Introduction to Ardhamagadhi

Author(s): A M Ghatage
Publisher: School & College Book Stall
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006965/1

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INTRODUCTION TO
ARDHA-MÅGADHI
A. M. GHATAGE, M.A., Ph.D.
Rajaram College, Kolhapur.
SCHOOL & COLLEGE BOOK-STALL
KOLHAPUR
1941

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
A. M. GHATAGE, M.A., Ph.D.
Rajaram College, Kolhapur
SCHOOL & COLLEGE BOOK-STALL
KOLHAPUR
1941

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Publisher : D. N. MOGHE, B.A., School and College Book-Stall, Kolhapur.
All rights reserved by the Author.
Second Revised Edition 1941.
Printer : M. N. KULKARNI, The Karpatak Printing Press, Chira Bazar, Bombay, 2.

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•
Το
My Teachers
Prof. A. N. UPADHYE,
M.A., D.Litt.
Prof. H. D. VELANKAR,
M.A.

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PREFACE
The present Introduction is mainly intended for High School and College students and presupposes no knowledge either of Ardha-Magadhi or of Sanskrit. A general acquaintance with the latter will, however, help the students greatly in mastering the language much more rapidly and thoroughly. This book, particularly in its first and third parts, will be found useful also to advanced students of this language.
The book is divided into three parts, each of which is further divided into chapters or lessons. The first part dealing with the Phonology of the language, is so arranged as to group together the different changes under linguistic categories and yet keep them as simple as possible. The rules of general application are clearly separated from those of limited extent. The major portion of this part printed in big type is intended for the elementary students and is written in the simplest language with ample illustrations and exercises, which are, however, only illustrative and can be easily supplemented with words from the rules. All matter printed in small type in this part is meant for the teacher and students of linguistics who may look for some amount of scientific explanation of the facts given and which will help them in collecting new facts of similar nature. Linguistic terminology is used in this part to save the students from confusion arising out of apparently contradictory statements; and transliteration is used throughout. If necessary the first and the fifth chapters may be entirely

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vi
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI . passed over in case of elementary students. To make a progressive study of phonology possible all rules, are supplied with a first few illustrations which do not imply. the application of other rules. In the first instance the rules should be explained with reference to those examples and others should be taken up at the time of revision.
The second part is divided into fifteen lessons and comprises the whole of the Morphology and the chief usages of the grammatical forms. Even though this part is so written as to imply no knowledge of the first, it is advisable to master at least the most general rules of phonology to ensure correct pronunciation and writing as also to save the trouble of remembering all words as new when they can be easily memorised with the help of a few rules. Each lesson gives some part of grammar with ample illustrations of their use and two sets of exercises for translation. The grammar given in bold type is the most important and absolutely necessary with which the student is expected to be thoroughly acquainted. The matter in small type and in transliteration gives a more systematic explanation of the origin and formation of grammatical forms and should be used strictly as matter for reference only. The method of classification used here is historical and usually a complicated one while other methods of an easier nature are left for the teacher to work out in the class. By this two-fold treatment was it possible to make a distinction of forms which the students should be asked to use in writing and forms which he should be able to understand when used in literature, a distinction absolutely necessary in case of AMg. grammar. I need hardly state that all the forms given are taken from literature and no form is admitted merely on the statements of the Prākrit grammarians, whose multiplicity of forms,

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PREFACE though useful historically, should be the thing avoided in a grammar of the present nature and scope.
The third part deals in a more systematic manner than was possible in the second with the syntax and compounds and is meant for those who have mastered the second. The sentences given here are taken from standard works. Usages which the student is warned from imitating and topics like word-order are again given in small type.
The appendices give a brief grammatical summary for ready reference ; two glossaries for working out the exercises in the first two parts and an explanatory index, which not only serves to put together related matter which was separated in the text for convenience, but also supplies explanations of all technical terms with their Sanskrit equivalents and abbreviations, phonetic transcription etc. used in the text. All difficulties met with while reading the text will find their explanations in the index, which is thus meant to be used at every step. Finally I must add that this book does not claim to be a self-instructor but a serious text-book to be worked out in the class by both the students and teachers. Naturally a good deal. of latitude is left to the teachers in choosing and selecting out of it and explaining it according to their own method to suit the capacities of their students.
It is evident that the present work is mainly a compilation and a list of books used in its preparation will be found in the index under the names of their authors. I have made use of most of the writers on Prākrit and Sanskrit grammar though a few may not be found in the index because no specific opinion of them is cited in the text. On a closer comparison it will be seen that the book, though essentially

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viii
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
based on its predecessors, shows a respectable amount of new matter, explanations and system of arrangement.
I record here my thanks to my teachers Prof. A. N. Upadhye, M.A., D.Litt. and Prof. H. D. Velankar, M.A. for constant help in the writing of the book and to Mr. J. N. Dani, B.A. (Hon.) B.T. for help in preparing the press copy and proof-reading. Finally I must not forget to thank the Publisher and Printer for doing their work with enthusiasm and great care.
Kolhapur August 1941
}
A. M. GHATAGE

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CONTENTS
Sy
PAGES INTRODUCTORY 1-5 .. .. .. .. 1-6
Ardha-Māgadhi 1-2. Language-Study 3-5. PART I. PHONOLOGY.
CHAPTER ONE. Alphabet, Sounds and Vocabulary
.. .. .. .. .. Alphabet 6. Pronunciation 7. Orthography 8. Syllable 9. Quantity 10. Stress 11. Punctua
tion 12. Vocabulary 13, 14. CHAPTER Two. Single Consonants .. .. 15-34
Initial consonants 18-27. Medial consonants
28-49. Final consonants 50-53. Ex. 1-7. CHAPTER THREE Conjunct Consonants .. 35-54
General notions 54-57. Groups with Mutes 58-80. Groups with Nasals 81-87. Groups with Semi-vowels 88-91. Groups with Liquids 92-95. Other group changes 96-97. Groups of three con
sonants 98. Initial groups 99. Ex. 1-4. CHAPTER FOUR. Sonants, Vowels and Visarga. 55 65
Sonants 100-103. Vowels 104-113. Visarga
114-116. Ex. 1-4. CHAPTER FIVE. Other Phonetic Changes .. 66-73 i Anaptyxis 117. Nasalisation 119. Effects of
accent. 121-123. Syncope 124. Haplology 125. Metathesis 126, Samprasārana 128. Ex. 1-3.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
PAGES 74-80
CHAPTER Six. Sandhi
Vowel Sandhi 130-139. Survivals of Sanskrit Sandhi 140, 141. Consonantal Sandhi 142-144. Ex. 1, 2.
PART II. MORPHOLOGY.
i 83-89
LESSON ONE
Gender 145. Number 146. Casės 147. Masculine nouns ending in -a 148-149. Change in Gender 150. Themes 151. Derivation 152. Additional forms 153. Historical 154. Ex. 158-159.
89-96
LESSON Two
.. Tenses 160. Padas 161. Classes of verbs 163. Present 165. Thematic bases 166, 167. Athematic bases 168. Root as- 170.. Ex. 171, 172.
97-100
LESSON THREE
.. Neuter nouns ending in -a 173-176. Present 177179. Ex. 180, 181.
LESSON FOUR.
.. 100-105 Feminine nouns ending in -ī 182-184. Change of gender 185. Themes 186. Derivation 187. Addi tional forms 188. Origin 189. Present 190-192. Adjective 193. Ex. 194, 195.
LESSON FIVE
.. 105-113 Masculine nouns ending in -i and -u 196-201. Past tense 203-205. Past passive participle 206208. Use 209, 210. Ex. 211, 212.
LESSON Six
.. 113-119 Neuter nouns ending in i and -u 215, 216. . Future 217-224. First person pronoun 225-226. Present active participle 227-229. Ex. 230, 231.

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LESSON SEVEN
Feminine nouns ending in i and u 232-234. Imperative 235-237. Second person pronoun 238. Ex. 239, 240.
LESSON EIGHT
Feminine nouns ending in -i and - 241, 242. Potential 243-247. Gerund 248-250.
Ex. 251,
252.
LESSON NINE
Demonstrative pronoun ta- 253, 254. Causal 255-257. Infinitive 258-260. Ex. 261, 262.
LESSON TEN
CONTENTS
Passive 263-267.
270. Ex. 271, 272.
LESSON THIRTEEN
Interrogative pronoun 268
LESSON ELEVEN
Present passive participle 273, 274. Potential passive participle 276-278. Nominal derivatives 279-283. Degrees of adjectives 284. Ex. 285, 286.
LESSON TWELVE
Consonantal declension 287-295. Ex 296, 297.
Demonstrative pronoun eya- 298, idam 299. Denominatives 301. Desideratives 302, Intensives 303. Ex. 304, 305.
LESSON FOURTEEN
Cardinal numerals 306-309. Ordinals 310. Fractions 311. Multiplicatives 312. Distinctives 313. Numeral adjectives 314-316. Ex. 317, 318.
LESSON FIFTEEN
Adverbs 319-322. Prepositions 323, 324. Conjunctions 325. Ex. 326, 327.
xi
PAGES
119-123
123-129
129-134
134-138
138-143
143-147
147-150
150-153
153-156

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
PAGES
PART III. SYNTAX & COMPOUNDS... I. ARTICLE 328
... 159 II. AGREEMENT 329-344
... 159-166 III. NUMBER 345-348 .
166-167 IV. CASES 349-403
167–181 V. PRONOUNS 404-415
181–183 VI. TENSES 416-429
183–186 VII. MOODS 430-437 VIII. CAUSAL 438, 439
188 IX. PARTICIPLES 440-452 X. GERUND 453-458 ..
1–192 XI. INFINITIVE 459-462
192–193 XII. PHRASE 463-478 .. .. XIII. WORD-ORDER 479-500
197-201 XIV. COMPOUNDS, 501-515
.. 201–207
:::::::::::::
186–188
189–191
193–197
APPENDICES.
Grammatical Summary 516-525 Ardha-Māgadhi English Glossary English Ardha-Māgadhi Glossary
211-220 ... 221-231 .. 232–237
EXPLANATORY INDEX
..
...
.. 238-253

