knowledge, his life-span, his
monks of each group are distribuown physical strength (bala), vital
ted as follows: one of the nine is powers (virya), and capacity (parā.
made the leader of the group krama). He can also see the future
(kalpasthita) and four of them are health-hazards (pratyapaya).
appointed as assistants (pariharika) (4) Permission of the Tīrthan
in penance, and the remaining four kara: Such aspirant has to seek
as sub-assistants (anu-parihāthe permission of the tirtharkara
rika. 196 and get his advice about the proper way (märga) such as deportment
For the practitioner of this (sāmācāri), which includes all the Course no misfortunes and calamipramänas (the numerical strength of ties arise during the first eighteen different categories) and the various months. They may, however, arise types of secret resolves (abhigraha). after that period, and in case any of As regards the numerical strength, those practitioner dies or adopts it refers to the gana (group), the the Victor's or the Elder's Course, outfits (upadhi), and the compa- then the following procedure should

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Parihåravišuddhika or Suddhaparihārika
71
be adopted for the next eighteen medial, and minimum extent of months : The same number of new penance undertaken by the practimonks should be admitted from tioners in the three seasons. among those that may be willing to enter the group. The remaining Nun
Winter Summer candidates should be kept in reserve Meals Season and engaged in self-assessment Dropped (tulanā) 197 as regards their compe- Maximum 12 meals 10 meals 8 meals tence. Their deportment should be Medial
10 meals 8 meals 6 meals in harmony with that of the assis. Minimum 8 meals 6 meals 4 meals tants and the sub-assistants. If an adequate number of candidates (10) Breaking of Fast (Pāraṇa) arrives, then together with them, and Change of Duties: At the end they would constitute a separate of the twelve meal penance (dvādagroup (gaña).
sam tapah), the practitioners (assisIn case no one has left the group tants) break their fast by ācāmla at the end of the first eighteen (subsistence on a single-meal-a-day months, the new candidates should consisting of saltless cereal of any
ked to wait till their number one kind). They beg alms sepacomes to nine, so that a new group rately, with secret resolves in respect could be constituted.
of the last five eşaņās. They do (7) Prāyaścitta: The leader of
not partake of food, etc., jointly.198 each group engaged in this course
The remaining participants of the is competent enough to prescribe
group, viz. the leader and the subexpiation according to the offence
assistants would constitute a sub. that might be admitted by the par
group, eating and living together ticipants. This rule applies to
(sambhoga) and undertake ācāmla both the assistants and sub-assis
everyday. The leader, however, tants.
does not go on the begging tour, The assistants and the sub-assis- which is done by the sub-assistants. tants would bow down, avow The assistants observe the penance (aloyanā) and vow not to commit for the first six months. Similarly, (paccakkhāņa) any offence in the the sub-assistants also do the same, future.
while others discharge the function (8) Silence : They practise of the sub-assistants. At the end their Course in silence, excepting of the first twelve months, the occasional queries on and study of leader observes the penance. Then the scriptural texts and their mean- anyone among the rest is made the ing. On special unavoidable leader, while others discharge the occasions, a member can express function of the assistants or subhimself in respect of his bare neces- assistants according to their fitsities and activities.
ness, 199 there being no incompatibi(9) Penances: The following lity in this arrangement, because the table illustrates the maximum, service to the Order or a group is a

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72 The Four Monastic Courses
common responsibility of each member, irrespective of his monastic status. In other words, at the end of the first six months, the assistants retire having completed their penance (nirviṣṭakayika), and are followed by the sub-assistants as the observers of the penance for the next six months. At the end of the twelve months, the duty of observing the penance falls on the leader for the next six months.
(11) Options at the End of Eighteen Months: At the end of the eighteen months, such practitioners have the option of continuing the penance or adopting the Victor's Course, or reverting to the Course of the Elders. Those who continue in the Course may do so irrespective of their numerical strength, which may fall down to eight or even less.
The above account distinguishes four kalpas (conduct), viz. (i) the conduct of those who have fulfilled the penance (nirviṣṭa), (ii) the conduct of those who are fulfilling the the (nirviśamāna), (iii) penance Victor's Course, and (iv) the Course of the Elders. Adding to these four, the two conducts, viz. Sāmāyika (Initiation) and Chedopasthāpaniya (Ordination), we get six types of conduct (kalpasthiti) arranged in the following order: (i) sāmāyika, (ii) che dopasthapaniya, (iii) nirviśamāna, (iv) nirviṣṭakāyika, (v) jinakalpa, and (vi) sthavirakalpa. Of these six, the third and the fourth may be subject to the entrance (samavatāra) into the second while the first four may have entrance into the last two.
The monks who revert to the

Course of the Elders at the end of the Purificatory Cooperative Course are known as itvara (engaged in temporary practice), while those who adopt the Victor's Course are called Yavatkathika, i.e., practitioners for whole life.200
The Purificatory Cooperative Course has thus three alternatives, viz. (i) adoption of the Victor's Course, (ii) continuance of the same Purificatory Cooperative Course, or (iii) reversion to the Course of the Elders.
(12) Upsarga, Atanka, and Vedanā: It is an established convention (jita) that trials and tribulations (upsarga), misfortunes and calamities (atanka), and sufferings (vedana) do not take place in the case of the practitioners of itvarika (temporary) Purificatory Cooperative Course.
(13) Samharana : The practitioners cannot be kidnapped by any agency.
(14) Kāla (Time): Their floruit is possible only in the avasarpiņi and utsarpiņi, and not in sarpiņi, etc., as in the case of the jinakalpika.
no-ava
(15) Kalpa-sttaiti: As a rule, this penance is possible only in the sttaiti-kalpa (fixed conduct).201
(16) Caritra (Monastic Stages): Each monastic stage has several points of development of self-control called samyama-sthana. In the first two stages, viz. initiation and ordination, the minimum points of self-control are similar, there being parity of purification (viśuddhisamya). In the case of practitioners of the Purificatory Cooperative Course, their points of self-control are much higher in quality- their

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Parihāraviśuddhika or Suddhaparihārika 73
to the first, called sāmāyika, or the second called chedopasthāpaniya stage of conduct, and therefrom, can directly go to the fourth stage of monastic conduct, viz. sūkṣmasamparāya. In such case the aspirant is technically called puvvapadivanno (i.e., one who passed through the Course in the past), but is not established in it at the moment he passes on to the higher stage of the monastic conduct.207
(17) Numerical Strength Relating to Groups and Personnel : The following table gives the maximum and minimum number of practitioners groupwise and personwise in respect of the paḍivajjamāna and puvvapadivanna.208
qualitative difference from those of the first two types of monastic stages being innumerable X innumerable202 times purer.203
The purity of those points is again graded, the highest points being innumerable 204 times purer than the lowest. Such purity is possible also in the first two stages of monastic conduct, because a spiritual aspirant does not necessarily adopt the Purificatory Cooperative Course for higher spiritual development. In such case, his purification is exclusively due to his station in the first two monastic stages. This purity attained through the Purificatory Cooperative Course or directly without such Course, is followed by the stage of the rise of subtle passions only (sūkṣma-samparaya) which lasts for less than a muhurta and is attended with innumerable205 points of samyama (selfcontrol) that are purer successively. This is followed by a single solitary moment of self-control which is infinitely purer being the consummation of purity, called the ideal stages of monastic life (yathākhyāta),206
The practitioner of the Purificatory Cooperative Course may revert

I MEANING
The expression landa stands for time. Here the minimum span of time is the time taken by the wet
Practitioners
No. of Groups each of 9.
Min.
Max.
1. Initial Adoption 3
2. Old Practitioners 200
3. Subse
quent Entrants
(a) New Nil Nil (b) Old
IV
YATHALANDAKA
or
The Time-bound Course
900

900
Nil Nil
No. of persons
Min. Max.
27
1800
1
1
8100
8100
8
∞0 00
8
palm to dry,209 and not an infinitesimal instant, because the latter is unsuitable in the context of a monastic course.210 The maximum

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74 The Four Monastic Courses
period denoted by the expression, tioners have to complete the study in connection with the Time-bound under the same ācārya, along with Course, is five days.211 The obser- practising their penance. Usually vers of this Course are called yathā- the ācārya himself has to go to landika, because they go on the them for teaching the remaining begging round for a maximum part, though in the special circums. period of five days only in a parti- tance of his inability to move to cular avenue, and not beyond that another place, the practitioner of period.212 In the minimum, three the Time-bound Course has to go ganas (groups), each consisting of to the ācārya for learning the leftfive members, undertake the over portion. In the latter case, Course.213
the teaching is to be conducted in a
lonely place to avoid the presence II. The Points of Agreement and of other disciples. The reason is Departure
that the yathālandika is not expecOn the tulană (estimate), etc., 214
ted to offer obeisance to his erst
while seniors, on account of his there is essential agreement between the Victor's Course and the Time
observance of a higher spiritual
discipline. The sudden discontinubound Course, there being points
ance of study mentioned above is of departure only in respect of the
accounted for by the chance occuitems of sūtra (knowledge of scrip
rrence of specially auspicious lucky tures),215 bhikṣācarya (going out on
stars for undertaking the Timebegging tour),216 māsakalpa (con
bound Course. 220 duct during the monthly stay)217 and pramāņa (or gananā 'numerical
The points of basic differences strength').218 A brief account of
between the practitioners of the these items is given below:
Time-bound Course, belonging to
the categories of those intending (i) Sūtra (Knowledge of Scrip
to revert to the Elder's Course and tures): The practitioners of the
those intending to pass on to the Time-bound Course fall into two
Victor's Course, are as follows: categories, viz. (i) gacchapratiba
(a) In the case of their inability ddha (tied to the original stem),
on health grounds to observe the and (ii) others (not so tied), each
Course, the former can revert to of the two again being subdivided
their original stem (gaccha) to be as the jinas (those who would pass
received with sympathy and given on to the Victor's Course), and
all necessary medical treatment sthavirus (those who would revert
even in cases of extremely difficult to the Elder's Course).219 The gacchapratibaddhas are so called
types of diseases. 221 because they are yet to learn the (b) The practitioners of the formeaning of a part of the text which mer category keep alms-bowl and they were engaged in the study of also wear robes. These outfits are under their ācārya. Such practi- optional in the case of the second

Page #107

category of practitioners, depending on their initial resolution to utilize or not these outfits.222
(ii) Bhikṣācaryä (Going out on Begging Tour): The yathalandika group can live in the same village or town for one month. They have, however, to divide the place in six parts, called vithis (avenues), and spend five days in each part restricting their begging tour also to that avenue. In this way, they can spend the full month at one place. In case the village is not big enough, they can select five other nearby villages for the purpose of the monthly stay and begging rounds using one village as one vithi. In the rain-retreat, they can stay at one place for four months at a stretch.223
As regards their jurisdiction (uggaha), it is identical with that of the original stem in the case of the yathalandikas tied to the stem, there being no such restriction in the case of those not so tied.224
(iii) Māsakalpa (Conduct during Monthly Stay): During the rainretreat, they spent four months in a village or town, whereas at other times they could stay there only for one month.
But the special condition for the observers of the Time-bound Course was that they could not spend more than five days at a stretch in a particular part of the village called vithi.225 And this is the justification of the nomenclature yathālandika, meaning an observer of the five day course, as distinguished from the observers of

the other three courses.
As regards the jurisdiction, the same rule as mentioned under the bhikṣācarya will be applicable.
(iv) Numerical Strength Relating to Groups and Personnel: The following table gives the maximum and minimum number of practitioners groupwise and personwise in respect of the paḍivajjamāṇa and puvvapadivanna 226
Practi
tioners
3. Subse
1. Initial
Adoption 3 900 2. Old Practitioners Nil
quent Entrants (a) New (b) Old
Yathalandaka 75
No. of Groups each of 9.
Min. Max. Min
Nil Nil

Nil
Nil Nil
No. of
persons
15
Max.
1 Nil
4500
2 2 Koti Koti
100
Nil
In the Vijayodaya
Our account of the four monastic courses has been based mainly on the Brhatkal pa-Bhāṣya. There are, however, other similar courses which have not found place in our treatment. For instance, the twelve bhikṣu-pratimas also form an intensive course to be practised by a single monk, unlike the Elder's Course, or the Purificatory Cooperative Course, or the Time-bound Course. It is also distinct from the Victor's Course, as it consists of twelve definite stages, one following the other. There is no such gradation in the Victor's Course.
The different courses have found a lucid exposition in the Vijayodaya

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76
The Four Monastic Courses
Tikā227 on the Mulārādhanā. that the practitioners may need The Course of the Elders is not help at times of sickness or other given there. The order of treatment kinds of privations, specially when of these courses in the Mülārādhanā they undertake austerities. The as explained by the Vijayodayā is implication is that the
implication is that the observers of as follows:
this course are not perfectly (1) Athālanda;
capable of enduring all kinds of (II) Parihāra;
parīşahas (hardships) under all cir(III) Jinakalpa,
cumstances. The author of the Vijayodayā
(e) Another important feature makes some observations in connec
ne of the practitioners of this course tion with these courses, that throw
is that they cultivate vigilance and further light on the subject. We awareness round the clock, avoiding note here the most important sleep and are engrossed in uninterones.
rupted meditation. But they do
not take such vow and are not I. Athālanda
transgressors if slumber forces itself (a) The monks unable to under
on them (yadi balād āyātā nidrā, take Purificatory Cooperative
tatrāksta-pratijñā).229 This reminds Course (parihāra - visuddhi) adopt
us of Lord Mahāvīra's ascetic life the Athālanda (Time - bound
as recorded in the Ayāro, where the Course).
Lord's constant vigilance and self(6) This course is adopted by
awareness are expressed as
follows:230 a group of five, eleven, or nine monks.
niddam pi no pagāmāe, sevai bhaga(c) Their outfit is autsargika,
vam utthae; ie., they possess no outfit. How
jaggävai ya appāņam isim sãiyasi ever, they keep pratilekhanā (or
apadinne. piccha, 'broom or brush' usually
(Even sleep for pleasure and made of feathers) soft enough to
rest, wipe off small living beings without
The Lord, waking, did never
seek; injuring them, in any way, from
And waked himself up, the sitting places, or from the path
When by chance drowsy, the during their journey to other places
unaffected One). or study-spots or begging rounds. But otherwise they endure all hard
They undertake the vow of ships, abandoning the attachment silence excepting on three occasions, to the body and not using any out- viz. (i) query as to the path, or (ii) fit (such as robes, bowls, etc.) in the acceptability of food, etc., or imitation of the conduct of the jina (iii) permission of the house-owner (victor). 228
for stay. (d) The cenobitical character of The Vijayodayā specifically menthis course is justified on the ground tions that to the queries about his

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Yathalandaka 77
movement and about the duration mandam parakkame bhagavam, ahinof his stay, etc., the only reply that
samāno ghäsam esitthä. he could give is “I am a śramana" (Or a måhaņa or a samaņa, (śramano'ham).231 This also reminds A village-beggar or a guest; us of the Āyāro :232
A cândāla, or a cat, ayam antaramsi ko ettha, aham amsi' Or a dog, standing on the tti bhikkhu Xhaffu;
way; ayam ut tame se dhamme tusinie se
Obstructing not their livelikasāie jhai,
hood; (Who is inside there?
And frightening them not; I am here, a bhikṣu, said He;
Slowly moved the Lord, That was His way unique,
And begged his food, injuring Silent, though ill-treated, medi
none). tated He). Sometimes people asked him to
(i) They may acquire some leave the place (apasarātah sthā- supernatural powers such as assumnāt).283 This is also an echo of the ing bodies (vikriyā) according to Ayāro :234
their desire, flying through air uvasamkamantam apadinŋam gaman- (caranatā), and feeding people
tiyam pi appattam; with milk products at will (kşīrāsrapadinikkhamittu lusim su yão param vitva).237
palehi'tti. (Him, on journey, the unaffected II Parihāra-viếuddhi
One, (a) The monks unable to adopt Though village yet was not the Victor's Course could undertake
reached, the Parihäravisuddhi-kalpa (PurificaComing out, they attacked,
tory Cooperative Course). The Saying 'Get away from here?
Vijayodayā explains that the pari(8) It was, however, optional for härikas and the anuparihärikas are them to cleanse their eyes of dust, so called because the parihāra-samor to pull out thorns from their yama (service to the group) is an
This was, however, com- essential part of their conduct.238 pulsory for the jinakalpika.235
The expression 'cooperative' in our (h) They would go on the begg- rendering of the course is in fact ing round in the third quarter when intended to stress this aspect of the decrepit (krpaņa), street beggars service in the course. (vanipaka), birds and animals have
(6) The Vijayodayā asserts that left the place. This is comparable
if the number of persons undertakto the Āyāro : 236
ing the course be three, one of adu māhanam vă samaņam vā, gåma
them Pindolagan ca aihim võ;
is made the kalpasthita (the | sovāgam mūsiyāram vā, kukkuram vå
leader of the group), another a viviham thiyam purao. parihārika (attendant), and the vitficcheyam vajjanto, tes'appartiyam third an anupariharika (sub-atten
pariharanto; dant). Similarly, if the total num

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78
The Four Monastic Courses
ber is five, one of them is made course that is to be followed by the the kalpasthita, two are made the ideal monk, the other courses being parihārikas and the remaining only imperfect approximations to two are appointed as the anupari- the ideal one, namely, the jinahārikas.
kalpa. (c) On the completion of the (b) Another remarkable diffecourse they may attain clairvoyance rence as mentioned in the same (avadhi), telepathy (manahparyaya) work in respect of the Victor's and even omniscience (kevala), or Course is that the practitioners emancipation disincarnate (sid- could attain omniscience244 which dhi).239 In the Dhavalā, 240 it is said was denied to them in the Brhatthat the practitioner of this course kalpa Bhāsya.245 This is an imcannot attain any gunasthāna portant issue having an essential beyond the seventh. The Pañca- bearing on the relative importance samgraha247 asserts that such prac of the Elder's Course which had a titioners cannot achieve the power wider application to the welfare of of telepathy (manahparyaya). These the society and the people at large. views of the Dhavalā and the Pañ
The practitioner of the Victor's casam graha are to be reconciled
Course withdraws himself comwith the view of the Vijayodayā
pletely from all social contact, that even omniscience was possible
devoting himself exclusively to his on the completion of this course.
personal spiritual welfare. The The fact appears to be that the
Victor's Course was thus a purely aspirant does not get telepathy or
personal affair whereas the Elder's omniscience during the practice of
Course provided a better opporthe course, there being no inconsis
tunity to propagate the religion in tency if he achieved such knowledge
the interest of humanity in general. on the completion of it.
This human aspect of the monastic
course thus gets its due importance III. Jinakalpa
in the Elder's Course. The denial (a) The most important aspect of omniscience to the follower of of the jinakalpa 'Victor's Course', the Victor's Course by the Svetāmas pointed out in the Vijayodayā, baras seems inspired by the conis that the adoption of this course ception of the Elder's Course as is possible at all times 242 and not only in the time of the jina or his that transcends personal ambition immediate successor. This is also that is self-centred and indifferent true of the practitioner of the to the well-being of others. athālanda (yathālanda) course. 243 This difference of view is evidently The Elder's Course in the Digamdue to the insistence of a section bara Tradition of the Jaina Sangha, viz. the Dig- The origin of the Elder's ambaras and the Yāpanīyas, on the Course is an important issue. It Victor's Course to be the only presupposes an elaborate code of

