Introduction to Ardhamagadhi

Author(s): A M Ghatage
Publisher: School & College Book Stall
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006965/1

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI A. M. GHATAGE, M.A., Ph.D. Rajaram College, Kolhapur. SCHOOL & COLLEGE BOOK-STALL KOLHAPUR 1941

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI A. M. GHATAGE, M.A., Ph.D. Rajaram College, Kolhapur SCHOOL & COLLEGE BOOK-STALL KOLHAPUR 1941

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Publisher : D. N. MOGHE, B.A., School and College Book-Stall, Kolhapur. All rights reserved by the Author. Second Revised Edition 1941. Printer : M. N. KULKARNI, The Karpatak Printing Press, Chira Bazar, Bombay, 2.

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* To My Teachers Prof. A. N. UPADHYE, M.A., D.Litt. Prof. H. D. VELANKAR, M.A.

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PREFACE The present Introduction is mainly intended for High School and College students and presupposes no knowledge either of Ardha-Magadhi or of Sanskrit. A general acquaintance with the latter will, however, help the students greatly in mastering the language much more rapidly and thoroughly. This book, particularly in its first and third parts, will be found useful also to advanced students of this language. The book is divided into three parts, each of which is further divided into chapters or lessons. The first part dealing with the Phonology of the language, is so arranged as to group together the different changes under linguistic categories and yet keep them as simple as possible. The rules of general application are clearly separated from those of limited extent. The major portion of this part printed in big type is intended for the elementary students and is written in the simplest language with ample illustrations and exercises, which are, however, only illustrative and can be easily supplemented with words from the rules. All matter printed in small type in this part is meant for the teacher and students of linguistics who may look for some amount of scientific explanation of the facts given and which will help them in collecting new facts of similar nature. Linguistic terminology is used in this part to save the students from confusion arising out of apparently contradictory statements; and transliteration is used throughout. If necessary the first and the fifth chapters may be entirely

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vi INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI . passed over in case of elementary students. To make a progressive study of phonology possible all rules, are supplied with a first few illustrations which do not imply. the application of other rules. In the first instance the rules should be explained with reference to those examples and others should be taken up at the time of revision. The second part is divided into fifteen lessons and comprises the whole of the Morphology and the chief usages of the grammatical forms. Even though this part is so written as to imply no knowledge of the first, it is advisable to master at least the most general rules of phonology to ensure correct pronunciation and writing as also to save the trouble of remembering all words as new when they can be easily memorised with the help of a few rules. Each lesson gives some part of grammar with ample illustrations of their use and two sets of exercises for translation. The grammar given in bold type is the most important and absolutely necessary with which the student is expected to be thoroughly acquainted. The matter in small type and in transliteration gives a more systematic explanation of the origin and formation of grammatical forms and should be used strictly as matter for reference only. The method of classification used here is historical and usually a complicated one while other methods of an easier nature are left for the teacher to work out in the class. By this two-fold treatment was it possible to make a distinction of forms which the students should be asked to use in writing and forms which he should be able to understand when used in literature, a distinction absolutely necessary in case of AMg. grammar. I need hardly state that all the forms given are taken from literature and no form is admitted merely on the statements of the Prakrit grammarians, whose multiplicity of forms,

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vii PREFACE though useful historically, should be the thing avoided in a grammar of the present nature and scope. The third part deals in a more systematic manner than was possible in the second with the syntax and compounds and is meant for those who have mastered the second. The sentences given here are taken from standard works. Usages which the student is warned from imitating and topics like word-order are again given in small type. The appendices give a brief grammatical summary for ready reference ; two glossaries for working out the exercises in the first two parts and an explanatory index, which not only serves to put together related matter which was separated in the text for convenience, but also supplies explanations of all technical terms with their Sanskrit equivalents and abbreviations, phonetic transcription etc. used in the text. All difficulties met with while reading the text will find their explanations in the index, which is thus meant to be used at every step. Finally I must add that this book does not claim to be a self-instructor but a serious text-book to be worked out in the class by both the students and teachers. Naturally a good deal. of latitude is left to the teachers in choosing and selecting out of it and explaining it according to their own method to suit the capacities of their students. It is evident that the present work is mainly a compilation and a list of books used in its preparation will be found in the index under the names of their authors. I have made use of most of the writers on Prakrit and Sanskrit grammar though a few may not be found in the index because no specific opinion of them is cited in the text. On a closer comparison it will be seen that the book, though essentially

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viii INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI based on its predecessors, shows a respectable amount of new matter, explanations and system of arrangement. I record here my thanks to my teachers Prof. A. N. Upadhye, M.A., D.Litt. and Prof. H. D. Velankar, M.A. for constant help in the writing of the book and to Mr. J. N. Dani, B.A. (Hon.) B.T. for help in preparing the press copy and proof-reading. Finally I must not forget to thank the Publisher and Printer for doing their work with enthusiasm and great care. Kolhapur August 1941 } A. M. GHATAGE

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CONTENTS Sy PAGES INTRODUCTORY 1-5 .. .. .. .. 1-6 Ardha-Magadhi 1-2. Language-Study 3-5. PART I. PHONOLOGY. CHAPTER ONE. Alphabet, Sounds and Vocabulary .. .. .. .. .. Alphabet 6. Pronunciation 7. Orthography 8. Syllable 9. Quantity 10. Stress 11. Punctua tion 12. Vocabulary 13, 14. CHAPTER Two. Single Consonants .. .. 15-34 Initial consonants 18-27. Medial consonants 28-49. Final consonants 50-53. Ex. 1-7. CHAPTER THREE Conjunct Consonants .. 35-54 General notions 54-57. Groups with Mutes 58-80. Groups with Nasals 81-87. Groups with Semi-vowels 88-91. Groups with Liquids 92-95. Other group changes 96-97. Groups of three con sonants 98. Initial groups 99. Ex. 1-4. CHAPTER FOUR. Sonants, Vowels and Visarga. 55 65 Sonants 100-103. Vowels 104-113. Visarga 114-116. Ex. 1-4. CHAPTER FIVE. Other Phonetic Changes .. 66-73 i Anaptyxis 117. Nasalisation 119. Effects of accent. 121-123. Syncope 124. Haplology 125. Metathesis 126, Samprasarana 128. Ex. 1-3.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI PAGES 74-80 CHAPTER Six. Sandhi Vowel Sandhi 130-139. Survivals of Sanskrit Sandhi 140, 141. Consonantal Sandhi 142-144. Ex. 1, 2. PART II. MORPHOLOGY. i 83-89 LESSON ONE Gender 145. Number 146. Cases 147. Masculine nouns ending in -a 148-149. Change in Gender 150. Themes 151. Derivation 152. Additional forms 153. Historical 154. Ex. 158-159. 89-96 LESSON Two .. Tenses 160. Padas 161. Classes of verbs 163. Present 165. Thematic bases 166, 167. Athematic bases 168. Root as- 170.. Ex. 171, 172. 97-100 LESSON THREE .. Neuter nouns ending in -a 173-176. Present 177179. Ex. 180, 181. LESSON FOUR. .. 100-105 Feminine nouns ending in -i 182-184. Change of gender 185. Themes 186. Derivation 187. Addi tional forms 188. Origin 189. Present 190-192. Adjective 193. Ex. 194, 195. LESSON FIVE .. 105-113 Masculine nouns ending in -i and -u 196-201. Past tense 203-205. Past passive participle 206208. Use 209, 210. Ex. 211, 212. LESSON Six .. 113-119 Neuter nouns ending in i and -u 215, 216. . Future 217-224. First person pronoun 225-226. Present active participle 227-229. Ex. 230, 231.

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LESSON SEVEN Feminine nouns ending in i and u 232-234. Imperative 235-237. Second person pronoun 238. Ex. 239, 240. LESSON EIGHT Feminine nouns ending in -i and - 241, 242. Potential 243-247. Gerund 248-250. Ex. 251, 252. LESSON NINE Demonstrative pronoun ta- 253, 254. Causal 255-257. Infinitive 258-260. Ex. 261, 262. LESSON TEN CONTENTS Passive 263-267. 270. Ex. 271, 272. LESSON THIRTEEN Interrogative pronoun 268 LESSON ELEVEN Present passive participle 273, 274. Potential passive participle 276-278. Nominal derivatives 279-283. Degrees of adjectives 284. Ex. 285, 286. LESSON TWELVE Consonantal declension 287-295. Ex 296, 297. Demonstrative pronoun eya- 298, idam 299. Denominatives 301. Desideratives 302, Intensives 303. Ex. 304, 305. LESSON FOURTEEN Cardinal numerals 306-309. Ordinals 310. Fractions 311. Multiplicatives 312. Distinctives 313. Numeral adjectives 314-316. Ex. 317, 318. LESSON FIFTEEN Adverbs 319-322. Prepositions 323, 324. Conjunctions 325. Ex. 326, 327. xi PAGES 119-123 123-129 129-134 134-138 138-143 143-147 147-150 150-153 153-156

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xii INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI PAGES PART III. SYNTAX & COMPOUNDS... I. ARTICLE 328 ... 159 II. AGREEMENT 329-344 ... 159-166 III. NUMBER 345-348 . 166-167 IV. CASES 349-403 167-181 V. PRONOUNS 404-415 181-183 VI. TENSES 416-429 183-186 VII. MOODS 430-437 VIII. CAUSAL 438, 439 188 IX. PARTICIPLES 440-452 X. GERUND 453-458 .. 1-192 XI. INFINITIVE 459-462 192-193 XII. PHRASE 463-478 .. .. XIII. WORD-ORDER 479-500 197-201 XIV. COMPOUNDS, 501-515 .. 201-207 ::::::::::::: 186-188 189-191 193-197 APPENDICES. Grammatical Summary 516-525 Ardha-Magadhi English Glossary English Ardha-Magadhi Glossary 211-220 ... 221-231 .. 232-237 EXPLANATORY INDEX .. ... .. 238-253

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INTRODUCTORY I. ARDHA-MAGADHI 1 Ardha-Magadhi belongs to the group of Middle Indian languages (MIA) which are collectively called Prakrits. They form a connecting link between the Sanskrit language--both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit including the Epic idiom (OIA) --and the Modern Indian languages (NIA) like Marathi, Gujarati, Hindi, Bengali etc. Naturally the study of any Prakrit language must be carried with constant reference to Sanskrit on the one hand and the Modern Indian languages on the other. Only one Middle Indian language, Pali, developed a system of grammar written in the same dialect. Even then these grammars were greatly dependent on the systems of Sanskrit grammar. The same is the case with its lexicons. The commentaries on the Palicanon were, however, composed in the same language, though decidedly of a younger type. All these facts give the study of Pali an independence and uniformity which is quite lacking in the study of other Prakrit dialects. Similar must have been the position of Ardha-Magadhi as well. We have some indications of grammars in the Prakrit languages and at least two lexicons in Prakrit are available at present. The early commentaries on the Jain canon like Nijjutti, Bhasa and Cunni are in the same language. Soon, however, Sanskrit, began to usurp the place of Prakrit in all these fields and most of the available grammars of Prakrit are in Sanskrit. The commentaries then appeared in Sanskrit and Prakrit held its place only in nar

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 1. rative and exegetical works. This close connection and dependence of Prakrits on Sanskrit explains the comparative method used in their study by the early grammarians and later on by modern scholars. This, however, need not mean that the source (Prakrti) of these languages is Sanskrit. Phonology is itself the product of the comparative method and is mainly confined to the study of the vocabulary of a language on its formal side. It is based on etymology and traces the evolution of sounds, single and in combinations, from the older stage to a younger one. It is studied here in comparison to Sanskrit which is presumed to mark the older stage in the Indo-Aryan languages when brought in relation to the Ardha-Magadhi Prakrit. An attempt is made in the second part to study the morphological facts of the language independently with brief notes on the problems of historical origins. One can also begin the study of this language at this point by presupposing all the words as being given independently, as is usually done in case of Sanskrit. The syntax is purely descriptive and makes no attempt at historical or psychological explanation. 2 Strictly speaking Ardha-Magadhi is the language of the Sacred Books of Jainism, the so-called Ardha-Magadhi canon. In the form in which it is available to us, it consists of 45 books of different forms and varied contents. Probably it was the language of the ancient country of Magadha, used by Mahavira to preach his religion. As is to be expected, it must have undergone many changes in course of. time. The name of this language is explained as (i) 'having half the nature of Magadhi' which is true to the extent that it preserves, at least in its older phase as far as it can be ascertained, such features of Magadhi as the change of -1- to -1- and the Nom. Sing. in -e; and (ii) current in half the country of Magadha' which may be equally probable from what we know of Mahavira's wanderings and the later history of Jainism. Numerous passages of the canon tell us that Mahavira preached in the Ardha-Magadhi language, which is claimed to be the same as the language of the

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S. 3.] LANGUAGE-STUDY present canon. It is important to note that the Buddhist tradition attributes the name Magadhi Nirutti to the so-called Pali language of their canon. Considering that both the teachers lived and worked in the same locality and at the same time, it is difficult to admit the claims of both. Hemacandra calls this language arsa 'belonging to the sages' as did the medieval commentators the archaisms of the epics, and he notes its peculiarities in imitation of the chandasi of Panini. The later development of this language in the post-canonical works is called by the simple name praksta by later writers. While Prakrit grammarians and to some extent Sanskrit rhetoricians noted and explained the distinctions between various Prakrit dialects, the writers cared little for them in actual practice. So the picture of these languages in the inscriptions and literary works is one of an inextricable intermixture of dialectal features as seen from the standard of the grammarians. Ardha-Magadhi is no uniform speech. Just as we can distinguish between the order and the younger strata of the canon, so also we can demarcate between the older and younger phases of the language, without, however, making the two divisions coincide in all the details (Note, for instance, the Nom. Sing in -e of younger prose and in -0 of older works in verse). A similar distinction may be observed in the later Jain Maharastri. It must be observed, however, that the linguistic demarcation between the later works of the canon and early works of the post-canonical literature is very uncertain and may even lack real basis in facts. What is attempted here is not a pure description of ArdhaMagadhi but also of what the Prakrit scholars call as Jain Maharastri, the language which is an unbroken continuation of the canonical language. It is at the basis of Hemacandra's Prakrit Grammar and probably the most comprehensive of all the Prakrit languages. II. LANGUAGE-STUDY 3 The study of a fanguage means primarily the ability to speak it and to understand it when spoken, and secon

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI IS. 3. darily the ability to read and write it. In the classical languages the second aim plays a far important role while in the living tongues the first claims the whole attention. A scientific study of a classical language, therefore, means a knowledge about its orthography or mode of representing the sounds in graphic forms, orthoepy or the relation between the pronunciation and the conventional spelling, phonology or the study of its sound system in close relation to a cognate language with a view to trace its origin and development, morphology or the study of the formation of the different grammatical forms like those of nouns, pronouns and numerals called the declension and those of verbs called the conjugation, syntax dealing with the usages of those forms in the sentences and finally vocabulary or mass of words giving expression to different concepts in the mind of the speaker. 4 The prime unit of a language is a sentence which is self-sufficient and which expresses in the form of a series of sounds the verbal image of the speaker representing an idea in his mind. It may consist of a single word like the form of imperative or vocative or a complicated structure of many periods. Usually the sentence consists of a limited number of words put together. This word in a sentence has a stable part called the stem, expressing the meaning and a part added to it, which points out its exact relation to other words. These changeable parts are called the terminations or inflections. Consisting normally of a sound or a group of sounds without a meaning of their own, they may be added to the stem (suffixes) or placed before it (prefixes) or inserted in the body of the word (infixes). The function of the inflection may also be performed by the place of the word in the sentence or word-order. The words themselves may be nouns, pronouns etc. or verbs and verbal derivatives. A few

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S. 5.1 of them do not admit of inflections and are, therefore, called indeclinables. LANGUAGE-STUDY 5 5 Speaking phonetically, a word may consist of one or more syllables. A syllable is that part of the sound continuum which encloses a peak of sonority and is bounded on both sides by two points of least sonority. In its turn the syllable is made up of two different elements called vowels and consonants. Vowels are either short or long according as the time taken for pronouncing them is brief or long. Consonants on the other hand, are said to be single when they are immediately preceded and followed by a vowel and conjunct when two of them come together without a vowel between them, The articulate sounds of which the language is made are produced by a stream of air expelled from the lungs and passing through the trachea and forcing its way through the two vocal cords at its upper end and escaping through the mouth or nose or both. The various sounds differ according to the nature of the obstacle to the air passage (Mode of Articulation) and the place in the mouth where the obstacle takes place (Place of Articulation). When the vocal cords are brought in contact the air sets them in vibration and the result is a voiced sound. But if they are kept apart there results the unvoiced sound or breath. If the voice passes through the mouth without any obstacle, it gives rise to vowels like [i, u, e, o,] etc. differentiated by the size of the resonance chamber formed by the shape of the tongue and the lips. According as the front or the middle or the back part of the tongue is raised the vowels are called front, neutral or back vowels. With or without the protrusion of the lips they become rounded or unrounded. If the voice is made to escape through the nose there result the nasals like [n, m] and if through both mouth and nose the result is the nasal vowel [i, u]. If the voice is made to undergo an obstruction in the mouth there result the voiced stops like [g. d) (Mediae) and their aspirates like [gh, dh]

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6 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 5. when followed by a voiced aspiration. If to the voice is added friction the result is a voiced fricative Iv, z]. If it is given a lateral explosion it produces [1] and if trilled [r]. If to the vowel resonance of [i] and [u] friction is added by raising the tongue higher the result is a semi-vowel like [j] or [w]. If the friction is added in the glottis itself the result is the voiced [h]. If the breath is obstructed in the mouth there follows an unvoiced stop like [k, t] (Tenues), which like all stops, consists of an implosion, a stop and an explosion. If followed by an aspirate, they result into aspirated voiceless stops like [kh, th]. According as the contact is against the soft or hard palate, or the gums of the teeth or the teeth or with the lips, they are called velars; palatals, alveolars, dentals or labials. If instead of a complete closure there is a narrow aperture giving rise to friction, there results a fricative like [s. c, S. Finally the affricatives result from the fact that the stop may be followed by a fricative instead of an abrupt opening like [fs dz.]

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PART ONE PHONOLOGY

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CHAPTER ONE ALPHABET, SOUNDS AND VOCABULARY 6 The ALPHABET for Ardha-Magadhi consists of the following letters which are given along with their usual transliteration : Vowels Short 34 a, 5i, 3 u, ge, so. Longan a, 1, 5u, ge, aito. Consonants Velarsk, Ekh, i g, gh. Palatals 7c, ch, Fj, jh. Cerebrals at, & th, d, adh. Dentals t t, th th, d, dh. Labials op; ph, ab, bh. Nasals corresponding to the above places of articulation : on, I n, rn, 7n, #m.

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10 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 6. Semi-vowels [ y, a v. Liquids Ir, . Sibilant Rs. Aspirateh. Anusvara ( a pure nasal sound) - m. Anunasika (a nasalised vowel or consonant) * ~ 7 PRONUNCIATION. No authentic tradition is preserved about the phonetic values of Ardha-Magadhi sounds. Grammarians tell us of the light pronunciation of -y- (laghuprayatnatara-yakara) and the short pronunciation of -e- and -o- before a conjunct consonant. Otherwise all the sounds have the same phonetic value as in Sanskrit. There is a possibility that the palatal series may have developed a more dental affricative value as in some Modern Indian languages. The short -e- and -- were more like the open [1] and [u] than like open [e] and [?] as is suggested by the writing of -- and -u- for them. Before -U- and -o-, v appears to be a bilabial frictionless continuant as can be seen from such writings as vuttha (Sk. *usta, usita) vutta (Sk. ukta), vottha (Sk. ostha) etc. Otherwise it is a labiodental continuant without friction and voiced. The aspirate is a voiced one. The Anusvara is said to be a pure nasal sound following a vowel, which, however, was not nasalised. In the present-day pronunciation it is a nasal consonant when followed by any mute, a nasalised y and 1 before y and 'l, a nasalised o before others and is like m before a pause. The Anunasika gave the vowels a pure nasalised value. The conjunct consonants were pronounced with a perceptible length between the implosion and explosion. 8 ORTHOGRAPHY. The usual orthography in Devanagari characters (with a few peculiarities of Jain scribes which lead to a confusion between jh and bh, tth and cch, the use of padimatra, a peculiar character to show kkh etc.) fails to show, the short values of -e- and -- for which often & and are written. No distinction is observed between the Anusvara and Anunasika and the metrical length alone helps in distinguishing

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S. 12.) ALPHABET, SOUNDS AND VOCABULARY 11 them. Frequently the Anusvara represents all the nasal consonants, particularly in groups. The writing makes no distinction between -y- and -j-sruti, and -v- and -v-sruti. 9 SYLLABLE. The syllabic nature of the writing does not always give the correct division of the syllable in actual pronunciation. The division of a syallable in writing is always after the nature of the graphic figure. In actual sound, however, the syllable may be (i) a single vowel : a-hu-na, lo-a; (ii) a vowel followed by a consonant : ek-ka, et-tha; (iii) a consonant followed by a vowel : ta-ha, ma-ha; (iv) a vowel preceded and followed by a consonant : tat-tha, jet-tha. So we find that (a) an intervocalic consonant goes with the following vowel (b) in a conjunct the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel (c) an Anusvara belongs to the previous syllable (d) two successive vowels form different syllables, as the language shows no diphthongs. 10. QUANTITY. The short vowels or single consonants followed by short vowels have the value of one matra, while long vowels or single consonants followed by long vowels have the value of two matras. A closed syllable has the value of a long syllable. The Anunasika does not change the quantity of a syllable but Anusvara makes it long. 11 STRESS. Nothing is known about the musical accent current in Old Indo-Aryan. Pischel regards for Ardha-Magadhi an accent on the same place as the Vedic accent but having the effects of a stress. In the present-day pronunciation, a weak expiratory accent follows the method of Classical Sanskrit. In words of two syllables the first is accented (kama, vaya) ; in words of three syllables, the penultimate is accented if it is long (viyara) but the initial if the second is short (sayala) ; in words of four syllables, the penultimate if it is long (parinama), the antepenult if the penult is short (manoraha), and the first if both are short (sappurisa, saravara). In some cases we must assume an initial accent in spite of the penult being long (kumara).. 12 PUNCTUATION. The only punctuation mark used is a Danda (1) to mark the close of a sentence. A double Danda

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12 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 12. (ID) marks the close of a stanza while a single one the end of a Pada or metrical verse. The Avagraha (s) is sometimes used incorrectly to point out the loss of a vowel in Sandhi. It is customary to use words in Ardha-Magadhi to do the duty of ordinary marks of punctuation. Thus iti (ti, tti, iya) marks the close of a direct statement ; a form of the pronoun kim marks an interrogative sentence; the word java notes the dropping of a passage when identical with the one already given; the numeral 2 is used to mark the repetition of the word preceding it ; and other numerals are used to indicate the presence of so many synonyms or stereotyped expressions. 13 VOCABULARY. Nearly all the words in Sanskrit may be taken over in Ardha-Magadhi to form its vocabulary. Only a few of them are of a different origin and are called Desi words; e. g. ori close, ser a mirror, the morning, i beautiful, sro a branch, or verbs like me to shine ; 7 to climb, yor to know. Many Sanskrit words are such as can be used in this language without a phonetic change like the a lotus, ar an essence, qe highest. Tuey are called TH ('like Sanskrit'). But the majority of words undergo some phonetic modification according to rules given in the following chapters and are then called aga l'arising from Sanskrit '), as loya = Sk. loka people, isi = Sk. RSi a sage.. The origin of the Desi words is a problem. Many so-called Desis are obscure Sanskrit words changed beyond recognition (cf. gaharo = Sk. gidhra 'greedy') or used in a figurative sense (cf. cojjam = Sk. cod yam 'wonder '). A few may have been borrowed from foreign languages like the Dravidian (cf. addaya = Tel. addamu, pulli = Tel. puli, Kan, huli 'a tiger' bolla- to speak Kan. bogalu, Ta. vaguli 'noise'). Many of them, however, must have been Indo-Aryan words which continued to live in the popular languages but did not find a footing in the refined language like Sanskrit (cf. jhaoi = Mar. jhada 'a constant shower'; jhotti = Panj. jhoti 'a young female buffalo'; tippi Beng. tip 'a stain', dungara = Gui. dungar 'a hill'; dali = Hin, dal'a branch'; or verbs: bollai = Mar. bolane 'to speak';

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S. 14.] ALPHABET, SOUNDS AND VOCABULARY 13 dhakkai = Guj. dhakavu to cover'; nadai = Guj. nadavu 'to hinder'). The origin of others is not ascertainable. The grammarians often give the names of countries like Maharastra, Vidharbha, Magadha as the source of these words. Further they call the verbs of non-Sanskritic origin by the name dhatvadesa * substitute for the root'. 14 Generally the words of the Sanskrit language preserve the same meaning in Ardha-Magadhi. Only in few cases do we find a slight change in the signification as Sk. art. 'a child' AMg. 'an ignorant person'; Sk. Ez * to look at' AMG. a 'to see'. Really speaking words do not undergo many semantic changes while passing from Sanskrit into Prakrits, at least changes as are met with in the Modern Indian languages. Both Sanskrit and Prakrit remain essentially classical languages and the words have only the usual literary meaning attached to them. Moreover, the Prakrits were constantly brought under the influence of Sanskrit, which never allowed them sufficient scope to develop new meanings of their words. In Ardha-Magadhi, however, the Jain religion had a profound influence in moulding its available vocabulary, and a vast number of Jain technical terms with specific meaning are found in it. Even then, these meanings cannot be called peculiarly Prakritic as most of them are used in Sanskrit as well by Jain writers in their altered and technical sense. We may note in the most general way, a few groups of such changes in order to get an idea of the vocabulary of ArdhaMagadhi. (i) Specialisation of meaning: pinda 'alms' ayavaya to mortify'; niggantha 'a Jain monk'; niraya 'free from Karmic defilement'; aivaya- 'to kill'; tasa 'a movable being '; oggaha 'a place reserved for monks'; muhajivi 'living without any profession'; sankhadi 'a feast involving killing'; cuya * fallen from heaven'; darsana 'faith'; panta coarse food'. (ii) . Generalisation : cittamanta "having life'; phasa- 'to perform'; ghasa. 'food'; vama- 'to abandon'; joga 'activity'. (iii) Transference : khuddaga 'young'; sasaya liberation';;

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14 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 14. lajja 'self-control'; kasaya 'passion'; bayara 'gross'; eha- 'to enjoy'; culiya 'appendix '; javana 'maintaining'; esana 'begging food '; panama-'to give'; goyara 'begging tour'; phasuya pure'; ghora difficult'. (iv) Metaphor : vanta 'abandoned thing'; miga 'an ignorant man'; padima 'a bodily posture'. (v) Technical expressions : poggala 'matter'; chauma 'not possessing perfect knowledge'; viuvva- 'to produce by magic power ' ; sammuccha- 'to be born automatically'. The vocabulary, further, shows (i) archaisms like saya 'happiness'; sarakkha dirt'; jaga 'movable being'; siloga 'fame'; jayateya fire'; arambha- 'to kill'; vaggu 'sweet words';. kibbisa 'low'; parideva- 'to lament'; saddhim with'; (ii) new formations and new words like kimicchie desired things'; esakala "future'; ainna 'a trained horse';, kicca 'a teacher'; aesa 'a guest'; veyavadiya 'help'; uvappayana bribery'; joisa 'sacrifice'; vimana "heavenly region'; hara thief'; (iii) imitative words like davadava-, sarassara-; and finally (iv) popular etymology : sunaha Pali sunakha thought to be su + nakha ; purabheyani Pali putabhedana thought to be pura + bhedani ; anavadagga = anamadagra split as an + avadaggai mahana = *makhana divided into ma + hana and murava = muraja thought to be mu + rava. 15 When we compare the sound system of Ardha-Magadhi with that of Sanskrit we find that it has lost the two diphthongs ai and au, the Visarga and the two sibilants s and s. On the other hand, it has added the two short vowels e and ;, u and two nasal aspirates ah and mh. In addition Pischel admits ! for AMg. whenever I stands for a cerebral sound. But the North Indian Mss. do not make a distinction between 1 and ! and in this book 1 is used everywhere.

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CHAPTER TWO SINGLE CONSONANTS 16 When a word passes from Sanskrit into ArdhaMagadhi it is found to change either one or more of its consonants or vowels or both. This gives rise to consonantal and vowel changes. The vowels are differentiated from each other only by a slight movement of the speech organs in forming the resonance chamber, and even a small change in their adjustment may cause a change in their quality. On the contrary the consonants are more stable and less prone to modification. The vowel may change its quality. (IE. *2= Sk. i, pita, *ei= Sk. a, asti) or its quantity glhita from glh-i-ta; ninam for ny-nam ; Pkt. pavayana = Sk. pravacana). The consonants may, get voiced between two voiced sounds (Sk. tadasti = tat + asti, Pkt. asoga= Sk. asoka) and then drop its occlusion (Sk. sad- = *sazd- ; Pkt. maa = Sk. mada), or in rare cases may change its place of articulation (Sk. cakara from kT- reduplicated, Pkt. tigiccha= Sk. cikitsa). 17 The changes of the single consonant depend upon the position it occupies in the word. It may stand at the beginning; when it is called initial, or at the end, when it is called final, or somewhere between these two positions, when it is called medial. The changes of these three different types of consonants are guided by different rules. The changes of the single consonants may be grouped into (i) those which are general without reference to the place in

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16 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 17. the word, probably due to the change of the articulating mode, or defective approximation (like s, s = s); (ii) those which are particular, dependent upon the place in the word and due to the economy of effort. These changes appear to follow a universal tendency 'normally the initial consonants are preserved, the medial get softened and the final are lost' (k initial = k, medial = g, final = lost). This is but natural when we remember that the force of articulation goes on decreasing towards the end of the word. INITIAL CONSONANTS 18 Only three consonants, 37, 4 and a change, when they stand at the beginning of a word. 7 and a become A T becomes J. All other initial consonants generally remain unchanged. 19 Initial 37 and q=2. Fra = feta god Siva, 101=AVCI school, Te = mifs rice, f1 = ferest stone; fory=fag child ; farfar = for the cold season, na = remaining; 1719 = ARI vegetable, sufera = it the moon, ta = hundred, 12 = E cart, TE= TEU weapon, a = Rat science, Te = fere teaching, zuddha suddha pure, zakra sakka god Indra, SaSTi = saTThI sixty, 152T = Fine sixteen, aus = que grove of trees. The history of sibilants in Indo-Aryan is a process of ramification and amalgamation following each other. Of the one sibilants of the IE. times, which was voiced (z) between voiced sounds, the I-I. period shows a big number. The Sk. system of three sibilants, dental s, palatal s and cerebral s, has a complex origin. S preserves the original sound, while its voiced form was lost. S is the result of palatal k or s before palatal sounds. $ comes out of s under definite phonetic conditions. All these again fall into one (s or s) in MIA. except in the North West. In the NIA. this is again split up in two under the influenoe of neighbouring sounds. The unification of the sibilants is, often, attributed to the influence of the substratum, the Dravidian languages.

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s. 22.] 20 In few cases, however, initial za, Sa or sa becomes cha. zAva = chAva young one; SaT = cha six ; sudhA = chuhA lime; zaru = charu arrow; zirA = chirA vein; SaTpada = chappaya bee; saptaparNa - chattivaNNa a kind of tree; zivA = chivA a kind of grass. INITIAL CONSONANTS This change of a sibilant into an affricate and that of y-, a palatal fricative, into j- a palatal affricate, both are due to the same tendency, to have a contact of the speech organs instead of a very close approximation, at the beginning of a word. Thus a fricative sound becomes an affricate. Pischel regards the first as a case of aspiration of the sibilant ($ 1 = sh = ch), while Johansson postulates alternative initials like & ( =s), sk ( = ch). A similar development of initial i into [z] is found in Greek. 21 Initial ya = ja. yama = jama God of death ; yuga juga yoke ; yAga = jAga worship; yoga = joga activity; yUtha = jUha herd ; yuvan = juvA a youth ; yadi = jai if; yathA - jahA as; yAna = jANa cart ; yuvarAja = juvarAya prince; yAtrA = jattA march ; yajJa = janna sacrifice; yukta 6 = jutta proper ; yUpa=jUva sacrificial post ; yodha = joha warrior; yantra = janta machine; yakSa jakkha demi-god; yamakasamaka = jamagasamaga together; yAcita = jAiya begged; yauvana = jovvaNa youth; yAdRza = jArisa like which. 17 - (a) Even when is preceded by a preposition like it is changed to na. saMyoga saMjoga union; saMyama = saMjama selfcontrol; saMyukta = saMjutta joined. -- 2 (b) When yathA and yAvat form the first member of a compound they change their initial optionally to a. yathAsukhaM ahAsuhaM, jahAsuhaM according to one's pleasure ; yathAzrutaM - ahAsurya, jahAsuyaM as heard ; yAvatkathA = AvakahA, jAvakahA as long as one lives. -- Only in the older portions of AMg. is y- changed to a, while its change to j- is the usual one in later language. yavat alone drops its initial y in some of its forms like avanti. 22 ASPIRATION OF INITIAL CONSONANTS (i) Velars : ka = kha: kubja = khujja dwarf ; kIla - khAla peg ;

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18 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 22. kaMdharA = khaMdharA neck ; kasita = khasiya cough ; kiMkiNI = khikhiNI small bell; krIDA = kheDDa play; gRha = ghara house. (ii) Palatals : jUSita = jhasiya destroyed. (iii) Labials: pATayati = phAlei tears; parikhA = phalihA ditch; paruSa = pharusa harsh; parazu= pharasu axe; bisa = bhisa lotus stalk; bisinI = bhisiNI; bRsikA = bhisigA straw-seat; biMbisAra = bhiMbhisAra Bimbisara. (iv) Liquid : lazuna = lhasuNa onion; also lasuNa. 23 Loss of aspiration : bhISaNa = bIhaNa fearful, bIhaNaga. It will be seen from the iHustrations that the aspiration is most marked with tenues and limited in case of media. The deaspiration is equally sporadic. The cases where b- is aspirated are due to the preservation of the original aspirated sonant in Prakrit which is lost to Sanskrit (Sk. budh- Gr. peuthomai). For j- one can compare Sk. jasa and jhasa. As regards the aspiration of the tenues Jacobi and Bloch regard it as due to the effect of a neighbouring sound like s or r assimilating the initial sound, while Pischel and Wackernagel presuppose an alterance between initial k- and p- with a prothetic s- (Sk. tij- Gr. stizo). In case of ghara (Sk. glha) the aspirate is a survival than a metathesis of the aspiration. It is equally possible to think that many cases of initial aspiration may be due to initial accent, particularly where no other reason can be imagined. 24 CHANGE OF THE PLACE OF ARTICULATION (i) Palatals becoming dentals : cikitsA = teicchA medical treatment ; cikitsaka = tigicchaga physician; jugupsA = duguMchA disgust; jighatsA = digicchA desire to eat; jyotsnA = dosiNA moon-light. ___ (ii) Dentals becoming palatals: tiSThati = ciTThai stands ; tyakta = ciyatta abandoned. (iii) Dentals become cerebralised : Dhakkei Pali thaketi; Dasai =dazati bites; Dahai = dahati burns; DAha = dAha heat; Dahara = dahara young; dhvAMkSa = DhaMka a kind of bird; nUnaM =.f indeed.

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S. 27.] MEDIAL CONSONANTS 19 An explanation of these changes is doubtful. Geiger regards the first as a king of dissimilation, while the third is called 'spontaneous cerebralisation' as in Sanskrit di- becomes Classical di- to fly. H. Smith suggests that the participles dattha and daddha may have influenced the roots das- and dah-. 25 OTHER SPORADIC CHANGES (i) fara = fera hunter. (ii) HTHAT = afruat investigation; #FAT=Q+HE Cupid. (iii) ofert stick. (iv) ET = pak hard, dry; TGI = GITI name of a country. (v) s = 75 s plough; Jss = yes tail; SOI = TUTET orehead. (vi) In the root the initial =. Harmagara become. : Of these (ii) and (v) are due to dissimilation affecting the place of articulation, (iv) a Magadhism and (vi) probably an extension of h from forms of the verb with preverbs. Przyluski traces the words langala, langula, to Austro-Asiatic languages, the initial alterance of which may explain the changes. 26 In case of the initial consonant of the second member of a compound, it may either follow the rules of medial consonants or may be regarded as initial relat = TET, 6 giving delight; Fear'=F IT, Foere watery animal ; supuruSa =suurisa, supurisa good man; tribhuvana = tihuyaNa, tibhuvaNa the three worlds. Though the rule would allow both forms the actual usage is not so free and unrestricted. Usually the unity of the word felt by the speaker decided whether the consonant be regarded as initial or medial. So we find sujano, but abuhajanabohanan. 27 Similar is the case with proclitics. a Girafa TTUTE, flug does not know. The enclitics usually drop their initial consonant. ca=ya and; punaH = uNa but; iti =i thus.

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20 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI : [S. 28. MEDIAL CONSONANTS 28 Medial single consonants ka, ga, ca, ja, ta and da are dropped, leaving behind the accompanying vowel. These consonants form the first and third letters of the I, II and IV Vargas. If the vowel left behind is a or A, ya or yA is written for it. TITLE When we compare the changes of these consonants in different Prakrit languages it is clear that first the tenues were softened into mediae and were then dropped. This means that the plosion was weakened between voiced sounds and finally disappeared. The Prakrit grammarians call the vowel left behind by the name udvTtta. Hc. states that this i is to be pronounced lightly (laghu-prayatnatara-yakara) and is admissible only after a or a. Mark. teaches this jasruti for the vowels a and i as well. The Jain MSS. which write the use it after all the vowels. A simi-. lar phenomenon is referred to by Panini VIII.3.18. where the preceding vowel is o. (i) ka is dropped : sakala =sayala all; cheka = cheya clever ; naraka = naraya hell; zUkara = sUyara pig; vikaTa =viyaDa big; vikalpa = viyappa doubt ; AkIrNa = AiNNa scattered ; eDaka = elaya ram ; citrakara = fortere painter. (ii) ga is dropped : yugala = juvala pair; mRga = miya deer; anuga= aNuya follower; nagara = nayara town; tyAgin = cAI a renouncer. (iii) ca is dropped: kaca =kaya hair; AcAra = AyAra conduct; vacana = vayaNa words; zuci sui pure; loca =loya pulling the hair; nIca =nIya low; kIca =kIya bamboo; khacita = khaiya. studded ; rocita = roiya liked; vAk = vAcA words. (iv) ta is dropped : ajita = ajiya unconquered; adhiMgata = adhigaya known; amita = amiya limitless ; arati = arai dissatisfaction; hata= haya killed ; gati = gai course; sita=siya white; jAta =

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S. 30.] MEDIAL CONSONANTS jAya born; mAtA = mAyA mother; pitA - piyA father; lohitalohiya red, blood ; atIva = aIva very much; akSata = akkhaya unhurt. .. (v) ja is dropped : pUjA= pUyA worship; rAjA rAyA king%3; gaja = gaya elephant; rajata =rayaya silver; bhAjana =bhAyaNa vessel; pUjita = pUiya honoured; vIjana =vIyaNa fan; prajA=payA people; tyajati = cayai abandons ; parivrAjaka = parivvAyaga monk. (vi) da is dropped; kadalI=kayalI plantain; janapada =jaNavaya country; pAda = pAya foot; veda =veya Vedas ; udara = uyara belly cheda = cheya cut; yadi =jai if ; hRdaya = hiyaya heart ; anyadA = annayA at some time; svAdiman = sAima things to be tasted ; dvipada =dupaya biped. 29 In spite of the above rule we often find a number of medial single consonants preserved. (i) gaH Agama scriptures; jAgara keeping awake; anagAra = aNagAra monk; magadha = magaha Magadha country; bhAga= part; rAga attachment; bhoga enjoyment; yoga = joga activity. (ii) ta : vitatha=vitaha false; titikSate = titikkhai suffers. (iii) da : udaka= udaga water; AdAna = AdANa taking; yad uvA = adavA or; pradika= padisA sub-quarter; vidita % vidiya known : samudAna=samudANa alms. More than the surds the sonants are preserved and they are the survivals of the older stage when consonants were softened but not dropped. 30 Medial single kha, gha, tha, dha, pha, and sometimes bha are changed to E. These consonants form the second and fourth letters of the I, IV and V Vargas. (i) kha= ha : mukha = muha mouth; zAkhA=sAhA branch; lekha = leha letter; nakha = naha nail; sakhI-sahI friend ; zikhara = sihara peak; sukha =suha happiness. __(ii) gha=ha : meghameha cloud ; ogha = oha flow; laghu = lahu quickly; rAghava rAhava Rama.

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22 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI _ [S. 30. (iii) tha=ha : mithuna= mihuNa pair; adhunA= ahuNA now ; kathA = kahA story; vitatha= vitaha false; Avasatha = Avasaha residence; yathA = jahA as; tathA =tahA so; patha = paha way; ratha = raha chariot. (iv) dha=ha : adhunA = ahuNA now ; virodha = viroha obstruction; bodhi = bohi enlightenment; madhumahu honey; madhura =mahura sweet; budha = buha wise; vadha=vaha killing ; ArAdhanA = ArAhaNA worship; dadhi = dahi curds. (v) pha = ha : repha = reha the letter ; ziphA = sihA tuft of hair. (vi) bha = hra: zobhA =sohA beauty; vibhava = vihava wealth ; lobha = loha greed ; lAbha-lAha profit ; nabhas = naha sky; svabhAva = sahAva nature ; prabhu = pahu lord ; prAbhRta =pAhuDa gift. Except for the rare sound ph the change is well attested. AMg. more often preserves bh than changes it to h. This change is really the dropping of the mute with the aspirate left behind, as the aspirate in Indo-Aryan was to a degree free from the plosive. The fact that the resulting [h] is a voiced throughout even though the surd aspirates have a unvoiced breath, shows that these originally changed into the voiced aspirates and all lost the plosion (as Mathura becoming Madhura, daksinapatha represented in Gr. by dachinabades). The earliest trace of this change may be found in Sk. pahi as compared to kTdhi. . 31 (i) Medial e becomes Da: kaTakaDa mat; vikaTa = viyaDa wide; taTa = taDa bank; karaTa = karaDa temple of an elephant; paTu = paDu clever; koTi = koDi crore; kuTila = kuDila crooked; paTa = paDa cloth; jaTAla = jaDAla having matted hair; bhaTa =bhaDa warrior; ghaTa = ghaDa jar; viTapa= viDava tree ; prakaTita = payaDiya exposed. (ii) Medial single s becomes Dha : zaTha = saDha rogue ; paThati = paDhai studies; pATha = pADha lesson. In contrast with other surds and sonants, the prominent and strong retroflex articulation of the cerebral series has preserved their plosion. When they are further weakened they get a lateral explosion giving rise to l or !.

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S. 34.] MEDIAL CONSONANTS 23 32 About the use of a and 0, some convention is to be followed. A convenient way would be to write a initially: nAma name: nava new: nIti nIDa policy: netAneyA leader: Medial a should be cerebralised into 01: FH = eye ; 3770 = 305 favourable; 746 = Thut salutation; taas = 3TUNT many ; Yaa = 7501 falling ; 070 = apurt gold; a = al pot face; HIT = Am pride. Medial or naturally remains : Tor group; don lute. The change of medial n to n is well attested, both by the grammarians, the writers of Prakrit manuscripts and by the history of those modern languages which have preserved the distinction between dental and cerebral nasals, the western group. As regards the intial n some grammarians do not allow the cerebralisation wherein the paper MSS. of the Jain writers agree. Bloch expressed the opinion that initial n and medial geminated nn may have become later dental n in western languages. Moreover the graphic sign n may represent two distinct sounds, a cerebral nasal and a nasal spirant as in Gujarati. In any case the medial sound must have been more feeble than the initial, a parallel to which can be found in the initial labial nasal m and its medial change into o. By a convention the editors write n everywhere in purely Maharastri works like Setubandha, Gaudavadha etc. But the practice of the Jain scribes to write initiallyn is followed in editing works in AMg. and JM. Jain has suggested that initial n became alveolar and was felt by some as dental and by others as cerebral. 33 Medial single q is changed to a : 19 = bra vanishing ; 19 = sila anger ; 3477 = 391 means ; I4C = futa country; aigh = arata ascetic; in = ca lamp; 1979t=falat thirst; 69=5a form ; ht=fit near; 419=919 sin; HETI = Helal king; atq=aia heat; T9=27 curse; qua= nivai king. 5.34 Medial a becomes also a : pensare = wisate body; pops = morsel; aju=para headless trunk; fra = Papasta

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24 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 34. eunuch; stabakita =thavaiya blossomed; zabara =savara Sabara tribe; Parlat = falaren palanquin; farfare=fefae camp: Medial -D- must have been first voiced into -b- and thus fallen with original -b-. Both were then opened into the fricative -V- which is a voiced one and with feeble friction. That ripu becomes riu and alabu becomes alau shows that before the back vowels it was a pure semi-vowel and not labio-dental fricative, which value it had before front vowels and in the initial position. Herein agrees the view of the Siksas that in the initial position it should be pronounced heavy, in the interior of a word light and at the end very light. The confusion between -v- and -b- is old (Sk. vrh and byh-, bana and vana) and the sound in many words is either given as -b- or -V-, making the change of -b- into -v- merely a case of an orthographical choice. In the modern languages the western group has preserved the distinction while the eastern languages. confuse the two sounds. 35 Medial J before 37 or 371 will remain while before all other vowels like s, etc. it is dropped. para body; mAyA deceit; but; vAyu = vAu wind; viyoga-vioga separation. It is hard to know whether the preservation of medial -y-before -a or -a is a phonetic fact or a mere appearance due to the absence of graphic distinction between-y- and -y.. The evidence of Prakrit languages like M. which do not show -j-sruti would suggest that -y- is dropped medially everywhere. The different treatment of initial y- and medial -y- is due to a difference of pronunciation from early times noted by the Siksas. 36 Medial za and Sa become sa: ghoSa-ghosa sound ; TET="e animal; fera = fare et country; 1927 = 31187 order; = fault; HTT=HTYT Speech; TH= peace; f = fach uneven ; Q =ue heap; 969=gree man; BARTA = porqu fast; 31747T=STTRA sky; p = fire passion; a = ponty hair ; 79=ga false : qa=9 sight.

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S. 38.] . MEDIAL CONSONANTS 25 37 'ASPIRATION OF MEDIAL CONSONANTS (i) Velars : the aspirate in the medial position usu. ally become ha: kiMkiNI-khikhiNI small bell; *khakacara-khahayara a demi-god ; phalakapalaha board ; sphaTikam-phaliha crystal; Pali bhabhukA=bhamuhA eye-brow; Pali sunakha-suNaha a dog. Rarely mediae : zRMgATaka-siMghADaga square. The aspiration may be further softened : nikaSa-nighasa touch-stone. (ii) Cerebrals: the aspirate is further softened or voiced : cipiTa = cimiDha snubbed ; vaTa=vaDha Banyan tree. (iii) Dentals : the aspirate is further reduced to T: HAT = bharaha name of a king; bhArata-bhAraha India; vasati=vasahi residence; Doubtful cases are: mAtuliGga-mAhuliMga a citron; (Pischel derives it from * mAdhuliGga); vitasti=vihatthi span (Pischel* vistasti ). (iv) Labials : the aspirate usually remains : kacchapa= kacchabha tortoise ; kapAla-kabhalla pot sherd ; stUpa-thUbha mound; vipAzA=vibhAsA a river ; biMbisAra=bhiMbhisAra name of a king. (v) Loss of aspirate. zRMkhalA=saMkalA chain; zRMkhalita = saMkaliya bound; dhvAMza ThaMka a bird of prey. Cf. 22; 23. The supposition of a sibilant not preserved in Sanskrit is less likely for the medial aspiration. The presence of an aspirate sound may have influenced the neighbouring sounds. The cases must be individually explained. khimkhini, khahayara, 'phaliha may be due to the presence of another aspirate; bhamuha (muha) sunaha (naha) vihatthi (hattha) may be due to contamination ; nighasa, simghadaga, kacchabha, thubha may be due to the presence of a sibilant or r; while bharaha, vasahi, may represent an older suffix tha found in avasatha. 38 SPONTANEOUS CEREBRALISATION * The unvoiced stops are further. voiced : patati paDai falls; patita = paDiya fallen; patAkA = paDAyA banner; avataMsaka =

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26 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 38. vADeMsaga crest; kvath = kaDha to boil; methi-meDhi .prop; niSadha-nisaDha name of a mountain; * AdhAti-ADhAi honours. . No reason can be given for this change. The Indo-Iranianroot atati found in Sk. atithi Av. astis has become atati. The influence of the Dravidian languages may be suspected. 39 DEPENDENT CEREBRALISATION Mostly under the influence of a cerebral sound like $ Sa, * or r ra a dental is often cerebralised. (i) Particularly * with prati : pratimA = paDimA image ; pratipanna paDivanna accepted; pratipAla = paDivAla protection; pratipakSa = paDivakkha enemy; prAbhRta = pAhuDa gift; vyApRta= vAvaDa engaged; vaiyApRtya = veyAvaDiya help. (ii) In most of the past passive participles containing ? R: kRta=kaDa done ; prastRta = patthaDa spread ; mRta-maDa dead ; prAvRta = pAuDa covered; parivRta parivuDa surrounded ; hRta = haDa taken away; duSkRta = dukkaDa bad deed ; nikRti = niyaDi deceit; saMskRti =saMkhaDi a feast ; prakRti = payaDi nature. (iii) tha = Dha : prathama = paDhama first; pRthvI = puDhavI earth; grathita = gaDhiya attached. (iv) Sk. has not preserved the r ra sound; zithila = siDhila loose; (srth-); naTa = naDa (nrt-); paTha = paDha (prath-). The cerebrals are a creation of the Indo-Aryan period and have arisen out of the primitive dentals by contact with s, itself coming from s preceded by i, u, l and k. The corresponding voiced sound z which becomes r in Indo-aryan produces the same result. Secondly they come from the older palatal series represented in Sanskrit bys, j and h, when the dental sound of their affricate nature got prominence and became cerebralised. The same tendency was greatly extended in the Prakrits where cerebralisation is a frequent and characteristic phenomenon.

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S. 41.] . MEDIAL CONSONANTS 27 40 In a few cases the dental is not cerebralised in spite of the presence of the r ra sound. pratijJApaiNNA Vow%3; pratiSThAna = paiTThANa name of a city; pratiSThita = paiTThiya established; pratidinaM = paidiNaM every day; saMprati = saMpai at present ; prati = 95 towards. Except in case of the preposition prati the cases are due to dissimilation, the presence of a cerebral preventing the rise of another. This can be well seen in such cases as dah- but daddha, das- but dattha, and to a certain extent the contention of Wackernagel is justified though his illustration is not to the point. 41 OPENING OF STOPS All indications show that the contact of the Indo-Aryan stops was a feeble one and in favourable circumstances it is lost giving rise to a fricative or a mere voiced glottal fricative (h). Sanskrit and the Prakrit languages lack the unvoiced fricatives except the sibilants and therefore whenever a stop becomes a fricative it is necessarily voiced at the same time. Thus -p- and -b- become -v-, and the same applies to all the following cases. (a) Opening of mutes (i) Cerebrals : Ta=la : sphaTika = phaliha crystal; piTaka = pilAga basket ; karitra kalitta an armour; Thaha: kuThAra = kuhADa axe; piThara = pihaDa a jar; Da=lavageDaka = gavelaga ram; guDa = gula . raw sugar; nigaDa = nigala fetter ; eDaka =elaga ram; garuDa garula eagle; SaDara chalaMsa having six corners; SoDaza = solasa sixteen; ApIDa = Avila crest; taTAka=talAga pond; krIDana =kIlaNa sport; tAD = tAla to beat; pIDA = pIlA trouble. (ii) dentals : ta la : asita = asila name of a sage; sAtavAhana = sAlivAhana title of the Andhra kings. Doubtful is the case of salila = Pali sarita, which may be under the influence of salila water '. dala : kadaMba = kalaMba a kind of tree; nollai = nudati (nudati) pushes; pradapiyAta = palIvei enkindles; dvAdaza =duvAlasa twelve ;

Page #41
28 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 41. dohada = dohala pregnancy longing; IdRza = elisa like this; anIza = aNelisa not like this. (b) Opening of nasals : Na =la : . veNu = velu bamboo; na = la : nimba = limba a kind of tree; mava: yamunA = jauNA Jamna. (c) Opening of sibilants : za=ha : dazamukha = dahamuha. Ravana; daza=daha ten; Sa-ha: pASANa = pAhANa stone; pratyUSa = paccUha early morning; bhISaNa =bIhaNa frightful; kArSApaNa = kAhAvaNa a coin; . saha : divasa-diyaha day; * zAsati sAhai tells ; catuHsaptati = cauhattari 74 and other numerals. (d) The sibilants are also opened into va in dvASaSTi % bAvahi 62 ; trisaptati = tevattari 73 and other numerals. In case of the mutes we have to imagine that the dentals fell in with cerebrals and all were changed to a lateral sound which must have been of the same place of articulation or ! but which is written asl. The change of a dental into the dental liquid is, however, not improbable, as can be seen from Sk. sandhi like tasmal lokat. When m became v the latter was nasalised and we must say jaouna. The change of the sibilants is a normal feature found in Iranian, Greek, and particularly active in Apabhramsa. In NIA. Gujarati and Sindhi show it to a considerable extent. H. Smith, however, explains divasa as the result of the contamination of ahan, with divasa. 42 VOICING OF CONSONANTS kaga: azoka = asoga a kind of tree; phalaka = phalaga a board; Akara = Agara mine; eka = ega one; aneka = aNega many; kanaka = kaNaga gold; nijaka= niyaga own; yamakasamaka =jamagasamaga together; dAraka = dAraga child; loka-loga world ; zloka = siloga fame; marakata = maragaya emerald; zrAvaka-sAvaga lay follower; kha =gha : Aghavei makes known; AkhyApanA= AghAvaNA explanation; nikaSa = nighasa touch-stone ; ta =da : utAho = udAhu or.. The softening of consonants is a far wider and comprehensive change than can be thought at first sight. The change of t

Page #42
S. 43.] MEDIAL CONSONANTS 29 to d and th to dh, the opening of all consonants and the dropping of tenues and the change of the tenues aspirate into h all involve this change. By its nature it is confined to the medial position. In fact for the Prakrits we have to formulate the rule that all intervocalic consonants except the sibilant are voiced, and this fact differentiates between the older Prakrits like the inscriptions of Asoka, Pali, the Paisaci dialect and the Dramatic Prakrit of Asvaghosa. The voicing and opening of the sibilant marks the beginning of the late Prakrit, the Apabhraiba. The loss of implosion of the voiced consonants is taken as a special feature of the Maharastri Prakrit, while Sauraseni and Magadhi keep the soft sounds. Hc. teaches that some of them were also preserved in Apabhraisa. 43 MUTES CHANGING TO THE LIQUID (i) 3=T: au ratarse a kind of jem; fastes=farie cat. (ii) a=:na= YA 70. (iii) q=1: JER=3u noble; stiglie = siruese pertaining to the belly; gabeet = TARE 11; ETGRT = are 12; FARGET = FRA 17. (iv) 7=I: SERT = gre like this; IEHTEST= FIRE like us; HEF = FR like. The cases under (iv) are doubtful., Wackernagel has pointed out that tarisa agrees with Gr. telikos and Bloch has noted the survival of tadria in NIA. taisa. Bidala is thought to be of Dravidian origin. Cf. 41a. The question involved in these two rules is extremely difficult to decide on account of the fact that the usual orthography does not give the proper sounds. We have evidence to suppose that I represents both dental 1 and cerebral I (Sk. dohada, Pali dohala, Pkt. dohala) and it is probable that r also represents a cerebral sound as defined by Panini and effecting the cerebralisation of the following n and a dental one found in the eastern languages. When the cerebrals change into the liquids, they would naturally represent the cerebral values of these two.

