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Suzuko Ohira
first type of action ārambha or karma, and the other type of action anārambha or akarma, the distinguishing factors of which are whether or not there is the presence of the later so-called kaşayas, and whether the action is in accord with the prescribed ethical code of conduct.20 Akarma expressed in these early texts does not mean non-action, absence of action or cessation of action in its literary sense, but is upheld as the ideal action leading one to moksa which is exemplified by MV in the Acāra I. 9. The term ārambha connotes committing violence and the term karma expresses the sense of action in general, both of which are invariably sinful and bind vaira. MV identified ārambha with karma in this context, and propounded the doctrine of ārambha by adopting karma theory. And since ārambha and karma are equally sinful, MV did not approve the existence of heaven as the Upanişadic teachers and Buddha did. The concept of heaven came to be developed by the Jainas in the later days.21 Since the term ārambha likely means undertaking action motivated for the worldly purpose as aforementioned, a crude distinction between sinful action and sinless action should have already existed in the pre-MV period. MV made this distinction lucid in the context of karma-rebirth-libtretion theory.
In this context, MV sought the causes of ärambha (=parigraha) and karma in the later so-called ka saya (krodha, māna, māyā and lobha) including rata, nata, satha, kalpa, kāma, rāga, dveșa, vaira, etc. 22 These are also called grantha and moha, and the agent who acts activated by them is called pramatta. MV's inquiry into the causes of sipful action is persistent inasmuch as Buddha's investigation into the causes of trsnā. The aforementioned usage of srotas in the sense of kaşāya must have been made under the influence of the Buddhist side. Atipāta srota and ädāna srota therein should be understood that the current of ārambha and the current of parigraha are derived from the source of ka sāya.
Such being the case, it is quite natural to find the common methods taken for suppressing ka sāya or kleša by MV and Buddha. Gupti, samiti, samvara, samyama, etc. are synonymously used to connote the ascetic conduct in controlling the senses and the self in the Acara I-Sūtrakrta I. The contents of samiti and gupti came to be rounded in the later days. The old Buddhist texts also teach gupti, samvara, samyama, damana, etc. in controlling the senses and the self. The early Jainas call a disciplined
< suvrata, and they use sila in the sense of conduct in general inasmuch as the Buddhist camp does. As aforestated, the then Pārsvan order is assumed to have been already practising something similar ethical conduct as such. MV as well as Buddha denounced the worldly life severely, and they adopted lonely wandering as the best method to get rid of kasāya
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