Jaina Biology

Author(s): J C Sikdar
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001543/1

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JAINA BIOLOGY
EDITORS
BY
DR. J. C. SIKDAR
R. S. BETAI Y, S. SHASTRI
E. D. Series No. 111
ई भारती
RM3
HEPA
विधामटिल
eiere
मदाबाद

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JAINA BIOLOGY
EDITORS
BY ; DR. J. C. SIKDAR
R. S. BETAI Y. S. SHASTRI
L. D. Series No. 111

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(ii)
Publisher : Dr. R. S. Betai, Hon. Professor, and Director-in-charge, L. D. Institute of Indology, Ahmedabad-380 009.
Price Rs.
160
Printed by : "Jagat Traders” Santi Commercial Centre Gheekanta Road, Ahmedabad-380 009.

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Edsitorial
We are glad to place the present work before scholars and interested readers. Jainism and Jaina writers are renowned for their unique writings in the realm of philosophy, poetry, grammar, Acaradharma, and a host of other subjects in which their con-tribution to knowledge is very great. The present work shows thai their study of sciences is also unique in its own way.
The 'Preface' by the scholar researcher - writer speaks for the value of the work. We do not therefore repeat it here. It is sincerely hoped that the work will be welcomed by all interested.

-Editors

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iv
Dedicated
To
Shrimati Parulk. Nawab.

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JAINA BIOLOGY
Preface
Jaina Biology is a unified body of facts and theories, concerned with all the myriad facets of all kinds of living beings, and it is not simply a mixture of Botany and Zoology, Anatomy and Physiology heredity and evolution, or any other of the life sciences, for, the Jainācāryas studied the world of life from the religious and philosophieal points of view on the basis of the concept of spiritual value of life.
To bring to the fore the biological principles which underlie the study of living things in Jaina Biology', some of the major generalizations of Jaina Biology are briefly discussed in the Introduction of the work. These, of course, cannot be fully appreciated at the first reading but they should be helpful in proving a frame of reference for the succeeding chapters.
The Introduction, the first chapter and the first section of the second chapter of 'Jaina Biology'-emphasize similarity of life-processes of all organisms, for many of the advances in Biology have been demonstrated first in experiments with micro-organisms as it is found in Jaina Biology that the study of life began with the concept of Nigodas (Micro-organisms).
Jaina Biology contains partial discussions of cell-structure, cellmetabolism, photosynthesis and genetics to some extent.
In writing a text of Jaina Biology it is difficult to steer a true course between the scylla of superficiality and the charybdis of over detail. This work attempts to present some facts and principles of Biology without superficiality, yet without undue emphasis on detail. It emphasizes the basic unity of life and the fundamental similarities of the problems, faced and solved by all living substances.
After the introductory part describing the biological sciences of scientific information on Jaina Biology, the scientific method and some generalizations, inter-relations of organism and environment, the rst chapter describes and explains the fabrie.

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systems, particularly mon, obtain biologically useful energy. The second chapter presents a discussion on the werld-life : plants, biologic interrelationship, the classification of living substances made of nutrition of plants and animals, habitat and ecologic niche, types of interactions between species of plants and animals, together with the general properties of green plant cell-respiration of plants, the skeletal system of plants, plant digestion, plant circulation, plant sap, plant excretion, plant co-ordination, transmission of impulses of plants and their sleep movement. The remainder of the second chapter describes the structures and functions of a seed plant - the functions of roots, stems and leaves, transpiration, the movement of water and the storage of food. It surveys the plant kingdom - types of plants: trees (Vrksas), shrubby plants (gucchas), shrubs (gulmas ), creeping plants (valli), knotty plants (parvaga), grasses (trņas), palms (valayas), herbs (haritas), cereals or annual plants (osahi), water plants (jalaruha), m shrooms (kuhana), gross plants having common body (sādharansgarirabadaravanaspatikāyikas), subtile plants (sükşma vanaspati), bacteria, microorganism (nigodas), algac (sevāla) and fungi (panaga), the evolution of plant reproduction, germination of the seed and its embryonic development and the evolutionary trends in the plant kingdom.
A similar survey of the invertebrate (two-sensed to four-sensed animals), and vertebrale animals (five-sensed animals) and their stru tural and functional peculiarities is provided in the third chapter. It deals with a classification of animals based upon observation of similarities of structure, sense-organs, made of origin and development and includes in it lower invertebrates the phylum protozoa (the subtile undeveloped two-sensed animals), the life of two-sensed animals, the higher invertebrates (some of the two-senned animals, three-sensed and four sensed animals), the phylum Chordata (five-sensed animals ) - the vertebrates, classes of the sub - phylum vertebrata - fish ( matsya ), amphibia (frog mandūka), reptilia ( parisarpas ) - lizard, etc., aves (pakşi ) - birds and mammalia (all mammals up to man ).
The organ system of the vertebrate huma body are described in some details in the fourth chapter. The organization of the human body consists of the transport system of it, i.e. blood and blood vessels, and the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the excretory systems, the integumentary and skeletal systems, the muscular systems, the sense-organs and the endocrine system.
The features of the human reproductive process and of einbryonic development are presented in the fifth chapter and some principles

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of human are dealt with in the sixth chapter, Certain aspects of inheritance in map and a side-light on the develompment of genetics are discussed there.
The evolutionary and ecologic relationship of living organisms are treated in the seventh chapter. The principles of evolution, the evidence underlying it, the principles of ecology and the outcome of evolution : adaptation are explained in this chapter.
The concluding chapter contains a survey of plant and animal kingdoms as described in Jaina literature in the light of modern Biology. It should serve as a convenient reference and aid the readers in recognizing place in the plant and animal kingdoms of the organisms and the importance of the Jaina study of the world of life in the history of the biological sciences in India,
In this connection, I am greatly indebted to Late Prof. G. A. Kapadia, the ex-Head of the Department of Botany, St. Zaviers College, Ahmedabad, and Dr. Avinash Vohra, Professor of Botany, Gujarat University, who encouraged me to carry oa the research work on Jaina Biology and helped me in all possible ways for treating the subject in the light of modern Biology with their knowledge and experience in the field of Biology. My special thanks are given to Sri Dalsukhbhai D. Malvanis, the ex - Director of L. D. Institute, Pandit Rupendra Kumar Pagarja and Pandit Babubhai Savchand Shah for their valuable suggestions and references to biological data in the Jaina Āgamas and Post-agamic texts in working out this thesis Jaina Biology'. I am thankful to Dr. Y. S, Shastri Acting Director, L.D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad taking up this work for publication with great earnestness.
15th December, 1974.
J. L. SIKDAR L. D. Institute of Indology,
Ahmedabad-380 009

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CONTENTS INTRODUCTION
Page
...
1-5
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Biology and the Scientific Method Some Generalizations of the Jaina Biological Science.
Chapter-1
Section - 1 Section - II Section - III Section - IV
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
The Fabric of Life Characteristics of Living Things Cells and Tissues Cellular Metabolism
6-16 17-27 28-40 41-48
Chapter-II
THE WORLD OF LIFE : PLANTS
Section - I Section - II Section - III
49-61 62-68
Biological Inter-relationship General Properties of Green Plants ... The Structures and Functions of a Seed Plant (a) Types of plants (b) Bacteria, Algae and Fungi The Evolution of Plant Reproduction
Section - IV
...
69-74 75-90 91-99 100-107
Section - V
Chapter-111
Section - 1 Section - II
... 108-114
THE WORLD OF LIFE : ANIMALS, CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMALS
Lower Invertebrates Higher Invertebrates, Problems of Terrestrial Life The Phylum Cordata: Five-sensed Animals. The Vertebrates-From the Chordates up to the Mammals and Maa
... 11:-120
Section - III
...
121-141

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(hapter - IV THE ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY Section - I. ... Blood and Circulatory System Section - 11 The Respiratory System
... Section - UI
The Digestive System Section - IV The Excretory System
... Section - V
The Integumentary and Skeletal
Systems Section - VI ... The Muscular Systems Section - VII ... The Nervous System Section - VIII... The Sense-Organs Section - IX - The Endocrine System
142-162 163-16% 169-179 180-184
185-196 197-198 199-205 206-218 219-223
Chapter-V REPRODUCTION-ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTIONS, HUMAN REPRODUCTION AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
Section - I
Reproduction-Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction Human Reproduction Embryonic Development
Section - II Section - III
.. ...
224-228 229-237 238-248
Chapter-VI
THE MECHANISM OF HEREDITY Section - I ... The Physical Basis of Heredity
249-256 Section - II ... Inheritance in Man
... 257-259 Chapter-VII EVOLUTION OF ORGANIC LIFE IN JAINA BIOLOGY Section - 1 ... Principles of Organic Evolution in Jaina Biology
260-266 Section - II
The Living Evidence For Evolution 267-274 Section - III Principle of Ecology
275-280 Section - IV ... The Outcome of Evolution : Adaptation
... 281-288 Chapter-VIII
CONCLUSION A survey of Plant and Animal Kingdoms as revealed in Jaina Biology in the light of modern Biology.
289-324 Bibliography
... 325-328

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JAINA BIOLOGY By: DR. J.C.SIK DAR 1. Jaina Biology and the Scientific Method
Biology is the science of living substance (Jivadravya ) which is different from non-living substance (ajivadravya )2. It is a very old science of living substances for solving the fascinating riddle of life. The survival of early men required a knowledge of such basic facts as which plants and which animals could be safely taken as food and medicine. In the Jaina Āgamic literature the word "Jivatthikāya '3 is used to refer to any living substance, plant or animal, from nigoda (micro-organism ) up to the pañcendriya manusya5 (five-sensed human beings ), just as the word 'organism ' in modern age is used to denote any living thing, plant or animal, from amoeba to man.
The study of Biology began with the Jainas on the basis of the doctrine of animism7 and abiņsās (non-violence ) in the hoary past, besides the requirement of food to sustain life with a sense of spiritual value of life of all beings. They kept in view the concepts of living substance as contained in the Vedic and post-Vedicto literature, describing the external and internal parts of plants and animals with their nomenclature, classifications, etc. 1. Bhagavati Sūtra, śataka 25, uddosaka 2. sūtra 720; Sthānānga Sūtra. 2, 95. p. 86;
Pannavaņā Sutta 1.3, P, 4. 2. Bhagavati Sūtra, 25. 2. 720.; Pannavanā Sutta, 1. 3. p. 4.; Jivabhigama Sutta, P. 5. 3. Bhagavati Sūtra 20, 2. 665. 4. 1bid., 25. 5, 749. 5. Ibid , 33. 1. 844. 6. Biology, C. A. Viliec, p. 16.
"Se bemi sa mtime tasā pāņa, tarjahā-a mdaya poyaya jnraua rasaā sanseyayal sammucchimā ubbhiyayā esa samsāretti pavuccai" Acäränga Sutra, adhyayana 1, uddeśaka 6, sūtra 48, etc. “Se hu muņi poriņņāyakamme” (54).. 1bid; See SBE Vol. XXII, Pt. I, p. 11, Book 1. Lecture 1. 6th lesson; Sūtrakştānga 1, Adhyayana 7. Pudhavi ya au agani ya Vāū, taņa rukkha biya ya ta să păņā/Je ardvyā je ya jarāuipāņa, saṁseyaya je rasayabhihāņa (1) " etc.... up to “Nidhūya kammam na pavamcuvei, akkhakkhae vā sagadam ti bemi"-30.
See SBE XLV, Pt. 11, pp. 293, 302, Sūtraktänga, Book 1, Lecture 7. 8. Bhagavatı Satra, 2. 1. 92, 95; 8. 5. 328; 11. 9. 417; 11. 22. 435. 9. See the Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1970, Biology in
Ancient and Medieval India, Dr. R. N. Kapil, pp. 125-132. 10. Ibid. J. B.-1
1.

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Jaina Biology
Biology as an organized science can be said to have begun with the Greeks 11 in the West on the basis of the knowledge of such basic facts as which plants and which animals were useful as food and medicine. “ They and the Romans described the many kinds of plants and animals known at the time.”'12
Galen (131-200 A. D. ), 13 the first experimental physiologist, made experiments to study the functions of nerves and blood vessels. Biology expanded and underwent alteration greately in the nineteenth century, and it has continued this trend at an accelerated pace in the twentieth century due to the discoveries and techniques of physics and chemistry. Sources of Scientific Information on Jaina Biology :
The ultimate source of each fact of Jaina Biology contained in the Jaina Āgamic and post-Agamic works is in some carefully controlled observation made by the Jainācāryas. They have made a discovery in the world of life, plants and animals, by their critical observation on them; they have described their methods in details so that their followers can repeat them, have given the result of their observations, discussed the conclusions to be drawn from them, perhaps formulated a theory to explain them, and indicated the place of these biological facts in the present body of scientific knowledge contained in the Jaina Āgamas.
The Scientific Method:
The facts of Jaina Biology as embodied in the Jaina canons are gained by the application of the scientific method, yet it is difficult to reduce this method to a simple set of rules of modern Biology that can be applied to the Jaina biological science, because the sceptical scientists of modern age want confirmation of the statement by the independent observation of another in any scientific investigation. • “The basis of the scientific method and the ultimate source of all facts of science is careful, close observation and experiment, free of bias, with suitable controls and done as quantitatively as possible."'14 The observations made by the Jainācāryas on the world of life, plants and animals, may be analyzed, or simplified into their constituent parts in the light of modern Biology, so that some sort of order can be brought into the observed phenomena. Then the parts can be synthesized or reassembled and their interaction and interrelations
11. Biology, p. 1. 12. Ibid. 13. 1bid., p. 3 14. Ibib, p. 3.

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Introduction
discovered on the scientific basis. A method has been followed by the Jainas to see through a mass of biological data and they suggest a reson for their interrelations, as science advances only by scientific investigations : hypothesis, observation, revised hypothesis, further observation and so on. In the words of Einstein “ In the whole history of science from Greek philosophy to modern physics, there has been constant attempts to reduce the apparent complexity of natural phenomena to some simple, fundamental ideas and relations."15
Some of the practical uses of a knowledge of Jaina Biology will become apparent in the fields of medicine and public health, in agriculture and conservation, its basic importance to the social studies, and its contribution to the formulation of a philosophy of life, together with aesthetic values, as it is impossible to describe the forms of life without reference to their habitats, the places in which they live, in a given region, being closely interrelated with each other and with the environment in the closely interwoven tapestry of life.
2. Some Generalizations of Jaina Biological Science
The idea that living systems are distinguished from non-living ones by some mysterious vital force (paryāpti )16 has gained acceptance in Jaina Biology, while one of the basic tenets of modern Biology is that “the phenomena of life can be explained in terms of chemistry and physics."17 The idea that the living systems are not distinguished from non-living ones by some mysterious vital force has only recently gained ground in Biology, only 40 years ago, when the German embryologist, Hans Driesch, postulated the theory of the existence of transcendent regulative principles, entelechies, which control the pheaomena of life and development."18
There appear to be no exceptions to the generalization that all life comes only from living things. Like the experiments of Pasteur, Tyndal and others, 19 just century ago finally, the Jainācāryas, provided convincing proof that micro-organism, such as, nigodas. earth quadrates, etc., i. e. bacteria, are also incapable of originating from non-living material by spontaneous generation. It seems clear that nigodas require 15. Ibid, p. 4. 16. Paryapti (Vital force ), Navatattva prakaranam, V. 6, p. 12; .
Lokaprakāśā, Vinayavijayaji, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, vv. 15 ff. 17. Biology, p. 9. 18. Biology, p 9. .19. Ibid.... .

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Jaina Biology
the presence of pre-existing nigodas, 20 just as the virus of modern Biology does so. Nigodas (micro-organisms) do not arise de nove from non-nigodas, just as viruses do not do so from non-viral material.21
Elements of the idea that all of the many kinds of plants and animals existing at the present time were not created de novo and were eternally existing and have descended from previously existing organisms are elearly expressed in the jaina texts,22 but they have their gradations.23 The theory of organic evolution that all of the many kinds of plants and animals “have descended from previously existing simpler organisms by graduals modifications which have accumulated in successive generations has gained ground among the modern Biologists as one of the great unifying concepts of Biology. Elements of this were implicit in the writings of certain Greek philosophers before the Christian era, from Thales to Aristotle.”24
The Jaina studies of the development of many kinds of animals and plants from fertilized egg25 or embryo26 to adult leads to the generalization that organisms tend to repeat in the course of their embryonic development, some of the corresponding stages of their evolutionary ancestors. According to this theory of recapitulation, embryos recapitulate some of the cmbryonic forms of their ancestors, 27 while modern Biology goes a step forward and states that “the human being, at successive stages in development resembles in certain respects a fish embryo, then an amphibian embryo, then a reptilian embryo and so on."28 20. Bhagavati Sūtra, 25. 5. 749.
Nigodas are of two kinds, viz. Nigodaka and Nigodajiva (fine and gross nigodas ). They are the collections of infinite number of beings, making minute group, having common breathing-in and out (respiration ), sense-feeling. They, longing for development, continue evolution of life through the successive Jivaparyāyas (modes of beings of soul) and they provide the supply of beings in the place of those who have attained liberation. Thus the universe does not become and
will not become empty of living beings (Bhagaveti, 12. 2. 443). 21. Biology, p. 9. 22. Bhagavati Sūtra, 12. 2. 443; Tattvārtha Sūtra, 5. 3. (Nityāvasthitanyarūpāni ca) 23. Bhagavati Sūtra, 12. 2. 443. 24. Biology, p. 10.
See A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. I, II and III, by W. K. C. Guthrie;
Aristotle by Ross. 25. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7. 5. 282. 26. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7. 7. 283. 27. Ibid. 1. 7. 61.; Tandulaleyālya, 6. p. 10. 28. Biology, p. 11.
According to the Bhagavati Sūtra (1. 7. 62), the foctus in the mother's womb remains like an umbrella or the side ribs of human body; the embryo appears to be like a humpbacked mango (ambakhujjae).

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Introduction
Inter-relations of Organism and Environment :
A careful study of communities of plants and animals in a given area as described in the Jaina Āgamas leads to the generalization that all living beings in a given region are closely interrelated with one another and with the environment.
It includes the idea that particular kinds of plants and animals are not found at random over the earth but occur in interdependent communities of producer, consumer and decomposer-organisins together with certain non-living components. These communities can be recognized and characterized by certain dominant members of the group, usually plants, which provide both food 29 and shelter for many other forms. This eco-system is one of the major unifying generalizations of Biology. These few biological principles given here are intended to emphasize the fundamental unity of Jaina biological science and the many ways in which living substances are interrelated and interdepedent.
Like all ancient people, the Jainas lived in close association with nature and made a scientific study of the world of life, plants and animals, by careful observations on their lives, activities and properties, etc., over a long period of time. The result of their discoveries as embodied in the Agamas is couducive to further studies of the problems and mysteries of the world of life on the basis of new information and further revisions of some of these principles.
29. Bhagavati Sūtra, 6. 7. 246; 6. 5. 330; 7. 3. 277; 8. 3. 324; 8. 5. 330; 21. 2. 691.
22. 6. 692; 23. 1. 993; etc.; Sūtrakrțānga II. 3.

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CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
As defiued, Biology is the science of living substances (jivadravayas). The field of Jaina Biology differentiates the living from the non-living by using the word 'Jivatthikaya '1 (organism) to refer to any living things, plant or animal, just as modern Biology does. So it is relatively easy to see that a man,2 a Sala tree,3 a creeper4 and an earthworm5 are living, whereas pieces of matter (pudgala ), e. g. earth, stones, etc., are not so. But according to modern Biology, it is more difficult to decide whether such things as viruses are alive."7
1. The Fabric of Life
Jaina Biology, states that the fabric of life of all plants and animals is paryapti8 (Sakti Vital force) or Prana9 (life force) in another way, i. e. paryapti appears to be the actual living material of all plants and animals. There are stated to be six kinds of paryapti10, viz. ahāraparyapti (vital force by which beings take, digest, absorb and transform molecules of food particles into khala (waste products) and rasa (chyle=molecules of nutrients or energy )11, sariraparyapti (vital force) by which chyle or molecules of nutrients (= rasibhutamāhāraṁ) are utilized by beings for the release of energy, the building of blood, 1. Bhagavati Sūtra, 20. 2. 665.
2. Bhagavatt Sutra, 33. 1. 844; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 155; Tattvärtha Sutra, II. 24. 3. Bhagavati Sutra, 22. 1. 692.
4. Ibid., 23. 4. 693.
=

5. Tattvärtha Sutra, II. 24.
6. Bhagavati Sūtra, 2. 10. 118.
7. Biology, p. 16, Ville, c. 4.
8. Pajjatti Paryapti, Navatatta Prakaraṇa, v. 6; Dharmavijay, p. 12.; Gommaṭasara
Jivakanḍa, vv. 118-119; Lokaprakāśa, Vinayavijaya, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, vv. 15 ff.
9. Jivavicāra, vv. 42, 43; Gommatas ära, Jivakāṇḍa, v. 129.
10. Navatattvaprakaraṇa, v. 6.
Ahara-sarira-imdiya, pajjatti aṇapāņa bhas-amane /
Cau-pamca-chappiya, iga-vigala asanni-sanninam //" 6,
Navatattva Prakaranam, Dharmavijaya and also see Lokaprakaas, Vinayavijaya,
Pt. 1, 3rd Sarga, vv. 15 ff; Gommaṛasara, Jivakāṇḍa, 119.
11. Tatraiṣaharaparyaptiryayadaya nijocitam nayet /
Pṛthakkhalarasatvenaharam pariṇatim nayet // Lokaprakāśā, 1. 3. 17.

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Cell Structures and Functions
tissue, fat, bonc, marrow, semen, etc., 12 inbriyaparyäpti13 ( vital force by which molecules of nutrients or chyles suitable for building serises are taken in and provided to the proper place so that beings can bave the perceptual knowledge of the desired sense-objects by the senseorgans )14 acchvāsaparyāpti15 ( Vital force by which particles of respiration are taken in, oxidized for energy and left out (as carbon dioxide and water ), bhāsāparyāpti16 (vital force by which beings, having taken proper particles of speech, emit them as speech ) and manaḥparyāpti17 ( vital force by which beings, having taken particles (or dusts] of mind, transform them by the mental process and give vent to them as the mental force, i. e. thought ).
It appears that this paryāpti (vitai force) is not a single substance but varies considerably from organism to organism (i.e. one-sensed to five-sensed being), among the various parts of a single animal or plant, and from one time to another 18 within a single organ or part of an animal or plant. There are six paryāptis, but they share certain fundamental physical and chemical characteristics. 19 12. Vaikriyahārā.... ....yathocltam
tam rasibhutamāharam yaya saktyä punarbhavi / Rasasrgmāmsamedosthimajjaśukradidhātūtām / nayedyathāsambhayam sa dehaparyāptirucyate // (19)
Lokaprakāśa, p. 65; Pt. I, 3rd Sarga. 13. Dhātutvena parinatādāhārādīnidriyocitān/
Ādaya pudgalāmstäni yathāsthānam pravidhaya // (20) Isțe tadvişayajñaptau yayā saktyä sariravān
paryāptiḥ sendriyahvanā darsitā sarvadarsibhiḥ (21) 1bid., pp. 65, 66. 14. According to the Prajñāpanā Sūtra (Indriyapada ), Jivabhigama Sūtra, Pravaca
nasāroddhāra (Com.) etc., the power by which the molecules of nutrients or
chyles which are ultilized for building of sense-organs are called indriyaparyāpti,
Vide, Ibid., p. 66. 15. Yayocchvāsājhamadaya dalam pariņamarya ca/
Tattayalambya muñcet so 'accvāsaparyaptiru cyate // (22) Ibid., p. 66. 16. Bhāsärham dalamadaya gistvam nitvavalambya ca /
yayā saktya tyajet prāņi bhāṣāparyāptiritpasau ” // (29) Ibid., p. 67. 17. Dalam lātvā manoyogyam tattāṁ nitvāvalambya ca/
yayā mananasaktah syānmanaḥparyāptiratra sā // (30) Ibid. 18. , Pajjattipațhavana m jugava m tu kamen hodi nitthavanam/amtomuhuttakālena
hiyakam á tattiyalāvā// Gommațasara (Jivakânda ), 120 . The gaining of the capacities starts simultamously, but the completion of each of them ) is effected gradually within the period of one antarmuhūrța, which increases in the case of cach succedding one. Yet their total period does not
exceed one antarmuhurta. 19. Ibid., 121.

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Jaina Biology
It is stated that there are ten kinds of prāna 20 (living material or life force), viz. five indriyaprānas (life force of five senses), ucсhvāsaprāņa (life force of respiration ), āyuprāna (life force of length of life ), manovāk-kāyaprānas (life forces of mind, speech and body ).
Actually speaking, these ten prāņas are almost contained in six paryā ptis, e. g. indriyaparyapti contains five indriyaprānas, ānaprānaparyäpti = ucchvasaprāņa, śarīraparyāpti = kāyaprāņa, bhāṣāparyāpti = Vākprāņa, mana haparyāpti=manahaprāna, only āyuprāna appears to be an addition.
Thus it is found that most of the paryāptis and the prānas have common names. So the question is whether there is any difference between them. The Gommațasāra explains the difference in this way that paryāpti is attainment of the capacity of developing body, mind, speech and five senses, while prāna is the activity of those functionaries.21
It is further explained that one-sensed beings possess four präņas or balas (life-forces ), viz, sense of touch, respiration, length of life and body; two-sensed beings have six prānas, viz. senses of touch and taste, respiration, length of life, body and speech, three-sensed beings have seven prāņas, viz. senses of touch, taste and smell, respiration, length of life, body and speech; four-sensed beings have eight prānas viz. senses of touch, taste, smell and sight, respiration length of life. body and speech. In asmjñi pañcendriya jivas (five-sensed beings having no physical mind) but psychical mind there are nine prāņs viz. senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, respiration, length of life, body and speech, while there are ten prāṇas in Samjñi pañcendriya Jivas (five-sensed beings having physical mind and psychical mind ). viz, senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, respiration, length of life, body, speech and mind.22
According to the Cārvākas, life (as well as consciousness ) is a result of peculiar chemical combinations of non-living matter or the 20. Dasahā jivuņa pāņā imdiusāsāujogabalarūvā/
egimdiesu cauro, vigalesu cha satta axheva || (42) Asanni-sanni-pamclimcimdiesu nava dasa kamena boddhavvā 43, Jivavicāra,
Parca vi imdiyapānā maņavaeikayesu tiãāi balapāņā / 21. Gommațas āra, Jivakāņda, p. 90. 22. Jivavicāra, vv. 42-43.
“Ekendriyeşu-Pșthivyadişu catvaraḥ prāņāḥ sparsanendriyocchvāsāyuḥkāyabalarüpah dvindriyesu catvārasta eva Vāgbalarasanendriyayutah sat prāņā bhavanti tatha trindriyeņu sat prāņāsta eva ghranendriyanvitāh sapta bhavanti tathā caturindriyegu saptaiva cakşurindriyasahitā aştau prāņā bhavanti/tathā asamjñipancendriyeşu aştau ta eva srotrendriyayuta nava prānā bhavanti/ththā samjñi pañcendriyeșu ngvata eva manoyuktā daśa präņā bhavanti/"
Ibid., (Commentary), p. 27.

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four elements, in organic forms just as the intoxicating property of spirituous liquor is the result of the fermentation of unintoxicating rice and molasses.23 Similarly, the instinctive movements and expression of new born babies ( sucking, joy, grief, fear, etc.) take place mechanically a result of external stimuli as much as the opening and closing of the lotus and other flowers at different times of the day or night24, or the movement of iron under the influence of loadstone.25 In the same way, the spontaneous reproduction of living organisms frequently occurs, e. g. animalcules develop “in moisture or infusions, especially under the influence of gentle warmth (Svedaja, Uşnaja, damsamaśakādayah )''26 or the maggots or other worms originate in the rainy season due to the atmospheric moisture in the constituent particles of curds and the like and begin to live and move in so short a time.27
Achārya Haribhadra Sūri has refuted Bhūtacaitanyavāda of the Materialists long before the Sāṁkhya in the following manner. It is the doctrine of the Materialists that this world is formed of only five great elements (mahābhūtas ), viz. earth, etc. and there is no existence of soul nor the unseen force anywhere in the world. 28
The other Materialists maintain the view on the contrary that elements are non-conscious (acetana ). Consciousness is not the character of elements nor the result of elements, while soul is the name of that tattva (reality) with which (soul ) consciousness is related (as character or result ).29
If conciousness would have been the character ( quality) of elements, then it should have been found in all elements at all times, just like 23. “Madaśaktivat vijñānam / prthivyadini bhūtāni catvári tatvāni / tebhya eva
dehākaraparinatebhyah madašaktivat caitanya mupajayate/" Nyayamñjari, Jayanta,
Ahnika, 7. p. 437 ff. 24. "Padmadisu prabodhasammilanavat tadvikārah/" Sūtra 19, Āhnika I; Chapter
III, Gautama's Nyāyā Sūtra, p. 169. 25. “Ayaso ayaskāntābhigamanavat tadu pasarpaņam," Ibid., Sūtra 22, p. 171. 26. Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, Dr. B. N. Seal, p. 239. 27. “Varşāsu ca svedādinā anatidaviyasaiva kālena dadhyādyavayavā eva calantah
pūtanādiksmirūpā upalabhyante/", Nyayamañjari, Ahnika 7, Bhūta-Caintanypaksa,
p. 440; The positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 240. 28. Pșthivyadimahābhūtakāryamātramidam jagat /
Na cātmadrsta sadbhāvam manyante Bhūtavādinah // Šāstra-Vārtāsamuccaya,
Haribhadrasūri, 1st stabaka, v. 30. 29. "Acetanāni bhūtāni na taddharmo na tatphalam/
Cetanā asti ca yasyeyam sa evätmeti căpare // ", Ibid., v. 31. J. B.-2

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that the existence (existentiality, etc. ( general character) and hardness, etc. (particular character ) are found in the elements at all times in which they are found. 30
Now Haribhadra Sūri refutes Bhūtacaitanyavāda in this way that consciousness exists in elements as force (sakti), for this reason it is not perceptible, but consciousness existing in elements as force cannot be said to be non-existing in elements.31
This force (sakti) and consciousness are either non-different by all means from each other or different by all means from each other. If they are non-different, then this force becomes consciousness and if they are different, consciousness should be related with something else.32
Again, the point of non-manifestation of cetanā (consciousness ) does not seem to be logical, because there is no other entity (Vastu ), covering consciousness and it is for this reason that the number of realities will go against the doctrine of the Materialists on the admission of the existence of such an entity.33
Haribhadra Suri further advances the argument to refute the contention of the Materialists that this thing is directly proved that the element has got the nature of these two qualities or characters - hardness and non-livingness and when consciousness is not of the nature of these two characters (i. e., cannot exist with these two ), then how can it be accepted that it was born out of elements ? 34
If consciousness does not exist in individual (i. e. uncombined elements, then it cannot exist in the combined elements just as (like that) oil cannot exist in sand particle. And if consciousness exists in the combined elements, then it should exist also in individual elements35 and so on.
30. Yadiyam bhūtadharmah syāt pratyekam teşu sarvada /
upalabhyeta sattvädikathinatvādayo yathā || Ibid., v. 32. 31. Saktirūpeṇa să teșu sadā to nopalabhyate /
Na ca tenapi rūpeṇa satya satyeva cenna tat // Ibid., v. 33. 32. Sakticetana yoraikyam nādātvam vā'tha sarvathā /
Aikye sä сetanaiveti nānätve anyasya sa yutah // Ibid,, v. 34. 33. Anabhivyaktirapyasyā nyāyato nopapadyate /
Abftirna yadanyena tattvasankhyāvirodhataḥ / Ibid. V. 35. 34. Kāțhinyābodharūpāņi bhūtānyadhyakşasiddhitah /
Ceçanā tu na tadrupā sã khtham tatphalam bhavet // Ibid., v. 43. 35. Pratyekamasati teșu na syad reņutailavat /
sati cedupalabhyeta bhinnarūpegu sarvadā // Ibid., v. 44

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In conclusion Haribhadra Sūri maintains the view after refuting the doctrine of Bhūtacaitanyavāda of the Materialists with his cogent arguments that the existence of force (Sakti), etc. in soul and of the unseen force (adrsta ), which makes the possibility of sakti etc. in soul, should be accepted and this unseen force (adrsta ), which is different from soul, is real and of many kinds and comes into relation with soul.36
The Samkhya makes the reply to the meterialists' view on caitanya in the following manner that “the intoxicating power in liquor is a force, i. e., a tendency to motion. This force is the resultant of the subtle motions present in the particles of the fermented rice, molasses, etc. A motion or a tendency to motion, can in this way be the resultant of several other motions or tendencies."37 “But caitanya (consciousness ) is not a motion, and cannot be the resultant of (unconscious) natural forces or motions. Neither can the consciousness of the Self, or of the organism as a whole, be supposed to be the resultant of innumerable constituent particles of the body. One central abiding intelligence is simpler and therefore more legitimate hypothesis than an assemblage of consciousness latent in different bhūtas or particles."38
The Samkhya philosophy maintains the view that Prāna (life ) is not Vāyu (biomechanical force ) nor it is mere mechanical motion generated from the impulsion of Vāyu.38
The five vital forces, viz. Prāna, apāna, samāna, udāna and vyāna39 36. Tasmāt tadatmano bhinnam saccitram catmayogi ca
Adịştamavagantavyam tasya saktyādisādhakar 11 Ibid., v. 106. 37. “Madagaktivat cet pratyekaparidrste samhatye tadudbhavah” Samkhya Sūtra
22, Chapter III. “Nanu yatha madakatāsaktih pratyekadravyavrttirapi militadravye varttate, evam caitanyamapi syāditi cenna pratyekaparidrste sati Samhatye tadudbhavah sambhavet / Prakrte tu pratyekaparidrstatvam Dāsti /......nanu samuccite caitanyadarśanena pratyekabhūte sūkş macaitanyasaktiranumeya iti cenna anekabhūteşu ane kacaitanyasaktikalpanāyāṁ gauraveņa lāghayadekasyaiva nityacitsvarūpasya kalpanaucityát/" Samkhyapravacanabhāşya, Vijñānabhikṣu, p. 18. cf. also "Bhutagatavisesaguņānām sajatiyakaranagunajan yatayā kārane caitanyam vina dehe caitanyasambhavāt/" Ibid.
Madye madaśaktirna guṇaḥ madyarambhakānām pistagudamadhvādinām yat yasya karma tat karmabhirarabdham svasvakarmavirodhikarma yaducyate prabhāva iti 1 Caitanyadikam na karma // Gangadhara's Jalpakalpataru, 1867, Calcutta, Vide Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus. Dr. B. N. Seal, p. 241.
38. Vãyuvat sañcārät väyavah prasiddhāḥ / asmākam nāyam niyamah yadindriyavrttiḥ
kramenaiva bhavati naikada jätisankaryasya asmäkam adoşatvāt / samagrisamavadhäne sati anekairapîndriyaih ekadaikavrttyutpadane badhaka í násti", Pravacanabhāsya. Ch. II, Sūtra 31. 32, p. 88.; Manodharmasya kāmādeh, prānak sobhataya Samanadhikaranyenaiva aucityāt", Ibid.

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are stated to be Vayu in metaphorical way. Prāņa ( life ) is in reality à reflex activity, a resultant force of the various concurrent activities of the Antahkarana, i. e. “ of the sensorimotor (Jñānedriya-Karmendriya), the emotive (manah) and the apperceptive reactions of the organism."40
According to Vijñānabhikṣu, this explains the disturbing effect on the vitality of pleasurable or painful emotions (like love = kāma ) of mind (manas), one of the internal senses involved in the reactions of the living organism.41
Thus Prāņa of the Sāmkhya is not a Vāyu nor is it evolved from the inorganic matters (Bhūtas ), “but it is only a complex reflex activity (Sambhūyaikā vịtti) generated from the operations of the psycho-physical forces in the organism."'42
In agreement with the Samkhya the Vedāntists hold the view that “Prāna is neither a vāyu nor the operation of a vāyu.”43 But they differ from the former's view that Prāna is a more reflex or resultant
39. Sāmānyakaraṇavịttiḥ prāņādyā vāyavah panca / Samkhyadarśana, chapter II,
Sūtra 31; Samkhyakārikā, 29. Prāna, breath, the ordinary inspiration and expiration; apāna, downward breath, the air or vital force acting in the lower parts of the body; samana, collective breath, so named from conducting equally the food, etc. through the body; udāna ascending breath, the vital force that causes the pulsations of the arteries in the upper portions of the body from the navel to the head, and vyāna separate breath, “ by which internal division and diffusion through the body are effected” (Gaudapāda, Wilson, p. 105 ). This is not very intelligible, but as vyāna is connected in the Samkhya-TattvaKaumudi with the skin, the subtle nerve-force by which sensibility is given to the skin or outer surface of the body is probably meant. It is also connected with the circulation of the blood along the surface, the great arteries being under the action of udāna (71) (In the Ātmabodha “Knowledge of the soul ”, a Vedic poem as asigned to the great commentator Sankarãchārya, the soul is said to be enwrapped "in five investing sheaths or coverings " (Kosh cf. Fr. Cosse, Ir Gael Coch-al, a pod or husk ). The third of these is called pränamaya, i. e. “the sheath composed of breath, and the other vital airs associated with the organs of action” (Indian Wisdom, p. 123), Vide the Samkhyakārikā of
1śvara Krşna, ed. by John Davies, p. 46. 40. Positive Science of Ancient Hindus. p. 241.
"Mano dharmasya kamadeh / prāņaksobhakataya sāmányadhikaranyenaiva aucityāt," Sāmkbya Pravacanabhāsya, Chap'er II, 31, p. *8. "Karanāņi niyatavrtrayah santah sambhūyaikāṁ prāņākhyām Vșttim pratipadyante (pratilapsynate), Sārkarabhāsya on Brahma sūtra, Ch. II. Pada 4, Sūtra 9. * Sāmānya karana Vrttih prāņādyā vāyavah panca /” Samkhyakärikā, Isvarakrsna,
29; see also Sārkhyapravacanabhāşya, chapter II, Sūtras 31,32. 43. “Na vāyukriye pệthagupadeśāt /” Brahmasūtra, chapter II. pada 4, Sūtra 9;
see its Bhasya,

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13
of concurrent sensori-motor, emotive and apperceptive reactions of the organism. If eleven birds, put in a cage, concurrently and continually strike against the bars of it in the same direction, it may move on under the impact of concerted action. But the sensory and motor activities cannot in this way produce the vital activity of the organism, because the loss of one or more of the senses does not result in the loss of life. This is above all the radical distinction between them. There is the sameness of kind i Samajātiyatva ) between the motions of the individual birds and the resultant motion of the cage, but Prāņa is not explained by sensations, but it is a separate principle (or force ), just as the mind and antahkaranas generally are regarded in the Samkhya. It is a sort of subtle “ether-principle" (adhyātmavāyu ) pervasive of the organism, not gross vāyu, all the same subtilized matter like the mind itself, as everything other than the soul (ātmā), according to the Vedānta, is material (jada ). Prāņa is prior to the senses, for it regulates the development of the fertilized egg, “ wbich would putrefy, if it were not living, and the senses with their apparatus originate subsequently from the fertilized egg.”:44
Caraka45 explains vāyu as the impelling force, the prime-mover, which sets in motion the organism, the organs (including the senses and the mind ), arranges the cells and tissues, unfolds or develops the foetal structure out of the fertilized ovum. According to Caraka and Susruta,46 there are five chief vāyus with different functions for the
44. Also Vācaspati Misra, Bhāmati Țikā as follows:
“ Siddhantastu na samanendriyavrttih prāņah // Sa hi militanam vă Vrttirbhavet pratyekam vā/ na tävat millitānām ekadvitricaturindriyabhāve tadabhāvaprasangāt / na khalu cūrņahridrasamyogajanmā, aruņagunastayoranyatarābhāve bhavitumarhati / na ca bahuvistisādhyam sibikodvahanam dvitriviştisadhyam bhavati / na ca tvagekasädhyam / tatha sati sämânyavrttitvānupapatteh / api ca yat sambhūya karakāni nişpadayanti tat pradhanavyāpārānuguņāvāntaravyāpāreņaiva / yathā vayasām prātisviko vyāpāraḥ piñjaracālanānuguṇaḥ / iha tu sravanadyavántaravyāpāropetah prāņā na sambhūya Prānyuriti yuktam pramāņabhāvadatyantavijātiyatvācca śravaņādibhyah prāņānasya 1..... tasmädanyo Vāyukriyabhām prāņāh/ Vayurevāyamadhyātmamāpannah mukhyo, api pranah 1". Ibid (Sāņkarabhāsya ). cf. also Jyeșthasca prāṇah sukranişeka kaladarabhya tasya Vịttilābhāt / na cet rasya tadanim Vsttilabhah syāt yonau nişiktam sukram pūyeta na sambhaved vā / śrotradināntu karņaśaskulyadisthanavibhāganispattau Vrttilābhānna jyeșthatvam/". Sankara bhasya, Chapter II, pada 4, Sūtra 9. “Vayuh tantrayantradharah , prānāpänodānasamânavyānātmā pravartakah cestanām, praneta mahasah sarvendriyāņām udyotakah, sarvagariradhātuvyūhakarah, sandhānakaraḥ śarīrasya, pravartako Vācah, harşotsāhayoryonih. kşeptā bahir. malānām. karta garbhakrtīnām prāņāpānodana samanavyānātma / ” Caraka.
Sūtrasthāna, ch. XI. 46. Caraka, Sūtrasthāna, chapter XII and Susruta, Nidānasthāna, chapter I.

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maintenance of the animal life, viz. prāna, udana, samāna, vyāna and apāna, as mentioned in the Samkhya. Susruta47 describes prāņa as having its course in the mouth and function in deglutition, hiccough, respiration, etc., udāna in articulation and singing, samāna as digesting the food substance in the stomach in conjunction with the animal heat, vyāna as causing the flow of blood and sweat, and apāna with its seat in the intestinal region as throwing out the urinogenital secretions.48
In the mediaeval philosophy49 there is mention of forty nine vāyus among which there are ten chief Vāyus, viz. (1) Prāņa, (2) Apāna, (3) Vyāna, (4) Samāna, (5) Udāna, (6) Nāga, (7) Kūrma, (8) Krkara or Krakaro, (9) Devadatta and (10) Dhananjaya.50
Prāna has the function in the ideo-motor verbal mechanism and vocal apparatus, the respiratory system, the muscles in coughing, singing, etc., apāna in ejecting the excretions and wastes, the urine, the faeces, the sperm and germ-cells etc., vyāna in extension, contraction, and flexion of the muscles, tendons, and ligaments, the stored up energy of the muscles, udana in maintaining the erect posture of the body, nāga in involuntary retching and vomitting, kūrma in the automatic movement of the eyelids, winking, etc., krkara in the appetites, hunger and thirst, devadatta in bringing about yawning, dozing, etc. and dhananjaya in causing coma, swooning and trance.51 47. Suśruta-Nidānasthana, chapter 1.
"Teşam mukhyatamaḥ prānah ... šabdoccāraṇanihsvá socchvasakāśadikāraṇamt apānah asya mūtrapurişādivisargah karma kirttitam/vyänah .. prāņāpanadhtit. yāgagrahaņādyasya karma ca/samāno'pi vyapya nikhilam sariram vahnina saha 1 dvisaptati sahasreşu nāļirandhreşu samcaran bhuktapitarasan samyagānayan dehapuştřikrt/ udānah karmasya dehonnayanotkramaņādi prakırttitam 1/ tvagadidhatunāsruya pañcanâgadayah sthitah udgārādi nimeşadi ksutpipasādikam kramát / tandraprabhști mohadi (sophādi) tesāṁ karma prakīrttitam /" Sangitaratnākara, Särangedava, vv. 60-67, chapter I. Vol. I.. pp. 41-42. cf. the summary in Raja Sourindra Mohan Tagore's edition of the Sangita
darpana, See also Kalyãnakara. 3. 3. p. 32. 48. Vide the Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 230. 49. Unapañcadasadvāyurudite putrāh / te sarve apajāh indreņa devatvam prānitāh
sarirāptarbāhyabhedena dasadhā/" Bhagavataţikāyam Sridharasvāmin, Vide
Sabdakalpadruma, 4th Kända, p. 342. 50. Prāṇāpānau tatha vyänasamanodanasamjnakan / Nagain Kūrmam ca Krkara i
Devadattam Dhananjayam / Sargitaratnākara, Ch. I, V. :9, p. 41, Vol. I. "Prāņāpānau tathā vānasamānodānasamjñakäh / Nāgah Kūrmśca Krkaro
Devadattadhananjayau //" Sangitadarpaņam of Catura Damodara, Ch. I, V. 50. 51. Sangitaratnākara. Vol. I, ch, I, vv. 60-67, pp. 41-42,
“Sabdoccāraṇam (Vānnispattikāraṇam nihívásah ucсhvāsaḥ (antarmukhaśvāsah) tandradinām kārana mn (sadhanam) prāņavāyuh./Vin mütragukradivahatvomapānasya karma, akuñcana prasaranadi vyānasya karma jneyarn / asitapitādinām samatānayanadvātā sarirasya poșaņām samana sya karma / udānavayuh urddhyānayanameva

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Cell Structures and Functions
15
The study of the different views on Prāna or Vāyu shows that Jaina paryāpti or prāna is neither a result of peculiar chemical combinations of non-living matter as advocated by the Cārvākas nor a complex activity of the Samkhya but a sort of separate principle (adhyātma vāyu ) pervasive of the organism as defined by the Vedānta, an impelling force, the prime-mover of Caraka and sušruta. It appears to be the actual living material of all plants and animals like protoplasm of modern Biology. Jaina paryāpti and prāņa, the two unique forces, not explainable in terms of Physics and Chemistry, are associated with and control life. The concept of these forces may be called vitalism which contains the view that living and non-living systems are basically different and obey different laws. Many of the phenomena of life that appear to be so mysterious in Jaina Biology may be explained by physical and chemical principles with the discovery of future research in this field. So it is reasonable to suppose that paryāpti, a mysterious aspect of life, although not identifiable with protoplasm, comes nearer to the latter because of its unique functions in the organisms.
According to modern Biology, “protoplasm is the actual living material of all plants and animals. This is not a single substance but varies cousiderably from organism to organism, among the various parts of a single animal or plant, and from one time to another with a single organ or part of an animal or plant. There are many kinds of protoplasm, but they share certain fundamental physical and chemical characteristics."52
"The protoplasm of the human body and of all plants and animals exists in discrete portions know as cells. these are the microscopic unit of structure of the body, each of them is an independent, functional unit, and the processes of the body are the sum of the co-ordinated functions of its cells. These cellular units vary considerably in size, shape and function. Some of the smallest animals have bodies made of a single cell; others such as, a man or an Oak tree are made of countless billions of cells fitted together.53
“ The major types of organic substances found in protoplasm are asya karma, nāgadayah Dagakurmakrkara-devadattadhananjayarūpāh pancavāyavah leteşāṁ karmāni ca yathākramam udgāronmilanaksudhajananavijrmbhanamoharūpäni ?" Sangitadarpana, chapter I, sloka 47-48. cf. "Prāņah prāgVrttirucchvāsādikarma / Apanah avāgvrttirutsargāpikarma / Vyanah tayoh sandhau vartamānah vīryavatkarmahetuḥ / Udānah urddhvavrttih utkrantyadi hetuh / samanah samam sarveşu angesu yah annarasān nayati / iti /.". Śănkarabhāșya, chapter II, pada 4, sútra 2. Vide Positive Science of the Ancient
Hiudus, p. 230-31. 52. Biology. p. 16. 53. Ibid.

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carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and steroids.":54 Some of these are required for the structural integrity of the cell, others to supply energy for its functioning and still others are of prime importance in regulating metabolism within the cell."55
“Carbohydrates and fats (lipids ) have only a small role in the structure of protoplasm but are important as sources of fuel; Carbohydrates are readily available fuel, fats are more permanently stored supplies of energy. Nucleic acids have a primary role in storing and transmitting information. Proteins are structural and functional constituents of protoplasm, but may serve as fuel after deanimation. The body can convert each of these substances into otbers to some extent, Protoplasm in a colloidal system, with protein molecules and water forming the two phases, and many of the properties of protoplasmmuscle contraction, ameboid motion, and so on-depend on the repaid change from sol ( liquid condition ) to gel (solid or semi-solid ) state and back.”56
54. Ibid, pp. 25-26. 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid., p. 33.

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(Second Section ) Characteristics of Living Substances (Jivadravyas ) All living substances have, to a greater or lesser extent, the properties of specific size and shape, 2 metabolism,3 movement, irritability,5 growth, reproduction and adaptation. This list of their properties seems to be specific and definite, but the line between the living and 1. Bhagavat! Sūtra, 19.3.652-57; 25. 1.717; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36-70 (Sūkşma
badara etc. ). Pannavaņā (Sūksma-bādara, etc.); Gammapasāra (Jivakanda ).
V, 177, V. 183. 2. Pannavaņā Samthānaidaracchakm 983-989. p. 241; “Samacauramsa, naggoha, sai,
Vāmana ya khujja humda ya / Jivāņa cha sämthāņa/” BỊhatsamgrahani, Candrasūri, VV. 243-5. "Samacaurasanaggohāsādiy,khujjayavāmanāhumda/", Paryaptyadhikara, Mülācāra, Pt II, 12 V. 49, Sri Vasunandisiddhanta Cakravarttin, p. 207; Lokaprakāša, Vina
yavijaya, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, vv. 205-10, pp. 98-49.; Gommațasāra (Jīvakanda), 201. 3. Sūtrakrtānga, śrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, Ahāraniksepa varnana; Bhagavati
Sūtra, 1.7.61-62, 7-3. 275-6; Pannavaņā, Āhārapadam, pajjat idaram, 2nd uddesaka p. 406. Tandula Veyaliyam pp. 3-10; Navatattva Prakaraṇam, Dharmavijyaya, v. 6, p. 12; Lokaprakāśa Pt. I, ?rd Sarga, vv. 15-21 ff; Gommațasāra (Jivakānda ). chapter III, vy. 119-121; Mūlācāra II. 12-4; Tarkarahasyadipika on Şaddarśanusamuccava Gunaratna. (Jainamatam); V. 49. Ācāranga Sūtra, Book I, 9.1.4 (Adu thāvarā ya tasattae, tasa ya thavarattāe ); Sūtrakrtanga, śrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18, Sūtra 60; Sthānānga. 2. 4. 100; Bhagavati Sūtra 25.4 789; Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 36.68; Jivabhigama sūtra. p. 12; Mūlācāra, Pt. I, 30 (226), p. 295, Tattvartha Sūtra, Umāsvāti, 2.12-14; Tarkara
hasyadipikā, Gunaratna, V. 49 5. Bhagavati Sūtra 3.9.170; 2.4.99; Pannavaņāsūtta, Indriyapadam 15, puthadņram,
etc , Jīvābhigamasūtra, Jyotişka Uddeśaka; Tarkarahasyadípikā, V. 49. 6. “Ahavaram purakkbāyam ihegaiyā satta rukkhajoniya rukkhasambhavā .. biyattāe
viuttamti, etc." upto “nāņavihasambhava . . satirasambhavai." Sūtrakrtanga Śrutskandha II, Adhyayana ?, Sūtra 55-62. Bhagavati, 1.7.61-?; 7.3.276: Tandula Veyāliya, vv. 2,3,4 5,6; Tarkarahasyadipikā,
V. 49. 7. Sūtrakṛtānga, Srutaskandha, II, Adhyayana 3; Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.5.282; Sthānānga
Sūtra ..1:9; 7.3.543; Uttaradhyay nasūtra, 36.:70; Jivābhigamasūtra 1.1.96:1-33; Pannavaņā Sūtra, 1. 58; 68; Mülācāra II, 12. 43, 44, 45; Tattvārthasūtra 2. 32;
Tarkarahasyadipika, v. 49, 8. Sūtrakrtānga, Śrutaskandha, II, Adhyayana 3; Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275; Pannavanā,
Sthanapadam; Jivabhigamasūtra, 1.34, 35, 36; Tarkarahasyadipika, 28, V. 49. 9. Biology, p. 17. J. B.-3

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18
Jaina Biology
non-living, according to modern Biology, is tenuous, as “non-living objects may show one or more of these properties, but not all of them.”'10 Many of the phenomena of life that appear to be so mysterious, as discovered by the Jainācāryas, such as, ucсhvāsa (respiration ), samjñā (instinct ), bhāsā (speech ), Kaşāya (passion ). indriyas ( senses ), leśyā ( condition of soul or psychic condition ), Vedanā (feeling), etc. of the li ving substances, have proved to be understandable by invoking a unique life-force, while other aspects of life can be explained by physical and chemical principles in the light of future research in the field of Biology.
Specific Organization :
12.
Each kind of living organism is recognized by its characteristic shape and appearance, 11 the adult of each kind of org sm typically have much more variable shapes and sizes.12 Living substances are not homogeneous, but are made of different parts, 13 each with special functions, thus the bodies of living things are characterized by a specific 10. Ibid. 11. Samacauramsa naggoba, sai Vāmana ya , hujja humda ya /
Jīvāna ca samhanā /" Brhatsamgrahani, Candrasūri, vv. 243-5.; See Pannavanā, sa înthanadaracchakam 983-984, P. 241. Mūlācāra, Pt. II, 12. V. 49. P. 207; Lokaprakāśa Pt. I. 3rd Sarga, vv. 205-210, pp, 98-95: Gummațasara (Jiva'ānda), 201. Bhagavati Sūtra, 19.3.52-53; 25.1.717; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.70 fi; pannavană
sutra, 29.25 ( Suksma-bada ra, etc.) G mmatasara ( Jivakẫnda) V. 177, V. 183. 13. "Rukkhesu mūlattác khamdattāe khamdhattae tayattae salattāe pavälattae
pattattāe pupphattāe phalattae biyattae viutemti" Sūtrakrtanga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, Sūtra 46; Blood (Sonita) Ācārāngasūtra, Baok II, 10 (Soniyae)"; Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 2.18; Bhagavati 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya, 2, p. 6. dhamani and sīrā=arterics and veins; Sūtrakstānga, Srutaskandha 2, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18 (biyayāe = heart ); Bhagavati. 1. 7. 61: Tandulaveyāiiya, pp. 8-9 (Skin, bone, marrow, hair, beard, hair or body and nail): Sūtrakrtānga II. 2. 18 (acca-body, ajina (skin), maṁsa (flesh), soņiya = (Blcod), hiyaya (heart), pitta (bile). Bhagavati 1. 7. 61 ( The respiratory system ) Bhagavati 1. 7. 61 ( Digestive system ) Bhagavati 1. 7. 61-2 (Excretory system ) Bhagavati 1.7, 61: Tandulaveyaliya 2. p. 6. (The Integumentary and Skeletal systoms) Bhagavati 1. 7. 61 (Out growth of the skin-hair and nail) Tandulaveyaliya 2, p. 6 (Pesi muscular system ) Tandulaveyaliya 2, p. 6 (Nervous system ) Tandulaveyaliya, p. 7. Sūtra 3 ( The sense organs ) Pannavaņā, Indriyapadam, Bhagavati sūtra 16. 1. 566, 2. 4. 99, (Sense organs ) Bhagavati o 3. 9. 170. Pannavaņā, Indriyapadam, puttbadāra ( Tactile senses ) Organs of taste and smell, eye, ear).

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Cell Structures and Functions
complex organization, 14 for each type of cell-body (Abbuya15) has a characteristic size and shape, it has a unique vital force16 which distingushes (or separates the living substance from the surroundings and it contains a life-force, 17 plans a major role in controlling and regulating the activities of the cell-body. The bodies of the higher animals and plants are organized in a series of increasing complex levels. 18 It appears that cells are organized into tissues, tissues into organs and organs into organ-systems. 19
According to modern Biology, “The structural and functional unit of both plants and animals is the cell, the simplest bit of living matter that can exist independently. The cell itself has specific organization, for each type of cell has a characteristic size and shape, it has a plasma membrane which separates the living substance from the surroundings, and it contains a nucleus, a specialized part of the cell separated from the rest by a unclear membrane. The nucleus, plays a major role in controlling and regulating the activities of the cell. The bodies of the higher animals and plants are organized in a series of increasingly complex levels. Cells are organized into tissues, tissues into organs, and organs into organs system.o20
Metabolism :
According to Jaina Biology, metabolism is the sum of all the chemical activities of paryāpti (Vital force )21 which provide the energy for the growth, maintenance and repair of the organic system as well as its own growth with intensity. Paryāpti of all cell-bodies is constantly
14. Ibid. 15. Tandulaveyaliya, 2. p. 6. Cell = arbuda ? 16. Paryapti 17. Prāna 18. Bhagavati Sūtra 19. 3. 6. 52-53; 25. 1. 717.
Uttaradhyana Sūtra 36.70 ff. Pannavanā 29.25. ( Sūksma-bādara, etc.)
Gommațasara ( Jiva ), VV. 177, 183. 19. Tandulaveyaliya, 2, p. 6.
“Abbuya jayae pesí, pesio ya gbanam bhave....pimdiyão pāni, pāyam siram ceva nivvattei. pittasoniyam uva cine satta sirasayaim pamca pesisayaim upto romaku
vakodiya nivvaitei I” 20. Biology Villel. A. p. 17. 21. Pannavanā, Āharapada, 2nd Uddešaka, pajjattidá-a, p. 406.
Jivabhigam, p. 2?; Navatattva Prakaranam, V. 6, p. 12, etc. Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sargā, vv. 15, ff; Gommațasāra ( Jivakāņda ). Paryapti, 3rd chapter, v. 119, ete., Mūlācāra, Pt. II, paryaptyadhikara, 12, v. 4 etc. Bộnatsangrahaņi, 363.

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20
changing22 by taking in new substances, altering them chemically in a variety of ways, building new vital force or energy23 and transforming24 the potential energy contained in large molecules of nutrients or chyle (rasa )25 into kinetic energy (śakti) including heat as these substances are converted into other simpler substances. This constant expenditure of energy is one of the unique characteristics of living substances.
Both plants and animals have anabolic26 and catabolic27 phases of metabolism. They occur continuously and simultaneously.28 Plants,29 however, (with some exceptions ),30 have the ability to manufacture their organic compounds31 out of inorganic materials in the soil and air, animals must depend on plants, for their food. "Plant cells are simply better chemists than animal cells."32
Movement:
The ability to move33 is the third characteristic of living substances. 22. Ibid. Malayagiri
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
Jaina Biology
"Ahārasarīra imdiya, usāsa vao mano abhinivatti,
hoi jao daliyão Karanam Pai sa u pajjatti" (Bṛhatsamgrahani, p. 1:0) "Ahara sarirendra iyocchvāsava comanasambhinirvṛtirbhinisat tiryato dalik addalabhutat pudgalas muhatta sya dalikasya saktirupam sa pary aptih 1, vide Navatattva Prakaranam, Tika, p. 13.
"Tatra Jivaḥ pudgalopacayālambanena; samutṛannaya y-ya saktyā nānāmāhāra. madaya khalara sarupataya pariņamayati sa āhārāpārāptiḥ Jivaḥ pudgalonicayajataya yayā saktyā Punaramanoya pudgaladravyamadaya manastvena parinamayya alambya ca visṛjati sa manaḥparyapti " I Ibid, pp. 13-4, etc.
Ibid.
Ibid.
"Anabolism refers to those chemical processes in which simpler substances are combined to form more complex substances, resulting in the storage of energy and the production of new protoplasm and growth." Biology, p. 17. "Catabolism refers to the breaking down of these complex substances, resulting in the release of energy and the wearing out and using up of protoplasm," whose place is taken by paryapti in Jain Biology." Biology, p. 17.
28. Pajjattipattṭhavaṇam jugavam tu kameņa hodi niṭṭhavanam /amtamuhuttakaleṇa
hiyakama tattiyālavā " 120., Gommaṭasāra (Jiva), 120; Biology, p. 18.
29. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275-6., Biology, p. 18.
30. Prastitic plants which are born on trees have no ability to manufacture their organic compounds, but they feed on the sap of the supporting plants. See Sūtrakrtānga, Śrutaskandha 2, Adhyayana 3, Biology, p. 18.
31. Bhagavati, 7.3.275-6; Tarkarahasyadipika 49; Biology, p. 17; Gunaratna, p. 157. 32. Biology p. 18.
33. Acaranga Sutra, Book I, p. 1.14; Sūtrakṛtänga, Śrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18; Sthānanga Sutra 2.4.100; Bhagavati Sūtra, 25.4.739; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.68; Jivabbigama Sutra, p. 12; Tattvartha Sūtra II, 12.14; Mūlācāra, Pt. I, 30 (226); Jivavicara, 2; Tarkrahasyadipika v. 49; Gommaṭasāra (Jiva) 3', Paṇṇavanā, Kayadara, 4.232, p. 86.

..

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Cell Structures and Functions
21
The movement of animals34 is quite obvious. According to Jain Biology, all the five one-sensed beings, viz. four earth quadrates and plant are sthāvara ( immobile )35 as they cannot move from place to place. There is one view that the earth-bodied being, the water-bodied being and plant are sthāvara (immobile )36 but the fire-bodied being (agnikāyikajiva) and the wind-bodied being (vāyukāyikāyīva ) are trasa ( mobile )37 from the point of view the movement of fire and wind. According to Gunaratna, 38 plant-life also has various kinds of movement or action connected with sleep, waking, expansion and contraction in response to touch, also movement towards a support or prop. That is to say, the movement of plants is much slower and less obvious but is present nonetheless, as explained in modern Biology, 39 although they are called sthāvara (immobile ).40
According to modern Biology, “A few animals-spong, corals, oysters, certain parasites-do not move from place to place, but most of these have cilia or flagell to meet their surroundings past their bodies and thus bring food and other necessities of life to themselves. Movement may be the result of muscular contraction, of the beating of the microscopic protoplasmic hairs called cilia or flagella, or of slow oozing of a mass of protoplasm (ameboid motion ). The streaming motion of the protoplasm in the cells of the leaves of plants is known as cyclosis."41 It is to be noted here that corals,42 a class of prthivīkāyikajīvas 34. lbid.; Biology, p 18. 35. Pannavanā, Kāyadara, 4. 232, p. 86.
“ Pudhavijalanavāu, Vanassai thāvarā ņeya 1" “Jivavicāra; “Labdhyā prthivya. ptejovayuvanaspatayah sarve sthavaranam karmodayat athāvarā eva", Tattva tha
Sūtra (Comm., 2-14, p. 161. 35. Ibid., Sthānanga ?; 1.164, Uttaradhyana Sūtra, 39.69. "Pudhavijalanavāu,
Vanassai thávarā ņeya i "Jiyavicāra 2." Labdhya Prthivyaptejovāyuvanaspatayah sarve sthāvarāņām Karmodayāt sthāvarā eva" 1, Tattvārtha Sūtra (Com. 2 14 p. 161. Ibid ; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.107. Tattvärthasutra, 2-14; See Commenta y
“Atah Kriyām prāpya tejovāyavostra satvam." p. 161. 38. “Vanaspatayah Sacetana-balakumāra = Vrddhāvasthā (1) pratiniyat: Vrddhi
(2) svaraprabodha sparśādihetukollasasa mkocaśrayopasarpaņādivisistānekakriya (3) Chimavayavamalam (4) Pratiniyatapradeśāhāragra hana (5) Vrksāyurvedābhibi. tayuskistanistanistāhārādinimitta kavrddhihāni (6-7), Ayurvedoditatvättadroga (8) Visiştausadha prayog sampaditapravặddhihāniäşatabha, nasa mrohana 19) pratiniyatavi istasafīrarasaviryasn gdhatvarūk satva.(1) Višistadana ha d. (1) dim ttvanyathānupapatteh." 1. (3). Tark rabasya dipika (Jainamatam ), v. 59. Commentary by Gunararni., p. 159. Sadjarsana Samuccaya, (Circa 1350 A, D.)
Biology, p. 1'. 40. See Ācārānga Sūtra Book I. 9.1.14, e c. 41. Biology, p. 18. 42. Uttaradhyayana Sū ra, 86, 74-75.
39. Biol08.

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Jaina Biology
do pot move from place to place like sponges and corals of modern Biology.43 So it is a thought-provoking idea to note that the Jain view of movement of beings is well supported by modern Biology to a considerable extent.
Irritability : 44
Living beings are irritable, they respond to stimuli45 - physical or chemical changes in their immediate surroundings. Stimuli which are effective in evoking a response in most animals and plants are changes in colour, 46 itensity47 or direction of light, 48 changes in temperature 49 pressure or sound, 50 touch51 and changes in the chemical composition of earth, water, or air surrounding the organism.
In Jaina Biology it is started that the five sense-organs are endowed with infinite points (ananta pradesikas), i. e. infinite cells, and innumerable extension (asasmkheya pradeśāvagādhas),52 sensation or irritation in human brain is caused by the stimuli of the five sense-objects (indriya-visaya )53 received from outside, when the sense-organs come into contact with them directly or indirectly. So it is explained that the ear hears the touch and entered sounds into it, the eyes see the untouched ( aputtha ) and unentered (appavittha) sense-objects (i. e. the images of the sense-objects perceived by the eyes reflect on the 43. Biology, p. 18. 44. Bhagavati Sūtra, 3.9.170; 2.1.99; Pannavanā, Indriyapadam 15. putthadára, etc.;
Jīvābhigama, Jyotiska Uddesaka; Tarkarahasyadipikā (Jain matam), V. 59, Tikā by Gunaratna. “Lajjalūprabhrtināṁ ha stādisamsparśa' patrasamkocadika parisphuţakriyopalabh
yate 1 ", Ibid,, (Tarkarahasyadipikā ), V. 59 (Tika). 46. “aputthāim rūväim pasati”, Bhgavati, 2.4.4.99.
Paņņavana, Imdriyapadam I, Putthadāram, Sūtra 990.
"apavitthāim tūvaim pasati”, Pannavanā, Ibid., Sūtra 19. 47. Bhagavati, 2.4.99; Pannuyanā, Indriyapadam, 154, Uddeśaka, Visayadaram,
Sutra 99. 49. For example, Sunflower (Suryamukhi) moves according to the direction of the
light of the Sun. See Biology, C. A. p. 18. 49. Bhagavatî, 2.4.99; Paņņavanā, Indriyapadam, I, Putthadarm, Sūtra, 920
Pavitthadāram Sūtra, 991. 50. Tarkarahasyadipikā, v. 49 “Lajjalüprabhrtīnām hastadisamsparsat-patrasariko
Cadikaparisphuţakriya upalabhyate." 51. "Putthām saddāim suņei...1", Bhagavati Sūtra, 2.4.99; See also Pannavana
Sutia, Indriyapadam, Putthadaram. 52. Bhagavati, 2. 4. 99; Pannavanã, Indriyapada, 1st.
Uddesaka, Suttas, 983-939. 53. Bhagavati, 2. 4. 99; Paņņavanā, Indriyapadam 1st.
Uddešaka, Vişayadāram, Sutta. 992.

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Cell Structures and Functions
retina so that they can see them). According to modern biology, light sensitive cells exist in almost all living matter from protozoa to man. 54 The nose smells the touched and entered objects and the skin experiences the touch of touched and entered objects.55
23
This Jain view of sensation or irritability of beings is supported by Modern Biology to some extent which explains that "In man and other complex animals, certain cells of the body are highly specialized to respond to certain types of stimuli; the rods and cones in the retina of the eye respond to light, certain cells in the nose and in the taste buds of the tongue respond to chemical stimuli, and special cells in the skin respond to changes in tempetature or pressure."56 Gunaratna observes the sensitivity on irritability of plants like the Mimosa pudica (Lajjavatilata) to touch, "which show a manifest reaction in the form of contraction."57 According to modern Biology, the irritability of plant cells is not always so apparent as that of animal cells, but they are sensitive to changes in their environment. Protoplasmic streaming in plant cells may be speeded or stopped by changes in the amount of light. A few plants, such as the venus flytrap of the Caroliva swamps, have a remarkable sensitivity to touch and can catch insects."58
The Jaina view on the sensitiveness or irritability of living beings suggests their response to stimuli, physical or chemical changes in their surroundings, which are effective in evoking a response in most animals and plants, e. g. eye responds to light, certain cells in the nose to smell and the taste buds of tongue to chemical stimuli and special cells in the skin respond to changes in touch or temperature or pressure and ear to sound,59
Growth: 60
Growth means those processes which increase the amount of living substance of the body, measured by the molecules of nutrient or chyle 54. Bhagavati, 2. 5. 97; Pannav. na, Indriya padam 1, 1st Uddeśaka, Puṭṭhadā am, Pavitthadarm, Sutra, 990 1, p. 24.
55. Ibid.
56. Biology, p. 18.
57. Lajjalūprabhṛtīnām hastādi samsargāt (saṁsparśat) yatra samkocädikaparisphuțakriya upalabhyate 1" Tarkarahasyadīpiaa on V. 49, Gankratna. p. 58. Vide the positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 174.
58. Biology, p. 18.
59. Bhagavati, 2. 4. 99; Pannavana, Indriyaradam 15, 1st Uddesaka, Putthadaram
and pavitthadaram 9 0-1, Visayadaram, 992.
60. Sūtrakṛtānga, Śrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, Sutra 55-66.; Bhagavati, 1.7.61-2; Tandulavey aliya VV. 2-6; 7.3.2 6.; Tarkarahasyadipikä V. 9, Gunaratnaṭīkā.

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Jaina Biology
(rasa )61 or sap present, i. e. "nitrogen or protein present" according to modern Biology.62 It is the characteristic of all living beings including plants. The processes of growing life of plants involve the stages of infancy, youth and age and regular growth 63 etc. like those of other beings.
Growth may be uniform in the several parts of an organism or it may be greater in some parts than in others so that they proportionally change as it occurs. Some organisms, e. g. most trees, will grow indefinitely, 64 while most animals have a definite growth period which terminates in an adult65 of a characteristic size. One of the remarkable aspects of the growth process is that each organ continues to function, while undergoing growth.66 The growth process of beings takes place by assimilation of suitable food. 67
According to Sankara Misra, the growth of organs (or tissues ) by natural recuperation after wounder of laceration is an additional charactersitic.68
Modern Biology explains that “growth may be brought about by an increase in the size of the individual cells or by an increase in the number of cells, or both.” 69 Reproduction : 70
The ability to reproduce is the sine qua non of life in a being
61. Navatati vaprakaranan V. 6. pp. 12. 13.
Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd, Sarga, vv. 15 ff; Brhatsangrahani, 364, p. 130. "Tatra yaya sakıya karaṇabhūtaya bhuktamāhāram Khalarasarūpatayā kartum samartho bhavati... yayā lasībhūtamābāram rasās'gmam samedo, asthimajāśukra
lākṣaṇasaptadhāturūpatāyā paniņa mayati 1” Brhaisamgrahaņi, 363, p. 130. 62. Biology, p. 18. 63. Tarka: ahasyadipikā V, 49, P. 159, Tika "Bālakumara
Věddhavastha qratiniyatavrddhih" e c. 64. According to the Uttaradhyayana, the period of ten thousand years is the longest
duration of the life of plants and the period of infinite years is the longest duration of life of plants which are called panaka, not learning that plant-body. “Anamtakalamukkosa Kaathii panagānam, tam kayam tu amumcao”.
Uttaradhyayaņa, 36. 103. 65. Tarkarahasyadipika, V. 49, (comm.) p. 159 66. Sūtrakrange, śrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, 67. Sūtrakstanga; Srutaskandha 2, Adhyayana 3; Navatattvap akaranam, V. 6. (comm.)
pp. 12-3; I okaprakasa, Pt. I, 3.d Sarga, vv. 15 ff. 63. " Bhagn kşatasarrovane ", Sankara Misra, 1, Upaskāra, Chapter IV, Abpika 2,
Sūtra 5, B. 4, Vol. v. 1. 69. Biology, p. 18. 70. Acārānga Sūtra, Book 1, Lecture I, Sixth Lesson, Sutra, 4., 69.; Sutrakrtānga,
Sutaskanoha II, Adhyayana ?, Bhagavati 7.5 272; Sthânānga 3.1.129; 7.3.543, Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.1 0; Jivabhigama Sutra 3.1.95, 1.33; Pannavanā 1.58, 6°; Tat várıha Sūtra 2.2; Mūlācāra I! 17. 43 45; Ta, karahasyadîpika, V. 49 (Comm.) Gommatasära, (Jiva ), 83.

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Cell Structures and Functions
animal or plant.71 The simplest nigodajıvas72 like viruses do not metabolize, move or grow, yet because they can reproduce73 and undergo mutations, they are regarded as living. 74 As pointed out, one of the fundamental tenets of Biology is that “all life comes only from living substances."75 It is stated in the Jaina Agamas that worms or bugs or lice or vermins do come from the declining non-living fluids or sweat or dirt. But modern Biology has given convincing proof that they do come from eggs laid down by some flies attracted by the smell of the decaying dirt.
“Bacteria do not arise by spontaneous generation by only from previously existing bacteria."76 “ The sub-microscopic filtrable viruses do not arise from non-viral material by spontaneous generation, the multiplication of viruses requires the presence of previously existing viruses."77
According to Jaina Biology; Plants have only asexual reproduction (Saṁmūrochima ),78 while animals have both sexual and asexual reproductions ( garbhavyutkrāntika and sammūrochima ).79 The process of asexual reproduction may be simple as the splitting of one individual into two. The process of sexual reproduction in most animals involves the 71. Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3. 72. Bhagavati, 12.2.443; 25.5.749; Gammațasāra, (Jiva) 191, 192, 193. 73. The Nigodas are the collections of infinite number of souls or (beings ), making
minutest groups, having common breathing in and out and experience of feeling, sensation, etc. They continue their evolution of life through the successive Jivaparyayas, having longing for development, BHS. 12.2.443. In the common nigoda-body when one nigodajiva dies, then there takes place death of infinite nigoda Jivas, Gommațasāra, 193. “Jatthekka marai Jivo, tattha du maranam
have anamtānam // 73. Ibid., 193. 75. Biology, p. 18. Ācārānga Sūtra Book I, Lecture I, Sixth Lesson, Sūtra 48, p 68.
"Se bemi-samtime tasāpāņā, tamjaha-amdaya poyaya jarāua rasaya samseyaya sammucchima ubbhiyayā uvavāiya, esa samsareti pavuccai” Sūtra (48).; Sūtrakstānga, Śrutaskandha I, Adhyayana 7, Sūtra I “Pudhavi ya ayū agani ya Vāů, taņa-rukkha-biya ya tasa ya pāņā I Je amdaya je ya jarāuā pāņā, samseyaya
je rasayabhidhānā” Sūtra, p. 153. See also Sūtra 7 (Samseya, etc.) 76. Biology, pp. 18-19. 77. Ibid, p. 19. 78. Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha 2, Adhyayana, Sūtra 43, p. 91." Cattāri biyakāyā....
aggabīyā, mūlabiyā, porabiyā khamdhabiya "; very vague ideas are contained in the Brahmanical works as to the sexual characters of plants (See Amarakosa, Vanausadbi-varga ), Caraka, Kalpasthana, Ch. V. But the Rajanighantu tells of a grotesque division into male, female and hermaphrodite, based on the slender or stout, the soft or hard, the long or short, the simple or mixed character of the stems and flowers. According the Kathopanisad the sexual reproduction in higher plants and higher animals is quite similar (Patwardhan K.A. Upanisads
and Modern Biology, p. 59, Popular Book Depot, Bombay, 1957. J. B.-4

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26
Jaina Biology
production of specialised eggs and sperm which unite to form the fertilized Zygote from which the new organisms develop.80
Adaptation : 81
The Ability of a plant or animal to adapt to its environment is the characteristic which enables it to survive the exigencies of a changing world. Each particular species of plant or animal can become adapted by seeking out an environment to which it is suited to make it better fitted to its present surroundings. According to nodern Biology,', It is obvious that a single plant or animal cannot adapt to all the conceivable kinds of environment, hence there will be certain areas where it cannot survive or some areas where it can survive."82
Many factors may limit the destribution of a species, such as, habitat, earth, water, air, light, temperature, food, predators, competitors, parasites, etc.
The analyses of the types of plants83 and animals 84 and their habitats,85 etc. as recorded in the Jaina Āgamas shows that the types of plants, such as, trees, 86 shrubs87 herbs, 88 creepers,89 grasses,90 etc. were distri
79. Ācārānga Sūtra. Book 1, Lecture 1, Sixth Lesson, Sūtra 48, p. 69.; Sūtrakstānga
Śrutaskandha, II, Adhyayana 3; Sthanānga 2, 3. 1. 129; Bhagavati, 7. 3. 282; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.170; Jivabhigama 3.1.96; Pannavanā 1.58; Tattvārthasūtra, 2.32; Mülacara II, 2.43-45; Tarkarabhasyadipikā (comm.) V. 49; Gommațasāra
(Jiva ), 83. 80. “Itthie purisassa ya Kan makadae jonie ettha nan mehuņa vattiye (va ) ņāmaí
samjoge samuppajjai, te duhato VI sineham samciñamti... tattha, ņam jivā itthittae purisattāe napumsagattāe viuttamii /", Sūtrakstānga, Srutaskandha 11,
Adhyayana 3, Sūtra, 56, p 98.; See also Biology. p. 418. 81. Sūtrakītānga, śruta skandha II, Adhaya yana ?; Bhagavati Sūtra 7.3.27'; Paņņavanā
Sūtra, Sthāna padam; Jivabhigama Sūtra, 1,4-36; Tarkarahasya dipikā, V. 49,
(Jainamatam), Tika by Gunaratna. 82. Biology, p. 20. 83. See Uttarâc hyayana Sūtra, 26 VV. 94-104 for all types of plants.; Pannavanā
Sutta, Vanas patikāya jivapra ñāpanā 5, Sütras, 25-54. pp. 16-27. 81. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36, VV. 126-155. for all types of animals. Pannavana I,
Sūtras 56-138, pp. 21.35
Pann vanā Sutta 2, Sthānapadam, Sūtras 148-176; pp. 46-55. 86. Bhagavati Sūtra, 22.2.692; 22.3.692; 22.4.692: 23.1.593; 23.3.6:3; 23.4.693;
23.5.643; etc. 87. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 34. 94-104, Guma, similar to the class Guccha, e. g.
Vịraka (Solamum Melongena ) but brings forth twings or stems, instead of
stalks, e. f. Navamalika (Jasminum sambac ), Kanavira, etc. 88. Bhagavati 21.7.691. 89. Ibid., 21.5.691; 21.6.691; 23.1.693; 23.4.693. 90. Ibid., 21.5.691; 21.6. ; 11.9.427; 12.8.459; 22.4.692.
85.

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Cell Structures and Functions
27
buted over different regions of India where they could grow and adapt to their suitable environment to survive the exigencies of a changing world. The classification of animals by the Jainācārya into sthalacara ( terrestrial ), Jalacara (aquatic) and Khecara (aerial)91 beings, etc. throws light upon their habitat and ecology to which they could grow and adapt and make themselves better fitted in their survival.
The study of life of beings was made by the Jainācāryas in relation to environment, so climatic conditions have been described by them under the term Rtu '92 It has been sub-divided into prāvșt or varsā (Rainy season – Śrāvanādi or Asayujādih ), Sárad (Mārgasirşadhiḥ = Autumn), Hemanta (Māghadih - Winter ), Vasanta ( Caitrādih=Spring ) and Grisma (Jyesthādih - Summer ).93 The study of life in relation to environment probably began from the Vedic period94 and climatic conditions were similarly treated under the same term “Rtu' (Season ) which was first sub-divided into three seasons, viz. Vasanta (Spring), Grīşma (Summer) and Sarad (Autumn ).95. Rtu bas also been sub-divided into five seasons, viz. Vasanta, Grisma, Varsā, Sárad and Hemantaśiśira 96 or sometimes into six seasons 97by separating Hemanta and Sisira.
Bhagavati 7.5.282; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.171; Jivabhigama Sutra, 1.34. 92. Bhagavati, 7.3.275; 9.33.383. 93. Bhagavati 9.33.383. 94. Rgveda X. 9.6; Atharvaveda, VIII, 9.1.15; XIII, 1.18. 95. " Vasanto asvasidajyam grisma idhmah saraddhavi." Ibid. 96. “Sarade tva hemantaya vasantayā grīşmayā.." Rtava pañca, Ibid, XIII, 1.18. etc.
" Varşani....1" Atharvaveda, VIII, 2.22; VIII. 9.15. 97. “Grismo hemamtaḥ śigira vasantaḥ sarad va sāḥ" Atharvaveda VI, 55, 2, XII, 1.36;
V. 1,5,2,6,3,2,6,', etc.; “Grişmāsti bhūme varşāņi śaradhemantaḥ śiśiro Vasantaḥ, Ibid., XII, 1.26. “Tubhyamityäha şadvārtavah stuşveva 1”. Taittiriyasamhita, V. 1.5.2; "Şadıa stavaḥ" 1, Ibid, v. 1.5.7,3; “Şadvā rtavaḥ samvatsaraḥ " Ibid., V. 2,6,1. etc.

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Third Section
It appears from the study of the organization of bodies of plants and animals, from the finest plants to higher plants and from the finest earth quadrates to man as revealed in the Jaina Agamas that the bodies of all plants and animals are composed of cells and tissues.2 But there is found no clear analytical study of cells and tissues of plants and animals in Jaina Biology as they are treated in modern Biology. New cells can come into being only by division of previously existing cells.3 According to modern Biology, "the cell is the fundamental unit of both function and structure-the fundamental unit that shows all the characteristics of living things."4
Cells and Tissues
Cells:
In the simplest plants and animals all of the Vital force (paryapti ) is found within a single celled body, e.g. worm (Krmi )5 like a protozoa. These organisms may be considered to be unicellular with bodies not divided into cells. Earth quadrates, plant bacterias and two-sensed worms, etc., come under this unicellular category. They may have a 1. Abbuya (?), Tandulaveyaliya, 2. p. 6.
It is also suggestive from the reference to lakhs of pores in the skin of the body. that there are cells in the body of man and other vertebrates, Ibid., 2. p. 6.
2. Pes (?). Tandulaveyāliya, 2, p. 6.
Pesi (tissue) is made of arbudas (cells).
7.
3. A single fertilized egg (kalala) develops gradually into a many-celled or fivecelled embryo (Panca Pindas) by the process of cleavage, indicating that the egg cell splits or divides. Out of five piņḍas arms, legs and head come into being.; Tandilaveyaliya,2, p. 6.
4. Biology, p. 35.
5. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.128.
6. Finest earth quadrates, plant bacteria and wo: ms are the examples of unicellular
beings.
"Pudhavi ya au agani ya vāū ".. I
Sūtrakṛtānga, Śrutaskandha I, Adhyayana 7, Sûtra 1
Bhagavati Sūtra 31.1.844; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. Paṇṇavana, Ekendriyajivapaṇṇavana, 19, p. 122. Gommatasära (Jiva ). V. 201.
8. Suksma vanaspati (Subtile plant) of one class may be indentical with bacteria of modern Biology., See Uttaradhyayana, 36.92.

Panṇavanā, Vanaspatikāyājivaprajñāpana 35.
9. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.128.

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Cell Structures and Functions
high degree of specialization of form and function within the single cell and the cell may be quite large or small.
Modern Biology explains that “a single cell, if placed in the proper environment, will grow and eventually be divided to form two cells."10
The cells of different plants and animals and of different organs within a single plant or animal as found in Jaina Biology appear to be a bewildering variety of sizes, shapes, colours, and internal structures, etc. as the sizes, etc. of their bodies11 indicate, but all have certain features in common. All nutrients (rasa or sineha )13 entering the cell and all waste products. (khala )14 leaving it must pass through some membrane-a living, functional part of the cell, extremely important in regulating its contents. According to modern biology15 this membrane is called plasma membrane which regulates the contents of the cell.
The statement in the Jaina Āgamas that “the matr-angas (mother's limbs ) received and possessed by the child are his flesh, blood and brain and the pitr-angas are his bone, marrow, hair, beard and hair on the body "16 suggests that each cell of the body of the child contains nucleus, “a small spherical or oval body usually,"17 as explained by modern Biology, - an important centre of control which contains the hereditary factors (genes ) responsible for the traits of the organism and directs many aspects of cellular activity.
Energy (Virya )18 :
Energy is the capacity to do work and to produce a change in matter or physical body. 19 It is suggestive from the statement, “Deha10. Biology. p. 34. 11. Tesim pudhavijoniyāṇam rukkbāņam sarirā Dānavaņņā nāvägamdhā nānārasā
Dānāphāsā Dāņāsamțāņa: amthiya Dānāvihasarīra puggalaviuvvitā 1".
Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II; Adhyayana 3, Sūtra 55. 12. Navatattvaprakaranam, V. 6, pp. 12, 13.; Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, VV. 15 ff.;
Bțhatsangrahaņi, 367, p. 130. 1?. Sūtrakrānga II, 3. 35. 14. Navatattvaprakaraṇam, V. 6, pp. 12,13.; Lokaprak āša, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, vv. 15 ff.;
Bphatsangrahaņi, 362, p. 130, 15. Biology, p. 36. 16. "Tao māuyamgā pannatta, tamjaba-mamse soņie matthulu mge 1" Tao piyyamga
pannatta, tamjaha - asthi aithimimjā kesamamsuromaņabe"-Bhagavati Sūtia,
1 7.61.; Tandulaveyaliya, Sūtra, 6, p. 10. 17. Biology, p. 36. 18. " Pratiniyatavisista sarirara sa viryasnigdhatvarūk satva..... ” Tarkarahasyadipikā,
Jainamatam, V. 49 ( Tikā),, Gunaratna, p. 1:9. 19. Ibid.

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30
paryapti brings about the assimilation and transformation of rasībhūtamahāraṁ (molecules of nutrients) into chyle (rasa), blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, semen20 etc. of man and into the forms of five senseorgans ear, eye, nose, tongue, skin and bone, marrow, hair, beard, hair on the body (roma) and nail (nakha) "21 of the embryonic growing child that the activites of paryapti provide the energy for the growth and development of the organic system and cells may be thought of as energy transducers that convert the chemical energy and food-stuff into the various forms 22 of energy required for their activities. According to modern Biology, "Such energy transformations are the most fundamental processes of living cells."23 Energy may take the form of heat, light, motion, electricity and chemical energy, etc. "24 It is derived ultimately from the sunlight and stored in the molecules of food25 as the chemical energy of the bonds connecting its constituent atoms. Modern Biology explains that "this chemical energy is a kind of potential energy (radiant energy) that may be thought of as the movement of photons or light quanta."26 All forms of energy are at least partially interconvertible and living organisms are constantly transforming one kind of energy into another."27
Exchanges of Material Between Environment and Cells
The statement on the assimilation of food-stuff taken by man and other vertebrates and its consequent transformation into chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, semen, etc.28 and the absorption of dissolved food-stuff by plants through roots in the form of sap (sineha )29 from
Jaina Biology
20. Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, V. 19.
21. Bhagavati Sutra, 1.7.61.:
Ahāram āhārei tam ciņai soimdiyattae cakkhurimdiy attae ghamimdiyattae jibbhimdiyattae phasimdiyattãe atthimimjakesamamsuromanahattae ", Tandulaveyaliya, Sūtra, 3, p. 7.
22. Chyle, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrov, semen, etc., Lokaprak āśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, V. 19.
23. Biology, p. 2.
24. Ibid.
25.
"
"Vaikriyāhārakaudarik aingayogyam yathocitām / tam rasībhūtamahāram yaya saktyä punarbhavi //" Lokaprakāśa. Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, V, 18.
Energy is stored in rasībhūtam aharam (molecules of nutrients). Besides, in summer some plants remain green by absorbing energy from the sunlight and storing it in leaf, flowers and fruits, (Bhagavati 7,3.275) and also root, shoot, joint bulb, trunk, seed, (Gom manța săra, 186 (Jiva).
26. Biology. p. 42.
2. Ibid.
28. Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, V. 19.
29. Sutrakṛtānga, Śruta skandha II, Adhyayana 3, Sūtra 5.

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Cell Structures and Functions
31
the earth and its transformation implies the suggestion that all nutrients (rasa or sineha ) must pass through some membrane which surrounds each cell to get in or out of the cell, otherwise there cannot be any growth and development in animal and plant life and organism.
According to modern Biology, “each cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane and waste products must pass through this membrane to get in or out of the cell.”30 Usually only dissolved substances can pass through the plasma membrane, but not all dissolved substances can penetrate into this membrane equally well.”31
Diffusion of Moleeules of Nutrients (Rasa)
In Jaina Biology the process of absorption and assimilation of molecules of food-stuff and its consequent transformation into chyle (rasa ), blood (asrg ), etc. 32 by the vital force (Paryāpti) of the organism indicates the diffusion of molecules of nutrients. Modern Biology explains two kinds of diffusion, viz. dialysis and osmosis.33 In dialysis the diffusion (movement) of dissolved molecules of nutrients takes place through a semipermeable membrane from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration, brought about by their kinetic energy, while in osmosis the diffusion of solvent molecules occurs through a semi-permeable membrane.
According to Jaina Biology, the solvent molecules in living systems are almost always water (rasa or sineha ).34 The process of absorption and assimilation of dissolved food-stuff by plants from the earth through their roots in the form of liquid substance and its drawing up to the leaves by the root pressure as a result of the activity of the nitrogenproducing bacteria existing in the auxiliary roots35 and soil throws some light on the law of osmosis of plant life as explained in Botany or Biology. “In the fluid of every living cells are dissolved salt, sugars and other substances that give the fluid certain osmotic pressure.'36
30. Biology. p. 44. 31. Jbid. 32. Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, ?rd Sarga, V. 19. 33. Biology, p. 45. 34. See Bhagavati 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya 5, p. 9.; Navatattva prakaraṇam, pp. 6-9.;
Lokaprakāša. Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, v. 19.; Tarkarahasyadipikā, V. 49.; for rasa; see
Sūtrakrtānga II, 3.5. for sineha. 35. “Mulā mūlajivaphudā pudhavijivapadibaddhā tamhā āharemti tamhá parināmemti
Kardā kamdajivaphudā mūlajivapadibaddhā tamhä ahāremi, tamhā parināmeinti evam jāva biya biyajivaphudā phalajivapadibaddhā tamhā āhāremti tamba
pariņāmemti /", Bhagavati, 7.3.276. 34. Biology. p, 45.

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Jaina Biology
“When a cell is placed in a fluid with the same osmotic pressure as its own, water does not enter or leave the cell (i. e. the cell neither swells nor shrinks.) "37
Tissues (Peśis )38 :
A tissue is a group or layer of similarly specialized cells. According to the histology, “each kind of tissue is composed of cells which have a characteristic size, shape and arrangement."39 “ Tissues may consist of more than living cells; blood and connective tissue, for example, contain some non-living material between the cells.”40
Animal Tissues :
According to Jaina histology, animal tissues may be classified into six groups, viz. epithelia (ajina41 = carma = skin tissue ), connective (ṇhāruņi),42 muscular (māmsapesi ),43 blood ( sónita 44 or asrg )45, nervous (dhamani and sira )46 and reproductive (Sukra and oja = Sperm and egg ova ),47 as they are found in modern Biology.48
Epithelial Tissues :
Epithelial tissues have not been discussed by the Jainācāryas in details. But it is suggestive from the reference to the skin of animal49 and lakhs of pores (romakupa 50 in the skin of the body of man that epithelial tissues are composed of cells which form a continuous layer or sheet covering the body surface or living cavities within the body. They may have one or more of the following functions, viz. protection, absorption, secretion and sensation (of touch ). The epithelia of the 37. Ibid. 38. “Abbuyā jāyae pesi, pesio ya ghaņam bhave/" Tandulaveyaliya, Sūtra 2, p. 6. 39. Biology, p. 46. 40. Ibid. 41. Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61;
Tandulaveyal ya 3, p. 7. 42. Sūtrakrtānga, Śrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18. 43. Sūtrakstāngā, Srutaskaodha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18; Tanduiaveyaliya 2, p. 6. 44. Ācārānga, Book II, 4; Sutrakrtānga, Sruta skandha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūt a 18;
Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.6'; Tandulaveyaliya, 2. p. 6. 45. Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, Vy. 18-19. 46. Tandulaveyaliya Sūtra 2, p. 6. 47. “Duhao vi sineham samciņa mti /” (Sūtra, 56 ); Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II,
Adhyayanā ?; "Te jivā maouyam piusukkaṁ ta m tadubhyam samsattham kalusan/"
Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61; Sūtrakrtanga II.3.56. 48. Biology p. 46. 49. Sūtrākstānga, II, 2, 18; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61; Tandula Veyaliya, 3, p. 7. 50. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6.

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Cell Structures and Functions
33
body protect the underlying cells from the mechanical injury, from harmful chemicals and bacteria, and from drying.
It is in ferrable from Jaina metabolism of organism to transform food-stuff taken by man into chyle (rasa )51 and to separate waste products (khala )51 that the epithelia lining the digestive tract, absorb food and water into the body as rasa (chyle). Other epithelia secrete a wide variety of substances as waste products (khala ) in the form of sweat, etc. or for use elsewhere in the body.
As the body is entirely covered by epithelium (ajina or carma ), so it is obvious tbat all tactile sensori stimuli must penetrate an epithelium to be received by the brain.
Modern Biology gives the following examples of epithelial tissues, viz. “the outer layer of the skin, the lining of the digestive tract, the lining of the windpipe and lungs and the lining of the kidney tubules."52
Connective Tissues :
Connective tissue includes bone (asthi )53 and cartilage,54 tendons, ligaments, and fibrous connective tissue ( nhāruņi ).55 It supports and holds together the other cells of the body. According to modern Biology, “the cells of these tissues characteristically secrete a large amount of non-living material called matrix and the nature and function of the particular connective tissue is determined largely by the nature of this intercellular matrix."'56
Fibrous connective tissue occurs throughout the body and holds skin to muscle, keeps glands in position and binds together many other structures.
Tendons and ligaments are specialized types of fibrous connective tissue. Modern Biology explains that “tendons are cable-like cords that connect muscles to each other or to bone, ligaments connect one bone to another."57
The supporting skeleton of vertebrates is composed of cartilage or bone. Cartilage is the supporting skeleton in the embryonic stages of all vertebrates, when 2 arms, 2 legs and head come into being from 51, Navatattvaprakaranam, pp. 13-4 (Țikā); Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 31d Sarga, Vv. 15-21 ff.
Ibid. 52. Biology, p. 47. 53. Sūtrakrtānga 11. 2.18; Bhagavati, 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya, pp. 8. 9. 34. That of ear, etc. See Bhagavati, 1.7.61. 55. Sūtrakstānga II, 2. 18. 56. Biology, p. 47. 57. Biology, p. 48. J. B.-5

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34
Jaina Biology
five pindas 58 (or cells) by segmentation. But it is largely replaced in the adult by bone (asthi )59 in all "but the skarks and rays ",60 according to modern Biology.
Bone is not solid structure as it is evidenced by the reference to marrow (asthimajja ).61 Most bones have a large cavity. The marrow cavity in the centre (cavity of majja) which contains yellow marrow (majjā), mostly fat ", or red marrow, "the tissue in which red and certain white blood cells are made ",62 as explained by modern Biology. Muscular Tissue63:
Five hundred muscular tissues (peśis64 or manisapesis) in the body of the developing organisms are mentioned by the Jainacāryas. Muscular tissue may be classified into three distinct types of muscles in the human body, viz. skeletal, smooth and cardiac, although the Jaina texts have not mentioned them clearly. It is understandable from the reference to 500 muscular tissues65 that skeletal muscle makes up the large muscle masses attached to the bones of the body. Out of the rest muscles some may be found as smooth muscle in the walls of the digestive tract and certain other internal organ and some as cardiac muscle in the walls of the heart (Hiyaya ),66
The movements of most animals result from the function of muscle cells (or tissues collectively) which perform mechanical work by contracting and getting shorter and thicker,
Blood Tissue (Sonita )67:
Blood tissue has been mentioned by the Jain äcāryas as sonita or asrg68, but it has not been analytically explained by them like the modern Biologists. It is presummable from its redness in colour, its liquidness in character and the yellows marrow of the bone that it includes red (and white) cells and the liquid, non-cellular part of the blood, the plasma as they have been found by the Biologists. "Many
58. Tandula veyaliya, 2, p. 6.
59. Bhagavati Süra 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya, 2, p. 6.
60. Biology. p. 48.
61. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya, 2, p. 6.
62. Biology, p. 48.
63. Tandulaveyaliya, 2, p. 6.
64. Ibid.
65. Ibid.
66. Sūtrakṛanga II, 2. 18.
67. Acaranga, Book II, 4; Sutrakṛtänga, II 2, 18; Bhagavati 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya,
2, p. 61.
68. Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, VV. 18-19.