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30 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 43. But when dentals become liquids, it is not possible to ascertain which sounds they represent unless some form containing a cerebral sound of that word is available. 44 INTERCHANGE OF LIQUIDS (i) =3 : pourram foot; gal=pago pitiable; JEHR=HTHT tender; fre= et ditch; gat=yE talkative; siang=sjafeste sky; pira=ufsara border; re=ive poor. (ii) F=T: focs = pare indeed; EUCHT=artt a kind of tree. It is probable that the preference given to the one or the other liquid may mark a dialectal feature. Like the ancient Iranian the dialect of RV. shows a marked inclination towards T, while classical Sanskrit appears to show 1 (rih-lih- ; raghulaghu- ; Tap- lap-). In the MIA the eastern languages show 1 in place of r and therefore this change is called a Magadhism. Grierson suggests that probably the writing of 1 in east is to represent the dental sound of t. Some of these changes, Bloch is inclined to explain as dissimilation of the cerebrals (karuna) or contamination (calana; cal- to walk). 45 INTERCHANGE OF SEMI-VOWELS (i) =a: Tafe= qeta modification; pratara = arati 33; 34rent = 316th long-lived one, Pali, avuso. (ii) a = : 37a2 = grys well; fag=face day; sique = lAyaNNa beauty. Cases of this interchange are more in Pali. On the whole the changes are not outside the pale of doubt. As both the semivowels are liable to fall out and both are used to avoid hiatus, it is impossible to decide the cases with the very few examples known. 46. THE V-SRUTI (i) =a : T = get louse; e = esta little; maana = faas one and one half.

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S. 45.] MEDIAL CONSONANTS (ii) ga= va : yugala = juvala pair. (iii) tava : pradyotita = pajoviya lighted; da =va : rudati =rovaI weeps.. Pali and Ap. suva = suka, Marathi kavala = kaka make it probable that the sound i may have beer: used as a glide as in case of g. Pischel explains ujjova from dyu- and rova from ru-. 47 A FRICATIVE BECOMING A STOP. (i) vama : drAviDI =dAmalI The Tamil script; vaizravaNa = vesamaNa a god; * bhruvukA =bhamuhA eye-brow. (ii) pa=ma : ApIDa=Amela crest; kuNapa=kuNima dead body; nIpanIma a kind of tree; maNAma=Pali manApa delightful; vaNImagavanIpaka a beggar; viTapa=viDima a tree; sumiNa=Pali supina dream. (iii) ba ma.kabaMdha= kamaMdha a headless trunk. ___The change in case of (ii) and (iii) must have been due to the interchange between m and v or u which, in turn, came from p and b. 48 SURVIVAL OF PRE-SANSKRIT SOUNDS (i) ga for Sk. jo abbhaMgei = * abhyaMjati bathes; niraMgaNa = niraMjana free from blame. - (ii) bha for Sk. ha: nibhelaNa = nihelana house; vebhAra = vaihAra name of a mountain; vubbhai = uhyate carried away; libbhai = lihyate is licked. (iii) gha for Sk. ha : saMghayaNa = saMhanana build. (iv) After a nasal an aspirated sonant stands for Sk. ha: cindha-cinha sign; baMbhaNa brAhmaNa a Brahmin. In the last case the change is due to the opening of the mouth after the nasal passage is closed instead of opening it first. So brahmana which is pronounced as bramhana becomes bambhana.

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32 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 49. 49 OTHER SPORADIC CHANGES (i) a =57: 92 = 315 well; han = FUE schism; 3TEUREUR = 3TUET flow; HEIGHT = HETTATT of great power. (ii) 5=7: Gara ranks abandons. (iii) 2=3: FST2 = ters axe; for free jar. Such cases are naturally suspect and causes like contamination or a different derivation must be sought for. Bloch connects kuthara with Dravidian (Kan. kuttu, Ta. kottu). FINAL CONSONANTS 50 Ardha-Magadhi does not allow words with final consonants. Naturally all Sanskrit words ending in consonants are made to end in a vowel. Even in Sk. the final sounds allowed are limited. Only one consonant can stand before pause except a conjunct of 7 as the first member (bharan but bharantam). Similarly final consonants lose their aspiration (budh- but -bhut) and voice (suhrt for suhd). All these changes are due to the final consonant being only implosive (abhinihita). That it was weaker than the medial is seen from the fact that in the body it was not affected by the following word but as a final of a word it came under the influence of the following initial (yatna but yan namati). In the Prakrit stage this weak and implosive consonant has fallen away in the pause, and a few fricatives which Sanskrit allowed are also not to be found at the end. 51 The final consonant is dropped : yAvat = jAva as long as; araa= ata so long; ahe = CH darkness; age=gu bow; a = 90al joint; THE = 37RH birth; 217= 96891 afterwards. The preceding vowel is lengthened in hac = open assembly; FHE = TE sky; CH=garland; Ba= sira head. 52 Final 7 and AE become 3gfar : HTag = 0 venerable one; pacan = payaM cooking; asmin = assi in this; craft = getur now; gaia=go to do; * 729=Fri exerting.

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S. 53.] Other consonants become anusvAra by analogy : manAk = maNaM slightly ; sAkSAt sakkhaM actually; sakRt = saGkaM once ; samyak = sammaM properly ; prAtaspAyaM in the morning. 53 THEMATISATION OF NOUNS FINAL CONSONANTS 33 As consonantal themes are not allowed in the language all such themes are made vowel-ending by adding a vowel (a) in case of Masculine nouns: *=wrei autumn ; bhiSak = bhisao physician ; prAvRS = pAuso rainy season ; marut = maruo wind; (b) A or I in case of Feminine nouns ; sarit = sariA river ; saMpad = saMpayA wealth; dikU = disA direction ; kSudh = chuhA hunger; vAk = vAyA words; dhUr = dhurA yoke ; kakubhU= kauhA quarter; Apad = AvaI difficulty. This is in fact the result of a tendency, wide spread and operative even in Sanskrit in the whole field of grammar by which a thematic form is preferred as a base than an athematic one (pad, pada; mas, masa; harit, harita id, ida; ksap, ksapa). Ex. 1. (18-27) Give Ardha-Magadhi words for a hero, zarIra the body, yAma a period of time, yAmi I go, yogin an ascetic, bhava to be, panasa bread fruit, yathAjAta as born, zAma black, zuci pure, zoka grief. Ex. 2. Give AMg. words for doubt, fore slab of stone, yathAcchaMda according to one's will, yathAkhyAta as told, saMyata self-controlled, yAminI night, yogakSema welfare, yuddha fight, citraphalaka picture, saphala fruitful. Ex. 3. (28-36) Give AMg. words for country, nagarI town, nirodha obstruction, sabhA assembly, vikAra change, nemi rim, taTI bank, kaThina hard, mAlatI Jasmine flower, vAyasa crow. Ex. 4. Give Sk. words for: intelligence, river, kivA compassion, bahuviha manifold, hariya green, tava penance, mahuyara bee, pAyAla underground world, aNila wind, aNala fire. 3

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34 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 52. Ex. 5. Give AMg. words for and state the rule by which the changes happen : saMyoga union, loka people, locana eye, y sacrifice, te herd, faca jester, foren deformed, AzA desire, AdhAra support, yathAnAma according to name, vipula abundant, 31705r form. Ex. 6. (37-49) Give AMg. words for : 91cooked food, mUka dumb, kurara osprey, vidAraNa tearing, kAka crow, sevaka servant, divasa day, pratIhAra door-keeper, pratikAra opposition. . Ex. 7. (50--53) Give AMg. words for: Flat knowing, zazin the moon, zikharin mountain, nAman name, yogin ascetic, tapas penance, tejas lustre, manasa mind, rajas dust, vacas word.

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CHAPTER THREE CONJUNCT CONSONANTS GENERAL NOTIONS 54 When two or more consonants come together without a vowel between them, they form a conjunct. Normally they consist of two consonants, though a few of three consonants may be found in Sanskrit. The one that is pronounced earlier is called the first member while the other is called the second member. Thus in a wheel' is the first member of the conjunct * and the second. wever, I is the first and I the second member. In Sanskrit the conjunct can stand at the beginning of a word or in the middle. The Sanskrit conjuncts can be divided into two classes, (i) those where both the members of the conjunct are of the same sound and (ii) those made of different consonants. AMg. allows only a single consonant at the beginning of a word and the aspirated forms of the nasals' re, Fr, and the liquid . In the middle only the first type of Sanskrit conjunct is found. It may also use a conjunct of a mute and its aspirated form, ( . 3): a nasal and the consonant of the same class (-a); and finally the aspirated forms of the nasals and the liquid l . All other conjuncts of the Sanskrit language must be changed to one of these four types.

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36 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 55. 55 The usual method of treating the Sanskrit conjunct is called ASSIMILATION. It consists of two distinct operations; (i) the dropping of one of the two members of the conjunct and (ii) the doubling of the remaining consonant. Thus in the word 75, I, one of the two members of the conjunct is dropped and the remaining consonantot is doubled with the result 979. Here we say that pe has assimilated s. When the second member assimilates the first ( a = 1) it is called regressive, and when the first member assimilates the second (99 = ga ) it is called progressive. Really speaking there is no conscious act of dropping of a member and the doubling of the remaining consonant. The speaker fails to make the necessary movements of the speech organs for the consonant which is weaker and only stresses the movements of the stronger consonant with the result that it becomes long. This is but natural when we consider that the syllabic quantity was of utmost importance to the Sanskrit speaker. Moreover the first mute of' a conjunct was only implosive and was followed by the explosion of the second member. This distinguishes the Indian conjuncts from the Iranian where the desire to preserve the articulation of both led to the spirantisation of the first (Sk. sapta, Per. haft). Both in Sanskrit (bhakta -v) and Prakrit (bhatta - ) the first syllable was closed, and throughout the course of development it was preserved at the cost of the place of articulation. In actual pronunciation bhakta was bhak/kta, wherein the second syllable t assimilated the k without its own explosion and when this tt was sufficient to preserve the quantity of the preceding syllable the first k or the mere implosive act of k was lost as being of no importance. So bhak/kta = bhak/tta = bhatta. 56 THE DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. A few consonants like 7 or are incapable of being doubled. Of the others, the second and the fourth letters of the five Vargas are doubled by adding before them the first and the third letter

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S. 57.] CONJUNCT CONSONANTS 37 of the same Vargas. Thus E is doubled by adding a before it pe; similarly the double of a=1; 3= 2; 9= ;8= ; =3; T = 9; = ; F = 9; H=9. In all other cases the same consonant is added. Thus of is doubled by adding = p; T = 7T; A = FA; a= 7; =; a=69. In the following words if occurring in the conjuncts is dropped the remaining members will be doubled as follows : mUrkha = mukkha a fool ; 37EUR = 377&t offering ; t = swoon ; faer = fast brook ; artha=attha wealth ; ardha = addha half ; abhra-abbha cloud; but a = og all; 95=ga son. 57 DROPPING OF ONE MEMBER. Of the two members of a conjunct one specific member is to be dropped and the remaining member is to be doubled. Which member is to be dropped is determined according to the following rules. The treatment of the conjuncts is one of the difficult problems of Prakrit phonology. Hemacandra arranges the words in the order so as to give the conjuncts kk, kkh, gg etc, in their Prakrit substitutes. His general treatment consists in laying down the three rules (i) k, g, t, d, t, d, p, s, s, s as the first member (ii) m, n, y as the second member and (iii) I, v, r as both members are to be dropped. This leaves many exceptions and he is forced to add a large number of special rules. Pischel's treatment is more scientific. His rule may be stated as: the stronger member assimilates the weaker and among equals the second assimilates the first, assimilation being regressive. The consonants according to decreasing strength are (i) mutes (ii) nasals and (iii) 1, s, v, y, r in order. For the sake of clarity and exhaustiveness we classify the consonants into six groups as: (1) mutes comprising the unvoiced (t) and voiced stops (d) and their aspirates (th, dh) of the five classes; (2) the five nasals (3) two semi-vowels (4) two liquids (5) the three sibilants and (6) the aspirate (h) and its unvoiced form (visarga). Their combinations should give 36 groups but in reality many groups are not possible. The basic principle of the strength of a consonant in assimilation is its definiteness of contact and not its sonority. It is

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38 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 57. thus that the mutes are the strongest and the semi-vowels the weakest. The labio-dental nature of v makes it stronger, while the clear contact of 1 makes it still stronger. This will explain why v and y, I and , behave differently in groups. GROUPS WITH MUTES 58 Only hard and soft consonants can form conjuncts ..among themselves. A soft consonant cannot form a group with a hard one and vice versa. In these groups the assimilation is regressive i.e. the second member prevails over the first. The aspiration, if present, remains at the end of the group. The earliest trace of such an assimilation is to be found in the voicing of the stop when followed by a voiced stop (Sk. tat + bhavati = tadbhavati). Later on the first lost its distinct articulation though preserving its time and voice (Sk. ucca from ut cf. Av. usca; maji- from * madj-). The aspiration if present in the group is thrown at the end in such cases as Sk. budh + ta = buddha. 59 Surd + surd = second surd doubled : y = free; # = TFT red; C = 349 a group of six ; 9246 = super bee; yra = proper ; 377472 = 31747 attached ; H = HT devotion; JEBOT = JST eagerness; a = 00TC force; 3445=304 lotus; prom=quyfta good man; ya=ge slept; saMlaptasaMlatta spoken. 60 Surd + aspirated surd = second doubled : Ray = fraer wealth ; RATY = FARU Sling ; Brela = 3e dug up. 61 Sonant + sonant = second doubled : ns = art sword; Tofia = mia six groups of living beings; 9555 = utapes matter ; ghost = dwarf; 36H = GTTH origin ; ggc = gogu bubble; zabda-sadda sound. 62 Sonant + sonant aspirate = second doubled : Ta = The milk; FETTE = FANTE glossy; yra = y simple; 3153 =

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S. 65.] CONJUNCT CONSONANTS 39 STT begun; goal= 36 greedy ; auta = 4341 intention ; cara = gert spreading up. 63 MUTES AND NASALS A. Mute + nasal, the assimilation is progressive i.e. the mute assimilates the nasal which forms the second member. The only nasals are a and H. (i) na assimilated : nagna = nagga naked ; patnI = pattI wife'; ang = effor fire ; TT =P47 effort; fag=falsa trouble. (ii) H assimilated : a = or pair; U = Shau Laksmana.. 64 The conjuct 7 becomes : 4 = sacrifice; fas= fare knower; HIE=AUA charming; y = 3474147 of quick intelligence ; 451 = Te knowledge. | The Conjunct % gives in Pali na (Prajna = panoa) by a regressive assimilation. The change to nn or nn, however, is due to the survival of the older pronunciation of the palatal sonant. Sanskrit j comes from I-E. palatal sonant stop e and was pronounced as dz. When the sound became implosive being followed by another sound, the first element of the affricative, the dental stop became prominent and was assimilated to n or a. That it should be a cerebral sound is seen from vis= vit, ajna = ana. That the two elements of the group jn were movable is seen in Sanskrit janati and the later pronunciation of it as dny. 65 There are, however, a few cases of a different treatment of the group mute+nasal : rukma ruppa gold ; rukmiNI = requft Rukmini; 371HT=3709 self (also 7); 371h = 378 thought ; et = lotus (also 95H); 3 = 54 imperfect knowledge (also ESH). The earlier stage of this change is given by the inscription of Asoka at Girnar : atpa for atman. So it is clear that the stop has first unvoiced the nasal and then the second stop has assimilated the first. A similar change is found in As. catparo

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40 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 65. (catvarah) baravai (dvaravati = dbaravati). In case of pomma chamma it appears that the forms with anaptyxis were later contracted. 66 B. Nasal + Mute: If the nasal and the mute belong to the same class they are unchanged. pour throat; ap=fara stalk; TFT=Fat calm ; e = Jambu. In writing we often find Anusvara written for the nasal and the grammarians allow both. In pronunciation, however, there is no difference. In AMg. hanti has become handi. In the derivative numerals of panca it becomes panna as in Pali, pannrasa (15) chappanna (56). The change remains obscure. 67 MUTES AND SEMI-VOWELS Historically the semi-vowels represent the forms of vowels be. fore another vowel. cf. i-mah we go' but y-anti 'they go'. . sunu-mah but sunv-anti. Naturally there cannot be a conjunct of a semi-vowel followed by a mute as it will immediately revert to its vowel nature. There will be only groups of mutes followed by the semi-vowels y and v. In all such cases the assimilation will be progressive. 68 Groups with 7:277 word ; aret = Fire happiness; arrazm aversion ; 787 = kingdom; 32 = ECH rich man ; oirt=sim proper; ale = E drama; core = vakkhANa explanation ; pUjya = pujja honourable ; zAkya = sakka name of a tribe ; 377jat = 3Tovare inside; gevat=325 is said ; area=37eis explains. 69 Groups with a : 499 = 1946 ripe ; grafsa = qolicy burning ; Self = a four; daca = 297 godhood; ar= door; ut = fat bird ; Fie&ta = gela Jambudvipa; = satta being; ujvala = ujjala bright. The prefix ud followed by v, however, makes an exception : udvigna = uvvigga dejected, udvahatii= uvvahai marries, udvartana = uvvattna turning up. Similar is the case with sadvimsati = chavvisam. The labio-dental nature of v(a) and

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S. 70.] CONJUNCT CONSONANTS 41 v(i) with a contact of the teeth with the upper lip explains the change. 70 PALA TALISATION. If the conjunct is made up of the tavarga and ya or to a limited extent va, cavarga takes the place of the tavarga. ____A. Groups with ya : tya=cca : satya =sacca true ; nitya = nicca always ; pratyaya = paJcaya confidence ; kRtya = kicca duty; atyaMta = accaMta very much; Adhipatya = Ahevacca lordship; pretya = pecca in the next life; vaiyApRtya = veyAvacca help; tyajati = cayai abandons; thya = ccha : pathya paccha wholesome; mithyA = micchA false; tathya = taccha true; rathyA racchA street; nepathya = nevaccha dress; dya= ja : adya = aja to-day; madya =maja wine; avadya = avajja sin; vaidya = veja physician ; khAdya = khaja eatables ; vidyA - vijA science ; dhya = jjhaH vadhya = vajjha to be killed ; upAdhyAya = uvajjhAya teacher; svAdhyAya = sajjhAya study; adhyavasAya = ajjhavasAya resolution ; dhyAta = jhAya meditated ; madhya = majjha middle. few exceptional cases are : pratyekabuddha = patteyabuddha; tathya = tacca which may be in reality tatva. ___B. Groups with : tva Jca : catvara = caccara square; kRtvA = kiccA having done; zrutvA soccA hearing; bhuktvA =bhoccA having enjoyed ; dvaja : vidvAn = vijaM wise ; dhva = jjha : budhvA = bujjhA knowing ; sAdhvasa = sajjhasa fear ; dhvaja - jhaya banner. There are some cases like dvei= be ; two; dvadasa = baraha twelve ; dvaravati = baravai; Urdhva = ubbha upright, which show that the stop first changed the semivowel v, already partially having the contact, into the voiced stop b, which was fol- . lowed by the usual assimilation. This law of palatalisation is due to the fact that the dental pronounced with the spread tip of the tongue against the root of the teeth could easily be carried over to the position of y made by pressing the two edges of the tongue to the palate and leaving the central part for a narrow aperture for the air to escape. The resulting sound is an affricative as are Sanskrit

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42 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 70. Pischel supposes palatals. The case of viis difficult to explain. that the semi-vowel first became y. 71 MUTES AND LIQUIDS A. When the mute is followed by a liquid 7 or as, the mute assimilates it and the assimilation is progressive. (i) Groups with ra : cakra = cakka wheel; nyagrodha = naggoha banyan tree; ama = 3ale smells; 29 = ao thunderbolt; 2=894EUR name of a prophet of good lustre'; 377= 3754 cloud; gET= putta son; zUdra =sudda low caste man; citra = citta picture ; pana = patta leaf ; bhadra = bhadda good; samudra = samudda ocean; ugra = ugga terrible. (ii) Groups with : 1g=, white; fata = farena trouble; resas = Aegy barbarian; eq=2 to swim; a = kIva eunuch. 72 CEREBRALISATION: The 7 as a second member changes the preceding dental into a cerebral in few cases. 969 = El young; fsg = res hole. 73 In a number of adverbs a apparently becomes : 999 = Opret where; 49 = cry where; 79= TRUT there; a= savvattha everywhere; atra= ettha here. Pischel derives ettha from Vedic ittha and naturally all other adverbs are traced to such a suffix -ttha. Geiger traces the word to *itra Av. ithra. The change of tra to ttha must have been under the influence of -ttha coming from Sk. -stha. As pointed out by Meillet the Sanskrit orthography of a mute + a semi-vowel or a liquid does not give the real pronunciation of the word. Sk. asvah is represented in Gr. by hippos and madhyah by messos where all the words have the first syllable closed. As a 'Sanskrit word can begin with the group tr-(trih, trayasva) the second syllable must begin with tr- in putra and if the first is also a closed syllable it must end with t with the result that we get the gemination of the stopt, and the word is pronounced as put/trah, becoming in Prakrit putto.

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S. 75.] CONJUNCT CONSONANTS ___74 B: Liquid followed by the mute. The assimilation is regressive and the mute assimilates the liquid ra or la. (i) Groups with ra : tarka = takka reasoning ; arka = akka sun; mUrkha = mukkha fool; varga= vagga group; mArga= magga way; ardhya = agdha offering; arcA = accA worship; kUrca = kucca brush; mUrchA=mucchA swoon; Arjava = ajava straightforwardness; varjana =vajaNa avoiding; muhUrta = muhutta moment; artha = attha wealth; dardura = daddura frog; mUrdhan = muddhA head; sarpa sappa serpent; karbaTa = kabbaDa a village ; arbhaka = abbhaga child. (ii) Very frequently the ra preceding the dental cerebralises it : Arta = aTTa troubled; nartaka = naTTaga dancer; vartate = vaTTai exists; gartA = gaDDA ditch; cakravartin = cakkavaTTi sovereign king ; artha = aTTha purpose; caturtha = cauTTha fourth; ardha = aDDa half ; vardhate = vaDai grows. The cerebralising effect of r, which was visible even in RV.. (kata and karta, vikata from vikrta) becomes very wide spread in Middle Indian, though nothing like constant and uniform. (iii) Groups with la : alpa = appa little; zilpa-sippa craft; kilbiza- kibbisa wretched ; pragalbha % pagabbha developed ; kalpa = kappa period of time : vikalpa = viyappa doubt ; valg = vaggai boasts. The syllabic division of these groups must have been ark/kah which became akko. 75 MUTES AND SIBILANTS A. Mute followed by a sibilant. Except for such groups as tsa and psa become ccha. The Sanskrit sibilants are voiceless and naturally allow only a surd before them. If the surd is velar or palatal the result is ks (vak-si; &ik-su). With labials and dentals the groups are ts. and ps. In a few words these groups have become cch in Sk. itself (guccha = *grpsa ; ucshanna = utsanna). When we consider that t is dental and s an alveolar fricative the result should be an affricative of the dental or alveolar type something like

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 75. Marathi ts before back vowels. But the stronger friction of s made it an aspirate like tah and this must have been the pronunciation of the Prakrit cch in such cases. That it was further palatalised as in North Indian languages is probable. Pischel, however, suggests the aspiration of the sibilant as the cause of the change as ts = tsh = cch. The syllabic division of a word like jugupsa must have been jugup/psa. (i) tsa= ccha : cikitsA = tigicchA diognosis; bIbhatsa = bIbhaccha ugly; matsara-macchara envy; vatsa-vaccha child; utsAha = ucchAha. energy; saMvatsara =saMvacchara year; kutsanIya = kucchANija detestable. (ii) psa = ccha : jugupsA = dugucchA disgust ; lipsu = liccha longing for ; apsaras = accharA divine damsel. 76 In a number of cases, however, a mute followed by a sibilant shows a regressive assimilation, i. e. the sibilant prevails over the mute. ucchrita = ussiya raised ; ucchulka = ussuMka free from tax ; uchAsa = ussAsa breathing; utsarga = ussagga rule ; utsedha = usseha height; utsuka = ussuya eager ; utsava = ussava festival; SaTzata = chassaya six hundred. The reason for this change is to be found in the fact that the speaker was conscious of the compound nature of the word, the first being a prefix or an independent word. Dr. Varma suggests that the mute became a fricative by the force of the succeeding fricative. 77 Changes of ks. This sound-group is a complex phenomenon and gives in Prakrit ccha; kkha; jha and ca. (i) kSa = ccha : kSaNa = chaNa festival; kSudhA= chuhA hunger ; akSi = acchi eye; makSikA macchigA fly ; vRkSa = vaccha tree; takSaka = tacchaga carpenter. (ii) kSa= kkha : kSatriya = khattiya man of warrior caste ; kSIra = khIra milk ; kSudra = khuDDu small; ziSa = sikkha to teach; dakSiNa = dakkhiNa south; rAkSasa= rakkhasa demon.

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S. 78.) CONJUNCT CONSONANTS 45 In few cases this kkh is further changed to h: iksa= iha investigation; tukna = luha harsh; daksina= dahina = south ; saiksa = seha pupil. Sometimes the same word may show both cch and kkh as in AMg. iksu = ikkhu, ucchu sugar cane; kuksi = kucchi, kukkhi womb; ksara = chara, khara ashes, acid. (iii) 8= : a = us to flow ; 9TH = Eh emasculated ; fra Fruite is weakened. (iv) =T: TH=ye younger ; JEITA = Esger uncle. Historically the sound group ks of Indo-Aryan represents a number of sounds. In the first place it represents the I-E. sonant aspirates of the labio-velar and palatal articulation followed by s i.e. *gh + s ( = Av. Yz), *ghts (= Av. z), in which cases it is represented by AMg. jh. In the second place it represents the I-E. * ks ( = Av. s) which according to Pischel corresponds to AMg. cch, and thirdly I-E. *qs (i= Av Xs) which becomes in AMg. kkh. On account of disagreement between Av. and Pkt. the last two equations cannot be accepted. cf. dakkhina Av. dasina. A difference of meaning has developed in chana festival, khana moment; chama earth, khama forbearance. 78 Sibilant followed by mute. Generally the mute assimilates the sibilant but it in turn aspirates the mute. So * = z; 5 = Re; 2 =; q = 0%; ** = Fe; F = 221; F9 = 44. In all these cases it is clear that the sibilant is opened into the aspirate which goes to the end of the group as usual. (i) Sibilant za : Azcarya = acchera wonder; pazcAt = pacchA afterwards; H =qfesh west; afa=qfegat expiation ; fazer = Faroegy resolution ; 1919 = faregger scorpion. (ii) Sibilant q: geoape iter lotus ; fanu = Farrah going out ; niSka = nikkha gold coin ; duSTa = duTTha wicked ; leSTu = leTu log of earth; kASTa = kaTTha log of wood ; pRSTa = puTTha back ; dRSTi = faig view ; gog=gon flower ; 045 = facenes fruitless.

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46 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 78. (iii) Sibilant sa: skaMdha =khaMdha shoulder; tiraskAra = tirakkhAra insult ; saMskRti saMkhaDi feast; hasta = hattha hand ; vistAra vitthAra expanse; prastara = patthara stone; hastin = hatthi elephant; avasthA = avatthA condition; madhyasthamajjhattha impartial; agArastha = gArastha householder ; sparza = phAsa touch; vanaspati = vaNapphai plant ; sphaTika = phaliha crystal. In some cases s cerebralises the following dental : asthi = atthi%; adhastat = hettha (?) *sthati = thai%; upasthital= uvaIthiya. 79 In a number of cases, the aspiration of the surviving mute is absent. (i) With za : nizcala = niccala motionless ; duzcarita = duccariya bad act; tapazcaraNa=tavaccaraNa penance. __ (ii) With Sa : catuSka = caukka square ; zuSka =sukka dry; niSkAraNa = nikkAraNa without reason; duSkara =dukkara difficult; niSkRpa= nikkiva cruel; iSTakA = idagA brick ; catuSpada = cauppaya animal; niSpApa = nippAva sinless; duSprekSya = duppeccha difficult to observe. (iii) With sa : namaskAra = namokkAra salutation; taskara - takkara thief ; saMskRta = sakkaya polished ; dustara-duttara difficult to cross; samasta =samatta all; paraspara paroppara each other. . This two-fold treatment of the group of a sibilant and a mute is difficult to explain (hasta = hattha, dustara = duttara). It is probable that while in case of hasta the division of the syllable was hast/ta where the fricative and the mute were found in the same syllable, it may have been in case of dustara as dus/ tara probably helped by the consciousness of the etymology. In such a case, as the sibilant was in another syllable, it failed to aspirate the following mute though the preceding syllable was kept close. Dr. Varma, however, is not inclined to accept such a division. 80 When the visarga is followed by a mute the mute assimilates it. duHkha = dukkha misery; aMta:karaNa = aMtakkaraNa heart.

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S. 84.) . CONJUNCT CONSONANTS * GROUPS WITH NASALS 81 In case of a and , when conjunct, mu should be written when Sanskrit contains Na; araNya = raNNa forest; puNya = gout merit; thui = Juul old ; qui = goot full; aloi = faoul crossed ; qui = Tuu crushed. In all other cases i should be written : kinnara a divine being; kanyA = kannA daughter; pratijJA =951 vow; a=fee given ; fast=fary knower. Some grammarians (Vararuci) enjoin only nn while others (Hemacandra) allow both nn and nn in all cases. The writing of nn is preferred in purely Maharastri works. The Jain Mss. show a preference for nin as they do in case of intial n. Thus they would write ranna, tinna etc. In general the medial double consonants in Prakrit are of the same type as initial single consonants and stand in contrast with medial single consonants which are weaker. This is seen in the further development of the double stops into single one in Modern languages and in case of nn the result is n. 82 As a result of AMg. phonology if two nasals of different classes come together the first becomes anusvara. quhr = EXHRI six months; TSJE= The averse; Tef= via row; qret = unfruitful; fredy = fale name of a mountain; sandhyA -saMjhA evening.. The anusvara may be replaced by a parasavarna and one may, write chammasa, panti etc. The difference is purely orthographical and the sound remains the same. 83 In a conjuct of a and # the assimilation is regressive. J 5 = 3 from the roots; HET= A birth; gre = one facing upwards; H T=The cupid; farzatot = Free river; Affara low; yg = 45EUR Pradyumna. 84 NASALS AND SEMI-VOWELS All the three nasals o, a, # assimilate both 2 and a. (i) With 0 : fecue = lecuur gold; fque = fopoint oil cake ;quat=quo merchandise ; que=quut merit.

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48 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 84. (ii) With na : anya = anna another; kanyA - kannA girl; sainya - senna army; manyumana anger; dhanya dhanna fortunate; dhAnya-dhanya corn ; zUnya =sunna zero ; anveSaNa = annesaNa search. (iii) With ma : saumya = somma docile; ramya = ramma charming; klAmyati = kilimmai fades ; tAmyati = tammai languishes. 85 NASALS AND LIQUIDS A. Nasal followed by a liquid : Initially the nasal assimilates the liquid : mrakSayati = makkhei anoints; mleccha = meccha barbarian. Medially a glide, mostly ba, is developed which assimilates the following liquid. Amra = amba mango; tAmra = tamba red ; Amla = amba (also aMbila) acid. The physiological explanation of the glide is obvious. In pronouncing amra the speaker has to cut off the nasal passage and pronouncer at the same time with the simultaneous opening of the contact. In fact he cuts off the nasal passage earlier and instead of the sound , breaks the "plosion with the result that he pronounces mb: B. Liquid followed by a nasal. The nasal assimilates the liquid and the assimilation is regressive.*** (i) with ra : karNa = kaNNa ear; paNa = paNNa leaf ; Urmi = ummi wave; karman = kamma act; dharma = dhamma religion. (ii) with la : kulmASa = kummAsa beans; gulma = gumma bush; valmIka = vammiya ant-hill. 86 NASALS AND SIBILANTS If the sibilant follows the nasal becomes anusvara in Sanskrit itself. If the nasal follows, groups of 7 and of give us Nha and groups of ma give us mha. (i) ina = Nha : prazna = paNha question ; aznAti = aNhAi eats.

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S. 88.] CONJUNCT CONSONANTS (ii) SNa = Nha : uSNa= uNha hot; kRSNa = kaNha black ; viSNu =viNhu name of a god ; uSNISa = uNhIsa head-dress; vRSNi = vaNhi name of a tribe.. (iii) sna= Nha : snAta = hAya bathed ; prasnuta = paNhuya flowing. (iv) zma =mha : zmazru =maMsu beard. (v) ma = mha: grISma-gimha summer ; yuSmAdRza = tumhArisa like you; uSmA = umhA heat; kAzmIra = kamhIra Kashmir. (vi) sma= mha: smaH =mho we are ; asmAdRza = amhArisa like us ; vismaya = vimhaya wonder. The sibilant is opened and aspirates the following nasal giying us nh and mh. Conjuncts of three consonants give us the same result slaksnai= sanha; paksman = pamha; jyotsna = jonha; tiksna = tinha, mh may further become anusvara and bh; slesmani= sembha; samsmarati= sambharai. In few cases the nasal remains unaspirated : sneha = neha; nisneha = ninneha. Rarely the nasal may be assimilated by the sibilant : Tasmi = Tassi ; smasana = susana; bhasman = bhasa. .87 NASAL AND ASPIRATE Sanskrit groups of followed by the nasals interchange places in AMg. aparAhna = avaraNha latter part of the day ; madhyAha =majhaNha noon; gRNhAti = geNhai takes ;. vahni = vaNhi fire; brAhmaNa bamhaNa Brahmin. GROUPS WITH SEMI-VOWELS 88 Among semi-vowels zy becomes 7 and 4 becomes bva : zayyAsejjA bed ; kAvya kaJva poetry; havya havva oblation; kartavya =kAyabva duty; vyaya = vaya loss; vyAla =vAla elephant; vyApRta = vAvaDa engaged ; vyAkaraNa = vAgaraNa explanation. The change of yy to jj is related to the change of y to j in the initial position as we have seen that a double consonant in the middle corresponds to a single consonant at the beginning. That

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50 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 88. a conjunct like vy is possible is due to the contact present in v which naturally assimilates the weakest. y. 89 SEMI-VOWELS AND LIQUIDS A. Semi-vowel followed by a liquid. The only possible group is vr a which shows progressive assimilation. Elle = alle rice; a = ferea sharp ; feitas = groapem a monk. B. Liquid followed by a semi-vowel. . (i) Groups with a show variety of treatment of becomes 57: = y sun; gjer = cat duty ; AJEI = Hollent limit; opf 345 noble. (ii) la assimilates ya : mUlya =mollaM value ; kalya = kalla welfare; Twith = 4819h a measure of time. In a number of cases Ty shows a different treatment. Y is dropped and I alone remains when the preceding vowel is long. surya = sura; turyal= tura; dhairya = dhira, tiryate = tirai ; puryate = purai; jiryate = jirai. A similar case may be found in dasarna = dasara. In spite of the statement of the Sanskrit grammarians it appears that I was capable of lengthening which, by its nature, consisted in a series of taps which made it survive at the cost of the other consonant. (iii) va assimilates ra : sarva savva all; parvatapabvaya mountain; te = 77a pride ; qaia = qoq joint. (iv) la assimilates va : palbala = pallala pond ; bilva = billa kind of leaf ; galvarka = gallakka king of jewel. 90 SEMI-VOWELS AND SIBILANTS The semi-vowel, which can form only the second member, is assimilated to the sibilant. (i) Groups with 7: apei = 3776i necessarily; pala= nassai vanishes; vaizya = vaissa a merchant; azva = Asa horse; 978=qre side; geha= JRKI breathes ; e = arc beast of prey.

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S. 93.] (ii) Groups with Sa: AruSya - Arussa angrily; manuSya = maNussa bhaviSyati = bhavissai will happen ; CONJUNCT CONSONANTS man ; ziSya = sissa pupil; pitRSvasA = piussiyA aunt. (iii) Groups with sa : vayasya = vayassa friend ; rahasya = rahassa secret ; tapasvin = tavassi a mendicant ; sarasvatI sarassaI goddess of learning ; tasya = tassa his. 51 = 1 91 SEMI-VOWEL AND ASPIRATE The semi-vowel forms the second member and hy gives jjh jjha and ho gives bbh bbha : guhya = gujjha secret : sahya = sajjha bearable ; abhiruhya = abhirujjha having climbed ; parigRhya : parigijjha having taken ; anugrAhya aNugejjha worthy of acceptance; jihvA = jibbhA tongue ; vihvala = vinbhala troubled. Pali shows interchange of place of hy = yh and ho = vh in conformity with similar changes of the aspirate and nasals. In the case of semi-vowels, however, AMg. appears to preserve an older aspirate than both Sanskrit and Pali. GROUPS WITH LIQUIDS = 92 Of the two liquids, la assimilates ra : nirlajja - nillajja shameless; durlabha = dulaha difficult to get ; nirlepa = nilleva without dirt. 93 LIQUIDS AND SIBILANTS A. Liquid followed by a sibilant gives a regressive assimilation. darzana = dassaNa sight; sparza = phassa touch. The more usual method in this case is to avoid assimilation and follow anaptyxis or substitute an anusvara. B. In a group of a sibilant followed by a liquid the sibilant assimilates the liquid. mizra = missa mixed ; zreSTha = seTU superior ; zlakSNa - saNha fine ; lAgdhya = saggha praise ; sahasra = sahassa thousand ; tamisrA = tamissA darkness ; visra = vissa bad smelling.

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52 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 94. 94 The liquid can form only the second member. They show interchange of place. Per = PER kind of flower ; "Egrih = TERTIPUT delightful; 6 = cea a name; 6 = or & pond. 95 Visarga followed by a sibilant gives regressive assimilation. The =TRE difficult to bear ; auto=farete all. In Sk. this is allowed as an optional Sandhi. OTHER GROUP CHANGES 96 As in case of simple consonants, groups of consonants are cerebralised by < or # occuring in the word : f = HERM earth; a = a round; aqua = faqe finished; RETEZ = iDDi prosperity; vRddhi = vaDi growth; zraddhA = saTTA faith ; graMthi = To knot. Even here the process, of cerebralisation is not uniform and consistent : nirvitta = nivvatta; yathavitta = jahavatta; sraddha = saddha; the verb always saddha- ; nirgrantha = niyantha and niggantha; grantha!= gantha 'book'; Cerebralisation without a r sound is found in : pattana; kavittha = kapittha ; bhhindimala = bhindipala. 97 Normal rules of assimilation may be violated in cases like : 9 4 4 freed ; T = 977*able; ce=3, bitten; ETA EZT = ATH ability ; FE = Te affection ; PARE = fare etc. Pischel explains mukka from *mukna ; sakka from *sakna while Bloch supposes the influence of mukkai, sakkai. Samaccha may be a misreading of samattha, neha is due to dissimilation of n. GROUPS OF THREE CONSONANTS 98 With groups of three consonants the same rules of assimilation apply, the weakest member falling out "first. (i) If a nasal begins the group it becomes anusvara and the remaining group is simplified. randhra = randha hole ; kakSA

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S. 99.] CONJUNCT CONSONANTS 53 seal doubt ; asy = fast name of a mountain; TRETI = FH evening ; pakti = paMti row. (ii)" If a liquid or a visarga forms the first member it is first dropped : Hef=## mortal; achar al way; these = sAmattha strength; niHsthAna = niTThANa base. (iii) If a liquid or a semi-vowel stands at the end of the group it is first dropped : uSTra = uTTa camel ; daMSTrA = dADhA fang; TEETI = Te road; te=fabe difficult; 144 = pertaining to step-mother. (iv) In case of , and the first mute is dropped : stept = fue fine ; 947= wing ; JUTTGART = Fivel moonlight; aicut = ferua sharp. INITIAL GROUPS 99 All the rules of medial groups apply to the initial conjuncts except that the process of doubling is not to be followed. This is due to the fact that AMg. does not allow a conjuct to stand at the beginning. prabhA=pahA lustre; vyAghra = are tiger ; laats engaged ; Stu= au moment; = cAga abandoning; stava%thava praise; dhvaja=jhaya banner; krama kama step ; kSura = khura razor; kSatriya = khattiya chieftain. In Sanskrit itself not all conjuncts can stand at the beginning of a word. In a group the first member is implosive and if the second is a stop, the first cannot be heard and so no two mutes can begin a word. If the second is a semi-vowel or a nasal the explosion of the first takes the form of these sounds and both become audible. But in AMg. all such conjuncts are reduced to groups of mutes and as such they must be simplified at the beginning of a word. nh in nhana and mh in mho are only apparent exceptions. They are simply aspirated forms of the nasals and correspond to such sounds as kh or gh. Moreover they differ from sounds in words like kanha or vimhaya where the first syllable is heavy by position and the sounds are nnh: and mmh.

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54 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 99. Ex. 1 Give AMg. words for : Ha broken, of creation, apavarga liberation, mukta released, bhakta food, sapta seven,, upta sown, ukta spoken, zubhra white. Ex. 2 Give Sk. words for : Ha good intention, fra divine, vaNNa colour, sunna empty, raNNa forest, laddha obtained, maddava, softness, a being, he thorn, 47es bark garment. Ex. 3 Give AMg. words for: Tebare honour, Arant fly, madhyAhna noon, viSNu name of a god, hasta hand, prastara stone, samasta all, Aryaputra Lord, udyama exertion, asmAdRza like us. : Ex. 4 Give Sk. words for: green child, her head, bitten, kaTTha difficult, tacchaga joiner, kunchi womb, suTU well, bhajA wife, he middle, w to-day.

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CHAPTER FOUR SONANTS, VOWELS AND VISARGA SONANTS 100 Ardha-Magadhi lacks all the sonants of Sanskrit namely F, # and e. They are represented by different vowels or syllables consisting of a vowel and a consonant. Sanskrit ? represents the I-E. liquid , in the function of a sonant. But Sk. i has nothing to do with the I-E. *; (if it existed) which is represented in Sanskrit by -it- -ur-. Sk. longi is the result of analogy in forms like pitin like agnin, datinam like agninam, Sk. I is found in one root only klp, and represents I-E. 7. 101 The vowel is changed to either 37 or zor y or R. No definite rules can be laid down for the purpose of determining the proper substitute. The usage alone decides it. As compared to other languages Sk. alone has preserved the sonant l which is represented in other speeches as a combination of r and a vowel (Av. er Gr, ya, ar). The pronunciation of the sound is variously given as velar (Rg. Prat.) alveolar (Tait. Prat,) or cerebral (Panini) which may have something to do with its further development into different vowels. In actual pronunciation it is a r sound followed by a central vowel resembling i [i]. This (Cf. kTmi krimi) distinguishes the Indian from the Iranian where the sound follows a vowel (Sk. krnoti Av. keranaoili). A trace of this nature of ? is found by Brugmann in forms like kuryat from ks, but which are regarded by Wackernagel as analogical.

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56 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 101. The sound proved unstable and changed differently. In Sanskrit itself we find pituh from pit?- and in Middle Indian all three vowels a (cf. Sk. vikata from vikrta) i (Sk.' kina from *kina) and u (Sk. matula from *matr-la) are found. Of these u is due to the presence of a labial sound nearby. From the evidence of the Asokan inscriptions Bloch concludes that a is peculiar to western and i to north-west and estern languages. It was all along regarded as a simple vowel but initially the i sound is preserved in Middle Indian in the change to ri, where a vowel is also admissible and appears to be older. (i) R=a: ghRta =ghaya ghee; tRNa-taNa grass; vRSabha vasaha bull; vRka= vaga wolf ; 'tRSNA = taNhA thirst; bhRti = bhai wages; prAkRta = pAyaya ordinary; mRttikA = maTTiyA mud. In the Past Passive Participles of roots in the usual substitute is a: kRta = kaya, kaDa done ; mRta-maDa dead; hRta = haDa carried; kRSTa= kaTTa dragged; hRSTa-haTTa delighted; mRSTa-maTTha polished; also in compounds: sukRta sukaya well done; vikRta = viyaDa deformed ; saMstRta saMthaDa spread; AhRta = AhaDa brought; nikRti = niyaDi deceit. (ii) =i : kRza = kisa weak; kRpaNa = kiviNa miser ; dRSTi = diTTi sight; zRgAla=siyAla jackal; zRMga= siMga horn; hRdaya-hiyaya heart; masRNamasiNa soft; gRha = giha house; vRtti = vitti maintenance; kRtya = kicca rite. In a number of words . becomes ri: sadRza =sarisa like; Iza = erisa like this; kIdRza = kerisa like which ; tAdRza tArisa like that; asmAdRza = amhArisa like us; yuSmAdRza= tumhArisa like you. Cf. 43. (iii) = u: mRNAla = muNAla lotus stalk; mRSA= musA false ; nibhRta = nihuya calm ; pRcchati - pucchai asks ; spRzati - phusai touches; pRthvI-puDhavI earth. If a word ends with # and forms the first member of a compound the R is changed to u: mAtRmaraNa =mAumaraNa the death of the mother; bhrAtRghAtaka= bhAughAyaka murderer of the

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S. 104.) VOWELS 57 brother ; HTHIYA = F(H184 son-in-law; HILANGE FIAT = HTETASFry of good birth from father and mother. (iv) Initial # becomes : #ra = fifa sage ; #01 = Rut debt ; =Rhe bull; #fprosperity. Originally the vowel was the proper substitute which is the only one in Pali. Pk. also show's si = isi; Ina= ana ; itu = uu ; isabha = usaha ; ?ksa = accha; ?ddhi = iddhi ; rju = ujju. Besides there are a few peculiar changes like vrksa=vaccha, rukkha, glhnati=genhai, ginhai. In compounds I also gives i: maimarana; mairakkhiya; bhaisoga; ammapiisamana etc. R is presupposed in such changes as sadhila from * sTthila ; bhiudi from * bhrkuti. 102 # becomes for 5 : 3441150i = Araraquira of father and mother ; mAINaM mAtRNAm of mothers. The originai l gives u in tuha, annautthiya, junna. Pischel supposes an intermediate stage of *anyaturthika, *turtha and Vedic jurna. As noted above long i can occur in definite grammatical forms only. 103 E becomes sfos: paressa imagined; a = falsafa trick. . . Unlike ? I is regarded as a combination of the liquid 1 and a vowel sound. Pali, however, shows changes which regard it as a pure vowel. VOWELS 104. Ardha-Magadhi lacks the two diphthongs g and a and possesses two additional vowels short g and 311. These short vowels are usally followed by a conjunct consonant. In the words kSetra = khetta field; oSTha = o? lip, they will be found short. Sanskrit diphthongs ai, au represent the original I-E. diphthongs with the first element long (*ai, *au), while the diphthongs with the first element short (I-E. *ai, * au) have become the simple

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58 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 104. vowels e and o. But because they behave like diphthongs (a-y, a-i, a-v, a-u) in Sandhi they are regarded as diphthongs in grammar. The process which led to the Sanskrit system from the primitive vowels has further resulted in the development found in Middle Indian. The predominent consideration has been to preserve the quantity and ai and.e and au and o have the same metrical value. In a group like vestana and vistara the first syllable has the same metrical length in both (v-e-s; v-i-s) though the first has a long vowel and the second has a short one. The only difference was that e was longer than i and s of the first shorter than the s of the second. With the assimilation of the conjunct the fine distinction of length was lost and the preceding vowel was shortened without, however, losing its distinctive quality. These sounds, however, proved unstable and were reduced to the neutral a in later' Prakrit (Pk. kahenti Ap. kahanti). 105 ai usually becomes e : vaira = vera hatred ; zaila = sela mountain ; nairayika = neraiya hellish being ; maitrI = metti friendship; daivata =devaya deity; naimittika-nemittiya fortune-teller; vaidya = veja physician; bhaiSajya = bhesajja medicine;' vaitADhya = veyaDDa name of a mountain (really vedyardha); vaizAli = vesAli name of a town; zaivala sevala moss. . In few cases it. is dissolved into ai : sainya = sainna army; daitya = daicca demon ; dainya = dainna poverty; vaizAkha = vaisAha name of a month; svaira = saira free ; kailAsa=kailAsa Himalaya ; daiva = daivva fate. ___106 au usually becomes o: auSadha = osaha medicine; kautuka = kouya a ceremony ; kautUhala = koUhala curiosity ; dvA=do two; paurANa = porANa old; saukhya =sokkha happiness; saumya = somma docile ; kSauma = khoma garment; gaura = gora fair; laukika = logiya worldly; kaumudIkomuI moon light; pauruSI = porusI a period of time; saukumArya = sogumalla tenderness. ___In a few cases it is dissolved into au : kauzala=kausala dexterity; pauruSa = paurisa manliness; gauDa = gauDa Bengal; mauli = mauli crest; paura = paura citizen ; saudha-sauha mansion.

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S. 107.] VOWELS 59 The two-fold development of the diphthongs is difficult to explain. While the normal change is to turn them into e, o in few cases they show optional forms of ai and au, though the usage is nof precise in this respect. Neither are the conditions under which this dissolution takes place known except that the sound is not followed by a conjunct, in most cases. The change may be due to the desire to preserve the sound-value because of its semantic value. In garava Sk. gaurava we have a parallel development of the vocalic resonance of the sonant *or which developed in Sk. as i (giri) or u (guru) when it formed an independent syllable with a following vowel. Pali and Pk. have garu, garuya. 107 SHORTENING OF VOWELS (i) Long vowels are shortened before conjuncts. 312= att mango fruit; a =da red; proy= 8a poetry ; 2167= raja kingdom; munIndra = muNiMda great sage; tIrtha=tittha holy place; qui=quor powder ; 12 = field ; 21 = Aire liberation. The short values of e and o are sometimes represented by i and u which alone may be found in some words like ikkhaga I= aiksvaka ; sanicchara = sanaiscara. But writings like picchai = pecchai, khitta = khetta, miccha = meccha are due to the absence of signs for short e and o The same shortening is found before enclitics beginning with a geminated consonant : GRAT FT; 78 Ft; float ca ; FET FENT ; cAi tti ; giri vva; savvannu tti. (ii) Long vowels before simple consonants are shortened when the consonant is doubled : T = fragt sport; ela = TETT ditch; ag=des oil; as = gus garment; era= may happen ; Grefrire = Fifosit should know; ara= fauis is given. Pischel explains this change as due to the accent on the end of the word which causes the doubling of the consonant and naturally the shortening of the vowel. In any case both these changes are based upon the preservation of the syllabic value as can be seen from kavya (-u) kavva (- ) yauvana (-vu) jovvana (-uu).

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60 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 107. (iii) Long vowels are shortened when followed by an Bear : qiz = 48 dust ; RA= A flesh; SFERA = 5410 now. (iv) When a word increases its syllables by anaptyxis the long vowel is shortened : zrI = siri goddess of wealth; hI = shame; asef=aarsu lapis lazuli; FEHE TEA fine ; Grei= 3rfe teacher. (v) in compounds the final of the first member is often shortened : Acacia = or the bank of the river; gezinta = geraakt weapon of 'earth; f27a7ales = fuprafales time of begging ; krIDAkara = kiDDakara making sport. (vi) In verses we find short vowels in grammatical forms where we expect long vowels, but where Sanskrit shows short vowels. tAiNaM = tAINaM Sk. nAyiNAm of those who protect; GOTE = Flug Sk. gfag in births; quoi = quoftui Sk. aforaire of living beings. (vii) The rhythm explains some shortenings : atas, aprange = * friqlat causes to make; base = trufa places; HISEE, E = Es curiosity ; 37rafia = stora brought. Of these the change due to the presence of the anusvara and anaptyxis certainly come under the law of metrical length as the quantity of the word remains the same in both cases moisa (-u) mamsa (-u) sri (-) siri (vv). The short vowels in declensional forms in verses are clearly due to the metrical necessity helped by the Sanskrit forms. The shortening of the first member of the compound and that due to rhythm are the result of a well known tendency of ancient times by which the word tried to preserve some kind of balance in the number of short and long syllables. Thus in Sanskrit we find vavidhe and vavardha, in Pali satimato, ditthigata and in Modern languages forms like Mar. kida, kida.

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S. 108.] VOWELS 61 103 LENGTHENING OF VOWELS (i) Short vowels followed by a conjunct are represented by long vowels followed by simple consonants. kartavya = kAyavva duty; varSa = vAsa year ; pazyati = pAsai sees. (ii) Long vowels followed by a conjunct are represented by long vowels followed by simple consonants. Izvara = Isara god ; dIrgha =dIha long ; zIrSa =sIsa head; gAtra =gAya limb; gotra =goya name. (iii) Short vowel with an anusvara is represented by a long vowel : viMzat = vIsaM twenty; daMSTA = dADhA fang; siMha =sIha lion; saMrakSaNa = sArakkhaNa protection. All these cases find their explanation in the law of metrical length which is preserved everywhere. (iv) On account of emphasis a vowel is lengthened, when followed by eva : evAmeva indeed thus ; khippAmeva quickly; taNAmavi even a blade of grass; Arne even in minor directions. (v) Vocative forms, imperative and other words used in addressing, lengthen their final vowel which may be called pluti : ANaMdA i 0 Ananda; pAsahA see; hoU NaM let it be so. (vi) The end of the first member is often lengthened in compounds. rajatamaya = rayayAmaya made of silver; vajramaya = vairAmaya made of dimonds; compounds with perfixes : prakaTa =pAyaDa clear; pravacana = pAvayaNa preaching; abhijit = abhIi a constellation; vyativrajvIIvaya to proceed ; with the suffix kaH muhUrtaka= muhuttAga moment; kSudraka = khuDDAga small; anAdika = aNAIya endless. Here also the rhythm may be partially responsible for the length of the vowels, particularly when the word is composed of a series of short syllables. ___(vii) Purely metrical lengthening is found in : maImaM= matimAn wise ; sahaI = sahate suffers; viyANiyA = vijJAya knowing; kayAI = kadAcit at some time.