Page #111

Yathålandaka 79
conduct and intimate association public welfare, on the completion of the ācārya with the laity on the of the course. This is very pecuone hand and the members of the liar. The Digambara account of Order on the other.
the life of Lord Mahāvīra, after the The practitioners of the jina- attainment of omniscience, is very kalpa were practically completely meagre and provides very little isolated ascetics leading an eremi- information about the versatile and tical life. But the followers of the magnetic personality of the Lord. Elder's Course had to live an active life in the interest of the fourfold nudity (acela-dharma)247 did not Sangha--the lay men and women, perhaps enjoy lasting influence. and the monks and nuns. The His Order of monks and nuns Digambara view of the Elder's continued to follow, it appears, the Course is very much influenced by time-honoured monastic code intheir conception of sthavirakalpa herited from the Pārsva's Order, being not much different from
preserved in the Purvas that formed that of jinakalpa. The monks of a part of the twelfth Arga, called sthavirakalpa are allowed to look Drstivāda, which must have been a after the social welfare to a very store-house of the doctrines of prelimited extent. The Svetāmbara Mahävīra Indian thinkers, both view, on the other hand, provided Vedic and non-Vedic. This also a wider scope to the monastic explains the authority of the ChedaOrder. Lord Mahavira's attitude in Sūtras, said to have been composed this regard is, however, difficult to
by Bhadrabāhusvāmin about 150 ascertain. The accounts found in years after the parinirvāņa of the the Ardhamägadhi Agamas that are Lord. The relevant question in extant confirm the view that Lord this connection is the final source Mahāvīra took live interest in all of authority for Bhadrabāhu himaspects of life : social, political, self. If Lord Mahāvīra did not scientific, and so on. In the words give these rules, where they were of Dr Schubring, Lord Mahāvīra derived from? We may here venwas "the most versatile thinker, we ture to suggest that the earlier know of in ancient India",246 His monastic code was inherited from ascetic life, of which we find an sources which were pre-Mahāvīra, authentic record, unmixed with and the inheritance was bequeathed myth, in the Ayāro, was respon- to the followers of Nigantha Nāyasible for the conception of the jina- putta by the twenty-third tirthankalpa. Lord Mahāvira's active kara Pārsva. It is admitted that life starts with his first sermon the Chedasūtras and even the Dasaafter his enlightenment at the end veyäliya owe their authority to the of his ascetic career. The aim of the Pūrvas which were considered to be jinakalpa, as described in monastic their original source.248 treatises, is, however, not an active The controversy about the life of the practitioner devoted to keeping of outfits such as robes,

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80 The Four Monastic Courses
bowls, etc., as discussed in the was familiar with the caujjama dhaVijayodayā,249 is clearly based on the mma252 which he ascribed to Pūrvāgamas (ancient Agamic texts) Nigantha Nāyaputta, though, in that are still extant and sanction fact, it was a discipline propounded the use of those articles.250 Pandit by Pārsva. It is evident from such Nathuram Premi has also conclu- ascription that Lord Mahāvīra's sively proved that the munis innovations of the "five śikṣāpadas" (monks) and äryikās (nuns) were was not known to the Buddha. classed in the same category by the Moreover, the characterization of author of the Mulācāra.251 Now, the Nirgranthas as ekasātaka253 as the authority of the Mülācāra also proves that the Buddha was and the Mūlārādhanā is acceptable familiar more with the Pārsva's to the Digambaras, it is necessary discipline than with that of Niganto reconcile nudity with the use of tha Nāvanutta To be nrecise the clothes by a section of monks on Buddha mistook the Pārsva's discithe one hand, and the entire com- pline as that of Lord Mahā vīra. munity of nuns on the other. The
The controversy on nudity recorded authenticity of the texts containing in the Uttarajihayanāni between the the references to monastic outfits followers of Pārśva and Mahāvīra is also an important problem that
and the attempt at reconciling the may be reviewed in the light of our two disciplines can be considered above-mentioned suggestion.
as a proof in favour of our conten
tion. Nudity was not universally The pre-Mabāvīra character of accepted and a solution to the issue the Nirgrantha monastic code was sought in a spirit that was is also proved by the fact that the representative of the non-absolutisBuddha prescribed many a rule tic (anekānta) attitude of the partiafter the pattern of that code. He cipants at the debate.
References 1 Chapter IX. That the Victor's Course was conceived in imitation of the actual ascetic life of the jina is admitted by the Jaina thinkers.Cf. Bhavasamgraha, v. 123 cd : jiņa iva viharanti sadā
te jinakappe thiā samaņā 2 BKBh, v. 1447. 3 Ibid., v. 1446 (=1132). 4 Ibid., vv. 1132 ff. 5 Ibid., vy. 1133-42. 6 Ibid., vv. 1143-1218. 7 Ibid., v. 1162. 8 Ibid., vv. 1163 71. 9 Ibid., vv. 1219-22. 10 Ibid., v. 1220.
11 Ibid., v. 1221. 12 Ibid., vv, 1223-40. 13 Ibid., v. 1239. 14 Ibid., vv. 1223, 15 Ibid., v. 1224. jo vi pagåso bahuso gunio paccakkao
na uvaladdhol jaccamdhassa vă camdo, phudo vi
samto tahā sa khalull 16 Ibid., v. 1227. 17 Ibid., v. 1228. 18 Ibid., vv. 1229-31. 19 Ibid., vv. 1235-38, 20 Ibid., v. 1239. 21 Ibid., vy. 1241-79. 22 Ibid., v. 1242-52.

Page #113

References 81
23 Ibid., v. 1243, Commentary : abhanaptā vi hu najjanti, supurisā
gumagaņehim niyaehim/ kim bollanti manio, jāo lakkhehim
ghippamti// 24 Ibid., vv. 1253-58. 25 Cf. Āyāro, VIII. 1. 1, 2, 28, 29
(J.V.B.). The expression samaņunna (Skt. samanuja, but samanojna according to Malayagiri, which appears in
correct) stands for sambhogika. 26 BK Bh., vy. 1266-77. 27 Ibid., vy. 1268. 28 Ibid., v. 1272. 29 Vide infra, pp. 3017. 30 BK Bh, Commentary on v. 1447. 31 lbid., v. 1450. 32 (a) Aprar yupekşi (lack of survey)
leading to light four-monthly
expiation (masalaghu). (6) Äjña-bhariga (breach of Law)
leading to heavy four-monthly
expiation (māsaguru). (c) Anavasthā (indecision) leading
to light four-monthly expiation
(masalaghu). (d) Milyalva (perversion of faith). (e) Samyama-virädhanā (breach of
restraint) leading to corresponding
prayascitta. (f) Sending the surveyor without
consulting the stem leading to light
-monthly expiation (māsalaghu). 33 BK Bh, vv. 1450-1470. 34 Vide the chapter on Sāmācāri. 35 BKBh, v. 1471. 36 Ibid., v. 1472. 37 Ibid., v. 1473. 38 Ibid., vv. 1474-1483. 39 Ibid., v. 1489. 40 lbid., Commentary on vv. 1490-1491. 41 lbid., v. 1495. 42 Ibid., samgraha-gāthā, 1496. 43 Ibid., v. 1499. 44 lbid., v. 1498. 45 Ibid., v. 1501. 46 Ibid., v. 1502. 47 lbid., v. 1503. 48 Ibid., Commentary on v. 1505 :
gräma-nagarādinām tatprathamataya niveśyamananām vāstuvidyānusäreņa prathamam śmaśāna-vāstu nirūpya
tatah seșani deva-kula-sabhā-sau
dhādi-vāstüni nirūpyante, 49 Ibid., vv. 1509-1510. 50 Ibid., vv. 1511-1513. 51 Ibid., vv. 1514-1515. 52 Ibid., vv. 1518-1522. 53 lbid., vv. 1525-1526. 54 Ibid., v. 1527. 55 It is interesting to note in this conne
ction that in ancient medical science, the minimum convalescing periods for different species are as follows: Dog: 1 day; Man: 5 days; Bull : 15 days; Elephant : 60 days. Cf.
Ibid., v. 1530. 56 lbid., vv. 1531-32. 57 Ibid., vv. 1533-1537. 58 Ibid., v. 1543: tadubhaya suttam pațilehaņa ya
uggayamaņuggae vă vi/ padicchāhigaraņa teņe, naţthe khag
gūda samgārol/ This is in contrast with the original
law. Vide BKS, III. 47. 59 BK Bh, v. 1545.
The bad omens are as follows: a dirty and ill-dressed fellow, or with body smeared with oil, a dog crossing the path from left to right, a hunch-backed or a dwarf, a redrobbed monk (Buddhist), a follower of Kanāda, a hermit of dubious character (sarajaska), a diseased person such as a leper, a person with mutilated limbs, a miserable person, a physician, a saffron-robed, and a person with his body smeared
with ashes. 60 Cf. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dic
tionary, p. 231 : Cilimilika or ciliminika---some kind of cloth, or article made of cloth; cf. Pali cilimikā, cimilikā; Ardha-Māgadhi cilimini curtain. Cloth used as a curtain, also cilimiliga, cilimiliya, cilimili: also cf, Cūlavagga, Nalanda, p. 243; also cf. the Sanskrit root
V cila (=to put on clothes). 61 BKBh, v. 1552 : bāläjyā uvahim, jam vodhum taranti
tattiyam giņhe/ jahaņņeņa ahājāyam, sesam taruņa
virimcantil 62 Ibid., Commentary on v. 1552.

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82 The Four Monastic Courses
63 Ibid, v. 1558.
64 The six gradually intensive penances
are:
(i) Light-monthly penance (māsalaghu). (ii) Heavy-monthly penance (māsa
guru).
(iii) Light-four-monthly penance (caturlaghu).
(iv) Heavy-four-monthly penance (caturguru).
(v) Light-six-monthly penance (şadlaghu).
(vi) Heavy-six-monthly penance (sad
guru).
65 BK Cūrṇi quoted by the commentator: BK Bh, Commentary on v. 1559. 66 Ibid., v. 1560.
67 Ibid., v. 1561.
68 lbid., vv. 1570-1572.
69 lbid., vv. 1574-1575.
70 Vide supra, p. 48.
71 BKBh, v. 1580.
72 Ibid., v. 1584 (Niryukti-gäthä).
73 Ibid., v. 1592.
alasam ghasiram suviram, khamagam koha-māṇa-maya-lohillam/
koūhala paḍibaddham, veyāvaccam na kārijjā//
74 lbid., Commentary on v. 1956: tataśca avamahārataya tasyaiva-anāgādha-ägadha-paritäpädayo doṣaḥ.
75 BKBh, vv. 1602-1607.
76 Ibid., v. 1608:
samtharanammi asuddham, donha vi ginhanta-dintayāṇa'hiyam/
aura-ditthanteņam, tam ceva
hiyam asamtharaṇe//
This was the view of the liberal monastic legislators, which, however, was not definitely acceptable to the puritans who would stick to the general law enunciated in the scriptures that were acceptable to them. The Bhasya here reflects only the position of the Order of which its author might have been a learned advocate.
77 lbid., v. 1609.
78 Cf. Pindaniryukti, v. 269; Dasavealiyam, V, 1. 55.
79 BKBh, v. 1612.

80 Ibid., vv. 1615 ff.
81 The institution of sambhoga has been treated of in the Buddhist monasticism also. The term apparently enjoys a wider association there, as it is concerned with participation in a monastic act (sangha-karma) like uposatha, etc., and sleeping under the same roof. (Vide Pacittiya, p. 185, Nalanda). But if sambhoga is taken in its wider connotation as defined by Malayagiri in his Commentary on Bṛhatkalpa Bhāṣya, v. 1617, there is no essential difference between the Jaina and Buddhist concepts of sambhoga. Malayagiri here explains sambhogika as ekasāmācărika, i.e. follower of the same type of conduct and rules of deportment: sambhogikā ekasämācārikāḥ. Here, sāmācārī is almost identical with the sămici of the Buddhists.
82 Cf. Dasaveāliyam, VIII. 23; IX. 3. 4; X, 16.
83 Cf. Gacchäcära Prakirṇaka, v. 96, Commentary.
84 Cf. BkBh, vv. 1382-84. 85 Vide infra, pp. 63 fr.
86 BKBh, v. 1627 cd. 87 Ibid., v. 1628 ab. 88 Ibid., v. 1628 cd. 89 libd., v. 1629 ab. 90 Ibid., v. 1630 ab. 91 Ibid., v. 1630 cd. 92 Ibid., v. 1629 cd.
93 lbid., v. 1631.
94 Cf. infra, pp. 64 ff,
95 BKBh, v. 1632, Commentary: etesvapi nişkärane pratisedhah, na vasantu yatanām
titi bhavaḥ, kāraṇe kurvanti.
96 Ibid., v. 1633.
97 Vide infra, pp. 66 ff. 98 BKBh, v. 1647. 99 Ibid., v. 1648. 100 Ibid., v. 1649 a. 101 Ibid., v. 1649 bcd.
102 Ibid., vv. 1650-1651.
103 Ibid., v. 1652.
104 Ibid., v. 1654.
105 Cf, the Chapter on The Four Stages of Sin.

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References 83
106 BKBh, v. 1655. 107 Vide infra, p. 68. 108 BKBH, v. 1655, Commentary. 109 lbid. 110 Syntopicon, I, p. 1018. 111 lbid. 112 BKBh, v. 1282 ff. 113 Ibid., VI, vv. 6483ab, 6484 :
gacchammi ya nimmāyā, dhira jāhe ya muniya-paramatthā. (v. 6183ab). dhitibaliyā tavasarā, ninti ya
gacchăto te purisa-sihā/ bala-Viriyasamghayaņā, uvasagga-
sahá abhiru ya//(v. 6484). 114 Ibid., v. 1284. 115 Ibid., v. 1285ab. 116 Haribhadra's Pancavastuka,
Vy. 1380-81. 117 BKBh, v. 1328, Commentary, 118 Ibid, vv. 1329-1332. 119 lbid. vv. 1333-1339. 120 lbid., vv. 1.340-1344. 121 Ibid., vv. 1345-1352. 122 Ibid., vv. 1353-1358. 123 PSU vrtti, p. 126: tulanā bhāvanā
parikarma iti ekārthāh. 124 Bhavanů (self-contemplation). It is
wholesome (prasasiu) as well as unwholesome (aprašasta), just like meditation (dhrūna), which may be good (śubha) as well as bad (aśubha). For the aspirant of Victor's Course, the praśasta bhāvanās are prescribed and the aprašasta ones are prohi
bited. 125 BKBh, vv, 1286-1329. 126 Ibid., v. 1328, Commentary. 127 Ibid., v. 1285cd. 128 lbid., vv. 1364-65. 129 Ibid., vy. 1367-1370. 130 lbid., vv. 1371-1372. 131 Ibid., v. 1373. 132 Vide the Chapter on Sämācārī. 133 BKBh, v. 1379 : āvasi nisihi micchā, āpucchuvasam-
padam ca gihiesu/ annā sāmāyārī, 'na homti se sesiyā
panca// 134 Ibid., v. 1380 : āvāsiyam nisihiyam, mottum uva
sampayam ca gehiesu! sesā sāmāyāri, na homti jinakappie
satta//
135 Ibid., vv. 1381-84. 136 Ibid., v. 1385 : āyāravatthutaiyam, jahannayam hoi
navamapuvvassa/ tabiyam kälanņānam, dasa ukkosena
bhinnäjm// Commentary : sampūrņa-daśapūrvadharah punar amoghavacanataya pravacana-prabhāvanā-paropakārādidvārenaiva bahutaran nirjarā-labham āsādayati ato näsau jina-kalpam
pratipadyate. 137 The different samhananas give an
idea of Jaina osteology, specially, the aspect relating to the strength of the joints of the human body. Vajrarşabhandrica - samhanana stands for the joint of bones fastened together in a special way (nārāca, i.e., markațabandha) surrounded by a bony ring or plate (rşabha) with a bony nail (vajra) piercing the plate and the two bones. This symbolizes extra-ordinary sturdiness and strength. The other five samhananas are to be understood mutatis mutandis. The second structure is called rşabhanārāca, there being no nail (vajra). The third one is called nārāca, the bones being held together by the special kind of fastening (närāca) alone. The fourth is called ardhanårāca, the fastening being on one side of the joint, and the fifth is called kilikā, there being only a bony nail holding them together without any kind of fastening. The sixth is called sevărta, because the bones are here only in mutual touch (sevā) and are held together by an oily material which they always need for their sustenance. (Cf.
Pannavaņā Sutta, Vịtti, pp. 470-72), 138 BK Bh, v. 1386ab: padhamilluga
samghayaņā, dhiie puņa vajjakudd
asamāņā. 139 Ibid., v. 1387ab. 140 Idid., v. 1387cd. 141 Ibid., v. 1388. 142 Ibid., 1388d. 143 Cf. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, XXIV.
16-17.

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84 The Four Monastic Courses
144 BKBh, v. 1389. 145 lbid., v. 1390 :
appam abhinna vaccam, appam
Tūham ca bhoyaņam bhaniyam/ dihe vi uvasagge, ubhayamavi atha-
mdile na kare!! 146 Ibid., v. 1630; vide supra, p. 57 147 Ibid., v. 1391 : amamatta aparikammā, niyamā
jiņakappiyāņa vasahjo/ emeva ya the rāņam, muttūņa
pamajjaņam ekkami 148 Ibid., v. 1392 : bile na dhakkanti na khajjamāṇim
gonāi värinti na bhajjamanim dāre na dhakanti, na va'ggalinti
dappena therä bhai, u kajje// 149 Ibid., vv. 1393-94. 150 Ibid., v. 1395. 151 Ibid., v. 1896; also cf. Haribhadra's
Pañcavastuka, v. 1450. 152 Cf. Mūlācara, p. 371. 153 Vide supra, p. 61. 154 BKBh, v. 1397. 155 Ibid., v. 1398ab. 156 Ibid., v. 1398cd, 157 Ibid., vv, 1400, 1401ab. chavvinio gamam, kāum ekkikkiyam
tu so adai/ vajjeum hoj suham, aniyayavittissa
kammãi// (v. 1400) abhiggahe dathum karaṇam, bhatt
ogāhimaga tinni pūiyam (v. 1401 ab). 158 Ibid., vv, 1410, 1411 : kim någaya ttha taiyā asavvao me
kao tuha nimittam iha puttho so bhagavam biiyāese
imam bhaņai// aniyatão Vasahio, bhamarakulānam
ca gokulāņam ca/ samaņāņam sauņäņam, sāraiāņam ca
mehāņam// 159 Ibid., v. 1401d. 160 Ibid., vv. 1413-14. 161 Cf. Tattvārtha Sūtra, III. 37. 162 BK Bh, v. 1415. 163 Ibid., v. 1416. 164 Cf. Tattvärtha Sūtra, III. 27. 165 BKBh, v. 1417. 166 Cf. Tatia, Nathmal : Studies in Jaina
Philosophy, p. 278. 167 Cf. Tattvärtha Sūtra, IX. 18. 168 BKBh, v. 1418ab. 169 Vinaya Pițaka, Mahāvagga, p. 23
(Nalanda).
170 BKBh, v. 1418 cd. 171 Cf. Tatia, Nathmal : Studies in Jaina
Philosophy, pp. 275-276. 172 BK Bh, v. 1419a. 173 The number 29 here has a special
significance, because Lord Mahāvira renounced the world at this age and started practising the jinak alpa, which illustrates all the rules prescribed for the penance. We shall have occasion at the end of the chapter to demonstrate with reference to the ninth adhyayana (chapter) of the first śrutaskandha (book) of the Ayāro how these rules are found
there verbatim. 174 BKBh, v. 1420a. 175 BKBh, v. 1420bcd. 176 Vide Mulärādhana, v. 421. 177 BK Bh, v. 1421a. 178 lbid., v. 1421b : linge bhayaņā u
davvalingenam; Commentary : linge cintyanāne bhajanā tu dravyalingena kāryā, tu-sabdo visesane, kim visinasți? prathamatah pratipadyamano dravya-bhāva-lingayukta eva bhavati. ürdhvam api bhāvalingam niyamid bhavati dravyalingam tu jirņatvāt caurädibhir apahsiatvād va kadăcinna bhavatyapi. uktañcaiyaram tu jiņņabhāvā iehim sayayam
na hoi vi kayāi/ na ya tena viņā vi tahā jāyai se
bhāvaparihāņi// Pañcavastuka, v. 1502. 179 BKBh, v. 1421cd. 180 Ibid., v. 1422ab. 181 lbid., v. 1422cd, 182 Ibid., v, 1423ab. 183 Jbid, v. 1423bcd. 184 Ibid., v. 1414b; also Commentary
on v. 1423. 185 BKBh, v. 1424b. 186 lbid., v. 1424a. 187 Yajñavalkya Smrti (111.58) prescribes
the fourth quarter of the day for begging food instead of the third prescribed here. In this connection the following sutra of Vasisha Smrti (sutra no. 250) is worth notice : mundo- 'mamo- 'parigrahaḥ saptägäräny asamkalpitäni