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Cell Structures and Functions
35
Biologists classify blood with the connective tissues because they originate from similar cells."69 Nervous Tissue (Dhamanis and Śirās ):
According to Jaina Biology, there are stated to be nine dhamanis ( arteries ) and seven hundred veins ( sirās ) in the human body.70 The Śuśruta 71 and the Caraka72 also deal with the nervous tissue in detail. Nerve tissue integrates the activities of all the parts of the body.
It is suggestive from the functions of five sense-organs and the brain73 of man that the nervous system is composed of brain, spinal cord and nerve trunks and it connects receptors with effectors and conduct impulses from one to the other.74 According to modern Biology, “Nervous tissue is made of cells, called neutrons, specialized for conducting impulses. Each neuron has an enlarged structure, the cell body, which contains the nucleus, and iwo or more nerve fibers extending from the cell body. The nerve fibers are made of cytoplasm and are covered by a plasma membrane.”'75 Reproductive Tissue :
Reproductive tissue is composed of cells modified to produce offspring-egg cells in females (ojas )76 and sperm cells in males ( śukra ).77 Human reproduction in common with that of most animals is accomplished gametes78 - ova or egg cells (ojas ) produced by the female and sperm cells ( sukra ) produced by the male 79
Modern Biology explains that “egg cells are usually spherical or oval and non-motile.”80 69. Biology, p. 49. 70. Tandulaveyaliya 2, p. 6.
There are nhāra snäyus in the body of man and other vertebrates. 71. Sapta Sirāśatāni bhavanti .- susruta, Sarirasthana, Chapter VII, VIII, IX. 72. Carakasaṁhitā ..." Ojasaḥ karmāņi, sira-dhamapi-srotasāṁ niruktiḥ ", pp. 589-90,
Vol. II. 73. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61 (matthulumge ) 74. The muscles and gland of an animal are collectively called effectors, while the
eyes, ears and other sense-organs are known as the receptors. See Bhagavati 16.1.566 and prajñāpanā, Indriyanada for the function of senseorgans. See Biology, p. 313. for nervous system.
Biology, p. 49. 76. Sūtrakstanga, Srutaskandha II Adhyayana 3, Sūtra 56; Bhagavati, 1.7.61; Tandula
veyaliya,2, 1-2, p. 6. 77. Ibid. 78. “Itthie purisassa ya kaymakadāe jonie ettha ņam mehuņavattiyae.... naman
samjoge samuopajjai, duhao vi sineham samciņamti...1", etc. Sūtrakstānga II,
Adhyayana 3, Sútra 56. 79. Ibid. 80. Biology p. 49.
75. Bio

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36
Jaina Biology In the Jaina Ägamas81 it is stated that the developing organism in the mother's womb at first feed on the ojas (i. e. yolk) of the mother and the śukra-semen (i. e. sperm cells) of the father or both combined into an unclean, foul substance from the time of fertilization until they are able to obtain food from the mother's body through the Putrajivarasaharani ( umbilical cord ).82 This Jaina view is corroborated by the Nyāya Kandali83 and modern Biology also which explains that “The cytoplasm of the eggs of most animals, but not of the higher mammals, contains a large amount of yolk which serves as food for the developing organism from the time of fertilization until it is able to obtain food in some other way."84
Plant Tissues :
It appears from the study of asexual reproduction ( sammūrcchima ) of plants from seeds, roots, knots and stems,86 evolutionary trends in the plant kingdom from algae to angiosperm and organization of higher plants into roots, bulb, stem, bark, twigs or branches, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds87 that the cells of higher plants are also organized and differentiated into tissues. In Jaina histology four main types of tissues may be recognized, viz. meristematic, protective, fundamental and conductive as they are found in modern Biology. 88
Meristematic Tissue :
An embryonic plant begins development composed entirely of meristem, when the seed becomes transformed into a nucleus.89
As it develops, most of the meristem
becomes differentiated into
82.
81. Sūtrākstānga, II, 3,5%; Bhagavati 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya Sūtra, 1, p. 6.
“Imo khalu jivo ammāpiusamyoge māyuyam piusukkam tam tadubhayasamsattham Kalusan Kibbisam tappadhamayãe, ahāraṁ ähäritta gabb hattäevakkamai /" Tandulaveyaliya 1, p. 6.
Bhagavati 1..61; Tandulaveyaliya 4, p. 8. 83. Samutpannapākajaiḥ kalalärambhakaparamāņubhiḥ. pirūḥ śukraṁ mātuh soņitam
tayoh sappipātānantaiam jatharanalasambandhät sukrasonitārambhakegu para.
mānuşu.. kalalasarįrotpatih etc. Sridhara, N. Kandali, Prthivinirūpanam. 84. Biology, pp. 44-51.
“ Aygatīyā mūlābiya porabiya khandhabiya /" Sūtrakstāåga, II, 3.45, p. 91. “Mūlagge pirebija kandā ta ha Khamdhabījabijaruha Sama ucebima ya bhaniya patteyānamtakayā ya // " Gommata sāra, (Jivekānda18.
Agga biya : Sūtrakrtānga, II. 345. 87. Rukkhesu mūlattae kamdattāe khandhattae tayattae salatäe pivālattae pattattāe
pupphattae phalattāc biyattāè viuț;amti l" Sūtrakstānga, II, 3.47: Gommațasāra, 7
(Jiva ) 188 88. Biology, p. 51. 89. Gommațasāra (Jivakāņda ), vv. 187-8.
86.
A

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Cell Structures and Functions
37
other tissues, root, etc.90 That is to say, host individual plants in the beginning of their growth are non-host individual for an antar-muhurta.91 They become host until they are so developed that the sinews and nerve appear on them, when they again become non-host individual.92
The plants in which sinews, links, joints are unexposed or which break clean, which have no threads inside (ahirupa )93 and which can grow from pieces are host bodies, while those tbat are reverse of these are individual (non-host ).94
This Jaina view on the meristematic tissue is jadirectly supported by modern Biology which explains that meristematic tissues are found in the rapidly growing parts of the plant - the tips of the roots and stems, and in the cambium. The meristem in the tips of roots and stems called apical meristem is responsible for the increase in length of roots and stems and the maristem in the cambium called lateral meristem, makes possible the increase in diameter of stems and roots.'95
“ The meristematic tissues are made of small, thin walled cells with large nuclei. They are rich in protoplasm and have few or no vacuoles. Their chief function is to grow, divide and differentiate into all the other types of tissue."96
Protective Tissues (Tvac )97 :
They consist of cells with thick walls98 to protect the underlying thin walled cells from drying out and from mechanical abrasions According to modern Biology, “the epidermis of leaves and the cork layers of stems and roots are examples of protective tissues. They prevent loss of surfaces, increase the absorption surface for the intake of water and dissolved minerals from the soil and prevents the entrance of water into the cork cells."100 90. Sūtrakrtānga, II, 3.47; Gommațasāra. (Jiva ), v. 188. 91. Gommatasarą (Jīva ), p. 117 (comm.) 92. Ibid. 93. Pannavanā, Vanaspat kāyajivapaņņavanā, 54-84; Güdhasira samdbipavvam samabh.
amgamahiruyam ca chinnaruham/Sāhāraṇam sariram tavvibariyam ca patteyam //"
Gommațasāra Jiva ), 18 ; Jivavicära, 12. 94. Ibid. 93. Biology p. 51. 96. Biology. p. 1. 97. "Tvae", Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, Sūtra 7.
“Challı", Gommatasara, (Jivakända ), 188, 189. 98. Bije joņibhūde jivo camkamadi so va anno vā / Jevi ya mūlādiya te patteya
padhamadāe / Gominafasāla, (Jiva ), V. 190. 99. Biology. p, 51. 100. Biology, p. 51.

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38
Fundamental Tissues :
They make up the great mass of the plant body, including soft parts of the leaf, pith and cortex of stems and roots, and the soft parts of flowers and fruits. 101 Their chief functions are the production and storage of food 102 as explained by modern Biology 103 which states that "the simplest of fundamental tissues, parenchyma, consists of cells with a thin wall and a large vacuole."104
Conductive Tissues :
It is stated by the Jainacaryas that host individual plants in the beginning of their growth are non-host individual for an autarmuhurta. Then they become host until they are so developed that the sinews and nerves appear on them, 105 when they again become non-host individual.
This statement of the Jaina works implies the suggestion about the connective tissues of plants that there are two types of conductive tissue in plants, as explained by modern Biology, viz. xylem, which conducts water and dissolved salts and phloem, which conducts dissolved nutrients, such as, glucose. 106 It is suggestive that Guḍhasira and ahiruyam of plants 107 as explained in Jaina histology may be compared with xylem and phloem of plants of modern Biology, 108
Jaina Biology
Organ Systems :
According to Jaina Biology, the bodies of single-celled animals (e. g. earth quadrates 109 or two sensed animal - krmi (worm110) which may be identical with the protozoa of the Lower Invertebrate) and subtile plants (sūkṣma vanaṣpatill1) are not organized into tissues and organs;
101. Sūtrakṛtänga II, 3.47; Gommaṭasara ( Jiva), v. 188. 102. Sūtrakṛtänga, II, 3.45; Gommalasara, ( Jiva), V. 185. 103. Biology, p. 52.
104. lbid.
105.
"Güḍhacirāgaṁ pattam sacchīram jam ca hoti nicchiram / jam pi ya panaṭṭhasamdhim aņemtajīvam viyaṇāhi ", Panṇavana, vanaṣpatikāyajiva-Paṇṇāvana, 54.85 "Gudhasirasamdhipavvam samabhamgamahiruham (ragam) ca chioaruha sadharanam sariram. tavvivariyam tu patteyam", ivavicara 12. "Güḍdhasirasamdhipavvam samabhamgamahiruyam ca chinnaruhaṁ /
Sābāraṇamariram tavvibariyam ca patteyam //", Gommatas ära (Jiva), 187, p. 116. 106. Biology, p. 52.
107. Panṇāvanā Vanaspatikayajivapanṇavana 54. 84; Jivavicara, 12; Gommaṭasara (Jiva), v. 187.
108. Biology. p. 52.
109. Gommaṭasara ( Jivakanda ), v. 201, p. 122.
110. "Kimino somangala..../", etc. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.178.
111. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.92; Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.276; Gommatas āra (Jivakāṇda) p. 122.

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Cell Structures and Functions
all the life functions are carried on by the one cell,112 as it is evidenced in the case of single-celled animals and plants of modern Biology, 113 The bodily figures of the earth quadrates (i. e. earth, water, fire, and air-bacteria) are respectively speaking, (circular) like masur grain (lentil), (round like) a drop of water (i. e. cylindrical like), a bundle of needles (and oblong like) a flag. The bodies of plants and mobile bacteria are of various sorts.114
Nigodásarira (body of Nigodajiva = Virus or micro-organism) which is the abode of infinite bacteria or viruses also is not organized into tissues and organs. The common differentia of these common (group) bacteria is said to be common food and common respiration.115 In that (common body) when one bacteria dies, there takes place the death of infinite bacteria (with it), (while) when one is born, there occurs the birth of infinite bacteria there. 116 That is to say, a Nigoda body continues to exist, while every instant infinite bacteria in it die and new ones take birth.117
In more complex organisms a division of labour has occured and special systems have evolved to perform each of the principal life functions. In man and other Vertebrates, for example, the circulatory system118 is made of organs - heart (hiya ya 119), arteries (dhamanis119) veins (śiras 120), the heart tissue- cardiac muscle 121, fibrous connective tissue and nerves (nharuņi)122, etc. and each type of tissue is composed of millions of individual cells as indicated by millions of pores 123 in the epithelial tissue (carma ).
112. Worm (Krmi) does so, Uttaradhyayana 36.92. 13. Biology, p. 53.
1:4.
39
"Masuramvubimdusuikalabadhayasanṇiho have deho pudhavi adicauṛham
tarutasakāyā aṇeyaviha //" Gammaṭasāra, v. 201, p. 122. 115. Sāhāraṇamāhāro sāhāraṇamāṇapāṇagahaṇam ca /
Saharaṇajivānam āhāraṇalakkhanam bhaniyam //, Ibid., v. 192.
116. Jatthekka narai jivo tattho du maranam have ananitāṇam /
Vakkamai jattha ekko vakkamaṇam tatthanamtaṇam //" Ibid., v. 193. 117. ibid. (Comm.
118. Sūtrakṛtānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhayayana 2; (Šonita, Hiyaya), Sutra, 18
phāruni ); Tandulaveyāl ya 2, p. 6 ( sonita, dhammaṇī, śīrā)
4
119. Sūtrakṛtänga, II, 2.18.
1:0. Tandulaveyaliya 2, p 6
121. Ibid. It is suggestive that out of 500 muscle tissues there must be some cardiac mus.les.
122. Sūtrakṛtänga, II, 2.18; (haruni ); Tandulaveyaliya 2, p. 6.
123. Tandulav. yaliya 2, p. 6.
It is suggested by lakhs of ron akupas (pores) in the skin as mentioned by Tandula veyaliya

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40
Jaina Biology
In map and other vertebrates elevan organ systems can be distinguished, viz. (1) the circulatory system 124, which transports materials around the body, (2) the respiratory system125, which provides a means for ucсhvasavāyu (i. e. oxygen ?) to enter and nihśvāsavāyu (carbon dioxide ? ) to leave the blood, as explained in modern Biology 126, (3) the digestive system 127, which takes in food, breaks it up chemically into small molecules of nutrients (rasa )128, (4) the excretory system 129, which eliminates the waste products (khala )130 in course of metabolism, (5) the integumentory system 131 which covers and protects the entire body, (6) the skeletal system 132, which supports the body and provides for movement and locomotion, (7) the muscular system 133, which functions with the skeletal system in movement and locomotion, (8) the nerve system 134, which conducts impulses around the body and integrates the activities of the other systems, (9) the sense - organs135, which receive stimuli from the outer world and from various regions of the body, (10) the endrocrine system 136, which is an additional co-ordinator of the body functions, and (11) the reproductive system 137, which provides for the continuation of the species.
124. Sūtrakstānga 11, 2.18; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya 2, p. 6, pp. 8, 9. 125. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.61; Paņņavanā, Ucchvāsapadań, 693-724, pp. 184-7;
Navatattvaprakaranam, p. 12; Jivavicāra, pp. 42-44. 126. Biology. p. 54. 127. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.61; Navatattvapta karaṇam, v. 6; Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd
Sarga, vv. 15 ff; Gommata sāra (Jiva ). VV. 118-19. 128. “Tatraisāhāraparyāptiryayādāya nijocitam /
Prthakkhalarasatvenāhāram pariņatim nayet/l”, Lokaprakāśa, Pt.1, 3rd Sarga, v.17. “ Yayā saktyä punarbhavi // (18) Rasasrgmāmsamedo asthimajjaśukradidhatunam/
Nayedyatbasambhavam să dehaparyāptirucyate 11", Ibid., v. 19. 120. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.61; Tandulaveyaliya, p. 6; Lokaprakasa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga,
v. 15. 130. Lokaprakaśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, v. 17; Navatattvaprakaraṇam, v. 6. 131. Sūtrakstānga, Šrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61;
Tandulaveyaliya, pp. 8-9. 132. Ibid. 133. Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18; Bhagavati 1.7.61;
Tandulaveyaliya 2, p. 6. 134. Tandulu Veyaliya, 2, p. 6. 135. Bhagavati Sūtra. 16,1.566; 2.4-99; 3.9.170; Tandula Veyaliya, V. 3, p. 7;
Pann vana, Indriyapadam, 19. 136. Sūtrakstānga, Srutaskandha. II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18 (ṇhāruņi). 137. “Itthie purisassa ya kammakadae jonie ettha ņam me huņavattiyae (va ) Dāmam
samjoge samuppajjai, duhaovi sinehamn Samciņamti, tattha nam jivă itthittae purisattāe napumsagattāe viuttamti /", Sūtrakrtanga, II, 3.56, p. 98.

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(Fourth Section ) Cellular Metabolism
Metabolismi is the chemical reactions of cells, which provide energy for their growth, 2 irritability, 3 movement, maintenance and repairs and reproductions of organisms, briefly stated that metabolism is the wear and tear. The Jainācāryas have thrown some light upon the cellular metabolism of animal organisms from the moment of their birth up to their death in the following manner that the food stuff, when taken in, is transformed into rasībhūtam ābāram ( molecules of nutrient), and 1. Sūtrakstānga, śrutaskandha II. Adhyayana 3, Aharaniksepa Varnau; Bhagavatr
sútra, 1.7.61-3, 7.3.275-6; Pannavanā. Ahārapadam, Pajjattidāram, 2nd Uddesaka, p. 406; Tandula Veyaliya, pp. 3-10; Navatattva Prakarana by Dharmavijāya, V. 6. pp 12 ff; Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd sarga, VV. 15-21; Gommațasara (Jivakāņda ), chapter III, VV. 1:9-121; Mülācāra II, VV. 12-14; Tarkarahasyadipikā on şaddarśana
Samuccaya (Jainamatam), V. 49 (Țikā), Gunaratna. 2. Sūtrakstānga, Śrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, Sūtras 55-62; Bhagavati sūtra, 1.7.61-2;
7.3.276; Tandula Veyaliya, vv. 2-6: Tarkarabasyadipikā (Țikā) on V. 49. “Yathedam manuşyasarįramanavarttam.... Pratiniyatan vardhate, tathedamapi vanaspatisariramankurakisalaya......visesaih pratiniyatam vardhata iti !". p. 157.
Ibid. 3. Bhagavati Sūtra, 3.9.170, 2.4.99; Pannavanā Sutta, Indriyapadam 15, Putthadaram,
etc.; Tarkarahasyadipikā (Tika ) on V. 49. “ Tatha lajjālūprabhștināṁ hastādisamoparśātpatrasamkocadika parisphūtā kriyopalabhyate", Ibid. p. 158. Acárānga Sūtra, Book I, 9.1.14; Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 2, Sūtra 18, Sūtra 60; Sthanānga 2-4.100; Bhagavati Sūtra, 25 4.789; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.68; Jivabhigama Sūtra, p. 12; Mülācāra, Pt. I, 30 (226), p. 295; Tattvārtha Sūtra, 2.12.14; Tarkarahasyadipikā, V. 49 (Țika ) "Svāpaprabodhasparśādi. hetukollásasasamkocaśrayoprasarpaņādivisistānekakriya", p. 159. “ Yathā manuşyaśarīram hastādicchinnan susyati, tatha tarugariramapi pallavakusumādicchinnam viseșamupagacchaddņštam 1". Tarkarahasyadipikā, sıkā on Verse 49, p. 158; yathā. yatha manuşyasarirasya tattadrogasamparkad ...vigalanādi, tathā vanaspatiśarīrasyāpi tathāvidharogodbhavātpuşpa....pattanádi 1 Tathā, yatha manuşyasarirasyaausadhaprayogadvęddhihaniniksatabhagnasamrahaņāni, tathā vanaspatiśarīrasyäpi 1 Tatha, yathā manuşyasarirasya rasayanasmehādyupayogadvisiştakāntirasabalopacayādi, Tatahā Vanaspatisarirasyāpi Visişteştanabhojaládisekadvisi.
sparasavīryasnigdhatvadi 1", -- Tarkarahasyadipikā, Țikā on V. 4, pp. 158-9. 6. Sūtrakstanga. Śrutaskandha II, Adyayana 3; Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.5.282; Sthānānga,
3.1.129, 7.3.545; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.170; Jivābhigama Sūtra 3.1 96, 1.33; Paņņavanā Sutta, 1.5, 68; Mülācāra, Pt. II, 12.43 - +5; Tattvärtha Sutra ch. II.32; Tarkarabasyadipikā, sıkā on V. 49. Vanaspatayoh janmajarämaranarogādinām
samuditānām sadbhavat, Srivat 1", p. 154, Ibid. J. B.-6
S.

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Jaina Biology
rasa (chyle) which in turn gets transformed by paryapti ( vital force ), into different elements of organism, such as blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, semen, etc. in successive order.
According to Jaina Biology, the metabolic activities of animal, plant and bacteria cells are remarkably similar, 8 despite the differences in the appearances. One of the matabolic difference between plants and animals is the ability of green plants to carry on photosynthesis, to trap the energy of sunlight and to use it to synthesize compounds, i. e. “to incorporate carbon dioxide molecules into organic compounds”, 10 as it is suggested by the following statement. “In Summer season many usnayonikajivas and pudgalas get produced as plant-bodied beings (Vanaspatikāyikas ) in certain numbers and they increase and decrease also in certain numbers and get reproduced, for this reason many plants having leaves, flowers and fruits, appear to be green and shining."11
This scientific suggestion on photosynthesis is supported by Modern Biology in this manner. “In this way plants synthesize carbo-hydrates and from them, proteins, fats and other substances. Bacteria and animal cells also have the ability to “fix” carbon dioxide, to incorporate carbon dioxide into a veriety of organic compounds, but only green plants and a few bacteria have the ability to convert radiant energy to chemical energy to drive the process; animals and bacteria must get the energy for carbon dioxide fixation from energy-yeilding processes.''12
Chemical Reactions
It appears from the activities of paryāpti (vital force )13 that a chemical reaction is a change14 involving the molecular structure of one or more substances; matter (pudgala ) is changed from one substance,
7. Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, Vv. 18-21; Navatattvaprakarana, V. 6, pp. 12, 13,
14, 15, 16. 8. Saddarsana - Samau ccaya with Gunaratna's commentary Tarkarahasyadipikā : “Bakulásokacampakadyanekavidhavanaspatinámetāņi sarirani na Jivavyāpāraman
tar eņa, manusy: šauirasamánadharmabhāõji bhavanti 1” p. 157 * Tatha yathā, manusya sarrian stanakşiravyañjanaudananadyahärābhyavahārādābarakam 1", p. 158. Ibid. "Tatha yatha manusyaśarīrasya rasayanasunhadhyupayogadvisistakantirasābalopacayadi, tatha vaoaspatisarirasyāpi visiştestanabhojaládisekadvišişta
rasaviryasnigdhatvadi 1". Ibid. p. 159. 9. Bhagavati Sutra, 7.3.270, 10. Biology, p. 56, 11. Bhagavati Sutra 7.3.275. 12. Biology, p. 56. 13. Lokaprakāša, Pt. 1, 3rd Sarga, vv, 15, etc.; Navatattvaprakaraṇam, v. 6; p. 12. etc. 14. "Pudgalañcahadisvarūpāņāṁ kbalarasadiparinamane," etc. Navatattvaprakarana,
(comm.) on v. 6, p. 13.

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Cell Stractares and Functions
with its characteristic properties, to another with new properties 15 and energy16 is released or absorbed, as is suggested by the statement that dehaparyāpti (the vital force of the body ) brings about the change in rasībhūtam ābāram (molecules of nutrients and transforms them into different elements of organism, such as, rasa (chyle), asrg (blood), māmsa (flesh), meda (fat). asthi (bone), majja (marrow), sukra ( semen ), etc. 17 in successive order by providing energy to change one substance, with its characteristic properties, to another with new properties. In this way a chemical reaction is brought about by paryāpti in the transformation and operation of sense-organs 18 involving the molecular structure of one or more material substances (pudgalas ).
Tu
This course of metabolism or chemical reaction from the molecules nutrients ( rasibhūtam āhāram) to chyle ( rasaṁ ) up to semen ( sukra ), etc. is clearly explained in Caraka Drdhavala Samhita quoted by Aruņadatta in his commentary on Vāgbhata in the following manner : “The food stuff which goes down the gullet by the action of prāna vāyu (biomotor force ) becomes mixed up first with a gelatinous mucus (phenibhūtam kapham) and then gets acidulated by the further chemical action of a digestive juice (Vidābādamlatām gataḥ). Next samānavāyu drives down the chyme by means of the grahaņinādi (oesophagus canal) to the pittāśaya (duodenum) and thence to the small intestines (āmapakkāśaya ). The bile acts on the chyme and converts the latter into the chyle (rasa ). This chyle contains in a decomposed and metamorphosed condition all the organic compounds, viz. tissue-producing earth-compounds, water-compounds, teja - compounds, vāyu - compounds and finer etheric constituents which serve as the vehicle of conscious-, ness. The essence of chyle (sūksmabhāga) is driven by prāņavāyu, from the small intestines first to the heart, thence to the liver (and the spleen ); in the liver the colouring substance in the bile acts on the essence of chyle, especially on the teja -substance therein, and imparts
15. Ibid. 16. "Dravyanimittam hi saṁsārinām viryamupajāyate", Karmaprakrti, vide Nava
tattvaprakaraṇa, p. 13. "Tam rasibhūtamaharam yayā saktya punarbhavi // Rasasrgmamsamedo asthimajjagukradidhatutam / Nayedyathāsambhavam să dehaparyaptirucyate/"
Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, vv. 18-19; Navatattvaprakarana, pp. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. 18. “Dhātutvena pariņatādāhārādîndriyocitāti
Ādaya pudgalämästäni yathasthaṁ pravidhāya call Işte tadvişayajñaptau yayā saktyä sarsravān 7 Paryaptih sendriyavhānā darsita sarvadarsibhiḥ 11 ” Lokaprakāša, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga. v. 20-21; See also Navatattvaprakarana (comm.) on v. 6, pp. 12-16.

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Jaina Biology
to it a red pigment, transforming it into blood; the grosser part of chyle (sthūlabhāga ) proceeds along the Dhamadı (arteri ), being driven by Vyāna vāyu (bio-motor force ), all over the body. On the formation of blood the essence of chyle in the blood, acted on by Vāyu (biomotor force ) and māṁsāgni (the flesh forming metabolic heat ) forms flesh-tissue (maṁsa ). Of the flesh-tissue, thus formed, the grosser part goes to feed or replenish the flesh tissue all over the body. The finer essence of flesh in the blood in the chyle, acted on again by Vāyu (bio-motor current) and the fat-forming metabolic heat (Medo agni) in the menstruum of lymph (Kapam samāśritya ) receives viscosity and whiteness and produces the fatty tissue. This fat in the chyle (or blood ) or rather the grosser part of it, replenishes the fatty tissue of the body, but the finer essence of fat in the flesh, in blood, in the chyle, acted on by Vāyu (bio-motor current) and the marrow-forming metabolic heat, in the menstruum of lymph (śleşmanāvsta ) becomes hard (crystalline) and forms bone. The essence of the fat fills the hollow channels of the bones, and acted on again by the Vāyu (bio-motor current) and matabolic heat, gets transformed into marrow (majjā). The marrow is similarly transformed into the semen, which is conveyed down by means of a pair of dhammanis or ducts (dve sukravahe), lodged in its receptacles ( sukradhara-Vrsanau ) and discharged by means of another pair of ducts. The semen, or rather all elements in their finer essence, give off ojas, which returns to the heart, the receptacle of chyle and blood, and again floods the body and sustains the tissues, thus completing the wheel or self-returning circle of matabolism (Parivșttistu cakravat)."19
19. "Adau gadra samāpannam madhuribhūtamirayet, phe nibhūtam kapham yatam
vidāhādamlatām gataḥ | váyudā samānākhyena grahani a hiniyate / sans hi pittadh rā nān a ya kalā par kirttita / āmapakkāśayāntahsthā grahani Să abhidhiyate , agnyadhisthānamannasya g ahaņād grahaņi natā / bhuktan āmāśaye ruddha sa vipācya nayatyadhaḥ. balavatyavalā tvannamārameva vimuñcati/.... annasyapaktr pittantu pacakakhyaṁ pureritam / dogadrātumaladinámugm. tyátreyasasanam .... tejorasānām sarveşā as bujānām yaducyate, pittomana sarāvena raso raktatvan rcchati / Vayvagn tejasā y kram rakt māṁsatvam rcchati / sleşmānam ca samasritya māmsam Väyvagnisamyutām sthiratām prāpya saukalyam ca medo dehe abhijāyate / Prth vpagnyanitādinām samghātaḥ śleşmaņāvstah, kharatvan prakarotyasya jāyate asthi rato Dștām / karoti tatra sauşiryuinasthnām madhye samjraṇaḥ / medasā tāni püryant- sneho majjā tataḥ smrah / tasmanmajjñaśca yaḥ snehaḥ śukran samjāyate tatah " Vagbhasa's - Aştāngah dayavyakhya by Arima atta. Sarirasthāna 3/62 Caraka-Drdh.vola Samhita quoted by Aruņa in his commentary co Vágbhaga, Vide Positive ci'nces of the Ani jent Hindus by Dr. B. N. seal, p. 207; Tatha Cara asamhitāyāṁ Drdha-alo' pyaha/ rasādraktam tato rāmsam māmsan edasta o, asthi ea / asthto majja tat h sukran Sukrādgarbhaḥ prasādajaḥ 11 Vägbhata's Astāngahşdayavyākhyā by Arimdatt, Sarrasthāna, 3/62.

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Cell Structures and Functions
Respiration and Energy Relation
All of the phenomena of life growth, movement, irritability, reproduction and others require the expenditure of energy (Virya ),20 by the cells organism. Living cells must have chemical energy.
According to modern Biology, "all living cells obtain biologically, useful energy primarily by enzymic reactions in which electrons flow from one energy level to another."21
The Jainācāryas state that the vital force (Paryapti) by which organisms inhale (breathe in) the particles of suitable respiratory air Ucchvāsamarhaṁādāya dalam), (i. e. Oxygen), transforms it and exhales it (as carbon-dioxide) is called Ucchväsaparyapti.22
Now the question arises what is the necessity of paryapti in respiration, when body and respiration are brought about by dehaucchvāsanāmakarmas (body-respiration producing karma ).23 The reply is that the transformation of matters received by the soul as body is brought about by dehanāmakarma (body-producing karma), while the completion of the started anga (body) is brought about by paryapti (vital force).24 This difference of dehanama karma - from paryapti karma is due to the difference of sadhya35 (performance). Thus ucchvāsa - labdhi (faculty or energy of respiration) is brought about by dehanāmakarma, and its vyāpārṇam (manifestation or actually) takes place due to uccvasa-paryapti (the vital force of respiration ),26 energy) of respiration, born ucchvāsa paryāpti to make it As for example, there being does not become soldier,
45
Even there being the faculty (labdhi of Ucchvāsanāmakarma, there should be manifested (i. e. bring it into actuality).27 the sakti (capacity) to cast the arrow, one without the capacity of drawing the bow to make it a success.28
This subtle reference to respiration and energy suggests that "for most organisms oxygen is the ultimate electron acceptor, oxygen reacts 20. "Pratiniyatavisiṣṭaśarīrarasaviyasnigdhatvarūkṣvatva", Tarkarahasyadipika, Ţikā on V. 9, p. 159.
21. Biology, p. 62.
22,
**
Yayocchväsarhamādāya dalam pariņamayya ca /
Tattayalambya mumcetsocchvāsapary aptiru yate // " Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3. d Sarga, V. 22; Nayatattvaprakaraṇam, (comm.) on V. 5, pp. 1'-16.
23. Ibid., V. 23; See also Navatattv. prasarana (comm.) V. 6, pp. 12-16.
24. Ibid., V. 24; See also Navatattvaprakaraṇa ( comm. V. 6, pp. 12-16.
25. Ibid., V. 25. 26. Ibid, V. 26.
27. Ibid., V. 7. 28. Ibid., V. 28.

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with the electrons and with hydrogen ions to form a molecule of water... ... Electrons are removed from a molecule of some food-stuff and transferred (by the action of a specific enzyme ) to some primary acceptor."29
The Dynamic State of Paryāpti (Vital force ) Paryāpti (vital force ) is in a constant state of flux as it provides energy in the metabolic process of organisms. The body30 of a plant or animal appears to be changing as days and weeks go by. It may be inferred from this that the cells of the body, and the component molecules of the cells are equally changing. This view is supported by modern Biology which explains that “protoplasm is in a constant state of flux. Labeled amino acids are rapidly incorporated into body proteins and labeled fatty acids are rapidly incorporated into fat deposits, even though there is no increase in the total amount of protein or fat. The proteins and fats of the body - even the substance of the bones-are constantly and rapidly being synthesized and broken down. In the adult the rates of synthesis and of degradation are essentially equal so that there is little or no change in the total mass of the body. Thus the distinction between “machinery” molecules and “fuel" molecules becomes less sharp, for some of the machinery molecules are constantly being broken down and used as fuel.”31
Special Types of Metabolism In addition to the general metabolic activities Jaina Biology, throws some light upon special metabolic activities of certain animals and plants. Green plants32 can photosynthesize; certain bacteria33 and animals34 can 29. Biology, p. 62. 30. eg. man and plant
“ Tathā, yathedam manuşyasayiramanavaratam balakumarayuvadyavasthavige saih pra tiniyatan vardhate, tathedamapi vanaspatisariramarkurakisalayasakh āpraśā. khadibhirviseşaiḥ pratiniyatam vardhata iti /” Tarkarahasyadipika p. 157. “ Tatha, yathā manuşyaśarīrasoa rasāyanasnebädyupayogadvisist kāntirasābalopacayādi, tathā vanaspatisarirasyāpi visistana bhojalādisekād visistarasaviryapniog
dhātvādi / ” Ibid., p. 139. 31. Biology, p. 76. 32. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275-6. 33. “Badarasyodyotena sahitasya " (one sensed-bacteria, earth-bacteria, water-bacteria
and plant-bacteria emit cold light ), karma grantha (6th), p. 186; Two-sensed
worm (kmis-protozoa emits cold light) Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 30.128; TS. II 24. 34. "Anusiņa payasa rúvam, jiange mujjoae ihujjboa, jai devuttara vikkia, joisa
khajjoa maiva", 46, Karmagrantha I, p. 85; Nūpuraka (Annelida) TS. II. 24; Gandūpada (Crustaceans ). Ibid.; SatapadỊ Centipeds), Ibid.; Sarkha ( Molluscs ) Ibid.; Khadyota (Glow worm ), Tarkarahasyadipika, p. 156. “Yathā rātrau khadyotakasya dehapariņāmo/sivaprayoganirvęttaśaktirāviệcakāsti/" Ibid.

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Cell Structures and Functions
produce light. Certain plants produce wild variety of substaoce-flower pigments, 35 perfumes,36 many types of drugs 37 and bacteria 38 and molds; certain animals can make deadly poisons 39 and also antibiotics 40 like the best chemists.
Bioluminescence
Although the glow worm ( khadyota )41 is the most conspicuous lightemitting organism, a number of other animals and some bacteria also have this ability.
Luminescent animals appear to be found among the protozoa, 42 annelids (pūpuraka , 43 crustaceans (gandūpada ),44 centipeds ( satapadi),45 molluscs ( Sankha ),46 etc. This scientific evidence of bioluminescena is supported by modern Biology which states that the fire-fly and glow-worm are the most conspicuous light-emitting organism,47 and “Luminescent animals are found among the protozoa, sponges, coelenterates, ctenophores, nemerteans, annelids, crustaceans, centipeds, millipeds, beettles, echinoderms, molluscs, hemichordates, tunicates and fishes. There appears no single evolutionary line of luminescent forms; the ability to emit light has appeared independently a number of times."'48
"It is sometimes difficult to establish the fact that an organism is itself luminescent in a number of instances, the light has been found to be emitted not by the organism but by bacteria. Several exotic East
35. Mañjistha ( Indian Madder ), Bhagavatí Sūtra, 8 6.334. 36. Ketaki flower produces Perfume, Bhagavati Sūira 16.6.582. 37. Hingurukkha (Forula, Asaf tida). Bhagavati 2.2.692; Haritage ( Terminalia
chefula ), Ibid. 22 2.692; Bhallaya ( Acajou; especially, acid quicea for medicine ), Ibid.; Asoga ( the tree Jonesia Asoka ), Ibid.; Arjuna (the Arjuna tree), Ibid. 22-3.692: AkKaVordida (the plant Calotropis Gigantea for optic rerve), Ibid., 2 -1-693; Bhangi (Can abis sativa), Ibid., 23.5.69; Tulsi ( Roly basil ) Ibid,
21.8.69. 18. Sūtrakstāáva, II, 3. 39. Věściká ( Scrrpion ). Manduka ( frog), Uraga (spake ), Bhagavati, Sūtra, 8.7.376;
Ahi (a cla's of snake ), Ajagara ( a class of snake ). Ibid., 15.1.560. 40. Nakula ( mangoose) Ibid., 8.3.12; 15.1 560. 41. Tarkarahasyadipika, Tikā on v. 49, p. 156; Sarvärthasiddbi, Acārya Pūjyapāda,
p. 9-; nrmagrantha 1, v. 46. 42, Uttaradhyaya na Sūtra 16.128; Tattvārtha Satra, II. 24. 43. Tattvārtha Sūtra, II. 24. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. Biology, p. 77. 48. Ibid., p. 77.

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Indian fish have light organs under their eyes in which live luminous bacteria. The light organ contains special long cylindrical cells, well supplied with blood vessels to supply the bacteria with adequate amounts of oxygen. The baeteria emit light continuously and the fish have a black membrane, like an eyelid, that can be drawn up over the light organ to turn off the light. No one knows how the bacteria to collect in the fish's light organ, as they must in each newly hatched fish."'49
The light produced by luminescent organisms, glow-worm, etc. is entirely in the visible spectrum. Bioluminescence light may be called udyota 50 (i. e. “Cold light” ),51 since very little heat is given off, as it is explained by modern Biology.52 “ The production of light is an enzyme - controlled reaction, the details of which differ in different species. Bacteria and fungi produce light continuously if oxygen is available. Most luminecent animals give out flashes of light only when their luminescent organs are stimulated.''52
(Udyotascandramanikhad.
49. Ibid., pp. 77-78. 50. Tattvarth Sūtra, v. 24; Sarvārthasiddhi, v. 24, p. 296
yotādiprabhavaḥ. ) Praka'ah /", 51. Biology, p. 78. 52. Ibid., p. 79.

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SECOND CHAPTER THE WORLD OF LIFE: PLANTS
(First Section) Biologic Inter-relationship
At first glance the world of living substances (Jivadravyas ) as revealed in the Jaina works appears to be made up of a bewildering variety of plants and animals,1 all quite different and each going its separate way at its own pace. A close study of them reveals, however, that all organisms, whether plant or animal, have the same basic needs for survival, the same problems of getting food2 for energy, getting space to live, producing a new generation' and so on. In solving their problems, plants and animals have evolved into a tremendous number of different forms, 5 each adapted to live in some particular sort of environment.6 Each has become adapted not only to the physical environment - has acquired a tolerance to a certain range of moisture, wind, sun, temperature and so on-but also the biotic environment, all the plants and animals living in the same general region. Living organisms are interrelated in two main ways, evolutionary descents and ecologically.9 One 1 Sūtrakrtânga, Śrntaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, sūtras 48 62; Bhagavati Sūtra, 33.1.844;
7.5.82 etc.; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.68-202; Pannavanã Sutta, Jivapaņņavanā 14-138; Jivābhigama Sūtra, 3.96; -33, 34; Gommațasāra (Jivakānda ), 1.35.70,
71, 72, etc. 2. Sūtrakrtānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, Sütras 40-62. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. 5. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, 36. 35. 144, 169, 178, 179, 186, 193, 202.
Sūtrakstānga, Srutaskundha II, Adhyayana 3; Bhagavati 7.5.2.2; Uttaradhyayana 36.171 ff; Jiväbhigama 1.34, 35; Pannavana Sutt, Jivapannavana; Jalacara-Sthalacara
-Khecara-manuşyaprajñápanā 29-34; Sthānapayam, Pannavana 2. 7. Sūtrakrtānga, Šrutaskandha II. Adhyayana 3, Sūtra 43-62. 8. It is suggestive from the study of the world of life in Jaina Biology on the basis
of the structures (samthanas) of living forms - plants and animals, on the physiologic and biochemical similarities and differences between spe.ies, etc. and on the analysis of the genetic constitution of present plants and animals, i, e. anatony, physiology and biochemistry of plants and ani nals, their embryologic and genetic histories as outlin:d in Jaina Biology and the manner in which they are distrinuted over the earth's surface, that a sort of organic evolution has occurred. Sūtrakstānga II, 3.43-6.; Bhagaati, 7.5.282; The habitat of an organism is the
place wr ere it lives, a physical area, some sp:cific, earth surface, air, soil or J. B.-7

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Jaina Biology
organism may provide food or shelter for another 10 or produce some substance harmful to the second.11
The Classifications of Living Substances
The Jaipācāryas have tried to set up systems of classifications based on natural relationships, 12 putting into a single group those organisms which are closely related in their evolutionary origin.13 Since many of the structural similarities 14 depend on evolutionary relations, 15 classification of organisms is similar in many respects to the one of the principles based on logical structural similarities, 16 that is to say, species, genus, and phyla. Many plants and animals fall into easily recognizable, natural groups and their classification presents no difficulty.
The vedic sages also have described and classified plants and animals. The Vedic Index vf Names and Subjects of Macdonell and Keith 17 and Vanaspali 18 of Mazumdar reveal a large number of plants and animals
water", Biology, p. 30. It is a remarkable fitness of the organism for the place in which it lives, e. g. water for aquatic animals and plants, land for terrestrial animals and plants, and air for aerial beings. It is suggestive from this fact of fitness of the organism for the habitats in which they live that they are interacting and interdepedent parts of large units for survival as evidenced by a cose study
of Ahāraniksepa (Knowledge of food ) in the Sūtrakrtänga II, 3.43-62. 10. Sūtrakstānga II, 3.43-62. 11. Bhagavati Sūtra 8.2.316. 12. e. g. eke ndriya, dvindriya, trindriya, caiurindriya and pañcendriyo organisms are
classified on the basis of a.tural relationships. Similarly, Jalacara and Khecara organisms are classified according to their natural relationship, as they are
closely related in their evolutionary origin. 13. Sūtrakstānga, II. 3; Jivabhigamasútra, 3.1.96; Bhagavati Sūtra 7.5.282 ( andaja,
potaja and sammürccibma; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra. 36.171 ff; Jivabhigama Sutra, 33 1.34, 35; Paņņavanā Sutta. Jivapaņnavahā, Jalacara, Sthalacara and Khecara and Manusyaprajñāpanā ) 29-34. Aquatic, terrestrial and aerial organisms have been classified into three single groups as the members of each of them are closely related in their evolutionary origin. Bhagavati Sūtra 8.3.324, 7.3.277, 7.5.282; Jivābhigama Sūtra, 3.1.91, 1-33, 1-34, 1-35, 1-36; Uttaradhya yana Sūtra, 36.135, 144, 154, 169, 178, 179-186, 193, 202; Pannavanā Sūtra, Shalacaratirascam catuşpada-parisarpeti bhedadvayaḥ, p. 30, Catugpadanānekakşurădik suradi bhedacatuṣkaṁ, p. 30. Gandípadānám hastipūyanaya (di )ādinamakadambakam. p. 31, Sanakhapadānām, vyāghradinūmakad
ambakar, p. 31, etc. (contents ; Tattvārthasūtra 2.24, 34. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. Macdonell, A. A., and Keith, A. B., Vedic Index of Names and Subjects I and
II, John Murray, London, 1912. 18. Mazun. dar, Vanaspati, University Press, Culcutta, 1 927, pp. 234-254.
14.

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The World of Life: Plants
(see also Aiyer ),19 the equivalent scientific names of which have been given by the experts. There is mention of about 739 plants20 and over 250 animals in the ancient literature. The whole 24th chapter of the Yajurveda embodies valuable materials on Zoology.21 A bewildering variety of birds, and about 21 kinds of snakes are described, each distinct by its own particular features of colour, structure or habit. There is also mention of microscopic organism - bacteria, and insects of terrestrial and aquatic organ22 and fish.23
Distinctions Between Plants and Animals
The living world may broadly be divided into two kingdoms, one of plants24 (vanaspati) and one of animals (pasu )25 on the basis of the category of Tairyagyanna 26 (lower animals) in Jaina Biology. The word Vanapphai 27 (plant) suggests trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses
and vines - large and familar objects of every day world. And the word
pasu 28 indicates both wild 29 and domestic30 animals in a wider sense, such as, lions, tigers, cows, buffaloes, birds, frogs, fish, etc.
6
51
In the Vedic literature also the plant kingdom has been divided into trees, herbs, shrubs, creepers and grasses.31 The term ' Vrkṣa
32.
19. Aiyer, A. K. Y. N., Agriculture and Allied arts in Vedic India, Bangalore Press, Bangalore, pp. 32-45. 1949.
20. Shastry, V. R., Science in the Vedas, Bulletin of National Institute of Science of India, No. 21, p. 102, 1963.
21.
"Asvastuparo gomṛgaste prajapatyah. etc." Yajurveda, 24th chapter.
22. Srinivasa Rao, His:ory of our Knowledg: of the Indian Fauna through the Ages,
Journal of Bombay National History Society, 54, 251-280. 1957.
23. Macdonell, A. A., and Keith, A. B, op. cit. p. 510, 1012. See Biology in Ancient
and Medieval India. Dr. R. N. Kapil, vide The Indian Journal of History of Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 1. 1970, p. 126. for all these references.
24. Bhagavati 24.16.707 (Birth of plant-bodied beings).
25. Ibid. 3.1.134; 11.9.417.
26. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II, 6; Bṛhatsaṁgrahani, Śricandrasuri, vv. 419-434, pp. 234 242; Tiryamcaḥ p.mcadhaikākṣā ikāh "Paṁcākṣasimakāh 1", Lokap akāśa 4.16; Gommaṭasāra (Jiva) 146.
27. Bhagavati 24.16.707; 33.1.844.
28. Bhagavati Sūtra, 3.1.134; 11.9.417.
29. Ibid. 7 3.288.
30.
Ibid 5.3.325.
31. Yaḥ phaliniryā aphalā apuṣpā yāśca puṣpinih, Rg. Veda 10.97.15; "Dva Sūparṇā sayujā sakhāyā simānaṁ vṛkṣam paripasvajate / Tayoranyaḥ pippalam svadattyanagnannanyo abhicākaśīti //", Rgveda i. 164-20; "Yas nin vṛkse madhvadaḥ suparna nivisante suvate cadhiviśve Tasyedāhuḥ pippalaṁ svadagre tannonnasadyaḥ pitaram na veda" // Ibid., .164 22; "Osadhayah ", Atharvaveda viii.7. Vedic Index I, p. 125

32

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Jaina Biology
stands for trees in the Rgveda33 and the word Osadhi' or · Virudh' denotes minor vegetable growths like herbs.34 The plants which come under Osadhi' contain the healing power,35 while those under the head of Virudh' does not have medicinal properties. 36 The word Trnas' denotes grasses.37 The word 'Pasu 38 in the Vedic texts indicates animals including man, while the word "Jagat' stands for domestic animals as against Śvāpada' (wild animals ).39
Further thought about the world of life brings to mind such forms of life, such as, mushrooms 40 and pond scums (sevāla ),4letc. quite different but recognizable as plants, and insects,42 worms, 43 etc. that are definitely animals.
Fundamentally, plants and animals, as mentioned in the Jaina Āgamas are alive in many ways, both are made of cells44 as structural and 33. “Adhvaryavo apo vavrivāmsam vstram jaghādāšanyeva výkşam", Rgveda, 2.14.2;
"Grāvāņeva tadidarthamjerethe grdhreva Vrksam nidhimantamaccha/", Ibid. 2.39.1. 34. “Na tat prthivyām no divi yena prāṇanti virudhah ", Atharvaveda 1.32.1.
* Tyar virunmadhujātā madhunā tva khanāmasi /
madhoradhi prajātāsi sā no madhomataskrdhi //" Atharvaveda, 1.34. "Aghadvistā devajātā vīruccbapathay, pani /
Apo malamiva prāņaik sit sarvan macchapathān adhi /", Ibid., ii. 7.1. "Tve agne visve amţtáso adruha āsā deva haviradantyahutam /
Tvayā martāsaḥ svadanta asutim tvam garbhí virudhāṁ jajñişe sūchiḥ "
Rg. Veda, 2.1.14. 35. “Ya Oşadhiḥ pūrvā jāțā devebhyastriyugam purā l", etc. Rg. Veda, 10.97.1 22.
“ Osadhayah phalapākāntāḥ ", Amarkosa, 661.
In Jaina lit-ratuse also osadhidenotes cereals-such as, sāli, bribi, etc.
Vedic Index I, d. 125. 36. Pptbivimaou vyārcchat tadoşadhayo irudho abhavantsa prajāpatimapadhāvadvrtram
me jaghnusa indriyam yiryam /", Taittiriya Samhitā, 2.5, 3. 2.
Vedic, Index, p. 125. 37. “Kimu śrestha kim pavisho na ajaga....
........ agne bhrātardruņa ida bhūtimūdima /” Rgveda. 1.16.1. “Yad vă ghvāsya prabhtamāsye, trņam sarvā ll”, etc. Ibid. 1.162.8.
Nāsmai tļņam nodakamā....ctc. Ibid., 10.102,10. 38. Vedic Index I, p. 509; Taittiriya Samhitā, 4.2.10, 1-4. 39. "Uttamo asyoșadhināmanangivān jagatāmivah vyāghrah sväpadāmiva /"
Atharvaveda VIII. 5. 11; Vedic Index, p. 268. 40. Kuhana (a kind of mushrooms which causes the earth to burst) Uttaradhyayana
Sutra, 36.95. 41. Sevāla, See Sūtrakstānga 11, 3. 55. 42. (Kunthus ), Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.127. 43. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra 36.128. (Krmi). 44. Abhuya ( cell ), etc. Tandulaveyaliya V. 2, p. 6.; See the tnird section of the 1st
chapter.

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The World of Life : Plants
53 functional units and both have many metabolic processes45 in common. But there are some obvious ways and some obscure ways in which they differ.
Plants' cells, in general, secrete a hard outer cell wall of cellulose (tvac )46 whieh encloses the living cells and supports the plant, while animal cells47 have no outer wall and hence can change their shape. But there are some plants48 without having cellulose walls and one group of animals, the primitive chordates, 49 having cellulose walls around their cells.
Secondly, plant growth generally is indeterminate, 50 that is, plants keep on growing indefinitely because some of the cells remain, in an actively growing state throughout. But although the cells of animals are replaced from time to time, the ultimate body size of most animals is established after a definite period of growth.51
A third difference beiween the two types of living substances is that most animals are able to move about (trasa ),52 while most plants remain fixed in one place (sthāvara ),53 sending roots into the soil to obtain liquid substances and getting energy from the sun 54 by exposing broad flat surfaces. Of course there are exceptions to both of these distinctions.
The most important difference between plant and animal is their mode of obtaining nourishment.55 Animals move about (trasa ) and obtain their food from organisms in the environment, but plants are 45. Tarkarahasyadipika Tikā on V, 49, Gunaratna on şaddarsanasamuccaya.; See the
fi urth section of the 1st chapter. 46. Sūtrakrtānga, Śrutaskandhı II, Adhyayana 3, Sūtia 47 (TVac ).: Gommatasara
(Jivakānda ), 188, 189 ( Challi ). 47. Ibid. They have ajina ( skin ), Sūtrakstānga II, 2.18. 48. e. g. Bulbous plants, like onion, garlic, etc., have no cellulose walls. 49. e. g. srme fishes, amphibia, reptiles-vertebrate animals have cellulose walls around
their inner cells. " Vanaspatiśariramanikura Kisala yasakhaprašākhadibhirvisesaih pratioiyatam Vardhata iti /", Tarkarahasyadipika rīkā on v. 49, p. 137.; Plant's duration of
life is ten thousand years in maximum. Uttarādhyayana, 36,102. 51. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.132, etc. animals life is shorter than that of plants.
See Tarkaraha syadipika ( Tikā ), on V. 49. 52. Acārānga Sūtra, Book I, 9.114; Sūtrakrtānga II, 2.18; Sthānanga Sūtra 2.4.100;
Bhagavati Sūtra, 35.4.739; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.68; Pannavanā, Kayadvāra, p. 86; Jivabhigama Sutra, p. 1:; Tattvārtha Sūtra II, 12- 4; Mülācāra, Pt. I, 30 (226), p. 295; Jivavicāra 2; Tarkarahasyadipica, Țikā on V. 49; Gommațasara (Jiva ) 3. Acaränga 1.9.114; Sthānānea 2.1.164; Uttaradhyayana 36.69; Bhagavati 25.4.739;
Pannavanā 4.232, p. 87 (Kāyadvāra ); Tattvärtha Sūtra 2.1?. 54. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7,3.275-6. 55. Sūtrakstānga IJ, 3.
53.

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Jaina Biology stationary (sthāvara )56 and manufacture their own food, with the exception of fungi and plant bacteria, which feed on the sap of other plants57 or humour of other living or decaying things. 58 In conclusion it can be summed up that plants may be classified into bacteria,59 algae, 60 fungi,61 herbs,62 shrubs, 63 creepers64 grasses 65 and trees66 on the basis of general properties of green plant cells, the structure and functions of a seed plant, reproduction, etc. Microscopic bacteria (i. e. earth up to plant-bacteria ), insect and animals of terrestria167 and aquatic68 origin and aerial beings69 find mention with their distinct classifications in the Jaina Āgamas. It appears that plants and animals were classified into species and genus, etc. on the basis of certain principles, such as, birth, habitat, living, special structural features, utility, etc., i. e., evolutionary descent and ecology in general.
Mode of Nutrition of Plants and Animals According to Jaina Biology, some organism can synthesize their food.70 They may be called autotrophic (self-nourishing ), e. g. green plaots71 and purple bacteria,72 (Sulphur bacteria = Saugandhie ) some
56. Ibid. 57. Ibid. 58. Ibid. 59. Sūkşma vanaspati (subtile plant) of one class may be identical with bacteria of
modero Biology; see Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, 36.100.
• Egavihamanāņattā, suhumā tattha viyahiyā | Suhumā savvalogammi............/" 60. Algae may be indentified with Sevāla, the aquatic plant, Vallisneria and other
water plants, etc.; see Sūtrakr'ānga, śrutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, Sūtra 55. Fungi lacks chlorophyll. It may b: idenified with some of the subtile plant bacteria, growing on other objects, Ste Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36-92. See SBE.
XLV, p. 95. 62. Bhagavati Sūtra 21.7.191; * Hariyakaya', Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.95. 63. Uttaradhyaya ha Sutra 36.94; Gumma, similar to Guccha, e. g. Vrintāka Soldnum,
but, bring forth twigs on stems, instead of stalks, e. g. Navamalika Jasminum Sambac, Kanavira, etc. See SBE. XLV, p. 216.
Bhagavati Sūtra 21.5.691; 21.6.691; 23. 1.69; 23.4.693., Uttaradhyayon. Sūtra 36.9.4 65. Bhayavati Sūtra 21.5.691; 21.6.691; 11.9; 427; 12.8 459; 22.4.692; etc.
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.94 (tana ). 66. Bhagavati Sutra, 22.2.693; 22.3.692; 22.4.692; 23.1.693; 23.4.693; 23.4.693; 25.5.693;
etc.; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.94 Rukkha ). 67. Sūtraktänga II, ?; Bhagavati Sūtra 7.5.282; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36 71;
Pannavana Sutta, Tirikkhajoniya (Jivapaņņavanā), 11-9, p. 29. 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid. 70. Sūtra krtānga II, 3. 2.
71. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275. 72. Sulphur Bacteria mentioned in the Uttaradhyayana 36.76 and Sūtrakttānga II,
3.61 may b: identified with purple bacteria of Biology; see the Science of Biology Paul B Weisz, Forms of Nutrition, pp. 318-19.
10.

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organisms cannot synthesize their own food from inorganic materials, therefore, they must live either at the expense of autotrophs73 or upon decaying matter. 74 They may be called heterotrophs. All animals, fungi and most bacteria are heterotrophs.
It is started in the Sūtrakrtänga that some organisms (trees ) feed on the liquid substance of the particles of earth, the origin of various things; these beings consume earth-bodies, water-bodies, fire-bodies, wind-bodies, bodies of plants, they deprive of life the bodies of manifold movable and immovable beings; the destroyed bodies which have been consumed before, or absorbed by riod (are ) digested and assimilated (by them )...75 That is to say, some organisms (trees or plants) are self-nourshing and they can synthesize their own food from inorganic materials and bodies of plants, while some holozoic organisms among plants (like pitcher-plants) must constantly find and catch other organisms - movable and immovable. They consume, digest and assimilate them. Therefore, they must live at the expense of others - autotrophs or heterotrophs. Some organisms born in trees, originated by trees, sprung from trees, springing from trees that originated in earth come forth as trees originated by trees, feed on the sap of the trees originated in earth (3).76 That is parasitism, heterotrophic nutrition found among both plants and animals.
That is to say, “Parasite lives in or on the living body of plant or animals (called the host ) and obtains its nourishment from it. Almost every living organism is the host for one or more parasites.” 7
Some creepers feed on the liquid substance of the particles of earth and the sap of tree, also ( 6-9),78 i. e., they are both autotrophic and parasitic.
In the same way grass, herbs and plants also feed on the liquid substances of the particles of earth (10-15),79 etc. Here it is suggestive that a few plants like the misletoe are in part parasitic and in part 73. Sūtrakrtānga II, 3.:0, 21, 22-28, 29. All animals 1.ve at the expense of autotrophs
in one way or other except some carnivorous enimals. 74. lbid. II, 3.16 Fungi and some bacteria feed in the decaying matters, as it is
found that some beings born in earth, growing here in pa ticles of earth that are the origin of various things, some issue forth as Āya, Kaya mushroom
( Kuhana ) etc. from the decomposed toings in the earth. 75. Sūtraktänga II, 3.1. 76. Ibid. II, 3.3. Some parasitic plants live on the sap of the host plants. 77 Biology, p 85. 78. Sūtrakrtānga II, 3 (6-9). 79. Ibid. II, 3 ( 10-15).

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autotrophic, for although they have chlorophyll and make some of their food, their roots grow into stems of other plants, and they absorb some of their nutrients from their hosts.80
Some organisms born as aquatic plants, such as, Udaga, Avāga, Panaga, Sevāla (algae ), etc. feed on the particles of water, etc. (18).81 They belong to the type of autotropbs which can synthesize their own food from inorganic materials.
Some organisms born as movable beings from trees born in earth, trees originated by trees from the roots, seeds, etc. produced by trees, originated by creepers born on trees, from creepers born on creepers, from the roots, etc. of creepers born on creepers, from grass, from herbs, from plants, from Āya down to Kūra born in earth, from trees born in water, from Udaga up to Pukkhalatthibhaga born in water (19) feed on the sap of the trees, creepers, grass, herbs, plants, be they born in carth, or water, on trees or creepers or grass or herbs or plants; (the sap) of their roots, down to seeds of Āyas, etc. of Udakas, etc. And these creatures consume earth bodies, etc., assimilated by them.82 It is the well known fact in India that the parasitic insects and pests are born in the host plants and destroy thousands of trees and crops including paddy and wheat, etc. by feeding on their sap.
These parasites are movable beings and many obtain their nutrient by ingesting and digesting solid particles or absorbing organic molecules through their cell walls from the body fluids or tissues of the host.
The children of the developing embryos at first feed on the menses of the mother and the semen of the father or both combined into unclean, foul ( substance ). And afterwards they absorb with a part (of their bodies) the essence of whatever food the mothers take. After birth the babies suck the mother's milk but when they grow older, they eat solid rice or gruel, or both movable and immovable beings consume earth bodies, etc. upto assimilated by them (21).83
This mode of nutrition of human beings is scientifically true and it may be called heterotrophic nutrition.
Aquatic animals of five organs of sense, viz., fishes up to porpoises, (sirumāra ) feed on the mother's humours, as long as they are young, they eat plants, or both movable and immovable beings (22).84 80. Biology, p. 85. 81. Sūtrakrtānga II, 3.18. 82. Ibid. II. 3. 19-20). 83. Sūtrakstânga II. 3.21. 84. Ibid. II, 3.22.

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This scientific observation of the mode of nutrition of aquatic animals is biologically true. The quadrupeds, terrestrial animals with five organs of sense, viz. solid ungular animals, biugular animals, multiungular animals, and animals having toes with nails, feed on their mother's milk as long as they are young (23),85 the rest as above.
Some of the reptiles moving on the breast, terrestrial animais with five organs of sense, viz. snakes, hung, snakes, Asalika and dragons bring forth eggs, some bring forth living young ones, some come out of the egg as males, some as females, some as neuters. As long as they are young, they live on wind (24),86 ( the rest as above ). # Terrestrial animals with five organs of sense, walking on their arms,
are the following viz. iguanas, ichneumons, porcupines, frogs, chameleons, khoras, gparakoillas, vissambharas, rats, mangooses, pailaiyas, cats, gohās, Gāuppāiyas, (the rest as in the last paragraph.) (25).87
Aerial animals with five organs of sense : birds with membranous wings, birds with feathered wings, birds with wings in the shape of a box and birds (which sit on ) outspread wings.88 (All as before only the following passage is different. As long as they are young, they are hatched by their mother's warmth (The test is above) (26).89
It is clear from the above statements on the mode of nutrition of terrestrial, aquatic and aerial organisms that some of these heterotrophs live either at the expense of autotrophs or upon movable organisms and fungi and bacteria upon decaying matter.90
There are several type of heterotrophic nutrition as there are various classes of heterotrophs. When food is obtained as solid particles that must be eaten, digested and absorbed, as in most animals; the process may be known as holozoic mutrition, i. e. Holozoic organisms must constantly find and catch other organisms for food.
The parasitic organisms (Anusuya = anusūta or anusyùta ) growing on the animate or inanimate bodies 91 of manifold movable or immovable creatures feed on the humours of various movable and immovble creatures (27) 92 85. Ibid. II. 3 23. 86. Ibid. II. 3.24. 87. Sūtraktänga, II. 3.26; Vide SBE Vol. XLV, p. 395. 88. Sútrakstang: II. 3. XLV, 395. 89. Iya. Kuhana (Mushroom ), etc. feed on decaying matter. 90. i, e. decomposed bodies. 91. Sūtrakstānga II, 3 27. 92. Ibid. II. 3.28-:9. J. B.-8

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In this way the vermin also feeds on the humours of living animals ( 28, 29). It means that the parasites may obtain their nutrients by ingesting and digesting solid particles or by absorbing organic molecules through their cell-walls from the body fluid or tissues of the host.
Some organisms born in the animate or inanimate bodies of manifold movable or immovable creatures as that (water )-body, which is produced by wind, condensed by wind, and carried along by wind, e. g. hoar-frost, snow, mist, hailstones, dew and rain, feed on the humours of these manifold movable and immovable creatures (30),93 etc. Some beings born in water, come forth in water( -bodies in the water, produced by manifold movable or immovable beings, feed on the humours of the water ( bodies ) produced by manifold movable and immovable creatures (31).
Some beings born in water come forth in water-bodies produced by other water-bodies and feed on the humours of these other water bodies produced by water-bodies (32).
Some beings born in water, come forth as movable creatures in the water produced by water-bodies and feed on the humours of the water ( bodies ) produced by water (33).94
Some beings come forth as fire-bodies in the manifold animate or inanimate bodies of movable or immovable creatures and they feed on the manifold movable or immovable creatures (34).95
Some beings born as wind bodies feed on the manifold movable or immovable creatures (35).96
Some beings born as earth-bodies, e. g. earth, gravel, etc., feed on the humours of the manifold movable and immovable beings (36).97 93. Sūtrakstānga, II. 3.30. This paragraph gives the scientific' explanation of the
way by which water bodies or the bodies of water-lives are produced by wind.
SBE, XLV, p. 396, fn, 2. 94. Sūtrakstānga II. 3. ( 31-33). This statement on the mode of nutrition of water
bodied beings or bacteria needs scientific experiment and verification for its validity. It is difficult to suggest their true identifications at the present state
of knowledge about them on the basis of the Agamas.' 95. Ibid. 11. 3.3+, e.g. when two bulls or elephants rush upon one another, sparks of
fire are seen issuing from their horns or teeth. Fire is produced when to pieces
of wood or stone are rubbed one against the other, SBE. XLV, p. 397, Fn. I. 96. Ibid., II. 3.35. 97. Ibid., II. 3.36. According to the commentators, earth-bodies are produced in the
shape of precious stones, in the head of snakes, of pearls in the teeth ( six ) of elephants, and so in reeds, etc., SBE XLV, p. 397, Fn. 2.

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These modes of nutrition of water-bodied, fire-bodied, wind-bodied and earth-bodied beings as described in the Sūtrakrtānga need a careful study and scientific verification by the biologists in the light of modern Biology before accepting them as true, as they are thought-provoking.
ECOSYSTEM
It appears from the study of the mode of nutrition of all organisms including plants, aquatic, terrestrial and aerial beings, and man, etc. as described in the Jain Agamas that plants and animals are not independent of other living things but are interacting and interdependent parts of larger units for survival. So their interaction and interdependence bring to light that ecosystem which is a natural unit of living and non-living parts that interact to produce a stable system in which the exchange of materials between living and non-living parts follows a circular path, e. g., aquatic organisms-fish, green plants and snails (sambuka )98 form a very small ecosystem in their habitat-water in a pond or lake.
It has been observed in the discussion on the mode of nutrition that there are “producer” organisms99 – the green plants that can manufacture organic compounds from the simple inorganic substances drawn up from the earth or water, etc. Secondly, there are "comsumer "100 organisms-insects and insect larvae in the plant-bodies, etc. and fish etc. in water, which may be carnivores. Finally, there are "decomposer ”101 organisms, bacteria, and fungi which break down the organic compounds of dead protoplasm of the dead bodies of plants and animals into organic substances that can be used by green plants.
Thus, Jain Biology suggests an ecosystem consisting of biotic components - producer, consumer and decomposer organisms and nonliving compounds i. e. abiotic components - earth, air, water and fire.102
Habitat and Ecologic Niche
A brief analysis of ecosystem of Jaina Biology brings to light two 98. Tattvārthadhigama Sutra, 2.24, 94. Sūtrakrtānga 11, 3.2. Trees ( plaats ) feed on the liquid substanc: of the particles
of earth, consume earth. bodies, etc. by manufacturing organic compounds from
the inorganic suhstances. 100. Sūtrakstānga II. 2.19-20; II. 2.22; II. 2..7, 28, 29. 101. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.16. Āye, Kuhana ( mushroom ), etc. are born in the decaying
matters because bacieria break down the organic compounds of dead protoplasm of dead plants and animals into orgainc Substances which can be used by
green plants. 102. Sūtra stāriga II. 3.

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basic concepts - the habitat 103 and the ecologic niche104 useful in describing the ecologic relations of organisms, i. e. the place where an organism lives, a physical area, some specific part of the earth's surface, air, soil or water, 105 and the status of an organism within the ecosystem.
It depends on its structural adaptations, physiologic responses and behaviour, etc. -- what it eats 106 and what eats it, 107 its range of movement and tolerance and its effects on other organisms and on the nonliving parts of the surroundings. 108
Type of Interactions Between Species of Plants and Animals
The study of the knowledge of food of organisms, the third lecture of the second Book of the Sūtrakrtānga, throws some light upon the types of interactions between species of plants and animals in several different ways, which take place due to their search for food, space, or some other need, e. g. the relationship of competition, 109 or predatorism, commensalism, 110 mutualism, 111 parasitism 112 as found between them. 103. Sūtrakstānga II. 3. 1-12; 3 (trees ), 16 ( soil), 17 ( water ), 18 (trees ), 21 (earth),
22 (water), 23 ( earth surface ), 36 (aerial !, 27 ( animate or inanimate bodies ). 104. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.2. (liquid substance ) of the particles of earth, the bodies of
manifod movable and immovable beings, 3-5 ( sap of the trees ), 20 ( sap of trecs ), 21 ( mother's milk, boild rice, etc.) 22 (mother's humours and plants ), 23 ( both movable and immovable beings ), 24 (wind ), 27 ( thc humours of
various movable and immovable creatures ). 105. Sūtrakstānga II. 3,30. 33 (water), 34 (fire), 35 ( wind ), 36 ( soil ). 106. Sūtrakstānga, II. 3.30. (liquid substance ), etc. See Foot Note on page 14, Foot
Note No. 5. 107. Sūtrakstānga 11. 3.27; i. e. The parasites feed on the humours of various movable
and immovable creatures--animals and plants. 108. Sūtrakştānga II. 3. The entire chapter-knowledge of food' throws light upon
behaviourism of plants and animals in addition to their mode of nutrition and
reproduction. 109. Some beings ( trees) deprive of life the bodies of manifold movable and immovable
beings; the destroyed bodies which have been consumed before, or absorbed
by the wind (are) digested and assimilated ( by them ), Sūtrakstānga II. 3. 2. 110. Some beings born in trees, originated by trees, spring from trees, spring from
trees that originated in earth, come forth as trees originated by trees. They
feed on the sap of the trees originated in earth, Ibid. II. 3.3. 111. The relations of nitrogen - fixing bacteria and legumes and algae and fuogi in
Jichens. See Bhagavati 7.3.275( plant bacteria ); Sutrakstānga II, 3.5. 16 ( kuhana ),
18 (sevāla ), 2 etc. 112. Some organisms growing on the animate bodies of manifold movable or immov
able creatures, come forth as parasits. They feed on the humours of various movable and immovable creatures. Sūtrakrlänga, II. 3.27.

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The host-parasite or predator-prey-relationship may be harmful to the host or prey as a species when such relationship is first set up. But the study of different examples of parasite-host, and predator-prey interrelations shows that "in general, where the associations are of long standing, the long-term effect on the host or prey may not be very detrimental and may even be beneficial.”'113
The brief survey of the classifications of living things-plants and animals, their distinctions, mode of nutrition, ecosystem, habitat and ecologic niche, and types of interactions between species as found in the Jaina Āgamas gives a picture of the world of animals and plants, all related closely or distantly by evolutionary descent, and bound together in a variety of inter-specific interactions.
113. Biology, p. 93.

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General Properties of Green Plant Cells
It appears from the study of plant-life as explained by the Jainācāryas that the green plants are the primary producers of the living world. The properties of the pigment that gives them their green col i. e. chlorophyll, enable them to utilize the radiant energy of sunlight to synthesize energy-rich compounds, such as, liquid substances (siņeha )2 from water and air3 (carbon-dioxide ). The process of photosynthesis is the only significant way in which energy4 (teja ) from the sun is made available for life on this earth.
Land-plants5 absorb the water required for the photosynthetic process through their roots; aquatic plants6 receive it by diffusion from the surrounding medium. Plants need vast quantity of air to carry on photosynthesis, for air contains carbon-dioxide. “Plants generally grow better in air with higher carbon dioxide content.''
Cellular Respiration of Plants The taking of air ( vāyuśariram ) by plants suggests that the cellular respiration 10 of plants which is the series of enzymic reactions utilizes ucchvāsavāyull (oxygen and releases nihśvāsavāyu12 ( carbon-dioxide ? ) 1. Sūtrakstānga II.3.4 3, etc.; Bhagavatį Sūtra, 7.3.275; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.92.99ff;
Pannavana Sutta, Vanaspatikāyajivapaņņavanā, 35-54.5; Lokaprakāśa I, 5th Sarga,
Vanaspati. 2. "Te jivā..........pudhavinam sineha nahäremti te jivā āhäremti pudhavi sariram
ausariram teusariram Väyusarfram vanassaisariram, 1” etc. Sūtrakstānga ll. 3.43. 3. Ibid (ausariram...... Vausarįram). 4. Ibid ( teusariram). 5. “Mūlam syāt bhumisambaddham tatra kandah samūsritah / Tatra skandha iti
mitho bijāntah syuryutah same (107) Atah prthvīgatarasamaharanti same apyami / Yavat phalami puşpastham bijani phala samgatam" /i108//, Lokaprakasa I, Sarga 5,
vy 107-8; See Bhagavati Sūtra 7.3.276. 6. “Vāņāvihajoniesu udaeşu rukkhattae viuftamti, te jivá tesim ņānāvihajoniyānam
udagānam sinehamahāremti /" etc., Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.54. 7. Sūtrakrtänga, II, 3.43. (Vāusa iram). "Te jivä ahāremti......( Vausariram) 8. Biology, p. 97, C. A. Villee 9. Sūtrakrtānga, II. 3.43. 10. “Te jivā āhāremti..... Vãyusariram," Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.43.
Sarirocchvāsanihsvāsahārāh sadharanah khalu " Lokaprakāśa 5, 75, p. 36. "Müle sikteņu Vộkşeşu phaladişu rasah sphuțah sa cocchvāsamantareņa kathamūrdhvan prasarpati" 1/32/7; Rasafrasarpaņām satyuc.hvase asmadadişul / Tadabhāve tadabhavo drstasca mộtakādişu”1/33/1. Lokaprakaś, 5.32, 33, P. 353;
Navatattvaprakaraṇam, p. 14. 12. Lokaprakāka, 5.75, p. 361; “Prāṇāpānāvucchvāsanihasvāsākriyalaksanau /
Navatattvaprakarana, p. 14.

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from the liquid substance ( sineha or rasa ) to the forms of biological useful energy. These occur in green plants as they do in every living cell.
The Skeletal System of Plants Plants have no separate skeletal system for support as many animais do. At the simplest level, the saivālas (algae )13 which are almost entirely aquatic have little need for specialized skeletal structures, for their bodies are generally small and supported by the water. The land plants14 do need some structure strong enough to hold leaves in position to receive sunlight.
This has been achieved in two major ways: the cellular wall (tvac )15 can be very thick, 16 as in the woody stems of trees and shrubs, and serve directly for the support of the plant body or it can be rather thin 17 ( kaniyāsi) and provide support indirectly by way of pressure.
Besides, trees and shrubs have gūdhaśīrā (Xylem ? and a hiruyam (Phloem ? )18 to help support their trunk.
Plant Digestion Plants have no specialized digestive system; their nutrients19 are either made within the cells20 or are absorbed through the cell membranes.21 The nutrients synthesized are either used at once22 or transported to another part, such as, the stem or root,23 etc. The 13. Sūtrakstanga II. 3.54. 14. “Puậhavijoniyā rukkhā", Ibid. 15. Sūtrakstānga II. 3.47; “Yatra skandhakamdamūlašākhäsu khalu vikşyate, Tvacā
sthūlatarā kästhāt sā tvacānantajivikā 11" Lokaprakāśa I, 5.79, p. 363. 16. Ibid. 17. "Yatra mūlaskandhakandaśākhāsu drsyate sphutam / Tvaca kaniyasi kāşthat
sā tvakpratyekajīva ll" Lokaprakāśa, 5.96, p. 365. 18. Pannavanā, Vanaspatikāyajivapan avanā 54-84; Jivavicāra 12; Gommaasāra 187
(Jivakāņda ). 19. “Te jivā tesim ņāņavihajoniyāņam sinehamāhāremti”, etc. Sūtrakstānga II, 3.43. 20. "Te jiva āhārenti pudhavisariram ausariram teusariram Vāusariram vanassaisariram,
etc.,” Ibid. Ibid.; "Mūlam syāt bhumisambaddham tatra kandah samāśritah / tatra skandha iti mitho bijāntah syuryutah same 1/107// Atah Prihvigatarasamahāranti same' apyami / Yāvat phalani puşpastham bijāni phala sa mgatan //108//” Lokaprakāśa,
5.107, 108. 22. “Tesim pudha vijoniyānam rukkhāņam sarira ņāņāvaņņā ņāņāgamdhā ņāņaphāsā
ņāņāsamjhānasamthiya ņāņāvihasarirapuggalaviuvvitā..........bhavaṁti tti /"
Sūtrakstānga II. 3.43. 23. Te jivă tesim rukkhajoniyāṇam rukkhāņam sinehamnāhāremti....pudhavssariram,
etc...... tesim rukkhajoniyānām mūlāņam ka mdäņań khamdhāņam tayāņam pavālāņam jāva biyāņam sarirā ņāņāvaņņā ņāņāgamdha.........bba vamti /", Ibid. II. 3.46.
21.

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insectivorous plants, 24 although without an organized digestive system, do secrete digestive enzymes25 similar to those secreted by animals, as suggested by the statement “they deprive of life the bodies of manifold movable and immovable beings; the destroyed bodies which have been consumed before, or absorbed by the rind, (are) digested and assimilated (by them ).'26
Plants accumulate the reserves of organic materials for use during those times when photosynthesis is impossible, at night or over the winter 27 when leaves fall. An embryo plant cannot make its own food until the seed has sprouted and the embryo has developed a functional root, 28 leaf 29 and stem 30 system.
Plant Circulation
The simpler plants consisting of single cell or small group of cells31 have no circulatory system. Simple diffusion, augmented in certain instances by the process of active transport by air (ucchväsaväyu )32 suffices to bring in the substance33 the plant requires. Gūdhaśīrās34
24. Nāņāvihäņa tasathāvarāna pāņānam sariram acittam kuv vamti parividdattham
tam sariram...... viparinayam sarūviyakadam samtam/", Ibid. II. 3.43. 25. Sūtrakstānga II. 3.43. 26. Ibid, SBE XLV, Book II, Lecture 3, Sūtra 2, p. 389. 27. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7. 3.274, Vanassikaiya......... Paus avarisarattesu savvamābāragā
bhavamti, tadāņamtaram ca ņam sarae tayānaṁtaram hemaṁte iadāņamtaram ca ņam vasaṁte tadāņamtaram ca ņam gimhe, gunhasu nam vanassaikāiya savvappaharaga bhavamti/" 274; Śrávaņādicaturmāsyām právrdvarşāsu bhūruhah/Sarvato bahulāhārā apām babulyatah smrtāh //109/1 Tatha saradi hemante kramadalpal pabbojinah / Yavadvasante' alpābārā grisme atyantamitāšanāh" //116/7,
Lakaprakasa I, 5, 109-10. 28. (1) "Joviya müle jivo soviya patte padhamayaetti/ (2) Savio vi kisalao khalu
uggamamāņo anamtao bhanio" iti Etaccarthatah prajñāpanā vịttau Ācarāngavstřāvapi tathaiva il Yaduktam -"Yaśca mūlatayā jīvah parinamate sa eva prathamapatratayā api iti! ekajīvakartşke mūlaprathamapatre iti yavat prathamapatrakam ca yās u bijasya samutsūnāvastha bhūjalakālāpeksa saivocate / iti // .............na mulajivapariņāmāvirbhavitameva iti avagantavyam/", Vide Lokaprakasa I, p. 361; "Udgacchan prathamankurah sarvasādhārano bhavet / Vardhamano yathayogam
syātpratyeko' athavāparah /!", Loka prakasa T, 5.74. 29. Ibid. 30, lbid. 31. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.92; Pannavanā, vanas parikāyajivapannavanā, 1.35, p. 16.
( sūkşma vanaspati 32. Rasaprasarpanam spastam satyucchvāse asmadadişu / Tadabbăve tadabhavo
drstāśca mrtakādişull, Lakaprakāśa 5.33. 33. lbid : Sūtrakstānga, II. 3.43. 34. Pannavanā Vanaspatikāyajivapaņnavanā 54-84; Jivavicāra 12; Gommațasara 187
(Jivakāņda ).

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(Xylem ?) tubes are probably concerned with transporting water and minerals from the roots up the stem to the leaves, while ahiruyam35 (phloem ) tubes may probably transport nutrients up as well as down the stems for storage and use in the stems and roots, etc. In the spring and the summer,36 for example, substances pass from the place of storage to the buds to supply energy for growth.
The circulatory systems of higher plants are simpler than those of higher animals and constructed on an entirely different plan. Plants have no heart and blood vessels. Transportation of their nutrients from the soil is accomplished by the combined forces of transpiration37 pull and root pressure.38
Plant Saps :
37. Ma
Plant sap ( sineha or rasa )39 is somewhat analogous to the blood plasma of man and higher animals. It is a complex solution of many substances. Both organic and inorganic40 which, as pointed out, are transported from one part of the plant to another by the combined action of suction force (ucchvāsa ) which is connected with transpiration pull and root pressure.41 The substances present and their connectrations vary greatly in different plants and in various parts of the same plant.42 35. Ibid. 36 "Vasam!e tadanamtaram ca nam gimhe, gimhásu nam Vanassaikāiya savvappa
hāraga bhavami .........gimhasu nam bahave usinajoniya jivā ya poggalā ya vaņassaikaiyaitae vakkama mti viukkamamti cayanti uvavajjamti.....Gimbāsu bahave vaņas saikāiyā pattiyā pupphiya phaliya hariyagarerijjamāṇā sirie aiva aiva uvasobhemäņā uvasobhemānä сitthamti /", Bhagavati 7.3.274. Mūl: siktesu Vrk 3 şu phaladişi rasah sphatah / Sa cocchvasamantareņa katham ūrdhvam prasarati /132/1 Rasaprasarpanim spastam satyucchváse, asmadadişu /
Tadabhāve tadabhāvo drstasca mrtakādisu //33/7, Lokaprakāśa I. 5.32, 33, p. 353 38. Ibid., 5.107-8, pp. 367-8. 39. “Pudhavísu rukkhattae viuftamti 1.........", "Te jivā tesim ņāņāvihajoņiyānam
pudhaviņam sinehamāhāremti 1", Sūtrakṛtānga II, 3.43; "Mūle sikteņu vşkşeșu phalādiņu rasah sphnfah ", Lokaprakāśa V. 2; “ Pratiniyatavišişțasariratasavīrya",
Tarkarahasyadipika (Comm. on V. 47), p. 159. 40. "Te jivā āhāremti pudhavisariram āusariram leusaliram vāusariram vanassaisariram
(i. e. inorganic substances ), ņāņā vihāna tasathāvarāņam pāņāņam sariram (organic substances ) acittam kuvvamti parividdhattham tam sariram puvvahariyam
tayahāriyar viparinayam Sārůviyakadam samtam " Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.43-44. 41. Lokaprakāśa. I. 5.32, 3!, p. 353.; 5.107-8, p. 367-8. 4. “Siksīrām vāpi nihkşiram patram gūdhasiram ca yat | Alakşyamānapaträrddha
dvayasandhi ca yadbhavet //84/", Lokapr ekāśa I, 5.84, p. 363. J. B.-9

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Water is absorbed by the epidermal cells of the roots and moved to all parts of the plant.43
Plant Excretion :
À striking difference between plants and animals as found in Jaina Biology is that plants excrete little or no waste ( khala ). Nitrogenous compounds may be released during the metabolic process of plant, but instead of being excreted as wastes, they are probably reutilized in the synthesis of new paryāpti ( vital force ).
Since plants are lomābārins44 (i. e. absorbers of nutrients through the epidermal cells of the roots, ctc.) and they neither ingest proteins nor carry on muscular activity, like the Kabalābärin45 man and higher animals, the two largest sources of metabolic wastes in the animals ), for “the total amount of nitrogenous waste is small and can be eliminated by diffusion as waste through the pores of the leaves, or by diffusion as nitrogen containing salts from the roots into the soil "46 as explained by modern Biology.
Plant Co-ordination
The activities47 af the various parts of a plant are much more autonomous than are those of parts of an animal. The co-ordination between parts that does exist is achieved largely by direct chemical and physical means, 48 since plants have developed no specialized sense
43. Lokaprakāša, I, 5.33; 5.107-8. pp. 367-8.
“Mulan syāt bhūmisambaddham tatra kandah samāśritah/
Tatra skandha iti mitho bijāntah syuryutah same ” //107/| Ibid. 5.107. “Atah prthvigātarasamaharanti same apyami /
Yavat phalāni puşpastham bilāni phalasamgatam " 1/108/), Ibid. 5.108. 44. Lomāharā egimdiyā ya/v. 200, Bțhatsangrahani, Atmānanda-granthamala Ratam, 47
Ābhogāņābhoga, savvesim hoi loma āhāro !”, Ibid. 45. “Sarireņa oyahāro tayai phāseņa lomāharo; pakkheva puna, kavalio hoi
nāyavvo", V. 181; Sura niraya igimdi viņā, sesā bhavattha pakk hevā V. 181.
Brhat Sangrahani, Ist edition, Vs. 1993. 46. Biology, p. 107, C. A. Villee 47. “Vanaspatisariramankurakisalayaśākāprašākhādiviseşaiḥ pratiniyatam vardhata
iti /", Tarkarahasyadipika, p. 157.; " Pratiniya tavrddhi svāpaprabodhasparsādi.
hetukolläsasamkocāšrayapasarpaņādi visiştānekakriya /", Ibid., p. 159. 48. “ Yatha manusyasarirasya rasayanasnehadyupayogādvisiştakāntirasabalopacayādi
tathā venaspatisarirasyäpi vişişțești nabhojalādisekadvisişțarasaviryasnigdhatvadil", Ibid., p. 159.

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organs except that of touch and do nervous system as found in man and higher animals. They have sensitiveness generated by stimulus.49
Actively growing plants can respond to a stimulus 50 coming from a given direction by growing more rapidly or bend way from the stimulus. 51
If an organism (e. g. creeper ) is motile, it may respond to a stimulus by moving towards it for support.
When a seed is oriented in the ground in any way, the primitive root (mūla )53 and shoot (ankura )54 of the developing embryo grow; the root grows downward and the shoot grows upward.55 Thus the root positively geotropic and negatively heliotropic and the shoot is negatively geotropic but positively heliotropic.
Transmission of Impulse of plants
In a few plants responses to stimuli do occur rapidly enough to be radily seen. One of them is the response of the sepsitive plant “Mimosa pudica ” ( Lajjāvatilată ).56 Normally the leaves of this plant are horizontal, but if one of them is lightly touched, all the leaflets fold within two or three seconds.
Touching one leaf sharply causes not only the stimulated leaf, but also the neighbouring leaves, to fold and droop. After a few minutes the leaves return to their original position.
Sleep Movement57 of plants
Many plants change the position of their leaves or flower parts in 49. Yathā manusyasariram Jñanenānugatam, evem vanaspatisariramapi, yathḥ samip
rapunnātasiddhesarakasundakabappulāgastyāmalkika diprabhstināṁ svāpavibodha. tastadbhavah ..... tatha mattakāminisanūpurasukumaracaraṇatādan äśokataroh
pallavakusumodbedah / etc.. Ibid., p. 137. 50. See Foot Note 6, Page No. 92. 51. Tarkarahasyadipikā, pp. 158-9; "Samjñā niyatasamkocavi kasapramukhāpapi
samjainam katha nātmānam na jñāpayanti yuktıbhih //", Lokaprak aşa, 5.38. 52. Tarkarahasyadipika. p. 159. 53. " Ambukalaksmādirünasāmag isambhave sati / sa eva jātu bijängi baddhatādrsa
karmakah (II) V. 63. Utpadyate tatra, bije ano va bhūkā aikādikah ". Nibaddımū
lādināmagotrakarmatra jayate” V. 64. Lokapra kaga, 5.63-64. 54. “Udgacchan prathamānkūrah sarvasadhá ano bhavet /", Lokaprakāśa, 5.74.
“Vanaspatisariramankurakisalaya....vardhata iti/", Tarkarahasyadipikā, p. 157. 55. “Vanaspatisariramankurakisalayaśākhāprasākhadibhirviseşaih pratiniyatam
vardhata iti/", Tarkarahasyadipikā, p. 157. 56. “Tatha Lajjālūprabhịtināṁ hastādisamsparģātpatrasankocādipä parisphuţakriyo.
palabhyate /I”. Tarkarahasyadipikā, p. 158. 57. Svāparabodhasparsa dihetukollāşasamkocasrayopasa:paņādivisistānekakriya /",
Tarkarahasya dipakā, p. 159.

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the late afternoon or evening (sandhyā )58 and their parts return to their original position in the morning. Several kinds of flowers close at night and open in the morning 59 with the sun-rise and some open at night with the rise of the moon 60 and closes in the day, e. g. lotus, (padma ) and water lily (kumuda) respectively. These changes in position have been termed sleep movements in Botany, although they are in no way to related to the sleep of animals.
58. "Ghoşātakyadipuspāņām ca sandhyāyām /", Ibid., p. 158. 59. “Padmadinām prātarvikasaņań /", Ibid., p. 158. 60. “Kumudādinām tu candradaye ". Ibid., p. 158.

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(Third Section)
The Structures and Functions of A Seed Plant
It appears from the study of plant-life as treated in the Jaina Agamas that in the more primitive plants the basic functions,1 common to most green plant cells, may all occur in a single cell, but in the higher plants cellular specialization has occurred. The Jainācāryas differentiate the several parts - root (mula), stem (khamdha), leaf (patra), etc.2 of a plant. The evolution of conducting tissues (gūḍhaśīrā and ahiruym)3 and the specialization of regions or the body have enabled plants to survive on land and to grow to large size. Since these higher seed plants are the most widespread and familiar as well as the most useful plants for man, the Jainacāryas have dealt with some of the details of seed-plant structure and certain functions localized in particular parts of the plant.
The Roots and Its Functions
The most obvious function of the root is to anchor the plant and hold it in an upright position; to do this, it branches and rebranches extensively through the soil.5 The second and biologically more important function of the root is the absorption of water and minerals from
1. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3.; Lokaprakāśa I, 5th Sārga.; Tarkarahasyadīpikā, Tikā on V. 49, pp. 157-154.
2. Rukkhajoniesu rukkhesu mulattae kamdattae khamdhattae tayattae salattae pavalattae pattattae pupphattae phalattae biyattae viuṭṭamti /", Sutrakṛtānga, II. 3. 46.; "Mülaggapīrebājā kamda taha khaṁdhabijabijaruha /", Gommaṭasāra (Jivakanda ), V. 186, Kamdassa va mulassa....challi sanamtajiya patteyajiyä tu taņukadari /" Ibid., V. 189; "Etesi nam mūlā vi asamkhejjajiviya, Kamdā vi Khamdha vi tayā vi sālā vi pavātā vi / Pattā patteyajiviyā puppha aņegajiviya, phala egatthiya " Pannavaṇa, Vanassaik ayajivapanṇavana, 40, p. 17.
3. Gudhachiragam pattani sacchiram jam ca hoti nicchiram /",
Panṇavana, Vanaspatikāyajivapanṇavana. 54, 84, p. 24.
"Güḍhasirasamdhipavvam samabhaṁgama hirum (ragam) ca chinnaruhaṁ / sadharanam sariram," etc., Jivavicara, 12.
4.
"Güḍhasirasamdhipavvam sama bhamga mahiruyam ca chinṇaruham /
Sāhāraṇaṁ sarīrām tavvilariyam ca patteyam /", Gommaṭasara Jīva., v. 187 ). "Mūlam syat bhumisambaddham tatra kandaḥ samāśritaḥ /
Tatra skandha iti mitho bījāntāḥ syuryutaḥ same //" Lokaprakāśa I. 5.107.
5. Ibid.
6. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.275.; "Te Jiva tasim näṇavihajoniyaṇam pudhavinam sinehamāhāremti/" Sūtrakṛtānga II, 3, 43.; " Mülam syat bhumisambadd ham tatra kandaḥ samasritaḥ / Tatra skandha iti mitho bijantaḥ same ", v, 107. Atah prthvigatarasamaharanti same, apyami / Yavat phalani puspasthaṁ bijāni phalasamgatam ", v. 108. Lokaprakaga I, 5.107-108.

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the soil and the conduction of these substances to the stem (khamdha ). In some plants, for example, aluka ( sweet patato ), mülaka (radish ), etc., the roots have still another function as storage places for large quantities of food.
The Environment of Roots : Soil
The soil (prthivikāya )10 provides a solid, yet penetrable foundation in which plants can anchor themselves and also serves as a reservoir for the water and minerals11 needed by plants for their growth. The soil is another major ecosystem containing a large number of different kinds of animals, bacteria and plants 12 that comprise an interrelated biologic complex.
The Stem and its Functions The stem13 which in a tree includes trunk, branches and twings 14 is the connecting link between the roots, where water and minerals enter the plant, and the leaves, 15 which manufacture food. The. Vascular tissues of the stem are continuous 16 with those of root and leaf and provide a pathway for the exchange of material. The stem and its branches support the leaves so that each leaf is exposed to as much sunlight as possible. Stems also support flowers and fruits17 in proper position for reproduction to occur. The stem 18 is the source of all leaves 7. lbid ; Lokaprakasa I, 5,107-108. 8. “Alue mūlae ca, simgabere taheva ya /", Uttar dhyayana Sūtra, 36-96.;
Gemmațasāra (Comm.), v. 186, Jivakanda ( ginger, termeric, etc. are roots). 9. Ibid.; Utpala, etc. are born of roots, which function as storage places, See
Lokaprakāśa, 5.151; Uttaradhyayana, 36.95. Bhagavati, 9.33.385; 11-(1-8)-116;
Paņņa yaņā, 51 (Se kim jalaruha ). 10. “Pudhavijoniya pudhavisambhavā ....pudhavisu rukk hattae viuttamti /",
Sūtrakrtanga, II. 3.43.; Lokaprakāśa, 5.107-108. 11. "Te jivā tesim nāņāvihajoņiyanam sinehamāhāremt / te jivā āhāremti pudha
Viņai teusariram vāusariram vanassaisariram" Süt:akrtānga II. 3.43; Lokaprakāśa
5.107-8. 12. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 13. "Kamdsttae khamdhattae tayattae salattae pavalattãe /" Sūtrakrtānga Il. 3.46.
"Müle kande khamdhe tayā ya şāle pavālapatte ya / pupphe palabie viya patteyam jivaçhānāim //”, vide Lokaprakāśa, 5.77.; Paņņavana, 41, pp. 17-18.; “Mūlakanda - skandha - patradi gatajiva sankhyapramánāni ca", Gommațasāra,
(Jivakanda ), v. 189, 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid.; Bhagavati. 7.3.275; Lokaprakāśa, 5.107-108. 17. Ibid. 18. Sūtrakệtānga II. 3.43; Bhagavati. 7.3.275; Pannavaņā, 41, pp. 17-18; Lokaprakāśa
5.77; 5. 107-108.

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and flowers produced by a plant, for its growing points produce primordia of leaves ( kisalaya ) and flowers (puspa ). Roots and stems are sometimes copfused, for many kinds of stems grow underground 19 and some roots 20 grow in the air. Fern and grasses 21 are examples of plants that have underground stems called rhizome in Botany. These grow just beneath the surface of the ground and give rise to above-ground leaves. Thickened under ground stems,22 adapted for food storage, called tubers in Botany, are found in plants, such as, suranakanda, vajrakanda, patato,23 etc. An onion bulb is an underground stem (kamda )24 surrounded by overlapping tightly packed scale leaves. Roots and stems are structurally quite different. Siems, but not roots have nodes (parva )25 which give rise to leaves. The tip of stem (agra ) 26 is naked unless it terminate in a bud.
Plant stems are either herbaceous 27 or woody.28 The soft, green, rather, thin herbaceous stems are typical of plants called annuals in Botany. Such plants start from seed (bija ), 29 develop, flower and produce seeds within a single growing season, dying before the following winter. Another type of herbaceous plant is the biennial,30 which has two-seasons' growing cycle. During the first season, while the plant is growing, food 19. “Sa Vāu Kamdajāi Sürana kando ya vajjaka ndo ya / Allahalidda ya tabā addam
taha allakaccuro 88 Sattāva vī, Virali kumāri taha thohari galo ia / up to Alū taha pindālu haravamti....../", Vide Lokaprakāśa, 5.88-92; Uttaradhyayana
Sūtra 36.97, 98, 99. e. g. Sūraņa (Arum campanulatum ) 20. Adventitious roots of Banian tres which issue from its branches. Gaduci's
(Gulañca ) roots ( advantitious ) grow in air, Jivavicära, v. 12. 21. Trņa, Uttarādhyayana Sūtra 36.94; Bhagavati, 21.
“Sediya bhattiya hottiya dabbha kuse pavvae ya podaila | Ajjuņa a sādhae rahiyamse suya veya khire tuse / Erandahe kuruvimde kukkhada sumthe tahā vibhangu ya Mahuratana
luņaya sippiya bod havve sumkalitaņa ya // ", Pannavaņā. 47.35, 16. 22. Lokaprakāśa, 5.88 62. 23. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.97-98: Vide Lokaprakāśa, 5.88-9. 24. Ibid., Uitarădhyayana Sūtra, 36.97; Gommațasāra, Jivakanda, 18, (Comm.) V.186. 25. Utta'adhyayana Sūtra, 36.95; Parva (node ), Paņņavana 46, 33-34, p. 19; Gomma
tasara, v. 186. (Jivakända ); Lokaparakāśa, 5.81,98; “ Vpkşā Guccha Gulmā
latāsca vallyasca parvagascaiva / (98) 26. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.43; Gommațasāra, v. 16.6; "Malaggapirebajā kamda taha
khaṁdhabija bijaruha / Sammuccima ya bhaniya patterāhantakāyā ya " (186)
Bhagavati, 6.7.:4; :1..691. 27. Rice, etc.; " Sāli vīhi godhūma javajavā kala masura tilamugga / Māsa nipphava
kulattha alisamda satiņa palimantha " Ayasi Kusumbha Koddava kaṁgu rālaga varasāmaga ko. ūsā l! saņa sarisava mūlag, biya ja yāva anna ta hapaggalā //
Pannavaņā. 50, 42.43, pp. 20-21; Lokaprakāśa, 5.54-5). Setpadi 28. Lokaprakās, 5.79, 96. 29. Pannavanā, 50.42-43; Lokaprakāśa, 5.54-55; Bhagavati, 6.7.:46; 21.2.691. 30. Lokaprakāśa 5 89; Jivavicāra 10.