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62 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 109. 109 WEAKENING OF VOWELS (i) 37 is weakened into 3: in syllables before the accent FAH = 3TIA best ; (uttama); DRA=ITH (carama) last; 199 = 94 (pakva) ripe; H A = ARTH (madhyama) middle; PH GTI = HAI (majja ) marrow; $7= (msdanga ) drum. Geiger and others, who accept the stress accent as against Pischel, would explain this change as due to initial accent on these words. Thus carama becomes carima.. (ii) 371 is weakened into sin syllables after the accent : an=aar (tesam) of them; AH = HATA: (namamah) we salute; af = SEIHE (vandamahe) ; FILEJH = HERT (sahayya) help. In these cases the expiratory accent will also fall on the first syllable and will have the same effect. That i represents the weakening of a or a is well known in Sanskrit ablaut-series through the intermediate step of schwa ( ) as can be seen from hita from daa-, sthita from stha-. A similar accent may be supposed in cases like jai *yada; tai *tada; sai *sada. (iii) Long vowels become shortened after the accented syllable : ukkhaya = utkhAta (utkhata) dug; kulala kulAla (kurala) potter; ANiya = anIka (anika) army; aliya = alIka (alika) false ; vammiya = valmIka (valmika) ant-hill; uluya = ulUka (alaka) owl. Fe = 72T (yatha) as; e = 7271 (tatha) so: 31EUR = Fram (anyatha). (iv) Long vowels are shortened before accented syllables : Th1991= SHTETT (amavasya) new-moon-day ; 3a = pula (sthapayati) places; R = FAR ( kumara ) prince; Esg= afea (khadita) eaten ; qa6 = Tae (pravaha) flow; TEE nafte ( gabhira) deep ; fecon=(vedana ) pain." Both these changes cannot be explained by the supposition of the penultimate stress accent and we must postulate the shift

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S. 110.] VOWELS ing of the accent on the initial syllable. The final vowel is shortened in uduhu =utaho. Initial syllable is shortened in kahavana = karsapana, niggoha = nyagrodha, dujivha= dvijivha. 110 STRENGTHENING OF VOWELS (i) i becomes e : piNDa = peNDa oil cake ; siMdUra=seMdUra red powder ; licchavi-lecchai a tribe ; metta=* mi-tra Sk. mAtra only; giNhAti=geNhai Sk. gRNhAti takes, vinta=veNTa Sk. vRnta stalk. (ii) I becomes e before conjuncts : krIDA kheDa sport; Amela=* ApIDya crest ; jANejA = jAnIyAt should know. . (iii) u becomes o before conjuncts : puSkariNI = pokkhariNI lotus pond; puSkarapokkhara lotus; tuNDa=toNDa mouth; mudra moggara club; pudgalapoggala matter ; kuTTima = koTTima pavement; pustaka=potthaga book. (iv) U becomes o before conjuncts. : kUpara koppara elbow; mUlya = molla value. / pok. Some of these words may be derived from the VIddhi forms as suggested by Bloch (molla =marulya). The long vowels first fell in with the short ones and both are represented by the short e, which approached the sounds of i, u. (v) In open syllables aiso I and U become e and o: Iza = erisa like this ; kIdRza = kerisa like what ; tAMbUla = taMbola betel nut ; lAMgUla = naMgola tail. Pischel derives erisa from Vedic aya + dis, kerisa = kaya + dis. Geiger supposes the gemination of consonant which is further 'simplified. (vi) a becomes A: pratyeka = pADieka each one ; caturanta= cAuranta of four corners; gRhapati = gAhAvaI householder; samRddhi= sAmiddhi prosperity; caturdazI= cAuddasI the fourteenth day; pramukha = pAmokkha chief ; caturaMgiNI = cAuraMgiNI army. Geiger would explain these changes as due to initial accent on these words (anubhava = anubhava: aroga = aroga).

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI 111 EFFECTS OF NEIGHBOURING VOWELS becomes by assimilation: (i) sugar cane; iSu = usu arrow ; zizu = susu child; zizumAra = suMsumAra crocodile. (ii) u becomes i : svapna = sumiNa = simiNa dream ; ISat little. 64 [S. 111. - -- IsiM (iii) becomes before another by dissimilation : mukula= maula bud; mukuTa = mauDa crown ; dugaMchA = jugupsA disgust. (iv) a may change a following u into a : tirakSu = tirakkha.. In many of these cases Pischel thinks that a may be the original sound and Sanskrit u may be due to assimilation of the other u. 112 EFFECTS OF NEIGHBOURING CONSONANTS (i) becomes under the influence of labial sounds: prAvaraNa = pAuraNa covering; karmaNA = kammuNA by action; zmazAna = susANa cemetary. (ii) becomes near a palatal sound: bed; brahmacarya=baMbhacera celibacy; Azcarya = acchera wonder ; sauMdarya - suMdara beauty. = 113 A number of words in Prakrit have come from words differing from Sanskrit or formed differently, which has made the grammarians give a number of apparent changes. Thus kiha Vedic katha; puvvim = purvim; hettha=*adhest(h) at: gejjha = *grhya; simbali Vedic simbala; olla from und-; parevaya = *parepata; initial iya (Sk. iti) as in Latin ita; vicchuya (Sk. vrcchika) geruya (Sk. gairika) neyauya (Sk. naiyayika) going back to the suffix -uka as contrasted with Sk. -ika; vihuna from dhu (Pk. dhunai); ubhao = *ubhatah; uvvidha from ud-vidh; 40 neura *nepura; annanna Vedic nayanya; theva from stip; and many other individual words.. VISARGA 114 Visarga coming from Sanskrit becomes : aMtaH = aMto inside; ahaH = aho day; prAtaH = pAo in the morning ; punaH = puNo again.

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S. 116.] VISARGA 65 In antahpura it becomes e as anteura. 115 Visarga coming from Sanskrit s E becomes 34 : aa: = it then; paa:=Hozzi everywhere ; 3ta: = 3731 hence ; gart: kao whence ; yataH=jao because ; dharmataH=dhammao according to religion. 116 In a number of adverbs Visarga has become g: 374T:=E down; gr:= formerly; magis previous activity ; E:= in secret ; *=ta to-morrow. In these cases Bloch suggests that the change is due to regarding the forms as those of locative. Ex. 1 Give AMg. words for : 4 compassion, ira greatness, BEE unseen, taa nectar, escali inquiry, RSidatta given by a sage, vaitariNI name of a river, klapti trick, acra deceit, AH name of Mahavira's disciple, sila mansion, atha: according to name. Ex. 2 Give Sk. words for: sf prosperity, graut name of Indra's elephant, osahi plant, maccu death, mauya soft, jovvaNa youth, heyst medicine, nes takes, ass growth, fog back, old. Ex. 3 Give AMg. words for : AUTA middle, rey value, tRtIya third, kumAra prince, yataH because, puruSa man, mukuTa crown, mAtra only, pakva ripe, puSkara lotus. Ex. 4 Give Sk. words for : FIEST help, holl bed, taken, aliya false, carima last, olla wet, garuya heavy, tamba red File liberation. .

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CHAPTER FIVE OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES 117 A conjunct occurs because two consonants come together without a vowel between them. Naturally a conjunct can be avoided by inserting a vowel between the two members of a conjunct. Thus in the word 'a jewel' the conjunct made of a and can be got rid of by inserting between them. Then we get the form and by applying the rules of single consonants we arrive at the form This process is called ANAPTYXIS . The vowel thus inserted is usually but and also occur. Other vowels are exceptional. Anaptyxis is found when one member of the conjunct is a semi-vowel viz. a, a,, or a nasal. u While assimilation is the rule with the treatment of conjuncts. in Middle Indian, there are cases where it is inapplicable. Particularly when a fricative and an occlusive come into contact, anaptyxis takes place. The sonants can act as both vowels or consonants and this gives them a peculiar position in the soundsystem of a language. When they are of the nature of continuants they naturally lack contact and could not be easily assimilated either before or after another sound. In an attempt to preserve both the sounds a part of voice of the sonant gets freed from the sonant and develops into a vowel of indistinct nature which may further, assume the form of any one of the short vowels. Thus with the two semi-vowels -y- and -w- the Vedic language preserves the voice in the form of an additional syllable (j(i) ya, Gr. bios; d(u) va Gr. duo). The same is true

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S. 117.] OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES of the other sonants r, I, n, m. (cf. rudhira Gr. eruthros). The Indian grammarians call this phenomenon svarabhakti and state that it,occurs after 7, I when followed by a fricative and a vowel. in groups like th or ry it is found most frequently as assimilation is impossible. The nature of the vowel was indefinite as the Siksas give all the three vowels a, i, and u and even e. Thus indra gave ind (-)ra, darsatadar (-) Sata. The word purusa thus comes from *pursa. In Classical Sanskrit we find a few cases like manoratha from *manortha or dahara from dabhra. The Prakrit languages show the phenomenon to a vast extent. (i) Insertion of i : bhavya bhaviya auspicious ; caitya ceiya temple ; kRSNa-kasiNa black ; kRtsna=kasiNa all; kinna-kilinna wet ; keza=kilesa trouble; harSa harisa delight; nagna nagiNa naked ; praznapasiNa question; gardA=garihA censure ; sUrya=sUriya sun; AcArya=Ayariya teacher; bhAryA=bhAriyA wife ; snAna-siNANa bath; zrI siri goddess of wealth ; vhI=hiri shame ; kriyA= kiriyA action; uSNa=usiNa hot ; vIrya=vIriya energy ; sparza=pharisa touch ; zloka= siloga verse ; klAnta=kilinta exhausted. ___ (ii) Insertion of a : arhat =arahA venerable ; agni=agaNi fire ; abhIkSNaM-abhikkhaNaM often ; garhA=garahA censure ; pRthvIpuDhavI earth ; aranirayaNi cubit ; bhasman=bhasama ashes ; hada-haraya lake. (iii) Insertion of u : dvAra=duvAra door ; dve=duve two ; padma =parama lotus ; chadma-chauma guise ; zva:-suve tomorrow; Rgveda riuvveya Rgveda ; smarati=sumarai remembers. 118 Another way of dealing with conjunct is to simplify it. After one member of the conjunct is dropped, instead of doubling the remaining consonant, the preceding vowel, if short, is lengthened. Thus in the word azva 'a horse' when 9 is dropped, instead of doubling we lengthen 37 to 311 and get the form F1. This method is generally used when the conjunct is made up of the semi-vowels ya, va, ra, la and the sibilants za, Sa, sa.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 118. As a matter of fact the simplification of the conjunct with the compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel must be regarded as a later development than assimilation. Thus asva = assa = asa. In all the stages the quantity of the syllables remains intact. The process must have started with long vowels after which, as noted by Panini, the consonants are not doubled, thereby suggesting that the first member of the following group was pronounced lightly and finally lost as being not needed for syllabic quantity. In such cases the division of the syllables may have been pa/tri and the development may be regarded as: parallel with Latin paterm becoming Fr. pere. (i) Conjunct with 7 : paura sees; 1719=4742 family name ; ziSya-sIsa pupil ; nazyati=nAsai vanishes. (ii) Conjunct with : famA=TATA rest ; fx=rte mixed ; id=ste head; Fart=914 touch; gratarea unfortunate; a=HR measure; 99=TR vessel ; = TP limb; podty=ffy duty; a=ar year; a=cultivator. (iii) Conjunct with : antes=ames bark garment. (iv) Conjunct with : antaratele faith ; furgare god ; ucchvAsa-UsAsa breathing ; azva=Asa horse. (v) Other conjuncts : Com=&Eur south ; JH=349 festival ; 35=strum order ; F =Fier tongue; HHT=HTH ashes; AtmA=AyA soul. In a number of cases instead of lengthening, strengthening occurs. Thus kusthai= kodha; giddhi = gehi; slisti = sedhi. No lengthening occurs in asta = adha; nisista= nisadha. The prefix a remains long before the two roots khya- and jna- ag aghaya=akhyaya; aghavei=akhyapayati; anavei=ajnapayati ; anatti =ajnapti. 119 Sometimes I or a palatal sound in a conjunct is represented by an anusvara on the preceding syllable. This is called SPONTANEOUS NASALISATION. =aje crooked ;

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S. 121.) OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES 39=siu tears; a=q beard; a= 40 sight; age= area friend ; 1 =gje tax; pat=64 touch ; HG=AN marrow; a=Fri famous; He farmas salutes ; Fariqui=* faen garment; a=da triangle ; 99=de wing. No satisfactory explanation can be given for this change. Very frequently a long vowel alternates with a nasalised one and that may be due to slackness in allowing the soft palate to fall down and produce a nasal sound. The presence of the fricative may well help this change. 120 For the simplicity of pronunciation a vowel or a consonant may be inserted at the beginning of a word. This is called PROTHESIS. F=geeft woman ; TE=Ga very ; 59= viya like ; ukta-vutta spoken.. The first is due to the desire to help pronunciation of a conjunct at the beginning of a word. Pischel thinks that the Prakrit form preserves the original dissyllabic value of the word. 121 EFFECTS OF ACCENT Accent formed an important phonetic element of the I-E. speech. Sanskrit in its earliest stage shows a movable accent like Greek and must have been predominantly musical as is proved by the names udatta anudatta and the statements of the grammarians. The question whether some changes in the phonology of Prakrit languages are due to accent is much disputed. Bloch would deny any effect of a stress accent like the one in Germanic on the initial syllable or Latin regulated by the quantity of the last three syllables of a word. Both Pischel and Jacobi agree in attributing some phonetic changes in Prakrit to the effects of an expiratory accent but while Pischel places it on the same syllable on which the original musical accent rested and even suggests that the Vedic accent may have been to some degree stress, Jacobi would place the accent on the long syllable before the final. Considering the difficulty of regarding the change of a musical accent into a stress, it is probable that from the earliest times there was a stress accent side by side with the musical one mostly on the same syllable, and it may have produced such

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 121. changes as the lengthening or loss of vowels and doubling of consonants. 122 VOWEL CHANGES (i) An unaccented vowel is lost : q=39% (udaka) water ; posaha= upavasatha (upavasathi) fast ; lAu=alAbu (alaba) gourd; ry=f fa householder ; alt=raia past; aisa =avataMsaka crest. The changes aranya = Tanna, arista = rittha agree more with Jacobi's system of accentuation. : (ii) The initial vowel of the enclitics is often lost : a= ( after anusvara ) a (after vowel ); gara ( after anusvara ) FA ( after short vowels ) & (after long vowels); sa=a ( after anusvara ) 67 (after vowel ). (iii) A vowel in the middle may be lost : surabhi sunbhi smelling good ; durabhi-dubhi smelling bad; upariu above; Azilca=H59 noon. 123 CONSONANTAL CHANGES (i) The consonant in the accented syllable may be geminated, doraes (taila) oil; 14=(preman) love ; cara ( daiva ) fate; grocerquin (tusrakam ) silently ; Gw= (rju) straight ; fest= T= ( krida ) sport ; 15 =ais (nida) nest; tra=ne ( nakha) nail ; s=gapore ( dukula ) garment. (ii) In a number of cases the accent is not known: Floqurian youth ; 4541=hal service ; To=filu according to meaning; the suffixes To, 58, 59. In such cases Bloch sees, not the effect of accent, but the gemination due to expressiveness as found in Sanskrit itself, ittha, iyattika, katthate etc. All such doubling and those of the suffixes illa, ulla, alla may be of popular origin:

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S. 126.] OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES 71 (iii) Some cases of gemination are due to hesitation between anaptyxis and assimilation : sazrIka=sassirIya full of beauty; Rgveda-riubveya Rgveda ; sakrIya=sakkiAraya doing deeds ; zukla-sukkila white. In paroppara and namokkara the conjunct in Sk, is responsible for the doubling though the -as has become o. ___(iv) Analogical doubling is found in : AlIna=allINa concealed; kAyagirA=kAyaggirA with words and deeds; paravaza= paravvasa dependent ; anuvaza=aNuvvasa amicable ; bahuphala=bahupphala with abundant fruits; puruSakAra=purisakkAra manliness ; sacitta= saJcitta with life. (v) Etymology or a different conjugation may be responsible in the gemination of words like : kutaH katto whence; anyataH=annatto from another; sarvataH savvatto from everywhere ; lagAte-laggai sticks; unmIlati-ummillai blooms ; calati-callai moves. In these and similar verbs Pischel supposes a fourth conjugation like *calyati, *lagyati, while Jacobi suggests an accent on the thematic vowel. ' 124 When a whole syllable is dropped the change is called SYNCOPE. avaTa=aDa well; niHzreyasa nissesa highest good ; nUnaM=NaM indeed ; jIvita-jIya life ; devakula-deula temple ; rAjakula-rAula royal family. 125 When the dropping of the syllable is caused by a similar sound near it, the change is called HAPLOLOGY. hRdaya-hiya heart; sicaya=siya garment; evameva=emeva thus; apararAtra=avaratra latter part of the night; anAyatana=aNAyaNa improper place. ____126 When two consonants interchange place in the word the change is called METATHESIS. vArANasI vANArasI Benares

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 126. upAnahI vAhaNAo shoes ; hRdaka harae pond ; dIrgha=dIhara long ; mahArASTra=marahaTTha Maratha country. Metathesis is found in case of two successive sounds mostly of the cerebral class as n or r which are difficult to pronounce or such conjuncts as hr where the two sounds in the order always tend to replace each other. 127 ANUSVARA AND LONG VOWELS ALTERNATE (i) Anusvara replaces a long vowel : vIsAvIsaM twenty; tIsAtIsaM thirty; tiriyA=tiriyaM animal; sammA = sammaM properly; aTThA=aTuM for ; musA=musaM false; heThA heThaM down. (i) Long vowel replaces Anusvara : saMdaMza=saMDAsa pincers; zakyaM=sakkA possible ; ithiM=itthI woman. (iii) The finals of many adverbs are nasalised : iha= ihaM here ; pabhiipabhiI etc.; uvari-uvari above; bahiH=bAhiM outside ; muhuH-muhuM again and again. The alternance is old (cf. Vedic ittha, ittham). The syllablic value of a long and a nasalised vowel is the same which helps the interchange. Moreover all long vowels tend to become nasalised because of the difficulty of keeping the soft palate raised for a long time and all final vowels tend to become long. Panini notes the fact that final short vowels a, i and u were nasalised. In case of adverbs analogy may be partly responsible for the presence of the anusvara. 128 When the semi-vowels & and a become the vowels i and u the change is called saMprasAraNa. (i) = i : abhyaMtara=abhitara inside ; pratyanIka-paDiNIya inimical; vyatikrAnta=vIikaMta gone over. (ii) k = u : tvaritaM = turiyaM quickly; tvam=tume you ; svapna suviNa dream ; svastika-sotthiya a kind of figure; zvapAka-sovAga low caste man. (iii) ay =e: kathayati kahai tells ; nayatinei leads; layana leNa cave; trayadaza-terasa thirteen..

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S. 128.] OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES (iv) av=o : avasvApinIosovaNI producing sleep; avadhi: ohi a kind of knowledge; lavaNa-loNa salt; avama= oma less; bhavati hoi becomes. The semi-vowels act like consonants before vowels and when the vowel is lost or weakened they become vowels. Ex. 1 Give AMg. words for : Filca novice, Brget model, Adarza mirror, vajra diamond, zleSa sticking, smaraNa remembering, sasya corn, manuSya man, astra corner, varSati rains. Ex. 2 Give Sk. words for : vayaMsa friend, nIsAsa sigh, payAhiNa going round, puMcha tail, moriya name of a tribe, gilANa sick, siNeha affection, suhuma fine, rayaNa jewel, veruliya kind of jewel. ___Ex. 3 Name and explain the phonetic changes observed in the following equations : kareNukaNerU elephant, mahArASTra=marahaTTha name of a country, pAdapITha-pAvIDha foot-stool, zibikA-sIyA palanquin, nakha nakkha nail, kautUhalakouhalla curiosity, alAvu% lAu gourd, avazyAyaosa frost, vyajana=viyaNa fan, bhavati hoi becomes.

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CHAPTER SIX SANDHI 129 The observance of Sandhi rules in Ardha-Magadhi is not so strict and consistent 'as in Sanskrit. Two vowels can, in this language, come together and remain without combining. Hiatus or the presence of two vowels without forming Sandhi occurs in the body of a word or between two words in a sentence. Nearly in all cases Sandhi is optional. In practice, however, it is usually observed in a compound and in groups of words forming one phrase in a sentence. The phenomenon of Sandhi in Classical Sanskrit does not reflect the real nature of the language. but the influence of grammatical theory on the literary aspect of a language. Even grammarians admit that samhita is optional and dependent on the will of the speaker. The Vedic texts show, on metrical consideration, that the writing does not show in all respects the real sounds of the language and in many cases the written Sandhi must not be present originally. In few words like titau we find hiatus in the body of a word. VOWEL SANDHI 130 Sandhi is forbidden in the following cases: (i) A vowel left behind by the dropping of a medial consonant does not combine with another : yati- jai an ascetic ; mRduka = mauya soft; Rtu uu season ; ripu- riu enemy ; viyoga = vioga separation.

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S. 131.] SANDHI 75 Exceptions : (a) In a few cases such a vowel combines with a similar vowel : 9122=rata expiation ; Harrer venerable ; fecurata second; gar=aru third ; cargar fig ; pAdAtika=pAikka foot soldier ; zibikA=sIyA palanquin; wahaia=rstor west. In such cases the length of the word and the accent on the surviving syllable help the contraction. (b) a or A is combined with i or u : sthavira=thera old man; A =#Te peacock ; aget=a fourteen ; 4=TA lotus; agra diamond. (c) Such a vowel is combined with the vowel of the second member of a compound : kuMbhakAra=kuMbhAra potter ; PAR=AHR worker ; 9492=ami a kind of bird; TAR =This tender ; sifa=sien darkened; pear=Ear camp; varSAkAla=varisAla rainy season. (ii) The vowel of the termination, if it is the only syllable of it, does not combine with others : aprile he does ; stesse let him go; gang of the queen ; rs to give. Exceptions : les = net he will do; alfese = are he will know; ETTES = he will become. (iii) If the first vowel is not 27, no Sandhi is formed between dissimilar vowels : 'jAiaMdha born blind ; bahuaTriya having many seeds; puDhavIAu earth and water ; sattiagga the point of a larice; grily well adorned ; geefs great prosperity; asics having two senses ; Tesaria calm by nature; GERT well studied. * The only Sandhi possible in such cases is the change of the vowel into the semi-vowel forming a conjunct with the preceding consonant. Now Prakrit shows a tendency to dissolve such groups with semi-vowels and will naturally not allow such Sandhi. 131 Prakrit shows Sandhis of both Sanskrit type and of a peculiar Prakrit nature. As pointed out by Jacobi the rules of :

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 131. Sanskrit Sandhi are based on preserving the quantity and quality of both the vowels coming together. The earliest stage of Sandhi is nothing but the formation of diphthongs where one of the vowels, acts as coefficient of the other. The general tendency in IndoAryan is to weaken the final of the first word. In Sanskrit itself both a and a give the same result with the following vowel and we know that the original long diphthongs (ai, au) are represented in Sanskrit by ai and au. The next stage was to let the first short vowel fall before a heavy initial as in Prakrit and Pali narinda. With a light initial the first step was to preserve the quantity of both as in Pali nupalabbhati, seyyathidam. Later on the final was fully lost as in kumarassuvari. Thus the peculiar Prakrit Sandhi was formed by dropping the final before a long initial or one heavy by position. 132 When similar vowels come together they combine to form long vowels : (i) 37 or 377+37 or 347 = 37: fa + sila = sifatpira living and lifeless things; dhamma+adhamma = dhammAdhamma religion and irreligion; +3769 = fere things to be done and not done; prestales = arrears proper and improper time; sfora+SITIR sfpirir intention and gestures; it + 3 = fiere singing and other arts; ET + TAM = larant end of religious discourse; + = ante as the chief of the low caste men; past+3mpre = arra the teacher of arts. (ii) or $ +5 or g = $ : geef +$= gefter the lord of earth; ytt e = Forrere great sage. (iii) 3 or 5+3 or 5= 3: +355= TEM abundant water; H16 +3EM=HTEGT sweet water. This Sandhi is often not observed as in : samanamahanaaihi; dagaagani ; indanilaayasikusuma; mahaadavi; manaagutti. Desire for clarity appears to be the main reason. 133 If however, the second vowel is followed by a conjunct the result of the Sandhi is a short vowel: *

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S. 136.] SANDHI (i) dhamma+ajjhayaNa = dhammajjhayaNa a religious chapter; guNa+ aTi = guNahi desirous of merit ; bhikkhA +aTThA bhikkhaTThA for alms. ... (ii) muNi+iMda = muNiMda great sage. (iii) bAhu+uddhariya = bAhuddhariya raised with the hand; sAhu+ utta = sAhutta spoken by the sage. Even in such cases the vowels may not combine : mahaakkanda ; maiidahigarava ; bahuuppala ; suuddhara etc. 134 When a or A is followed by i or u the vowels combine into e or o : (i) rAya+isi = rAesi royal sage; mahA +isi = mahesi great sage.. (ii) savva+uuya = savvouya of all seasons; samaNa+uvAsaga= samaNovAsaga follower of the monks; tassa+uvari = tassovari above it. ___Absence of Sandhi is found as in : savvauvarilla ; ayariyauvajjhaya ; appaudaga ; samjamauvaghaya. 135 If, however, the second vowel is followed by a conjunct the resulting vowel is s or u: gaya+iMdagaiMda best elephant; ega+ Idiya-egidiya having one sense ; nIla+uppala= nIluppala blue lotus; rayaNa+ ujala-rayaNujala bright with jewels. . In reality, in such cases, we must suppose the loss of the first vowel and the second vowel only as remaining. Thus final a is lost in cases like jen'evam ; ih'eva; jav'esa; ta'tth'atthamie ; ubhayass'antarena. Jacobi's rule of the loss of the final a after a long penultimate as in majjh'uvari has few illustrations and does not appear to be widespread in the Prakrit stage. i is lost in natt'etha; santime; ke'ittha; tarant'ege ; e is lost in s'evas; tubbh'ettha ; im'eyaruve ; im'ettha ; o is lost in gurun'antie. .. 136 When a or A is followed by a long vowel, it is lost . tiyasa+Isa = tiyasIsa lord of gods; rAya+ Isara = rAIsara king of . kings; mahA+Usava-mahUsava great festival; ega+UNa - egUNa less

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 136. by one ; iha + eva = iheva in this very place ; kameNa+eva = kameNeva in due order ; bhakkha + oyaNa = bhakkhoyaNa food to eat'; jala+oha = . jaloha flow of water; tahA+eva = taheva thus ; mahA+osahi = mahosahi a great plant ; vAseNa+olla = vAseNolla wet with rain. 137 Sometimes a or A followed by' I or U becomes e or o: nara+Isara = naresara a king ; aha+Isara = ahesara the sun; ega+Uru = egoru having one thigh; karikara+Uru = karikaroru having thighs like the trunk of an elephant; pra+ IkSate = pecchai sees ; apa +IkSate = avekkhai considers. This is a remnant of Sanskrit Sandhi and the whole phrase may be regarded as being taken in Prakrit with the necessary phonetic changes. 138 In a sentence no Sandhi is formed : meM AyA my self ; cattAri ee these four ; ege Aha one said ; eyAo ajjAo these nuns. khINe Aummi when the life is exhausted. (i) a usually forms Sandhi with the following vowel : natthi there is not ; nAidUre not very far ; nArabhe should not begin; neva not indeed. (ii) When one of the words is a pronoun, an adverb, or a preposition, Sandhi is usual : ahAvarA now another; cAvi also ; dAriMgesA this girl; jeNAhaM so that I, ihADavIe in this forest; siharovari on the top; etthovarae disgusted with this. 139 Very often in verses the second vowel is lost after the first, when long. Thus a is lost after i: jAijarAmaraNehi bhiyA; jAvanti vijApurisA as many ignorant men there are ; cattAri bhojAI four types of unallowed food ; after I : vaitariNI bhiduggA Vaitarini difficult to cross; after e : phAse hiyAsae he should suffer touches ; se gutappai he repents; after o : iNamobbavI this he said ; bAlo varajjhai the ignorant man commits fault. i is lost after e : jeme these ; je ttha those here.

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S. 142.] SANDHI 79 e is lost after o: akAriNo ttha here the innocent ; anne ttha here another. In many of these cases the preposition or the adverb or pronominal form appears to have been used like an enclitic and being accentless has lost its initial. SURVIVALS OF SANSKRIT SANDHI 140 When 3 and 3 of a preposition are followed by a dissimilar vowel the Sandhi according to Sanskrit is observed. GARR=37* very much; 3784450=3755C attached ; area=q TM renouncing; Ba =this passes ; pia=que sufficient ; qu=31224 search. 141 When sifa and ca are followed by a dissimilar vowel the Sandhi in Sanskrit is followed : apyeke appege some ; grife=aug and others; stir thus ; gapiri for this reason. In many cases the process of Anaptyxis is followed : natyusna =naiunha ; adhyavasate. = ahiyasai; pratyagata = padiyagaya ; *prat yacaksita = padiyaikkhiya. In such cases it is not possible to say whether there is absence of Sandhi or the Sanskrit Sandhi is dealt with by anaptysis. CONSONANTAL SANDHI 142 In many cases when the first word originally ended with a consonant and the following word began with a vowel the consonant present in Sanskrit asserts itself. In other words before a vowel the final consonant is not lost. catacurt=UTRIO covering it ; R=FERA whatever there is; geromarguren repeated; garsa=goria again; q ara six only ; avitathamatet=avitahameyaM this is true. This is particularly the case with the two prepositions and fas: SA=T&A difficult to cross ; fateme=aare constantly ; Farragut without covering ; facraie=farruia without joy ; nirupama=niruvama uncomparable.

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80 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 143. 143. In a compound usually the final consonant of the first member is assimilated to the first consonant of the second member. duzcarita = duccariya bad behaviour ; durlabha-dullaha. hard to get ; satpuruSa = sappurisa good man ; durvarNa = duvvaNNa of baddeg colour ; prAdurbhAva = pAubbhAva origin. In a few cases, however, the first word is treated as having no final consonant : sadikSu-sabhikkhu good monk; durlabha-dulaha difficult to get ; vidyudvilasita-vijjuvilasiya the flash of lightning ; etadanurUva = eyANurUva like this. 144. Very often Sandhi is avoided between two words by inserting a new sound which is called the SANDHI-CONSONANT. (i) ma is inserted frequently : anna+anna = annamana each other; ega+ega= egamega mutual; haTTatuTThajitta+ANadiya = haTTatuTThacittamANaMdiya with mind delighted ; goNa+AI = goNamAI cows and other animals; aMga+aMga =aMgamaMga all the limbs ; Ariya+aNAriya =AriyamaNAriya Aryans and Non-aryans (ii) ya is inserted : du+aha = duyAha two days ; du+aMgula = duyaMgula having the length of two fingers; su+akkhAe =suyakkhAe well-explained. (ii) is inserted : dhi+atthu - dhiratthu fie upon ; sihi +iva = sihiriva like fire ; du+aMgula = duraMgula two fingers long. Originally m must have been the form of the adverb stereotyped as in the case of anyam anyam and from these cases it was extended to others. R may be a remnant of the original r in Sanskrit but appears to be extended where it is not justified by etymology. Ex. 1 Combine the following into Sandhi : mahA+aDavI ; ratta+accha; vAma+iyara ; deha / uvacaya ; savva+uvari ; sura+asura; gAma+ Usava ; bAhira+ujANa ; deva+iDDi; su+ahijiya ; karimo+ eNhi. . ___Ex. 2 Dissolve the following Sandhis : etyovarae; nAraMbha, mAlohaDa, varoru, desuNa, teiMdiya, mahiDi, jIvIyatta, mahesi, vAseNolla.

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PART TWO MORPHOLOGY

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LESSON ONE 145 Like Sanskrit Ardha-Magadhi words have three genders viz. Masculine (Mas.), Feminine (Fem.) and Neuter (Neu.). The gender of a particular word is, in most cases, the same as the one current in Sanskrit or many of the Modern Indian languages. Even though the majority of the nouns have retained their original gender there are not lacking cases showing a change in this respect. Most of the changes show traces in the history of Sanskrit itself. If some of them may be due to idea (mitra n. mitto m.) others are due to the ending vowels in the Prakrit forms. 146 Like Modern languages there are only two numbers the Singular (Sing.) and the Plural (Plu.). The sing. is used to denote things that are one, while the plu. denotes things that are more than one. The dual number of Sanskrit is expressed by the plu. in ANg. ae gute AUTE I 'He hears many things with his ears. The only dual forms surviving are do (dvau), duve (dve). For the use of the numbers cf. 345-348. 147 There are six cases which are the same as those in Sk. except the Dative which is lost. Its place is taken by the Genitive. These cases are : The Nominative (N.) denoting the subject : dal E A AHARI 'Even the gods bow to him.'

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84 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 147. The Accusative (A.) denoting the object : HAUT NTFR 'The monk preaches religion.' The Instrumental (I.) denoting a person or thing byo which something is done : a CuSe ar a t I They beat the thief with sticks' ATO ga ORENI 'The man spoken by the friend.' The Ablative (Ab.) denoting the starting point and meaning 'from': PETSI Tisfres ! 'He starts from the house.' The Genitive (G.) denoting 'to, for' (original Dative) the fact that I 'The minister tells the king'; and meaning * of' : faserka affrir GHT I 'The son of the chieftain Vijaya.' The Locative (L.) meaning in, on, at': denoting time and place : igre gerig ootu I ' In the town of Campa the king was Kuniya.' 37 gares i 'In the days gone by.' Besides these there is the additional case Vocative (V.) used in addressing : gai eg cia! 'Thus indeed, O Jabmu.' For other meanings and uses of the different cases cf. the syntax of the cases : 349-403. 148 Mas. nouns in AMg. end in -a, -i or -u. Those ending in -a take the following terminations in different cases and numbers. Sing. N. -e, -o; V.-; A. - ; I. nam ; Ab. -a, -0; G. -ssa ; L. e, -risi, -mmi. Plu. N. a; V. a; A. -e, a; I. -hi, -him; Ab. -hinto ; G. -na, nam ; L. -su, -sum. In applying the terminations the following changes occur. 1. Before the terminations of Ab. sing. and G. plu. the -a of the stem is changed to -a. 2. Before the terminations of I. sing and plu. Ab. plu. and L. plu. the -a of the word is changed to -e. 3. It should be noted that the two forms of I. sing. plu. G. plu. and L. plu. differ from each other only in having or wanting the anusvara. Sometimes this anusvara is pronounced as an anunasika giving rise to three forms in these cases : devena, devenam, devena.

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S. 150.) LESSON ONE 85 149 The declension of a Mas. noun ending in a like da a god' will be : devo, deve devA devA deva deve, devA deveNa, deveNaM devehi, devehi devA, devAo devehinto * G. devassa devANa, devANaM L. ea, data, dar dag, dag AMg. prose prefers the form deve in the N. sing. and devansi in the L. sing. Other forms in prose and all forms in verses are used without distinction and often side by side. 150 CHANGE OF GENDER: (i) Many neuter nouns ending in consonants have dropped their finals and while becoming vowel-ending have also changed their gender. (Cf. Sk. dharman n. 'order' dharma m. religion '). Such cases are : mano, mane 'mind' (manas); tavo, tave penance' (tapas) ; tamo, tame * darkness' (tamas); vao, vae 'age' (vayas); kamme 'action' (karman); oe 'blood' (ojas); vacche 'breast' (vaksas); soo 'current' (srotas). (ii) Neuter nouns ending in - have also changed their gender and become Mas. (Cf. Sk. artha m.meaning' artha n.) thane 'place' (sthana); rayane jewel' (ratna); virie 'energy' (virya) ; damsane 'faith' (darsana); marane ' death' (marana) ; jivie 'life' (jivita); bale strength' (bala'); ruva 'forms' (rupani); vana 'forest' (vanani). It is equally possible to regard the ending -e of the N. sing. as pertaining to Neu, nouns as contended by Bloch. Pischel regards that the change of gender was due to the similarity of forms in N. plu. of Mas. and Neu. in -a as Vedic yuga. (iii) Fem. nouns have become Mas. pauso 'rainy season' (pravis); disa quarter' (dis); sarao autumn' (sarad); dala 'branch' .(Pk. dala).

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86 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 151. 151 The THEMES of this declension, besides the corresponding nouns in Sanskrit, are taken from (i) the strong base of Sk. nouns of consonantal declension and all are thematised. Strong bases : in -anta of pr. part. Tamanto 'taking delight' -vanta bhagavanto 'venerable', manta buddhimanto 'wise'; appana. attana, ayana (atman) ; addhama wayo (adhoan) ; muddhana 'head' (murdhan); juvana 'youth' (yuvan) ; sano 'dog' (svan); barahina 'peacock' (barhin); gabbhina pregnant' (garbhin); nahasarino 'wandering in the sky' (nabhocarin). (ii) Strong bases with the dropping of the finals : bambha supreme god' (brahman); namo 'name' (naman); pantha way' (pathin). (iii) Weak bases, are taken in : bhagavo 'venerable' (bhagavat); ajanao, 'not knowing'. (ajanat); paha 'way' (pathin); vimano 'of distracted mind' (vimanas); seo 'welfare' (sreyas); jayaveya 'fire' (jatavedas). Extended weak bases are : kaniyasa 'younger" (kaniyas); seyamsa 'welfare' (sreyas); viuso wise' (vidus); bhisao physician' (bhisak). (iv) In case of a few Mas. nouns ending in -u the plural base in -a is taken as the theme : sahavena 'by the sage' (sadhu); bahava 'arm' (bahu). 152 The PRIMARY DERIVATIVES of Sk. are not felt as such and on account of sweeping phonetic modifications cannot be recognised. Thus jana 'people' (jan-a); rahassa 'secret' (rahasya); nana "knowledge' (jna-na) ; calana 'foot' (car-ana) ; dhamma religion' (dhar-ma); gaya limb' (ga-tra); vaya 'wind' (va-ta) and many others. SECONDARY DERIVATIVES are more apparent : vesaliya 'belonging to Vesali' (vaisalika); manasa 'thought' (manasa) sundera 'beauty' (saundarya). Only compound expressions preserve some faint trace of derivation : gihattha householder' (glhastha); andava 'born of egg' (andaja). 153 ADDITIONAL FORMS : I. sing. forms by analogy like kayasa beside kaena 'with body' vayasa 'with words' after manasa 'with thought'. Balasa beside balena 'with force' after sahasa. Also niyamasa (niyamena), jogasa, bhayasa. .

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S: 154.] LESSON ONE 87 Dative sing. in -ae is frequent. sagapagae 'for vegetables' purisattae 'for manhood' devattae 'as god', neraiyattae as a hellish being' and many others; also in -aya, vahaya 'for destruction' gabbhaya 'for birth'. Ab. sing. often weakens the final -o into -u for metrical reasons : pavau 'from sin', dukkhau 'from misery'. Voc. sing. bhante 'O lord', from bhadanta (Sk. bhadram te) the noun itself being secondary ; ajjo 'Sir' (arya) and with protracted final goyama 'O Goyama' usually before i 'thus '. 154 HISTORICAL : (i) Sanskrit forms continued : N. sing. devo (devah) with the tendency of changing the final into -o before sonants extended to all cases. The alternative form deve is said to be dialectal. Gray suggests a purely phonetic development giving rise to -0 and -e. N. plu. deva (devah); A. sing. devam (devam); I. sing. devena (devena); Ab. sing. deva (devat); G. sing. devassa (devasya) ; plu. devanam (devanam); L. deve (deve); plu. devesu (devesu). (ii) Of older stage are : I. plu. devehi (devebhih) or Bloch : the stem deve- extended by the additional -hi. (iii) Of pronominal declension are: L. sing. devamsi (*devasmin) and the other devammi from Pali devamhi from the same form. A. plu. deve according to Pischel, Geiger, Bloch : analogical liko aggihi : aggi; purisehi : purise. (iv) Mixed origin : I. sing. 'rare form devehi from old forms like uttarahi, daksinahi. Ab. sing. devao from deva (devat) and -o from tas. Ab. plu. devehinto from devehim of I. plu, and -tas. The dat. sing. in -aya from Sk, dat. devaya. The one in. -ne from the D.-G. of Fem. in -ta parallel with tvar. Pischel allows the termination -ai for Mas. Neu. dialectally or compares it with Av. yasnai Gr. hippo. (v) Analogically the anusvara is extended from G. plu. to I sing. (devenam) plu. (devehim); L. plu. (devesum). Or the final short becomes nasalised instead of getting lengthened. A. plu. deva is not Sk. devan but analogical like aggi : putta.

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88 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 156. nara 155 Similarly are to be declined the following Mas. nouns : aNuggaha favour jaNaya father meha cloud Ayariya teacher dhamma religion * loga world Asa horse man vagdha tiger Isara god niva, bhUva king vaccha, rukkha tree kaNNa ear paNha, pasiNa question vaNNa colour kAga crow pavaNa wind vANara monkey kiMkara servant pAusa rain samaNa monk kova anger pAya foot sarIra body khagga sword putta . son siyAla jackal gaya elephant bhakkha food siMha lion gAma village mauDa crown hattha hand 156 When a word ends in g all forms which contain a syllable other than y or must be written with a vowel by dropping the consonant i according to the rule of phonology. So pAya has N. sing. pAo I. plu. pAehiM : jaNaya has N. plu. jaNayA but I. sing. jaNaeNa. 157 Mas. and Neu. nouns have the same forms from the I. sing. onwards. Thus vaNa n. 'forest' I. sing. vaNeNa plu. quite and so on. 158 (I) kiMkareNa; dhammANa, puttehi, Isare, bhakkhaM, rukkhesuM, vANarehiM, AyariyANa, gayassa, pAehi, gihehinto, hatthAo, kovA, logaMsi, pAusammi, samaNo, vagghehiM, aNuggaheNa. (II) 1. devassa annuggho| 2. narassa hattho vA pAo vA / 3. Ayariyassa pnnho| 4. vANaro rukkhAo rukkhaM gcchd| 5. bhUvassa putto| 6. siMho vagghAo settttho| 7. narA gAmaMsi vasanti / 8. vaggheNa' siyAlo maario| 9. Asassa knnnno| 10. pavaNeNa meho daraM niio| 11. AsANaM paayaa| 12. Isarassa kovo| 13. aMdhassa dIvo vijA / 14. ahiMsA paramo dhmmo| 15. sIlaM narassa bhUsaNaM / 4 16. jahA. vaccho tahA phlN| 17. niddhaNassa kao suhaM / 18. namo suynnaann| ___ 1 380. 2 382. 3 362. 4 350. 5474. 6 391.

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S. 161.] 159 (1) Of the servant; by the crow; with the teachers; from god; to the villages; in the ear; on the body; by religion; from the town; with swords; of men; from the cloud; the monks; in the world; in the trees; from the father; by the lion; with horses; of the monkey. LESSON TWO 6. (II) 1. The sword of the king. 2. The foot of the lion. The teacher's religion. 3. The hand of the servant. 4. The monkey from the tree. 5. The tree in the village. 7. The king of the people. The king's crown. 9. The crow on the tree. 10. The rain from the cloud. 11. The ears of the elephant. 12. The colour of the body. 13. Food for the monks. 14. Horses from the villages. 15. The son's father. 89, 8. LESSON TWO 160 In AMg. there are three tenses, the Present expressing actions that are being performed at the time when the statement is made or actions outside the scope of timerelation, the Past expressing actions that are already performed and the Future which expresses acts which are yet to be performed. For the uses of the tenses cf. 416-429. The aspects of the verbs are not preserved except in the present when expressing a general statement. 161 Unlike Sk. there is only one set of terminations to be applied to the roots and it is the same as that of the Parasmaipada of Sanskrit. All verbs in AMg. take these very terminations. Some forms of the Atmanepada are, however, met with in literature, but are of limited occurrence and may be regarded as irregular forms.

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90 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 161. (i) The forms of ATMANEPADA found in literature are : I. sing. vatte, plu.-; II. sing. vattase plu.-; III. sing. vattae, plu. vattante. A form of the I. plu. vattamahe is used for the sing. in Vas. (ii) The following forms of this conjugation are frequent : I. sing. jane I know', na-yane ; manne I think' rame I take delight' lahe 'I get': vande 'I bow" II. sing. pabhasase You speak', avabujjhase You know'. III. sing. lahae 'He obtains' bhanjae 'He breaks' titikkhae 'He suffers' sampavevae 'He trembles'. III. plu. uvalabhante They obtain' riyante They wander' citthante 'They stand'. (iii) Because it was the normal Pada for the passive in Sk. it is frequently found in passive forms in AMg. as well. tirae = tiryate, jujjae = yujyate, fhijjhae = ksiyate, bhunjae. = bhujyate, muccae = mucyate etc. 162 A verb is conjugated in two numbers: singular and plural and in three persons: the First Person (1. p.) denoting the speaker, the Second Person (II. p.) denoting the person addressed and the Third Person ( III. p. ) denoting all other things. The exact meaning of the plural forms of the three persons may best be seen by noting the agreement of the finite verb containing a multiple subject. Thus I. p. plu. is I. p. sing. and II. p. sing. or plu. or III. p. sing. and plu. The II. p. plu. is II. p. sing. and III. p. sing. and plu. 163 The roots in AMg. are divided into three Classes for the convenience of conjugation. The C. I. consists of roots ending in the vowel 37 and includes most of the roots in the language. C. II. comprises roots ending in 3 but adding & before the terminations. C. III. comprises roots ending in other vowels namely 341, g, or sht. This is purely a matter of convenience. The formation of the present base of the root is effected by the addition of different thematic suffixes (a, -ya), by reduplication (da-dadati) or by the

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S. 166.] LESSON TWO 91 infix of a nasal -(ket- krnatti). This gave rise to the ten-fold classification of the Sk. roots which has left a good deal of trace in AMg. C. II. of AMg. generally agrees with the derivative conjugation of Sk., while the other two classes include verbs of all the nine conjugations according to the endings they assume in this language. 164. The terminations of the present tense are: I. p. sing. -mi, plu. -mo; II. p. sing. -si, plu. -ha; III. p. sing. -1, plu. -anti. Before adding these terminations to the roots of C.I., the following rules are to be observed : 1. Before the terminations of the I. p. the -a of the root is lengthened into -a. 2. The -a of the root combines with the -a of anti to form -a as followed by the conjunct. 165 The conjugation in present of a root like ra 'to see' will be I. p. pAsAmi pAsAmo II. p. pAsasi . pAsaha III. p. pAsai pAsanti Like qe are to be conjugated other roots like :accha.. to be cinta to think phusa to touch omroy to come up to conquer WTA to speak But to dig jANa to know bhakkha to eat khiva to throw durUha to climb bhaNa to speak Togy to go dhAva to run sara to move geha to take paDa to fall vasa to live PEE to stand gery to ask TOP to kill. 166 The bases of this Class are taken from all the nine primary conjugations of Sanskrit. In the majority of the cases the forms of the two languages agree with great precision. But in a few cases the verbs have changed their mode of forming the bases and have taken up another conjugation. The thematic conjugation is preserved as it is while the athematic one has lost

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI S. 166. its Ablaut series and is thematised. Nothing definite could be said about the choice of the base except that the apparently thematic form was preferred. THEMATIC BASES. (i) The first conjugation of Sk. with a base in full grade with accent and the thematic suffix -a. Sk. roots with the vowel -a and a consonant (monosyllabic) show no change : cal-'to move' calai ; khan- 'to dig' khanai ; car- 'to move' carai ; jval- 'to burn' jalai ; tyaj- 'to abandon' cayai; nam- 'to bow' namai; pac- 'to cook' payai; pat-'to fall padai; yat-'to strive' jayai; ram- 'to take delight' ramai ; lap'to speak' lavai; vad- 'to speak' vayai; vam 'to vomit' vamai ; vas- 'to live' wasai; has- 'to laugh' hasai. (ii) If the root-vowel is -i or -u they become gunated (full grade) : tuh- 'to grow' rohai; jim- 'to eat' jemai ; akrus- 'to cry' akkosai; nud- to push' nollai. In case of r it becomes ari- (Sk. ar-): krs- 'to cultivate' karisai; mTs- 'to forgive' marisai ; vTs-'to rain' varisai ; vst- 'to behave' vattai (with cerebralisation and assimilation). (iii) Some verbs of this type change their conjugation as ghas- 'to eat' ghisai ; Tuh- 'to grow' tuhai, according to the sixth conjugation ;.cal- 'to move' callai ; jim- 'to eat' jimmai; TUC- 'to like' ruccai; laga 'to cling' laggai; vraj- 'to proceed' vaccai (with devoicing), all according to the fourth conjugation (Pischel) or gemination due to penultimate accent (Jacobi). Bhan- 'to speak' bhanai may be after the ninth ; labh- 'to get' lambhai after the nasal sixth ; labbhai passive with active meaning; kam- 'to love' kamei denominative in origin as in Sk.; kram- 'to step' kamai differing from Sk.; bhram- 'to wander' bhamai preserves an old conjugation. (iv) If the monosyllable root ends with a short vowel it is naturally gunated (full grade): cyu- 'to fall' cavai ; plu- 'to float' pavai; bhu- 'to become' bhavai, harai ; hi- 'to take away' harai ; t?- 'to cross' tarai ; snap- 'to remember' sarai, sumarai; stu- 'to flow' savai. Older conjugational forms are preserved in: dhr- to hold' dharai ; my 'to die' marci; vi"to choose' varai ; s- 'to move' sarai ; change of conjugation is met in: ji- 'to conquer' jinai after the 9th.

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S. 167.] LESSON TWO 93 (v) A long vowel of the root remains unchanged : jiv- 'to live' jivai; khad-' to eat' khayai ; dhav- 'to run' dhavai ; bhas- 'to speak' bhasai ; viradh- 'to violate' virahai; sev- 'to serve' sevai. Metrically long vowel is also kept : taks- 'to chop' tacchai; kamp 'to tremble' kampai; pragalbh- 'to boast' pagabbhai; nind-'to blame' nindai; raks- 'to protect' rakkhai ; siks- 'to learn' sikkhai ; gari. 'to roar' gajjat. (vi) Weak grade, as in the 6th conjugation, is found in : bhas- 'to shine' bhisoi ; dhav- 'to wash' dhuvai ; and dhovai after the secondary base dhuva-. More regular than Sk. are the forms chai (ihate) sajjai (sanj. sajati); mil- 'to close' has (um) millai. (vii) The roots with the thematic suffix -sko- (S. -cch-) are : gam- 'to go gacchai ; and a generalised form murch- to fall in a swoon' mucchai. (viii) Forms of the reduplicated type are : pa- 'to drink' pivai; stha- to stand' citthai ; and sad- (I-E. *sed-) 'to sit' siyai. (ix) Dissyllabic roots are: gai- 'to sing' gayai ; dh yai- 'to think jhayai, jhiyayai ; trai- to protect tayai. 167 (i) Roots of the sixth conjugation with a weak grade base and the accented thematic suffix -a. Identical with Sk. are : spre- 'to touch' phusai (while phasai after the first); samkuc* to contract' samkucai; ksip- 'to throw' khivai ; dis- 'to point' disai, ud disai; likh- 'to write' lihai (lehai after the first); vis"to enter' visai ; vyutssj- 'to abandon' vosirai. (ii) Change of conjugation is found in: trut-'to break' tuttai; sphut- 'to burst' phutsai; vidh- 'to pierce' vijjhai, all after the fourth. mil- to join' melai and vidh- to pierce.' vehai after the first. gi- (gar-, gira-) 'to swallow' gilai and sphur (sphar-) to throb' phurai are due to the effect of the original sonant becoming an independent syllable. (iii) Roots inserting a nasal are : lip- 'to besmear' limpai: lup-. 'to conceal' lumpai ; vid-'to get' vindai ; sic- 'to sprinkle' sincai; muc- 'to release' muncai (also mu yai); krt- 'to cut' kantai, vigincai.

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94 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 167. (iv) Roots with the suffix -sko- are : is- to wish' icchai ; !- (ar-) "to go' acchai (Pischel) or akseti (Turner). (v) Roots of the fourth conjugation with a low-grade base with accent and the suffix -ya show the assimilation of the final consonant with the -ya and palatalisation when the root ends with a dental. nrt- 'to dance' naccai; yudh- 'to fight' jujjhai ; trut-'to break' tuttai; kup- 'to be angry' kuppai; lubh- 'to covet' lubbhai; rus- 'to be angry' russai, rusai; tus- 'to be pleased' tusai ; sus-'to get dry'sussai, susai ; dus- 'to be soiled' dusai; dussai; kut-'to strike' kuttai; krudh- 'to be angry' kujjhai; klis- 'to be afflicted' kilesai; (with full grade) ; gidh- 'to covet' gijjhai ; budh- to know" bujjhai; sidh- 'to be accomplished' sijjhai. (vi) Of full grade are : hts-'to be delighted' harisai (Epic harsati); slis- 'to cling' silesai ; is- 'to go' esai ; visij- 'to let go' visajjai; of doubtful grade : man- 'to. think' mannai ; nas to be destroyed' nassai ; pad- 'to step' pajjai ; mTg- 'to search' maggai; vidh- 'to pierce' vindhai. (vii) Dissyllabic roots with a weak grade or a lengthened grade may be found in : jan- 'to be produced' jayai ; ji - 'to be old' jirai; tam- 'to languish' tammai; visramt 'to rest' visamai; klam- 'to fade' kilammai; mad- 'to be exhilarated' majjai. (viii) Differing from Sk. : sam- 'to be pacified' samai ; ma'to measure' mayai ; ali- 'to collect ' alliyai. 168 ATHEMATIC BASES. (i) Roots of the second conjuga. tion of a bare base before the terminations are preserved in case of -a ending and fall under Class III. Others are thematised. Thus : su- 'to give birth' (pa) savai; nhu- 'to conceal' ninhavai, ninhuvai ; ru- 'to cry' tuvai, rovai from the secondary base tuv- ; bha- 'to shine' (padi) hayai ; si- 'to lie down' sayai ; stu- 'to praise' thunai ; svas- to breath' sasai, usasai ; svap- 'to sleep' suvai, sovai from the secondary base suva- ; as- 'to sit' aniyasai, pajjuvasai ; sas- 'to rule' sasai; jag?- 'to keep awake" jagatai; vid-'to know' veyai (from the causal), han- 'to kill" hanai.