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References 85
cared bhaikşyam vidhūme sanna
musale. 188 BK Bh, 1424cd. 189 Ibid., v. 1132. 190 BKBh, v. 6447-6481; also cf.
Anuogaddarāim (English transla
tion), p. 173n. 191 1 pūrva is equivalent to 84,000,00 X
84,000,00 years. Cf. Aņuogaddārā
im (English translation), p. 131. 192 BKBh, v. 6450 : puvvasaya-sahassăim, purimassa
amusajjati Visaggaso ya väsäim, pacchimassän-
usajjati) 193 Ibid., 6453 : padivannā jiņindassa pādamulammi
je viū/ thāvayanti u te anne, no u thāvita
hävagā// 194 See the chapter on Five Vyavahäras. 195 BK Bh, vv. 6442-3. 196 lbid., v. 6463. 197 Vide tulană in Jinakalpa, supra, p. 59. 198 BKBh, v. 6473, Commentary: na
parasparam samuddesanädi-sambho-
gam kurvanti. 199 Ibid., v. 6474. Cf. footnote 3 on
p. 1703 : ścşah punar anuparihāri. kaivam pariharikatvam vā yathāyo
gyam pratipa dyante. 200 Ibid., v, 1426cd. 201 lbid., v, 1431c. 202 Cf. Aņuogaddārāim, 502.
e mathematical calculation of purity is an invention exclusively of the Jaina thinkers. It appears that their close association with the mathematicians of the ancient period is responsible for such mathematical orientation of psychological facts, In fact the atomic theory of the Jainas played an important part in the exact calculation of the spiri
tual development of the soul. 204 Here the 'innumerable' means the
number of space-points in the loka. 205 This innumerable number is to be
understood as identical with the same number of time-instants constituting an antarmuhurta. Cf. Aņuogaddārāim, 367, 511.
206 BKBh, v. 1432-33. 207 Ibid., v. 1434. 208 Ibid., vv. 1435-37. 209 BK Bh, v. 1438, Commentary : landas
tu bhavati kälah...yāvatä kälenodakārdraḥ karaḥ śuşyati tāvān
jaghanyah. 210 Cf. PSU, Tikā, p. 173 A : asya cena
jaghanyatvam pratyākhyāna-niyamaviệeşadişu višeşatā. upayogitvät. anyathā 'tisūksmatarasyāpi samayādilaksaņasya siddhāntoktasya kālasya
sambhavāt. 211 BKBh. v. 1438, Commentary :
utksstaḥ pañca rätrindivāni. 212 Ibid.: utkrstam landam pañcara
trarūpam ckasyām Vithyām caranaśīlā yasmāt, tato mj...yathālandikā
ucyante. 213 Ibid., trayo gaņā amum kalpam
pratipadyante...landamānam utksstam pañcātmakam ekaikasya gaṇasya puruşāņām pramāņam
drastavyam. 214 Vide supra, pp. 59 ff. 215 Vide supra, p. 64, where the expres
sion śruta is used instead. This discrepancy is explainable on the ground that the Prakrit Version varies as suya or sutta in the original
texts. 216 Vide supra, p. 65. 217 Vide supra, p. 65. 218 Vide supra, p. 68. 219 BKBh, v. 1414, Commentary :
yathālandikä dvidha, gaccha-pratibaddha itare ca punar ekaike
dvividhāh-jināś ca, sthaviräś ca. · 220 Ibid., v. 1440.
221 Ibid., v. 1442. 222 Ibid. 223 Ibid., v. 1440, Commentary, PSU,
Commentary, pp. 173B and 174A. 224 PSU, v. 616 : gacche padibaddhānam ahalandiņam
tu aha puņa viseso/ uggaha jo tesim tu so āyariyāņa
abhavail/ 225 PSU, p. 173A and 173B. 226 BKBh, vv. 1443-5. 227 Pp. 353-6. 228 Vijayodayā, p. 353 : athalanda
samyatānām lingam autsargikam...

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86
The Four Monastic Courses
prānasamyama-pālanārtham...gshsta- pratilekhanā grāmāntaragamane,
vihārabhūmi-gamane... 229 Ibid. 230 Āyāro, IX. 2.5. 231 Vijayodayā, p. 353. 232 IX. 2.12. 233 Vijayodayā, p. 353. 234 IX. 3.9. 235 Cf. Āyāro, IX 1.20 : acchim pi no pamajjiyā, no vi ya
kandūyaye muni gayam. 236 IX. 4. 11-12. 237 Cf. Āyäro, VIII. 8.24; Yoga
darśana, III. 48-51. 238 Vijayodaya, p. 254 : kalpasthitam
ācāryam muktvä seşāņām ardhá agre parihara-samyamam gshṇanti iti parihārikā bhanyante seşās
teşam anupariharikah. 239 Ibid., p, 256 : avadhir manahparya
yam kevalam vā yoga-samāptau
prāpnuvanti siddhyanti vā. 240 Vol. 1, 1, sūtra 126. 241 1. 194. 242 Vijayodayä, p. 356 (line 19):
kalatah sarvadā. 243 Ibid., p. 354 (line 9): kālatah
sarvadā. 244 lbid., p. 356: avadhi-manah-
paryayam kevalam vā prāpnuvanti kecit. kevalinas te niyamena sidhyanti.
245 BKBh, v. 1420, Commentary : tatra
jinakalpikasya tadbhave kevalot
pattipratişedhāt. 246 The Doctrine of the Jainas, p. 40. 247 Cf. Uttarajjhayaņāņi, XIII, 13. 248 Vide H.R. Kapadia: A History of
the Canonical Literature of the Jainas (Bombay, 1941), pp. 87-90, and pp. 15-16 for Bhadrabahu as the
author of the Chedasūtras, etc. 249 Mūlārādhanā, v. 421, Vijayodayā,
pp. 609-616. 250 Vijayodayā, pp. 611-2: athaivam
manyase pürvägameşu vastrapätrādigrahaņam upadiştam tathā hy ácarapranidhau bhanitam-pratilikhet pătrakambalam dhruvam iti...sūtrakrtasya pundarika-adhyāye kathitan-na kahejjo dhammakaham vattha-pattädihedum iti niședhe 'pyuktam-kasiņāim vatthakambaläim... äryikanām ágame anujñātum vastram kāramāpekṣayā. bhikṣūņām hrimān ayogyaśarīrāvayavo duscarmābhilambamānabījo vā parīşahasahane vā akşamah sa gļhņāti... tathā coktam kalpe--hirihetukam vā
hoi dehaduguncham ti... 251 Jaina Sahitya aura Itihāsa (Hindi),
Bombay, 1956, p. 552. 252 Digha Nikāya, I, p. 50. 253 Anguttara Nikāya, III, p. 93.

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X
THE IDEAL MONK
The Uttarajjhayaṇāņi, XV, and the Dasaveäliyam, X, contain under the common caption "Sa Bhikkhu" the essential characteristics of the ideal monk. We give here a versified English rendering of the two chapters, each English verse being preceded by its Prakrit original. The contents of these two chapters are comparable to those of the Bhikkhuvagga of the Pali Dhammapada.
Uttarajjhayaṇāni, XV SA-BHIKKHUYAM
1. monam carissami samecca dhammam sahie ujju-kade niyaṇa-chinne samthavam jahejja akāma-kāme annaesi parivvač, sa bhikkhu.
(1) A monk's life shall I lead, perceiving the truth, Wishing well, upright, tearing off intents deep; Abandoning acquaintance, longing not for objects sensual,

Who begs from families strange, he is indeed the ideal monk.
2. rãovarayam carejja ladhe
virae veyaviyaya-rakkhie , panne abhibhu ya savva-damsī
je kamhim ci na mucchie, sa bhikkhu.
(2) With affection ceased, and vivacious,
Abstaining, knowing the lore, self-protected, Wise and conquering, perceiving all,
Who is attached not anywhere, he is indeed the ideal monk.
3. akkosa-vaham vittu dhire
muni care laḍhe niccam aya-gutte; avvagga-mane asampahitthe
je kasiņam ahiyāsae, sa bhikkhu.

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88 The Ideal Monk
(3) Overcoming abuse and injury, steadfast,
Vivacious ever, the sage travels self-protected, Undistracted in mind, not elated,
Who endures all, he is indeed the ideal monk. 4. pantam sayaņā saņam bhaitta
si'unham viviham ca damsa-masagam arvagga-manè asampahithe
jë kasiņam ahiyāsae, sa bhikkhu. (4) Using beds and seats lowly,
Cold and heat diverse, gnats and mosquitoes, Undistracted in mind, not elated,
Who endures all, he is indeed the ideal monk.
5. na sakkaim icchai, na pūyam,
no vi ya vandanagam, kuo pasamsam; je samjač suvvae tavassi
sahiè āya-garesad, sa bhikkhu. (5) Desires not treatment respectful, nor homage,
Nor reverence, let alone praise; Self-restrained, keeping the vows, ascetic, Wishing well, who introspects the self, he is indeed the ideal
monk. 6. jena puna jahãi jiviyam
möham vā kasinam niyacchai (nara] nārim pajahe sayā tavassi
na ya koühallam uve, sa bhikkhū. (6) For whom one gives up life,
Or falls into delusion deep; Such women ever, the ascetic, avoids,
And is not enamoured, he is indeed the ideal monk. 7. chinnam sarā bhomam antalikkham
suminam lakkhana-danda-vatthu-vijjam anga-viyāram sarassa vijjam
je vijjāhī na jīvai, sa bhikkhu. (7) The rent (in garment), tones, (portents) earthly and celestial,
Dreams, science of signs, staffs and building-sites, Defects physical, and the science of cries,
Who lives not on sciences such, he is indeed the ideal monk. 8. mantam (mūlam) viviham ca veija-cintam,
vamana-vire yaņa-dhūmanetta-siņāņam āura-saranam tigicchiyam ca,
tam parinnāya parivvač, sa bhikkhū.

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(8) Charms strange and doctor's prescriptions, Emetics, purgatives, fumigation, and bathing, The patient's asylum and treatment medical,
Eschewing, who renounces, he is indeed the ideal monk.
9. khattiya-gana ugga rāyaputtā
mahana bhoiya viviha-sippino ya,
no tesī vai siloga-puyam;
tam parinnaya parivvae, sa bhikkhu.
(9) Ksatriyas, guilds, Ugras, princes,
Mahanas, Bhogas, and artisans of all sorts;
Who praises not, nor honours,
And avoiding them, renounces, he is indeed the ideal monk.
10. gihino je pavvaieņa diṭṭhā
appavaiena va samthuya havejjā,
tesim ihaloiya-pphal'aṭṭhā
[jo] samthava na karei , sa bhikkhu.
(10) The householders whom, after renouncing, he met, Or, ere renunciation, was acquainted with;
With them, who, for gains earthly,
Cultivates not acquaintance, he is indeed the ideal monk.
11. sayanasaṇa-pāṇa-bhojaṇam
viviham khāima-saimam paresim adae padischi niyanthe
je tattha na paussai, sa bhikkhu.
(11) Beds and seats, drink or food,
Sa-Bhikkhuyam 89
Dainties various, and spices, by others, Refuses to partake of, the Nirgrantha,
Who gets not angry, he is indeed the ideal monk.
12. jam kim c'āhāra-pāṇa-jāyam
viviham khaima-siimam paresim [laddhum] jo tam tivihena nanukampe
maṇa-vaya-kaya-susamvuḍe, sa bhikkhu.
(12) Food and drink of kind any,
And dainties various, and spices, by others, (Being offered), who blesses them not in the triple way,
Restrained in thought, word, and deed, he is indeed the ideal
monk.
13. āyāmagam ceva javodanam ca
siyam soviram javôdagam ca no hilaě pindă nīrasam tam, panta-kulai parivvae, sa bhikkhu.

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(13) Rice-water and barley-pap,
Cold sour gruel, and barley-water, Insipid alms, who despises not,
And visits the houses lowliest, he is indeed the ideal monk.
14. saddā vivihā bhavanti loe
divvā mānussagā tahā tiricchā bhimă bhaya-bheravā urālā -
je soccă na vihijjai, sa bhikkhu. (14) Sounds manifold there are in the world,
Of gods and men, and of beasts too, Dreadful, frightening and aweful ones;
Who bears them unperturbed, he in indeed the ideal monk.
15. vādam viviham samecca loe
sahia khey'aigė ya koviy'appa panne abhibhū ya savra-damsi
uvasante avihedaë, sa bhikkhu. (15) Knowing doctrines different in the world,
Wishing well, griefless, and learned; Wise, conquering, and perceiving everything,
Tranquil and unoffensive, he is indeed the ideal monk. 16. asippa-jīvi agihê amitte
ji'indie savvao vippamukke anu-kkasäi lahu-appa-bhakkhe
ceccă giham egacare, sa bhikkhú. (16) Not living on craft, without house and friends,
Subduing his senses, free from ties all; With passions tenuous, eating light and little,
Houseless and living alone, he is indeed the ideal monk.
Dasave âliyam, X SA-BHIKKHU
1. nikkhamma-m-aņaya buddha vayanë
niccam citta-samāhio havejjā itthina vasain na yāvi gacche,
vantam no padi yāyai (je), sa bhikkhu. (1) Abiding by the Law, who renounces the world,
Contemplates ever on the words of the Enlightened One; And avoiding all women, swallows not back
The vomit, he is indeed the ideal monk.

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2. pudhavim na khane [na] khaṇāvač,
siôyagă na pie [na] piyāvaè, aganim sattham jahā su-nisiyam
(2) Who digs not the earth, nor makes others dig, Drinks not water cold1, nor makes others drink; Kindles not fire, the weapon sharp,
Nor gets it kindled, he is indeed the ideal monk.
3. anilena na vie na viyāvaë,
tam na jale na jalavat [je], sa bhikkhu.
4.
5.
hariyani na chinde [na] chidavač;
biyāņi saya vivajjayanto
(3) Who fans not the air, nor gets it fanned,
Wounds not the vegetation, nor makes others wound; Always gives up the seeds, and takes not
The live food, he is indeed the ideal monk.
6.
saccittam náhārae [je], sa bhikkhŭ.
vahaṇam tasa-thāvarāṇa hoī
pudhavi taṇa-kattha-nissiyāṇam, tamha uddesiyam na bhuñje,
no vi paě na payāvae [je], sa bhikkhu.
(4) Involves as that, killing of being, mobile and immobile, Infesting earth, straw, and wood,
Who accepts not the food for himself intended;
Nor cooks, nor gets cooked, he is indeed the ideal monk.
roitta Nayaputta-vayaṇam
appa-same mannejja chap-pi käe
pañca ya phase mahavvayāim
pañcāsava-samvarae [je], sa bhikkhu.
(5) With unshakable faith in the words of the Naya-scion,
Who identifies himself with the world of sixfold beings; And observes in full the five vows great,
Restraining the five doors of influx, he is indeed the ideal monk.
Sa-Bhikkhu 91
cattari vame sayā kasā
dhuva-jogi ya havejja buddha-vayaṇe, ahane nijjāya-rüva-rayaē
gihi-jogam parivajjae [je], sa bhikkhu.
I Here 'cold' stands for 'live' (sacitta).

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92 The Ideal Monk
(6) Giving up passions fourfold,
Absorbed always in words of the Enlightened One; Without possessions, away from silver and gold,
Who forsakes the world, he is indeed the ideal monk.
7. sammad-dițshi sayā amüdhe
"atthi hu nāně tavè ya samjame ya" tavasă dhuņai purāņa-pāvam
mana-vaya-kāya-susamvide [je], sa bhikki. (7) With faith set right, and ever from delusion free,
Believer in wisdom, austerity and restraint; Who shakes off sins old by penance (from the soul), Restrained in thought, speech, and body, he is indeed the
ideal monk.
8.
taheva asanam pāņagam vā
viviham khāima-sāimam labhittā "hohi attho sue parë vā”
tam na nihe na nihāvae Lje), sa bhikkhū.
(8) And thus on getting any food or drink,
Dainties various, and spices; Intending to use them on the morrow or further still, Who stores them not, nor gets stored, he is indeed the ideal
monk.
9.
Taheva asaņam pāņagam vā
viviham khāima-säimam labhittā chandiya săhammiyāņa bhunje,
bhoccă sajjhāya-raë ya jê, sa bhikkhū.
(9) And also on getting any food or drink,
Dainties various, and spices; Inviting fellow monks, who eats,
And engages in study after eating, he is indeed the ideal monk.
10.
na ya vuggahiyam kaham kahejjā
na ya kuppè nihu' indie pasante, samjama-dhuva joga-jutra
uva santé avihedae ( je), sa bhikkhū.
(10) Who indulges not in talks contentious,
Nor is angered, with senses unruffled, and tranquil; Always devoted, and absorbed in restraint full,
Quiet and calm, belittling none, he is indeed the ideal monk.

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Sa-Bhikkhū
93
11. jo sahai hu gāma-kantae
akkosam ca pahāra-tajjanão fya), bhaya-bherava sadda sa-ppahāsa
sama-suha-dukkha-sahē ya ja, sa bhikkhū. (11) Who tolerates the set of sensual thorns,
Abuses, beating, and rebukes; Scornful laugh, terrible, dread and loud, And, with equanimity, pleasure and pain, he is indeed the
ideal monk. 12. padimam padivajjiyā masāne
no bhāè bhaya-bheravās dissā, viviha-guna-tavo-raë ya niccam
na sariram c'abhikankhai jel, sa bhikkhú. (12) In intensive penance at the cemetery engaged,
Who fears not the terrible and dreadful sight; Engaged ever in various deeds of merit and penance,
Longs not for the body, he is indeed the ideal monk. 13. asaim vosatha-catta-dehe
akkutthë va haë va lūsiē vā pudhavīd same muni havejjā
anipāne akuühale ya je], sa bhikkhữ. (13) Every now and again, detached and aloof from body,
Abused or beaten or wounded; The saint who remains un moved like the earth,
Free from desires and curiosity, is indeed the ideal monk. 14. abhibūya kāeņa parísahāim
samuddharè jāi-pahāo appayam viittu jāi-maraṇam mahabbhayam
tave raè sāmania [je), sa bhikkhủ. (14) Physically enduring hardships all,
From metempsychosis himself who saves; And realizes the dreadfulness of birth and death,
In ascetic penance engaged, he is indeed the ideal monk. 15. hattha-samjaè pāya-samjač
vāya-samjae samjaindiye ajjhapparaè susamāhiyappā
suttattham ca viyānai [je), sa bhikkhū. (15) Restraining the hands, and also the feet,
Restraining the speech, and the senses too; Absorbed in self, and with self concentered deep, Who knows scripture in letter and in spirit, he is indeed the
ideal monk.

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94 The Ideal Monk
16. uvahimmi amucchie agiddhë
annāya-uncham pula-nippulāe kaya-vikkaya-sannihið virad
savva-sangāvagae (ya ja), sa bhikkhū. (16) Neither attached to possessions, nor greedy of them, Begging remnants from families strange, and free from monk
hood hollow; Abstaining from purchase, sale, and hoarding,
Who is away from attachment all, he is indeed the ideal monk.
17. alola-bhikkhu na rasesu giddhe
uñcham care jīviyå nâbhikankhi iddhim ca sakkāraṇā pūyanam ca
cae thiy'appă aniha [jel, sa bhikkhū,
(17) The mendicant, with senses not loose, nor greedy of tasty food,
Living on remnants, and longing not for life; Powers supernal, respect, and reverence, who wants not; With self steadfast and energy unconcealed, is indeed the
ideal monk.
18. na param vaejjāsi "ayam kusīle”,
jen' anne kuppejja, na tam vaejjā; jāniya patteyà punna-pāram
attāṇam na samukkase ( je), sa bhikkhū,
(18) Who calls not anyone names,
And says not what angers him; Knowing the virtues and vices of each,
Exalts not himself to the skies, he is indeed the ideal monk.
19. na jāi-matte na ya rūva-matte,
na läbha-matte na sueņa matte, mayāni savyāni vivajjayanto
dhamma-jjhāna-raē ya je, sa bhikkhū. (19) Who prides not himself on caste, nor on beauty,
Nor on gain, nor on learning; Eschewing all prides, Absorbed in meditation on dhamma, he is indeed the ideal
monk.
20. paveyat ajja-payam mahā-muni,
dhammé thio thāvayai param pi; nikkhamma vajjejja kusila-lingam
na yâvi håsam kahae [je), sa bhikkhu.