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INTRODUCTORY
I. ARDHA-MĀGADHI 1 Ardha-Māgadhi belongs to the group of Middle Indian languages (MIA) which are collectively called Prākrits. They form a connecting link between the Sanskrit language—both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit including the Epic idiom (OIA)
--and the Modern Indian languages (NIA) like Marathi, Gujarātī, Hindi, Bengāli etc. Naturally the study of any Prākrit language must be carried with constant reference to Sanskrit on the one hand and the Modern Indian languages on the other.
Only one Middle Indian language, Pāli, developed a system of grammar written in the same dialect. Even then these grammars were greatly dependent on the systems of Sanskrit grammar. The same is the case with its lexicons. The commentaries on the Pālicanon were, however, composed in the same language, though decidedly of a younger type. All these facts give the study of Pāli an independence and uniformity which is quite lacking in the study of other Prākrit dialects.
Similar must have been the position of Ardha-Māgadhi as well. We have some indications of grammars in the Prākrit languages and at least two lexicons in Prākrit are available at present. The early commentaries on the Jain canon like Nijjutti, Bhäsa and Cunni are in the same language. Soon, however, Sanskrit, began to usurp the place of Prākrit in all these fields and most of the available grammars of Prākrit are in Sanskrit. The commentaries then appeared in Sanskrit and Prākrit held its place only in nar

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 1.
rative and exegetical works. This close connection and dependence of Prākrits on Sanskrit explains the comparative method used in their study by the early grammarians and later on by modern scholars. This, however, need not mean that the source (Prakrti) of these languages is Sanskrit.
Phonology is itself the product of the comparative method and is mainly confined to the study of the vocabulary of a language on its formal side. It is based on etymology and traces the evolution of sounds, single and in combinations, from the older stage to a younger one. It is studied here in comparison to Sanskrit which is presumed to mark the older stage in the Indo-Aryan languages when brought in relation to the Ardha-Māgadhi Prākrit. An attempt is made in the second part to study the morphological facts of the language independently with brief notes on the problems of historical origins. One can also begin the study of this language at this point by presupposing all the words as being given independently, as is usually done in case of Sanskrit. The syntax is purely descriptive and makes no attempt at historical or psychological explanation.
2 Strictly speaking Ardha-Māgadhî is the language of the Sacred Books of Jainism, the so-called Ardha-Māgadhi canon. In the form in which it is available to us, it consists of 45 books of different forms and varied contents. Probably it was the language of the ancient country of Magadha, used by Mahāvīra to preach his religion. As is to be expected, it must have undergone many changes in course of. time.
The name of this language is explained as (i) 'having half the nature of Māgadhi' which is true to the extent that it preserves, at least in its older phase as far as it can be ascertained, such features of Māgadhi as the change of -1- to -1- and the Nom. Sing. in -e; and (ii) current in half the country of Magadha' which may be equally probable from what we know of Mahāvīra's wanderings and the later history of Jainism. Numerous passages of the canon tell us that Mahāvira preached in the Ardha-Māgadhi language, which is claimed to be the same as the language of the

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S. 3.]
LANGUAGE-STUDY
present canon. It is important to note that the Buddhist tradition attributes the name Māgadhi Nirutti to the so-called Pāli language of their canon. Considering that both the teachers lived and worked in the same locality and at the same time, it is difficult to admit the claims of both.
Hemacandra calls this language ārsa ‘belonging to the sages' as did the medieval commentators the archaisms of the epics, and he notes its peculiarities in imitation of the chandasi of Pāņini. The later development of this language in the post-canonical works is called by the simple name prāksta by later writers. While Prākrit grammarians and to some extent Sanskrit rhetoricians noted and explained the distinctions between various Prākrit dialects, the writers cared little for them in actual practice. So the picture of these languages in the inscriptions and literary works is one of an inextricable intermixture of dialectal features as seen from the standard of the grammarians.
Ardha-Māgadhi is no uniform speech. Just as we can distinguish between the order and the younger strata of the canon, so also we can demarcate between the older and younger phases of the language, without, however, making the two divisions coincide in all the details (Note, for instance, the Nom. Sing in -e of younger prose and in -0 of older works in verse). A similar distinction may be observed in the later Jain Māhārāştri. It must be observed, however, that the linguistic demarcation between the later works of the canon and early works of the post-canonical literature is very uncertain and may even lack real basis in facts.
What is attempted here is not a pure description of ArdhaMāgadhi but also of what the Prākrit scholars call as Jain Māharāştri, the language which is an unbroken continuation of the canonical language. It is at the basis of Hemacandra's Prākrit Grammar and probably the most comprehensive of all the Prākrit languages.
II. LANGUAGE-STUDY 3 The study of a fanguage means primarily the ability to speak it and to understand it when spoken, and secon

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
IS. 3.
darily the ability to read and write it. In the classical languages the second aim plays a far important role while in the living tongues the first claims the whole attention. A scientific study of a classical language, therefore, means a knowledge about its orthography or mode of representing the sounds in graphic forms, orthoepy or the relation between the pronunciation and the conventional spelling, phonology or the study of its sound system in close relation to a cognate language with a view to trace its origin and development, morphology or the study of the formation of the different grammatical forms like those of nouns, pronouns and numerals called the declension and those of verbs called the conjugation, syntax dealing with the usages of those forms in the sentences and finally vocabulary or mass of words giving expression to different concepts in the mind of the speaker.
4 The prime unit of a language is a sentence which is self-sufficient and which expresses in the form of a series of sounds the verbal image of the speaker representing an idea in his mind. It may consist of a single word like the form of imperative or vocative or a complicated structure of many periods. Usually the sentence consists of a limited number of words put together. This word in a sentence has a stable part called the stem, expressing the meaning and a part added to it, which points out its exact relation to other words. These changeable parts are called the terminations or inflections. Consisting normally of a sound or a group of sounds without a meaning of their own, they may be added to the stem (suffixes) or placed before it (prefixes) or inserted in the body of the word (infixes). The function of the inflection may also be performed by the place of the word in the sentence or word-order. The words themselves may be nouns, pronouns etc. or verbs and verbal derivatives. A few

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S. 5.1
of them do not admit of inflections and are, therefore, called indeclinables.
LANGUAGE-STUDY
5
5 Speaking phonetically, a word may consist of one or more syllables. A syllable is that part of the sound continuum which encloses a peak of sonority and is bounded on both sides by two points of least sonority. In its turn the syllable is made up of two different elements called vowels and consonants. Vowels are either short or long according as the time taken for pronouncing them is brief or long. Consonants on the other hand, are said to be single when they are immediately preceded and followed by a vowel and conjunct when two of them come together without a vowel between them,
The articulate sounds of which the language is made are produced by a stream of air expelled from the lungs and passing through the trachea and forcing its way through the two vocal cords at its upper end and escaping through the mouth or nose or both. The various sounds differ according to the nature of the obstacle to the air passage (Mode of Articulation) and the place in the mouth where the obstacle takes place (Place of Articulation).
When the vocal cords are brought in contact the air sets them in vibration and the result is a voiced sound. But if they are kept apart there results the unvoiced sound or breath. If the voice passes through the mouth without any obstacle, it gives rise to vowels like [i, u, e, o,] etc. differentiated by the size of the resonance chamber formed by the shape of the tongue and the lips. According as the front or the middle or the back part of the tongue is raised the vowels are called front, neutral or back vowels. With or without the protrusion of the lips they become rounded or unrounded. If the voice is made to escape through the nose there result the nasals like [n, m] and if through both mouth and nose the result is the nasal vowel [i, ú]. If the voice is made to undergo an obstruction in the mouth there result the voiced stops like [g. d) (Mediae) and their aspirates like [gh, dĥ]

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6
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
[S. 5.
when followed by a voiced aspiration. If to the voice is added friction the result is a voiced fricative Iv, z]. If it is given a lateral explosion it produces [1] and if trilled [r]. If to the vowel resonance of [i] and [u] friction is added by raising the tongue higher the result is a semi-vowel like [j] or [w]. If the friction is added in the glottis itself the result is the voiced [ĥ].
If the breath is obstructed in the mouth there follows an unvoiced stop like [k, t] (Tenues), which like all stops, consists of an implosion, a stop and an explosion. If followed by an aspirate, they result into aspirated voiceless stops like [kh, th]. According as the contact is against the soft or hard palate, or the gums of the teeth or the teeth or with the lips, they are called velars; palatals, alveolars, dentals or labials. If instead of a complete closure there is a narrow aperture giving rise to friction, there results a fricative like [s. c, S. Finally the affricatives result from the fact that the stop may be followed by a fricative instead of an abrupt opening like [fs dz.]

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PART ONE PHONOLOGY

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CHAPTER ONE
ALPHABET, SOUNDS AND VOCABULARY 6 The ALPHABET for Ardha-Māgadhĩ consists of the following letters which are given along with their usual transliteration :
Vowels
Short 34 a, 5i, 3 u, ge, so. Longan ā, 1, 5ū, gē, aito.
Consonants
Velarsk, Ekh, i g, gh. Palatals 7c, ch, Fj, jh. Cerebrals at, & th, d, adh. Dentals त् t, थ् th, d, dh. Labials op; ph, ab, bh. Nasals corresponding to the above places of articulation :
on, I ñ, rn, 7n, #m.