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is stored in the root. Then the plant dies and is replaced in the second growing season by a second top which produces seeds. Carrots ( gajjara )31 and Suranakanda32 are examples of bennials quite different from the herbaceous annuals and bennials are the woody perennials, which live longer than two years and have a thick tough stem33 or trunk, covered with a layer of cork. A tree is a woody-stemmed perennial that grows some distance above ground before branching and so has a main stem or trunkcurved straight, long, etc.34 A shrub35 is a woody perennial with several stems of roughly equal size above the ground line.
The Leaf and Its Function The Jainācāryas do not throw much light upon the structure and function of leaf of plant except the following things : The leaf may be endowed with Kșira (a waxy cutin ?) or may not be so (nihkṣiram ) and may have fine veins ( güdhaģiram) and their invisible joints (parvas ) in between two half parts of it,36 i. e. “the upper and lower layers of the leaf epidermis filled with thin walled cells, called mesophyll, which are full of chloroplast."37
Each leaf is a specilized nutritive organ whose function is to carry on photosynthesis.38 Leaves are generally broad and flat to present a maximum surface to sunlight.
Leaves 39 originate as a succession of lateral outgrowths called 31. Ibid ; Jivavicāra (3.) Ibid. 32. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.94 (Comm.); Pannavaņā, 13 15;
( Rukkha ), 41, 16-18; “ Ankulla jambunimbamrāh, etc. up to Sapuparnae
dadhiparņa 1", etc. Lokapra kāśa, 5.00-103; Pannavana, 40.13-15. 33. Lokaprakāśa 5.40. (Utkatah Kamtakaih kecit ); “Yatra skandhakandamulaśākhāsu
khalu Vikşyate / Tvacă sthūlatarā kāşthāt sā tvacānantajivika 1/791/”; “Yatra mūlaskandhakandasākhāsu dịśyare sphvtam / Tvaca Kaniyasi Kasthāt sā tvak
pratye kajivikāe 1,961/", Ibid., 5.79, 96. 34. Lokaprakāśa, 5.40. 3. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.94; Gulma (shrubs ). It brings forth twigs or stems
instead of stalks. e. g. Navam alika Josminum Simbac, Kanovira, etc. 36. “Gūdhachirāga m paltam sacchiram jam ca hoti nicchiram /
jam pi ya panatthasardhim anamtajivam vivaņāhi /", Pannavaņā, 54.7.25. “Saksīram väpi nihk siram patram gūdhasiram ca yat/ Alakşyamāṇapaträrddhadvayasandhi ca yadbhavet/". Lokaprakāsa, 5.84.
Biology p. 126, 38. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275. 39. “Mulattae.... pavälattāc pattattae pupphattae phalattae biyattae viuttarti !",
Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.47; “ Patta patteyajiviyá //", Pann vanā, 40; “Bije ca yonibhūte vyutkramati saiva Janturaparo va / Mülasya Yasca karta sa leva tatprathamapatrasya //", Lokaprakāśa, 5.61; "Sa eva nirvarttayati mulam patram tathadimam / Mülaprathamapatre ca tata evaikakaļrke //', Ibid. 5.65; “Savvo vi kisalao khalu uggamamāno anamtao bhaņio /", Vide Lokaprak āśa 5, p. 361; Pannavaņā, 54.98.

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primordia (Kisalaya) from the a pical meristem at the tip of the stem (agra ). Each outgrowth undergoes cell division, growth and differentiation and finally a miniature, fully formed leaf is produced within the bud (ankura ).40 In Spring and Summer the leaves grow rapidly, forcing apart the bud scales and largely by the absorption of water, unfold, enlarge and reach their full size.41 Many leaves have no meristematic tissue and thus do not live long.
TRANSPIRATION
Nothing is clearly stated by the Jainācāryas about transpiration. It may occur in all parts of the plant exposed to the air as it is lomāhā 1942 but most of it occurs in the leaves according to Botany.43
The suction force44 connected with transpiration pull contributes to the economy of the plant by assisting the upward movement of water through the stem by concentrating in the leaves the dilute solutions of minerals absorbed by the roots45 and needed for the synthesis of new vital force and by cooling the leaves.
The Movement of Water
The ascent of sap( rasa )46 is brought about by the suction force which is connected with transpiration pull and root pressure.47 Root pressure is the positive pressure of the sap in the ducts at the junction of root and stem, generated by the hypertomicity of the sap in the roots to the water in the surrounding soil.
In Spring and Summer 48 before leaves have been formed, root pressure is the sole cause of the rise of sap. Once leaves have developed, the continued ascent of water is brought about largely by the process of the suction force which is connected with transpiration 49 pull. Modern Biology explains this thing in this way that “the constant evaporation of water from the cells of the leaf and the production of osmotically active substances by photosynthesis combine to keep the leaf cells 40. “Sudgacchan pratham ārkurah !”, etc. Lokaprakāśa, 5.74. 41. Bhagavati 42. B hatsangraham, vv. 181, 182, 184. 4. Biology, p. 128. 44. Lokaprakaśa, 5.32, 33, 34; 5 107, 108. 45. Ibid. 46. Lokaprakāśa, 5.32, 33; 5.107-108. 47. Ibid. 48. Lokaprakā a, 5.32, 33; 5.107, 108. 49. Biology, p. 128. J. B.-10

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hypertonic to the sap in the veins. They constantly draw water from the upper ends of the Xylem vessels and this tends to lift the column of sap upward in each duct.'50
“ Transpiration provides the pull at the top of the column, and the tendency of the water molecules to stick together, carrying this force through the length of the stem and roots, results in the elevation of the whole column of sap."51
The Storage of Food
It is stated in the Jaina Āgama 52 that a green plant consumes more food in particular season (rainy season ), while it takes less food in some seasons (winter or autumn, spring and summer ). Each plant must therefore accumulate food reserves to tide over periods when photosynthesis cannot occur. Food stores may be deposited in leaves,53 stems 54 or roots.55
Leaves serve as temporary depots for food, but they are not suitable for long-term storage, for they are too easily and too rapidly lost. The stems of woody perennials56 serve as storage places for large amounts of food; other plants utilize underground fleshy stems57 for the purpose. The most common storage organs are roots,58 for, being underground, they are somewhat protected from climatic changes and from the cyes of animals. Plants also deposit rich stores of food in their seeds 59 to provide energy for the development of the embryo until the new plant bas developed a functional root, stem and leaf. Such seeds rich in plant food are an important source of food for man and other animals.
50. Biology, p. 128. 51. Ibid., p. 128. 52. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275. 53. Kumbird, Jivav.cara, V. 12. 54. All Kandas, Suraņa, etc. bulb, etc. Bhagavati 7.3.276; Vide Lokaprakāja 5.88;
Pannavanā 54.53. 55. Raddish, Carrot, etc. - Bhagavati 7.3.276; 8.3.314. 56. Vçksa, mango tree, Bhagavati 21.8.691, etc. Pannavana, 40. 57. Surana, etc. Bhs. 7.3 276, Pannavanā, 40. 58. Carrot, radish (Bhs. 7.3.276) etc. Jivavicāra 8; Lokaprakāśa 5.89 P. 132. 59. Rice, etc., Bhagavati Sūtra, 6,7.246; Pannavanā, 30, P. 20.

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(Fourth Section - A)
Types of Plants According to Jaina Biology, there are two types of plants, viz. subtile (sükşma ) and gross (bādara ),' and both of them are either fully developed (paryāptaka or undeveloped (aparyāptaka ).2 The gross and fully developed plants are of two kinds : either many have one body in common (sādhāraṇasarira ) or each has its own body (pratyekasarira ).3 Those which severally have their own body (pratyekaśarira ) are of many kinds, such as, trees, shrubby plants, 5 shrubs, big plants,? creeping plants,8 grass,9 palpms, 10 plants of knotty stems or stalks, 11 mushrooms, 12 water plants, (jalaruha ), annual plants (oşadhi ), 13 and herbs, 14 etc.
Those plants of which many have one body in common are of many 1. "Duviha vanassa ijiva, suhumā bayara tahā /", Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.92.
Jivābhigama Sutra, p. 42; «Vanassaikaiyae duviha pa, tam.-Suhuma VanassaiKäiya ya bayara-vanassai kāiya ya/"'; “Vanassaikāiyā duviha pannatta, tamjaha Suhumuvanassa kāiya ya badaravanassatikāiya ya/", Pannavaņā, 1.35., Vanassaikāyajivapaņnavaņā. "Pejjattamapajjattā evameva duhā puņā!”, Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36 92; Jivabhigama Sūtra, p. 42; Pannavaņā Sutta, 1.36, "Bayarā je pajjatta, duviha te vijāhiya / Saha:anasarira ya, pattega ya taheva ya/" Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36 93; Jivābhiyama Sūtra, p. 421; Pannavaņā Sūtra, 1.37. "Pattega sarirà 4, neg hā te p. kittiyā Rukkhā guccha ya gummā ya, layā v.lli taņā tahā"; Balayā pavvaga Kuhana jalaruha osabi-tiņā / Hariyakāyā le bodhayvā, pattegai viyahiya /" Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.91-95; Jivābhigama Sūtra, p. 44;
Pannavana Sūtra, 1.38. 5. Guccha: it is explained to denote such plants from the single root or bulb of
which come forth many stalks, e. g. Vrntāka, Soianum Melongena, Vide S.B.E, Vol. XLV, p. 216, Jacobi. Gulma, similar to the preceding class, but bringing forth twings or stems, instead of stalks e. g. Navamālikā Jasminum Sa nbac, Kanavira, etc. Latā, as lolus, Pandanus, cic.
Vallī, as gourds piper. betel, etc. 9. Tļņa, grass. But of the two examples given in the commentary, Guñjaka is not
in our dictionaries, and Arjuna denotes usually a tree, Termanalia Arjuna,
Vide S B.E. XLV, p. 216. 10. Valaya, so-called from their foliation. 11. Parvaga, as sugarcane. 12. Kuhana (bhumipoda), plants which cause the earth to burst, as sarpacchatra,
mushroom (toad-stool ). 13. Seeds, such rice, etc., annual plants. 14. Haritakāya, such as, tanduleya, etc.

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kinds, 15 such as, Aluya16 ( white patato ), Mūlaya17 (radish ), ginger, 18 Harili, Sirili, Sassilī, Gāvai, Keyakandali,19 Onion, garlic, Plaintain tree, Kunduvvaya,20 Lohinthūya, Thībūya, Tohaga, Kanha, 21 Vajjakanda 22 Sūranaya, 23 Assa kanni,24 Sihakanni, Musundhi, Turmeric, etc. and many others like them.25
GROSS PLANTS
Vĩksas (Trees ) According to the Jaina Āgamas, there are two kinds of trees, viz. ekästbikā (single-seeded ) and bahubījakā (many-seeded ).26
Ekāsthikā is of many kinds, such as, Nimba 27 ( the Nimb or Neemba tree - Azadirachta Indica), Amba (Mango tree, Mangifera Indica ), Jambu ( Black berry tree, Eugenia Jambulabum ), Kosamba28 ( Kosāmra, Schleichera oleosa ), Sāla (Sāla tree-Shorea Robusta ), Tāla (Palmyra tree ), Amkolla (the plant Alangium - Hexapetalum ), Pilu (Salvadora persica) Selu (Cordia Myx), Sallaki (Boswellia Tharifera or serrala or Mayana hala Pinus Longifolia), Moyai (Mocaki - Moringa ptery gosperma or Salmali - Bombax Malabarica ), Māluya (Mālūra - Aegle Marmelos or Feronia Elephantum ), Baula (Bakulo tree - Mimusope Elengi ), Palāsa (Butea Frondosa ), Karamjā (the tree Pongania glabra), Puttamjiva (Jiyaputā - Roxburgbi ), (A) Ritiha (Sapindus Detergens), Bahedaga (or Bibh elaka - Terminalia Belerica ), Haritaga (Haradae - Terminalia
Chebula ) Bhallāya (the Acajou or Cashew-nut tree or the marking nut 15. “The Plants in the following list are, according to the commentary, mostly
bulbs, well known in the countries where they grow. Many of them are not in our dictionaries. I give the Prakrit form of their names, and note the Sanskrit
equivalent when it can be identified."; Jacobi, S.B.E., XLV, p. 216. 16. Aluka, Amorphophallus companulatus. 17. Mülaka, radish. 18. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.96. 19. “A various reading has for the last two words ( which might be differently
divided, āpaikkeikandali. The Kandali. the plantain tree, occurs in the next
line again "; Jacobi S.B.E. XLV p. 216. 20. A Various reading is Kundambaya., Jacobi, Ibid. 21. Krishnakanda, Nyamrhaea Rubra. 22. Vajrakanda of the Sanskrit Koshas, Jacobi, S.B.E. XLV, p. 217. 23. Surana, Arum Campamumatum. 24. Ašvakarna is a tree. Vatika Robusta. Vide S.B.E. XLV, p. 217. 25. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.99; Pannavanā, 1.54, pp. 21-22. 26. Bhagavati Sūtra, 3.3.324. " Rukkha duvihā pannattā / Tamjaha-egatthiya bhubiyga
ya /", Pannavaņā Sutta, 1.39; Jivābhigama Sutra, p. 44. 27. Bhagavati Sūtra, 22.2.692. 28. Nighantu, Prathama Vškşakanda, V. 123, p. 68, Hemacandra

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tree, esp. acid quicea for medicine ), Umbehariya (Ficus glomerata ?),
ra ( or Khirini-Ascelpia rosea, Mimosa kauki or a Glomerous figtree), Dhāyai (Woodfordia floribund or Grishlea Tomentosa ), Piyāla (the tree Buchanania Latifolia, in Bengal commonly called Piyal), Puiya or Puikaramjā (Caesalpinja Bonducella ), Nivāyaga (Pongamia glabra ), Senahya or Senhā (Slakṣāna - Bauhinia Tomentosa or Caesalpinia ), Pāsiya 29 ( a kind of tree ), Sisavā (Simšapā - the ttee Dalbergia sissoo ), Asana ( Terminalia Tomentosa ), Punnaga (Nāgakesar - Mesua ferrea or Roxburghii), Nägarukkha (a kind of tree ), Sivana (SivanniSriparna-premna Spinosa or Longifolia or Omelina arborea ), Asoga (the tree Jonesia Asoka ), and besides others like them.30
Their roots, bulbs, stems, barks, branches and twigs are inhabited by innumerable bacteria, their leaves have single bacterius each; their flowers are the habitats of many bacteria and their fruits are singleseeded. For this reason these trees are called Egatthiyā (Ekastgikā 31 (monocotolydonous ?).
There are stated to be many kinds of Bahubījaka trees (manysecded trees), such as, Atihiya (Asthika =Guava ), Tinduga or Timdu (Diospyros embryopteris -Ebony ),32 Kavittha (Kapittha - Kothi, manyseeded plant, Feroma Elephantam ), Ambādaga (Amrātaka - Spondias mangifera or the hog drum tree ), Māulinga ( Mātulunga, Citrus medica, the citron tree), Billa ( Bilva, Aegle Marmelos ), Āmalaga (Phyllanthus Emblicus), Pharasa (Jack fruit or bread fruit tree - Artocarpus Integrifolia ), Dādima (the Pomogranate tree, Punica granatum ), Asottha or Asattha (Asattha - Ficus religiosa), Umbara (Udumbara - Ficus glomerat ) Vada = Vata (the Banyan tree-Ficus Bengalensis ), Naggoha (Nyagrodha, Ficus Bengalensis ), Namdirukkha ( Nandivpksa, Ficus retusa, or Cedrela Toona), Pippali (ri) ( Pippal tree, the sacred fig tree, Ficus Religiosa ), Sayari (Satavari, Asparagus Racemosus), Pilukkharukkha (plakşavsksa - Fig tree-Ficus Infectoria), Kāumvariya (Kādumvaria - the opposite leaved fig tree-Ficus opposite folia), Kucchumbbarika or Kutthumbhari (Kustumbharika - Coriandrum Sativa ), Devadāli (Luffa echinata ), Tilaga ( Tilaka tree - Clerodendrum ), Lauya (Lakuca Artecarpus Lacucha), 29. Bhagavati Sūtra, 22.2.692. 30. Bhagavati Sutra, 21-1.692 to 22.2.692; Pannavaņā, 1.40, p. 17; Jivābhigama
Sutta, 1.40, p. 17. 31. Bhagavati Sūtra, 8.3.324; Jivābhigama Sutta, p.45; Pannavaņā Sutta, I, 40, p. 17.
“Etesi ŋam mülā vi asamkhejjajiv ya, kamdā vi khamdhā vi tayā vi sälā vi pavālā vi / pattā patteyajiviya, pupphà anegajiviya phala egatthiya / settam
egathiya /". (zx) Bhs. 8.3.324; Pannavaņā 1.45. 32. Bhagavati Sūtra, 22.3.692; Paņņavaņā, 1.41, p. 17.

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Chattoha (Chatrangha -- Pterospermum Suberifolium), Sirisa (Širisa - Mimosa sirisa ), Sattavanna or Sattivanna (Saptaparna, Alstonia Scholaris, Seven-leaved tree ), Dahivanna ( Dadhiparna, a kind of manyseeded plant), Loddha (Symplocos Racemosa ), Dhava (Anogeissus Latifolia ), Candana (Sandal tree - Santalum Album ), Ajjuna, Arjuna - the Terminalia Arjuna ), Niva (Nipa ), (Nauclea Kadamba, or Anthocephalus Cadamba ) Kuduga or Kudaya (Kutuja, Hotarrhena antidysenteriea or a kind of tree ), Kalamba or Kayamba (Convolvulus repens or Nauclea Cadamba ) and besides others like them.33
Their roots, bulbs, stems, barks, branches and twigs are asa mkhyātajivikā ( the habitat of innumerable bacteria ); their leaves are pratyekajivikā (i. e. each leaf is inhabited by single bacterius; their flowers are inhabited by many bacteria and their fruits are many--seeded. For this reason they are called Bahubījaka.34
Gucchas (Shrubby Plants )
There are stated to be many kinds of Gucchas, such as, Vāimgani (Vrntaki -- brinjal ),35 Sallai ( Sallakı, Boswellia serrata ), Bodai ( Potaki?, a species of plant), Kacchurí (Kaccharā- cow hedge plant, Mucuna pruriens), Jūsumanā (a species of shrubby plant), Rūbi (Rübu - the castor oil plant, Ricinus communis ), Ādhai (Tuber, Cajanus indicus ), Nili (Indigofera tinctoria ), Tulsi (Ocimum sanctun ), Māulimgi (citrus medica, Katthumbhari ( species of shrubby plant ), Pippaliya (piper longum ), Atasi (linseed, Linum Ultissimum ), Billi (or Billa, Asa Foetida ?), Kāyamai (Kākamācī, Solanum nigrum), cuccu (Chunch, a kind of vegetable plant), Padola (Patola, Trichisanthus cucumerina or Trichosanthes Dioeca ), Kamdali (Crinum diffusum ), Bāuccā (Bākuci, Psoralia corylifolia), Vatthula (a fibrous green plant ), Badara ( Bora, Zyziphus jujuba ), Pattaura (Pattura Amaranthus Paniculatus or Achyranthes Triandra ), Siyauraya ( Setura ?, Mulberries - Morus Indica ), Javasaya ( the China rose plant or Hibiscus plant or Hibicus rosa pinensis), Niggumdi (Nirgundi, Vitex negundo), Akka (Arka, the plant calotripis Gigantea ), Tuvari (Cajanus Sativa ), Adbai (Cajanus Indicus ), Talada ( Talakota, a shrubby plant), Saņa ( Sāņa, Crotalaria Juneda ), Vāņā (Vānira ?, Salix tetrasperma ?), Kāsā (Sachharum spontaneum ), Maddaga ( a kind of shrubby plant ), Agaghädaga (a kind of shrubby plant), Sāma 33. Bhagavati Sūtra, 22.3.692; Jivābhigama Sutta, pp. 45-46; Pannavană Sutta, I. 41,
p. 17. 31. Bhagavati Sūtra, 8.3.324; Jivābhigama Sutta, p. 45; Pannavaņā Sutta, I. 1.41,
pp. 17-18. 35. Bhagavali Sutra, 24.4.692.

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(Panicum species ), Simduvāra (Vitex trifolia, five-leaved chaste or tree ), Karamaddae (Karamardaka -Carissa Carandus), Addarūsaga (a kind of shrubby plant ), Karīra (Capparis asphylla ), Eravaņa (a kind of shrubby plant), Mahittha (a kind of shrubby plant), Jāulaga (a kind of shrubby plant ), Māla (Mālati, Jasminum grandiflorum ), Parili (a kind of shrubby plant), Gayamārini (a kind of shrubby plant), Kucca (a kind of shrubby plant ), Kāriyā (a kind of shrubby plant ), Bhamdi (Rubia cordifolia ), Jāvai (a kind of shrubby plantJasmio um grandiflorum ), Keyai ( Ketaki, the tree Pandanus Odorativimus ), Gamja (Gupja - Abrus precatorius), Pādala (Steriospermum Chelonoides), Dāsi ( Barleria cristata ), Amkolla ( Alangium Salvifolium Syn, Alangrum Lamarku) and besides others like them.36
GULMAS (Shrubs)
Gulmas are of many kinds, such as, Seriya (Saireyaka, Barleria grandiflora, prionitis ), Nomaliya (Navamālikā, Jasminum Sambac ?), Koramtaya (Barleria prionitis species ), Bandoujivaga (Pentapetes phoenicea), Manojja (a kind of shrub), Priya (Curcuma Aromatic), Pāna (the betel plant), Kanaira (a kind of gulma ), Kujjaya (Rosa moschata ), Sinduvira (Vitex trifolia ), Jāi (Jāti Jasminum auriculatum), Moggara (Jasminum species ), Juhiya ( Yüthikā Jasminum auriculatum ), Malliyā (Mallikā, Jasminum Sambac ), Vāsanti (Hepatag bengalensis ), Vatthula (a kind of shrub ), Kacchula (Longzedoary, Curcuma Zedoaria ?), Sevāla ( Saivāla - Ceratophyllum demersum - Saivāla plants ), Gamthi (Granthila ? a kind of gulma ), Magadantiya ( a kind of Gulma ), Campagaiāti (Campakajāti, plumeria or Michelia Campaka ), Navaniya ( a kind of Gulma), Kunda (a kind of Jasmine - Jasminum multiflorum or pubescens), Mahājāti (Gaertnera Racemosa) and besides others like them.37
LATĀ (Vines or Creepers )
There are many kinds of vines, such as Padmalatā ( a kind of lotus plant- Lotus Nelumbo nucifera), Nāgalatā (a kind of crecper, Piper Betle or Betel ), Asogacampakalatā (a kind of creeper), Cūtalatā (a kind of creeper), Vanalatā (a kind of creeper), Vāsa ntilatā (a kind of creeper), Atimuktakalatā (Madhavitata, Hiptage Bengalensis ), Kundalatā (a kind of creeper ), Sāmalatā (a creeper) and others like them.38 It seems the creeps of different species of flower plants. 36. Pannavaņā, 1, 42, p. 18. 37. Paņņavaņā Sutta, 1.43, p. 19. 38. Pannavaņa Sutta, 1, 45, p. 19.

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VALLI (Creeping Plants )
There are many kinds of Vallis, such as, Pusaphali (a kind of creeping plant), Pusha ( a kind of creeping plant ), Tumbi ( Bottle Gourd -Lagenarja Vulgaris ), Tausi ( Trapusa, Cucumis sativus ), Padala ( Patolā, Trichisanthus cucumerina ), Pamcaguliyā (Pañcangulika Ricinus communis which has 5-lobed leaves ), Nālīyā (Nālikā, Indivari latāyam nadiśāke (nālukā or Nalitā, Arum coloeasia ), Kamguyā (Kamguka, Panicum miliaceum ), Kadduiya (a kind of creeping plant), Kakkodai ( Kākadi, Cucumber, Cucumis Sativus ), Kāriyallai ( Momordica Charantia ), Subhagā (a kind of Valli), Kuvadhā (yā) (a kind of Valli), Vāgali= Vāgulipati (Buchaniania Latifolia ?), Pavavalli (a kind of Valli ), Atimuttaya (Madhavilatā,, Hiptage madablota ), Nāgalatā (A kind of Valli ), Kanha ( Piperaceae - Piper longum ), Suravalli ( Rollerea Tinctoria
?), Sanghatta (a kind of Valli), Jāsuvana (a kind of Valli ), Kuvimdevalli ( a kind of Valli), Muddiya (Mrdvikä? Munakkā, Vitis Vinifera ), Appā (a kind of Valli, the red lotus type ), Bhalli (Semacarpus Anacardium ), Chiravirāli (Ipomoea digitala = Kșiravidāri?), Jiyanti = Jivanti (Leptodania ) reticuta ), Govāli (Gopavali Gopa plant, Sanseviera Roxburghiana), Pani (a kind of Valli), Mäsävali (a kind of Valli), Gunjavalli (Abrus Precatorius), Vacchāni (a kind of Valli), Sasbindu ( a kind of Valli), Gottaphusiya (a kind of Valli), Girikannai (Girikarnika =Clitoria ternatea), Māluya Malurā (a kind of sweet patato plant or Aegle Marmelos ), Amjanai (a kind of Valli, Hardwickia pinnata ), Daha - Phullai (a kind of Valli), Kāgani (a kind of Valli), Mogali (hedge, a kind of Valli), Akkaboindi ( a kind of Valli) and besides others like them.39
PARVAGAS (Knotty Plants )
There are many kinds of Parvagas, such as, Ikkhu ( Iksu, Sugarcane, Saccharum Officinarum ), Ikkhuvādi (Iksuvātika, saccharum officinarumthe common yellow cane ), Virana (Andro-pogon Muricatus ), Ekkada (Sesbania aculeata), Bhamasa (a kind of knotty plant), Sara (Sara, Eragrostis cynosuroides), Vetta (cane, calamus Rotang or Fasciculatus ), Timira (Tavariya, a kind of Parvaga ), Sata porga (sata poraka, a kind of Sugar cane ), Nala (Amphidonax - Karka 8-12 feet high or phragmites Karka ), Vamsa (Vamsa, bamboo cane, Bambus, araudinacea ), Velu ( Venu? Dendrocalamus strictus), Kanaka (a kind of Bamboo or Dhamiūroj, Kamkavamsa (a kind of Bamboo), Cavavamsa (Cāpāvansa, a kind of Bamboo ), Udaka (a kind of knotty plant), Kudaka (a kind oi Bamboo, Kudā Vamsa found in Bangladesa ), Vimaka ( Vimacamdā, probably it 39. Paņņavaņā Sutta, 1, 45, p. 19.

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is Andropogon acicubilus ), Kamdāvelu ( a kind of knotty plant ), Kallāna ( a kind of knotty plant ), and others like them.40
Trnas (grasses ) :
Trņas (grasses) are of many kinds, such as, Sediya (a kind of grass - Cassia Jona ), Bhattiya (a kind of grass ), Hottiya (a kind of grass ), Darbha (a kind of grass - Eragrostis cynosuroides), Kusa ( Kusa grass - Poa cynosuroides), Pavvana (a species of pot-herb ), Podailā ( Pharagmites Karka or a species of reed-Saccharum Spontanum ), Ajjuna (Arjuna - a kind of grass, Tețmanalia tomentosa ?), Asādhaka ( a kind of grass ), Rohiyamsa ( a kind of grass, Cymbopogon Schoenathus ), Suya ( Sūsā ?, Cassia orientalis ), Veya ( Calamus Rotang?), Khira (a kind of grass ), Tusa (Termanalia Bellerica ), Eranda (Ricinus communis ), Kuruvinda (Cyperus rotundus Linn, nut grass ), Kakkha da Suntha (a kind of grass), Vibhangu, (a kind of grass ), Mahurataņa ( a kind of grass ), Lunaya (Portulacaca oleraces lim ), Sippiya (a kind of grass), Sumkalitrna41 (a kind of grass), and others like them.
VALAYAS (palms ) :
There are many kind of Valayas, such as, Tāla (Palmyra tree ), Tamäla ( Tamāla tree, Cinnamomum Tamāla ), Takkali (Pictorius or Premna integrifolia or Pigmenta acris ), Teyali (Tetali = a species of palm ), Sāra (a kind of Palm ), Sārakallāna ( a kied of Palma ), Sarala (a species of pine, Pinus longifoila ), Jāvati (a kind of Palma ), Keyai ( Pandanus odoratissimus ), Dhammarukkha or Cammarukkha (a kind of Palm or the Parchment tree ). Bhūyarukkha (Bhurjavęksa ?), Betula utilis, a kind of Palm ), Hingurukkha (Ferula alliacea, Asafoetida ), Layangarukkha ( Lavanga tree, Caryophyllus aromaticus, the clove tree ), Pūyaphali (Pūgaphali, the areca nut tree, Araca catechu, Betel nut palm ), Khajjuri (the date tree, Date Palm, Phoenix Sylvestris ), Nälieri (Cocoanut tree ),42 and besides others like them.
HARIYA43 ( Harita, Herbs ) :
There are many kinds of herbs, such as, Ajjoruha (Divya uşadhi, a kind of herb ), Vodāna (a kind of herb ), Haritaga (a kind of green herb ), Tandulejjaga ( Tanduliyaka, Amarantus Polygamous ), Tana (any 40. Ibid., 1. 6, p. 19. 41. Pannavaņā Sutta, 1, 47, p. 20; Bhagavati Sūtra, 21.6.691. 42. Bhagavati Sūtra, 8.3.324; 21.6.691; 22.1.692. 43. Pannavaņā, 1.48, p. 20. J. B.-11

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gramineous plant, a kind of herb), Vatthula (a fibrous green plant, a kind of herb, Vastuka Chenopodium album ?), Paraga (a kind of herb), Majjāra (Plumbago Rosea or Termanalia Katappa), Pai (a kind of herb), Billi a kind of herb), Palakkā (Spinacea oleracia ), Dagapippali (a kind of herb), Davvi (Darvi, Berberis asiatica Roxb), Sotthiyasaka (a kind of herb), Mandukki ( Brahmi, Thyme leaved cratiola or Hydrocotyle asciatica), Mulaga (Raphanus Sativus), Sarisava (Mustard, Brassica species), Ambilasaka a kind of herb), Jiyamtaka (Jivantaka, a parasitical plant, a kind of pot-herb, Cocculus Cordifolius), Tulsi (Ocimum Sanctum), Kanha (Krṣṇa? - Black pepper ?), Urala (a kind of herb), Phanijja (Phanijjaka ocimum Basilicum), Ajjaka (Arjaka, orthocyphon palidus), Bhunaka (a kind of herb), Coraga (Anegelica glanca), Damanaga (Damanaka, Artemisia Sieversiana), Maruyaga (Marubaka, Sweet marjoram, Origamum marjoram or Ocimum Basilicum), Sayapupphi (Peucedanum graveolens or Crotalaria Spectabalis ), Indivaar (a kind of herb), and others like them.44
Jaina Biology
OSAHI (Annual plants):
There are many kinds of Osahi (annual plant) such as, Bäli oryza Sativa), Vihi (a kind of rice) Godhuma (Wheat), Javajavä (a kind of barley), Hordeum Vulgarae (a kind of barely), Kalaya (a kind of pulse - Lathyrus sativa), Masura (Lentil), Tila (Sesamum), Mugga (Phaseolus, Mungo), Masa (a kind of pulse, Phasecolus radiatus), Nipphäva45 (Rajaśimbi, Dolichos lablab), Kulattha (Kulthi, Dolichos uniflora), Alisa mda46 (Cabalaka prakāraḥ, Vigna Catnaga, Varbati), Satina (Vaṭana Tubarcane, a kind of peaze, Pisum Arvense ), Palimamtha (Matar, Vṛttacanaka, a kind of annual plant), Ayasi (Linseed, bhangi, Linum usitatissimum), Kusumbha (Laṭṭa, Carthamus tinctorious), Koddava (Kodrava, Paspalum Scrobicutalium), Kangu (Millet, a kind of parric seed, Panicum miliaceum), Ralaga (Kanguvise ṣa, a kind of annual plant), Varasāmaga (Varaṭṭa, a kind of annual plant), Kadūsā or Kadusaga47 (Kodraviśeṣa, a kind of annual plant), Śana (flax), Sarisava (Mustard), Mulaga ( radish ), Bīyaka (Pteroearpus, marsupium) and others like them.48
44. Pannvvana, 1.49, p. 20.
45. Nipphava is also called valla. See Bṛhatkalpa Sutra Bhāṣya, 5.6049. According to Jacobi, it is Dolichos Senesis (Jain Sutras XLV, p. 374).
46. According to Weter, Alismdaga was a grain imported from Alexandria after the name of which it is called Alisaṁdaga, See Indian Antiquary, Vol. XIX, Jaina Section.
47. The Mahabharata, refers to Karadusaka as best corn (Mbh. III. 193.19). 48. Pannavana Sutta, I. 50, pp. 20-21; See Bhagavati Sūtra 6.7.249; 21.2.693.

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JALARUHA (Water-plants or Aquatic plants ) :
There are many kinds of Jalaruhas (water plants ), such as, Udaka (a kind of lotus ), Avakā (a grassy plant growing in marshy land, Blyxa, Octandra ), Papaga (a kind of fungus born in water ), Sevāla (algac), Kalambuyā (Kalambuka, Convolvulus repens, or Ipomaea a quatica), Hodha (Hatha ? Jalakumbhika ), the westerlattuce, (Pisti Stratiotes ), Kaccha (Kakṣā, a kind of water-plant, Termanalia Bellerica ?), Bhāní (a kind of water-plant), Utpala (Lotus, Nymphaea Caerubea ), Padma (a kind of lotus ), Kumuda (Water lily, Nelumbium Speciosum), Nalina (Water-Lily- Nelumbium Speciosum species ), Subhaga (a kind of water-plant, Glycine Debilis, Cyperus Rotundus ), Sugandhika (a kind of blue or white water-lily), Pondarika ( a variety of lotus, white lotus ), Mabāponda rika (a variety of lotus, of large size ), Sayapatia ( Sata patra, a kind of lotus having hundred petals ), Sahassa patta (a kind of lotus having thousand petals ), Kalbāra (red lotus ), Kokanada (a kind of red lotus ), Aravinda (a kind of lotus ), Tāmarasa ( a kind of lotus ), Bhisa (a kind of water-plant), Bhisamunāla ( a kind of water-plant), Pokkhala ( Puşkala or Puskara, a kind of lotus ), Pokkhalatthibhae (a kind of lotus), and others like them.49
KUHANS (Plants which cause the earth to burst 150:
There are many kinds of Kuhana, such as, Aya (a kind of Kuhana ), Kāya (a kind of Kuhana ), Kuhana (mushroom-Toad-stool ), Kunakka (a kind of Kuhana ), Davvahaliya ( a kind of Kuhana, Darvaharidra ?), Sapphāka (a kind of Kuhana ), Sajjaka (a kind of Kuhana, Shorea robusta ?), Sittāka (a kind of Kuhana ), Vamsi (a kind of Kuhan, Bambusa araudinacea ?), Nahiya (a kind of Kuhana ), Kuraka ( a kind of Kuhana) and besides others like them.51
The above mentioned plants severally have their own respective bodies (pratye kaśarira ).52
Trees are of various shapes (ņāņāvihasamthāņa ); their leaves are ekajivikā (i. e. each leaf has got one soul); the stems (Skandhas) of palmyra tree (Tāla), Pinus longifolia (Sarala ) and cocoanut tree (Nälieri) are also inhabited by one soul in each.53 Just as the vatti (light or lamp ) made of mustard seeds mixed with sticky thing exists, just so, the collection or combination of the bodies of pratyekasarira
49. Pannavaņā Sūtta, 1.51, p. 21. 50. e. g. Sarpachatra, mushroom (toad-stoo) ). 51. Paņņa vaņā Sutta, 1.52, p. 21; Jiväbhigama Sutta, p. 46. 52. Ibid. 33. "Nāņāvihasamthāņa rukkhāņām egajiviyā pattā / Khamdho vi egajivo tāla-sarala
- nalierīņam 1/447/", Pannavaņā 1.53, p. 21; Jivabhigama Sutta, p. 46.

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jivas exists.54 Or just as Tilapāpdis (Sesamum Cakes ) made of many tilas (grains of Sesamum seeds ), exist, just so the collection (or combination) of the bodies of pratyekaśarīrajivas remain55 together.
Plants have also been grouped into three types on the basis of the number of beings or bacteria existing in their respective bodies, viz. Samkhyātajivika (the plant in which there live countable bacteria ), Asaṁkhyātajivikā ( the plant in which (there) reside innumerable bacteria ) and Anantajivikā (the plant in which (there ) live infinite bacteria ).56 Under the first type there come the following plants, viz. Täla (palmyra tree ) up to Nālieri ( cocoanut tree ), while under the second type (asa mkhyāta jivikā) there are two kinds of plant, viz. ekasthikā (one seeded plant and bahubījaka (many-seeded plant), e. g. Nimba, Āmra, etc. are one-seeded, while Asthika (guava ), Tinduka (Diospyrosembryoteris ), Dadima ( Pomogranate ), etc. fall under the second variety (bahubījaka ).57 The third natural order (anantajīvikā) consists of the following plants, viz. Aluka ( white Patato ), Mülaka (radish ), Singavera (ginger ), upto Musundhi and others like them. This classifi plants is scientifically sound when considered in the light of modern Biology.58
SĀDHĀRANASARĪRAVĀDARAVANASPATIKĀYIKAS
(Gross plant bodies beings having Common body ) There are stated to be many kinds of Sadhāra naśarīrabād aravanaspatikāyikas, such as, Ava kā (a kind of grassy plant growing in marshy sand, Blyxa. Octandra Rich ), otherwise, called Saivāla), Panaga (Panakafungus or a kind of Arum ), Sevāla (Saivala = algae ), Lohini ( Rohini= Soyida febrifuga?), Mihü (a kind of medicinal plant), Thībū(a kind of plant), Asakanni (Ašvakarni = Dipterocarpus or the tree Vatica Robusta ), Sībakanni (Simbakarņi=a kind of plant ), Siumdhi (Simumdhi = a kind of plant, the shrub Arbus pricatorius ), Musumdhi (a kind of plant), Ruru (a species of fruit tree ), Kamduriyā (Kundarika= a kind of plant ), Jārü (a kind of plant or Jiru Cuminum cyminum ), Chiravirāli ( a kind of plant, Kșīravidārikā, having kanda, Ipomaea digitata?), Kitthiyā (Kitti = a kind of plant), Haliddā (Haridrā = curcuma longa ), Sringavera (ādu=ginger ), Aluga (Bața ța = patatoo ), Mulaga ( Mūla, radish ), Kambu (Kambuyā=a kind of plant), Kanhakadbu 54. “Ja ha sagala sarisavāņam silesamissāna vațiyā vatti / patteyasarirānam taba
h mti sarirasanghayā //4"//", Pannavaņā, 1.53.45. 55. “Jaha vā tilapappadiya bahuebim tilehi samhitā samti / Patteya sarirāņari taha
horti sarirasam: hāya 1/461/", Ibid., I. $3.46, p. 21 56. Bhagavati Sūtra, 8.3.324. 57. Ibid. 58. Ibid., 7.3.276; 8.3.324.

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(Kannukka da = a kind of plant ), Mahuo (Madhuka ? = Glycerrhiza glabra ), Valai (a kind of plant ), Mahusimgi (Madhuśrmgi=a kind of plant), Niruha (Niruhā=a kind of plant ), Sappasuyamdhā (Sarpasugamdā, the ichenumon plant), Chinnaruhā (Galo = Clerodendrum phlo. moides ), Biyaruhā ( Bījaruha = a kind of plant growing from seed ), Pādha (pāțba =Cyclea peltata ), Miyavāluṁki (Mrgavālumki ra kind of plant), Mahurarasa (Madhurarasa, a species of Glycerrhiza glabra ), Rāyavalli (Rajavalli =Paedaria foetida or Momordica Charantion), Paumā Padmä= Bhäramgira kind of lotus), Mādhari (Mādhuri ? = Foeniculum Vulgarae), Damti ( Baliospermum montanum ), Camdi (a species of plant), Kitti (Kitthira species of plant ), Māsapaņņi (Māsaparnī= Jangli Adada Glycine Debilis ), Muggapanni (Mudgaparni = Phaseolus Trilobus ); Jiviya (Jivika or Jīvaka = the plant Jivanti, or a species of Pterocarpus marsupium ), Rasabheya (Rsabhaka =a kind of plant), Renuyā (Renukā= Vitex agnus-castus), Kāoli ( Kākoli= A svagamdhä = the plant physalis Flexuosa ), Khirakakoli (a kind of plant), Bhamgi (Cannabis Sativa), Nahi (a kind of plant), Kimirāsi (Krmirāśī = a species of plant), Bhaddamutthā (Bhadramustā= Motha, a kind of Cyperus tuberosus), Namgalai (Lamgalai-The Glory lily-Gloriosa Superba), Paluga ( Pelugā = a kind of plant), Kinha (Krsna = a king of plant, Black pepper plant?), Paula (a kind of plant ), Hadha (Hath = Jalakumbhikā, a kind of plant ), Harataņuyā ( Haratanukā = a kind of plant ), Kanha (Krsnakanda, the lotus = Nymphaea rubra), Vajja (Vajrakanda = a species of bulbous plant), Surandkanda (Amorphophallus Campanulatus), Khalluda (Khaltura = a kind of plant ) and others like them. They are anantajivikā ( inhabited by infinite bacteria ).59
Trnamūla (root of grass ), Kandamūla (root of bulb or tuberous root), Vamśamūla (root of bamboo ) are inhabited by numerable, innumerable and infinite bacteria.
The Guccha (shrubs or fibrous root) of Simghādaga (Sțngāțaka = Trapa bispinosa ), is the habitat of many bacteria, its leaves are inhabited by individual bacterius in each leaf, while its fruits are inhabited by two bacteria in each fruit.60
There are infinite bacteria residing in the root, bulb, stem, bark, branch, twig, leaf, flower, fruit, and seed of the plant or plants which break clean (Samabhanga )61 in equal part. 59. Pannavaņā Sutta, I. 54, 1, 47-53. 60. Ibid., I. 54-2, 54-55. 61. "Jassa mulassa bhaggassa samo bhamgo padisae / up to Jassa biyassa bhaggassa
samo bhamgo padisai / anamtajive u se bie, je yava anne tahavihā 1/65//", Ibid., 1. 54.3, vy. 56-6).

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There is the presence of limited bacteria (or single bacterius) in the roots, bulbs, stems, bark, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds of the plants which show thread (fiber) inside, when brkoen into parts.62
86
If the bark of any root, bulb, stem and branch of a plant covering the wood of these parts is thicker than the wood, then it is inhabited by infinite bacteria.63 If the bark of any root, bulb, stem and branch of a plant is thinner than the wood of these parts, then it is inhabited by parittajīvas (limited bacteria of individual or single bacterius ).64
If the circular joint of a plant, when broken, is found to be full of much powder like things just as that of dried up earth, it is inhabited by infinite bacteria.65
If the leaf of a plant has unexposed veins of leaf branch, waxy cutin or milky substance (Kṣiram) or no waxy cutin (niḥkṣiram) and imperceptible joints of leaf branch, it is endowed with infinite bacteria.66
Flowers aquatic and terrestrial (Jalaja and sthalaja) connected with stalk and hollow stalk (or tuble) (Vṛntabaddha and nalabaddha) are inhabited by numerable, innumerable and infinite bacteria.67
Flowers which are connected with stalk (nalika) are resided by numerable bacteria. Euphorbia nivuiia (Nihuya68 saihupuspa) are inhabited by infinite bacteria up to those like them also. The bulbs of Padma and Utpala (species of lotus ), Antarakanda (that of Antarapuspa) 62. "Jassa mulassa bhaggas sa hiro bhamge padisai parittajive u se mule, je yava anne tahaviha up to jassa biyassa bhaggassa hiro bhaige padisai parittajive u se bie, je yava anne tahaviha //75//", Ibid., 1.54, 65.75.
"Jassa mulassa katthão challi bahalatari bhave / Anamtajiva u sa challi, ja yāva, anna tahaviha //76// up to jise salãe kaṭṭhão challi bahulatari bhave / Anamtajīvā u sa challi, ja yāva, anna tahaviha //79/", Pannavana I. 54, 5, 76-79.; See Gommaṭasara, Jivakaṇḍa, v. 189, p. 117.
"Jassa mulassa katthão challi taṇuyatari bhave / Parittajiva u sa challi, jāyāva anṇā tahaviha //80// up to jise salãe kaṭṭhão challi tanuyari bhave / Parittajivā u sa challi, ja yava, anna tahaviha //83/", Ibid., vv. 80-83; Gommatas āra (Jīva.) v. 189, p. 117.
63.
64.
6). "Cakkagam bhajjamāṇassa gamthi cunnaghano bhave / Pudhavisarisena bheyena
anamtnjivam viyāṇāhi //84//", Pannavana I, 5, 7.84, p. 124.
66. "Güḍhachiraga pattam sacchiramiam ca hoti nicchiram/jam piya paṇatthasaṁdbi
anamtajivaṁ viyāṇāhi /" Pannavana I, 54, 7, 85.
Samkhejjamasa m
"Pupphä jalaya thalaya ya vemtabaddha ya ṇalabaddha ya khejjā bodhavva anamtajiva ya //86//" Ibid., I. 54, 8, 86, p. 24.
68. "Thorana puspo ane tena jevā bija puspo chhe te anantajivavala hoya chhe ", Prajñāpanānuvada, p. 117, Bhagavandas.; "Nihuya anamtajiva, je yāva anne tahaviha (87), Pannavana Sutta I. 54-8, v. 87.
67.

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and like them Indigofera pancifolia (Jhilli) are the habitats of iofinite bacteria, but their stalk and fibre are pervaded by one soul or being. 69
The bulbs of Onion, garlic, plaintain and Kusumbaka (Kustumbaka ? Carthamus tinctorious ) are parittajīvas ( inhabited by limited or individual bacteria) upto those like them.70
The stalks (Vịnta ), external leaves (bāhirapatras ), pericarps (karnikās) of Padma, Nalina, Subhaga, Soga mdhikas, Aravinda, Kokanada, Satapatra and Sahasrapatra71 are pervaded by one soul (or of one soul in cach ), while their internal leaves (abbhimtaraga patta ), the filaments (Kesara ) and seeds (mimjā = Kamal Kākadi ) are inhabited by individual soul or being72 in each.
The eyes (acchim, i.e. buds ), joint (parva) and circular ring of the joint (Balimodao = parimotaka parvanu pariveştana ) of Venu Dendro calamus Strictus, Nala (Phragmites Karka ), Ikkhnvādiya (Iksuvātika = Saccharum Spontaneum ), Masama-Saikkhu (Samāsaiksu = a kind of Sugarcane ), Ikkıda (Sesbania aculeata ), Eranda (Randa = Ricinus communis ), Karakara (a kind of plant), Suņthi (a kind of ginger), Vihumgu (a kind of Vanaspati ) Tana (trna = grass) and Parvagas (trees having joints ) are of one soul (or single soul) in each. Their leaves are pratye kajivikā (inhabited by individual soul), while their flowers are anekajīvā ( inhabited by many bacteria ).73
Pussaphala (a kind of fruit), Kālimga (Tarbuca = Cucumis Usitatissimus or water-melon ), Tumba ( the Gourd Lagenaria vulgaris ), Trapusa (Kākadi = cucumber ), Eelavālu (Prunus Cerasus Linn), Vālunka (Vāluka = a species of Prunus cerasus), Ghoşātaka (Luffa acutangula ? ), Patola (trichosanthus, cucumerina ), Tindoka (Diospyros embryopteris ), Tendusa ( a kind of plant ) and Their Vimta (stalk ), Samamsa-kadāha (SamāmsaKațāha = fleshy part of fruit = ovary and upper skin of the fruit) are of one soul (i. e. pervaded by one soul). Their leaves are pratyekaṁ ( inhabited by individual bacteria ) and also their filamental and non69. “ Paumuppalinikamde amtarokande taheva jhilli ya / etc. anamtajivā ego jivo
bhi sa-muņāle" (88), Ibid., v. 88. " Palamu-lbasana kamda ya kandali ya Kusumbae/ Ee parittajivā, je yāva
anne tähāvihā" (89), Ibid. v. 89. 71. All are different species of lotus. 72. “Paumuppala haliņānaṁ subhaga-sogardhiyāna ya l......Abbhimtaragā pattā
patteyam kesarā miṁjā ", Ibid., v. 90-91. 73. Veņu nala ikkhuvadiya masama saikkhủ ya ikkaderamde /...... patteyar pattālm
puppbaim aņegajivaim” II (93), Ibid. vy. 92-93.

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filamental (sakesara and akeśara) and seeds (mimja) are resided by individual bacteria in each.74
Sapphāya (Sampaka ?, Catharto earpus fistula ? ), Sajjae ( Sajjhaya = a kind of plant), Uvveheliyā (a kind of Vanaspati), Kuhana (mushroom) and Kanduka (a kind of Vanaspati = betel nut?) are anamtajīvā (inhabited by infinite bacteria), while Kandukka may be alternately anamtajivā and may be parittajīva or (pratyekajīvā ) (inhabited by individual bacteria ) also.75
The plant life (or soul) existing in seed in its dormant stage is born (or manifests itself) in germinating seed or another soul (or life) comes into existence in it. But the soul (or life ) which is in the root is also pervading the first leaf (prathama patra) at this stage of the plant's life, all shoots of the plant, being sprouted, are called anantajīvā (inhabited by infinite bacteria ). That shoot, while growing, becomes parittajiva (inhabited by individual or limited beings or bacteria ) or anantajivā ( inhabited by infinite bacteria).
There take place simultaneously the birth, formation of bodies, receiving of matter and respiration of Sadhāranaśarīrabädaravanaspatikāyikas (bacteria having common body ).77
That which is the receiving of one of Sadhāranaśarīrabādaravanaspatikāyikas is that of many of them. That which is the receiving of many is the receiving of one in short. The common food and the common respiration are the common differentia of these common (group) beings having inclusion-bodies78 (Sadhāranasarira).
Just as the iron ball, when heated in fire, becomes red like heated gold - all got transformed into fire, just so the Nigodajivas (viruses ) which are also sādharāna sarīravanas patikāyika should be known in 74. Pussaphalam kalimgam tumbam tauselavālu vālumkam / Ghosādayam Padola
Tindűyam ceva Tendūsam (94) Vimța samamsa-Kadāham eyain homti egajivassa patteyam pattaim sakesaramakesaraṁ mimjā //” (95). Pannavaņā Sūtra, I. 54. 8,
vv. 94-95. 75. “Sapphãe sajjāe uvvehaliyā ya Kuhana Kamdukke / Ee anamtajivá Kamukke
hoti bhayaņāu //" (96), Ibid., v. 96. 76. "Joņibbhūe bie jivo vakkamai so va anno vā / jo vi ya mūle jivo so vi ya pitte
padhamalae /!" (97), "Savvo vi kisalao Khalu uagamamāņo anamtao bhaņio /
So ceva vivaddhanto hoi paritto anamte vā//" (98), Ibid., 1.54.9, 97-98. 77. "Samayam Vakkamtāņam samayam tesim sariranivvatti / Samayām āņuggabaņam
samavam ūsāsa-pisāse //" (99), Pannavaņā Sūtra. I, 5.10, 99. 78. "Ekkassa u jam gahaņam bahūņam sahāraņāņatam ceva / Jam bahuyānam gahanam
samāsao tam pi eggassa //" (100), “ Saharanamāhāro sahāraṇamānuyāṇāga hanam ca / Sähāraṇajivāņam sāharaṇalakkaņam eyam /" (101), Ibid., vy. 100, 101.

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regard to their receiving of common food and common respiration. The body of one or two or numberable Nigodas cannot be seen, but the inclusion-bodies (Sadhāraṇasarıra) of infinite Nigodajivas are perceptible.79
Here it is to be noted that Nigodajivas come under the category of Sadhāranasariravanaspatikāyikas. They compare well with microorganisms - viruses, bacteriophages and rickettsias of Biology.
“Although individual virus particles cannot be seen, virus - infected cells frequently contain “inclusion bodies ” which are visible with an ordinary microscope. These are belived to be huge colonies of viruses.''80
SĀDHĀRANAŚARĪRASŪKŞMAVANASPATIKĀYIKAS
(Subtile plant bacteria having common body )
Their existence is accepted on the basis of the evidence of the Agamas (āņāgejjhā ), but they are not perceptible to the eyes.81 They are of two kinds, viz. developed (paryāptaka ) and undeveloped (aparyāptaka ).82 Those which are aparyāptaka are asamprāpta (undeveloped ).83 Those which are paryāptaka are of thousand kinds with regard to colour, smell, taste, touch and have numberable lakhs of birth-place (Saṁkhejjāim jonippamuhasa yasahassāim ). Aparyāptakas are born with the support of Paryäptakas. There where one paryäptaka exists may be numberable or innumerable or infinite aparyäptakas 84.
Subtile Plants (Sūkşma Vanaşpati)
The subtile plants are of one kind, as there is no variety. They are distributed all over the world, gross plants are found in a part of the world only.85 With regard to the continuous flow (or development of a plant body ) it is without a beginning and an end; but with 79. “ Jaha ayagola dhamto jāo tattatavaņijjasamkāso / Savvo agaạipariņato nigoyajive
tabā jana 1/102//”; Egassa donba tinha va samkhejjāņa va na pasium sakka !
Disamti sarīrāim niyojivāna anamtánam //1031”, Ibid., v. 102, 103. 80. Biology, p. 139. 81. "Sūhumā aṇāgejjhā cakkhuphasam na te emti", Pannavaņa, 1. 54, p. 26. 82. “Te sam sao duvibā pannattā, tamjaha-pajjattaga ya apajjattaga ya ". Ibid.,
1.55, p 26. 83. Ibid., 155.3. 84. "Tattha nam je te pajjattaga tesim vannadeseņam gardhadesenam rasādesenam
phasādesenam sahassaggaso vihäņāim, samkhejjāim joņippamuhasyasahassāim / Pajjattaganissae apajjattagā vakkamamti-jattha ego tattha siya samkhejja siya
aņarta /", Ibid. 85. Egavihamanāņaita, suhumā tattha viyahiya / Suhuma savvalogammi, logadesa ya
bayara /", Uttar ādhyayana Sutra, 36.10). J. B.-12

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regard to its existence in its present form it has both a beginning and an end.86
Duration of Life of Plants :
Ten thousand years is the longest duration of the life of plants; its shortest is less than a muhurta. The longest duration of the plantlives, if they do not leave that type, i. e. the continuous birth in the same type, is an immeasurable time; the shortest is less than one muhurta.
The longest interval between a plant life's leaving its body (till its return to it ) is an endless time; the shortest is less than one muhurta. Their varieties, caused by difference of) colour, smell, taste, touch, figure and place are counted by thousands.87
The above statement of Jaina Biology on the duration of life and growth of plant-life needs a scientific study and verification in the light of Biology. It is true according to modern Biology that "some organisms - most trees, will grow indefinitely " 88
86. "Samtāim pappa nāiya, apajjavasiya vi ya / Thiim paducca săiya sapajjava siya
vi ya 1/", Ibid., 36.101. 87. Ibid., 36; 102-105. 88. Biology, p. 18.

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Bacteria, Algae and Fungi
BACTERIA:
Occurrance of Bacteria :
The account of the types of plants-subtile and gross as given in the Jaina Agamas throws a welcome light upon the plant kingdom, touching upon the life of both subtile and gross plants and bacterial living in plant's body as there are not many places in the world as devoid of bacteria.2 They are also mentioned as individual earth-lives, water-lives, fire-lives and wind-lives.3 These earth-quadrates of the Jainas are called bacteria in modern Biology and their life is explained in the following manner :
“They have been found as 16 feet deep in soil; they are most numerous in the top 6 inches of soil, where it is estimated that there are about 100,000 per cubic centimeter. They are found in fresh and salt-water and even in the ice of glacier. They are abundant in air, in liquids, such as, milk, and in and on the bodies of animals and plants, both living and dead."4 The Jaina view on the earth-quadrates is well supported by Biology at it appears from the study of their life.
It is further stated in the Jaina Āgams that earth, roots, bulbs, stems, branches, twigs, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds of plants are inhabited by bacteria.5 So they absorb sap or minerals from the soil by the combined action of the suction force which is connected 1. “Se ņunan mula mulajivaphuda.... biyajivaphuda", Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275;
" Alue mūlae.... jāva anamtajivā vivihasatta", Ibid., 7.3.276; " Tiviha rukkha pannattā, tamjaha-samk hejjajiviya asaṁkhejjajiviya anamtajiviya /" Ibid., 8.3.324.; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.96, e. g. aluka, mülaka, etc. contain bacteria.; Pannavaņā Sutta, I. 4 ff. Mūlā vi asamkhejjajiviya,. ...pupphá aņegajiviyā /";
Gommatasara, (Jivakāņda ), v. 189, p. 117. 2. Bhagavati Sūtra, 33, 1.844.; Uttaradhyayana 36.68, the earth quadrates and plant
bacteria are found throughout the world; Biology, p. 132. “Pudhavi ya au agani ya vāu", Sūtrakstānga, Book I, Lecture 7, 1, p. 153.; Bhagavati Sūtra, 33.1; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.70, 84, 92, 108, 117; Pannavaņā Sutta I 19.55, Ekendriyajivapaņņavanā, pp. 13-27; Gommațasāra, (Jivakāņda ), v. 89, p. 68.; Lokaprakása, 4th Sarga, v. 25; Sth Sarga. v. f, ff.
Biology, p. 132. 5. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275; Pannavaņā Sutta, I. 40, 41; Gommațasāra (Jivakāņda).
v. 189, p. 117. "Kamdassava mūlassa vā salākhamdhassı babi bahulatari Challi sāņamtajiyā patteyajiya tu taņukadari ?".
3.

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with transpiration pull and root pressure. Roots, bulbs, barks, tendrils, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds, when clean breaking are host (individual-souled plants ), when not clear breaking, (they ) are (nonhost) individual.7
Cell Structure or Figure and Size of Earth Quadrates :
The bodily figures of the earth quadrates (i. e. earth-, water, fireand air- bacteria ) are, (respectively speaking, circular) like masura grain (lentil), (round like ) a drop of water, (cylindrical like ) a bundle of needles, (and oblong like ) a flag. 8 The bodies of plants and mobile bacteria are of various sorts. The size of the body of carti, water, fire-, and air-bacteria is the innumerable part of a cubic finger. Therefore, these are not visible as separate entities but in a mass10 only.
The Jaina views regarding the figure and size of earth quadrates are supported by modern Biology in the following manner : " Bacteria cells are very small, from less than 1 to 10 microns in length and from 0.2 to 1 micron in width. The majority of bacterial species exist as single-celled forms, but some occur as filaments of loosely joined cells. Because of their small size and general similarity of structure, the classification of bacteria usually depends on physiologic or biochemical characters rather than morphologic ones. There are rodlike forms called bacilli, spherical form, called cocci, and spiral forms. The bacilli may occur as single rods or as in the dacillus causing anthrax, as long chains of rods joined together. Diphtheria, typhoid fever, tuberculosis and leprosy are all caused by bacilli. The spherical forms occur singly in some species; in groups of two (e. g. the gonococcus, the agent causing gonorrhea); in long chains ( spherical bacteria which exist in long chains are called streptococci ); or in irregular clumps, resembling 6. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.275.; Lokaprakāśa, 5. 302-33; 5. 107-108; “Mūlym syāt
bhūmisambaddham tatra kandah samāśritan / Tatra skandha iti mitho bijantäh syuryutā same l”, 5.107. “Atah prthvigatarasamaharanti...... phalasa rngata m/", 1.5 108. Gommțasara (Jivakända ), v. 188, p. 117. “Müle kande challipavalasaladalakusumabije / Samabhamge sadi namtā asame sadi homti patteya 1/". Gommațasära Jivakānda), v. 201.“ Masuramvubimdusūikalabadhaya sanniho have
deho / Pudhaviādicaunham". 9. Ibid., " Tarutasakāyā aneyavha /", v. 201, p. 122. 10. Ibid. ( Comm.), p. 122. Take a glass of fresh water. Every drop of it is a mass
of water-bodied bacteria which are obviously invisible to us. Under a microscope a drop of water is seen to possess many minute animalculae. These are not water-bodied bacteria. Water-bodied bacteria have water and that alone as the matter of their bodies. These animaiculae are two - or more-sensed beings which live in water.

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bunches of grapes (spherical bacteria which occur in such clumps are called staphylococci ). There are two types of spiral forms; the spirilla, which are less coiled and sometimes resemble a comma ( the one causing cholera looks like this ); and the spirochetes, which are highly coiled and resemble a corkscrew. The most widely known of the latter is the one causing syphilis."u
Reproduction of Bacteria
Bacteria-earth quadrates and bacteria in plants reproduce asexually (sammūrochima ).12 It is stated in the Jaina Agamas 13 that “Some beings are born in trees and grow in trees that are originated by trees, come forth as their roots, bulbs, stems, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds.'14
"Some beings are born in earths and grow in earth particles that are the origin of various things and come forth as kubana."15
“Some beings are born in water, grow in particles of water that are the origin of various things and come forth as Panaga (fungus ), Sevāla (algae ), etc."'16
It has already been pointed out that numerable, innumerable and infinite bacteria inhabit the roots, bulbs, stems, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds of some sādhāra na śarīra vanaspatis including kūhana, sevāla, etc. It is not clearly stated how the asexual reproduction of the plant bacteria takes place.
“Further some beings are born in water, grow in water and come forth as water-body, which is produced by wind, condensed by wind, it goes upwards, when there is an upward wind, it goes downwards, when there is a downward wind, it goes in a horizontal direction, when there is a horizontal wind; its varieties arc hoar-frost, snow, mist, hail-stones, dew and rain."17
11. Biology, p. 132. 12. Acaränga Sūtra, I. I. 81; Sūtrakstānga, I. 7. 1. 13. Sūtraktānga, II. 3. 46. “Satta rukkhajoniya rukkha sambhava........rukkhesu
mūlattae kandattae khamdattāe tayattāe salattāe pavālattāe pattattāe pupphattāe
phalattae bivattāe viuţtamti /". 14. SBE XLV, II. 3. 5. p. 390. One soul, jiva pervades the whole tree; it is the soul
of the tree, separate lives, however, reside in the roots, etc. as bacteria. 15. "Sattā pudhavijoņiya......... Kūhaņattāe/", etc., Sūtrakrtanga. II. 3.54. 16. "Sattā udagajoņiya.........panagattae sevälattāe /", etc., Ibid. 17. Sūtrakrtānga 11. 3.59. "Sattā ņāņāvihajoniya. ..... Vayasamsiddham .... vāyapari
ggahiyarn uddhavāesu uddhabhägi bhavati, a heväesu ahebhāgi bhavati, tiriyavāesu tiriyabhagi bhavati, tamjaha-osa himae.. ... .suddhodae".

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“Some beings, born in water, come forth in water bodies, in the water produced by other water bodies."'18
“Some beings born in water, come forth as movable creatures."19
“Some beings come forth as fire-bodies in the manifold animate or inanimate bodies of movable or immovable creatures.”20
"Some beings are born as wind-bodies, grow in wind bodies and come forth in wind-bodies.''21
“Some beings are earth, gravel, sand, stones, rocks, rock salt, iron, copper, tin, lead, silver, gold and diamond, orpiment, vermilion, realgar, sāsaka, antimony, coral, abhrapatala (mica ? ), abhravāluka, hyacinth, natron, arka, crystal, lohitākşa, emarald, masāragalla, bhugamokaka, sapphire, candana, red chalk, hamsagarbha, pulaka and sulphur, candraprabha, lapis lazuli, jalakänta and suryakanta 22 ( a kind of gem )."
It is not clearly explained by the Jainācāryas how does the reproduction of bacteria - earth quadrates and plant bacteria take place. But it is suggestive from the reference to their birth and death with remarkable speed at the rate of innumerable one-sensed bacteria per instant (or moment) (samaya ), of infinite bacteria in common plant body, e. g. those of äluka ( white patato, surana, etc. )23 and of nigodas (micro-organisms = viruses ? )24 that bacteria generally reproduce asexually by simple fission-the cell simply divides into two cells, etc.
The Jaina view on the reproduction of bacteria is supported by modern Biology in the following manner : " Bacteria generally reproduce a sexually by simple fission-the cell division occurs in bacteria with remarkable speed, some bacteria dividing once every twenty minutes. At this rate, if there were plenty of food and nothing to interfere, 18. Sūtrakstānga, 11. 3,59. "Sattā udagajoņiyāņam.........udagajoniesu udaesu udagattác
vsutarti/". 19. “Sattā udgajoniyaņam...... tasapāņattāe viuttamti /", Ibid. 20. "Ihegatiyā sattā.. .. aga nikayattae viu tamti /", Ibid., II. 3.60. 21. “Thegatiyā sattā.... vayakkāyattāe viuftamti!”, Ibid. 22. Ihegatiyā sattā.... puļbavittae sakkarattāe......jāva surakamtattae viuttamti/",
Ibid., II. 3,61. 23." Anusamaya-masamkhijja, egimdiyā humti ya cavamti!", Candrasūri, Bphat
sāmgrahani, 1st edition, V.S. 1993, v. 274, p. 28; “Vanakāio anamta ikkikkão bijam nigoyao. Niccäni-masamkho bhāgo, aņāmtā jivo cayai l”, etc., Ibid, v. 275, p. 28. Ibid., v. 275, p. 28. See also other editions of Bțhatsangrahaņi by Mastar Umecand Raychand for this reference, “ Anusa mayamasam-khijja-egimdiyā humti ya Cavārti", v. 435, p. 243; “ Vaņakāio anamta ikkikkão vijam ņigoyão / Niccām masamkho bhāgo anamtajivo cayai ei 1/", Ibid., v. 436.

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one bacteria could give rise to about 250,000 bacteria within six hours. This explains why the entrance of relatively, few pathegenic bacteria into a human being can quickly result in disease symptoms. Fortunately for all other forms of life, bacteria cannot reproduce at this rate for a very long time, for they soon are checked by a lack of food, or by the accumulation of waste products."25
Bacterial Metabolism
Like other organisms bacteria have a host of enzymes that mediate and regulate their metabolic processes. A few bacteria are autotrophic26 - they can synthesize their needed organic compounds from simple inorganic substances present in the environment, through their pores.27 Most bacteria are either saprophytes, 28 getting their food from the dead bodies of plants or animals or parasites (anusuga) living in or on the living body of a plant or animal.29
Other Micro-organisms (Nigodas)
Much smaller than bacteria (earth quadrates and plant-bacteria) are other forms called Nigodas 30 (micro-organisms viruses). There are two kinds of Nigodas, viz. Nigodaka and Nigodajiva31 (Nitya Nigodas and Itara Nigodas - fine and gross).32 They may be identified with bacteriophages and rickettsias. With the exception of the last, these are too small to be seen with ordinary microscopes and can be photographed only.33 These Nigodas can be classified as plant according to Jaina view; their status in the world of living things is clear. But these forms exhibit some, but not all of the usual characteristics of living things,34 25. Biology, p. 135.
95
26. Autotrophs are self-nourishing, e.g. photosynthetic green plants and chemosynthetic, iron bacteria which oxidize ferrous to ferric iron.
27. "Lomāhārā egimdiya", Brhatsaṁgrahaņi, v. 200, p. 81.; " Sarireṇoyāhāro, tayā ya phase ya lomāhārā ", Ibid., v. 117, p. 124.
28. They absorb their required organic nutrients directly through the cell membrane. 29. Sūtrakṛtānga, II. 3,58; "Ihegatiya sattā...... ṇāṇāvibāņam tasathavaraṇam poggalanam sarire su va, sacittesu vã, acittesu va, aņusuvattae viuttamti /"; Te jiva tesim ṇāṇāvihāṇam tasathavaräṇam päṇāṇam sinetramahäremti /" etc. 30. Bhagavati Sūtra, 25.5.749; Pannavana Sutta, 1.55.102; Lokaprakasa Sutta, I. 4th Sarga, 32ff.; Nigoda Sattrimśikā; Gommaṭasara (Jivakāṇḍa) 73.
31.
"Duviha niudā paņṇatra, tamjaha-niuyaga ya niuyajiva ya ", Bhagavati Sūtra, 25.5.749.
32.
"Suhūmaniuda ya Väḍaraniuda ya /", Ibid.
33. Biology, p. 138.
34. See the second section of the 1st chapter.

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as some nigodas do not attain change, while some 35 are born and die and again return to the original state.36
Types of Nigodas:
There are stated to be two kinds of Nigodas from the point of their size, viz. fine and gross (sūksma and bādara ).37 Sūksma Nigodas are of two kinds, viz. paryāptaka (developed ) and aparyāptaka (undeveloped ). Bādara Nigodas also are of two kinds, viz. paryāptaka (developed ) and aparyāptaka ( undeveloped ).
Nigodajīvas are of two kinds, viz. Süksma Nigodajivas (fine Nigodajīvas ) and Bādara Nigodajīvas (gross Nigodajivas). Sūksma Nigodajivas are of two types, viz. paryāptakas (developed) and aparyaptakas (undeveloped ). Bādara Nigodajīvas also are of two types, viz. paryāptakas ( developed ) and aparyāptakas (undeveloped ) 38
Nigodas are innumerable from the substantial point of view, and thus paryāptaka and aparyāptakas also.39 Sükşma Nigodas are innumerable from the substantial point of view. Thus Sūksma-paryāptakas and aparyāptakas also and badara-nigodas, bādara-paryāptakas and bādaraaparyäptakas also should be known.40
Nigodajivas:
Nigodajīvas are infinite in number from the substantial point of view, thus paryāptakas and aparyāptakas also, thus Sūksmanigodajīvas also, and aparyāptakas, bādaranigodajivas also, paryāptakas also, aparyāptakas also should be treated.41
Nigodas are infinite in number from the modal point of view, thus paryāptakas and aparyāptakas also, thus sūksmanigoda paryāptakas and aparyāptakas also, thus sūksmanigoda paryäpatakas and aparyāptakas
35. "Atthi anamtajivā, jehim na patto tásai pariņāmo, uppajjamti cayamti, puno vi
tattheva tattheva / Brhatsamgrahani, v. 277. 36. Ibid. 37. Bhagavati Sūtra, 12.2.443; Jivabhigama Sutra, p. 97. 38. Ibid. 39. “Niudānan...... davvatthayae.....no samkhejjā asamkhejjā no anamtā evam
pajjattagāvi appajjattagavi ",Jivābhigama, p. 998. “Suhümaniudāņaṁ......davvatthayae .....no samknejjā asamkhjja no anamtā, evam pajjattagāvi apajjat tagāvi evam bayarāvi pajjattagavi appajjaitagãvi no sarkhejjā asamkhejjā no anamtā /". Ibid., p. 998. "Niuyajivānam davvatthayae......anamtā evam pajjattagāvi appajjattagavi, evam subūmaņiuyajivāvi pajjattagavi appajjattagāvi badaraniuyajivāvi pajjattagāvi apajjattagāvi, Ibid., p. 999.

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also thus badaranigodas also, - paryāptakas apd aparyāptas also42 should be treated.
Nigodajivas also are thus of seven classes and all are infinite in number from the modal point of view.43
Next the Jivābhigama sutta discusses the comparative numbers ( alpaiva-bahutva ) of all types of Nigodas and Nigodajivas from the substantial and modal points of view.44
These ultra miscroscopic forms of living beings (nigodas) take their name from the very fact that they are tiny enough to exist in infinite number in common Nigodaśarira.45 Nigodas do not really reproduce themselves, but they are reproduced in infinite number by the enzymic machinery present in other living cells, as it is suggested by the statement that in the common body when one soul dies, there is death of infinite souls (with it ), (while ) when one is born, there is the birth of infinite souls there. 46
Estimates of the size of nigodas have been made in several different ways : The size of the body of a fine--bodied and non-developable nigoda organism in the third instant after it has taken birth in its nucleus (Yoni) is an innumerable part of one ( cubic ) finger ( anguli). This is the minimum ( bodily size ). The maximum size is found in the fish born in the last and the biggest ocean called Svayambhuramana of the world. 48
The body of a fine-bodied non-developabie Nigoda in a plant body is oblong in the first instant of its birth, square in the second instant, and in the third instant it contracts and becomes circular (or spherical). In the circular state the dimensions of its body are at the minimum, after the third instant it begins to grow,49 i. e. it varies widely in size.
43.
42 giudā ņum bhaṁte padesaţthayáe.........anaṁta, evaṁ suhūmaniuyavi pajjattagāvi
apajjattagavi paesatthayae savve anamta evam, bayaraniuyavi pajjattayāvi apajja tayavi paesitthayāe savve anamta /", Ibid.
“Evam niudajivāva satta viha paesatthayāe savye anamtā /", Ibid. p. 1000. 44. Ibid., pp. 1000. 1007. 45. Ni = Niyatam. gam = bhūmim, Ksetram, nivasamanantānantajivāņām dadatīti
nigodam/", Gommatasara, Jivakānda, v. 191, (comm.), p. 118. 46. "Jatthekka marai jivo tattha du maranam have anamtānam / Vakkamai jattha
ekko vakkamanar tatthanamtānam //", 95.19.3. "Suhūmanigoda apajjayassa jadassa tadiya smayamhi / angula asamkhabhagam
jahannamukkassayam macche //", Gommajasara (Jiva ) 94. 48. Ibid. 49. Ibid. (Comm.), p. 70 J. B.-13
47.

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The Jaina view about the size of Nigoda finds support in modern Biology to some extent in the following manner : “ Viruses vary widely in size; one of the largest - the psittaccosis virus, the cause of a disease transmitted by parrots and other birds - is about 275 millimicrons in diameter, and one of the smallest, the one causing foot and inouth disease of cattle, is 10 millimicrons in diameter. The electron microscope reveals that some viruses are spherical and others are rod-shaped.'50
By the operation of the common (Sad hārana ) body making karma the bodies of Nigodas become group-souled. They are gross and fine.51 That is to say, their bodies become group-souled “like huge colonies of viruses” of modern Biology.52 “ Although individual virus particles cannot be seen, virus-infected cells frequently contain 'inclusion bodies' (i. e. group-souled bodies of Nigodas ), which are visible with ordinary microscope. These are believed to be huge colonies of viruses. ) 53
It appears from the study of Jaina Biology that some Nigodas like viruses parasitize bacteria ( earth quadrates and bacteria in plant); they are filtrable and will grow only in the presence of living cells - in cultures of bacteria, which they cause to swell and dissolve. These Nigodas are found in nature wherever bacteria occur -- " and especially abundant in the intestine of man and other animals ( kukşikrmi?)" They may be compared with Bacteriophages of modern Biology 54 “Electron micrographs show that some are about 5 millimicrons in diameter (they vary considerably in size ) and that they may be spherical, comma-shaped or they may have a tail and resemble a ping-pong paddle."55 Some Nigodas like Rickettisias of modern Biology ( resembling viruses) will multiply only within living cells. Their cellular structure is similar in most respects to that of bacterias already defined. Some are spherical, others are rod-shaped, and they vary in length. This Jaina view is supported by Biology in this way that Rickettisias resemble viruses in that with a single exception (a non-pathogenic parasite of the sheep tick ), they will multiply only within living cells. Their cellular structure is similar in most respects to that of bacteria. Some 50. Biology, p. 139. 51. “ Sähäraņodayeņa migodasarīra havamti samanna / Te puna duviha jivä badara
suhumatti vinneya 1/", Gommațasāra, Jivakānda, v. 191, p. 118. 52. Biology, p. 139; Ni = Niyatām, Gām = Bhūmim, Kşetrar, niväsāmañantānanta
Jivānam dadatiti nigodam / That which is always the abode of infinite souls
(/) viruses in huge colonies is called Nigoda. qs., p. 118. 53. Biology, p. 139. 54. Ibid., pr. 140-141. 55. Ibid., p. 141.

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are spherical, others rod-shaped, and they vary in length from 300 to 2000 millimicrons. They are larger than viruses and hence are nonfiltrable and just barely visible under the microscope."56
ALGAE (Sevāla )
According to the Jaina Agamas, the more primitive plants, which neither form embryos during development nor have vascular tissues, e. g. Sevāla57 (algae) and Panaga58 (fungus) may be identical with Thallophytes of modern Biology.59 The Thallophytes are classified into two kinds, viz. Algae (Sevāla ) (those that have chlorophyll and can live independently) and Fungi (panaga )60(those that lack chlorophyll and must live as saprophytes or parisites ) (anusūyattāe ).
Algae are primarily inhabitants of water (Jalaruha ),61 - fresh or salt water, but according to Biology, “a few of them live on rock surfaces and on the bark of tree. The ones living in such comparatively dry places usually remain dormant when water is absent."62
Algae are important food producers by virtue of their tremendous nunibers, as all of the photosynthesis in fresh water or in the sea is carried on by algac. According to Biology, there are many kinds of algae, such as, blue-green algae, green algae, brown algae, red algae etc. 63
Fungi (Panaga ):
The simple plants that lack chlorophyll are called fungi (paņaga ). The true fungi include rust, smuts, mushrooms, toad-stool, etc. They are of five colours-red, yellow, grey (or cloudy ), black and white.64
In a fungus, such as, the mushroom (Kuhana ), the mycelium is below ground; the mushroom cap that is eaten is a fruiting body that grows out from the mycelium. According to modern biology, “Fungi are either saprophytic or parasitic and are found universally wherever organic material is available; they grow best in dark, moist habitats.'65 56. Ibid., p. 142. 57. “ Panagattae Sevalattae", ete.; Sutrakstānga II. 3.59; Pannavaná, I. 51, p. 21;
“ Panagā sevala-bhūm-iphoda ya /", Jivavicāra 8. 58. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.103-104; Paņņavāna 1.51, p. 21; “Panagā sevala -
bhumiphoda ya /”, Jivavicāra, v. 8. 59. Biology, p. 115. 60. Ibid.; Sūtrakrtānga, II. 3.55. 61. Pannavanā, I. 5; Panaga also is jalaruha. 62. Biology, p. 145. 63. Ibid., pp. 147-152. 64. Jivavicara, p. 133. 65. Biology, p. 155.

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Evolution of Plant Reproduction
It appears from the study of the Jaina Agamas that in plants, much more clearly than in animals, an evolutionary sequence is evident ranging from forms, such as, the blue greens (algae) and bacteria which reproduce by asexual means, to ones with complicated life-cycles and highly evolved adaptations until it is capable of leading an independent life. Some of the lower forms, such as, fungi (Panaga )3 which has no reproductive specializations, produce billions of spores so that by chance a few will fall in an environment favourable for germination and survival. The higher plant may produce no more than a few score seeds per plant but each seed has a fairly good chance of growing into a mature plant.
Asexual Reproduction
According to Jaina Biology, asexual reproduction5 takes place in plant life. Asexual reproduction is characterized by the presence of a single parent, one that splits, buds, fragments or produces many spores so as to give rise to two or more offsprings. It is stated in the Sutrakṛtanga that there are, all in all, in the world four kinds of seeds (for reproduction), viz. seeds generated at the top (of the plant), (2) at its root, (3) at its knots and (4) at its stem. According to the seed and place (of growth) of these plants, some beings-born in earth,
1. Sevala, Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3.55; Pannavana 1.51, p. 2; Jivavicara 8.
2.
For plant bacteria see Bhagavati Sutra, 7.3. 276; 8. 3. 324; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36. 96; Pannavana Sutra, I. 40 ff; Gommțasara (Jivankaṇḍa), V. 189, p. 117; For Earth quadrates see Sūtrakṛtänga, Book I, Bhagavati, 33. 1. 884; Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36.70, 84, 92, 108, 117; Pannavana; Gommaṭasara (Jivakāṇḍa) 89, p. 68; Lokaprakāśa, 4th Sarga; v. 25; 5th Sarga, v. I ff.
3. Sūtrakṛtänga 11. 3.55 Panaga ); Pannavana I. 51, p. 21; Jivavicara 8 "Panaga Sevāla bhūmiphoḍaya /"
4. Sutrakṛtänga II. 3.43. (aggabija)
5. Sūtrakṛtänga II. 3. 43, "Logamsi catta!i biyakäyä evamhijjamti, tamjahä-aggabiyā mülabiya porabiya khamdhabiya." The commentators give the reading of the Nagarjuniyas. "Nagarjuniyāstu pathanti. "Vanassaikāṇa pamcaviha bijavakkamti evamāhijjai-tamjaha aggamulaporukkham-dhabiyaruha, chatthavi egemdiya sammucchima biya jayamte." Sütrakṛtänga (comm. ), II. 3-43, p. 94. "Mülaggaporebijā kamda taha khamdhabijabijaruha Sammucchima ya bhaniya patteyanamtakäyā ya", Gommatas āra (Jiva), 196.
6. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3.42.
7. Ibid., II. 3 43.

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originated in earth, and grown in earth, having it in their birth, origin, and growth, being impelled by their Karman, and coming forth in it on account of their Karman, growing there in particles of earth, the origin of various things- come forth as trees.8
For most blue-greens-algae and plant bacteria10 asexual reproduction is the only means by which new individuals are produced. Even in the higher plants reproduction may take place asexually in a variety of ways, as pointed out, e. g. plants from seeds generated at the top (of the plant), at its root, at its knots, at its stem.11 Rice plants grow from seeds, gingers from roots, sugarcane from knots and plaintains from stem, 12 rose plant from shoot, onion from bulb (kanda ), and grasses have spontaneous reproduction (Sammürcchim). 13.
Most of the cultivated trees and shrubs are reproduced from the cutting of stems, which sprout roots at their tips when placed in moist ground, e. g. sugarcane.14 A number of commercial plants-bananas (Kadali ),15 etc. have lost their ability to produce functional seeds and must be propagated entirely by asexual means from the stem. 16
10t
Many plants, such as ground,17 etc. develop long, horizontal stems called runners (Valli).18 They grow several feet along the ground in a single season and may develop new erect plants at every other mode. Other plants spread by means of similar stems, called rhizomes, which grow underground, e.g. Bhadramuttha,19 Seḍiya (a kind of grass), Bhattiya, Dabbha20 (a kind of grass), etc. are particularly difficult to control because they spread by means of runners or rhizome. Swollen underground stems or tubers, such as, white patato, suranakanda21 (Amor8. Ibid., II 3:43.
9. Ibid., II. 3.4 "Ihegalia Satta udagajoniya udagasambhava......... Sevalattae...... Viuṭṭamui"
10. Bhagavati, 7.3.276; 8.3.324; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.96; Pannavana Sutta I, 40 ff.; Gommatasära (Jiva), V. 189, p. 117.
11. Sūtrakṛtänga II, 3.43.
12. Salyadayo va... ..te agrabijaḥ. tathāmūlabījā ārdrank ādayaḥ, parvabijatvikṣvādayaḥ, skandhabijaḥ sallakyadayaḥ /", Ibid. (Comm.), p. 94.
13. Gommaṭasāra (Jivakända ), V. 186. (Comm.), p. 16.
14. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3.43. (Comm. ); "Parvabījāstviksväday. ", p. 94. "Skandhabijāḥ Sallakyadayaḥ" Ibid. II. 3.43 (Comm. ), p. 94.
15.
16.
17.
18. Pannavana, I. 1.45, p. 19.
Ibid.
"Tumbi", Pannavana, I, 1.45, p. 19.
19. Bhaddamuttha (a species of cyperus), Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.3.277; 8.3.324.
20. Pannavaṇa I. 47, p. 20; Bhagavati Sūtra, 21.2.91.
21. Gommṭasara (Jiva), V. 186. ( Comm.), Bhagavati 7.3.277; 8.3.324; Pannavaṇā, 1.54. 53, p. 22; Uttara 36.98; Biology, p. 174, C. P. Villee

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phophallus, Campanulatus ), etc. also serve as a means of reproduction; “ in fact, some of the cultivated varieties of patato rarely, if even, produce seed and must be propagated by planting a piece of a tuber containing bud or ‘eye'.”
Some beings born in trees...originated by trees, sprung from trees, etc., springing from tree that originated in earth, come forth as trees originated by trees.22
“Some beings born in trees, growing in trees, that are originated by trees, come forth as their roots, bulb, stem, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits, and seeds."23
In the same way creepers, 24 grasses,25 herbs 26 and small plants27 are to be known in regard to their reproduction
“Some beings born in earth; growing there in particles of earth that are the origin of various things, come forth as Āya, Vāya, Kāya, Kubana (mushroom), Kanduka, Uvvebaliya ( or Uvvehaniya ), Nivvehaliya (or Nivvehaniya ), Esava, Sacha, Chattaga, Vāsāniya28 and Kūra."29
“Some beings born in water, originated in water, grown in water, etc. come forth as trees, creepers, grass, herbs and plants.''30
“Some beings born in water, growing in particles of water that are the origin of various things, come forth as Udaga, Avaga,31 Paņaga (fungus), Sevāla32 (algae), Kalambuga, 33 Hada, Kaseruya, Kacchabhāniya,
22. Apparently trees sprung from shoots, sprouts, aerial-roots, etc. are meant. They
are considered as a class different from those whose offshoots they are. S.B.E.,
XLV, p. 380. 23. One soui (jiva ) pervades the whole tree; it is the soul of the tree. Separate
jivās (beings ), however, reside in the roots, etc., S.B.E., XLV, p. 390;
Sūtrakṣtănga II. 3.50. 24. Ajjhāruha =adhyāroha, explained in the Dipikā: Vallivěkşa; Ibid. (Sūtrakstānga),
II. 3.50. 25. Trna, Ibid. 26. Osahi - Oshadhi, Ibid., p. 391; Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.50. 27. Hariya - harita, Ibid.; Sütrakrtānga II. 3.50. 28. “All the commentators say about the words; Āya, etc. ( which offer some various
readings in the MSS) that they denote particular plants (Vanaspativisesha ) which must be learned from people (who know them ).” Jacobi gives the words
in their Prakrit form, and does not attempt to transpose them into Sanskrit. 29. Sūtrakplānga, II. 3.54; S.B.E. XLV, p. 391 30. Ibid. 31. Avaka, a grassy plant growing in marshy land (Blyxa octandra ), Ibid. 32. Saivāla, the aquatic plant Vallisneria (alge ) Ibid.; Sūtraktānga II. 354. 33. Kadamba, Nauclea Kadamba; S.B.E., XLV, p. 391. 34. Kaseru, Scirpus Kysoor, Ibid.

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Uppala (Utpala ), Pauma (Padma ), Kumuya (Kumuda ), Nalina,35 Subhaga, Sogaindhiya, Pondariya (Pundarika ), Mahāpondariya ( Mahāpundarika ). Sayavatta (Satapatra ), Sabassavatta (Sahasrapatra), Kalbāra, Kakanada, Aravinda and Tāmarasa, 36 as stalks and fibres of lotus, as Pukkhala,37 and Pukkhalatthibhaga.38
This brief account of plant reproduction as given in the Jaina texts shows that there takes place only asexual reproduction in all types of plants according to Jaina Biology. One soul pervades the whole tree, it is the soul of the tree. Separate jivas ( beings or bacteria ), however, reside in its roots, bulbs, stem, bark, branches, twigs, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds.39
The Bhagavati Sūtra40 refers to ten instincts including maithuna (sexual union) of all beings - one-sensed to five-sensed beings. It is stated that Kuravaka trees bear fruits after embracing a female part of it. This may be interpreted as the sexual union of this tree.41 It is suggestive from this evidence that sexual reproduction also may take place in plant life. But according to Jaina Biology, there is no clear reference to sexual reproduction in plants, which involves the cooperation of two parents, each of which supplies one gamete and two gametes unite to form zygote. Very vague ideas are contained in other Indian works 42 as to the sexual reproduction of plants.
35. The last four are well-known varieties of lotus, called in Sanskrit : Utpala,
Padma, Kumuda, Nalina, Ibid., p. 392. 36. The Sanskrit of the last seven items is : Puņdarika, Mahāpundarika, satapatra,
Sahasrapatra, Kahlāra, Kokanada and Tāmarasa; they are all varieties of lotus.
Ibid., p. 392. 37. Puşkara, Ibid. 38. Sūtrakệtānga 11, 3.5, p. 93. 39. “Yo hi ekah vanaspatijivaḥ sarvavękşāvayavavyäsi bhavati, tasya Capare
tadavayaveņu mulakandaskandhatvaksakh pravālapatrapusphalabījabhūteşu daśaşu
sthāneșu jivāḥ samutpadyante /” Sūtrakstānga II, 3.55 ( Comm. ), p. 96. 40. " Ahārabhay apariggahamehuņa taha koha māņa māyä сa / Lobho logo oho sannā
dasa savvajivāņam", Lokaprakasa 3.447; " ābārasannā to ohasanpa ", Bhagavati
Sutra, 7.8.29. 41. "Itthiparirambhanena Kurubagataruno phalamti, mehunai", Lokaprakaśa, 3.449.
There takes place sexual union in Asoka tree also. 42. "Sirinām sumanasām puspaṁ prasūnam samam", Amara, Vanauçadhivarga,
Brhatphalasvetapuspaih 1,(pumān, Holarrhena antidysenterica), Caraka (Drdhvala), V Syavāruņānupuspi stri- sitakūtaja, Wrightia tinctoria, Ibid. V," Anupadi prathamo vargah stripumnapřsa katvena traividhyam sthavaresvapi", Rajnanighantu, vide Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 175.

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The Life Cycle of Plant
The-life cycle of any species-plants or animals is the biologic processes of development which take place between any given point in any organism's life-span and the same point in the life-span of its offspring. For bacteria (earth quadrates )43 and plant bacteria,44 bluegreens (algae = Saivala )45 which reproduce by splitting (a kind of asexual reproduction), the life cycle is extremely simple. According to modern Biology, "The filamentous green algae, such as Ulothrix, have a cycle during most of which, the colony consists of haploid cells which multiply asexually by mitosis."46
In the higher plants there are clearly found their life-cyclestages of infancy, youth and age47 like those of human body, etc. Parasitic plants48 have complex life cycles involving host organisms.49
Jaina Biology
According to Jaina Biology, the plants show an act of generation - generation which reproduces asexually by spores.50 It is known as the sporophyte. Besides, they are reproduced from the root, the knot and stem.51 The life-cycle of such plants consists of the production of haploid spores by the sporophyte. The relative size and duration of the different sporophyte generations vary considerably. The sporophyte is the familiar, visible tree, shrub or herb.
Germination of the Seed and Embryonic Development
Jaina biology throws some welcome light upon the germination of the seed and embryomic development. When the seeds are ripe, they are shed from the parent plant, but a few of them do germinate shortly after being shed; most of them remain dormant during the cold 43. Sūtrakṛtānga, Book 1, Lecture 7, V. I; Puḍhavi ya au aganīya vāū; Gommaṭasāra 73 (Jivakända ).
44. Bhagavati, 7.3.275-7; Gommajasara, V. 189. (Jivakända ); Panṇavana 1.54 (Sadharanasariravanaspati kayikas).
45. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3.54.(Sevālattae); Pannavaņā I. 54. (Jalarubā-sevāla ). 46. Biology, p. 178.
47. "Yatha purusaśariram balakumarayuvavṛddhatapariņāmaviseṣavat."....tathedam vanaspati gariram ", Şaḍdarśanasamuccaya, V. 49, Tarkarahasyadipika. Gunaratna, p. 157.
48. "Ihegatiya satta rukkhajoniya rukkhasambhava rukkhavukkamā ...rukkhajoniesu rukkhattae viuttamti, te jiva tesim rukkhajoṇiyāṇam rukkhāṇam sinehamaharemti Sūtrakṛtänga, II. 3.45; Nāṇāvihāņam tasathavarāṇam poggalāṇaṁ sarïresu vā, sacittesu va, acittesu vã, anusuyattae viuṭṭamti ", Ibid., II. 3.58. 49. Ibid.
50. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3.43.1
51. "Aggabiyā mūlabiya porabiya khaṁdhabiya", Ibid., II. 3.43.

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or dry season and germinate only with the advent of the next favourable growing season.52 A prolonged period of dormancy usually occurs only in seeds with thick or waxy seed - coats which render them impenetrable to water and oxygen.
The life of some higher plants exists within the cover of seeds in state of dormancy to be awakened at a proper time and season under the favourable conditions. The life persists within the protective seed - coat for certain period, resisting against all the forces of the natural phenomena. In due time and season this dormant life springs up, bursting asunder the seed-coat and beings to grow gradually into a full plant like all beings, though in its immobile state, due to the transformation within itself.53
The length of time that a seed will remain viable and capable of germination varies greatly. The viability of the cereals, such as, Sali, Brihi, Godhūma (Wheat), etc., if preserved in a well-protected granary, lasts in the minimum for an aptarmuhūrta and in the maximum upto three years, that of pulses, such as, Kalāya (a kind of pulse ), Masura (lentil ), Mung (Phaseolas Mungi ), etc., for an antarmuhurta in the minimum and five years in the maximum and that of Alasi (linseed), Kusumbhaka (Carthamus tinctorious ), Kodrava (Paspalum scrobicuta!ium ), Kangri (millet or a kind of parric seed ), Sana (flax ), Sarsapa ( mustard seed ). Mülaga (radish seed ), etc., for an antarmuhūrta in the minimum and seven years in the maximum, provided they are stored up scientifically. After the specified periods their respective viability withers away and the seeds become unseeds without having germinating capacity.54
This evidence of Jaina Biology regarding viability of seeds finds support in modern Biology in this way. “Willow and poplar seeds must germinate within a few days of being shed or they will not germinate at all ; 55 seeds of the evening primrose and of yellow dock were able to germinate after seventy years”.56 There are authentic 52. Bhagavati, 15.1.544. It throws light upon the germination of sesamum seeds
with the advent of favourable growing season after the uprooting of the Sesamum
plant by Gośāla Markhalisutta. 53. Bhagavati Sitra, 15.1.544; See Plant Autographs and their Revelations, Sir J. C.
Bose, 1927. 54. Bhagavati Sotra 6.7.246. 55. Biology. p. 186. 56. Ibid. J.B.-14

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records of lotus seeds germinating 200 years after being shed.57 The ability of a seed to retain its germinating power depends on the thickness of the seed - coat, on a low water content, and on the presence of starch rather than fats as stored food material. Dormant seeds are alive and do metabolize, though at a very low rate.58
The reference to Jonibbhue bie (embryonic seed ), hypocotyle (first radicle = mula ), cotyledons (prathamapatras ), epicotyle (prathama Kišalaya ) and its development of growth (vivaddhamta ), their simultaneous birth, formation of plant body (samayam vakkamtāņam samayam tesim sariranivvatti ), receiving of matter (warmth and moisture, etc.) and respiration (samayam ānuggahanaṁ samayam ūsāsa-nisāse )59 suggests that germination is initiated by warmth and moisture and requires oxygen. The embryo and endosperm absorb water, swell and rupture the seed - coats ( Uggamamāna ).60 This frees the embryo and enables it to resume development ( Vivaddhamta ).
After germination the hypocotyle ( mūla ) elongates and emerges from the seed - coat ( vakkamai). "The primitive root or radicle grows out of the hypocotyle61 and since it is strongly and positively geotropic, it grows directly downward into the soil.”62 “The arching of the hypocotyle in a seed such as the bean pulls the cotyledons (i.e. prathamapatras ) and epicotyle (kiśalaya or aṁkura ) out of the seed - coat and the epicotyle, responding negatively, to the pull of gravity grows upward.63 The cotyledons ( prathamapatras ) digest, absorb and store food from the endosperm, while within the seed. The Cotyledons of some plants shrivel and drop off after germination; those of other plants become flat foliage leave. The cotyledons contain reserves of food that supply the growing seedling (kisalaya) until it develops enough chlorophyll to become independent. The stem (skandha ) and leaves ( patras ) develop from the epicotyle (first Kišalaya ).64 57. Ibid. 58. Ibid. 59. "Jonibbhūe bie jivo vakkamai so va anno vā / Jo vi müle jivo Sovi ya patta
padhamatāe" 1197 // " savvo vi kisalayo khalo uggamamäņo anamtayo bhaui / so ceva vivaddhaṁto hoi paritto anamto vã I, 98 //" "Samayam vakkam tanam samayam tesim sariranivvatti/Samayam nuggahanam samayam ūsasa-nisāse /99//
Paņņavaņā 1.54, 9-10, 97-9 60. Ibid. 61. Biology. p. 127.
2. lbid. 63. Biology, p. 187. 64. See above the embryonic development of plant.