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Sa-Bhikkhu
95
(20) Teacher of the noble goal, the great saint,
Himself established in steadfastness, establishes others too; Renouncing all, who shuns the vestiges of monkhood bad,
Indulges not in laughter silly, is indeed the ideal monk. 21. tam deha-vāsam asuim asāsayam
sayà caè niccu-hija-thiy'appo; chindittu jāi-maranassa bandhanam uvei bhikkhū apunāgamam gaim
tti bemi.
(21) The mortal frame impure and fragile,
One should ever forsake, steady in perennial weal of self, Tearing off the bondage of birth and death, The monk attains the state, from metem psychosis free.
-Thus do I say.

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XI
THE VICTOR'S PENANCE
The Uvahāņasuyam (the śruta on penance) of the Ayāro (First Śrutaskandha, Chapter IX) gives a vivid picture of the ascetic life of Lord Mahāvīra, that sets the example to be followed by the aspirants to jinahood. It is in fact a description that led the authors of Jaina monasticism to formulate the Jinakalpa, the Victor's Course, of which we have given a brief account in the chapter “The Four Monastic Courses”. Here we give a versified English rendering of the Uvahāņasuyam, each English verse being preceded by its Prakrit original. The Prakrit expression uvahāna is comparable to the Pali word padhāna, meaning 'exertion, energetic effort, striving, concentration of mind'.
UVAHĀŅASUYAM
1. ahasuyam vaissåmi, jaha se samane bhagavam utthaya;
samkhāě tamsi hemante, ahunā pavvaie riitthā. (1) Relate shall I, as actually I heard,
How that Samana, the Lord, waking, Perceiving, in that autumn, Travelled, just ordained.
2. no cev’imeņa vattheņa, pihissāmi tamsi hemante;
se pāraě āvakahãe, eyam khu anudhammiyam tassa. (2) With this robe, shan't I,
Cover myself that autumn (vowed He), And observed (the vow) for ever;
His obedience to the Law indeed was such. 3. cattāri sāhie mäse, bahave pāņa jāiyāgamma;
abhirujjha kāyam viharimsu, ārusi yāņam tattha himsimsu. (3) More than four months,
Living beings of varieties many, gathering, Climbing, crawled over His body, And wounded Him stinging in anger and wrath,

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Uvahānasuyam
97
4. Samvaccharam sāhiyam māsam, jam na rikkā'si vatthagam bhagavam;
acelae tato cãi, tam vosajja vattham anagare. (4) For a year and a month,
The robe the Lord left not off; (But), naked and relinquishing was He, then, Giving up the robe, as a houseless monk.
5. adu porisim tiriya-bhittim, cakkhumāsajja antaso jhāi;
aha cakkhu-bhiya-sahiyā, te “hanta-hantā” bahave kandimsu. (5) Then on wall in front of man's length,
Fixing His eyes, inwardly did He meditate; Frightened by His eyes, and assembled, Exclaiming 'Oh alas, Oh alas' cried many.
6. sayaņehim viimissehim, itthio tattha se parinnāyā;
sāgārivam na se seve, iti se sayam pavesiyā jhãi. (6) In abodes intermixed,
Women He avoided; In sexual act He never indulged, (But), secluding Himself, meditated deep.
7. je ke'ime agărat thā, misībhāvam pahāva se jhāi;
puțjho vi nābhibhāsimsu, gacchai näivattai añjü.
(7) Whosoever were there in the house,
Shunning them all, He meditated alone; Answered not, when asked, Left, but unconcerned, never swerving.
8. no sukaram etam egesim, nābhibhāse abhivāyamāne;
hayapuvvõ tattha dandehim, lúsiyapuvvõ appapunnehim. (8) Not easy indeed was it for all,
Not to respond, being greeted, Or with sticks beaten, Or cut by people of merit thin.
9-10. pharusăim duttiikkhāim, aiyacce muni parakkamumāne;
āghāja-nafta-gīyāim, dandajuddhāim mutthijuddhāim. (9) gadhie mihu kahäsu, samayammi nāyasue visogě adakkhữ;
etāim so urālāim, gacchai nāyaputte asaraņāe. (10) (9-10) (Sounds) harsh and the unbearable,
Overcoming, the Sage exerted hard; The tales, dances, and songs, Stick-fighting and boxing, (9)

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The Victor's Penance
And people in conversation, And compacts, the Nāya-scion, griefless, (avoided); All sights coarse and vulgar, The Nāya-son left, recalling not. (10)
11. qvi sahie duve vāse, siodam abhoccă nikkhante;
egattagae pihiyacce, se abhinnāyadamsane sante. (11) And for more than a couple of years,
Before renouncing, cold water He eschewed; Solitary, guarding His body and mind), With intuition gained, and tranquil.
12. pudhavim ca āu-kāyam, teu-kāyam ca vāu-kāyam ca;
panagāim bīya hari yāim, tasa-kāyam ca savvaso naccā. (12) Beings earth-bodied, water-bodied,
Fire-bodied, and air-bodied too, Lichens, seeds, vegetation, And creatures mobile, fully He perceived.
13. eyaim santi padilehe, cittamantāim se abhinnāya;
parivajjiyāna viharitthā, iti samkhāe se mahāvīre. (13) These He marked as facts existent,
And knowing them as objects animate, Injured them not, and wandered,
Perceiving the truth, the Hero Great. 14. adu thāvarā tasattåe, tasajīvā ya thāvarattae;
adu sarvajoniyā sattā, kammuņā kappiyā pudho bālā. (14) The immobile turns into the mobile,
And the mobile also goes the immobile's way; The beings of species manifold,
Ignorant, are differently by karma wrought. 15. bhagavam ca evam annesim, sovahie hu luppai bāle;
kammam ca savvaso naccā, tam padi vāikkhe pāvagam bhagavam. (15) And convinced was the Lord,
With possessions, shall perish, the ignorant. Knowing the karma perfectly well, The evil, the Lord forsook.
16-17. duviham samecca mehāvī, kiriyam akkhãy'anelisim nāni;
āyāņa-soyam airāya-soyam, jogam ca savraso naccă. (16) aivattiyam aņāuttim, sayam annesim akaraṇajāe; jass'itthio parinnāyā, savvak anımāvahäö se adakkhū. (17)
1 Here 'cold' stands for 'live' (sacitta).

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(16-17) Comprehending the twofold, the Prudent,
The kiriya-(and-akiriyā) doctrine unique, expounded by the wise, The current inflowing and the current vicious, And knowing activity (threefold) in full, (16) Indulged not in that vice,
Himself, and dissuaded others too;
Women forsooth He completely forsook
As source of evil all, and was the seer true. (17)
18. ahākaḍam na se seve, savvaso kammuṇā ya adakkhū;
jam kimci pavagam bhagavam, tam akuvvam viyadam bhunjittha.
(18) What was made for Him He never used,
As the Law of karma He perfectly knew,
In whatever was sinful, the Lord,
Indulged not, and the immune alone He consumed.
19. no sevai ya paravattham, parapãe vi se na bhuñjittha; parivajjiyāņa omāṇam, gacchai samkhadim asaraṇāe.
(19) Another's robe He never used,
Nor did He eat from vessels of others; The (crowded and) despicable, Avoided feasting places, recalling not.
20. mayanně asaṇa-pāṇassa, nāṇugiddhe rasesu apaḍinne; acchim pi no pamajjiyā, no vi ya kaṇḍūyaye muni gayam.
(20) Measure of food and drink, He knew,
Greedy not of tastes, unaffected,
Rubbed not even the eye,
Nor did the Saint His body scratch.
Uvahanasuyam 99
21. appam tiriyam pehāe, appam piṭṭhao u pehãe; appam buie apaḍibhāṇī, panthapehi care jayamāṇe.
(21) Little looking sideward,
And turning behind little;
In reply, speaking little,
Vigilant, looking on His path, He wandered.
22. sisiramsi addhapadivanne, tam vosajja vattham anagare; pasarettu bahum parakkame, no avalambiyāṇa khandhamsi.
(22) On winter half advanced,
The Ascetic, leaving off the robe,
And stretching the arms, exerted Himself;
(But) never by them, the shoulders He clasped.

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100 The Victor's Penance 23. esa vihi aņukkanto, māheņeņa maimayā; apadinnena virena, käsaveņa mahesiņā.
- tti bemi. (23) This course, indeed, was followed,
By the Māhana wise; The Hero, unaffected, The Kāsava, the Seer Great.
- Thus do I say.
1. cariyāsanāim sejjão, egaijão jāõ buiyao;
āikkha tăim sayanāsaņāim jāim sevittha se mahāvīre. (1) Of the accustomed seats and abodes,
Reported as they are, Those abodes and seats please relate That the Great Hero did use.
2. avesana-sabhā-pavāsu, panijasälāsu egavā vāso;
aduvā paliyathanesu, palālapuñjesu egayā vāso.
(2) At workshops, assembly halls, water-sheds,
And shops, sometimes He lodged; Or at manufactories And under straw-sheds sometimes He dwelt.
3. ägantāre ārāmāgāre, nagare vi egayā rāso;
susāně sunnagāre vā, rukkhamūle vi egajā vāso. (3) At travellers' halls, garden-houses,
And towns sometimes He lodged; At cemetery or deserted house, And at the foot of trees, sometimes He dwelt.
4. etehim muni sayanehim, samanc āsi patclasa vase;
rāindiyam pi jayamāne, appamatte samähie jhäi. (4) At such abodes, the Sage,
The Ascetic, some thirteen years spent; Day and night careful, And vigilant, meditating, quiet and calm.
5. niddam pi no pagāmãe, sevai bhagayam 11thāe;
jag gävai ya appāņam, isim sāiyāsī apaļinne.

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Uvahānasuyam
101
(5) Even sleep for pleasure and rest,
The Lord, waking, did never seek; And waked Himself up, When by chance drowsy, the unaffected One.
6. sambujjhamāņě punarāvi, āsimsu bhagavam usthāe;
nikkhamma egajā rão, bahim camkamiyā muhuttāgam. (6) Rising (from sleep), again,
The Lord seated Himself, waking; And going out in the night sometimes, Walked about for a while.
7. sayanehim tassuvasaggā, bhīmā āsi anegarūvā ya;
samsappagā ya pānā, aduvā pakkhiņo uvacaranti. (7) At those abodes, trials,
Terrible and manifold He had; The crawling creatures,
And birds upon Him preyed. 8-10. adu kucarā uvacaranti, gāmarakkhā ya sattihatıhā ya;
adu gāmijā uvasaggă, itthi egaiyā puriso ya. (8) ihaloiyāim paraloi yāim bhīmāim anegarūvāım; avi subbhi-dubbhi-gandhāim, saddāim anegar uvāim. (9) ahiyāsae sayā samie, phāsāim viruvar ūväim; araim raim abhibhūya, rījai mähane abahuvai. (10)
(8-10) And bad people molested Him,
The village-guards, and the lancers too; The trials by the village folk, And varieties of women and men too; (8) Of this world and the other world, Terrible and of sorts many; And smells, good and bad, Sounds of varieties diverse; (9) Endured He ever self-restrained, Touches of varieties great; Overcoming displeasure and pleasure,
Travelled the Māhana, silent and calm. (10) 11. sa janehim tattha pucchimsu, egacarā ri egayā rão;
avvähie kasäitthā, pchamāne samähim apadinne. (11) Interrogated by wayfarers there,
And sometimes at night by waylayers too; Unmoved and silent, maltreated by them. Engrossed in meditation, unaffected, was He.

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102 The Victor's Penance
12. ayam antaramsi ko ettha, aham amsi'tti bhikkhu āhattu;
ayam uttame sě dhamme, tusinie sa kasāie jhāi. (12) Who is inside there?
I am here, a bhikṣu, said He; That was His way unique, Silent, though ill-treated, meditated He.
13-15. jamsippegě pave yanti, sisire mārue pavāyante;
tamsippege anagārā, himavāe nivāyam esanti. (13) sanghādio pavisissāmo, ehā ya samādahamāṇā; pihiyā vā sakkhām.o, aidukkham himaga-samphāsā. (14) tamsi bhagavam apadinne, ahe viyade ahiyāsae davie;
nikkhamma egayā rāo, cāei, bhagavam samiyāe. (15) (13-15) Some tremble with cold,
In winter, when gales blow; Then some monks houseless, At ice-fall, seek place sheltered from wind; (13) Rugs shall we wrap round, And kindling fuel, Or staying indoors, shall we bear, So painful the touches cold; (14) In (winter) that, the Lord, unaffected, Endured (pain) so terrible, strong in will; And going out in the night, sometimes, The Lord endured, quiet and calm. (15)
16. esa vihi aņukkanto, māhaņeņa maīmayā; apadinnena vīrena, kāsavena mahe siņā.
-tri bemi. (16) This course, indeed, was followed,
By the Māhaņa, wise; The Hero, unaffected, The Kāsava, the Seer Great.
-Thus do I say.
II
1. tanaphāse sīyaphase ya, teuphāse ya damsa-masage ya;
ahiyāsae sayā samie, phāsāim virūvarūvāim. (1) The touches of grass and the touches of cold,
The touches of fire and gnats and mosquitoes too; Ever did He, with equanimity, bear, The touches of varieties diverse,

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Uvahåņasuyain
103
2. aha duccara-ladham acāri, vajjabhūmim ca subbhabhūmim ca;
pantam sejjam sevimsu, āsanagāim ceva pantāim. (2) Then travelled He, in the Lādhas, the pathless tract,
The Vajjabhūmi and the Subbhabhūmi; Rough beds there He used, And rough seats too.
3. lādhehim tassurasaggā, bahave jānavayā lūsimsu;
aha lühadesie bhatte, kukkurā tattha himsimsu nivaimsu. (3) In the Lādhas, dar gers many He faced,
Attacked was He, by natives many; In that land of insipid food, Dogs ran at Him to bite.
4. appe jane nivärei, lūsanae sunae dasamāne;
chuchukārenti āhamsu, samanam kukkurā dasantu'tti. (4) Few people warded off,
The dogs, attacking and biting the samaņas; Crying chu-chu instead, They let the dogs bite.
5. elikkhae jane bhujjo, bahave vajjabhūmim pharusāsi;
lațphim gahāya nālīyam, tattha eva viharimsu. (5) People there were mostly such,
Many in the Vajjabhūmi, on coarse food lived; Carrying stick and staff, Travelled there (the samaņas too).
(6)
6. evam pi tattha viharantā, puttha-puvvā ahesi sunaehim;
camāṇā sunaehim, duccaragāni tattha lādhehim. Travelling even thus (equipped), Bitten were they by dogs; And also torn by them; Dangerous indeed, were the Lādhas to travel.
7. nidhaya dandam pāņehim tam kāyam vosajjamaņagāre;
aha gumakantae bhagavam, te ahiyāsae abhisameccā. (7) Without enmity against creatures those,
Abandoning the body, the Houseless Monk, The set of thorns sensual, the Lord, Endured, with patience, knowing full.
8. não samgāmasīse va, pārae tattha se mahāvire;
evam pi tattha lādhehim, aladdhapuvvo vi egayā gämo.

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104
The Victor's Penance
(8) Like the elephant at the head of battle,
Victorious was the Hero Great; And there in the Lādhas, No village sometimes was reached.
9. uvasamkamantam apadinnam, gāmantiyam pi appattam;
padinikkhamittu lūsimsu, eyāo param palehi tti. (9) Him, on journey, the unaffected One,
Though village yet was not reached, Coming out, they attacked, Saying 'Get away from here'.
10. haya-puvvõ tattha dandenam, aduvā mutthiņā adu phalenam;
adu lelunā kavālcnam, hantă-hantā bahave kandimsu.
(10) Striking Him with stick,
Or with fist, or lance-head; Or with clod, or potsherd, Exclaiming 'Oh alas, Oh alas', cried many.
11. mam süni chinnapuvvăim, uthubhanti egajā kāyam;
parissahāim luncimsu ahava pamsuņà avakirimsu. (11) His flesh was cut,
And on His body, sometimes they spat; Tortured Him, inflicting hardships, Or with dust they covered Him.
12. ucсālaiya nihanimsu, aduvā asanão khalaimsu;
vosatthakāe paņa jāsī, dukkhasahe bhagavam apaļinne. (12) Throwing Him up, they let Him fall,
Or in His postures, they disturbed Him; Abandoning the body, modestly did He, Bore suffering, the Lord, unaffected.
13. süro samgāmasise va, samvude tattha se mahāvīre;
padisevamāne pharusāim, acale bhagavam riitthā.
(13) Or like the hero at the head of battle.
Armoured (self-restrained), there the Hero Great, Bearing all hardships, Unmoved, the Lord, travelled.
14. esa vihi anukkanto, mähanena maimayā; apaļinneņa vīrena, kāsaveņa mahesiņā.
- tti bemi.

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(14) This course, indeed, was followed,
By the Mahana wise;
The Hero, unaffected,
The Kasava, the Seer Great.
-Thus do I say.
1. omoyariyam căci, apuṭṭhe vi bhagavam rogehim; puttho va se apuṭṭho vã, no se saijjai teiccham.
IV
(1) Scanty food the Lord ever took,
Though by diseases unattacked;
Attacked or not attacked;
Medical treatment, he desired not.
(2) Purgatives and emetics,
2. samsohanam ca vamanam ca, gãyabbhamgaṇam siņāṇam ca; sambahaṇam na se kappe, danta-pakkhālaṇam parinnãe.
Anointing the body, and bathing,
And massaging behoved Him not; From cleansing teeth, he ever abstained.
3. virae ya gamadhammehim, rīyai māhane akahuvāî; sisirammi egayā bhagavam, chājāě jhái āsī ya.
(3) Averse from pleasures sensuous,
Wandered the Mahaṇa speaking but little; In winter sometimes, the Lord, Meditated, seated in the shade.
4. ayavai ya gimhānam, acchai ukkuḍue abhi ate; adu jāvaittha lühenam, oyana-manthu kummāseṇam.
(4) To heat, he exposed Himself, in summer,
Or facing hot wind, sat squatting;
And lived on rough food,
Rice, pounded jujube and beans.
Uvahāṇasuyam 105

5. eyāņi tinni paḍiseve, attha mãse ya jāvae bhagavam; apiittha egaya bhagavam, addhamasam aduvā māsam pi.
(5) Only taking these three, the Lord, Sustained himself, eight months, Drank not water, sometimes, For a fortnight or even a month.

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105 The Victor's Penance
6. avi săhie duve mase, chappi mase aduva apivittha; rayovarāyam apaḍinne, annagilāyam egaya bhunje.
(6) And for more than two months,
Or six months, He did not drink;
Day and night awake, unaffected, Stale food sometimes, He took.
7. chatthenam egayā bhunje, aduvă aṭṭhamena dasameṇam; duvalasameṇa egaya bhunje, pehamāne samāhim apaḍinne. (7) The sixth (meal), sometimes He took,
Or the eighth or the tenth;
The twelfth, sometimes, He took, Engrossed in meditation, unaffected.
8. naccāņa se mahāvīre, no vi ya pāvagam sayam akāsī; annehim vi na kāritthā, kīrantam pi nāṇujāṇitthā.
(8) Knowing (the truth), the Hero Great,
Never did commit any sin Himself;
Nor induced others do,
To sins of others, nor did he consent.
9. gāmam pavise nayaram vā, ghasam ese kaḍam paraṭṭhāe; suvisuddham esiya bhagavam, āyata-jogayāe sevitthā.
(9) Village or town he entered,
Begging food for others made;
Food perfectly immune, the Lord begged, And used, with impulses restrained in full.
10-12. adu vayasa diginchantā, je anne rasesino sattā; ghase sanaě ciṭṭhante, sayayam nivaie ya pehae. (10) adu māhaņam vā, samaņam vā, gāmapindolagam ca aihim vā; sovāgam mūsiyāram vā kukkuram va viviham thiyam purao. (11) vitticcheyam vajjanto, tes'appattiyam pariharanto; mandam parakkame bhagavam, ahimsamāņo ghasam esittha. (12) (10-12) And the hungry crows,
Or the creatures thirsty; Waiting there, intent on food,
Seeing them, assembling oft; (10)
Or a mahana or a samana,
A village-beggar or a guest; A caṇḍāla, or a cat,
Or a dog, standing on the way; (11) Obstructing not their livelihood,
And frightening them not;
Slowly moved the Lord,
And begged His food, injuring none. (12)

Page #139

Uvahānasuyam
107
13. avi sūiyam rā sukkam vā, sīyapindam purāng-kummāsam;
adu bakkasam pulāgam vā, laddhe pinde aladdhae davie. (13) And spiced or unspiced,
Cold food, old bean, Or old pap, bad grain,
Even secured or not, contented was He. 14. avi jhâi se mahāvīre, asanat the akukkue ihānam:
uddham ahe tiriyam ca, pehamāne samāhim apadinne. (14) And meditated, the Hero Great,
Seated in some posture, undistracted, in meditation; (Looking) above, below, in front. Engrossed in meditation, unaffected.
15. akasăi vigayag hi, saddarūvesu amucchie jhāi;
chaumaithe vi parakkamamān?, no pamāyam saim pi kuvvitthā. (15) Passionless, freed from greed,
Not attached to sounds and colours, meditated He; Exerting hard, vestiges of karma though still there, Non-vigilant He never was.
16. sayam eva abhisamā gamma, āyaya-jogam āyasohie;
abhinivvude amäille, āvakaham bhagavam sami yāsi. (16) By Himself knowing the truth,
With impulses restrained, and self purified; Finally liberated was He, deceitless, Throughout life, self-controlled was the Lord.
17. esa vihī anukkanto, māhaneņa maimayā; apadinnena virena, kāsavena ahesina.
- tti bemi, (17) This course, indeed, was followed,
By the Māhana wise; The Hero, unaffected, The Kāsava, the Seer Great.
- Thus do I say.