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10
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 6.
Semi-vowels [ y, a v. Liquids Ir, . Sibilant Rs. Aspirateh. Anusvāra ( a pure nasal sound) - m.
Anunāsika (a nasalised vowel or consonant) • ~ 7 PRONUNCIATION. No authentic tradition is preserved about the phonetic values of Ardha-Māgadhi sounds. Grammarians tell us of the light pronunciation of -y- (laghuprayatnatara-yakāra) and the short pronunciation of -e- and -o- before a conjunct consonant. Otherwise all the sounds have the same phonetic value as in Sanskrit. There is a possibility that the palatal series may have developed a more dental affricative value as in some Modern Indian languages. The short -ě- and -- were more like the open [1] and [u] than like open [ɛ] and [?] as is suggested by the writing of -- and -u- for them. Before -U- and -o-, v appears to be a bilabial frictionless continuant as can be seen from such writings as vuttha (Sk. *usta, uşita) vutta (Sk. ukta), voţtha (Sk. oștha) etc. Otherwise it is a labiodental continuant without friction and voiced. The aspirate is a voiced one. The Anusvāra is said to be a pure nasal sound following a vowel, which, however, was not nasalised. In the present-day pronunciation it is a nasal consonant when followed by any mute, a nasalised ŷ and 1 before y and 'l, a nasalised õ before others and is like m before a pause. The Anunāsika gave the vowels a pure nasalised value. The conjunct consonants were pronounced with a perceptible length between the implosion and explosion.
8 ORTHOGRAPHY. The usual orthography in Devanāgari characters (with a few peculiarities of Jain scribes which lead to a confusion between jh and bh, tth and cch, the use of padimātrā, a peculiar character to show kkh etc.) fails to show, the short values of -ě- and -- for which often & and are written. No distinction is observed between the Anusvāra and Anunāsika and the metrical length alone helps in distinguishing

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S. 12.)
ALPHABET, SOUNDS AND VOCABULARY
11
them. Frequently the Anusvāra represents all the nasal consonants, particularly in groups. The writing makes no distinction between -y- and -j-śruti, and -v- and -v-śruti.
9 SYLLABLE. The syllabic nature of the writing does not always give the correct division of the syllable in actual pronunciation. The division of a syallable in writing is always after the nature of the graphic figure. In actual sound, however, the syllable may be (i) a single vowel : a-hu-ņā, lo-a; (ii) a vowel followed by a consonant : ek-ka, et-tha; (iii) a consonant followed by a vowel : ta-hā, ma-hā; (iv) a vowel preceded and followed by a consonant : tat-tha, jet-tha. So we find that (a) an intervocalic consonant goes with the following vowel (b) in a conjunct the first consonant goes with the preceding vowel (c) an Anusvāra belongs to the previous syllable (d) two successive vowels form different syllables, as the language shows no diphthongs.
10. QUANTITY. The short vowels or single consonants followed by short vowels have the value of one mātrā, while long vowels or single consonants followed by long vowels have the value of two mātrās. A closed syllable has the value of a long syllable. The Anunāsika does not change the quantity of a syllable but Anusvāra makes it long.
11 STRESS. Nothing is known about the musical accent current in Old Indo-Aryan. Pischel regards for Ardha-Māgadhi an accent on the same place as the Vedic accent but having the effects of a stress. In the present-day pronunciation, a weak expiratory accent follows the method of Classical Sanskrit. In words of two syllables the first is accented (käma, váya) ; in words of three syllables, the penultimate is accented if it is long (viyára) but the initial if the second is short (sáyala) ; in words of four syllables, the penultimate if it is long (pariņáma), the antepenult if the penult is short (maņóraha), and the first if both are short (sáppurisa, sáravara). In some cases we must assume an initial accent in spite of the penult being long (kúmāra)..
12 PUNCTUATION. The only punctuation mark used is a Danda (1) to mark the close of a sentence. A double Danda

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 12.
(ID) marks the close of a stanza while a single one the end of a Pāda or metrical verse. The Avagraha (s) is sometimes used incorrectly to point out the loss of a vowel in Sandhi. It is customary to use words in Ardha-Māgadhi to do the duty of ordinary marks of punctuation. Thus iti (ti, tti, iya) marks the close of a direct statement ; a form of the pronoun kim marks an interrogative sentence; the word jāva notes the dropping of a passage when identical with the one already given; the numeral 2 is used to mark the repetition of the word preceding it ; and other numerals are used to indicate the presence of so many synonyms or stereotyped expressions.
13 VOCABULARY. Nearly all the words in Sanskrit may be taken over in Ardha-Māgadhī to form its vocabulary. Only a few of them are of a different origin and are called Deśī words; e. g. ori close, ser a mirror, the morning, i beautiful, sro a branch, or verbs like me to shine ; 7 to climb, yor to know. Many Sanskrit words are such as can be used in this language without a phonetic change like the a lotus, ar an essence, qe highest. Tủey are called TH ('like Sanskrit'). But the majority of words undergo some phonetic modification according to rules given in the following chapters and are then called aga l'arising from Sanskrit '), as लोय = Sk. लोक people, इसि = Sk. ऋषि a sage..
The origin of the Desi words is a problem. Many so-called Deśīs are obscure Sanskrit words changed beyond recognition (cf. gaharo = Sk. gìdhra 'greedy') or used in a figurative sense (cf. cojjam = Sk. cod yam 'wonder '). A few may have been borrowed from foreign languages like the Dravidian (cf. addāya = Tel. addamu, pulli = Tel. puli, Kan, huli 'a tiger' bolla- to speak Kan. bogaļu, Ta. vaguli 'noise'). Many of them, however, must have been Indo-Aryan words which continued to live in the popular languages but did not find a footing in the refined language like Sanskrit (cf. jhaời = Mar. jhada 'a constant shower'; jhoțți = Panj. jhoți 'a young female buffalo'; ţippi Beng. tip 'a stain', dungara = Gui. dungar 'a hill'; dāli = Hin, dal'a branch'; or verbs: bollai = Mar. bolane 'to speak';

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S. 14.]
ALPHABET, SOUNDS AND VOCABULARY
13
dhakkai = Guj. dhãkavũ to cover'; nadai = Guj. nadavũ 'to hinder'). The origin of others is not ascertainable. The grammarians often give the names of countries like Mahārāstra, Vidharbha, Magadha as the source of these words. Further they call the verbs of non-Sanskritic origin by the name dhätvādeśa * substitute for the root'.
14 Generally the words of the Sanskrit language preserve the same meaning in Ardha-Māgadhi. Only in few cases do we find a slight change in the signification as Sk. art. 'a child' AMg. 'an ignorant person’; Sk. Ez * to look at’ AMG. a 'to see'.
Really speaking words do not undergo many semantic changes while passing from Sanskrit into Prākrits, at least changes as are met with in the Modern Indian languages. Both Sanskrit and Prākrit remain essentially classical languages and the words have only the usual literary meaning attached to them. Moreover, the Prākrits were constantly brought under the influence of Sanskrit, which never allowed them sufficient scope to develop new meanings of their words. In Ardha-Māgadhi, however, the Jain religion had a profound influence in moulding its available vocabulary, and a vast number of Jain technical terms with specific meaning are found in it. Even then, these meanings cannot be called peculiarly Prākritic as most of them are used in Sanskrit as well by Jain writers in their altered and technical sense.
We may note in the most general way, a few groups of such changes in order to get an idea of the vocabulary of ArdhaMāgadhi. (i) Specialisation of meaning: pinda 'alms' āyāvaya
to mortify'; niggantha 'a Jain monk'; niraya 'free from Karmic defilement'; aivāya- 'to kill'; tasa 'a movable being '; oggaha 'a place reserved for monks'; muhājivi 'living without any profession'; sankhadi 'a feast involving killing'; cuya * fallen from heaven'; darsana 'faith'; panta coarse food'. (ii) . Generalisation : cittamanta “having life'; phāsa- 'to perform'; ghāsa. 'food'; vama- 'to abandon'; joga 'activity'. (iii) Transference : khuddaga 'young'; sāsaya liberation';;

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14
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 14.
lajjā 'self-control'; kasāya 'passion'; bāyara 'gross'; eha- 'to enjoy'; cūliyā 'appendix '; javaņa ‘maintaining'; esaņā 'begging food '; panāma-'to give'; goyara 'begging tour'; phāsuya pure'; ghora difficult'. (iv) Metaphor : vanta 'abandoned thing'; miga 'an ignorant man'; padimā 'a bodily posture'. (v) Technical expressions : poggala 'matter'; chauma 'not possessing perfect knowledge'; viuvva- 'to produce by magic power ' ; sammuccha- 'to be born automatically'.
The vocabulary, further, shows (i) archaisms like saya 'happiness'; sarakkha dirt'; jaga 'movable being'; siloga 'fame'; jāyateya fire'; ārambha- 'to kill'; vaggu 'sweet words';. kibbisa 'low'; parideva- 'to lament'; saddhim with’; (ii) new formations and new words like kimicchie desired things'; esakāla “future'; āinna 'a trained horse';, kicca 'a teacher'; āesa 'a guest'; veyāvadiya 'help'; uvappayāņa bribery'; joisa 'sacrifice'; vimāņa “heavenly region’; hara thief'; (iii) imitative words like davadava-, sarassara-; and finally (iv) popular etymology : sunaha Pāli sunakha thought to be su + nakha ; purabheyaņi Pāli puțabhedana thought to be pura + bhedani ; anavadagga = anamadagra split as an + avadaggai māhana = *mākhana divided into mā + hana and murava = muraja thought to be mu + rava.
15 When we compare the sound system of Ardha-Māgadhi with that of Sanskrit we find that it has lost the two diphthongs ai and au, the Visarga and the two sibilants ś and ș. On the other hand, it has added the two short vowels ě and ;, û and two nasal aspirates ạh and mh. In addition Pischel admits ! for AMg. whenever I stands for a cerebral sound. But the North Indian Mss. do not make a distinction between 1 and ! and in this book 1 is used everywhere.