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Evolutionary Trends in the plant kingdom.
As we glance back over the many types of plant life cycles that are found from algae to angiosperms, a number of evolutionary trends appear to be evident. One of these is a change from a population that is mostly haploid individuals to one that is a most entirely diploidan evolutionary trend toward a greater size and importance of the sporophyte 65 and a reduction in the size of the gametophyle generation.
65. Sūtrakrtánga 11. 3.43

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ANIMALS AND THEIR
(First Section)
Classification of Animals: Lower Invertebrates
INTRODUCTION
To catalogue the vast array of animals the Jainacaryas have used a classification system of animals based upon observation of similarities of structure1, sense-organs2, mode of origin3 and development.4 In the study of taxonomy they have differentiated superficial and accidental similarities from the significant fundamental ones. Homologous structures of various animals (which arise from common rudiments and are similar in basic plan and development) have been distinguished from analogous structures (which are similar in function). Accordingly the arm of a man, the wing of a bird, the fin of a fish are homologous7, with basically similar structural plan and similar 1. E. G. Catuspadas ( quadrupeds) Egakhura (Solidungular), Dukhura (Biungular), Gamḍīpaya (Multiungular), and Saṇapphaya (animals having toes with nails); Parisarpas reptiles) Bhuja parisarpas (those which move on arms) and Uraḥparisarpas (those which move on breast); Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36; 179181; Pannavana 1. 69, 70; 1-76.; Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 24
2. Bhagavati, 1.5. 48-49; 2.1. 83-84; 9. 32. 375; 20. 1. 663; 24. 17. 708-712. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36. 17; 136, 150-155, Pannavana Sutta, 1. 56, 57, 58, 61-91, 92-138. "Krmyādinām pipilik ādinām bhramarādīnām manuṣyādināṁ ca / yathasamkhya me kaikavṛddhani indriyani bhavanti yathakramaṁ / Tad yatha kṛmyādinām apadikanupurakagaṇḍūpada sankha - šuktika - sambūka - jalūkā - prabhṛtinām sparsana rasanendriye bhavataḥ I.....seṣānam ca Tiryag-yonijānāṁ matsyoragabhujanga - pakṣicatuşpadānāṁ sarveṣām ca nārakamanuṣyadevānāṁ pancendriyani /" Tattvarthädhigama Sutra, II. 24.
3. Bhagavati 7.5.282; 9.32.375; Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36.170;
Jivabhigama Sūtra 1.33.
; Panṇavana Sūtra, 1.56
1.57
27

THIRD CHAPTER
""
1.58
1.68
1.75
1.84
; Tattvarthadhigama 1.85
Sūtra II. 34
CLASSIFICATION
(Sammucchima). (Sammucchimā). (Sammucchimä). (Sammuchhima and Gabbhavukkämtiya).
4. Ibid.
5. Arms of man, wings of birds, fin of fish are homologous; Tattvärtha Sūtra II. 34.
6. Wings of bat and bird are analogous structures.
7. Pannavara I. 92,138 (Manussa) 1.86 (Khchacara); 1.62-63.

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embryonic origins. Structure of animals may be both homologous and analogous, e. g. the wings of birds and batso have a similar structural plan apd development, as well as the same function 10
Because all animals have essentially the same problems to solve in order to survive, there is basic unity of life among them.
The Bas's For Animal Classification According to Jaina Biology.
According to Jaina Biology, the main divisions of the animal kingdom, the phyla, are differentiated by basic characteristics which usually are not unique for a single phylum, but occur in unique combinations in various ones. Some factors basic to the determination of an animal classification are as follows:
(a) The presence or absence of cellular differentiation and the presence of sense-organs-two to five-sense-organs.12 Animals may be either single-celled, e. g. krmi13 ( the protozoa ), or composed of many kinds of cells, specialized to perform particular tasks in the body's economy, e. g. higher animals and man having five sense-organs.14 In all the higher animals, cells are differentiated and specialized. Besides, animals may be either two-sensed 15 or three to five-sensed. 16
(b) The type of body-symmetry, whether spherical17, radial18 or bilateral. 19 Animal bodies may be organized to one of the three types of symmetry. 8. Pannavana 1.68, 75, 84, 85, 91, 92 ; Tattvarthadhigama sutra II. 34 9. Wings of Cammapakkhi and Lomapākkhi; Paņņavana 1.86. 10. Ibid., ( Wings of bats and birds have the same function). 11. Most of the two-sensed animals have one-celled body, e.g. krmi (worm).
while five--sensed animals have cellular differentiation; 12. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.5. 49'; 2.1. 83-84; 9. 32-375; 20 1.663; 24.17.108-12.
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.127; 136: 150-155 Pannavanā Sūtta, 1.6, 57, 58, 61-91,
92-138. ; Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 24. 13. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.128 ; Pannavana 1.56 ; Tattvarthadhigama Sutra II. 24.
(Kệmyādinām, etc.) 14. Pancendriyas ..., Uttaradhyayana Sūtrā 36.155; 170, etc.;
Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 24. 15. Uttaradhigama Sutra 36.128 ; Pannavanā Sūtra 1.56 ; Tattvārthadhigama Sutra
II. 24. 16, Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.155 ; Pānnavaņā Sūtta. 1.61-91; 1.62. 17. A few of the lowest animals have this type of spherical symmetry. 18. In radial symmetry two sides are distinquishable, a top and a bottom, as in a
starfish. 19. Human brings and all higher animals have bilateral symmetry, in which only
one special cut will divide the body into two equal halves, e.g. the body of a man has bilateral symmetry anterior and posterior, dorsal and ventral sides.

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(c) The number of modes of origin, generation, c. g. Sammürcchima 20 ( generatio aequivoca or asexual reproduction) and Garbhavyutkrāntika21 ( generation from the womb, sexual reproduction )-aņdaja (Oviparous generation ), Jarāyuja (Viviparous ) and potaja (viviparous generation without the placenta ).22 Some of the metazoa (higher animals) have only two embryonic cell layers or germ layers-an outer ectoderm and an entoderm, c. g. jarāyujas and potajas, 23
(d) The presence or absence of segmentation.24 The members of several phyla are characerized by the fact that their bodies consist of a row of segments,25 each of which has the same fundamental plan, with or without variation, as the segments in front and behind. In some segmental animals, such as, man and most vertebrates the segmental character of the body is obscured. 26 In man the bones of the spinal column - the Vertebrae - are among the few parts of the body till clearly segmented.
(e) Unique features : There are only a few structures that belong exclusively to one phylum of the animal world, e. g. Vrscikas ( scorpions )27 alone have sting cells (nematocysts ); although many kinds of animals have a nervous system, only the chordates to which man belongs, have a dorsally located, hollow nerve cord. 28
In Jaina Biology, animals are also classified according to the environment in which they live, e. g. Jalacara ( aquatic ), Sthalacara ( terrestrial) and Nabbacara or Khecara (aerial ),29 but same of them are found in only one type of habitat; the members of certain phyle 20. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.170 ; Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.5.282; Jivabhigama Sūtra, 1.33
Pannavaņā. 1.56, etc. 21. Uttarādhyayana Sūtrā, 36.170. : Bhagavati, 7.5.282. ; Paạnavanā 1.68 etc. 22. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra. II. 34 (Potaja); see also Bhagavati, 7.5.282 for
Andaja and Potaja. ; Jivabhigama, 3.1.96. 23. Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra, II. 34. 24. e. g. Kami has no segmentation, whereas Pipilikā (ant) upto man ; i. e. some
higher Invertebrates and the Vertebrates have segmentation. 25. e. g. the body of Nūpurka (Neura) (carth worm. Annelids has got several
segments, each having the same fundamental plan. 26. The segmental character of the body of man is obscured by the covering of
the skin. 27. Tattvarthadhigama Sūtra, II. 24. ; Paņnavanā, 1.58 (vicchuta ). 28. Snāyu (ņharu ), See Kalyanakāraka. 3.2, which meations 900 nerves in human
body (Snāyu ) ... nava ... satāni”) 29. Bhagavati Sūtra 7.6.282. ; Jivabhigama Sūtra 1.34. ; Pannavana Sūtra 1.61. ff.

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always live in the sea 30, while the members of others are always parasitic31 and so on.
Lower Invertebrates
According to the Jaina Agamas, the movable beings are of three kinds, viz. (1) the fire-lives, (2) the wind-lives and (3) those with an organic body.32 They (the first two ) are further sub-divided into subtile and gross animals and developed and undeveloped.33 Movable beings34 with organic bodies (i. e. animals ) are of four classes, viz. (1) those possessing two sense-organs, (2) those with three of sense, (3) those with four sense-organ and (4) those with five sense-organs,35 That is to say, they are classified into these groups by counting the senses, actually determining the life-habits. The twosensed animals upto the four-sensed animals come under the Invertebrate-lower and higher, with problems of terrestrial and aquatic life, while the five-sensed animals including man fall under the category of the Vertebrate of modern Biology.
The Phylum Protozoa
The subtile undeveloped two-sensed animals, e. g. Krmin36, etc. of Jaina Biology come under the species of the protozoa of the Lower Invertebrates, i. e. single-celled animals that comprise the first phylum. They are functional complex, even though some appear to be relatively simple structurally. Almost all two-sensed animals like protozoa of modern Biology live in water, from small rain puddles to the ocean.37 Some live in damp soil, in the film of water that surrounds each 30. Pannavanā (Sthānapada 1.55, ; e. g. Samuddalikkha. 31. Sūtrakrtānga, 11, 3.27; SBE XLV, p. 295. ; "Ihega tiya Sattā....naņāvihāņām
tasathāvarāņam poggälānam sariresu vā, sacittesu va, acittesu vä, anusuyattae
viuţtanti l", Sūtrakrtānga lI. ?.58. 32. Uttaradhyaya na Sūtra, 36.107. 33. Ibid. 36.108, 117. 34. Ibid. 36.126. 35. Ibid. 36. Uttaradhyayana ü'ra 36.128. 37. Pannavanā 1.163. Two-sensed animals live in water-places like Agada ( a small
water-place }, Talāya (Tadaga = pond ). Nadi (river, Daha (lake), Vāvi (a large oblong pond ), Pukkharini (pond ), Dihiyā (Dighikā = big tank ) Gunjaliya (a large water-place), Sara (lake or water-pools), Sarapamti ( rows of water pool ), Sarasarapamtiya (many rows of water pools), Bila hole of pit ), Bilapamtiyā (rows of Bilas ), Ujjhara ( fountain or spring ) Nijjhara (waterfall), Cillala (a third of water place ), pallala (a kind of Jalāsáya ), Vappina, a kind of Jalāsáya ), Vappina (a kind of Jalāsáya ? ) Diva (Dvipa island) and Sumudda (sea).

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article of soil38; others live parasitically in the blood and tissue fluids of animals39 or plants, e. g. Kuksikrmi 40 or Krmi41, etc.
Animals with two organs of sense (touch-taste ) are of two kinds : subtile and gross. Both are developed or undeveloped.42 They are of many kinds, such as, Krmis ( They arise from putrefying dead bodies (Sava-Suśruta; of Sarire Kiyad velāntaram samutpannānām kļmyādinam kathaṁ caitânyam-Gunaratna, T.R.D. Jainamatam ); from decomposing curd or milk (e. g. Varşāsu ca svedādīnā anatidaviyasaiva Kātena dadhyād yavayavā eva calantah pūtanādi krmirūpa, upalabhyante-Jayanta, Nyāyamañjari, A. 7, Bhūtacaitanya paksa ), pulakimiyā (a kind of worms born in payapradeśa ), Kucchikimi43 (Kuksikrmi born in Kuksi intestine or hypoconaria worm in animal blood or tissue fluids of animals), Neura44 (Nupura = earth worm, Annelid ), Somangala (a species of two-sensed beings ), Alasā (a small poisonous animal ),45 Māivāhaya (Mātrvāhaka ),46 Vāsimubā (Vamģimukhā worms having chisel like mouth curculionidoce ), Sūimuhā (Sūcīmukhā wornis having a needle-like face ), Gojaloyā (a two-sensed being ), Jaloyā46 (Jalaukā, Luches Annelids ), Jalauyā (Jalaukā a kind of leech ), Sippiyā (shells )47, Samkhā (Conchifera, Lamelli-branchiata )48, Samkhanagā (very small, conch-like animals), Ghulla Ghullikä = two-sensed being), Khulla ( a kind of two-sensed being ), Khullā (a kind of two-sensed beings, lāghavaḥ śankhāh small conch-shells, etc.), Varāļā ( Varāțāḥ Kapardakā, a kind of two-sensed beings, courie), Sottiya50 suklikā (pearl-mussels,
38. Ibid 29. Panna vna 1.56. 40. Ibid. 41. Uttara, 36.128 ; T. S. II. 24. 42. Uttara, 36.127. 43. Krmayah Kosthapūrişādivāspasambhaväh-Dalvana ; T. S. II. 24. 44. Núpuraka (Ring-like), with pendan's, Vermes with unsegmented lateral appen
dages, Annelids), comes under the category of Annelids, according to modern Biology. It is true that the earthworm (Neura ) is a terrestrial animal, but
most of the Annelids are marine. 45. Alasā - a small poisonous animal, Petersburg Dictionary, S. V. According to
the Jivavicārā Výtti V. 16, they are earth snakes (bhūnāga ), which originate in the rainy season when the sun is in Aslesha, i. e. ābout the beginning of
July, SBE XLV, p. 219; 2. 2. 46. Mātrivāhaka. According to the description of the Avacūri, the larvae of
phrygamae seem intended. Accordiog to Jivavicãravrtti, they are called Kūdeli
in Gujarati, SBE., XLV. p. 219, fn. 3.. Jocabi. 47. It comes under the category of Angelids. 48. Some form of Mollusca. 49. Samkha belongs to the group of Mollusca, 50. It comes under the category ef Moliusca.

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Lamelli-branchiata), Mottiya (Mauktikā - a kind of pearls), Kaluya (a kind of two-sensed being), Vasa (a kind of twe-sensed beings ), Egaovatta (a kind of two-sensed beings ), Duhaovatta (a kind of two-sensed being), Namdiya vatta (a kind of two-sensed beings), Samvuka (Helix ), Sippisampuḍa Samputarupaka śuktayaḥ (pearl or shells), Camdana (Camdanakaḥ = Akṣah = a kind of two-sensed beings living in water and on land)51 and sammuddalikkha (sea-leeches? a kind of two-sensed being which live in the sea) and others like them.52
113
All of them live in a part of the world only, they do not live everywhere 53 All of them are Sammurcchima animals ( asexually reproduced animals) and Napumsakas (of third sex). There are seven lakh species and birth-places of these developed and undeveloped twosensed animals.54 The duration of life of these animals is twelve years at the utmost, the shortest is less than a muhurta.55
Life of Two-sensed Animals :56
It appears from the study of aharaparyapti, sarira-paryapti, ucchvasa-niḥśvāsa paryapti, etc. of these animals that among the twosensed protozoa, single-celled animals, there is some division of labour within the single cell of these beings, but the cell functions as a unit to perform the activities associated with their life, such as, taking of food and digestion, formation of body, respiration, circulation, excretion, locomotion and reproduction. To carry out these functions many two-sensed animals have evolved specialized organells-cilia or flagella for movement, vacuoles, neurifibrils, eye-spots and so on as suggested by their names and identification57 in the light of modern Biology.
Most of the species of two-sensed animals (protozoa) are microscopic, although a few are big enough to be seen with the naked eye. Some are shapeless "blobs of protoplasm"; others are elaborately and geometrically patterned. They may have internal skeletons or external skeletons, or protective houses, e. g. Samkha (Conchifera), Samvuka (Helix )58 Kukṣirmi59 of Jaina Biology may be identical with Amaeba 51. Sambūka belongs to the group of Mollusca.
52. Jivavicaravṛtti, v. 16. They are called Aksha in the Vernacular (Samayabhāṣā). 53. Pannavana 1.56, p. 27.
54. Uttaradhyayna Sutra 36.130.
55. Pannavană 1.56.
56. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36.132.
57. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra, II. 24,
58. e. g. Kucchikimiya, Neura, Gaṇḍūpadā (T.S.V. 24), Jaloya, Samkha, Sottiya, Naṁdiyävättä, Samvukka, etc. See Pannavanā, 1.56
59. Pannavana, 1.56
J. B.-15

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proteus of modern Biology "which consists of a clear mass of shapeless, naked, gelatinous protoplasm, containing a nucleus and protoplasmic granules".60
114
"Amaeba belongs to the class Sarcodin (flesh like) containing many other protozoa, all of which move about by means of pseudopods. Some of them, such as, the species causing amebic dysentery in man are parasitic",61
Some of the two-sensed animals may be identified with a second class of protozoa, the ciliata, typified by paramecium, which has a definite and permanent shape-clearly round in front and pointed in the rear due to sturdy, though flexible outer covering secreted by the cell, some of them with suctorians-a third class of protozoa, very closely related to the ciliates, some of them with the Sporozoa (Spore formers)-a fourth class of protozoa, having no special method of locomotion and are parasitic, e. g., germs of malaria, and some of them with the Flagellata-the fifth class of protozoa.
Some of the two-sensed animals may be compared with the phylum porifera or Sponges, coelenterates and (Tennophoros, Phylum Platyhelmithes (flatworms which live in both fresh water and saltwater, creeping over rocks, debris and leaves).
Flukes and tapeworms (Trematida and Cestoda) are two kinds of flat worms. Tapeworms are long, flat, ribbon like animals; some species of which lives as adults in the intestines of probably every kind of Vertebrate, including man, e.g. Kukşikṛmi.62
Besides other two-sensed animals represent the simplest animals which illustrate the organ system level of organization. None of them is parasitic to man and animals, while others may be identical with the Phylum Nematoda, made up of round worms, living in the sea or fresh water or in the soil or in other plants or animals as parasites, e. g. hook worms, etc. and also with the Rotifera (wheelanimals), the aquatic, microscopic worms and the Gastrotricha, aquatic worms which have no crown of cilia, others may be identified with the Bryozoa or moss animals, living in colonies that superficially resemble those of coelente rates and some with the Brachiopodaphylum characterized by lophophore. All brachiopods live in the sea like Samuddalikkha.63
60. Ibid
61. Biology, p. 193.
62. Pannavana 1.56
63. Paņṇavana, 1.56 See Biology, pp. 193-206.

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(Second Section )
The Higher Invertebrates.
The Higher Invertebrates, e. g. Nupuraka (Annelids ), Gandũpada (arthropods ), Sankha (conchifera ), Suktika (pearl), Sambuka (Helix), mouth and anus, a muscular gut, a well developed circulatory system and a true coelom, a cavity within the mesoderm lined by peritoneum.
Some of the two-sensed animals, namely, Apādika (Vermes)' without lateral appendages, Scolecides ), Nūpuraka (ring-like, with pendants Vermes with unsegmented lateral appendages, Annelids ), Gandūpada (Knotty legged, Arthropoda ) including crustacea, (crabs ), Myriapoda, etc. and Sankha (Conchifera, Lamelli-branchiata ), Suktika (Pearl mussel, Lamelli-branchiata ), Sambuka, (Helix) and Jalūkā (Leeches Annelids)2 and some forms of Mollusca come under the category of the Higher Inverberates.
Besides, some of the three-sensed and four-sensed animals of Jaina Biology mainly fall under the species of the Higher Invertebrates.
According to modern Biology, the Higher Invertebrates comprise the Annelids, Arthropods, Molluscs and Echinoderms3.
“Of these four-phyla, only the arthropods are very successful terrestrial animals. It is true that the earth worm is a terrestrial animal, but most annelids are marine ; there are a few land snails, but most molluscs (Śambuka ) live in the sea ; all the echinoderms are marine4 “ of the five classes of arthropods, one, the crustacea - crabs, lobsters, and so on-is largely marine, but the other four insects, spiders, centipedes and millipedes are mostly territorial”5. 1. Biology. p. 209.
Pannavanä 1.56.; Tāttvārthadhigama Sūtra 11. :4. 2. Pannavana 1.56.
; Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra. II. 24. "Tad yatha Krmyädināṁ Apädikanūpuraka - Gandūpada - Sankha - Suktika-sam
būka - Jalūkā - prabhștinām, etc." 3. Biology. p. 209. 4. Biology. p. 209 S. ibid.
Knotty / legged two-sensed animals (Gandūpada) (Crustacea. Myriapodā. etc. of Ardhropoda ) come under the Higher Invertebraces, T.S. II. 24. The Higher Invertebrates-Insects/, (such as, Pipilika Ants) etc. are mentioned as the three-sensed animals, spiders ( Nandyāvartás ) as foursensed aminals and Centipedes ( satapadi ) as three-seosed animals in Jaina Biology, scc Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra II. 24.

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Three - sensed Animals - the Higner Invertebrates.
Animals with three organs of sense (touch, taste and smell) are of two kinds, viz. subtile and gross ones. Both are either fully developed or undeveloped. They are as follows:
Ovaiya (Upacikā - Bugs, Hemiptera ), Rohiniyā (Red ants, Formicidae, Hymenoptera ), Kunthu (Fleas, Hemimetabola, a kind of insect - animalcules), Pipiliyā ( Ants – Formicidae, Hymcuoptera ), Uddamsagā ( a kind of bugs ), Uddehiyā (white ants ), Ukkaliyā ( a three - sensed being ), Uppāyā (Spring - tails, Aptera, Ametabola ), Ukka dā (a kind of three - sensed animals ), Tanahārā (plant - lice ), Kātthahārā (Termites, a kind of white ants - Neuroptera, Hemimetabola ), Māluyā (a kind of three - sensed insects ), Pattahārā (leaf-lice sucking the sap of the leaf), Tanavimtiyā (a kind of three - sensed animals parasites in grass ), Pupphavistiyā (a kind of three - sensed animals parasites in flower ), Phalavimtiyā (a kind of three - sensed animal parasites in fruit ), Biyavimtiya (a kind of three - sensed animals parasites in seed ), Tedūranamajjiyā (a kind of three-sensed animals parasites in Tedura Tausamimjiyā (cucumber-seed weevils and lice), Kappāsattbisamimjiyā (Cotton - seed weevils and lice ), Aptera, (Ametabola ), Hilliyā (a kind of three-sensed animals ), Jhilliyā (a kind of three-sensed animals ), Pāhuyā ( a kind of three-sensed animals ), Subhagā (a kind of threesensed animals), Sovacchiyā (a kind of three -- sensed animals ), Suyavimtā (a kind of three-sensed animals ), Imdikāiya (a kind of
sensed animals), Imdagovayā (a kind of three-sensed animals ), Urulumcagā (a kind of three-sensed animals ), Kotthalavāhagā (a kind of three - sensed animals ), Jủyā (Yūkā = louse ), Hālahalā (a kind of three -- sensed animals ), Pisuyā (a kind of three - sensed animals ), Tidugā7 (a kind of three - sensed animals ), Satāvari (a kind of threesensed animals ), Satavāiyā (Satapādikā, centipeds ), Gombi, ( a kind of three-sensed animals ), Hatthisomdā (a kind of three-sensed animals), and others like them.8
There are eight lakh varities and birth-places, etc. of these threesensed animals - developed and undeveloped. Some of these threesensed animals, namely, Kunthu (hemiptera ), Pipilika (Ants-Formicidae), 6. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.136; Paņņa vaņā 1.57 ; Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 24.4
Uttaradhyayana 36,13€. 7. Tindug. s shining like lead, originate in the kernel of the cotton secd. 8. Paņņņvaņa 1,57.1.
;Uttarādbyayana Sūtra 36, 137.138 ; Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra, 11. 24 9. Pannāvaņā Sūtra 1.57.2.

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117
Trapusam imjagā and Kārpāsāsthika (cucumber-and cotton weevils and lice - Aptera, Ametabola ), Satapadi or Satapadikā (centipeds) and Utpatāka (Spring-tails, Aptera - Ametabola ), Trnahārakā (Plant lice ) and Kāşthahārakā ( Termites = white ants = Neuroptera), Hemimetabola belong to the Arthropod group of the Higher Invertebrates. The Arthropods are very successful terrestrial animals, e.g. fleas, the centipeds, insects etc.
As pointed out, some of the two-sensed animals come under the category of the Annelids and Mollusca, e. g, Nupuraka (earth worm) and Jalūkā (leeches ) fall under the species of the Annelids, while Sankba (Conchifera), Suktika (pearl - mussel) and Sambuka (Helix ) belong to the groups of Mollusca.
All of the three-sensed animals live in part of the world only, they do not live everywhere.10 They live in both land and water. But mostly they continue their life in water, as it is stated that they live in Agada (a small water place), Talaga (pond ), Nadi (river ), Daba (Lake), Vāvi (a large oblong pond), Pukkhariņi (pond ), Dihiyā (big tank), Gumjaliyā (a large water-place), Sare (Lake or water-pool), Sarapamtiya (rows of such pools), Bila (hole or pit), Bilapamtiyā (rows of holes), Ujjhara (fountain or spring), Nijjhara (waterfall or pits ), Cillala ( a kind of watery place ), Pallala (a kind of Jalāśaya ), Vappina (a kind of Jalāśaya, ), Diva (island ), Samudda ( seal ) in all Jalāśyas (marine places ) and Jalatthānas (watery places).11
They live in the innumerable parts of the Universe with regard to birth, etc. 12
Four-sensed Animals
Four-sensed animals 13 which also belong to the category of the Higher Invertebrates are of two kinds, viz. subtile and gross ones. Both are either developed or undeveloped. 14 They are as follows:
Andhiya ( a kind of four-sensed animals ), Pottiyā (gnats ), Damsā (gad-flies) Nettiyā (a kind of four-sensed animals), Macchiyā (Maksikās, flies ), Magamigakidi (Kița-butterflies and moths ), Lepidoptera, Holometabola, Masagā (Mosquitoes ), Payamgā (Patangas-grasshoppers and 10. Uttaradhyara Sūtra 36.139. 11. Paņņavaņā Sutta 2.164. (Sthana pada ). 12. Pannavanā II, 14. 13. Ibid. 14. Uttaradyoyana Sūtra 36.145; Pannav.na 1.58,1.
; Tattvārtbadhigama Sūtra II. 34.

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locusts, Hemimetabola ), Kukkuda ( a kind of four-sensed animals ), Nandāvattā (spiders ), Arachnida ), Arthropoda, Vicchiya, Vrścika, (Scorpion ), Simgirida or di ( a kind of four-sensed animals ), Kinhapatta (a kind of four-sensed animals having black colour ), Nilapattā (a kind of four-sensed animals having blue colour ), Lohiyapattā (a kind of four-sepsed animals having red colour ), Haliddapattā (a kind of foursensed animals having yellow colour), Sukkilapatta ( a kind of four-sensed animals having white colour ), Cittapakkhā (or Cittapatta) (a kind of four-sensed animals ), Vicittapakkhā (a kind of four-sensed animals having variegated wings), Obhamjaliyā, (or obimjaliyā), (a kind of foursensed animal), Jalacariyā (or Jalakāri, a kind of four-sensed aquatic animals), Gambhira (a kind of four-sensed animal ), Niniyā (or Niyaya, a kind of four-sensed animal ), Tamtavā (or Tambagaiya, a kind of four-sensed animal), Acchila (a kind of four-sensed animal), Mābaya (or Sāhaya, a kind of four sensed animal), Aechiroda (a kind of foursensed animal), Acchiveha (a kind of four-sensed animal), Sāramga (Hornets, Hymenoptera, Holometabola), Neulā ( a kind of four-sensed animals), Dolā (a kind of four-sensed animals), Bhimgiridi, (Crickets), Bhamarā (bees ), Virali or Bharili (a kind of four-sensed animal ),
lā (a kind of four-sensed animal), Varata (Waspa), 15 Tottha (a kind of four-sensed animals), Vicchuta a kind of Scorpions ) Pattavicchuya (a kind of scorpions living on leaf) Chāņavicchuyā (a kind of scorpions ), Jalavicchuyā (a kind of scorpions living in water), Piyamgālā (a kind of four-sensed animals), Gomayakidagā (cowdung worms), and others like them.16
According to Jaina Biology, they are all Saṁmurcchima Napumsakas17
Their longest life-duration is six months and the shortest is an antarmuhurata 18. They mostly live in water, land, etc. like the threesensed animals. 19
Some of these four-sensed animals, four senses having ( touch, taste, smell and sight ), e.g. Bhramara (Bees Hymenoptera ), Poltika (gnats ), Maksikā (flies ), Masakas (Mosquitoes-Holometabola, Diptera) Vrścika and Nandyävarta (Scorpions and Spiders, Arachnida, Arthropoda), Kita I5. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.145. 16. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra, 36.146-149; Pannavāna. 1.58.1,
Tativārtbadhigama Sūtra II. 34. 17. Pannavaņā, 1.53.1. 18. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.151. 19. Pannavaņā Sūtra II. 165 (Sthanapada).

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Animals and their Classification
( Butterflies and Moths-Lepidoptera, Holometabola), Patangas (Grasshoppers and Lecusts-Orthopteral Hemimetabola ), definitely come under the Category of the higher Invertebrates. Spiders, scorpions, grasshoppers, moths, butterflies, colonial insects-bees etc. belong to the Arthopoda group of the Higher Invertebrates of modern Biology.
CONCLUSION
Among the most familiar invertebrate animals are the earth worms (Nupurakas )-the members of the Phylum Annelid. This word 'Neuraya' or 'Nupuraka' (Annelid) which means (ringed) refers to the fact that the body of the worm consists of a series of rings or segments. According to modern Biology, "Both the internal organs and the body-wall are segmented so that each animal is made of about one hundred more or less similar units, each of which contains one or a pair of organs of each system21."
most
The animals that make up the Arthropoda Phylum are the successful, biologically of all animals, for, according to modern Biology, "there are more of them (about 870,000 species are known, of which some 800,000 are insects), they live in a greater variety of habitats and can eat a greater variety of food than the members of any other phylum".21 In Jaina Biology there appear to be six kinds of Arthropoda, viz. (1) Trilobita (marine arthropoda, Jalavicchuya, Jalacariya, etc,) (2) the crustacea, e. g. crabs, etc., (3) the Centipeds, ( Satapadi) which are fast moving carnivorous forms, some of which can inflict a painful bite; the Millipedas, which are slower-moving plant-eaters (Kaṣṭhahāraka, Trnapatraka, etc. (5) the Arachnids, including spiders (Nandyavarta), Scorpions (Vṛścika ), etc. and (6) the Insects (Kunthu, etc.). The characteristics of these arthropods are their paired jointed appendages which are used in a variety of ways, as swimming paddles, walking legs, mouth parth, etc. "All the arthropods have segmented bodies covered by a hard external coat of cuticle secreted by the underlying epithelium" 22
119
The Mollusca which includes snails (sambuka) etc. is the second largest of all the animal phyla according to modern Biology, with its 80,000 species. 23
20. Biology, p. 210. 21. Ibid., p. 214.
22. Biology, p. 214.
23. Biology. p. 222.

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The echinoderms (Spiny-skinned ) which include the sea stars (Asteroidea), sea urchins (Echinoidea ), sea cucumbers (Holothroidea ), serpent stars ( Ophiuroidea ) and sea lilies (Crinoidea ) are a group of animals radically different from all other invertebrates. The reference to some sea animals haviag four sense-organs in Jaina Biology may suggest their identification with Echinodermata.
The foregoing description of the two-sensed, three-sensed and four-sensed animals (i. e. the Lower Invertebrates and the Higher Invertebrates ) as given in the Jaina works does not exhaust the great variety of the animals. In addition to these phyla, there are other groups of invertebrate, sometimes put in phyla of their own, sometimes classified under other phyla, e.g. some of the two-sensed animals, namely, Apādika (Vermes) without lateral appendages, Scolecides, Nūpurka (ring - like, with pendants, Vermes with unsegmented lateral appendages, Annelids), Gandūpada (Knotty-legged Arthropoda, including crustacea, Myriapoda, etc.) and Sankha (Conchifera, Lamelli branchiata), Suktika (pearl mussel, Lamelli branchiata ), Samvuka (Helix ) and Jalūkā (Leeches -- Annelids and some form of Mollusca have been classified under the phyla of the Higher Invertebrates.

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(Third Section )
The Phylum Chordata : Five - sensed Animals
The Phylum Chordata :
The animals, (man and higher animals having five sense organs fall under the class of the Phylum Chordata of modern Biology, which consists of the sub-phylum, Vertebrate animals, such as, fishes ( mucchā) amphibia (frogs - mandūka )3, reptiles (parisappas ),4 birds (pakkhis )5 and mammals including man (maņussa ).6 Its members are distinctive in having a notochord, a dorsal, hollow nerve cord (Snäyu ) and gill slits.7 The fishes, amphibia, reptiles, birds, and mammals make up the classes of the sub-phylum Vertebrata, characterized by a cartilaginous or bony vertebral column.
The Vertebrates :
They are distinguished from the types of lower chordates or other lower animals by the possession of an internal skeleton of cartilage or bone that reinforces or replaces the notochord. "The notochord is a flexible, unsegmented, skeletal rod, extending longitudinally in all chordates. It is the only sketelal structure present in the lower chordates; but in the Vertebrates segmental bony or cartilaginous Vertebrates surround the notochord" 8 "In the higher Vertebrate the notochord is visible only early in development; later the Vertebrae replace it completely. Vertebrates have a bony or cartilaginous brain case; the cranium, which encloses and protects the brain, the enlarged anterior end of the dorsal, hollow nerve cord”.9 1. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.155; 170, etc. Pannavaņā Sūtra 1.61. ff. ; Tattvārthadhi.
gama Sūtra 11. 34. 2. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.172 ; Pannavaņā Sutta J. 62-63. ; Tattvārthadhigama
Sūtra II. 34. 3. Bhagavati Sūtra 12. 8. 446. 4. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 181. ; Panna vaņa 1, 76, ff. ; Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra
II. 34. 5. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 187. ff. ; Pannavaņā Sūtra 1, 86. ff.; Tattvārthadhi
gama Sūtra II. 31. 6. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 180, 194. ; Pannavaņā Sūtra 1.70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 92.
; Tattvārdhigama Sūtra II. 31. 7. Biology, p. 228. 8. Biology, p. 230. 9. Biology, p. 230 JB-16

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Vertebrates have a pair of eyes ( cakkhu ) 10 that develop as lateral outgrowths of the brain. Invertebrate eyes, such as, those of insects (pipilikā, Kunthu, etc. ) may be highly developed and efficient, but they develop from a folding of the skin.11. Another vertebrate characteristic is a pair of ears (Sõeimidiya ), which in the lowest vertebrates are primarily organs of equilibrium.12
The circulatory system of vertebrates is distinctive in that the blood (Sonita ) 13 is confined to blood vessels (dhamanis and sirās) and is pumped by a ventral, muscular heart (hiyaya )14. The higher invertebrates, such as, arthropods and molluses (suktika and sajikha, etc.) typically have hearts but they are located on the dorsal side of the body according to modern Biology and“ pump blood in the open spaces in the body called a hemocoel. Vertebrates are said to have a closed circulatory system ; arthropods and molluscs have an open circulatory system ; for the blood is not confined solely to tubular blood vessels” 15
Classes of the Sub-phylum Vertebrata :
: The five - sensed animals of Jaina Biology can be classified into eight classes of the Subphylum Vertebrata of Modern Biology, viz. (1) the Agnatha - the jawless fishes (matsa ), e. g. Saņhamaccha, lan eels, etc. (2) the Placodermi - the jawed fishes, (3) the Chondrichthyes, e. g. sharks ( timi?) with cartilaginous skeletons, (4) the Osteichthyes -- the bony fishes, e. g. Rohiyamaccha (5) the Amphibia (frogs, Mandūka ), (6) the Reptilia (parisarpas ) - lizards, snakes, turtles and alligators, (grhagolikā, Sarpa = ahi, Kacchapa and Godhā), (7) the Avesbirds (paksis ) and (8) the Mammalia - the warm blooded fur bearing animals that suckle their young sthalacara catuspada prāņis, Apes and man ).
In Jain Biology the five - sensed animals lower and higher vertebrates are first classified into two main classes of the subphyla on the basis of their mode of origin, viz. (1) Sammurcchima (generatio aequivoca)
10. Bhagavati Sūtra 16. 1. 566 ; Tanduveyaliya 8. 87. ; Pannavaņā Sutta, 191.
Indriyapada Bhagavati 2.4.99 ( cakkhu ) 11. Tvac. (Skin ) ; Bhagavati Sūtra 16.1 566, Tandulaveyaliya 3, p. 7; Paņnavaņā
Sutta 191, Indriyapada ; 12. Biology, p. 231. 13. Ācārānga Sūtra II, 4. (sonita ); Sūtrakstānga II. 2.18; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61
; Tandulaveyaliya 2. P. 6; Kalyāņakāraka); Ugradityacaryā, v. 7. p. 31 Rakta;
Tandu aveyaliya 2, p. 6.; Katyaņākāraka, vy. 2, 3, 3rd paricchida, p. 30. 14. Sūtrakstānga !I. 2.18. 15. Biology, P. 231

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123 and Garbhavyutkrāntika (those which are born from the womb ).16 Next they are divided into three groups on the basis of their habitats, viz. (1) Jalacara (aquatic ), (2) Sthalacara (terrestrial) and Nabhacara or Khecara (aerial).17 Matsya (fishes ), Kacchapas ( tortoises ), Grahas (crocodiles ), Makara (a kind of Sea monster - the emblem of the goddess Gangā) and śiśumāra (Dolphin or Gangetic porpoise Cetacea) are the five kinds of Jalacaras ( acquatic animals ). 18
The longest duration of the life of the acquatic animals is one krore of Pūrvas: the shortest is less than one mubūrta. 19
Sthalacaras ( terrestrial animals ) are of two kinds, viz. Catuşpadas (quadrupeds ) and Parisarpas ( reptiles ),20 quadrupeds which come under the subphylum of Mammals will be discussed later on in details. Here it is to be known that they are of four kinds, viz. (1) egakhurā (Solidungular animals ), e.g. horses, etc., (2) dukhurā ( Biungular animals ), e. g. cow, buffalo, etc., (3) Gandipadā (Multiungular animals ) e. g. elephant etc. and (4) Sanapphadā (Animals having nails),21 e. g. lions, etc.
Parisarpas (reptiles) are of two classes : (1) Bhujaparisarpas (those which walk on their arms ), e. g. Gșhagolikā (lizards ), etc. and Urahparisarpa those which move on their breast, e. g. snakes, etc.22
The longest duration of the life of the terrestrial animals is three palyopamas; the shortest is less than one muhūrta.23
The longest duration of the life of terrestrial animals continuance i. e. the continuous birth in the same type or body is three palyopamas plus from two to nine krores of pūrva years ; the shortest is less than one muhurta" 24 16. Bhagavati Sūtra 12.8.469 ( Golamgüla - ape ); Jivābhigama Sūtra, 1.33. ;
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 170. 17. Bhagavaii Sūtra 7.5.282 ; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.171 ; Pannavaņā Sūtra, 1.61,
p. 29. 14. One Purva year consists of 7560 millions of common years. 19. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.175 20. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.179. Paņņavaņā 1.69. 21. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36. 79-180. ; Pannavaņā sutia 1.70 22. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.18:; Pannavaņā 1.76. 22. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra :6.183. 24. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.181. "Paliovamāim tiņni u, ukkosenna viyahiya |
authii thalayaräņam, amtomuhuttam jahanniya //

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Nabhacaras (Aerial Animals)
Aerial animals are of four kinds, viz. (1) Carmapakṣin (those with membranous wings ),25 e.g. bat (valguli), (2) lomapakṣin (those with feathered wings ), (3) Samudgapakṣin (those with wings in the shape of a box)26 and Vitata pakṣin (those which sit on outspread wings )27.
The longest duration of the life of aerial animals is an Asamkheyabhaga (innumerable part) of a palyopama; the shortest is less than one muhurta.28
The longest life duration of the aerial animals' continuance i. e. the continuous birth in the same type of body is an Asamkheyabhāga of a palyopama plus from two to nine krores of purva years; the shortest is less than one muhurta, according to the Pannavaṇā Sutta.29
Jaina Biology
It is to be noted here that Bhujanga and Uraga30 (or Bhujaparisarpa and Uraḥparisarpa) mean reptiles in popular sense, but here Bhujaga (or Bhujanga) is evidently oriparous limbed animals (limbed reptiles and Batrachians) and "not creatures whose movements are crooked or in the form of a bent bow "31
Uraḥparisarpa or Uraga means apodal reptiles, including snakes (ophidae), Carmapakṣa-paksis, the so-called birds with leathern wings, ( Bats, Chiroptera) e.g. Valguli (flying-fox), Pakṣivirala (flying-cat, Microchiroptera) and Jalūkā (apparently meaning blood - sucking Bats or Vampires), are included in the species of birds, (Pakṣi) because they are homologous and similar in structure and function, but they should be placed in the group of the Mammals as they have all characteristics of the Mammals. Catuspadas which fall under the category of the Mammals is indentical with the Vertebrata.
Fishes:
According to Jaina Biology, there are many kinds of fishes, such as, Sanhamaccha (kind of smooth scaleless fishes; they may be 25. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.187; ; Pannavaṇā 1.86.
26. These interesting birds are said to live outside the Manushottara or world inhabited by men.
27. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36. 87; Pannavaṇā 1.86.
28.
Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36.190.
29. Ibid. 36.191.
30. Tattvarthadhigama Sûtia II; 34.
31. Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hidus, p. 19.

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identified with Jawless fishes - the living lamprey eels ),32 Khavallamacchā (a kind of fish-cassyta filiformis), Juga macchā (a kind of fish) Vijjbidiyamacchā (kind of fish), Halimacchā (Hali matyas - a kind of bony fish), Maggarimacchā (a kind of fish, it may be identified with the scaleless Māgur matsya), Rohiyamaccha (Rohita matsya = Labeo rohita, a scaly long fish of reddish tint ), Halisāgarā (Ilisagarā, a kind of scaly, bony fish in Bengal), Gāgarā (a kind of fish, it may identified with Bengal's riverine ghāgrāmatsya ), Vadā ( a kind of fish, it may be identified with Vataka - scaly, riverine, disc-like globular fish ), Vadagarā (a kind of fish of the same kind ), Timi ( whale ) Timingilam (a large fabulous fish), Nakka (Nakra, a kind of fish or Shark or crocodile ?), Tamdulamacchā (a kind of fish), Kanikkāmacchā (kind of fish ), Sālisacchiyamacchā (a kind of fish ), Lambhanamacchă (a kind of fish ), Padāga (a kind of fish ), Padāgātipadāgā (a kind of fish) and others like them.33
It appears from the study of this list of fishes that some of them are jawless, scaleless fishes, e.g. sanhamaccha, some are jawed cartilaginous fishes, e.g. shark, etc., some are bony, scaly fishes, e.g. Rohita (Labeo Rohita ), etc.
Kacchabhā (Tortoises ).
There are two kinds of tortoises, viz. Attthikacchabha ( Bony tortoise called Kālikacchapa in Bengal) and Māmsakacchabha (fleshy tortoise called Chimakacchapa in Bengal)34.
Gāhā (Crocodiles)
There are stated to be five kinds of Gābā, viz. Dili, Vedbalā, Muddhayā, Pulagā and Simägārā.35.
Magara (a kind of Sea-monster regarded as the emblem of Kāmadeva or Gangā ......):
There are stated to be two kinds of Magara, viz. Sonidamagarā and Matthamagarā.36 32. They are cylindrical fish, up to 3 feet long, with no jaws or paired finsh, they
may be lamprey eels. 33. Pannavaņā 1.63 34. Paņņavaņā 1.64. 35. Ibid 1.36. It is true that there are a few varieties of crocodiles. A kind of
fish-eating crocodile is found in Bangladesh, while the man-eating crocodiles are also found in abundance in the Sundarban rivers and her small rivers in
Bangaladesh. 36. Ibid. 1.66

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Jaina Biology
Sumsumāra (Dolphins 137
Śumsumāra is of one variety only.
The Jalacaras (aquatic animals ) are classified into two groups, viz. Sammūrcchima (those which are asexually reproduced) and Garbhavyutkräntika (born from the womb ). All the Sammũrcchimas are Napumsakas (belong to the third sex ), while Garbhavyutkrāntikas are of three kinds, viz. Ittbi (female), Purisā (Male) and Napumsaka (that of third sex). Of these aquatic animals - developed and undeveloped there are 13 1/2 lakh varieties and birth places of them.38
Amphibia (MANDUKAJATI OR DADDURAJATI).
The land Vertebrates - Mandukas or Dadduras (frogs ) represent the amphibian animals. Frogs and toads are highly specialized for hopping. Although the frogs are land animals and can live in comparatively dry places, they must return to water to reproduce. “Eggs and sperms are generally laid in water and the fertilized eggs, nourished at first by the yolk, develop into larvae or tadpoles. These breathe by means of gills and feed on acquatic plants. After a time the larva undergoes metamorphosis and becomes a young adult frog or salamander, with lungs and legs”39.
A number of frogs, toads and salamanders have skin glands that secrete poisonous substances, for this reason they are perhaps called Mandukajāti āśīvisa, 40
Parisarpas ( Reptiles ) : Sthalacaras :
The class-parisarpa (Reptilia )41 is a living species of true land forms. They need not return to water to reproduce as amphibian must. They are oviparous animals. “The bodies of reptiles are covered with hard, dry, horny scales which protect the animal, from desiccation and from predators”. 42 The reptiles described in the Agamas are of two kinds,
37. Pannavaņā Sutta 1.67. 38. Ibid. 5.68. 1-4. 39. Bhagavati Sūtra 8.2.316; 12.8.160 ;
; Manduke hari-śātūra - plava - bhika - pla vangamāh varşābhūh plavagaḥ śālura jihva - vyanga - dardurā / (1354); Abhidhānņi cintamoni, Hemacandra, p. 38 ; Mandukka - Maņdayati Varsāsamayam - Madi - Bhekejalajantu bhide / praśna vya karana / Aśrayadvāra, vide Abhidhan Rajendra, p. 23 (y) Vyavahāra 1.6, Pra. 1.5
Bhā. 1. Biology, p. 234. 40. Bhagavāti Sūtra 8.2,316 4. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.181 ; Pannavaņā Sutta -.76; 42. Biology, p. 243.

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viz. Urahparisarpa (those which move on their breast, e.g. snake) and Bhuja parisarpas (those which walk on their atins, e. g. lizards, etc.).43 Both are again of many kinds.44.
Urahparisarpas ;
They are of four kinds, viz, Ahi (snake), Ahigarā (a kind of snake ), Āsāliyā (a kind of reptiles Urahparisarapas) and Mahoragā (a kind of reptiles Urahparisarpas).45
Ahi (Snake ):
Ahi is of two kinds, viz. Davvikarā46 and Maulino.47
Davvikarā is of many kinds such as, Ašvisā, (those having poison in teeth), Ditthivişä (those having poison in vision), Uggavisā (those having deadly serious poison ), Bhagavisā (those having poison is body), Tayāvisā (those having poison in skin ), Hālāvisā (those having poison in saliva) Ussāsavisā (those having poison in inhaling air ), Nissāsavisā (those having poison in exhaling air, ) Kāṇhasappā (Krsnasarpā=black snake - cobra Naja Tripurdians ), Sedaspappā ( a kind of snakes ), Kāodara (a kind of snakes), Dajjhapupphā (Dagdhapuspä, a kind of snakes ), Kolabā (a kind of snakes ), Melimimda (a kind of snakes) and others like them.48
Maulino (Mukulina ) ( Hoodless Snake)
There are many kinds of Maulino, such as, Divväga, Gonāsā, Kasāhīya, Vaiula Cittalino Mamdalino Mālino, Ahi, Ahisalāgā, Padāga and others like them.
Avagara ( Boidae)
It is of one kind only (egāgāra ).49
43. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.81 ; Pannavanā 1.76.; Tattvārthadhigama Sutra 2.34. 44. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.181 45. Pannavaņā 1.77. 46. Darvikaras are mentioned in sufruta - Nāgārjuna (Kalpasthāna, ch. IV) of the
five Darvikaras (Krsna sarpa, Mahakrsna, Padma, Mahapadma, sarkapali - Naja Tripudians, Naja Bangarus are hooded swift in their movement dural in their movement; diural in their habits, bear on their hoods or their bodies the marks of chariot - wheel, ploughs, umbrellas rhombs; or cross-bands, goads, etc.,
PSAH. p. 186 47. Pannavaņā 1.78, 48. Ibid. 1.79. 49. Pannavna 1.80. Ibid. 181

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Asaliya :
They are born and live in islands, forts, villages, towns, Nigamas (a city or market places), Khedas (small towns), Karbatas (market - towns or villages), Mandavas (temples), Donamuhas (the ends of a valley), Pattanas (towns or cities), Agaras, (mines), Asamas, (hermitages) Samvahas (parks for recreation or market - places), and capitals (Rayahāṇī). They are sammurcchima praņis. They are in the minimum innumerabeth part of a cubic finger in length and 12 Yojanas in the maximum, like that in breadth and depth. On the destruction of islands, etc. they rise up by making the earth burst forth and die in an antarmuhurta.50
Mahorgā
Mahoraga (Reptiles living in the extermal islands and seas)51, are of many kinds, such as, (1) Some are one cubic finger in length (2) Some are angulapuhattiya (two-nine cubic fingers in length), (3) (3) Some are one viyatthi (thumb finger to small finger in length), (4) Some are viyatthipuphattiya (two - nine fingers in length), (5) Some are one rayani (one cubit=18" in length (6) Some are rayaṇi-puhattiya (two to nine rayanis in length), (7) Some are one kucchi, i.e. two cubits) in length), (8) Some are Kucchi - puhattiya (two to nine Kucchis), (9) Some are one dhanu (four cubits in length), (10) Some are dhanupuhattiya (two to nine dhanus in length), (11) Some are one gauyam (2000 dhanus in length), (12) Some are Gauyapuhattiya, (i.e. two to nine gauyams) (13) Some are one Yojana (14) gauyas in length), (15) Some are Yojanasataṁ (one hundred Yojanas in length), (16) Some are Yojanasatapuhattiya (two to nine Yojanaśatas), (17) Some are Yojana-sahasram (one thousand Yojanas in length), and many others like them52.
Jaina Bioogy
They are born in land but move in both water and land. They live in the external islands and seas.53
They are of two kinds, viz. Sammurcchima ( asexually reproduced). and Garbhavyutkrantika (sexually reproduced). All the Sammurcchima are Napumsakas (that of third sex). Garbhavyutkrantikas are of three
50. Ibid. 1.82
51. Pannavaṇā 1.83
52. Ib d. 1.83.

It is difficult to identify them in the absence of further knowledge about them. But it is certain that a kind of snake type reptilia are found to originate in the ruins of old houses and buildings on their destruction.
53. Ibid.

:

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kinds, viz. Itthi (female ), Purisa (male) and Napumsaga (third sex )54
of these Urahparisarpas developed and undeveloped, there are ten lakh varieties and birth - places55 of them.
Bhujaparisarpas (Reptiles which walk on arms ) :
Bhuja parisar pas are of many kinds, such as, Naula (Nakula-mangoose ), Gohā (Godbā, Varanidae Lizards, Reptilia ), Saradā, (a kind of Bhuja parisarpas), Sallā (porcupine on a kind of Bhuja parisarpas), Saramthā (a kind of Bhūjaparisarpas ), Sārā (a kind of Bhujaparisarpas ), (Gharoila (a kind of Bhuja parisarpas ), Vissambharā (a kind of Bhujaparisarpas), Mūsā (rats a kind of Bhujaparisarpas ), Mangusa (a kind of Bhujaparisarpas ), Payaläiyā (a kind of Bhuja parisarpas ), Chiravirāliya (a kind of Bhujaparisarpas ), Jābā (a kind of Bhujaparisarpas ), Cauppaiya (a kind of Bhujaparisarpas ), and others like them.55
They are divided into two kinds, on the basis of their mode of origin, viz. Sammūrochima (asexually reproduced ) and Garbhavyutkrāntikas ( sexually reproduced or born from the womb ). All Sammūrcchimas are Napumsakas (of third sex). Those which are Garbhayutkrāntikas are of three kinds, Itthi (female), Purisa (male ), Napumsaga (third sex 156
of these Bbuja parisarpas - developed and undeveloped there are nine lakh varieties and birth - places, etc.57
Catuspadās (Quadrupeds ) :
As pointed out, they are the terrestrial mammals and there are four sub - classes of Catuspadas viz. Egakhurā, Dukhurā, Gandipada and Sanapphada58.
Egakhura (Solidungular Animals )
Solidungular animals are of many kinds, such as, Assā (horses), Assatarā (kind of horses or mules), Ghodagā (mares or a kind of horses), Gaddabha (ass), Gorakkarā (a kind of Solidungular animals ), Kamdagā ( a kind of solidungular animals), Sirikamdadaga ( a kind of solidungular
54. Ibid. 1.85 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid. 57. Ibid. 1.85.5. 58. Pannavana 1.70. JB-17

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Jaina Biology animals), Avatta (a kind of soliduygular animals ) and others like them.59
Dukhurā (Biungular Animals ).
They are of many kinds, such as Utthā (camel), Gonā (cows), Gavayā ( Bos gaveeus-Ungulata), Rojjhā (a species of Biungular animals), Pasayā (a species of Biungular animals), Mahisā (buffalo), Miya (deer), Samvarā (a species of Biungular animals, a kind of deer), Varāhā (boars or hogs or swines), Avā (goats), Sarabhā (a kind of deer), Camarā (Yaks), Kurangā (a kind of deer ), Gokannā (the deer Antilope picta), and others like
them. 60
Gandipadā (Multiupgular Animals )
There are many kinds of Gandipadas, such as, Hatthi ( elephant ), Püyanayā (a kind Multiungular animals ), Maṁkunahaithi (a kind of elephants), Khaggā (a kind of rhinoceroses ), Gandāras (rhinoceroses ) and others like them.61
Sanapphadā (Animals with incisor teeth and nails )
There are many kinds of them, such as, Sīhā (lions ), Vaggha (tigers), Diviyā (Dipikā, a kind of tiger, leopard or panther ), Taracchā (wolves), Parassarā (Panthers or a particular wild animal ), Siyala (Srgālas = foxes ), Bidālās (cats ), Sunagā (dogs ), Kokamtiya (a kind of Carnivorous animals), Sasagā (hares ), Cittagā (a kind of Carnivorous animals), Cittalagā (a kind of Carnivorous animals ) and others like them 62
All these animals are classified into two kinds on the basis of their mode of origin, viz. Sammürcchima (animals asexually reproduced) and Garbha vyutkrāntika (animals born from the womb). Those which are Sammūrcchimas are Napumasakas. Those which are Garbhavyutkrāntika are of three kinds, viz. Itthi (female), purisa (male) and Napumsaga ( third sex ). Of these terrestrial quadrupeds -deve!oped and undeveloped, there are ten lakh varieties and birth - places of them.63
59. Ibid. 1.71, 60, Ibid. 1.72. 61. Pannavaņā, 1.73. 62. Ibid. 1.74. Tattvārtha sūtra mentions Rksa (bear) after Vyāghra (tiger). 63. Ibid. 1.75. 1-4.

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Pakkhi (Birds ) :
Pakṣins (Birds) are characterized by the presence of feathers (Pakṣas64, Lomas); "these decrease the loss of water through the body surface, decrease the loss of body heat, and aid in flying by presenting a plane surface to the air"65.
Like parisarpas (reptiles) birds lay eggs and have internal fertilization, i. e. they are oviparous (andaja ).66a They have become adapted to a variety of environments and different species have very different types of wings, tails, breaks, feet, etc.
As pointed out, there are four species of birds, viz. Carmapakṣi (so-called birds having leathern wings - Bats, chiropetera Valguli), Lomapakṣi (birds proper having feathered wings), Samudgapaşki (those with wings in the shape of a box)66 and Vitatapakṣis (which sit on outspread wings )67.
131
Carmapakṣis have been included by the Jainācāryas into the category of birds on the basis of their homologous features of wings with birds proper having feathered wings. But they should be placed under the species of the Mammals, according to modern Biology, as they have feathers of the Mammals.
Carmapaksi (leather-winged birds)
Carmapakși are of many kinds, such as, Vagguli (bat), Jaloya (Jalūkā, aquatic or amphibious or blood-sucking bat or vampire ?) Adila (a kind of Carmapakṣi), Bhāraṇḍapakkhi (a species of micro-chiroptera, the horse-shoe bat ?), Jivaṁjiva, Samuddavayasă, (sea-crows?) Kannatiya, (a kind of Carmapaksi). Pakkhibirali (flying cat, micro-Chiroptera etc.)68
It is difficult to identify all of them at the present state knowledge of taxonomy.
Lomapaksi (Birds having feathered wings).
There are many kinds of Lomapakṣis, such as, Dhanka (a kind of crows), Kanka (herons), Kurala (Ospreys-large birds prying on fish), Vāyasā (crows), Cakkāgā (a kind of birds), Hamsā (ducks), Kalahaṁsā
64. Pannavana 1.86.
65. Biology, p. 243.
66a Tattvärthadhigama Sutra, II. 34. (Andajanam Pakṣinam)
66. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36.187. Pannavaṇā 1.87.
67. Pannavaṇā 1 87.
68. Pannavaṇā 1.87

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Jaina Biology ( a kind of ducks ), Payahamsā (a kind of ducks ), Rāyahamsā (Ganders), Adā (a kind of bird ), Sedi (a kind of bird ), Bagā ( Vakas, herons ); Balāgā (Balākās, cranes), Parippavā ( a kind of birds), Komcä (Krauñca= curlews, wading birds with long slender curved bill), Särasā (the Indian cranes ), Mesurā (a kind of birds ), Masurā (a kind of birds), Mayurā (peacock ), Satavacchā (a kind of birds ), Gahară (a kind of birds), Pondariyā (a kind of birds ), Kāgā (Kākas, black crows), Kāmajugā (a kind of birds), Vamjulagā (a kind of birds ), Tittira (partridges ), Vattagā (a kind migratory bird allied to partridge, esteemed as food, quail), Lāvagā (a kind of birds ), Kavoyā (pigeons ),
lā (a kind of birds), Parevayā (a kind of pigeons ), Cidagā ( a kind of birds), Cāsā (a kind of birds ), Kakkuda (wild cocks ), Sugā (Sukā, parrots ), Barahiņā ( a kind of birds), Madanasalāgā (a kind of birds), Koilā (Cuckoos), Sehā ( Sekhā, peacocks ?), and Varellagamādi ( a kind of birds) etc.69
Samudgapaksi :
Samudaga paksi is of one kind only. This species is not found in India, but they live in the external islands and seas. 70 It is not possible to identify this class at the present state of our knowledge of taxonomy.
Vitata tapaksi :
and it lives in the external islands and
It is also of one kind seas.71
All these birds are of two classes, from the point of view of the mode of origin viz. Saṁmūrochima72 ( asexually reproduced ) and Garbhavyutkrantika ( sexually reproduced ). Those which are Sammürcchimas are Napumsakas. Those which are Garbhavyutkrāntikas are of three kinds, viz. Itthi (female ), Purisa (male), Napumsaga (third sex ).73
Of these aerial animals - developed and undeveloped, there are stated to be 12 lakh varieties and birth - places.74
69. Pannavaņā 1.88. 70. Paņņavaņā 1.89. 71. Ibid. 1.90. 72. Sammūrcchimas grow by assimilating the materials in their surrounding. Accor
ding to a second explanation their internal organ does not fully develop. 73. Pannavaņā Sutta, 1.91-:-3. 74. Ibid., 1.9 -4,

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It appears from the list of birds that not all birds fly; some, such as, hamsas have become adapted to a variety of environments.
In Jaina Biology the vertebrata is also sub-divided into three classes on the basis of the mode of reproduction 75 viz., (1) Andaja, oviparous (Pisces, Reptilia, and Batrachia ), e. g. (snakes, ophidia, Reptilia), Godhā (Varanidae, Lizards, Reptilia), Krikalāsa (Chameleons Reptilia ), Grihagolika (Common Lizards, Lacertilia ), Matsya (Pisces ) Kūrma ( Tortoises, Chelonia, Reptilia ), Susumāra (Dolphin or porpoise, Cetacea ), and birds proper with feather wings-Loma paksa Paksis. 76
Siśumāras are erroneously placed under this class, being really viviparous like other cetacea which belongs to the Mammals. (2) Jarāyuja,77 mammals born with placenta, including all mammals other than the Potaja : 1. Man, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep, borse, ass, camel, deer, yak,
hog, Bos Gavaeus, (Gāvaya-Ungulata ), lion, tiger, bear, panther,
dog, jackal, cat, etc.78 (3) Potaja,79 a class of placental mammals comprising the Deciduata with the exception of Man, the Apes, and the Carnivora, e.g. Sallaka (porcupine, Rodentia), Hasti (Elephant, Proboscidea), Svavit and Läpaka ( Hedgehogs and other creatures that lap up, Insectivora ), Sasa and śayika ( hare, rabbit, and squirrel, Rodentia), Nakula ( Ichneumon, which though carnivorous is supposed to come under the Deciduata ), Mūşika (mice, Rodentia ), and the Carmapaksa Paksi, so-called birds with leathern wings (bats, Chiroptera ), e. g. Valguli (flying - fox), Pakşivitāla (flying cat, Micro - chiroptera) and Jalūkā (blood-sucking bats or Vampires ).80
75. Tättvārthadhigama Sūtra 11. 34. 76. Ibid. 77. According to the Jaipas, Joräyuia, ( viviparous-lit., placentalia ) means only
those viviparous animals which come out at birth with the placenta (a Deciduata), while Potaja is a class of placental mammals comprising the Deciduata with the exception of Man, the Apes, and the Carnivora. Potaja means literally viviparous animals born without placenta. The Potaja class comprises, the
following Deciduata. Proboscidea, Redentia, Insectivora and Chiroptera. 78. Tativārthādhigama Sutra II. 34. 79. Tattvärthādhigama Sūtra, ll. 24, 89. Jarāyujānām manuşya - go - mahişājāvikaśca kharoştramrga - camara - varaha -
gavayasimha vyāghrapksa - dvipiśva - śrgalamärjārādinām / Andajanāṁ sarpagodha Kļkalāsa grhagolikā - matsya - kūrma - nakra - seśumādinām/pakşīņām ca lomapakşaņāṁ / ham sacāsa-suka - Erdhra - syena -pārāvata - Kāka - mayůramadgubaka-balākādinam, Potajanām saska-hasti - śVāvillāpaka - śasa - śāyikā-nakulamūşikādinam/ Carmapakşiņām ca pakşānām Jaluka valaguli bharanda-pakşiviralādināṁ garbhe janma / Tattvārthadhigama Sutia, Ch. II, Sūtra 34.

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Mammals :
All the Jarāyuja and Potaja81 animals come under the species of the Mammals. "The distinguishing features of Mammals are the presence of hair, mammary glands sweat glands, and the differentiation of the teeth into incisors, canines and motors" 82 There are many sub - classes of the Mammals.
The Jarāyuja and Potaja animals of Jaina Biology form the subclass of the Mammals - the Eutheria of Biology which includes all the other mammals, all characterized by the formation of placenta for the nourishment of the developing embryo while within the uterus (Garbha or Jarāyu) of the mother. Some of the principal orders of Jarāyujas and Potajas (i. e. placental mammals ) are the following:
(1) Insectivora -- hedge - hogs (and other creatures, that lap up, e.g.
Svavit and Lāpaka, they are Potajas ).
2) Chiroptera - bats (Valguli83 - flying fox - Potaja, Pakşivirala -
flying Cat, Micro - Chiroptera - Potaja, Jalūkā (blood sucking
bats or Vampires - Potaja ). (3) Carnivora - ( Jarāyuja, lion, tiger, bears, panther, Biļāla = Cat,
Sunaga = dog, foxes (Śrgāla), etc. (4) Rodentia (Sallaka = porcupine, musika = mice, Śaśa and Sayika=
hare, rabbit and squirrel). These mammals have sharp chisellike incisor teeth.
(5) Primates - men, apes and monkeys.
(6)
Artiodactyle - cattle, cow and buffalo, goat, sheep, hog, deer - Herbivorous hooved animals with an even number of digits per foot.
(7) Perissodactyle-horse, ass, camel, rhinoceroses ( Assa, Gaddabha,
Uttha, Gandāra ).
(8) Proboscidea ( Potaja, hasti, elephant).
Cetacea - Whales, dolphines and porpoises (Timi and
Śušumāra) (10) Ichneumon (Nakula, mangoose, Deciduata - Mammals ).
81. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 34. 82. Biology, p. 244. 83. A kind of Carmapakşin, as already pointed out as Valguli.

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It appears from the study of the hosts of animals as given in the Jaina Āgamas that the various meinbers of the animal kingdom cannot be placed on a single scale ranging from lowest to highest, for their cvolutionary development has occurred in the manner of a branching tree, rather than in a single continuous series. It cannot be said, for example, that the starfish is “higher” or “lower" than the Samvuka (Helix or sankha (Concifera) or Oyster, the two forms are simply representatives of the two main trunks of the evolutionary tree, between the two groups are deep-lying differences of structure and development,
MAN:
Men are of two kinds, viz. Sammürcchima ( asexually reproduced or reproduced by generation acquivoca ) and Garbbavyutkrāntika (men born from the womb i.e. sexually reproduced ).84
As pointed out, men belong to the sub-class of the Mammals. Saminūrcehima manusyas are born in all kinds of dirty places, such as, places of urination, etc.85 It is not possible to recognize them in the light of modern Biology at the present state of our knowledge in the field of taxomony.
Conclusion :
The classification of animals as made in Jain Biology may be summed up by making a comparative study of it with that of animals as found in other Indian Biological Sciences in some respects. For example, Sammürcchima Jivas86 (from two - sensed to four - sensed animals asexually reproduce ) of Jaina Biology may be identified with Ayonija Ksudra Janius 87 (asexually generated small animals), e. g. svedajas (animals born of moisture and heat ) and Udvijja (born of vegetable organisms or melamorphic e. g. the coccinella ).88 Yonija Kşudra Jantus 89 (sexually generated small animals), e. g.
84. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.171. ; Pannavana 1.92 Tattvārthadhigama Sutra II. 34. 85. Pannavanā, 1.56 86. Uttarādhyayar a Sūtra, 36.171 ; Paņņavāņa, Sutta 1.56.57.58, 87. Pragasta padadabhasya ( sariram dvividham-Yonijamayonijam ca ete.),
Kşudrajantūnām etc. Prthivinirupanam/"
Patanjali's Mahābhāşya, 24.1. (Athavā Nakulaparyanta Kșudrajantavaḥ ) 88. Caraka, sárirasthāna, Chap. III. 16 “ Bhūtānām Caturvidha Yonirbhavati
jarāvandasvedodbhidah" · Ekaikā yonih aparisamkhyeyabhid bhavanti Bhūtānām
äkstiviseşā parisainkhyeyatvāt of Ibid )' 89. Prasastapādabhāsya, Prthanirüpanam/"

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the Andajas ( oviparous) and Jarayujas90 (viviparous) of Brahmaņical Biology are identical with the Tirikkhayoniya Jivas (Aṇḍajas and Jarayujas91 - lower animals born of eggs and lower animals born from the womb as a result of sexual union) of Jaina Biology. In both the Biological sciences the two sensed animals or the Kṣudrajantus (small animals), like (1) Krimis92 (worms or Vermes), (a) Apädikas,93 without lateral appendages (Scolecids), (b) Nupurakas94 (Annelids), and (c) Gaṇḍupadas 95 (Arthropoda), (II) the Jalaukās96 (Leeches )97 and (III) Kośasthas, (shelled animals), i. e. some forms of Mollusca, e. g. the Sankhas (Conchifera), the Suktikas98 (Pearl mussels), the Sambukas (spiral shelled Helix ), Vodika, etc.99 come under the category of the Invertebrata. (IV) The three-sensed animals of Jaina Biology and the Insects of Brahmanical Biology, typified by the ants comprising (a) Pipilika,100 Rohinika (ants, Hymenoptera), (b) Upacikā, Kunthu, Tuburaka (bugs and flies, Hemiptera, (c) Trapusavija - Kārpāsāsthikā (Cucumber-and Cotton-weevils and Lice, Aptera), Ametabola), (d) Śatapadi, Utpatāka ( Centipedes, Spring-tails, Aptera), (e) Tṛṇapatra (Plant or grass lice, Aptera) and (f) Kaṣṭhaharaka
90. Ibid.
91. Bhagavati Sūtra, 7.5.282; Jivabhigama Sutra 3.1.96;
Pannavana 1.61.91. Tattvarthädhigama Sutra II. 34.
92. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36.128; guśruta (Krmis), Dalvana.
93. Of Suśruta's careful description, Sutrasthana, Ch. XIII; Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra, 11. 24 (apadika)
94. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 24.
95. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 24.
96. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 24; Susruta, Sutrasthana, Ch. XIII (Athāto jalaukā
.. etc.
97. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 24; Ibid.
93. Caraka and Suśruta, Ch. XXVII, Sutrasthana, Dalvana "Suktiśankha, etc. ( Caraka Sūtrasthana XXVII) no. "Voḍikajala suktisambuka bheda bahubheda grhyant) Delvania
59. Ibid. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra II; 24.
100. "Suśruta - Nagarjuna names six varieties of Pipilika (ants), six varieties of Makşika (flies), five varieties of Magakas (mosquitos) including one marine and one mouutain kind, eight varieties of satapadiş ( centipedes), thirty varie ties of scorpions, and sixteen of spiders (Lutas). Of the kitas, the glow-worm and the Tailakita (lit-oil-worm) are said to be luminous (phosphorecent) ca. Rajanighanta Khadyota tailakitau", vide the Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 194.

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( Termites, white ants - Neuroptera, Hemimetabola)101 form the Higher Invertebrata.
Besides the four - Sensed animals of Jaina Biology 102 and the Insects of Brahmanical Biology103, typified by Hexopoda, (Şațapada ) comprising (a) Bhramara, Varata, Sāranga, (bees, wasps, and hornets), (b) Maksikā, Puttikā, Damśā, and Maśakas (flies, gnats, gadflies and mosquitos ), (c) Věścikas and Nandyž vartas (Scorpions and spiders - Arachnida, Arthropoda ), (d) Kita (butter - flies and moths) and Patangas (grass - hoppers and locusts ) also belong to the class of the Higher Invertebrata. They are all oviparous (andajas ) 105 according to both the sciences.
The Tiryak-Yoni animals having five sense-organs of Jaina Biology 106 and Brāhmanical Biology, 107 i. e. lower animals with five sense - organs, sexually generated, corresspond to the Phylum Chorodata-the Vertebrata possessing bones and blood. They are classified on the basis of their mode of reproduction.
They are as follows:
(1) Andajas, 108 ( oviparous animals) comprise (a) Matsya (fishes), Timi (whale), Makara (Shark?), Kūrmas (tortoises ), Kumbhiras or Nakras (Grāhās ) (crocodiles ), śuśumāras (dolphins ), (b) Uragas (apodal reptiles including sarpas - snakes, Ophidia ) which move on breast. (c) Bhujagas ( oviparous animala) with lateral pedal appendages which walk on arms, i, e. both Reptiles and Batrachians including Godhā (Varantas lizards), Gșhagolika ( common lizards) and Krikalāsa
101. Pannavana, 1.57. ; Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 24 102 Pannavaņā Sutta 1,58 ; Tattvarthadhigama Sutta II. 24. 103. See Caraka - Susruta, Dalvana. Caraka Sūtrani and Chapter XXVII
( Mākṣikam bhrāmaram etc,) 243 Suśrutas, Kalpasthāna Ch. VIII 104. Pannavaņa Sutta 1.58. ; Tattvārthadhigama Sutra II. 24. 105. Tattvarthadhigama Sūtra II. 34. Prasastapadabhāșya. 106. Pannavana Sutta 1.61-92 ff. Tattvartadhigama Sūtra II. 24, 34.
107. i. e. Kșudrajantus of Brāhmanical Biology -; sexually generated lower animals
possessing bones and blood. Corresponding to the vertibrata are indentical with Tiryakyoni animals, sexually generated.
108. Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 34 ; Pragastapădabhāşya, etc. Prthivinirupaņam
"Pakṣisaris;pāņāmaņdajām". BJ-18

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( chameleons ). 109
(2) Kūrmas and Nakras ( tortoises and Crocodiles - Chelonia and Emydosauria, Reptitia).
(3) Siśumāras 110, the Dolphinidae (Odontoceta cetacea ). Siśumāra, is not ovipārous as mentioned in Jaina Biology. It does not name Karkata (Crabs - crustacea ), but it is mentioned in Susruta. The subclass of Bhujagas of Jaina Biology, being a natural sub-division of the Vertebrates, does not comprise crustacea which are rightly placed under the category of the Invertebrates and (d) Lomapakşa Paksins111 (winged animals with feathery wings, i. e. birds proper), while Carmapaksa Paksin 112 ( winged animals with leather wings ), though they have been placed under the category of birds in both Jajna and Brāhmanical Biologies113 on the homologous basis, belong to the Placentalia of the Deciduata class (Potaja ). II. Jarāyujas and Potajas 114 ( Viviparous, lit. placentalia ) as classified in both the Biological sciences are placed on the same basis of mode of reproduction. They are as follows: (a) Carmapaksa, paksins (leather-winged animals, which are Potaja - Deciduata ), viz. Valguli (flying-fox), Pakși-virāla (flying cat, Microchiroptera ), Bhāranda paksin-a species of Micro-chiroptera ), the horseshoe bat?) and Jalūkā (blood-sucking bat or Vampire bat ? )115
(b) Vileśaya Jarāyujas 116 ( mammals that live in holes of burrows, including various species of Rodents and Insectivora, such as Mūsika, (mice ), etc.
109. Tattvārthadhigama Sūtrā II. 34.
Sugruta mentions four varieties of the Kanava (bhaka), a species of Chemeleonlike lizards, (cf. Lādyāyana, quoted by Dalvana, Kalpasthāna, Chapter VIII, six varieties of Galagolika (a species of lizards), and five varieties of Gaudhera ka Varanus-like lizards, but smaller in size, vide the Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p.196. "Kāuṇdiiyakah Kanabhako etc. Kalpasthāna, VIII", Galagolyastu
...., sarsapiketyevam. Ibid, 1/' "Gaudherakah sthāiikā (Ibid. 21) 110. Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra II. 34. 11. Paņņavaņā Sūtra, 1,86, ; Tattvarthadhigama Sutra II. 34. 112. Ibid. 113. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra lI. 34. ; Prasasta padabhāşya (Paksisarisrpäna rändajam)
Přthivinirūpaņam. 114. Tattvārthadhigama Sutra II. 34. ; Carmapakşānām ca paksaņām Jaluka-Valguli -
Bhāraṇda Pakșiviralādināṁ garbhe janmaḥ/" 115. Ibid. 116. Vilesaya class of animals is included into the group of Jangala animals. See
Su sruta, Sūtrasthāna, Chap. XXVII.

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(c) Parņamsgas117 ( arboreal mammals, comprising some Rodents (Śaśa, šāyikā, hare, rabbit, 118 squirrels, etc.), a wild - cat - the sloths and the a pes.119
(d) Non-carnivorous quadrupeds ( Catuspadas), Akravyādāh, such as, Jāngalas 120 - mrga, (deer ), etc., (2) Kulecaras121 (mammals grazing on the banks of rivers aad frequently marshy places, e.g. Hasti ( elephants ), Gandāra (rhinoceros ), Gāvaya (Bos gavaeus), Mahişa (buffalo ), Varāha (hog), some species of deer also, (3) Grāmyas122 (domesticated quadrupeds ), some with undivided hoof (ekaśapha i. e. egakhurā), 123 e. g. Ašva (horse), Asvatara (mule ); Gardabha (ass ), some with cloven hoof (dvikhurā ), e. g. Ustra (camel ), Gona (cow), Aja (goat), Avika (sheep), 124 etc.
(e) Carnivorous quadrupeds, Guhāśaya125 (living in natural caves or hollows, Carnivorous - Kravyāda or Sanapphadā, comprising Simha (lion), Vyāghra (tiger ), Rkşa (bear ), Dvipina a kind of tiger, leopard or Panther ), śvā (dog), Sșgāla (Jackal), Mārjāra (cat),126 etc.
The Carnivora are termed Vyalas, 127 or Kravyādas128 and Herbivora as pasus129 in the Brāhmanical works in a wider sense.
117. Parnamrgas, apes, etc. are also enlisted in the class of Jarigalas, Ibid. 1.8. Tattvärthādhigama Sutra II. 34. 119. Bhagavati Sūtra 12.8.60. 120. Kalyānakāraka mentions Jāngala and Anupa animals, Kalyāṇakāraka. V. 19, p. 21;
Susruta, Sūtrasthāna, Chap. XXVII. It also gives a list of dietary animals. 1 hey are divided into two classes, viz. () Anūpas (animals that live in marshy land or water-logged land (or water) (2) Jāngala animals that live in dry (hilly) jungle land. The Anûpas are subdivided into eight classes and the Jāngalas into five on the basis of real and natural distinctions of food and natural distinctions of food and habitat, in all they are sub-divided into thirteen classes; "Trayodasabhedá satsu eva antarbhūtāh / Samkhyeyam nirddeśādeva satsamkkyāyām labhayāṁ tena şadvarga
iti niyamārtham .. Dalvana, Sūtrasthāna, Chap. XXVII. 121. Kulecaras are included into the class of Anupa. 122. Grāmyas are placed in the class of Jangalas. 123. “Grāmyagabdena ca ekasaphaśabdena ca grāmyaḥsapaḥ kṣuraḥ - Dilvana". 124. Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra II, 34. 125. Gubāsaya is included into the class of Jängala. 126, Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra II. 34. 127. Susruta. 128. Ibid. 129. Ibid,

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Aristotle, the greatest of Ancient biologists, mentions “some five hundred different animals, a large number relatively to the knowledge of the time 130». He arranged animals in a Scala Naturae according to the principles of mode of generation (asexual - sexual), homology, habitat, sponataneous generation, similarity of structure, etc. But “Keswani131 contends that Aristotle's (384-382 B. C.) Scala Naturae which is considered as the earliest scientific classification of animal kingdom actually never occurs in any of his writings and has been somewhat forcibly extracted out of Aristotle's text."132
Like this Greek philosopher the Jainācāryas recognize in principle three grades of likeness or similarity in animal classification, viz. (1) the complete identity of type, which exists within a single species, (2) the likeness between species of the same great genus (such species have the same bodily parts, differing only in degree in number, size, etc.), (3) the likeness by analogy between 'greatest genera' themselves, on the basis of sense-organs, for the Jainācāryas, grasped firmly, the homology between arm, foreleg, wing, fin, between bone and fish spine, between feather and scale.
They never applied any cut-and dried classification. They were well aware of the difficulties of the existence of isolated species which fall under no recognized greatest genera and of species intermediate between two such genera. But their classification is clear enough in its main lines. It was a great advance on anything that preceded it in the Vedic period and no further advance on it was made in the field of Ancient Indian Biology. Their widest divisions are Dvindriya (two-sensed ), Trindriya (three-sensed ), Caturendriya (four-sensed ) and Pancendriya (five-sepsed) animals answering to the modern Invertebrates (two-sensed animals, three-senesd animals and foursensed animals ), and Vertebrates (five-sensed animals, on the basis of the number of sense-organs possessed by each of them and also on that of habitat-Jalacara (aquatic), Sthalacara ( terrestrial) and Nabbacara (a erial). Of the Pancendriyas (five-sensed animals ) the main genera are viviparous quadrupeds (Catuspada) (Cetacea) and oviparous
130. Aristotle by W. D. Rass, Chapter IV, pp. 112 ff. 131. Keswani N. H., The Concepts of generation. reproduction, evolution, and
human development as found in the writing of Indian (His dus) scholars during the early period ( up to A.D. 200) of Indian History, Buletin of National
Institute of Sciences of India, No, 21. p. 208, 1961. 132. Singer. C. A. A Short History of Anatomy from the Greeks to Harvey Daver,
Nrw York, p. 209, 1957.

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birds (Paksin ) and apoda-oviparous reptiles (parisarpas ) and ampibia (frog = ma nduka ) and oviparous fishes (matsya ).
Besides these there are the isolated species - man and certain intermediate species. Dvindriya, Trindriya and Caturendriya animals (lower and higher invertebrates) are divided according to the consistency of their inner and outer parts and sense – organs.
Each of these genera has many differentine and they accordingly be grouped in many ways, but the most illuminating of those as suggested by the Jainācāryas is that which depends on the mode of generation-Sammůrcchima and Garbhavyutkrāntika, Andaja, ( oviparous ) Jarāyuja and Potaja (viviparous ). The highest types of animals are the Jarāyujas and Potajas ( vivipara ), i.e. those which have vital force to reproduce sexually offspring qualitatively like the parents. The next type is that in which an egg is produced (andaja ) out of which an issue gets generated.
Lower still come the types of animals which produce asexally (Saṁmürcchima) a slimy fluid from whish they develop; while in others the young simply bud off from the parents. And finally in all lower types and occasionally even as high as the fishes there occurs spontaneous generation (Sammürcchima) from lifeless matter, such as sveda (dirt or sweat).

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FOURTH CHAPTER THE ORGANISATION OF THE HUMAN BODY
( First Section )
Blood and Circulatory System.
The Organisation of the body (śarira)' of developed animals, particularly, of men, includes the transport system of the body, i. e., blood and vessels (sirās, etc. )2 that supply all cells with nutrients (rasa )3 and remove the waste products (mutta, etc )4 of metabolism and the circulatory systems, the respiratory system, the digestive system together with metabolism and nutrition, the excretory system, the integumentary and skeletal systems, which protect and support the body, the muscular system which moves the various parts of the bodyone on another, the nervous system, the sense-organs by which animals obtain and process information regarding the external environment, and the endocrine system.
Enumerating the contents of the human body the Jainācāryas state that usually this body is a collection of blood (sonita or rudhira) and blood vessels - seven sirās (arteries or veins ), twenty four dhamanis (vessels, veins or arteries carrying nutrient) and eight śrotas (currents ),7 lungs including eparterial bronchioles of trachea (phoppasaphephasa),8 gastro-intestinal tract starting from mouth cavity, oesophagus upto the colon of the large intestine (mukha ...āmoruhakkāśaya
1. Tandula Veyaliya 16, pp. 34–35. 2. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. (Ruhira, sirās, dhamanis ) and srotas
(Kalyāņakāraka 3.4 ). 3. Imaṁmi sarirae sagitbi sirāsayam Dābhippabhavānām uddhagāminiņām siramuva
gayāņam jāo ? rasaharaniotti vuccanti janaṁsi. etc.” Ibid, p. ?5. "Imassa jamtussa satěthisirāsayāņam nābhippabhvāņām ahogamiaiņām gudappavitthāņam jaṇamsi, niruvaghaeņam muttapurisavāyūkammam pavattai," Ibid., 16.
p. 35. 5. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 6. Tandula Veyāliya 3, p. 7; 6, p. 10; 16, p. 35; Kalyāṇakāraka, 3, 7, p. 31 (rakta)
Soniya (Angavijjā, p. 171) 7. Tandula Veyaliya, 16. p. 35 (Sirā ; dhamaņi ( Angavijjā 1970, p. 66);
Kalyānakaraka 3.2; 3.3, p. 30 ; 3.4 ;r, 31. ; Kalyānakāraka mentions eight
srotas (currents ). 3.4, p. 21. 8. Tandula Veyaliya, 17, P, 38.

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sthulantra paniktih),9 the excretary organs-kidney 10 (taṇuyamta ?) and large intestine (thulamta ),11 nine orifices (navasoya ),12 skin (camma),13 a skeleton14 of three hundred pieces of bones,15 articulated by one hundred sixty joints, 16 bound together by nine hundred sinews of ligaments, 17 plastered over with five hundred pieces of muscles 18, enclosed with outer cuticle,19 with orifices,20 here and there, constantly dribbling and trickling like cracked or perforated pot,21 infested by helminths22 and always oozing from the nine orifices23 (wax from the ears, rheum from the eyes, snot from the nostrils, undigested food, bile, phlegm and blood from the mouth and feaces from the anus and urine from the urethra through the penis24 and sweating through ninety nine lakh of hair follicles,25 five sense-organs 26 (car, eye, etc.) and 170 9. Tandula Veyäliya, (Thulanite), 16. p. 35.; Kalyāṇakaraka, 3.4, p. 31.
(amorupakkasaya
sthūtantra)
10. Tanuyamta? Its function indicates that it is
kidney (Je se anuyamte tenam pasavane parinamai", Tandula Veyaliya, 16, 35. But literally tanuyamta means small intestine where all eaten food is churned and digested.
143
11. Je se thulamte tena uccare pariņamai. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35
12. Navasoe purise ikkārāsasoya itthiya, Ibid. See also Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.5, 10, 11, 12. 13. Tandula Veya'iya, p. 41. "Atthiyakaḍhine siranharubamḍhane maṁsacammalevammi/"
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid,, 16, p. 35. Tinni atthidāmasayaim,' "Kalyāṇakāraka 3.2, p. 38.
16. "Satthi samdhisayam", Tanduiaveyaliya 16, p. 35. Kalyaṇakaraka mentions three hundred joints.
17. "Nava phārusa yaim", Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35.; Kalyāṇakaraka, 3.2, p. 36. 18. Panca pesi sayaim purisassa tisunaim itthiyae visuṇāim pamḍagassa /"
Ibid. The woman has 470 pieces of musles and the neuter has 480 pieces of muscles.
19. Atthiyakaḍhine siranharubamdhane maṁsacamma levammi/" Tandula Veyaliya. p. 41.
20. Navaśrotas two ears, two eyes, two nostrils, one mouth, one anus or rectum (payu) and one urethra (through penis) (upastha) and skin also is the other orifice, Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. p. 4.
21. Evam sravadbhinnaghatopaman deho
ravadvaragalanmalaḍhyah /, Svedam vamatyutkaṭaromakupa ryūkāsalikṣṭapadaśca tajjaḥ / Kalyāṇākāraka, 3.12, p. 32.
22. Ibid.
23. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35; p. 38. Kalyanakaraka 3.5, 10, 11, 12.
24. Ibid.
25. "Nava nauim ca romakuvasayasahassaim" Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35.
26. Pņņavana Sutta, Indriyapada, 15, "Soimdiyattãe cakkhurimdiyattãe ghanmdiyattae jibbhimdiyattäe phaimdiyattae /", Tandula Veyaliya 3, p. 7.

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sensitive parts (masma)
of the body,27
some endoerine glands, 28,
etc.
In the description of the body, like Buddhaghoşa29 the Jainācāryas have intentionally sketched it to create a repulsion in the minds of their followers towards it.30 But the definitions or rather anatomical description of the body given by Caraka31 and Susruta32 in this context are quite different from the Jaina and Buddhist views on it as their objective was to deal with medical science.
So the Jainācāryas suggest to their monk followers to review the different aspects of the human body.33 They do not define like Caraka34 and Buddhaghosa35 that it is constructed out of five or four primary elements of matter. Nevertheless, they admit that the body is constituted of matter (Pudgala)36
The main aspecte of the body as described by Jaina Biology, starting from blood (sonita37 or rudhira38 ) down to some endocrine glands are as follows : blood39, hard or congealed fat (meda),40 semiliquid fat (Vasā),41 synovia (raiyā).42 spittle (khela),43 snot (simgänaka),44 27. "Sattuttaram mammasayan" Tandula Ve yaliya. 16, p. 35. 28. Testes, ovaries. seminal glands etc. 29. Visuddhimagga VI, 89, VI. 46. (sariram hi asuci ) 30; Taad ulaveyaliya, p. 38 (māņussayam sariram pūiyam ) 31. Carakasamhita IV. 6-4. Tatra śariram nāmā Cetanādhisthānabhūtam etc. 32. Susruta Samhită 1-1 5.3 "Tacca-Şadıngam sakhāscatasro madhyam Pancamam
şaştham siram iti /" etc. 33. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 31, 17, p. 38, etc. 34. "Tatra Sariram nāmacetanādhisthānabhūtam pancamahābhūtavikāramudayat -
makan samayogavāhi /," Caraka IV. 64. N. B. Buddhaghoşa does not include ākāśa element and consciousness (Cetana)
in the group of mahābhūta. 35. "Imam eva kāyam ti imañ catuma hābhūlikam", Visuddhimagga VIII, 45. 36. "Sarfravāngmanahpränäpänāh pudgalānāṁ/" Tattvarthadhigama Sutra V. 9 37. Tandula Veyaliya 3, p. 7. 38. Ibid. 16, p. 35. 39. Tandula Veyaliya, 3, p. 7 ; 16. p. 35, etc. 40. Meda, Tandula Veyaliya, p. 40. 41. Vasă, Ibid, p, 40 42. Ibid., p. 40. 43. Rasiya, Ibid. 44, 1bid.

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145 bile (pitta),45 phlegm (simbha),46 liver (yakệt ),47 spleen (piliha),48 pus ( Puvva ),49 heart (hiyaya ), blood vessels ( širäs, dhamanis )50 and śrotas ),51 lymph vessels ( śleşmāśirā or Kaphasthāna )52, lymph (simbha or kapha)53, tissue fluid ( rasa ),54 oxygen and carbon dioxide (āgapāņa or ucchvāsanihsvāsa ),55 lungs including eparterial bronchioles of trachea (phopphasaphepbasa ),56 mouth cavity (mukha ),57 stomach (udara or amoru )58 duo denum ( pakkasa ),59 small intestine (taṇuyamta )60, large intestine (sthūlāntra ),61 tongue (jihvā or jihā )62 teeth (dastā),63 anus or rectum (pāyü),64 urethra or urinal duct (upastha ),65, kidneys, 66 nine orifices,67 urine (mutta ),68 faeces (purīşa ),69 skin (camma ),70
45. Ibid, p. 13, p. 41. 46. Kalyánakāraka 3.4, p. 41. (Sşmbha ) 47. Tandula Veyaliya (Yakrt ) 17, p. 38. 48. Ibid., p. 40. 40, Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38. 50. (Hiyaya ), Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 50. 51. Tandula Veyaliya 16. p. 35; Kalyāṇakāraka. 3.4, p. 31. (8 Śrotas - Currets ). 52. See Khaphasthana, Kalyanakäraka. 3.49, p. 40. 53. Ibid. 3, 7, p. 31. 54. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 55. Ibid 4, p. 8; Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7-61-2, Visesavasyakabhāşyagāthā 2714 ;
Navatattvaprakaraṇam V. 6, p. 12 56. Tandula Veyaliya, 17, p. 38. 57. Tandula Veyaliya. 38. 58. Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38 (Udara ) 59. Kalyānakāraka ; 3.4. 60. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. ;. 51. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. ; Kalyāņakāraka 3.4, p. 31. 62. Tandula Veyaliya, 3, p. 7; 16, p. 35 (Jihā ) 63. Ibid., 16, p. 35 ( battisam damta ) 64. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 38 (One of the śrotas). Tanuyamta transforms urine. 65. Ibid. 66. Taņuyamta ? ( Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35). There is no separate mention of
kidney (Vakka) 67. Tandulu Veyaliya 16, p. 35. (navasoe). 68. Ibid. 69. Ibid. 70. Ibid., p. 41. J. B.-19

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outgrowths of skin - hair (keša ),71 body-hairs (romas),72 and nails ( ankha ),73 sweat ( seya ),74 skeleton (atthiya ),75 bones (atti),76 various parts of the skeleton,77 The number of bones,78 bone marrow (atthimimja ),79 brairi matter (mauthulumga )80 joints (samdhi )81 firmness of joints (samdhāyana ),81a pieces of muscle (māṁsapeši), 82 nerves (ṇhāru ),83 ligaments ( Kamdarā ?)84, tendous (māṁsarajju ) 85, sense – organs (indriyas , 86 and a few endocrine glands - seminal ducts and testes,87 ovaries,88 (Kucchi ? or Garbha saya ?) fallopian tubes (sirädugam),89 uterus ( yoni ),90 etc.
71. Ibid., ?, p. 7.
72. Ibid.
73. Ibid.
74. Ibid., p. 40 (seya) 75. Ibid., p. 41. 76. Ibid., 6, p. !0; 16, p. 35. 77. Ibid., 16, p. 35, 17, p. 38. 78. "Tinni atthidamasayain", Tandula Veyaliya,-16, ; p. 35; Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.2. 79. Tandula Veyaliya, 6, p. 16. ; Bhagavati Sūtra 1. 7. 6!-2. *0. Tandula Veyāliya 6, p. 1', ; Bhagavati Sūtra 1. 7., 61-2. 81. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. "Sathi samdhisayam 8a Lokaprakāśa 3. 399, p. 132. 82. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6. 16, p. 35. ; Kalyäņakāraka, 3. 2. 83. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. Kalyaņākāraka 3. 2, p, 30. 84. Kāndarā mens thick (or big) nerves. They may be ligaments also. See Kalyāņa
kāraka 3.4, for Kamdarn.
85. Kalyānakāraka 3. 4, p. 31.
86. Bhagavati 2. 4.9); Pannavaņā Sutta 15. Indriyapada ; Tandula Veyaliya 3, p.
7: Tattvārtha Sūtra II. 15 “Pancendriyāni”
87. Seminal ducts, testeş, “Dasasirão Sukkadhāriņio", Tapdula Veyāliya, 16, p. 35.
Even Tanuyamta (Small intestine) and Taūlanta (large intestine) are regarded as
endocrine glands. 88. Garbhägaya ? Sthānnşa Tikā 6 ; kuccāi? | Tandula Veyaliya, 16 p. 35) Vide
Tandula Veyaliya, p. 4. 89. “Nābhihitthā siradugām”, Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3. 90. "Tassa ya bitthā joni ahomūhā samthiya kosa I” Ibid.

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Blood (Sonita91 or Rudhira92 or Rakta )93
The metabolic process of all cells of the body require a constant supply of food (āhāra )94 and oxygen ( ussāsa )95 and a constant 'removal of waste products (mutta, purisa, etc. ).96 This is accomplished simply by diffusion97 in animals in a watery environment,98 but man and all the larger animals have developed some system of internal transport, a circulatory system ( sirās, etc. ).99
The circulatory system of man and all larger animals includes the heart (hiyaya 100 and blood vessels (širās, dhamanis, śrotas), 101 the lymph vessels (Sirāo, simbhadhārinio102 or Kaphasthaāna )103 and the blood, lymph (kaph )104 and tissue fluid ( rasa ).105 Blood is a group
similar tissues specialized to perform certain functions. In addition to transporting food and oxygen to cells and removing waste products from them, according to modern Biology, blood has the following functions : "it transports hormones, the secretions of the endocrine glands : it has a role in regulating body temperature, cooling organs such as the liver and muscles where excess of heat is produced and heating the skin where heat loss is greatest; its white cells are a major
91. Ācārānga Sūtra II. 4 (Sonita ); Sutrakitanga II. 2.18; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61;
Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6. 92. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35, 93. Kalyāṇakāraka, Ugrādityācārya v. 7, p. 31. 94. "Sarirasyadharo bhavatyaharah”, Sūtrakrtaoga II. 3. (comm.), p. 85; Paņņavaņā
Sutta, Ahārapadam, 1814-26, pp. 395-7. "Abhikkhaņań aharei abhikkanam
pariņāme", Tandula Veyaliya, 4, p. 8. Navatattvā prakaraṇam, p. 12. 95. "Abhikkhanar usa sei abhikkhanam nisasei, etc.” Tandula Veyaliya 4. p. 8.
See Ucchvasa padam, Pannavaņā Sutta, p. 184. Satatam... agamam ti vā pāņam.
artı va", Navatattvá prakara nam, Anapāņa Paryapti; p. 12. 96. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 97. Lomahára means the taking of food by diffusion "Lomahārastu sariraparyapt
yuttarakāla bãhyayā tvacā lomābhirāhāraḥ" Sūtrakstānga II. 3. p. 87 (comm.) 98. Paņņavaņā Sutta. 1.62-68. 99. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, p. 35; Kalyāṇakāraka 3.2-3, p. 38. 100. Sūtrakstānga II. 2.18; Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38. 101. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6; 16, p. 35; Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.2, 3, 4. 102. Tandula Veyaliya 15, p. 35; :03. Kalyānakāraka, 3.497, p. 40. 104. Ibid. 3.7, p. 31. 105. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, p. 35

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defence against bacteria and other disease organism, and its clotting mechanism helps prevent the loss of this valuable fluid”. 106
Blood ( Sonita or rudhira or rakta ) fits the definition of tissue, although it appears to be a homogeneous crimson fluid as it pours from a wound.107 It permeates the whole of the body by following the network of arteries and veins, 108 except head-hairs, body hairs, nails, and teeth. According to Buddhaghoșa, blood (lohitam) is of two kinds, viz. stored and mobile blood, 109 The former "fills the lower part of the liver's site to the extent of a bowlful and by its splashing little over the heart, kindneys and lungs, it keeps the kidney, heart and lungs moist". 110 The latter permeates the whole of the body by following the network of arteries (dhamanījālānusāreņa ) except hairs on the head and body, teeth, nails, the parts where there is no flesh, and the dry skin. 111
Jain Biology states that blood gets generated in the foetus developing in the mother's uterus in the sixth month of her pregnancy112 and it nourishes the embryo. A human body contains 1/2 ādbak of blood 113. But it does not throw much light upon the composition of blood as it is analysed in modern Biology which explains that “it is composed of a yellow liquid, called plasma, in which float the formed elements; red blood cells, which give blood its colour, white blood cells and platelets.” 114 Plasma :
Although Jaina Biology does not refer to plasma which is a conplex mixture of proteins, amino acids, carbodydrates fats, salts, hormones, enzymes, antibodies and dissolved gases, 115 nevertheless its
106. Biology, p. 249. 107. Ācārānga Sūtra II. 4.; Sūtrakrtanga II. 2.18, 108. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6. 36, P, 33. Visuddhimagga VIII. 109. "Lobitan ti dve hohitādi : samicitalohitūñ ca samisaranalohitan ca etc. 110. Visudddhimagga, VIII, 130 ; 1X-72, vide Sacitra Ayurvedā, p. 76, March, 1972,
Dr. Jyoti Mitra. A study oś Anatomical Material in Vissuddhimagga of
Buddhaghoşa. 111. Ibid. VIII, 130 ; IX, 72 112. Tandula Veyāliya 2, p. 6. 113. "Rudhirassa adhayam" Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35; Kalyāṇakäraka 3.7, p. 31.
"Rakta tathārdhākamátrayuktam;". 114. Biology, 241. 115. Ibid., p. 250.