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S. 170.] LESSON TWO 95 Rootsin -a are optionally thematised: ma- 'to measure' mayai, va- 'to blow' vayai ; ya- 'to go' pattiyai ; khya- 'to tell" agghayai, aikkhai. Dissyllabic roots are : rud-'to cry' ruyai, royai ; bru- 'to speak' falls under C. III. (ii) Of the third conjugation formed by reduplication we have : ha- 'to abandon' jahai ; bhi- 'to fear' bihai, bhayai (Pischel derives biha- from bhis-'); hu- 'to sacrifice' hunai; ?- 'to go' riyai. Others ending in -i in C. III. (iii) Of the fifth conjugation are: (falling together with the 9th) ci- to collect' cinai; dhu- 'to shake' dhunai; sru- 'to hear' sunai ; ap- 'to obtain' paunai ; (also pappoi, pavai); sak to be able' sakkunai (also sakkai); sti- 'to spread' vittharai; kr. 'to do' kunai. (iv) Roots of the seventh conjugation have generalised the thematic form of the weak base : chihd-'to cut' chindai; bhaj'to break' bhanjai ; bhid- to break' bhindai ; bhuj- 'to enjoy * bhunjai; yuj- 'to join' junjai (also jujjai) ; rudh- 'to obstruct' Tundhai; hims-'to kill' himsai; abhyanj- 'to bathe' abbhangei. (v) Of the so-called eighth conjugation (originally a part of the 5th) we have only : kr. 'to do' karai (strong) kuvvai (weak) and ksan- 'to hurt' chanai. (vi) Roots of the ninth conjugation are: jna- to know' janai, janai; kri- 'to buy' kinai; pu- 'to purify' punai ; as- 'to eat' anhai ; grah- 'to take' genhai : badh- 'to bind' bandhai. * 169 The origin of the forms of the present offers no difficulty. All of them are directly derived from Sk. Thus bhavami (bhavami), bhavamo (bhavamah), bhavasi (bhavasi) bhavaha (bhavatha), bhavai (bhavati), bhavanti (bhavanti). The length of the vowel in the first person is due to the o of the thematic vowel elo. 170 The root are to be corresponds to Sk. forms :I p. (E) zifa, F# I am, ( ) #1, y we are. II. p. (H) afa, fa thou art, (a ) 4 you are. III. p. (a, , 7, 8 ) af he is etc. (a, asi) Afia they are.

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96 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 170. Often the III. p. form atthi is generalised for all persons and numbers. ___171. Conjugate : ahaM ciTThAmi, ahaM bhAsAmi, ahaM geNhAmi, ahaM jANAmi, ahaM gacchAmi. haNAmo. jANasi. dulhanti. vasasi. paDai. acchanti. pucchAmi. phusai. khivaha. bhakkhaha. jANai. dhAvanti. khaNAmi. Agacchaha. jayai. 1. kiMkaro aDaM khnni| 2. vANarA rukkhesu vsnti| 3. gAmesu narA santi / 4. so khaggeNa vagdhaM hnni| 5. siyAlo maNasi' ciNtii| 6. siMho mige bhkkhi| 7. . maNussA bhaasnti| 8. tumhe sigdhaM srh| 9. amhe silogaM bhnnaamo| 10 vAyaso siyAlassa viyAraM jANai / 11. migo raNNe rukkhassa mUle ciTThai / 12. so hatyeNa AsaM phusi| 13. nivo baleNa jaNavayaM jayai / 14. putto AyariyaM pAsaNe pucchai / 15 dAso bhAraM vhi| 16. nasthi jIvassa' naaso| 17. suyaNo na kuppi| 18. caMdassa kiraNA amayaM muMcanti / 19. sIlaM varaM kulAo dAridaM ca rogaao| 172 (I). They. speak. I go. We run. You kill. I take. Thou givest. We ask. They conquer. It falls. She lives. They throw. He moves. You climb. She eats. It comes. (II). 1. I think. 2. The lion eats men. 3. The king lives in the city. 4. The child runs fast. 5. The teacher asks questions. 6. The servant falls from the tree. 7. Men come from the villages. 8. We go to the town'. 9. He kills a dog with a stick. 10. He climbs the tree. 11. The child catches the ear of the horse. 12. The warrior discharges arrows. 1 395. 2 354. 3 387. 4 353.

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S. 175.] LESSON THREE 173 Like Mas. nouns Neu. nouns in AMg. also end in -a, -i andu. The terminations for those in a are: N. A. sing. -m; plu. -im, -ni. Before the plu. terminations the preceding vowel is lengthened. The other terminations are the same as those of the Mas. nouns (cf. 148). LESSON THREE As regards origin, the sing. is identical with the Sk. form (vanam) and the plu. termination ni is the same as Sk. -ni (phalani, phalani). The other form phalaim or phalai offers difficulty. Bloch, Alsdorf and others accept the phonetic change of the loss of the nasal -n and the nasalisation of the following vowel. Gray suggests that phalai comes from the Vedic plu. phala + (i) ini which is borrowed from nouns ending in -n (cf. balini) with analogical shortening of -i- .or (ii) -in of pre-Sanskrit as in Av.. N. V. A. 174 A Neu. noun like a 'a forest' will be declined as follows: I. Ab. G. L. qui qui vaNeNa, varNaNaM vaNA, vaNAo vaNassa aui, auife, aufer. " 97 avis, quo vAI, vANi auife, quife vaNehiMto vaNANa, vaNANaM ady aug " 175 CHANGE OF GENDER. Besides the usual neuter nouns in Sk. some vowel-ending Mas. nouns show a plural form of the Neu. declension. gunaim 'virtues' (guna); pasinaim questions' (prasna); masaim 'months' (masa); phasaim touches (sparsa); rukkhaim 'trees' (vrksa). Fem. nouns becoming Neu. are: tayani barks' (tvak); pauyaim 'shoes' (paduka); pantiyaim row' (pankti); bhamuhaim eyebrows" (Pk. bhamuha). BASES. Nouns ending in consonants become shortened by the dropping of the consonant: jaga 'world' (jagat); tava 'penance' 7

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 175. maMsa (tapas); naha 'sky' (nabhas) ; ura 'breast' (uras) ; sira 'head' (siras); raya 'dust' (rajas). 176 Like aur should be declined neuter nouns in 37 as : ujjANa garden quum leaf : HOT: mind 1 deed 979 sinf wine Tu virtue puNNa merit flesh TTE, R house flower kingdom dANa gift potthaga book vIriya energy devaula temple phala fruit sutta thread, passage naha sky bala power suvaNNa gold. 177 Present tense of roots of Class II. 1. Before the terminations g is added to the root. 2. 37 of afar is dropped. Thus the forms of a root like the 'to do' will be:I. p. karamo II. p. : III. p. parte karanti To this class belong verbs (i) belonging to the 10th Gana in Sk. plate to tell. TOT to count vaNNa to describe sAha to speak lajja to feel ashamed aJca to worship uDDu to fly cora to steal daNDa to punish (ii) denominatives or nouns used as verbs niveda to inform kAma to wish AhAra to eat paNNava to preach nimaMta to invite uvakkhaDa to cook pahANa to bathe maila to soil saddAva to call (iii) causal forms of all verbs ThAva to place jANAva to teach mAra to kill jIvAva to revive pADa to fell dAva to show nAsa todestroy bhAma to whirl kAra to cause.

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S. 180.) LESSON THREE 99 Historically all the three groups are a development of one primitive type which explains the uncertainty of distinguishing between them. In all probability nouns were originally used as verbs with a variety of meanings and from them arose the causal forms whenever the meaning was factitive and the verbs of the 10th Gana where no such meaning was preseni. When the form could not be brought in relation with a verb it was felt all along as a denominative. 178 The -e- before the terminations is the phonetic development of the syllable -aya- of the Sanskrit forms. This syllable is often preserved in AMg. particularly before the III. p. plu. termination (talyanti). Besides these three types of verbs, other roots have analogically taken place in this class. Thus from the first conjugation we find dharei (dhr-) ; sumarei (smr-) ; kamei (kam-) ; namei (nam-) ; rakkhei (raks-); from the second ; utthei (uttha-) : thunei (stu-) ; from the third : bihei (bhi-) ; from the fifth : pavei (prap-) ; from the eighth : karei (kar-). In some of these cases the original long syllable must have helped the presence of -e- (karoti, karei ; prapnoti, pavei). : 179 ADDITIONAL FORMS : I. sing. janimi, janami, sahami, ha sami, etc. where the second syllable is weakened. plu. hasamu, hasama, accemu, accimo, jampimo, vandimo ; icchamu etc. where either the second or the third syllable is weakened. II. p. sing. janasi (survival of Sk.), III. p. acchahim, adhahi, parijanahi all suggesting borrowal from Apabhraisa or the popular language. 180. (1.) Decline in full gour, quul, Sout, gravur. (II.) HAT. T. qraialska. atrami. Tritt. TEM. THE Ami. qasetit. NEEM. Jule. (III.) 1. Ata Par SHIU 4931 2. apei set TUTE I 3. rukkhAo phalaM pddi| 4. phalaM ca puppaM ca rukkhANaM alNkaaraa| 5. pAvakamma kareha dujaNo, na ya ljeh| 6. loe puNNehiMto pAvAiM ahigaaii| 7. samaNo . 1 335.. 2 382.

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100 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 180. majaM ca maMsaM ca na bhkkhi| 8. arahaMto dhammaM bhAsai, gaNaharA taM suNenti / 9. ali pri quoise i 10. E STE TEE I 11. SPS gase qfag i 12. B SHIUT TEESITA I 13. ETANT QUE | 14. ghean gauoi diezi 15. Fie A TOT gati 16. PHASIS PEA are a alfa afsus I 17. araca qui fage 181 (1) Of the mind. Flowers. With leaves. Of the thread. To the temple. In the kingdoms. From the sky. With power. Of the deeds. (II) 1. The houses of the monkeys are on the trees. 2. There are trees in the garden. 3. He gives a garland of flowers to the god. '4. He wishes (for) power and energy. 5. Birds fly in the sky. 6. Wise men preach religion. 7. The tree has leaves, flowers and fruits. 8. God punishes wicked men. 9. Fools do not understand the meaning of books. 10. I do not see flowers on the trees. 11. The crow says to the jackal 'You do not speak the truth.' 12. You want my food. LESSON FOUR 182 Feminine nouns end in 371, 3, &, 3, or o All of them are declined similarly except in the case of L. sing. where nouns ending in g and have an additional form with the termination sit. As compared to Mas. and Neu, nouns the endings of the Fem. nouns appear to be numerous. But there is no real distinction between -i, -u and i, -u. Nor do these endings preserve any different types of declension. There is no predominant type as in 1 387. 3 352. 2 Make 'trees' the subject. 4 394. 5478.

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S. 185.] . LESSON FOUR 101 case of Mas. -a, and the system of Fem, declension is the result of the interaction of all the types. 183The terminations for the Fem. nouns are : N. sing.-A. -m, V.-, -, I. -e, Ab. -0, -e, G. -e, L. -e, -msi; Plu. N.--, -0, A.-, -0, V.-, -0, I. -hi, -him, Ab. -hinto, G. -na, nam, L. su, -sum. Before the termination of the A. sing. the long vowel of the stem is shortened as it is followed by an anusvara. A. mAlaM Ab. (mAla ) 184 The full declension of a feminine noun ending in 3 like Hret' a garland' will be :mAlA mAlA, mAlAo ___V. mAle, mAlA mAlA, mAlAo mAlA, mAlAo mAlAe mAlAhi, mAlAhiM (mAlAe), mAlAo mAlAhinto G. mAlAe mAlANa, mAlANaM L. mAlAe mAlAsu, mAlAsuM Similarly are to be declined other Fem. nouns ending in AumhA heat devayA deity majjAyA limit kannA daughter nasAlA theatre layA creeper kivA campassion nAvA 'boat velA time gaMgA Ganges payA subjects sAlA school chAyA shade pUyA worship HIET branch jauNA . .Jumna bhajjA, bhAriyA wife seNA army 185 CHANGE OF GENDER. Mas. nouns ending in consonants become Fem. along with a change in the final : (cf. Sk. siman m. sima f.) addha 'way' (adhvan); sembha 'mucus' (slesman); umha 'heat' (usman); the change of gender being caused by the N. *sing. ending in-a. gimha 'summer' (grisma) hemanta winter' (hemanta) due to the association with vasa "rainy season' (varsah); garima greatness' (gariman)..

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102 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 186. 186 THE THEMES are either shortened forms : sumana of good mind' (sumanas) ; acchara divine damsel' (apsaras) ; parisa 'assembly' (parisad) or extended forms: sariya 'river' (sarit) ; citausa of long life' (cita yusi); asisa' blessing' (asih); disa direction' (dis); vaya' speech' (vac); gira 'words' (gir); sampaya 'wealth' (sampad); chuha 'thirst' (ksudh). 187 Of the PRIMARY DERIVATIVES only few are felt as such : root-nouns nidda 'sleep' (nidra), paya 'subjects' (praja), paha 'light' (prabha). The use of the suffix -a is frequent : kidda * sport' (krid-a); daya 'compassion' (day-a); ninda 'blame (nind-a); samka doubt' (sanka); himsa killing' (hims-a); khama 'forgiveness' (ksam-a); bhasa 'speech' (bhas-a); seva service' (sev-a); cinta 'thought' (cint-a); bhikkha "begging' (bhiks-a); with the suffix -ya: vijja learning' (vid-ya): bhajja " wife' (bhar-ya); sejja 'bed' (say-ya); other rare suffixes : veyana 'pain' (ved-ana), gaha 'verse' (ga-tha); tanha 'thirst' (tas-na); jonha 'moon-light' (jot-sna); maya "measure' (ma-tra). With the FEMININE SUFFIX -a are formed feminine adjectives like pava 'sinful' (pava); taruna 'young' (taruna) etc. The abstract suffix -ta: devaya 'deity' (deva-ta); the suffix -ika (as feminine for-aka): kumariga girl' (kumara); ajjiya "grandmother'(aryika); ajiviya mode of life' (ajivika), ganiya *courtezan' (ganika); culiya 'crest' (culika). Differing from Sk. mahaliya 'great'; ammaya 'mother'; citausa of long life'; abbhatthaniya 'request'; nattuniya 'grand-daughter'; magaha * belonging to Magadha'. 188 ADDITIONAL FORMS : In the singular malae is often weakened into malai. In the L. plu. we have hatthuttarahim, gimhahim, visahahim all of which could be considered as forms of I. plu. used as L. or from Apabhraisa or popular language. 189 ORIGIN. Fully agreeing with Sk. are N. sing. mala; plu. mala (malah); V. sing. male, A. sing. malam (malam); I. plu. malahim (malabhih); G. plu. malanam (malanam); L. plu. malasu (malasu). N. V. A. plu. form malao after the forms of -i and -u endings. Pali matiyo (Sk. matayah) with the lengthen

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S. 192.] LESSON FOUR 103 ing of the vowel after the analogy mati : matiyo, mala : malayo Pk. malao. Gray suggests that it is mala and the consonantal ending -as. Ab. sing. malao is analogical after devao. Ab. plu. malahinto is composite as devehinto. I. G. L. sing. malae is according to Pischel, Bloch, Geiger the D.-G. malayai of the Brahmanas and Upanisads used as G. Alsdorf suggests that malae is a phonetic variant of malaya which is older and in agreement with Pali kannaya. This form may have arisen by rhythmic change like munina : munina ; sahuna; sahuna of Mas. nouns. 190 Present tense of roots belonging to Class III. They usually end in 31, T or 37. The terminations are directly applied to them. The termination for loses its 37 after roots ending in g or sit, and optionally becomes upar after roots ending in 347. 191 The forms of a root like a 'to be will be : I. p. A homo II. p. alle de III. P. ETE Elfar (but arufaa) Similarly are to be conjugated other roots like :jhiyA to think uvaTThA to wait upon gA to sing a to blow 8 to stand A to lead to give a to speak 5 to come. 192 Athematic roots of the second class usually preserve a stem ending in -a: mai 'to measure' (ma-) ; va- 'to blow' vai; bha- 'to shine' bhai; sna- 'to bathe' nhai, sinai ; khya- 'to tell' akkhai ; ;- 'to go' ei; bru- 'to speak' bei ; some roots of the third conjugation : da- 'to give' dei ; dhu- 'to place' adhai ; ha* to abandon' jahai ; one of the ninth conjugation : as- 'to eat' anhai. Of thematic roots we have ji- 'to conquer' jeu ; ni- 'to lead' nei ; di- 'to fly'uddei ; Ti- 'to cling' lei; bhu- 'to become' hoi ; gai- 'to sing" gai ; dhyai- 'to think' jhai, jhiyai ; stha- 'to stand' thai; khad-'to eat' khai ; in conformity with the epic

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104 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 192. usage are found : mlai- 'to fade' milai (mlati); glai-'to languish' gilai (glati) ; ghra- to smell' agghai (aghrati), Between jan- 'to be born' and ya- 'to go' there is a difference in the third person jayai : jai; jayanti : janti.. 193 The adjective in AMg. always agrees with the noun which it qualifies in Gender, Number and Case. (i) Agreement in Gender : mahuro saho sweet word. taruNA kannA young girl. pikaM phalaM ripe fruit. (ii) Agreement in Number : ego samaNo a monk. bahUiM pasiNAI many questions. ' (iii) Agreement in Case : so ,mahureNa saddeNa Alavai He speaks with a sweet voice. sajjaNo saccaM vayaNaM na cayai A good man does not abandon true words. tuMgAo vacchAo phalaM paDai A fruit falls from the lofty tree. juNNesuM ujjANesuM layAo pAsai He sees creepers in the old gardens. For further details of agreement cf. 337, 338. 194 (I) Decline in full : devayA, velA, layA, kannA. (II) nadRsAlAe. payANaM. umhAe. bhAriyaM. layAhiM. nAvAe. majjAyAo, kivaM. gaMge. kannAsuM. pUyAo. sAhAhito. nenti. vAi. jhiyAmi. demo. besi. gAyaha. (III) 1. bAlayA sAlaM gacchanti / 2. devayAo maMgalaM rukkhaM Aruhanti / 3. nivo payaM pAlei / 4. te gaMgAe jaleNa pupphAiM siMcanti / 5. govA jauNAe tIresuM kIlanti / 6. vIrA seNAe muhe jujjhanti / 7. ibbho viulaM dhaNaM lubbhai / 8. jaNA mahuraM annaM bhakkhanti / 9. kaDhiNaNa taveNa samaNo mokkhaM paaunni| 10. dhammigeNa AyAreNa pAvAiM nassanti / 11. suyaNo pharusaM vayaNaM na bhaNai / 12. miyA rukkhassa sIyalAe chAyAe / vasanti / 13. layANaM pupphAiM suMdarAI / 14. samaNavatthANi dussIlaM na tAyanti / 15. namI rAyA bhoge priccyi| 16. susIlo naro devANaM pi vallaho hoi| 17. AsA khalu rakkhae jIvaM / 1_389.

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S. 197.] LESSON FIVE 105 195 (I) To the girl. In time. Of Jumna. By the deity. In the school. With branches. From the boundary. With the army. Of the creepers. In a boat. They sing. The wind blows. Men speak. We think. You stand. (II) 1. The flowers fade by the touch of the heat. 2. The servants wait upon the king and (his ) son. 3. A wicked man kills living beings. 4. Gods and demons fight for nectar. 5. A monk cuts (his) strong bonds. 6. The boundaries of the ocean are inviolable. 7. Time is valuable. 8. The tree has long branches, green leaves, and sweet fruits. 9. The beatiful girls dance in the theatre. 10. Sita is the wife of Rama. 11. The worship of the gods is meritorious. 12. The boat sinks in the deep ocean. LESSON FIVE 196 Mas. nouns ending in -i and -u take the following terminations. Sing. N.-, V.- ; A. -, I. na, Ab. -no ;-0 ; G. -no, -ssa ; L. -msi, mmi ; Plu. N. V. A. -no, -o; I. -hi, -him ; Ab.- hinto; G. -na, -nar ; L. -su, sus. Before the terminations of N. and V. plu. -no ; A. sing. -rn, plu. no I. sing. -na; Ab. G. sing. -no, -ssa; and L. sing. -rsi, -mmi the preceding vowel is short, while in all other cases it is long. 197 The full declension of a Mas. noun ine like enfin 'fire' will be :N. Sperma aggiNo, aggIo I V . sifir aggiNo, amgIo .: A. affit aggiNo, aggIo 1. 373. 2 394. 3 350.

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106 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 197. L. ___I. aggiNA aggIhi, aggIhi ___Ab. aggiNo, aggIo aggIhinto G. aggiNo, aggissa aggINa, aggINaM aggisi, aggimmi aggIsu, aggIsuM A Mas. noun ending in 3 is ars' wind' vAU vAuNo, vAavo ___V. vAuNo, vAavo A. vAuM vAuNo, vAavo vAuNA vAUhi, vAUhiM Ab. vAuNo, vAUo vAUhiMto. G. vAuNo, vAussa vAUNa, vAUNaM L. vAuMsi, vAummi vAUsu, vAUsuM vAu 198 Few other nouns of -i and -u endings have become Mas. Thus au 'water' (apas f.); teu 'fire' (tejas n.) vau 'words (vacas n.). The THEMES are taken from the consonantal endings as well, mostly by dropping the final consonant. hatthi elephant' (hastin), tavassi 'ascetic' (tapasvin); nani 'knower' (jnanin) mehavi wise' (medhavin); bambhayari celibate monk (brahmacarin); pakkhi 'bird' (paksin), sami lord' (svamin); sasi' moon' (Sasin); oyamsi full of vigour' (Ojasvin); teyamsi jasamsi etc.; cakkavatti -- sovereign king' (cakravartin); manti " minister' (mantrin); dandi 'staff bearer' (dandin); sakkhi witness' (saksin) ; joi 'star' (jyotis); havi' oblation' (havis); and compounds with -jna 'to know' like savvannu, 'omniscient' vinnu knower' etc. The weak base is found in viu knower' (vidus). 199 Few derivatives are apparent in these types of nouns. Root-nouns may be found in vihi 'fate' (vi-dhi); sandhi 'joint' (san-dhi); pahu lord' (pra-bhu). nai -- relative' (ina-ti); vanhi "fire' (vah-ni); jantu animal' (jan-tu), maccu death' (mit-yu); vau 'wind' (va-yu); and a few others.

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S. 203.]. LESSON FIVE 107 200 ADDITIONAL FORMS. I. sing. atthina, mutthina after the analogy of devena; L. sing. Tao (tatrau), ghinsu (grisme) as survivals from Sk., V. sing. gahavai, muni, jambu with the pluti of the final ; N. V. A. plu. aggi, vau, vaavo, risao, bahave (always so); girisu, vagguhim etc. preserve the original short vowel in verses ; Ab. sing. aggiu, vauu show the weakening of the finals. 201 ORIGIN. Agreeing with Sk., are aggi (agnih) vau (vayuh), aggi (agnim) vaum (vayum) ; aggina (agnina) vauna (vayuna), aggihi (agnibhih) vauhi (vayubhih), agginam (agninam) vaunam (vayunam). N. A. plu. aggio, risio, vauo from the fem. declension like maio ; Ab. G. sing. aggino, vauno from the consonantal declension of words like balin (balinah) ; G. sing aggissa etc. from the -a- declension ; L. sing. aggirsi, aggimmi etc. from the pronominal declension or after the analogy of the -a- declension ; Ab. sing. aggio from the adverbial -tas with analogical lengthening cf. Pali: cakkhuto; N. A. plu. aggino from the -indeclension ; L. plu. aggisu, vausu after the analogy of aggini, agginam, or after devesu. 202 Other Mas. words to be similarly declined are : isi sage . pahu lord. rAva sun usu arrow , baMdhu brother riu enemy kaha poet bAhu arm vihi fate teu fire bhikkhu monk enemy fare store maccu death sAhu monk pai husband maNi jewel seu bridge pakkhi bird muNi sage are elephant. 203 In AMg: the past tense of all the verbs is formed by adding the terminations : I, II, III, p. Run (EPART) (ENG) It should be noted that these two forms are used for all the persons. Similarly from other roots are formed:

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108 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 203. TE rIiMsu vihariMsu saMpaja to obtain saMpajitthA saMpajiMsu roya to like roitthA esa to beg esitthA esiMsu rIya to wander rIitthA vihara to live viharitthA bhuMja to eat bhuMjitthA bhuMjiMsu seva to serve sevitthA sAvasu 204 ORIGIN. Both these forms are originally of aorist. The singular termination -ittha or ittha may come from the Sk. -ista of the Il'I. p. sing. Atmanepada of the -is-aorist. The form with the dental instead of the expected cerebral leads Pischel to doubt the derivation. The plu. -imsu, according to Pischel, Geiger, comes from -isuh of the IIP. p. plu. Parasmaipada of the -is-aorist. Gray explains the presence of the nasal as due to the contamination of *avattum and *avattisum (ci. Sk. avitan : avartisur) i.e. of the -a-aorist and the -is-aorist. For the dental of the singular Bloch suggests the influence of -ttha of as- or according to Smith it is due to the contamination of the thematic aorist. 205 All the three types of past tenses of Sk. have left a few oft-used forms in AMg. which are used in nearly all the persons and numbers thus suggesting that their original value is fully lost. The augment is kept in a few cases. (i) IMPERFECT. as- 'to be asi, asi. Use : ke aham asi Who was I?'amhe asi 'we were' cattari mitta asi 'had four friends.' bru- 'to speak' abbavi. Use. bala imam vuyanam abbavi 'the ignorant men spoke these words.' (ii) AORIST. Beside the regular forms I. p. sing. kr. 'to do' akarissam, pracch- 'to ask' pucchissam. II. p. sing. kr. akasi, akasi Use : jamaham puvvam akasi 'which I did formerly' jaha vayam pura kamman akasi' as we did the Kamma before '. vad- to speak' vayasi (like Pali agamasi). III. p. sing. akasi, akasi, stha- to stand' thasi ; car- 'to move' acari ; kath- 'to tell' kahesi; bhu- 'to become' bhuvi; ahesi. I. p. plu. vas- 'to live' vucchamu ; III. p. plu. vayasi. From causal base a form of the s-aorist pavvavesi.

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S. 208.] LESSON FIVE 109 (iii) PERFECT. ahu, udahu and analogical ahamsu used for sing. and plu. as well. 206 More often the meaning of the past tense in AMg. is expressed by using the past passive participle. It is formed by adding the termination zu to the root. So from the following roots : hasa to laugh hasiya laughed bhaNa to speak bhaNiya spoken * puccha to ask greget asked rakkha to protect rakkhiya protected ciMta. to think cintiya thought bhakkha to eat bhakkhiya eaten TS to fall : paDiya fallen 207 In many cases, however, the Sk. form of the past passive participle is changed according to the ordinary rules of phonology. The following are the most important of such forms: gama to go gaya kara to do kaya, kaDa de to give dina jANa to know nAya Arabha to begin Araddha ne to carry nIya chiMda to cut chinna* baMdha to bind baddha mara to die maya laha to obtain laddha paya to cook pakka pAsa to see diTTha gA to sing gIya nasa to vanish na? pavisa to enter paviTTha pAva 'to obtain patta tara to cross tiNNa ciTTha to stand Thiya suNa to hear suya cava to fall cuya baMdha to bind baddha haNa to kill haya Daha to burn dar3a vaya to speak vutta 208 The PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE forms of Sk. formed by the accented suffix -ta and preceded by the vowel -j- are generalised in AMg. so as to give rise to the regular mode of formation. But as in Sk. many of the past participles had assumed the value of nouns and adjectives and were not felt as verbal forms, most of them were directly taken over in AMg. with the necessary phonetic changes.

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110 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 208. (i) With the suffix -ta and the weak grade of the base: (a) roots ending in vowels: kr- to do' kaya, kada, kri- to buy kiya; gai- to sing' giya; cyu- 'to fall' cuya; ja- to be born' jaya; ya 'to go' jaya; ji- to conquer' jiya; dhyai- to think' jhaya; stha- 'to stand' thiya; sna- 'to bathe' nhaya; dhu- 'to shake' dhuya; jna- 'to know' naya; ni- to lead' niya; pa to drink' piya; bhi- to fear' bhiya; bhu- 'to become' bhuya; my- to die' maya; va- to blow' vaya; sruto hear' suya; hy to take away' haya, hada; (b) roots ending in surd consonants: ajnap to order' anatta; ksip- to throw' khitta; sthap- to place' thaviya; tap- to heat' tatta; prap to get' patta; pravrt- to start payatta, pavatta; pracch- "to ask' puttha, muc- to release mutta lup to conceal' lutta; vrt to turn' vatta; vijnap 'to request' vinnatta; svap- to sleep' sutta; vac- 'to speak' vutta; (c) roots ending in sonants: aparadh to be guilty' avaradhha; arabh to begin' araddha, adhatta; krudh 'to get angry' kuddha; grdh- to be attached giddha, gadhiya; tyaj to abandon' catta; yuj to join' jutta; pavutta; badh'to bind baddha; budh to know' buddha; bhuj 'to enjoy' bhutta; raj- 'to colour' ratta; rudh to obstruct' ruddha; labh to get' laddha; vidh- to pierce' viddha; sidh 'to accomplish' siddha; sudh- to purify' suddha; han- 'to kill' haya; (d) roots ending in nasals: kam to love' kanta; kram to step' kanta, kamiya; klam- to languish kilanta; khan to dig' khaya; gam- 'to go' gaya; dam to control" danta; nam to bend naya; ram to take delight' raya; (e) roots ending in sibilants: upavis- to sit' uvavi ttha; krs- to drag' kaddha; klis- 'to be troubled' kilittha; gaves to seek' gavittha; tras- 'to frighten' tattha; tus'to be satisfied' tuttha; dams- to bite' dattha; dys to see" dittha; nas to vanish' naffha; pravis- to enter pavittha; musto rob' muttha; rus- 'to be angry' ruttha; vrs- 'to rain vuttha; sas- 'to rule' sittha;

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S. 209.) LESSON FIVE 111 (f) roots ending in h : grah- 'to take' gahiya ; guhto conceal' extdha : dah- to burn' daddha; muh- 'to be deluded' mudha; ruh- 'to grow' rudha; lih- 'to lick' lidha ; vah- a to carry' vuoha; sah- 'to bear' sodha. (ii) With-ta differing from Sk. las- 'to desire' lattha ; vas- 'to live' vuttha; trut-'to break' tutta; samlap- 'to converse' samlatta. (iii) With -ita from the present base : tras- tasiya; taptaviya ; yaj- jaftha; samavasy- samosariya ; vism?- vissariya ; isicchiya ; pracch- pucchiya. (iv) With -na : khid- to become exhausted' khinna : ci'to collect' cinna ; chad- to cover' channa ; chid- to cut' chinna ; ji 'to grow old' jinna, junna ; ti 'to cross' tinna ; da'to give' dinna; palaya- 'to run away' palana; prapad- 'to get' pavanna; bhaj- 'to break' bhagga; bhid-'to break bhinna ; rud-'to cry' runna; lag- 'to stick' lagga ; sak- 'to be able' sakka; ha- 'to abandon' hina.. (v) Substitutes : pac- 'to cook' pikka ; sphut- 'to bloom' phulla. 209 The use of the p. p. p. depends upon the nature of the verb. (i) If the verb is transitive the logical subject is put in the Inst., the object in the Nom. and the participle agrees with the object in number and gender. quitario e fareri The food was eaten by the beggar = the beggar ate the food. vaggheNa migo dittttho| The tiger saw the deer. jaMbUgeNa 957 after I The fox took off the fruits. (ii) If the verb is intransitive the subject is put in the Nom. and the participle agrees with it in number and gender. sa go| He went. rAmo nayarAo pathio / Rama started from the town, .. (iii) Sometimes the object is suppressed or the whole sentence forms the object of a verb when the participle is put

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112 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 209. in the neuter gender and singular number. teNa ciMtiyaM / He thought. rAmeNa bhaNiyaM Rama spoke. ii vuttaM mhesinnaa| Thus it was said by the great sage. 210 Compare the following active and passive constructions in the past tense and p. p. p. respectively. i. maNussA bhANaMsu / maNussehiM bhaNiyaM / ___ii. kaI phalaM bhakkhitthA / kaiNA phalaM bhakkhiyaM / iii. gaNI dhammaM bhAsitthA / gaNiNA dhammo bhaasio| iv. isiNo vayAiM pAliMsu / isIhiM vayAiM paaliyaaii| For the uses of p. p. p. ci 445-450. 211 (I). Decline in full : muNi, halthi, maccu, sAhu. (II). 1 siyAleNa mao hatthI dittro| 2 sAhaNA ciMtiyaM / 3 isiNA bhakkho lddho| 4 siMho aago| 5 jUe parAiyA paNDavA vaNaM gacchisu / 6 guruNA bhaNiyaM / 7 teNaM kAleNaM teNaM samaeNaM kuNDaggAme nayare siddhatyo nAma khattio hotthaa| 8 so ya samaNassa mahAvIrassa jaNao Asi / 9 aIyammi kAlammi kaIhiM samudde ego dIho seU bddho| 10 rAmeNa rAvaNo praaio| 11 IsareNa kaDe' loe| 12 bhaNiyA niveNa devii| rAyahaMso viya tava putto hoi / paDisuyaM devIe / parituTrA citteNaM / aikvaMto ko vi" kAlo / jAo tIe dohalo / saMpADio so niveNa / pasUyA esA / jAo dArago / kayaM vaddhAvaNayaM kayaM nAma' rAyahaMso tti / 212 1 Sages performed penance. 2. The jewel fell into the ocean. 3. The fire burnt the forest, birds, beasts and trees. 4. The monk preached religion. 5. He sang a song. 6. People asked questions to the ascetic. 7. The king thought of the causes of the battle. 8. He cut the head of the enemy with the sword. 9. The poet praised the merits of the king. 10. The sage obtained liberation. 1449. 5 445. 2 400. 6 270. 3 365. 7293. 4 350.

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S. 216.] LESSON SIX 113 213 Use the past passive participles in the following sentences : 1 paI bhajAe viulAI alaMkArAiM deitthA / 2 jaNA pekkhaNaMgaM gcchisu| 3 pakkhiNo AgAse uDDuisu / 4 seNA diyassa poyaM hriNsu| 5 samaNA kaDhiNeNa taveNa devA siddhA ya bhviNsu| 214 Put the following sentences in the active voice : 1 mahAvIreNa saMsArasAgaro tiNNo / 2 bhikkhU nayarIe ujjANe tthio| 3 kaNheNa sarIraM alaMkArehiM vibhUsiyaM / 4 migA gahaNe raNNe plaaiyaa| 5 rAmeNa kegaIe ANA paaliyaa| LESSON SIX 215 Neuter nouns ending in i and u are declined like the corresponding Mas. nouns except in the N. V. and A. N. V. A. dahiM dahIiM, dahINi . N. V. A. mahuM mahUI mahUNi In all the remaining cases they have the same forms as Mas. nouns ending in i and u (cf.. 197). Other nouns are : . acchi eye dAru wood vAri water . aMsu tears dhaNu bow . sappi ghee Au life reNu dust sAli rice cakkhu eye . vatthu object 216 A few masculine nouns have become neuter : salini * rice' (sali); vinini 'rice' (vrihi) ; heuim 'causes' (hetu). A number of Neuter nouns are included in this type by dropping their final consonant : cakkhu eye' (caksus); aur life (ayus) ; dhanu 'bow' (dhanus) ; sappi 'ghee' (sarpis). 8

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114 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 216. As regards origin the plu. forms show the normal development met with in nouns ending in -a. The singular forms with the anusvara dahim, mahum are either due to the analogy of vanam or are due to the nasalisation of the final vowel, a beginning of which is found in the anunasika preached by Panini in such cases (Sk. dadhi, madhu). 217 FORMATION OF THE FUTURE The first set of terminations of the future are : I. p. II, K T AI II. p. e . The III. p. I issanti It will be seen that the terminations of the future are formed by prefixing to the terminations of the present the characteristic future mark -issa- corresponding to Sk. -isya-.. Like Sanskrit the -i- may be dropped after stems ending in -e- and -0. (nessami, neissami, hossami, hoissami) while it is retained unlike Sk. after stems ending in -a (thaissami : Sk. dasyami). The reason for this distinction is to be found in the fact that while -e- and -0- can be pronounced short before the conjunct -ssa-, -a- could not be so pronounced without modifying the appearance of the root (*thassami). This is the commonest method of forming the future in AMg. 218 The future forms of a root like 'to do' will be : I. p. PRIETAILA, PRI DRAMAT II. p. aftene karissaha III. p. karissai karissanti The base used in forming this future is nearly identical with that of the present. Thus ji- ' to conquer' jinissai; bhu- 'to become' bhavisswi, hossai, hokkhai ; vihar- to wander' viharissai ; ti- 'to cross" tarissai; gam- 'to go' gamissai, gacchissai ; stha- 'to stand' citthissai, thaissai; preks- 'to see pekkhissai ; pecchissai ; labh- 'to get' labhissai ; pracch-'to ask' pucchissai ; pravis-'to enter' pavisissai; pravraj- 'to become a monk' par

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S. 221.] LESSON SIX 115 vajissai; prajan- 'to give birth' payaissai; da- 'to give' dalaissai ; pratyakhya; 'to renounce' paccaikkhissai; nirva- 'to extinguish' nivvaissai ; i- 'to go' essami ; vid-'to know' vedissai ; sraddha- 'to put faith' saddahissai ; ci- 'to collect ' cinissai ; sru-'to hear' sunessai : prad-'to obtain' paunissai : bhid-'to break' bhindissai; kr- 'to do'karissai (vik?- 'to produce by magic' viuvvissai); jna- 'to know' janissai ; grah- 'to take genhissai; badh- to bind' bandhissai; bhan- 'to speak' bhanis sai 219 Another method of forming the future is to add the following set of terminations. I. p. STEA, ETA ihimo, ihAmo II. p. ihisi ihiha III. p. sponse ihinti These terminations are formed by prefixing -ihi- to the terminations of the present. In all probability it represents a phonetic variation of -issa- which arose by simplification and change of -sto -h-, beginning with roots ending in long vowels. When the root ends in a long vowel the terminations drop their initial -;-. The forms like nehimi, nehimo go back to nesyami, nesyamah, the -y- explaining the presence of -;-. 220 The future forms of a root like me 'to see' I. p. Merera, NFAETH Wuferre , MPETH II. p. R . M ILEE III. p. Mares : Natha and of a root like a 'to lead': I. p. arti nehimo II. p. aretat . III. p. alles nehinti 221 Forms of this future are : ni- 'to lead' nehii ; bhu- 'to become' bhavihinti, hohii ; ti- 'to cross' tarihinti ; gai- 'to sing' gahii ; ?- 'to go acchihisi (?); gam- 'to go' gamihii, gacchihii; nehiha

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116 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 221. pa- 'to drink' pahii ; stha- 'to stand' thahii; utthehii; pravis. 'to enter' pavisihii ; saj- 'to cling' sajjihii ; gidh- 'to covet' gijjhihii ; muh- 'to be attached' mujjhihii ; budh- 'to know bujjhihii ; sidh- 'to accomplish' sijjhihii; viaj- 'to go' vaccihii ; pavvaihii ; man- 'to think' mannehi; prajan- 'to give birth' payahui ; i- 'to go' ehii ; da- 'to give' dahii ; prap- 'to obtain' paunihii ; sak- 'to be able' sakkehii; chid-'to cut' chindihui ; bhuj- 'to enjoy' bhunjihii ; kr- 'to do'karihii ; kahii ; jna- 'to know' janihii ; nahii ; bhan- 'to speak' bhanihii. vocchaha 222 In case of a few roots the future is formed by adding the terminations of the simple present to a peculiar future base of the root irregularly formed. Thus from the root open 'to speak' the future base is ales and the future forms are : I. p. alegla, ale BPESIAT II. p. aastat III. p. alege vocchanti The following roots have special future bases :the root the future base 3. p. sing. chiMda to cut checcha checchA e to give dacchai bhuMja to eat muya to abandon moccha ruya to cry face to know vecchA suNa to hear soccha 223 These are in reality forms derived from Sk. future forms with the suffix -sya- without the binding vowel -,- to verbs ending in consonants which give rise to the conjunct group -ksawhich becomes either -ccha- or -kkha. Thus we have further, gam- 'to go' gacchami (identical with the ordinary present) ; dis- 'to see' dacchami, pekkhami ; bhuj- 'to eat' bhokkhami and bhu- 'to become' hokkhami (analogically formed). . bhoccha bhoccha mocchai rocch| roccha veccha socchai

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S. 227.] . LESSON SIX 117 224 ADDITIONAL FORMS of the future are : I. p. sing. hokkhami, hokkham; pahami, pahan ; daccham; kaham ; essami; I. p. plu. pahamo ; vakkhamo; kahamo ; II. p. sing. pahisi ; nahisi ; Il. p. plu. kahiha, daittha ; III. p. sing. kahi ; nehi ; III. p. plu. uvanehinti. 225 The first person pronoun amha (asmad ) is declined as follows: N. ahaM, haM amhe, vayaM A. mamaM, maM, me amhe, Ne I. mae, mai, me amhahiM Ab. mamAo, matto amhehinto. G. mama, maha, majjha, me * amhANaM, amhaM, No L. mamaMsi, mai amhesuM 226 Sk. forms continued are aham, vayam, mam (mam), mama, mai, N. sing. ahayam comes from ahakam, ham from aham after vowels; A. mamam is G. mama with analogical anusvara ; I. mae (weakened form mai) is according to Bloch either a combination of maya and me or due to nominal inflection. Ab. mamatto is from G. mama and tas, matto from mat and tas, mamao analogically after devao with mama as the base ; majjha is Sk. D. mahyam, and maha goes back to I-E. * meghe ; the plu. amhe is Vedic asme (Pischel); G. amham is the base amha with the consonantal ending -am; amhanam from *asmanam and similarly all plural forms after the -a- declension. 227 . The present active participle is formed by adding anta or mANa to the root. kara to do karata, karamANa seeing cara to move . caraMta, caramANa moving ciTTha . * to stand ciTuMta, ciTThamANa standing jala to burn jalaMta, jalamANa burning pAsa to see pAsaMta, pAsamANa seeing

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118 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 227. honta If the root ends in the long vowel g or at the termination 377 drops its 37: e to give giving ho to be being After it becomes sant? * gA to sing gAyanta singing vA to blow vAyanta blowing These participles form their feminine bases by adding qit (a woman who is seeing; Triat a singing woman. 228 The strong form of the suffix -anta- of the Parasmaipada is generalised. The Atmanepada suffix -mana is used for all verbs ending in -a. Moreover a number of forms are taken from Sk. or are produced analogically : as- 'to be' santa, samana ; an adverbial formation jayam, putthavam ; with the suffix -mina : agamamina, adhayamina; with the suffix -ana and -ina : vihammana, asina, melina. The heavy termination -mana cannot be easily applied to roots ending in long vowels (-a, -e, -o in AMg). So these assume a stem ending in -a (-ya): si-' to lie down' sayamana (but Pali, semana); gai- 'to sing' gayamana ; da- 'to give' deyamana ; stha- 'to stand' thayamana; dhyai- 'to think' jhiyayamana; Hem. gives a form like homana, which cannot be illustrated. After -e- we have katemana, aharemana. 229 These participles are used as adjectives meaning * doing' and qualify the noun in Gender, Number and Case. saMjamaM caramANo bhikkhU mokkhaM paaunni| The monk practising selfcontrol obtains liberation. Hanguroidut her ass rais Burr Mahavira, practising self-control suffered many miseries. ajayaM bhuMjamANo upANabhUyAiM hiNsi| While eating carelessly he kills many living beings. kesimevaM buvantaM tu goyamo SUTHocati Goyama spoke thus to Kesi who was speaking in that manner. Cf. for use : 440-444.

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S. 232.] , LESSON SEVEN 119 230 1 ajayaM caramANo pANabhUyAiM hiMsai / 2 ahaM paumacariyaM samAseNa vocchaami| 3 mAhaNA aggisi sAppiM pakkhivanti / 4 se khattie suNamANe bhaNai na suNemi tti, asuNamANe bhaNai sumi tti / 5 se mahAmuNI rIyaMte vArANasiM puri patte / 6 jai jANantA vi na kahissaha tA savve nigghissaami| 7 bhadaM lahai jiyanto jo ya mao so mao cceva / 8 vappIhayakuDuMbe mae jalahara varisihisi nIsesaM ca bhuvaNaM bharihisi / 9 atthaM gacchantassa vi raviNo kiraNA uDU ciya phuranti / 10 ahaM puNa kahaM ettieNa kAleNa vnycissaami| 11 aja me gehe Agamissai asogo| 12 mae ajuttaM kayaM na puNo evaM karissAmi / 13 do vi viharantA pADaliputtaM pttaa| 14 so ya gIyaM gAyanto sayalaM jaNaM rNji| 15 kuNAlo bhaNai 'maha naMdaNo saMpaI rajaM krihii| 16 he naraNAha, kayatthA amhe, amhANaM jIviyaM saphalaM / 17 saMpai suraTThadesammi titthanamaNatthaM vaccissAmo annasamayammi eriso satyo magge na hohii / 231 1. In the town of Kundaggama Mahavira will be born in the family of Siddhattha. 2. Tisala will give birth to him. 3. In the household he will live for thirty years. 4. Then he will become a monk and will practise penance. 5. He will obtain omniscience and will preach the true religion. 6. People will honour him. 7. We will bring wood and water from the forest. 8. The poor man came to me running and said. "I saw a golden fruit falling from the sky.' 9. He win throw dust in my eyes. 10. What is the use of a bow without arrows?.. LESSON SEVEN 232 Declension of Feminine nouns ending in i and u. kucchi 'womb' . . N. kucchI kucchI, kucchIo * v. kucchi kucchI, kucchIo A. kucchi kucchI, kucchIo

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120 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 232. _I. kucchIe kucchIhi, kucchIhiM ___Ab. kucchIo kucchIhinto - G. kucchIe kucchINa, kucchINaM __L. kucchIe, kucchisi kucchIsuM gheNu 'a cow' _N. gheNU gheNU, gheNUo v. gheNu dheNU, dheNUo A. dhej gheNU, gheNUo I. gheNUe dhehi, dhehi Ab. dheNUo gheNUhinto G. dheNUe gheNUNa, gheNUNaM L. gheNUe, dheNuMsi gheNUsu, gheNUsuM 233 Similarly are to be declined other Fem. nouns like :-- arai aversion tuhi joy rai delight kaNerU an elephant dhAu metal raja rope kaMti lustre nature power 173 motion intellect peace jAi birth bhUmi earth suddhi purity 234 A number of Mas. nouns ending in -i have become Fem. because of the change of the final vowel into -i which was peculiarly feminine : anjali 'folded hands' (anjali); kucchi 'womb'. (kuksi) ; ganthi 'knot' (granthi); vihi 'fate' (vidhi) ; sandhi 'joint' (sandhi); pitthi "back' (prsta) with a change of the final vowel. The themes of this type are produced either by dropping the final consonant : vijju "lightning' (vidyut); acci 'flame (arcis); or by extension : avai 'calamity' (apad); vivai (vipad). The primary derivatives are not felt as such : Tui lustre' (Tuc-i); ditthi 'sight' (drs-ti); vuddhi 'growth' (vyd-dhi *vidh

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S. 236.] LESSON SEVEN 121 ti): thii condition.' (sthi-ti); jai 'birth' (ja-ti); joni 'place of birth' (yo-ni); bhumi ' earth' (bhu-mi). The declension is in full agreement with that of -a- nouns. The L. sing. forms in -rsi are borrowed from Mas. nouns as many of these nouns were originally Mas. 235 THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. The terminations for the imperative are : I. p. II. p. III. p. ho , 3 antu Before these terminations the roots undergo the same changes. as in the present. The contrast between III. p. sing. ti, tu and. plu. anti, antu is carried to I. p. sing. mi : mu, II. p. sing. si : su. Lassen derived the form vattasu from vartasva which agrees favourably with Pali vattassu and Bloch considers both the possibilities as probable. Alsdrof su= sva. In the plu. -mo and -ha are taken from the present indicative, while the peculiar form of I. p. plu. gacchamha, citthamha is derived by Pischel as based on the injunctive of the -s- aorist found in Veda as gesma, jesma, etc. Before the terminations -mu, -mo and -hi, the preceding vowel is long. 236 A root of Class I as 'to be' will be conjugated as: I. p. aere vAmo : II. p. 7E, ET, TEIL DER III. p. 165 vahantu A root of Class II pre 'to do' _ I. p. karamu karemo ' II. p. parente, ill . ale III. p. to . karentu

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122 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 236. jAmo A root of Class III FII' to go' ___I. p. jAmu __II. p. jAsu, jAhi III. p. jAu For the use cf. 430-432. . jAha jAyantu 237 The I. p. sing. form is known from the grammarians only. Schubring notes a single form demu. Alsdorf explains it as the plu. form used for the singular. II. p. sing. karesu, bhunjaisu, jasu, kahasu, sad dahasu, khamasu, varasu, sarasu. kunasu.; the athematic termination hi(dhi) is extended : bhanahi, gacchahi, janahi ; bhunjahi; vasahi ; harahi, vandahi, viharahi; karehi, maggchi, hohi ; the mere stem, bhana, gaccha, peccha, viginca. I. p. plu. and II. p. plu. are forms of the indicative : gacchamo, genhamo ; hanaha, khamaha, payaha, etc. . 238 The second person pronoun tumha (yuSmad ) is declined as follows:N. tumaM, taM, tume tumhe, tujhe, tubbhe A. tumaM, te tumhe, tujhe, tumbhe, bhe I. tue, tume, tae, tumae tumhehi, tujJahiM, tubbhehiM Ab. tumAo, tumatto . tumhehito, tubbhehito G. tava, te, tujjha, tumha, tuha tumhANaM, tumhaM, tubbhaM L. tumaMsi, tai, tumammi tumhesuM, tujhesuM, tumbhesuM N. sing. tumam continues the dissyllabic form of Vedic tuvam3; the -m- as after mamam ; G. tuha after maha; tubbham from Sk. dative tubhyam, tujjha after majjha ; in the plural t- is carried throughout from the singular. Three bases tujiha, tubbha and tumha are analogically declined in the plural. 239 1. tumhe mA bhAyaha, na ettha tumhANaM bhyN| 2. ujANaM gacchissaM jujehi rhN| 3. mA tumaM pAvA dhammA phusntu| 4. nivaiNo payaM appamAeNa' paalentu| 5. tumhe suhaMsuheNaM jIvaha / 6. caiiyaM . 1 432. ___2 364...

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S. 241.] - LESSON EIGHT 123 gacchasu jakkhaM pUyAhi / 7. savve jIvA siddhiM pAuNantu / 8. nako vi nirae paDau / 9. jaNA pAvageNa vA jaleNa vA siddhiM na pAuNanti / 10. tuha balAo majjha balaM ahigN| 11. saccaM vA asaccaM vA tuma ciya muNasi / 12. gacchaha NaM devANuppiyA vijayavaddhamANe kheDe mahayA saddeNaM evaM vayaha / 13. vejo gilANassa osahaM deu / 14. asAhUNaM saMsagiMga caya / 15. bAlaya, tuha sogassa kAraNaM khhi| 16. passa bAlassa bAlattaM / 17. pAyavA phulaMtu phalaMtu y| 18. mA karau ko vi gavvaM ettha asArammi saMsAre / 19. risahanAhaM nmh| 20. majjha pAso pasIyau / 240 1. Rama, go to the garden and bring the bark of the tree for me. 2. Let there be rain in the country. 3. Show your strength on the battle field and conquer your enemies. 4. Bind the elephant with the rope and take her out of the thicket. 5. O Monks, believe in religion and obtain peace. 6. Let us not show delight in birth and aversion to death. 7. Child, always obey thy father and mother and respect thy preceptor. 8. Let us give food to the hungry and water to thirsty. 9. Do not go by the path of sin, leave off pride and serve the wise. 10. Always praise the merits of the people and hide their faults. LESSON EIGHT 241 Feminine nouns ending in I and U are declined exactly like those ending in and J except in the Loc. sing. where those with the long vowels have only one form in g. The declension of het ' earth' will be : N. mahI mahI, mahIo . ... mahi 1396. 2 Loc.

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124 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 241. . ddon mahiM mahI, mahIo . mahIe . mahIhi, mahIhiM mahIe mahIhinto mahIe mahINa, mahINaM mahIe mahIsu, mahIsuM Other words to be similarly declined are:koDI crore dhAI nurse puhavI earth gAvI cow naI river sirI Goddess of wealth chAhI shade naliNI lotus seDhI stair-case taNU body paDihArI door-keeper hirI shame. 242 Many nouns, adjectives and participles form their feminine with the suffix -i: denti 'giving' gacchanti 'going' karemani 'doing' bhagavai 'venerable' guvvini pregnant' gharini 'mistress of the house' assavini (nava) 'a leaking boat' bambhacarini 'a celibate woman' vagghi 'a tigress', migi 'a female deer', hatthini 'female elephant', kalabhi 'a female young elephant', mahani 'a Brahmin woman', samani a nun', nig. ganthi 'a nun'. With the sufix -ni : bhikkhuni 'a nun' gahavaini 'mistress of the household', sahuni 'nun ' sissini 'female pupil', khattiyani wife of a Kh.' jakkhini ' demi-goddess', sani 'bitch'. A few root-nouns extended : vai 'words' (vac); gavi 'cow' (gan). 243 THE POTENTIAL MOOD The terminations are: ejjAma ___ I. p. ejjA, ejjAmi __II. p. ejjA, ejjAsi, ejjAhi III. p. e, ejjA, ejjAha ejjA These terminations are applied to all the roots directly. They retain their -e- after the roots ending in -a but. lose it after verbs ending in -e- and -0-. The -e- is often represented by -i-.