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CHAPTER TWO
SINGLE CONSONANTS 16 When a word passes from Sanskrit into ArdhaMāgadhi it is found to change either one or more of its consonants or vowels or both. This gives rise to consonantal and vowel changes.
The vowels are differentiated from each other only by a slight movement of the speech organs in forming the resonance chamber, and even a small change in their adjustment may cause a change in their quality. On the contrary the consonants are more stable and less prone to modification. The vowel may change its quality. (IE. *2= Sk. i, pitá, *ei= Sk. a, ásti) or its quantity gļhitá from gļh-i-tá; nīņám for ny-nám ; Pkt. pāvayaņa = Sk. pravacana). The consonants may, get voiced between two voiced sounds (Sk. tádasti = tát + ásti, Pkt. asoga= Sk. aśoka) and then drop its occlusion (Sk. sād- = *sazd- ; Pkt. maa = Sk. mada), or in rare cases may change its place of articulation (Sk. cakára from kȚ- reduplicated, Pkt. tigicchā= Sk. cikitsā).
17 The changes of the single consonant depend upon the position it occupies in the word. It may stand at the beginning; when it is called initial, or at the end, when it is called final, or somewhere between these two positions, when it is called medial. The changes of these three different types of consonants are guided by different rules.
The changes of the single consonants may be grouped into (i) those which are general without reference to the place in

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 17.
the word, probably due to the change of the articulating mode, or defective approximation (like ś, s = s); (ii) those which are particular, dependent upon the place in the word and due to the economy of effort. These changes appear to follow a universal tendency 'normally the initial consonants are preserved, the medial get softened and the final are lost' (k initial = k, medial = g, final = lost). This is but natural when we remember that the force of articulation goes on decreasing towards the end of the word.
INITIAL CONSONANTS 18 Only three consonants, 37, 4 and a change, when they stand at the beginning of a word. 7 and a become A T becomes J. All other initial consonants generally remain unchanged.
19 Initial 37 and q=2. Fra = feta god Siva, 101=AVCI school, Te = mifs rice, f1 = ferest stone; fory=fag child ; farfar = for the cold season, na = remaining; 1719 = ARI vegetable, sufera = it the moon, ta = hundred, 12 =
E cart, TE= TEU weapon, a = Rat science, Te = fere teaching, शुद्ध सुद्ध pure, शक्र सक्क god Indra, षष्टि = सट्ठी sixty, 152T = Fine sixteen, aus = que grove of trees.
The history of sibilants in Indo-Aryan is a process of ramification and amalgamation following each other. Of the one sibilants of the IE. times, which was voiced (z) between voiced sounds, the I-I. period shows a big number. The Sk. system of three sibilants, dental s, palatal ś and cerebral ș, has a complex origin. S preserves the original sound, while its voiced form was lost. S is the result of palatal k or s before palatal sounds. $ comes out of s under definite phonetic conditions. All these again fall into one (s or ś) in MIA. except in the North West. In the NIA. this is again split up in two under the influenőe of neighbouring sounds. The unification of the sibilants is, often, attributed to the influence of the substratum, the Dravidian languages.

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s. 22.]
20 In few cases, however, initial श, ष or स becomes छ. शाव = छाव young one; षट् = छ six ; सुधा = छुहा lime; शरु = छरु arrow; शिरा = छिरा vein; षट्पद = छप्पय bee; सप्तपर्ण - छत्तिवण्ण a kind of tree; शिवा = छिवा a kind of grass.
INITIAL CONSONANTS
This change of a sibilant into an affricate and that of y-, a palatal fricative, into j- a palatal affricate, both are due to the same tendency, to have a contact of the speech organs instead of a very close approximation, at the beginning of a word. Thus a fricative sound becomes an affricate. Pischel regards the first as a case of aspiration of the sibilant ($ 1 = sh = ch), while Johansson postulates alternative initials like & ( =s), sk ( = ch). A similar development of initial i into [z] is found in Greek.
21 Initial य = ज. यम = जम God of death ; युग जुग yoke ; याग = जाग worship; योग = जोग activity; यूथ = जूह herd ; युवन् = जुवा a youth ; यदि = जइ if; यथा - जहा as; यान = जाण cart ; युवराज = जुवराय prince; यात्रा = जत्ता march ; यज्ञ = जन्न sacrifice; युक्त 6 = जुत्त proper ; यूप=जूव sacrificial post ; योध = जोह warrior; यन्त्र = जन्त machine; यक्ष जक्ख demi-god; यमकसमक = जमगसमग together; याचित = जाइय begged; यौवन = जोव्वण youth; यादृश = जारिस like which.
17
-
(a) Even when is preceded by a preposition like it is changed to न. संयोग संजोग union; संयम = संजम selfcontrol; संयुक्त = संजुत्त joined.
—
2
(b) When यथा and यावत् form the first member of a compound they change their initial optionally to अ. यथासुखं अहासुहं, जहासुहं according to one's pleasure ; यथाश्रुतं - अहासुर्य, जहासुयं as heard ; यावत्कथा = आवकहा, जावकहा as long as one lives.
—
Only in the older portions of AMg. is y- changed to a, while its change to j- is the usual one in later language. yāvat alone drops its initial y in some of its forms like avanti.
22 ASPIRATION OF INITIAL CONSONANTS
(i) Velars : क = ख: कुब्ज = खुज्ज dwarf ; कील - खाल peg ;

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18
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
[S. 22.
कंधरा = खंधरा neck ; कसित = खसिय cough ; किंकिणी = खिखिणी small bell; क्रीडा = खेड्ड play; गृह = घर house.
(ii) Palatals : जूषित = झसिय destroyed.
(iii) Labials: पाटयति = फालेइ tears; परिखा = फलिहा ditch; परुष = फरुस harsh; परशु= फरसु axe; बिस = भिस lotus stalk; बिसिनी = भिसिणी; बृसिका = भिसिगा straw-seat; बिंबिसार = भिंभिसार Bimbisāra.
(iv) Liquid : लशुन = ल्हसुण onion; also लसुण. 23 Loss of aspiration : भीषण = बीहण fearful, बीहणग.
It will be seen from the iHustrations that the aspiration is most marked with tenues and limited in case of media. The deaspiration is equally sporadic. The cases where b- is aspirated are due to the preservation of the original aspirated sonant in Prākrit which is lost to Sanskrit (Sk. budh- Gr. peúthomai). For j- one can compare Sk. jasa and jhasa. As regards the aspiration of the tenues Jacobi and Bloch regard it as due to the effect of a neighbouring sound like s or r assimilating the initial sound, while Pischel and Wackernagel presuppose an alterance between initial k- and p- with a prothetic s- (Sk. tij- Gr. stizo). In case of ghara (Sk. gļha) the aspirate is a survival than a metathesis of the aspiration. It is equally possible to think that many cases of initial aspiration may be due to initial accent, particularly where no other reason can be imagined. 24 CHANGE OF THE PLACE OF ARTICULATION
(i) Palatals becoming dentals : चिकित्सा = तेइच्छा medical treatment ; चिकित्सक = तिगिच्छग physician; जुगुप्सा = दुगुंछा disgust; जिघत्सा = दिगिच्छा desire to eat; ज्योत्स्ना = दोसिणा moon-light.
___ (ii) Dentals becoming palatals: तिष्ठति = चिट्ठइ stands ; त्यक्त = चियत्त abandoned.
(iii) Dentals become cerebralised : ढक्केइ Pali थकेति; डसइ =दशति bites; डहइ = दहति burns; डाह = दाह heat; डहर = दहर young; ध्वांक्ष = ढंक a kind of bird; नूनं =.f indeed.

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S. 27.]
MEDIAL CONSONANTS
19
An explanation of these changes is doubtful. Geiger regards the first as a king of dissimilation, while the third is called 'spontaneous cerebralisation' as in Sanskrit di- becomes Classical di- to fly. H. Smith suggests that the participles dattha and daddha may have influenced the roots das- and dah-. 25 OTHER SPORADIC CHANGES
(i) fara = fera hunter. (ii) HTHAT = afrüat investigation; #FAT=Q+HE Cupid. (iii) ofert stick. (iv) ET = pak hard, dry; TGI = GITI name of a country.
(v) s = 75 s plough; Jşs = yes tail; SOI = TUTET orehead.
(vi) In the root the initial =. Harmagara become. : Of these (ii) and (v) are due to dissimilation affecting the
place of articulation, (iv) a Magadhism and (vi) probably an extension of h from forms of the verb with preverbs. Przyluski traces the words längala, lângula, to Austro-Asiatic languages, the initial alterance of which may explain the changes.
26 In case of the initial consonant of the second member of a compound, it may either follow the rules of medial consonants or may be regarded as initial relat = TET,
6 giving delight; Fear'=F IT, Foere watery animal ; सुपुरुष =सुउरिस, सुपुरिस good man; त्रिभुवन = तिहुयण, तिभुवण the three worlds.
Though the rule would allow both forms the actual usage is not so free and unrestricted. Usually the unity of the word felt by the speaker decided whether the consonant be regarded as initial or medial. So we find sujano, but abuhajanabohanan.
27 Similar is the case with proclitics. a Girafa TTUTE,
flug does not know. The enclitics usually drop their initial consonant. च=य and; पुनः = उण but; इति =इ thus.

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20
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
: [S. 28.
MEDIAL CONSONANTS 28 Medial single consonants क, ग, च, ज, त and द are dropped, leaving behind the accompanying vowel. These consonants form the first and third letters of the I, II and IV Vargas. If the vowel left behind is अ or आ, य or या is written for it.
TITLE
When we compare the changes of these consonants in different Prākrit languages it is clear that first the tenues were softened into mediæ and were then dropped. This means that the plosion was weakened between voiced sounds and finally disappeared.
The Prākrit grammarians call the vowel left behind by the name udvȚtta. Hc. states that this į is to be pronounced lightly (laghu-prayatnatara-yakāra) and is admissible only after a or ā. Mark. teaches this jaśruti for the vowels a and i as well. The Jain MSS. which write the use it after all the vowels. A simi-. lar phenomenon is referred to by Panini VIII.3.18. where the preceding vowel is o.
(i) क is dropped : सकल =सयल all; छेक = छेय clever ; नरक = नरय hell; शूकर = सूयर pig; विकट =वियड big; विकल्प = वियप्प doubt ; आकीर्ण = आइण्ण scattered ; एडक = एलय ram ; चित्रकर = fortere painter.
(ii) ग is dropped : युगल = जुवल pair; मृग = मिय deer; अनुग= अणुय follower; नगर = नयर town; त्यागिन् = चाई a renouncer.
(iii) च is dropped: कच =कय hair; आचार = आयार conduct; वचन = वयण words; शुचि सुइ pure; लोच =लोय pulling the hair; नीच =नीय low; कीच =कीय bamboo; खचित = खइय. studded ; रोचित = रोइय liked; वाक् = वाचा words.
(iv) त is dropped : अजित = अजिय unconquered; अधिंगत = अधिगय known; अमित = अमिय limitless ; अरति = अरइ dissatisfaction; हत= हय killed ; गति = गइ course; सित=सिय white; जात =

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S. 30.]
MEDIAL CONSONANTS
जाय born; माता = माया mother; पिता - पिया father; लोहितलोहिय red, blood ; अतीव = अईव very much; अक्षत = अक्खय unhurt. .. (v) ज is dropped : पूजा= पूया worship; राजा राया king%3; गज = गय elephant; रजत =रयय silver; भाजन =भायण vessel; पूजित = पूइय honoured; वीजन =वीयण fan; प्रजा=पया people; त्यजति = चयइ abandons ; परिव्राजक = परिव्वायग monk.
(vi) द is dropped; कदली=कयली plantain; जनपद =जणवय country; पाद = पाय foot; वेद =वेय Vedas ; उदर = उयर belly छेद = छेय cut; यदि =जइ if ; हृदय = हियय heart ; अन्यदा = अन्नया at some time; स्वादिमन् = साइम things to be tasted ; द्विपद =दुपय biped.
29 In spite of the above rule we often find a number of medial single consonants preserved.
(i) गः आगम scriptures; जागर keeping awake; अनगार = अणगार monk; मगध = मगह Magadha country; भाग= part; राग attachment; भोग enjoyment; योग = जोग activity.
(ii) त : वितथ=वितह false; तितिक्षते = तितिक्खइ suffers.
(iii) द : उदक= उदग water; आदान = आदाण taking; यद् उवा = अदवा or; प्रदिक= पदिसा sub-quarter; विदित % विदिय known : समुदान=समुदाण alms.
More than the surds the sonants are preserved and they are the survivals of the older stage when consonants were softened but not dropped.
30 Medial single ख, घ, थ, ध, फ, and sometimes भ are changed to Ę. These consonants form the second and fourth letters of the I, IV and V Vargas.
(i) ख= ह : मुख = मुह mouth; शाखा=साहा branch; लेख = लेह letter; नख = नह nail; सखी-सही friend ; शिखर = सिहर peak; सुख =सुह happiness. __(ii) घ=ह : मेघमेह cloud ; ओघ = ओह flow; लघु = लहु quickly; राघव राहव Rāma.