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reference to fats (meda and vasã) as one of the constituent elements of plasma suggests its existence in the blood. The human body contains two anjalis of meda (hard congealed fat) and three anjalis of vasā (semi - liquid fat ).117
The Red Corpuscles :
'The very term 'rakta'118 (red or crimson or blood ) or sonita 119 (red or blood ) as used in Jaina Biology connotes blood which contains red blood cells or erythrocytes. According to modern Biology, "there are, on the average, about 5,400,000 red blood cells per cubic millimeter of blood in the adult male, and about 5,000,000 per cu. mm. in the adult female. New infapts have a larger number, 6 to 7 million per cubic millimeter ; this number decreases after birth and the adult number is reached at about three months ; the human body contains about thirty trillion red blood cells”. 120
The mention of 1 ādhaka 121 or 1/2 adhaka122 of blood in the human body as made by the Jainācāryas suggests the quantity of red corpuscles contained in it at different stages.
Hemoglobin :
Jain Biology does not make any direct mention of hemoglobin, but its reference to pitta123 (bile pigments ) which is excreted by the liver (yakst) in the bile as a result of the chemical degradation undergone by the heme portion of the molecule of hemoglobin 125 and also of bile, ducts or veins (sirāo pittatdhāriņio )126 suggests that the Jainacāryās had some ideas or knowledge of hemoglobin in the blood. The occurrence together of the two terms pitta - soniya 127
116. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35; p. 40; Kalyānakaraka, 3.6-7. p. 31. 117. Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.6-7, p. 31. ; Tandula Veyaliya mentions 1/2 adhak of vasā,
16. p. 35. 118. Kalyāṇakāraka 3.6-7, p. 31. 119. Tandula Veyaliya 6, p. 10. 120. Biology, p. 250. 121. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p 35. 122. Kalyānakara 3.7, p. 3. 123. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6. 124. Kalyānakkaraka 3.4 125. Biology, p. 2:2. 126, Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 127. "Chatthe mase pitrasoniyam uvaciņci", Tandula Veyaliya 2. p. 6.

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in the Jaina works with their respective quantities 128 clearly shows that they are closely associated for the function of the body, such as, the transport of oxygen, etc. The pittas (bile pigments) are primarily responsible for the colour of the faeces, “if the bile duct is blocked by a gallstone, for example, they cannot pass into the intestine and the faces are a grayish clay colour" 129
Oxygen carrying Devices :
"All other mammals have red cells ( Sonita )130, "similar to man's non- nucleated, bioconcave discs containing hemoglobin 131. Birds (pakkhins ), reptiles ( parisarpas ), amphibians (mandūkas ) and fishes, (macchas) have blood ( śonita ),132 i. e. according to Biology," have oval shaped red cells which contain hemoglobin, but are nucleated". 133
Invertebrates (two- sensed beings, etc.) have a variety of devices for oxygen transport. 134 Modern Biology explains that “A few worms have blood cells containing hemoglobin but others such as the earth worm (i.e. nūpuraka) have hemoglobin simply dissolved in the plasma. Other invertebrates have different blood pigments; crabs and lobsters, for example, have a blue green blood pigment, hemocyanin, which contains copper instead of iron". 135 “The respiratory enzymes of all cells, both plant and animal, the cytochroms........heme proteins closely related chemically to hemoglobin" 136
White corpuscles :
Jaina Biology does not mention white corpuscles, but its reference to pus (puvva 137 or pâya 138 ), i. e. dead white corpuscles in the body, suggests the existence of white corpuscles in the body, suggests the existence of white blood cells or leukocytes in the blood as one of its constituent elements in some form, all of which differ considerably
128. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35, ; Kalyānak āraka, 3.7. 129. Biology, p. 252. 130. Ācārānga Sūtra II, 4. (Šonita ); Sutrakttānga II. 2.18. 131. Biology, p. 253, 132. All vertebrates have blood. 133. Biology, p. 253. 134. They do it by diffusion. See Pannavaņā, Ussāsapayam 697-697, p. 184. 135. Biology, p. 253 136. Ibid. 137. “Pavva", Tandula Veyāliya, p. 40 138. “PūO”, Ibid, p. 43.

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fron red cells. “The chief function of the white cells is to protect the body against disease organism.”139
Blood Blatelets :
not clearly mentioned in Jaina Biology, but the reference to blood of dead movable living beings 140 implies the suggestion that this third type of formed elements of the blood are important in initiating the process of blood clotting. “They are colourless, spherical, non- nucleted bodies about one third the diameter of a red cell”. 141
The Circulatory system :
The circulatory system is the transport system, for it carries food and oxygen (ucchvāsavāyu ) to all the tissues (peśīs) of the body, 142 removes the waste products of metabolism (muttapurīsa, etc.).143 According to Biology. it "carries hormones from endocrine glands to their target organs and cqualizes body temperatures',144
The circulatory system includes heart (hiyayam ),145 the blood vessels (Sirās, dhamanis, śrotas), 146ņhāru, 147etc.) and the lymph vessles 148 in addition to the blood, 149 lymph (Simbha) 150 and tissue fluid (rasa), 151 i. e. it include arteries with capillaries, veins, nerves, lymphatic vessels, etc.
139. Biology p, 253, 140. Sūtrakttānga II. 2,18 141. Biology, p, 255 142. "Imammi Sarirae satthi sirāşayam nabhippabhavanam...rasa haraniotti vuccanti",
etc. Tandula Veyaliya, 16. p. 35 143. "Imassa Jamtussa satthisirāsayam nābhippabhavāņam ahogamiņiņam gudappa
vitthanam jāna m si nirūvaghäenam multapurisavāukar mam pavattai /",
Ibid, 16, P, 35 144. Bioloxy, p, 362. 145. Tandula Voyaliya 16, p. 3:. 146. Tandula Veyāliya 2, p. 6; 16 p. 35 (siras ; Kalyanakāraka, 3.2, p. 30 (Sirās )
Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6 (nava dhamanis); Kalyāņakaraka 3.3 (2nd dhamanis)
Kalyāṇakāraka 3.4 ( 8 Srotas ). 147. Navaṇhārusayaim” - Tandula Veyāliya, 16, p 35 148. "Panavisam sirão simbhadharinio" Tandula Veyaliya 16, 5 or Kaphasthoma,
Kalyāṇakāraka. 149. Tandula Veyāliya 16, p. 35. · 150. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, p. 35 (Simbha )
151. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 25 (Rasa )

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Jaina Biology To understand how the system operates as an integrated unit, a brief study of the structure and function of each of the organs involved should be made according to Jaina Biology in comparison with the circulatory system of the Suśruta and Caraka. The Blood Vessels :
There are mainly three types of blood vessels : Siras 152, dhamanis 153 and srotas 154, (veins, arteries currents ). Sirās and dhamanis are distinguished from each other by the direction of the flow of blood and nutrient. The Jainācāryas state that there are seven hundred sirās, 155 nine155a twenty four dhamanis 156 and eight srotas 157 (currents ), nine srotas 158 (Navasoe purise ikkārasasoyā itthiya) of man are orifices, not currents.
Sirās :
The seven hundred sirās take their rise from the umbilical region. Out of them one hundred sixty siräs go up to the head, they are called rasaharanīyā sirās. There take places the strength of eyes, ears, nose and tongue by their non - injury, while the strength of eyes, ears, nose, and tongue gets destroyed as a result of their injury. In the body another group of one hundred and sixty sirās rising from the naval region go down to the feet, there cccurs the strength of the Janghā (shanks ) by their non-injury; if they are injured, there takes place headache (sisavedanā), megraine ( addhasisaveyanā ), newralgic pain in head (matthayasūla ) and eyes become blind (acchini amdhijjaṁti ). 159
Another group of one hundred sixty sirās taking their rise obliquely from the naval region runs to the palms of hands; there takes place the strength of arms by their non-injury, but there occur side - (lateral) pain, backache, hypochondrial pain and colic pain in hypochondria as a result of their injury. Another group of one hundred
sixty sirās originating from the naval region go down to the rectum. 152. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6. 16, p. 35; Kalyāņakāraka 3.2, p. 30 153. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35, 2, p. 6; Kalyņakāraka, 3.3, p. 30 154. Kalyāṇakāraka 3.4, p. 31. 155. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6 ; 16, p. 35 155a Ibid 16, p. 35 156. Kalyāņkāraka 3.3, p. 30 157. Ibid 3.4, p. 31. They are not orifices but current. 158. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 159. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, P, 35.

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There takes place easy excretion of urine, stool, gas (wind) on account of their non-injury, while there occur piles with bleeding and jaundice due to the retention of urine, stool and wind (or gas) caused by the injury of these siras. There are in the human body twenty five bile carrying siras (śirão dharinio), twenty five lymph carrying siras (śirão simbbadbāriņio) and the seminal siras (ducts) (dasa sirão Sukkadharinio). Man has got seven hundred siras, woman 670 Siras and the neuter sīrās 680 160 respectively. The Indian Ayurveda defines more clearly the blood vessels and explains their functions which are briefly sketched in Jaina Biology.
The Suśruta161 gives an account of the number and functions of siras, together with their four divisions, viz. (1) the arteries for conducting the blood, (2) lymphatics for conducting the lymph (Kaph), (3) a class of bile ducts (pittanaḍi) and (4) a class of ducts for the airs, the current (srotas) which do the work of automatic and reflex machinery of the living organism. In each division there are stated to be ten śiras which get sub-divided into 175 cords and "further ramify minutely all the body even as a network of minute fibrils covers the leaf of a tree."162
153
According to both Jaina Biology and the Suśruta, the functions of the different groups of siras are to transport (i. e. to circulate) the arterial blood, the lymph, the bile and the vital air currents respectively to the different tissues of the body. The siras function "like the conduits of the flowing water in a pleasure house (a garden) or the channels of irrigation which transport water to the field and flood it".163
The circulation of "the fluids and currents is effected by an alternate dilation and contraction of the vessels, the systolic movement differing according to the nature of the fluid propelled" 164
160. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35.
161. Sapta Sirasatām bhavanti, yabhiridaṁ sariramarma iva jalahārinibhiḥ kedara iva ca kulyābhirupasnihyate anugṛhyate cakuñcanapras āraṇādibhirviseṣaiḥ // Drumapatrasevanināmiva ca tāsām pratānastasām nābhirmulam tatasca prasant yurdhvamadhastiryak ca / 2 11,
Sarirasthana, Suśruta, 7th Chapter p. 504.
162. Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 210.
163. Suśruta, Sarirasthana, Chapt. VII.
164. "Anugṛhyate cākuñcanaprasaraṇādibhirviseṣaiḥ //". Ibid. See Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 210 J. B.-20

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Dhamanis :
According to Jaina Biology, there are stated to be twenty-four dhamanis in the human body. Out of them twenty dhamanis arc situated around (i. e. on the above and below) the naval point and four are obliquely (or horizontally ) placed. 165 In agreement with this number of dhamanis mentioned in the Kalyāṇakāraka with their three groups, the Susruta also divides them into three groups, (viz. (1) ten trunks or cords going up to the heart, thence to the head, (2) ten going down to the intestines, kidneys and rectum, and (3) four branching over the whole body. It is clear from the accounts of dhamanis given by Kalyānakāraka and Suśruta that they take their rise from the umbilical cord. First group of Dhamanis :
According to the Suśruta, each of the ten ascending dhamanis trifurcates, and proceeds to the head, first on going to the heart.167 Of these one pair conducts each of the four sensory currents (those of sound, colour, taste and smell) from the sense-organs to the heart, the seat of consciousness for them (brdayam višeşeņa cetanāsthānam). 168 Other dhamanis conduct automatic motor currents (e. g. the currents concerned in respiration) yawning, sleeping and waking or the secretions of the lachrymal and mammary glands.169
The second group of Dhamanis ( Adhogāmini) as described in the Suśruta :
165. Kalyāṇakāraka 3.3, p. 30. 166. “Caturvimsatirdhamanyo nabhiprabhavā abhihitäh // 2 //";
“Tāsām tu nābhiprabhavāņāṁ dhamanīnămürdhvaga daśa daśa cadhogäminyas
catasrastiryagāḥ /! 3 //” Sarīrasthāna, Susruta, Chapter 9. 167. Urdhvagāḥ sabda spargörüparasagandhapraśvāsocchvásajệm bhitakşuddhasitakathi
taruditādinvišeşānabhivahantyaḥ sarfram dhārayanti, tāstu hşdayamabhiyorapapnastridhā jayante tastrimsat / tásām tu Vatapittakaphasoņitarasão dve dve Vaharastā daśa / sabdarüparasagandhānaştābhirghpite dvābhyam bhasate dvā. bhyam ghoșam karoti, dvābhyam svapite dvābhyām pratibudhyate ca dve caśruvāhioyau dve stanyam striya vahataḥ stanasamsrite / teeva sukram narasya stan abhyamabhivabatah tastvetāstrimsatsavibhāgā vyakhyātā etabhirürdhvam nabberudaraparsvaprsthoraskandhagrivabāhavo dharyante yapyante ca l" :
Śarirasthāna, Susruta. Chapter 9. 168. "HỊdayam Viseşeņa Cetanasthānam I"
Sarirasthāna, Susruta, ch. IV, p. 468, “HỊdayan cetanādhisthậnam tham ”
Caraka, Sarirasthāna. Chapter VIII 69. Susruta, Sarirasthāna, Chapter 9

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The descending dhamanis run down to the intestines (pakkāśaya - bhūtanityam Sthūlāntrapamtih );169a kidneys (mūtrāśaya), bladder and rectum, and transport, in pairs as before, urine and other secretions and excreta and also the chyle from the small intestines to the ascending as well as the ramifying dhamanis. In addition some of them conduct sweat to the ramifying dhamanis 170.
The Third group: Tiryak Dhamanīs :
The four dhamanis called tiryak dhamanis ramify obliquely over the body into millions of fibres and fibrillae, which terminate in the pores of the skin. Their function is to conduct the sensory currents of touch to the central organ of the heart (including the internal organic sensations) from all parts of the periphery. As a result of their connection with the pores of the skin "they transport sweat outwards and the influences of baths, embrocations, and fomentations inwards". 171
Although Jaina Biology does not clearly explain the functions of dhamanis, nevertheless it is suggestive from the mention of equal number of 24 dhamanis that they carry on the same functions as explained in the Sušruta.
Srotas (currents ) :
As pointed out, Jaina Biology mentions eight srotas, 172 In aggreement with this view the Susruta states that the chyle, the blood, the vāyu (oxygen), the metabolic fluid (pitta ), the lymph (kaph ), the
169a Ibid. 170. Adhogamāstu vātamūtrapurişaśukrárttavādinyadho vahanti, tāstu pittasayama
bhipratipannästatrasthamevānnapānara sam vipakkamausmyadvivecayantyo abhivahantyah sariram tarpayantyarpayanti cordhvagatādām tiryaggatānām rasasthanam cabhii ürayanti můtrapurişasvedāmsca vivecayantyāmapakkāśayāntare ca tridbā jayante tastrimsat / tāsām tu vātapittakaphasonitarasān dve dve bahatastā daśa / dve annavāhinyāvanträsritä ... upto pakkasaya kaimūtrapurișagudabastimedhrasakthinidhāryante yāpyante ca" 5 Sarfrasthāna, Susruta, Chapter 9.
:71. Tiryazgānām tu catasrņām dhamapināmaikaikā katadhā sahasradhá cottarotta
ram vibhajyante tāstvasamkhyeyastabhiridam sariram gavākşitam vibaddhamatatam ca/ taşām mukhāni romakūpapratibaddhāni yaih svedamabhivahanti rasaṁ cāpi santarpayantyantarbahisca; taireva cabhyangaparişekāvagahalepanaviryāṇyantahsariramabhipratipadyante tvaci vipakkāni taireva sparśasukhamasuk ham vā gļhņāti, tāstvetascatasto dhamanyah sarvāngagatāḥ savibbāga
vyākhyātāḥ" 1.6, Sarirasthāna 9, Susruta. 172. Kalyāņakāraka, 3.4, p. 31.

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fat (meda), the marrow (majja) in every part of tissue of the body is supposed to be connected by subtile srotas with the same kind of fluid or tissues in every other part.173
156
Here also the function of eight srotas of Jaina Biology is supposed to be the same as those of right Srotas of the Suśruta.
The Vascular system:
The anatomical arrangement of siras and dhamanis and srotas is so obscure in Jaina Biology that only a rough sketch of its general features may be presented on the basis of the views of Caraka and Suśruta regarding them. Both Jaina Biology174 and Caraka-Suśruta 175 give the number of siras as seven hundred, while the number of dhamanis is mentioned as twenty four in Jaina Biology 176 and Suśruta177 as two hundred in Caraka 178 which estimates the ramifications as numbering 3,056,900.179
The Heart (Hiyaya )180:
The heart is a powerful muscular organ located in the chest under breast bone. In the Sangitaratnakara the heart is stated to be be lotus-shaped (hrdayam - pamkajakṛti )184. It is considered to the seat of waking consciousness, for it expands during waking life and contracts during sleep.182 According to Visuddhimagga, heart is located "inside the body near the middle of the frame of the ribs (uratthipañjaramajjham) like a piece of meat placed near the framework of an old cart'. 183 "It is the colour of the back of a red lotus petal, 173. Tani tu prāṇannodakara saraktamāṁsamedomūtrapuriṣagukrārtavavahani yeş-vadhikara ekeṣām bahūni / ...... upto tayormulaṁ snayutvacam raktavahāśca dhamanyastatra viddhasya svayathurmaṁsasoṣaḥ siragranthayo maraṇam ca/" etc. 8 Sarirasthāna, Suśruta, Chap, 9.
174
Tandula Veyaliya, 2. p. 6; 16, p. 35; Kalyaṇakaraka 3.2, p. 30
175. Suśruta, Sarirasthana, Chapter 7; Caraka Sarirarsthana Chapter 7, p. 383. (Saptasiragatani ).
176. Kalyaṇākāraka, 3.3, p. 30.
177. Suśruta, Sarirasthana, Chapter 9 "Caturvimsatird hamanyo"
178. "Dve dhamaniśate", Caraka, Sarirasthana, 7, p. 338.
179. Caraka, Sarirasthana, 7.
180. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35.
181.
Hidayam pamkajakṛti /" Sangita Ratnakara V. 82, Dindotpatti, vide Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus. p. 225.
182. Susiram syadadhovaktram etacca cetanasth anam nimilati svapity ātmā jāgartti vikasatyapi, Ibid. vv 83-84, Pindotpatti, Svaradhyaya
183. Visuddhimagga XI, 59. "Hadaya sarirabbhantare uratth/pañjaramajjhamnissāya thitam/"

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159
having the shape of loius and with the outer petals removed and turned upside down, it is smooth outside and inside like the interior of Kosataki or spongy gourd (Luffa aegyptiaca ). Inside it there is a hollow, the size of a punnāga seed's bed where half a pasata 184 ( Sanskrit prasmli) measure of blood is kept”. 185 According to Jaina Biology, heart is a hollow muscular organ measuring 3 1/2 palya, 186 It is situated “in the thorax between the lungs and above the central depression of the diaphragm. It is about the size of the closed firt; shaped like a blunt cone, and is directed upward, backward and to the right\"187
According to modern Biology, "the heart of man and other mammals and of birds is divided into four chambers, the upper right and the atria (auricle) and the lower right and left ventricles. The atria, which have relatively thin walls, receive blood from the veins and push
into the Ventricles. The latter, with much thicker walls, pump the blood out of the heart and around the body". 188
Routes of the Blood around the Body :
To understand how the circulatory system carries material from one part of the body to another, some konwledge of how the blood vessels (Siras and Dhamanis) are connected is necessary. In any particular vessel blood flows, in one direction only. The circulation of the blood is made by two sets of vessels-Siras (veins) and Dhamanisarteries. 189 The entire vascular system takes its rise from the naval point in the foetus. From this central alimentary tract there originate these two sets of vessels 190 for the transportation of the blood.
The blood - Vascular System :
As pointed out, the blood Vascular system of Jain Biology can be understood in the light of Brāhmanical Biology. There are two classes
184. According to metric measurement, prasrti signifies 93, 312 miligrams, vide,
J. R. T. M., Vol I. No. 2. p. 275, Sce Sacitra Ayurveda, March, 1972 p. 78. 185. Visuddhimagga, VIII. Haddyan ... cassa punnagathi ... addhapasatamattani
Lohitam etc." 186. Addhu thapaliyam hiyayam", Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35.;
"hrdayantaravartimamsakhandam sardhapalatrayam bhavati l", 187. Anatomy and Physiology, p. 341 Ibid, p. 36. 188. Biology, p. 264 189. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. Im immi sarirae satthisirasayam nabhippabhavānañ ;
Ibid 2, p. 6. 190. Ibid, 16, p. 35

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of blood transporters or conductors, viz. "(1) Sirās (veins) which break up into capillaries 191 (pratāna) and circulate pure blood from the liver (yakrt ) and spleen ( Pliha ) 192 to the heart (bțdaya ) and from the heart to the rest of the body, 193 and (2) "Dhamanis (arteries ?) which run, (two from the intestinal tract-portal vein and inferior vena cava) 194 and two from the heart ( superior vena cava and pulmonary artery ?)". 195
"The “Venous" blood (chyle--mixed blood ) circulates from the alimentary tract (gastric and intestinal vessels) along a Dhamani trunk (portal vena cava ?) to the liver (and spleen ), where the chyle gets a red pigment and is converted into (Pure ) blood. From the liv spleen, sirās run to the heart. The liver (and spleen, a minor bloodvascular gland) and the heart are the centres of origin of the sirās and circulate pure blood by their means over the entire body.”:196
Arrangement of the blood bearing Sirās and Dhamanīs :
"Two blood -- transporting Dhamanīs trunks ( Veins ) run from the heart (Superior vena cava and pulmonary artery ?), and two run from different regions of the alimentary tract (portal vein and inferior vena cava ? ). Ten Sirās bearing pure blood proceed from the aljinentary tract to the liver and spleen, which are joined on to the heart by means of both sirās and Dhamanis, “The ten sirās are subdivided into 175 branches, wbich are distributed over the body in the same way as the lymph-bearing Siras".197
It is clear from the reference to lungs (phopphasa phephas )198 in Jaina Biology that the Jainācāryas had knowledge of the role played by the lungs in the purification of the blood.
The liver (yakrt) converts "Venous blood” in this system into true arterial blood, and along with the spleen (plihā) as a basis of
191. It suị gestive from the blood vascular system that there are capillaries. 192. !andula Veyaliya, 17, p. 38.; Kalyāṇakāraka 3.4., p, 31. 193. Aspevahāśca rohinyaḥ śirāh nätyuşnašitatah”. Savīrasthāna, VII ; Susruta. 194. Kalyāņakāraka. 3.3, p. 30. See Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35
; Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, p. 215 195. Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, p. 215.
"Raktavāhinyasca Dhamanya", Sarirasthana, 9 Susruta. 196. Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus p. 215 197. Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 215.
see Sarirasthāna 7, 8, 9, Suśruta. 198. Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38

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discrimination between a Sira and a Dhamani, "thus illustrating Suśruta's statement that the distinction between these two kinds of blood vessels must be accepted as real in asmuch as they have different sources and different functions."*199
Foetal Circulation:
A foetus developing in the uterus cannot obtain food or air directly, its stomach and lungs are non functional.200 It obtains food and oxygen (vayu) from the material blood by means of blood vessels in the placenta and umbilical cord (Putrajivarasaharani),201 There is, however, no direct connection between the blood streams of mother and foetus. The blood of the foetus is manufactured within its own body, 202 chiefly, in the spleen (pliha) and liver (yakṛt). It is stated in Jaina Biology that the foetus developing in the mother's womb collects whatever food substance it obtains from the mother's body203 and transforms the same into the forms of ear, eye, nose, tongue, skin, bone, marrow, hair, beard, hair on the body and nail.204
161
The foetus absorbs abundant food by its entire self, but not by the mouth and transforms it, inhales and exhales air again and again,205 for matṛjivarasaharani and putrajīvarasaharaṇī are joined together by mātṛjīvarasaharani and connected by putrajīvarasaharaṇī mutually 206. It absorbs food-substance through putrajīvarasaharani (umbilica cord) and transforms the same into various parts of the body.207 There
199.
Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 216
; See Sarirastha 9. Suśruta for distinction between girñ and dhamani. 200. Bhagavati 1.7. 61-2.; Tandula Veyaliya, 4, p. 9.
"Jive nam gabbhagae samane savvao aharei savvao pariņāmei savvao usasei savvao nisasei abhikkhanam aharei abhikkhaņam parināmei abhikkhanam ūsasei abhikkhanam nisa: ci āhārei, āhacca parināmei ähacca ūsasei āhacca niasei maūjivarasaharani puttajivara saharan! maujivapaḍibaddha puttajivam phuḍā tamha aharei tamha pariņāmei avaravi nam puttajivapaḍibaddha maujivaphuḍa tamha cinai...a pahu muhenam kavaliyam aharam āharittae "
201. Ibid, 4, p. 9
202. "Chatthe mase pittasoniyam uvacinei ", Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
203. Jam se māyā nāṇāvihão nava rasavigajo tittakaḍukasayambilamahuraim davvaim āhārei tao egadeseṇam oyamaharei", Tandula Veyaliya, 5, p. 9; Bbg. 1.7.61
204. Bhagavati, 1.7.61 "Jive nam Gabbhagae samane jam āhāram āhārei ciņāte soimdiyattae up to nahattae " Tandula Veyaliya, 3, p. 7.
205. Tandula Veyaliya 4, p. 9 Bhagavati, 1.7. 61-62.
206. Ibid.
207. Tandula Veyaliya, 4, P. 9.

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162
is also the other cord bound by putraj ivarasaharani and connected by mätrjivarasaharani through which the foetus receives food substance. 208 That is to say "within the placenta the capillaries of mother and foetus (i. e. mātṛjivarasaharani and putrajīvarasaharaṇī come into close contact, and subtances pass from one to the other by diffusion or by active transport process, oxygen and food substances pass from the maternal to the foetal blood vessels and carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes pass from the foetal to the maternal blood vessels",209 as it is said that the foetus does not pass urine, stool, etc.210 "The two umbilical arteries (i. e. putrajīvarasaharanis), grow out of the lower part of the aorta of the foetus and pass to the placenta (i. e. matṛjivarasaharanis ). Blood is returned to the child by a single umbilical vein which passes through liver and empties into the inferior vena cava".211 The fact that the lungs (Phopphasaphephasa) which are not mentioned clearly as developed in the foetus212 are small and non- functional presents a special problem, "for the capillaries in the uninflated lungs can accommodate only a fraction of the blood flowing through the heart, the rest must bypass the lungs until after birth."213
The lymph System :
In addition to the blood circulatory system the body is equipped, according to Jaina Biology, with a similar, independent group of vessels214 constituting the lymph system (Simbha or Kaph system). But Jaina Biology does not throw much light on the details of this system except some of its features and functions. It is known from Jaina Biology215 and other Indian sources216 that "the circulation of the lymph is also made by two sets of vessels Siras and Dhamanis.
208. Tandula Veyaliya, 4, p. 9.
"Māujivarasaharani Puttajīvarasaharaņi māujivapaḍibaddha puttajivaṁ phuḍa 1.7 etc.
209. Biology, p. 271
210. Jivassa ..
gabbhagayassa samaņassa atthi uccarei va päsavņei va......no inatthe samatthe", Tandula Veyaliya, 3, P. 7. ; Bhagavatisūtra 1, 7, 61-62.
211. Biology, p. 221.
212. Tandula Veyaliya 2, P. 6.
213. Biology, P. 272.
214. "Panavisam Sirao simbhadhariṇio", Tandula Veyalıya, p. 16, p. 35
215. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35.; Kalyāṇakaraka 3.2-3
216. Caraka, Sarirasthana, Ch. 7; Suśruta, Sarirasthana Ch. 7.

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161 From the Central alimentary tract of the naval point there originate two sets of blood vessels (Širās and Dhamanis - Rasavāhinyaḥ), for the transportation of the chyle and other lymph”.217 The Lymph ( Kaph or vāta ) and Chyle (rasa )
It is further explained that "the chyle is conducted by the chylebearing Dhamanis ( Rasavāhinyaḥ ) and the lymph ( kaph ) by the lymphbearing Sirās and Dhamanis (kaphavāhinyah ). The lymph bearing širäs comprise ten branches218 at the origin, and ramify into 175, viz. 25 in each leg, 25 in each arm, 8 in the pelvic cavity, coccyx, penis, etc., 2 in each side, 6 in the back, 6 in abdomen, 10 in the breast, 14 in the neck, 4 in the ears, 9 in the tongue, 6 in the nose, and 18 in the eyes.".219
“The chyle is transported by another system of vessels (Rasavāhinyaḥ Dhamanyah). The chyle ducts originate from the naval point ( possibly the receptacalum chyle in this case). A Dhamani trunk goes down to the small intestine, and carrying the chyle, proceeds upwards towards the heart (thoraic duct?). Two chyle ducts and two lymph ducts (Dhamanis - Rasavāhinyaḥ and Kaphavāhinyaḥ) proceed from the heart, and ramify over the head and trunk. In the same way two chyle ducts and two lymph-ducts run from the intestinal tract and ramify over the pelvic region. Four obiliquely branching Dhamanis ( Tiryak Dhamanis transporting chyle, sweat, and internal secretions) spread from the central system and ramify in numberless minute channels over the limbs and the body'. 220
The views of Jaina Biology, rather Indian Biology, are indirectly supported by modern Biology in the following manner :
"In addition to the blood circulatory system the body is equipped with a similar, independent group of vessels constituting the lymph system. These carry the clear, colorless fluid, lymph which, like tissue fluid is derived from blood and resembles it closely. It contains much less protein than does blood and has no red cells. It does contain white cells, some of which enter the lymph capillaries from the tissue
217. Caraka, Šarirastbana, Ch.7; Susruta, Sarirasthāna, Ch. 7. 218. "dasa Kaphavāhinyo" Śarirasthāna, Suśruta. 219, Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, P. 214. "Tatra Vātavāhinyah sira
ekasmin sakthni pañccavimšati ... aştauvatrayo!"..evam .. Kaphavahasca”.
Sarirasthāna 7, Susruta. 220. Ibid. p. 214.
"Tiryagganām tu catasrņām dhamanioamaikaika satadha sahasradha ..... rasam
Capi santarparyantyantarbahisca /" Sarirastbāna ,/ 5, Susruta. JB-21

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fluid, others of which are mauufactured in the lymph nodes. In other respects lymph is similar to blood". 221 Functions of the lymph system :
“The lymph system performs four functions : First, it assists in returning tissue fluids to the blood circulatory system. The second and third functions are the production of lymph-cytes and the filtering of dust and bacteria. A fourth function is the absorption of fats which is accomplished by the lymph vessels that drain the intestines”. 222 Circulation in other Organisms :
All organisms have the same problem of transporting substances from one part of the body to another. Two - sensed animals (i. e. Protozoa) have no special system for bringing about circulation of substances; "foods, wastes and gases simply diffuse through the cytoplasin and eventually reach all parts of the cell”223 (i.e., tvacāhāra and lomābāra).224 In most two-sensed animals it is suggestive that the process is aided by movements of cytoplasm".225 Modern Biology which explains was amaeba moves along, the cytoplasm streams from the rear to the front of the body, distributing substances throughout the cell, etc.226 "In the earth-worm and similar forms there is a definite circulatory system, consisting of plasma, blood cells and blood vessels, although the latter are not specialized as arteries, veins and capillaries.
The larger and more complex invertebrates (i. e. four-sensed animals), such as, insects ( Kita ), etc., all have a circulatory system consisting of a heart, blood vessels and blood cells, 228 etc. The circulatory systems of all vertebrates, i. e. five-sensed animals are fundamentally the same,229 from fish ( matsya ) and frogs (mandukas ) through lizard (grhagolikā) to birds (pakşin ) and man (manusya ). All have a heart and an arota as well as arteries, capillaries and veins, organized on a similar basic plan".230 In the evolution of the higher vertebrates, such as man, from the lower, fish-like forms, the principal changes in the circulatory system occurred in the heart and are correlated with the change in the respiratory mechanism from gills to lungs' 231
221. Biology, P. 278. 222. Biology, P. 279, Tandula Veyaliya 16, P. 35. 223. Biology, P. 279. 224. Sūtrakrtānga 11. 3. Sarireņoyāhāro tayāya phasena lomāhāro /", P. 86. 225. Biology, P. 279. 226. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3, P. 86 (Tvacāhāra and lomāhāra ) 227. Biology, P. 279. 228. Biology, P. 280. 229. Tandula Veyaliya 16, P. 35. 230. Biology, P. 280. 231. Biology, P. 280.

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The Respiratory System
The energy for all the myriad activities of animals is derived from reactions of biologic oxidations, i.e. chemical reactions of air by ucchvāsaparyapti? (vital force by which particles of respiration are taken in, oxidized for energy and left out as carbon dioxide and water). The energy making process in the presence of air (oxygen ) is called respiration ( āņapāņa or ussäsanisāsa ).2 Respiration is one of the paryāptis and prāņas (vital force and life forces ) of beings, as mentioned in the beginning. It starts in the human foetus, wbile developing in the mother's womb.4 But its lungs are non-functional at this stage. According to both Jaina and Brāhmanica 16 Biologies, the essential feature of these reactions of biologic oxidation is the assimilation of food, the transfer of rasa (chyle or nutrient) from one molecule to another, i. e. "the transfer of one molecule, the hydrogen donor, to another, hydrogen acceptor, etc.”.6 In most animals there is a series of compounds each of which accepts rasa? "(i.e. hydrogen ) from the preceding and donates it to the subsequent one''.8 The ultimate rasa-acceptor in the metabolism of
2. No
1. "Ābāra sarira imdiya, usasa vāu mano bhinivvatti / Hoi jao daliyāu, Karanam,
pai sāu pajjatti !/" Bịhatsangrahani, v. 313, ed. by Amrtlal Purusottamadas vs. 1993. "Yayocchvásárhamadāya dalam parinamayya ca / Tattayalambya muñcetsocchvāsaparyāptirucyate (22)" Lokaprakāśa I, 3.22, p. 66. ; or "Aņāpāņa Pajjatti" Navatattvaprakaraṇam. v. 6, p. 12.; Gommațasāra, Jiva kānda, 119. Navatattvaprakaranam V.6., p. 12 (āņapāņa); Gommațasāra (Jiva), 119 (āņapāņa)
; Visësavasyaka Bhāsya, V. 274. "Usasaya-nisasaya" 3 Tandula Veyaliya, 4, pp. 4-9. ; Navatattvaprakaranam. v. 6, p. 12 (Paryāpti)
; Gommațasāra, (Jiva), v. 118. 119, etc, (Paryāpti). ; Jivavicāra v. 42-43 ( Prāņa ) ; Gommațasāra Jivakānda, v. 130 (Prāņa); Tattvarthadhigama Sūtra,
V. 19 (Prāņa, apāna VIII. 12 (Bhāşya). 4. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1. 7. 61. ; Tandula Veyaliya 4, pp. 8-9 ( usäsanisāsa ). Prãoast
athāpānasamānasamjnau / vyāno apyathodāna iti praddistah pamicaiva vāyava
nityamahāranīhāra vinirgamarthăn. Kalyāṇakāraka 3.9. 5. “Tatraisāhāraparyāptiryayadaya nijocitam /; Prothak-Khalarasatvenā bārampari.
natim na yet" || Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd sarga. v. 17 6. Sañgitaratnākara, Sárangadeva, Vol. I Chapter I, vv. 60-67; the functions of
prāņavayus, viz. prāna up to apāna, are explained there. 7. Kalyāṇakāraka 3.9 ; Lokaprakasa, Pt. I, 3. vv. 17-22. 8. Biology, p. 283.

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animals is air (oxygen - ucсhvāsa ). The term āņa pāņa'10 or usāsanisāsall or prāṇāpāna"12 (respiration) is used by the Jainācāryas to refer to those processes by which animal (and plant cells ) utilize oxygen (usāsa ), carbon dioxide (nisāsa) and convert energy into biologically useful forms. The term "āņapāņa or usāsa - nisāsa” has different meanings in Jaina Biology. It is synonymous with breathing and means inhaling and exhaling. It becomes clear from the reference to the usage of this term that it is applied to the important process of the exchange of gases between the cell and environment. Finally, as the details of celluar metabolism by ānapāna or ucсhvāsa paryāpti became known, the term "ānapāna or usāsa-nisāsa" is used to denote those enzymic reactions of the cell which are responsible for the utilization of oxygen (usāsa ?).
Direct Respiration :
The exchange of gases is a fairly simple process in a small, aquatic animal (e.g. Jalauka, samuddalikkha and some two - sensed aquatic animals).16 Dissolved oxygen from the surrounding pond water diffuses into the cells, carbon dioxide diffuses out, no special respiratory system ( lungs, etc.) is needed. Sucb gas exchange brought about by ānapāņa 17 or ucchyāsaparyāpti18 of beings is the direct respiratian, as the cells
9. Chyle or molecules of nutrients irasibhūtamahāram) are utilized by animals for
the release of energy, the building of blood, tissue, fat, bone, marrow, semen, etc. successively with the vital force called sarira-paryapti, Lokaprakāša,
Pt. 1, 3rd Sarga, p. 65. 10. Biology, p. 28.3 11. Lokaprakāśa, Vol. I, 3.22 ; Tandula Veyaliya 4. 12. Navatattvaprakarana, v. 6. 13. Viseșāvasyaka Bhāşya, gāthā 2714 14. Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra v, 19; VIII. 12 ( Bhāșya ) 15. Ibid. v. 19 ; VIII 12 ( Bhāşya ); Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61. Tandula Veyāliya 4;
Pannavaņā Sūtta, Ucchvā sapada, 1,19. "Prāṇāpānapudgalagrahaņasāmarthyajanakmucchvāsanāma I” Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra - Bhāşya' 8-12. U:dhvagami samiranaḥ pränah adhogatirapanaḥ prāṇapānavanatapradeśaskandhapudgalapariņāmajanyau tadyogyapudgalanām grahanamādānam tasya samarthyam-atiśyamjanayati yat taducchvāsanāmā yasyo
dayaducchvasanihsvāsau bhavataḥ" T.S. Bhā., 8. 12, p. 158. 16. Navatattva Prakarana 6. Two - sensed beings have fine paryāptis āhāra-sarira
indriya āņapāna and bhāsā. Jalauka, ete. aquatic beings are two-sensed and
have āņapāna paryāpti which helps the exchange of gases in them. 17, Navatattvaprakaranam v. 6, p. 12. 18. Lokaprakāśa Pt. I. 3,22.

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of organism exchange oxygen ( usāsa ) and Carbon-dioxide (nisāsa ) directly (like lomāhāra ) with the surrounding environment.
Indirect Respiration :
As animals appear to have evolved into higher, more complex forms, it became impossible for each cell to exchange gases directly with the external environment. Some form of indirect respiration involving a structure of body specialized for respiration was necessary, e.g. lungs (phopphasaphephasa ).19 "For indirect respiration, fishes and many other animals developed gills", 20 the higher vertebrates, reptiles (parisarpas ), birds (paksins ) and mammals including man developed lungs (phopphasaphephasa).21 In Jaina Biology an external and internal phase in indirect respiration can be distinguished in the exchange of gases between the body cells and the environment as suggested by its reference to ānapāna22 or usāsa-nisāsa 23 or prāņāpāna.24 External respiration (prāna )25 is the exchange of gases by diffusion between the external environment and the blood stream by means of the specialized respiratory organ, for example, lungs (phopphasa phephasa ) 26 in the mammals including man. Internal respiration is by all means27 the exchange of gases between the blood stream and the cells of the body, brought about byānapāna28 or ucсhvāsa 29 paryāpti. Between these phases the gases are transported by the circulatory system.
Structure of the Human Respiratory System :
Jaina Biology states that the respiratory system in man (and other air-breathing vertebrates ) includes the lungs and suggests the existence of the tubes by which air reaches them (phopphasa phephasa ).30 Besides this statement, it does not go into details of the structure. The Buddhist work “Visuddhimagga’ throws some light in this respect. It is stated there 19. Tapdula Veyaliya, 17. p. 38. 20. Biology, p. 284. 21. Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38 22. Navatattvaprakaraṇam 6, p. 12, ; Gommațasāra, Jivakānda, 119. 23. Tandula Veyäliya 4, PP, 8-9.; Višeşāvasyākabhāşya, gāthā, 2714. 24. Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra, v. 19 ; ( Bhāșya ). 25. Sarvārthasiddihi v. 19 ( Bhagya ). 26. Tandula Veyaliya. 17, p. 38 ; Sarvarthasiddhi v. 19 ( Bhāşya ) 27. Tandula Veyaliya, 4, p. 8, "Savvão usasei savvao nisa sei” 28. Navata tvaprakaraṇam, 6, p. 12. 29. Lokaprakāsı, Pt. I. 3; 22. 30. Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38.

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that “the lungs (Papphäsan) are located inside the body between the two breasts, hanging over the heart and liver and concealing them just as bird's nest hanging inside an old barn".31 “The spongy lung is divided into two or three pieces ( lobes ) having the red colour not very ripe (like ) Udumbara fig fruits”. It is shaped like "unevenly cut thick slice of cake (Visamacchinnabahalapuvakhandasamthavia)". 32
The medical science describes the lungs as the cone-shaped porous and spongy organs having right and left parts. “Right lung has three lobes, while the left has two only” 33 “At birth the lungs are rose - pink - coloured, in adult life, a dark slaty motted in patches" and with the advance of age, “this motting of its colour take up a black colour" 34
According to modern Biology, the structure of the human respiratory system includes, besides the two lungs, the external nares, or nostrils, nasal chamber, internal nares, pharynx, larynx, trachea or wind pipe, two bronchi, one going to each lung, bronchioles and air sacs (alveoli),35 Phopphaphephasa 36 of Jaina Biology includes the lungs and eparterial bronchioles of trachea.
The Mechanics of Breathing :
It seems that Jaina Biology keeps clear the distinction between respiration - the exchange of gases between a cell and its environment (which in man corsists of the three phases of external respiration, transportation by the blood stream and breathing, which is simply the mechanical process of taking air into the lungs (inspiration) and leiting it out again (expiration )37.
Respiration (pränäpanā )38 is material. A being exhales air from the lungs. The same being inhales air from the atmosphere. These acts of respiration are helpful to the being as they enable it to live.39 31. Visuddhimagga XI, 63. “Papphasan sarirabbhantare ..... jiņnakothabbhantare
lambamāno, etc. 32. Ibid. VIII. 117. "Papphasan ti dvattiñsamamsakhandappabhedän etc. 33. Anatomy and Physiology, pp. 92, 93. 34. Human Anatomy, Henry Gray, p. 1382,; Vide Sacitra Ayurveda-Visva-Ayurveda
Ajka, 6. March, 1972, p. 75. 35. Biology. p. 284. 36. Tandula Veyaliya, 17, p. 38. 37. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra v. 19; VI 12. (Bhāşya). See Sarvarthasiddhi, v. 19
( Commentary ) 38. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, 5.19.
"Ordhvagami samiranah Pränah I." Adhogatirāpānah I. TS. Bhā 8.12, p. 158. 39. Ibid. Sarvārthasiddhi. v. 19 ( Tika ).

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In the medical science the Jaina view of the mechanics of breathing briefly outlined is fully supported in the following manners: “The respiratory a paratus consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs and pleurae.40 When one breathes in the air, it goes through the trachea and bronchi to the air - sacs of the lungs which are surrounded by blood capillaries. According to the property of diffusion, the oxygen inside the alveoli and the carbon dioxide in the capillaries interchange themselves through the thin membranes. As the oxygen inside the alveoli is taken up by the blood, the air inside the lungs must be renewed to bring in a fresh supply of oxygen and the waste products, sach as, carbon dioxide must also be thrown out of the body" 41
The first process by which one breathes in air is called inspiration, i. e. the Jaina ‘apāna', and the second one by which the impure air inside the lungs is thrown out is called expiration which correponds to the Jaina 'prāna”.42 This combined process of iphaling and exhaling air is called respiration, i.e. apāna and 'prāna' of Jaina Biology. The absorption of oxygen by the red corpuscles of the blood and the removal of waste products, such as, carbondioxide and water, take place in the lungs by this process of respiration.
Respiratory Devices in other Animals :
Respiration42 takes place in all other animals. But its detailed discussiou is not found in Jaina Biology. It can be surmised from its references that external respiration in most lower animals is carried on by specilized structures - gills, for example, of fish, molluscs, e. g. Sankha (Conchifera ). Suktika (Pearl-mussel ), Sambuka (Helix ) and many other arthopods (spider ) ( Nandyavarta, but not insects ) have these organs.
According to modern Biology, "In fish, water is taken in through the mouth, passes over the gills, and out the gill clefts. Gills like lungs, have inin walls, and are moist and well supplied with blood capillaries. Oxygen dissolved in the water diffuses through the gill
40. Human Anatomy, Henry Gray, p. 1016. 41. Ibid. 42. “Urdbvagami samiranah prānah i adhogatirapanah prāṇaḥ /"
T.S. II, 8.12, Tikā, p. 158 "Udasyamanah Kosthayo vāyurucchvásalak saņah prāna ityucyate / Tenaivatmana vāhyo vāvurabhyantarikriyamāņo nibsvasalakşano apāná ityakhyāșyate I,
Sarvārthariddhi Putyapada v. 19 p. 43. Ucchvásapada, Pannavaņā P. I, 7.

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epithelium into the capillaries, and carbon dioxide diffuses in the reverse direction".44
168
"Insects have quite a different system for getting oxygen to the cells. In each section or segment of the body is a pair of holes, called spiracles, from which a tracheal tube extends into the body, branching and rebranching until it reaches each cell".45
"The body walls of insects pulsate, drawing air into the trachea when the body expands, forcing air out when the body contracts. Thus, in contrast to a fish or crab, in which blood is brought to the surface of the body to be aerated in a gill, the tracheal system conducts air deep within the insect body, near enough to each cell so that it can diffuse in through the wall of the tracheal tube".46
44. Ibid.
45. Biology, p. 294.
46. Blology, p. 295

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(Third Section)
THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The knowledge of food (āhāra )' in Jaina Biology reveals that all animals are heterotrophic2 and must provide their constituent cells with a veriety of raw material and sources of energy for the synthesis and maintenance of compounds present in the vital force of the body, i.e. "Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, water and minerals”3 etc. according to modern Biology.
The analysis of the topic “Knowledge of food”4 of all animals, ahāra paryāpati5 ( Vital force by which beings take, digest, absorb and transform molecules of food particles into waste products (khala ) and chyle of molecules of nutrients or energy - (rasa ), sariraparyāptis ( vital force by which chyle or molecules of nutrients ( rasibhūtamābāram) are utilized by being for the release of energy, the building of blood, tissue, fat, bone, marrow, semen, etc.) throws some ilght upon the digestive system, metabolism and nutrition or animal organism.
The process of digestion from amoeba (Kuksikrmi, Krmi, etc.)? to man (manusya )8 involves the same or very similar series of enzymes, but differs in where they act and the process is controlled, c.g. “Some beings, born in water, come forth as movable creatures in the water, produced by water-bodies. These beings feed on the humours of
1. Sū'rakstanga, II 3, Aharapada. 2. Ibid.
“organisms which cannot synthesize their own food from inorganic materials and therefore must live either at the expense of autotrophs or upon decaying matter, are called heterotrophs and their mode of nutrition is called he erotro
phic. All animals fungi and most bacteria are heterotrophs", Biology, P. 85. 3. Biology p. 296. 4. Sūtrakrtang+ II, 3. Ahārapada 5. "Tatraisāhāraparyātisvayadaya nijocitāṁ / Pfthakkhalarasatvena haram pariņā
tim, nayet /". Lokaprakāśa, pt. 1, 3rd sarga, v. 17. "Tam rasibhūtamaharam yaya saktyä punarbhavi / "Rasasrgmansamedo asthim ajjaśukrādi dhātūtam"
Nayedyathasambhavam să debaparyaptirucyate //" Ibid., v. 19. 7. Sūtraksikoga, Ahārapad 1, II, 3. ; Pannavaņā I, Aharapada. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid.
JB. 22

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water-bodies, produced by water, 10 where as the babies suck the mother's milk, but when they grow older, they eat boiled rice, etc."11 Actually speaking, digestion is intra-cellular or extra cellular as found in Jaina Biology. According to modern Biology. "Digestion may be intracellular-food particles, may be taken into the cell by phagocytosis and digestive enzymes may act within the cell or extra cellular-the enzymes are secreted by the cells that produce them into some cavity, typically that of the gut, where hydrolytic cleavage takes place."12 It is suggestive that two-sensed animals (i. e. protozoa) and the simpler animals take food into vacuoles within cells and digestion occurs, i. e. absorption of food and its digestion take place by the process of lomähära (diffusion), 13
170
In the course of evolution, as it appears, the higher, more complex animals including man have developed special organs 14 for obtaining and digesting food. The products of digestion, i. e. chyle (rasa) are transported by the circulatory system (rasa haraniyo sirão) to the cells of the body to be utillized. The digestive tract of man is essentially a long tube composed of several separate organs which carry out ingestion, digestion and absorption, such as, mouth cavity (mukha)16 tongue (Jiha),17 teeth (damta), 18 oesophagus, stomach (amoru, udara )19 deudenm (pākkāśaya)20 small intestine (tanuya mta ?),21 liver (yakṛt)22 large intestine (Thulamta),23 rectum (payu, gudā), 24 etc.
10. Sūtrākṛtänga II, 3. Ihagatiya satta udagajeniya...
udagaṇain
sinehamaramti /" (59); 'te jiva dahara samana mäukkhiram samppim ahäremti anupuvveṇam ruddha odaṇam.... ahāranti /" 55.
11. Ibid.
12. Biology, P. 296
13. Sūtrakṛtänga II. 3, (comm.) "sparsèndriyeņa ya aharah sa lomahara it", p. 87. 14. Mouth mukh, stomach ( amoru, udara), deudenum (pakkasaya) (Kalyanakaraka, 3.4) small intestine (tanuyamta /), large intestine (Thulamta) etc. (Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35 etc.)
15. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35,
16. Ibid,. P. 36, (Comm.) "Mukhe agucipürne prayo dvatrimsaddantah asthikbandani bhavanti /"
17. Ibid., 16 p. 35, "Jibbha" or "Jiha",
18. "Battisami damta", Ibid.
19. "amoru", Kalyaṇakaraka 3.4. "Udara", Tandula Veyaliya, 17, p. 38.
20. "Pakkasaya", Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.4.
21.
22. "Yakṛt", ; Kalyāṇakaraka, 3.4.,
23. "Thulamta" Tandula Veyaliya p. 6, p. 35.
24. "Payu", One of the nine śrotas ( orifices), Ibid., p. 38.
"Guda", Ibid., 16, p. 36,
Tanuyamta", Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35.

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171
The Mouth Cavity (Mukha 125
The mouth cavity contains the tongue, the teeth, "salivary glands,"26 according to modern Biology, etc. They play role in ingestion or digestion, etc.
The Tongue (Jihā) 27
The tongue consists of several sets of striated muscles oriented in different places, having a length of seven fingers,28 Food is pushed by the tongue between the teeth to be chewed and then shaped into a spherical mass, called bolus (Kavala) to be swallowed by the process of praksepāhāra.30 Swallowing is initiated when the tongue pushes a bolus31 into pharynx.
he Teeth (Damta)32
There are stated to be thirty two teeth of (battīsam damtā )33 of man. The teeth of all vertebrates break up food into smaller particles
"but they vary in size and shape according to the diet of the parti·cular animal.''34
Modern Biology explains that "In man, each jaw on each side has, behind the canines, two premolars and three motars, with flattened surfaces adapted for crushing and grinding food". 35
25. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, (Comm.) p. 36 26. Biology, p. 297. 27. Tandula Veyāliya 16, p. 35. 28. Ibid 16, p. 35
"Caupaliya Jibbhā... sattamguliya Jihvāmukhabhyantravartim amsakhandarūpā
dairghyenätmangulatah saptangulā bhavati", Ibid. (Comm.), p. 36. 29. Sūtrakstānga II. 3. (Comm.) “Kavalika āhāro Jihvendriyasay sadbhävaditi", p. 38. 30. Prakṣepena Kavalīderahārah prakse pärah", Sūtrakstānya II, 3. (Comm.), p. 87. 31. “Tatra yo jihvendriyeņa sthūlah sarire praksipyati sa prakseparah“, Ibid, p. 33; 32. Tandula Veyāliya 16, p. 35, Visuddhimagya gives vivid description of teeth, ses
Vm. XI. 51. ; VIII. 92 "Dantā hanukatļhikesu jāta/", etc. VM. XI. 51. 33. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, p. 35; See also Caraka Sambitã IV. 7,6. ; Susruta III.
5. 19, 20, ; A.H. II. 3.16. ( Ayurvedic Samhitas). Kashyapa deals with the names of the teeth, such as, Rajadanta (medical incison ), Vastau (lateral incisor and canine), danştre (Premolars ), hapavyas (molars ). K,S., 1.20, vide Sacitra Āvur
veda, March, 1972, Avika; 1, p. 78 34. Biology, p. 298. 35. Ibid. p. 298.

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The Salivary Glands :
Jaina Biology does not make mention of the salivary glands, but its reference to saliva (lala 36 suggests that the Jainacāryas had some idea of salivary gland which assist the food in moving down the throat, as well as to begin its chemical breakdown by secreting two kinds of saliva-"one type is watery to dissolve dry food and the other contains mucus to lubricate the food as it passes down the oesophagus and to make the food particles stick together in bolus (kavala) for swallowing."37
Food passes from the mouth cavity to the stomach (amoru or udara)38 through the pharynx and oesophagus as a result of peristalsis. Similar peristaltic waves help the movement of the contents of eaten food through all the organs of the digestive tube. The live airs (PancaVayus) Prana, apana, samana, Vyana and udana, causing the peristaltic waves, help the movement of the contents of food, its ingestion, digestion and absorption, etc.39
The Stomach (Udara or Amoru )40
The stomach is a thick-walled muscular sac on the left side of the body just beneath the lower rics. "Soon after the food reaches the stomach, peristaltic waves begin in the pyloric region as a result of the action of air (vayu), 14 passing from left to right, according to Modern Biology, toward opening into the into tho intestine42 (amta) At intervals, the pyloric sphincter relaxes, and a small amount of chyme is pushed into the small intestine by the contraction of the stomach."43
Jaina Biology
36. Aupapātika Sutra, edited by Dr. Leumann, Leipzig, gatha. 55, (38) "Haya lalapelaväirege dhavau", 48.
37. Biology. p. 299.
38. Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.4 (ämoru); 'Udara', Tandula Veyaliya, p. 38.
39. "Prāṇasthāpānasamānasaṁjñāu / Vyāno apyathodana-iti pradiştah pamcaiva ti vāyava eva nitya - maharanihāravinirgamarthaḥ //", Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.9.
40. Tandula Veyaliya, 17, p. 38; Kalyaṇakāraka, 3.4.
41. Kalyāṇakaraka, 3.9; see the metabolism and nutrition discussed at the end of this section.
42. Biology p. 301.
43. Biology, p. 301.

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The Organisation of the Human Body Gastro-Intestinal Iract (Amta )44
There are stated to be two intestines (amta ) viz. small intestine (tanuyamta) and large intestine (thūlasta).45 According to Visuddhimagga, antam starts from the oesophagus to the rectum, “like the carcase of a large beheaded rat - snake coiled up and put into a trough of blood”. 46 "This bowel tube looped in twenty one places is thirty two hands (cubits) long in men and twenty eight in women. It is white in colour like the lime mixed with sand."47
Jaina Biology states that tanuyaṁta having the length of five vāmās transforms urine, 48 while thūlamta having the same length traasforms stool (uccāra ).49 It is difficult to identify tanuyamta of Jaina Biology with the small intestine of modern Biology on the basis of its function of transforming (producing) urine, for it is the function of kidney to produce urine, according to the latter. Thula ṁta can be easily identified with the large intestine of modern Biology as per its function of transforming (producing) stool out of indigestible matter carried from the small intestine. "Some water is absorbed in the small intestine” that tanuyaṁta have the function of producing of urine in addition to absorption of molecules of nutrients. But it may be identical with kidney of modern Biology on the basis of its function. The Small Intestine ( Tanuyamta )50
The small intestine is a coiled tube into which the chyle passes by the force of peristalsic waves caused by air (vāhu) in the stomach ( udara or amoru). The greater part of the digestive process and almost all absorptions occur here as is suggested by the reference to “Pakkāśaya”51 (the deudenum) the first segments of the intestine-orga a for cooking, i. e. digesting food with pācakaśakti52 (digestive power )
44. Tandula Veyalıya, 16 p. 36. 45. Ibid. 46. Visuddhimagga, XI. 64.
"Antan galavățakakarisamaggapariyanta sarirabbantare hitan. Tatha, yatha
lohitadoņikāya obhañjitva thapiţe chinnasiradharanikalevate etc." 47. "Antan ti purisassa dvattiy sahatthay, itthiya afthavisatiháttan ekavisatiyā thanesu
obhagga antavātthi etc.” Visuddhimagga VIII 18. "Do amta Pamcavāmá ..... tatthā ņam je se taņuyamte Ten raṁ pasavaņe
parıņamai" ; Tandula Veyaliya ; 16, p. 35. Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.4. 49. “Tattha nam je se thulamte teņa uccăre pariņamai", Ibid. 50. Tandula Veyāliya, 16. p. 3'; 51. Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra 2.43 ( Comm. ) p. 212 52. Tandula Veyaliya 4, Kalyanakäraka 3.7.
48.

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Jaina Blology
According to modern Biology, the three juices (1) bile (i. e. pitta53 of Jaina Biology) from the liver (yakrt )54 (2) Pancreatic juice from the pancreas and (3) the intestinal juice are mixed in the small intestine and complcte the digestive process begun in the mouth and stomach.55
The Liver (yakrt)56
Because of its contribution of the digestive juice, bile (pitta ), the liver is vitally important to digestion. Visuddhimagga states that the liver (yakanam) is placed near the right side between the two breasts like a twin lump of meat stuck on the side of a cooking pot57 ; "it is a twin slab of muscle having brownish shed of red colour, but not too red like the backs of white water lily petals" 58
It is described in the medical science as wedge-shaped reddish brown in colour, having two lobes which are divided into four.59 It is the largest gland in the body, occupying the entire upper part of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm.60 "In addition to its function in producing bile the liver is important in the storage and interconversions of sugars, the synthesis of plasma proteins-and a host of reacttons of intermediary metabolism''. 61
The Absorption of Food :
Molecules of nutrients ( rasa ), after digestion, are absorbed into the body through the lining of the digestive tract by the āhāra paryāti62 and transformed into blood, etc. by sarira or dehaparyāpti63 as suggested by the reference to the action of pañcavāyus. Modern Biology explains that most of the absorption is done in the small intestine, particularly in the lower part of this region. Water is absorbed by the
53. Kalyānakaraka 3.4. 54. Biology, p. 302. 55. Kalyāņakāraka 3.4. 56. "Yakanan anto sarire dvinnan thanānam abbhantare dakkhiņapassan nissāya
hitan ../"etc., Visuddhimagga XI. 60 57. Ibid, VIII. 114. "Yakanan ti yamakamansapatalan ....etc. 58. Gray's Human Anatomy, P. 1512. 59. Biology, P. 303. 60. Ibid. 61. Lokaprakāģa I. 3.17. 62, Ibid. I. 3.19, 63. See metabolism and nutrition ; Kalyanakāraka 3.9

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The Organisation of the Human Body colon, but almost all organic and through the small intestine."64
inorganic substances are absorbed
The Large Intestine ( Thulanita )65
The material remaining, after the nutrients (rasa ) have been absorbed, passes from the small intestine (taṇuyamta ) into the large intestine or colon (Thülasta ) which is larger in diameter and with thicker walls with sixteen pamtis ( walls or folds )66 than the small intestine, according to Biology.
The main function of thūlamta is to absorb water and reduce the wastes (Khala ) to a semi - solid state (i. e. uccāra )67 in addition to transporting the wastes to the rectum (pāyu ) to be ejected from the body. In support of Jaina Biology for its function Modern Biology explains that "both churning and peristaltic movements occur in the colon, although both are ordinarily slower and more sluggish than those in the small intestine. Periodically more vigorous peristaltic movements force the contents along, until they finally reach the rectum”.68
Comparison of Digestive System :
The Chemistry of disgestion and paryapti involved are much the same in man as in the amoeba (Kuksi krmi or Krmi); the two-sensed animals (protozoa ), whose bodies consist of single cells, do not of course have any digestive system, for they take food by the process of lomāhāra 69 (diffusion ). So the digestion in them is inter-celullar. Modern Biology explains that "an ameba engulfs a bit of food and forms a food vacuole in which the food is surrounded by a membrane70 (i. e. lomäbāra71 of Jaina Biology). Digestion occurs within this vacuole as it circulates in the cytoplasm. Digestive enzymes produced in the cytoplasm are poured into vacuole and digest the food within. The
64. Biology, p, 304 65. Tandula Veyāliya, 16. p. 36. Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.4. 66. Kalyāṇakäraka 3.4. Sthutantraparinktiḥ şodaśaiva". 67. Tandula Veyaliya ; 16, p. 35 ; "Teņa ucсāre parīņamati' 63. Biology, p. 305. 69. "Tayā ya phase ya loma āhāro /", Brhat Sangrahaņi 183.
; "Lomāhārastu sariraparyäptyuttarakālam bahyayā tvacā, Lomabhirāhāro
lomāhārah / Sūtrakstanga II. 3. comm.), p. 87. 70. Biology p. 310 71. "Oyāhārajivā savve, apajja taga muneyawa /
Pajjattanga ya loma, āhäro", Pakkheve homti bhaiavvā, Brhat Sangrahani 182(4).

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products are absorbed through the vacuole wall into the cytoplasm, where they are assimilated or used for energy".72
176
Some of the two-sensed animals having the sense-organs of taste and touch, e. g. Nupurakas (earth worms) take their food by the process of prakṣepāhārā73 (i. e. through mouth). This Jaina view on the digestive system of earth worm as suggested by the statement of Bṛhat Sangrahani on the process of taking food by the two-sensed animals and others is supported by modern Biology on its digestive system. To quote the same, "it has a complete digestive system with two apertures, mouth, a muscular pharynx, an esophagus, a soft walled crop where food is stored, a hard, muscular gizzard where it is ground up with the aid of small pebbles taken in with the food, along intestine when extracellur digestion and an anus through which undigested wastes pass".
As the higher animals, such as, the five-sensed vertebrate evolved, he digestive system was gradually elaborated and organs76 added, resulting in the complex human mechanism. The digestive system of the fivesensed vertebrate from the fish to man are similar and for all animals from the lowest to the most complex, the chemistry of digestion and the ahara paryaptis involved are much alike, as it is suggested by the process of their taking food, i. e. lomāhāra and prakṣepahara".74
Metabolism and Nutrition :
Food76 is any substance taken into the body that can be used for the release of energy, for the building and repair of tissue. After being taken into the body the molecules of food participate in a variety of chemical activities of the organism called metabolism in modern Biology. The sum of all the chemical activities of ahāraparyāpti77 (vital force by which beings take, digest, absorb, and transform molecules of food particles) into khala (waste products) and rasa (chyle)
72. Biology, p, 310
73.
Pakkhevaharo puno, Kavaliu hoi nayavva //", Bṛhat Sangrahani, 183. "Egomdiyadevaṇam neraiyanam ca natthi pakkhevo/
Sesāņam jivaṇam samsaratthāņa pakkhevo / Bṛhat Samgrahani 185. "Sesaṇam aharo, lome pakkevau ceva", Ibid. 186.
74. Biology, p. 73.
75. Kalyāṇakäraka, 3.4. 5.9. Tandula Veyäliya 16, p. 36; 17, p. 38.
76. 'Lomabara egimdiya ya neraiya suragana ceva / sesaṇam āhāro lome pakkhevau
ceva/!", Brhat Samgrahani 186.
77. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3. (Abārapada).

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177
and sariraparyäpti78 (vital force by which chyle or molecules of nutrients (rasıbhutamāhāram) are utilized by beings for the release of energy, the building of blood, tissue, fat, bone, marrow, semen, etc.,79 which provide the energy for the growth, maintenance and repair of the organic system as well as its own growth with intensity.
The presence of the metabolic process as explained in the second section of the first chapter is one of the outstanding characteristics of living beings. After foods are absorbed from the intestine tanüyamta, they are either built into new tissue or oxidized to provide energy. Some of this energy is used in the building of new tissue, some in the function of cells and so forth. For example the foetus in the mother's womb obtains food - substance from the mother's body and transforms the same into the forms of ear, skin, bone, marrow, hair, nail, 81 etc. by the metabolic process and nourishment.
Molecules of nutrients absorbed from the intestine are utilized by the organism through sariraparyāpti for the release of energy, the building of blood, tissue, fat, bone, marrow, semen, etc.80
There are many ways of sub-dividing the general field of metabolism according to Jaina Biology. It is stated that there are five vāyus ( airs ) in the human body, viz. prāņavāyu, apānavāyu, samānavāyu, vyānavāyu and udāna vāyu. They help the ingestion, digestion, absorption and assimilation of food taken by the organism and the building of tissue and oxidation to provide energy and the excretion of the waste products ( urine, faeces, etc.) from the body.81 This view of metaboilsm and nutrition has been elaborately explained in Ayurvedas in the following manner: The digestive tract from the mouth cavity and oesophagus to the rectum is known to be Mahäsrota, (the great channel). Food passes from the mouth cavity down the gullet (oesophagus) to the stomach by the action of pränaväyu (bio - motor force) 82 (i, e.
78. Lokaprakāśa I. 3. 17. 79. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61 ; Tandula Veyāliya 3, p. 7.
"Jive nam gabbhagae samāṇe jam ahārar ahärei tań ciņai soimdiyattae, cakkhu. rimdiyattae ghānimdiyattae jibbhimdiyattae, phasimdiyattae atthiatthimimjakesa
mamsuromanahattāe /” 80. Lokaprakāsa I. 3. 19. “Rasāsrgmāmsa ... Sukțădidhātutäm. 81. Pranastathapanasamanasarjñau / Vyano, apyathodāna iti pradiştah /
Parcaiva Vāyada eva nitya-mahāraniharaviniragam ärthah//" Kalyāņakäraka, 3.9. 82. "Mukhe vasati yo, anilah prathila namataḥ prāņakah praveśayati so' annapan
praveśayate so' annapanamakhilämişam sarvada | Kalyanakāraka, 8.3. JB 23

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a series of reflexes ). There it gets mixed up first with a gelatinous mucus (phenibhūtakapham) and then it becomes acidualated by further chemical action of a digestine juice (vidāhādamlatām gatah),83 i. e. gastric juice, as a result of peristallic waves in the plyloric region.
An amount of chyme is pushed by samāna vāyu (i. e. due to the contraction of stomach ) into the pittāśaya by means of the grahani. nādi and next into the small intestine (āma pakkāśaya ).84 There bile (pitta ) converts the chyme into chyle by peristalic contractions and churning movements.85 The essence of chyle (sūkşmabhāga ) from the small intestine is carried through by prāņavāyu along a Dhamani trunk (thoracic duct?) first to the heart and thence to the liver (and the spleen ).87 In the liver the pigment (the colouring substance ) in the bile acts on the essence of the chyle, especially on the tejas -substance therein, and gives it a red pigment, transforms it into blood, but the grosser part of chyle (Sthūlabhāga) runs along the Dhamanis, being carried by the vyāna vāyu (biomotor force ) all over the body 86.
After the formation of blood, the essence of the chyle in the blood, acted on by vāyu and Māmsāgni (the flesh forming metabolic heat) forms the flesh - tissue. 87 The grosser part of the flesh - tissue thus formed proceeds to feed or replenish the flesh- tissue all over the body. The finer essence of flesh in the blood in the chyle, acted
83. "Adau şadrasasamappannam madhrīubhūamirayet, phenibhūtam kapham yatam
vidāhādamlatām gatah / Caraka-Dridhavala Samhita quoted by Aruņa in his commentary on Vāgbhara ;
Vide Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 207. 84. “Samāna iti yo anilo agnisakha ucyate sarvadā /
Vasatyudara' eva bhojanaganasya sampacakah //" Kalyāņakāraka, 8.5. ..Vayunā samānākhyena grahanimabhiniyate / şaşthi pittadharā nāma ya kala parikirttita /amapakkāśayāntah stha grahaņi sā, abihdhiyate / agnyadhisthānamanna saya grahaņād grahani mata," Caraka-Dridhavalasamhita quoted by Aruņa in his comm. on vägbhata ... Vide Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus
P. 2.7. 85. "Bhuktamāmāsaye ruddha sä vipācya nayatyadhah/", Ibid., p. 207 86. Tatah sārabhūtasyahārarasasya diau bhāgau bhavatah / sthūlah sükşmasca... tatah
sūksmo thāgaḥ prāņavāyunā prerito dhamanimārgena sarirarambhakasya raktasya
sthanam yakşt-plīharūpam gatvā tena daha milito bhavati/" Ibid, pp. 207-8. 8. "Tatah prāktanarakatadhātau eva tisthati/ tatah Sārabhūtasya ahārarasasya
dvau bhāgau bhavataḥ / sthūlah sūkşmasca sthūlo bhago rañjakākhyena pittena raktikraih sarirarambhakam raktam poşayan vyänavayunā prcrito dhamanībhih sancaran sakalasariragatäni rudhirāņi Puşnāti," Ibid, p. 208. "Apåna iti yo'anila vasa ti bastipakkāsaye / sa vata malamutragukranikbilorugarbhārtavam". 8.6. Kalyānakäraka.

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on again by vāyu (bio-motor current) and the fat-forming metabolic heat (medo'agni) in the menstruum of lymph (Kapham samāśritya) receiving viscosity and whiteness forms the fat tissue. This fat in the chyle (or blood ) or rather its grosser part replenishes the fatty tissue of the body but its finer essence in the flesh in the blood in the chyle, acted on by vāyu and the marrow-forming metabolic heat, in the menstruum of lymph (Sleşmaņāvrta ), becoming hard produces bone.88 The essence of fat which fills the hollow channels of the bones gets transformed into marrow,90 being acted on again by vāyu (bio-motor force ) and metabolic heat. The marrow becomes similarly transformed into semen.91
It is to be observed that rasa ( chyle) of fluid in the chyle or blood mainly acts as the nienstruum throughout the metabolic process and each preceding elements of the body takes up the proper organic compounds from the food chyle to form the next element or tissue. In this process the chemical changes take place because of the metabolic heat which breaks up the compounds and recombines.
The successive formation of blood, flesh (blocks of muscle or tissue), fat, bone, marrow, semen, etc. as mentioned by Jaina Biology is fully corroborated and thus explained by the Indian Ayurvedas in details.
According to modern Biology, "there are many ways of sub-dividing the general field of metabolism, e. g. liver metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, fat metabolism, etc. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are the three types of fuels of the organism from which its cells obtain biologically useful energy for metabolism and nourishment'92.
In Jaina Biology there is a clear reference to fats (moda, vasā), but not to carbohydrates and porteins. Human beings can adapt to a variety of diets. So it is suggestive from the evidences of Jaina Biology that they obtain carbohydrates from sugars and starches (rice, wheat, etc.),93 fats from oil, butter, clarified butter and proteins from pulses, meat, eggs, milk, etc. 88. Tata), suksmo bhāgah vyänavāyunā prerito dhamanibhiḥ śirabhiśca śaritāmbha
kāņi māmsani yāti /", etc., Caraka, vide Positive Sciences of the Ancient
Hindus p. 208. 89. Slesmanan ca samāśritya mamsam vāyvagnisamyutam, sthiratām prāpya saukal
yam ca medo dehe abhijayate / Caraka-Dridhavala Samhita quoted by Aruna
in his commentary on Vagbhat, vide Pusitive Sciences of the Hindus, p. 270. 90. Prthivyagnyanitadinäin samghatah sleşman ävytah, kharatvam prakarotyasya jayate
asthi tato nļņām / Ibid., P. 207. 91. "Karoti tatra sauşiryamasthnām madhye samiranah l,” meda sa tani Pūryante
sneho majjā tatah smştah /,” Ibid. 92. “Tasmānmajjñaśca yah snehah sukram samjāyate tataḥ /” Ibid. 23. Biology 94. Sūtrakstānga, 11-3.

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(Fourth Section )
THE EXCRETORY SYSTEM
The normal process of cellular metabolism and the constant building up and breaking down of nutrients (rasa ) by the power of paryāpti? result in the production of waste products (Khala), such as, mūt (i, e. urea, uric acid or urine, etc.) and purisa4 ( faeces ), etc. The (nitrogenous ) waste products are useless and toxic for the body. The kidneys 5 (taṇuyamta ) remove urine etc. from the blood of a normal man as rapidly as the tissues produce them.
Defection means the elimination of wastes and undigested food collectively called faeces (uccāra or purisa) from the anus (guda ).7 They are not metabolic wastes ( khala ). Excretion refers to the removal of substances which are useless in the body from the cells and blood stream via urine and perspiration (mūtra8 and sveda ).9
The excretory system of the body includes more than the kidneys and their ducts, viz. nine orifices (navasoe or navadvāras )10 : two nostrils, two ears, one mouth, one ractum and one genital,11 besides eighty lakhs
1. Tatraisāhāraparyaptiryāyadaya nijocitam /
Prthakkhalarasatvenāhāram parīņatim nayet //
Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I., Sarga 3, Vol. 17. 2. Ibid. 3. "Imassa jatussa satthisirāsayam nābhippabhavāņam ahogāmiņiņām ..... mutta
purisaväyukammam pavvattai/" Tandula Veyaliya, 16, P. 35, see also Kalyāņa
kāraka 3.12. 4. Ibid ( Purisa)
In Visuddhimagsa it is called Karisam (faeces ) which get accumulated in rectum
of large intestine (Thūlamta )--Visuddhimagga XI. 67. 5. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35.
Tanuyamta transforms urine like kidneys. Its function suggests its identifica
tion with kidneys although it is to be identified with small intestine. 6. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 7. Ibid (Payu, one nava srotas ), guda ; see Kalyāṇakāraka 3.12. 8. Tandula Veyāliya 16, p. 35. Kalyāṇakäraka 3.11 9. Tan dula Vayāliya, p. 40 ; Kalyäņakāraka 3.12. 10. Tandula Veyaliya, (Navasoe ). 16, p. 35; Kalyāņakäraka, 3.12 (Navadvāra ). Il. “Navasrotaḥ puruşah, tatra karņadvaya 2-Calşurd vaya 2 Ghränadvaya 2, mukha
7 payu 8 pastha 9 lakṣmaṇāni iti". Tandula Veyāliya 16 (Comm., p. 38) Kalyāņakāraka, 3.5. 3.12.

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of pores or hair follide in the skin. 12 Women have got eleven orifices including two breats, 13
The function of the excretory system is to cause the elimination of carbon dioxide (apana or pihvāsa )14 one of the inost important metabolic wastes ; made by the lungs15 ( Phopphas ), of bile (pitta ), the break down products of Hemoglobin, the liver (yakrt)16 and the excretion of faces ( Purisa, etc. by the colon. (Thūlaṁta ).17
The sweat glands or pores ( romakūpas )18 are "primarily” concerned with the regulations of body temperature, 19 according to modern Biology but they also serve the purpose of excreting certain per cent of all metabolic wastes (as sveda),20 “Sweat contains the same substances (salt, urea and other organic compounds) as urine”21
The kidney and its dacts :
Mention of Tanuyamta with its function of producing urine22 and the excretion of urine (mütra ) through the genital22 (one of the nine orifices of the body ) suggests clearly that the Jainācāryas had some knowledge of kidneys and their ducts. It is stated in the Tandula Veyāliya that Taņuyamta transforms ( produces) urine. Some adhogāmini sirās (ducts rising from the umbilican region) cause the excretion of urine.23 In support of the Jaina view on the kidneys and their functions, Visuddhimagga explains that “kidney (Vakkaṁ) is situated
12. Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.5 13. "Ikkārasa soyā itthiya" 16, p.35.
"Pūrvoktāni nava stanadvayayuktányekādaśa śrotaņi strināņi bhavanti," Ibid. (Comm.. p. 38. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, (ye se taņuyamta tena pasavanta
pariņamai ) 14. Tattvārthāvadhigama Sūtra v. 19 ; Tandula Veyaliya, 4, p. 8. 15. Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38. 16. Ibid, 16. 17. 17. Kalyāṇakārska 3.4. 18. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, Kalyāṇakäraka 3.4. 19. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 20. Biology, p. 330. 21. Kalyāṇakāraka 3.12 (Svedarn vamati romakūpaiḥ ) 22. "Je se taṇuyamte teņam päsvane pariņamai /” Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 23. "Navasoe", Ibid.
(U)pastha", Ibid. (Comm.), p. 38. Dvārāṇyathātrāpi navaiva dehe / Kalyāņakāraka 3.5 ; 3.11 ; 3.12.

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on each side of the heart muscle being fastended by the stout sinews, it develops from a single root from the base of neck and divides into two after going short way like a pair of mango fruits attached together by their stalk":24 According to Antomy, this description of kindney is wrong in regard to its location, for the two kidneys are compound glands, situated at the back of the abdominal cavity, i. e. "one on each side of the spinal column and behind the peritoneal cavity. They correspond in position to the space included between the upper border of the 12th thoracic and the 3rd lumber Vertebrae."25 "The kidneys are a pair of beanshaped structure about 4 inchas long26.
According to Visuddhimagga, "Kidney is dull red (reddish brown), like the colour of palibaddhaka (Erythrina Indica linn) seeds. It is shaped like a pair of child's play balls". 27
"The kindeys are the most important excretory organs of mammals, performing approximately 75 per cent of the work of excretion”, 28 they have a number of other important functions as well. They regulate the concentration of various substances dissolved in the blood,
the balance between acids and bases and keep the blood volume constant. Since the concentration of substances in all body fluids is determined largely by their concentration in the blood, the kindneys indirectly regulate the composition of all body fluids.":29 Its ducts :
Jain Biology does not make direct mention of ureter connected with kidney at the upper end and with bladder at the lower end, but its reference to bladder (vathipudaya )30 and the excretion of urine through (u)pastha )31 (urethra or genital urinal tract) throws some light upon its ducts for the excretion of urine. Visuddhimagga mentions the urinary bladder (Vatthiputo ). It states that the urinary secretion 24. "Imassa jatussa satthisirāsayam bābhippabhavāņam ahogāmiņiņam gudappait
thāņa rin jāņum si nirüvaghāeņāṁ muttapurīsavā ukammam favāttai /"
Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 25. "Vissuddhimagga XI. 58. Vakkam galavāto nikkhantepa ... thitan" etc. 26. VM. XI. 58. 27. Anatomy and Physiology, pp. 617-48, Dey, vide Sacitra Ayurveda, p. 74, March,
1972. 28. VM. VIII. 110 “Vakkan li ekabandhana dve maņsapiņdika ... Tan vannatoman
darattan etc. /" 29. Biology, p, 330. 30. lbid. 31. Nirayāvaliyā 1.1 ; "vatthi avānam" Panhavagaraṇā, 1.3, p. 58.

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from the body enters the bladder which is like a porons pot without mouth put into cess pool. When the bladder is full of urine, animals feel the urge to pass urine 32
That is to say, according to Modern Biology, "The urine, exereted by the kidney in a continuous trickle,collects in the pelvis and passes down the ureters by peristaltic waves of contraction of the ureter walls to the urinary bladder, a hollow muscular organ located in the lower, ventral part of the abdominal cavity. The muscular walls of the bladder relax and distend to make room for the urine as it accumulates. Valves at the openings of the ureters into the urinary bladder prevent the backfiow of urine, and keep any bacteria that may be in the bladder from ascending to the kidney. As the volume of urine in the bladder increases, the distention of the muscular walls stimulates nerve endings located there to send impulses to the brain, producing the sensation of fullness. To make urination possible, impulses originating in the brain cause a contraction of the bladder and a relaxation of the spincter guarding the opening from the bladder to the urethra.”33
As to the formation of urine, Jaina Biology states only that Tanuyamta (Kidney) transforms (or produces ) urine,34 but it does not throw light upon the combination of the three processes of filtration, reabsorption and augmentation which enables the kidney to remove wastes but conserve the useful components of the blood.35
Excretory Devices in other Animals :
Every organisin had to solve the problem of getting rid of metabolic wastes (khala ). In the two - sensed protozoa, such as, Kukşikrmi, Krmi etc. the wastes ( khala ) seem to diffuse through the cell wall into the outside environment where the concentration is lower, as they are lomāhārips. In support of this view, modern Biology, explains that "Protozoa living in fresh water have a special problem of getting rid of water, because their protoplasm, being hypertonic to pond water, tends to absorb it continuously. To control this situation, they have
32. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 38.
33. VM. viii, 138; xi, 80.
"Vatthi nama vatthiputo vuccati“, viii. 138 "Muttan vatthissa abbhantars thttam" etc. xi. 80.
34. Biology, pp. 33. - 331 ; 35. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35.
Tattha nam je se tanuyamte teņam pasavane pariņamai/".

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a contractile vacuole, a small vesicle in the protoplasm which empties water from the interior of the cell as fast as it is taken in”. 36
"Earth worms have in each segment of their bodies a pair of specialized organs, called nephridia, which function in excretion" 37
"The excretory system of insects consists of organs called malpighian tubules. Waste products from the body cavity diffuse into these tubules and are excreted into the digestive tract, whence they are carried to the exterior with the undigested food”. 38.
The urinary systems of all the five-sensed vertebrates are essentially the same.39 It is to be noted here that the child developing in the mother's womb does not pass urine or faeces, 40 as the excretory system of it is non-functional at this stage. All its waste products go the stream of the blood of the mother wherefrom they are excretory systems of the mother. 41
The evolution of the urinary system is complicated by the fact that in many animals the reproductive system (U)pastha) has come to share some of the structures of the urinary system.42 so that several organs play, a dual role. This relationship is so close that according to modern Biology, "the two systems are frequently considered together as the urogenital system.”43
36. Biology, p. 331. 37. Biology, p. 335. 38. Ibid. 39. Ibid. 40. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35 ; Biology, p. 336. 41. Bhagavati Sutra 1.7, 61-2 ; Tandula Veyaliya, 3. p. 7.
"Jivassa ņam gabbhagayassa samānassa natthi uccärei vă pāsavaņci vā, etc. /" 42. (U)pasth is the genital, one of the nine orifices through which urine is excreted.
"DVārāṇyathātrāpi navaiva dehe 1/" Kalyāņakaraka, 3.5.
Mūtram saretaḥ sapurişaraktam sravatyadhastādvivaradvaye ca", Ibid. 3.11. 43. Biology, p. 336.

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(Fifth Section ) THE INTEGUMENTARY AND SKELETAL SYSTEM
The integumentary ( camma ) and skeletal (atthiya ) systems function independently of each other. The skin which covers the body, and the bony frame (atthiya )2 which supports it, are both organ systems, groups of organs that act together to perform one of the primary life functions. They act as protective devices for the body and together with the muscles they determine the shape and the symmetry of the body.3
The Skin (Camma )
All multicellular animals are covered exeternally by a skin or integument. The skin is one of the important organ systems and performs many diverse functions, according to modern Biology, “such as, (1) it protects the body against a variety of extermal environment, (2) it shields the underlying cells from mechanic injuries caused by pressure, friction or blows, (3) it protects the body against disease - producing organisms, (4) it protects the body with its water-proof quality from excessive loss of moisture or the excessive intacke of water in the case of acquatic animals, (5) it affords protection to the underlying cells from the harmful ultra-violet rays of the sun, (6) it can produce suntan by virtue of the pigment.6
"The skin also functions as a thermostatically controlled radiator, regulating the elimination of heat from the body, ... approximately 90
1. Tandula Veyāliya, P. 41. "Marsacammalevarmi." 2. “Ațhiyakadhine “Tandula Veyāliya, P. 41. Tinni Ātthidāmassayaim",
Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35, p. 41. "Atthi” Ibid 6, p. 10. 3. Atthiyakadhine siranhārubamdhane mamsacammalevammi 1,
Tandula Veyaliya, p. 41 "Athiyathäņādharie, Pac, nharubamdbannibaddhe / tayamamsavasächannammi, india'ärakk haguttami //”.
Sarvegaramgasala, Sūtra. 1860, p. 146, 4. Tandula Veyaliya, 3, p. 7. ; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61. 5. “Mámsacammalevammi". Tandula Veyaliy., p. 4.
"Bāhim tu tae Vedhi athire/" Samve zaramgasala, Sūtra 1860, p. 146. "Athiyakadhine siranharubamdhane maṁsacammalevammi /" Tandula Veyaliya, p. 41. Visuddhimagga explains that whole body is covered with skin like a big lute covered with damp oxhide" VM XI. 5. "Tac) sakala
sariram pariyonandhitva thito..yathā allagocimma pariyonaddhaya etc." 6. Biology, p. 337. JB 24

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percent of the total heat passes through the skin. The evaporation of sweat from the surface of the skin lowers the body temperature by removing from the body the heat necessary to convert liquid into water vapour”.7 According to Jaina Biology, the skin contains number of different sense - receptors (sparśanendriyas = senses of touch) which are responsible for man's ability to feel pressure (guru) temperature, ( tāpà ) and pain (asāta-vedanā) and to discriminate the objects touched - cold ( sita ) or warm (usna ), rough (rükşma ) and smooth ( snigdha ).8 etc.
The Jainacaryas mention 99000009 or 800000010 romaküpas (hairfollicles ) in the skin of the body without hairs and beards, and 3500000011 romakūpas (hair follicles ) having hairs. That is to say, “there are specialized glands located in the skin for giving off a great amount of perspiration, geiting rid of the necessary heat from the body to convert the liquld sweat into water vapour, etc. 12
This view of Jaina Biology is supported to some extent by modern Biology which explains that "specialized glands are located in the skin. Some 2 1/2 million sweat glands occur all over the body, but are most numerous on the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, in the arm pits and in the forehead; oils glands, too, are found all over the body, but are especially numerous on the face and scalp. They secrete film of oil to keep the hair moist and pliable and to prevent the skin from drying and cracking."13 Parts of the Skin :
According to Jaina Biology, there are seven parts (or layers) of skin,14 While modern Biology states that skin is composed of two main paris : a comparatively thin, outer layer, the epidermis, free of blood vessels, and an inuer, thicker layer, the dermis, packed with
7. Ibid., p. 338. 8. Tatra sparso' aştavidhah : Kahinomrdurgururlaghu sita usnah snigdho rūkşma iti //
Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra. 5.23, Bhagya, p. 356. Navanauim ca romakuvasayashassaim nivattei 9900000 vinä kesama msuņā saha Kesamamsunā add huithao romakuvakodio nivattei "35000000" Tandula Veyaliya,
2, p. 6. 10. Lakṣaṇyasitisca hi romakūpā !". Kalyānakäraka. 3.5 11. Tandula Veyaliya 2. p. 6, 12. Biology. p. 338 13. Biology. p. 338. 14. "Tvac eva sapta", Kalyanakaraka, 3.4, p. 31.

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blood vessels and nerve ending,"15 Visuddhimagga describes that the outer side is called the outer cuticle (germinative zone of the epidermis) which is black, brown or yellow in colour; "the skin itself is white and its whiteness becomes evident when the outer cuticle is destroyed by contact with the flame of a fire or the impact of a blow so on."16
and
cocoons,
As to the shape of the skin, Jaina Biology states that it has different17 (ṇāṇā saṁthāṇā), while Visuddhimagga18 describes that it is of the shape of the body in brief. But the skin covering phalanges (Padangulitaco) is of the shape of silk - worms the skin covering metatarsal bones is that of shoes with uppers, the skin covering calf of fibula bone is like a palm leaf wrapping cooked rice) the skin covering the femur is of the shape of a long sack full of paddy, the skin covering the hip bone (buttock ) has the shape of hide stretched over a plank, the skin of the belly is of the shape of the hide stretched over a guiver, the skin of the backs of the hand (radius) is like the shape of a razor box, or the shape of the comb, the covering phalanges and metatarsal bones is of the shape of a key box; the skin of the face resembles the shape of an insect's nest full of holes and the skin of the cranium is of the shape of a bowel bag.19 Buddhist description of the skin has been made in detail on the basis of the shapes of individual parts of the body which are covered by the skin.
Mention of seven layers of skin in Jaina Biology is supported by by modern Biology in some respects when the latter describes that "the epidermis is really made up of several of different kinds of cells, which vary in number in different parts of the body" 20
"The dermis is much thicker than the epidermis and is composed largely of connective tissue fibers and cells" 21
187
15. Biology, p. 338.
16. Visuddhimagga VIII, 93, vide Sacitra Ayurveda, p. 67. V;svayurveda-aņka. March, 1972.
"Tassa upari kalasam pitädivanna chavi nama, ....Taco pana vannat seto ye va. So C'assa setabhāvo aggijālābhighāta aharaṇa harādihi viddhansitāya chaviyā pākato hoti santhanato sarirasanthano va hoti /"
17. "Nanasamthagasamthie pannatti /", Pannavana. 15, Samṭhāṇadāram,
18. "Taco ti sakalasariram vethetva thita camman.. ..... santhanato sarirasaṇṭhāno
va hoti /", Visuddhimagga VIII. 93
19. "Vitthärota pana. Padangulittaco Kosakaraka-Kosasanthano
vikasanthano iti /".
20. Biology 338.
21. Ibid.

sisattaco pattattha

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Jaina Biology The reference in Jaina Biology to the covering of the body (or skeleton) with skin, fat and muscles suggests that "the epidermis with several layers is the portion which is tanned to make leather and below this and connected with the underlying muscles is a layer composed of many fat cells and a more loosely woven network of fibers. 24 This part of the dermis is one of the principal depots of body fat.
“This fat helps prevent excessive loss of heat and acts as cushion against mechanical injury. The dermis is richly supplied with blood and lymph vessels, nerves, sense-organs, sweat glands, oil glands and hair follicles.25
Outgrowths of the Skin :
The hair 26 and pails27 of man, the feathers28 of birds, scales29 of fish, snake, etc., claws30 of some animals, hoofs31 and horns32 of other Vertebrates are actually derivatives of the skin. The entire skin, except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, is equipped with lakhs of hair follicles33-in-pocketing of cells (romakupas) from the inner layer of the epidermis.
23.
22. Samvegarangaśālā Sūtra 1860, P, 146, Bahim tu tāe Vedhie atthire /"
"Atthiyakadbine siranhārubamdhane mamsacammalevam mi/", Tandula Veyaliya p. 41.
Biology. p. 338. 24. lbid. 25. Biology, p. 338. 26. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.61 ; Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6. 27. Ibid. 28, Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 34 (Comm.) "Pakşiņām ca lomapakşāņām" ;
* Lomapradhānāh pakşā yeşām te lomapakşāh/" Ibid., (Tikā). 29. Matsya (fish), sarpa ( snake ), etc. as mentioned in Jaina Biology. bave got
scales. 30. Sanapphada animals have got claws, such as simha (lion), Vyāghra (tiger), etc.
Pannavadā Sutta I, 74. 31. The hoofed animals have hoofs ; they are ckakşură (solidungular animals),
e. g. horse ; dvikşurā (biungular animals) e. g. cow see Pannavaņā Sūtra, 1. 71-72.
Cows and deer have horns. 33. It is stated in the Tandula Veyaliya (2, p. 6,) that there are 35,000,000
romakupas ( hair follicjes ) with hairs and 9900000 (hair follicles without hairs. "Navanauim ca romakūvasaya sahassaim nivatteti viņa kesamamsuņā sata Kesamamsuņā addhutthao romakūvakodio, nivatteti /” Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6. That is, except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet, the entire skin is equipped with lakhs of hair follicles-inpocketings of cells from the inner layer of the epidermis.

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According to modern Biology, "these cells undergo division and give rise to the hair cells, just as the inner layer of the epidermis gives rise to the outer layers. But the hair cells die, while still in the follicle, and the hair visible above the surface of the skin consists of tightly packed masses of their remains. Hair grows from the bottom of the follicle, not from the tip' 34
There are stated to be twenty nails including all finger nails and toe nails.35 They also "develop from the inpocketings of cells from the inner layer of the epidermis and the growth of nails is similar to that of hair” 36
It is suggestive from the statement in Jaina Biology that “sweat flows through the hair follicle”37 that "oil and sweat glands are derived from the inner layer of the epidermis by inpocketings which go deep into the dermis. Each hair follicle is associated with oil glands”. 33
Head Hair (Kesas)39 :
Head hairs are called Keśas which grow on the inner skin (reticular layer of the dermis) of scale of cranium. Visuddhimagga states that they grow on the reticular layer of the dermis of scalp of cranium (sisakataba palivethanacamme jātā ), just as kuntha grasses grow on the top of ant-hill.40
As to location, of (bair follicle) it is the wet inner skin (derinis) that envelops the skull, "it is bounded on both sides by the root of the ears, in front by the forehead and behind by the napkin. As to delimitation, they are bounded below by the surface of their own roots which are fixed by entering to the amount of the tip of a rice grain into the inner skin that envelops the head.”:41
34. Biology, p. 339. 35. "Samkhya nakhānamapi vimšatiḥ syāt /". Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.6, p. 31. 36. Biology, p. 339. 37. "Svedam Vamatyutkafaromakūpair /" Kalyäņakāraka, 3 12 ; p. 32. 38. Biology, p. 339. 39. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61, ; Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6; p. 7 40. VM XI 48. "Ime Kesā nāma sisa katahapalivethanacamme jätā ?" "Kesā tāva ...
Pacchato Galavätä.. .. Paricchinnan.. .. okäsa / Paricchedato kesā ... ...
hettha ättano mūlatalena.. paricchină /" "Satā" 41. Ibid. VIII. 83.