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APPENDIX
A note on the word "monasticism"
The word 'monasticism' is derived from the Greek word móvos meaning 'alone, solitary', from which a whole family of words has been formed :
Movn and uovaotypov, ‘monastery'; povaxós, 'monk' or 'solitary'; poyáselv, 'to lead the solitary life'; pová sovtes, 'solitaries'; Mováotpia, ‘nun’; uovadkós, uovaxıkós, PLOVASTiKós, povrens, ‘monastic ; uová jousa, povazoứca, uovaxn, 'nun’; TÒ Movay.ckóv, ‘monasticism'; HOVAOTIKWS, ·monastically’ ; je ovay'suós, ‘monachism'.
In Latin this word has given monachus and its derivatives monacha, monachatus, monachare, monachizare, monachismum, monachatio, monasterium and a few other words.
All these words, derived as they are from the same root, indicate the idea of solitude, of isolation. This solitude must not, however, be interpreted as implying absolute isolation---such asthat of the hermit in the desert. The term 'mook' has come to be applied to men living the same life in common-a life in which they are indeed separated from the world, but not from one another.
-Adapted from Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics,
Vol. VIII, page 781.

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and Glossar von Walther Schubring, Leipzig, 1910. Baudha vana Dharmasūtra, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi. Bhagavati ārādhanā (or Mulārādhanā) with Vijayodayā Tikā by Apara
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110 Bibliography
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, by Franklin Edgerton, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi.
Dasaveyāliyam, edited by Muni Nathmal, Jain Vishva Bharati, Ladnun (Raj.) 1974. Prof L. Alsdorf's edition of Dasaveāliya Suttta, chapter X, as published in Ludwig Alsdorf, Kleine Schriften, Franz Steiner Verlag Gmbh Wiesbaden, 1974. Dhammapada, translation by S. Radhakrishnan, Oxford University
Press, 1968.
Dhavala, Satkhaṇḍāgama, part I (Jīvasthāna), edited by Dr. Hiralal Jain, Jaina Samskriti Samrakṣaka Samgha, Sholapur, 1973. Digha Nikaya, Nalanda edition.
Gacchācāra Prakirṇaka along with the Vṛtti by Vanara Ṛṣi, Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1913.
Gautama Dharmasutra (Mitākṣarā-vṛtti), Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1966.
History of Dharma-Sastra by P.V.
Kane, vol. I-V (1968-77), Bhandarakar Oriental Research Institute, Poona.
Hārītasmrti, see Vasisthasmrti.
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Kalpa Sutra of Bhadrabahu, translated by Kasturchand Lalwani, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi, 1979.
Kappa, see Brhat Kalpa Sutra.
Kautilya's Arthaśāstra, Delhi, part I, II, III, edited by R.P. Kangle, University of Bombay, 1969, 1972, 1975.
Mahāpariṇibbāṇa Sutta, edited by Bhiksu Dharmarakṣita, Banaras Jñana Mandal Limited, V.S. 2015.
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Manusmrti, edited by Gopal Sastri Nene, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Series
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Mūlācāra (parts I and II) by Acarya Vaṭṭakera with commentary by Vasunandi, Manikchand Digambara Jaina Granthmala, V.S. 1977. Mūlārādhanā, see Bhagavati Ārādhanā.
Nisitha Adhyayana with Bhāṣya and Cūrṇi, Viseṣa Nisiha Curni by Jinadasa, edited by Vijayaprema Suri, vol. 1-4, Agra, 1957-60. Ogha Niryukti, published by Agamodaya Samiti, Bombay, 1919. Padikkamaṇajjhayanam, printed in Avassaya Suttam, Jaina Agama Series, 15, Shri Mahāvīra Jain Vidyalaya, Bombay, 1977. Pali-English Dictionary, Pali Text Society, London, 1972.
Panca Samgraha, edited by Pt. Hiralal Jain Siddhanta Shastri, Bharatiya
Jñana Piṭha, 1960.
Pañcavastuka (of Haribhadra Yakinīsānu), published in the D.L.P. series, no. 69, together with Svopajña Țīkā, Bombay, 1932.

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Uttarajjhayaṇāņi (Two Parts) translated and edited by Muni Nathmal, Jaina Svetambara Terapanthi Mahasabha (Agama Sahitya Prakashan Samiti, Calcutta, 1967).
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SANSKRIT, PRAKRIT AND PALI WORDS
abbhattheyum, to seek help 9n. abbhatthijja, on request 9n. abbhuṭṭhāna (abhyutthāna), rendering of service to the organisation 8. abbhuvagayammi, on being accepted 9n.
abhavamtito, monastic propriety 1. ābhavamto (abhavat), monastic propriety 1.
abhāvaṇā (ābhāvanā), monastic propriety 1.
äbhavantiko, monastic propriety 1. abhigama-śrāddha, families practising aṇuvratas 48.
abhiggaha (see abhigraha) 84n. abhigraha, secret resolve 57, 62, 68, 70.
abhyudyata maraṇa, resolute death
59, 62. abhyudyata-sasana, fasting unto
death 62.
abhyudyata-vihāra, resolute
duct 59.
abhigrahika, predetermined 52. abhimāna, pride 13.
abhinnam, unbroken 84n. abhīru, free from fear 83n. abhisamagama, occurrence of an event such as memory of past life leading to spontaneous renunciation of the world 42. abhisamecca (abhisametya), spontaneously accepting initiation 42. adhişvaşkana (=utṣvaskaņa), see
ussakka 54.
abhyantara-śambuka, internally spi- ādhākarma, see adhākamma 22, 55,
ral like a conch 58.

abhyupagamiki, self-imposed 64. ācāmla, acidic and sticky non-acidic drink and food 65, subsistence on a single-meal a day consisting of saltless cereal of any kind 71. acāra, conduct vii, 63. ācārapraṇidhi, name of a scripture 86n.
acaritti (acaritrī), fallen from monkhood 14.
con
acārya, head of a samgha with scriptural learning and high discipline 1, 2, 18, 41, 42, 43, 44, 49, 60. accakkhariya (atyakṣarika), addition of syllable (a fault connected with knowledge) 29.
acchijjam (acchedya), snatched 18. acela-dharma, monastic practice of nudity 79.
aciyatta (apriya), unsympathetic towards the monks 48.
addha, proper time when alms are available 54.
addhapaḍivanna, half-advanced 99. adeya-vayaṇa (adeya-vacana), of impressive diction 31. ādhākamma (adhākarma), acceptance of food prepared for the monk 14, 18.
65.
adharma, sin 26n.
adhikaraṇakārakā, makers of legal
question 34.
adhyayana, chapter 84n.
adinnādāna (adattādāna), stealing
15.

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114
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
adinnam, not offered 15.
ajñātoñcha, begging from unfamiāgādha, intensified, acute 43, 53. liar houses 55. āgama, scripture 8'n.
ājya, melted butter used for oblaāgama, a source of monastic legis- tions or for pouring into the holy lation 1. scripture or a person fire at the sacrifice 17. conversant with at least upto akāle kao sajjhão (akāle krtaḥ ninth Pūrva 2, scriptural study 67. svādhyāyah), untimely study 30. āgantuka, new-comer 55.
akalpa-sthāpanā kalpa, conduct agga-bīja (agrabija), plant propa
relating to non-commissioning of gated from cuttings 19.
untrained monks 70. agītārtha, non-adept 46.
akiriyā (akriyā), the doctrine that agni, vedic god of fire 16.
propounds the non-existence of agnihotra, sacrificing to Agni XXI.
soul 99. ahājāyam (yathājātam), usual mini-
ākinno, beset by 34.
äki mum outfit 52, 81n, minimum 81.
akstapratijñāḥ, those who do not ahalandīnam, of the observers of
take a vow, unresolved 76 the time-bound course 85n.
alābha, possiility of not getting ahākadam, what was made for him
anything 53. 99.
alasa, indolent 53, 82n. ahankāra, egotism 13.
alepa, accepting only non-sticky āhattu dijjamāņam (ähștya diya mā
edibles and drinks 65. nam), offered as carried from else
alocanā, confession 21, 45, 56, 58, where for the monk 18.
70, 71. ahigarana (adhikaraņa), (raising new aloka, transcosmos or a-cosmos 38. unraised) disputes 11.
äloko (ālokah), light 36. aisesa (=atiśaya), development of
āloyaņā (ālocanā), self-examination extra-ordinary personality 4. atisesi (atiśesī), extra-ordinarily de-
āmnāyārthavācaka, an ācārya who
amnāvärthavir voted to the order 53.
reveals inner meaning of utsarga ājīvikas, followers of Gośälaka 48.
(the general rules of conduct), and ajjhayaņa (adhyayana), chapter 34.
apavāda (the exceptions to the ajjhoara (adhyavapūraka), addition general rules of conduct) 34. of some quantity of food to the
a moghavacanatayā, on account of usual one in order to accommodate
his words being fruitful 83n. a monk 55.
āņā (ājñā), a source for monastic ajjhoyara, see ajjhoara 5).
legislation; sanction of any ācārya ājñā, warning to monk to behave 1. according to the rules 6, 50.
anācāra, breach of vows 21; excesājñābhanga, breach of law 81n. sive attachment to the pleasures of ājñādayaḥ doşāḥ, blameworthy the world 22. commands, etc. 50.
anācāra, misconduct 16, 21. ājñākāri, guided by the counsel of anāgādha, chronic 53. the Head. 6.
aņamtarahiyā (anantarhitā), living ajñāna, ignorance 26n.
27.
19.

Page #147

Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 115
ananussuta, not heard of before
at any time 36. anāpātam-asamlokam, a place for
easing themselves used by monks, not frequented by people and not
exposed to their sight 57. anārjava, crookedness 13. anavasthā, indecision 81n. anavasthānam, unsteady vigilance
26n. anavasthāpya, the ninth variety of
expiation in which a monk is temporarily debarred from observ- ing a vow and made to undergo penance 52. aņāyāra (anācāra), enjoying of offence and addiction to it 14, the fourth stage of sin 20, miscon- duct 21. anekānta, non-absolutistic attitude
80. anga, a part of canonical literature
79. anga viyāram, physical defects 88. aņisittham (anisrstam), taking of anything not disowned by the almsgiver 18. anisssta, see aņisit tham 55. aņissiya-vayana (anisstavacana),
one having unbiased diction 32. aniyaavāsa (aniyatavāsa), life of a
wanderer 41, 43. aniyatão, not fixed beforehand 84n. aniyata vitti (aniyatavștti), home-
less 31, 841. annä (anyah), others 83n. annāesí, strange families, 87. anotappa-sarīra (anupatrapya sa
rira), unreproachable body 31. antalikkham, celestial 88. antarmubūrta, an interval of time
equivalent to 48 minutes 85n. anubandha, resultant 68. anudhammiyam, obedience to the
law 96. anugghāya (anud ghāta) unmitigated
severity of expiation 68. anukkasăi, with tenuous passions
90. anupadisesa-nibbăna (anupādisesanirvāņa), Buddhist equivalent to siddhahood 38. anuparihārika, sub-attendant monks practising the purificatory cooperative course 70, 77, 78, 86n. anuparihärikatvam, duties of the
sub-assistant 85n. anusamdhanā (anusandhanā), filling up of lacunae in the text in the context of special study 8. anutpädak saya-jñāna, knowledge of the absolute destruction of affliction 38. anuvratin, observer of partial vows
51. apadiņņe, unaffected 76, 99, 100,
101, 104. a parikammā, not reconditioning
84n. apavāda sūtra, sūtras concerning the exceptions to the general rules of conduct 43. apramatta, freedom from wakelessness (seventh gunasthāna) 6, 13, 61. apramatta, vigilant 26n. apraśasta, inauspicious 68, 83n,
unwholesome 83n. apratibaddha, unrestricted 45. apratyupekṣā, lack of survey 8ln. āpucchā, initial permission 83n. āpucchanā (āprcchana), asking for permission of the superior to perform an act for himself or others, initial permission 7, 8, 9. ara, division 66. arahamta, the adorable 29,

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116 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
ardhanarāca, a samhanana where fastening is on the one side of the joint 83n.
ardhapeḍha, semi-rectangular 58. ariya-saccam (arya-satyam), noble truth 36.
āroha-pariṇāha-sampanna, symme
trical 31.
ārta (dhyāna), engrossing in painful thoughts 68. arthagrahana, comprehension of meaning 42. aryasūtras, sutras concerned with the nuns 43. aryikā, nun 86n.
asahi, derived from avassiã and equivalent to it 7. asajjhaye sajjhäiyam (asvädhyaye svadhyāyaḥ) to study what is not to be studied in respect of time, place, subject etc. 30. asamāhi (asamadhi), imbalance of mind 12. asamahiṭṭhāņa
(asamadhisthāna) occasion of imbalance of mind 11. asamaņunna (asamanujña), see asambhogika 45.
asambhogika, non-commensal 55. asamcayia (asañcayika), non-storable 54.
asamdiddha vayana (asandigdha vacana), unambiguous diction 32. asamkalpitani, not pre-meditated 84n.
asamkhada (=kalaha), controversy 50.
asampaggahiya-appa (asampragṛhita-ātmā), one enjoying non-obsession of mind 31. asamtharane, in circumstances of famine and other exigencies 82n. asamvigna, opposite of samvigna 55, 56.

asana (aśana), food 19, 27, 28. āsaṇā (āsādanā), injuring 29. asaṇapāņa, food or drink 89. asaranãe, not recalling 97, 99. asavajja (asavadya), immaculate 2. asavakkhaya-ñāṇa (āśravakṣayajñāna), knowledge of the destruction of the intoxicant afflictions 38.
āsāyaṇā (āśātana), disrespectful conduct 27, 28, 29.
asayayai (āśātayati), offends 30. asevana-śikṣā, training in the rules of monastic conduct 44. asia, equivalent to asahi 7. āsīdhikā, word uttered at the exit from the temple of a jina 7. aśoka, a kind of tree 62. aśraddha, absence of faith 13. asthita (kalpa), optional practice 67.
astikāya, extended substances 29. aśubha, bad 83n.
asuddham
(aśuddham),
impure
82n.
asuya, repugnance 13.
asvädana, see paribhoga 16.
atańka, calamities and misfortunes 56, 64, 72.
ataraṇa, infant 48. atatayin, desperado 24. athalanda, see yathalanda 76, 78. athalanda samyata, an ascetic observing the time-bound course 85n. athamḍila, place unfit for easing oneself 84n.
aticâra, disregard of vows 21; indulgence in pleasures of the world 22.
aticãra, violation of the rule and perpetration of the offence, 3rd stage of sin 14, 21, 68. atikkama (atikrama), transgression, pollution of mind 20, 21.

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atikrama, breach of observance according to the Veda 17, transgression, pollution of mind (first stage of sin) 21, mental indulgence 58.
atikramana, desire for worldly pleasures 21, 22. atiyara (aticärah), violation of the rule and perpetration of the offence 20, 21, 22. atmahita pratipatti-sampat, wellbeing of oneself (in Buddhism) 35. atmastava, self-praise 13. atthagahana (arthagrahana), comprehension of meaning 41. attham vāci (artham vacayati), brings home the meaning of the sūtras 33.
65.
avadhi, clairvoyance 78, 86. avagahima, dry or fried food 65. avaggaha (avagraha), sense-percep
tion 32.
avakāśa, restriction in respect of seats 65.
atthanijjāvaya
(artha-niryapaka), exposes the sequence of the subject 32.
aupakramiki, earned 64. aura-diṭṭhantenam, on the analogy of alms offered and accepted for the sick monks 82n. autsargika, relating to the general rules of conduct 76. autsargikam (lingam) usual practice (non-possession of any outfit, which is the usual, autsargika, practice) 85n.
āvassiam (avaśyaki), leaving the abode for necessary work 10n. avaşvaşkaṇa, see avasakka 54, 55. avaśyaka, daily duties 47. avaya, determination 32. aveda, sexless 67. asevana-sikṣā, training of the disciple in deportment 42. avidya, ignorance 4, 5. avirata-samyagdṛṣṭi,
the fourth stage of spiritual development called vowless right faith 48, 51. ayahia (atmahita), welfare of the self 42.
avadhana, to look after the abode āyāra (ācāra), conduct; qualification
of the ganin 31. äyäravatthutaiyam, (section) concerned 83n.
ayara viņaya (ācāra vinaya), discipline qua conduct 33.
āyariya (ācārya), preceptor 29. ayogyaśarīravayava, possessed of
an ugly limb 86n.
bahiḥ śambuka, externally spiral like a conch 58.
avakirṇa, scattered; an offence (in Brāhmaṇism) equivalent to sabala, spotted, variegated 16. avakirṇin, offender, genesis of-by P.V. Kane 16, 17.
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 117 avama-ratnadhika, junior ācārya

55.
avasakka (avaṣvaşkaṇa), cooking of food earlier by almsgivers, 53. avasanna, fallen down to the level of the parśvastha 45. avasarpiņi, descending (time cycle) 66, 72.
avasi (avaśyaki), leaving the abode for necessary work 83n. avasiyam (avaśyaki), leaving the abode for necessary work 83n. ävassia (avaśyaki) (āvaśyakī kriyā), leaving of the abode for necessary work, concerned with samitis, observed while going outside 7, 9, 63.