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22
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI _
[S. 30.
(iii) थ=ह : मिथुन= मिहुण pair; अधुना= अहुणा now ; कथा = कहा story; वितथ= वितह false; आवसथ = आवसह residence; यथा = जहा as; तथा =तहा so; पथ = पह way; रथ = रह chariot.
(iv) ध=ह : अधुना = अहुणा now ; विरोध = विरोह obstruction; बोधि = बोहि enlightenment; मधुमहु honey; मधुर =महुर sweet; बुध = बुह wise; वध=वह killing ; आराधना = आराहणा worship; दधि = दहि curds.
(v) फ = ह : रेफ = रेह the letter ; शिफा = सिहा tuft of hair.
(vi) भ = ह्र: शोभा =सोहा beauty; विभव = विहव wealth ; लोभ = लोह greed ; लाभ-लाह profit ; नभस् = नह sky; स्वभाव = सहाव nature ; प्रभु = पहु lord ; प्राभृत =पाहुड gift.
Except for the rare sound ph the change is well attested. AMg. more often préserves bh than changes it to h. This change is really the dropping of the mute with the aspirate left behind, as the aspirate in Indo-Aryan was to a degree free from the plosive. The fact that the resulting [h] is a voiced throughout even though the surd aspirates have a unvoiced breath, shows that these originally changed into the voiced aspirates and all lost the plosion (as Mathurā becoming Madhurā, dakşiņāpatha represented in Gr. by dachinabádēs). The earliest trace of this change may be found in Sk. pāhi as compared to kȚdhi. .
31 (i) Medial e becomes ड: कटकड mat; विकट = वियड wide; तट = तड bank; करट = करड temple of an elephant; पटु = पडु clever; कोटि = कोडि crore; कुटिल = कुडिल crooked; पट = पड cloth; जटाल = जडाल having matted hair; भट =भड warrior; घट = घड jar; विटप= विडव tree ; प्रकटित = पयडिय exposed.
(ii) Medial single s becomes ढ : शठ = सढ rogue ; पठति = पढइ studies; पाठ = पाढ lesson.
In contrast with other surds and sonants, the prominent and strong retroflex articulation of the cerebral series has preserved their plosion. When they are further weakened they get a lateral explosion giving rise to l or !.

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S. 34.]
MEDIAL CONSONANTS
23
32 About the use of a and 0, some convention is to be followed. A convenient way would be to write a initially: नाम name: नव new: नीति नीड policy: नेतानेया leader: Medial a should be cerebralised into 01: FH = eye ; 3770 = 305 favourable; 746 = Thut salutation; taas = 3TŪNT many ; Yaa = 7501 falling ; 070 = apurt gold; a = al pot face; HIT = Am pride. Medial or naturally remains : Tor group; don lute.
The change of medial n to n is well attested, both by the grammarians, the writers of Prākrit manuscripts and by the history of those modern languages which have preserved the distinction between dental and cerebral nasals, the western group. As regards the intial n some grammarians do not allow the cerebralisation wherein the paper MSS. of the Jain writers agree. Bloch expressed the opinion that initial n and medial geminated nn may have become later dental n in western languages. Moreover the graphic sign ņ may represent two distinct sounds, a cerebral nasal and a nasal spirant as in Gujarāti. In any case the medial sound must have been more feeble than the initial, a parallel to which can be found in the initial labial nasal m and its medial change into ō.
By a convention the editors write n everywhere in purely Māhārāştri works like Setubandha, Gaudavadha etc. But the practice of the Jain scribes to write initiallyn is followed in editing works in AMg. and JM. Jain has suggested that initial n became alveolar and was felt by some as dental and by others as cerebral.
33 Medial single q is changed to a : 19 = bra vanishing ; 19 = sila anger ; 3477 = 391 means ; I4C = futa country; aigh = arata ascetic; în = ca lamp; 1979t=falat thirst; 69=5a form ; ht=fit near; 419=919 sin; HETI = Helal king; atq=aia heat; T9=27 curse; qua= निवइ king. 5.34 Medial a becomes also a : pensare = wisate body; pops = morsel; aju=para headless trunk; fra = Papasta

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24
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 34.
eunuch; स्तबकित =थवइय blossomed; शबर =सवर Sabara tribe; Parlat = falaren palanquin; farfare=fefae camp:
Medial -D- must have been first voiced into -b- and thus fallen with original -b-. Both were then opened into the fricative -V- which is a voiced one and with feeble friction. That ripu becomes riu and alābu becomes alāu shows that before the back vowels it was a pure semi-vowel and not labio-dental fricative, which value it had before front vowels and in the initial position. Herein agrees the view of the Sikşās that in the initial position it should be pronounced heavy, in the interior of a word light and at the end very light.
The confusion between -v- and -b- is old (Sk. vrh and byh-, bāná and vāná) and the sound in many words is either given as -b- or -V-, making the change of -b- into -v- merely a case of an orthographical choice. In the modern languages the western group has preserved the distinction while the eastern languages. confuse the two sounds.
35 Medial J before 37 or 371 will remain while before all other vowels like s, etc. it is dropped. para body; माया deceit; but; वायु = वाउ wind; वियोग-विओग separation.
It is hard to know whether the preservation of medial -y-before -a or -ā is a phonetic fact or a mere appearance due to the absence of graphic distinction between-y- and -y.. The evidence of Prākrit languages like M. which do not show -j-śruti would suggest that -y- is dropped medially everywhere. The different treatment of initial y- and medial -y- is due to a difference of pronunciation from early times noted by the Sikşās.
36 Medial श and ष become स: घोष-घोस sound ; TET="e animal; fera = fare et country; 1927 = 31187 order;
= fault; HTT=HTYT Speech; TH= peace; f = fach uneven ; Q =uê heap; 969=gree man; BARTA =
porqu fast; 31747T=STTRA sky; p = fire passion; a = ponty hair ; 79=ga false : qa=9 sight.

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S. 38.]
.
MEDIAL CONSONANTS
25
37 'ASPIRATION OF MEDIAL CONSONANTS (i) Velars : the aspirate in the medial position usu. ally become ह: किंकिणी-खिखिणी small bell; *खकचर-खहयर a demi-god ; फलकपलह board ; स्फटिकम्-फलिह crystal; Pali भभुका=भमुहा eye-brow; Pali सुनख-सुणह a dog. Rarely
mediae : शृंगाटक-सिंघाडग square. The aspiration may be further softened : निकष-निघस touch-stone.
(ii) Cerebrals: the aspirate is further softened or voiced : चिपिट = चिमिढ snubbed ; वट=वढ Banyan tree.
(iii) Dentals : the aspirate is further reduced to T: HAT = भरह name of a king; भारत-भारह India; वसति=वसहि residence; Doubtful cases are: मातुलिङ्ग-माहुलिंग a citron; (Pischel derives it from * माधुलिङ्ग); वितस्ति=विहत्थि span (Pischel* विस्तस्ति ).
(iv) Labials : the aspirate usually remains : कच्छप= कच्छभ tortoise ; कपाल-कभल्ल pot sherd ; स्तूप-थूभ mound; विपाशा=विभासा a river ; बिंबिसार=भिंभिसार name of a king.
(v) Loss of aspirate. शृंखला=संकला chain; शृंखलित = संकलिय bound; ध्वांश ठंक a bird of prey.
Cf. 22; 23. The supposition of a sibilant not preserved in Sanskrit is less likely for the medial aspiration. The presence of an aspirate sound may have influenced the neighbouring sounds. The cases must be individually explained. khimkhiņi, khahayara, 'phaliha may be due to the presence of another aspirate; bhamuhā (muha) sunaha (naha) vihatthi (hattha) may be due to contamination ; nighasa, simghādaga, kacchabha, thūbha may be due to the presence of a sibilant or r; while bharaha, vasahi, may represent an older suffix tha found in āvasatha.
38 SPONTANEOUS CEREBRALISATION • The unvoiced stops are further. voiced : पतति पडइ falls; पतित = पडिय fallen; पताका = पडाया banner; अवतंसक =

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26
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 38.
वाडेंसग crest; क्वथ् = कढ to boil; मेथि-मेढि .prop; निषध-निसढ name of a mountain; * आधाति-आढाइ honours. .
No reason can be given for this change. The Indo-Iranianroot atati found in Sk. atithi Av. astis has become atati. The influence of the Dravidian languages may be suspected.
39 DEPENDENT CEREBRALISATION
Mostly under the influence of a cerebral sound like $ ष, * or r र a dental is often cerebralised.
(i) Particularly · with प्रति : प्रतिमा = पडिमा image ; प्रतिपन्न पडिवन्न accepted; प्रतिपाल = पडिवाल protection; प्रतिपक्ष = पडिवक्ख enemy; प्राभृत = पाहुड gift; व्यापृत= वावड engaged; वैयापृत्य = वेयावडिय help.
(ii) In most of the past passive participles containing ? ऋ: कृत=कड done ; प्रस्तृत = पत्थड spread ; मृत-मड dead ; प्रावृत = पाउड covered; परिवृत परिवुड surrounded ; हृत = हड taken away; दुष्कृत = दुक्कड bad deed ; निकृति = नियडि deceit; संस्कृति =संखडि a feast ; प्रकृति = पयडि nature.
(iii) थ = ढ : प्रथम = पढम first; पृथ्वी = पुढवी earth; ग्रथित = गढिय attached.
(iv) Sk. has not preserved the r र sound; शिथिल = सिढिल loose; (srth-); नट = नड (nrt-); पठ = पढ (prath-).
The cerebrals are a creation of the Indo-Aryan period and have arisen out of the primitive dentals by contact with š, itself coming from s preceded by i, u, ļ and k. The corresponding voiced sound ž which becomes r in Indo-aryan produces the same result. Secondly they come from the older palatal series represented in Sanskrit byś, j and h, when the dental sound of their affricate nature got prominence and became cerebralised. The same tendency was greatly extended in the Prākrits where cerebralisation is a frequent and characteristic phenomenon.