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Body Hair (Loma 42 :
Body hairs are called romas in Jaina Biology, they grow on the innee skin. Visuddhimagga also states that "the inner skin envelops the body ( sariravethanacamme jālā) just as dabbha grasses (Desmo. stachya bipinnava staff) grow on the square in a lonely village". 43 Body hairs are not pure like heap hairs but black ish brown (Kālapingalā); they resemble calm roots with the tips bent down, they lie in the two directions, they are found on nearly every part of the surface of the body, but are absent from the palms of the hand and sole of the fee144 as (they) are indicated in Jaina Biology, 45
According to modern anatomy, 46 'the darsal surface of distal phalanges, the umblicus. the glans penis, the inner surface of the prepuce and inner surface of labia majora and minora are free from lomas (body hairs)".
Visuddhimagga states that hair roots are embedded in the skin to the extent of likha". 47
Nails ( Nakhas )48
Nails (nakbas), as mentioned in Jaina Biology, are anatomically speaking, appendages of the skin (stratum corneum of epidermis ) and composed of clear horny cells of the epidsrmis.49 In support of this contention, Visuddhimagga states that nails grow on the tips of the fingers and toes ( dorsal surface of the terminal phalanges) just as children play a game by piercing madhuka fruit (Bassia, latifolia) kernel with sticks, 50
Ja
42. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6; p. 7. 43. VM. XI 49. “Lomā sariravethanacamme jāta Tātha, yatha suññagāmathām
jātesu dabbatiņakesu../", 44. VM. VIII 9. Tattha loma tava. Kalapingala .. hatthapadatalāci ca yebhny
yena avasesasariravethnacamme jäta etc." 45. Tandula Veyāliya, 2, p. 6. 46. Gray's Anatomy, p. 1347. 47. VM. VIII 90. "Pariccdedato sairavethana camme likhāmattan pavisitvä patiţthi
tena, etc," 48. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61 ; Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6; 3. p. 7. 49. Anatomy and Physiology, pp. 674, 676. Dey. 50. VM XI, 50. “Nakha angulinan aggesu jātā. Tattha, yatha, Kumārakesu dan
dakeh madhukathike vijjhitvā kilantesu na dāņdakā jānanti /"

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The Skeleton (Atthiya),51
The first and most obvious function of the skeleton is to give support and shape to the body. In order that an animal may rise off the ground, some hard, durable substance is needed to maintain the soft tissues against the pull of gravity and act as a firm base for the attachment of muscles. These requirements are met by the bones.52 • The skeleton also protects53 the delicate underlying organs, such as, the brain (matthu ), lungs ( phopphasaphephasa ),54 etc. from injury. The marrow tissue (atthimimjā )55 within the cavity of the bones "performs”, according to modern Biology, the special tasks of manufacturing all red corpuscles and same kinds of white ones.56
The Skeleton (Atthiya ).57
According to Jaina Biology, the human skeleton system consists of three hundred pieces of bones 58 and one hundred and sixty joints.59 It is not composed solely of bones; but its connective tissue fibers ( māṁsapeśīs 160 and tendons ( māṁsarajju 161 are important in helping to maintain body form by holding the organs together. Two specialized kinds of connective tissue fibers, ligaments62 and tendons63 (Kamdarā) (mamsarajju ) attach bones to bones and muscles to bones, respectively, thereby playing an indispensable role in locomotion.
I ypes of Skeletones :
The skeleton of an animal may be located on the outside of the body (an exoskeleton) or inside the body (an endoskeleton). The hard 5.. TandulaVeyaliya p. 41. "Atthiyakadhina" 52. "Atthiyanthiņādarie, paeņharubandhaņņibaddhe / tayamamsavasāchannammi,
india / ārakkhaguttamı" Samvegaramgasālā, Sūtra. 1860, p. 146. "Atthiyakadhine siranhārubamdhime mamsacammalevammi /"
Tandula Veyaliya, p. 41, 53. Samvegaramgāsālā, Sūtra 1860 p. 146 54. Tandula Veyaliya 1', p. 38 55. Ibid 6, p. 10 56. Biology, p. :39. 57. Tandula Veyāliya, p. 41.
Atthiyakadbiņe". "Atthiya is a term for both a single bone and a frame work
of bones. See, Visuddhimagga VI. 10. 58. "Tinni atthidāmasayāim" Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 36. 59. Sathi samdhis, yarn", Ibid. ; Kalyāṇakāraka mention 300 Joints, 3.2. 60. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6., 16, p. 36. 61. Kalyāṇakäraka, 1.4, p. 31. 62. “Kandarā (?," Kalyāņakāraka, 3.3. 63. Mumsarajjam, Ibid. 3.4

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Jaina Biology shells of Sankha (conchifera ), Suktika (pearl mussel) and Sambuka (Helix ),64 etc. are examples of exoskeleton. Man and all the other five-sensed vertebrates characteristically have endoskeleton.65 As mentioned, the human skeleton consists of three hundred bones.66 There is a divergence of views among the Indian sciences of Biology on the total number of bones of the human body. Caraka 67 mentions three hundred and sixty bones including teeth and their alveolii, Suśruta 68 enumerates three hundred bones like Jaina Biology. Visuddhimagga69 shares this view in this matter, while Vāgbhat70 supports Caraka in his contention. But modern Biology71 states that the human skeleton consists of approximately two hundred or two hundred and six72 bones. “The exact number varies at different periods of life, as some of the bones which at first are distinct gradually become fused73"). Most of the bones are hollow and contain the bone marraw (atthimimjā).74
Parts of the Skeleton :
The five-sensed Vertebrate human skeleton as found in Jaina Biology may be divided into the axial skeleton (the bones and cartilages in the middle or axis of the body),75 and the appendicular skeleton (the bones and cartilages of limbs).76 The axial skeleton includes the skull (siram ) 77 backbone (pitthakaramdā ),78 ribs (pāmsaliyārūvakaramdā )79 and breast bone (sternum = Kadaha ).80
64. Tattvārthadhigama Sutra, II, 24. 65. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, p. 35; p. 41 ( Atthiyakadbine), 66. "Tiņni" ātth dāmasayaim", Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 67. Carakasa mhita IV. 7.6 68. Susruta Samhitta III. 5.50. "Evamasthnām triņi satani pūryante / 69. Visuaddnimaggā VI. 89 atirekatisata athikasamainussayan" 70. A. H. II. 316. 71. Biology, p. 339. 72. Vide Sacitra Ayurveda, p. 69, March, 1972. 73. Biology, p. 339. 74. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61. ; Tandula Veyaliya., p. 3, p. 7; 6, p. 10.
"atthițațhimimjakesa.......etc., 75. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 76. Ibid 17, p. 38 ; p. 41. 77. Tandula Veyāliya 16, p. 35.
“Caukavälam siram" "Caturbhi kapalaih-asthikhandarūpaih siro bhavati (Comm.) Ibid. Atihārassa ya pitthakaramdakya -Prsthi Vamsasya sandhayo granthirūpā bhavabts yathā vamsasya parvani, teşu (comm). "Barasa pamsaliya karamda" Ibid.
Sarire dvādasa ( Pamsulkaripah Kara nd akahvamsaka bhavati (comm). 80. Chappamsuttic Ibid 16. See its comm. kadale.
78.
19.

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The skull ( siram )81 is made up of a pumber of bones fused together ; the cranium or bony case (siroghadi) immediately around the brain ( Matthu ), 82 and the bones of the face (mukham )83.
The backbone ( Pitthakaramda ) including grivā (neck )85 is made of separate vertebrae86 in different points along the spine. Different vertebrae (Karamdaga )87 have different projections for the attachment of ribs ( paṁsaliya ) and for articulating (joining )88 with neighbouring vertebrae.
The rib baske189 is composed of a series of flat bones which support the chest wall and keep it from collapsing "as the diaphragm contracts”.90 The ribs are attached dorsally to the vertebrae, each pair of ribs being attached to a separate vertebra91 of the twelve pairs92 of ribs in man, the (first ) six are attached ventrally to the breast bone,93 the rest are attached indirectly by cartilages without having attachments to the breast bone.94
The bones of the appendages or arms (bāhu)95 and legs ( urujanghā 196
81. "Caukaválam siram”, Tandula Veyaliyam 16, p. 35.
"Cauturbhih kapalaih-asthikhandarūpaih siro bhavanti ? Ibid., Comm., p. 36,
“sariram Sisaghadi”. Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38. 82. Imam ca sariram Sisaghaời “Matthu".
Ibid "Sirsa ghațiva mastakahaddam-medasca-asthikrt etc. (comm.) Ibid ; p. 38 83. Tandula Veyāliya p. 40 84. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 85. Grivā consists of 7 Vertebrae, having the length of 4 fingers. According to
Tandula Veyaliya, there are 16 bones of neck - solasa givātthiya muñeyavvă”,
Ibid, p. 41. 86. Atbārasa ya pitthkarardaga-Ibid 16, p. 35, 87. “Bārasa pamsalıya", - Ibid. 88. "aņupuvveņam karaında" atharassa ya piţthakaramdasardhio", ibid 89. Bārasa pamsaliya karamdä сhappańsulie Kadā he bihatthiya Kucchi /", Ibid. 90. Biology, p. 340. 91. Samdhiyo anupuvvenamn ärthārassa ya pitthakaramdagasarndhio-here bärasa pam
saliya karamda chappamsulie kadahe. Tandula Veyaliya. 16 92. "Bārasa Pamsaliya, Ibid. 93. "Chappamsulie kadähe”, Ibid. 94. “Bārasa Pamsaliyā Karamda”, Ibid. 95. “Amsalagabābulaga anguli" Tandula Veyaliya, 17. p. 38. 96. “Urujānujamghāpāya”, Ibid. JB-25

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and the girdles97 (kadi ) which attach them to the rest of the body, make up the appendicular skeleton.
The pelvic girdle98 consists of three fused hip bones, and the pectoral gridle99 consists of the two collar bones, or clavicles, and two shoulder blades ( amsalaga ) or scapulas. The pelvic girdle is securely fused to the vertebral column 100 whereas the pectoral girdle is loosely and flexibly attached to it by means of muscles.
The appendages of man are comparatively primitive, terminating in five digits - the fingers 101 and toes. 102
The bones of the arm 103 are the humerus of the upper arm, the radius and ulna of the lower arm, the eight tiny carpals of the wrist, the five slender metacarpals of the palm, and the fourteen phalanges, or finger bones 104 two in the thumb105 and three in each finger. The leg bones are the femur in the thigh, the tibia and fibula in the shank, 107 the seven tarsals in the ankle, the five metatarsals across the instep and the fourteen phalanges in the toes. The great toe has only two phalanges, every other toe having three. The patella or knee cap108 is a separate bone of the leg; there is no counterpart for it in the arm 108a.
The Joints (Sandhi ):
The joint (sandhi )109 is the point of junction between two bones, such as, those between the bones of the skull ( siraṁ), 110 the
97. “Kadi", Tandula Veyaliya, p. 41. *Amsalagabahulaga... ... samdhi saṁghāya.
samdhiyamiņam” Ibid, 17 ; "Urujāņušamghāpayasamdhiyam/" Ibid, 17.
"Jamghatthiyasu ūru paitthiyā tatthiya Kadipiųhi/” Ibid p. 41 98. "Kadipithi / Kadiyasthivedhiyaim atharasa pitțiahiņ Tamdula-Veyaliya, p. 41. 99. “Amsalaga-amsayoh-skandhayoh, etc.” Ibid Comm.). p. 39. 100. Tatthiya Kadipithi Kadiyaţthịvedhiyaim athārasa pitthiatthiņi", Ibid, p. 41. 101. "Anguli-arguttha", Tandula Veyaliya 17, p. 38.
"Pitthakaramdaga", Ibid., p. 16. p. 35. 102. Ibid, 17, p. 38. 103. Biology, p. 341 104. "Bāhulaga-anguli", etc. Ibid., 17, p. 38. 105. "Amgutthega" Ibid. 106. "Uru", "Jamghatthiyāsu uru paitthiya,”. Ibid., p. 41. 107. Jamgha", Ibid, p. 41 108. Jánu, Ibid, 17. p. 38. 108a Biology, p. 341 109. "Saţthi samdhisayam", Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35; Ibid. 17, p. 38. 110. “Caukavālam siran," Ibid. 16, p. 35 ; Sisaghadi, Ibid, p. 38.
; "Aşthikhandarūpaih siro bhavati", Ibid. (comm.) p. 36.

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articulation of the humerus to the scapula111 or the femur112 to the hip bone, 112a etc.
As pointed out, according to Jajna Biology, there are stated to be one hundred sixty joints (sandhis ).114 Visuddhimagga mentions one hundred and eighty joints, while Sušrutal15 refers to two hundred and ten joints. Jaina Biology speaks of some major joints like Visuddhimagga, 116 such as, shoulder joints, 117 arm-joints, 118 and nail joints, 119 etc.
Types of Locomotion :
The Jaina classification of animals into egakhurā (Solidungular), dukhurā (Biungular ), Gandipadā, ( Multiungular) and Saņapphadā (animals having toes with nails, such as, lions, tigers, etc. )120 reveals that animals differ as to the part of the foot they put on the ground in walking and running. Man walks flat on the palm of the foot "a type of locomotion adapted by bear also.121 It may be called “Plantigrade."122 Some animals, such as, dogs (Sunagā) and cats. (Vidāla), i.e. Sanapphadā, have became adapted to running on their digits, "a type of locomotion called digitigrade."124 Some animals, such as, horses and deer (assa and miya ),125 i. e. hoofed animals egakhurā and dukhurā, walk and run upon the tips of one or two digits of each limb, "a type of locomotion called "unguligrade."126
111. Aísalagabāhulaga ...samdhisarghāyasamdhiyamiņam”, Ibid., 17, p. 38. 112. “Uru.....samghāyasamdhiyamiņam", Ibid., Jamghathi ürupaitthiya .... 112a "Tatthiya Kadipitthi" Ibid., p. 41. 113. Ibid., 16, p. 35 ; "Imammi sarire sathi samdhisayam". 114. VM, VI. 45. 115. Susruta III. 5.6. 116. VM. VI. 45 mentions 14 major joints - shoulder joiots 2, elbow joints-2, wrist
joints-2, hip-joints, 2, Knee-joints two, ankle joints - 2, Crancovertebral joint-1
sacro-illiac joint 1. 117. "Amşalaga bahulaga anguliamgutthagannhasa mdhisamghāyasamdhiyamiņam/"
Tandula Veyaliya, i7, p. 38. 120. Pannavanā, 1.70 121. Biology. p. 343 122. Ibid. p. 343 123. Pannavanā, 1-70, 74. 124. Biology, p. 343 1.5. Paņnavanā, l. 71-72. 126. Biology. p. 343

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Besides one hundred sixty joints, Jaina Biology mentions six Sampahaņas (Samghayana) (firm joints or firmness of joints ) viz. (1) Vajra - rşabha - Nārāca - Samhapana, (2) Rşabhapālāca - saṁhanana (3) Narāca Samhanana, (4) Ardhanārāca -Samhanapā, (5) Kilikāsaṁhanana and (6) Sevārta (or chedaprşthā ) Saṁhanana. 127
The first one is an excellent joining of the gross body. The two bones are hooked into each other, through the joining a tack ( vajra ) in hammered and the whole is surrounded by a bandage. The second is not so firm a joining as the preceding one, because the bandage is missing. The fourth one is a joining which is on the one side like the preceding one, whilst on the other the bones are simply pressed together and nailed. The fifth one is a weak joining by which the bones are merely pressed together and nailed. The sixth one is quite a weak joining, by which the ends of the bones only touch one another. 128
127. Vide Lokaprakāśa, 3-399, p. 132.
“Vajjarisahanārāyam padhamam biyam ca rishanārāyam Nārāyamaddhanārāya
kiliya tahaya chevattham/"; Karmagrantha I. 38-19. 128. Lokaprakāśa I. 3, 400-405.
*Sa mghaya namatthinicayo, tam chaddha vajjarisahanārāyam Tahaya risahanārāyam, nārāyam addhanārāyam (38) Kiliya chevathaṁ iha risaho. pattolya vajjam Ubhao makkada bardhao, nārāyam imamuralamge 1/" (39) Karmagrantha 1.

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(Sixth Section)
THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM
In man ( manusya ) and most animals the ability to move depends upon a group of specialized, contractile cells, the muscle fibers. Man and most five-sensed vetebrates are quite muscular animals. Almost half of the mass of the human body consists of muscle tissues ( māmsapeši). According to Jaina Biology, there are stated to be five hundred muscle-tissues or ( blocks of muscle ) of man, four hundred and seventy of woman, and four hundred and eighty of enuch (neuter belonging to the third sex )2.
Visudhimagga mentions nine hundred muscles in the human body3 which plaster over the frame work of bones like a well plastered witin thick clay, 4 while the Suśruta5 refers to five hundred muscles like Jaina Biology. Visuddhimagga further states "muscle lies in both directions (origin and insertion) and it is plastered over the three hundred and odd bones and is bounded below by its surface wbich is fixed on to the collection of bones above by the skin all round each by each other.6
According to this work, the shape of the muscles of the calves (fibulae) is like that of cooked rice in a palm-leaf bag, that of the muscle of femur (quadriceps femoirs ) is like that of a rolling pin ( nisadaota ), that of the muscle of the buttock (gluteus maximus ) is like that of the end of an even, that of the muscles of the back (trapezius and Latissimus dorsi) is like the shape of slab of palm sugar, that of the muscle between each two ribs (Serratus anterior or Intercostalis Interdus) like that of clay mortar squeezed thin in a flattened opening, that of the muscle of the breast (Pectoralis major) is like that of a lump of a clay made into ball and flung down, and that of the
1. Tandula Veyaliya. 2, p. 6; 16, p. 36.; Kalyāṇakāraka, 3.2, p. 30.
"Pañca pesisayaiṁ purisassa,.....etc." 2. "Pañca pesisayaiṁ purisassa tisūņāim
itthiyae visuņāim pamdagassa /” (16), Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 3. VM, XI 53 (navapesi-satappabhedena mamsena litto ti ) 4. Ibid. (yatha mahamattikālittāya bhitt yā na bhitti, jānāti). 5. Susruta III, 5.6, “Panca pesisatāni /". 6. VM. VIII. 97, 98, vide sac tra Ayurveda, p. 68. March, 1972.
“Mamsam ti nava marsapesisatāni...197)" V.M. ; Disato dvisu jäta lokasato sadhikāni tiņi atthisatäni anulimpitva hitam paricchedato hetthā atthisanghāte patitthitatalena, upari tacena...etc." (98) VM.

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muscle of arm bone (Biceps and triceps branhii) is like the shape of a large skinned rat and twice the size.7
198
Mention of 500 muscles of man, 470 muscles of woman and 480 muscles of the neuter in Jaina Biology suggests that in the Vertebrates three types of muscles have evolved to perform various kinds of movements. (1) skeletal muscle, which is attached to and moves the bones of the skeleton, (2) cardiac muscle which enables the heart (hiyaya) to move and moves the blood through the circulatory system (śira, dhamani and srota) and (3) smooth muscle, which makes up the walls of the digestive tract and certain other internal organs, and moves material through the internal hollow organs.
The Muscles of Lower Animals.
The muscles of all animals from the flat worm to man are similar in that they are all made of long cylindrical or spindle - shaped fibers "which are contractible because of the protein chains."8 Most of the invertebrates (two to four-sensed animals) have only smooth muscle; whereas arthropods (ganḍupada-knotty-legged and Nandyavarta=spiders, Arthropoda, etc.) have only striated muscle.
7. Ibid. (97)
"Santthanato janghapinḍikamamsam talapanṇaputabhattasanthanam Ürumamsam nisadapotasa mthanam / Anisadamamsam- uddhanakotisanthanam / pitthimamsam talagulapatalasamthanampasakadvayamamsam kottha ikaya kucchiyám tanumattikalepasanṭhāna mtibanama msam vatjevtvä avakkhittmattikäpindasamthianaṁ.. pakatam hoti" (97).
"Disato dvisu disāsu jātam. Okasato sadhikani tini atthisatani anulimpitvā thitam. etc.", Ibid, 93.
8. Biology, p. 350.

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(Seventh Section)
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM The nervous system is a complex co-ordinating device to keep the various parts of anything as complicated as the human body functioning. It integrates the activities of all the parts of the body. The nervous system (nähru ) is composed of brain ( matthu ), spinal cord (pitthakaramdā ?) and nerve trunks (aneganbāru), it connects receptors ( eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin ) with effectors (muscles and glands) and conducts impulses from the one to the other. The two mains functions are conduction and integration.
According to Jain Biology, there are stated to be nine hundred nbārus (nerves ),5 sixteen ligaments (kamdasās?) to bind two pieces of bones at the joints, two tendons for every muscle (dve maħsarajju)? to attach itself to pieces of bones with the two tappered ends.
Visuddhimagga explains that the “ligaments are found in the anterior of the body binding the bones together as withies and sticks are bound together with creepers".8
A like Jaina Biology both Visuddhimaggaa and the Susruta sa ṁhitā mention nine hundred nerves (navasnāyušatāni).
The Nerve Impulse :
The study of the nature of the nerve impulse in Jaina Biology is fraught with difficulties because nothing visible occurs when an impulse passes along a nerve. But its reference to the process of senseperception that "the ear hears the touched and entered sounds, the
1. Tar dula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 2. Ibid, 17. p. 38. 3. Ibid 16, p. 36. 4. Ibid, 17, p. 38.
"Nava nhāru sayāim” Tandula Veyaliya 16, “spāyunam asthibandhanasirāņam
navagatāni," (Ibid., comm.), p. 37. 6. Kalyāṇakāraka 3.3., p. 30. "Şedaşa Kamdarāņi”, Ibid, 3.4, p. 31. 7. "Dve māmsarajju", Ibid, 3.4, p. 31. 8. Visuddhimagga XI 54
"Nhārú sárirabbhantare a thiniabandhamānā thitā, tatthayatha vallihi-vinaddhesu
kuļdadārusu, etc.” Sacitra Ayurved, p. 68, March 1972. da Visuddhimagga VIII 99. (Nharũ ti naya nharu-satani ) 9. "Susruta III. 5.6. "Nave snayugatãoi", p. 479.

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eye sees the non-touched and non-entered sense-objects, the nose smells the touched and entered smells, the tongue tastes the touched and entered objects in the mouth and the skin experiences the touches of the touched and entered objects”, 10 suggests that the nerve system, composed of brain, spinal cord and nerve trunks, connects receptors, (muscles and glands) and conducts the impluses from one to the other in such a way that when a given receptor is stimulated the proper effector responds appropriately. That is to say, in the words of modern Biology” the impulses transmitted by all types of neurons-motor, sensory and connector - are essentially alike. The fact that one impulse results in sensation of sight, another in a sensation of sound, and another in muscle contraction, and another in glandular secretion, is due entirely to the nature of the structures to which the impulses themselves”. 11 The Central Nervous Systems :
The nine hundred nerve cords 12 that make up the nervous system in Jaina Biology may be divided into two main parts: those belonging t: the central nervous system which make up the bring (matthu )13 and spinal cord (pitthakaramdā ? )14 and those belonging to the peripheral nervous system, which make up the cranial and spinal nerves. 15
The Spinal Cord ( Pitthakaramdā ? )16
It is the tubular spinal cord, surrounded and protected by the neural arches of the vertebrae, it has two important functions : "to transmit impulses to and from the brain and to act as a reflex centre", 17 according to modern Biology. 10. Bhagavati Sūtra, 2.4.99.
“Prajñapanā Sätra Indriyapada, Putthadaram,15. 1-194-195 **Putthāim saddāim sudeti... ... Pavțișhāim saddāiṁ suneti tabā pavitthānivi”.
Pannavana, puttadāram 15. 194-195 11. Biology, p. 356. 12. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, p. 35. 13. Ibid 1?, p. 38. 14. Ibid 16, p. 36. 15. "Etto nadiddaram, nädi ca tiha bhana mti tavviuno / paddhamā idā para piingala
ya taiyá susumaņa ya (3123)", Samvega Ramgasala. p. 243. edited by Shāh “Ida ca pingala caiva suşumnā Ceti nadikan /"
61. Yogaśāstra, Hemacandra, p. 347. 16. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 17. Biology, p. 360.

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The Brain (Matthu)18
It is the enlarged, anterior end of the spinal cord. "In man the enlargement is so great that much of the resemblance to the spinal cord is obscured, but in the lower animals the relationship of brain to cord is clear."19 The brain contains brain matter (matthulumga).20 The detailed anatomy of the brain which is exceedingly complex is not given in Jaina Biology. According to modern Biology, there are six main regions, medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, thalamus and cerebrum."21
The Peripheral Nervous System
The paired cranial (siranharu)22 and spinal nerves, emerging from the brain and spinal cord and conducting with every receptor and deffector in the body make up the peripheral nervous system. (Iḍā, pingala, susumṇā )23
Cranial Nerves (Siranharu)24
Cranial nerves originate in different parts of the brain (matthu) and innervate primarily the sense-organs, muscles and glands of the head. It appears from the reference to the sense-perceptions caused by the nerve impulse through the activities of the five sense-organs (eye, ear, nose, tougue and skin)25 that some of the 900 nerves act as cranial nerves so that they innervate primarily the sense-organs of eye, ear, nose, tongue and skin muscles and glands of the head. As a result one impulse results in a sensation of sight, another in a sensation of sound, another in a sensation of smell, another in a sensation of taste, another in a sensation of touch, another in muscle contraction of the head38 and so on-all due entirely to the nature of the structures to which the impulses travel, as suggested by the different structures of the five sense-organs and their modes of function.26
18. Tandula Veyaliya, 11, p. 38.
19. Biology, p. 361.
20. Tandula Veyaliya, 17, p. 38.
201
21. Biology, p. 361.
22. Tandula Veyaliya, p, 41.
22a Samvegaramgasala 3123; Yogagastra 61, Hemac indra,
23. Biology, p. 366.
24. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 41.
25. Prajñāpana Sūtra, Indriyapada Puthadara, 15, 1. 194.5.
26. Ibid.
JB-26

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According to modern Biology, "twelve pairs of nerves originate in different parts of the brain and innervate primarily the sense-organs, muscles and glands of the head. The same twelve pairs, innervating similar structures, are found in all the higher vertebrates-reptiles, birds and mammals, fish and amphibia have only the first ten. Like all nerves these are composed of neurons, some have only sensory neurons, some are composed almost completely of motor neurons and others are made up of both sensory and motor neurons."27
202
As explained in the Suśruta, the cranial nerves are as follows: "(1) Four pairs of sensory nerves carrying sensory impulses from the sense-organs to the heart, viz. the optic, auditory, olfactory and gustatory nerves, 28 and (2) six pairs of motor or mixed nerves, e. g. three pairs of motor nerves for the eye (Motores oculorum, Pathetic and Abducentes) working on the levator palpebrae and other muscles of the orbit; one pair of motor nerves for articulation (the Hypoglossal); one pair of motor nerves for the larynx the pheumogastric), and another pair connected with mammae and (in the case of the male) the seminal duct".29 Other motor or sensori-motor impluses are carried by some of these cranial nerves, viz. those which produce sighs and sobs, yawning, laughter, and hunger. Evidently some of the functions of the pneumogastric and the spinal accessory nerves are intended, as also phrenic and other nerves of the servical plexus".
Spinal Nerves :
All spinal nerves are mixed nerves, having motor and sensory components in roughly equal amounts, as they are suggested by the reference in Jaina Biology to Iḍa, Susumna and Pingala nãḍis30 along the spinal cord. The Susumna is the cenrral cord in the vertebral column, 26a Pannavana 15, Indriyapada, Samthaṇad aram. Putthadaram and Pävitthadaram, etc. 27. Biology, p. 366.
28.
Urddhvagahgabḍar upara sagandhapraśväsochva savijṛmbhitakṣuddhasitakathitaruditādiņvisesän abhiva hautah sariram dharayanti ta stu hrdayamabhipratipannāstridha Jayante tastrimsat täsantu vatapittakaphagonitarasan dve dve vahatastadasa gat darūparasagandhān aştabhirgṛhnite dvabhyam bhasate, dvabhyam ghoşam..karoti/dvabhyam svapiti /dvābhyaṁ pratibudhyate/dve ca asruvahinyau / dve stanasamśrite te eva gukram harasya stanābhyam abhivahatah //" Here Dhamanis act as nerves. Suśruta, Sarirasthana. Chap. IX.
29. The Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, p. 218.
30. "Etto näḍiddaram, nadi ca tiha bhanamti tavviuno.
Padhama iḍā para piṁgala y taiya
Susumaņa ya (3123)", Samvega Ramgasala, p. 243 "see Yogasästra of Hemacandra "Ida ca pingala caiva susumna ceto nadikah.....(61)

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203 i.e. it is in the central channel of the spinal cord. The two chains of the sympathetic ganglia on the left and the right are named Idā and Pingalā respectively 31. Idā, the left sympathetic chain, lies stretching from under the left nostril to below the left kidney, in the form of a bent bow, while the pingalā is the corresponding chain on the right 32
According to Sangita-ratnākara, 33 "of the seven hundred nervecords of the sympathetic-spinal system the following fourteen are most important, viz. (1) Susumnā, in the central channal cord.
33.
31. “Vamavahā aillā, dāhinaparıvähini bhave biya
Taiyä puna ubhayavahā...... (3124)", Samvega Rangasala ; p. 243 "Vamaga ida nädi sa inah sthanam dakşiņaya pingala nāma raveh sthānam madhyamagā suşumnā nama sivasthanam (61,"
Yogasastra, Hemacandra ; p. 347 32. Ibid.
Sangitratnākara, Svarádhyāya, Pindotapattiprakaranam Slokas 151-163. "Tāsea bhūritarastāsu mukhyāḥ proktāścaturdasa / Suşumneda pingalā ca kuhūratha sarasvati (151) Gandhari hastitihvă ca vāruni ca ya sasvini / Visvodara sankhini ca tatah pusa payasvins (152). Alambuseti tatradyastisro mukhyatamā matah / Susumna tisrşu sreştha vaisnavi muktimārgagā (153). Kamdamadhye sthitā tasya idä savye 'atha daksine / Pingaledāpingalayoścaratas candrabhaskarau (154). Kramātkälaga terhetu suşumna kalasoșiņi / Sarasvati kuhuscaste suşumnāyāştu Pārsvayoh (155). Idayah Prsihapūrvasthe gandhārihastijihvike / Kramatpūşayasasvinyau pingalzPșştha pūrvayoh 1156). Visvodara madhyadese syātkuhūha stijihvayoh/ Madhye kuhūyasasvinyorváruņi samsthita matā (157). Pûşasrasvatimadhyamadhyamadhisete payasvini / Gamdharikasarasvatyormadhye vasati saukhini (158). Alambusa ka ndamadhye tatredāpingale kramāt / Savyadakṣiṇanās'antan Kubüramehanam purah (159). Sar svatyurdhvamājih vam gārdhārya Prşthatah sthitā / Āvāmanetramäsavyapadanguşthan tu samsthită (160). Hastijihvä sarvaga tu varunyatha ya sasvini / Asamguşthāddakşiņängadhristha dene visvodarā'akhilam (161). Sunkhini savyaakarnantam pūsä tvā yamyan tr.tah/ Payasvini the vitatā dakşiņaśravaņūvadhi (162). Alamvusā payuemūlamavaşabhya vyavasthitä. Evamvidhe tu dehe' asminmalasamcayasamVrte "163". Samgita-ratnākara 151-163 pp. 59-61. Sārangadeva.

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(2) Idā, the left sympathetic chain stretching from under the left nostril to below the left kindey, in the form of a bent bow. (3) Pingalā. the corresponding chain on the right, (4) Kuhu, the pudic nerve of the sacral plexus, to the left of the spinal cord, (5) Gāndhāri, to the back of the left sympathetic chain, supposed to stretch from below the corner of the left eye to the left leg. (6) Hastijihvā to the front of the left sympathetic chain, stretching from below the corner of the left eye to the great toe of the left foot. (7) Sarasvati to the right of Suşumnā, stretching up to the tongue (the hypo-glossal nerves of the cervical plexus), (8) Pusā, to the back of the right sympathetic chain, stretching from below the corner of the right eye to the abdomen (a connected chain of cervical and luniber nerves ). (9) Payasvinī, between Pusa and Sarasvati, auricular branch of the cervical plexus on the right, (10) Sankhini, between Gāndhāri and Sarasvati, auricular branch of the cervical plexus on the left, (11) Jašasvinī, to the front of the right sympathetic chain, stretching from the right thumb to the right leg (the radial nerve of the brachial plexus continued on to certain branches of the great sciatic), (12) Vāradā, the nerves of the sacral plexus, between Kuhu and Jaśasvini ramifying over the lower trunk and limbs, (13) Viģvodarā, the nerves of the lumber plexus, between Kuhu and Hastijihvā, ramifying over the lower trunk and limbs, and (14) Alambuşā, the coccygeal, nerves proceeding from the sacral vertebrae to the urinogenitary organs”. 34
Modern Biology explains that "All the spinal nerves are inixed nerves, having motor and sensory components in roughly equal amounts. In man they originate from the spinal cord in thirty one symmetrical pairs, each of which innervates the receptors and effectors of one region of the body. Each nerve emerges from the spinal cord as two strands or root which unite shortly to form the spinal nerve. All the sensory neurons enter the cord through the dorsal root and all motor fibers leave the cord through the ventral root.
The size of each nerve is related to the size of the body area it innervates, the largest in man is one of the paris supplying the legs. Each spinal nerve, shortly beyond the junction of the dorsal and ventral root, divides into three branches : the dorsal branch, serving the skin and muscles of the back; the ventral branch, serving the skin and muscles of the sides and belly; and the autonomic branch, serving the viscera". 35 34. The Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 228 sce Sangita ratnākara,
Svarādhyaya, Pindotpattipra karanam-s'lokas 151 - 16, pp. 59-61. 354 Biology, pp. 366-7.

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205
The autonomic nervous system36 consists of a special set of peripheral nerves which innervate the heart, lungs, digestive tract and other internal organs. This system in turn is composed of two parts, (1) the sympathetic and (2) parasympathetic nerves. The autonomic system contains only motor nerves, and is distinguished from the rest of the nervous system by several features. The sympathetic system37 consists of neive - fibers whose bodies are located in the lateral portions of the gray matter of the spinal cord. The parasympathetic system 38 consists of fibers originating in the brain and emerging via the third, seventh, ninth and especially the tenth or vagus nerves, and of fibers originating in the pelvic region of the spinal cord and emerging by way of the spinal nerves in that region" 39
36. Ibid. p. 369 37. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 39. Ibid

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(Eight Section ) THE SENSE -ORGANS (INDRIYAS)' The body of two-sensed animals-krmis (worms), Kuksikrmis (amoeba ) and other single - celled animals is sensitive to touch and taste (sparsa and rasa )2 as evidenced by the fact that it will move away from bright lights, etc. But on a higher, more complex level of existence, where the activities of searching for food, attracting a mate, etc., e.g. of five -- sensed animals, are correspondingly more complex and hazardous, the animal needs specialized cells sensitive to one or a few types of stimuli, to help him in his struggle for life.3 As found in Jaipa Biology, such receptors ( sense-organs ) in the evolutionary process have been developed, they are called indriyas ( sense-organs ).4 The receptors in these organs are remarkably sensitive to the appropriate stimulus; the eye (cakşu) is stimulad by an extremely faint beam of light, whereas a strong light is required to stimulate the optic nerve directly, as it is suggested by the statement that the eye sees the nontouched and non-entered objects (i. e. an image of objects is reflected when a strong light stimulates the optic nerve directly ).
All beings from the earth quadrates and two-sensed worms (Krmis) to man ( manuşya ) have sense-organs (indriya ) in the evolutionary process varying in numbers from one to five (ckendriya--pancendriya ) to help them in their struggle for life. Beings have been classified by Jaina Biology on the basis of the number of their sense-organs (indriyas) into one-sensed up to five-sensed animals (Pañcendriyas).
1. Pannavaņā, Indriyapadam "Pancendriyāni", T.S., 2.:5. 2. "Beimdiyānam.. do indiyā pannatta tamjaha - Jibhindie ya phasimdie ya ),
Pannavanā 15 Indriyapadam, 987 ; Tattvarthadhigama Sutra, 2.7.24. p. 174
“Kṣmyadinam. Prthivya dibhya ekena Vyd he sparsanarasanendriye bhavatah /" 3. tato' apyekena Vrddhani pipilika - rohinika ... ...prabhrtinar triņi sparsana .....
rasana - ghrāņāni / tato, apyekena Vrddhani bhramara .. .. .. patangadinän catvāri sparśana-rasana-ghrāņa-cakşū mscasezāņāṁ ca tiryagyonijāņār matsya....
manușyadevānāın pañcerdriyaniti //" TS. Bhāşya II. 24, p. 174. 4. Pamca indiya pannatta, tamjaha soindic 1 Cakkhindie 2 ghānimdle 3
Jibbhimdie 4 phasimdie" 5. Pannavaņā. Indriyapada 15-973, p. 288.
"Sparśanarasanaghrânacakşūhsrotrani, T.S., 2-20, p. 169. 3. Apuţtbäim rūVāim pasati” Pannavaná 15, Indriyapada, Pusthadavari, 990, 2.
Pannavaņā 15, Indriyapada, 985-98', 241-243 “Vayvantānāmekam" TS., II. 23, p. 172 Kimipipilikábhramaramanuşādināmekaika Vrddhani" TS. 11. 2-24,
p. !63; TS. 2-20. 7. Ibid

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207
Traditionally men have five-scpsed organs, 8 viz. organs of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing, but it is misleading for some of the five can be divided into several completely different senses. Thus, touch, (spasi) can be divided into eight kinds, viz cold (sita) and heat (usna) and others to which are all included under the sense of touch (spassandriya ).
According to modern Biology, “In addition there are more vague and generalized, but nevertheless important senses for determining internal states o? the body. The receptors for such senses are located in the Viscera, the throat, and other places."'11
“Stimulation of one sense-organ, c. g. skin, initiales what might be considered" a coded message", transmitted by the nerve fibers and decoded in the brain. How the sense-organ initiates different codes and how the brain analyzes and interpretes them to produce various sensations are still unknown,"12
'I he Stimulus Receiving Process ;
For all types of sense-organs13 the actual excitation of the sensi. tive cell is either mechanical or chemical. The stimulation of touch (sparsa ) and pressure receptors is (i. e. sense-organs of touch) or the skin (sparsanendriya) depends on the mechanical stresses transmitted through the sourrounding capsules as it is suggested by the statement in Jaina Biology that the skin experiences the sensation of touch of the touched and entered objects. 15
That is to say “the proprioceptors (kinesthetic receptors ) respond to the mechanical pressure exerted on them when the surrounding muscle cells or tender fibers are stretched or compressed."16
8. "Mänuşya devānām pancendriyani" Ibid II 24, Bhasya, p. 174 9. Ibid; Pannavaņā, hidriyapadam 15. 10. "Tatra sparso asțavidhah kathino midurgururlaghuh sita uşnah etc..ui", TS.
V. 23, Bhāsya, 356 sec also TS., II. 23, 24. 11. Biology, p, 273. 12. Biology. p. 374. 13. Paņnavaņā, 15, Indriyapadam 14, Ibid, Putthaparam. 15. (Putthäim). ...evam r saņavi phasāņavi /",
Pannavana, Putthadáram, Indriya pa da, 900, 4, p. 243 16. Biology, p. 374.

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The sensitive cells in the organs of hearing (śravanendriya ) and balance are excited by the ripples or waves in the fluids bathing them as implied by the reference in Jaina Biology to the statement that the organ of hearing hears the touched and entered sounds into it.17
In contrast, the olfactory cells of the nose (ghränendriya ) and the taste buds of the tougue (Jibbhendriya ) are stimulated chemically by the molecules that come in contact with them, as suggested by the fact that the tougue tastes the touched and entered objects into the mouth,18 while the nose smells the touched and entered fine particles of matter into it. 19 The receptors for heat ( usna ) and cold (sita ) respond to chemical changes induced in them by changes of temperature as implied by the suggestion that śīta (cold) and uşna (heat or hot) are two of the eight touches inherent in maiter (pudgala). The statement “the eye sees the non-entered objects"20 implies that the images of objects perceived by the eye are reflected on the retina of the eye. That is to say, "the cells of the retina respond to the chemical reactions that occur when light falls on them".21
The Perception of Sensations :
After the stimulus receiving process through the five sense-organs, there follows the perception of sensations. Jaina Biology describes the perception of sensations in its own manner ; e. g. different kinds of touch ( sparsa ), taste ( rasa ), smell (gandha) and colour (varna ). 22 It is suggestive from this fact that “the qualitative differentiation of stimuli depends on the sense-organ itself and brain, for man's ability to discriminate red from cold is due to the fact that particular senseorgans and their individual sensitve cells are connected to particular parts of the brain 23 and only those nerve impulses rhat reach the brain can result in sensations.”24 17. Pannavaņā, Indriyapada, 15, Putt hadāram, 99)
Putthaim saddäin sunei, no apurthaim saddair Unei. 18. "Putthāim (rasaim ) evam rasaņavi,
Paņņavaņā Sutta, 15, Indriyapadai, Putthadāram, p. 243 19. “Putthāim gaidhāií agghāi /” Ibid. 20. Apuythaim rúvāim pasati /", Ibid. 21. Biology, p. 374. 22. "Tatra sparso aştavidhah -- kathino medurgururlaghuh sita usnah snigdho rukşma
iti / rasa pancavidhah tiktah kaguh kaşayc, amlo madhu iti/ gandho dvividhah --- surabhirasurabhisca / varnah pañcavidhah krsno nilo lohitah pitah sukla iti //";
Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra. Bhaşya V. 23, p. 356. 23. Biology, p. 374. 24. Ibid.

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209
The Tactile Senses (Sparśanendriya )
The skin contains several different types of simple sense-organs, as they are indicated by the eight kinds of touch of matter 25 and their further divisions as felt by the skin when it comes into contact with them. According to modern Biology, "each muscle, tendon and joint is equipsed wi:i nerve endings, called proprioceptors, which resemble certain sense-organs of the skin." These are sensitive to changes in the tension of the muscle or fendon and initiate impulses to the brain which are responsible for our awareness of the position and movement of the various parts of the body, the sense referred to as kinesthesis."'26
The Chemical Senses of Taste and Smell :
The statement in Jaina Biology that the tongue tastes the touched and entered objects in the mouth and the nose smells the touched and entered particles of attenuated matter 27 suggests that “the sensation of tasies and smell result from the stimulation of chemoreceptor cells in the tongue, and nose respectively by specific substances' 28. The tongue taste the material objects which come into contact with it and the nose smells the thing when it comes into contact with the former.29 How is it possible ? Modern Biology explains that "embedded in the mucous membrances of the tougue and soft palate are special sense-organs known as taste buds, each of which consists of a few sensitive cells surrounded by supporting cells. **30 In Jain Biology it it stated that there are five basic taste-sensations. viz. tikta (bitter ), katu (pungent ) kaşāya (astringent ), amla (sour ) and madhura ( sweet ),31 each due to a difierent kind of taste bud as explained by modern Biology. "The buds are distributed unevenly over the surface of the tougue so that certain parts are especially sensitive to sweet things, others to sour things, and 80 on". 32
The flavour of a substance depends only partly on the sense of taste (rasanendriya ), according to Biology, “the rest is due to the 25. Tattvarthadhigama Sūtra, Bhaşya V. 23, p. 356. 24. Biology, p. 375 27. Pannavana Sutta, 15. Indriva padam, Puthadaram, p. 243. 28. Biology, p. 376 29. l'annavaņā 15, Indriyapadam, pūķhadāram, p. 243. 30. Biology, p. 376. 31. Tattvärthādhigama sutra, V. 23 ( Bhāşya 32. Biology, p. 376 JB-27

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sense of smell, substances pass from the mouth through the internal nares into the nasal chamber and stimulate the sense-organs there. When one has a cold, foods are relatively tasteless because the sense of smell is partly or wholly lost”. 33
The statement in Jaina Biology that the sense-organ of smell (ghrānendriya ) smells the particles entering the nostrils and touching their senitive cells34 implies the suggestion that “the sense-organs of smell are located in the epithelial lining of the upper part of the nasal cavity in a region not ordinarily washed by the incoming air. 35 Particles entering the nostrils reach them by diffusion and dissolve in the mucus covering the sensitive cells". 34
In contrast to the sensation of taste (rasa ) the various odours (gandha ) cannot be classified into definite types except into two categories : surabhi gandha and asurabhi gandha (pleasant and unpleasant),37 for each substance has its own distinctive smell. "The olfactory organs respond to remarkably small amounts of a substancc”. 38
Vision of Eye ;
According to Jaina Biology, only the four-sensed and five-sensed animals have the vision of eye.39 But modern Biology states that the light sensitive cells exist in almost all living matter."40 It should be noted here that all animals have five bhāvendriyas including cakşurindriya, 41 33. "Biology, p. 376. 34. Pannavanā Sutta, Indriyapadam Parthadärän. 35. Biology, 377. 36. Ibid. 37. "Gandho dvividhah - Surabhirasurabhiscal".
Tattvarthadhigama Sutra V. 23, Bhāşya, 356. 38. Biology, p. 377 39. "Tato' apyekera Vrddhani bhramara - vašarasārangmakşikā - puttikā-damsa-maja.
kavrścika - nandyavartakita - patangādināṁ catvari sparsana -- rasana - ghränacaksumsi / TS. II 24, Bhāșya.
Seşāņaṁ ca tiryagyonijānār matsyoraga-bhujangapakşi-catuspadādām sarveşām ca náraka-manuşyadevānāṁ pañcendriyāṇiti,” Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra, II 24, Bhāşya. 3. 174 Pannavaņā 1.15 ( Indriyapada), p. 253 11.1028 "Caurimdiyānam ...do nettă 2 do ghāņā 4 Jiha 5 phase 6" Sesāņam jaha
neraiyānam (sü '096) jāva vemāniyāņam Ibid 11. 1029, p. 253 40. Biology, p. 377 41. Through Bhavendirya all-beings may be sensitive to light, as all beings have
five bhāvendriyas. Pamca bhāvimdiya soimdie iáva phasimdie" Pannavanā, 12.1056 "evām jassa jati imdiya tassa tattiyā bhāņiyavva' java vemāņiyaņam /" Pannavaņā 1.15, p. 259. ; see also TS. 11-16, p. 163.4 (Bbāşya).

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The Organisation of the Human Body "Even protazoa respond to changes in light intensity, usually moving away from the source of light,”42 Most plants orient their leaves and flowers toward the sun,43 although they have no special light sensitive structures. In most of the higher animals (particularly four-sensed and five-sensed animals ) this light-sensitivity is located in certain cells and is highly developed.44 The human eye 45 is an excellent example of an extremdely sensitive specilized organ for perceiving light.
Some two-sensed protazoa “have "eye spots" which are more sensitive to light ihait the rest of the cell.'46
The eyes of insect (three-sensed and four-sensed animals) are "mosai" eyes, quite dific rent from the camera eyes of vertebrates. “Mosaic eyes are composed of many, sometimes thousands of visual units, each with a small bundle of light sensitive cells and a fixed, immovable lens. Such an eye does not give a single, sharp picture but produces a mosaic to which each unit of the eye contributes a separate image."27
The Human Eye :
The human cyc is like a lentil50 or "a de luxe leica loaded with extremely sensitive colour films'49 It sees the reflected objects on the retina as it is suggested by the statement that “the eyes see the non-touched and non-entered objects."
“The analogy between the human eye, and camera is complete. The eye has a lens which can be focussed for different distances, a diaphragm (ihe iris) which regulates the size of the light opening (the pupil) and a light sensitive retina located at the rear of the eyc, corresponding to the film of the Camera. Next to the retina is a shưet of cells, filled with black pigment which absorbs extra light aut prevents internally reflected light from blurring the image (Cameras are also painted black on the inside). This sheet, called the choroid also contains the blood vessels which nourish the retina."'50
42. Biology, p. 377. 43. "Tatha padmidinām prātaurikasınam/" Şāddarśana Samuccaya, Gunaratna,
Jainam: tam, V. 49 (Tikā), p. 158. 44. TS. 2. 3; Hiology. p. 377. 45. Ibid Pampaņa I, 15, Indriyapada, pathadāra. 46. Biology, p. 377 47. Biology, p. 377 Bees, etc. have mosaic eyes. 48. Masuracamdasamthänasamthie paņņatte /"') 48a, Pannavana, patthadaram. Pannavana, 1.15, 974, p. 238. 49. Biology, p. 377. 50. Biology, p. 371. Panna vaņā, 18. Indriyapada, pathadara.

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'I he Ear (Srotendriya):
As described in Jaina Biology, the car is of the shape of Kadamba Puspa51 (Kadama flower ). It is suggestive from the statement "the ear hears the touched and entered sound":52 that the organs of two different senses, hearing and equilibrium, are located in the ear.53 According to modern Biology, “these organs are buried deep in the bone of the skull. and a number of accessory structures are needed to traosmit sound waves from the outside to the deep lying sensory cells.54
INDRIYAS (SENSE - ORGANS)
Conclusion :
Indriyas have been studied in Indian Philosophy from the points of view of etymology of the word 'Indriya, cause of indriyas, their place, (substraction ), their number, their cbject, their shape, their mutual identicality and difference, their kinds and distinction of apprehensibility of substance - quality (dra vyagunagrahitvaviveka, etc.) The earliest reference to its etymology is come across in the Pāṇini Sūtra.55 The same etymology of the word 'Indriya' found its way in the early Buddhist and Jaina texts like Visuddhimagga56 and Tattvārthadhigama Sütra's Bhäsya57 respectively. Besides, it is also recorded in the Jaina Agama Bhagavati Vyakhyaprajñapti.58
In the history of the etymology of the word 'Indriya' there are mainly two things to be noted - the one is that the Buddhist grammarian Panini's commentator have given place to that etymology in their respective worksin details, while. Acārya Hemchandra,59 the Independent Jaina grammarian also has given position to it in his own Vyākarana 51. Pannavaņā Sutra 1. 15 Indriyapadam, Samthāņadaram. 52. Ibid., Putthadārazn. Indriyapadam. 53. Biology, p. 382. 54. Ibid. 55. Iodriya mindralingam indradrsta mimdrarstamindrajustamindradattamiti
5.2.93 56. VM. XVI, Indriyasaccaniddesa, 4, 5, 6 ; Darsana and Chintana, p. 134. 57. "Pancendriyani bhavanti / ārambho niyamärthah şada dipratisedharthasca /
indriya mindralingamindrarsta mindrajuşta mindradattamiti va" (pa, A. 2.pa. 5, Sū 93) / indro jivah sarvadravyeşvaišvaryayogat vişa yesu Va paramaigvaryayogät, tasya lingamindriyam, linganat sücanāt pradarśanadupaşqam bhanad - vyañjanácca
jivasya lingamidriyam", TS. bhá., II. 15, p. 162, 58. Bhs., 1-7-61. 59. Indriyam', Hema sabdanuśäsanaṁ, 7.1.174, p.128.

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Sūtra and Vștti in full details. The other point is that the etymology of the word Indriya' is not found in any Vedic philosophical work except in the very oldest commentarial works of the Panini Sūtra, just as it is come across in the Buddhist and Jaina texts. It is known that the etymology of the word 'Indriya', having found place in the Buddhist and Jaina philosophical treatises, became the subject of speculation of the philosophers. As for example, in the Mātharavrtti, 60 the oldest Vedic philosophical treatise, there is preserved the etymology of the word 'indriya', but it is quite different and distinguishable from that recorded in the Buddhist and Jaina works. It is gratifying to note that when the nirukti (etymology) of this word 'Indriya', having left the field of word, entered into that of the philosophy, then the stamp of the philosophical community got impressed on it. Buddbaghosa 61 speaks of all those meanings as spoken of by Panini in the nirukti of the word 'Indriya', but he has made attempt to adopt it by starting the the meaning of Indirya as Sugata.62 The Jajna Ācāryas interpret the meaning of the word 'Indriya' as only Jiva generally, they have not made the meaning of it as Tirthařkara like Buddhagosa as desired by himself.
According to the Sāmkhya, the material cause of the indriyas (sense-organs) is abhimāna (ego) which is a kind of fine substance produced from the Prakrti.63 This view is acceptable to the Vedānta. The Nyāya64 maintains that the cause of the indriyas is the five elements like earth, etc., which are nothing but non -- living substances. This view is acceptable also to the Pūrva Mināmsakas. According to the Buddhist Philosophy, the five sense-organs, because of being produced from Rūpa (Matter ), are called rūpa (Matter ), which is particularly non-living. Jaina Philosophy also makes reference to particular matter as the cause of the gross physical sense - organs (dravyendriyas), which is a particular non-living substance only.
The external shapes like karnaśaskuli, aksigolakakrsnasāra, tripuţikā, jihvā and carma (ear-drum, eye-socket-pupil, nose, tongue and skin ), 60. "In iti visayäņām, nāma, taninah vişayān prati dravantiti indriyāņi”
Mäharavrtti, ka 26, p. 43. 61. "See Tippan, 2, Darsar a and Cintana, p. 134. 62. "Ko pana nesam indriyattho nāmāti ? indalimgatho ; indriyatho .... bhagavā hi
sammāsain buddho paramissariyabhavato indo..... ..atthātoviniscbayo /", VM.
XVI, 4, 5 6. 63. Sättvika ekādasakah pravartate vaikytādahankärät /
Bhūtādestanmätrah sa tāmasaḥ, taijasadubhayam 1/" Sāmkhykärikā, 25. 64. “Ghrāṇarasanacakşustvak śrotrāṇindriyāņi bhūtebhyah”, NS., 1.1.12.

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which the common people call by the order of the name -- karna, netra, ghräna, rasana and tvak - indriyas ( sense-organs of hearing, sight, smell, taste and touch) respectively, have been accepted as indriyadhisthanas65 (places or substrata of sense-organs) in all Indian systems of thought, but not as indriyas. Indriyas have been accepted as intangible entities existing in those shapes whether they are material or egoistic. Jaina Philosophy, having accepted those material adhisthānas (places or substrata) as dravyendriya (physical sense-organ) even, has indicated the same idea that adhisthānas (places of or substrata sense-organs ) are not really the indriyas. According to this school, the indriyas are intangible, but they, being not material (bhautika ) or egoistic non-living substance, are consciousness like or sentient capacitylike which is called bhāvendriya (psychical sense-organ ) by the Jainas. The sixth indriya called manas (mind) has been accepted as the internal sense organ in all Indian systems of thought. Like this six buddhindriyas ( organs of intellect) are common to all philosophies, but it is only the Sāmkhya Philosophy which mentions eleven indriya 566 by counting the five karmendriyas ( sense-organs of action ), viz. speech, hands, foot, anus and the organ of procreation67 as indriyas. Just as Vācaspati Miśra and Jayanta 68 spoke against the acceptance of the karmendriyas ( the sense-organs of action of the Samkhya as indriyas, just so Äcārya Hemacandra also, having refuted the indriyatva (the state of senseorgan) of the karmendriya, followed the previous Jaina Ācāryas like Pūjyapāda and others who argued in this manner. “This is the section dealing with consciousness. Those that are the instruments of consciousness alone are mentioned here, and not those that are the instruments of activity as these have no such limit. All the limbs and minor limbs are the instruments of activity. And these are determined by nāma - karmas of limbs and minor limbs Moreover, the instruments of action are not five only” 69
Here the question arises when Acārya Pūjyapāda and other old Jainācāryas and scholars like Vācaspati, Jayanta and others have forcefully refuted the eleven indriyas of the Sāmkhya, then why have they 65. Nyāyamanjari p. 477. 66. "Abhimano' ahankärastasmād dvividhah pravartate sargaḥ !
Ekādasakasca gana stanmatrah pañcaka caiva //" Samkhyakärikā, 24. 67. "Buddhindriyasi cakşusrotraghränarasanasparsanakāni /
Vākpānipädapāyūpasthan karmendriyányáhuh II, Sārnkhy.kárika, 26. 68. Tātparyaţikā, p. 531 ; Nyayamañjari, p. 483. 69. “Panceodriyāni bhavanti / ārambho niyamārthah şadādipratișed härthasca/"
TS. Bhā.. p. 162; Sarvārthasiddhi, p. 174.

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not denied or mentioned the number of twenty-two indriyas which are well-known in the Buddhist Abhidharma work.70 It is known that in the Buddhist Abhidharma tradition there was a common custom of referring to every mānasasakti (mental power) by the word 'indriya'. Having thought thus, they have not mentioned or refuted that tradition. Objects like sound, colour, smell, taste, touch, etc., are always apprehensible to the six sense-organs. In this regard all the systems of thought are of one view, but there is the difference of opinion of the NyāyaVaišesika from all other systems of thought with regard to the apprehensibillty of substance by the indriyas ( sense-organs ). All other philosophies, even having accepted indriyas as the apprehenders of quality, admit six sense-organs as the apprehenders of substance, while the NyāyaVaisesika and the Pūrvamımāṁsaka call eye, tactile organ (sparsanendriya ) and mind as the only apprehenders of substance, but not others.71 Ācārya Hemcandra has expressed this difference of opinion, having spoken of karmabhāva-pradhānavyutpatti of the words, such as, sparsa (touch ), etc., and along with it he followed the previous Ācāryas.
The discussion on indriya-ekatva (singleness or oneness of senseorgan) and multiplicity of indriyas is very old in the metaphysical tradition.72 Some, having accepted the sense-organ as one, have supported its many functions by its sthānas (places ), while all the advocates of the multiplicity of sense-organs maintained only the principle of multiplicity sense - organs by refuting the view of singleness of the sense-organ. In regard to this Acārya Hemacandra, having recourse to the method of the relative point of view, followed the Jainācāryas by making a synthesis of both the theories, i. e. mutual singleness and multiplicity in the sense-organs, and avoided the faults attributed to each other in the case of every extreme view.
Indriyas (sense-organs) are of two kinds, viz. Dravyendriya (physical sense-organ). and Bhāvendriya (psychic sense-organ) Dravyendriya, because 70. "Dhatūnām anantaryam uddhitthani pata, indriyani ti bāvisati indriyāni;
cakkhundriyam sotindriyam ghänindriyan jivhindriyam kāyindriyam manindriyam itthindriyam purisindriyam jivindriyam sukhindriyam dukkhindriyam somanassindriyam domanssindriyam upekkhindriyam, addhindriyam viriyindriyam salindunyam simadhindriya, paññindriyam, anaññātanpassāmitindriyam aññindriyam
aññātāvindriyam ti,", VM. XV II. 71. Abhdharmakosa Sphutártha p. 95 ; VM., XVI. 1,2, ff see Darsan and Cintan,
r. 137.... 72. Muktavali, kā, 53-56 73. “Sthānānyatve pánātyādavayavinālāsthanatvācca samsayah /", NS., 3.1.52, 74. "Dvividhapindriyani bhavanti - dravyendriyāni bhāvendriyani ca/", TS. Bhã.,
II. 16, p. 163.

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of being produced from matter is non-living matter-because it is the mode of cetanasakti (capacity of consciousness).75Dravyendriya is produced bythe rise of angopānga (limbs )-and nirmānanāmakarma (i. e, constitution - making-nāma karma).76 There are stated to be two divisions of it, viz. nirvrtti and upakarana77 ( accomplishment and means ). The name of the shape of the sense-organs is pirvștti. It is also divided into two kinds, viz. bāhya (external), and abhyantara (internal ).24 The external shape of the sense - organ is called bāhyapirvrtti, while the name of the internal shape is ābhyantara nirvștti. The external part is just like the sword, while the iniernal part is like the sharpness of it which is made of very fine translucent atom. Both material and psychical natures of the internal nirvytti have been described. Upakarana is the means of nirvștti ; it is also external and internal.25 In regard to the shape of the sense - organs it should be noted that there are many kinds of shape of skin, as already pointed out but there is no difference in its external and internal shapes.
The internal shape of skin of any being is just like the external shape of skin.26 But in the case of other sense-organs it is not so. Except skin the internal shape of all other sense-organs are not identical with their external shapes. The internal shapes of kindred senseorgans of all classes of animals have been accepted as of one and the same type. As for instance, the internal shape of the ear is like the shape of a kadamba-flower, that of the eye is like the lentil, that of the nose is like the atimuktaka flower, that of the tongue is like khurupa ( dagger or weeding agricultural implement). The internal shape of the skin is of different kinds. The external shapes of all the senseorgans are different in all cases of animals, as fore example, the cars, eyes, noses and tongues of man, elephant, horse, cow, cat, rat, etc. 28 75. "Sämänyatah dravyamayāņi drāyātmkāni dravyendriyaņi bhavendriyani tu
bhavatmakanyatmapariņatirūpāniti /” TS. Bhā., 164. 76. Ibid., p. 164. 77. "Nirvyttyupakarane dravyendriyan" TS., II. 17; 73. “Nirvyttirangopānganāmanirvartitanindriyadvārāņi, karmaviseşasamskītāh sarira
pradeśah nirmāņanāmängopängapratya mūlaguņanirvarianetyartaha", Ibid, p.164. 79. TS. Pt. pp. 164, 165. 80. TS., Pt. I, 165. 81. Bhs., 2, 4.499 ; Prajñāpanā 15. 191 ; Pancadasa, Indriyapada, Prathama Uddesaka,
Prajāpana, pada, 15 ; Fourth Karmagrantha, pp. 36-37; TS., Ch. II. 17-18 and Vrtti : Visesava, syakabhāsya Satha. 2993-3073 and Lokapra kasi, sarga, 3, SI.
464 ff. 82. TS., P. I, pt. 165.

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All these five sense-organs are individually an innumerableth part of an angula (finger) by thickness (bahalla), while ear is an innumerableth part by width (pohatta ), thus upto that of the eye and nose; the tongue is one angula (finger) by width (pohatta); and the skin is equal to the extent of the body. These five sense organs are endowed with infinite units (ananta-pradeśikas) and immersed in countless space-points (asamkhyeyaprade savagadha ). The least of all these is the eye.83
The capacity of apprehending objects by internal nirvrtti formation is called upakaranendriya.84
Bhavendriya ( psychic sense-organ) is of two kinds, viz. labdhirupa (mental faculty-like) and upayogarupa (consciousness-like).85 The kṣayopasama of Matijñānāvarana - the particular capacity of consciousness is called labdhirupabhavendriya. The pravrtti (action) which takes place in the apprehension of objects by soul according to this labdhirupabhāvendriya is called upayoga-rupa bhavendriya.86
217
According to the Buddhist Philosophy, "The translucent matter of sense-organs (rūpaprasada) is very subtle; it is like the shining of a jewel, it cannot be cut in two,87 it cannot be burnt,88 it has no weight89, it disappears without a residue at death 90 It is nevertheless atomic, and is represented by five different kinds of atoms. The atoms of the organ of sight (eaksurindriya) cover in concentric circles the eye-ball. The atoms of the organ of taste. or, more precisely that matter which is supposed to convey the sensation of taste, covers in concentric semicircles the tongue. The atoms of the organs of touch (kayendriya) cover the whole body.91 The idea that all these different kinds of special matter are, indeed, the same translucent subtle stuff covering 83. Pannavana Sutta 15, Indriyapada, appa bahudaraṁ p. 166.
84. TS., Pt. I. p. 164.
85
"Labdhyupayogau bhavendriyam". TS,, II. 18, p. 166.
86. Labdhirûpayogastu bhavendriyam bhavati / labdhirnāma gatijatyādināmakarmajanita tadavaraṇiyakarmakṣayopasamajanita ca / indriyāgrayakarmodayanirvṛtta ca jivasya bhavati /", TS., Bha. p. 166.
87. "Chinatti chidyate caiva bahyam' dhatu catuṣṭayam Dahyate tulayatyevaṁ vivado dagdhṛtulyayoḥ //", Abh. K., 1.36 Tibetan, Text, p. 63; Abh. K. 1.36. Yasamitra Comm. 1.36.
88. Abh. K., 1.36, Tibetan, Text. p. 63.13.
89. Ibid.
JB-28

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the whole body and disappearing at death had also its advocates, who consequently reduced all senses to one, the sense of touch. But this did not find general acceptance. Being as subtle as the shining of a jewel, this matter cannot appear alone; it is supported by gross matter (mahābhūta ), of which the eye-ball and flesh in general consist-92."
218
The comparative study of Indriyas by all Indian systems of thought in brief reveals that the Jaina view on them from their physical and psychical aspects is more subtle and thought-provoking as they have been accepted as representing translucent matter like that of the
Buddhists.
3
90. "Vipākajaupacayikaḥ pañcadhyatmam vipakajah/" Na sabdo apratigha aṣṭau" naisyandikavipākavipākajah /; "mṛtasyananuvṛtteh /"; Abh. K., 1.37, Yasomitra. 91. Tribhirghräṇādibhistulyaviṣayagrahaṇam matam / Caramasyaśrayo atitah /",
Abh. K., 1.44.
92. The Central Conception of Buddhism. pp. 10-11.

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(Ninth Section ) THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The integration of the activities of the various parts of the bodies of higher animals is achieved by two co-ordinating systems -- the nervous system, (nhärus ) as already discussed, and the endocrine system, (stomach, liver, kidney, ovaries, testes, etc.). The long-term adjustments of metabolism, growth, reproduction are typically under the control of the endocrine system.
As found in Jaina Biology, the endocrine system consists of stomach, liver, kidney, ovaries, testes, etc. Modern Biology adds to them pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroids and thymus, adrenals,
etc. 1
Stomach (āmrou or udara ),'a liver (Kāhjjam or yakịt ) and kidney (tanuyamta ?)b have already been discussed in the sections on "Digestive and Excretory systems". Ovaries (Kucchi-Kukși )2 and testes (Vasāna -andakasa )3 have both external secretions, via ducts and internal secretions carried by the blood stream. "The endocrine glands are distinguished by the fact that they secrete substances into the blood stream rather than into a duct leading to the outside of the body or to one of the internal organs."'4
According to modern Biology, "some glands-thyroid, parathyroids, pituitary and adernal function only in the secretion of hormones and are strictly ductless glands; others, such as, the pancreas, ovaries, and testes have both external secretions carried by the stream.''5
Testes :
In addition to cells that manufacture sperm ( sukka ),5a "the testes contain cells that produce, the male sex hormone, testosterone". It is
1. Biology, p. 389. Ila Kalyanakäraka 3.4, Taudula Veyaliya 17, p. 38. 1/b Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 2. Tandula Veyaliya 2. p. 6. Ovaries are connected by 2 fallopian tubes 3. Panhavagaraņa 1.3 ; see Pāisadda mahaman, p. 752 4. Biology p. 3.8. 5. Biology p. 388. 5.Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35; sthânānga 5 ( sukkapoggale ) 6. Biology, p. 399 ; Sukka, Tandula. Veyaliya. 2. p...6.15

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Jaina Biology suggestive from the mention of ten Suk radhārini sirās? (seminal ducts) that "these hormone cells are located between the seminiferous tubules which produce sperm". "Testosterone stimulates the development of the so-called secondary male sex characters - the beard smaśru ), the growth and distribution of hair on the body, the deepened voice, the enlarged and stronger muscles and the accessory gland, seminal vesicles and penis". 8
The Ovaries ( Kucchi) 9/a
Like the testes, ovaries are indocrine glands and secrete soniyālavaya (drops of blood ) in addition to producing eggs (ojas) for reproduction. 10 “Both ovaries and testes develop from mesoderm, from the genital ridge on the Ventral side of the mesonephric kidneys,''11 according to modern Biology.
The two fallopian tubes of two ovaries are puspanālikākāra 12 (of the shape of the stalk of lotus or flower). According to Biology, "the two ovaries are beam-shaped structures, about 1 1/2 inches long, supported in the back part of the abdominal cavity by mesenteries. The outer layer of each gland is the germinal epithelium, from which the eggs develop, while the central part is composed of connective tissue and blood vessels. Just under the germinal epithelium is a thick layer of spherical groups of cells or follicles, each enclosing one egg."13
It is indicative in Jaina Biology that each month, 14 one or more 7. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35. 8. Biology, p. 399 ; Tandula Veyaliya, p. 6.
"Mehanam Kharata därdhyam sauņdiryam smasruidhrstata/ strikāmiteti lingāni, sapta
pumstve pracakşati /” Tandula Veyaliya, p. 6. 9. Tandula Veyaliya p. 3, Reference to fallopian tubes sirādugam suggests the
existence of ovaries. Tandula Veyaliya p. 3. 9/a Ibid 16, P, 35, p. 39. 10. Itthie nabhihitthā siradugam ......te riukālc phudiya soniyalavayā vimoyamti
II, Ibid, p. 3 11. Biology, p. 400 12. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3. 13. Biology, p. 400
Itthie nabhihitthā siradugaṁ pupphanaliyagäran / tassa ya hitthā yoni ahomuha samthiya kosā (9) JI / Tassa u hittha củyassa mamjari (jārisi) tarisa u mamsassa/ te riukāle phudiyá soniyalavayā Vimoyamti // Kosāyāra jonim sapatta sukkamisiya jaiya / taiya jivuvavae jugga bhaniya jinimdehim // Tandula Veyaliya p. 4. Māsi mási rajah striņāmajasraṁ Śravati tryaham" Sthāranga Țika, vide Tandula Veyaliya p. 4.
14.

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of the follicles begins to enlarge and become distended with follicular fluid, until finally protrudes above the surface of the ovary and bursts, releasing ( Vimoyimti) the egg cell contained in it. This process is known as ovulation 15 (stu). The released egg passes by way of a channel called oviduct (sirādugam pupphanäliyagāram) to the uterus (yoni).16 If the egg metes and is fertilized by a sperm (Sukkamisiya yaiya) in the upper part of the oviduct, it eventually becomes embedded in the uterine wall and begins to develop into an embryo. 17 If no sperms are present, the egg degenerates 18
“ Whether or not fertilization occurs, the follicular cells left after the rupturing of the follicle in ovulation multiply rapidly and fill the cavity left by the previous follicle19."
Estrous and Menstrual Cyles :
In most mammalioan species, the females demonstrate rhythmic variations in the intensity of the sex urge. 20 "The period when it is at its height is known as estrus in Biology and the animal is then said to be in "hear."21
The estrous cycle is marked not only by the changes in the lining
15. Tassa ya hiţțba chuyassa mamjari (jārisi ) tarisā u mamsassa / te riukāle phudiyā
soniyalavayā vimoyamti 10. Tandula Voyaliya, p. 3. 16. Tassa ya birthā joni ahomuhā samthiya kosa / Koságāram jonim sampattā
sukkamisiya jaiya / tayiya jivavăväe jugga / Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3. 17. "Kosayāram jonim sampattae sukkamisiya jaiya /
taiya jivuvaväe jugga bhaniya jinimdehim !/"' Tandula Veyaliya p. 3. "Pamcabim thanehimitti purişeņa saddhim a samvasamāṇivi gabbham dharejjā, tamoutthi duvvippayadā dunnisanna sukkappogale adhitthijja/sukkappoggalásarisathe va se vaţthe amte yonie anupavesejja 2 sayam va se sukkapoggale 3 paro va se sukkapoggale aņupavejjā, siodagaviyadeņa va se ayamāmāņie sukkhapoggale aņupavesejjā, iccetehim pamcajvadharejia' Sthānanga Sūtra 5 vide
Tandula Veyaliya, pp. 3-4. 18. "Bārasa ceva muhutta uvarim vidchamsagacchai sau !"
Tandula Veyaliya p. 4 19. Biology, p. 400. 20. "Pamcabim thāņehimitthi purisena saddhim asimvasamāņivi gobbhan dharejjā,
tam duvvippayadā duvvippayada dunnisanna sukkapoggalasaṁsayghe va se vatth:
aṁto joņie anupavesejjā 3, etc." Thānanga 5 21. Biology, p. 401

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of the vagina and uterus which make the latter better able to receive a fertilized egg.22
Jaina Biology indicates that the uterine lining becomes softer and thicker, while its blood vessels and glands increase in number and size. These processes reach their height a short time after ovulation (Riukāla)23 The Jaina view on menstruation every month is supported by Indian modern Biology in this manner that “Human antheropoid ”ape females do not experience any distinct period of estrus; instead the cycle is marked by periods of bleeding, known as menstruation, which occur about every twenty-eight days and last about four days. The menstrual flow consists of pieces of the ruptured uterine linining and blood from its vessels.24,"
After the egg has been released from the ovary and is passing down the oviduct, it can be fertilized only within a short time, probably about twenty-four hours ( Bārasa ca muhuttā uvarim viddhamsagacchae sāu).25 When the sperm are deposited, through intercourse in the female reproductive system, they quickly lose their ability to fertilize an egg, within forty eight hours at the most26. The period of maximum fertility in human beings, then, narrows to the time of ovulation, about midway between successive menstrual periods.
The placenta (Mātrjivarasaharani )27
Although the placenta, (matrjivarasaharani) is primarily an organ for the support and nourishment of the developing embryo, it is also an endocrine gland. According modern Biology, "it secretes estradiol, progesterone, adrenal corticoids and chorionic gonadtropin, a substance similar to the luteinizing hormone of the pituitary. 28
22. Tassa ya hitthā joni ahomuhā saṁthisā kosā (9) tassa ya hittha cuyassa maħjari
(järisi ) tarisa u mamsassa/ te riukāle phudiyā soniyalavayā vimoya mti Kosāyāram jonim sampathā sukkamisiyā jaiya / taiya jivuvavāc juggā bhamiya jiņimdehim." Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3.
23. Tassa yä hitti cūyamamjari... te riukāle phuciya soniyalavayā Vimoyamti
Tardula Veyaliya p. 3. 24. Biology, p. 4.1
25. Tandula Veyaliya p. 4, 26. Ibid. 27. Bhagavats Sūtra 1:7,61 Tanduia Veyaliya 4, p. 9. 28. Biology, p. 403,
.

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The Organisation of the Human Body
223
Other Endocrine Glands :
According to Biology, “certain other organs of the body, although not usually considered endocrine glands, do produce hormones. These include the small intestine, (which yield secretin, responsible for the flow of pancreatic juice.) and the hormone cholecystokinin, which stimulates the contraction of the gall bladder.''29
"The stomach, liver and kidney also are believed to have endocrine functions but the evidence for this is not yet conclusive."30
“The thymus, a fairly large gland, existing only during childhood, lies in the upper part of the chest, covering the lower end of the trachea."31
"The pineal glands, a small, round structure on the upper surface of the thalamus, between the two halves of the cerebral cortex, has long been suspected of endocrine activity, largely because it has no other known function.''32
29. Biology, p. 403 30. Ibid; 31. Ibid, p. 403 32. Ibid. ; see Jolley's chart on Anatomy, vide Brahmavidya Vol. XXXVIII, 9.75.
Dr. Mrs. Colette Caillat on the medical doctrines and anatomy in Tandula Veyaliya.

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( FIFTH CHAPTER )
Reproduction : ASEXUAL AND SEXUAL REPRODUCTIONS, HUMAN REPRODUCTION AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT.
( First Section)
Reproduction Asexual Reproduction and Sexual Reproduction.
The survival of each species of plant or animal requires that its individual members multiply that they produce new individuals to replace the one killed by predators, 2 parasites3 or old age and disease5. The actual process of reproduction varies tremendously from one kind of animal to another, but two basic types of reproduction, Saṁmürcchima and Garbhavyutkrāntika,7 can be distinguished. Even the highest animals reproduce asexually as evidenced by the fact that “the production of identical twins from the splitting of a single fertilized egg, is a kind of asexual reproduction."8
Sammürcchima (asexual birth or reproduction) involves only a single parent, (i.e. it does not require parent) which splits, buds or 1. Sūtrakstānga 11. 3. 19, etc. 2. Sūtrakrtanga II. 3. 17, "macchäņa ṁ susum aranam......egādesenań oya maharcmti,
etc. e.g. fishes, porpoises, as long as they are young, they feed on the mother's
humours, or both movable and immovable beings. 3. Sūtrakstānga II. 128 (ānusuya ) "anusūttāc viuțfanti" 4. Jarãe parināmao.... Jarāghare viņassamte, jivo vasaiakāmao" // 9 // (40), etc.
Tandula Veyaliya 41, p. 16. 5. "Himabhinnasaro dino, vivario vicittao /"... dubbalo dukkhio suyai /" Ibid.
"dubkito - rogadipidālak sa vyaptah", Ibid (comm.), p. 17 old age (jara ) and
disease i roga) are the two of the ten conditions of life. Ibid (comm.) 6. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3; Pannavaņā I. Jivapa, avana, ; see births of Beimdiya - to
pamcemdiya Jivas - Sammurcchima and Vyutkrantika, etc.
Tāttvārthādhigama Sūtra, II. 24, 34. 7. Bhagavati Sūtra 7.5 282 ; Jivabhigama 3.1.96 ; 1.33.36
Uttaradhya yana XXXVI. 171 ; Pannavana Jivapannavana (from two-sensed to
five-sensed animals). 8. Biology. p. 411. See Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, XXXVI 170. All pañcendriyas are
both Sammūrochima and Garbhaja, (i. e. they have a sexual and sexual re
production). 9. Bhagavati, 7.5.282; Jivabhigama Sutra 3.1.96 1–33.36. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra
XXXVI. 1'0; Pannavanā Jivapānnavanā. 1.57, p. 27 scc dvindriya to pancendriya Jivapaņņavanā.

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A sexual and Sexual Reproduction
225
fragments to give rise to two or more offsprings which have hereditary traits identical to those of the parents. 10 Garbhavyutkrāntika (Sexual reproduction) involves two parents, 11 each of which contributes a specialized or gamete (eggs and sperm)12 which fuse to form the zygote or fertilized egg. 13
According to modern Biology, “The egg generally is non-motile and large, with a store of yolk to supply nutrients for the embryo which results when the egg is fertilized; sperms are usually small and motile, adapted to swim actively to the egg by beating of its tail. The biologic advantage of sexual reproduction is that it permits the recombination of the best inherited characteristics of the two parents ; thus offspring may be better able to survive than either parent". 14
Asexual Reproduction (Sammūrochima Vakkamtiya) 15
Living things or animals can give rise to a new generation asexually in a number of ways, such as, by fission among the single-celled animals like krmis (worms) and Kuksikțmis (amoebas)16 and by budding, e. g. "yeasts","7 according to modern Biology.
It is observed that many higher animals, such as, lizards (grhagolikās), 18 etc. can grow new tail or other organ if one is lost. “When this ability is carried to an extreme, it becomes a method of reproduction, called fragmentation. The entire body of the parent may break 10. Offspring of two-sensed or three - sensed animals born by the process of
asexual reproduction bave hereditary traits identical to those of the parents, e.g.
worms ( Kệmis ), etc. 11. All five-sensed animals are both sammūrochima and Garbhavyutkrāntika, i. e.
from five-sensed lower animals to man, all have asexual and sexual reproduction. See Uttaradhyayana Sūtra XXXVI 1'0; Pannavana, Jivapaņņavanā, Tirikkhjiva
pannavană upto Manussajivapannavanā. 12. Sūtrakrtänga II. 3. 21. "Itthie purusassa ya kamma kadai jonie etthia nam
mehuņavattiyae naman samjoge samayjjai" "te rudhirabindavah kośakāram yonim samprāptah santah sukramisritāh rtudinatrayante puruşasamyogena apuruşasamyogena vā purusa viroņa militāh yada bhavanti tada jivotpade - garbhasam
bhūtilaksaneyeogy a bhanita." Tandula Veyaliya, p. 5. 13. Ibid. 14. Biology. 15. Bhagavati Sūtra 7.5.2>2 ; Jivābhigama Sūtra 3.1.96; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra XXXI
170.; Pannavana Sutta, Jivapannavanā. 16. Pannavanā, Veiîdiyajivapaņņavanā. 17. Biology, p. 418. 18. Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra II. 34. JB-29

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226
into pieces into a new worms, "19
Jaina Biology
as many as several hundred each of which develops animal. This is particularly common among the flat
Some animals and most plants reproduce. asexually by means of spores, 5,20 which are special cells with resistant coverings, e. g. masaka, "the single-celled animal plasmodium, which causes malaria. "The organism has a complex life cycle involving both man and the Anopheles mosquito. *21
Sexual Reproduction in Animals. (Garbhavy utkrāntika)22
According to Jaina Biology, a few animals, such as, five-sensed lower animals (tirikk hajoniyajivas), 23 have alternate sexual and asexual generations, 24 but most of them reproduce soley by sexual means,25 and have permanent sex organs. Modern Biology mentions the coelenterates which have alternate sexual and asexual generations, but "most animals having permanent sex organs reproduce solely by sexual union."26
Many species of five-sensed lower animals farther along the evolutionary scale, have permanent structures, 27 for sexual reproduction. Among the Vertebrates a wide assortment of accessory structures has evolved to facilitate the union of egg and sperm, and to ensure the development of the embryo.28
1. Biology, p. 49.
20.
See Uttaradhyayar a Sutra XXXVI. 146 (masaga); Pannavana Sutta 1.58. Some of the four-sensed animals e.g. majakaş (mosquitoes), etc. reproduced by spores. TS. II. 24.; Biology, p. 4 9
21. Biology, p. 419.
22. Bhagavati Sutra 7..282.; Jivabhigama Sutra 3.1.56 etc.; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra XXXI. 170; Pannavana Sutta, Pamcemdiya Tirikkhajoniyajivapanṇavanā.
23. Pannavana Sutta, I. Tirikkajivapannavana 61-91.
24.
Some acquatic animals, fish etc and some terrestrial animals, egakhura, etc. are mentioned as Sammurcchima and garbhavyutkrāntika. "Te samasato duviha pannattā tamjaha sammucchima ya gabbḥavakkamtiya ya ". Ibid.
25. 1bid.
26. Biology, p. 420.
27. Sutrakṛtanga II. 3.36 Itthie purisassa ya Kammakaḍae Jonie ettha mchunavattiyac-samjoge samuppaijai/" Tandula Veyaliya. "Itthie nabhihitṭhā siradugam pupphanāliyāgāram / tassa ya hiṭṭhā joni ahomuha samṭhiya kosa // 9 // tassa ya hittha cuyassa mamjari (jărisi) tarisa u mamsassa, etc., p.. 3.
28. "Itthie ya purisassa ya kammakadae jonie mehuṇavattiyae namam samjoe samuppajjai, te dihao sineham samcinamti tattha nam..... havvamägacchati ".

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Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
227
Types of Fertilization.
Most aquatic animals29 simply liberate their sperm and eggs into the water and their union occurs by chance as suggested by the fact that they are sammūrchimasjivas. “No accessory structures are needed, except the ducts that transport the cells to the outside of their bodies. It is called external fertilization for obvious reasons.”:30 When the development of the fertilized egg takes place out of the female's body, it is called oviparous ( andaja ), when it takes place in the uterus it is called viviparous (jarayuja ) e. g. mammals.
Other animals, especially those living on land,31 have accessory sex organs for transferring the sperm from the body of the male to that of the female, so that fertilization occurs within the latter32. It is called internal fertilization which requires co-operation of the sexes33 and “many species have evolved elaborate patterns of mating behaviour to insure that it takes place."34
As it appears from the study of Jaina Biology, the evolution of instincts for the care of the young has accompanied the evolution of more efficient methods for bringing about fertilization.35 Biology observes that "Fish and amphabia (frog) in general take no care of the developing eggs, and great quantities are laid each year in order that by chance a few will develop. The eggs of reptiles are usually laid in the sand or mud, where they develop without parental care, warmed only by the sun. Birds lay their eggs in nests, and incubate them by sitting
33.
29. Biology, p. 420 Bhagavati, 2.5.105. 30. Pannavana Sutta 1.62 ; Macchá 1 kacchahā 2 gaba 3 magarā 4 su usumārā (fish
tortoises varamidae (Lizards, Reptili ) coscodiles, dolphins), etc. appear to libe
rate their sperm and eg is into the water, 31. Biology, p. 429, 32. Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra II. 34
Cauppayathalayarapancemdiyatirik khajoniyā ya parisaopathalayarapamcemdiyatirik khajoniya ya/" Quadruped - terrestrial five - Sensed lower animals, and terrestrial five sensed animals which move on breasts and arms respectively.
Pannavanā Sutta, 1.69 24. "Te samāsato duvibā pannatta / tamjhā - Sammucchima ya Gabbhavakkartiya
ya", Ibid. 1.75 ; 1.84. Fertilization occurs in the female animals due to the transfer of sperm from the sex organ of the male to that of the female, Tandula Veyaliyā, p. 3; Sūtra r'anga II. 3.56. Gabbhavakkamtiya means that those terrestrial animals are born as a result of internal fertilization which requires the co-operation of both the sexes. The quadrupeds, reptiles, aerial animals have different pattern of matting behaviour.
35.

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228
Jain a Bio,ogy
on them. The newly hatched birds are quit: helpess and require parental attention for several weeks. 936
"In contrast to these eggs which develop more or less at the mercy of the environment, the mammalion egg....develops within the uterus of the female, where it is safe from predators and from enviromental changes until it is able to cope with them.'37
In the evolution of the Vertebrates from fish to man,38 the trend has been toward the production of fewer eggs, and the development of instincts for parental care of the young.39 It is indicative that the fish40 produces" eggs a vear, which develop into adult fish, while mammals 41 have few offspring,” but take such good care of them that the majority reach adulthood,"42
In the Vertebrates a number of accessory structures43 have developed to facilitate the transfer of sperm from the male to the female reproductive tract44 and to provide a place for the development of the fertilized egg.45 "These structures have evolved either from or with the urinary system, and the two systems together are frequently referred to as the urogenital system'?46 in modern Biology.
36. Biology, p. 421. 37. Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra II :4. The following classes of animals-Andaja-oviparous
(pisces. Reptilia, Batrachia ). Jarāyuja (mammals born with placenta, including all mammals other than the potaja ) and potaja ( a class of placental mammals comprising the Dec duata with the exception of Man, the Apes and the carnivora) indicate that the evolution of more efficient methods for bringing about fertilization has been accommpanied by the evolution of instincts for the care of the
young. 38. Biology, p. 421. 39. Biology; p. 421. 40. Pannavana I. 63-92. 40/a Sūtrak’tanga II. 3 (See Ahāramkṣepa for the bringning up of mammalion
youog kiddies) 41. Sūtrakrtanga II. 3.22. Andajānām ...matsya, etc.", TS. II. 34. 4. "Jarāyujāpār manusya -go - mahisajāvikasca upto marjārādinām. "Potajānam
sallaka - hasti..garbhe janma /", TS. II. 34. 43. Biology, p. 421. 44. "Itthie nabhihitiha sirādugam pupphanaliyāgāram/ tassa ya hitha yoni
ahamuha samthiya kosā // 9 // Tassa ya hittha cuyassa mamjari (jārisi ) taris ā
u mansassa / Tandula Veyaliya. p. 3. 45. "Te riukāle phudiya soniyalavaya vimoyami o kosayāram jonim Sãmpatta -
sukkamisiya jaiya / taiya jivuvavah jugga //", Ibid. 46. Biology, p. 421.

Page #240

Human reproduction,1 in common with that of most animals, is accomplished sexually by the union of specialized gametes - ova or eggs produced by the female and sperm produced by the male 2 A man and a woman combine in cohabitation in a cunnus (Jonie) and there they deposit their humours (sineham). Therein are born the souls of different men.3 That is to say, "all the parts of the complicated reproductive system in both sexes, as well as the various physiologic and psychologic phenomena associated with sex, have just one purpose to insure the successful union of the egg and sperm, and the subsequent development of the fertilized egg into a new individual."
The Male Reproductive organs :
The testis (vasana) discussed previously as an endocrine gland, performs an equally important function as the source of the male sex cells.5 Jaina Biology refers to sperm duct or seminal vesicle (śukradha rinistra), penis (upastha ),7 sperm or semen (Sukka )8 etc. But like modern Biology it does not go into the detailed descriptions of the male reproductive or gans-scrotal sac, testes, seminiferous or testicular tubules, vas efferens, epididymis, vas deferens (sperm duct), seminal
(Second Section)
HUMAN REPRODUCTION.
1. Kosayaram jonim sampatta sukkamisiya jaiya taiya Jivuvaväe jugga bhaniya bhaniya jinimdehim", Tandula Veyaliya. p. 3.
Ibid.
2.
"Pamcahim thāṇehimitth! purisena saddhim asaṁvasamāṇīvi gabbham dharejjā, tam-itthi duvvippayadā dunn sanna sukka oggale adhithijja, sukkapoggalasamsatthe va se vatthe amto onie anupavesejja 2 sayam va se sukkapoggaleanuravesejja 3 paro va se sukkapoggale anupavesejja 4 siodagaviyaḍe na va se ayamamanie sukkapoggle anupave、ejjā 5 iccetehim pamcajāvadharejjā /",
Sūtrakṛtänga II. 3, 56 Sthananga Sutra, pamcamosthāna
3. Sūtrakṛtanga II. 3. 56
"Tesim ca nam ahābieņam ahāvaga seņam itthie purisassa ya kammakaḍāc jonie ettha nam chunavattiyae (va) namaṁ samjoge samuppajjai duhaovi sineham samcinamti tattha nam Jiva itthittae purisattae napumsagattae viuttamti /"
4. Biology, p. 421.
5. Biology, p, 421.
6. Tandula Veyaliya p. 16, p. 35.
7. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 38,
8. Tandula Veyaliya, p, 3,

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230
Jaina Biology
fluid, seminal vescicles, prostrate glands, cowper's glands, urethra and
penis. 9
According to Biology, a pair of these testes (glands) "develops within the abdominal cavity of all vertebrates, but in man and some other mammals they descend shortly before or after birth into the scroial sac, a loose pouch of skin which is an outpocketing of the body wall."10
"Each testis consists of about one thousand highly coiled seminiferous tubules which actually produce the sperm. The seminiferous tubules are lined with a germinal epithelium made up of rounded cells with large muscles. These cells undergo division to form cells which develop into the sperm, with compact heads, containing the mucleus, and a long whiplike tail for locomotion. 11"
"At one end of each seminiferous tubule (testicular tubule) is a fine tibule called the vas efferens, which connects it to a single, com plexly coiled tube, the epididymis, where the sperm are storied. Each of the two epididymides lies close to the base of the testis to which it is attached. From each epididymis a duct, the vas deferens (sperm duct), passes from the scrotum through the remains ol the inguinal canal, into the abdominal cavity and over the urinary bladder to the lower part of the abdominal cacity, where it joins the urethra.
The sperm are suspended in a liquid, the seminal fluid, secreted from the seminal vesicle and the prostate gland. These secretions together with sperm, constitute semen. The urethra is a tube leading from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. In the male the last part of it runs through the penis, the external representative organ, just above and in front of the scrotal sac. Within the penis the urethra is flanked by three columns of erectile tissue which is spongy and capable of being filled with blood.”12
The female reproductive organs :
It appears from the statement "Ithhie nābhihitthā sirādugaṁ pupphanäliyzgāram"12a that the egg - producing organs of the female - the ovaries (kucchis) are held in place by ligaments within the lower part
9. Biology p, 422 10. Ibid., p. 421, 11. Ibid, p. 423. 12. Biology. p. 492. 12/a Tandula Veyaliya p. 3

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Asexual and Sexual Reproductions
of the abdominal cavity 13 between the hips. Each of the pairs of fallopian tubes coviducts( = siradugam) is about the size and shape of a pupphanaliyagaram (lotus stalk? ).14
The reference to Rtukala (menstruation period) every month 15 after reaching the puberty and the discharge of menstrual blood16 for three days17 each month, the closing of yoni (uterus) after 12 muhurtas and its occurrence each month18 upto 55 years19 in Jaina Biology is suggestive that "when a girl reaches puberty there are many thousand eggs in each of her ovaries. Aparently no new ones are ever produced thereafter."20
Since normally a woman ovulates thirteen times a year and but a single egg ripens each month,21 "only 400 or so of these eggs ever reach maturity and escape from the ovary, the rest degenerate and are absorbed.
231
According to modern Biology, the ovaries alterate in releasing their eggs, but the alteration is irregular and unpredictable.
Jaina Biology, explains that the egg is released into the abdominal cavity at the time of ovulation,22 whence it passes into one of two tubes called the oviducts (sirādugam)23 or fallopian tubes. The oviducts empty directly into the upper corners of a kośa-shaped organ, the uterus or womb which houses the developing embryo until the time of birth.24 This organ lies in the middle of the lower part of the abdominal
13. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid (riukāla).
16. Ibid.
"Te riukale phuḍiya soniyalavaya Vimoyamts".
17. Ibid, Tā mañjarayaḥ strīṇām māsānte, yadajasramiśram dinaṭrayam gravati".
18. Masi māsi rajaḥ strīņāṁ ajasram śravati tryaham Vatsarai
Ibid, p. 4, see Sthananga tikā,
19. "Panapannaya pareṇam yoni pamilayae /", 1bid., p. 4.
"Yati panñcasataḥ kṣayam, Sthanangatika vide Ibid., p. 4.
20. Biology, p. 423.
21/a Ibid.
21/b Ibid.

22. "Itthie nabhihittha siradugam pupphanaliyaliyaliyagaraṁ / tassa ya hittha Joni ahomuha samṭṭiya kosa // 9 // tassaya hittha cũyassa mamjari (järisi) tārisā u mamsassa" etc. "Te riukale phudiya soniyalavaya vimoyamti /" Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3.
23. "Itthie nabhihittha siradugam pupphanaliyaggram /", Ibid.

dvadaśadurdhvaṁ"

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Jaina Biology
cavity25 just behind the urinary bladder. Modern Biology state that "it is about the size of a clenched fist and has thick muscular walls and a mucous lining richly supplied with blood vessels."26 From the centre of its lower end (ahomuha) a single muscular tube, the vagina,27 passes to the outside of the body. The vagina 28 serves both as receptacle for the sperm and so must accommodate the penis, and as the birth canal when prenatal development is complete. The uterus29 (yoni) terminates in a muscular ring, (cuyassa mamjari...... mamsassa), i.e. "the cervix, which projects a short distance into the vagina. "30
232
Fertilization:
In the act of sexual intercourse or copulation the erect penis is inserted into the vagina, where it ejaculates about 90000031 sperm in the maximum, (200,000,000 sperm, according to modern Biology.)32
In one life or birth (Bhava) there may come one or two or three sperm of a male person in the minimum and 9 lakh sperm in the maximum as issue. Because there takes place the sexual activity called 'mehunavattie' in the heated sex-organs of the female and the male and both of them cause to combine semen (sperm) and blood (egg) into zygote in cohabitation in Yoni (cunnus) by their intercourse. Thus one or two or three sperm in the minimum and nine lakh sperm in the maximum may be ejaculated.33
24. "Kosayaram jonim sampatta sakkamisiya jaya / taiya jivuvaväe / Ibid. "Tassa ya hittha joni ahomuha samthiya kosa (9," Ibid.
25.
26. Biology, 423: "Tassa ya hittha tarisa u maṁsassa - Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3. 27. "Abomuha samṭṭhiya tassa kosaiya hiṭṭhā cũyassa maṁjari (jārist) tarisā itassa Tandua Veyaliya, p. 3.
28. Cüssssa maṁjari ( jārisi) tärisa u maṁsassa /
te riukale phudiya.. upto taiya jivuvaväe/" Ibid.
29. "Tassa ya hittha joni ahomuha samthiyà kosa", Ibid.
30. Biology, p. 423.
31. "Egajivassya ega bhavaggahanenam jahanneṇam ikko va do va tinni va ukkosenam-sayasahass puhattaṁ jīvanaṁ puttattae havv magacchamti / Itthie ya purisassa ya k mmakadae jonie mehunavattie namam samyoge samup ajjai, duhao sjneham samciņamti ..tattha nam jayaṇnenam....havvaṁāgacchamti", Bhagavati 2. 5, 0.
te
"Jivānam parisamkha lakkhapihuttam ca ukkosam" //2/1, Tandula Veyaliyā, p. 4. 32. Blology, p. 424.
33. Bhagavati Sūtră, 2, 5. 105; Tandula Veyaliya, sec also Sutrakṛtānga 11.5.