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S. 247.] LESSON EIGHT 125 244 The potential forms of qre to see' I. p. TGT, TTSTIH pAsejAma II. p. HIT, TESTIRA, TAHIRE pAsejjAha III. p. 9, RTG pAsejA For the use cf. 433-437. 245 I. p. sing. hanejja, bandhejja, tajjejja, talejja, pasijja, muccejja, langhejja, with the final vowel shortened : karejja, lahejja ; with the inflection of the present karejjami found rarely. . II. p. sing. udaharejja, uvadarsejja ; with short final vinaejja ; with present inflection -si : payaejjasi, parakkamejjasi, vattejjasi; with the termination -e: dave, gacche, pamayae, care etc. ; with the vowel before -si short : hanejjasi, ejjasi, vavarovejjasi ; with the imperative inflections -hi, -su :' vandejjahi, bhanejjasu, karejjasu, sahijjasu. III. p. sing. vivajjejja, paharejja, kuppejja, labhejja, rakkhejja; with short final : vinaejja, sevejja ; with the termination -e: gijjhe, harise, kine, care, citthe, labhe, dahe. I. p. plu. are not met with. II. p. plu. with the imperative ending : bhavejjaha, viharejjaha, khamejjaha, kahejjaha. III. p. plu. agacchejja, manne (used in plural). 246 Remnants of Sk, forms are : siya (syat) it may be', kujja (kuryat) 'he may do', buya (bruyat) he may speak ', haniya (hanyat) 'he may kill'. Pischel further regards the adverbial use of sakka as Vedic sakyat ; labbha as labhyat. The precative forms are : hojja (bhuyat) 'it may happen', hojjami, hojjasi ; dejja (deyat) 'he may give' sardhejja (sardheyat). 247 ORIGIN. Jacobi derived the form of the potential karejja from the form of the thematic conjugation (bhaveyam) ; Pischel takes it to represent the termination of the athematic conjugation (-yat) applied to the present base * karyat becoming by Svara

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126 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 247. bhakti * kariyat and karijja, karejja. So in his opinion -j- is the original vowel which may have become -e- under the influence of the present indicative forms. Geiger explains the corresponding forms in Pali as due to the analogy of the inherited forms on the form of the first person kareyyam supplied with the terminations of the present. Bloch suggests that it may be due to contamination of the inherited form like kuppe with the form like dejja giving kuppejja. Gray thinks of a contamination of the optative and the Vedic subjunctive. 248 The Gerund in AMg. is formed in many ways. The following are the regular terminations to form it : (i) El or get: Rall, and having done; forgal TOT having gone, FATIT, IT having laughed ; IUITIT TUTTIT having said : afati, EFIT having destroyed; foreil, BUTIT having beaten. .. (ii) garui or gevi: franci, mai having seen ; DEFINI, JE TIU having obtained. (ii) ittu or etta : bhuMjitta having enjoyed ; baMdhitta having bound. (iv) in after roots ending in 37: afisut having done, nisur having seen; with sup after roots ending in other vowels : 1, having given, or having placed. 249 The distinction in Classical Sk. between the suffixes -tva for primary roots and -ya for roots with preverbs is not to be found in AMg. wherein it agrees with the Epics. The extension of the additional element in una is to be found in all cases, a rare illustration of which has been preserved by the grammarians in pilvina (Panini). The use of -:- as a binding vowel is much more extensive in AMg. and the base is in many cases that of the preseni (and not necessarily weak as in Sk.). (i) Sk.-tva becomes -tta: vanditta 'having bowed', vasitta 'having lived', caitta 'having abandoned', ganta (Pali gantva but Sk. gatva) 'having gone' vanta 'having vomited

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S. 249.7 LESSON EIGHT 127 hanta 'having killed', bhavitta becoming' pivitta drinking muitta "leaving anugacchitta 'following: (ii) -ttanam from *-tvanari: duruhittanam "having mounted', citthittanam having stood', apucchittanam 'having taken leave. (iii) -tunam after consonants and nasals and -unan after vowels from *tvana with samprasarana : gantuna 'having gone' nauna 'knowing', houna 'becoming', namiuna 'bowing' dauna giving' bhareunam 'having filled '; without anusvara : jiniuna 'having conquered' datthuna seeing', laddhuna getting', rajjiuna 'avoiding' mottuna leaving' (forms in una are rare in AMg.). (iv) *cca from utva by palatalisation : (Gray supposes. the influence of Vedic -tya, -tya), hocca becoming' thicca standing', cicca abandoning.' vucca speaking' socca 'hearing' kicca doing' bujjha "knowing '. (v) -ccana from *-tvana : hiccana 'abandoning', naccanam "knowing'. (vi) -ya- assimilated : uvalabbha 'having obtained' nikkhamma 'going out' pakkhippa 'throwing, samarabbha 'beginning' abhirujjha 'climbing', pariccajja 'abandoning', viukkamma "transgressing", pappa 'obtaining', pariggijjha 'receiving , samecca 'coming together', ahacca 'suddenly', passa 'seeing ' pavissa entering' nisamma 'hearing'. (vii) -ya- separated by anaptyxis : anupaliya 'observing ', aroviya 'mounting', padivajjiya' accepting', pariccaiya 'abandoning' pecchiya' seeing ', thuniya 'praising ', ch labhiya 'getting', dhuniya 'shaking off'; sometimes the -ya- is lengthened (cf. Vedic -tya : -tya), vihaniya, iyaniya, dhuniya etc.; sometimes extended by na after the analogy of other forms: aviliyana 'having pressed' lahiyana 'having got' paripiliyana 'having oppressed', arusiyana 'getting angry'. (viii) -ya- after roots ending in vowels : parinnaya "knowing', adaya 'taking', gahaya 'receiving', jahaya 'abandoning'. In many cases the final sound is -e: parinnae, samayae, ayae, utthae, pehae, nissae, samkhae which are regarded by Pischel as

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128 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 249. I. sing. of Fem. nouns in -a. It is more convenient to regard the change of -ya to -e which Pischel expressly denies. (ix) - ttu- -ttu- ( Pischel regards them as Infinitives ini-tum used as Gerunds ) : kattu doing', avahattu, ahattu, sahattu, uddhattu, vandittu, caittu, tarittu, sunittu etc. * 250 When two acts are performed by the same subject one after another the verb expressing the first is put in the form of a gerund. samaNo kammaM khavittA mokkhaM gacchai / Amonk becomes liberated after the destruction of the Kammas. - goyamo silogaM suNiUNa pucchai / Having heard the verse Goyama asks. These gerunds may also form a negative form by prefixing a or aN to them. Thus aNApucchittA ' without asking' agacchittA without going'. For other uses cf. 453-458. 251 1. mahAvIrassa pAvayaNaM suNiUNa gaNaharo bhAsai / 2. tae NaM sA kAlI devI samaNassa aMtiyaM eyamahaM suNittA dharaNIyalaMsi nivaDiyA | 3 muhuttareNa AsatthA samANI' uTThittA evaM vayAsI / 4. se kUDaggAhe subahu pAvakammaM samajjiNittA paMca vAsasayAI paramAuyaM pAlaittA niraesu uvavanne / 5. so caNDaruddo devaulaM avakkamiUNa naI gao / 6. visAyaM mottaNa lahuM avakkamasu / 7. kahaM care kahaM ciTThe kahaM bhAse kahaM sae / kahaM bhuMjanto bhAsanto pAvaM kammaM na baMdhai / 8. jayaM care jayaM ciTThe jayaM Ase jayaM sae / jayaM bhAnto bhuMjato pAvaM kammaM na baMdhai // 9. mehAvI suddhaM jIviyaM Ayare / 10. kayAi dukkhaM pi suhassa mUlaM havejjA / 11. sacceNa aliyaM jae / 12. sattaNo guNAI piNhejjA na uNa guruNo dosAiM / 13. rakkhijja kohaM viNaeja mANaM mAyaMna sevejja payahejja lohaM / 14. supurisANaM hiyayAiM tarUNaM ca siharAI phalasaMpattIe namanti / 252 1. Having done many good deeds the child went to heaven. 2. Worshipping and saluting Mahavira king Seniya 1 441.

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S. 254.] went to his palace. 3. Having bound the thief with ropes they brought him to the minister. 4. Having known the true religion one should not kill animals, eat flesh, drink wine or commit misdeeds. 5. Men should study books and grasp their meaning. 6. Who will not wish for happiness ? 7. But how many would get it? 8. Having abandoned Sita Laksmana returned to Ayodya. 9. Having experienced the miseries of the worldly life they became monks. 10. The monk should wander with a calm mind and should control himself. Mas. LESSON NINE LESSON NINE 253 The demonstrative pronoun tat that' has three different forms for the three genders. It is declined as follows: N. so, se A. taM I. teNa Ab. tAo G. tassa, te L. taMsi, tammi tehiM tehiMto tesiM suM Neu. sA taM Fem. tAe, tIe tAo " 129 tAe tIe tIse tIe, tIse tAo tAo tAhi tAhiMto tAsiM suM N.A. taM tAI, the remaining forms are the same as those of Mas. gender. For use cf. 406-410. 254 The contrast between the theme sa- and ta- is I-E. It is extended in AMg. for other cases than N. as se for A.I.G. etc. 9

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130 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 254. In the Ab. plu. we have the old form tebbho (tebhyah) and a new formation taohinto. Peculiarly pronominal forms are N. plu. te and G. plu. tesim and tasim. All others agree with the nominal declension. 255 CAUSAL. Besides the regular base of a verb we have a causal base with a change in the meaning. It denotes that the action of the primitive root is performed through the agency of another. In case of intransitive verbs the causal is hardly distinguishable from the transitive meaning. It is formed by adding ___ (i) ve to the roots ending in A : ThAve to place, NhAve to bathe, qua to show, Ha to cause to elapse. (ii) Ave to roots ending in a: karAve to cause to do, geNhAve to cause to take, hasAve to cause to laugh, jANAve to make known. (iii) In a few cases c is added and the penultimate vowel is lengthened : ar to kill, and to cause, is to fell, ori to cause to get. (iv) If the root ends in g or sh the termination St becomes yAve : ne to lead, neyAve to cause to lead. 256 (i) The I-E. termination -aya- has become -e- in AMg. though in favourable cases it may remain as -aya (janayanti): The root shows the full or long grade before it : (a) Originally long roots : sampavei 'causes to get', vedhei 'makes wind', kilamei 'causes to fade' pinei delights'. (b) The root-vowel in a close syllable : vaddhei 'increases' parivattei 'turns round' samukkasei elevates'. (c) The root-vowel -a becomes long : sarcarei 'causes to move' ujjalei 'causes to shine', ayavei 'heats', tavei, aivaei 'make fall', gahei 'causes to take', vittasei 'troubles' khamei ' forgives'. Roots originally ending in -i, -U, -I have fallen in with these : karei 'causes', dharei 'holds' nivatei 'prevents', pasarei 'spreads' tatei 'protects', harei 'loses'."

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S. 257.) S. 257.1 LESSON NINE LESSON NINE 131 131 (d) The root-vowel -;-, -4- takes Guna : posei 'nourishes, moei 'releases', kovei 'angers', tosei delights', khevei 'causes: to throw!, veei 'knows', roei 'likes', visohei 'purifies' pavesei 'causes to enter'. (e) In a number of cases the root-vowel remains short (as in Sk.) : namei 'bends', janayai 'produces', abhitaventi ' torment', sarayanti 'urge'. (ii) -ve- comes from Sk. .-paya- (after roots ending in -a- and few others) : javei 'spends', thavei 'places', havei 'loses' khavio 'made to eat', anavei 'orders', davei 'gives nhavei 'bathes' payae, paio, paenti are without -p- due to dissimilation. Like Sk. some roots have short vowel : pannavei, anavei, vinnavei, paritthavejja, thavei. (iii) An extension of this suffix is found in -ive- (Sk. apaya) : jaggavei 'causes to keep awake', samarambhavei 'makes do', chindavei 'makes cut' pavvavei initiates', rayavei 'cause to arrange', ginhavei 'cause to take', bandhavei 'cause to bind', hanavei 'cause to kill', khanavei 'cause to dig', jalavei 'cause to burn', payavei 'cause to cook', kinavei 'cause to sell', lihavei 'cause to write', nihavei 'cause to deposit'. (iv) With the use of this suffix to causal base we get the so-called double causal : karavei 'causes to make', bhoyaveum in order to feed', khevavei 'causes to throw': with phonetic shortening of a syllable : karavei, karavei, davavei. (v! With the suffix -ada- ; bhamalai, dekkhalai, paisarai. (vi) A few peculiar forms of Sk. are also inherited : ghaei 'kills', dansei 'shows', palei protects', pajjei 'causes to drink.' 257 From the causal base all the tenses and moods are produced with the application of the usual terminations and regarding the base as belonging to Class II. Present : are causes to make, vec teaches, grans places, hasAvei makes laugh.

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132 __INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 257. Future : geNhAvessAmi I shall make him take, mArissai He will kill. Past : pavAvesI 'converted'. Imperative : vhAveha bathe (him), kAreu let him cause. Potential : chiMdAvae he may cause to cut, AraMbhAvejA he may cause to begin. Compare for meaning : i. so kammaM karei / so kiMkara kammaM karAvei / ii. ahaM dANaM demi / ahaM dANaM davAvemi / iii. devo varisejjA / devo vrisaavejaa| iv. samaNo na haNai na hnnaavei| , v. taM coraM purisehiM giNhAvei / vi. no kovae AyariyaM appANaM pi na kovae / 258 The infinitive of purpose is formed by adding to the root (i) ittae or ettae : karittae, karettae to do, pAsittae, pAsettae to see, pADittae, pADettae to fell. (ii) 3 to roots ending in 311, g or 3ft: qr to give, tars to do, pAuM to drink, neuM to lead, houM to become ; i5 to roots ending in a : pAsiuM to see, geNhiDaM to take. 209 (i) The infinitive in -um or -ium corresponds to Sk. -lum (originally the A. of noun in -tu): (a) from verbs ending in vowels : da- 'to give' daum, ni- 'to lead' neum, pa- 'to drink' paum, Sru- 'to hear' soum, ji to conquer' jeum, ina* to know 'naum, aghra- 'to smell' agghaun, gai- 'to sing' gaum gaium. (b) with roots ending in consonants : han- 'to kill' hantum, khan- 'to dig' khantem, gam- 'to go' gantum, labh*to obtain' laddhum, vah- 'to carry' vodhur, chind- 'to. cut' chettum, bhid- 'to break' bhettum, bhuij. 'to eat' bhottum, muc- "to realise' mottum, Tud- 'to cry' Tottum, svap- 'to sleep' sottum, grah- 'to take' ghettum, vac- 'to speak vottum.

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S. 261.] LESSON NINE 133 (ii) with -ium : pib- 'to drink' pivium, jina to conquer' jinium, bhinda 'to break' bhindium, mara 'to die' marium, kara 'to do'karium, hara 'to take away' harium, daha 'to burn" dahium, khaya to eat' khaium, pava to get' pavium, utthei to get up' utthaum, all of them from the present base. (iii) with -ittae (corresponding to Vedic tave or -tavai) : mostly from the present stem: pivittae 'to drink', gamittae 'to go', paubbhavittae 'to arise', viharittae 'to wander' sumarittae 'to remember', tarittae 'to cross', citthittee 'to stand', thaittae nisiittae 'to sit', pucchittae 'to ask'. pasittae 'to see, puraittae, 'to fill' dharittae 'to hold' sunettae 'to hear' karittae 'to do'. (iv) from other stems : payae to drink', bhottae 'to eat', vatthae 'to live', hottae 'to become'. 260 The infinitive is used to point out the purpose or intention of an act. so phalaM pADiuM icchai / He wishes to fell down the fruit. ahaM gAma gacchittae jayAmi / I try to go to the village. samaNo mokkhaM pAuNittae uggaM tavaM tavai / The monk performs hard penance to obtain liberation. For other uses : cf. 459-462. 261 1 palitte gehe vAviM khaNiuM na ujjamasu / 2 mAyA mittANi nAsei / 3 tavassI na chiMde na chiMdAvae na pae na pyaave| 4 adinnaM samaNA appaNA na geNhanti no ya paraM geNhAventi / 5 hiMsagaM na musaM bUyA no ya annaM vayAvae / 6 koho pIiM pnnaasei| 7 dullahaM mANusattaNaM lahiuM jiNadhammaM aayrsu| 8 akae vi pie suyaNA piyaM ciya kAuM jANanti / 9 ciMtiyaM tiie| gacchAmi annattha / payaTTA naItIrAe diTThA ya dharaNeNaM / pucchiyA sA 'suMdarI kuo si tumN'| tao sA roiDaM pyhaa| bhaNiyA ya teNa, 'suMdari, mA rova / eriso esa saMsAro / dhanno ya ahaM jeNa tumaM saMpattA si / ' tao tIe bhaNiyaM / 'ajautta ahaM takkareNa gahiyA si'| 10 sante pAiyakavve ko sakkai sakkayaM paDhiuM / 11 khalasajaNANa dose guNe ya ko vaNNiuM tarai loe| 12 svavisesaM vottaM asthi kimaMdhassa ahigaaro| 13 thovo vi aggI samaggaM pi kaMtAraM DahiuM samattho / 14 tao dANaM dAuM pavatto jaNo /

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134 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 262. 262 1. Do not kill animals nor make others kill them. 2. Who makes a seryant steal steals himself. 3. Wishing to go to Benares he started to travel. 4. Mahavira performed penance to obtain omniscience. 5. Gosala wished to defeat his teacher. 6. Good people never try to hurt others. 7. Hemacandra wished to become a monk even in his childhood. 8. Suddhodana wished to make Goyama enjoy pleasures. 9. Bad men make good men commit sins and suffer. 10. Ajatasattu, the king of Magadha, attempted to kill his father Seniya. LESSON TEN 263 Roots have a special base in Passive which is conjugated in all the tenses and moods. . It is obtained by adding go to the primitive root and then the usual terminations are added. The passive base is conjugated like a verb of Class I. Thus from rei 'to see' the passive base is The 'to be seen' and the III p. sing, present R . 264 In a number of cases the passive base is directly taken from the corresponding base in Sk. with the necessary phonetic changes. They may be regarded as irregular bases in AMg. A few important of them are : pore to do is, amiben epa to bind he khA to eat khajai bhiMda to break bhijai fea to throw faces bhuMja to enjoy bhujaha fega to touch focus muha to faint mujhai jANa to know najai muMca to release muccai _to burm Dajjhai laha to obtain labhai tara to be able tariha ruMbha to obstruct rUrUbhai de to give dijai vaya to speak vuccai ne to lead nijai viDhava to earn viDhappar3a pA to drink pijai gut to kill

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S. 266.] LESSON TEN 135 265 (i) The passive base in AMg. is formed by adding to the root -ya-," the passive characteristic in Sk., which becomes ija- after vowels. (a) The root shows the weak grade in the majority of cases : du- 'to give' dijjai, stu- 'to praise' thuvvai (the base being *thuv-) dhu- 'to shake' dhuvvai, sru- 'to hear' suvvai, summai, ni- 'to lead' nijjai, gai- 'to sing' gijjai, pa- to drink' pijai, adha- 'to place' ahijjai, jna- 'to know' najjai, ji- 'to conquer' jippai, jivvai. (b) Roots ending in -!, -show -ir as in Sk. : ti- 'to cross' tirai, hi- 'to take away' hirai, kr. 'to do' kirai, kijjai, kajjai. (c) Roots ending in consonants : gam- 'to go' gammai, han- 'to kill' hammai (Jacobi. analogical ; Pischel denominative of *hanman), drs- 'to see' disai, labh- 'to get' labbhai, vah'to carry' vubbhai, kit-'to cut' kiccai, muc- to release' muccai, lup- 'to conceal'luppai, sic- 'to sprinkle' siccai, pid- 'to oppress' piddai, vac- 'to speak' vuccai, duh- 'to milk' dujjhai, bhaj- 'to serve' bhajjai, bhid- to break' bhijjai, bhuj- 'to enjoy' bhujjai, grah- 'to take' gheppai, gejjhai, badh- 'to bind' bajjhai, bhan- 'to speak' bhannai, rudh- 'to obstruct' rubbhai, muh- 'to faint' mujjhai, ksip- 'to throw' khippai, dah- 'to burn' dajjhai, prabhav- 'to be able' pahuppai, lih- 'to lick' libbhai, siap- 'to sleep' suppai, arabh- 'to begin ' arabbhai, rud-'to cry' ruvvai. In all these cases the -ya- is assimilated to the final consonant. (ii) With the suffix -izja- from Sk. -ya- as applied to causal and other bases like maryate becoming by anaptyxis Pali mariyati Pk. marijjai, extended to other roots and mostly apphed to the present base : gam- gamijjai, gacchijjai, stu- thunijjai, srusunijjai, dh?- dharijjai, sm?- sumarijjai, ti- tarijjai, pi- purijjai, khan- khanijjai, pracch- pucchijjai ; ci- cinijjai, bhuj- bhunjijjai, kr- karijjai etc. 266 Forms of different tenses from the passive base : Present: fe they are heard, afuulis it is described, as it is eaten, gas it is said. Past: ure they were released.

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136 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 266. _ Future : vocchijihii it will be cut, Dajjhihii it will be burnt, mucciAhai he will be released. Imperative : suvvau let it be heard, sumarijau let it be remembered, HIRUS let him be killed. . Potential : viNihammejA it may be killed, muccejA he may be freed. The presence of the past passive participle restricts the use of the passive form of the past to only sporadic cases. The krtya and the forms of the potential are found side by side, while the passive forms find the fullest scope in the present. 267 When the passive form is used the logical subject is put in the Ins. and the object in the Nom. The verb agrees with the object. sAhuNA dhammo kahijai / The monk preaches religion. pabhUyaM annaM khajai / Abundant food is eaten. teNa vuJcanti sAhuNo / 'For that reason they are called monks. Compare the following active and passive constructions : ___i dukkAmAI teNaM pIDenti / teNe dukkammahiM pIDijai / ___ii te elayaM bhuMjanti / elae tehiM bhujai / iii seNio mahAvIraM vaMdai / mahAvIre seNieNa vaMdijai / iv savve kAmA bhikkhuM na liMpanti / savvehi kAmehi bhikkhU na lippai / 268 The interrogative pronoun fe is declined as follows: Mas. Fem. N. ke, ko kAo A. kaM kAo keNa kAe kAo kehinto kAo kAhinto kassa kesi kAe, kIse kAsiM L. kaMsi, kassi, kammi kesuM kAe, kIse. kAsuM kA kAheM kAhiM

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S. 271. LESSON TEN 137 Neu. N. A. ki kAiM, kANi the remaining forms are like Mas. Like Pro (base $) are to be declined other pronouns or pronominal adjectives : ja which, anna other, avara another, para other, kayara which of the two, kayama which of the many, savva all, ega one sa or saga oneself. 269 By adding ci (after an anusvara) or i (after vowels ) to the forms of foo we get an indefinite pronoun. keNai kAraNeNa so aago| He came for some reason. ahaM kassi ci ghare vasAmi / I live in some house. kAsiM ci nArINaM vtthaaii| The garments of some women. 270 Note the uses of kiM : ke tumN| Who are you? kA nArI which woman? kAI phalAiM tumaM gaNhasi / Which fruits do you take? keNa uvAeNa saMrakkhomi / By what means should I protect? (Cf 415). With pi or vi it may express indefiniteness or indescribability. anno ko vi sahAo vammahasihiNo / Something peculiar is the nature of the fire of love. ko vi kaalo| Some time. 271 1. bhArahe vAse rAyagihaM nAma nayaraM viji| 2. dhammasavaNeNa jaNA savvehiM pAvehiMto muccanti / 3. sukkaTaM ca bAle ya bhinjai na namijai / 4. najai kulaM visAlaM visAlacarieNa purisss| 5. jIvavaheNa saggo na lbbhi| 6. kattha vi dalaM na gaMdho kattha vi gaMdho na pauramayaraMdo / ekkakusumammi mahuyara be tinni guNA na labbhanti // 7. asthamiyacaMdabiMbe tArAhi na kIrae jonnhaa| 8. caMdo rAhuNA giliji| 9. na dukkaraM kiM pi kusalANaM / 10. channo vi caMdaNadumo kiM na kahijai parimaleNaM / 11. guruNA vuttaM 'bAlaya, kiM nAmo kassa vA suo taM si'| 12 haMsabayANaM aMtaraM garuyaM jaanniji| 13. caMdo dhavalijai puNNimAe aha puNNimA vi caMdeNaM / 14. kaje maNo dijau / 15. ko vi na abbhatthijai kijjai kassa vi na ptthnnaabhNgo| dINaM na ya jaMpijai jIvijjai jAva ihaloe // 16. katto uggamai rakhI katto viyasanti paMkayavaNAI /

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138 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 272. 272 1. By what weapon is that man killed ? 2. Which of the two animals has broken the tree? 3. A gift is given to the beggar. 4. One who abandons pleasures which he gets is called a monk. 5. A man following religion is freed from birth and death. 6. It is not possible to cross the ocean with arms. 7. If occasion arises one should show one's strength. 8. Can one produce an obstacle in my way? 9. Our actions are known by the gods. 10. The deer is killed by the hunter with an arrow. 11. Many rewards be given by the king to the brave. 12. I shall be deceived by the rogue. LESSON ELEVEN 273 The present passive participle is formed by adding to or mu to the passive base of the root. Thus g to come gust = gaia, GOTHM to give foot = Pausia, familie dhavala to whiten dhavalijja = dhavalijjaMta, dhavaMlijjamANa 97 to drink fat = fouria, WATT pAva to obtain pAvijja = pAvijaMta, pAvijamANa hasa to laugh hasijja = hasijata, hasijjamANa 274 They are used as adjectives and therefore qualify the noun in Number, Gender and Case. GHEORE starswiat PREIST Swists I The palace whitened by the rays of the moon shines. HQGHURAT POSTAVITE U trecereri goui que el The gifts given with a contented mind give birth to greater merit. bhikkhAe pAvijaMtaNa anneNa bhikkhU vittiM kppejaa| A monk should maintain himself by food obtained by begging.

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S. 277.1 LESSON ELEVEN 139 275 Of other participles we have few forms. Thus past active participle : putthavam, Future participle : bhavissam agamissam. 276 The potential passive participle is formed by adding to the root (i) Nija to roots ending in a: pAsaNija to be seen, vaMdaNija to be saluted, karaNija to be done. (ii) iyavva to roots ending in a: pAsiyavva to be seen, Hillarroa to be known, alferon to be stolen. (iii) yavva to roots ending in A, e and o: ThAyavva to to stand, nAyavva to be known, hoyavva to happen, neyavva to be carried. (iv) A few forms of Sk. are taken with the necessary phonetic changes : kaja = kArya to be done, peja = peya to be drunk, deja = deya to be given, vaja = vayaM to be avoided. 277 (i) The suffix -yavva- (Sk. -tavya-) forms: (a) (from the present base) ho yavva 'must be', acchiyavva 'must remain citthiyavva 'must stand', pucchiyavva 'to be asked', puccheyavva, viginciyavva 'to be removed', pasiyavva 'to be seen', paritaveyavva 'to be tormented', uddaveyavva 'to be troubled ', dameyavva 'to be chastised', suniyavva 'to be heard', bhindiyavva 'to be broken', bhunjiyavva 'to be eaten', janiyavva 'to be known'. The -;- before the termination is extended in AMg. to cases not having it in Sk. (b) (to the root): soyavva 'to be heard', bhottavva 'to be enjoyed', ghettavva 'to be taken', vattavva 'to be spoken', dafthavva 'to be seen', mottavva 'to be freed,' rottavva to be lamented', kayavva 'to be done'. (ii) nijja- (Sk. -aniya-): to the present base : puyanijja "to be honoured', sarakkhanijja 'to be protected', darisanijja "to be seen', dansanijja, vippajahanijja 'to be abandoned.' (iii) Sk. -ya- assimilated to the root : kajja 'to be done' dullangha difficult to cross ', neya 'to be known', pejja 'to be drunk', bhavva 'worthy', anappa 'worth ordering', vacca 'to be

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140 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 277. spoken', vojjha 'to be carried', gejjha 'to be grasped', khajja 'to be eaten', gujjha 'to be concealed', cajja 'to be abandoned', dejja 'worth giving', dojjha 'to be milked', nejja 'to be carried', bojjha 'to be understood', pujja 'to be honoured', bhejja 'to be broken', vajja 'to be avoided', vajjha 'to be killed ', vinnappa 'to be requested', lejjha 'to be licked' mejja 'to be measured', vejja 'to be known.' 278 These participles are used as : (i) Adjectives : Alepoane TEI Things to be known. pejaM jlN| Water to be drunk. vaMdaNijA purisaa| Men to be honoured. (ii) In place of the verb : ag aften i He should be spoken by you. savvehiM dhammakahA nAyavvA| All should know the religious story. (iii) Impersonally: a guillo iced I You should go to the park. Qurant and you I He is to tell it in due order. Cf. 451-452. 279 NOMINAL DERIVATIVES. Possessive adjectives are formed from nouns and adjectives by adding (a) 315 : sadAla from sadda, noisy, mahAlaya, from mahA, great, (b) illaH taNailla from aui, full of grass, ose from a thorny, Hice from mAyA, deceitful, bAhirilla from bAhira, outsider, paDhamilla from paDhama first, uttarilla from uttara, of the nothern direction. . (c) allaH mahalla from mahA, great. Other illustrations are : niyadilla, sasilla, ganthilla, kalankilla, satthillaya, gotthillaya, gamellaya, andhillaga, adilla, uvarilla, dahinilla ; puratthimilla, majjhilla, hetthilla, puvilla, anilliya, ekallaya, andhalla, pisalla. All these suffixes appear to be of popular origin. Pischel suggests that they were accented to explain the doubling of 1. 280 Possessive adjectives and nouns are formed by adding to the nouns manta and vantaH AyAramanta

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S. 283.] LESSON ELEVEN 141 possessed of conduct, Perihan having mind, quorfin colour, ama wealthy, Hissant of good conduct. having The two suffixes are the extended forms of the strong base of the Sk. suffixes -vat and -mat. The following cases will show that the suffix -manta has usurped the place of the other. gandhamanta, rasamanta, pasamanta, vijjamanta, silamanta, gumamanta, pupphamanta. 281 Abstract nouns are formed by adding to the noun or adjective (a) tta: mUlatta from mUla, the root thing, devatta from deva, godhood, puttatta from putta, sonhood, sAmitta from sAmi, lordship. (b) ttaNa : takkarattaNa from takkara, the nature of a thief, AyariyattaNa from Ayariya, the nature of a teacher, mahurattaNa, from HET, sweetness. The suffix -tta corresponds to Sk. -tva. The other termination -ta is frequent in forming the Dat. sing. as in devattae, neraiyattae etc. The suffix -ttana is the Vedic -tvana and is frequent in AMg. 282 The suffix sa is added to verbs to form adjectives mostly of the value of potential participle. I things to be eaten, Eigh things to be tasted, H H things to be fried, gerea of the eastern direction. . Other cases are : ganthima, vedhima, purima, samghaima, ubbheima, nivvattima, vandima, paima. Renou suggests that the suffix -ima-, known to Sk. in cases like pakima, sekima, and in the earlier stage in khanitrima, kstrima, was originally the -ma of past participle extended by the vowel -- when applied to denominatives. From the original meaning of 'got by the means' it developed the meaning of necessity. 283 The suffix is added to the roots to point an habitual action: afar trembling, Edre laughing, Tere going back, it wandering.

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142 ___INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 283. The suffix is added to different types of words without a change in the meaning : bahuya many, aladuya not obtained puttaya a child, ihayaM here, mAcciya a mortal. 284 The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding tara or yaraH; tarAya or yarAya ; tarAga or yarAga to the adjectives. aNiTTayara, aNi?yarAga, kaMtayara, kaMtayarAga. The superlative degree is formed by adding ah or yama : aNThitama, aNiTTayama, kaMtatama, kaMtayama. A few forms are taken aver from Sk. seyaM zreyas better, seTa=zreSTha best, kani? kaniSTha youngest, kaNIyasa=kanIyas younger, jeTa=jyeSTa eldest, pAvIyaMsa=pApIyas sinful, pAviTTha=pApiSTha most sinful. 285 1. tassa kajaM aNiTTayaraM bhUyaM / 2. sakkarAe mahurattaNeNa niMbassa kaDuyattaNaM kiM viprinnaamiji| 3. Ayariyassa ya taM dAragaM pecchantassa neho jAo / 4. na soyaNijjA kumaaraa| 5. tIe AvaIe kiM kAyavvaM teNa vraagnnN| 6. musA bhAsA paMDiehi na bhAsiyavvA / 7. appahiyaM kAyavvaM jai sakkai parahiyaM ca kAyavvaM / appahiyaparahiyANaM appahiyaM ceva kAyavvaM / / 8. sappassa jahA dinnaM duddhaM pi visattaNamuvei / 9. jai maraNaM na sAhAraNaM tA sogaM kAuM juji| 10. maccuNA gasijamANaM jIviyaM ko kkhai / 11. samaNeNa ya aNavajA kahA kheyvvaa| 12. tA bho bhavvA, laddhaNa mANusattaNaM, niddaliyabvo pamAo, vaMdaNijjA devA, kAyavvA gurucaraNasevA, dAyavvaM supattesu dANaM, kAyavvo jiNAyayaNesu pUyAsakAro, jeNa saMsArakaMtAraM vocchijai / 286 1. What one must do one should do without delay. 2. Better than all virtues is the virtue of non-violence. 3. His younger brother is cleverer than he. 4. The wealthy man. thinks wealth more valuable than goodness or virtue. 5. A powerful hero kills many cowardly persons on the battlefield. 6. The lamp lighted by the maid is carried along the current. 7. A penny received as a reward is better than a lump of gold. 8. Abstain from wealth which is stolen. 9.

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S. 289.] LESSON TWELVE 143 The scriptures should be explained by the teacher to the pupils. 10. If a man becomes devoid of wealth his relatives should not forsake him. LESSON TWELVE 287 The AMg. declension is mostly of nouns ending in vowels. A few nouns, however, which originally ended in consonants in Sanskrit have peculiar forms of the consonant al declension and can be said to form the irregular declension in AMg. I. 288 Words which end in F in Sk. fall into two groups, those denoting agency and those denoting relationship. They are differently declined in a few cases. 289 Words denoting agency. kattA doer' N.. kattA kattAro, kattA V. kattA kattAro 'kattAraM kattAro, kattA kattAraNa kattArehi ___Ab.. kattArAo kattArohito G. kattaNo, kattArassa kattArANaM ___L. kattAre kattAresuM Similarly are declined dAyA giver, neyA leader, nAyA knower, satthA preacher, pasatthA expounder, gantA goer. The forms of older 'declension are: N. sing. neya, chetta, daya, (forms from plu. used as sing. are : udagadayare, bhattare, uvadamsettare, bhattaro); A. sing. bhattaram, dayaram, neyaram, N. plu. akkhataro, agantaro, pannattaro, neyaro.

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144 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 289. I. sing. kattarena, plu. kattarehim, Ab. sing. kattarao, plu. kattaTehinto, G. sing. kattarassa, plu. kattaranam, L. sing. bhattate, plu. dayaresu are from the -a- declension. G. sing. kattuno, bhattuno from the -U- declension. 290 Words of relationship. Mas. foren' father N. piyA piyaro .. A. piyaraM piyaro, piyare I. piuNA piIhiM, piUhiM Ab. piuNo piUhiMto, piIhito G. piuNo, piussa piUNaM, piINaM L. piyari piUsuM, piIsuM Similarly are declined : bhAyA brother, jAmAyA son-in-law, ammApiyA father and mother (in sing. and plu.), mAyApiyA (sing. and plu.). Historical forms are : N. sing. piya, bhaya, plu. piyaro, bhayaro, bhayara, ammapiyaro. A. sing. piyaram, bhayaram, ammapiyaTam, L. sing. piyari, G. plu. ammapiunam, ammapiinam, maya piinam, and after them I. plu. piahim, pahim, bhaihim, ammaphim. I. sing. piuna, bhauna, G. sing. piuno, Ab. plu. piuhinto are after -- or u- declension. G. sing. piyarassa after a declension. 291 Fem. mAyA " mother'. mAyA mAyaro mAyaraM mAyaro mAyAe, mAUe mAyAhiM, mAIhiM mAUe mAjAhato, mAIhito mAyAe, mAUe mAyAe, mAUe mAIsuM, mAUsuM The word maya has been fully assimilated to piya even in A. Plu. Dhuya daughter' is regular like mala. Older forms are z creo

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S. 293.] LESSON TWELVE 145 A. Sing. dhiyaram l. plu. dhhiyarahim (analogical with the extended base). Only N. sing. sasa sister' is found. 292 Words ending in-n. rAjan 'king'. N. rAyA rAyANo rAiNo V. rAya, rAyA, rAyaM rAyANo, rAiNo A. rAyANaM, rAyaM rAyANo I. ranA, rAiNA, rAeNa rAIhiM __Ab. rAiNo, ranno rAIhito _G. rAiNo, ranno, rAyassa rAINaM, rAyANaM ___L. . rAyasi rAIsuM Historical forms are: N. sing. raya, plu. Tayano, rayanam, 1. sing. Tanna, Ab. G. sing. Tanno. Others are from a -z- base and rayassa and raena from an -a- base. Both the types of forms are met with in compounds. N. sing: ikkhagaraya, vikkamarao, A. sing. gaddabhillatayanam, I. sing. devaranna, nagaraena, etc. 293 Atman 'self '. It has two bases : appA and attA : ___N. AyA, appA appANo, attANo A. appANaM, attANaM, AyANaM appANo, attANo I. appaNA, attaNA appANehi, attANehiM Ab. Ayao, attao, appao . appANahito, attANehito . G. appaNo, attaNo [appANaM, attANaM] ___L... [appaNi, attaNi] | [appesuM attesuM] Similarly are declined adhdA road, bambhA Brahman, mudhdA "head. Sometimes the shortened base appa is used : A. sing. appam, I. sing. appena, L. sing. appe, sometimes the lengthened base : N. sing. appano, I. sing. appanena, G. sing. appanassa. So also yuvan youth' has juva or juvana; svan 'dog' sana. The Neuter word naman 'name' has in the N. sing. namam or nama. karman 'act' has : I. sing. kammana, kammuna, G. sing. kan 10

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146 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 293. . arahante miuno. All other words ending in -in, -vin, and -min become -i-ending. 294 Words ending in -t. arhat 'venerable' N. arahaM, arahaMto arahanto . A. arahantaM I. arahanteNa, arahayA arahantehiM Ab. arahao arahantehito G. arahao arahaMtassa arahaMtANaM . L. arahaMte, arahaMtasi arahaMtesuM Similarly are declined all present participles like karanta, gacchanta and possessive adjectives like dhaNa These words show all the forms of the -- declension with the base in -anta, -vanta, and -manta extended from the strong base in Sk. Historical forms are : N. sing. janam, vijjam, cak khumam, ditthimam etc. I. sing. maimaya, janaya, mahaya, G. sing. mahao, bhagavao, viharao, kuvvao, dhiimao etc. V. sing. bhayavam, auso, samanauso. Forms from the weak bases are : N. sing. bhagavo, A. sing. maham. 295 Re m n ants of other declensions. gau 'cow', N. sing.... go, gave, N. plu. gao, gava, A. plu. gao, I. plu. gohim, G. plu. gavam. The feminine gavi is regular. nane 'boat' N. sing. nava, A. sing. navam, etc. regular. Word ending in -f : L. sing. jagai.. Words ending in -as : N. sing. dummana, sumana, I. sing. manasa, vayasa, teyasa, tavasa. L. sing. tamasi. In -is, us: I. sing. cakkhusa, viusa. In -s : Ab. sing. diso, A. sing. disam. vac : I. sing. vaya. tvak : I. sing. taya. vid : N. sing. veyavi, parisad : N. sing. parisa. 296 1 tao so vayaMsaparigahio mAyApiIhi ya saddhiM sasurakulaM go| 2 namotthu NaM samaNassa bhagavao mhaaviirss| 3 aruhante vaMdimo sirasA / 4 suyaM me AusaM teNaM bhagavayA evamakkhAyaM / 5 je mAyaraM ca piyaraM ca posenti te loe pasaMsaNijjA bhavanti / 6 rAyANo rAyamaccA ya gANaM pucchanti / 7 te appaNA na giNhanti no ya giNhAvae paraM / 8 je vA dAyAraM niMdai appalAbhe se bhikkhU akajaM kuNai / 9 puvvaM buddhIe pehittA pacchA vymudaahre| aMcakkhuo vva neyAraM

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S. 298.] LESSON THIRTEEN 147 buddhimanneu te girA // 10 tae NaM se mehe kumAre ammApiUhiM evaM vutte samANe ammApiyaro evaM vayAsI / 11 tassa NaM kUNiyassa ranno dhAriNI nAmaM devI hothaa| 12 appA ceva dameyavvo appA hu khalu duddmo| appA daMto suhI hoi assi loe parastha y|| 297 1. The orders of the king should be followed by all the people. 2. King Asoka's religion preached obedience to parents and elders. 3. Know thyself was the motto of the Greek philosophers. 4. The word arahanta is explained as one who deserves honour', 'one who kills enemies' and 'an honourable person'. 5. The preaching of the venerable lord Mahavira should not be thought to be the same as that of Buddha. 6. The ministers of the king brought before him the young prince of the vanquished enemy. 7. When asked what he wanted the child began to cry and lament the death of his father. 8. Men follow their leaders without thinking. 9. 'It is better to control oneself with penance and self-control. 10. The man who has eyes should be the leader of blind men. LESSON THIRTEEN 298 The demonstrative pronoun gag is declined as follows: ___Mas. Fem. - N. esa, eso esA eyAo A. eyaM . I. eeNaM eehiM eyAe eyAhiM . Ab. eyAo eehinto eyAo eyAhito - G. eyassa eyAe eyAsiM L. eyaMsi, eyammi eesuM eyAe eyAsuM eyAo eesiM

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148 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 298. Neut. N.A. eyaM eyAI, eyANi.. all other forms are the same as those of the Masculine. This pronoun is used to point out things which are near the speaker. (cf. 411). The declension is identical with that of tat which is here extended by prefixing e-. Additional forms are N. sing. ese, Ab. sing. etto, G. plu. eyanam (both Mas. and Fem.). imAhi 299 The pronoun idam is declined as follows : Mas. Fem. N. ime, ayaM, iNamo ime imA, iyaM imAo A. imaM ime imaM . imAo I. imeNa, peNa, imiNA imehiM imAe Ab. imAo imehiMto imAo imAhito G. imassa, assa, se imesiM, esiM imIe, imAe, imIse, se imAsiM L. imaMsi, assiM imesuM imAe, imIse imAsuM Neut. N. A. ima, idaM imAI, imANi the rest like Mas. It is used to point out what is in the presence of the speaker. (cf 412). As in Sk. this pronoun is pieced out of a number of stems. The original stem a-or i- gives : N. sing. ayam (for all genders), A. sing. imam, G. sing. assa, L. sing. assim, I. plu. ehim, L. plu. esu, and the extended form L. sing. ayamsi. The stem ana- gives I. sing. anenam, the base ena- (becoming ina-) gives Mas. N. sing. inamo A. sing. inam, nam, I. sing. nena, plu. nehim, Neu. N. A. sing. inam, Fem. I. sing. nae, plu.nahim. The base ima- is extended to all the cases and assumes the form of ima- or imi- in the Fem.

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S. 304.] LESSON THIRTEEN 149 300 Only a few forms of adas are met with. N. sing. aso and the extended forms amugo, amuge, I. sing. amuNA L. sing. amugaMsi (cf. 413). 301 The Denominatives or nouns used as verbs are formed (i) by using the noun as a verb : appiNa to offer, jamma to take birth, paccappiNa to return. (ii) by adding ya to the noun, before which the preceding vowel is lengthened : mamAya to desire, siMhAya to act like a lion, amarAya to look like a god. (iii) by adding e : AhAre to eat, phale to give fruit, uvakkhaDe to cook, maile to soil, vaMte to vomit. (iv) by adding Ave : saddAve to call, dukkhAve to harm, dhIrAve to console, saccAve to take an oath. 302 A few desiderative forms are borrowed from Sk. juguccha to become disgusted, tigiccha to examine, sussUsa to serve. 303 The intensive forms borrowed from Sk. are: jAgara to keep awake, caMkama to wander, lAlappa to fondle bhibbhisa to shine. 304 1. eyaM vihiNA sukayaM suyaNA jaM nimmiyA bhuvnne| 2. jA jA vaccai rayaNI na sA paDiniyattai / ahammaM kuNamANassa aphalA janti raaio|| 3. jA jA vaccai rayaNI na sA paDiniyattai / dhammaM ca kuNamANassa saphalA janti raaio|| 4. vitteNa tANaM na labhe pamatte imaMsi loe adu vA parastha / 5. jayA migassa AyaMko mahAraNNammi jAyai / aJcataM rukkhamUlammi ko NaM tAhe tigicchai // 6. so seNAyai kAo sIhAyai kolhuo abuddhiio| 7. evaM aNusAsieNa bhaNiyaM AggasammeNa / bhayavaM evameyaM na saMdeho tti / tA jai bhagavao mamovari aNukaMpA, ucio vA ahaM eyassa vayabisesassa tA karehi me eyvyppyaannN| isiNA bhaNiyaM 'vaccha , ko anno eyassa ucio tti // 8. eyamAyaNNiUNa bhaNiyaM varadhaNuNA 'kimayassa mukkhabaDuyassa kae appANaM kheeh'|

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150 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 305. 3051. Teach this pupil the principles of religion. 2. The dog was stolen from me by the thief. 3. These students wait upon the teacher. 4. The physician examines the disease of the king. 5. Why do you get angry with these servants ? 6. Salutation to the god who created this whole universe. 7. Who lives in that cottage ? 8. The ascetics living in this forest are seen by that king. LESSON -- FOURTEEN 306 The numeral ega or eka is declined in three genders and in the singular number. N. A. I. Ab. G. Mas. ege egeNa gAo 22 dohiM dohiMto donha do Neu. egaM egaM Fem. " egA egaM egassa egAe egAe L. egamma esi In the plural it is used to mean 'some'. N. ege, G. egesim. tIhiM tIhiMto tinhaM tIsu egAe 307 do ' two ' ti 'three' and cau 'four' are declined in the plural only and all the genders have the same forms. N. do, duve, do tao, tiNNi cattAro, cauro, cattAri A. I. Ab. G. L. gAo "" cauhiM cauhiMto

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S. 309.] LESSON FOURTEEN 151 Do (dvan) is Mas. duve and be (dve) Neu. and Fem. donni after the model of trini. Other forms are in the plural. tao (travah) Mas. tinni (trini) Neu. cattaro (catvarah) Mas. cattari cat vari) Neu. cauro (caturah) Mas. Acc. 308 Numerals from paMca five' to aTThArasa 'eighteen' are declined only in the plural and have one set of forms only. N. eMca A. paMca I. paMcahiM Ab. paMcahiMto G. paMcaNhaM L. paMcasu. They are 6 cha, 7 satta, 8 aTTa, 9 nava, 10 dasa, daha, 11 ekkArasa, eyAraha, 12 duvAlasa, bArasa, 13 terasa, 14 cauddasa, 15 paMcaraha, pannarasa, 16 solasa 17 sattarasa. ___All other numerals except 49-58 are declined in the singular like nouns having the respective endings. Thus numerals from 19-48 may be regarded as Neu. nouns ending in -a or Fem. nouns ending in -a in the Nom. Numerals from 59-99 may be regarded as Neu. in -i or Fem. in -i in the Nom.. In all other cases they are declined like Fem. nouns. Numerals from 49 to 58 are to be declined like panca. (cf. 339-340). 309 The remaining numerals are : 19 egUNavIsa, auNavIsai auNavIsa, 20 vIsa, vIsai, 21 ekkavIsa, 22 bAvIsa, 23 tevIsa, 24 cauvIsa, 25 paNavIsa, 26 chanvIsa, 27 sattAvIsa, 28 aTThAvIsa, 29 auNatIsa, 30 tIsa, 31 egatIsa, 32 battIsa, 33 tettIsa, 34 cottIsa, 35 paNatIsa, 36 chattIsa, 37 sattatIsa, 38 aTTatIsa, 39 egUNacattAlIsa, 40 cattAlIsa, 41 egacattAlIsa, 42 bAyAlIsa, 43 teyAlIsa, 44 cauyAlIsa, 45 paNayAlIsa, 46 chAyAlIsa, 47 sIyAlIsa, 48 aDhayAlIsa, 49 egUNapanna, 50 pannAsa, 51 egAvanna, 52 bAvanna, 53 tevanna, 54 cauvanna, 55 paNavanna, 56 chavvanna, 57 sattAvanna, 58 aTThAvanna, 59 egUNasaTThi, 60 saTThi, 61 egar3hi, 62 bAsaTThi, 63 tesaTTi, 64 causaTTi, 65 paNasahi, 66 chAvaTThi, 67 sattasaTThi, 68 aTThasaTTi, 69 egaNasattari, 70 sattari, 71 ekkasattari, 72 bAvattari, 73 tevattari, 74 covattari, 75 paMcahattari, 76 chAvattari, 77 sattahattari, 78 aTThahattari, 79. egUNAsIi, 80 asIi. 81 ekkAsIi, 82 bAIsi, 83 tesIi, 84 caurAsIi, 85 paMcAsIi, 86 chalasIi, 87 sattAsIi, 88 aTrAsIi, 89 egUNanaui, 90 naui, 91 ekkANaui, 92 beNaui, 93 teNaui,

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152 ___INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 309. 94 cauNaui, 95 paMcANaui, 96 channaui, 97 sattANaui, 98 aTThANaui, 99 nauNaui, 100 saya, 1000 sahassa. 310 The ordinals are : paDhama first, bIya, biiya, docca second, taiya tacca third, cauttha fourth, paMcama fifth, cha? sixth. The remaining are formed by adding # to the cardinal number. sattama seventh, dasama tenth, vIsaima twentieth... 311 To express fractions of half ar3a is added to the next number : diyaDU one and one half, addhaTThama seven and one half. 312 saI once. The remaining m ultiplicatives are formed by adding khutto (Sk. krtvah).. dukkhutto two times, farger three times, AFFET seven times.. 313 The distinctives are expressed by putting the ordinal in Neuter singular. paDhamaM firstly, docaM secondly. 314 Numeral adjectives are formed by adding viha (Sk. vidha) to the number. egaviha simple, duviha two fold paMcaviha fivefold. They can also be formed by adding hA (Sk. dha) : sayahA hundred times, sattahA seven times. 315 Numeral adverbs are formed by adding #T: HERIET by thousands, sayaso by hundreds. 316 do two ' becomes do in compounds when the accent is on the first syllable. Otherwise it becomes du: domAsiya but, duguNa. ti 'three' becomes te in compounds : teiMdiya * having three senses'. 317 1. tae NaM sA navaNhaM mAsANaM bahupaDipuNNANaM adhdaTThamANaM rAiMdiyANaM vIikkantANaM puvarattAvarattakAlasamayaMsi dAragaM pyaayaa| 2. teNaM kAleNaM teNaM samaeNaM pAse arahA tIsaM vAsAI agAravAsamajhe vasittA, tettIsaM rAiMdiyAI tavaM tavittA, sattarivAsAI kevAlapariyAyaM pAuNittA, ekaM vAsasayaM savvAuyaM pAlaittA savvadukkhapahINe ahosi| 3. jaM rayaNiM kAlagaoM arahA titthaM

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S. 320.] LESSON FIFTEEN 153 karo mhaaviiro| taM rayaNimavaMtivaI ahisitto pAlao rAyA // 4. tassa NaM ANaMdassa gAhAvaIssa cattAri hiraNNakoDIo nihaannputtaao| 5. evaM khalu amhANaM sAmI, sumiNasatthagasi bAyAlIsaM sumiNA, tIsaM mahAsumiNA, bAvattari savvasumiNA nihitttthaa| 6. taM bhogasamatthaM jANittA ammApiyaro battIsAe ibbhakulabAliyANaM egadivaseNaM pANiM geNhAventi // 7. se muNI chaTThI bhattAiM aNasaNAe cheei| 8. se bAlae Ayariyakule bAvattari kalAo sikkhi| 318 1. On the 27th day of this month there was an assembly of wise men. 2. There are 36 chapters of the Uttaradhyayana. 3. The Jain canon has 45 books of different nature. 4. Of the 9 chapters of the first book of Ayara the 8th called Mahaparinna is lost. 5. The Nandisutra deals with the five kinds of knowledge. 6. In this Avasappini 24 Jinas are born in the country of Bharata. 7. Ravana had only one head and not ten. 8. The eleven brothers became the eleven Ganadharas of Mahavira. LESSON FIFTEEN .319 ADVERBS. Adverbs 'of place : ettha, ihaM here, tastha, tahiM there, jattha, jahiM where, kattha, kahiM where? katthai, kahiMci, kahiMpi somewhere, io, etto from here, tao, tatto from there, jao, jatto from where, kao, kuo, katto from whence ? egattha in one place, annattha in another place, ur3e above, savvattha everywhere, bAhiM outside, aggao before, pacchA behind, dUrao from afar, aMtarA in the middle. 320 Adverbs of time : aja, eNhi, ettAhe, iyANiM, saMpayaM now, tA, tayA, vao, to, taiyA, tAhe then; jayA, jaiyA, jAhe when; kayA kaiyA when? jAva...tAva, jA...tA while...then, kallaM yester

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154 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 320. day, ga tomorrow, grea, gar earlier, fai, FI, E, pri always, sahasA, jhatti suddenly, navaraM only, navari thereafter, puNo again, tAva ya, etthaMtare in the mean while. 321 Adverb of manner : A. Al, not, ga, faer, fa, za like, evaM, tahA so, kahaM pi somehow sammaM properly, samaM together; bADhaM, dhaNiyaM very, Isi maNaM little, avassaM necessarily, lahuM, sigghaMquick1y saNiyaM slowly, kameNa in course, suTTha well, kevalaM only, seyaM better. 322 The adverbs have a twofold origin. (i) Some of them are old case forms and others are formed with suffixes. Acc. Sing. is found in : uddham (urdhvam), buhim (bahih), iyanim (idanim), sampayar (sampratam), kallam (kalyam), miccari (nityam), sayayam (satatam), puvim (*purvim), badham, dhaniyam, evan (evam). Inst. is found in: antara, sahasa, kamena (kramena), diya (diva), pura ; Ab. is found in : bahiya (bahyat); hettha, paccha; Loc. in : etthantare, Tao, rahe, suve, pure. (ii) With the suffix -ttha (Sk. rra): ettha, tattha, jattha, kattha, egattha, annattha, savvattha. With the suffix -tas, io, etto, tao, tatto, jao, jatto, kao, katto, kuo, durao, aggao. With the suffix -ha (Sk. tha); ihan, jaha, taha, kaham. With the suffix -da: taya, jaya, kaya, saya. With -hini : jahim, tahim, kahim. With -he: Pahe, tahe. 323 PREPOSITIONS. Used with nouns. (i) Governing Acc. : aMtareNa without, jAva until, pai towards, mottaNa except, 3GP, MERT with. (ii) Governing Ins. : H, ANE, Ak with, farm without. (iii) Governing Abl.: 3762 from. (iv) Governing Gen. : purao before, uvAreM above, samIvaM near, kae for, heTThA below, bAhiM outside paJcakkhaM in the presence etc. 324. Prepositions used with verbs. ai (ati) beyond, over, aikkamai crosses, aigacchai goes over.