third vastu with ācāra

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118 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
bahu padipunnindiya (bahuprati- pārņendriya) with perfectly and fully developed sense-organs 31. bahussuya (bahuśruta), of versatile
study 31. bala, unlimited tolerance of hard
ship 61, physical strength 70. bāla, novice 46. balābhiyogakārī, a monastic order
forced to act properly 6. balābhioga, coercion 9n. bālava, an astrological division of
the day 52. bala-vīriyasamghayaņā, with strong
and powerful bone-joints 83n: bambhacera (brahmacarya), celibacy
XX. bambhana (brähmaņa), XX. bava, astrological division of the
day 52. bhadra, a particular lunar day 52. bhadra, an intensive course of
penance 65. bhajanā, division 84n. bhaktam panthāḥ, time of begging
and departure 58. bhaktapāna-grahane sāmācāri, de- portment at begging of food and drink 54. bhakta, pratyäkhyāna, renunciation
of aliment 2. bhandanakārakā, makers of strife
34. bhāra-paccoruhaņayā (bhāra-pra- tyavarohaņatā), alleviation of the burden 34. bhāsā (samiti), carefulness relating
to speech 11. bhassakārakā, makers of brawis
34. bhatta-paccakhāņa, see bhakta-
pratyākhyāna 59. bhāva, mode 57. bhāvābhigraha, modes and postures
of the giver to be satisfied according to the resolve of the monk 58. bhāvalinga, spiritual equipment
67, 84n. bhāvanā, practice of self-contemplation, cultivation of spiritual
values 61, 83n. bhavaparihāni, dispossession of the
spiritual equipment 84n. bhāva-samvara, spiritual self-rest
raint 42. bhikkhupesuññe pācittiyam, (Buddhist) expiation for the offence of
backbiting or slandering 12. bhikṣācaryā, going out on begging
tour, 57, 65, 74, 75. bhiksu, monk 41, 52, 87, 102. bhikṣu-pratimas, an intensive course
to be practised by a single monk 75. bhogas, the name of a dynasty 89. bhojana-dsstänta, example of hos
pitality 49. bhojanam, food 89. bhojaniyam, edible 18. bhomam, earthly 88. bhūovaghāie (bhütopaghätikah), causing injury to one-sensed beings for one's enjoyment 11. bhūtagama (bhūta grāma), vegeta
ble kingdom 19. bhūtagāmjapātavyataya pãcittiyam, (Buddhist) expiation of an offence of destruction of vegetable growth 12. biiyacse(dvitiyadese), alternately 84. bīja-bīja, vegetable propagated
from secds 19. biya-ruha (bīja-ruha), vegetable
propagated from seeds 19. bodhi, Buddhist equivalent of Jaina
kaivalya 38. bodhisattva, a buddha in the mak
ing XIX. bollanti, speak 81.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 119
48.
brahmacärin (Brāhmaṇical), person cittasamāhitthāņa, (cittasamadhi
who observes celibacy 13, 17, 30. sthāna), the stages of concentrated brahmacarya, the first part of the mind 36 Brāhmaṇical way of life 18.
dāgam-dāgam (deši), vegetable caitya, temple of vaksa 48.
food 28. cakkam, wheel 26n.
dāha, burning 26n. cakkhum (cakşu), vision 36.
dambha, deception 13. cakravāla-sāmācārī, (Pravacana damsanasohi (darśana-suddhi), purisāroddhāra) same as ten-fold fication of the faith 43. sāmācāri, daily duties of a monk, dāna-sräddha, families by nature 6, 45, 63.
inclined to offer alms to the order camadhanā (camadhanā), annoy- 48. ance 53.
danda, staff 88. caraṇa, conduct XIX.
dandajuddhāim, stick-fighting 97. caranatā, yogic power of flying darpa, whim 65. through air 77.
darśana, realization of truth withcāritra, monastic stages 66, 72. out the services of any other caturguru, heavy four-monthly instrument of knowledge 38. penance 82n.
darśana-śrāddha, confirmed in right caturguruka, see caturguru 68. faith 51. caturlaghu, light four-monthly darśana upasampad, going to anpenance 82n.
other gaņa to get clarification caturmāsa-anudghāta, four months' regarding faith 8. uncommuted penance 50.
davada vacāri (dravamdravamcārī), caturmāsa guru, sec caturguru 22. walking quickly without circumscauguruka, see caturguru 47.
pection and similar activities 11. cāujjāma dhamma (cāturyāma dhar- davvappamāņa (dravyapramāņa), ma), the discipline of four vows quantity of rice etc., cooked in the 80.
context of begging alms 54. cetopariyañāņa (Buddhist cetas- dehaduguñcham, desire to hide the paryāyajñāna), telepathy 38.
body, 86n. chandana (chandana) invitation of deśa, efficiency in regional langusuperior or fellow-monk to take ages 43. what has been brought 8, 9, 63. deśa-virata, observing the partial cheda, a kind of expiation effected
vows 51. by the cutting down of the monas- devakula, temple 48. tic standing 45, 52.
dhammacakkhu (Buddhist dharmachedopasthāpaniya, ordination or cakşu), eye that determines the confirmation 66, 67, 72, 73.
nature of truth 36. chiddakāri (chidrakāri), having dhamma-cint.(dharma-cintä), knowfauliy conduct 14.
ledge of the essential nature of chinnam, rent 88.
things 36. cilimili, a kind of cloth used as a dhäraņā, an authority for monastic curtain 52, 81n.
legislation, rules formulated after

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120
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
a consideration of relevant texts 2, (fault connected with knowledge) retention 32.
29. dharma-dhyāna, gradually deepen- dvädaśam tapaḥ, the twelve meal
ing meditation on the nature of penance 71. things 68.
dvăra, head 60, 63, 66. dhāya (dhrāta), enjoyment of dveșa, hatred 26.
amenities in their fullness 48. egacare, living alone 90, 101. dhitibaliyā, strong in forbearance egatta (ekatva), complete spirit of 83n.
renunciation and withdrawal into dhști, forbearance 56, 61, 64.
solitude 60, 61. dhüma-netta, fumigation 8. ekalla-vihāra-sāmāyāri (ekkāki-vidhyāna, meditation 68, 70, 83n. hāra sāmācārī), deportment qua dibba-cakkhuñāņa (Buddhist divya solitary life 33.
cakşur jñāna), faculty of clairvo- ekasāmācārika, followers of the yance (cf. avadhi jñāna) 37.
same type of conduct and rules of digācārya, an ācārya who grants deportment 82n. permission to disciples to acceptekaśātaka, having a single vestment anything 34.
80. digambara, a sect of the Jaina eşaņā (: amiti), carefulness relating believing in the efficacy of nudity to receiving alms 11, situations for attaining liberation 11, 80. concerning acceptance of food and dipaka, lamp 65.
drink 71. dosa-nigghāyaṇa viņaya (doșa-nir- gaccha, stem 41, 45, 46, 55, 74.
ghātana vinaya), discipline qua gacchapratibaddha, tied to the eradication of passions 33.
original stem 74, 85n. dravya, substance 57, acceptable gaccha-pratibaddha - yathālandaka, food 70.
monks practising the time-bound dravyalinga, physical equipment course attached to stem 47. 67, 84n.
gacchavāsi, monks living in the dukkada (dusksta), wrong doing stem 47. 15, 30.
gahaņam (grahanam), a kind of dukkata (Buddhist duşkệta), wrong
$ksta), wrong jñāna upasampad; study of a doing (cf, dukkada) 15, 22.
particular text which is not possidukkha (Buddhist duḥkha), suffer- ble in one's own gana 8, 20, 21. ing, the first noble truth of gāmapindologam, village beggar 77. Buddhism 26n, 36.
gaņa, organisation of monks 8, 41, dusama-dusama, the sixth aeon of 46, 70, 71, 74, 85n. the time-cycle 66.
ganadhara, apostle 57, 62. dussila (duhsila), a person of bad gananā, counting of measures of conduct 14.
ghee etc, used for ascertaining the dutthassa (duştāśva), donkey 50.
number of persons who dine at
the house of an almsgiver; number dutthu padicchiya (duşțhu pratic- or numerical strength 54, 57, 68, chita), learnt with improper design; 74,

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
121
31.
gaņāvaccheda ka, a monk-officer hirihetuka, cause of shyness 86n. in charge of a part of a gana, hiyam vāei (hitam vācayati), teachresponsible for supplying nece- ing what is beneficial 33. ssaries to the order 46, 60.
hrīmān, shy 86n. ganin, head responsible for dis- icchäkāra, voluntary monastic charging the functions of all the behaviour 6, 9n, 63. classes of the five ācāryas 34, 62. icchākārī (samgha), voluntary orgaganisampayā (ganisampad), quali- nization 6. fications of the religious head 2, ihā, speculation; second stage in the
generation of sensual knowledge gana-sāmāyārī (aņa-sāmācārī), de
32, portment qua communal living ihaloga (ihaloka), this world 29. 33.
imgini, limited suspension of movegatvā-pratyāgatikā, movement up ment 59. and down 38.
īryā (samiti), carefulness relating ghasira, gluttonous 53, 82n.
to movement 11. ghosahina (ghosahina), improperly işad asamyama-sevanam, a bit licenaccented 29.
tious behaviour 21. ghosavisuddhikāraa (ghosavićuddhi- iştadevatā, desired deity 37. kāraka), a ganin able to teach itvara, engaged in temporary praccorrect pronunciation 31.
tice 72. gitartha, adept monk 46, 51, 52, 68. jaghanya, minimum 83n, 85n. gomutrikā, zigzag movement 58. janapadaparikṣā, geographical grahaņa-śikṣā, training of the dis- knowledge including flora and ciple in scripture 42, 44.
fauna 44. grhastha, the householder's stage janma-kathantā-sambodha, memory
of the Brāhmanical way of life 18. of the whereabouts of past lives gļhi-paryāya, the length of house- 37. holder's life 67.
jāti, caste 12. gunasthāna, the fourteen stages of jayanā (yatanā), self-control 16. spiritual development of a jiva 6. jiņakappia, see jina-kalpika 83n. 36, 48, 61, 66, 67.
jina, victor 7, 59, 69, 76, 78, guptis, restraints 56, 68.
85n. guru, teacher 29.
jinas, practitioners of the Timegurubhattimā (gurubhaktimān), de- bound Course who will pass on to voted to the guru 54.
the Victor's Course 74. hatthakamma (hastakarma), mas- jinakalpa, the Course of the Victor turbation 15.
41, 59, 65, 70, 76, 78, 79, 83n, himsā, violence 23.
84n, 96. hìnāk khariya (hinäkşarika), omis- inakalpika, practitioners of the sion of syllable 29.
Victor's Course 63, 65, 66, 72, 77, hinākşara-sútra, sūtras containing 78, 86n. lacunae of syllables 43.
jinakalpika-sutra, sūtras concerned

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122 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
with the Victor's Course 43.
of spots 14. jina hood, the state of a jina 96. karaņa, astrological divisions of the jināyatana, temple of the jina 7. day 52. jīraka, cuminseed 54.
kāraṇa, exception in a special jiya, (jita), the fifth authority of circumstance 58, 66, 68. monastic legislation which stands kāranāpeksa, dependent on a special for customs and conventions circumstance 86n. firmly established on account of karma-bhūmi, region of labour their repeated practice by the (agriculture etc.) 66. eminent ācāryas 1, 2.
karuņā, compassion 35. jñāna, books of scripture 29. kāsаva (kāsyapa), name of a clan, jñāna-upasampad, going to another 100, 101, 105, 107.
gana to get clarification regarding kasiņāim, entire 86n. knowledge 8.
kati janāḥ, numerical strength 57, jña-parijñā, cultivation of know- 64. ledge 42.
kāyappacālakam käyapra-cālakam), joga-hina (yoga-hina), lack of wavering of body 12. mental, vocal and physical steadi- kāyotsarga, renouncing of attachness 29.
ment to the body for a particular kadayogi (krtayogi), experienced
period or for one's life-time 68. and adept monk 54.
kevala, omniscience 78, 86n. kaivalya (Jaina), purity of the soul
kevala-damsaņa (kevala-darśana), cleansed of its impurity of pas
pure and perfect intuition 38. sions; (Yoga) pure light of con
kevali-pannatta-dhamma (kevalisciousness that has nothing to do
prajñapta-dharma), religion as with knowledge 37, 38.
propounded by the omniscient 29. kalahakārakā, makers of quarrels
khādaniyam, hard or solid food 34.
18. kāla, time 45, 57, 66.
khaddham khaddham (desi), in kāle na kao sojjhão (kale na kệtaḥ svādhyāyaḥ),
good quantity 28. abstaining from
khaggūda, drowsy or sluggish or study at proper time 29.
punctilious 51, 81n. kālika-sútras, sūtras which could
khāima (khādima), dainties, sweets be studied at prescribed times
19, 27, 28, 89. only 43.
khamaga (kşapaka), mortifier 53, kalpa, conduct or course 57, 67, 70,
82n. 72, 85n. kalpasthita, leader of the group 70.
khamaya (kşapaka), mortisier 46. kalpasthita, engaged in the course
khambhakato (stambhakặtah), stif
fened body 12. 86n.
khandha-bija (skandha-bīja), plants kalpasthiti, practice of ascetic
propagated from stem 19. rules, types of conduct 72.
khandakārī, maker of splits 14. kāma, worldly desires 3.
khāria (kşārita), salty dainties, kammäsakäri (kalmasakäri), maher condiments or curry 54.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 123
67.
khetta (ksetra), environment (of the lobha, greed 13. debate) 32.
loka, cosmos 38, 85n. khira (ksira), porridge 48.
lukkham lukkham (rūkşam rūkşam), kilika, a samhanana where bones dry and spiced 28. are held together with a bony madasthäna, source of pride 12. nail without any fastening 83n. madya-māmsa-virati, abstinence kiriyā, a doctrine that propounds from alcoholic drinks and nonthe existence of the soul I.
vegetarian food 42. kiyaccira, duration of stay 7, 65. mahābhadra, a penance 65. kīyam (kritam), purchased 18. māhana, an epithet of Mahāvīra koha-māņa-māyā-lohilla (krodha- 89, 100, 101, 102, 105, 106, 107. māna-māyā-lobhin), swayed by the mahāpadesas, sources of authority passions of anger, pride, deceit of monastic law in Buddhism 3. and greed 53, 82n.
mahāvideha, the name of a region koți, ten millions 57.
in Jaina cosmology, 66. koūhala (kutūhalin), peeper; curious mahāvratas, the great vows 14, 29,
person 53. koühala-padibaddham, imbibing mahuravayana (madhura vacana), curiosity 82n.
sweet and attractive diction 32. kriyā, action XVII.
mäitthāna, māyāţthāņa (māyāsthākrodha, anger 13.
na), deceit 19. kșapakaśreņi, ladder of annihila
manahparyaya, telepathy 78, 86n. tion 67.
maņāmam maņāmam (manaāpta kşapaņā, penance 8.
manaāpta), choice food, 28. kşetra, place 46, 57, 66.
māmāka, persons who prohibited kşetra-pratyupekṣaṇa, survey of the entrance of monks in their place 46.
houses 48. kşîrásravitva, a supernormal power manasā āpattih, expiation for men
of feeding people with milk pro- tal indulgence 58. ducts at will 77.
maņa-pajjava-ņāņa (manaḥ-paryaya ksullaka, junior 41.
jñāna), telepathy 38. lādha, ancient name of a province manomaya, pervaded by mind 26n. of West Bengal 103, 104.
manopubbangama, predominated lādhe, vivacious 88.
by mind 26n. laghu-mäsa (laghuka-māsa, laghu
manosettha, transcended by mind
26n. māsika), light monthly penance
mantam, charm 88. 47, 49, 51.
maņuņņam maņunnam (manojñam lakkhana, science of signs 88. .
manojñam), delicious food 28. landa, time 73, 85n.
mārga, proper way such as deportlepālepa, acceptance of food from
ment (sāmācāri) 70. a smeared hand or pot 65.
mārgadeśikatva, see paradesiyattam leśyās, colour indices 68, 70.
42. linga, monastic equipment 67, 85n. marut (Vedic), storm-god 17.

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124
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
mārgasīrşa, the name of a lunar mūsiyāram, cat 77. month 45.
mutthijuddhāim, boxing 97. markatabandha, see nārāca 83n. naksatra, constellation 52. maryādā (or sāmācāri), deportment ņāņa (jñāna), knowledge XX, 36. 52.
nandā, a particular lunar day 52. mäsaguru, heavy one-month aus- nāräca, a samhanana where bones terity 22, 82n.
are held together by a special kind māsakalpa, conduct during monthly of fastening (nārāca) alone 83n. stay 65, 70, 74.
nava-nava-samvega, ever growing māsa-laghu, light monthly penance fear of worldly life 42. 46, 81n, 82n.
ñāya-pațipanno (nyāya pratipanmatsara, envy 13.
naḥ), judiciously disposed 5. mati, perception 31.
nāya-sīlāyāra (jñāta-śīlācāra), wellmehuņa padisevaņā (maithuna
versed in the vows and the cakrapratisevanā), sexual intercourse 15.
vāla sāmācāri 54. méthunam, sexual intercourse 15.
nāya-son (jñātr-son), an epithet of micchā, repentance 83n.
Mahāvīra 98. miccbākāra (mithyākāra), retracing nicchuvaņā (nişkāsanā), expelling and repenting by a monk for his
with utmost caution 45, misconduct 6, 9.
niddham niddham (snigdham snigmiśrajāta, a fault incurred by an dham), fatty food 28. ascetic by accepting food prepared
nijjarā (nirjara), shaking off the for both an ascetic and a house
karmic matter from the soul 42, holder 55.
63, 64. mithyādrsti-kulāni, families that
nikkampayā (niskampatā), steadiprofessed wrong faith 48.
ness of faith and austerity 42. mithyāduskria, withdrawing from
nimamtaņā (nimantraņā), permiswrong doing 70.
sion of elders regarding what is to mithyajñānam, wrong notion 26n.
be acquired for them 8, 9, 63. mithyātva, perversion of faith 81n.
nipphatti (nişpatti), consummamleccha, uncivilized people 46.
tion 41. moha, delusion 13.
nirgranthas, Jaina monks and nuns mohanaka, cheating, deceiving, pre
23, 26n, 39, 48, 80, 89. tending 19. mahāsthandila, cemetery 49.
nirjarā, see nijjarä 83n.
nirvāṇa, emancipation 43. mottum, excluding, 83n. mūla, a type of expiation in the
nirvista, see nirvista-kāyika 72. form of re-initiation 45, 52.
nirviştakāyika, retiring having müla-bīya (rnūla-bīja), plants pro
completed penance 72. pagating from roots 19.
nirvistamāna, those who are fulfillmülaguna, basic rules or qualifica ing the penance 72. tions 14.
nisahī, see nisīhiā 7. mundāpana, tonsure or hair pluck- nisidhikā, word uttered at the entry ing 58, 68.
into a temple of the jina 7.

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Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 125
nisihi, see nisidhikā 83n.
less than half a month 19. nisīhiā (nişedhiki), awareness pabbajjā (Buddhist pravrajyā), iniregarding completion of duty, it tation 67. is concerned with guptis; observed paccakhāņa (pratyākhyāna), vow while returning from outside 7, 9, not to commit any offence 71. 63.
pācittiya (Buddhist), expiation 12, nisihiā, equivalent to nisahi 7.
18, 19. nisīhiyam, see nisīdhikā, 83n. pada bheda, preparation for an nisithiam, see nisidhikā 10n.
offence 20, 21. nişpatti, see nipphatti 44.
payabīna (padahīna), omission of nispratikarma, avoidance of physi- words 29. cal care and medical treatment
medical treatment pada, foot 26n. 58, 68.
padavibhāga sāmācāri, a class of nissesam vāei (niḥsesam vācayati), sāmācāri contained in the Cheda
teaching the sūtras completely Sūtras derived from the 9th without residue 33.
Purva, includes all other sämänivāta, unbreezy 52.
cāris 6. nivāta-pravāta, unbreezy-cum-breezy padhamilluga, first 83n. 52.
padibaddha (pratibaddha), studious nirsti (Vedic), the goddess of death (monks) 53. and corruption 16, 17.
padibaddha, attached 85n. nivvāņa (nirvāņa), liberation XIX. padicchaga (pratīkşaka), guest no-avasarpiņi, regions where the monks 46. avasarpiņi does not occur in all padicchaņā (praticchanā), discriits divisions 72.
mination in imparting knowledge ogāhimaga, fried 84n.
44. ogha, a category of sämācāri, padilekhaņa, inspection 81n. derived from Ogha Prābhsta, the padimā (pratimā), intensive courses 20th Prabhịta 5.
of fasting for a month etc. 65. ogha sāmācāri, Mülācāra identifies padipucchaņā (pratiprcchanā), askwith tenfold sāmācāri; also seeing for permission to perform ogha 6.
an act for others 7; confirmation chidamsana (avadhi-darśana), clair- of permission or obtaining a fresh intuition 37.
permission for what has been omāṇam, despicable 99.
refused 8, 9. ohiņāņa (avadhijñāna), clairvo
paņisuņaņa, acquiescence 20, 21. yance 37.
padivajjamāņa (pratipadyamāna), omasa, reproach or insult 12.
subsequent entrant 73. omasavāde pācittiyam (Buddhist),
padivannā, practitioner 85n. an expiation related with utte- padutthena manasā, with polluted rance of reproaching and insulting mind 26n. words 12.
pagāmāe, for pleasure and rest 76, orenaddhamāsam, at intervals of 77.