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S. 41.] .
MEDIAL CONSONANTS
27
40 In a few cases the dental is not cerebralised in spite of the presence of the r र sound. प्रतिज्ञापइण्णा Vow%3; प्रतिष्ठान = पइट्ठाण name of a city; प्रतिष्ठित = पइट्ठिय established; प्रतिदिनं = पइदिणं every day; संप्रति = संपइ at present ; प्रति = 95 towards.
Except in case of the preposition prati the cases are due to dissimilation, the presence of a cerebral preventing the rise of another. This can be well seen in such cases as dah- but daddha, das- but dattha, and to a certain extent the contention of Wackernagel is justified though his illustration is not to the point.
41 OPENING OF STOPS
All indications show that the contact of the Indo-Aryan stops was a feeble one and in favourable circumstances it is lost giving rise to a fricative or a mere voiced glottal fricative (h). Sanskrit and the Prākrit languages lack the unvoiced fricatives except the sibilants and therefore whenever a stop becomes a fricative it is necessarily voiced at the same time. Thus -p- and -b- become -v-, and the same applies to all the following cases. (a) Opening of mutes
(i) Cerebrals : ट=ल : स्फटिक = फलिह crystal; पिटक = पिलाग basket ; करित्र कलित्त an armour; ठह: कुठार = कुहाड
axe; पिठर = पिहड a jar; ड=लवगेडक = गवेलग ram; गुड = गुल . raw sugar; निगड = निगल fetter ; एडक =एलग ram; गरुड गरुल eagle; षडर छलंस having six corners; षोडश = सोलस sixteen; आपीड = आविल crest; तटाक=तलाग pond; क्रीडन =कीलण sport; ताड् = ताल to beat; पीडा = पीला trouble.
(ii) dentals : त ल : असित = असिल name of a sage; सातवाहन = सालिवाहन title of the Andhra kings.
Doubtful is the case of salilā = Pāli saritā, which may be under the influence of salila water '.
दल : कदंब = कलंब a kind of tree; नोल्लइ = नुदति (nudati) pushes; प्रदपियात = पलीवेइ enkindles; द्वादश =दुवालस twelve ;

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28
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 41.
दोहद = दोहल pregnancy longing; ईदृश = एलिस like this; अनीश = अणेलिस not like this.
(b) Opening of nasals : ण =ल : . वेणु = वेलु bamboo; न = ल : निम्ब = लिम्ब a kind of tree; मव: यमुना = जउणा Jamna.
(c) Opening of sibilants : श=ह : दशमुख = दहमुह. Ravana; दश=दह ten; ष-ह: पाषाण = पाहाण stone; प्रत्यूष = पच्चूह early
morning; भीषण =बीहण frightful; कार्षापण = काहावण a coin; . सह : दिवस-दियह day; * शासति साहइ tells ; चतुःसप्तति = चउहत्तरि 74 and other numerals.
(d) The sibilants are also opened into व in द्वाषष्टि % बावहि 62 ; त्रिसप्तति = तेवत्तरि 73 and other numerals.
In case of the mutes we have to imagine that the dentals fell in with cerebrals and all were changed to a lateral sound which must have been of the same place of articulation or ! but which is written asl. The change of a dental into the dental liquid is, however, not improbable, as can be seen from Sk. sandhi like tasmāl lokāt. When m became v the latter was nasalised and we must say jaõunā. The change of the sibilants is a normal feature found in Iranian, Greek, and particularly active in Apabhraṁsa. In NIA. Gujarāti and Sindhi show it to a considerable extent. H. Smith, however, explains divasa as the result of the contamination of ahan, with divasa.
42 VOICING OF CONSONANTS कग: अशोक = असोग a kind of tree; फलक = फलग a board; आकर = आगर mine; एक = एग one; अनेक = अणेग many; कनक = कणग gold; निजक= नियग own; यमकसमक =जमगसमग together; दारक = दारग child; लोक-लोग world ; श्लोक = सिलोग fame; मरकत = मरगय emerald; श्रावक-सावग lay follower; ख
=घ : आघवेइ makes known; आख्यापना= आघावणा explanation; निकष = निघस touch-stone ; त =द : उताहो = उदाहु or..
The softening of consonants is a far wider and comprehensive change than can be thought at first sight. The change of t

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S. 43.]
MEDIAL CONSONANTS
29
to d and th to dh, the opening of all consonants and the dropping of tenues and the change of the tenues aspirate into h all involve this change. By its nature it is confined to the medial position. In fact for the Prākrits we have to formulate the rule that all intervocalic consonants except the sibilant are voiced, and this fact differentiates between the older Prākrits like the inscriptions of Asoka, Pāli, the Paisāci dialect and the Dramatic Prākrit of Ašvaghosa. The voicing and opening of the sibilant marks the beginning of the late Prākrit, the Apabhraíba.
The loss of implosion of the voiced consonants is taken as a special feature of the Māhārāştri Prākrit, while Saurasenī and Māgadhi keep the soft sounds. Hc. teaches that some of them were also preserved in Apabhraíśa.
43 MUTES CHANGING TO THE LIQUID
(i) 3=T: au ratarse a kind of jem; fastes=farie cat.
(ii) a=:na= YA 70.
(iii) q=1: JER=3u noble; stiglie = siruese pertaining to the belly; gabeet = TARE 11; ETGRT = are 12; FARGET = FRA 17.
(iv) 7=I: SERT = gre like this; IEHTEST= FIRE like us; HEF = FR like.
The cases under (iv) are doubtful., Wackernagel has pointed out that tārisa agrees with Gr. telikos and Bloch has noted the survival of tādría in NIA. taisā. Bidāla is thought to be of Dravidian origin.
Cf. 41a. The question involved in these two rules is extremely difficult to decide on account of the fact that the usual orthography does not give the proper sounds. We have evidence to suppose that I represents both dental 1 and cerebral Į (Sk. dohada, Pāli dohaļa, Pkt. dohala) and it is probable that r also represents a cerebral sound as defined by Pāṇini and effecting the cerebralisation of the following n and a dental one found in the eastern languages. When the cerebrals change into the liquids, they would naturally represent the cerebral values of these two.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 43.
But when dentals become liquids, it is not possible to ascertain which sounds they represent unless some form containing a cerebral sound of that word is available.
44 INTERCHANGE OF LIQUIDS
(i) =3 : pourram foot; gal=pago pitiable; JEHR=HTHT tender; fre= et ditch; gat=yE talkative; siang=sjafeste sky; pira=ufsara border; re=ive poor.
(ii) F=T: focs = pare indeed; EUCHT=artt a kind of tree.
It is probable that the preference given to the one or the other liquid may mark a dialectal feature. Like the ancient Iranian the dialect of RV. shows a marked inclination towards T, while classical Sanskrit appears to show 1 (rih-lih- ; raghulaghu- ; Tap- lap-). In the MIA the eastern languages show 1 in place of r and therefore this change is called a Magadhism. Grierson suggests that probably the writing of 1 in east is to represent the dental sound of t. Some of these changes, Bloch is inclined to explain as dissimilation of the cerebrals (karuna) or contamination (calana; cal- to walk).
45 INTERCHANGE OF SEMI-VOWELS
(i) =a: Tafe= qeta modification; pratara = arati 33; 34rent = 316th long-lived one, Pāli, āvuso.
(ii) a = : 37a2 = grys well; fag=face day; sique = लायण्ण beauty.
Cases of this interchange are more in Pāli. On the whole the changes are not outside the pale of doubt. As both the semivowels are liable to fall out and both are used to avoid hiatus, it is impossible to decide the cases with the very few examples known.
46. THE V-ŚRUTI
(i) =a : T = get louse; e = esta little; maana = faas one and one half.