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Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
233
It appears that the sperm travel up the vagina into the uterus partly under their own power and partly by force of the inuscular contraction of the walls of these organs.34
Most of the sperm become lost on the journey,35 but a few find their way to the openings of the oviducts and swim up them, as suggested by the statement "Egajivassa...ikko...vã do vā tinni vä.... puttattāe havvamāgacchamti.''36
If ovulation has occurred shortly after or before copulation, the egg which passes into the oviduct probably will be fertilized by one of the sperm.37 "Only one of the millions of sperm deposited at each ejaculation fertilizes a single egg, 38 accordiog to modern Biology.
As soon as the egg has united with a sperm 39 it develops a fertilization membrane that prevents the entrance of others as is suggested by the fact that the unused sperm and unfertilized eggs die40 in the oviducts or uterus.
After fertilization has occurred, the zygote, while passing down the oviduct to the uterus, begins to divide.41 34. Pancabim thāņehimitthi purisena saddhim asamvasamāṇivi gabbham dharejjā,
tamitthi duvvippayadā dunnisapdā sukkhappoggale addhittijja sukkappo.galasamsatthe va e sukkapoggale anupavesejjā siyodagaviyadeņa vā se āyamamänie sukka pogga le anupavesijjā iccetehim pamcajāvadharejjā / Sthanānga Sūtra V.
vide Tandula Veyaliya, pp. 3-4. 35. "Bārasa ceva muhutta uvarim viddhaṁsa gaccahi să u," Tandula Veyaliya p. 4.
"Rtuvante striņām naropabhogena dvadasa muhurtamadhya eva garbhabhāvah
radanantarar Viryavināśāt garbhābhāva iti /", Ibid p. 4. 36. Bhagavati Sūtra, 2. 5. 105. 37. “Kosāyāram jonim saṁpattā sukkamisiyā jaiya / taiya jivuvaväe juggă bhaņiā
jiņimdehim !" Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3. "Rtudinatrayante puruşasamyogena apuruşasamyogeda vā puruşa Viryeņa milita yada bha anti tada jivotpade - garbhasambhūtila kgane yogya bhavanti (comm.)
Ibid, Bhagavati, 2,5.105 38. Biology. p. 424. 39. Kosayāram jonim Simpatta sukkamisiya jaiya taiya jivuvvaväe jugga bhaniya
Jiņimdehim”. Tandula Veyāliya, p. 3. 40. Barasa ceva muhutta uvarim viddhamsa gacchai sa u / Tandula Veyaliya. p. 4.
Rattakkada u itthi lakkhapuhuttam ca bārasa muhutta / piasa mkha sayapuhuttam ca bārasavāsā u gabbhassa 11 Ibid., p. 5 See its conmentary. "Raktena, ukafayah purusa viryayukta yonyasca ekasyāh striyāḥ garbhe iaghanyataḥ eko dvau Vā trayo vā utkşşşatastu lakşapşthakatvan. .., nispattiṁ ca prāyaḥ
eko dvau vā agace hatah seșāstvalpajivitāttatraiva mțyante /", Ibid. 41. Imo khalu jivo ammāpiusamyoge mâu uyar pinsuk kamtam tadubhayasarsattham
gabbhattāe vakkamai (1) JB-30

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Seven 42 or eight to ten days elapse from the time the egg is fertilized until it is implanted in the uterine wall as suggested by Jaina Biology. Until it is firmly implanted, the developing embryo is nourished by a secretion of the utrine glands known as “Kalusam Kibbisaṁ.''43 (uterine milk?). At implantation the embryo consists of a cluster of several hundred cells derived by division from the original, fertilized egg44 as indicated by the statement "Sattāham Kalalaṁ hoim, sallāhań hoi abbuyam”, etc.
Implantation :
It appears that the implantation of the developing embryo in the lining of the uterus is the process that involves activity on the part of both embryo and ulerine lining.45 "The embryo secretes substances which des roy a few of the cells of the lining and then penetrates at the point. This stimulates the uterine tissue to grow and surround the embryo".
Natrition of the Embryo
As pointed out, after implantation in the uterine the embryo at first feeds on the menses of the mother and the semen of the father or both combined into an unclean, foul, (substance).46 In other words, “The embryo continues to develop at first obtaining its nourishment by enzymatically breaking down the cells of the uterine wall immediately around it."47 And later it absorbs with a part of its bodies the essence of whatever food the mother takes.48 That is to say, later it continues
42. "Sattaham Kalalam hoim Sattaham hoi abbuy.m / Tandula Veyatiya, p. 6. 43. "Imo khalu jivo ammapiu sa myoge mauyam piusuk kam tam adubhayasamsattham
kalusam kibbisa m tappadhmayāe aharar āhārittā gabbhattā: vakkamai ?" etc, Tandula Veyaliya. 1, p. 6. See Bhagave ti Sūtra 1. 7 61-62.
44. “Sattaham kalalaṁ hoim, sattänam etc.” Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
45. Tassa phalabimțasarisa uppalanalovama bhavai näbhirasaharani jamanie saya
im nābhia padibaddhā. nathie tie gabbho oyām aiyai anhayamie oyae tie gabbhi vivaddham jāva jāva jāutti /
46. Bio ogy p. 425 Tandula Veyaliya 47. Biology p. 425 48. Sūtra Kștänga II 3.21 ; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7 61.
"Imo khalu Jivo ammāpiusamyoge măuyam pusuk kam tam tadubhayasaṁsaypha halusam Kibhisam tappadha mayae āhāram ahāittā gabbhattae Vakkamai l.. Tandula Veyājiya p. 6.

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to develop by extracting the nutritional essential from the blood stream 49 of the mother via blood vessels of rhe placenta.':50
The new human being develops only from the cells which tie along one side hollow ball originally implanted in the uterus, like a stalk of fruit or lotus 51 “The other cells form membranes which nourish and protect the developing child eventually form part of the afterbirth."52
The Placenta (Mātějivarasaharan 153 )
The placenta in the female uterus is the organ made up of the villis plus the tissues of the uterine wall in which they are embedded. By means of this placenta the developing embryo obtains nutrients, 54 and "oxyen and gets rid of carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes 55 as explained in modern Biology.
According to Jaina Biology it appears from the statement māujivarasa harani puttajivrarasaharani māujivapadibaddhā puttajivam phudā” that there are many capillaries in the villi which receive blood from the embryo by way of one of the two umbilical arteries and return it to the embryo by way of the umbllical vein (nābhirasa haraņi)56
49. Biology p.-25. 50. Sūtrakstanga 11. 3 ; Bhagavati Sūtra 1. 7. 62
"Jaṁ se māyā nāņāvihão pavarasavigaio...... davvăim ahárei tao egadisenam
oyamahārei /", Tandula Veyaliya, 5, p. 9 51. “Tassa phalabimtasarisã uppalanālovamā bhavai nābhirasaharani Jaņanie sayā
in nābhie Paạibaddhā nābhie tie gabbho oyam aiyai amhayam tie oyactie gabbho vivaddhai Jáva Jäutti", Tandula Veyaliya 5, p. 9. Mauji varasaharani Puttajivarasaharani maujivapadibaddha puttajivar paļibaddha
maujivaphuda tamha ciņai /”, Ibid, 4, p. 9. 52. Biology, p, 425. Tandula Veyaliya 5, p. 9. 53. Tassa phalabimtasarisa uppanālovama bhavai...... .Jāņânie saya imoabhie
padibaddbi nabhie tie gabbho ayam aiyai anhayamtie oyae tie gabbho vivaddhai
jāva jautti /", Tandula Veyaliya, 5, p. 9. 54. Biology, p. 425. .
.
. 55. Tandula Vevaliva 4 9 A AA 56. Māujivarasaharaṇi puttajivarasa haraņi māujivapadibaddhā puttajivam phuậā
lamhā āharei tambá pariņāmei avarāvi naṁ puttajivapadibaddha mãujivaphuda tamhä сiņāi /", / Ibid. ; Tassa phalabimtasarisá uppalanálovama bhavai sabhirasaharani Jananie saya im gabhie paļibaddhā nābhie lie gabbco oya min aiyai anhaya mitic oye tie gabbho vivaddhai Jāva Jáuti/" Ibid, 5, p. 9.

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Jaina Biology According to Modern Biology “The bloods of the mother and foetus do not mix at all in the placenta or any other place, the blood of the foetus in the capillaries of the chorionic villi come in close contract with the mother's blood in the tissues between the villi, but they are always separated by a membrrne, through which substances must diffuse or be transporated by some active energy-requiring process ''57
It is suggestive from the statement in Jaina Biology. “The foetus transforms whatever nutritive substance it takes from the mother's body into the five sense organs, bone marrow, hair, etc.58 and makes respiration 59 but it does not pass stool nor urine, 60 etc., like the living man "that the placenta (mātrjivara saharni) is an important endocrine gland serving as the nutrive, respirative and excretory organ of the foetus”. 61
It is natural that the uterus (yoni) increases in size as the foetus grows and by the end of nine months its mass is twenty four times as great as the beginning of pregnancy" 62 Within the uterus the foetus assumes a characteristic foetal position with elbows, hips and knees bent, arms and legs crossed' back curved and head bowed, and turned to one side, as suggested by the statement in Jaina Biology that the foetus in the mother's womb exists like an umbrella or the side ribs of human body, 63 it is like hunch-backed (crooked shaped) mango (ambakbujjae) and also it stays standing, sitting and lying there.64 56/a Biology p. 426. 57. Maujivarasahasaņi puttajivarasa harani maujivapadibaddha puttajivam phuda
tamhā āhārei tamha pariņāmei avarāvi nam puttajivapadibddha Maujiva phuda
tamha ciņāi" Ibid 5 p. 9. 58. Tassa phalabimtasarisā uppa lanálovamā bhavai nābhirasa harani Jaņaņie saya in
babbia padībaddhā nabhie tise gabbha ayam āsyai anhaya mtic oyāe tise gabbho
vivaddhai java jāutti / Tandula Veyaliya p. 9. 59. Biology, p. 427. 69. Jivassa ņam bha mte, gabbhagayassa samaņassa atthi uccărei vā pasavanei vā
khilei va....ng ina the samaythe, jive nam gabbhagae samane ja abaram āhārei tam cināi soimdiyattae etc. upto nahattāe /" Natthi uccărei vā Jāva
soņei vă (3)" Tabdula Veyaliya p. 7. 61. Jive naṁ gabbhagae samāṇc savvao ahārei savvao pariņāmei savvao usāsei savvao
usāsei savvao pisasei abhikkhanaṁ ahārei abhikkhaņam pariņāmei abhikkhanam usasei, disasai māurivarasa hari ni puttajivara saharani maujivapadibaddhā. Tandula
Veyaliya 4. p. 9. 62. Ibid, 3, p. 7. 63. Biology, p, 427. 64. Biology 427.

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When the mother sleeps, wakes up, and becomes happy and unhappy the foetus also sleeps, wakes up and becomes happy and unhappy 65 respectively.
A child is born after the complete course of pregnancy of full nine months and seven and a half nights and days,66 At the time of delivery if it comes out, being led first by the head or feet, it comes out in right way, if it comes out crosswise, it attains death.67 That is to say "At birth the foetus usually is turned head doanward so that its head emerges first, but occasionally the buttocks or feet are presented first, making delivery more difficult.68
65. "Gabbhagae samane uttanac vă pasillae vă ambakhujjae và acchijja vă chitthijja
vā nisiijja vă tuyaujja Vā āsaijja vā upto dukkhio bhavai (9)", Bhagavati 1.7.61.
Tandula Veyaliya, 9, p. 13. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.67; Tandula Veyaliya, p. 13. 69. Bhagvati, 1.7.22 Aha ņam pasavanakala samayaṁsisiseņa vā päehim va agacchai
samagacchai tiriyamāgacchai viņighayamăvajjai" Tandula Veyaliya 9, p. 13. (1) 70. Biology, p. 427.

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EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENTS
Jaina Biology throws some light upon the division, growth and differentiation of a fertilized egg into the remarkable complex and interdependent system of organs which is the adult animal.' The organs new individual with extreme are complicated and reproduced in each fidelity of pattern, but many of the organs begin to function while still developing.2 It appears from the study of embryonic development as revealed in Jaina Biology that the pattern of cleavage, blastula formation (hollow ball of cell-formation or first element formation) and gastrulation is seen, with various modifications,3 in all men and in all multicellular animals, according to modern Biology. The main outlines of human development can be discerned by studying the embryos of rats or pigs or even chicks or frogs.
Cleavage and Gastrulation :
mäse
In Jaina Biology it is found that the process of cleavage5 takes place in a single fertilized egg and helps it to develop into a many1. Sattaham Kalalam hoim, sattaham hoi abbuyam, abbuya jayae pesi, resioya ghanambhave (17, to paḍhame mase karisů nam palam jayai 1 biye mase pesi samjayae ghana 2 taie mase maue dohalam janai 3 cautthe maue aṁgāim pinei 4 pamcame mase pamca pimdiyão pāṇim payam siram ceva nivvattei 5 chatthe mase pittasoniyam uvacinei 6 sattame mase sirasayaim 700 pamca pesisayaim 500 navadhamanio navanauim ca romakuvasa yasahassaim nivattei 9900000 vinā kesamaṁsuņa saha kesaunaṁsuna addhuṭhão romakuvakodio nivvattei 35000000, atthão romakuvākoḍio nivvattei 35000000, atthame mase vittikappo havai 8" Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
2.
e. g. Putrajīvarasaharaņi (umbilical cord) functions. stream of mother's blood.
3. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
to

"Atha dasarātrataḥ kalalatamupayati nijesvabhavato/daśadasa bhirdinaih Kalușatām sthiratäṁ vrajalia karmaņā punarapi buddbhdatvaghanata bhavati, pratimasa masataḥ pigitaviśālată ca bahikṛta sa hi pamcamamsatah // 53. Avayavasamvibhāgamadhigacchati garbhagato hi masataḥ punarapicarmaņa nakhaṁgaruhodagama eva māsataḥ / usaśuṣiramuttāmāṁgamupalabhya muhuḥ sphuranam ca masato Navadasamasato nijanijavinirgamanam vikrtistato anyatha (54)" Kalyāṇakārakam, 2nd chap., vv. 53. 54, p. 27.
absorb food from the
4. Biology, p. 430.
4/a Biology, p. 430.
5. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6
"Sattaham kalalam hoim, sattaham hoi abbuyam ......upto atthame mase vittikappo havai "

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celled embryo indicating that the egg cell splits or divides. This division called mitosis in modern Biology is “accompanied by a complicated series of processes within the nucleus and cytoplasm of the cells. 7
Blastula Formation :
As the cells undergo further division, a spherical mass) Kalalam, abbuyam pesi, ghanam, palam, etc.) is formed; in the centre of it a cavity appears as it is suggested by the reference to the additional cleavages until finally the embryo consists of several hundred cells, arranged in the form of a hollow ball (arbuda or pinda)8/a from which differnt organs develop. At this stage the embryo is called a blastula by Modern Biology. 9
Gastrulation :
It is suggestive from the mention of the successive stages of development of parts of the body of the embryo“Kalalam, abbuyam, pesi, ghaṇaḥ, palam, pimda, pāņi, pāyam, siram, pitta, soņita, sirā, pesisayaim, navadhamani, romakupa, kesa, maṁsu.10” etc. that almost as soon as the single-layered blastula is formed, it begins to change into a double-layer gastrula. “In simple, isolecithal eggs gastrulation occurs by the pushing (invagination) of a section of one wall of the blastula.11 “The pushed-in wall eventually meets the opposite wall so that the original blastocoele is obliterated. The new cavity of the gastrula is known as the archentteron (meaning primitive gut), because it forms the rudiment of what is to become the digestive system. This opens to the outside by the blastopore, which marks the place where the indentation for gastrulation began. The formation of the two-layered embryo is accompanied by rapid growth and division of the cells, and the resulting gastrula has about the same diameter and shape as the blastula from wbich it came. The outer of the two walls of the gastrula is called the ectoderm (outer skin); it eventually gives rise to the skin and nervous system. The inner wall, lining the archenteron, is known as the entoderm (inner skin); it finally becomes the digestive tract and its outgrowths-the liver, lungs and pancreas."12 6. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6. 7. Biology, p. 431. 8. Tandula Veyaliya 2. p. 6 8/a Ibid, 7, p. 6.
Pamcame māse pamca pimdiyão pāņain payam siram ceva nivvattei" 9. Modern Biology, p. 431, 10. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6. 11. Biology, p. 431-432. 12. Biology p. 431-432

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Cleavage and Gastrulation in the Human Egg
After fertilization Kalala 13 (zygote or flat disc) is formed within seven days, next arbuda 14 (slightly hard mass or solid ball of cells or cylindrical embryo) develops within seven days; pesis15 (tissues) are formed out of arbuda (solid ball of cells); ghana 16 with four angles is next formed from peśís, i. e. blastula and so on.
That is to say, "the early cleavage of the human or mainmalian egg resembles that of Amphioxus in forming cluster of cells called blastocyst. After this the mainmalian egg differs in that the mass of cells divides into two parts-an outer, hollow sphere of cells and attached to one side of this, an inner, solid ball of cells (i.e. arbuda). The outer sphere is one of the foetal membranes, the other embryonic membranes develop from the inner, solid ball of cells. The inner ball proceeds to form a gastrula, consisting of ectoderm and entoderm. Within the inner cell mass two cavities form simultaneously. The upper one is the cavity of the amnion, lined with ectoderm. The lower one is the cavity of both the yolk and the primitive gut, lined with entoderm. Between the two cavities the cells spread out in the shape of a flat, two-layered plate, from which the embryo develops. At what is to become the posterior end of the embryo this plate connects with the outer chorion by a group of cells known as the body stalk. Into the body stalk grows the (non-functional) allantois which has developed as a tube from the rear end of the entodermal (yolk) sac. Thus we find, after about two weeks of development that the human embryo consists of a flat, two-layered disc, about 0.01 inch across, and a stalk which connects the disc with the outer chorion.'17
"In all animals (except sponges and coelenterates) a third layer of cells, the mesoderm develops between ectoderm and entoderm.”'18
Notochord (Prestage of Pitthakaramdaga backbone )
The reference to the vertibral column (Pitthakaramdaga ) in Jaina Biology presupposes the notochord (prestage of Pitthakaramdaga) which is a flexible unsegmented, skeleta120 (karamda ) which extends longi13. Tandula Veyaliya 2 p. 6. 14. lbid 15. lbid 16. Ibid 17. Biology, p. 435 18. Ibid 19. Taodula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35
The short lived 'Noto Chord' is replaced by bickbone in developed child. 20. Ibid

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tudinally along the dorsal middle (piṭṭha) of all chordate embryos and is formed at the same time as the mesoderm,2 ,21 Biology explains that "In all Vertebrates the notochord is short-lived structure, eventually replaced by the vertebral column",22
It seems from the absence of notochord with a proper nomenclture in Jaina Biology that the Jainacāryas did not mention it because it was a short-lived structure, eventually replaced by the vertebral column. Development of the Nervous System
Although the two week old human embryo is a simple arbuda21 (a simple solid ball of cells or a simple flat disc, according to Modern Biology,) the two month old embryo has nearly all its structure in rudimentary form.22 The brain (Sira or matthu) and the spinal cord are among the earliest organs to appear. It is stated in Jaina Biology that in the fifth month there develop fully the five pindas (two arms, two legs and head), 24 while siras, dhamanis (circulatory vessels) and Snayus (nerves) develop later on. According to Modern Biology, "All the regions of the brain are established by the fifth week of development, and a week or two later the outgrowths which will form the large cerebral hemispheres begin to grow,"25
Development of Body Form:
The conversion of the two-week old flat disc (arbuda) into a roughly cylindrical embryo is accomplished by three processes. (a) the growth of the embryonic disc into pesi (blocks of muscles-mamsakhaṇḍarupa),26 (b) the underfolding of the embryonic disc, especially at the front and rear ends into ghana (sama caturasraṁ māṁsakhaṇḍam bhavati - square-shaped blocks of muscles)27 and (c) the construction of the Ventral body wall to form the further umbilical (nābhi).28
21. Biology, p. 437
22. Biology, p. 437. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35.
23. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6.
241
25. Tandula Veyaliya 2 p. 6.
26. Biology p. 447.
27. "Sattaeṁ kalalam hoim. sattaham, hoi abbhuyam (
abbuya jayae pesi, pesio, ya ghanam bhave //', Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
28. Ibid.
JB-31
24. Ibid. "Bie mase pesi saṁjāya ghaṇā" 2
It suggests that the two-month old embryo has nearly all its structure in rudimentatry form.

cord

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Growth is rapid at the end of the embryonic disc and in the fifth month of the embryonic development the head, two arms and two legs bulge forward from the original embryonic five pindas (areas ).29 That is to say, “The head region bulges forward from the original embryonic area. The tail, which even human embryos have at this stage, bulges, to a lesser extent over the posterior end. The sides of the disc grow downward, eventually to form the sides of the body. The embryo becomes elongated, because growth is more rapid at the head and tail ends than laterally."30
In the first month the embryo which is about Karşopam palam31 long is now recognizable as a vertebrate of some kind. It appears that "It has become cylindrical, with a relatively large head region, and with prominent gills and a tail.32 In the second month blocks of muscle (peść ) become a little solid square - like shaped ( ghanā ).33 According to modern Biology, in the month-old embryo "bloc of muscle, known as somites, (i, e. pesi ) are forming rapidly in the mesoderm on either side of the motochord and the beating heart is present as a large bulge on the ventral surface behind the gills. The arms and legs are still mere buds on the sides of the body."34 "By the end of six weeks the embryo is about half an inch long.'35 “At the end of two months of growth, when the embryo is an inch long, it begins to look definitely human,"36 According to Jaina Biology, in the fifth month the head, two arma and two legs develop from the five pindas (mass or areas ) of the embryo.37
But Modern Biology states that at the end of two months of growth, "The face has begun to develop, showing the rudiments of eye, 29. Tassa phalabimțasariā uppalanälovamā bhavai nābhirasaharani jamanie saya
im Nábhie padıbaddhā nābhie tie gabbho oyam aiyai anhayaṁtic oyāc tie
gabbho vivaddhai java jāuti” Tandula Veyaliya, 5, p. 9. 30. Tandula Veyaliya, 2. p. 6. 31. Biology. p. 438, 32. "Padhama māse Karisuņam palam Jayai."
Tandula Veyaliya, 7, p. 6. It is about one fifth of aa ineb long in the 1st month, accordiog to Biology,
p. 348. 33. Biology, p. 438. 34. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6 “Bie mase pesi samjayae ghaņā" 35. Biology. p. 438. 36. Ibid. 37. Ibid.

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ear and nose. The arms and legs have developed, at first stage resembling tiny paddles but by this stage the beginnings of fingers and toes are evident."38
In the six-month old embryo bile and blood get generated and in the seventh month 700 siras (circulatory vessels), 500 tissues of muscle and nine dhamanis (veins or arteries ?), 9900000 hair follicles without hair and beard and 35000000 hair follicles with hair develop; in the eighth month the embryo (foetus) is almost at full term, ready to lie born.39 The course of the development of body form of the foetus as described in Jaina Biology is supported by modern Biology to some extent, when it explains that most of the internal organs are well laid out so that development in the remaining seven months consists mostly of an increase in size and the completion of some of the minor details of organ formation. The embryo is about 3 inches long after three months of development, 10 inches long after five months, and 20 inches long after nine months.40"
During the third month the nails begin forming and the sex of the foetus can be distingnished. By four months the face looks quite human; by five months, hair appears on the body and head. During the sixth month, eye-brows and eye-lashes appear. After seven months the foetus resembles an old person with red and wrinkled skin. During the eight and ninth months, fat is deposited under the skin, causing the wrinkles partially to smooth out; the limbs become rounded, the nails project at the finger-tips, the original coat of hair is shed, and the foetus is "at full term" ready to be born."41
243
Here is the point to be noted that both Jaina and Modern Biologies agree to the fact that during the eighth42 and ninth42a months there take place the full development of the foetus and it is "at full term," ready to be born. The child is born after the gestation period of nine months
38. Pamcame mase pamca Pimdiyo Panim siram oeva nivvatte,
Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
39. Biology, p. 438.
40. "Chatthe mase pittasoniyam uvacinei 6 sattame mase satta sirasayaim 700 Pamca pesisayaim 500 navadhamanio navanuim ca romakuvasayasahassaim nivvattei 9900000 viņa Kesamamsuņa saha Kesamaṁsuņā addhuṭṭhão romakuvakodio nivvattei 35000000. aṭṭhame mase vittikappo havai /",
Tandula Veyaliya 3, p. 6.
41. Biology, p. 439
42. Biology, p. 439.
42/a Biology, p. 439.

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and seven and half days and nights of the embryonic development.43 This total gestation period or time of development, for human beings is almost equal to "the total gestation period of about 280 days for human beings, from the beginning of the last menstrual period before conception until the time of birth", as explained by modern Biology.44
Formation of the Heart (Hiyaya )44/a
Jaipa Biology does not throw much light on the formation of the heart. But its reference to the generation of sonita (blood) in the sixth month of the growth of the foetus 45 and the development of circulatory vessels (700 Širās and 9 dbamanis in the seventh month)46 and to heart (hiyayam) in the adult suggests that in contrast to many47 organs which develop in the embryo without having to function at the same time, the heart and the circulatory system function, while undergoing development.
According to Modern Biology, 48 "The heart forms first as a sample tube from the fusion of two thin-walled tubes beneath the developing head”. In this early condition it is essentially like a fish heart, consisting of four chambers arranged in a series : the sinus venosus, which receives blood from the veins, the single atrium, the single ventricle, and the arterial cone, which leads to the aortic arches.49
“In the beginning the heart is a fairly straight tube, with the atrium lying posterior to the ventricle ; but since the tube grows faster than the points to which its front and rear ends are attached it is forced to bulge out to one side. The ventricle then twists in an S-shaped curve down and in fornt of the atrium, coming to lie posterior and ventral to it as it does in the adult. The sinus venosus gradually becomes incorporated into the atrium as the latter grows around it, and most of the arterial cone is merged with the wall of the ventricle" 50
43. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6 43/a Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.62. 44. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.62, 45. Biology, p. 440. 45/a Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35 46. Taņdula Veyaliya 2 p. 6. 47. Ibid. 48. Ibid. 16, p. 35. 49. Biology, D. 440 50. Biology pp. 440-1.

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“The embryonic heart, when it first appears is a single structure with only one of each chamber, whereas the adult heart is a double pump, with separate right and left, atria and ventricles.
The heart begins separating into four chambers at an early stage. The two ventricles are completely separated but complete separation does not occur until after birth, when the oval window between them finally closes.'*51
Development of the Digestive Tract:
It is suggestive from the reference to the taking of food by the foetus through diffusion,52 but not through mouth, that the digestive tract of the foetal child is first formed as separate foregut and hindgut by the growth and folding of the body wall.53 Modern Biology explains that this body wall "cuts the foregut and hindgut off as two simple tubes from the original yolk sac. These tubes grow as the rest of the embryo grows, becoming greatly elongated."
“The mouth cavity arises as a shallow pocket of ectoderm which grows in to meet the anterior end of the foregut ; the membrane between the two ruptures and disappears during the fifth week of development. Similarly the anus is formed from an ectodermal pocket which grows in to meet the hindgut; the membrane separating these two disappears early in the third mouth of development”.55
The Development of the Kidney
The development of the Kidney (taṇuyamta ?)55/a is one of the finest and most clear cut examples of the principle of recapitulation” according to Modern Biology.56 There is no clear mention of the formation of kidney in the embryonic development in Jaina Biology, probably because of its non-function in this stage. It is stated that the foetus does not pass urine, while developing, for whatever food - sub
51. Biology p. 441. 52. Ibid, p. 441. 53. "Jive pam gabbhagae samáne no pahü muhenam Kavaliyam ahāram āhärittae?
..... savvao ähärei savvao pariņāmci abhikkhanam āhārei abbikkhanarn
pariņamei/", Bhagavati Sūtra 1 7.61. : Tandula Veyaliya 4, p. 7. 54. Biology p..441 55. Biology, p. 441. 55/a Ibid p. 442. 56. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35

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stance it absorbs from the mother's stream of blood is transformed into five sense - organs, etc. But the statement that "tanuyamta 57 (Kidney or small intestine ?) in the adult transforms urine" presupposes the development of kidney as one of the finest and most clear cut examples of recapitulation.
The Jaina Biology's view on the non-functional kidneys suggests that “within the sub-phylum of vertebrates are three different types of kidney : "A man develops first a non-functional pronephros, then a mesonephros, which may be functional during foetal life, and finally the permanent metanephros. The three kidneys develop one after another in both time and space, each new kidney lying posterior to the previous one" 59
“The pronephros, which in the human embryo consists of about seven pairs of rudimentary kidney tubules, develops in the mesoderm and degenerates during the fourth week of embryonic life. From the tubules a pair of ducts grows back to the hindgut and connects with it."60
“The tubules of the mesonephros originate during the fourth week, reach their height at the end of the seventh week, and degenerato by the sixteenth week. These tubules connect with the ducts left by degenereted phronephros, and empty into them. In the female the mesonephros and its ducts degenerate completely except for a few nonfunctional remnants, but in the male some of the tubules remain and are converted into the epididymides, while the ducts become the vas deferens."61 Formation of Lungs (Phopphasaphephas ) :
Jaina Biology does not throw light upon the formation of lungs in the developing foetus, for they are non-functional at this stage, although it refers to the respiration of the foetus at every moment (abhikkhanaṁ usasei abhjkkhanam nisasei)62 through the mother's organ, while developing in her womb. This fact suggests the non57. Biology, p, 442. 58. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35
"Je se taņuyamte teņa pāsavane pariņamei." 59. Biology, p. 443. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid.
Taodula Veyaliya (7) p. 38. 62. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61 Tandula Veyaliya 4, p. 9-10.

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Asexual and Sexual Reproduction
247
functional lungs of the foetus as explained in Modern Biology;63 according to which, not much blood passes through the embryonic lungs. "In the foetus only a small amount of blood passas through the embryonic lungs, to the left atrium."64
Thus Jain Biology reveals that reproduction involves many complex and interdependent processes, the elaboration of sukrasonita ( semenblood )65 which regulate the development of the gonads66 (Janapagranthis) of secondary sex structures67 and the production of gametes68 in the parents; behaviour pattern 569 which bring the parents together to release their gametes at such a time and in such a place that their union is probable70; the union of male and female pronuclei71 followed
63. Biology, p. 441 64. Ibid. 65. Tandula Veyaliya. 66. "Itthie ya purusassa ya Kammakaļãe Jonie mehuņavattie nānam samyoe
samuppajjai", Bhagavati, 2.5.105 Joņi ahomuhá samthiya kosa / tassa ya hittha cuyassa mamjari (jārisi) tarisă mamsassa / te riukāle phudiya / Tandula
Veyaliya, p. 3. 67. "Itthie näbhi hitthā sirādugan pupphapälıyāgāram / t-ssa ya hithā Joņi
ahomuhà santhiya kosä," tassa ya bitphā cūyassa mamjari (jārisi ) tārisau mamsassa / te riukāle phuậiya soņiyalavayā vimoyamti 10 Tandula Veyā
liya, p 3. 68. "Kosāyāram jcnim rampatta sukkamisiyā jaiyal taiya jivuva Väe jigga
bhamiyä jiņimdehim / Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3. 69. “Pancahim țhāņehimithi puriseņa saddhim asamvasaņāṇivi gabbhara dharejjá,
tam. Itthi duvvippayadã dunṁsanna sukkapoggale adhitthijja / sukkapoggale adhitthijja / sukkapoggalasamsatthe va se vatthe arto jonie anupavesejjā 2 sayam se sukkapoggale anupavasejja 3 paro va se sukkapoggale aņ pavesejja 4 siodagaviyadena Vä se āyamamäņie sukhapaggale aņupavesejja 5 icceteaim pamcajavad harejja" Sthāpānga Sūtra 5 vide Tandula Veyaliya p. 3-4. Itthie purisaesa ya Kammakadoc Joņie attha nam mahunavattiyae (va) nāmām samjoge samppajjai, duhaovi sineham samciņa mti, /" Sūtrakrtanga II, 2. 56., p. 98. "Te rudbirabindavah kośākāram yoņim samprāptāḥ santah sukramisritāḥ ftudinatrayante puruşasamyogena apurussasamyogena vă puruşaviryeņa militāḥ yadā bhavanti tadă Jivotpade garbhasambhūtilaksne yogya bhaniiāli Tapdula Veyaliya, p. 3.
70.

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by cleavage, gastrulation and morphogenesis72 and devices for the care and protection of the developing young 73
"Imo kbalu Java ammapiusamyoge māuuyam piusukkan..sattaham kalalam hoi abbuyan abbuyam / abbuya Jāyae pesio ya ghaņam bhave / to padhame mase karisūņm palam jāyai / bie mūse pesi samjayae ghaņā 2.......atthame mase vittikappo havai / Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
73. Jam se māyā nāņávihão nava rasavigāio tittakaļuyakasāymbilamahurāim davváin
āhārei tao egadeseņam oyamaharei ... - tassaphalabimgasarisā uppalanālovamā bhavai nābhirasaharani jamanie im nabhie tie gabbo oyam aiyai anhayamtie oyāc tie gabbho vývaddhai jāya jautti !", Tandula Veyaliya, 5. p. 9. “Sa tisata ...tamgabbham, Dāisiehim naiuņhehim, naitittehim etc. . . . . vavagaya roga - soga - moha - bhaya - parissamā sa join tassa gabbhassa hian miyam Pattham gabbha posañar tam dese ya Kāle ya ābäraamā hāremāni....gabbhm parivahail /”, Kalpasūtra, 95.

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SIXTH CHAPTER
THE MECHANISM OF HEREDIIY
( First Section)
The Physical Basis of Heredity? It appears from the study of Jaina Biology that heredity is the tendency of individuals to resemble their progenitors' or the tendency of like to beget like. Each new generation of organisms from twosensed to five-sensed closely resembles their progenitors as is evidenced by the fact of the classification of animals in Jaina Biology on the basis of the senses and structures and certain distinctive parental characteristics3 which appear frequently in successive generations of a given family tree.
Althongh the resemblances between parents and offsprings are close, they are usually not exact. The offsprings of a particular set of parents differ from each other and from their parents in many respects to different degrees due to Karma.4 "These variations are characteristics of living things,"5 according to Biology. Some variations are inherited ; that is, they are caused by segregation of hereditary factors
1. “Pao mauyamgā pannattā, tamjahā - mamsey 1 soņie 2 matthulu mge 3 tao
piuyamgä pannattá, tamjaha - atthi/ athimimjá 2 kesamamsuromanahā 3," Bhagavati Vyākhyāprajñapti, 1.7.61 ; Tandula Veyaliya, 6 p. 10. That is to say, the individuals resemble their Progenitors structuraliy with some traits. Further it is stated in the Bhagavati Sūtra that the united body of the mother and father in the child lasts as long as its worldly body exists, but it comes to an end with the perish of the physique of the child at last after getting weaker and weaker, Bhagavati 1.7.61. Pannavanā Sūtra 1, 56-91 ( Beimdiyajivapaņņavanā up to Pamcimdiya - manussajivapaņņavanā 1 ; see Pannavanā Sutta 1.70 "Egakhurā dukhurā gandipadā saņappadā " Paņn vanã
1.70, p. 30. 3. Solidungular, biungular, multiungular animals, and animals, having toes with
nails (egakhura, dukhurā, gandipada and saņapphadā ; Uttaradhyayan3, 36.179 ; Pannavanā 1.70 ) have distinctive parental characteristics which appear in
successive generations. 4. Kşamabhsdrankakayor manişijadayoḥ sadrūpauiru ayoh, Srimaddurgata yorbalaba
lavatornirogarttayoh / Saubhagyasubhagatvasangamajuşostulye api Drive antaram, yat tat karmanibandhanam tadapi no Jivam vină yuktimat/I”, Ist Karm igrantha.
p. 2, Devendrasuriviracita - Svopajñarikopeiah" 5. Biology, p. 452. JB-32

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amongst the offspring. Other variations are not inherited but are due to the effects of Karma'a or "of temperature, moisture, food, light or other factors in the enviroment on the development of the organism", as Biology explains.
The expression of inherited characters may be strongly influenced by the environment is which the individual develops as is evidenced in Jalacara (aquatic ), si halacara (terrestrial) and khecara (aerial) animals6/a". "So studies of heredity consist, according to Biology in examining the traits of successive generations of organisms and inferring from the visible likeness and variations what the heredity of the genes has been":7
The transmission of specific characters ;
In the Jaina Āgamas the Jainācāryas have touched upon the questions what parental characters are transmitted to offsprings, how specific characters are transmitted and why the offspring is of the same species as the parental organism, e. g. the human species10 or bovine species, 11 the equine species 12 or the Asvattha species13 (ficus religiosa).
Jaina Biology holds the view that the foetus or rather the fertilized ovum 14 develops by palingenesis 15 ( instead of epigenesis, 16 ), in other
5/a 1st Karma graptha, p. 2 with Sopajñavivaranopetah, Devendrasūri. 6. Biology, p. 452. 6/a e.g. Jalacara ( aquatic), Sthalacara ( terrestrial) and Khecara (acrial) animals
have the expression of their inherited characters, Pannavanā Sutta 1. 61-91. 7. Biology, p. 452. 8. "Tao māuyamgá pannatta, tamjaha. mamse l sonie 2 matthulumgea 3 tao piuyargā
pannatta, tamjahā - atthi I atthimimja 2 kesamamsuromanahā 3/" Bhagavati Vyākhyāprajñapti, 1.7 61. Tandula Veyaliya, 6, p. 10. *Egakhurā dukhurā gandipada and saņapphada”. These specific characters solidungularity, biungularity, multiungularity and the toes with nails of different species of animals are transmitted to their progenies, as indicated by their mode
of classification. (Utt., 36. 79. ; Pannavanā 1.70.) 10. Paņņavana Sutta 192. (Marussajivapaņņavana 1.70 ) 11. lbid ; 1.72 ( oņa, gavaya, etc. ) 12. Ibid., 1.71 (assa, asstara, ghedaga. etc.) 13. Ibid., 1.14. 16 ( asotthe ) 14. Bhagavati Vyākhyāprajñapti 1.7.61-62.
Tandula Veyaliya, 1-2, 3, 5. (Jiveņņam gabbhagae ). 15. i.e. exact reproduction of ancestral character. 16. i.e. formation of organic germ as a new product in process of reproduction.

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words all the organs are potentially present therein at the same time and unfold in a certain order, 17 e. g. the fertilized ovum contains in miniature the entire structure of the organism (man ).18 Skeleton (atthiya ), muscle ( maṁsa ), blood ( sonita ), arteries (širās ?), Veins (dhamanis ?), nerves (îharos = snāyus), etc. 18a which appear separated and distinct in the full man, though from their excessive minuteness, they are undistinguishable in the fertilized ovum. 19
The inheritance of specific characters is explained in Jaina Biology in accordance with this view. It assumes that the sperm-cell (sukka ?) of the male parent, 20 contains minute elements derived from each of its organs and tissues (pitr-angas.")20a. Similarly it is suggestive that the egg (oyam)21 of the female parent contains minute elements derived from each of its organs and tissues (mat; -angas).21/a The sperm-cell (the seed in the case of a plant) and the egg cell represent in miniature every organ of the present organism and contains in potentia the whole organism that is developed out of it.22
The fertilized ovum 23 is composed of elements which arise from the whole parental organism but it is not the developed organ24 of the parents, with their idiosyncracies or acquired characters that determine or contribute the elements of the sperm-cell. Here lies the variation. The parental germ-plasm (piusukka ? 25 contains the whole parental organism in miniature (or in potentia ) but it is independent of the
17. "Imo Khalu Jiro ammāpiusamyoge māu - uyam piusukkham tam tadubhay -
samsattham Kalusaṁ gabbhattāe Vakkamai (1) Sattāham Kallam hoi upto
atthame māse Vittikappo havai /" (2) Tandula Veyaliya 1, 2. p. 6. 18. Ibid. 18/a Tandula Veyaliya, 1, 2, 3, 16. 19. Ibid., 1. 2 3. (gabbham ) 20. Imo Khalu Jivo ammapiusamyoge mau-uyam piusulkami tam tadubhayasan
sathan Kalusam gabbhattãe vakkamai (I)" etc. Tandula Veyaliya, 1-2.
Sūtrakļānga 11.3.:1, 2 /a Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61 ; Tandula Veyaliya, p. 10 21. Tandula Veyaliya 1-2. (mau-uyam) 21/a Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61 ; Tandula Veyaliya 6.
Tandula Veyaliya 1 2. 2. Ibid. 23. Ibid. Bhagavati Sūtra -.7.01.
letn 21. Tanju a Veyaliya 16, p. 35 25. Tandula Veyaliya, 1,2.

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parents' developed organs ( mātr-angas and pitr-angas)26 and is not necessarily affecied by their idiosyncracies.
In fact, the parental seed is an organic whole independent of the developed parental body and its organs. According to Brahmanical Biology"In the parental (seed ) an element representing a particular organ or tissue may happen (for this is accidental, daiva) to be defective or underdeveloped or otherwise abnormally characterized, and in this case the corresponding organ or tissue of the offspring will be similarly characterized."'.27
The Sukradhārini Sirās28 (seminal nerves or ducts ) contain the parental seed (piusukkaṁ )29 which is a minute organism deriving its elements from the parenial organs but distinct from the latter, and independent of their peculiarities and it is the combination and characteristics of these constitutional elements of the parental
eed in the reproduction tissue that determine the physiological characters and predispositions of the offspring. Germplasm (sukka ?)30 is not only the representative of the "Somatic tissues (muscular, (māṁsape si ), adipose (meda ), bone (asthi ) connective and nervous tissues etc. but also generates31/a and is generated32 by the latter. This mutual interaction of the germ - plasm and so matic tissues (pesi ) is a distinctive feature of Jaina Biology's hypothesis, the value of which should be estimated by the Biologists.
26 Tandula Veyaliya 6.
"Yaccoktam yadica mamanuş yo manuşyas rabhab kasmanna jadadibhyo jātah pitrsadrśarūpā na bhavanti, tatrocyate yasya yasyashi angāvayavasya bije bijabhāva upatapto bhavati tasya angāvayasya vikặtih upajayāte l",
Caraka, Siriras:hāne. 3rd raricchda. 27. P. S. A. H., p. 235.
Sarvarya ya ca atmajānīndriyāni tesām bhāvābhāva hetih dairam/"
Caraka. Sarirasthāna. 3rd pariccheda. 28 Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 29. Ibid, 1-2 30. Tandula Veyaliya 1. 31. Lokaprakāśa 1.3.: 9, ( Rasasrgmamsamedo asthimajjaśukradi dhātutām /"
"Paitrkāngani sukravikārabahulaityartbah /''Tandula Veyaliya 6 (commentary) 31/a Tandula Veyaliya, 1, 2, p. 6
"Imo Khalu Jivo ammapiusamyoge mau-uyam piusuk kam tam tadubhayasam - sattham Kalu sam.....sattahań Kalalam hoi, satta har hoi abbuyam / abbuya
Jāyae pesi, .. .. .. 700 pamca pesisayaim," etc. 32. Lokaprakāśa, 1.3.19.

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Jaina Biology emphasizes the infulence of the constituents of the food, etc.33 on the character of the seed in the reproductive tissue especially as regards the stature of the offspring.
"The peculiar characteristics or idiosyncracies of the elements that combine to form the Bija (seed) inust be regarded as a matter of chance (daiva), in other words, "the truly congenital variations are accidental.''34
The Development of Genetics :
As discussed above, Jaina Biology indicates that parental characters are transmitted through both the sperm and egg. 35 It is suggestive from this fact that inheritance is governed by units (factors ) present in the cells of each individual as is evidenced by the embryonic developmen136 and the transmission of Partental Characters or traits.37
This view on the development of genetics as implied in Jaina Biology is explained by Modern Biology in this manner that there are two such factors (embryonic characters ). “In the adult plant which segregated in the formation of pollen or eggs so that there was only one of each kind of factor in the egg or sperm."38 This contention of Biology on the 33. Tam gabbham náisiehim, naiuņhehim, näitittehim, naikaduehim, najkasachim,
nāi-amvilehiń, nāimahurehim, naimiddhehim, Dailukkhehim, Daisukkhehim, .. bhoyaņācchāyanagandhamallehim, vavagaya-roga-soga-moha-bhaya-parissama sā Jam tassa gabbhassa hiam miyam pattham / ....... gabbhaposaņam tam dese ya kale ya ahāramābāremāni etc, Kalpasūtra, 95, p. 85. "Tandutaktam Varşāsu lavanamamstam saradi Jalam gopayasca hemante / sisire camalakacaraso, ghỉtam vasante gudaścā ante", Ibid., p. 85 Subodhika" Yaduktam Vāgbhatte - Vātalaisca bbaved-garbhah kubjándhajadavāmanah / pittalaih khalatiḥ pungah, svitri pāņduh Kaphatabhiḥ / Tatha atilavaņam netraharam, atisitam mārutam
prakopayati / atyuşņṁ harati balam, ātikamaṁ Jivitam harati "2", Ibid, p. 86. 34. Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 237 add here. 35. Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61 ; Tandula Veyaliya. 1, 2. "Imo Khalu Jivo ammāpiusa
myoge mau-uym piusukkam saṁsaţtham....gabbhattāe vakkamai etc" ... up to vittikappo havai /" Māu-amgā - mamse mathula mge peo - angā - attbi, aţth:
mimja etc.) Tandula Veyāliya 6 ; 36. Tandula Veyaliya 1, 2, 6 37. Tao mau-amgā pannatta, tamjaha maṁse 1 sonie 2 matthulumge 3......Tao
piuamgā paņņatta, tamjaha - athi, atthimimjā 2 kesamamsuromanahā 3”, Tandula Veyaliya 6.; Bhagavati Sūtra 1.7.61-61. Matthulumzeti mastakabhejjakam anye tvāhuḥ - Medahphipphisadih mastulīgamiti 3 Paitrkungāusukravikārabahulamityarthah prajñaptani ? / Sukrasonitayoh samavikararūpatvāt mātapitroh
Sadharanāniti li, Tandula Veyaliya 6. p. 10 (comm entary). 38. Biology, p. 453.

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development of genetics is implied in the Jaina view when the details of cell division and fertilization are known from the evidences furnished by Jaina Biology.39 It should be noted in this connection that the growth of each plant or animal is due to cell divisions plus increases in the size of the cells which comprise the organism. “This division of cells is an extremely regular process called mitosis 40" in modern Biology.
1 he Determination of Sex
Jaina Biology explains that the relative predominance of the sperm (Sukka ?) and germ cells (Ojam ?) in the fertilized ovum (gabbhagaya jiva ) is a factor which influences the sexual character of the resulting offspring. Excess of the sperm-cell produces the male, that of the germ-cell - the female. If the sperm - cell and germ-cell are equal, a neuter is born.
The Jaina view on the determination of the sex is further stated that it depends in part on a periodicity to which the life - history of the ovum in the female parent is conceived to be subject-a law under which the fertilization of the ovum on the fourth day after the menstrual discharge, or on the alternate (even ) days succeeding is favourable to the foetus developing the male sexual character, and on the fifth, seventh and alternate following days to the foetus assuming the female sex.42
It seems from the study of garbha posa na (nourishment of embryo) by the mother that there is an influence of nutrition on the ovum especially as regards the stature of the resulting offspring.43
The Jaina view on the determination of the sex finds support in Brahmanical Biology in the same manner that it emphasies the relative predominance of the sperm and the germ cells in the fertilized ovum.
39. Tandula Veyāliya, 1--2. 40. Biology p. 453. 41. "Appam sukkam bahuṁ uuyam. ittbi tattha jāyai / appar uyam bahur sukkam,
puriso tattha jāyai 2(1) (22) duṇhampi rattasukkāņam, tullabhāve napuṁsao 3
itthiuyasamãoge, bimbar tattha jayai" 4 (2) (23) Tandula Veyaliya, p. 13. 42. "Rtusu dvāda sa nišāh, pūrvastisro atra ninditah / ekadasi ca yugmásu, syātputro
anyāsu kanyaka || 4 1/" Tandula Veyaliya, Țikā, p. 4. 43. Taenam sa Tisalā .... taṁ gabbban naisiebim nāiunhehim, .... Să jam
tassa gabbhassa hiar miyam pattham gabbhaposaņam tam dese ya kale ya āhara - maharemani, etc. suhar parivahai / Kalpasūtra 95, pp. 86-87 with Subodhikațika.

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"Excess of the sperm - cell produces the male, that of the germ-cell the female.":44 "The sexual character of the offspring depends in part on a periodicity to which the life-history of the ovum in the female parent is conceived to be subject - a law of alternate rhythmic change (not unlike what we now know to regulate the development of several orders of bacteria or unicellular organisms ), a law under which the fertilisation of the ovum on the fourth day after the menstrual discharge, or on the alternate days succeeding, is favourable to the foetus developing the inale sexual character, and on the fifth, seventh, and alternate following days to the foetus assumming the female sex.”45
The Prayogachintamani states that the latter occurs on even days and the former on odd days. Influence of nutrition on the ovum, especially as regards the sex, stature and colour-pigment of the resulting offspring is emphasized in this way that "in general way ghee and milk for the male, oil and beans for the female parent are favourable to the bīja." 48
The Jaina view on the determination of sex is indirectly supported genetically by Modern Biology in the following manner. "In man and perhaps in other mammals maleness is determined in large part by the presence of Y chromosome. An individual who has the XXY constitution is a nearly normal male in his external appearance, though with underdeveloped gonads. An individual with one X but no Y chromosome has the appearance of an immature female'.'49
“Eggs contain one X chromosome; half the sperm have an X chromosome, the other half have a Y. Fertilization of an X-bearing egg by an X - bearing sperm results in an XX, female, zygote. The fertilization of an X-bearing egg by a Y - bearing sperm results in an
44. "Adhikye retasah putrah, kanya syat arttave adbike II, Caraka, Sarirasthana,
vide Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, 239.
45. "Spānāt prabbrti yugmeşu ahasu samgametāṁ putrakamau tau ayugmeşu duhits
kamau ...... etc. Ibid. Vide Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus pp 236, 38.
46. Vide the Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, p. 237. 47. “Upacarecca madhurausad hasankstābhyāṁ ghệtakşirābhyam puruṣaḥ striyantu
tailamāşābhyāṁ!" Caraka, Sarirasthāna, vide the Positive Sciences of Ancient
Hindus, pp. 237-38. 48. Biology. p. 474. 49. Ibid.

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Jaina Biology XY, male, zygote. Since there are equal pumbers of X - and Y - bearing sperm, about equal numbers of each sex are born.'49/a "This XY mechanism of sex dctermination is believed to operate in all species of animals and plants with separate sexes. "50 “In birds and butterflies (Lepidopters ) the mechanism is reversed; males are XX and females are XY. Sex chromosomes have been detected in some plants, notably in the straw-berries, and probably exist in other plants with separate sexes. The members of many species have the organs of both sexes present in each individual. In such organisms, termed 'hermaphroditic,' if animals and monoecious if plants, sex chromosomes have not been found". 51
These hermaphroditic animal monoecious plants without having chromosomes may be compared with the Sammurechima prānīs (animals) and Vanaspatis (plants) without having sperms and egg, and pollens and ovules respectively.
49/a Ibid. 50. Ibid 31. Ibid.

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( Second Section)
T
INHERTANCE IN MAN Some of the phenomena in human inheritance have been observed by the Jainācāryas. Some principles apply to the inheritance of human traits as are suggested by the study of Jaina Biology and Daśadaśās (ten stages of life ).2
The Inheritance of Physical Traits :
The study of some evidences in the Jaina works suggests that the development of each organ of the body is regulated by a large number of genes3 (units of inheritance). The age at which a particular gene expresses itself phenotypically may vary widely as is suggested by ten daśās (stages of human life.
Most characteristics5 develop long before birth but some, such as, hair and eye colour, etc.6 may not appear until shortly after birth. Some
1. The child inherits muscles, blood, brain matter from the mother and bone
(i.e. skeleton ), marrow of the bone, hair on head, beard, hair on body and nail from the father. Besides it inherits five sense-organs, circulatory and respiratory systems, excretory system, endocrine system, digestive system, nervous system,
etc. See Tandula Veyaliya 1, 2, 3, 16. 2. “Āuso ; evam Jāyassa Jamtussa kámeņa dasa dasă evamahjjamti tańjahā - Balā
1 Kidda 2 maída 3 bala ya 4 pannā ya 5 hayani 6 pavarca 7 pabbhāra 8 mummuhi 9 sayāni ya dasama ya 10 Kalada (1) (31.". Tandula Veyaliya p. 15. Biology, p. 501 "gene applies to apy hereditary unit that ca undergo mutation and be detected by the change it produces in the pheno type of the organism,"
Ibid, p. 485. 4. Tandula Veyaliya pp. 15-16. Jāya mittassa, Jamtussa, Ja sa padhamiya dasă /
na attha suham dukkham vă, nahie jāņami balaya (1) (32) Biiyam ca dasam patto, nânākilähim kidai na ya se kām abhogeşu, tlvvá uppajjai rai (2)(33). Taiyam ya dasaṁ patto. pamkamaguņ: naro ! samattho bhūmjiun bhoe, jai se atthi gharo dhuva. (3) (34) Cautthi u bala Dāma, Jam naro dasamassio / samatho balam dariseum, Jai bhave nuruvaddavo (41 135) parcamis dasam patto, anupuvve Jo naro / samattho' atqho viciteum, kudumbam cabhigacchai (5) (56) Chatthio hayaņi Dāmā, Jam paro dasamassio / virajjai u kämesum, imdiesu ya hayai (6) (37) sattami ya pavamcã o, Jam naro dasamassio / nicchubhai cikkaņaṁ khelam, khāsai ya khane khane 7) (38) samkuiyavalicammo, sampatto atthamidasan/ Dariņam ca anittho ya. Jarãe pariņāmino / Jarāghare viņassamte, jivo vasai akamao (9) (40, hiņa bhinnasaro diņo, vivario vicittao/ dubbalo dukhio suyai, sampattoo dasamsm dasan" (10) (41) Tandula Veyāliya
pp. 15-16. 5. Tandula Veyaliya 1, 2, 3, 6. *. Ibid, p. 15 ( Prathama dasā) JB-33

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such as amaurotic idiocy (bālatva or mandatva ) becomes evident in early childhood and still others, such as, cough, phlegm, bending of the body, feeble sense-organs, etc. 8 develop only after the individual has reached maturity. The Inheritance of Mental Abilities :
“The inheritance of mental ability or intelligence is one of the most important, yet one of the most difficult problems of human genetics''9 as indicated by Biology. The reference to the fact in the Jaina works that the mental capacities of people form a continuous series from idiot (manda or Jada ) to genius ( manisi )10 suggests that "intelligence is inherited by a system of polygenes10a brought about by Karma, 11 other evidence12 substantiates this hypothesis. According to modern Biology, "The inheritance of feeble-mindedness (maídatā or Jadatā or bālatva) is due to a single recessive gene.”, 13
It is now evident that the inheritance of mental defect is much more complex. Feeble - mindedness may be caused by diseases, 14 or by other environmental factors,15 but “the majority of cases are due to inheritance."
7. Ibid, p. 15 (Prathāmã and Trtiyadaśā) 8. Ibid, p. 16 (havani - 6th daśa', Pavarca (7th daśa ), Samkulyavalicammo
8th daśā !, etc. 9. Biology, p. 504. 10. "Menisimanda", 1st Karmagrantha with sopajñaţikā by Devendrasūri. p. 2. 10a The term 'polygenic inheritance' or multiple factor inheritance is applied when
two or more independent pairs of genes affect the same character in the same
way and in an addictive fashion, e.g. skin colour in man, Biology, p. 47. 11. Manisijada yo......... Karmanibandhanam.
Karmagrantha I, with Sopajñaţikā Devendra Sūri, p. 2. 12. "Kļambhydranka kayormanişijadayoḥ, sadrúpanirūpayoḥ, śrīmaddurgatayorbalaba
lavatornirogarogārttayoh // Saubhagyāsubhagatvasangamajuşostulye 'api hrtve yat tat karmanibandh nam ta dapi no antaram, Jivar vina yuktinat/" Ibid. (comm.) Polygenic Inheritance : Many human characters - height, body, form, intelligence and skin colour etc.... cannot be separated into distinct alternate classes,
and are not inherited by a single pair of genes, Biology p. 470. 13. biology, p. 504. 14. Biology, p. 514; Micchabhava xtarakevalagelannapamadamatiņā ņaso / Aha
kimattham näsati kimivätotayam bhinnar 1,537), Viseşāvašyakabhasya, gatha (53 L. D. Series ; ( Id Ed. (540), s. :13 "Aperasya tu glānāvasthāyām anyasya kimapunaḥ pramadadinā iha bhave api tasya śrutajñānasya, não bhavati / Ibid Vrtti on 54. p. 291. i. e. frutajñana gets destroyed because of
feeble mindedness caused by diseases. 15. Vises avasya kabhäsya, 537.

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According to Biology, “special abilities-musical, artistic, mechanical and mathematical have a heredity basis and their inheritance is separate from that of general intelligence."'16
Heredity and environment :
It is suggestive from the study of the rise of Karma, etc. from the points of view of dravya (substance ), ksetra ( locus ), kāla (time), bhava (life of birth ) and bhāva ( condition )17 that both physical and mental traits are the result of the interplay of both genetic (i. e. from the aspect of dravya) and enviromental factors (i.e., from the aspects of Ksetra, kāla, bhava and bhāva.)
According to Biology, “A few genes, such as, those that determine the blood groups, produce their effect regardless of the environment. The expression of other genes may be markedly affected by altered environment."18 The upper limit of a person's mental ability is determined genetically as is indicated in the later stages (daśās) 19 of his life but how fully he develops inherited abilities is determined by environmental inferences 20 by his training and experience.
It is easy to understand why the offspring of intelligent parents are sometimes less intelligent (manda ) than either parent because of past Karma.21 Biology explains this point in this way that “Since the co-ordinate action of many pairs of genes is involved in intelligence the fortunitous combination of those which produced the intelligent parents be broken up by genic segregation. Conversely, the chance recombination of favourble genes may produce a brilliant child from average parents, (but geniuses are never produced by feeble - minded parents).22
16. Biology, p. 504. 17. "Udayakkhayak khayovasamovasamā Jam ca kammuno bhanitā / Devam Khertam
kālam bhavam bhāvam ca samppappa", Viseșāvaśyakabhāşya. gātha 572, L.D.
Series, p. 119. l'. Biology, p. 506. 19. Samkuiyavalicammo, Sampatto a thamidasam / närinam ca anisho ya, Jarac
pariņāmio" (8) (39) navaminmumuhị Dáma, Jam naro dasamassio / Jaraghare viņassa mte, jivo vasai akāmao / (9) (40) bina bhinnasaro dino, vivavio vicittao / dubbalo dukkhio suyai, sampalio dasamim da sam (10) (41)" Tandula
Veyaliya, p. 16. 20. "Khetta í Kalam bhavam bhāvam ca samppappá /", Vbha. Gā 572, p. 119; 21. First Karmagrantha with auto-commentary, Devendrasuri, p. 2.
"Kşamabhrdan kakayormanişijadayoh...... Karmanibandhanań /" 22. Biology, p. 506.

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SEVENTH CHAPTER
EVOLUTION OF ORGANIC LIFE IN JAINA BIOLOGY.
( First Section ) PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC EVOLUTION IN JAINA BIOLOGY.
The Jaina concept of organic evolution may be formed on the basis of detailed comparisons of the structures (samthānas)' of living forms,2 on the sequence of appearance and extinction of species3 in past ages, on the physiologic and biochemical similarities and differences between species as revealed in Jaina Biology and “on the analyses of the genetic constitution of present plants and animals"6.
According to modern Biology, "The term 'evolution' means an unfolding or unrolling - a gradual, orderly change from one condition to another'.7 “The principle of organic evolution states that all the various plants and animals existing at the present time have descended
1. Ekenariyajiva up to pañcendriyajiva have many rypes of shapes by which they
may be distinguished. 'Sarthänādesao Vāvi, vihānāim sahassaso." Uttarad hyayana Sü'ra 36, 88, 91, 105, 116. 125. 135, 144, 151, 169, 178, 193, 202. c.g. Egak hurā, duk hurā ceva, gamdipayā saņappaya Hayamãi Gonamai, gayamãi sihamãiņo". Utiaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.180 ; see Paņņavana, 1.70. Uitarādhyayana Sūtra 36. 68-197; Pannavana Sutta I. 8. 147 (Saṁsirasa mävanni
jiva paņņavanā). 3. E.g. Sthalacarajivas (terrestrial animals) are beginningless ( anadiya ) and endless
(apajjavasiya ) with regard to Santati ( series of issues-generations, but they have a beginning and an end with regard to duration (thiti) of an individual soul as Sthalacara duri' g life, i.e. birth and death because of the sequence of their appearance and extinction in past ages. "Samtaim pappa näiya, apajjavasiyavi ya / Thiim paducca säiya, sapajjavasiya
ya //" Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. i3. 4. E.g. Egakhura, dukhurā ceva, gamdipayā sa nappaya Hayamai, gonamai, gayamai
sihámaino" Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36.180. Pannavana Sutta, 1. 71-74 (Tirikkha
joniya pannavana ) See the second section "The livi g evidence for evolution" 5. Ibid,,
Biology, p. 512. *Shāvaram purakkhayan savve paņā savve bhuta savve jiva savve satta ņaņävihajonya nänävihasambhavä pāņavihávukkamā sarirajoņiya sarirasambhava sari rasambhavā sariravukkama sariraharā kammovagā kammaniyāņā kammagatiya kammathiya kammaņā ceva vippariyasamuvemti / se evamayanaha se evamayānitta
ähäragutte sahie samie saya jae Hibemi samic" suz, 362 Sūtrakrtanga 11 3.62. 7. Ibid.

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261
from simpler organism by gradual modifications which have accumulated in successive generations."
It appears from the study of Jaina Biology that the Jainācāryas have worked out a theory of a sort of gradual evolving life-forms on the basis of sense -- organs from the micro - organisms (nigodas)10 - one-sensed up to the five-sensed animals - men, 12 according to their metaphysical belief that the Karmaprakrti strives to change from the simple and imperfect to the more complex and perfect as a result of modifications of karmas12a accumulated in successive births in past ages.
There are infinite micro-organisms 13 (nigodajivas ) which do not attain the state of life of movable animals ( trasādis ), i.e. they do not evolve into movable beings or undergo gradual, orderly change. They are born and die, in their inclusion bodies (sādhāranasariras ) ; again they continue their life in the same stage. 14
It is further stated that whatever number of beings from amongst the number of Samvavahārarāśis (from ross one-sensed beings up to five-sensed beings-men) attains perfection, their equal number of beings from amongst beginningless fine plant-lives evolves into samvavabārarāśis (gross one-sensed movable beings up to five-sensed beings 1.15
Here it is suggestive from this statement that the process of evolution of organisms has not ceased, “but is occurring more rapidly to-day than in many of the past ages according to modern Biology.
8. Ibid. 9. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 68-197. ; Pannavana Sutta 1. 19-55 (Egidiyajiva
panna vina ) up to 1-92. 138 ( Parcendiya manussajiva pannavana ) 10. Bhagavati Sutra 25. 5. 749; Jiväbhigama Sūtra pp. 997; Paņņavapā Sutta 1.55.
102; Lokaprakasa 1 - 4th Saiga, v. 32; Nigodasafirirsikā, Gommatasara
(Jiva ), 73. 11. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36, 68 ff., Pannavani Sutta 1.1 -55. 12. ''ttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 194-7; Pannavana Sutta 1.92.138 12!a Sūtrakrtanga II. 3.62 "Savve pāņā savve bhūta. ... ... ceva vipparijāsa muvanti" 13. Atihi ana mtā jivā, jehim na patto tasai pariņāmo. Uppajjamti cayamti ya, pun
vi tattheva tattheva," Brhatsaṁgrahani, v. .77; see also Visesaņavati. "Te vi
namtāna mtā s iyoavāsan anuhavanti." Vide Lokaprakāśa 1.4.67. 14. Bịhatsamgrahaņi v. 277. 15. Sijjhanti jattiya kira iha sa nivavahārarasi majjao / Inti aņāivaņassaimajjão
tattiā tāmmi // 58 /. Prajñāpanavrtti, vide Lokaprakaśā, 1.4.58, p. 328. 16. Biology, p. 512.

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Ti
The Jainācārayas believe that organisms are guided through their lives by an innate and mysterious force called paryāpti17 which enables them to over - come handicaps in their metabolism and environment.
These adaptations18 once made are transmitted from generation to generation. “But acquired characteristics cannot be inherited, for such characteristics are in the body-cells only, whereas an inherited trait is transmitted by the gametes - the eggs and sperm"19, as it is suggested by the statement that the child in the mother's womb inherits (receives) flesh, blood and brain matter from the limbs of the mother and bone, marrow, hair, beard and hair on the body and nail from the limbs of the father, 20 the combined body of the parents in the child (first as gametes, next as developed body) lasts as long as its worldly body exists 21
The study of Jaina Biology indicates that variation 22 is the characteristic of every group of animals and plants, and organisms may differ *in many ways.23 Animals and plants exhibit many variations which are
neither a help nor a hindrance to them; these will be transmitted to succeeding generations,24 There may be georgaphic or genetic or ecologic isolation of incipient species to prevent interbreeding.
Modern Biology explains that variations arising from changes in the genes or chromosomes - called mutations - are the raw materials for evolution by natural selection. Obviously, then, evolution cannot take
17. See the 1st section of the 1st chapter for paryapti and its function. 18. Beings adapt themselves to different environment in their life's struggle for
existence as it is found in the case of Sthalacara (terrestrial), Jalacara (acqatic) and khecara ( aerial) pränis (animals ). See Sūtraktānga, Srutaskandha II, Adhyayana 3, Bhagavati Sūtra 7.3.275. Pannavaná Sutta, Stha apadam ; Jivābhigama Sūtra 1. 34-36 ; Tarkarabasyadipika, v. 19 (Jainamatam ). Tikā by
Gunaratna. 19. Biology, p. 514. 20. Bhagavati Sūtra, 1.7.61. Tandula Veyaliya, 6.
"Tao mãu-amgā paņņattā, tamjaha. mamsel sonie 2 matthulumge 3 tao
piu-ama pannatta, tamjaha-atthi 1, atthimimja 2 kesa mamsuromanaha 1". 21. Bhagavati Sūtra 1. 7. 61. 22. See the chapters on the classifications of plants and animals and their repro
ductions - 2nd chapter and 3rd chapter. The Evolution of Plant Reproduction and Reproduction ( 5th chapter ). Variations are based on structure, sense
organs, habitat (sthalajala, nabha etc.), reproduction, etc. 23. Ibid. 24. See the 6th chapter on the Mechanism of Heredity.
-

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place without mutations, and although natural selection does not create new characteristics, it plays an important part in determining which of them shall survive" 25 Truly speaking, "The evolution of new species involves both mutation and natural selection". 26
The origin of life :
Now the question is how the ultimate origin of life on this planet took place. The Jainācāryas do not believe in the origin of life as modern Biology advocates. Plant life27 and animal life28 are, according to them, beginningless (anādi) and endless (a paryavasitā ) with regard to santati (series of species ).29 But Jaina Biology conceives the different states of birth of the world of life: plants and animals in some sort of evolutionary relationsbip. So according to its concept, the first living organisms are the inifinite Nigodas (micro-organisms), 30 continuing their life in inclusion bodies ( sädhārana striras ,31 like huge colonies of viruses, but inost them do not attain the state of movable animals.
It appears that they exist in an atmosphere, presumably obtaining common energy and common respiration by the fermentation of certain of the organic substances (i. e. molecules of the common body), as it is suggested by the statement that "common differentia of these Nigodas (micro-organisms) is said to be the common food and common respiration."33
These heterotrophs could survive only as long as the supply of organic molecules accumulated from the past lasted, as is implied by the words that "in that common inclusion body when one Nigoda (micro-organisin) dies, there is the death of infinite Nigodas
25. Biology p. 515. 26. Ibid, p. 517. 27. Uttaradhya ana Sūira 36.1 11. "Samtaim pappa näyä, 2 pajjavasiyāvi ya/
Thiim puducca saiya. sapajja vasiy, vi ya," 28. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36, 131, 140. 150, 159, 174. 183, 189, 198. 29. Ibid. 30. "Atthi ana mto jivi, jot in na ratio ta: a ipainimo," Bịhatsamgrahani, v. 277,
p. 22 31. Gommatasara, Jivakinda 191. 32. Pphat Samgrahani, v. 277. 33. "Säharanamāharo sahāranamaņapánagahanam ca, Saharaṇajivāņam sahāraṇal:k
khanar bhaniyam !/", Gommațasāra, 192 (Jivakända ).

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(micro-organisms ) (with it ), ( while ) when one Nigoda is born, there is the birth of infinite Nigodas there."34
In the next stage it is suggestive that before the supply of organic substances was exhausted, the heterotrops (some sūkşma Nigodas) evolve further and become autotrophs35 (bacteria samvavahāraräsis), which are able to make their own organic molecules by chemosynthesis or photosynthesis36 as is suggested by the reference to sevāla, and green plants in summer that many Usnayonika beings (plant bacteria ?) get generated as plant-bodied beings (vanaspatikāyikas ) in certain numbers, and they increase and decrease also in certain numbers and they are born again, for this reason many plants, having leaves, flowers and fruits, remain (or look ) green and shining in summer season.37
Modern Biology explains this evolution of heterotrops into autotrophs in this manner : “An organism might acquire by successive mutations, the enzymes needed to synthesize complex from simple substances, in reverse order to the sequence in which they are normally used.”38
"When, by other series of mutations, the organism was finally able to synthesize all of its requirements from simple inorganic substances, as the green plants cao, it would be an autotroph'' 39"And once the first simple autotrophs had evolved, the way was clear for the evolution of the vast variety of green plants, bacteria, molds and animals that inhabit the world”.40
It is suggestive from these considerations of the world of life thai the origin of life, as an orderly natural event on this plan was possible, although the Jainācāryas have worked out a theory of a sort of gradual evolving life - forms according to their metaphysical belief that all life
34. Jatthekka marai jivo tattha du maranaṁ have anaṁtānam
Vakkami jattha ekko vakkamaņam tatthanamtāna í," Ibid, 193. 35. "Sijjhanti jattiya kira iha samvavahärarasimjjão Inti anaivanassaimajjao tattiya
tammi /" Prajñapanavịtti, vide Lokaprakása, 4.30, p. 328. 36. Green algae, etc. can make their photosynthesis, sevāla, (algae, etc., are men
tioned in the Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 54. 37. Bhagavati Sutra 7.3.275. 38. Biology, p. 522. 39. Ibid, p. 523. 40. Biology, p. 523.

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was beginningless and endless with regard to santati (series of issues or species).41
It seems unlikely that men will ever know how life originated, whether it happend only once at many times or whether it might happen again.
The Jain theory of the origin of life is suggestive in this matter that (1) some organic substances were formed from organic substances by the action of physical factors in the environment, (2) they interacted to form more and more complex substances, eventually enzymes and self - reproducing systems “free genes" and (3) "these gencs" diversified and united to form primitive virus like heterotrophs and autotrophs.42 This theory may be plausible and certain parts of it are possibly subject to scientific verification as implied by the statement “Sijjhanti Jattiyā kira iha samvavahararāsimajjão/inti anaivanassaimjjão tattiyā tammi."43
But the Jainācāryas conceive the existence of all types of life: micro-organisms, four quadrates, plants and animals, as beginningless and endless with regard to santati (series of issues or species, 44) as already pointed out.
As regards the principles of organic evolution in Jaina Biology it is suggestive from the study of the anatomy, physiology and biochemistry of plants and animals, their embryonic and genetic histories as outlined in, - Jaina Biology and the manner of distribution of plants and animals over the earth surface and also the statement" sacitta - sitasamsttaḥ setarā miśrāscaikaśastadyonayah" 45 that some principles seem to have been followed in this matter : "Changes in the chromosomes and genes are the raw materials of evolution"48 ; some sort of isolation is necessary for the setting up of new species ; and natural
41. "Samtāim pappa ņāiyā apajjavasiyāvi ya," Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.79, etc. 42 Sūtrakstānga II, 3. 54 (Sevala, panaga, etc.) 43. Prajñāpaņāvstti, vide Lokaprakāśa 1. 4th Sarga, v. 58. p. 328. 44. Sec Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 79. etc. 45. Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 33, p. 110.
"Samsāre Jivadamassya trividhasya janmaha etāh sacittadayah sapratipaksa migrascaikaso yonayo bhavanti / tadyathā - sacittăcittä, sitä, uşņā, fitoşpă,
samvstā, vivștä, samVrtavivstā, iti ?" 46. Biology p. 522. JB-34

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selection is involved in the survival of some, according to Darwin, but not all, of the mutations which occur."47
According to modern Biology,
(1) "Evolution occurs more rapidly at some times than at others.
At the present time it is occurring rapidly, with many new forms appearing and many old ones be coming extinct.
(2) Evolution does not proceed at the same rate among different
types of organisms.
In general, evolution occurs rapidly when a new species first appears, and then gradually slows down as the group becomes established.
New species do not evolve from the most advanced and specialized forms already living, but from relatively simple, unspecialized forms.
(4) Evolution is not always from the simple to the complex.
There are many examples of “regressive" - evolution, in which a complex form has given rise to simpler ones.
(5) Evolution occurs by populations, not by individuals by the
processes of mutation, natural selection and genetic drift" 48
47. Biology, p. 523. 48. Ibid. p.523.

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(Second Section )
THE LIVING EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION
The evidence obtained from the study of the anatomy, physiology and biochemistry of plants and animals, their embryologic3 and genetic histories as outlined in Jaina Biology and the manner in which they are distributed over the earth's surfaces suggest that a sort of organic evolution has occurred.
Taxonomy - the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms as dealt with in Jaina Biology has been touched upon in brief in the second and third chapters. Like Ray and Kinpaeush the Jainācäryas are firm believers in the unchanging nature of species as is evidenced in their classifications, 7 “but present-day taxonomists are concerned with describing species primarily as a means of discovering evolutionary relationships."8
From their points of view an evolutionary relationship among the species of organisms - plants and animals may be discovered on the
1. See the fourth chapter - Organisation of the Body, Blood and Circulatory
systems ( 1st section ), the Respiratory system ( 2nd section ), the Digestive system ( 3rd section ), the Excretory system (4th section ), the Integumentary and Skeletal system (5th section ), the Muscular system (6th section ), the Nervous system (7th section ), the Sense - organs (8th section ), the Endocrine system
( 9th section ). 2. See the second and third sections of the second chapter : second section-General
properties of Green plant, Cellular Respiration, The skeletal system of the plants, Plant Digestion, Plant Circulation, Plant Saps, Plant Excretion, Plant Co-ordination, Transmission of Impulses of Plants, and Sleep Movement of Plants ; third section - The structures and Functions of a Seed Plant, the Roots and its funtions, The Environment of roots : Soil, The stem and its functions, the leaf and its function, Transpiration. The movement of Water, and the
Storage of Food. 3. See th: 5th Chapter - Reproduction, second section Human Reproduction, third
section - Embryonic Development. 4. See the 6th chapter - The Mechanism of Heredity, the 1st section - The Physical
Basis of Heredity, The Development of Genetics. 5 See Țhāņapadam. Pannavana Sutta 2.348 - 150, (pệthivikāya- upto 166 (pamcim
diyathāņa) 6. Biology p. 543 7. Ottar ādhyayana Sūtra, 36; Pannavanā Sutta, Jivapaņņayanā. 8. Biology, p. 543.

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basis of their anatomy, physiology and biochemisty, their embryologic and genetic histories, ete.
The fact that the characteristics of living things - size and shape, metabolism, movement, irritability, growth, reproduction and adaptation, as discussed in the second section of the first chapter, are such that they can be fitted into a hierarchical scheme of categories - species, genera, etc.9 - can best be interpreted as indicating evolutionary relationship. The evidence from Anatomy :
Homologous organs ; Comparisons of the structure of group of animals and plants as described in Jaina Biology reveal that each organ system has a certain basically similar pattern that is varied to some extent among the members of a given phylum. The skeletal, circulatory and excretory systems of vertebrates ( pancendriyajıvas )10 provide particular clear illustration of this. "Only similarities based on homologous organs are valid in attributing evolutionary relationship". 11 Homologous organs are basically similar in structure, in their relationships to adjacent structures, in their embryonic development and in their nerve and blood supply.12 For example, a bat's ( valguli )13 wing, a cat's (mārjāra)14 paw, a horse's ( aśva )15, front leg and the human (manuşya)16 hand and arm, (päni) 16/a though superficially dissimilar and adapted for quite different functions, are homologous organs.
According to modern Biology, "each consist of almost the same number of bones, muscles, nerves and blood vessels, arranged in the same pattern and with very similar modes of development."17
A study of the evidence of the existence of such homologus organs indicates a common evolutionary origin of these
fifth, first and fourth
9. Sec Second Chapter and Third Chapter. 10. See the fourth chapter - organisation of the body, its
sections respectively. 11. Biology, p. 544. 12. Ibid. 13. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra II 34. 14. Ibid. 15. Ibid. 16. Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 34. 16/a Tandula Veyaliya 2, 17. Biology, p. 544.

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animais, although the Jainācāryas do not believe in this evolutionary relationship.
The Evidence from Comparative Physiology & Biochemistry:
In general, if the important physiologic processes of a rat (muşika) 18 and those of man (mansusya ),19 as both of them belong to the fivesensed mammalian group, are compared in the light of modern Biology, it is revealed that a rat has a replica of the human heart (brdaya ), lungs (phopphasa ), stomach (udara ) and most of the other organs. "These structures of the rat are functioning in a manner almost identical to those of human beings"20 “There are, of course differences - in the vitamin requirements, in the arrangement of a few blood vessels and in the workings of the reproductive system, but in general, the important physiologic processes of respiration, and nervous response are the same as ours, yet rats and human beings belong to different orders of the class."21
It has been revealed by blood tests involving different animals that there is a basic similarity between “the blood proteins of all the mammals, the degree of relationships being indicated by how much antigen and antibody result in visible precipitation."22
Man's closest "blood relationships" as determined in this way, are the great apes, then, in order are the old world monkeys, the new world prehensile-tailed monkeys and tarsioids.'23 The evidence from Embryology :
The study of the embryonic development in Jaina Biology reveals that human embryos in the course of development repeat the evolu
18. Tattvarthadhigama Sutra II 34.
Musika ( rat) belongs to potaja group (a class of placental mammals compri
sing the Deciduata with the exception of Man, Apes and the carnivora. 19. Ibid. Mapuşya belongs to Jarayuja group. (Mammals born with placenta ). 20. Biology, p. 544. 21. Biology, P, 445.
In Jaina Biology Rat and Man belong to Potaja and Bhuja apasarpa group
and Jarāyuja group respectively, TS. II. 34. (Bhāşya) 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
"Sattāmham Kalalam hoim, sattāham hoi abbuyan / abbuyā jayac pesi pesto ya ghaṇam bhave ! ... .. to padhame māse karisūņam palam jayai / bie mase pesi sarjayae ghana 2 ....... upto atthame māsc vittikappo havai ?". The embryo repeats here the evolutionary history of his ancestors.

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tionary history of their ancestors in some abbreviated form 24. “In 1866 Ernst Haeckel developed his theory that embryos, in the course of development, repeat the evolutionary history of their ancestors in some abbreviated form" 25 This idea, succinctly stated as “Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"..... focussed attention on the general resemblance between embryonic development and the evolutionary process. It is now clear that the embryos of the higher animals resemble the embryos of lower forms, not the adults, as Haeckel had believed. The earlly stages of all vertebrate embryos are remarkably similar and it is not easy to differentiate a human embryo from the embryo of pig, chick, frog, or fish."26
In Jaina Biology it is found in connection with the human embryonic development that in recapitulating its evolutionary history in a few days, weeks or months, 27 the human embryo eliminates some steps and distorts others. In addition, some new characters have evolved which are adaptive and enable the embryo to survive.28
The human embryo develops kalala (zygote or flat disc29) after fertilization within seven days, arbuda (cylindrical embryo or hard mass) develops within next seven days and so on up to in the seventh month of pregnancy, there develop 7000 śirās (veins ?), 500 muscles, 9 dhamanis (arteris ?), 9900000 hair follicles without hair and beard, and 35000000 hair follicles with hair.30 That is to say "During the seventh month of intra - uterine development the human embryo resembles - in being completely covered with hair and in relative size of body and limbs - a baby more ape than it does an adult human.”31
24. Biology, p. 544. 25. Biology, p. 545. 26. Ibid, p. 546. 27. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid.
30. Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6. "Sattāham, Kalalam, etc."
"Sattaham Kalalam hoim, sattāham hoi abbuyam upto sattame mase satta sirāsayāim 700 panaca pesisayaim 500 navadbamaņio navapauim ca romakuvasayasa hassāim nivattei 9900000 viņā kesamamsunā saha kesamamsuna addhutzhão
romakuvākodio nivvattei 35000000 /." 31. Biology, p 547.

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“The concept of recapitulation must be used with due caution, rather than rigorously, but it does not provide an explanation for many otherwise inexplicable events in development.''32
The Genetic Evidence :
The species of plants, and animals are not, as the Jainācāryas believe, unchangeable biologic entities each of which originated separately, but groups of organisms which have arisen from other species and which can give rise to still others, as it is suggested by the statement in Jaina Biology that "Here in the East, West, North and South there are, all in all, in the world four kinds of sceds : Seeds generated at the top (of the plant ), at its root, at its knots at at its stem, etc.33 :
The selection and breeding of domesticated animals34 and cultivated plants35 as described in Jaina Biology indicates the models of how some of the evolutionary forces operate.36 The present-day varieties of cultivated plants developed by the cultivators were produced from one or a few forms by selection and inter - breeding. Many varieties of rice or wheat have been produced by selection, each adapted for certain growing conditions. Thus there are śali (dhānya ), brihi (a kind of dhānya ), etc., godhūma, (wheat ) yava, (barley)
etc. 37
Similarly, all the varieties of present day dogs (sunaga )38 are descended from one or a few related species of wild dog or wolf having nails (sa napphadā) and yet they vary tremendously in many characteristics. 39
32. Ibid, p. 546. 33. Sūtrakstanga II. 3. 43
"Iha khalu päiņaṁ vā 4 savvato savvāvamti ca ņam logamsi cattari biyakayā
evamahijjanti - tamjahā aggabiyā mūlabīyā porabiya khaṁdhabiya 1, etc.” 34. Pannavaná 1. 71 (assā assatara ghodaga ), etc. 1. 72 (Utta, gonā etc.) 35 "Sali bihi 2, godhúma 3 javajavā 4 kala 5 masûra 6 tila 7 mugga 8
etc.” Paņņavanā 1.50. 36. See the fifth section of the second chapter "The Evolution of Plant Re.
production" 36. Pannavanā 1.50. 38. Ibid. 1.74. 39. Biology, p. 547. Pannavapā, 1.74

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Evidences from the Geographic Distribution :
It appears from the study of the world of life plants and animals and their classification in the second and third chapters respectively that not all plants and animals are found in all parts of the world,40 they are not even found everywhere.41
Jaina Biology
This fact suggests that "they could survive, as one would expect, if climate and topography were the only factors determining distribution."42 For example, elephant (hasti), lion (simha). deer (mṛga ), tiger (vyäghra), etc.43 as mentioned in Jaina Biology are not found everywhere in the world or in every part of India, although there may be similar climatic and other environmental conditions. Assam has wild elephants, there are lions in Gujarat's Gir forest, royal Bengal tigers in the Sunderbans in Bengal.
The present distribution of organism as described in Jaina Biology is understandable on the basis of the evolutionary history of each species.
As one would expect, regions, such as, Gujarat and Bengal have been separated by a long distance, have a flora and fauna which is peculiar to them. The Sunderbans has a population of royal Bengal tigers found nowhere else.
It is suggestive from the study of the classifications of five-sensed animals44 in Jaina Biology and their habits that "the primitive mammals 40. Egavihamanatta, suhuma tattha viyrhiya Suhuma savvalogammi,
logadese
Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36.100 etc.
ya bayarā, etc. (2 sensed being logegadese te savve, na savatiha viyahiya., Ibid, 36.130. (3 sensed beings), Logegadese te savve, na savvattha viyahiya "Ibid, 36.139 (4 sensed beings) - Logassa ega desammi, te savve parikittiya /. Ibid.. 36-149. (5 sensed beings)- Logassa egades ammi, te savve u viayhiyā 1, Ibid, 158 (Aquatic animals-fish, tortoise. etc.) Loegadese te savve, na savvattha viyahiya/ Ibid., 173.
(Terrestrial animals) Loegadese te savve, na savvattha viyahiya, Ibid, 36.182. [Aerial animals] Logegadese te savve, na savvattha viyahiya, Ibid, 36.188. (Human beings) "Loaassa egadesamm, te savve viyahiya, Ibid 38.197. ; See Pannavane Sutta, Thānapayam.
41. Ibid.
42. Biology, p. 548
43. See the 3rd chapter, Classification of Animals"; Pannavanā 1 72-74 44. See the 3rd Chapter "Classification of Animals"

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gave rise to a variety of forms which were able to take advantage of the different habitats available.45
Some plants 46 and terrestrial animals47 as mentioned in Jaina Biology are indigeneous, but those of every other parts of India resemble every other species and those of other places resemble some other place's species. If may be inferred from this fact that organisms from the neighbouring parts might have migrated or were carried to the new land and subsequently evolved into new species. It should be noted that there is no indigeneous camel48 in Bengal, even though there are tigers, etc. in the Sunderbans in Bengal, ideally suited for such creatures, because this animal (camel) cannot survive being exposed to Bengal's climatic conditions.
There are many facts about the present distribution of animals and plants as described in Jaina Biology which can be explained only by their evolutionary history Allegators19 are found only in rivers of some parts of India. Some plants and trees grow only in some parts of India, e. g. căpăvaṁsa 50 (a kind of bamboo) found in Assam and Bengal. There are described many kinds of bamboos 31 and allegators52 in Jaina Biology. It seems that because the bamboo plants and allegators have been separated respectively for several thousand years in their respective habitats, they have followed separate evolutionary pathways, and are slightly different, but they are still closely related species of the same genera 53 in their respective taxonomy.
According to modern Biology, one of the basic tenets of Biogeography is that "cach species of animals and plants originated only once."54 From its headquarters each species probably spread out
plante originated only
45. Biology, p. 548. 46. See the second chapter : "Types of Plants". 47. See the 3rd chapter "Classification of Animals". 48. Uttā. (Paņņavaņā 1. 72). 49. Gābá (Pannavana 1. 65). 50. Cāvavaṁsa (Paņņavaņā 1. 46) 51. Vamse velú kaņae kamkávaṁse ya cāvavaṁse ya," Udae Kudae vimac Kam
dāvelú ya Kaltāņa 1/" Paņņavaņā 1. 46.34.
Pannavaņā 1. 65. "Dili vedhala muddhaya pulaga símāgara " Setar gāhā 53. Biology, p. 548. 54. Biology, p. 548 JB-35
52.

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until halted by a barrier of some kind - physical, such as, an ocean, a river, a desert, a mountain and environmental, such as, an unfavourable climate or biologic, such as, absence of food or presence of enemy organizations which prey upon it or compete with it for food or shelter."55
The question why certain animals and plants are present in one region but are excluded from another in which they are well adapted to survive (and in which they flourish whep introduced by man) can be explained only by their evolutionary history.
55. Ibid, p. 549. The Sūtrakrtänga 11. 3 (knowledge of food ) suggests that there
is a biologic barrier for plants and animals to survive because of absence of food or presence of enemy organizations which prey upon a species or compete with it for food or shelter.

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(Third Section)
PRINCIPLES
OF
ECOLOGY
A close study of the world of life-plants and animals as presented in Jaina Biology reveals that there is a remarkable fitness of the organism for the place (thaṇa ) in which it lives, e. g. water for aquatic animals, land for terrestrial animals and air for aerial animals2 as indicated by their classifications and habitats. It is suggestive from this fact of fitness of organisms for the habitats in which they live that this fitness of their structure, of function, even of behaviour pattern, has arisen in course of evolution by natural selection3 as explained by modern Biology.
"The outcome of evolution is a population or organisms, a species, adapted to survive in certain type of environment."4
The species mentioned in the classifications5 of plants and animals in Jaina Biology show adaptations both in the physical environment and biotic environment which includes all the plants and animals in the same region,6 e. g. some plants and animals live on land in the same region, while some plants and animals live in the region of water as indicated in the sthanapada of the Pannavaṇā sūtra, regarding the habitats of plants upto those of five-sensed animals.

Some of the fundamentals of ecology, the study of the interrelations between living things and their physical and biotic environment, etc. have been discussed in the first section "Biologic Interrelation" of the second chapter: "The World Of Life." Now the problems of 1. Pānṇavana Sutta 2, Thanapayaṁ, Sūtras 148-166, etc.
2. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36.17.
3. Panṇavanä Sūtra 1. 61-91. Biology, p. 570.
4.
Biology, p. 570.
5. See Thaṇapayam of Pannavaṇā
Sutta, 160 162. "Vanassaikāyaṭhāṇāim", "Agadesu taḍāgesu nadisu dahasu vavisu pukkhariņisu dihiyasu gumjaliyāsu saresu...... divesu samuddesu savvesu ceva jalasaesu'.
See also "Veimdiyaṭhānaim", Pannavana Sutta 163-166. "Agaḍesu tatäesu nadisu ..... divesu samuddesu savvesu ceva jalasaesu ", etc.
6. See the second chapter: The World of Life, first section - Blologic Interrelationship, Ecosystem, Habitat and Ecologic Niche, Types of Interactions between species of Plants and Animals, etc.
7. Thanapayam, Pannavana Sutta 2.

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detail as revealed in Jaina
ecology will be discussed here more in Biology.
Factors Regulating the Distribution of Plants and Animals ;
The study of the classification of organisnis and their habitats reveals that probably no species of plants or animals is found everywhere in the world,8 for some parts of the earth are too hot, 100 cold, too wet, too dry, too something else for the organism to survive. That is to say, all the environments may not be suitable for each of the species of plant or animal for their survival.
Modern Biology also explains that “most species or organisms are not even found in all the regions of the world where they could survive. The existence of barriers prevents their further dispersal and enables us to distinguish the major biogeographic realms characterized by certain assemblages of plants and animals.''10
It is found in Jaina Biology that each species requires certain materials for growth and reproduction. 11 It is presumable that it can be restricted if the environment does not provide a certain minimal amount of each one of these materials.
The distribution of each species is determined by its range of tolerence to variations in each of the environmental factors 12 as it is indicated by the birth of different species of plants and animals in different habitats - land, water and air, 13 etc.
8. "Suhumā savvalogammi, logadese ya bayarä /", Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.100;
"Beimdlyā u. negaha evámāyao / logegadese te savve, na savvattha viyahiya /", Ibid. 36.130. "Teimdiya-logegadese te savve, Ibid, 36.139. "Câurimdiyā - logassa egadesa mmi, te savve parikittia (149) Ibid. Pamcemdiyā - "logassa e adesammi, te savve u viyahiya /", Ibid, 36.158, Maccha, etc... "Loegadese te savve, pa savvattha viyahiya /" Ibid 36.73
About birds "Logegadese te savve, no savvattha viyahiya /", Ibid, 36.188. 9. Sūtrakrtānga 11. 3. 10. Biology, p. 570 11. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. (Ahāranik se pa ) ; Knowledge of food 12, Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 43-62. 13. See Thānapayam, Pannavaņā Sutta 2 ; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36.171 ;
Pannavaņa Sūtra 1.61. "Jalacara pamcimdiyatirikkhajoniya thalacarapamcimdyatirikkhajoniya khabacarapamcimdiyatirikkhajoniya /"

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It has usually been observed that certain stages in reproduction are critical in limiting organisms; seedlings 14 and larvae15 are usually more sensitive than adult plants and animals.
According to modern Biology, “Some organisms have very narrow range of tolerance to environmental factors, others can survive within much broader limits. Any gives organism may have narrow limits for another."16
It appears from a close study of the world of life in Jaina Biology in regard to the ecosystem that temperature, 17 light,18 water, 19 atmospheric gases 20 and food 21 are some of the important limiting factors regulating the distribution of plants and animals.
"Temperature is an important limiting factor, as it is demonstrated by the relative sparceness of life in the desert and arctic. The role of light is important in controlling plants and animals. Plants and animals must have light for their survival but they had to evolve mechanisms, for protection against too much or too little light.
Water is a physiologic necessity for all organisms, but it is a limiting factor primarily for land organisms.
14. Stages of embryonic seed (Jonibhūe bie ), hypocoty (first radicle = mula),
cotyledons(prathamapatras ), epicotyle (prathamakisalaya) and its development or growth ( vivaddharta ), Pannavanā 1. 154. 9. 97-98.
Biology, p. 571. 15. See Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 19-20 ; Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra II. 24.
Three sensed beings e g. Pipilika (ant ', trapusa vinas ( cucumber weevils ), traņapatra (haraka) Plant lice) and four sensed beings e. g. kita (butter flies and moths', Patanga (grass hoppers and locusts) have larvae stage before coming
into being (adult ). Biology, p. 5 1. 16. Ibid, p. 571. 17. Sūtrakṣtānga 11. 3. 18. Bhagavati Sūtra 7. 3. 274–5. 19. Sūtrakrtāng, II, 3. 20. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3. 21. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. "Äháraniksepa”. “Some beings are born in earth as trees.
These beings feed on the liquid substance of these particles of earth, the origin of various things ; these beings consume earth-bodies, water-bodies, fircbodies, wind-bodies, bodies of plants, etc. “Pudhavisu rukkhattáo viuffamti te jiva tesim ņāņāvihajoniyāņaṁ pudhaviņam sinehamāhāremti, te jivā ābāremti pudhavisariram ausariram teusariram Vausariram vanassaisariram" II. 3. 43, p. 91.

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Atmospheric gases - the amount of dissolved oxygen is a limiting factor for certain forms living deep in the soil or on mountain heights and aquatic environments.22
Even fire23 may be a factor of ecologic importance.
“The knowledge of food for plants and animals as revealed in the Jaina work 24 shows that the need of living things for energy is food. Modern Biology defines that "the transfer of food energy from its ultimate sources in plants, through a series of organisms each of which eats the preceding and is eaten by the following is known as food - chain.”25 .
“Man is the end of a number of food - chains, for example, man eats big fish, which ate little fish, which ate small invertebrat ate algae."26
“The ultimate size of the human population is limited by the length of our food - chain, the per cent efficiency of energy transfer at each step in the chain, and by the amount of light energy falling on the earth.”27
It is to be noted in Jaina Biology that parasites (anusüyas )28 may also exist as members of food chains for example, mammals and birds are parasitized by fleas,28 etc. and in the fleas, (damsa )28/a etc., live
22. See Biology, p. 571. See also Sūtrakttānga II. 3 for environment. 23. "te jivā ābaremti teusariram" Sūtrakstānga II. 3. 43, p. 91. 24. Sätrakrtanga II, 3. Abärapiksepa 25. Biology, p. 572. 26. Ibid 27. Ibid. 28 Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 53.
"Nāṇāvihāņam tasathāvarāņam poggalāņam sariresu vā, sacittesu vă, acittesu Vā, aņusūyațțāc viuftamti, te jivā tesim ņāņāvihāņam tasathāvarāņam pāņāņām sinehamähäremti, etc. up to tesi tasathāvarajoniyāņam anusűyagåņam sarira ņānāvaņņā jāvamakkhāyaṁ ” “Te jivā vikalendriyāḥ sacittesu manusyadigar reçu yükālikşadikatvenotpadyante tathā tatparibhujyamānesu mañcakādişvacitteşu matkuņatven ávir bhavanti /"
Tika ibid p. 102 28/a Bhaga 9.33.3:4

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protozoa 29 ( krmi) which are in turn hosts of bacteria30 “since the bacteria might be parasitized by viruses there could be a five-step parasite food - chain."31
It is known from the study of the classification of plants and animals and their distribuion on land and in water that each region is inhabited by a host of animals and plants and there are many interrelationships32 - competition, commensalism, predation and other factors33 between them that are also involved in determining whether or not some single species can survive there.
A biotic community34 as found in Jaina Biology is composed of smaller groups, members of which are more intimately associated:35 According to modern Biology, it is also known as populations, for there is no sharp distinction between a population and a community.36 So a biotic community as noted in Jaina Biology is an assemblage of population living in a defined area or habitat (thāna)37 it can be either large
29. Tātha acittibhūtesu manusyadigarirakesu vikalendriyasariresu vă te jivā anusyū
tatvena-paranigrayā krmyaditvenotpadyante /" Țika, Sūtrakstānga, II. 3. p. 102 * Evam durūvasambhavattae evam khuradugattāe" Ibid Il. 3.58. "Kharadugattäe - carmakițatayā samutpadyante, idamuktam bhavati-jivatāmeva fOrahisādinām carmaņo, antaḥ prāņinaḥ sammürcchyante, te ca tanmāṁsacarmaņi bhakşayanti, bhakşayantascarmano vivarāṇividahati, galacchoạitesu vivareșu tişthantastadeva soņitamāhārayanti, tathā acittagavādisarire api, tathā sacjttacittavanaspatiśarire api ghunakițakāḥ sammūrechyante, te, ca tatra sammūrech
yantastacchariramäharayantiti /" Ibid. (Comm.) P. 102. 31. Biology, p. 572. 32. See the second (types of plants ) and third ( Classification of Animals )
chapters. 33. See the first section of the second chapter. "Biologic Interrelationship.” “The
classification of living substances. "Mode of Nutrition of Plants and Animals,” "Ecosystem, Habitat and Ecologic Niche" "Types of Interactions Between
Species of Plants and Animals." 34. Ibid., Sūtrakstānga II. 3, Ahāraniksepa ; see the 1st section of 2nd chapter.
"Interactions Between Species of Plants and Animals." 35. See the first section of the 2nd chapter ; “Biologic Interrelation`.," Sūtre
krtanga II. 3. 36. Biology, p. 572. 37. Sce Thānapayam, Pannavanā Sutta; Sūtrakrtānga II. 3; Eosyste) and Habitat
and Niche, of 1st section 2nd chapter.

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or small. The concept that animals and plants live together38 in an orderly manner in their habitats, not strewn haphazardly over the surface of the earth is one of the important principles of ecology.”39 Modern Biology explains that “Biotic communities show marked vertical stratification. In a forest there will be successive strata of plants, mosses and herbs, shrubs, low trees and high trees.40 Each of these strata has distinctive animal populations, even such highly motile animals as birds have been found to be restricted to certain layers -- some are found to be restricted to certain layers - some are found only in shrubs, others only in the tops of tall trees". 41
38. See Ecosystem, Habitat and Ecologic Niche of 1st section, 2nd chapter, Sūtra
kịtānga II. 3; Țhānapada, Pannavaņā Sūtra. 39. Biology, p. 577. 40. See the type of plants in the second chapter, fourth section and B. 41. Ibid, p. 78.