Page #158

126 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
pahudia (prabhṛtikā), carnivals 51. paiśunya, back-biting 13. paliyaṭṭhāṇesu, at
100.
pāmiccam (desi), borrowed 18. pāņa (pāna), drink 19, 27, 28. panaka, acceptance of drink 65. pañcaratrarūpam, for five nights
85n.
manufactories
pañcātmakam, consisting of flve persons 85n.
pantam, stale food 88.
(prayopagamana),
paññā (prajñā), insight 36. panthaḥ, departure 68. paoga (prayoga), apt application or art of debate 31, 32. pãovagamana penitential death (absolute suspension of movements) 59. paradesiyatta (paradeśikatva), enhancement of competence in attracting pupils to right path 42. paragarhã, condemning others 13. parahita-pratipatti-sampat (Buddhist), exerting oneself for the wellbeing of others, universal welfare 35.
pārājika (Buddhist), gravest guilt making the monk liable to be expelled from the Order 15, 16, 18, 22.
parakrama, capacity 70. pāramitā, perfection in the practice of charity, moral precepts, etc. XIX.
pāraṇa, breaking of the fast 71. pārāñcika, expiation in the form of expulsion 16, 52. parasamaya-sutra, sutra concerned with alien doctrines 43. parasyābhranta-maraṇam, killing of another person unerringly 26n. paribhoga, relishing of the result

16, 20, 21. parihārakatvam, attendant 85n.
duties of the
pariharaviśuddha, practitioner of purificatory co-operative course 41, 66, 69, 76. pariharaviśuddhi kalpa, purificatory cooperative course, 76, 77. parihārika, assistant monks practising the purificatory cooperative course 70, 86n.
parihara samyama, service to the group 86n.
parijiya-suya (paricitaśruta), deeply familiar with scripture 31. parikarma, purification of the soul through the conquest of the senses, passions etc. 61, 62, 65, 83n. parīņirvāṇa, liberation 79. parinivvaviya väei (parinirvapya vacayati), brings the subject home to the disciple 32.
pariņņā (parijña), cultivation 42. parisa (parişat), assembly 32. paritapa, ailment 53. parivrājakas, wanderers 48 pariyapuṇana (Buddhist), mastery or accomplishment 32, 35n. pārśvastha, monk prone to laxity
45.
paryaya, duration of standing 67. paścāt karma, blemishes related to the activities of the house-holders after the act of giving 58. pasu, brute (symbolic of stupidity)
17.
patanga vithika, grass-hopper-like
movement 58.
patrakambalam, pot and blanket 86n.
pavajjä, see pabbajjā 41. pedha, rectangular movement 58. phaļu bija, plants propagating from germs 19.

Page #159

phoḍia (sphotita), incensed flavoured 54.
piccha, broom or brush 76. pihiyacca, guarding his body 98. pindaiṣaṇa, carefulness in begging food 62. pitthimamsia (pṛṣṭhamamsika), indulgence in backbiting 11. pitrs (Brāhmaṇical),
or
deceased
ancestors 24.
porabiya (parvabija), plants propagating from joints 19. porisim tiriya-bhittim,
wall of
man's length 97. prabhṛtikā, sacrifices performed for deities 65.
pradhana, exertion, energetic effort, striving, concentration of mind 96.
pramada, sway of passions and nonvigilance of mind 21, 23. pramatta, non-vigilant 26 n. pramatta-yoga, mental, vocal and physical activity associated with pramāda 23. pramatta-yogāt
prāṇavyaparopanam himsā, violence in taking away of life under the sway of non-vigilance rooted in passions 23. pramāņas, numerical strength of different categories 70, 74. prānasamyama, life and self-restraint 86 n.
prāṇātipāta, (Vasubandhu) taking away of life; an aforethought of killing of another person unerringly 23, 26 n.
prasasta, wholesome 83 n.
prasasta bhāvanās,
thoughts 60, 62.
praśravana, easing oneself of urine

65.
pratibha, extra-sensory 37. pratikramaņa, retracing 21, 58.
wholesome
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 127
name of the
pratilekhanā, inspection of outfit 51, broom or brush 76. pratipatti, discipline 35. pratyakhyāna, the ninth Purva 63. pratyakhyana-parijñā, of renunciation, 42. pratyapaya, future health hazards 70.
pratyayasya paracitta-jñānam, by concentration on the minds of other, there arises the knowledge of other mindss 38.
pratyupekṣakāḥ,
inspection-party
pratyupekṣaṇa, survey 47. pravacana-mātā, scriptural matrices, namely five samitis and three guptis 29, 36, 56. pravacana-prabhāvanā, dissemination of scriptural knowledge 83n. pravrajya, see pabbajjā 42. pravartaka, a monk-officer responsible for the administration of the samgha 60.
46.
cultivation
pravata, breezy 52.
pravrajaka, an ācārya who initiates the disciples 34.
pravrajana, initiation 58, 68. prayaścitta, expiation 1, 14, 70. prayogya, usable 49, 54. pubbe-nivāsānussatiñāṇa (pūrvanivāsānusmṛtijñāna), memory of past lives 37.
puräkarma, blemishes of the activities of the householder before the act of giving 58. puruhūta, (Vedic) Indra 17. pūrva, a variety of Jaina scripture 1, 2, 62, 64, (84,000,00 × 84,000,00 years) 85 n. pūrvāgamas, ancient Agamic texts
86n.
pūrva-koți, ten million pūrvas 69.

Page #160

128 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
pūtika, unacceptable on account of its being mixed with adhakarmika food 65.
respect of animate beings 58. sadeva-maņuyasuraloga (sadevamanujâsuraloka), the world consisting of gods, men and demigods 29. sadguru, heavy six monthly penance 82 n.
puvvapadivanna
(pūrva-pratipan
82 n.
na), one who passed through the saḍlaghu, light six monthly penance course in the past 73. raga, attachment 26 n. rāibhoaṇa (ratribhojana), food at night 18. raipimḍa bhoana (rajapinḍa-bho jana), taking food offered by the king 18.
rajoharana, broom 11. rãovarayam, with ceased affection 87.
rasiyam rasiyam (rasitam rasitam) juicy food 28. rātiņia-paribhāsī (rātnīka-paribhāṣi), insulting one's superior in rank 11.
raudra (dhyāna), engrossing in thoughts resulting from the eruption of the passion of anger 68. rāyaṇiya (ratnika), superior in respect of knowledge or monastic standing 27.
pūtiyam, unacceptable 84. puṭṭa roga (desi), abdominal disorder 48.
rjvī, straight 58.
rk, (Vedic) hymn 16.
taking
ṛṣabha-nārāca (samhanana), the joint of bones fastened together in a special way surrounded by a bony ring or plate with no nail. (vajra) 83n.
ṛtambhara prajñā, right vision in Yogadarśana 37.
sabala (śabala), a monk of tainted conduct 14, 16, 17.
sabalakārī (śabalakārī), maker of taints in conduct 14. sa-bhikṣu, an ideal monk 90. sacittadravyakalpa, deportment in

sāgāria-pimḍa (sagarika-pinda), taking food from one who has given residence 19.
saharaṇa (samharana), being carried away by some god 66. sahillaya (sahāyakatā), coopera
tion 33.
sahu (sādhu), monk 29. sāhuņi (sādhvi), nun 29. śaikṣa-sthapana-kalpa, commissioning of trained monks 70. saima (svadima), ments 19, 27 28.
spices, condi
saimam, spices 89. śakyas, the Buddhists 48. śalakäpuruṣas, eminent personages
43.
salamba, having strong ground and justification 16.
sama, an incantation of the Rk beginning with the word sama 17. samācāra, right conduct including the set of activities performed by the cultured 5.
sāmācārī, general conduct, behaviour, deportment of the monastic order 5, 6, 8, 9, 41, 45, 56. 63, 70, 83 n.
sāmācāra, equanimity, right conduct or unvarying and uniform conduct or the conduct common to the entire monastic order 5. sāmācārī-atiśaya, extra-ordinary powers pertaning to deportment 43.

Page #161

Sanskrit, Prakrit an - Pali Words 129
samacariyā, deportment XX.
yukta) constantly vigilant about samadã (samatā), equanimity 5, 9n. one's behaviour 31. samaņa, non-Vedic monks 48, 96, samjñā-sūíra, sutras containing the 103, 106.
technical words 43. samana-nigamtha (śramaņa-nirgran- samkalpa, will 3. tha), Jaina mionk 1.
samkhadi, feasting places 99. samanunna (samanujña), identical sammācāro (samvagācārah). with sambiogika 45.
conduct 5, 9 n. samavatāra, entrance 72.
samnyāsa, the fourth and the last samaya, popular convention 5.
part of the Brāhmaṇical way of samayā (samatā), equanimity XX.
life 7, 18. sāmayācārika, practices based on sano ācāro (sama ācārah), uniform popular convention 5.
conduct 5. sāmāyārī, see sāmācāri 83 1).
samprayoga, meeting 37. sāmāyāro, see sâmācāri 9 n.
samraksaņa, protection of field from sāmāyika, initiation 66, 72, 73.
being grazed by cattle 65. sambhoga, cating and living to
samsära, transmigration XVIII. gether 71, 82 n.
samsayah, doubt 26 n. sāmbhogika (ekasāmācāsika), fol
saņskāras, impressions 37. lowers of the same type of conduct
samsthāpanā, dilapidated abode and rules of deportment 82n, com
requiring repairs 65. mensal 55, see samaņunna 45.
samtharaṇa, abundance 82 n. sambhuñjanã, commensalism 58.
samthava, acquaintance 87. sambodhi, equivalent of kaivalya
samuddeśanā acceptance of food
85 n. samcayia (sañcayika), storable 54.
samuddeśārtha, for the purpose of samgaha-parinnā, comprehensive knowledge and planning for the
the meal 56. order 31, 32.
samvāsanā, cohabitation 58.
samvāsa, worthy of living together samgha-karma, monastic act 82 11.
15. samhanana, bone joint 56, 64, aspects relating to strength of joints
samvigga (samvigna), see samvigna
55. of the hunian body 83 n. samharana, kidnapping 72.
samvigga-purāņa (puräņa-samvig
na), fallen down to the level of sāmici, right conduct equivalent of sāmācāti 5, 82 n.
• pārsvastha 45. sāmīcī-pațipanno (sāmici-prati- samvigna, genuinely detached from pannah), following the right course the world 44, 45, 55. of conduct 5.
samyak caritra, right conduct 70. samitis, attitude of carefulness 11, Samyag-darśana, cultivation of comportments 56, 68.
right faith XIX, 36, 42, 70. samjama (samyama), self-restraint samyaktva-śrāddha, people esta
blished in the fourth gunasthāna samjama-joga-jutta (samyama-yoga 48.
37.
XX.

Page #162

130
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
83n. siddha, the emancipated 29. siddhatva, highest attainment 38. siddhi, emancipation discarnate 78. sikkhāpaya (sīk sapada), training 41,
42, 58, 80. sila (śīla), religious and moral vows
3.
samyama, self-control 73. samyama-sāmāyāri (samyama-sām- ācāri), deportment qua self-restraint 33. samyama-sthāna, points of develop-
ment of self-control 72. samyama-virādhanā, breach of rest-
raint 81 n. sañcicca, intentionally 19. sangha, order of monks 79. sanghādidesa (sanghādideśa), in-
struction to the order 12, 15, 18. santatakārī, behaving consistently
14. sarā, tones 88. sarajaska, a hermit of dubious cha-
racter 81 n. sarassa vijjá, science of cries 88. sāraia (śāradika), autumnal 84n. sarira (śarira), personality 31. sarvathā svecchayā pravartanam, absolutely wayward behaviour
21.
sarvajñatā, omniscience 38. satta (sattva), conquest of fear and
sleep 61. sauna (sakuna), bird 84. sā vajja (sävadya), vicious 2. sāvaya (śrāvaka), layman 29. saveda, possessed of sex 67. sāvigā (śrāvikā), laywoman 29. savva-pāņa-bhūya-jiva-saita, beings with two, three and four senses, vegetation, the five-sensed animals, and other living beings 29. savvesim sanmäņam (sarvesām samānam), common to entire monastic order 5. seha, disciple 27. sekhiya dhamma, duties of disciple
towards his teacher 12, 30. sevārta, samhanana where bones are only in mutual touch and are held together by an oily material
śmaśāna, cemetery 81. soccă (śrutvā), needing inspiration
and instruction 42. śrāddha-dharma, the way of the lay
devotee 42. śruta, knowledge of scripture 54,
63, 85 n. śrutārthātiśaya, extra-ordinary powers pertaining to scripture and its meaning 43. śruta-samuddeștā, an ācārya who imparts special instructions in scriptures to make home their thorough comprehension to the disciples 34. śrutaskandha, book 84 n. śrutoddestā, the ācārya who initiates the teaching of the scriptures 34. sthandila, proper place for easing
nature 47, 57, 64. sthāpanā, acquaintance with the families according to their devotion to the order 53. sthāpanā-kalpa, conduct qua commissioning a monk 70. sthāpanā-kula, pivotal families 47,
53, 54. sthāpita-sthāpaka, a disciple's dis
ciple 69. sthavira, senior, 41, 60, those who would revert to the Elder's Course 74. sthavira, elder 85 n. sthavira-kalpa, the Course of the Elders 41, 56, 64, 70, 79.

Page #163

Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 131
Surse 59
sthavirakalpika, observing elder's
conduct 26 n. sthavirakalpika-sutra, sūtra con-
cerned with the Ek'er's Course 43. sthirikarana, confirmation of the
faith of the followers 43, 44. sthita, compulsory, 67 sthitakalpa, fixed conduct. 72. sthiti, essential features 57. 66. śubha, good 83 n. śuddhaparibāra-kalpa, purificatory
cooperative course 59. śuddhaparihārika, observer of puri-
ficatory cooperative course 69. sükşma-samparāya, stage resulting from the rise of the subtle passi ns 66, 67 73. sumiņa, dream 88. supațipanna (supratipanna), well
behaved S. suşumnā, spinal chord 37. sütra-grahaņa, the study of scripture
74. sútra, knowledge (works) extracted from twelve angas, consisting of Bịhatkalpasūtra and Vyavahāra- sūtra 2, knowledge of scripture 74,
am vaer, teaching the racitation of the sūtras 33. sutthu divna, taught beyond the
capacity of student 29. suvira, drowsy 53, 82n. suya (sūtra), a source for monastic legislation 1, learning 2, 31, XXX, scripture 29, 85n, recitation of scripture with uniform speed 60,
suya-viņaya (śruta-vinaya), discip
line qua learning 33. svädhyāya, recitation of scripture
37; learning of scripture 63. syasamaya-sütra, sütra concerned
with one's own doctrine 43. svetāmbara, a sect of the Jainas
VIII, 12. tahakkāra (tathākāra), assent by disciples to the instructions from the preceptor 6, 9, 65, 63. tahiyam, true 83n. tapas, austerities, 'fasting, 42, 45,
60, 63. tapas, penance as expiation 52. tāpasas, hermits 48. tāpasī, unchaste women in the garb
of nuns 46. taranti, are capable of 810. tatprathamatayä, for the first time
81n. tattvas, principles of Jainism, nine
in number 46. tava (tapas), austerity XX. tava-sāmäyári (tapas-sāmācāri)
deportment qua austerity 33. tavasūrä, valiant practiiioners of
austerity 830. thavaņā (sthāpanā), storing food
beforehand 53. thāpayanti, initiate 85n. thävita thāvaga (sthāpita-sthäpaka),
disciple's disciple 85n. theyyasankhătam, what has not been given 15. thii (sthiti), essential features 41. thirasamghayaņa (sthirasamhana
na), with strong bone-joints 31. thullaccaya (Buddhist), a serious
transgression 15, 22. tiriyam pehāe, looking s.deward 99. tiracchānagata, belonging to the
class of anmials. tirtha, order, religious reign 66, 67.
cr46.
61.
suya-deva (śruta deva), the scrip-
ture deity 29. suya-ņāņa, scriptural knowledge
XIX. suya-vavahāra (sutra-vyavahāra), dispensing of justice according to śruta 2.

Page #164

132 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words tirthankara, founder of the four-fold order 43, 57, 62, 67, 69, 70, 79. tithi, date of the lunar calendar 51. tṛṇaphalaka, straw, woodpieces etc. 65.
tulana, comparative estimate; consideration of the pros and cons 60, self-assessment 71, 74, 83n, 85n. tumamtumā (deśī), abusing one another by using second person singular 34.
tumanti (tvamiti), second person singular 28.
uccara, easing oneself $7. udapadi, arose 36.
udgama-dosa, blemishes of preparation of alms 55.
uggaha, jurisdiction 85n.
of
ugras, the name of a dynasty 89. ujupatipanna (rjupratipanna), straight-forward behaviour 5. ukkuḍua (utkutaka), squatting 62. upadhi, outfit 70.
upädhyaya a teacher of scriptures 41, 60.
upakaraṇa, monastic outfit 62. upakaraṇārjanam, acquisition of ways and means for successful operation 21. upanayana, (Vedic) initiation 35. upaśamaśreņi, the ladder of subsidence 67.
upasampada, approaching a teacher in another gana 8, admission of disciples 44, ordination 67. upasarga, trials and tribulations 56, 64, 72.
upäsikā, (Buddhist) lay female devotee 16.
upāśraya, abodes for monks and nuns 48.
upasthapana, ordination 58. uposatha (Buddhist, upavasatha),

the day for recitation of the patimokkha (a collection of various precepts contained in the Vinaya for the purpose of confession) 82n. usadham usadham (utsṛtam-utsṛtam), dainties 28.
ussakka (utṣvaşkaņa), late cooking of food by almsgivers 53, 55. utkṛṣṭa, maximum 85n. utsarga-sūtra, scripture concerning the general rules of conduct 43. utsarpiņi, ascending (time cycle) 66, 72.
uttaraguņas, secondary rules 14. uvagaraṇa-uppāyaṇaya (upakaraṇautpadanata), acquisition of outfit
33.
uvajjhāya (upadhyaya), teacher 29. uvasagga-saha, enduring trials and tribulations 83n.
uvasagga, see upasarga 84n. uvasampada, approaching a teacher in another gaṇa 83n. uvasampaya (upasampada) approaching another gana for acquiring special knowledge for a limited period 8, 63.
uvaṭṭhāņa (upasthapana), see chedopasthapaniya 67.
vacanã, training in scripture and its meaning 45.
vacanãdi sūtra, sūtras concerned with grammatical number, gender etc. 43.
vaccameliya (vyatyamreḍita), mixing up texts 29.
vahamta (yogavähin), mono-maniac 46, 47.
vāiddha (vyāviddha), uttered topsyturvy 29. vaikkama (vyatikrama), infringement, preparation for offence 14.

Page #165

vaiyāvṛttya, service to the organization 8, 53, 63. vaiyāvṛttyakara, attendant monk 46, 56.
vajjabhūmi, the name of an ancient province 103. vajjakuḍḍasamana, (as unshakable) as the wall made of diamond 83n. vajra, bony nail made of material as hard as diamond or the thunderbolt of Indra 64, 83n. vajra ṛṣabha-näräca-sambanana, the joint of bones fastened together in a special way surrounded by a bony ring or plate with a bony nail piercing the plate and the two bones 64, 83n. vamana, emetics 88. vanaprastha, the third part of the Brahmanical way of life 18. vañjaṇameam, only the word 10n. vannasamjalanaya (varṇasamjvalanată), appreciation of merits 34. varna, class XVIII. varṇāśramadharma-jatam, XVIII. varṣāvāsa, stay during rainy seasons 45, 70.
vasahi (vasati), abode 57, 64. vāstavya, pre-settled 55.
vastu, section of the purva text 63. vastuvidya, science of architecture. vāta, Vedic god of air 16. vitikkama (vyatikrama), infringement 20, 21, 22.
vatsyatha kati janaḥ, how would stay 57, 65. vaṭṭaṇā (vartana), strenthening knowledge of what has been studied in one's own gana 8.
vatthu (vastu), the nature of adjudicators; ability of opponents, the attitude of the authorities etc. during a debate 32. vatthu-vijjā, science of architecture

many
Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words 133
88.
vayana (vacana), diction 31. vāyaṇāyariya (vācanācārya), expounder preceptor 29. vāyaṇā (vācana), exposition 31. veda, sex 67.
vedana, sufferings 56. 64, 72. vedanta, the essence of the Vedas I-2.
vejja-cintam, doctor's prescriptions 88.
the
veyävaccam, service 82n. vicitta-suya (vicitra-śruta). possessing expertise in his own and alien traditions 31.
vidyas, occult sciences 43. vihara, a place where monks reside 18, itinerary, 41, 45, 60. vihāra-bhūmi, place of study 27. vijayam uddisai (vijayam uddiśati), the religious head selects the subject matter according to the interest of the disciple 32. vijayam vāyei (vijayam vācayati), the religious head explains the meaning fully 32.
vijjā, wisdom 36.
vikāla, afternoon 81. vikkhevaņā viņaya (vikṣepanā vinaya) discipline qua assurance 33. vikriya, power of assuming bodies according to wish, 77. viņaya-hīņa, (vinaya-hīna) lacking humility 29.
viņaya-paḍivatti (vinaya-pratipatti), practice of discipline 2, 32, 33. vinīta, modest 54.
vipassanā ñāna (vipasyana-jñāna), introspective knowledge 38. virahaṇā (viradhana), disservice to the ācārya 50, 53.
virati-phala, the merits of absti
nence 42.
virimcanti, carry 81n.