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S. 45.]
MEDIAL CONSONANTS
(ii) ग= व : युगल = जुवल pair.
(iii) तव : प्रद्योतित = पजोविय lighted; द =व : रुदति =रोवई weeps..
Pāli and Ap. suva = suka, Marāțhi kävaļā = kāka make it probable that the sound i may have beer: used as a glide as in case of ġ. Pischel explains ujjova from dyu- and rova from ru-.
47 A FRICATIVE BECOMING A STOP.
(i) वम : द्राविडी =दामली The Tamil script; वैश्रवण = वेसमण a god; * भ्रुवुका =भमुहा eye-brow.
(ii) प=म : आपीड=आमेल crest; कुणप=कुणिम dead body; नीपनीम a kind of tree; मणाम=Pali मनाप delightful; वणीमगवनीपक a beggar; विटप=विडिम a tree; सुमिण=Pali सुपिन dream.
(iii) ब म.कबंध= कमंध a headless trunk. ___The change in case of (ii) and (iii) must have been due to the interchange between m and v or û which, in turn, came from p and b.
48 SURVIVAL OF PRE-SANSKRIT SOUNDS
(i) ग for Sk. जो अब्भंगेइ = * अभ्यंजति bathes; निरंगण = निरंजन free from blame.
- (ii) भ for Sk. ह: निभेलण = निहेलन house; वेभार = वैहार name of a mountain; वुब्भइ = उह्यते carried away; लिब्भइ = लिह्यते is licked.
(iii) घ for Sk. ह : संघयण = संहनन build.
(iv) After a nasal an aspirated sonant stands for Sk. ह: चिन्ध-चिन्ह sign; बंभण ब्राह्मण a Brahmin.
In the last case the change is due to the opening of the mouth after the nasal passage is closed instead of opening it first. So brahmana which is pronounced as brāmhana becomes bambhana.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 49.
49 OTHER SPORADIC CHANGES
(i) a =57: 92 = 315 well; han = FUE schism; 3T€€ = 3TUET flow; HEIGHT = HETTATT of great power.
(ii) 5=7: Gara ranks abandons.
(iii) 2=3: FST2 = ters axe; for free jar. Such cases are naturally suspect and causes like contamination or a different derivation must be sought for. Bloch connects kuthāra with Dravidian (Kan. kuttu, Ta. kottu).
FINAL CONSONANTS 50 Ardha-Māgadhī does not allow words with final consonants. Naturally all Sanskrit words ending in consonants are made to end in a vowel.
Even in Sk. the final sounds allowed are limited. Only one consonant can stand before pause except a conjunct of 7 as the first member (bharan but bharantam). Similarly final consonants lose their aspiration (budh- but -bhut) and voice (suhrt for suhd). All these changes are due to the final consonant being only implosive (abhinihita). That it was weaker than the medial is seen from the fact that in the body it was not affected by the following word but as a final of a word it came under the influence of the following initial (yatna but yan namati). In the Prākrit stage this weak and implosive consonant has fallen away in the pause, and a few fricatives which Sanskrit allowed are also not to be found at the end.
51 The final consonant is dropped : यावत् = जाव as long as; araa= ata so long; ahe = CH darkness; age=gu bow; a = 90al joint; THE = 37RH birth; 217= 96891 afterwards. The preceding vowel is lengthened in hac = open assembly; FHE = TE sky; CH=garland; Ba= सिर head.
52 Final 7 and Æ become 3gfar : HTag = 0 venerable one; पचन् = पयं cooking; अस्मिन् = अस्सि in this; craft = getur now; gaia=go to do; * 729=Fri exerting.

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S. 53.]
Other consonants become अनुस्वार by analogy : मनाक् = मणं slightly ; साक्षात् सक्खं actually; सकृत् = सङ्कं once ; सम्यक् = सम्मं properly ; प्रातस्पायं in the morning.
53 THEMATISATION OF NOUNS
FINAL CONSONANTS
33
As consonantal themes are not allowed in the language all such themes are made vowel-ending by adding a vowel (a) in case of Masculine nouns: *=wrei autumn ; भिषक् = भिसओ physician ; प्रावृष् = पाउसो rainy season ; मरुत् = मरुओ wind; (b) आ or ई in case of Feminine nouns ; सरित् = सरिआ river ; संपद् = संपया wealth; दिकू = दिसा direction ; क्षुध् = छुहा hunger; वाक् = वाया words; धूर् = धुरा yoke ; ककुभू= कउहा quarter; आपद् = आवई difficulty.
This is in fact the result of a tendency, wide spread and operative even in Sanskrit in the whole field of grammar by which a thematic form is preferred as a base than an athematic one (pad, pāda; mās, māsa; harit, harita iḍ, iḍā; kṣap, kṣapā).
Ex. 1. (18-27) Give Ardha-Magadhi words for a hero, शरीर the body, याम a period of time, यामि I go, योगिन् an ascetic, भव to be, पनस bread fruit, यथाजात as born, शाम black, शुचि pure, शोक grief.
Ex. 2. Give AMg. words for
doubt, fore slab of stone, यथाच्छंद according to one's will, यथाख्यात as told, संयत self-controlled, यामिनी night, योगक्षेम welfare, युद्ध fight, चित्रफलक picture, सफल fruitful.
Ex. 3. (28-36) Give AMg. words for country, नगरी town, निरोध obstruction, सभा assembly, विकार change, नेमि rim, तटी bank, कठिन hard, मालती Jasmine flower, वायस crow.
Ex. 4. Give Sk. words for: intelligence, river, किवा compassion, बहुविह manifold, हरिय green, तव penance, महुयर bee, पायाल underground world, अणिल wind, अणल fire.
3

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34
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 52.
Ex. 5. Give AMg. words for and state the rule by which the changes happen : संयोग union, लोक people, लोचन eye, y sacrifice, te herd, faça jester, foren deformed, आशा desire, आधार support, यथानाम according to name, विपुल abundant, 31705r form.
Ex. 6. (37–49) Give AMg. words for : 91cooked food, मूक dumb, कुरर osprey, विदारण tearing, काक crow, सेवक servant, दिवस day, प्रतीहार door-keeper, प्रतिकार opposition. .
Ex. 7. (50—53) Give AMg. words for: Flat knowing, शशिन् the moon, शिखरिन् mountain, नामन् name, योगिन् ascetic, तपस् penance, तेजस् lustre, मनस mind, रजस् dust, वचस् word.

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CHAPTER THREE
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
GENERAL NOTIONS 54 When two or more consonants come together without a vowel between them, they form a conjunct. Normally they consist of two consonants, though a few of three consonants may be found in Sanskrit. The one that is pronounced earlier is called the first member while the other is called the second member. Thus in
a wheel' is the first member of the conjunct * and the second.
wever, I is the first and I the second member. In Sanskrit the conjunct can stand at the beginning of a word or in the middle. The Sanskrit conjuncts can be divided into two classes, (i) those where both the members of the conjunct are of the same sound and (ii) those made of different consonants. AMg. allows only a single consonant at the beginning of a word and the aspirated forms of the nasals' re, Fr, and the liquid . In the middle only the first type of Sanskrit conjunct is found. It may also use a conjunct of a mute and its aspirated form, ( . 3): a nasal and the consonant of the same class (-a); and finally the aspirated forms of the nasals and the liquid l . All other conjuncts of the Sanskrit language must be changed to one of these four types.

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36
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 55.
55 The usual method of treating the Sanskrit conjunct is called ASSIMILATION. It consists of two distinct operations; (i) the dropping of one of the two members of the conjunct and (ii) the doubling of the remaining consonant. Thus in the word 75, I, one of the two members of the conjunct is dropped and the remaining consonantot is doubled with the result 979. Here we say that pe has assimilated s. When the second member assimilates the first ( a = 1) it is called regressive, and when the first member assimilates the second (99 = ga ) it is called progressive.
Really speaking there is no conscious act of dropping of a member and the doubling of the remaining consonant. The speaker fails to make the necessary movements of the speech organs for the consonant which is weaker and only stresses the movements of the stronger consonant with the result that it becomes long. This is but natural when we consider that the syllabic quantity was of utmost importance to the Sanskrit speaker. Moreover the first mute of' a conjunct was only implosive and was followed by the explosion of the second member. This distinguishes the Indian conjuncts from the Iranian where the desire to preserve the articulation of both led to the spirantisation of the first (Sk. sapta, Per. haft). Both in Sanskrit (bhakta -v) and Prākrit (bhatta - ) the first syllable was closed, and throughout the course of development it was preserved at the cost of the place of articulation. In actual pronunciation bhakta was bhak/kta, wherein the second syllable t assimilated the k without its own explosion and when this tt was sufficient to preserve the quantity of the preceding syllable the first k or the mere implosive act of k was lost as being of no importance. So bhak/kta = bhak/tta = bhatta.
56 THE DOUBLING OF CONSONANTS. A few consonants like 7 or are incapable of being doubled. Of the others, the second and the fourth letters of the five Vargas are doubled by adding before them the first and the third letter

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S. 57.]
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
37
of the same Vargas. Thus Ę is doubled by adding a before it pe; similarly the double of a=1; 3= 2; 9= ;8= ;
=3; T = 9; = ; F = 9; H=9. In all other cases the same consonant is added. Thus of is doubled by adding
= p; T = 7T; A = FA; a= 7; =; a=69. In the following words if occurring in the conjuncts is dropped the remaining members will be doubled as follows : मूर्ख = मुक्ख a fool ; 37€ = 377&t offering ; t = swoon ; faer = fast brook ; अर्थ=अत्थ wealth ; अर्ध = अद्ध half ; अभ्र-अब्भ cloud; but a = og all; 95=ga son.
57 DROPPING OF ONE MEMBER. Of the two members of a conjunct one specific member is to be dropped and the remaining member is to be doubled. Which member is to be dropped is determined according to the following rules.
The treatment of the conjuncts is one of the difficult problems of Prākrit phonology. Hemacandra arranges the words in the order so as to give the conjuncts kk, kkh, gg etc, in their Prākrit substitutes. His general treatment consists in laying down the three rules (i) k, g, t, d, t, d, p, s, ş, s as the first member (ii) m, n, y as the second member and (iii) I, v, r as both members are to be dropped. This leaves many exceptions and he is forced to add a large number of special rules. Pischel's treatment is more scientific. His rule may be stated as: the stronger member assimilates the weaker and among equals the second assimilates the first, assimilation being regressive. The consonants according to decreasing strength are (i) mutes (ii) nasals and (iii) 1, s, v, y, r in order.
For the sake of clarity and exhaustiveness we classify the consonants into six groups as: (1) mutes comprising the unvoiced (t) and voiced stops (d) and their aspirates (th, dh) of the five classes; (2) the five nasals (3) two semi-vowels (4) two liquids (5) the three sibilants and (6) the aspirate (h) and its unvoiced form (visarga). Their combinations should give 36 groups but in reality many groups are not possible.
The basic principle of the strength of a consonant in assimilation is its definiteness of contact and not its sonority. It is