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S. 326.] . LESSON FIFTEEN 155 aNu ( anu.) after, behind, along : aNukarei imitates, aNujANai consents. 'ava ; o (apa) away, off : avakkamai, avarajjhai, oharai. abhi (abhi) towards, to : abhigacchai, abhivai, abhibhavai. ava, o (ava) away, down : avatarai, ogAhai avamANei. A (A) upto, on : Arahai Agacchai. ud (ud ) upon : uggamei , uttarai, uddisai. uva (upa) towards, near : uvAgacchai, uvamei, uvadhArei. dusa (dusa) bad, hard : duccarei, dukkarei. nisU (nisa) out, away : niggamai, nissarai. pari (pari) all round : parigaNei, parivaDei. paDi, pari (prati) towards : paDivAlei. vi (vi) apart, separate : vikkiNai, vikubvai, vivarei. saM (sam) together : saMgamai, saMtosei. su (su) well : suladdhe, sukarei. pAu (prAduH) open : pAukarei, pAubbhavai. 325 CONJUNCTIONS. (i) Copulative : aha now, ca, ya and, kiMca moreover. (ii) Disjunctive : vA or (iii) Adversative: ahavA or kiMta but. (iv) Conditional : jaDa if. (v) Of direct speech : tti, ti, i, ii thus. (cf 463-478). 326 1. kahaM tuma egAMgI bhIsaNAraNNe aago| 2. ahavA daMDeNa ceva nIyANaM uvasamo, na saamennN| 3. jattha sAgare miliyA gaMgA tattha gaMgAsAyaratitthaM jaayN| 4. jAva na ei Aese tAva jIvai so duhI / aha pattammi Aese sIsaM chettaNa bhujai // 5. savvaM jagaM jai tuhaM savvaM vAvi dhaNaM bhave / savvaM pi te apajattaM neva tANAya te tava // 6. kohA vA jai vA hAsA lohA vA jai vA bhayA / musaM na vayaI jo u taM vayaM bUma maahnnN|| 7. jahA pommaM jale jAyaM novalippai vAriNA / evaM alittaM kAmehiM taM vayaM mabU mAhaNaM // 8. * jarA jAva na pIlei vAhI jAva na vaDUi / jAviMdiyA na hAyanti tAva dhammaM samAyare //

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156 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 327. 327 1. Who can help me without you ? 2. Go in the northern direction of the tree and I will follow you. 3. When he was speaking with the girl Asanivega came there. 4. What difference is there between men and beasts if men behave like animals? 5. The thief concealed the stolen wealth below the tree. 6. Goyama came to the garden outside the city of Campa with five hundred monks. : 7. The god slowly produced the form of a big serpent to frighten the pious householder. 8. Even though fish live in water they do not get liberated.

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PART THREE SYNTAX AND COMPOUNDS

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I ARTICLE 328 There is no article in Ardha-Magadhi. The meaning of both the definite and indefinite articles is inherent in the word itself. So great means 'a man' and 'the man' according to the context. If they are to be pointed out prominently the definite article is expressed by the demonstrative pronoun, a GRATI' the man'. At saft I ' that lady', alegur di 9 TEI the child took the fruit'. The indefinite article is expressed by the use of g. grit PETI a lion', ilg OTT HEUT Ran I ' A certain Brahmin lived in Campa'. Historically the article has arisen out of the demonstrative pronoun which has lost much of its original force. In AMg. however, it has never lost its force to such an extent as can be compared with the article of the European languages. The same holds good of the indefinite article arising from the numeral 'one'. But a close approach to the use of article is found in the canonical prose in cases like: tae nam se jaiandhe purise Vip. 11. ' then the blind man' tae nam se purise tam purisam evam vayasi Sut. 2.13 then the man spoke to the other man', tae nam se anande Upa. 10. then Ananda.' II AGREEMENT 329 Agreement relates mainly to such aspects as Gender, Number, Case and Person, regarding which the words must formally agree to form congruence between them. * Various factors help to break down this congruence. Thus the impression produced by the actual fact like a collective idea

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160 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 329. with a grammatical expression in plural : abhu jina atthi jina adu va vi bhavissai U. 2.45. "There were Jinas, there are Jinas and there will be Jinas.' A fixed form may disturb, it; tattha je te ariya te evam vayasi Ay. 1.4.2. There those who were noble spoke thus'. Sometimes an important word may disturb the agreement : chajjivaniya namam ajjhayanam paveiya Das. 4. The chapter called 'Chajjivaniya' is preached'. The speaker himself may change the mode of expression : siehi asie bhikkhu amokkhae parivvaejjasi Sut. 1.1.4.13. "A pious monk should live as a man free from fetters among those who are bound with fetters. A compromise may be effected : tahe Taya sa ya jayahatthimmi arudhai Erz. 34.29. Then the king and queen mounted the victorious elephant'. 330 AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE. The agreement found between the subject and the predicate of a given sentence pertains to the number and person when the predicate is in the form of a finite verb and to number and gender when it is a verbal derivative. (i) Normally the number of the subject and the predicate is the same. alfa a afera I Das. 1.1. 'Even the gods adore him.' HARI S E TI Das. 1.2. "The bee drinks the juice. As the dual forms are lacking in all the Prakrits the verb is in the plural with a dual subject : do vi gacchanti soggair Das. 5.1. 100. Both of them go to a good birth'. This agreement holds good with the grammatical gender and number when the actual fact may not conform with it. When a person is spoken of in plural as a sign of respect the predicate will be in the plural : tao tubbhe eyam attham aikkhaha Nay. 1.14. Then tell me this fact.' (ii) A multiple subject. If the words forming the subject are joined with the particle q' and 'the predicate is naturally in the plural. Tru PAI 7 geraal Das. 6.2. * The kings and the ministers of the king ask'. Et q huit

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S. 331.] II AGREEMENT 161 7 ore T Das. 8.40. 'Anger and pride which are not controlled '. * The other alternative that the predicate should agree with the nearest of them is also found : kiM vA karei mama virahe HERI3 37791 of 1 Erz. 21.10. "What is the king and my mother doing in my absence ?' Sometimes the rule is violated : sampayam ca davvaharanam parimoso ya kena vi kayan Erz. 67.19. Just somebody took away the wealth and committed theft.' (iii) If the nouns forming the subject are joined by the disjunctive particle al or' the predicate naturally remains in the singular. A goot a ga art Sut. 1.1.1.12. * There is neither merit nor demerit.' 331 When the subject is made of nouns of different numbers the verb agrees according to following possibilities. When the subject consists of two singular nouns joined with ca 'and' or any other particle like vi also', the verb is found either in the singular or plural. na tassa maya va piya va bhaya kalammi tammamsahara bhavanti U. 13.22. Neither his mother nor father nor brother take a, share (of his acts) at the time of death.' When the subject consists of more than one word of different numbers the verb is usually in the plural and only occasionally in the singular. sehanti ya nam inamaino maya piya ya suya ya bhariya Sut. 1.2.1.19. His father, mother, children and wife, who claim him, admonish him.' palenti putta ya pai ya majjham U. 14.36. My sons and husband run away.' jattha natthi jara maccu vahino veyana taha U. 23.81. Where there is neither old age nor death nor diseases nor pains.' When the subject consists of many words all of which are in the plural the verb is naturally in the plural except for exceptional cases, darani ya suya ceva mitta ya taha bandhava jivantam anujivanti U. 18.14. "Wives, sons, relatives and friends depend upon him as long as he lives'. dahara buddha ya patthae Sut. 1.2.1.16. Young and old may request.' 11

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162 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 331. Principal exceptions to the rules may be due to the lack of distinct forms of morphology: te suminapadhaga evam vayasi Nay. 1.12. those astrologers said thus or for an unknown cause pantam sejjam sevimsu Ay. 1.9.3.2. He used a low bed'; with a collective idea: jattha jaramaranarogadosa natthi Vas. 4.3. 'where there is neither old age nor death nor diseases nor faults', first person with a plural verb: tao ham tao lavamo Vas. 290.28. 'then I speak to them'; inclusive first person: avi yavi citta janissamo Ry. 18. Moreover O Citta, let us know'; dual subject with a singular verb: do vi tattha nimantae Das. 5.1.38 Both of them may invite him'; a change of number may occur in a relative clause aggi citthai Goyama je dahanti sariratthe U. 23.50. There is fire in the body, O Goyama, which burns." 332 The subject and the finite verb normally agree as regards person. If the subject consists of more than one. word of different persons, the plural verb is in the first person rather than in the second or third and in the second rather than in the third. ahaM ca tumaM ca mA kule gaMdhaNA homo / . Das 2.8. 'You and I, let us not become Gandhana serpents in our family'. gia fa Kum. 53. 'Let you and I both fight'. Disagreement in Person is only occasional: bhikkhu amokkhae parivvaejjasi Sut. 1.1.4.13. The monk should wander till he is liberated.' na tumam jane U. 26.16. You do not know'. 333 Usually the predicate agrees with the gender of the subject whenever it is an adjective or a verbal derivative. This agreement pertains to the grammatical gender of the word. Erz. 54.10. I married myself". Gian U. 22.29. That I am abandoned by him.' 334 When the subject consists of words of Masculine and Feminine nouns AMg. uses masculine form of the predicate. mAyA ya loho ya pavadrumANA / Das. 8.40. Deceit and greed growing'.

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S. 338.) II AGREEMENT 163 In later Prakrit the neuter form was preferred : (raya devi ya) niyabhavane gayai Erz. 84.6. "The king and the queen went to their palace. 335 If the predicate is a noun it is not free to agree with the subject as regards gender. FHI FENERTE l 'Birth is misery and old age is also misery.' tavo joI jIvo joiThANaM / U. 12. 'Penance is fire, the soul the altar. 336 In the Prakrits we find the slow process by which the active construction has replaced the passive though the grammatical form remains passive. Past passive participles derived from a transitive verb are used in an active construction: F IA qahrauj I U. 23.46. "I have abandoned the eating of poison.' llegit efl i Pau. 6. 111. ' The lord of Lanka spoke. Many transitive verbs use their participles actively : ai FISTT TI I U. 20.10.' Then the king laughed.' 337 AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE SUBSTANTIVE AND THE ADJECTIVE. On the whole the adjective agrees with the substantive on which it depends in Gender, Number and Case. The exceptions to this rule are only occasional. When a substantive is pointed out by means of a superlative from a group of nouns usually in the genitive and the two nouns differ ir. gender, the superlative usually agrees with the noun in the nominative and not with the one in the genitive : cando va tarana mahanubhave Sut. 1.6.19. 'Just as the moon is the most lustrous among the stars.' gandhesu va candanam ahu settham Sut. 1.6.19. "As sandal is the best among the scents.' Attraction is responsible for this usage. 338 The agreement of adjectives with more than one substantive is on parallel lines with that of the predicate. The usual practice is to make it agree with the nearest substantive; TE Gengar Og ATSITI ATITI U. 19.70. "You like

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164 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 338. wine, drink and other liquors.' 41537 F Fresneden aan ala TO TI U. 19.70. "I was made to drink, burning fat and blood.' Cases of disagreement may be (i) those of gender : tei cittamantam akkhaya Das. 4. Fire is said to possess life.' iham puna samive girikulam nama gamo Vas. 182.6. Here nearby there is a village called Girikuda'. (ii) disagreement in case cf. Das. 5.1.29. (iii) disagreement in number of doubtful occurrence. 339 AGREEMENT OF NUMERALS. The cardinal number meaning 'one' fully agrees with the noun. Tria Ti TIHTyusstel Sut. 2.1. ' He sees an excellent lotus'. In its plural form it means 'some'. git BIE! 'Some say '. The cardinal numbers from two' to 'eighteen' are regarded as adjectives. But by the nature of their meaning they are used in the plural. Moreover they have only one set of forms for all the three genders. aifour la Territ I Nir. 26. "Both the kings'. T ITA SUA I U. 22.2. 'He had two wives.' Brett WATHERINE ART, synge i Nay. 5.53. "Surrounded with eighteen thousand monks.' Numerals over 'twenty' are all regarded as substantives and stand in apposition to the noun which they qualify. Their agreement pertains only to the case forms. ating SCHEUGIAT Tifu hugtafel Nay. 5.53. 'They marry him with thirty-two girls of rich families. Geng atat i Nir. 24.' with 72 years.' Words expressing bigger numbers like 'hundred ', thousand' are regarded as substantives and stand in apposition to words which they qualify. jeg Kap. 142. 'Five hundred'. 340 In many cases numerals remain without any inflection. solasa rogayanka Vip. 22. 'sixteen diseases.' sattari vasai Kap. S. 70. '70 years.'

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S. 343.) . II AGREEMENT 165 Numerals over twenty being substantives, can govern the genitive of the noun : atthasayam mahanadaraganam Vip. 107. eight hundred Brahmin boys.' puttanam satthi sahassa Sag. sixty thousand sons.' Numerals also enter into compounds with the nouns: atthasahassalakkhanadharo U. 22.5. possessing eight thousand marks.' sirasayai satteva nava nharusaya bhave Erz. 4.14. "There are 700 veins and 900 sinews.' 341 AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. Usually the pronoun agrees with the noun in Number and Gender. There are some cases of disagreement of gender: neuter pronoun with a masculine noun: graf og om! Das. 6.10. 'All living beings in the world.' jAvantavijjApurisA savve te CREATET I 1.6.1. As many ignorant persons there are, are all born in misery.' When the pronoun refers to words of different genders it may be in the masculine or neuter gender. kasaya indiyani ya te jinittu U. 23.38 'senses and passions, having conquered them." 342 The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number and gender but its case is determined by the clause in which it occurs. je ya buddhA mahAbhAgA suddhaM tesiM parakantaM / Sut. 1.8.23. "These who are enlightened and great, their activity is pure.' gei que totes en EES Erz. 37.1. 'He who takes this staff will become a king.' There are a number of exceptions. acchanda je na bhunjanti na se cai tti vuccai Das. 2.2. 'those who do not enjoy because unable to do so are not called relinquishers.' ke ettha khatta uvajoiya va.... khalejja jo nam U, 12.18. Who are the door-keepers appointed here who may remove him?' 343 The relative pronoun is neuter when it refers to a whole sentence.' 59 391 ga ge TIC FIOTHI fe PETER FAHRET gregoshti U. 13.19. 'This is the effect of

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166 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 343. my deed for which I have not repented, that even knowing religion I am attached to pleasure of senses.' ajautta sohaNaM ai A 7091 Faruit | Erz. 8.29. 'O Lord, you did well in killing that wicked man.' 344 If the predicate of a relative pronoun is a noun having a different gender from the gender of the antecedent noun, the relative pronoun agrees with the predicate rather than its antecedent. The demonstrative pronoun naturally agrees with the antecedent noun. je mAhaNA jAivijovaveyA tAI I ET EASIE I U. 12.13. 'Those Brahmins who are endowed with birth and knowledge are the best fields.' III NUMBER 345 The Singular number naturally gives expression to an idea which is by nature one or when the contents of an idea are homogeneous or an idea of a collective nature. The collective words in the singular are always treated as singular and never as plural. FUIT STAAkt ga 3715451 Bhag. 15.1.3. 'People were speaking to each other.' Many words which are used only in the plural in Sanskrit are found in Prakrit as both singular or plural. pruttesu daresu ca ya apekkha Sn. 38. 'the attachment towards sons and wife,' pudhavi au teu ya Sut. 1.1.1.18. ' earth, water and fire'. somilam mahanam panehi kaddhavei Ant. 66. 'He caused Somila to be deprived of his life.' 346 Singular is used to denote whole class or material things forming one class. ape Far ATI U. 2.27. 'There is no destruction of the soul'. pUyaM ca soNiyaM ca AhArei / Vip. 27. 'He eats pus and blood.' A curious use of the singular is found in dasaddhayanne kusume nivaie Bhag. 15.1.7. Flowers of five colours were thrown down.'

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S. 349.] IV CASES 167 347 The -dual is lost and its place is taken by the plural even when the numeral at may be used : ce quis AVON a Stele 1eggel Das. 8.20. 'He hears many things with his ears and sees many things with his eyes.' afi Que A GA GET THAT I U. 22.2. "Their two dear sons were Rama and Kesava.' 348 The plural primarily denotes multiple things when the speaker wants to emphasise its plurality. Hoa IAT gargal 1 U. 'All pleasures bring misery. The plural is used to make a general statement : se jahAnAmae bIyANaM fregiu goret Blyth a Hag | Aup. 155. "Just as there cannot arise the sprout from seeds burnt with fire.' Natural objects may be used in the plural : salila na sandanti na vanti vaya Sut. 1.12.7. Waters do not flow and winds do not blow'. Abstract things : aniccam devasokkhai Aup. 50. "The happiness of gods is momentary.' tesim sikkha pavaddhanti Das. 9.2.12. Their instructions increase.' Substances : mamsesu mucchiya Upa. 240. addicted to flesh.' Names of countries : tam jaha anganam vanganam .... ghayae Bhag. 15.1.28. just as for the destruction of Angas, Vangas ....' Constellations : aha nikkhamai u cittahim U. 22.23. He then becomes a monk at the time of Citta'. Objects naturally plural : kesa panduraya havanti te U. 10.21, * your hairs grow white'. A curious usage is : bhanai sumitto nisasu vanamalari Pau. 12.19 Sumitta says to Vanamala in the night.' IV CASES 349 NOMINATIVE. It expresses the subject of the sentence. Be a FIETTI Das. 2.11. "Thus act the enlightened men.' It expresses the object of the passive construction ; aut AT HOTETT I He said to her.' Nom. of the word in apposition to the suppressed subject : javajjivam bambhayari viharissam Vas. 3. 28. 'I will live as a celibate throughout the life.'

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168 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 350. 350 Nominative of the predicate of a few verbs of incomplete predication. For at Hag arag I Das. 9.4.14. 'He becomes an eternal Siddha.' kasAyA aggiNo vuttA / U. 23.53. 'Passions are said to be fires.' Bg SITAT I Ay. 1.1.1. 'Who was I?' Ta poate fait o 1 Erz.' The king made her the owner of the whole kingdom.' Words standing in apposition to the subject and words joined with nama naturally remain in the nominative; atthi iheva bharahe vasve pondavaddhanam nama puram/tammi siharaho nama raya Erz. 48.24, 'There is in this very country of Bharata a town P. by name. There the king was S. by name.' Note the use of the predicative nominative : (te) niggantha pavvaiya Pau. 5.58. they became Niggantha monks.' 351 Nominative is used with a to form the logical object of a sentence. A qui a I Sut. 1.2.3.16. 'The fool regards it as protection. Qui ad F F ar i Das. 7.12. He should not call a thief as thief.' Acc. may be found as in riddhimantan ti alave Das. 7.52. 'may call him as rich. Further Nom. for Acc. adverbs : payatto vanabhimuho Erz. 35.3! started towards forest'. For infinitive : esa vi ya nam kanhe mamam antiyam payavandae havvam agacchai Ant. 40. ^ This Kanha comes to me for saluting my feet.' With the interjection aho: aho dujjayattam mohassa Erz. 3.35. O the difficulty of conquering delusion.' In enumeration : pudhavi au teu va vau agasapancama Sut. 1.1.1.7. 'Earth, water, fire, wind and sky as the fifth.' In cases like padei rayanavutihi Pau. 3.69.'he showers jewels.' bhanjanti balassa vahena pitthi Sut. 1.5.2.14. 'They break the back of the ignorant man with weapon.' kahehi darayauppatti Vas. 119.14. "Tell the origin of the child' we should better admit the interchange of a long vowel for a nasalised one. A disjunctive use of the Nom. is found in : so eva bhaniyametto viniggao naravai Paum. 28.31. " When he said thus the king went away.' 352 ACCUSATIVE : It expresses the object of transitive verbs : acela a El Sut. 1.1.2.1. "They undergo

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S. 356.) IV CASES 169 happiness and misery.' Here fori Tel Sut. 1.3.2.4. * Maintain your father and mother.' Some intransitive verbs of Sanskrit are used transitively : piuuaramam ca te sumaramani Vas. 36.13. ' remembering the death of your father.' roemi nam bhante niggunthar pavayanam Upa. 12. I like, O Lord, the Niggantha preaching.' jaim balo varajjhai Das. 7.7. about which the fool commits faults.' vippo namamuddam jio jue Pau. 5.32. 'The Brahmin was deprived of the ring in gambling.' 353 Verbs denoting motion are used with the Accusative of goal or destination. The apT JHT I Sut. 1.3.2.6. *Come, child, let us go home.' al TESTA FERDI 36 nila at STATE gauch FARMASTATA 1 Therefore, I will go to Himalaya and taking that herb give it to Sirivijaya. 354 A double accusative may be found in the following cases (i) used predicatively : ogasam phasuyam nacca Ay. 1.2.1. 'knowing the place to be pure.' sanjayam sahum ulave Das. 8.49. One should call a self-controlled one sage.' (ii) in apposition to the object : asanam va panam va aharam aharettae Kalp. 1.19. 'to eat food either food or drink.' (iii) expressing the person and thing: gihino tam na aikkhe Das. 8.50. He should not tell it to the householders.' (iv) with causal verbs : thanagam pejjamani daragam Das. 5.1.42. giving suck to the child.' 355 A number of verbs may take a cognate accusative: 37 HRUI HABEI U. 5. 16. 'He dies an untimely death.' JHET gyak atera I Sut. 1.5.2.15. 'Urged on with arrows they carry loads of elephants.' kiM pi tahAvihaM jhANaM Hupati Sm. 14.9. "Meditating some thought of that type.' 356 Accusative expresses the extent of time and place. 1931). Et fa fari ang si Erz. 8.30. 'He remained with her for some time.' 38 AIG Frat pa ! Ay. 1.9.4.5. The Lord spent eight months. 37a1for EFI zijcito age 1

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170 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 356. Erz. 37.2. "It grows another four Angulas.' gcmoi suri HTET E ! Vip. 205. He follows the monk S. seven or eight steps.' Acc. may also denote a point of time : tam ma nam amhe iyanim avaikalam pi adinnam ginhamo Aup. 86. Therefore, let us not take what is not given even in this time of difficulty.' 357 A few verbal nouns may govern accusative : JEHARRESTI II Sut. 1.1.2.20. "We are observing religion.' 49equuit t ai UMT27015 I Vas. 4.2. With a serene face he salutes his parents and says.' A number of prepositions govern this case: spai Sai Sut. 1.7.8. * with reference to one's happiness'., P arfoi re ARTET geet! Vas. 84.9. 'the question of N. to the prophet S.' Particles : E HE STATil Sur. 2.48. "Fie upon my manhood.' 358 Acc. gives rise to a number of adverbs. khippam gacchanti amarabhavanai Das. 4.28. They quickly go to the heavenly regions.' mandar parakkame bhayavam Ay. 1.9.4.12. "The Lord wandered slowly.' So also phudan clearly, siggham quickly, niccam always, pruvvin formerly. 359 Very often the accusative of destination is expressed by an analytical construction : jeNAmeva ajjasuhamme there teNAmeva Jamesys | Nay. 1.5. 'He goes to the elder Arya Sudharma'. 360 INSTRUMENTAL. It is used in the sociative meaning and is often accompanied by prepositions like AE, HH and NIE. SIFT HET a CAIE I U. 8.18. 'They play with them as with slaves.' Hogar ERST F it I Erz. 48.26. With all the army he started from the town.' A more abstract association may be seen in : bambhacerena se vase Sut. 1.1.3.13. 'He should live in celibacy.' jae saddhae nikkhanto Ay. 1.1.13. With what enthusiasm he became a monk.'

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S. 365.] 361 It commonly denotes the means or instrument of the action both physical or mental : egeNa caiva sareNa do vi viNivAiyA / Erz. 1.14. Both of them were killed by the same arrow. masAvi na patthae / Sut. 1.8.14. He should not desire it even in his mind. ' 6 IV CASES " 362 It denotes the acting agent in the passive construction. Erz. 12.26. How should I know him?' Sut. 1.1.3.6. 'God created the world.' With causal forms the primary subject of the verb may be also in the instrumental : paccayapurisehiM suraMgA khaNAviyA / Erz. 6.8. He caused an underground passage to be dug by faithful men. * 9 171 4 363 The reason or motive of an action is denoted by this case: U. 9.84. On account of pride one gets a low birth.'i fa on account of greed.' mama hatthAo khaggaM pamAeNa nivaDiyaM / Erz. 42.9. Das. 5.2.31. He conceals " The sword fell from my hand because of carelessness. " Words like hetu, karana, nimitta when used may be in the instrumental, accusative or ablative. eena karanena sami amhe kumbhaena ranna. nivvisaya anatta Nay. 1.8. For this reason, O Lord, king Kumbaya expelled us from the country.' no annassa heum dhammam aikkhejja Sut. 2.2.15. He should not preach religion for food.' royanti ya puttakarana Sut. 1.2.1.17. They lament for the son.' " 364 It denotes the mode of action: fauoi ayvi qieyufa | Ray. 12. They hear the words with modesty.' Erz. 17.11. He remains silent. This gives rise to the phrases like suham suhenam, in happiness; majjhammajjhenam through the middle; and others. 365 It is used to denote the lapse of time. paccAgacchai / ' He will come back after a year. ' kammasahA kAleNa

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172 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 365. sigari Sut. 1.2.1.6. 'Living beings suffer the results of their acts after some time.' Instrumental also points out a point in time : tenam kalenarit tenam semaenam at that time and period." aha teneva kalenar purie tattha mahane U. 25.4. 'Now at that time in the town lived a Brahmin.' With constellations : nikkhamai ya cittahim U. 22.23 He becomes a monk at the time of Citta'. 366 In its spacial sense it denotes the direction : quui pruit par Erz, 79.29. In this direction there is a forest.' TRUI HU HERRAT I Nir. 96. "To the north is king Vesamana.' 367 It often denotes the characteristic of the subject. BITE Faut gari I U. 11.16. - The horse best in speed.' TE HEChaur ga urecat I U. 9.6. 'Sakka spoke these words in the guise of a Brahmin.' 368 The instrumental has given rise to a number of adverbs. attahiyam khu duhena labbhai Sut. 1.2.2.30. 'One's welfare is got with difficulty.' ukkosenam saim bhave U. 5.3. 'At most it may happen once.' Similarly jahatahenam in reality'; durenam 'from a distance'; anupuvvenam 'in due order'; samjuhenar, samasenam 'in short'; chandena 'at will?; cirena' after a long time' etc. 369 It is governed by a number of verbs : (i) of association : ES FATTI U. 27.15. 'Coming to possess bad bulls.' (ii) separation : TETTA 919 P OTI Sut. 1.2.1.19. Refrain from sinful acts, O man.' (iii) covering etc: ANEO 91361 I Sut. 1.2. 2.22. Covered with ignorance. (iv) sacrificing : pero ETA ETET I U. 12.43. 'With what sacrifice do you sacrifice ?' (v) living: Aysu Fiat ! Sut. 1.7.21. ' he should live on pure water.' (vi) invite: ito?

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S. 375.) IV CASES 173 AHRAGA i Syt. 'Invite with pleasures', (vii) to eat OPENI HIE Erz. 'Eat curds' and other verbs. 370 It is governed by nouns and adjectives: o go qayfa Atel Sut. 1.7.12. Some say that liberation is due to oblation.' Taur Gratuur F oto T EII Nay. 1.8. * Best as regards beauty, form and youth'. 371 It forms a number of expressions of a prohibitive nature: starska vil Ay. 1.2.5. Enough of the friendship of the fool.' TAU PE I U. 14. 17. 'What is the use of religion?' 372 It is used in comparison : santi egehi bhikkhuhim garattha sarjamuttara U. 5.20. There are many householders superior to monks in self-control.' Sequence : eyassa pavarakitti geham gehena bhamai Pau. 15.66. His excellent fame wanders from house to house. In the sense of Loc. : Ladhehi tassa uvasagga bahave Ay. 1.9.3.3. 'He had many difficulties in L.' satta kameni manava Sut. 1.1.1.6. Men are attached to pleasures.' Absolute use : santena mae samiya Pau. 16.31. 'O Lord while I am here.' 373 DATIVE. The function of the dative to express the indirect object is taken over by the Genitive. The old dative form in org is often replaced by a compound expression in which , et and seg are added to the noun. 374 The dative expresses the person for whose advantage or disadvantage the act is performed. celagolaM kmaarbhuuyaae| Sut. 1.2.4.14. "a ball for the son.' 3TCUET met al U. 1.25. either for oneself or for another.' 375. The usual meaning of this case is to express the aim or purpose of an action. hiyanissesAya savvajIvANaM / U. 8.3: ''for the welfare and happiness of all beings.' G AUS GUS AT CUETTE EH I Das. V. 1. 'what he may

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174 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 375 know or hear to be prepared for a gift.' eyanimitteNa paha eha Dauerg | Pau. 27. 'For this reason, O Lord, come quickly to protect us.' 376 The dative gives rise to a few adverbial expressions. no havvae no parae antara ceva Sut. 2.1.9. 'neither to this non to the other side but in the middle.' Similarly javaisivae throughout life'; ciraya 'for a long time'. 377 A few verbs of motion may govern the dative case : aganta gabbhaya namtaso Sut. 1.2.1.9. 'He will be reborn for many times.' 378 It is used as the predicate of sentences meaning, proper for'. 4 a TFT TERT EIS I Das. 9. 'The fruit of the bamboo results in its death.' 3771 A TERT ETS I Das. 11.10. The disease results in his death.' 379 Dative is governed by a few nouns and adjectives. a quo age 100151 Sut. "they are able to release both.' gaya n sarili Nay. 1.24. 'Like the flower of fig, difficult to hear. alam governs dative : nalam te tava tanae Sut. 1.9.5. they are not able to protect you'. 380 ABLATIVE. It denotes the starting point of an action both as regards place and time. so khu kesarI Agao tti AyaNNiya ghettaNa koyaNDaM kaNNiyasaraM ca egAgI ceva niggao plliio| Sm. VI. "Having heard that a lion had come, he took a bow and arrow and went out of the camp.' fattorit maurisit fastisit arogati U. 22.13. "The best of the Vanhis went out of his house.' Flair AC ATAT Ateit a HITTEET Sm. 11.5. Throughout the life I am to take food after each month.' From this evolves the mode of expressing continuous action. aprit a anafaa i Sut. 1.1.1.14. They go from

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S. 383.] darkness to darkness' hatthAo hatthaM sAharijamANe / Aup. 105. carried from hand to hand.' IV CASES 175 381 It denotes the origin of a thing, real and figurative. caMdaNadArUo devo taM paDimaM karei / Erz. The god prepares the image from the sandal-wood.' araNIo ariMga abhinivvaTTijA / Sut. 2.1.9. He may produce fire from the fire-sticks.' Aston a game aafaamet Erz. 53.1. These are envious because of being co-wives.' Related to this is the meaning of motive, logical reason etc. thambha koha pamaena U. 11.3. on account of pride, anger and carelessness.' jai royanti ya puttakarana Sut. 1.2.1.17. 'it they weep for the sake of the son.' sinehao aiva pamuiyahiyaena gahio Erz. 'Because of affection he was taken with a very delighted heart.' 382 Ablative is used in comparison. fleren qe nu kujjA / Das. 9. 1. 5. What can it do more than the destruction of life? a Vas. 94.6. 'Is he better than I ?" vimhiyA sakkavaNNiyarUvasirIo ahigaM Erz. 'They were delighted to see the wealth of beauty greater than the one described by Sakka.' 6 to fall etc. in heavenly region.' down from the best imAo saMgAmAo | Erz. fare agen Ay. 1.3.4. killing.' (iii) fear, disgust: fear of the quarrel' of the present life.' (iv) vimuccai | Sut 1.1.1.19. hasthisaMbhamAo rakkhiyA / Erz elephant.' (v). defeat: cock was defeated by the other.' 383 Ablative is used with verbs meaning (i) to proceed, die U. 9.1. 'falling from the nguon samen Ein U. 22. 23. got palanquin.' (ii) separation: uny Refrain from this battle.' tamhA ya vIreM Therefore the hero abstained from Erz. Do not at Erz. 'disgusted freedom, protection: Hoogezel He is freed from all misery.' protected from the attack of the fugget | Erz. 'The

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176 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 384. 384 Nouns of similar meaning also govern ablative. FET FETA ISH 2311 Das. 8.54. Just as the young one of a cock has always fear from the osprey.' facqui CHUISTOTIS I Sm. 9.2. 'mocking from wicked men.' Adjectives implying comparison or difference also govern ablative : gunao samam va U. 32.5. similar in virtue.' damsanao vi dullaham vayanam Vas. 5.22. words are more difficult to get than sight.' jivo ta sarirao vi bhinno Sm. 179. " The soul is then difterent from the body.' 385 Ablative is governed by adverbs and preposicions. a algal TE ST ariti Sut. 1.6.24. 'There is no better knower than the scion of the Naya family.' bAlabhAvAo Arabbha Erz. from the childhood.' 386 The ablative forms, particularly those in-37577 are very productive of adverbs. focent giraqi Sut. 1.3.2.4. They recede backwards.' Seasi rretji Sm. 155.' It is told in brief.' Similarly dhammao 'according to religion'; purao from ahead' pakkhao 'from the side'; davvao, khettao, kalao, bhavao. sahavao by nature. Other forms.of the ablative may form adverbs : niyama 'as a rule'. In the plural it is sometimes difficult to decide whether we have to do with the instrumental or ablative form. jharei romakuvehir seo Erz. "The sweat flows from the pores of the hair.' 387 GENITIVE. In its adnominal use genitive covers a very wide field of relations. (i) the commonest one is that of possession : fasihi effetto geti Vip. 2. the son of King Vijaya.' FET CHT grupei Das. 1.2. 'as on the flowers of the tree.' (ii) subject : gei darui prii Sut. 1.11.38. 'This is the opinion of the omniscient teachers.' BET JAETTIU farti Erz. 'O the exciting nature of the

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IV CASES 177 senses.' qui foetui a ani Das. 7.50. 'in the fight of the gods and men.' (iii) object : CART HEFTI Erz. "O the difficulty of conquering delusion.' ITEA Fairtot i Sut. 1.1.1.2. * by the destruction of the body.' (iv) partitive sense : aMteurassa pddhmaa| Erz. -- first among the wives.' sIho migANa A m im I Sut. 1.6.21. 'the lion among the animals and Ganges among the rivers.' (v) origin : gauurki SATI the image of gold.' (vi) as a nominal predicate: CE # FACT AI U. 1.38. 'blows and slaps given to me.' Per af HA + Frisui 41 Erz. 'Have I not what the other kings have?' There are other relations which cannot be easily classified: na yarussa maggo 'way leading to the town.' na esa kalo visavassa Sm. ' This is not the time of dejection.' panana vi samsayar kahi Erz. She will put her life into doubt.' 388 It is used with verbs which take both the dative and and genitive in Sanskrit. A. Verbs which take dative in Sanskrit. (i) to give, bestow ; TER I U. 8.16. 'may be given to one.' TESTS fareigai I Pau. 5.8.' giving the kingdom to his sons.' (ii) to speak, ask : aor aka DETI Erz. 'He told him,' GOSHUIRI AFA ANTTI U. 1.23. 'He should explain to the student asking.' (iii) to get angry: Efatha a FUSTI Das. 5.2.28. 'He should not get angry at one who does not give. (iv) to like: HH Sie 932571 tagere I U. 13.14. 'I think monkhood to be misery.' B. Verbs taking other cases in Sanskrit (i) to hear : qfUETTI ATAT I Ay. 1.8.3. 'hearing from the wise. Age oi SE A FIM at faraonui an gurash Ray. 5. 'If I had heard of my friends and relatives.' (ii) proper, allowed: at 20 Fancier at faporiefm 97 | Kap. 1.1. 'It is not allowed for monks and nuns.' (iii) know, remember : algui A ars i 12

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178 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 388. Sut. 1.3.1.16 'The ignorant one remembers his relatives." (iv) fear: a les ERTUI I Vaj. 'Who is not afraid of wicked men ?' (v) filling : fecoursquumlere poi i ESOT I Erz. having filled the dish with gold, silver and pearls.' (vi) renounce: 169 Tah of HI I Das. 'I renounce it, O Lord.' (vii) forgive: sfauiterkt A Y EHEi Vas. 25.25. 'To-day forgive me who am insolent.' Verbal nouns of similar meaning govern genitive : jassa ee parinnaya U. 2.16. Who has known these.' kadana kammana na mokkha atthi U. 4.3. There is no release from acts done.': 389 Genitive is governed by adjectives. Besides the adnominal uses it expresses (i) similarity : HH AHI 'like me'. (ii) liking: 5 fpret as i Pau. 6.173. 'who is dear to your heart.' (iii) possession Thi sifaren ESTI Pau. 'warriors belonging to him'. (iv) union : STARFI VITIT I Pau. 5.1. 'become united with others.' 390 It can take the place of the 'dative of destination. Alu qauraust argot 7 307 AM I Erz. 'He was like a terrible wind to the disputants and not to his pupils.' S TE GURT A fail. Erz. 'My heart is anxious for your sight'. 391 Genitive is governed by adverbs, prepositions and even particles : Sprant, grant, saf, EST, , HT, MT, EIT, a t etc. a frottoi l 'salutation to the Jinas.' for at F ATA I Das. 2.7. "Fie upon you, desirous of fame.' Stan Spoquit als 3PCS TRAI Sut. 1.12.19. He is capable of protecting himself and others.' 392 Genitive also gives time : THTRTIRA AVSTRITJ Vas. 90.1. 'She died before seven days.' TT Ganaurka af at qaz Erz. 'The king went to the mountain on the fifth day.'

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IV CASES 179 393 The genitive absolute construction is used to denote the accompanying condition of time. rAiNo nivannassa ahaM tae akkhANayaM pucchiyavvaM / Erz. When the king is sleeping you should ask me for a story.' tahA kareMtassa aikaMto koi kAlo / Erz. 'Some time elapsed while he was doing so.' 4 394 Genitive gives rise to a few adverbs mostly of an imitative type. cirassa for a long time', sarasarassa, davadavassa. etc. In such cases as candagainam kaya puya Pau. 28.45. 'C. performed the worship.' aha naravaina samayam Pau. 5.110. 'along with the king' we must admit an analogical form of the instrumental. The possessive verb 'have' is rendered by genitive tassa ya raino satta tanaya Erz. The king had seven sons." 395 LOCATIVE. It denotes the place of action both real and figurative tattha NaM caMpAe nayarIe kUNie rAyA | Nay. 1.1. 'There in the town of Campa lived king Kuniya.' " Erz. Struck on a vital part.' marNasi ciMtai / Thinks in the mind.' 396 It denotes the place towards which the action of the verb is directed. kumAruttamaMge akkhae pakkhivai / Erz. She throws rice on the head of the prince.' gefa Sut. 1.5.1.3. Nay. 1.2. 'He steps on They fall in hell. 1 the royal road.' As an extension of this use the locative often replaces the accusative of destination or goal: egaya devalogesu gacchai U. 3.3 Sometimes he goes to heaven'. puravare gao siggham Erz. 'He quickly went to the town'. 397 Locative is used in a partitive sense. sahassesu ya paMDio / Vas. 105. 8. 'A hero is born among hundred men while a wise man is born among thousand. virAyaI suramajjha va iMdo / Das. 9.1.14. among gods: tavesu vA uttamaM baMbhaceraM / Sut. 1.6.23. Celibacy is the best among the penances.' " He shines like Indra "

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180 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 398. 398 Locative is used with verbs and verbal nouns : (i) to be attached, desire : R THE PASI U. 1.5. "the ignorant man takes delight in bad conduct.' se ferait eft I Das. 5.2.26 'not attached to food.' (ii) union, association : forum | Sut. 2. 6. 25. established in religion.' afa tekiti Ay. 1.4.4. 'living in celibacy.' (iii) general reference : THUTHU WA TITUT CIUTY I Das. 5.1.89. * controlled as regards food and drink and going and coming.' afa PTE EUR U. 11.8. ' even gets angry towards friends.' 399 It is used with nouns in similar senses. SARAH af I U. 3.1. 'energy for self-control. 'AlHOUH PASTI Das. 5.1.18. 'doubt as regards his asceticism.' FPT EM agui family tree farm DIET I Sm. 7.7. "Where men are addicted to learning and have greed for pure fame.' In some of these cases the locative has the sense of the infinitive : citthanti tattha panca vi joenta marane chiddam Erz. 'All the five stand there looking of an opportunity to kill'. Takkhanaposane manusso si Sut. 1.4.1.14. You are a man for protecting and maintaining.' 400 Locative is used with adjectives : T r ailaren i Sut. 1.1.2.22. 'ignorant of religion and irreligion.' ATE SHOI' clever in arcs. 401 It denotes the time when something happens. FPT SHPATA Firei 25 l Sut. 1.3.1.4. when in the cold month cold touches him.' mAse mAse u jo bAlo kusaggeNa u y 1 U. 9.44. ' Even if the ignorant person were to eat with the blade of grass in each month.' annammi ya diNe samAgao allerait arato! Erz. 'One day V. came from outside.' In some cases Locative may express the duration of time : Jajjam bhottuna suirakalammi Pau. 21.22. enjoying the kingdom for a long time.'

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S. 406.). V PRONOUNS 181 402 The Locative Absolute, consisting of a subject in the locative and a noun or participle in the same case as the predicate, expresses the temporal or other accompanying circumstances. a RT atema I Das. 5.1.8. 'He should not move while it is raining.' farefters FAIGSS SITUATIU. 4.9. 'He becomes disheartened when his life comes to an end.' 3 Targu Frei Erz. 'He got angry without reason.' 403 Locative is often used for Instrumental : sattisu hammamana Sut. 2.6.26. 'struck with spears.' vammahasaresu bhinna Pau. 6.162. pierced by the arrows of Cupid.' Probably some form of the Instrumental may be admitted here. Loc. gives rise to a number of adverbs. rao ' in the night' dure 'at a distance', antie 'near'; but in most cases the original nature of the case is obvious. .V PRONOUNS 404 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. They are used when some emphasis is put on them. E a rere da le samedi U. 22.43. 'I am the daughter of king Bhoga and you are the son of A.' EN BETET U. 22.37. 'I am R. O good lady.' Verbal forms of as- may also serve the function of the personal pronouns : tao mi niggao Vas. 281.16. then I went.' 405 In polite address the second person may be replaced by the forms of part which is used with a verb in the third person. at 7 Sm. 19.15. "So let your honour tell." The enclitic forms of the personal pronouns cannot stand at the beginning nor in an emphatic place. loge kitti se jayae U. 1. 45. "His fame spreads in the world. 406 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. The pronoun a is frequently used to serve the function of the third person pronoun. a sa T SI 30465 i Upa. 151. ' He flew up in the sky.'

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182 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 407. 407 In conjunction with a noun it has the force of the definite article, though its demonstrative sense is not quite absent.ag op te treuren I Vip. 50. ' then the guards of the town.' tassa NaM vijayasattassa raNNo mahesaradatte nAma purohie| Vip. 106. The king V. had a priest M. by name.' 408 It is frequently used as the correlative of the relative pronoun ja. jaMciya vihiNA lihiyaM taM ciya pariNamai savvalogassa / Vaj. 674. "Whatever the fate has written, all that happens to men.' 409 Used alone it points out the thing to be well-known or famous. a FIRMAET I Vaj. 221. those peaks of mountains.' Anaphorically it may refer to preceding noun or pronoun. Apen foreni... Are a Ta aprI U. 6.3. 'Father and mother, they are not able to protect you.' In such cases it is often followed by the personal pronoun. Ay. 1.1.1. 'that I.' 410 Forms of a are often used in adverbial senses. ARMI Y ART aur sig far | Sut. 1.1.3.7. 'M. spread his magic and therefore the world is transitory.' et go fareni for I Das. 6 46. 'therefore knowing this.' . 411 The pronoun ge refers to what is in the presence of the speaker. It is used as a correlative: goi fare un propri yun Tadi Vaj. 36. 'The creator did this well that he created good men in the world.' Deictically it refers to an object before one. mi fa gatasi GETI U. 12.28. * This man, when angry, may burn the world also.' It is used with a emphatically: get 3 g graat 6971 U. 12.22. * This is that great-souled man of austere penance.' It may anaphorically refer to preceding nouns : vavahAre uvamA esaa| U. 7.15. This is the simile in everyday life.'

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S. 415.] VI TENSES 412 The pronoun points out what is near the speaker or what is in his possession. hatthagayA ime kAmA kAliyA je U. 5.6. These pleasures are at hand, the future ones are yet to come.' for U. 19.12. 'This body is momentary.' It is used as a correlative: chaTTimA jAI annamantreNa jA viNA / U. 13.7. which is without each other.' This is our sixth birth 413 The forms of adas are very what is away. aso tattamakasi ya Sut. ment.' 183 3 rare. It should refer to he did produce the ele 414 The relative pronoun may be used without the correlative : paDanti narae ghore je narA pAvakAriNo / U. 18.25. Men, who commit sin, fall in the terrible hell.' It may stand for the whole statement mahacojaM amayamao jaM sasI Dahai | Vaj. 387. 'It is a great wonder that the moon full of nectar burns'. 415 The interrogative pronoun f expresses a question. paDikammaM ko kuNaI araNNe migapakkhiNaM / U. 19.76. 'Who renders service to beasts and birds in the forest?' is used to put the whole sentence in the interrogative form. citte vi te tahA / U. 13.9. Is it the same with Citta?' The adverbial forms of kiM imply reason : kimiha dvio si / U. 12. 7. 'Why are you standing here?' Used with the relative pronoun it expresses totality: Sut. 1.1.4.8. all those movable living beings'. With instrumental it expresses the futility of a thing : kiM jaMpieNa bahuNA / Sm. 5.1. What is the use of speaking much ?' VI TENSES 416 PRESENT. It denotes a present action. smeri a muri | 'I bow to Arya Naga and Goyama.' It may be contrasted with past action. atariMsu taraMtege / Sut. some have crossed, others cross', or with future; 1.11.6.

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184 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI 1S. 416. SE FAJTTH tad teag EIER THI U. 9.58. 'Here you are best, O Lord, and afterwards you will become best.' It may denote a continuous action : paharagaruyaeva so mahanubhavo panasamsae vattae 'On account of the deep wound that great man is in doubt of his life.' asante kame patthest samkappena vihammasi U. 9.51. You are desiring non-existent pleasures and suffering from mere thoughts.' It may be also an habitual action : tahim samam lalai Erz. 'He sports with them.' 417 It expresses a general truth, a fact without any temporal determination : gauit a 7048fany OE HUGS a fants ! Vaj. 'A good man never gets angry and if he gets angry he never thinks bad of others.' diNe diNe Aicco udei / ' The sun rises day by day.' 418 It expresses immediate future. If the peri T AI GUEU afariki au fosta Alegre comfiri Phi Vas. 'O Child, I go to the town. There will occur an eclipse of the moon. There I will beg money from some good man.' fata lui qrufa a i Sut. 1.11.20. "They will get liberation.' Te H Gialah E H qui quife I Sm. VI. 'I will revive you if you will hear my words.' 419 It expresses a past action usually in the narration and is known as historical or dramatic present. grezzit ate, a MA SE 3157737 Turg Tao siatg et al sufisi i Vas. "They asked him. Samba, why have you come here?' He said, 'I have been brought by the king and my mother by force.' THAT THE SYU I U. 9.61. ' Nami disciplined himself." 420 With a negative particle it has a future meaning: ma kule gandhana homo U. 22. We shall not become Gandhana serpents in our family.' In conditional sentences of future or past the present is used in the condition : java esa kumaro rajjadhuravahanajoggo hoi tava amhehi eyam rajjam paleyavvam Erz We should protect this kingdom so long as this prince is not able

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S. 424.) VI TENSES 185 to bear the yoke of the kingdom.' java evam jampai sa kannaga tava ya tena ukkhitto ajjautto Erz. While the girl was speaking like this he threw the prince up.' In a general statement present may be used in both the condition and the result. java na ei kese tava jivai so duhi U. 7.3.. * As long as the guest does not come so long does that wretched animal live.' Sometimes present may have the force of a desire, advice or an order. gacchasi maggam visohiya U. 10.32. Having purified the way you should go.' Some forms of the present may also be used paranthetically : kena manne karanena Vas. 'For what reason, do you think.' 421 PAST TENSES. Of the three past tenses of Sanskrit the Aorist has given rise to the past tense of Ardha-Magadhi while only sporadic forms of the imperfect and perfect are to be met with along with their peculiar use. On the whole the past tense is of limited occurrence in Prakrit and is replaced by the participle construction. 422 It expresses the past action. Tezglsti farmi arti SHTE aqui serefimi U. 12.8. 'Having covered his own body he spoke these words.' 3757 faut faETE I U. 23.9. 'Both of them lived there.' 423 With the negative particle it expresses prohibition. HT T queifase FIA I U. 1.10. Do not do wicked act.' In a number of cases the forms of the past tense express the result in a conditional sentence. udagassa phAseNa siyA ya siddhI faisa masa STIRE I Sut. 17.14. "If there can be liberation with the touch of water, many living beings in water may become liberated.' E O JAI Sport i Sut. 1.4.2.2.. "Many sinful teachers may carry him.' 424 The forms of imperfect also express the past tense. inamobbavi kasava asupanne Sut. 1.5.1.2. "Thus spoke the

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186 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 424. prophet of the Kasava family, of quick intellect.' Similarly the forms of perfect in a present sense. iccahamsu pudho jana Sut. 1.3.1.6. Thus say the common people.' 425 FUTURE. It expresses a future action. anno vi jo evaM karislai tassAhaM niggahaM kAhAmi / Erz. 'I will also punish him whoever else does like this. evaM suhI hohisi saMparAe / Das. 2.4. Thus you will become happy in the next life.' 426 It is also used to denote an uncertain action which the speaker wants to express with subjective certainty without any reference to future. pANiyanimittaM oiNNo bhavissai / * Erz. He may have descended for drinking water.' DavI bhavissai to hissAmA | Erz. ' If he is indeed here in this forest we will get him. " 427 It may express exhortation. ivi aftenia vaa ami | U. 15.1. Let me follow monk's life by taking up religion.' Wish : jalaM pAhiM ti ciMtanto / U. 19.9. thinking of drinking water. 428 It may express uncertainty, doubt. ccia sAvago bhavissai | Erz. not knowing who among them is a believer.' I aftzug gei aeneung U. 2.23. What can it do for a night, thus he should suffer it. ThETTA suraNa bhante / U. 17, 2. What can I do with learning, O Lord? 429 Very frequently it is used in conditional sentences. jayA puNa ehi sudhammasAmI viharanto tayA pavvaissAmi / Vas. 4.27. 'When S. comes wandering I will become a monk.' VII MOODS 430 IMPERATIVE. With the first person it expresses desire and intention. bhuMjAmi tA kAmaguNe pagAmaM / U. 14.31. Let us therefore enjoy the pleasures to our

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S. 434.] VII MOODS 187 heart's contents' facer a av ISut. 1.3.3.8. 'We will give that also to you.' With the second person it expresses order, injunction, exhortation etc. ORARH 997 uni Sut. 1.2.1.10. 'O man desist from sinful acts.' TRATE IT OTTEN THI Sut. 1.2.1.19. * Maintain them, you are the protector.' FUTST A giu qiel Sut. 1.5.1.1. 'O sage, tell me who am ignorant.' With the third person it expresses permission, request, blessing etc. saMthuyA te pasIyantu bhayavaM kesigoyame / U, 23.89. "Let the venerable Kesi and Goyama, praised, show you favour. SAAB TH TH 371279737 ai ga 93 Dafiri a aquil Vas. 6.20. 'Mother, if this is your intention, let it be so, I will do your order.' 431 Imperative may also express possibility, doubt etc. NATH ME 5 TERI U. 12.10. 'Let the ascetic get what is remaining.' sa goi faur 45 3781401 U. 12.16. "Let even this food and drink be destroyed.' 432 With the negative particle it expresses prohibition. Algo TOE U. 12.23. Do not insult him.' AT 91 TS h ag Das. 7.50. 'He should not say, ' let it not happen?' 433 POTENTIAL. In its optative sense it expresses polite order or exhortation. a g# C FROSTIRE I Erz. "Then being careful you take hold of the tree.' General prohibition : fermeny EHMAT E ! Sut. 1.2.1.14. He should mortify his body by fasting.' Desire; wish : PT GA en Elsie an TH gera i Erz. "When you will become a king you should give him a village. Fue a s a TOROVYMI I U. 8.1. 'So that I may not go to a bad birth.' 434 As potential it may express possibility, probability: 691 BRACET era fantom I Vas. 43.22. 'Or being

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188 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 434. without food he may die of himself.' kaha vi ANiyaM hojA / Erz. "It may be brought somehow.'. Ability : par en agur sur rentfest i U. 18.10. "The monk, when angry, may burn crores of men by his lustre.' Doubt: Pata qe FRUI forem I Sut. 1.3.3.6. 'What can there be after death ?' obat gur CA Hall Vas. 9.11.' Who can this be? 'Supposition: fotel faut fit a fi i Das. 9.1.9. "It may be that he may break the mountain with his head.' 435 Negatively it expresses impossibility, improbability : e ParTTI U. 14.15. How can one be careless?' a Suj spil Das.. 12.10. If he does not get a good campanion.' 436 It is used in conditional sentences. Ugri T HAO El gat CESTA TIHO I Sut. 1.7.16. 'If water were to remove the dirt of Karma then happiness may be merely a matter of desire. 437 A form of the potential is often used to express a past action. AbharaNANi ya savvANi sArahissa pnnaame| U. 22.20. ' He gave all his ornaments to the charioteer.' TIT STA TS HET43 SERI U. 18.41. 'Having abandoned the best pleasures M. performed penance.' VIII CAUSAL 438 The causal forms of the verb are often used in the sense of the primitive. BE SHITET RETT I Sur. 2.1. ' Now the caravan lived there.' Tawi groa Arti Erz. 'I will do all the desired object.' 439 On the other hand a few primitives may be used in the sense of the causal. Mi se fupra I Sur. 2.91. "It breaks the hearts of the travellers. ' CA I FAOI I Erz. 'I will make J. play.'