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(Fourth Section )
THE OUTCOME OF EVOLUTION : ADAPTATION
Although a clear cut idea of the outcome of evolution of plants and animals is noi found in Jaina Biology, it has been noted in the • second section of the first chapter "Characteristics of Living Substances" that each particular species of plant or animal has the ability to become adapted by seeking out an environment to which it is suited to make it better fitted to its present surrounding. It appears from the study of Jaina Biology that in course of time organisms have become adapted and readapted many times as their environment changed or as they migrated to a new environment.3
The analysis of this topic "The knowledge of food of organisms". the types of plants and animals and their habitats, etc. as recorded in Jaina Āgamas reveals that there is a tendency for each group of organisms to spread out? and occupy as many different habitats as they can reach and which will support them because of the struggle for food and living space.9
1.
Ses
See the second section "Characteristics of Living Substances", the first chapter “Cell structures and Functions“. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3 ; Bhagavati 7. 3. 275; Pannavaņā, Thaņapayam ; Jivabhigama, 1. 34-36; Tarkarahasyadipikā, V. 49 ( Jaina matań). Țika by Guna, atna. Ibid, see the second chapter, the first section Biologic Inter-relationship” Mode of Nutrition of Plants and Animals, "Ecosystem", “Habitat and Ecologic Niche" and the third section Principles of Ecolory" of the seventh chapter
'Evolution'. 4. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 5. See the second chapter, fourth section - A and B “ Types of Plants", and the
third chapter "Classification of Animals". Pannavaņā Sūtra, Thapapayam ; Sūtrakstāäga II. 3. Trasa animals ( motile animals ) always move on for food and shelter. All movable beings spread out for food. Even the immovable plants spread
out their roots for food. See Sūtrakrtanga II. 3, 4.. 8. See Sūtrakrtânga II. 3. All motile animals do so for food and space. 9. Ibid. BJ-36
7.

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According to modern Biology, “This evolution from a single ancestral species, of a variety of forms which occupy different habitats is adaptive radiation."10
As indicated in the topic “the knowledge of food", this adaptive radiation is obviously advantageous in enabling organisms to cap 'new sources of foodll and to escape from some of enemies. 12 The placental mammals13 provide a classic illustration of the process. There are dogs (sunagā or Svah)14 and deer (mrgas), 15 etc., adapted for terrestrial life16 as shown by their classification into sth alacara ( terrestrial ) group17 in which running rapidly is important for survival ; bats ( valguli ), 18 etc. equipped for flying in the air as khecara ( aerial )19 being, the completely aquatic whales ( timi)20 and porpoises (siśumārā)21 etc. as Jalacara 22 aquatic animals in water. The classification of ani. mals into sthalacara (terrestrial), Jalacara (aquatic ) and Kbecara23 (aerial ) animals in Jaina Biology throws light upon their habitats and ecology 24 to which they could grow and adapt, and make them. selves better fitted in their survival.
Modern Biology states that "The number and shape of the teeth, the length and number of leg bones, the number and attachment sites
10. Biology, p. 582. 11. Sūtrakstānga II. 3. Mode of Nutrition of Plants and Animals ( first section.
second chapter) 12. For example, movable animals deer (mga) can escape from its eoemy tiger
(vyāghra ) sometimes with its swiftness of biungular feet. See Sūtrakstānga
II. 3. 23. (Knowledge of food ) 13. Sūtraktānga II. 3. 23 . 14. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 23 ; Uttarādhyayana 36.180.
Pannavana Sutta 1.74 (Sunaga ); Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 34. 15. Sūtrakrtănga II. 3, 23 ; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 180 ; Pannavaņā 172 (miyā)
Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 34. 16. Paņņavaņā 1. 69, 72, 74. 17. Ibid., Uttarādhyayana Sūtra 36. 180. 18. Paạnavaņā 1. 87. 19. Ibid 1. 86 ; Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra II, 34. 20. Pannavaņā 1. 63. ( timi) 21. Ibid. 1, 62, 67 ; Uttaradhyayana 36. 17.. 22. Ibid 1. 62. 23. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 171, Pannavaņā Sūtra 1. 61, 86 24. Sūtrakstānga II. 3.

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of muscles, thickness and color of the fur, and so on, are some of the structures that are involved in adaptation."25
Conversely, it is found in Jaina Biology that many of the animals inhabiting the same type of habitat (e. g. water) have developed ) similar structures which make them superficially alike, even though they may be but distantly related. For example, the dolphins and porpoises (siśumāras ) 26 (which are mammals), both bony and cartilagidous fishes, “have all evolved streamlined shapes, dorsal fins, tail fins and fliper like fore and hind limbs which make them look much alike. 27
Io Modern Biology “this evolution of similar structures by animals adapting to similar environments is known as convergent evolution."28
It is suggestive from the study of Jaina Biology that adaptations for survival are evident in the colour 28/a and pattern of plants and animals29 as well as in their structures and physiologic processes 30
The evolution and adaptation of each species as suggested by biologic interrelacion31 in Jaina Biology have not occurred in a biologic
25. Biology, p. 583. 26. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 57 (maccháņam java samsamāraṇam)
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 172 ; Pannavaņā Sūtra 1. 67. 27. Biology, p. 583. 28. Biology, p 583. 28/a "Nimbamba Jambu ... Paläsa karamjeya" Pannavaņā 1. 40. 13 - four sensed
beings Kiņhapattā nilapattá lohiyapattá haliddapattá sukkilapattā cittapakkā vicittapakkha etc. The adaptations of the four sensed beings such as, Andhiya (a kind of four sensed beings), pottiya (gnats ), makşikä (flies ), masaka, (mosquitos), patanga (grasshoppers ) etc. for survival are evident in the colour as is evidenced by the fact of the mention of others in the same class kinh patta, (four sensed beings having black-coloured wings), nilapattá (fonr sensed beings having blue
coloured wings) etc. 29. "Eesim vannao ceva, gamdhao rasaphasao/
Samthànádesao vāvi, vihápăim sahasraso !/",
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.115, 116, 135, 144, 154. 169, 178. :93, 202. 30. See the second chapter and the fourth chapter for the plant structure and
plant physisologic processes and animal (man's structure and physiologic
processes respectively.) 31. See the first section of the second chapter "Biologic Interrelationship".

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vacuum, independent of other forms ; instead many species have had a marked influence on the adaptation of other species. As a result many types of cross-dependency between species32 have arisen. Some of the clearest and best understood of these types involve insects ( kita ), e.g. bhramaras (bees ), kita - patanga (butter-flies and moths )33. Insects are necessary "for the pollination of a great many plant”34 e.g. gourd plant (tumbi).35 It may be said that flowering plants have developed bright colours and fragrance, presumably to attract insects and birds and ensure pollination, e. g. Utpala36 (Nymphaea caerubea, blue Jotus), pauma37 (Nelumbium Speciosum, lotus), Nalina 38 (water-lily, Nelumbium Speciosum).
Other types of species to species adaptation are found as ones of host-parasite, 39 prey-predators, 40 commensals and mutualistic interdependence. 42
Terrestrial Life Zones (Sthalacarasthānas) : Biomes
As pointed out in the first section of the second chapter in connection with the habitat and niche of the living things-plants and animals, a physical area, some specific part of the earth surface, the place where an organism lives, air, soil, or water and the status of an
32. See the first section of the second chapter "The world of Life Plants";
Biologic Interre ationship and types of Interactions between Species of Plants
and Animals. 33. Uttaradhayayana Sūtra 36.146: Pannavanā Sūtra 1.58 ;
Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra 11. 24 34. Biology, p. 586. 35. Paņnavaņā 1. 4. 5. ( Tumbi) 36. Bhagavati Sūtra 9. 33. 385 ; 11. (1-8). 416. 37. It id. 11. 11-X). 416. 38. Ibid, 39. Sátrakītānga II. 3. 58.
“Te jiva . . ņāņāvihãņam tasathāvarāņam poggalāņam sariresu vā.. aṇusūyattae
viuțanti" 40. Ibid. II. 3.43.
"Te jivā ņāņavihaņam tasathāvarāņam pāņāņam sariram accittam kuivamti etc." 41. Ibid. II. 3. 44. 42. Ibid. il. 3, 64. ( Kūbana, 54 (Sevālı ), 55 ( tana ), etc.
See the first section of the second chaprer "Biologic Interrelationship" Types of Interations Between Species of Plants and Animals" for all these facts of species adaptation.

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285
organism within the ecosystem form the two basic concepts - habitat and niche which are useful in describing the ecologic relations of organisms.43 In dealing with the ecosystem and adaptation of organisms in Jaina Biology it is revealed that the biogeorgraphic regions of the world are regions composed of a whole continent (dvipa ) or a large part of it (i. e. sthalacarast hānas)44 and characterized by certain unique animals and plants.45 Within these biogeorgraphic divisions and arising as a result of complex interactions of climate, other physical factors and biotic factors are large, distinct, easily differentiated community units, called biomes in modern Biology. 46
It is suggestive from the study of the classification of plants47 into bacteria, algae, fungi, herbs, shrubs, creepers, grasses and trees in Jaina Biology that in each biome the kind of climax vegetation is uniform, but the particular species of plant may vary in different parts of biome. The kind of climax vegetation depends upon the physical environment and the two together determine the kind of animals present.48
According to modern Biology, “The definition of biome includes not only the actual climax community of a region, but also the several intermediate communities that precede she climax community 49”. Aquatic Life Zones (Jalacarasthānas)
Aquatic Life Zones may be divided into Marine Life zones 50 and Fresh Water Life zones for the convenience of study of biomes in these habitats.51
43. See the first sect on of the second chapter for Habitat : Nizh and
Ecosystem 44. See Pannavana Sutta 2, Thānapayam. 45. PaņņavanSutta 1.69.
"Thalayarapamcerdiyatirikkajon!ya duvihā pannatta/ tamjaha - cauppayathalayaraparicemdiyatirikkhajoniya ya parisaprathalayarapamcemdiyaiirikk hajoniyā ya ! etc. Besides, all the beings from one-sensed plants and animals upto five sensed animals live on earth, according to Sthanapada, Prajñapanā Sūtra 11.
148-150, etc. 46. Biology, 586. 47. See the second chapter, four section A and B : "Types of Plants" etc. 48. See the first section of the second chapter: "Biologic Inter relationship.” 49. Biology, p. 586 50. See Thāṇapayam,gPaņņavaná Sutia 2. All beings from one-sensed except air
bodied and fire bodied beings up to the five - sensed beings live in Aquatic life zones - Marine life zones and Free water Life zones. See also the habitats of ap-kāyajivas, Jalaruhas (Pannavanā 1.51, Pañcendriya Jalacarajivas (Pannavana
1.62. 51. Thānapayam, Pannavanā 2

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Marine Life Zones :
The ocean (samudda )52 is one of reservoirs of living things. It is clear that the total weight of living things (biomass) in the ocean far exceeds that of all living things on land fresh water as it is suggested by the sthānas (habitats) of all beings from one-sensed to five-sensed animals.
“The scas are continuous one with another and marine organisms are restrained from spreading to all parts of the ocean only by factors, such as, temperature, salinity and depih. The currents of the water of the sea not only influence the distribution of marine forms but also have marked effects on the climates of the adjacent land masses”.54
The study of the habitats of Tiryancajivas from one-sensed beings except vāyukāyajivas and Tejakāyajivas up to five-sensed animals in Jaipa Biology reveals that like the land the ocean ( samudra ) consists of regions characterized by different physical conditions and consequently inhabited by specific kinds of plaints55 and animals.56 Fresh Water Life Zenes :
As described in the Jaina literature, fresh water habitats of plants and animals may be divided into two zones, viz. standing water-lakes ( dahesu ), ponds (pukkhariņisu ) and swamps (vāvisu ? ) and running water - river (nadisu ), creeks (bilesu ?) and springs ( ujjharesu - nijjharesu),57 each of which may be further sub-divided. It is noted in Jaina Biology that biotic communities58 of fresh water habitats are in general more familiar than the salt water ones of the ocean.
52. Ibid 5. Ibid, 24. Biology, p. 591. 55. Samuddesu....badaravanassaikaiyãņam pajjattanam thāņā pannatta, etc.
Paņņayanā, 2, Țhāņapayam. 56. lbid. 57.Thâņa payam, Paņņavana Sutta 2, 151-153.
"Talaesu 'nadisug dahesu Vāvisu pukkhariņisu dịhiyāsu gumjāliyāsu saresu sarapamtiyasu sarasarapamtiyāsu bilesu ... ujjharesu nijjharesu cillalesu pallalesu vappiņesu divesu samuddesu savvesu ceva jalāsaesu jalathanesu 4, etthanam badara āvkkaiyāņam pajjattāņam phāņā paņņattā / Ibid. 1.163 ; 1.164, 1.165
1.166. 58. See the second chapter, fourth section A and B.
"Types of plants" and the third chapter 'Classification of Animals''

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287 *Fresh water habitats change much more rapidly than other lifezones ; pond becomes swamps, swamps become filled in and converted to dry land, and streams erede their banks and change their course."'59
It is found that the aquatic plants and animals as described in Jaina Biology may change markedly and show ecologic successions similar to those on land. The large lakes (hada) are relatively stable habitats and have more stable populations of plants and animals.60
The Dynamic Balance of Nature
A close study of the biologic inter-relationship of plants and animals, their mode of nutrition, ecosystem, habitat and niche, and types of interactions61, and principles of evolution, its living evidence, principles of ecology and the outcome of evolution : adaptation 62 as explained in Jaina Biology in some form reveals that the communtties of plants and animals are constantly undergoing an analogous reshuffling63 and the concept of the dynamic state of communities is a valid one. Plant and animal populations are constantly subject to changes in their physical and biotic environment64 and must adapt or die as suggested by Ahārapadaniksepa (knowledge of food) of the Sūtrakstānga.65
“A population may vary in size but if outruns its food supply, like the Kabab deer or the lemmings, equilibrium is quickly restored.”66
Communities of organism-plants and animals as described in Jaina Biology exhibit growth,67 specialization 68 and interdependence, 69 charac
:9. Biology p. 594. 60. Sec Thānpayam, Pappavaņā 2. 61. See the first section "Biologic Interrelationship”, etc. of the second chapter :
The world of Life : Plants. See also Sūtrakrtanga II. 3. Ahāranik sepa know ledge of food)
See The 7th chapter and 1st chapter second section." 63. See Sūtrakrtânga 11. 3. Abaranikṣepa (knowledge of food). 64. See the first section of the second chapter "Biologic Interrelationship“, etc. 65. Sūtrakļ, knga II 3. 66. Biology, 594. 67. Tarkarahasyadipika, Tika on V. 49 (Pratiniyatavrddhi). 68. See the 2nd chapter ist section - "Distinction Between Plants and Animals". 69. See the 1st section of the second chapter"Biologic Interrelationship", etc.

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development from
immaturity to maturity
teristic form,70 and even old age and death.71
-
70. See the 1st section of the first chapter- "Characteristics of Livings substances",
the second chapter on plants structure and the fourth chapter "Organisation
of the body." 71. Tarkarahasyadipikā, Țikā on V. 49, Gunaratna, p. 159.
“Vanaspatayah sacetanā bālakumaravệddhāvastha-pratiniyatvęddhi-svāpaprabodhasparśadidhetukollassasamkocāśrayopasar paņādivisstānekakriyachinnavayavam - tani-pratiniyatapradeśāhāragrahaņavřksāyurvejābhihitayuşkeșțānişțāhārkdimmittaviddhihāni, etc. upto višişğastriśariravat" /" "sacetanā vanaspatayo jaomajarámerañarogādinām samuditānām sadbhāvāt /” Ibid. p. 159. Ten dasás, "Evam jayassa jastussa kameņa dasa dasă evamāhijja mti tamjaha bālā 1 kiddā 2 mamda 3 balā ya 4 pannā ya 5 hāyaṇi 6, pavaca 7, pabbhāra 8, mummuhi 9 sayaniya dasama ya 10 kāladasa 1 31”, Tandula Veyāliya, p. 15

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EIGHTH CHAPTER
CONCLUSION
A Survey of the Plant and Animal Kingdoms as revealed in Jaina
Biology in the light of modern Biology
A study of the plant and animal kingdoms as found in the Agamas and post-āgamic works reveals that Jaipa Biology is the science of living thing (jivadravya ) which is different from non-living (ajivadravya). The thought on the world of life : plants and animals, began with the Jainacāryas on the basis of the concept of animism and non-violence (ahimsā) in the ancient past, along with the idea of the requirement of food to sustain life with a sense of the spiritual value of the life of all beings. They have studied the plant and animal kingdoms with some carefully controlled observation and made a discovery in the world of life : Plants and animals, by their critical observation and methods in some details so that their followers also can repeat them in their field. They have recorded the results of their observations, made discussion on the conclusion to be drawn from them, perhaps formulated a theory to explain them and indicated the place of these biological facts in the present body2 of scientific knowledge contained in the Jaina Āgamas and post-āgamic works, of course without scienuific verification of modern Biology.
The facts of Jaina Biology as embodied in the Jaina Āgamas are gained by the application of the scientitic method, yet it is difficult to reduce this to a simple set of modern Biology that can be applied to the Jaina Biological science, for the confirmation of the statement by the independent observation of another in any scientific investigation is demanded by the sceptical scientists of the present age.
A method has been followed by the Jainācāryas to see through a mass of biological data. The idea that living systems are distinguished from non-living ones by some mysterious vital force (parypāti?) has been accepted in Jaina Biology. There appear to be no exceptions to the generalization that all life comes only from living things.
1. Bhagavati Sūtra 25. 2. 720 ; Sthânănga 2. 95; Pannavana Sutta 1,3, p. 4; Jivābhigama. p. 3.
!!
: 2. Bhagavati. Sthāpānga ; Pannavadā ; Jivabbigama ; Acarānga"; Sūtraksi
tāága, etc. JB. 37

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Jaina Biology provides connecting proof that micro-organisms (nigodas), bacteria (earth quadrates, etc.) are not capable of originating from non-living material by spontaneous generation. It seems that micro-organism (nigodas) require the presence of pre-existing microorganisms (nigodas).
290
Nigodas do not arise de novo from non-nigodas, just as viruses do not arise from non-viral material.3 Elements of the idea that all of the many types of plants and animals existing at present time were not created de novo and were externally existing and have descended from previously existing organisms are clearly expressed in the Jaina Agamas but they have their gradations.
The studies of the development of many kinds of plants and animals from embryo or fertilized egg to adult as found in Jaina Biology lead to the generalization that organisms tend to repeat in the course of their embryonic development, some of the corresponding stages of their evolutionary ancestors, i.e. embryos recapitulate some of the embryonic forms of their ancestors.4
A careful study of communities of plants and animals in a given habitat as described in the Jaina Agamas reveals that all living beings in a given region are closely inter-related with one another and with the environment.5
It conceives the idea that particular kinds of plants and animals are not found at random over the earth but occur in interdependent communities of producer, consumer and decomposer organisms together with certain non-living components. Those communities can be recognised and characterized by certain dominant members of the group, usually plants, which provide both food and shelter for many other forms of life. This ecosystem is one of the major unifying generalizations of Biology.6
Jaina Biology explains that the fabric of life of all plants and animals is paryapti (vital force) or prana (life force) in another way, i. e. paryapti like protoplasm appears to be the actual living material 3. Bhagavati 25. 5. 749; 12. 2. 443;
Biology, C. A. Villee p. 9.
4. Bhagavati, 1. 7. 61; Tandulaveyāliya, 6, p. 10,
5.
Bhagavati 6. 7. 246; 6. 5. 330; 7. 3. 277; 8. 3. 324, 8. 5. 330; 21. 2. 691; 22. 6. 692; 23. 1. 693; etc. Sūtrakṛtānga, II. 3.
6. Ibld.

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291
of all plants and animals. Jain paryāpti? and prāna, the two unique forces, not explainable in terms of physics and chemistry, are associated with and control life. The concept of these forces may be called vitalism which contains the view that living and non-living systems are basically different and obey different laws. It is reasonable to suppose that paryāpti, a mysterious aspect of life, although not identifiable with protoplasm, comes nearer to the latter because of its unique functions.9
All living substances (Jivadrayyas) have, to a greater or lesser extent, the properties of specific size 10 and shape, 11 metabolism,12 movement, 13 irritability, 14 growth, 15 reproduction, 16 and adaptation.17
Many of the phenomena of life that appear to be so mysterious, as explained by the Jainācāryas, such as, respiration, instinct, specch, 7. Navatattva prakarana V, 6. p. 12, Dharmavijaya. Gommțasara, Jivakanda,
vv. 118 - 119, Nemicandra ; Lokaprakāśa, Vinayavijayaji, Pt. 1, 3rd Sarga,
vv. 15ff. 8. Jivavicāra, vv. 42, 43; Gommațasāra (Jiva). v. 129. 9. See Biology, p. 16. 10. Bhagavati 19. 3. 652-53 ; 25.1. 717 ; Uttaradhyayana 35.70; Paņņavanā (sükşma
badara etc); Gommațsāra (Jivakāņda ), v. 177, v. 183. 11. Paņņavanā, Samjhāņāidaracchakam, 983-89, p. 241; Bphatsaugrahaņi, Candrasūri,
w. 243-5. Mulācāra, Pt. III, 12, v. 49, Paryāptyādbikāra, Vagakhera with ţika of Vasunandi Siddhānta Cakravarttin, p. 207; Lokaprakāśa, Pt. I, 3rd
Sarga, v. 205-10, pp. 98-99. Gommaçasāra ( Jivakanda ), v. 211. 12. Sūtrakṣtárga II. 3; Bhagavati 7, 61-63 ; 7. 3. 275-6; Paņņavanā, Ābārapadam,
Pajjatuidāram, 2nd uddesaka, p. 406. Taodulaveyaliya, pp. 3-10 ; Navatattva prakarana, v. 6, p. 12. Lokaprākasa, Pt. 1, 3rd Sarga, vv. 15–21ff; Gommatasara (Jiva), Ch. 1II, vv. 119 - 121; Mülácara II, 12 -- 4; Tarkarahasyadipikā on
Şaddarsana Samuccaya, Jainamatam, v. 49, Gunaratna. 13. Ācārāága, Book I, 9. 1. 14; Sūtraktānga II. 2. 18, 60, Sthādārga 2. 4. 100;
Bhagavati, 25. 4. 789, Uttaradhyayana, 36.68, Jivabhigama ; p. 12. Mūlācára, Pt. I, 30 (226), p. 295; Tattvārtha Sūtra, Umasväti, 2. 12-14, Tarkarahasyadipikā.
Gunaratna v. 49. 14. Bhagavatı 3. 9. 170; 2. 4. 99 ; Paņņa vanā, lndriyapadaṁ 15, Putthadaram, etc.
Jivābhigama, Jyotiska, Tarkarahasyadipikā, v. 40. 15. Abbuya (cells 2), Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p. 6. It is also suggestive from the
reference to lakhs of follicles (pores) in the skin of the human body that there are cells in the body of man and other vertebrates, Ibid, 2. p. 6. Pesi (muscle tissues). Ibid. p. 6.
Pesi (tissues) is made of abbuyas (arbudas-cells). 17. A single fertilised egg (Kalala ) develops gradually into many-celled or five
celled embryo (pañcapiņdas ) by the process of cleavage, indicating that the egg cell splits or divides. Out of five pindas 2 arms, 2 legs, and the head come into bei ng, Tandula Veyaliya 2, p. 6.
16.

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passion, senses, condition of soul (leśyā), feeling (vedanā), etc. of living things, have proved to be understandable by invoking a unique life force, while other aspects of life can be explained by physical and chemical principles in the light of future research in the fields of Biology.
The study of the organizations of plants and animals, from the finest plants (sūkşma vanaspatis) to higher plants (bādara vanaspatis) and from the finest earth quadrates (prthivykāyajtvas, eic.). to man (manuşya) as described in the Jaina Āgamas and post-agamic works reveals that the bodies of all plants and animals are composed of cells 18 and tissues. 19 But the Jainācāryas do not make any clear analytical study of cells and tissues of plants and animals there as they are treated in modern Biology. New cells can come into being only by division of previously existing cells.20
There takes place the cellular matabolism of animal organisms, e.g.. men, from the moment of their birth up to their death in the following manner that the food-stuff, when taken in, is transformed into molecules of nutrient and chyle which in turn get transformed by vital force into different elements of organism, such as, blood, flesh, fat, bone, marrow, semen, etc. in successive order. 21
The metabolic activities of animals, plants, and bacteria cells are remarkably similar,22 despite the difference in the appearances. One of the metabolic difference between plants and animals is the ability of green plants23 to carry on photosynthesis, to trap the energy of sunlight and to use it to synthesize compounds.
In addition to the general metabolic activities Jaina Biology throws some light upon special metabolic activites of certain animals and 18. Lokaprakasa, Pt. I, 3rd Sarga, vv. 18-21.
Navatattva prakarana, v. 6, pp. 12, 13, 14, 15. 16. 19. sadddarsana Samuccaya with Gunaratna's Commentary, Tarkarahasyadipikā,
158-9. 20. Bhagawati 7.3. 270, 21. Bhagawati 1. 3. 275 6. 22. "Badarasyodyotena sabitasya". One-sensed bacteria, water-bacteria and plant
bacteria emit cold light, Karmagrantha 6th. p. 186. Two-sensed worms-Kemis - (protozoa) emit cold light. Uttaradhyayana 36. 128.
See Tattvārthasūtra II. 24 23. Karmagrantha I, p. 85; Nūpuraka (Annelida). TS., II. 24; ( Gandupada )
(Crustaceans), Ibid. śatapadi (Centipedes), Ibid. Santha (Molluscs), Ibid ; Khadyota (Glow worm), Tarkarahasyadipika 156.

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Conclusiou
plants, Green plants24 can photosynthesize; certain bacteria25 and animals 26 can produce light. Certain plants produce wild variety of substancesflower, pigments, 26 perfumes,27 many types of drugs, 28 and bacteria,29 and molds, certain animals can make deadly poisons30 and also antibiotics31 like the best chemists.
The world of Life Plants. Biologic Inter-relationship.
At first glance the world or living substances (Jivadravyas) as revealed in the Jaina works appears to be made up of a bewildering variety of plants and animals, 32 all quite different and each going its separate way at its own pace.
A close study of the world or living things as described in the Jaina Āgamas reveals that all organisms, whether plant or animal, have the same basic needs for survival, the same problems of getting food33 for energy, getting space to live,34 producing a new generation35 and
so on.
24. Mañjiṣṭhā (Indian Madder), Bhagawati, 8.6.334.
25. Ketaki flo ver (Forula, Asafotida), Bhagavati, 22. 2. 692;
Haritaga (Terminalia Chebula), Ibid, 22. 2. 692;
Bhallaya (Acajou, especially acid quicea for medicine). Ibid.
26. Arjuna (the plant Calotropis Gigantea for optic nerve), Ibid, 2. 3. 1.693; Bhangi (Cannabis Sativa ), Ibid., 23. 5. 693;
Tulsi (Roly basil), Ibid., 21. 8. 691.
27. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3.
28. Vṛścika (Scorpion), Manduka (frog), uraga (snake), Bhagavati, 8. 7. 376. Abi (a class of snake), Ajagata (a class of snake), Ibid, 15. I. 560.
29. Nakula (mongoose), Ibid., 8. 3. 325, 15, 1560.
30. Sūtrakṛtānga II, 3. Bhs. 33. 1. 844, 7; 5. 282, etc.
Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36, 68-202.
Pannavana, jivapanṇavana 1. 14-138
Gommaṭasara (Jivakāṇda), 1. 35, 70, 71, 72, etc.
293
31. Sütrakṛtanga II. 3. 40-62.
32. Ibid.
33. Ibid.
34. It is suggestive from the study of the world of life in Jaina Biology on the basis of the structures (Samsthana) of living form- plants and animals, on the physiologic and biochemical similarities and differences between species, etc. and on the analysis of the genetic constitution of present plants and animals, i. e. anatomy, physiology and biochemistry of plants and animals, their embryologic and generic histories as outlined in Jain Biology and the manner in which they are distributed over the earth's surface.

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In solving their problems, plants and animals have evolved into a tremendous number of different forms, each adapted to live in some particular sort of environment. Each has become adapted not only to physical environment, but also to the biotic environment, all plants and animals living in the same general region. Living organisms are inter-related in two main ways, evolutionary descent36 and ecologically,37 one organism may provide food or shelter for another38 or produce some substances harmful to the second.
294
The Jainacaryas have tried to set up systems of classifications of plants and animals based on natural relationships,39 putting into a single group those organisms which are closely related in their evolutionary origin.40 Since many of the structural similarities41 depend on evolutionary relations,42 classification of organisms is similar in many respects to one of the principles based on logical structural similarities.43 Many plants and animals fall into easily recognizable, natural groups; their classification presents no difficulty.
It is indicated in Jaina Biology that some organisms can synthesize their food,44 hence they may be called autotrophic (self-nourishing),
35. Sutrakṛtänga II. 3, 43-2; Bhagavati 7. 5. 282
36. Sūtrakṛtänga II. 3, 43-62
37. Bhagavati 8. 2. 316
38. E. g. ekendriya, dvindriya, caturindriya and pañcendriya organisms are classified on the basis of natural relationships. Similarly, Jalacara and Khecara organisms are classified to their natural relationships, as they are closely related in their evolutionary origin.
39. Sūtrakṛānga II. 3; Jivabhigama 3.1.96
Bhagavati 7. 5. 282 (andaja, potaja and sammurcchima);
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 35, 171 ff.; Jīvābhigama Sutra 33.1 34, 35; Pannavanā, Jivapaṇṇavanā (Jalacara, Sthalacara and Khecara and Manusyaprajñāpanā) 29-34.
Aquatic, terrestrial and aerial organisms have been groups as the members of each of them are closely nary origin.
40. Bhagavati 8.3.324; 7.3.277; 7.5.282; Jivabhigama Sutra, 3.1.91; 1.33, 1.34; 1.35, 1-36; Uttaradhyayana, 36.135, 144, 154, 169, 178, 179-186, 19, 202; Paņṇavanā pp. 30, 31; TS. 2.24, 34,
41. Ibid.
42. Ibid
&
43. Sūtrakṛianga II. 3.
44. Bhagavati 7. 3. 275.

classified into three single related in their evolution

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295
c. g. green plants45 and purple bacteria 46 (i. e. sulphur bacteria=Saugamdhie); some organisms cannot synthesize their own food from inorganic materials, therefore, they live either at the expense of autotrophs or upon decaying matter.47 They may be called heterotrophs. All animals, fungi (panaga) and most bacteria are heterotrophs.
A study of the mode of nutrition of all organisms including plants, aquatic, terrestrial and aerial beings, and man, etc. as mentioned in the Jaipa Āgamas shows that plants and animals are not independent of other living things but are interacting and interdependent parts of larger units for survival. So their interaction and interdependence bring to light that ecosystem which is a natural unit of living and non-living parts that interact to produce a stable system in which the exchange of materials between living and non-living parts follows a circular path, e.g. aquatic organisms-fish, green plants, like sevāla, etc..and snail (sambūka)48 form a very small ecosystem in their habitat-water in a pond or lake.
outline of ecosystem of Jaina Biology brings to light two basic concepts-the habitat49 and ecologic50 niche useful in describing the ecologic relations of organisms.
There take place the different types of interactions between species of plants and animals in several different ways due to their search for food, space or some other needs, e.g. the relationship of competition51
45. Sulphur bacteria (Saugamdhie ) (Uttaradhyayana and Sūtrakrtanga II. 3.61)
may be identified with purple bacteria of Biology. 46. Sůtrakranga 11, ?, 20, 21, 22-28. All animals live at the expense of auto
trophs in one way or other except some carnivorous animals, Ibid N. 3 16. 47. Fungi and some bacteria feed on the decaying matters, as it is found that some
beings are born in carth, growing there in particles of earth that are the origin: of various things, some issue forth as Aya, Kaya, Kuhada (mushroom). etc,
from the decomposed things in the earth. 48. Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra II 24. 49. Sūtrakstānga II. 3. 1--12, 3 ; ( trees ), 16 (soil ), 17( water ), 18 (trees), 21 (earth),
22 (water), 23 (earth surface, 26 (arial), 27 (animate or inanimate bodies). 50. Ibid., II. 3.2 (liquid substance) of the particles of earth, the bodies of mani
fold movable being, 3-5 (sap of the trees), 20 (sap of trees), 21 (mother's milk) boiled rice, etc.), 22 (mother's humours and plants), 23 both movable and
immovable beings), 24 (wind), 27 (the immovable creatures). . 50. Sūtrakytánga 11. 3.2. 51. Ibid. 11. 3.3.

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or predatorism, commensalism,52 and mutualism,53 parasitism54 between them.
296
The brief survey of the classifications of living things-plants and animals, their distinctions, mode of nutrition, ecosystem, habitat, and ecologic niche, and types of interactions between species as found in Jaina Biology gives a picture of the world of plants and animals, all related closely or distantly by evolutionary descent, and bound together in a variety of inter specific interactions.
As regards the properties of green plants Jaina Biology reveals that the green plants are the primary producers of the living world. The properties of the pigment that gives them their green colour, i. e., chlorophyll, enable them to utilize the radiant energy of sunlight to synthesize energy-rich compounds, such as, liquid substance (sineha)53 from water and air.55
Land plants56 absorb water required for the photo-synthestic process through their roots; aquatic plants57 receive it by diffusion from the surrounding medium.
The reference to the taking of air58 by plants suggests that the cellular respiratian59 of plants utilizes ucchvāsavāyu60 (oxgen ?) and releases nihsasavayu61 (carbon dioxibe ?) from the liquid substances to the forms of biologically useful energy. These occur in green plants as they do in every living cell of organism.
Land plants have the cellular thick wall (tvac)62 as in the woody stems of trees and shrubs. They serve directly for the support of the plant body and they have also rather thin wall63 which provides support indirectly by way of pressure. Besides, trees and shrubs have güḍhasira (xylem) and ahirüyam64 (phloem) to help support their trunk.
52. Bhagavati, 7.3. 275; Sūtrakṛtänga 11. 3.16 (Kuhana), 18 (sevāla), etc. 53. Sutrakṛtanga II. 3. 27,
54. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3. 43.
55. Ibid,
56. Lokaprakasa, I, Sarga 5, vv. 107-8; see Bhagavati 7. 3. 276.
57. Sutrak tanga II. 3.54.
58. Sütrakṛtänga II. 3.43.
59. Ibid., Lokaprakasa, 5. 75, p. 361.
60. Lokaprakäsa, 5. 32, 33. p. 35; Navatattva prakaraṇam p. 14 61. Lokaprakāga 5, 75, p. 361; Navatattva prakaraṇa, p. 14,
62. Sūtrakṛtänga II. 3, 47; Lokaprakāśa, 1. 5. 79, p. 363,
63. Lokaprakasa, 1. 5. 96, p. 365.
64. Pannavana, Vanaspatikāyajiva Pannavana, 54-84; Jivavicara, 12; Gommațasara v. 187 (Jivakāṇḍa)

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297
The nutrients of plants are either made within the cells or are absorbed through the cell membranes. The nutrients synthesized are either used at once65 or transported to another part, such as, the stem, or root66 The insectivorous plants,67 although without an organized digestive system etc. do secrete digestive enzymes68 similar to those secreted by animals.
Plants accumulate reserves of organic materials for use during those times when photosynthesis is impossible at night or over the winter69 when leaves fall.
An embryo plant cannot make its own food until the seed has sprouted and the embryo has developed a functional root,70 leaf71 and stem72 system.
The simpler plants consisting of single cell or small group of cells73 have no circulaiary system. It is suggestive in Jaina Biology that simple diffusion, augmented in certain instance by the process of active transport by air74 suffices to bring in the substance, 75 required by the plant. Gūḍhaśiras76 (Xylem) tubes probably transport water and minerals from the roots up the stem to the leaves, while ahiruyam77 (phloem) tubes may probably transport up as well as down the nutrient stems for storage and use them in the stems and roots etc.
The circulatory systems of higher plants are simpler than those of higher animals and constructed on an entirely different plan in Jaina Biology. Plants have no heart and blood vessels. Transportation of
65. Sūtrakṛtänga II. 3. 43.
66. Ibid, II. 3. 46.
67. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3. 27,
68. Ibid,
69. Bhagavati, 7.3. 274; Lokaprakāśa, 1.5 109-10.
70. Vide Loka prakāśa, 1. p. 361, 1. 5. 74.
71. Ibid.
72. Ibid.
73. Uttaradhyayana 36.92; Pannavana. Vanaspatikāyajivapaṇņavana, 1.35 p. 16. (Sūkşma Vanaspati).
74. Lokaprakāśa, 5. 75, p. 361.
75. Ibid. Sūtrakṛtānga II. 3.43.
76. Panṇavanā, Vanaspatikāyajiva Paṇṇavana, 54-84; Jivavicara, 12; Gommațasara (Jīvakāṇḍa) v. 187
JB-38

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298
Jaina Biology their nutrients from soil is accompanied by the combined forces of transpiration 78 pull and root pressure.79
Plant sap (sineha or rasa)80 as mentioned in Jaina Biology is somewhat analogous to the blood plasma of man and higher animals, which is complex solution of both organic and inorganic81 substances which are transported from one part of the plant to another by the combined action of suction force which is connected with transpiration pull and root pressure.82
A striking difference between plants and animals as found in Jaina Biology is that plants excrete little or no waste. Since plants are lomāhārins83 (absorbers of nutrients through the epidermal cells) nor carry on muscular activity like kabalāhārin 84 man and higher animals, "the total amount of nitrogeneous waste is small and may be eliminated by diffusion as nitrogen containing salt from the root into the soil."85
The activities 86 of the various parts of a plant are much more autonomous than are those of the parts of an animal. The co-ordination between parts that does exist is achieved largely by direct chemical and physical means,87 since plants have evolved or developed no specialized sense-organs except that of touch (sparsa nendriya ) and no nervous system as found in man and higher animal. They have sensitiveness generated by stimulus.88
Actively growing plants can respond to a stimulus 89 coming from a given direction by growing more rapidly or bending away from the
77. Ibid. 78. Lokaprakāśa, 1.32, 34. p. 35. 79. Ibid. 1.5. 107-8 pp. 367-8. 80. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3. 43. Lokaprakāśa, 1. v. 33.
Tarkarahasyadipikā (comm. on v. 47), 159. 8. útrakṣtānga II. 3. 43-44 ; 82. Lokaprakása, 1, 5. 32, 33, p. 353 ; 5. 107-8, p. 367-ü. 83. Brhatsamgrahini, v. 200. 84. Ibid, v. 18', 82.. 85. Biology, p. 117, C.A. Villce. 86. Tarkarahasyadipikā, p. 157. 87. Ibid., p. 159. 8f. Ibid., p. 159. 89. Ibid., p. 189.

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stimulus.90 If an organism (e.g. creeper) is motile, it may respond to stimulus by moving toward it for support."
The root of a plant is positively geotronic and negatively heiotropic and the shoot is negatively geotropic but positively eliotropic.92
In a few plants the responses to stimuli take place rapidly enough to be readily observed, c. g. the response of the sensitive plant "Mimosa-pudica" (Lajjavatilata,93
Some plants as described in Jaina Biology change the position of their leaves or flower plants in the late afternoon or evening (Sandhya)94 and their parts return to their original position in the morning. Several kinds of flowers close at night and open in the morning95 with the sunrise and some soon open at night with the rise of the moon 96 and close in the day, e. g. lotuses and water lilies. respectively. These changes in position have been termed sleep movements in Botany, although they are in no way related to the slcep of animals.
In the more primitive plants the basic functions97 common to most green plants' cells may all take place in a single cell, but in the higher plants cellular specialization has occurred. The Jaidācāryas have differentiated the several parts of a plant, such as, root, stem, leaf, etc.98 and have dealt with some of the details of seed plant structure and certain functions localized in particular parts of the plant. The most obvious function of the root is to anchor99 the plant and hold it in an upright position ; to do this, it branches and rebranches extensively through the soil, 100 Its second and biologically, more important function 90. Ibid., pp. 158-9 ; Lokaprakasa 5.38. 91. Tarkarahasyadipik ã, p. 159. 92. Lokaprakāśa 1. 5. 74 ; Tarkarahasyadipikā 157. 93. Tarkarahasyadipikā p. 157. 94. Ibid., p. 158. 95. Ibid. p. 158. 96. Ibid. 91. Sūtrakrtánya II. 3: Lokaprakāśā 1, 5th Sarga ; Tarkarahasyadipikā, Tikā on
v. 49, pp. 157-159. 98. Sūtrakştánga II. 3. 46 ; Gommțasāra (iivakāņda), vv. 186, 189.
Pann'ıvanā, Vanaspatikaya (Jivapaņņavadā 1, 40, p. 17. 90. Lokāprakaśa, 1. 5. 107. 100. Ibid.

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is the absorption on water and mineralstol from the soil and the conduction of these substances to the stem. 102
The stem 103 consisting of trunk, branches and twigs 104 is the connecting link between the roots, where water and minerals enter the plant, and the leaves 105 which manufacture food. The vascular tissues of the stem are continuous106 with those of root and leaf and provide a pathway for the exchanges of materials. The stem and its branches support the leaves so that each leaf is exposed to as much sunlight as possible. Besides, stems also support flowers and fruits 107 in proper position for reproduction to occur. The stem 108 is the source of all leaves and flowers produced by a plant, for its growing points produce primorida of leaves (kisalayas) and flowers (Puspa ). It should be noted that root and stems are sometimes confused because many kinds of stems grow underground 109 and some roots 110 grow in the air.
The leaf may be filled with kşira (a waxy cutin ?) or may not be so (niḥksiraṁ) and may have fine veins (gūdhasiram) and their invisible joints (parvas) in between two half parts of it, 111 i.e. the upper and lower layers of the leaf epidermis filled with thin walled cells called mesophyll which are full of chloroplast. Each leaf is a specilized nutritive organ whose function is to carry on photosynthesis". 112
The suction forcelli connected with transpiration pull contributes to the economy of the plant by assisting the upward movement of water through the stem by concentrating in the leaves the dilute solutions
101. Bhagavati 7. 3. 275 ; Sätrakrtānga II. 3. 43 ; Lokaprak asa, 1, 5, 107-108. 102. Ibid. (Lokaprakāla 1. 5. 107–108) 103. Sūtraktănga II. 3. 46, ; Lokaprakasa 1. 5. 77 : Pannavanā 1.41, pp. 17-18 ;
Gommațasára (jiva) v. 189. 104. Ibid. 105. Ibid. 1(6. Ibid. Bhagawati, 7.3.275. Lokaprakāśa 1. 5. 107-108. 107. Ibid. 108. Sūtrakstānga II. 343 ; Bhagawati 7. 3. 275; Pannavanā, 1, 41, pp. 1.
Lohaprakása, 1. 5. 77 ; 5. 107-108. 109. Vide Lokaprakasa 1. 5. 88-92 : Uttaradhyayana 36. 97, 98, 99. 110. Jivavicāra, v. 12. Paņņavanā, 1. 54. 7. 85 ; Lokaprakāga 1. 5, 24, 111. Pannavaņā 1. 54. 7. 85 ; Lokaprakasa 1.5, 84. 112. Biology, p. 126. 113. Lokāprakasa 1. 5. 33. 34, 5. 107-8

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301
of minerals absorbed by the roots114 and need for the synthesis of new vital force by cooling the leaves.
In the synoptic survey of the plants and animals given here plants and animals may be arranged under the phyla within the kingdoms and the classes within the phyla in the order of incresing complexity as far as possible in the light of modern Biology. The numbers given are estimates of known species in the phylum.
classified as plants usually have stiff cell walls and
Organism chlorophy 11.
Subkingdom : Thallophyta :
Plants not forging embryos without true roots, stems or leaves ; the body is either a siogle cell or an aggregation of cells with little differentiation into tissues.
Phylum Cyan phyta :
The blue green algae (sevāla ) with no distinct nuclei or chloroplasts, probably the most primitive of existing plants.
Phylum Chlorophyta
Phylum Schizomycophyta Phylum Eumycophyta Class Basidiomycetes
; The green alga e115 (sevāla), with definite
nuclei and chloroplast. : The bacteria 118 (Plant bacteria) : The true fungi (Panaga )117 : Mushroom (Kuhana ), 118 toadstools
(e. g. Sarpachatra )
Sabkingdom Embryophyta
: Plants forming embryo
Phylum Bryophyta
Embryophyte- plants without conducting tissues. Multicellular plants, usually terrestirial.
114. Ibid. 115. Sūtraksiănga II. 3. 35 ; Pannavanā 1. 51, p. 21 ; Jivavicāra 8. 116. Bhagavati 7. 3. 275, 276 ; 8. 3. 324; Uttaradhyayana 36-96, e.g. aluka, mülaka,
etc. contain bacteria ; Pannavanā 1. ; 40 ff ; Gommafasāra í Jivakanda ), v. 189,
p. 117. 117. Jivavicára 8, ;'Sūtrakrtānga II. 3, 55 ; Uttaradhyayana, 36. 103-104 ; Pannavana
1, 51, p. 21. 118. Pappavanā 1. 52, p. 21 ; Jivabhigama p. 46 ; c. I. Sarpachatra, mushroom (toad
stool)

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302
Phylum Tracheophyta
Sub Phylum pteropsida
Subclass Coniferophytae
Class Angiospermae
Subclass Dicotyledoneae
Subclass Monocotyledoneae

1:
Vascular plants.
: Class Gymnospermae e.g. green trees (Vrksas),119 shrubby Plants (Gucchas )120 shrubs (gulmas ).121 No true flowers or evules are present, the seeds ard born naked on the surface of the conescales. : Order Gnetales: Climbing shrubs shrubs shrubs (lata), or (Vall1), 122 small trees in common with the angiosperms.
:
Jaina Biology
Flowering plants with seeds enclosed in an ovary (Osahi ),123 e. g. rice, wheat pulses, etc.
Most flowering plants. 124 Embryos with two cotyledons or seed leaves.
: The grasses (tṛṇa), 125 water lilies (Nalina)126 orchids, etc. Leaves with parallel veins, stems in which the vascular, bundles are scattered, and flower parts in three or six. The embryo has only one seed-leaf.
It is suggestive from the study of the Jaina Agamas that in plants, much more clearly than in animals, an evolutionary sequence is evident ranging from forms, such as, the blue greens (algae) (sevāla )127 and plant bacteria 128 (Vanasatikāyika Jiva) which reproduce by asexual means (sammurcchima) to ones with complicated life cycles and 119. Bhagavati 8. 3. 324; Pannavana, 1. 39; Jivabhigama p. 44, etc.
120. Bhagavati 24. 4. 692.
121.
Pannavana 1, 43, p. 18.
122. lbid, 1. 45, p. 19.
123. Ibid, 1.50, pp. 20-21.
124. Bhagavati 6. 7. 249; 2. 2. 693.
125. Pannavana 1. 47. p. 20.
126. Bhagavati Sūtra 21. 6. 691.]
127. Sevala, Sütrakṛtänga II. 3. 55; Pappavanä 1. 51, p. 2; Jivavicara 8.
128. For plant bacteria see Bhagavati 7. 3. 276; 8. 3. 324; Uttaradhyayana 36.96;
Pannavanā 1. 40 ff. ; Gommaţsara ; ( Jivakanda ), v. 189. p. 117. for earth quadrates see Sūtrakṛtānga Book 1; Bhagavati 33. 1. 884; Uttaradhyayana 36. 70; 84, 92, 108, 117; 1. 19. 55 (Ekendriyajiva Pannavanā); Gommļasāra, (Jivakanda ), v. 89, p. 68; Lokaprakāśa, 4th Sarga, v. 25; Sarga, v. 123 ff.

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Conclusion
highly evolved adaptations until it is capable of leading an independent life. Some of the lower forms, such as fungi (panaga )129 which has no reproductive specialization, produce billions of spores so that by chance a few will fall in an environment favourable for generation and survival. The higher plants may produce no more than a few score seeds 130 per plant (e.g. aggabiya) but each seed has a fairly good chance of growing into a mature plant.
י
In the Jaina Agamas four kinds of seeds of plants are mentioned for reproduction, (1) seeds generated at the top of the plant (aggabiya), (2) at its root (mulabiya), (3) as its knots (porabiya) and at its stem (Khambhabiya ).131
Jaina Biology throws some light upon the germination of the seed and its embryonic development. When the seeds are ripe, they are shed from the parent plant, but a few of them do germinate shortly after being shed, most of them remain dormant during the cold or dry seasons and germinate only with the advent of the next favourable growing season. 132
When glanced back over many types of plant life cycles that are found from algae to angiosperms, a number of evolutionary trends appear to be evident in plant kingdom of Jaina Biology. One of these is a change from a population that is mostly haploid individuals to one that is almost entirely diploid-an evolutionary trend toward a greater size and importance of the sporophyte and a reduction in the size of the gametophyte generatian. 133
129. Sütrakṛänga II. 3. 55 (panaga); Pannavana 1. 51, 21; Jivavicara, 8. (Panaga-sevalabhumiphoda ya")
303
130. Sūtrakṛtänga II. 3. 43 (aggabija)
131. Sūtrakṛtänga II. 43; Gommaṭasara (Jiva) v. 186.
132. Bhagavati 15. 1. 544
It refers to the germination of sesamum seeds with the advent of favourable growing season after the uprooting of the sesamum plant by Gośāla Mankhaliputra.
133. Sūtrakṛtänga II. 3. 43.

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ANIMAL KINGDOM :
A classification system of animals has been formulated by the Jainācāryas on the basis of the observation of their structural similarities, sense-organs, 2 mode of origin3 and development. In the study of taxonomy they have differentiated superficial and accidental similarities from the significant and fundamental ones. Homologous structures of various animals have been distinguished from analogous structures. Structure of animals may be both homologus and analogous, for example, the wings (pakşas) of birds and bat? (valgulis) have a similar structural plan and development as well as the same function. Because all animals have essentially the same problems to solve for survival, there is the basic unity of life among them. The Basis For Animal Classification according to Jaiua Biology
According to Jaina Biology, the main divisions of the animal kingdom, the phyla, are differentiated by basic characteristics which usually are not unique for a single phylum, but occur in unique combinations in various ones. Some factors basic to the determination of an animal's classification are as follows :
(a) The presence or absence of cellular differentiation and the presence of sense-organs two to five-sense-organs. 10 Animals may be
1. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra 36. 179-181 ; Pannavanā 1.69. 70; 1. 76
Tattvärthadhigama Sätra II. 24. 2. Bhagavati 1. 5. 48-49; 2.1.82-84 ; 9.32.375; 20.1.663; 24.17. 708-717.
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 127 ; 136; 150-155 ; Pannavanā 1.55, 57, 58, 61-91,
92-138 ; TS. II. 24 3, Bhagavati 7.5.282; 9.32.375; Uttarādhya yana 26.170 ; Jivābhigama 1.33, 57, 58,
68 ; 75 (Gabbhavukkaṁtiya ), 84, 85, 91.] 4. Ibid.) 5. Arms of man, wings of birds, fin of fish are homologous-Tattvartha Satra II. 34. 6. Wings of bat and bird are analogous structures 1. 62-63. Pannavada, 1.62-63 7. Wings of Cammapakht and Lomapakkhi, Paộnavaná 1.86. 8. Ibid. (Wirgs of bats and birds have the same function ) 9. Most of the two-sensed animals have one-celled body, e.g. kşmi (worm, while
the five-sensed animals have cellular differentiation. 10. Bhagavati Sūtra, l. 5. 49; 2.1. 83-84 ; 9.32, 375; 20.1.663 ; 24.17. 108-155
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 127; 136; 150-155 Pannavana Sutta, 1. 56. 57, 58, 61-91, 92-138 ; Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 24.

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either single-celled, e. g. kşmi11 (the protozoa), or composed of inany kinds of cells, specialized to perform particular tasks in the body's economy, e. g. higher animals and man having five sense-organs.12 In all the higher animals, cells are differentiated and specialized. Besides, animals may be either two-sensed 13 or three to five-sensed. 14
(b) The type of body - symmetry, whether spherical15 radial16 or bilateral.17 Animal bodies may be organized to one of these three types of symmetry.
(c) The number of modes of origin ; generation, e. g. Sammürcchima18 (generation aequivoca or asexual reproduction) and Garbhavyutkraāntika, 19 (generation from the womb, sexual reproduction) - andaja (Oviparous generation), Jarāyuja (Viviparous) and Potaja (viviparous generation without the placenta).20 Some of the metazoa (higher animals) have only two embryonic cell layers or germ layers-an outer ectoderm and an entoderm, e.g. Jarāyujas and potajas.21
(d) The presence or absence of segmentation.22 The members of several phyla are characterized by the fact that their bodies consist of
17.
11. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 128; Pannavanā 1.56; Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 24.
(Krmyādinām, etc.) 12. Pañcendriyas.. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36.155; 170, etc. Paņņa vanā Sutta, 1.61,
62, 63, upto 91. 1.62 ; Tattvärthadhigamasūtra 11. 24. 13. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 128 ; Pannavana Sutta 1.56; Tattvārthadhigama Sutra
II. 24. 14. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 155 ; Pannavanā Suita 1.61-91 ; 1.62. 15. A few of the lowest animals have this type of spherical symmetry. 16. In radial symmetry two sides are distinguishable, a top and a bottom, as in a
starfish. Human beings and all higher animals have bilateral symmetry, in which only one special cut will divide the body into two equal halves, e. g. the body of a man has bilateral symmetry-anterior and posterior, dorsal and ventral
sides. 18. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36. 170; } hagavati Sūtra 7. 5. 282 ; Pannavanā 1.56, otc. 19. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36. 170 ; Bhagavati 7. 5. 22; Jivabhigama Sūtra 1. 1. 33.
Pannavana, 1. 18, etc. 20. Tattvärthādhiga ma Sūtra 11. :4 (Potaja ) ; see also Bhagavati, 7. 5. 282 for
Andaja and Potajā, Jivābhigama, 3. 1. 96. 21. Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 34. 22. e. g. Kľmi has no segmentation, whereas Pipilikā (ant) upto man, i.e. some
higher Invertebrates and the Vertebrates have segmentation. BJ-39

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a row of segments,23 each of which has the same fundamental plan, with or without variation, as the segments in front and behind. In some segmented animals, such as, man and most vertebrates the segmental character of the body is obscured.24 In man the bones of the spinal column - the Vertebrae - are among the few parts of the body still clearly segmented.
(e) Unique features : There are only a few structures that belong exclusively to one phylum of the animal world. e.g. Vrścikas (scorpions) 25 alone have sting cells (nematocysts), although many kinds of animals have a nervous system, only the chordates to which man belongs, have a dorsally located, hollow nerve cord. 26
In Jaina Biology, animals are also classified according to the environment in which they live, e. g. Jalacara (aquatic), Sthalacara (terrestrial) and Nabhacara or Khecara (aerial), 27 but some of them are found in only one type of habitat, the members of certain phyla always Jive in the sea, 28 while the members of others are always parasitic29 and so on.30
A comparative study of the basis for Animal Classification of modern Biology may be made in the following manner :
Organisins classified as animals usually lack stiff cell walls and have no chlorophyll, mode of their nutrition is either holozoic or parasitic. Modern animal classification with illustrative examples of animals according to Jaina Biology.
Phylum protozoa
: Microscopic, unicellular animals, which sometimes aggregate in animals (e. g.
23. e.. the body of Mūpura (Neura) itarthworm, Annelid) has got several seg.
ments, each having the same fundamental plan 24. The segmental character of the body of man is obscured by the covering of the
skin. 25. Tattvärthādhigama Sūtra II. 24, Pannavanā 1.58 (vicchuta). 26. Snāyu nhāru) see Kalyanakäraka, 3, ?, which mentions 9.0 nerves i, human body.
(snayu.. n.va . satan:) 27. Bhagavati Sūtra 7. 5. 282; Jivābhigama Sūtra 1. 31, Pannävana Sūtra 1. 61. ff. 28. Pannavana Sthanapada; 1.66 ff. e.g. Samuddalikkba. 29. Sūtrakrtanga, 11. 3. 27; SBE. XLV, p. 295.
"Ihegaliyā Saitā .. ... ņāņavihanam tasathāvarāņa in poggaāņa sariresu vā,
sacittesu vā, acittesu vā, aņusüyattee viuttainti!", Sūtraktānga II. 3.58. 30. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 1: 7.

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Kuksikşmi,31 etc.), which sometimes aggregate in colonies (e.g. sādhāranasarıras). Some are free - living and others are parasitic (anusyuta )
Phylum platyhelminthes
The flatworm, with flat, and either oval or elongated, bilaterally symmmtrical bodies (a type of krmi).32
Class Castoda
The tape worms (a kind of krmi),33 parasitic flat worms with no digestive tract, the body consists of a head and a chain of "segments" of individuals which bud from the head.
Phylum Nematoda
The round worms (a kind of krmi).34 An extremely large phylum charac. terized by elongated. Cylindrical, bilaterally symmetrical bodies, they live as parasites in plants and animals or are free living in the soil or water.
Phylum Annciida
: The segmented worms (Nupurka).35
There is a distinct head, digestive tract coleom, and some non-jointed appendages. The digestive system is divided into specialised regions.
Class Hirudinea
The leeches (Jalūkā)36 flattened annelids lacking bristles and parapodia, but with suckers at anterior and posterior ends.
Phylum Arthropoda
Segmental animals with jointed appendages and hard, chitinous skin, with body divided into head, thorax and
1. Uttaradhyayana 35. 128; TS. II 24 ; Pannavana l. 50, 56. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid, 35, Pannavaná 1.56. 1 ; Tattvārthādhigama Sūtra II 24. 36. It come under the category of Annelids. ; See Paņņavanā 1.56 ; TS., II. 24.

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abdomen, e. g. gandupada),37 (knotty legged, Arthropada, including crustacea, Myriapoda, etc.)
Class Crustacea
; Lobsters, crabs, etc. (a class of gandu
pada).38 Animals that are usually aquatic have two pairs of antennae, and respire by means of gills.
Class Chilopoda
The Centipeds (Sata padika ).39 Each body segment except the head and tail has a pair of legs.
Class Arachnoidea
Spiders (Nandyāvarta ),40 scorpions (Vrścikas).41 Adults have no antennae. The first pair of appendages ends in pincers, the second pair is used as jaws and the last four pairs are used for walking.
Class Insecta (kita)
: The largest group of animals, mostly
terrestrial. The body is divided into a distinct head, with four pairs of appendages; the thorax has three pairs of legs and usually two pairs of wings the abdomen has no appendages. Respiration by means of tracheac.
There are different orders of insects 42 : Grass-hoppers (Patanga )42 etc.
Order Orthoptera
Order Isoptera
;
Termites (Kāsthāhārakā ),44 etc.
(Aptera,
Order a noplura
; Lice (Kārpāsāsthika ),45
Ametabola ) 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid. 39. Paņņavanā 1.57 1. ; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra a 1:7-138. ; TS. 11. 24, 40. Uttaradhyayana 36. 146-149 ; Pannavanā 1. 58.
Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II. 34. 41. Ibid, 42. Uttaradhyayana, 36. 146-149 Pannavana 1.58. 1.
Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra II 34, 43. Ibid. 44. Pannavaná 1. 57. 1. ; Uttaradhyayana 36. 137-138 ; TS., II. 24. 45. Ibid.

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Conclusion
309
Order Coleoptera46
Cucumber - Weevils (Trapusamimjiya), etc. 47
Order Lepidoptera
: Butterflies and moths (Kita ).48
Order Siptera
Flies (Maksika) mosquitos (masaka) and gnats ( Puttika ).49
Order Hymenoptera
; Ants (pipilikā),50 wasps ( Varata )51
bees (bhramara 52 and gall flies (Daņģa )53
Phylum Mollusca
; Unsegmented, soft-bodied animals,
usually covered by a shell, and with a ventral muscular foot. Respiration is by means of gills, protected by a fold of the body wall, e. g. Sankha (conchifera, Lamelli Branchiata ), Suktika (pearl - mussels) Lamelli Branchiata).54
Class Gastropoda
i Snails (Sambuka ),55 etc.
Phylum Echinoderamata 50
Marine animals which are radially symmetrical as adults, bilaterally symmetrical as larvae.
46. Ibid. 47. Ibid. 48. Uttaradhyayana 36. 146-49; Pannavaná 1. 58. 1.
Tattvärthadhigama Sūtra II. 34. 49. Ibid. 50. Pannavaná 1, 95. 1. ; Uttarādhyayana 36. 137-138; TS., II. 24. 51. Uttaradhyayna 36. 146–149 ; Pannavana !. 58. 1.
Tattvārthadhigama Sutră II. 34. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid. 54. Paņņavanā 1. 56 ; Tattvarthadhigama Sūtra II. 24. 55. Ibid. 56. See Pannavana for four-sensed Jalacarajivas.

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310
Phylum Chordate57
Subphylum Vertebrata58
Class Chonodrichthyes59
Class Osteichthyes 60
Class Amphibia61
:
Jaina Biology
Bilaterally symmetrical animals with a notochord, gill clefts in pharynx, and a dorsal, hollow neural tube.
00 (Five sensed Animals).
Animals having a definite head, a backbone of vertebrae, a well-developed brain and usually, two pairs of limbs. They have ventrally located heart, and a pair of well developed
eyes.

carti
: Sharks, etc., e.g. Fishes with a laginous skeleton and scales of dentin and enamal imbedded in the skin.
: The bony fishes e. g. (Labeo Rohita Selley fish)
:
Rohitaka
Frog (Manduka ), toads, (a kind of maṇḍuka), Salamanders, (lizard like animal), etc.
As larvae these forms breathe by gills, as adults they breathe by lungs. There are two pairs of five-toed limbs; the skin is usually scaleless.
57. The animals ( man and higher animals having five sense organs fall under the class phylum chordate which consists of the subphylum, vertebrate, animals, such as fishes (maccha), amphibia (frogs-manduka, (Bhs. 12. 8. 446), rept les (parisarpas), birds (pakhi and mammals including man ( manuss), see Uttaradhyayana 36, 155, 170, 172. 180, 18. 187, 194; Panṇavana 1. 61, 62, 63, 70, 7. 72, 73, 74, 92; Tattvarthadhigamasutra II. 34.
58. The five-sensed animals of Jaina Biology can be classfied into eight classes of the sub-phylum vertebrata of Modern Biology, viz. (1) the Agnatha the Jawless fishes, e. g. Samhamaccha, lamprey cells, etc. (2) the placodermi-the Jawed fishes (3) the chondrichthyes, e. g. sharks (timi ?) with cartilaginous skeletons, (4) the osteichthyes the bony fishes, e. g. 'Rohiyamaccha (Labro-Rohita), (5) the Amphebia (frogs, Manduka) (6) the Reptilia (parisarpa) - lizards, snakes, the warm blooded fur bearing animals that suckle their youngs (Stbalacaracatuspada präpi, Apes and Man.
59. Sharkas (timi ?), etc.; See Paņņavana 1.63.
60, Rohita fish found in big pond, river and sea. See Pannav na 1.7.
61. Bhagavati Vyakhyāprajñapti 8. 2. 316; 12. 8. 460.

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311
Conclusion
Class Reptilia
: ( Parisarpa ).62 Lizards (grhagolikā),
snake (abi ), turtles (kūrma), crocodiles (makara ), etc.
The body is covered with scales derived from the epidermis of the skin. The animals breathe by means of lungs and have a three-chambered heart.
Class Aves63
Class Mammalia64
The birds (Paksin ) : Warm blooded animals whose skin is covered with feathers ( loma or paksa ). Warm - blooded animals whose skin is covered with hair. The females have mammary glands, which secrete milk for the nourishment of the young, e. 2. cow (go), buffalo (mahişa ), goat ( aja ), sheep (avika ), horse (asva ), ass (Khara ), camel (ustra ), deer (mrga), etc. up to man (manusya)
Sub Class Eutheria
The placental mammals (Jarāyuja ). The young develop within the uterus of the mother, obtaining nourishment via the placenta, e. g. Man, cow, buffalo, goat, sheep. etc.65 Potajas also, e. g. elephant.
Order Insectivora
Primitive Insect - eating mammals ; moles and shrews, e. g. Śvavita and Lāpeka66 (Hedgehogs and other creatures that lap up) Insectivora.67
Order Chiroptera
:
Bats (Valguli ).68
62. Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36. 131 ; Pannavana Sutta 1. 76. TS. 11. 34. 63. Pannavaná 1. 86 ; Uttaradhyayana 36. 187. Tattvarthädhigama Sutra II. 34, 64. TS., II. 34. 65. Ibid. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid 68 Ibid.

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312
Order Carnivora
Order Rodentia
Order Lagomorpha
Order Primatee
Order Antiodatyla
Order Perissodactyla
Order Preboseidea
Oader Cetacca
: Dogs (Sunaga or Sva ), Cats (Biḍalı) bears (Rksa), etc.69
1:3
Rats (mūṣikā), squirrels (śayika), beavers and porcupines (sallaka) etc.70 : Rabbits (Sasaka) and hares (Śasá).

Jaina Biology
: Monkeys, apes72 and man (manuṣya).73
Even-toed ungulates (dukhură),74 e.g. and cattle, dear, camels etc.
: Odd-toed ungulates (egakhura) horses rhinocereroses, etc.75
:
: (Gaṇḍipada): Elephants (Hasti)76
: Whales (Timi ).77
It is suggestive from this survey of the classification of the animal kingdom that the Jainacaryas recognized in principle the grades of likeness or similarity in animal classifications, viz. (1) the complete identity of type which exists within a single species, (2) The likeness between species of the same great genus (such species have the same great genus (such species have the same great genus) such species have the same bodily parts, differing only in degree in number, size, etc. and (3) the likeness by analogy between greatest genera themselves, on the basis of sense-organs, for they grasped firmly the homology between arm, foreleg, wings, fin, between bone and fish spine, between feather and scale.78
They never applied any cut and dried method of classification of animal. They were well aware of the difficulties of the existence
69. Ibid.
70. TS. I1. 34.
71. TS. II. 34.
72. Bhs. 12. 8. 450.
73. TS, II. 34; Uttaradhyayana Sutra, 36. 194; Pannavanā 1. 72.
74. Pannavanā 1. 72.
75. Ibid., 1. 71,
76. Ibid. 1. 73,
77. Pannavana 1. 63,
78. Bhagavati Vyakhyāprajñapti, 1, 5. 49; 2. 1. 83-34; 9-32-375; 2c. 1. 663 24. 17. 708-12; Uttaradhyayana Sutra 36. 127; 136; 150-155.

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Conciusion
of isolated genera and species intermediate between two such genera. enough in its main lines. It was in preceded it in the Vedic period and made in the field of Ancient Indian
But their classification is clear great advance of anything that no further advance on it was Biology80.
The widest divisions are Dvindriya (two-sensed), Trindriya (threesensed), Caturindriya, (four - sensed) and Pañcendriya (five-sensed) animals answering to the modern in vertebrates (two-sensed), threesensed and four-sensed animals and Vertebrates (five-sensed animals) respectively on the basis of the number of sense-organs81 possessed by each of them and also on that of habitat-Jalacara (aquatic), Sthalacara (terrestrial) and Nabhacara (aerial).81 Of the pañcendriyas (fivesensed animals) the main genera are viviparous quadrupeds (cetacea) (Jarayuja) and oviparous (andaja) birds (pakṣin), apoda-oviparous reptiles (parisarpa) and amphibia (frog-maṇḍuka) and oviparous fishes (matsya).
Besides these, there are the isolated species-man and certain intermediate species monkey (golangula), etc. Dvindriya, Trindriya, and Caturindriya praņis (lower and higher invertebrates) that are divided on the basis of the consistency of their inner and outer parts and sense
organs.
313
-
Each of these genera has many differentiae and they can accordingly be grouped in many ways, but the most illuminating of these as indicated by Jaina Biology is that which depends on the mode of generation Sammurcchima82 (asexual reproduction or spontaneous generation) and garbhavyutkrantika83 (sexual reproduction) Andaja (oviparous), Jarayuja and Potaja (viviparous) (placental). The highest types of animal are Jarayujas and Potajas (vivipara).84 That is to say, those which have vital force to reproduce sexually offspring qualitatively

-
80. Bhagavati Vyakhyāprajnapti 1. 5. 48; 2. 1. 83-84; 9. 32. 375; 20. 1. 663. 24. 17. 708-12; Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 127; 136; 150-155 Paṇṇavanā Jivapannavana 1. 56. 57, 58, 61-91, 92-138; Tattvärthadhigama Sutra II. 24. 34. 81. Bhagavatt 7. 5. 282; Uttaradhyayana 36. 171; Pannavana, 1. 61. p. 29. 82. Uttaradhyayna 36. 170; Bhagavati 7. 5. 282; Jivabhigama Sutra 1. 33. Pappavanā 1. 56. etc.
83. Uttaradhyayana 36. 170; Bhagavati 7. 5. 282; Jivabhigama 1. 33.
Pappavanā 1. 68, etc.
84. Bhagavati 7. 5. 282; Jivabhigama 3. 1. 96; Tattvärthadhigama Sutra 11. 34. JB-40

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314
like the parents. The next type is that in which an produced.
Jainn Biology
egg is
Lower still come the types of animals which produce asexually (Sammurcchima) a slimy fluid from which the younger ones develop, while in others the young simply bud off from the parents.
And finally in all lower types and occasionally even as high as in the fishes there occurs spontaneous generation (samumrcchima) from lifeless matter such as sveda (dirt or sweat),85
It is found in Jaina Biology that the organization of the body' of developed animals includes the transport system of the body, i. e. blood and blood vessels86 that supply all cells with nutrients (rasa)87 and the waste products88 (mutta, etc. of metabolism and the circulatory system,89 the digestive system together with metabolism and nutrition, the excretory system, the integumentary and skeletal systems which protect and support the body, the muscular system which moves the various parts of the body one on another, the nervous system, the sense-organs by which animals obtain and process information regarding the external environment, and the endocrine system in brief,90
Enumerating the contents of the human body the Jainacaryas state that usually this body is a collection of blood (Sonita )91 and blood vessels-seven hundred siras (Veins ?), twenty four dhamanis (arteries?) carrying nutrients, eight srotas (currents),92 lungs (phopphasaphephasa)93 including eparterial bronchioles of trachea, gastro-intestinal tract starting from the mouth cavity, Oesophagus up to the column of the large intestine (Thulamta),94 the excretory organs-kidney (Taṇuyamta)95
85. There may be germs of life in dirt or sweat according to the Biological Science, 16, pp. 34-35.
86. Tandula Veyaliya 16, pp. 34-35 Ibid. ; Kalyāṇakaraka 3. 4.
87. Ibid., 16. p. 35
88. Ibid.
89. Ibid.
90. Tandula Veyaliya, 16. pp. 34-35 ff.; Kalyanak arka, 3.5, pp. 31 ff.
91. Tandula Veyaliya 3. p. 7; 6, p. 10; 16, p. 35; Kalyanak äraka 3, 7. p. 31 (rakta)
Soniya (Angavijjā), p. 177
92, Tandula Veyäliya. 16, p. 35; Kalyanakaraka, 3.2, 3.3., p. 30; 3, 4. p. 31.
93. Tändula Veyaliya, 17, p. 38.
94. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35; Kalyāṇakaraka. 2. 4, p. 31.

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Conclusion
and nine orifices (navasoya),96 skin (camma),97 a skeleton98 of three hundred pieces of bones,99 articulated by one hundred sixty joints 100 (sandhis), with six types of joints bound together by nine hundred sinews of ligaments (nharus), 101 plastered over with five hundred pieces of muscles (peśis), 102 enclosed with outer cuticle 103 (camma. or ajina), with orifices (soya),104 here and there, constantly dribbling and trickling like cracked or perforated pot, 105 infested by helminths106 and always oozing from nine orifices107 (wax from the ears, rheum from the eyes, snot from the nostrils, undigested food, bile, phlegm and blood from the mouth, and from the anus and urine from the urethra through the penis 198 and sweating through ninety nine lakh of hair follicles 109; five sense-organs110 (eye, etc.), one hundred seventy sensitive parts of the body (marmas)!!! and some endocrine glands etc.112
Like Buddhaghosa113 the Jainācāryas give the description of the human body to create a repulsion in the minds of their monk followers towards it114 and suggest to them to review the different aspects of
95. Taṇuyamta ? Its function suggests that it is kidney (Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35) although its literal meaning appears to be small intestine, where all eaten food is churned and digested.
96, Ibid Kalyāṇakaraka, 3.5, 10, 11, 12.
97. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 41.
98. Ibid..
99. Ibid., 16, p. 35; Kalyāṇakāraka 3. 2. p. 38.
100. Tandula Veyāliya, 16, p. 35.
101. lbid.
102. Ibid.
103. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 41
104. Ibid, 16, p. 35, p. 41.
105. Kalyāṇakaraka 3.12, p. 32.
106. Ibid.
107. Tandula Veyaliya, 16. p. 85; p. 38; Kalyāṇakāraka, 3, 5, 10.11, 12. 108. Ibid.
109. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35.
110. Pannavana. Indriyapada, 15.
111. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35.
112. Testes, ovaries. Seminal glands, etc.
315
113. Visuddhimagga, VI. 89, VI. 46.
114. Tandula Veyaliya, 38r

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316
Jaina Biology it.115 They do not define like Caraka116 and Buddha ghosa 117 that it is constructed out of five or four primary elements of matter. Nevertheless, they admit that the body is constituted of matter (Pudgala).118
The main aspects of the body as described by Jaina Biology are as follows: blood (šonita 119 or rudhira), 121 hard or congealed fat (meda), 121 semi-liquid fat (vasā), 122 synovia (rasiyā ?)123 spittle (Khela)124 snot (simghānaka),125 bile (pitta),126 phlegm (simbha),127 liver (yakrt)128 spleen (pilihā), 129 pus (Puya or puvva), 130 heart (hiyaya), 131 blood vessels (sirā-dhamanis),132 lymph vessels ( śleşmāśirā ),133 lymph (Kaph or simbha), 134 tissue fluid (rasa), 135 āņapāņa oruccbvāsa-niņśvāsat36 (Oxygen and carbon dioxide ?); lungs (Phopphasa - puphasa) 137 including eparterial bronchioles of trachea, mouth cavity (mukh),138 stomach (un dara'or amoru),139 duodenum (pakkāśaya), small intestine (tannuyasta),140
115. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35; 17, p. 38, etc. 116. Caraksamhita. IV. 6. 4. 117. Visudhimagga VIII, 45. 118. Tattvārthadhigamasutra, Umāsvāti V. 9. 119. Tandula Veyaliya, 3, p. 17. 120. Ibid. 16, p. 35. 121. Ibid, p. 40. 122. Ibd. 123. Ibid. 124. Ibid. 125, Ibid. 125. Ibid. 13, p. 41. 127. Tandula Veyaliya. pp. 12, 41. ; Kalyāņakaraka. 3. 4; p. 31, 128. Tandula Veyaliya ; Kalyaņakāraka, p. 3. 4, p. 3. 129. Tandula Veyaliya. p. 40. 130. Tandula Veyaliya 17. 38“ 131. Ibid. 132. Ibid., 16, p. 35; Kalyāṇakāraka 3. 4, p. 37. 133. Kalyāṇakāraka; 3. 19, p. 40. 134. Ibid 3, 7. p. 31. 139. Tandula Veyaliya. 16, p. 35. 136. Ibid, p. 8; Bhagavati 1. 7. 61-2; Viseşāva gyakabhäşya a, 2714. 137. Tandula Veyaliya, 17, p. 38. 138. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 38. 139. Tandula Veyaliya. 17, p. 38 (udara); Kalyāṇakāraka, 3, 4. p. 31 (āmoru). 140. Kalyāṇakāraka 3. 4.

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Conclusion
317
large intestine (Thulamta),141 tongue (Jibā or jihvā), 142 teethdamtā145 anus or rectum ( pāyu )144, genital (upastha ), 144/a kidney. 145 nine, orifices (navasoyā ), 146 urine (mütta ), 147 facces (purișa ), 148 skin (camma), 149 outgrowth of skin-hair (keśa), 150 body hairs (romas)151 and nails (oakha, etc. ), 152 sweat ( seya ),153 skeleton (atthiya ), 154 bones (atthi),155 various parts of the skeleton, 156 the number of bones157 bone marrow (atthimimjā ), 158 brain matter (matthuluṁga ), 159 joints (samdhi ), 160 firmness of joints (samghayana ),161 pieces of muscles (māṁsapeśis ),162 nerves (nbāru ),163 ligaments (kamdarā ),164 tendons (mamsarajju, 165 sense-organ (imdiya) 166 and a few endocrine glandsducts
141. Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 142. Ibid. ; Kalyaņakāraka. 143. Ibid, 3. p. 7; 16, p. 35. 144. Ibid, 16, p. 58. 144/a Ibid, p. 38. 145. Ibid. 16. p. 35. 146. Ibid. 147. 1bid. 148. Ibid. 149. Ibid. p. 41. 150. Ibid, 3, p. 7. 151. Ibid. 152. Ibid. 153. Ibid. p. 40. 154. Ibid., p. 41. 155. Ibid., 6, p. 10, 16, p. 35. 156. lbid, 16, p. 35 ; Kalyāņakāraka, 3.2. 157. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35 ; Kalyāņakāraka, 3.2. 158. Tandula Veyaliya, 6, p. 10 ; Bhagavati Sūtra, 1, 7, 61.2. 159. Ibid. 160. Tandula Veyaliya, 16. p. 35. 161. Lokaprakāša, 3, 399. p. 132 ; Karmagrantha 1, 35-39. 162. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 6, 16, p. 35 ; Kalyaņakāraka 3.2., p. 30. 163. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 16, p. 35; Kalyāņakāraka, 3.3, p. 30. 164. Kandara means thick (or big) nerves. They may be ligaments. Also see
Kalyāpakäraka 3.4 for kamdarā. 165. Kalyānakarakā 3.4 p. 31. 166. Bhagavati 2. 4. 99; Pannavana Sutta 15, Indriyapana ; Tandula Veyaliya 3,
p. 7. Tattvärtha Sutra II Pancendriyani.

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318
Jaina Biology
(Sukkadhārini sirā), testes, 167 (Vasana ), ovaris168 (Kuksis or garbhāśaya of the female, fallopian tubes (Sirādugaṁ ) 169 uterus (yoni )170 etc.
It is observed in Jaina Biology that the actual process of repro
n varies tremendously from one kind of an animal to another 171 but two basic types of reproduction, asexual or spontaneous generation acquivoca (Saṁmūrchima ) and sexual (garbhaja) or (Garbhavyutkrāntika) 172 can be distinguished. Even the highest animals reproduce asexually as evidenced by the fact that "the production of identical twins from splitting of a single fertilized egg is a kind of a sexual reproduction". 173
Asexual reproduction (Saṁmürchima )174 involves biologically only of single parent (i.e. it does not require parents), which splits, buds or fragments to give rise to two or more offsprings which have heredity traits identical to those of the parents. 175 Sexual reproduction involves two parents, 176 each of which contributes a specialized ovum or gamete (eggs and sperm )177 which fuse to form the zygote or fertilized
egg. 178
Human reproduction, 179 in common with that of most animals, is accomplished sexually by the union of specialized gametes-ova or
167. Tandula Veyaliya, 16, p. 35 ; Even Tanuyamta Small intestine, and Thulamtā
(large intestine) are regarded as endocrine glands. 168. Gārbhāśaya. Sthānāögā Tika 6, Kucchi (?) Tandula Veyaliya 16, p. 35. 169. Tandula Veyaliya, 3, Sūtrakrtānga II. 3 ; Pannavanā 1, Jivapaņņavana ; See
births of Beimdiya to Pa încemdiya Jivas, Saṁmūrcchhima and Vyuikrāntika etc.
Tattvārthadhiga Sūtra II, 24 34. 170. Bhagavati 7. 5. 282 ; Jivăbhigama,3. 1. 96; 1. 33. 36. Paņņavana ; Jiva
paņnavanā (from twa-sensed to five-sensed animals). 171. Biology, p. 148, See Uttaradhyayana Sūtra XXVI. 170. All pancendriyas are
both Sammürchima and Garbhaja, i. e. they have a sexual and sexual
reproductions. 173. Bhagavati, 7, 5. 282 ; Jivābhigama Sutra 3. 1. 96. ; 1. 33. 862 ;
Uttaradhyayana Sutra XXXVI. 170. Pannavanā, Jiva pannavanā 1. 57. p. 27 174. e. g. worms ( kțmis ). etc. 175. e.g. worms (kmis), etc. 176. See Uttaradhyayana Sūtra XXXVI. 170 ; Pannavana, Jivapannavaná,
Tirikk hajtvapaņņavanā upto Manussjivapaņņavana. 177. Sūtrakstānga II. 3.21 ; Tandula Veyaliya p. 3. 178. Ibid. 179. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 3.

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Concluosin
319
eggs (ojam) produced by the male-female and sperm (sukkam) produced by the male. 180
A man and a woman combine in cohabitation in cumnus (Yoni) and there they deposit their humours. Therein are born the souls of different men. 181
Then there take place the division, growth and differentiation of a fertilized egg into the remarkable complex and interdependent system of organs which is the adult animal.182 The organs are complicated and reproduced in each new individual with extreme fidelity of pattern, but many of the organs begin to function, while still developing. 183 The pattern of cleavage, blastula formation (hollow ball of cell formation or first element formation), and gastrulation is seen, with various modifications, 184 in all men and in the multicellular animals according to modern Biology. 185
Jaina Biology reveals that heredity is the tendency of individuals to resemble their progenitors. 186 Each new generation of organisms from two - sensed to five-sensed closely resembles its parents as is evidenced by the fact of the classification of animals on the basis of possession of the number of sensed-organs and similar structures 187 and certain parental characteristics 188 which appear frequently in successive generations of a given family tree. Although the resemblances between the parents and offsprings are close, they are usually not exact.
The expression of inherited character may be strongly influenced by the environment in which the individual develops as is found in the case of Jalacara (aquatic ), Sthalacara (terrestrial) and Khecara (aerial ) prānis (animal ). 189
180. Ibid, ; Sthānānga Sutra Parcamasthāna ; Sūtrakstanga II. 3. 56. 181. Sūtrakệtānga II. 3. 56. 182. Tandula Veyaliya, 2, p 6. 183. E.g. Putrajıvārasaharani (embilical cord) functions to absorb food from the
stream of mother's blood. 184. Tandula Veyaliya, 2. p. 6 ; Kalyāņakaraka, 2nd chap. vv. 33, 54, 27. 185. Biology. p. 430. 186. Bhagavati Vyākhyāprajñapti, 1. 7. 61 ; Tandula Veyaliya. 6. p. 10. 187. Paņnavanā 1, 56-91 ; Paņņavanä 1.70 188. Uttaradhyayana 36. 176 ; Pannavanā 1. 70. 189. Pannavaņā Sutta 1. 61-91,

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Jaina Biology
In regards to the determination of sex Jaina Biology explains that the relative predominance of Sukra (semen-sperm ) in the fertilized ovum (gabbha) is a factor which influences the sexual character of the resulting offspring. That is, the excess of sperm cell produces the male, while that of the germ cell Oyam= śoṇita) produces the female. If the sperm-cell and gerw-cell i. e. Sukra and oyam şoņita - are equal are neuter (napumsaka ) is born.190
Besides, the determination of sex depends in part on a periodicity to which the life history of the ovum in the female parent is conceived to be subject-a law under which the fertilization of the ovum on the fourth day after the menstrual discharge, or on the alternate (even) days succeding is favourable to the foetus developing the male sexual character, and on alternate following days to the foetus assuming the female sex. 194
The view of Jaina Biology on the determination of sex is corroborated by the evidence of Indian Ayurvedic Science and supported indirectly by modern Biology genetically in the following manner :
"In man and perhaps in other mammals maleness is determined in large part by the presence chromosome. An individual who has the constitution is nearly a normal male in his external appearance, though with under-developed gonads. An individual with one X but no Y chromosome has the appearance of an immature female".
"Eggs contain one X chromosome ; half the sperms have an X chromosome, the other half have a Y. Fertilization of an X bearing egg by an Y bearing sperm results in an XX, female, zygote. The fertilization of an X-bearing egg by a Y-bearing sperm results in an XY, male zygote..” 192
Some of the phenomena in human inheritance have been observed by the Jainācāyas on the basis of some principles of inheritance of human traits as revealod in the Jaina works. It is suggested that the development of each organ of the body is regulated by a large number of genes 193 (units of inheritance). The age at which a particular gene expresses itself phenitypicaily may vary widely as indicated by ten daśas (stages)194 of human life. 190. Tandula Veyaliya, p. 13. 191. Ibid (comm.), p. 4. 192 Biology p. 747. 193. Biology, p. 501. "Gene applies to any hereditary unit that can undergo
mutation and be detected by the change it produses in the phenotype
of the organism" ibid., p. 485. 194. Tandula Veyaliyā, pp. 15-16

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Most characteristics 195 develop long before birth but some such as hair and eye, colour, etc.196 may not appear until shortly after birth. Some, such as, amaurotic idiocy (balatva or mandatva) 197 becomes evident in early childhood and still others, such as, cough, phlegm, bending of the body, feeble sense-orgads etc, develop only after the individual has attained maturity.
“The inheritance of mental ability or intelligence is one of the most important, yet one of the most difficult problems of human genetics'199. The reference to the mental capacities of people forming a continuous series from idiot (manda or Jada ) to genius (manişi )200 suggests that “intelligence is inherited by a system of polygenes”201 brought about by Karma,202 other evidence203 substantiates this hypothesis.
Modern Biology explains that “The inheritance of feeble-mindedness is due to a single recessive gene". 204
"It is now evident that the inheritance of mental defect is much more complex. Feeble-mindedness may be caused by diseases205 or by other environment factors, 206 but the majority of cases are due to inheritance" 207
195. Tandula Veyaliya, 1. 2, 3, 196. Ibid, 15 ( Prathama dāga ) 197. Ibid. p. 15 (prathama and třtiya das ) 198. Ibid, p. 16 ( hayani 6th dagā ), pavaṁca ( 7th daļā )
Sa kuiyavalicammo (8th dasă ) etc. 199. Biology, p. 504. 200. “Maņişimanda". Ist Karmagantha with Sopajnaţikā by Devendr asuri, p. 2. 201. "The term “Poligenic inheritance or multiple factor inheritance is applied
when two or more independent pairs of genes affect the same character in the snme way and are an additive fashion", e. g. skin colour in man, Biology
p. 470. 202. "Maņisijadayo.. .. Karmanibandhanan /" Karmagrantha 1, with Sopajõa jika
by Devendra Sūri, p. 2. 203. Ibid (comm) 204. Biology; P. 504. 205. Ibid. 206. Visesavasyakabháşya p. 537. 207. Biology. p. 504.
JB-41

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322
Jaina Biology
It is suggestive from the study of Jaina Biology that the Jainācāryas have worked out a theory of a sort of gradual evolving life forms on the basis of the number of sense-organs208 from the microorganisms (nigodas)209 - one-sensed210 up to five-sensed animals-men211 according to their metaphysical belief that Karmaprakrti strives to change from the simple and imperfect to the more complex and perfect as a result of modifications or progress of Karmas212 accumulated in successive births in past life.
But it seems unlikely that men will ever know how life originated, whether it happened only once or many times or whether it might happen again.
Like Ray and Kinnaeus213 the Jaidācāryas are firm believers in the unchanging nature of species as is evidenced in their classifications of organisms. 213
From the point of view of the present day taxonomists an evolutionary relationship among the species of organisms - plants and animals-may be discovered on the basis of their anatomy, physiology and biochemistry, their embryologic and genetic histories, etc.
A close study of the world of life of plants and animals as presented in Jaina Biology shows that there is a remarkable fitness of the organism for the place (thāna),214 in which it lives, e. g. water for aquatic animals (Jalacaras), land for terrestreal animals, (Sthalacaras) and air for aerial animals (Nabhacaras).216 It is suggestive from this fact of fitness of organisms that their structure, of function, even of behaviour pattern, has arisen in course of evolution by natural selection
268. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra 36. 68-97.
Pannavaņā Sutta 1. 19-55 Egimuiyajīvapaņņavanā upto 1. 92–138 (pamcendiya
manussajivapannvanál. 209. Bhagavati 25. 5, 749; Jivābhigama Sūtra p. 997
Pannavana, 1.55 120 ; Lokaprakasa 1. 4th Sarga v. 32,
Nigodaşattrimsikä ; Gommața sāra (Jiva ). V. 7! 210. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 68 ff. Pannavanā 1.19-55. 211. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra, 36. 194-7; Pannavanā 1.19.55 212. Sūtrakştānga 11 3. 62. 213. Biology p. 543. 2 14. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra 36. 215. Pannavana Sutta ?, Thānapayam Sūtra 148-166, etc. 216. Uttaradhy-yana Sūtra 6.171.

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as explained by modern Biology.217 The outcome of evolution is a population of organisms, a species, adapted to survive in certain type of "environment”. 218
Although a clear cut idea of the outcome of evolution of plants and animals is not found in Jaina Biology, lievertheless, it has been noted, while studying the characteristics of living substances” that each particular species or plant or animals has the ability to become adapted by seeking out an environment in which it is suited to make it better fitted to its present surrounding.219
It is suggestive that in course of time organisms have become adapted and readapted 220 many times as their environment changed or as they migrated to a new environment.221
The analysis of the topics “The knowledge of food of organisms'222 the types of plants and classification of animals223 and their habitats,224 etc., as recorded in the Jaina Āgamas, reveals that there is a tendency for each group of organisms to spread out225 and occupy as many different habitats as they can reach and which will support them 226 because of the struggle for food and living space 227
The classification of animals by the Jaidācāryas into Sthalacara (terrestrial), Jalacara (acqatic) and Khecara or Nabhacara (aerial) animals throws light upo their habitats and ecology to which they could grow and adapt, and make themselves better fitted in their survival.228
217. Biology p. 570; Pannavanā 1, 61-91. 218. Biol gy, p. 570. 219. It is indicated by the Characteristics of Jiving substances and their cell
st ucture ind functions. 220. Sūtra kr ānga II. 3; Bharavati 7 5 275 ; Panna vana, Thānapayam ; Jivabhigama.
1. 34-6; Tarkarahasyadipikā, v. 9, Jainamatam, Țikā by Gunaratna. 22). Ibid. 222. Sūtrakstanga II. 3. 223. For types of plants. classification of Animals see Pannavanā, Jiva pannavanā;
Uttarādhyanaya Sütra 3n, etc. 224. Pannavana Sūtra; Thanapayam ; Sūtrakrtanga II. 3 225. Trasa Jivas (motiie animals always move for food and shelter. 226. Sūtrakrtānga II. 3.' All motile animals do so for food and space. 227. Ibid. 228. Sūt akstānga 11. 3.

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Conclusion
324
Conversely, it is observed in the Jaina Āgamas that may of the animals inhabiting the same type of habitat, e.g. water, have developed) similar structures which make them superficially alike, even though they may be but distantly related, e. g. the dolphin apd porpoises (susumāra 229 which are a mammals, both bony and cartilaginous fishes, "have ail evolved streamlined shapes, dorsal fins, tail fins and fliper like fore arm, hind limbs which make them look much alike" 230
The evolution and adaptation of each species of organisms as suggested by biologic interrelation in Jaina Biology have not occurred in a biologic vacuum, independent of other forms, instead many species have had a marked influence on the adaptation of other species. As a result many types of cross dependency, between species have arisen. Some of the clearest and best understood of these types involves insects (Kita), e. g. Bhramara (bees), Kitapatanga (butterflies and moths),281 which help indirectly in the pollination of a great many plants, 232 e.g. gourd (tumbi),231 etc., utpala (lotus)234 etc.
A close study of the blologic interlationsbip of plants and animals, thoir mode of nutrition, ecosystem, habitat and nicbe, and types of interactions,235 and principles of evolution, its living evidence, principles of ecology and the outcome evolution : adaptation as indicated in some form in Jaina Biology reveals that the communities of plants and animals are constantly undergoing an analogous reshuffling and the concept of the dynamic states of communities is a valid one. Plant and animal population are constantly subject to changes in their physical and biologic environment and must adapt or die as suggested by Ahāra pada Niksepa (The knowledge of food) of the Sūtrakrtānga 236
Communities of organisms - plants and animals as described in the Jaina Āgamas exhibit growth, 237 specialization and interdependence, characteristic form and even development from immaturity to maturity, old age and death,238 revealing the dynamic balance of Nature.
229. Sūtrakrtanga II. 3. 57. Ottaradhyayana Sūtra 36.172; Pannavanā Sutta 1.67. 230. Biology, 583. 231. Uttaradhyayana Sūtra 36. 146, Pannavana, Sutta 1.58.
Tattvārthadhigama Sutra II, 24. 232. Biology, D. 586. 233. Panpavana 1.45 (Tumbi) 234. Bhagavati 9. 33. 385; 11. (1-8) 235. Sūtrakstânga 11. 3. Ahāraniksepa 236. Sūtrakplānga II, 3. 237, Tarkarahasyadipikā. Țika on v. 49 ( Pratiniyatavęddhi,) 238. Tarkarahasyadipika, Țika od v. 49, Gunaratna, 159.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY JAINA WORKS
Angavijjā
- Edited by Muni śrı Punyavijayaji, Prākrit
Text Series, Vol. I.
Ācārānga Sūtra Ācāranga Niryukti Aupapātika Sūtra
- edited by Dr. Loumann, Leipzig. - Śrı Candrasari
Brbatsamgrahani
Bhagavati Sūtra
Āgamodaya Samiti.
Gommațasära
- Nemicandra Siddhanta Cakravartin - śāntisūri.
Jiva vicāra
- Hemacandra
Hema sabdanuśāsana Jivābhigamasūtra
Karmagrantha,
- Part I, with autocommentary,
Devendrasari
Kalyānakäraka
Ugradityācārya, edited and translated by Pandit Vardhamāna Pārsvanatha Śāstri
Lokaprakası,
-
Part I, Muni Vinayavija yaji.
Mūlācāra,
Vatteraka with Tıkā of Śrı Vasunadiframana, edited by Pandit Pannalal and Pandit Gajadharial.
Navattyaprakaraņa
-
(Author not known) Tikakara
- Vijayadharma Sūri
Nirayāvaliya, Panhavāgarada.
-
Pannavana Sutta, Prajñapanānuvāda
Part I, Jaina-Agama Seria. 9. Bhagavāndās.
Samvegaranaśālā
-
Jinacandrasűri, edited by Pandit Babubhai Savchand Shab.

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326
Jaina Biology
Sarvārtbasiddi
- Acarya Pujyapada
- Haribhadrasūri, L. D. Series No. 22.
Šāstra vārtā Samuccaya, Sthānāngasūtra.
Sutrakļānga.
Tattvārthadhigama Sūtra,
- Umāsvāti, Part I. - Devacandra-Lalbhai-Jaina Pustakoddhāra
Granthānka-59.
Tandula Veyāliya
Tarkarahasyadipikā on şaddarśana Samuccaya, Gunaratna. Uttarādhyayana Sūtra. - Jinaśāstramālā, Txtiyaratnam, Lahore. Viseşāvaśyakabhāsya, Yogaśāstra,
- Hemacandra.
BUDDHIST WORKS
Abbidharmkosa,
- Vasubandhu.
Visuddhimagga
Buddhaghosa, The Harvard Oriental Series, Volume Fortyone.
BRĀHMANICAL WORKS
Amarkoşa,
-
Amarasinha, ed. by Pandit Sivadatta, Jeipur.
Atharvaveda.
Aştānga Hşdaya
-
Vyākhyā, Aruņadatta.
Brahmasūtra,
Samkarabhāsya.
Bhāmatitikā,
- Vācaspati Miśra.
.
- Caraka.
Carakaksaṁhitā, Mātharavịtti, Nyāyakandali,
-
Śridhara
-
Jayanta Bhatta.
Nyāyamañjari, Nyāya Muktāvali,

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Nyāyasūtra
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Pāņini
Rgveda.
Sabdakalpadruma,
Raja Rādhākānta Dev, ed. by Kālīprasanna Kāvyavisārad.
Sangita Darpanam,
- Catur Damodara.
Sangita Ratnākara,
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manya Sãstri.
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328
Jaina Biol
GENERAL WORKS
Agriculture and Allied Arts in Vedic India, Aiyor, A.K.Y.A.
Aristotle by Ross.
Biology, C. A. Villee.
Bulletin of National Institute of Sciences of India, No. 21, 1963.
Central Conception of Buddhism, Prof. Stchurbatsky
Darśana and Cintapa, Pandit Sukhlalji
Human Anatomy, Henry Goray.
Indian Antiquary Vol. XIX
The Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol. 5, No, 1970.
Journal of Bombay National History Society.
Plant Autographs and their Revelations, Sri J. C. Bosc.
Positive Sciences of the Ancient Hindus, Dr. B. N. Seal.
Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XXII. Sacred Books of the East, Vol. XLV.
Sacitra Ayurveda, March, 1972.
The Sciences of Biology, Paul B. Weisz.

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