Page #166

134 Sanskrit, Prakrit and Pali Words
vyatikramana, aquisition of ways and means for sucessful operation 20, crossing the barriers of vows
22.
vireyana (virecana), purgatives 88. vīrya, vital powers 70. visayābhikānkşā, desire for worldly
pleasures 21. visuddhi-sānıya, parity of purifica
tion 72. vithi, avenue 65, 75. vivādakâraka, maker of disputes
34.
vivekajam jñānam (Yogadarśana), equivalent to omniscience of Jai nism 38. viyadam, immune 99. viyāra-bbümi (vicāra-bhūmi), place
for easing oneself 27. vratabhanga, breach of vows 21. vrataśaithilya, disregard for vows
vyavahāra, authorities and subjectmatter of monastic legislation 1, 2, 70. vyavasthāpayanti, properly point
out 53. yathākhyāta, highest or ideal state
of monastic life 66, 67, 73. yathalandaka (kalpa), Time-bound
Course 41, 59, 69. yathālandika, practitioner of the
Time-bound Course 47, 50, 73, 74, 75, 85n. yatidharma, (Brāhmanical) code of the monks, Jaina inonastic way,
12, 13, 42. yati-paryāya, the length of mona
stic life 67. yati, monk 30. yāvatkathika, yavatkal
practitioner for whole life 72. yoga - duşpraņidhāna, disrespect for principles of righteousness 26n. yoga-samāpti, the completion of the practice 86n.
21.
vşddha, old 46. vệddhāvāśa, the monastery of the
old monks 60. vşşabha, experienced and physically
strong monk 47. vuddha-sila(vrddhaśīla), a qualifica tion of the ācārya, steadfast obser- ver of the vows signifying maturity 3. vyatikrama, infringement (the se- cond stage of sin.) 21.

Page #167

ENGLISH WORDS
abode, vasahi, upāśraya 57. abdominal disorder, putta roga 48. absence of faith, asraddhā 13. accomplishment in, paryāpuñana 32. acosmos (transcosmos), aloka 38. acquisition of outfit, uvagarana
uppāyaṇa 33. acute, āgādha 53. adept, gitártha 46. adorable, arahamta 29. affliction, klesa 38. ailment, paritāpa 53. acting consistently, santatakārī 14. alleviation of burden, bhārapaccoru
hanajā 34. anger, krodha 13. annoyance, camadhana 53. appreciation of merits, vannasam-
jalanajā 34. apt application, payoga 31. assembly, parisā 32. assistant, parihārika 70. assuming bodies, vikriyā 77. attendant, vaijāvrti yakara 46. avenue, lithi 65. backbiting, pitthimamsia
paiśünya 13. bad conduct, dussila 14. begging food, pindaişaņā 62. begging from unfamiliar houses,
ajñātoñcha 55. begging of alms, bhikṣācaryä 57. behaving consistently, santata-vutti
14. bone joints, samhananas 57. borrowed, pāmiccam 18. breach, atikrama 17.
breaking of fast, pāranā 71. breezy, pravāta 52. broom, pratilekhanā 76, piccha 76,
rajoharana 11. capacity, parākrama 70. calamities and misfortunes, ätarka
56. carnivals, pāhudia (prābhrtikā) 51. celibacy, brahmacarya 49. cemetery, mahästhandila 49. chapter, ajjhayana 34. choice food, manāmam manāmam 28. chronic, anāgādha 53. circumstance, kārana clair-intuition, chidamsana (avadhi
darśana) 37. clairvoyance, ohiņāņa (avadhjñāna)
37. colour indices, leśyās 68, command, ājñā 50. commensal, sambhogika 55. comparative estimate, tulanā 60. compassion, karunā 35. competent learned monk, gitārtha
68. comportments, samitis 56. comprehension of meaning, attha
gahana (arthagrahana) 41. comprehensive planning, samgaha
parinnā 31, compulsory, sthita 67. concurrence, āņā (ājñā) 2. conduct, āyāra 31, kalpa 70. conduct during monthly stay, māsa
kalpa 65. confession, alocanā 21. confirmation, sthirikarana

Page #168

136
English Words
discipline, pratipatti 35. discipline qua assurance, vikkhevaņa
viņaya 33. discipline qua conduct, āyāra-vinaya
33.
chedopasthāpanā 66. confirmation of permission, prati-
prcchanā 8. consummation, nipphatti (nișpatti)
41. controversy, asamkhada-kalaha 50. conventions, jīya ( jita) 2. cooking food earlier, avasakka
(avaşvaşkaņa) 53. cooperation, sähillayā 33. cosmos, loka 38. courses, kalpas 57. crookedness, anārjava 13. cumin seed, jiraka 55. curry, khāria 54. curtain, cilimili 52. customs, jīya (jīta) 2. dainties, khāima 19, usadham
usadham 28. deception, dambha 13. decrepit, krpaņa 77. defeated, pārājika 15. deity, deva 29. delicious food, manunnam maņunnam
28
discipline qua eradication of passion,
dosa-nigghāyana-vinaya 33. discipline qua learning, suya-vinaya
33. disservice, virādhanā 50. disregard of vows, vratu-saithilya
21. disrespectful conduct, āsāyaņā 27. donkey, duttha 50. drink, pāņa 19. drowsy, khagūda 51, suvira 53. delusion, moha 13. duty, dhamma 32. earned, aupakramiki 64. egotism, ahamkāra 13. elder's course, sthavira-kalpa 41. emancipated, siddha 29. emancipation, nirvana 43. enjoying in fullness, dhāya (dhrāta)
48. entrance, samavatāra 72. emancipation disincarnate, siddhi 78. envy, matsara 13. essential features, ļhiī (sthiti) 41. equanimity, samadă (samată) 5. expiation, prāyaściita 14. exposition, vāyaņā 31. extraordinarily devoted, aisesi
(atisesi) 53. faith, darśana 8. fallen from monkhood, acaritti 14. fatty food, niddham niddham 28. fixed conduct, sthita-kalpa 72. flavoured, phodia 54. flying through air, caranata 77. food, asanna 19. forbearance, dhrti 61. forced, balābhiyogakārī 6. fried food, avagähima 65.
departure, panthāḥ 68. deportnient, sāmāyāri (sāmācāri) 41. deportment qua austerity, tava
sāmājārī 33. deportment qua communal living,
gana-sāmāyāri 33. deportment qua sell-restraint,
samyama-sāmāyārī 33. deportment qua solitary life, ekalla
ment qua solitary lile, ekalla- vihāra-sāmāyāri 33. descending time-cycle, avasarpiņi 66. desire for worldly pleasures,
vişa yäbhikānkşā 21. desperado, atatāyin 24. determination, avāya 32. diction, vayaņa 31. disciple, seha 27. disciple's disciple, sthāpita-sthāpaka
69.

Page #169

English Words 137
future health hazards, pratyapāya
70. give assent, tahakkāra 9. grass-hopper-like, patarga-yithikā
58. great vows, mahāvratas 67. greed, lobha 13. group, gana 41. guest monks, padicchaga 46. gluttonous, ghasira 53. hairplucking, mundāpana 68. hardships, parīşahas 76. having completed penance, nirviş-
ţakāyika 72. heavy four-monthly penance, cau-
guruka 47. heavy tour-monthly austerity, caturmāsaguru 22. heavy one-monthly austerity, mäsa
laghu 22. hermits, tāpasas 48. highest attainment, siddharva 38. homeless, aniyata-vitti. 31. indolent, alasa 53. initial permission, āprcchanā 8. initiation pavvajja (pravrajyā) 41. immaculate, asāvajja (asāvadya) 2. impressions, samskāras 37. inauspicious, aprašasta 68. infant, atarana 48. infringement, vaikkama 14. in good quantity, khaddham khad
dham 28. initiation, upana yana 35, sämāyika
66, pravrajana 68. injuring, āsāyanā, āsanā, āsādanā
29. inspection, pratilekhanā 51. inspection party, pratyupeksakāh
46. intensified, āgādha 43. introspective knowledge, vipassanā
ñāņa 38. itinerary, vihara 41.
judiciously disposed, ñaya-pați panna
5. juicy food, rasiyam rasiyam 28. junior, kşullaka 41. junior ācārya, avama-ratnādhika 55. jurisdiction, ug gaha 75. ladder of subsidence, upaśama-śreni
67. late cooking, ussakka (ușvaskaņa)
53. law, dharma 3. layman, sävaya 29. laywoman, sāvigā 29. leader of the group, kalpasthita 70. learning, suya 31. length of house-holder's life, gļhi
paryāja 67. length of monastic life, yați-paryāya 66. learning the scriptures, svādhyāya 63. leaving the abode for necessary
work, āvassiyá 7. life of a wanderer, aniya yuvāsa (ani
yatavāsa) 41. light monthly penance, māsa-laghu
46, laghu māsika 49. limited suspension of movement,
imgiņi 59. live, sacitta 91. maker of holes, chiddakārī 14. maker of splits, khandakāri 14. maker of spots, kammāsakāri 14. maker of taints, sabalakārī 14. mastery over, pariyāpunana 32. masturbation, hatthakamma 15. matrices of scripture, pravacana
mātä 36. misconduct, aņāyāra 14. measure, matta (mātrā) 32, meditation, dhyāna 68. memory of past lives, janma-kath
antā-sambodha 37. mode, bhāva 57.

Page #170

138 English Words
monastery of old monks, vsddhā-
vāsa 60. monastic act, samgha karma 82n. monastic deportment, sāmācāri 5. monastic equipment, linga 67. monastic legislation, vyavahāra 2. monastic outfit, upakaraṇa 62. monastic stages, caritra 66. monastic way, yatidharma 42. monk, sāhu 29, bhikṣu 41, muni 80. monks with tainted conduct, sabalas
sāmya 72. passions, kaṣāyas 38. peeper, koūhala 53. penance, tava (tapas) 42. penitential death, pāovagamaņa 59. perception, mati 31. perfect intuition, kevala-damsana 38.
14.
performing penance, kşapaņā 8. permission of elders, nimamtanā 8. personality, sarira 31. . physical equipment, dravyalinga 67. physically strong, vrşabha 47. physical strength, bala 70. pivotal families, sthāpanā-kulāni 47. place, kşetra 57. places for easing nature, sthandila
47.
mono maniac, vahamtā (yogavähin)
46. monthly stay, māsa-kalpa 70. moral vows, sila 3. mortifier, khamaya 46, khamaga 53. novice, bāla 46. new-comer, ägantuka 55. non-absolutistic, anekānta 80. non-adept, agitārtha 46. non-commensal, asambhogika 55. non-storable, asamcayia, (asañ-
cayika) 54. not-disowned, anisittham 18. nudity, acela dharma 79. number, gananā 57. nun, äryikā 80. occasions of in balance of mind.
asamähițịhāņa 11. of dubious character, sarajaska
81n. offender, avakirņin 16. offered as carried from elsewhere,
dijjamāna 18. old, işddha 46. omniscience. kaivalya 1, sarvajñatā
38, vevikajam jñānam 38. optional, asthita 67. order, samgha 2, tirtha 66. ordinary, laukika 17. ordination, chedopasthāpaná 66. outfits, upadhi 70. parity of purification, visuddhi-
place of easing oneself, viyara-bhūmi
27, sthandila 64. place of study, vihāra bhumi 27. pontiff, ācārya 3. popular convention, samaya 5. porridge, khira 48. possessed of sex, saveda 67. practice, kalpa 67. practice of discipline, vinaya-padi
vatti 32. preceptor, āyariya 29. pre-determined, abhigrahika 52. pre-settled, vāstavya 55. pride, abhimāna 13. primary rules, mülagunas 14. prone to laxity, pārsvastha 45. proper conduct, samici 5. punctilious, khagūda 51. purchased, kīvam 18. pure light of consciousness, kaivalya
(Jaina), bodhi (Buddhist) 38. purification, parikarma 61. purification of faith damsaņa-sohi
43. purificatory cooperative course,

Page #171

parihara-viśuddhika, śuddha-parihārika, parihāra-viśuddhi-kalpa 69. purpose, attha 32.
qualifications, sampada 34.
qualifications of a religious head, gani sampada 31.
rain retreat, varṣāvāsa 45.
realization of truth, damsana (darśana) 38.
recitation of scripture, svadhyāya
37.
rectangular, pedha 58.
religious reign, tirtha 67.
resolute conduct, abhyudyata-vihāra
59.
resolute death, abhyudyata-maraṇa
59.
reproach, omasa 12. repugnance, asāyā 13. restraints, guptis 56. resultant, anubandha 68. retention, dharaṇā 32.
retrace and repent, micchakāra 9. retracing, pratikramaņa 21.
right conduct, sanācāra, samyak caritra, samyag-ācāra 5.
right vision, samyagdarśana, dhammacintă 37.
sanction, aṇā (ājñā) 2.
scripture, śruta 2.
scripture deity, suyadeva 29. scriptural study agama 67. secondary rules, uttaragunas 14. secret resolve, abhigraha 57. self-contemplation, bhāvanā 61. self-control, jayaṇā 16, samyama 73. self-estimate, tulană 60.
self-imposed, abhyupagamiki 64. self-praise, ātmastava 13.
semi-rectangular, ardhapeḍha 58. senior, sthavira 41.
sense-perception, avaggaha 32. serious transgression, thullaccaya 15. service to the organization, vaiya

English Words 139
vrttya 63.
sex, veda 67.
sexless, aveda 67.
sexual intercourse, methuna-padise
vana 15.
sluggish, khagūḍa 51. snatched, acchijjam 18.
legislation,
sources of monastic vyavahara 1.
sources of monastic law, vyavahāras
70.
sources of pride, madasthāna 12. speculation, ihā 32.
spiced dry food, lukkham lukkham 28. spices, saima 19.
spiritual equipment, bhavalinga 67. spiritual matrices, pravacana-mātā
56.
spiritual self-restraint, bhava-samvara 42.
stabilization, sthirikarana 44. stages of concentrated mind, cittasamāhiṭṭhāṇas 36.
stage of rise of subtle passions sükṣma-samparāya 73.
standing, paryaya 67. stem, gaccha 41.
stealing, adinnādāna 15.
storable, samcayia (sañcayika) 54. storing food beforehand, thavaṇā
(sthāpanā) 53.
straight, rjvī 58.
street beggar, vanipaka 77. student, antevāsin 33.
studious, padibaddha 53. sub-assistant, anuparihārika 70. substance, dravya 57. sufferings, vedanās 56.
survey work, kşetra-pratyupekṣaṇa
46.
suspension of aliment, bhattapaccakkhāņa 59. symmetrical, panna 31.

aroha-parinaha-sam

Page #172

140 English Words
taking food offered by kings, rãipimda bhoana 18.
taking food prepared for monks, ähäkamma-bhoaņa 18.
teacher, guru, uvajjhāya 29. telepathy, manaḥparyaya 1. temple, devakula 48.
temple of the jina, jinayatana 7. temporary, itvarika 72.
tenacity, dhrti 61.
tied to original stem, gaccha-pratibaddha 74.
time, kāla 57.
time-bound course, yathalandakakalpa 41, athalanda 76. time of begging food, bhaktam 68. tonsure, muṇḍāpana 68. training, sikkhāpaya (śikṣāpada) 41. transgression, atikkama 14. trials and tribulations, upasarga 56. twelve meal penance, dvādasam tapaḥ 71.
unacceptable, pūtika 65.
unaffected, apadinna 76. unbreezy, nivāta 52.
unbreezy cum-breezy, nivāta-pravāta
52.
uncivilized people, mleccha 46.
uncommuted, anudghata 50. unreproachable body,

anotappa
sarira 31. unrestricted, apratibaddha 45. up and down, gatva pratyagatika 58.
usual minimum, ahājāyam 52. vegetable food, dagam dāgam 28. vegetable growth, bhūtagāma 19. verses, slokas 39.
vicious, sāvajja (sāvadya) 2. victor, jina 39.
victor's course, jinakalpa 41. violation of rule, atiyara 14. violence, himsā 23.
vital powers, virya 70. voluntary, icchākārī 6. wakeful, apramatta 6. wanderers, parivrājakas 48.
way of lay devotee, śräddha-dharma 42.
whim, darpa 65.
wholesome thought, prasasta bhāva 60.
will, samkalpa 3.
with a wavering body, kayappacā
lakam 12.
with stiffened body, khambhakata 12.
worldly desires, kāma 3. wrong-doing, dukkada 15. zigzag, gomutrika 58.

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Page #174

HOOPY

Ayaro (Acharanga Sutra) Synod Chief: Acharya Shri Tulsi Editor, Commentator: Shri Yuvacharya Mahaprajna
English version by: Muni Mahendra Kumar
Foreword by: Dr. Nathmal Tatia 1981, 425 pages
Rs. 190.00 $ 38.00 tentative Text in Devanagari & Roman scripts with English Translation, Annotations, Glossary and Index
Ayaro is the first part of the first book of The Jaina Scripture. The Acharanga Sutra begins with the quest for the soul. The soul is both general and ephemeral, the creator and the enjoyer. There is bondage and there are causes of it. There is liberation and there are means of attaining it. These are the basic principles of the science of ethics, which have been discussed in the present sutra. It discusses a large number of themes namely, non-violence, bondage and emancipation, fearlessness, friendliness, mysticism, renunciation meditation and such other subjects which offer copious insight into the moral and spiritual background of Mahavira's teachings.
& Personal Use Only!

Page #175
Bulletin on the Religion of India by M.A. Barth Translated in English by James Morrison as published in Indian Studies: Past and PresentVol. 1 No. 4. July 1960. Rep. 1972. 24 cm. 60 pages. Paper bound Rs. 15.40 $ 3.00 Fundamental Problems of Indian Philosophy By Pandit Shukhlaji Sanghvi Translated in English by Dr. I.M. Jhavari Reprinted from Indian Studies Past and Present: Vol. 1. No. 4. Rep. 1972. 24 cm. 102 pages Rs. 40.00 $ 8.00. Fundamental problems of Indian philosophy is the English translation by Dr. Indu-Kala of Panditji's Introduction to Acharya Hemachandra's Pramana-Mimamsa which was edited by him, and published in the Sanghvi Jaina Granthmala, Calautta, 1939. Key of Knowledge By Champat Rai Jain (Vidya Varidhi Bar-at-Law) Rep. 1975. 23 cm. 1072 pages Rs. 175.00 $ 35.00 This mammoth and courageous work covers 947 pages with many notes and quotes in lower case, summarise the many facets of the whole exploration which deals with the Ideal, Creation, God, The Fall, Redemption, The Kingdom of God, Yoga Resurrection, The Holy Trinity, The Siddhantas, Reconciliation, Summary and Conclusions. Shraman Mahavir (His Life and Teachings) By Yuvacharya Shri Mahaprajna (Formerly Muni Nathmal Ji) English Translation by Dr. T.M.P. Mahadevan, 1980, 22 cm. 340 pages, Rs. 55.00 $ 11.00 This book is an outcome of a long, continuous and devoted piece of research in the Jain scriptures and other sacred works. The impartial and unbiased evaluation of the two traditions of Swetambara and Digambara and the clear presentation of the facts in an interesting manner are noteworthy. on TODAY & TOMORROW'S PRINTERS AND PUBLISHERS 24-B/5, Desh Bandhu Gupta Road. Karol Bagh, New Delhi-110005