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S. 444.) IX PARTICIPLES 189 IX PARTICIPLES 440 PRESENT PARTICIPLE. The usual meaning of the present participle is to denote the action which the subject performs simultaneously with the action of the main verb of the sentence. purao jugamAyAe pehamANo mahiM cre| Das. 5.1.3. "He should walk over the ground inspecting it for a distance of a cubit before him.' Sometimes the two actions may be consecutive : vindhai janassa hiyayam pisina banam va lagganto Vaj. 53. "The wicked, like an arrow, pierces the heart of men after striking it.' 441 It may express a habit or state. Tai a Alfori a Tahirit era fagfast i Vip. 27. 'They continue to give out blood and pus.' strai fares STATUTS I U. 10.2. "It remains there hanging for a moment.' 442 It can be used as an adjective serving the purpose of a subordinate clause. adhamma kuMNamANassa aphalA janti raaio| U. * The days of one who does irreligious acts pass off uselessly.' 7 AURA J This arii Sut. 1.5.2.22. "There cannot be any protection for one who kills.' Like other adjectives they may enter into compounds : gurusoyaulijjantamanasassa jaya Tayani Erz. "The night approached while he was troubled with deep grief.' 443 Many present participles approach adverbs in their meaning, i RATT 3 TE PAS ! Das. 4.1. He kills living beings while wandering with carelessness.' E STM 3751vi ai i Das. 6.10. Knowingly or unknowingly he may.' 444 It is used to form the conditional mood. 34551 allt oput Etat... That greg 1 Das. 9.9. 'I would have become a monk if I had taken delight in the monk's life.' blo TTFETTO i Po asyia a III Vaj. 734. 'What would

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190 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 444. have been the condition of the travellers if, O Banyan tree, you were not there." Sometimes it may express desire: navari kirado kao honto Sut. 2.180. You should have been made only a worm.' In some cases it may stand for the finite verb: maham parehi dammanto U. 1.16 Let me not be chastised by others.' It is used with cognate verbs: sunamane saddaim sunai Ay. 1.1.4. He hears words while hearing.' 445 PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. They are used to express the past tense and so form the regular means of narration : suyaM me AusaM* teNaM bhagavayA evaM akkhAyaM / Ay. 1.1.1. 'I have heard, O Long-lived one, thus being preached by the venerable Lord. ' 446 In conjunction with the forms of the verbs and bhU they express the idea of past perfect. taiyavAsare vijjudhAraNa faargyi azar Harga 3 Erz. On the third day, being killed by the stroke of lightning, they were born in M.' dAhiNAo vA disAo Agao haM aMsi / Ay. 1.1.1. 'I have come from the southern direction. ' 447 The past passive participles of Ardha-Magadhi show both a passive and an active construction. HOYGY I Pau. 4. 14. He obtained highest prosperity.' det en a Vas. 16.11. 'King K. saluted.' qui fafafiivi | Sm. 136. The darkness of ignorance vanished.' a pahasio rAyA / U. 20.10. Then the king laughed.' 448 They often form nouns of action: o facferi nizi qiz fazi U. 13.16. All singing is mere lamentation, all dancing is mockery.' U. 16.5. 'Crying, lamenting, singing.' 449 As adjectives: thing of his must be got by begging. Erz. With the childhood over. ' U. 2.28. EveryIn compound:

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S. 453.] 450 lt may approach the meaning of an adverb: mae nayam anayam va sa bala neva bhunjai U. 20.29. Either known or unknown to me, the girl does not eat.' Two past participles are used without a conjunction. samahie kalagaya gaya sohammam Erz. Dying with meditation they went to S.' X GERUND 191 451 POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. They express all the ideas of the potential mood: obligation, necessity : qa Ay. 1.4.1. All living beings ought not to be killed.' na te kassa vi sAhiyavvaM / Erz. 'You are not to tell it to anybody' atthi teNa saha vattatvvaM kiM pi / Erz. 'I have something to speak to him.' taM bhaviyavvaM ettha kAraNeNaM / Nay. 1. 14. There must be some reason here.' possibility, expectation : kahaM mae so nAyavvo / Erz. How am I to know him?' certainty : hoyavvaM ettha mayakariNA / Erz. ' The rutted elephant must be here.' tA bhaviyavvaM keNAvi imaNA siddhapuriseNaM / Erz. Therefore, this must be a man of miraculous power.' 452 They can be used, as nouns or adjectives. g avasaro pacchA valiyavvassa | This is not the time for returning. tattha sare na hu juttaM vasiyavvaM rAyahaMsANaM / Vaj. 720. 'The residence of the royal swans there is not proper.' X GERUND 453 When two actions are performed by the subject one after another the previous one is expressed by the use of the Gerund taM pariggijjha vAyAe kammuNA uvavAyae / Das Having received it with words he should do it with his actions.' Das. 4.11. Hearing, he knows what is good.' Sometimes the two actions may not be quite consecutive : daram avalambiya na citthejja Das. 5.2.9. He should not stand resting against the door.' Sometimes the subject may be different : siddhana namo kicca atthadhammagaim suneha me U. 20.1. Hear from me the course of wealth and religion which is told

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192 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 453. after saluting the liberated souls.' The subject may be in an oblique case : caittana imam deham gantavvam avasassa me U. 19.16. 'Abandoning this body I must go helplessly 454 In exceptional cases the gerund may take the place of the finite verb. a fasoi fisiorent! Sut. 1.9.10. The wise know it.' 455 Often the form of the gerund serves the function of the infinitive. So faru THIETI I Pau. 28. 'He began to praise the Jina.' a HOT a GTI U. 13.33. 'You have no intention of abandorfing the pleasures. 456 The forms of Gerund may give rise to adverbs : pecca in the next life' pasajjha 'with force' arussa'angrily' ahacca suddenly'; also preposition : tam uddissa with reference to it' ayasuham paducca 'as regards one's happiness.' viggham mottuna without difficulty.' phrases : tti kicca or kattu thinking thus' tti akaliuna 'knowing it to be so.'' 457 In conjunction with the verb 'the gerund forms a peculiar idiom. Og vi etuie quitanas tg goi h a Apucchai ApucchittA sayAo gihAo pddinnikkhmh| Upa. 69. "Then that Ananda, the disciple of the monks, takes leave of his eldest son and relatives, and taking leave goes out of his own house.' 458 The gerund in -am is used as in Sanskrit : vijayam takkaram jivaggaham genhanti Nay. 2.39. They catch the thief V. alive.' XI INFINITIVE 459 Infinitive expresses the motive, 'purpose, intention of an act. so vi na sakkA coraM gennhiddN| Erz. 'He also is not able to catch the thief.' sufre gri STRATEGI U. 10.34. 'Make hurry to go to the other shore.'

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S. 464.) XII PHRASE 193 460 It is used with a number of verbs to complete the sense, the FEET TRI Das. 2.7. You desire to eat what is vomited.' TEN JE HETI U. 11.14. 'He is worthy of getting alms.' 461 It is used with nouns, adjectives, prepositions etc. are au fur Fry | Das. 5.1.79. It is not enough to quench the thirst.' TOA 91H | Nay. 1.19. 'Enough to give and enjoy.' Hein 347 pucenti Das. 9.3.6. 'It is possible to bear the thorns with hope.' In a number of cases it has a passive sense: na ya sakko pahaneum Erz. 'He cannot be killed.' na ya tirai kenai genhium Erz. "Nobody is able to catch him. jujjai kaum sogo Sur. 2.140. 'It is proper to lament.' 462 It is often used for the gerund. a ang agu TER I U. 13.33. 'You have no desire to abandon the pleasures.' BiHSO PR maig i Pau. 3.5. 'Folding the hands on the forehead.' The infinitive forms compound with FIA, M.yoag CHI Vas. 7.23. 'Desirous of becoming a monk.' TECHUTT I Vas. 4.4. Wishing to go.'. XII PHRASE 463 Simple sentences are put together to form compound and complex ones. From the original method of putting two sentences together one after another, there developed two ways of sentence relation called co-ordination and subordination. 464 CO-ORDINATION : It may be effected without any explicit means and then is called asyndeton : when contrast is implied : suttA amuNI muNiNo sayayaM jAgaranti / Ay. 1.3.1. The ignorant ones sleep, the wise always keep awake.' 13

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 464 With forms of imperative : geNha imaM aseM vacca masANassa pacchimabhAgaM / Erz. Take this sword and proceed to the western part of the burial ground.' In the description of a series of acts or facts: an yg ad ad U. 4.6. The moments are terrible and the body is weak.' To express causal relation: ari U. 4.1. 'Life is perishable, do not be care Giay less. 194 9 465 Co-ordination may be effected by the use of the demonstrative pronoun. io ya ujjeNIe caNDapajjoyarAyA / tassa Erz. In U. there was a king C. The messenger told him.' Sometimes the first sentence may contain a word pointing to the following sentence: santime ya duve thana akamamaranam ceva sakamamananam taha U. 5.2. These are the two points of death with or without one's will.' 466 Co-ordination effected by particles. Mere copulation by, fa etc. though they show slightly different senses. samAsAsiyA / vivAhiyA ya / Erz. 'He consoled her and married. katto si tumaM suMdara / aha bhaNio pavaNacaNDeNa / Erz. Whence have you come O Beautiful? Then spoke P. 'afa' moreover'. f " In case of enumeration tava is used meaning in the first place'. acchau tava bhavantaragatisambandho Vas. 10.25. Let alone,. in the first place, the story of the former birth.' 467 The disjunctive particles are a, Aunas@ni ya fe an aada ya avigand Erz. some delusion of mind ?" ahavA pucchAmi imaM / ask her.' a, etc. Is this S. or is it Erz. ' Or let me etc. 468 Antithesis is expressed by particles like J, pahu niuNa esa savvattha paraM mahArAya niyapasaMsaNeNa lajjanti je mahApurisA / Erz. Lord he is clever in all but, O king, good men feel ashamed of their own praise.' *

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S. 473.] 469 The causal relation is expressed by . a ageg evaM dhammA hi pANiNo 'Do not lament for him for all living beings are subject to this fate.' XII PHRASE 195 470 Adverbs of the demonstrative pronoun are used as conclusive particles coraggAhA taM na santi geNhiuM / tao nayare bahuravo jaao| Erz. 'The police were not able to catch him therefore there arose a great uproar in the town.' saMkhayamAhu jIviyaM taha viya bAlajaNo pagabbhai | Sut. 1.2.2.2. 'Life is not to be prolonged and yet the ignorant man boasts.' Sometimes the first sentence may contain a word referring to the following sentence: savve te evam paruventi savve pana na hantavva Ay. 1.4.1.1. All of them preach thus that all beings. are not to be killed.' 471 When an affirmative sentence is joined with a negative one the negative particle is followed by others like tu, uNa etc. viNaNaM ya sappurisA namanti na kassa vi bhaena / Vaj. Good men bend with modesty but not from fear of anybody.' With two negative sentences the second contains a particle beside the negative. na ekkammi paDiyAre donni karavAlAI mAyanti na ya aloNiyaM silaM koi caTTei / Erz. 'In one sheath two swords do not remain nor does one lick a slab without salt.' E AM 472 SUBORDINATION: a syndeton: araqui Ay. 1.1.2.4. Enough of friendship with a fool, by which one increases hatred.' 473 The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative pronoun. a si si facenas Erz. Is there somebody who can teach me?' or pronominal adjectives like jArisa * mUladeveNa vi eriso sumiNo diTTho jAriso mae / Erz.. 'M. saw a dream as I did' or pronominal adverbs: Hug a a kahiyaM ti | Erz. 'Do not say that you were not warned.'

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196 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 474. 474 jahA expresses comparison : jaha ee taha aNNe | Sanm. 1.15. Just as these so also others. It states the result: BU TARI FET A FT EE! Vas. 106.21. 'Show me the favour so that I may be victorious.. sets forth objects of verbs 'to know,' 'hear' etc. : IT FHUNOT MUTE ER FFCUTI i I Sut. 1.4.1.3. 'Hear the enjoyments of the monks, how some monks enjoy them.' 475 PTT, 51, are mainly temporal in sense. They are followed by a4, 75, die and also SE. J Stahsia fa ro farinusi Das. 4.14. "When he knows both the living and lifeless things.' 476 Fra with its correlative ara expresses simultaneous actions: Ala 7 gg e ata ofas ACETI U. 7. 3. ' As long as the guest has not come so long does that poor animal live.' It expresses a future action : jAva esa kumAro rajadhurAvahaNajoggo Els are per te cui questa | Erz. 'We should protect this kingdom until this prince is able to carry the yoke of the kingdom.' With a it points out an action of the past : Fri has 379 Al a day 1 Sut. 1.3.1.3. He considers himself brave as long as he has not experienced the hard life.' With first person it states the intention: visajjaha maM jAva NaM TUTH I Vas. 9.12. ' Allow me to go so that I will know.' 477 jai introduces a relative sentence : phuDaM sAhasu jai HTRA I Erz. 'Tell me clearly if you know.' With fe it means "although': Jeg fa garo I Sut. 1.2.1.9. "Even though he wanders naked and lean.' It may express a condition: Pao age I Vaj. 266. "If there is moon what is the use of many stars?' with future condition: GTE STIT A FATTHETISHI NISTA A I Vas. 10. 2. 'If I can get out of this I will have no more desire for pleasures.' With a past condition : 7 METERE HAT QUE TARII Vas, 93. 15. 'If you have spoken the truth then show me

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S. 481.] XIII WORD ORDER 197 the favour.' With hypothetical condition : f ta ot Harlat periti Vas. 16. 25. 'If I were there I would have punished them well.' 478 The direct narration is introduced by gfa which is placed at the end : aNagArA mo tti ege pavayamANA / Ay. 1.1.2.2. 'some saying that they are monks.' It may merely express one's thought : BiH fHUI O TI Ay. 1.3.1. 3. 'knowing that this misery is due to sinful activity.' It may express the reason : 37077 FROI Ay. 1.2.5.3. He should not lament because not getting. It may form an explanation of a word : kalaM dAhi ti AsAe gacchai / Erz. 'He goes with the hope that he will give him tomorrow.' Instead of spa, we may be used which precedes the statement: Fellorar a vo FFET I Erz. 'He thought that...'. XIII WORD ORDER 479 The word-order in AMg. is free to a considerable extent and only general tendencies forming the so-called normal word-order can be pointed out. These tendencies may be counteracted by the occasional order of words caused by the desire to emphasise a particular part of the sentence. By the very nature of the subject only prose works can be taken into account as the metrical demands make the order of words in verses extremely free. 480 In a normal sentence the subject begins it and the verb closes it. All other parts of speech are put between them. ahamo vam paumavarapundariyam unnikkhissami Sut. 2.1.2. I will pluck this excellent lotus.' In an interrogative sentence the intonation alone decides the question. vatthassa sohi bhavai ? hanta bhavai. Nay. 1.5. Will the cloth become pure? Yes.' 481 The predicate is usually placed after the subject. se hu muni parinnayakumme tti bemi Ay. 1.1.1. "That sage has known the Kamma, thus do I say.' It may be placed before when em

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198. INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI IS. 481. phasised. dhannao nam tao ammayao Vip. 40. Fortunate indeed are those mothers.' 482 Adjectives precede the nouns which they qualify. tassa ya bambharaino uttamavarsasambhuya maharayano cattari mitta asi Erz. That king B. had four friends who were great kings and born in noble families. They may follow if they form a long list. sapparuvam viuvvai uggavisam candavisam .... Upa. 107. 'He produces the form of a serpent of terrible poison, of deadly poison.' A predicative adjective always follows the noun. kappai nigganthanam pakke talapalambe abhinne va bhinne va padigahittae Kal. 1.3. It is allowed to the N. monks to accept the ripe ears of Tala whether broken or not.' 483 Words in apposition usually precede the substantives. sahanjani namam nayari hottha Vip. 88. There was a town by name S.' 484 A pronominal form usually stands at the beginning of the sentence. tassa ya purimatalassa nayarassa Vip. 57. Of that town of P.' The interrogative pronoun always begins the sentence. kaham nam putta mama tutthi bhavissai Nir. 36. 'How can I be satisfied my son ?' 485 The vocative may stand at the head of the sentence, as it does not form an integral part of it. goyama i sumane bhagavam mahavire bhagavan goyamam evam vayasi Bhag. 15.1.4. 'O Goyama, thus spoke the venerable ascetic M. to G. Words like devanuppiya and bhante never stand at the beginning. 486 The accusative object immediately precedes the verb. vijayassa khattiyassa dhamma aikkhai Vip. 11. 'He preached religion to king V.' Of the two accusative objects the personal one is put first. mahabalam Tayam eyamattham vinnaventi Vip. 74. They request this thing to king M.. 487 The instrumental of condition immediately precedes the verb. kale kumare neraiesu neraiyattae uvavanne Nir. 18. "Prince K. was born in the hellish beings as a hellish being.'. The instrumental of the subject comes earlier. assim ceva desakale purajanavaena raya vinnavio Erz. 'At that time and place the king was requested by the people of the town and country. The

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S. 493.] XIII WORD ORDER 199 instrumental of the means stands between the subject and the verb. vahena egena ceva sarena do vi vinivaiya Erz. "The hunter killed both of them by one and the same arrow.' 488 The dative of purpose occupies the last place. tae nam aham goyama kummaggaman nayaran sampatthie viharae Bhag. 15.1. Then, O Goyama, I started to the village K, for wandering'. With an auxiliary verb it may precede. ayanke se vahaya hoi Das. 11. 'The disease may result in his death.' 489 The ablative of comparison always precedes the other word. ahinavakaravanao ya puvvakayaparipalanam varam Sag. It is better to protect what is already done than to create new things.' 490 Genitive normally precedes the word it qualifies. pancanham conasayanam ahevaccam Vip. 59. 'Lordship of five hundred thieves.' Genitive dependent on numerals follows. atthasayam mahanadaraganam Vip. 107. "Eight hundred Brahmin boys.' Emphasis may also lead other types of genitives to follow the noun : aho dujjayattam mohassa Erz. O the difficulty of conquering delusion.' 491 The place of the genitive absolute is usually after the subject of the sentence. jan kumara savve ekkapae ceva pecchantana ceva amha daddha Sag. 'that all the princes were suddenly burnt while we were looking on.' It may stand at the beginning when closely related to the previous sentence. evam tesim mannantana samagao ego dio Sag. While they were thus thinking, there came a Brahmin.' 492 The locative of time and place heads the sentence and the more general clause precedes the more definite. So also other cases thus used. tenan kalenam tenam samaenam campa naman nayari hottha Upo. I. that time and period there was a town by name C.' So also the locative absolute. pacchimadisae gae sure wvvalio saravarao ajjautto Erz. When the sun has gone to the eastern direction my husband came out of the lake.' 493 The participles taking the place of the verb come at the end of their clause. seniyassa ranno antaram java mammam va alabhamane Nir. 35. 'not getting a weak point of king S.' In

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200 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (S. 493. narration they may be placed earlier for emphasis. annaya parambhiya cittasabha raina Erz. 'At some time the king began a picture hall.' The gerund usually ends its own clause. matthae anjalim kattu evam vayasi Kal. 37. 'he spoke with folded hands on the head.' It may come at the beginning because of emphasis : aviyaniuna kajjakajjam aganiuna janavavayam Erz. Without thinking of the proper and improper acts, neglecting the blame of the people. The infinitive tends to occupy the last place. tam seyam khalu mama eyam purisam ginhittae Upa. 138. 'So. it is proper for me to catch this man'. 494 The normal place of the verb is at the end. But it may come first when stressed. santi ime tasa pana Ay. 1.1.6. These are the living beings'. A word may attract it. evam souna gaya kappam Erz. "Having heard this they went to K'. The imperative forma naturally occupy the first place. muncasu uvveyam avalambasu dhirayan Erz. Abandon dejection, take up courage'. Of two imperative forms one goes at the end. tam gaccha nam ananda .... eyamattham parikahehi Bhag. 15.1 Go, O Ananda and tell this thing'. 495 The normal place of the adverb is before the verb. bhujjo bhujjo uvadamsemi Sut. 2.1.7. I will show again and again'. If emphatic it may come first. khippameva bho devanuppiya Upa. 206. 'Quickly, O beloved of the gods'. 496 The negative particle comes before the word which is to be negatived. attham puna se na janamo Sut. 2.1.7. We, however, do not know its meaning'. At the beginning, if the whole sentence is to be negatived. no ya khalu eyam paumavarapondariyam evar unnikkheyavvam Sut. 2.1.6. 'This lotus is not to be plucked in this manner'. 497 In rare cases the prefixes of verbs are separated. taya sam va jahai se rayam Sut. 1.2.111. He casts off the dust like skin'. Prepositions used with nouns usually follow them. egarr sahammiyam samuddissa Ay. 2.1. With reference to a co-religionist'. The inverse order may be met with in special cases. uddham payatala Sut. 2.1.9. 'Above the sole of the foot.'.

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S. 502.1 498 Unaccented particles occupy the second place. tam seyam khalu amham Vip. 165. 'So it is better for us' aha, evam, avi may begin a sentence. XIV COMPOUNDS 201 499 The subordinate clause introduced by the relative pronoun precedes the principal clause. je sappurisa havanti te maranavasanam na bahu mannanti Erz. Those who are good do not care much for the calamity of death'. The conditional clause usually precedes but sometimes may follow. rakkhami aham tumam jai bhumiharathio mama putte padhesi Erz. 'I will save you if you instruct my sons living in the underground cell'. The direct narration with iti precedes. ha muttho muttho tti kalunam vaharanto Sag. 'Crying piteously that he was robbed'. 500 Loose and additional clauses may come at the end. no kappai nigganthanam asanam va padiggakettae nannattha egena sejjasantharenam Kal. 1.43. It is not allowed for N. monks to take food etc. except a bed and a mat'. XIV COMPOUNDS 501 The compounds of the AMg. language are closely modelled on those of Sanskrit but show a greater variability both in the arrangement of words and the endings. This fact has led to the oft-cited dictum that there is no rule which guides the arrangement of words in Prakrit compounds. This is true to a limited extent and we know that the minute rules of Sk. grammarians were sometimes discarded by the Classical writers themselves. The Prakrit grammarians do not deal with compounds, and we have to follow the lead of Sk. and Pali systems. 502 Compound is the name given to expressions produced by putting together two or more words to form a grammatical unity with a peculiar meaning of its own. The words thus used are usually nouns, adjectives and adverbs. According to the relation that exists between the words used to form the compound they are divided into four different

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202 [S. 502. groups with further subdivisions. They are or Copulative, tatpuruSa or Determinative, bahuvrIhi or Possessive and avyayIbhAva or Adverbial compounds. INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI 503 A compound consists of two or more nouns put together to express them either individually or collectively. If the compound were not used the idea of the compound would have to be expressed by the use of 'and' with its members. In few cases " or is required. Thus a dvandva formed of the two memers food' and pANa drink ' bhattapANa will be dissolved as bhattaM ca pANaM ca ' food and drink. ' " 6 504 When this compound has the gender of the final member and the number of its constituents it is called itaretaradvandva Here the things are viewed individually. samaNamAhaNA = samaNA ya mAhaNA ya monks and Brahmins.' bIyahariyAiM - bIyAiM cahariyAI ca ' seeds and grass. ' dhammaTTakAma = dhammo ya aTTho ya kAmo ya 'religion, wealth and pleasure.' rogAyaMkANaM = rogA ya AyaMkA ya tesiM -- of diseases and ailments.' gopuraTTAlagANi = gopurANi ya aTTAlagANi ya towers and turrets.' The canonical prose is fond of such compounds and long lists of words are put together. kIyapayaMgA, kuMdhupivIliyA, pANabhUyAI, jIvAjIve, gamaNAgamaNe, daMsamasaehiM, kAmabhogA, rAIsaratalavaramADambiyakoDumbiya seTThisatthavAhANaM, siMghADagatigacaukkacaccaramahApahapahesu, mAhaNakhattiyavaissasudde, tihikaraNadivasanakkhattamuhuttesu, sayapAgasahastrapAgehi, gAmanagarAgarasarisirigirisarakANaNAiM. " 505 When such a compound is used in the neuter gender and singular number it is called samAhAradvaMdva Here the things are viewed collectively. maMsasoNiyaM maMsaM ca soNiyaM ca flesh and blood annapANaM annaM ca pANaM ca ' food and drink. ' vatthagaMdha vatthaM ca gaMdho ya garment and scent. ' taNakaTTasakaraM taNaM ca kaTTha cakkarAya grass, wood and gravel.' sayaNAsaNavatthaM = sayaNaM ca AsaNaM ca vatthaM ca ' bed, seat and garment. dAsaporusaM purisoya ' slaves and servants' Other examples are : 4 dAso ya asaNapANa = - - =

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S. 509.] XIV COMPOUNDS 203 sAimakhAimassa gaMdheNaM, pupphavasthagaMdhamallAlaMkArAhAraM, mittanAiniyagasayaNasaMbandhipariyaNeNaM, iDDIsakkArasamudaeNaM, kaNakuNDagaM. 506 The distinction between these two varieties is often overlooked. The compound is found sometimes to follow the first and sometimes the second variety. Thus TUHE or gaMdhamalaM, pANabhUyaM or pANabhUyAI. Examples which require vA 'or' are : niMdApasaMsAsu = niMdAe vA pasaMsAe vA towards censure or blame.' lAbhAlAbhelAme vA alAme vA in profit or loss.' caNDAlavokaso caNDAlo vA vokso vA either a C. or a V.' 507 Two or more adjectives may from a when they refer to different things. uccanIya = uccaM ca nIyaM ca 'low or high.' uccAvaya = uccaM ca avayaM ca 'high and low'. kallANapAvagaMkallANaM vA pAvagaM vA good or bad.' The grammarians do not admit dvandvas of two adjectives or participles used as adjectives. 508 A tatpuruSa compound consists of two words of which one determines the sense of the other by qualifying, explaining or specifying it. Its two main varieties are the tatpuruSa proper, where the relation between the two words must be expressed by a case other than the Nominative and karmadhAraya where the two words stand in apposition. 509 According to the case required the tatpuruSa is divided into six groups. (i) dvitIyA : puDhavinissiyaM = puDhavi nissiyaM resorting to the ground'. aMteuragae = anteuraM gae 'gone to the harem.' parisAgaeparisaM gae 'gone to the assembly.' AsAruDho AsaM AruDho 'mounting a horse.' (ii) tRtIyAH devagaMdhavvamaNussapUie = devagaMdhabvamaNussehiM pUie 'worshipped by gods, men and Gandharvas.' sAhupUiyaM-sAhuNA pUiyaM 'honoured by the sage.' uNhAbhitatte = uNheNa abhitatte 'tormented by heat.' cakkhudiTThA=cakkhuNA diTThA "seen by the eye.' jAiaMdhe-jAIe aMdhe 'born blind.' (iii) caturthI : mikkhAyariyA=bhikkhA cariyA 'wandering for alms.'

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 509.. bhikkhakAlo= bhikkhaTTA kAlo ' time for begging.' udagadoNi-udagahUM doNI 'a vat for water.' udagabhavaNANi udagaTThA bhavaNANi ' houses for water.' (iv) paMcamI: mAloiDaM - mAlAo AhaDaM 'brought from an elevated place.' rukkhapaDaNaM = rukkhAo paDaNaM falling from the tree.' maraNabhayaM = maraNAo bhayaM ' fear of death' majjappamAyavirao - majjappamAehiMto virao abstaining from wine and fault." saMkAbhIo = saMkAe bhIo 'fearing doubt.' (v) SaSThI : bhAsAdose= bhAsAe dose 'faults of speech. ' jiNasAsaNaM- jiNANaM sAsaNaM ' preaching of the Jinas.' rukkhamUle = rukkhassa mUle 'at the root of the tree.' gAmasayaM = gAmANaM sayaM ' hundred villages.' (vi) saptamI : agAravAse = agAre vAse ' living in the house. ' kAmagidhde = kAmesu gidhde ' attached to pleasures.' rAibhoyaNa - rAo bhoyaNaM ' eating in the night.' Other examples are: saMgAmasIse, pattapupphaphalovavee, nANArayaNapaDipuNe, gihimatte, rAyapiNDaM, siddhimaggaM, jIvanigAya, dosavajjiyaM parAgAraM, pANAhivaI, mahukArasamA, udaullaM, nANadaMsaNasaMpannaM, atthasaMjuttaM, pANavaho, savvasaMjae, devaloga, AsaNagao, maNogayaM, goyaraggapaviTTha, vAsasaya, hatthAyA, maccumuhaM, savvadukkhapahINe ghayasitta, buddhaputta. = 204 510 Sometimes the case termination of the first member is not dropped when the compound is called aluk tatpuruSa. aMtevAsI = aMte vAsI ' living near a pupil ; devANuppiya- devANaM pie 'dear to the gods.' kheyara= khe caro 'roving in the sky'. -- 511 In a far the two words stand in apposition, one. qualifying the other. It has different varieties according to the nature of both the words used in it. (i) When the first word is an adjective : sIodagaM sIyaM udagaM ' cold water. pairikkuvassayaM = pairikkaM uvassayaM 'empty residence.' puNvakammAI - pubvAI kammAI 'former deeds. ' mahanvae = mahA vae 'great vow. nIyaduvAraM = nIyaM duvAraM 'low door.' (ii) When the second member is an adjective : purisuttame uttame purise 'best man. pahAragADhe - gADho pahAro 'deep wound.' pupphasuhumaM suhumaM puSkaM 'fine flower.' dhammaNuttaraM = aNuttaraM dhammaM 'highest religion.'. (iii) When both the members are adjectives : sIunhaM = sIyaM ca unhaM ca ' hot. = =

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'S. 513.] and cold.' dussIlapaDiNIe = dussIle ya paDiNIe ya ' of bad conduct and inimical.' (iv) When both the members are nouns : pivAsAparIsahe = pivAsA eva parIsahe 'the difficulty of thirst.' dhammahiyaM = = dhammaM ciya hiyaM 'the welfare as religion.' dayAdhammo = dayA eva dhammo 'religion consisting of compassion.' mAyAsalaM = mAyA eva salaM ' the dart of deceit.' vaDapAyavo = vaDo pAyao ' banyan tree. ' kaTTasagaDiyA = kaTumaI sagaDiyA ' a wooden cart.' (v) When the first member is a particle : kubhoyaNaM = kucchiyaM bhoyaNaM 'bad food.' dussahaM = dukkheNa saM difficult to bear.' succhinne = suchinne XIV COMPOUNDS " 205 = well cut'. (vi) When the first member is a negative particle : (called nan tatpuruSa) aviNIe = na viNIe 'not disciplined. asaMsattaM = na saMsattaM 'not attached'. adINo = na dINo ' not down cast'. (vii) When both the members are verbal derivatives : kIyagaDaM = kIyaM ca kaDaM ca ' bought and prepared'. (viii) When the first member is an adverb: aibhUmI = bhUmiM ai 'beyond the limit'. aidevo = ai devo 'greater god.' aidUraM = ai dUraM ' very far'. ahuNovalittaM = ahuNA uvalittaM ' newly besmeared.' paramaduccaraM paramaM duccaraM ' exceedingly difficult. ' (ix) When one member forms the standard of comparison : muhakamalaM muhaM kamalaM viya ' a lotus-like face'. gAmakaNTayA gAmANaM kaNyA viya -- like thorns to the senses. ' samuhagaMbhIro samuddo viya gaMbhIro grave like the ocean. Other examples are: nIluppalaM, paralogo, aMdhabahiro, tavokabhmaM, purekammaM, muhAladdhaM, usiNodagaM, desaMtaraM, bhAruNDapakkhI, puvvasaMjogo, kAuriso, cirAdhoyaM, asaMbhaMto. = = = = 512 A variety of karmadhAraya is called dvigu when one of the members is a cardinal number and the whole is used as a singular word. tihuyaNaM = tinhaM bhuvaNANaM samAhAro 'the three worlds.' domAsaM donhaM mAsANaM samAhAro 'two months. ' chajjIvaNiyA = chaNhaM jIvanigAyANaM samAhAro 'six groups of living beings. ' cauraMga = cauNhaM aMgANaM samAhAro 'four limbs.' 513 Another variety of tatpuruSa is called upapada when the second member of the compound is a verbal derivative

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206 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 513 without an independent existence. kuMbhagAro = kuMbhaM karei tti 'potter.' suhadosuhaM dei tti "giving happiness.' musAvAI = musaM vayai ti 'speaking falsehood.' sAgaraMgamA = sAgaraM gacchai tti 'going to the ocean.' tiMduyarukkhavAsI = tiMduyakhe vasai tti "living on the Tinduya tree.' aNDayA = aMDAo jAya tti -- born from an egg.' muhAjIvI-muhA jIvai tti 'living without a profession.' dosanna = dosaM jANai tti 'knowing the fault.' titthakaro= titthaM karei tti 'founder of a religious system.' Other examples are : cittANuyA, buddhovaghAI, attagavesae, taMtujaM, nijarApehI, pAvakArI, paDibuddhajIvI, ANAkare, pasAyapehI. 514 When an attribute is compounded with a noun and the whole compound qualifies another noun but none of the words of the compound separately do so it is called a bahuvrIhi. While dissolving the compound the relation is to be pointed by the use of the relative pronoun 57 'which'in different cases (i) Noun qualified by an adjective : mahiDrie =mahA iDrI jassa so 'having great fame.' ghoraparakkame = ghoro parakkamo jassa so 'of terrible power.' pAvadiTTI = pAvA diTTI jassa 'of sinful view.' jiiMdie = jiyAiM iMdiyAiM jaNa 'who has conquered the senses.' nIrae niggao rao jamhA 'free from defilement.' puDhosattA = puDho sattA jIe 'having separate living beings.' (ii) Adjective following the noun : Ayarakkhie = rakkhio AyA jeNa 'who has protected his self.' dIvappaNaTTho = paNaTo dIvo jattha 'where the lamp is lost.' saMjamuttarA = uttaro saMjamo jesiM te 'whose self-control is highest.' (iii) Two nouns in apposition : kammakivisA = kamma eva kivisaM jorsa 'whose sin is the Karman.' cittasaMbhUyanAmANo - citto saMbhUo ya nAmA jorsa 'whose names are C. and S.'' (iv) With the second member as Ai, pabhii, matta etc. niyAgaTThA = niyAgo aTTho jassa 'with liberation as the goal.'

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S. 515.] XIV COMPOUNDS 207 aNumattaM = aNu mattA nassa , with the measure of a particle.' nANAvihA= nANA vihA jesiM 'of various kinds.' iMdAiNo = iMdo AI joseM te 'Indra and others.' (v) With two nouns in case relation : pUikaNNI = pUI kaNNe jIe 'with sore ear.' maraNaMtiyA = maraNaM aMte jassa 'ending with death.' Stocraften = 3pt Site Are 'with seed at the top.' .. (vi) With the first member as a particle : aNagArena agAraM vijjai jassa 'one without a house.' acelae =na celayaM jassa 'without a garment' kusIlA = kucchiyaM sIlaM jesiM of bad conduct.' miraTuM = niggao aTTho jamhA 'useless.' (vii) With first member as adverb: Asupane = AsU pannA jassa 'of quick intellect'. aNegarUvA = aNegA rUvA jesiM 'of diverse forms.' (viii) Compounds of two words denoting the quarters: uttarapurasthime uttarAe puvvAe ya aMtarAlaM the north-eastern direction.' . (ix) Compounds with sa : saputto = putteNa saha -- with the son.' sAmariso= amariseNa saha 'angry. ' sAvajaM avajeNa saha 'with sin.' 515 When the compound is formed by joining a preposition or an adverb with a noun it is called avyayIbhAva. It is usually an adverb in the Acc. case of the Neuter. ahAsuyaM = suyaM aNaikvamma 'as heard' jAvajIvaMjAva jIvo tAva as long as one lives.' . jahakkama = kama aNaikkamma 'in due order.' jahAbhAgaM= jahA bhAgAiM tahA ' according to their portions.' Similarly : ANupuTviM jahovaiTuM, jahAThANaM, ahAuyaM. Sometimes other cases are met with : jAvajjIvAe, paDirUveNa, ahAkammehi.

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APPENDICES

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516 CONJUNCT CONSONANTS I ka = kya; kra; kla; kva; ka; ska; rka; lka; :ka. kkha = kSa; khya; tkha; rkha; Ska; ska; skha; :kha. gga = gNa; na; gma; gya; gra; na; dga; rga; laga. ggha = ; dUdha; rgha. Ke ccha jja jjha Da TTha DDa GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY = cya; Trca; tya; rca; zra. kSa; cha; tsa; thya; psa; crcha; zva. = jya; na; jva; Draja; dya; bja; yya; rja; rya. = dhya; rjha; hUya. = vya; rta; tta. lla lha vva = STaH STha; sta; stha; rtha. = Dya; rta. = gdha; Dhya; ; . jJa; Nya; Nva; rNa. Nha = kSNa; ina; SNa; sna; ; hma. tta kta; na; ; tva; ; rta. = ttha = ktha rtha sta; stha. dda = gda; dra; dvaH OM rda. ddha = gdha; dha; dhva; bdha; rdha. na jJa; nya; nva; mna; rna. = ppa kpa; kama; tya; pya; pra; pla; pa; lpa; :pa. ppha = tpha; lpha; Spa; SphaH spa; spha; :pha. bba = dva; bra; rba; lba. bbha = gbha; bha; bhya; bhra; rbha; lbha; hR. nma mya; mla; rma; lma. NNa = mma = mha = ima; SmaH sma; hma; kSma. la; lya; lva. = = ha. = dva; rva; vya; va. ssa = ma; iya; vya; sya; zra; rza; zva; Sva; tra; sva.

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212 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 517. 517 CONJUNCT CONSONANTS II kta = tta; kthastha; pappa; kma=ppa; kyaka kaka laka khya = kkha. kA kSaccha, kkha. gNa = gga; gda=6; gdha-ddha na ga; gbha=bha; gma, gya, gra=gga. jya, jra, jva-ja. Dga = gga; duvva. FREER Nya = NNa; Nva=NNa.. ka = ka; kha=kkha; latta; tpa=ppa; tpha pha; tya=cca; tratta; . [tvatta; sa=ccha. d = gga; dghaggha; bda=bba; bhabbha; dya-ja; dra=6, hu dva=dda, vva. dhya = jjha; dhra-ddha, dhva jjha ; ddha. nma = mma; nya=nna; nva nna . sa = tta; pya, pra, pla ppa; psa=ccha. bja = ja; bda=6; bdha-ddha; bra=bba. bhya = bbha, bhrama. mna = na; mya, mlamma. sya = ja. = kka, w=kkha; rga=gga; gyarcacca; chaMcha; jaja; jhajjha; f=NNa; tatta, rtha=stha, Ta; =ha, thardhaddha, Darpa=ppa; rbabba; bhabbha, mamma; ryaja; rva=vva. lka = ka; laga=gga; lpa=ppa; lphapha; lbabba; lmamma; lya, cya; vravva. [lva=lla. zca = ccha; ina=Nha; ma-mha; zya, zra, zla; zva-ssa; ka, kha=kkha; Ta, ThaTTha; SNa=Nha; Spa, phaphpha; ma-mha; Sya, pva:ssa. ska; skha-kkha; sta; stha=ttha; 8; stra=Nha; spa, spha-ppha; sma-mha; sya, sva-ssa. ha ha=Nha; jha=mha; hya=jjha; halha; hvabha.

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518 DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES S. 518.] Case | Mas. Neu.a | Mas. Neu. i | Mas. Neu. u | Fem. A| Fem. i | Fem. I | Fem. u | Fem. UM raI GR | Nom. devo, vaNaM Acc.| devaM, vaNaM Inst. deveNa devAo Gen. devassa Loc. deve, devaMsi (Voc. deva Singular mahI mahiM. mahIe mahIo Abl. / muNI, dahiM sAhU, mahuM mAlA muNiM , . | sAhuM, , mAlaM muNiNA sAhuNA molAe sAhUo . mAlAo muNiNo sAhuNo . mAlAe murNisi sAhuMsi | mAlAe muNi sAhu mAle gheNU gheNuM dheNUe dheNUo raIe raIo muNIo mahIe ghaNUe dhe[si GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY iMsi mahIe mahi dheNu Nom. devA, vaNAI muNiNo, dahIiM sAhuNo, mahUI mAlAo raIo " " Plural Acc. Inst. Abl. Gen. devehiM devahito muNIhiMsAhUhiM muNIhito sAhUhito muNINaM sAhUNaM muNIsuM | sAhUsuM mAlAhiM raIhiM mAlAhiMto raIhito mAlANaM mAlAsu mahIo gheNUo taNUo mahIhiMdhehi mahIhito gheNUhito taNUhito mahINa mahIsuM gheNUsuMtaNUsuM dheNUNaM Loc. 213

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519 IRREGULAR DECLENSION 214 kattA piyA mAyA rAyA appA arahaM Nom. kattA kattAraM mAyA mAyara Acc. Singular Inst. Abl. kattuNA kattArAo kastuNo kattAre piyA piyaraM piuNA piuNo piuNo piyari mAyAe mAUe mAyAe mAyAe rAyA rAyANaM raNNA rAiNo. rAiNo, rano AyA appANaM appaNA appao appaNo attaNi arahaM arahantaM arahyA arahao arahao arahante Gen. I Loc. rAyasi INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI kattAro rAyANo rAyANo | Nom. Acc. Inst. Abl. Plural kattAro katArehi kattArehito kattArANaM kattAresuM piyaro piyare piUhiM piUhiMto piUNaM piUsuM mAyaro mAyaro mAyAhiM mAI hito mAINaM mAIsuM rAIhiM rAIhiMto rAINaM rAIsuM appANo arahaMto appANo arahate . appANehiM / arahantehiM appANehito - arahantehito appANaM? arahantANaM appesuM ? arahantesuM Gen. Loc. (S. 519. ..

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20 DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS S. 520.1 Nom. Acc. "" kaM jaM ist Per. | 2nd Demonstrative . Interrogative etc. Mas. Neu. Fem. Mas. Neu. Fem. tuma so eso . taM eyaM sA esA jaM ko jokiM kA jA taM eyaM' , , * taM evaM ta eya tae ..| teNaM eeNaM tAe eyAe keNa jeNa kAe jAe tumAo tAo eyAo tAo eyAo kAo jAo kAo jAo -tassa eyassa tAe eyAe kassa jassa kAe jAe maha tai taMsi eyaMsi tIe eIe si jaMsi Inst. Singular Gen. # # sgyu, (Loc. GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY (Nom. tumhe te ee. tAI eyAiM tAo eyAo ke je kAI jAiM kAo jAo Acc. Inst. Plural Abl. amhehiM tumhehiM tehiM eehiM amhehito tumhehito tehiMto eehito amhANaM tumhANaM tesiM eesiM / | amhesuM tumhesuM tesuM eesuM tAhiM eyAhiM kehiM jehiM tAhiMto eyAhiMto kehiMto jehiMto tAsiM eyAsiM kesiM jesiM tAsu eyAsuMkesu jesuM kAhiM jAhiM kAhiMto jAhito | kAsiM jAsiM kAsuM jAsuM Gen. | Ld 215

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521 NUMERALS 216 tI cau paMca Mas. Fem. Neu. / egaM . | do duve doNNi tao tiNNi cauro cattAri paMca Nom. ego, ege egA egaMege paMca INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI egeNaM egAe egeNaM tIhiM cahiM paMcahiM Singular Plural egAo egAo egAo dohito tIhito paMcahito caUhiMto cauNhaM egassa tiNhaM | paMcaNhaM | egaMsi egaMsi tIsuM .. caUsuM - paMcasuM [S. 521. -

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522 CONJUGATION OF CLASS I S. 522.] Present Imperative Potential Past Future Pass. I P. pAsAmi . . pAsAmu pAsasi pAsasu pAsAhi pAsejjAmi pAsejjAsi Singular pAsitthA pAsissAmi __pAsihimi | pAsijja , pAsissasi pAsihisi | dIsa. pAsa pAsa . pAsau pAse pAsejjA ___, pAsissai pAsihii / Cau. pAsAve dAve GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY I P. pAsAmo pAsAmo pAsejjAma pAsiMsu Plural Plural II. P. pAsaha pAsanti pAsaha pAsantu pAsejjAha pAsejjA pAsissAmo pAsihimo Ger. pAsittA pAsissaha . pAsihiha | pAsiUNa pAsissanti pAsihinti Inf. pAsiuM pAsittae ( III P. pAsiya Participles pAsanta pAsamANa pAsaNijja pAsiyavva daTTavva diha 217

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Singular Plural IP. kare II P. III P. IP. II P. III P Present Participles karesi karei karemo kareha karenti karanta (re) karamANa (re) 523 CONJUGATION OF CLASS II Imperative karemu kare kare hi kara kareu karemo kareha karentu Potential karejjAmi karejA karejA kujjA karejjAma karejjAha karejA kara Nijja kAyavva kajja Past karityA "" "" kariMsu "" " kaya kariya Fut. karissAmi kAhi mi karissasi kAhisi karissara kA hi karissAmA kAhimo kari saha kAhiha karissanti kAhinti Causal karAve kAre Pass. karijja kijja Gerund karitA kariUNa Inf. karijaM karittae 218 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [S. 523.

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524 CONJUGATION OF CLASS III. Pass. S. 524.] nejja Singular Present. | . Imp. Pot. | IP. mA(yA)mi | gA(yA)mu gAejjAmi nemi nemuHnejjAmi gA(ya)si gA(ya)su / gAejjAsi nesi gA(yA) hinejjAsi III P. gA(ya) nesu nehi gAejA nei gAyau, neu nejA _Singular Past Fut. gAitthA gAissAmi gAhimi neitthA ne(i)ssAmi nehimi gAitthA gAissasi, gAhisi neitthA ne(i)ssasi, nehisi gAitthA gAissai, gAhii neitthAne(i)ssai, nehii . | Cau. |gAve | neyAve Gerund Plural IP. gA(yA) mogA (yA)mo nemo . gA(ya)ha neha | III P. gAyanti ( nenti nentu Plural__ gAejAma nejAma gAejjAha nejjAha gAejjA nejA GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY gAissAmo, gAhimo ne(i)ssAmo, nehimo gAissaha, gAhiha ne(i)ssaha, nehiha gAissanti, gAhinti ne(i)ssanti, nehinti neha gAyantu neiMsu gAittA gAiUNa neittA neiUNa Inf. Participles| gAyanta gAyamANa geja gIya neja, gAyaNija gAiya neiyavca, gAiyavva nIya, neiya gAuM, gAittae neuM, neittae nenta

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525 PARTICIPLES 220 Name Terminations Constructions Remark Present active Participle 3777, HM, Subject is put in the Nom. Denotes a present acObject in the Acc. tion, & is mostly used Participle agrees with the Subject. as an adjective or to serve the function of a subordinate clause. Subject in the Inst. Object in the Scarcely used. Nom. Part. agrees with the object. Present passive 1 Participle 34777, 91' added to the Passive base Past passive Participle 34; or taken from Sk. Used ordinarily to express the past action. A. Of transitive verb. Subject in the Inst. Object in the Nom. Part. agrees with the object. B. Of intransitive verb. Subject in the Nom. Part. agrees with the subject. C. With the object as a whole sentence or not expressed. Subject in the Inst. Part. in Neu. Sing. INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI Past active Participle Subject in the Nom. The object in the Acc. The Part. agrees with the Subj. Scarcely used. vanta added to the Past Passive Part. . Potential passive Participle US. 34 . yod or taken | A. Subject in the Inst. Object in the from Sk. Nom. Part. agrees with the object. B. When the object is a whole sent ence the Part. in the Neut. Sing. Denotes obligation, duty, necessity, desirability, possibility etc. (S. 525.

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ARDHA-MAGADHI ENGLISH GLOSSARY aikaMta (atikrAnta) p.p. elapsed, aNuggaha (anugraha) m. favour passed aNusAsiya (anuzAsita) p.p. inaIya (atIta) adj. past, gone structed akkhAya (AkhyAta) p.p. prea- atthaMgama (astaMgam ) v. to set ched * atyamiya (astamita) p.p. set agAravAsa m. household adinna (adatta) p.p. not given aggi (agni ) m. fire addhaTThama (ardhASTama) seven one acakkhua (acakSuSka) m. blind half man anna n. food accaMtaM (atyantaM) adv. exces- annattha (anyatra) adv. elsewhere sively anne (anve) V. to follow accha (As ?) V. to be apajjatta (aparyApta) adj. insuffiajayaM (*ayatan) ind..carelessly cient ajjautta (Aryaputra) m. lord, sir appa (Atmana) m. self ajutta (ayukta) adj. improper appamAya (apramAda) m. carefulaTra (artha) m. thing, fact : ness aDa (avaTa) m. well appalAbha ( alpalAbha) m. getting aNavajja. (anavadya) adj. faultless, free from sin appahiya (AtmAhata) n. one's aNasaNA (anazana) f. fast welfare aNi? (aniSTa) adj. bad aphala adj. useless ANiTrayara (aniSTatara) adj. worse abbhattha (abhyartha) V. to request aNukaMpA (anukaMpA.) f. compas- amaJca (amAtya) m. minister sion amaya (amRta) n. nectar less

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222 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (risa araMhata, aruhaMta (arhat ) m. pro- Ayariya (AcArya) m. teacher phet AvaI (Apad ) f. calamity, disalaMkAra m. ornament aster aliya (alIka) adj. false Asa (azva) m. horse avakama (apakram) v. cross Asattha (Azvasta) p.p. consoled avararatta (apararAtra) m. later part AsA (AzA) f. hope of the night ibha (ibhya) m. merchant, avaMtivai (avantipati) m. king rich man of A. isi (RSi) m. sage asacca (asatya) adj. false ihaloya (ihaloka) m. this world asAra adj. worthless . iMdiya (iMdriya) n. sense organ asAhu (asAdhu) adj. wicked Isara (Izvara) m. god ahamma (adharma ) m. irreligion uciya ( ucita) adj. proper ahavA (athavA) ind. or ujama (udyam) v. to try, to ahiga (adhika) adj. more strive ahigAra (adhikAra) m. author- ujANa (udyAna) n. garden ity uTThA (utthA) v. to get up Ahesitta (abhiSikta) p.p. coro- urle (Urdhva) adv. upwards nated udAhara V. to explain, to utter ahiMsA f. non-violence umhA (uSman) f. heat aMtara ( antara) n. difference uvalipa (upalimpa) 5. to beaMtiyaM (antikaM) ind. near smear aMdha (andha) m. blind man uvasama (upazama) m. pacificaAuya (AyuSka) n. life tion Ausa (AyuSmAn ) m. long ekka (eka) one lived one egAgI (ekAkin) adj. alone Aesa m. guest ettiya (etAvat) adj. so long Agaccha V. to come ettha (atra) adv. here AgAsa (AkAza) n. sky erisa (etAdRza) adj. like this ANA (AjJA) f. order osaha (auSadha) n. medicine . AyayaNa (Ayatana) n. temple kai (kapi) m. monkey AyaMka (AtaMka) m. disease kao (kutaH) adv. whence Ayara (Acara) v. to follow kaja (kArya) n. work, duty

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ARDHA-MAGADHI ENGLISH GLOSSARY gilANa ] kaDa (kRta) p. p. done, created kaDuyattaNa (kaTukasva) n. bitterness kADhaNa (kaThina) adj. hard kaNNa (karNa) m. ear life of an omniscient koDa ( koTi) f. crore katto ( kuta: ) adv. whence, kolhuya ( kroSTuka m. fox where kadama ( kardama ) m. mud kannA (kanyA) f. girl, daughter kamala m. lotus kamma (karman ) n. act, deed kattha ( kRtArtha) adj. fortunate kara (kR) 0. to do kalA f. art kaha (kath ) v. to tell kahaM ( kathaM ) adv. how 4 kahA ( kathA ) f. story kaMtAra (kAntAra ) n. forest kAma m. pleasure kAya, kAga ( kAka ) m. crow kAraNa n. cause kAla m. time kAlaya ( kAlagata ) p. p. died kiraNa m. ray kivA (kRpA) f. compassion kiMkara m. servant kIla (krID ) . to play kuDumba ( kuTumba ) n family kuNa (ku) . to do kuppa ( kupU ) v. to get angry kumAra m. prince, boy kula n. family kusala (kuzala) adj. clever kusuma n. flower 223. kUDaggAha ( kUTagrAha m. hunter kevalipariyAya ( (kevaliparyAya) n. kova (kopa) m. anger koha (krodha) m. anger khaNa (khan) . to dig khattiya (kSatriya) m. warrior khala adj. wicked khalu ind. indeed kheDa (kheTa) n. village kheya (khiD) 0. to torment, to trouble . to go gaccha ( gam ) gaNa ( gaNa ) v. to count gaNahara ( gaNadhara ) m. pupil, disciple gaNi ( gaNin ) m. monk, leader hi ( gaja) m. elephant garuya (guruka) adj. great gavya (garva ) m. pride . gasa (grasa ) . to swallow gahaNa (gahana) adj. thick gahiya ( gRhIta) p. p. caught, taken gaMdha m. smell, scent gAya (gai ) . to sing gAma (grAma ) m. n. village gAhAvai ( gRhapati) m. house - holder gila (gir ) o to swallow gilANa ( glAna ) m. sick person

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224 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI __[girA 'girA (gI:) f. speech, word jiya (jIva) v. to live 'giha (gRha) n. house jIva m. n. life . guNa (guNa m.) n. virtue jIva (jIva) v. to live guru m. teacher jIviya (jIvita) n. life geNha (graha) 5. to take juja (yuj). to be proper gova (gopa) m. cow-herd jujjha (yudha) 5. to fight cattAri ( catvAri) four juja (yuj ) v. to yoke caya (tyaj) V. to abandon jUya (dyUta) m. gambling cara (car) V. to wander joNhA (jyotsnA) f. moonlight caraNa n. foot jhiyA (dhyai). to think cariya (cariya) n. conduct . Daha (daha) v. to burn caMda (candra) m. the moon . takkara (taskara) m. thief ciTTa (sthA) 5. to stand tara . to be able citta n. mind tava (tapas) n. m. penance cinta (cint ) v. to think tavassI (tapasvin ) m. ascetic ceiya (caitya) n. temple tahA (tathA) ind. so chaTTi (SaSTi) sixty tANa (trANa) n. protection channa p. p. covered tigiccha (cikits) 5. to exa. chAyA f. shade mine chiMda (chid ) v. to cut tittha (tIrtha) n. holy place cheya (ched ) V. to cut titthaMkara (tIrthakara) m. prophet jai (yadi) ind. if tAya (trai). to protect 'jaNaya (janaka) m. father art f. star jaNavaya (janapada) n. country tAvasa (tApasa) m. ascetic jayaM ( yatan) ind. carefully tIra n. bank jaya (ji) v. to conquer tettIsa (trayastriMzat) thirty-three jarA f. old age tola (tula) V. to weigh 'jala n. water thova (stoka) adj. little, small jalahara (jaladhara) m. cloud daNDa m. punishment jahA (yathA) ind. as daNDa (daNDaya) v. to punish jaMpa (jalpa) v. to speak dama (dam) v. to control jANa (jJA) v. to know dala n. leaf jAya (jAta) pp. arose danta (dAnta) p. p. *controlled

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nIsesa) ARDHA-MAGADHI ENGLISH GLOSSARY 225 dANa (dAna) n. gift dhaNa (dhana) n. wealth dAyA (dAtR) m. donor, giver dhanna (dhanya) adj. fortunate dAridda (dAridya) n. poverty dhamma (dharma) m. religion dAsa m. servant dharaNiyala (dharaNItala) n. ground diTTa (dRSTa) pp. seen dhavala (dhavalaya).. to whiten diya (dvija) m. bird, Brahmin dhAva V. to run divasa m. day naI (nadI) f. river dINa (dIna) adj. poor nadRsAlA (nAvyazAlA) f. theatre dIva (dIpa) m. lamp TH v. to bow, to bend dIha (dIrgha) adj. long namo (namas ) ind. salutation dukkara (duSkara) adj. difficult nayara (nagara) n. town duTTa (duSTa) adj. wicked nara m. man duddama (durdama) adj. difficult to naraNAha ( naranAtha) m. king ... control nava. nine duddha (dugdha) n. milk naha ( nabhas) n. sky duma (druma) m. tree naMdaNa (naMdana) m. son nAvA (nau) f. boat durUha ( udha ) v. climb dullaha (durlabha) adj. difficult to nAsa ( nAza) m. destruction nAsa (nAza) 5. to destroy get dussIla (duzzIla) adi. of bad niggaha ( nigraha) v. to chastise, conduct to punish kA duhI (duHkhin ) adj. miserable . niddala (nirdala) . to destroy dUraM adv. away, far . niddiTTa (nirdiSTa) p. p. taught deva m. god niddhaNa (nirdhana ) m. poor man devaula (devakula) n. temple nimmiya (nirmita) p. p. created devayA (devatA) f. deity farer m. hell nivai (nRpati ) m. king devANuppiya (devAnupriya ) adj. be nivaDa (nipat ) V. to fall loved of gods nihANa (nidhAna) n. deposit devI f queen . niMda v. to blame dosa (doSa) m. fault dosa (dveSa).m..hatred nimba m. kind of tree dohala (dohada ) m. pregnancy nIya (nIca) adj. wicked longing nIsesa (niHzeSa) adj. all, whole

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226 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI __of P. ne (nI) v. to carry parahiya (parahita) n. another's neyA (netR) m. leader welfare neha (sneha ) m, affection parAiya (parAjita) p.p. defeated parigahiya (parigRhIta) p.p. surpai (pati ) m. husband rounded pautta (prayukta) p. p. placed paricaya ( parityaj ) V. to abanpaumacariya (padmacarita) n. life don parituTa (parituSTa) p.p. delighted. paura (pracura) adj. abundant parimala m. fragrance pakkhiva (prakSip ) v. to pour, palAiya ( palAyita) p.p. run throw palitta (pradIpta) p.p. burning pacchA ( pazcAt ) ind. afterwards pavatta (pravRtta) p.p. begun paDa (pat) . to fall pavara (pravara) adj. excellent paDiniyatta (pratinivRt) 5. to pavisa (praviza ) 5. to enter return passa (dRza) V. to see paDipuNNa (pratipUNe) adj. com- pasaMsaNija (prazaMsanIya) adi. plete praiseworthy paDisuya (pratizruta) p.p. heard pasiNa (prazna) n.m. question paDha (pa ) v. to recite, to pasIya (prasIda) v. favour learn paNNa (parNa) n. leaf pasUya (prasUta) p.p. gave birth pahINa (prahIna) adj. free from paNha (prazna ) m. question paMkaya (paGkaja) n. lotus patta (prApta) p.p. reached paMkayavaNa (paMkajavana) n. plot of patthaNA (prArthanA) f. request lotuses pamAya (pramAda) m. carelessness pAiyakavva (prAkRtakAvya) n. Pkt. paya (pac ) V. to cook poetry payaTTa (pravRtta) p.p. started pAuNa (prApa) 5. to get payA (prajA) f. subjects pAusa (prAvRS ) m. rain payaha (prahA) v. to abandon pANabhUya (prANabhUta) n.m. animal payANa (pradAna) n. giving pANi m. hand para adj. other pAya (pAda) m. foot parattha (paratra) ind. next world pAyava (pAdapa) m. tree parama adj. maximum, highest pAla (pAla) v. to protect

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bhAsa] : ARDHA-MAGADHI ENGLISH GLOSSARY 227 pAva (pApa) n. sin pAva (pApa) adj. sinful pAvaga ( pAvaka ) m. fire pAvayaNa (pravacaNa) n. preaching piya (priya) adj. good pII (prIti) f. affection pIla (pID) v. to torment puccha (praccha) v. to ask puNNa (puNya) n. merit puNNimA ( pUrNimA) f. moon-lit night putta (putra) m. son puppha (puSpa) n. flower pura n. town purisa (puruSa) m. man puvvaM (pUrva) ind. formerly puvvaratta ( pUrvarAtra ) m. forenight pUya ( pUj ) . to worship pUyA ( pUjA) f. worship pekkhaNaga (prekSaNaka) n. drama peccha (prekSu ) . to seer peha (prekSa) v. to reflect, to : see pomma (padma).n. lotus poya (pota ) m. young one posa (puS ) V. to nourish pharusa (paruSa) adj. harsh phala n. fruit phala v. to give fruit . phalasaMpattI (phalasaMpatti, phalasaMprApti) f.'accomplishment of ob- ject ; getting the fruit phura ( sphura ) v. to shine phulla V. to bloom phusa (spRza) . to touch baDuya (baTuka ) m. fellow, fool battIsa (dvAtriMzat ) thirty-two baddha p.p. built baya (baka) m. crane bala n. army baMdha (baMdha ) . bind bAyAlIsa (dvAcatvAriMzat ) forty two bAla m. child, fool bAlatta (bAlatva) n. childhood bAliyA (bAlikA) f.girl bAvattari (dvAsaptati) seventy-two biMba n. disc buddhi f. intellect bU (brU) V. to speak be (brU) V. to speak bhakkha (bhakSa) m. food bhakkha (bhakSa) V. to eat bhayavaM (bhagavat ) m. venerable one 'bhaNa (bhaNa) v.to say bhatta (bhakta) n. meals bhadda (bhadra) n. welfare bhara (bhR) v. to fill bhaya n. fear bhavva (bhavya) m. good man bhaMga m. violation, refusal bhAya (bhI) 5. to fear bhAra m. burden bhAriyA ( bhAryA) f. wife bhAsa (bhASa ) v. to speak

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228 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (TAL bhAsA (bhASA) f. speech, words mAhaNa (brAhmaNa) m. Brahmin bhiMda (bhid) v. to break miga (mRga.) m. dear bhIsaNa ( bhISaNa) adj. terrible miliya (milita) pp. joined bhuvaNa (bhuvana) n. world mukkha (mUrkha ) m. fool bhuMja (bhuj) V. to eat muNa (jJA) V. to know bhUva (bhUpa) m. king musa (mRSA) adj. false bhUsaNa ( bhUSaNa) n. ornament musA (mRSA) adj. false bhoga m. n. pleasure muha (mukha) n. face, head bhogasamattha (bhogasamartha) adj. able muhuttaMtareNa (muhUrtAtareNa) adv. . to enjoy after a moment magga (mArga) m. way . muMca (muc) 5. to drop, to macca (mRtyu) m. death. release maja (madya) n. wine mUla v. root, cause majAyA (maryAdA) f. limit meha (megha) m. cloud maNa (manas ) n. mind . mehAvI (meghAvin) m. wise maNussa (manuSya ) m. man mora (mayUra) m. peacock maya (mRta) p. p. dead. rakkha (rakSu ) v. to protect mayaraMda (makaraMda ) m. juice raja (rAjya) n. kingdom maliNa (malina) adj. dirty raNa (araNya) n. forest mahA (mahat) adj. great, big rayaNI ( rajanI) f. night mahuyara (madhukara ) m. bee . ravi m. sun mahura (madhura) adj. sweet raha (ratha) m. chariot maharattaNa (madhuratva) n. sweetness raMja (raj ) v. to delight maMgala adj. auspicious rAi (rAtri) f. night maMsa (mAMsa) n. flesh rAiMdiya (rAtriMdiva) n. day and mA part. not night mANa (mAna ) m. pride rAyahaMsa (rAjahaMsa) m. royal mANusattaNa (mAnuSatva ) n. man. swan hood rAyA ( rAjan ) m. king mAyA f. deceit rIya (R) v. wander mAyApiDa (mAtApitR) m. parents rukkha (vRkSa) m. tree mAra V. to kill rUvavisesa (rUpavizeSa) m. beauty mAsa m. month gAre m. disease

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ARDHA-MAGADHI ENGLISH GLOSSARY 229 sakAra] roya ( ru ) . to lament vA v. to blow lajja v. to be ashamed vANara (vAnara ) m. monkey laddha (labdha) p. p. obtained vAyasa m. row layA (latA) f. creeper vAri n. water laha (labh ) v. to get vAvi (vApi) f. well lahuM (laghu) ind. quickly vAsa (varSa) n. year lubha (luma) . to covet vAsa (varSa) m. country loga (loka) m. world vAhi (vyAdhi) f. disease loha (lobha) m. greed viula (vipula) adj. abundant vagdha ( vyAghra ) m. tiger vija (vid) V. to be vacca (vraj) v. to go vijjA (vidyA) f. knowledge vaccha ( vatsa ) .m. child viNaya (vinI) V. to control vaccha (vRkSa) m. tree viNaya (vinaya) m. modesty vaDa (vRdh ) . to increase - fara n. wealth vaNa (vana) n. forest vipariNama V. to change vaNNa ( varNa) v. describe vibhUsiya (vibhUSita) p. p. devaddhAvaNaya (vardhApanaka) n. birth corated ceremony viyasa (vikasa) v. to bloom vappIhaya m. cataka bird viyAra (vicAra) m. thought vaya (vacas ) n.. word visattaNa (viSatva) n. poison vaya (vrata ) m. vow visAya (viSAda) m. dejection vaya (vaca) V. to speak visAla (vizAla) adj. extensive vayaNa (vacana) n. word vihI (vidhi) m. fate vayaMsa ( vayasya ) m. friend . vIikaMta ( vyatikrAnta) p. p. past varaM ind. better vIra m. hero varAga ( varAka) m. wretched vIra adj. brave man vIriya (vIrya) n. energy . varisa ( varSa) v. to shower veja (vaidya ) m. physician vallaha ( vallabha) adj. dear velA f. time vasa (vas) 7. to live voccha (vicchid ). to cut vaha v. to carry saka (zak) v. to be able . 'vaha (va) V.. to kill sakya (saMskRta) n. Sanskrit vA ind. or . sakAra ( satkAra.) m. honour .

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230 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI sakkAra ( satkAraya ) v. to honour sakkarA (zarkarA ) f. sugar sagga (svarga) m. heaven sattari ( saptati ) seventy sattu ( zatru) m. enemy sat (sArtha) m. caravan sattha ( zastra, zAstra ) n. science weapon sadda ( zabda ) m. sound saddhiM (sArdham ) ind. with sappa (sarpa) m. serpent sappi (sarpisa) n. ghee saphala adj. fruitful samagga (samagra) adj. whole samajjiNa ( samArjaya ) o. to quire samaNa ( zramaNa ) m. monk samaNavattha (zramaNavastra) n. monk's garment samaya m. time samAyara ( samAcara ) 0. to form saMsAra m. worldly life sAma m. conciliation sAmi (svAmin ) m. master sAlA (zAlA ) f. school sAhA (zAkhA) f. branch 'sAhAraNa (sAdhAraNa) adj. common sAhu (sAdhu) m. sage sAhu (sAdhu) adj. good sikkha ( zikSU ) . to learn sigdhaM ( zIghram ) ind. quickly siddha m. liberated soul siddhi f. liberation siyAla ( zRgAla ) m. jackal sira (zirasa ) n. head siloga (zloka ) m. verse sihara (zikhara) n. top. siMca ( sic) o to sprinkle siMha m. lion samAseNaM (samAsena) ind. briefly sara o to move saya (zata ) hundred sIyala (zItala) adj. cool sIla (zIla ) n. good conduct sukayaM ( sukRtaM) ind. well done sukkaTTha (zuSkakASTa ) n. dry wood suNa (zru ) o to hear saya, suya (svap) . to sleep savaNa (zravaNa) n. hearing, ear savva (sarva) pro all savvAuya ( sarvAyuSka) n whole sutta ( sUtra ) n. thread, passage suddha (zuddha) adj. pure sasurakula ( zvasurakula) n house of supatta ( supAtra ) n fitting man supurisa (supuruSa ) m. good man subahu adj. abundant life the father-in-law ac saMdeha m. doubt [sakkAra per saMpai ( saMprati ) adv. now saMpADiya (saMpAdita) p.p. accomplished, fulfilled saMbhava 2. to arise saMsaggi (saMsarga) to contact

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ho] ARDHA-MAGADHI ENGLISH GLOSSARY 231 sumiNa (svama) n.m. dream seva v. to serve samiNasatya (svamazAstra) n. science sevA. worship of dreams soga (zoka) m. grief suya (suta) m. son, p.p. heard soyaNijja (zocanIya) adj. lamensuyaNa (sujana ) m. good man table suvaNNa ( suvarNa) n. gold haNa (han ) 5. to kill sasIla (suzIla) adj. of good hattha (hasta ) m. hand conduct hara (ha) V. to take away suha (sukha) n. happiness hava (bhU) V. to be become suhaMsuheNa . (sukhaMsukhena) haMsa m. swan. happily. hAya (hA) v. weaken suhI (sukhI) adj. happy hAsa m. mockery suMdara adj. beautiful hiraNNa (. hiraNya) n. gold seu (setu) m. bridge hiyaya (hRdaya) n. heart dj. superior saNa (zyena) falcon hiMsaga ( hiMsaka) adj. harmful seNA (senA) f. army ' ho (bhU) 5. to become adu

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ENGLISH ARDHA-MAGADHI GLOSSARY . Abstain virama. Always sayA ind. Animal pasu m. pANa m. n. Angry adj. Arise pAubbhava . Arm ale f. Army seNA f.bala n. sennan. Arrow sara m. usa m. bANa m. Ascetic tAvasa m. tavassi m. Ask pucchav. Assembly sahA f. Attempt payatta m. jaya. Aversion arai f. . Believe sahaha . Below ahe ind. Benares vANArasI f. . Better i ind. Big mahA adj. mahAlaya adj. Bind baMdha. Bird khaga m. diya m. pakkhi m. Birth jamma n. Blind man aMdha m. Blow vA. vAya. Boat nAvA. Body sarIra n. deha m. taNu. Bond baMdhaNa n. Book potthagan. gaMtha m. Boundary majAyA f. sImA. Bow dhaNu n. Branch sAhA f. DAlA f. Brave sUra adj. Break bhiMda v. Bring ANe. Brother bhAyA m. bhAuya m. Burn Daha . Bark tayA f. chavI . . Battle jujjhan. Battle-field raNa n. raNabhUmI . Beast pasu m. Be born jAya . Be called vucca . Become bhava v. hava 5. ho . Begin AraMbha . pAraMbha v. Before purao ind. aggao ind. Beggar vaNImaga m. Behave Ayara V. Calm saMta adj. pasaMta adj. ' Canon Agama m. .

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Exp.) ENGLISH ARDHA-MAGADHI GLOSSARY 233. Carry vaha v. ne . Catch geNha 5. dhara 5.. Cause heu m. n. kAraNa n. Chapter ajjhayaNa n. Child bAlaya m. Childhood bAlabhAva m. bAlattaNa n. Clever paDu adj. niuNa adj. Climb Araha v. Cloud meha :m. paohara m. jalahara m. Colour vaNNa m. Come Agaccha. Commit kara. Ayara e. Conceal gRha v. nigUha . Conquer jaya 7. jiNa '. Control saMjama 7. dama . Cottage kuDIra n. Country jaNavaya m. visaya m. desa m. . Cowardly bhIru adj. kAyara adj. Create uppAya v. kara. Creeper layA f. Cross tIra V. uttara e. Crow kAgam. Crown mauDa:m. Cry ruya5. ruva e. roya 5. Current soya m. Cut chiMda . Death maraNa n. maccu m. Deceive vaMca. Deed kicca n. kAma n. Deep gahira adj. Deer miga m. Defeat parAjiNa. Deity devayA f. Delay vilamba m. Delight raif. Demon asura m. dANava m. Deserve ariha . Devoid of wealth dhaNahINa adj. niddhaNa-adj. Difference aMtara n. visesa m. Different viviha adj. Direction disA f. disAbhAga m. Discharge pakkhiva e. Dog sANa m. Drink pibaV. pA. Dust rayan. . Ear kaNNa m. Eat bhakkha v. Eight 317 Elder guru adj. je? adj. Elephant gaya m. hasthi m. kari Eleven eyAraha, ekArasa . Enemy satta m. ari m. Energy vIriya n. Examine tigiccha 5. parikkha v. Enjoy bhuMja V. seva e. Experience aNubhava m. Explain viyAgara 5. vivara e. Dance nacca . Day divasa m. diyaha m. diNa m. Deal vavahara v.

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234 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [Eye Eye nayaNa n. cakkhu ka. Give birth pasUya . Go gaccha e. vacca . God Isara m. deva m. Golden suvaNNamaiya adj. Good deed sukamma n. Goodness sIla n. susahAva m. Grasp geNha v. jANa V. Greek javaNa m. Green hariya adj. Fade kilAma v. Fall paDa . Family kula n. kuDuMba n. Fast sigdhaM adj. Father piyA m. jaNaya m. Fault dosam. Flesh maMsan. Flower puppha n. kusuma n. Fly uDDe . * Fight jujjha n. Fire Aggi m. jalaNan. First paDhama Fish Hos m. Five paMca Follow Ayara. aNusara . Food bhakkha m. anna n. Fool bAla m. mukkha m. . Foot pAya m. calaNa m. Forest vaNan. raNNa n. kaMtAra n. Form rUvan. Forsake caya". jahA . Forty-five paNayAlIsa Free muMca 7. Frighten bIha ". Hand hattha m. kara m. pANi m. Happiness suha n. Head sira n. sIsa .. Heat umhA f. Heaven sagga m. suraloya m. . Help sAheja n. Hero vIra m. Hide nigRha v. Himself appA m. saya adj. Honour pUya . sakkAra . Honourable arahaNijja, pUyaNija adj. Horse Asa m. turaMgama m. Household giha n. geha n. ghara n. Householder gAhAvai m. sAvaga m. Hundred saya Hungry chuhiya adj. Hunter vAha m. Hurt hiMsa . haNa v. Garden Jollut n. Garland mAlA f. hAra m. Get laha. Gift dANa n. Girl kannA . Give de. Inviolable aNulaMghaNija adj.

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Pen.] ENGLISH ARDHA-MAGADHI GLOSSARY 235 Jackal siyAla m.. Jewel rayaNa n. maNi m. Kill haNa . mAra 7. King niva V. bhUva m rAyA m. Kingdom raja n.. Know jANa . muNa 7. Knowledge nANan. Misdeed dukkaya n. pAvakamma n. Misery dukkha n. Monk samaNa m. sAhu m. aNagAra m. Monkey vANara m. kai m. Month mAsa m. Mother mAyA f. jaNaNI f. Motto vayaNa n. Move sara . Nectar amaya n. Never na kayA vi Nine nava Non-violence ahiMsA f. Northern uttarilla adj. Lament soya V. vilava . Lamp dIva m. . Leader neyA m. Leaf paNNan. pattan. Leave caya. jahA. Liberated siddha adj. Liberation siddhi f. mokkha m. Light palIva ... Lion sIha m. siMha m. Live jiya . vasa . . Living being pANa m. n. jIva m. Long ate adj. Lost qure adj. Lump of gold gquuntaus m. Obedience ANAkarattaNa n. Obey ANaM pAla v. Obstacle viggha n. aMtarAya m. Obtain pAva 5. pAuNa v. Occasion pasaMga m. samaya m. Ocean sAyara m. Omniscience kevalanANa n. Omniscient kevalanANi m. One ega, ekka. Order ANA. Outside bAhiM adv. bahiyA adv. Maid kamA. Man nara m. maNussa m. Many bahu adj. Meaning. attha m.. . Merit puNNa n. guNa n. Meritorious puNNa adj. Mind maNan.citta n. Minister amacca m. manti m. Palace pAsAya m. Parents ammApiu m. Path magga m. Peace saMti. Penance tava m.

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236 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [Pen. Penny kAhAvaNa m. kavaDiyA f. Rope rajjuf. People jaNa m. loga m. Run dhAva. Perform kara . tava. Person jaNa m. maNussa m. Salutation aAI ind. Philosopher tattaviu m. Salute nama. Physician veja m. Same taM ciya Pious dhammiga adj. Say bhaNa. bhAsa . Pleasure bhoga m. School sAlAf. Poet aanse m. Scriptures Agama m. .. Poor man daridda m. niddhaNa m. See pAsa 5. peha v. Possible He adj. Self-control saMjama m.. Power bala n. Serpent sappa m. sarIsava m. Powerful sUra adj. balavaM adj. Servant kiMkara m. dAsa m. Practise Ayara V. Serve seva . uvaTThA. Praise thuNa V. pasaMsa e. Show daMsa .. Preach Aikkha 5. kaha v. uvaisa Sing gAya . . Sink nibbuDa e. Preceptor Ayariya m. Sky naha n.. Pride gavva m. Slowly saNiyaM adv. Principle tattan. Son putta m. suya m. Produce viuvva. uppAya. Song gIya n. gAhA. Punish daNDa . Speak vaya . bhAsa .be. Pupil sIsa m. Stand ciTTha.. Steal cora . Question paNha m. pasiNa n. Stick lagga. daNDa m. . Stolen coriya p.p. Rain pAusa m. Strength bala n. Relative nAim. niyaga m. Strong daDha adj. kADhaNa adj. Religion dhamma m. Student aMtevAsI m. sIsa m. Respect sammANa V. Study paDha 5. sikkha V. Ahija v. Return paccAgaccha . paDiNiyatta . Suffer saha v. ahiyAsa v. . Reward pAhuDa n. Sweet mahura adj. Rogue saDha m. Sword asi m. khaga m. .

Page #250
You.] ENGLISH ARDHA-MAGADHI GLOSSARY 237 Take geNha . Teach sikkhAva . Teacher Ayariya m. Temple devaula n. AyayaNa n. Ten dasa Theatre naTTasAlA f. There tattha adv. Thicket gahaNa n. Thief cora m. takkara m. teNa m. Think ciMta. Thinking viyAra m. Thirsty pivAsiya adj. . Thirty tisa Thirty-six chattIsa Thread sutta n. Throw khiva e. Time velA .samaya m. Touch phaMsa. phAsa. Town nayara n. .. Travel pavasa v. Tree rukkha m. pAyava m. Truth sacca n. Try jaya . ujama 7. Twenty-four cauvIsa Twenty-seven sattAvIsa Valuable mahagdha adj. Vanquished parAiyap.p. Venerable bhayavaM Village gAma m.n. Virtue guNa m.n. Wait upon uvaTThA 5. seva e. Want iccha. Warrior joha m. khattiya m. Water jala n. Wealth dhaNa n. saMpayAf. Wealthy dhaNiya, dhaNavaMta adj. Weapon. sattha n. Wicked & adj. Wicked man dujaNa m. Wife bhAriyA f. bhajA f. Wine Hot n. Wind vAu m. aNila m. Wise man buha m. mehAvi m. Wish icchav. Without viNA Whole savva adj. samagga adj. Wood dAru n. kaTTha n. Word sadda m. World jaya n. loga m. Worldly life saMsAra m. Worship pUya . acca . Year vAsa m. varisa n. Young taruNa adj. Younger afurgere adj. Understand jANa .... Universe jaya n.. Use uvaoga m. .

Page #251
EXPLANATORY INDEX The figures refer to sections. Abhinihita (abhinidhana: im plosion, incomplete articula tion) 50. Ab. Ablative. Ablative (pancami) sing. forms of 153; uses of 380 f. of starting point 380; of continuous action 380 ; of origin 381; of motive 381 ; of comparison 382; with verbs 383; w. nouns 384 ; w. adverbs and prepositions 385 ; identical with Ins. 386; place of 489; Ab. compound 509. Ablaut (vowel gradation : the variation of vowel in different forms of the same words due to former accentual conditions) in Sk. 109. Cf. Guna, Vyddhi, Sampra- sarana. Absolute use of Inst. 372; of Genit. 393 ; of Loc. 402. Accent (svara : musical ac- cent, pitch, intonation : variations in the pitch of the voice by the increase or decrease of vibrations of the vocal cords; marked by 'on the vowel of the accented syllable). 11, 107, initial 109,23; penultimate 109; effects of 121 f. producing contraction 130; on the thematic vowel 123 ; shifting of 11,109; words with out accent 139. A. Accusative. Accusative (dvitiya) for Nom. 351; uses of 352 f. w. verbs of motion 353 ; double 354 ; cognate 355 ; of time and place 356 ; w. verbal nouns 357 ; producing adverbs 358; place of 486 ; Acc. compound 509. Active (where the subject is not interested in a personal manner. Cf. paras maipada). Adjective (visesana) agreement of 193 ; Fem. 187; as past pass. part. 208; as present part. 229; Fem. in -i 242;

Page #252
Ana.) EXPLANATORY INDEX 239 in-ni 242 ; possessive 279,- person) 529; causes of its 280 ; of the value of poten- break 329; of subject and tial - part. 282 ; its origin predicate 330; of substan282; comparative and super- tive and adjective 337. lative degrees of 284; Alphabet (varnasamamnaya) numeral 314 ; agreement of 6. 337 ; w. Inst. 370 ; w. Dat. ALSDORF L. (Apabhrarsa379; w. Gen. 389; w. Loc. studien. Leipzig 1937.) 173; 400; place of 482 ; forming 189; 235 ; 237. compound 507 ; as the first Alternance (phonetic changes member of a compound by which closely connected 511; as second member of a words, which formerly had comp. 511; as both mem- the same or practically the bers of a comp. 511 ; in a same sound, become more or comp. 514. less differentiated in sound) Adverb (kriyavisesana) as pre between long vowel and sent part. 228; numeral anusvara 127. 315; of place 319; of time Alveolar (dantamulya : sound 320 ; of manner 321 ; origin produced by contact of the of 322 ; suffixes of 322 ; tongue with the teeth ridge from Acc. 358 ; from Inst. called alveoli) 5; n becom386 ; from Dat. 376 ; w. Dat. ing alveolar 32. * AMg. Ardha-Magadhi. 1 f. 379; from Abl. 386; from Gen. 394 ; from Loc. Anunasika (a nasal vowel or a 403 ; place of 495 ; as first consonant) 6; pronunciation of 7; in Masc. nouns 148; member of comp. 511; 514 ; in Neut. nouns 216. as comp. 515 ; phonetic Analogy (the similarity of change in 73. meaning of two words proAffricative (a consonantal ducing a corresponding simicombination of explosive larity of sound) in nominal and homorganic fricative forms 153; in classes of forming one sound unit ; verbs 178; in declension Sk. c, j,) 5. 189; 200; 201 ; 216 ; in Agreement (samanadhikaran- pronouns 226; in forms of ya': concord, congruence : present active part. 228; in the formal similarity bet- forms of imperative 235 ; in ween two words as regards second person pronoun 238 ; gender, number, case and doubling by 123.

Page #253
240 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (Ana. Ardha-Magadhi 1: language 1; name of i, canon in 2 ; preserving older aspects than Sk. and Pali 91. Atsa (=AMg.) 2. Article, substitute for 328; origin of 328; in canonical prose 328. Articulation, mode of (pra yatna) 5; place of (sthana) 5; change of place of 24 ; retroflex (prativestita : a sound articulated with the tip of the tongue turned up and back towards the palate) 31. Analytical construction for Acc. 359. Anaptyxis (svarabhakti : the development of a sound as a glide between two other sounds) 65; 117; in passive 265; in gerund 249. Ant. Antagadadasao ed. Dr. Vaidya. Antithesis (contrast between two statements) 468. Anudatta (grave accent) 121. Anusvara (after-sound'). 6; pronunciation of 7; for nasal 66; replaced by parusavarna 82; for a long vowel 127; in declension 148; analogically extended 154 ; 216 ; 226. Aorist (lun, adyatani : morpho logically a theme which admits of only secondary inflections in the indicative and semantically originally expressing a perfective action like that of 'find ') forms of 204; 205 ; injunctive forms of 235. Apabhramsa 41 ; forms of verbs in 179; of nouns 188. Apposition (of the two sub stantives in the same case the one which determines the other in some particular or explains it further) place of 483 ; in comp. 514. Archaism (older formation) in vocabulary 14. Asoka, inscriptions of 42. Acol Aspect (Aktionsart : nature of the action denoted) of the verb 160. Aspirate (usman: a sound containing the sound [h] 5; 6; nasal 15; aspiration of initial consonants 22 ; loss of aspiration 23; of medial consonants 37 ; loss of 38; influence of 38; absence of 79; followed by 'nasal 87; by semi-vowel 91 ; by liquid 94 ; free nature of 30. Assimilation (The total or partial conformation of one sound to another) 55; principle of 57 ; regressive 58; 64; 76; 83; 95 ; progressive 63 ; 67; violation of the rules of 97 ; of vowels 111 ; of -y- 249; 277.

Page #254
Cer.] EXPLANATORY INDEX 241 Association causing change of gender 185. Asvaghosa 42. Asyndeton (coordination or subordination without the use of a particle) 464 ; 473. Athematic (verbal forms or verbs without the thematic vowel which was originally e/o (Sk. -a); in Sk. all the conjugations except the 1st, 4th and 6th, all of which have a theme in -a) ending of imperative 237; conju- gation 168. At manepada (medial : action in which the subject is personally interested) forms of 161 ; in passive 161 ; of aorist 204. Augment (the vowel -a (*e) placed before a verbal form to express the meaning of a past action) 205. Aup. Aupapatikasutra ed. Leu mann. Austro-Asiatic languages 25. Av. Avesta. Avagraha 12. Avyayibhava (adverbial) comp. 515. Ay. Acatanga ed. Schubring. 186 ; of Mas. nouns 198; weak 294 ; of verbs 166 ; thematic 166; athematic 168 ; of future 218; special base of future 222. Bhag. Bhagavatisutra ( Vya khyapranjapti). Binding vowel (it) in past passive part. 208: dropping of 217; 219; origin of 219; in gerund 249. BLOCH J. (La formation de la langue marathe 1920; Some Problems of Indo Aryan Philology 1925 L'indo-aryen du veda au temps modernes 1934.) 39 49; 101 ; 110: 116; 1217 123 ; 154 ; 173 ; 189 ; 2041 226 ; 235 ; 247. BRUGMANN K. (Kurze Vergles chende Grammatik der Indogermanischen Sprachel 1904) 101. [s] = palatal fricative like che in German Bucher : origing al value of Sk. s. Case (vibhakti) loss of Dat. 147. Causal (nic, karita) 177 : origin of 177 ; formation of 255; 256; forms of 257 ; use of 438; 439. Cerebral (murdhanya) 6; softened 31 ; aspirated 37; influence of 39; origin of 39; opened 41. Cerebralisation (change to a cerebral sound) spontaneous Back vowel 5. Bahuvrihi (possessive) comp. 514. Bases of nouns, strong, weak, extended 151 ;. of Neuter nouns 175; of Fem. nouns

Page #255
242 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI (Cla. Construction (prayoga) act ive and passive 210; active replacing passive 336. Contamination (mixing of two forms) of verbal forms 204 ; in pronominal forms 226; in forms of potential 247 ; of words 38. Co-ordination 464 f. with demonstrative pronoun 465; by particle 466. 24; 38: 32; dependent 39; in past passive part. 39; 72 ; due to -7- 74 ; of groups 96 ; in Rgveda 74. Clause, place of additional 500. Commentaries, on Jain canon 1; on Pali canon 1. Compound (samasa) words 152; 501 f. copulative, determinative possessive, adverbial 502; of quarters 514 : with adi etc. 514. Comparison with Inst. 372; with Abl. 382. Conditional (lrn, kriyatipatti, samketa) 444. Conjugation (tiganta) 162; derivative 163; change of 167. Conjunct (samyoga) of three consonants 86; 98; initial 99; simplification of 118. Conjunctions 325. Consonant (vyanjana, hal) 5; 6; pronunciation of conjunct 7; changes of 16; ini. tial (adya), medial (madhyama), final (antya) 17; changes of initial con. 18; 19; 20; 21; initial con. of a compound 26; medial 28 f. preserved 29; becoming -h30; voiced 42; final 50 f. conjunct 54 f. doubling of 56; effect of a neighbouring con. 112; to avoid Sandhi 144. D. Dative. Danda 12. Das, Dasavaikalikasutra ed. Abhyankar. Dative (caturthi) forms of 153 ; uses of 373 f. of advantage 374 ; of purpose 375; adverbial 376 ; predicative 378; with nouns 379; place of 488; Dat. Compound 509. Declension (subanta : the system of modification of noun, adjective or pronoun to express syntactical relations) of Mas. nouns in a 154 ; of Neuter nouns in -a 174 ; of Feminine nouns 184 : origin of Fem. 189; Ms. Neu. in -i, -u 197 ; its origin 201 ; Neu. in -i, -u 215 ; its origin 216 ; Fem. in -i, -u 232; Fem. in -i, -u 241 ; consonantal 287 ; of ? 288; of Fem. in ? 291 ; of -1 292 ; 293 ; of -t

Page #256
Fin.] EXPLANATORY INDEX 243 Dissyllabic (having two syl lables) 166. Dravidian languages, influence of 38; of D. origin 43; borrowal from 49. Dvandva (copulative) comp. 503 f. itaretara 504 ; sama hara 505 ; of adjectives 506. Dvigu comp. 512. Idzl a affricate sound like Marathi j before back vowels. [dz] affricate sound like Sk. j. [@] a neutral vowel like Eng:lish above. 294 ; remnants of conso- nantal decl. 295. Denominative (prat yayadhatu, namadhatu) 177 ; 282; for- mation of 301. Dental (dant ya : sound pro- duced by the tongue articulating by approaching or touching the upper teeth) 5: 6 : becoming palatal 24; becoming cerebral 24 ; aspirated 37; not cerebralised 40; opened 41; sound of -7- 44. Derivatives, primary (kit, from the root directly) 152; 187 ; of Fem. nouns 234 ; secondary (taddhita : from a primary derivative) 152 ; nominal 279 f. Desiderative (san: expres sing desire) forms of 302. Devoicing (losing voice) 166. Dialectal changes of -? 101. Diphthongs (sandhyaksara: a combination of two vowel sounds to form one syllable) of Sk. 104; two-fold development of 105; 106: long 131. Direct narration 478. Disagreement (vyadhikarana) in person 332 ; in number 331 ; in gender 335 ; 338. Dissimilation (process by which two similar sounds are made dissimilar to each other) 25; 40; of vowels 111; of - - 256. Epic, language 1; usage of verb in 192. Enclitic (a word forming one accentual unit with the preceding word) 139. Erz. Ausgewahlte Erzahlungen ed. Jacobi 1886. Etymology (dealing with the origin. of words) popular 14 ; 123. Factitive (expressing the idea of causing) 177. Fem. Feminine (stri). Feminine nouns becoming Mas. 150; becoming Neu. 175 ; endings of 182 ; suffixes differing from Sk. 187 ; Fem. base of present part. 227. Final, protracted (pluti : lengthening of a vowel

Page #257
244 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [Fri. sound at the end of a word) 390 ; w. adverb 391 ; of 153 : in Sk. 50. time 392; absolute use of Fricative (sound produced by 393 ; place of 490; place of the friction of the air pas- G. absolute 491 ; Gen. comsing through a narrow pas- pound 509. sage of the speech organs) Germanic, initial accent in 5; labio-dental 34; un- 121. voiced 41 ; becoming stop Gerund (ktva) formation of 47. 248 ; origin of 249 ; uses of Front vowel 5. 250 ; 453 ; 458. Future (lit, bhavisyanti) for Glide (a transitional sound mation of 217 : base of produced by the vocal or218; second formation of gans moving from the arti219; forms of 221 ; irregular culation of one sound to formation of 222; use of that of another in speech) 425-429. 85. [g] =[g] a palatal voiced Grade full (form having the stop different from the usual vowel of the accented sylpalatal series of Sanskrit. lable) 166. GRAY L. (Observations on G. Genitive. Middle Indian Morphology. GEIGER W. (Pali Literatur Bulletin of the School of und Sprache 1916). 24 ; 73; Oriental Studies 1936.) 109; 110; 154 ; 189; 204 ; 173 ; 189; 204 ; 247. '. Greek sound of 2 20; peuthoGemination (dvih, dvirbhava, mai 23 ; stizo 23; dachina bades 30; 41; telikos 43. doubling of consonant) of -7- 89; of consonants 110; GRIERSON G. (On the Modern 123; geminated -nn- 32. Indo-Aryan Vernaculars) 44. Gender (linga) 145 ; in Pra- Gujarati sound of -n- 32; 41. krit 145 ; change of 145: Guna in roots 256. 150; 175 ; 185 ; 198; 216 ; 234 ; of a compound 504 ; [h] voiced h sound as in Sk. 505. Generalisation of meaning 14. Haplology 125. Genitive (sasthi) uses of Heteroclite (made of different 387 f. with verbs 388 ; w. declensional schemes) proadjectives 389; for Dative noun 299. 247. ha.

Page #258
Joh.] EXPLANATORY INDEX 245 Hc. Hemacandra.. Hemacandra (Prakrit Grammar Ed. Pischel) 2 ; on conjuncts 57 ; on -j. sruti 28; on Apabhramsa 42. Hiatus (absence of Sandhi) 129. 209; uses of 360 f. sociative 360; of means 361 ; of agent 362 ; of reason 363 ; of mode of action 364 ; of time 365 ; of space 366 ; of characteristic 367 ; forming adverb 368 ; w. verbs 369; W. nouns 370; of prohibition 371 ; of comparison 372 ; absolute use of 372 ; place of 487 ; Inst. compound 509. Intensive (yan, carkarita : ex pressing repeated action) forms of 303, Interchange of -v- and -b- 34 ; of liquids 44 ; in Sk. 44 ; of semivowels 45 ; between -mand -7- 47. Intervocalic (placed between two vowels). Intransitive (akarmaka) 209; [1] open -j- sound like Eng lish pin, think. [i] phonetically identically with (j). I. Instrumental. I-E. Indo-European 226; 256. I-I. Indo-Iranian. Imperative (form of order, lot, pancami, ajna), formation of 235 ; conjugation 236; uses of 430-432. Imperfect (lan, hyastani, an ad yatanabhuta, a present action transferred into past) forms of 205. Impersonal (bhave) 209. Indicative (expressing a fact) as imperative 237. Infinitive (tuman : a form of the verbal noun felt as in- dependent of the verb) termination of used for Gerund 249; formation of 258; Vedic 259; use of 260 ; 459-462. Infix 4. . . Inflection 4. Instrumental (tytiya) plural as Loc. 188 ; of the subject Iranian, atati 38; s. sound 39; 41; liquids in 44 ; treatment of conjuncts in * 55 ; -T- sound in 100. Iterative (a verbal form ex pressing repeated action). lil the sound of y in English yes, Sk. -y-, German ja. JACOBI H. (Introductions to the editions of Bhavisattakaha and Sanamkumaracariu) 247 ; 121, 135; 131 ; 23. JOHANSSON 20.

Page #259
246 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [Jai. Jain Canon 1; Jain Maha- rastri 2; Mass. 28; scribes 32. JAIN B. (Phonology Punjabi 1934.) 32. [k] = [il unvoiced palatal stop differing from Sk. c. Kap. Kalpasutra ed. Schubr. ing. Karmadharaya (appositional) compound 511. Kum. Kumarapalapratibodha ed. Jinavijaya. nasal 85; by sibilant 93 ; conjunct of 92. Locative (saptami) 147 ; sing. in AMg. prose 149; sing. from Sk. 200; uses of 395 f. place of 396; for Acc. 396; partitive 397 ; w. verb 398; w. noun 399; for infinitive 399; w. adjective 400; of time 401 ; absolute use of 402; for Inst. 403 ; of place * 492; Loc. compound 509; confused with adverb 115. Loss (lopa) of mute 30; of final consonant 51 ; of one member of the conjunct 57 ; of vowel 123. Low grade = weak grade. L. Locative. Labial (osthya; sound pro- duced by the contact of the lips) 5; 6; aspirated 37. Labio-dental (dantosthya : sound produced by the lower lip and the upper teeth). LASSEN 235. Lateral sound (sound produced by allowing the air to escape on one or both sides of the tongue with its tip in con tact with the palate). Latin, accent in 121 ; syllabic division in 118; ita 113. Lengthened grade (vyddhi: a form showing vowel length - ened to compensate the loss of a following vowel). Liquid (a lateral, rolled or a trilled sound) (antastha) 6; followed by mute 74; by Magadhi language 2 ; nirutti 2. Magadhism 25; 44. Maharastri works 32 ; special features of 42. Marathi sound of c 75; ryth mic change in 107. Markandeya (Prakltasarvas-- va) on -j. sruti 28. Mas. Masculine. Masculine (pums) nouns be coming neuter 175; becoming Fem. 186; becoming Neuter 216 ; in i becoming Fem. 234. Meaning (artha) changes of 14; differentiation in 77. Media (ghosavat) voiced stop 5. Medial (cf. Atmgnepada).

Page #260
Nou.] . EXPLANATORY INDEX 247 MEILLET A. . (Introduction a l'etude comparative des langues indo-europeennes 1924) 73. Metaphor (a word denoting a thing which has a similarity with its primary meaning) as a resonator) 5; vowels 5; sounds 6; opened 41 ; becoming anusvara 52 ; followed by mutes 66; -n81 ; two nasals 82 ; followed by semivowels 84 ; by liquid 85. 14. Metathesis (varnavipar yaya) 126. Metrical length (length of a syllable due to a following conjunct) 107. MIA. Middle Indo-Aryan languages. . Mood (artha: a verbal form to express the subjective inclination with reference to the action like desire, in- tention, possibility etc.) imperative 235-237; potential 243-247. Monosyllabic (having one syl- lable) roots 166. Morphology (tupasiddhi : sys- tem of inflections) 3. Mute (sparsa : the same as a stop. plosive consonant) opened 41 ; becoming liquid 43; groups of 58; with nasals 63; followed by semivowels 68 ; 69; by liquid 71 ; by sibilant 75. Nasalisation (change into or addition of a nasal sound) spontaneous 119; of final vowels 127. Nay. Nayadhammakahao Ed. of Agamodaya Samiti. Neu. Neuter. Neuter (napumsaka, kliba) becoming Mas. 150; of the past passive part. 209; compound 505 ; 515. Neutral vowel (= central vowels formed by the mid dle of the tongue) 5. NIA. New Indo-Aryan Langu: ages. Nir. Nirayavaliyao Ed. Dr. Vaidya. Nominative (prathama) sing. in AMg. prose 149; sing. of neuter nouns in -a 150; plu. of Mas. Neu. 150; of the object 209; of the subject 209; uses of 349 f. of predicate 350; of apposition 350; with iti 351 ; in enumeration 351; disjunct ive use of 351. Noun (naman) ending of Mas.. 148; declension of 149; bases of 151 ; derivation of . Grohe orphology N. Nominative. Nasal. (anunasika, nasikya : speech sound in whose production the nasal cavity acts o

Page #261
248 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [Num. Orthoepy 3. . 152; endings of Neut. 173; possessive 280; abstract 281 ; ending in -? 288 ; of agency, of relationship 288; 289; older forms of 289 ; 290 ; in-n 292, 293 ; in-t 294 ; w. Inst. 370; w. Dat. 379 ; w. Abl. 384 ; w. Loc. 399; as both members of a a comp. 511 ; w. adj. form- ing comp. 514. Number (vacana) 146 ; sing. (ekav.) dual (dviv.) plu. (bahuv.) 146; agreement of 345 f. in comp. 512; as punctuation mark 12; confu- sion of 205. .: Numeral (sankhya) declension of 306-308; enumeration of 309; ordinal 310; fractions 311 ; multiplicatives 312; distinctives 313; adjective 314 ; adverb 315; in comp. 316; agreement of 339. Padimatra (use of a stroke to mark the vowels -- -ai--0 -au- before the letter) 8. Paisaci language 42. Palatal (talavya : sound pro duced by the tongue against the hard palate) 5; 6; pronunciation of 7; becom ing dental 24.. Palatalisation (change of a sound into a palatal one) 70; 249. Pali language 1; canon 1; interchange of semi-vowels in 45. Panini (Astadhyayi) 2; 28; 43; 101 ; 118; 127 ; 216 ; 149. Parasmaipada (cf. active) 161. Participle (kydanta) formation of past passive (karmani bhuta) 206 use of 209; formation of present active (kartari vartamana) 227; use of 229; present passive (karmani vartamana) 278; use of 274 ; past active (kartari bhuta) 275 ; future part. 275; potential passive (krtya) 276 ; use of 278 ; uses of present part. 440444; of past part. 445-450 ; of potential part. 451-452 ; place of 493. Particle (nipata) w. Inst. 371 ; distinctive 467; of causal Object (karma) 209; 352; logical 351; indirect 373; place of 486. OIA. Old Indo-Aryan langu ages. Opening of stop 41 ; of sibi lant 41; in future 219. Optative (= Potential : but expressing the aspect of wish) 247. Orthography 3; of AMG. 8; of -n- 32; in Sk. 73; for ! 43.

Page #262
Pro.] relation 469; conclusive 470; negative (nan) 471; jaha 474; java 476; jai 477; place of 496; unaccented 498; as first member of comp. 511; 514; sa in comp. 514; iti as punctuation 12. Passive (karmani) formation of 263; irregular bases of 264; forms of 266; use of 267. EXPLANATORY INDEX Past (bhuta) formation of 203; origin of 204; uses of 421; to express prohibition 423. Pau. Paumacariya ed. Jacobi. Perfect (lit, paroksa) forms of 205. Person (purusa) first (uttama) second (madhyama) third (prathama) 162; confusion of 205. Phonology (varnavicara) 3. Phrase (vakya) 463 f. PISCHEL R. (Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen 1900) 20; 46 57; 70; 73; 75; 77; 97: 102 107 110; 120; 121: 150 154; 189; 204; 226; 235 246 247 248 279. ; Pk. Prakrit. Plosion lost (28). Plu. plural. Plural (bahuvacana) base 151; meaning of 162; for sing. 237. Popular language 179; 188; suffixes of 279. 249 Potential (lin, saptami, vidhi: expressing capacity) formation of 244; forms of 245: mixed with imperative 245; origin of 247; participle of 276; uses of 433-437. Prakrit 1; 2; words differing from Sk. 113. Predicate (vidheya) agree ment of 330; in Dat. 378; place of 481. Prefix (upasarga) 4; place of 497. Preposition (karmapravacaniya) 323; w. Acc. etc. 323; w. verbs (upasarga) 324. Pre-Sanskrit 173; sounds 48. Present (laf, bhavanti, varta mana) conjugation of 165; 178; 190; 191; origin of forms of 169; of as- 170; uses of 416 f. of general truth 417 for future 418; for past 419. Preverb (prepositions * with the verb) 249. Proclitic (word losing losing its accent and becoming own unit with the following word) 27. Pronoun (sarvanaman) declension of personal 225; 238; demonstrative (darsaka) 253; interrogative (prasnarthaka) 268; other 268 uses of 261-270; indefinite 269; demonstrative 298 299 300; agreement used

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250 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI [Pro. of, 341; use of personal 404-405; of demonstrative 406-413; of relative (sambandhi) 414 ; of interrogative 415 ; place of 484 ; relat ive in comp. 514. Pronunciation (uccara) 7; of -V-34 ; of palatal 64 ; of Pk. -cch- 75; of - y- 35. Prothesis (adisvaragama) 120 ; prothetic s 23. PRZYLUSKI 25. Punctuation 12. Tal a velar sound like English come. tion 168 ; dissyllabic 168 : of V conjugation 168 ; of VII, VIII, IX, conjugation 168 ; of X conjugation 177 ; athematic 192 ; III conj. 192 ; of IX conj. 192 : nouns 242. Rounded Vowels 5. Rv. Rgveda. Ry. Rayapasenijja... Quantity 10; syllabic 55. . Sl chuintant : English sound of ship; French ch. [s] phonetically identical with IS). Sag. Sagarasu yakahanaya Ed. Ficke. Samprasarana 128 ; 249. Sandhi 129 f. vowel 130; in Sk. 131 ; history of 131 ; of simi*lar vowels 132 ; of conso nants 142 f. extension of -min 144; Sandhi-consonant 144. Sanskrit, epic, classical, Vedic Ir sonant sound of 1. (the same sign with n, l, m). [or] r preceded by a reduced vowel. . Reduplication (abhyasa : repe tition of a syllable or word) of roots 163; 166 ; 168. RENOU L. (Grammaire Sans- crite 1930) 282. Rg. Prat. Rgveda Pratisakhya. Rhythm as cause of lengthening 108; change due to 189; shortening due to 256. Root (@khyata, dhatu) classes of 163; of I conjugation 166 ; monosyllabic 166; of VI conjugation 166, 167 ; with nasal 167 ; with -sko- 167; of IV conjugation 167 ; dis- syllabic 167 ; of III conjuga- Sanskrit survivals in Loc. sing. 200 ; in past passive part. 207 ; in potential 246 ; in precative 246 ; in demonstrative pronoun 254 ; in causal 256 ; in comparative and superlative 284 ; in consonantal declension 289; 290 ; 292 ; 294; in Sandhi 140 ; 141 ; written Sandhi in Veda 129. Sauraseni 42. SCHUBRING (Die Lehre der Jainas 1935) 237.

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Syl.) EXPLANATORY INDEX 251 Semi-vowel (antastha) 5; 6; Stop (sparsa : sound produced 34 ; origin of 67 ; conjunct of by a closure of the speech 88 ; followed by liquid 87. organs and characterised by a Sentence (vakya) 3. complete break in the air Sibilant (usman: a hissing current) 5. sound) 6 ; history of 19; be- Stress (marked by ! on the coming affricate 20; influ- vowel of the stressed syllaence of 38 ; followed by mute ble in 11) accent 109. 78; cerebralises dental 78; Strong bases of the suffixes 280. followed by nasal 86; by Subject (kart?) agreement of semi-vowel 89; by liquid 93. 330; number of 330; place Siksas 34 ; 35. of 480. Sing. Singular. Subordination 473 f. place of Singular (ekavacana) as plu- clause 499. ral 237 ; 245 ; comp. 505;. Subjunctive 247. 515. Substantive agreement of 327; Sk. Sanskrit. more than one 339. -sko a theme-building suffix Suffix (prat yaya) 4; forming called incohative or inceptive. nouns 152 ; of Fem. nouns Sm. Samaraiccakaha ed. Jar 187 ; of Mas. 199; -ta 208; cobi. -ita 208; -na 208; -7 227 ; SMITH H. 204 ; 24; 41. -anta 228 ; -mana 228 ; -ana Sn. Suttanipata. 228; -ina 228 ; of gerund 249; Softening of tenues 28 ; pf con of causal 256 ; of passive 265; sonants 29; 42; of cerebrals of part. 277 ; 280; -ima 282 ; ira 283'; -ka 283 ; of adverbs 31. 822 ; -tha 38. Sonant (ghosavat : a sound Sur. Surasundaricariya ed. characterised by the pre Rajavijaya. sence of voice) with sonant Surd (aghosa) with a surd 59;. 62; 100; -7- 106 ; preserva with aspirate 69. tion of 29. Sut. Sutrakrtanga ed. Dr. VaiSounds 5; voiced, unvoiced 5; dya. origin of ks 77. Svarabhakti 117; in Veda and Specialisation of meaning 14. Classical Sk. 117. Sporadic change (change OC- Syllable 5; 6; short and long curring in a few stray words 107; open 110 ; syllabic quanin a language) 49. tity 118; preservation of syllaStem (pratipadika) 4. bic value 107 ; long syllable 29 the Pet Surd (aghe rate 69., Dr. Val

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252 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI. (Syl in verb 178; -aya- preserved 178; weakened 179; heavy by position (marked X) 131. Syllabication, rules of 9; of mute and semi-vowel 73; of liquid and mute 74 ; of sibi lant and mute 79; of mute and sibilant 118. Syncope (varnalopa) 124. Syntax (karaka) 3. (U) open -u- sound as in Eng l ish foot. U. Uttaradhyayana ed. Char pentier. .. Udatta (accute) 121. Unrounded vowel 5. Upa. Upasakadasah ed. Dr. Vai dya. Upapada compound 513. Tait. Prat. Taittiriya Pratisa- khya. Tatpurusa (determinative) comp. 508 ; aluk 510; nan 511. Terminations prat yaya) from Mas. -Q148; of present 164; of Fem. (striprat yaya) 183: of Mas. -;, -u 196 : of future 217; 219 ; of imperative 235; of potential 243. Tenses (kala) 160. Tenuis (aghosa: a voiceless stop) aspiration of 23; be. coming media 28. Theme (base). Thematic suffix 163; 167. Thematisation (change of an athematic stem into a thema. tic one by the addition of suffixes) of verbs 166 : 168 ; of nouns 53; in Sk. 53. Transference of meaning 14. Transitive verb (sakarmaka) 209; 352. [ts] sound of Marathi c before a back vowel. TURNER R. L. 167. [v] voiced labio-dental frica tive. . V. Vocative. . Vaj Vajjalagga ed. Laber. VARMA S. (Critical Studies in the Phonetic Observations of Indian Grammarians 1929) 76; 79. . Vas. Vasudevahindi. Vedic, Neu. plu. 173 ; forms of pronoun 226; forms of injunctive aorist 235; tuvam 238; suffix -tvana 281 ; dialect showing -T- 44 ; ittha 73 ; in finitive 259. Velar (kanthya : sound pro duced by the tongue against the velum or soft palate) 5; 6; aspirated 37. Verbal derivative in comp. 513 ; image 4. Verb (akhyata, dhatu) w. Inst. 307 ; w. Dat. 377 ; w. Abl. 382 ; w. Gen. 388; w. Loc. 398 ; place of 484. Vip. Vipakasutra ed. Dr. Vai dya. Visarga 95 ; 114. Vocabulary 3, of AMg. 13.

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EXPLANATORY INDEX 253 Vocative (sambuddhi) 147 ; forms of 153 ; place of 485 ; lengthening in 108. Vowel (svara, ac) short (hras va) long (dirgha) 5; 6; pronunciation of 7; changes of 16; udvitta 28 ; shortening of 107 ; lengthening of 108; weakening of 109; strengthening of 110 ; effects of neigh bouring 111. Viddhi 110. V-sruti 8; 46. Weakening of verbal forms 179; in noun forms 153 ; 188 ; of final 200. Weak grade of verbs (form con taining the vowel without ac cent) 208; in passive 265. Word-order 3 ; 479 f. Word (sabda, pada) tatsama 13; tadbhava 13; desi 13; imitative 14 ; new formation of 14. Y-sruti 8; 28; 35. WACKERNAGEL Grammatik) 101. (Altindische 23; 40; 43; [z] voiced sibilant like English rose. [zphonetically [2] as in Eng. lish pleasure.

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