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 57.
thus that the mutes are the strongest and the semi-vowels the weakest. The labio-dental nature of v makes it stronger, while the clear contact of 1 makes it still stronger. This will explain why v and y, I and , behave differently in groups.
GROUPS WITH MUTES
58 Only hard and soft consonants can form conjuncts ..among themselves. A soft consonant cannot form a group with a hard one and vice versa. In these groups the assimilation is regressive i.e. the second member prevails over the first. The aspiration, if present, remains at the end of the group.
The earliest trace of such an assimilation is to be found in the voicing of the stop when followed by a voiced stop (Sk. tat + bhavati = tadbhavati). Later on the first lost its distinct articulation though preserving its time and voice (Sk. uccă from ut cf. Av. ušca; maji- from * madj-). The aspiration if present in the group is thrown at the end in such cases as Sk. budh + ta = buddha.
59 Surd + surd = second surd doubled : y = free; # = TFT red; C = 349 a group of six ; 9246 = super bee; yra = proper ; 377472 = 31747 attached ; H = HT devotion; JEBOT = JST eagerness; a = 00TC force; 3445=304 lotus; prom=quyfta good man; ya=ge slept; संलप्तसंलत्त spoken.
60 Surd + aspirated surd = second doubled : Ray = fraer wealth ; RATY = FARU Sling ; Brela = 3e dug up.
61 Sonant + sonant = second doubled : ns = art sword; Tofia = mia six groups of living beings; 9555 = utapes matter ; ghost = dwarf; 36H = GTTH origin ; ggc = gogu bubble; शब्द-सद्द sound.
62 Sonant + sonant aspirate = second doubled : Ta = The milk; FETTE = FANTE glossy; yra = y simple; 3153 =

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S. 65.]
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
39
STT begun; goal= 36 greedy ; auta = 4341 intention ;
cara = gert spreading up. 63 MUTES AND NASALS
A. Mute + nasal, the assimilation is progressive i.e. the mute assimilates the nasal which forms the second member. The only nasals are a and H.
(i) न assimilated : नग्न = नग्ग naked ; पत्नी = पत्ती wife'; ang = effor fire ; TT =P47 effort; fag=falsa trouble.
(ii) H assimilated : a = or pair; U = Shau Lakṣmaṇa..
64 The conjuct 7 becomes : 4 = sacrifice; fas= fare knower; HIE=AUA charming; y = 3474147 of quick intelligence ; 451 = Te knowledge. | The Conjunct % gives in Pāli ñã (Prajñā = pañoä) by a regressive assimilation. The change to nn or nn, however, is due to the survival of the older pronunciation of the palatal sonant. Sanskrit j comes from I-E. palatal sonant stop ê and was pronounced as dž. When the sound became implosive being followed by another sound, the first element of the affricative, the dental stop became prominent and was assimilated to n or ạ. That it should be a cerebral sound is seen from viś= viț, ajñā = āņā. That the two elements of the group jñ were movable is seen in Sanskrit jānāti and the later pronunciation of it as dny.
65 There are, however, a few cases of a different treatment of the group mute+nasal : रुक्म रुप्प gold ; रुक्मिणी
= requft Rukmiņi; 371HT=3709 self (also 7); 371h = 378 thought ; et = lotus (also 95H); 3 = 54 imperfect knowledge (also ESH).
The earlier stage of this change is given by the inscription of Ašoka at Girnār : ātpa for ātman. So it is clear that the stop has first unvoiced the nasal and then the second stop has assimilated the first. A similar change is found in Aś. catpāro

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHİ
[S. 65.
(catvārah) bāravai (dvāravati = dbāravati). In case of pomma chamma it appears that the forms with anaptyxis were later contracted.
66 B. Nasal + Mute: If the nasal and the mute belong to the same class they are unchanged. pour throat; ap=fara stalk; TFT=Fat calm ; e = Jambu.
In writing we often find Anusvāra written for the nasal and the grammarians allow both. In pronunciation, however, there is no difference. In AMg. hanti has become handi. In the derivative numerals of pañca it becomes panna as in Pāli, pannrasa (15) chappanna (56). The change remains obscure.
67 MUTES AND SEMI-VOWELS
Historically the semi-vowels represent the forms of vowels be. fore another vowel. cf. i-maḥ we go' but y-anti 'they go'. . sunu-maḥ but sunv-anti. Naturally there cannot be a conjunct of a semi-vowel followed by a mute as it will immediately revert to its vowel nature. There will be only groups of mutes followed by the semi-vowels y and v. In all such cases the assimilation will be progressive.
68 Groups with 7:277 word ; året = Fire happiness; arrazm aversion ; 787 = kingdom; 32 = ECH rich man ; oirt=sim proper; ale = E drama; core = वक्खाण explanation ; पूज्य = पुज्ज honourable ; शाक्य = सक्क name of a tribe ; 377jat = 3Tovare inside; gevat=325 is said ; area=37eis explains.
69 Groups with a : 499 = 1946 ripe ; grafsa = qolicy burning ; Self = a four; daca = 297 godhood; ar= door; ut = fat bird ; Fie&ta = gela Jambudvipa; = सत्त being; उज्वल = उज्जल bright.
The prefix ud followed by v, however, makes an exception : udvigna = uvvigga dejected, udvahatii= uvvahai marries, udvartana = uvvattna turning up. Similar is the case with sadvimśati = chavvisam. The labio-dental nature of v(a) and

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CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
41
v(i) with a contact of the teeth with the upper lip explains the change.
70 PALA TALISATION. If the conjunct is made up of the तवर्ग and य or to a limited extent व, चवर्ग takes the place of the तवर्ग.
____A. Groups with य : त्य=च्च : सत्य =सच्च true ; नित्य = निच्च always ; प्रत्यय = पञ्चय confidence ; कृत्य = किच्च duty; अत्यंत = अच्चंत very much; आधिपत्य = आहेवच्च lordship; प्रेत्य = पेच्च in the next life; वैयापृत्य = वेयावच्च help; त्यजति = चयइ abandons; थ्य = च्छ : पथ्य पच्छ wholesome; मिथ्या = मिच्छा false; तथ्य = तच्छ true; रथ्या रच्छा street; नेपथ्य = नेवच्छ dress; द्य= ज : अद्य = अज to-day; मद्य =मज wine; अवद्य = अवज्ज sin; वैद्य = वेज physician ; खाद्य = खज eatables ; विद्या - विजा science ; ध्य = ज्झः वध्य = वज्झ to be killed ; उपाध्याय = उवज्झाय teacher; स्वाध्याय = सज्झाय study; अध्यवसाय = अज्झवसाय resolution ; ध्यात = झाय meditated ; मध्य = मज्झ middle.
few exceptional cases are : pratyekabuddha = patteyabuddha; tathya = tacca which may be in reality tatva. ___B. Groups with : त्व ञ्च : चत्वर = चच्चर square; कृत्वा = किच्चा having done; श्रुत्वा सोच्चा hearing; भुक्त्वा =भोच्चा having enjoyed ; द्वज : विद्वान् = विजं wise ; ध्व = ज्झ : बुध्वा = बुज्झा knowing ; साध्वस = सज्झस fear ; ध्वज - झय banner.
There are some cases like dvei= be ; two; dvādaśa = bāraha twelve ; dvāravati = bāravai; Urdhva = ubbha upright, which show that the stop first changed the semivowel v, already partially having the contact, into the voiced stop b, which was fol- . lowed by the usual assimilation.
This law of palatalisation is due to the fact that the dental pronounced with the spread tip of the tongue against the root of the teeth could easily be carried over to the position of y made by pressing the two edges of the tongue to the palate and leaving the central part for a narrow aperture for the air to escape. The resulting sound is an affricative as are Sanskrit

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 70.
Pischel supposes
palatals. The case of viis difficult to explain. that the semi-vowel first became y.
71 MUTES AND LIQUIDS
A. When the mute is followed by a liquid 7 or as, the mute assimilates it and the assimilation is progressive.
(i) Groups with र : चक्र = चक्क wheel; न्यग्रोध = नग्गोह banyan tree; ama = 3ale smells; 29 = ao thunderbolt; 2=894€ name of a prophet of good lustre'; 377= 3754 cloud; gET= पुत्त son; शूद्र =सुद्द low caste man; चित्र = चित्त picture ; पन = पत्त leaf ; भद्र = भद्द good; समुद्र = समुद्द ocean; उग्र = उग्ग terrible.
(ii) Groups with : 1g=, white; fata = farena trouble; resas = Aegy barbarian; eq=2 to swim; a = कीव eunuch.
72 CEREBRALISATION: The 7 as a second member changes the preceding dental into a cerebral in few cases. 969 = El young; fsg = reş hole.
73 In a number of adverbs a apparently becomes : 999 = Opret where; 49 = cry where; 79= TRUT there; a= सव्वत्थ everywhere; अत्र= एत्थ here.
Pischel derives ettha from Vedic itthā and naturally all other adverbs are traced to such a suffix -tthā. Geiger traces the word to *itra Av. ithra. The change of tra to ttha must have been under the influence of -ttha coming from Sk. -stha.
As pointed out by Meillet the Sanskrit orthography of a mute + a semi-vowel or a liquid does not give the real pronunciation of the word. Sk. aśvaḥ is represented in Gr. by hippos and madhyah by méssos where all the words have the first syllable closed. As a 'Sanskrit word can begin with the group tr-(trih, trāyasva) the second syllable must begin with tr- in putra and if the first is also a closed syllable it must end with t with the result that we get the gemination of the stopt, and the word is pronounced as put/traḥ, becoming in Prākrit putto.

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S. 75.]
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
___74 B: Liquid followed by the mute. The assimilation is regressive and the mute assimilates the liquid र or ल.
(i) Groups with र : तर्क = तक्क reasoning ; अर्क = अक्क sun; मूर्ख = मुक्ख fool; वर्ग= वग्ग group; मार्ग= मग्ग way; अर्ध्य = अग्ध offering; अर्चा = अच्चा worship; कूर्च = कुच्च brush; मूर्छा=मुच्छा swoon; आर्जव = अजव straightforwardness; वर्जन =वजण avoiding; मुहूर्त = मुहुत्त moment; अर्थ = अत्थ wealth; दर्दुर = दद्दुर frog; मूर्धन् = मुद्धा head; सर्प सप्प serpent; कर्बट = कब्बड a village ; अर्भक = अब्भग child.
(ii) Very frequently the र preceding the dental cerebralises it : आर्त = अट्ट troubled; नर्तक = नट्टग dancer; वर्तते
= वट्टइ exists; गर्ता = गड्डा ditch; चक्रवर्तिन् = चक्कवट्टि sovereign king ; अर्थ = अट्ठ purpose; चतुर्थ = चउट्ठ fourth; अर्ध = अड्ड half ; वर्धते = वडइ grows.
The cerebralising effect of r, which was visible even in RV.. (kata and karta, vikata from vikrta) becomes very wide spread in Middle Indian, though nothing like constant and uniform.
(iii) Groups with ल : अल्प = अप्प little; शिल्प-सिप्प craft; किल्बिश- किब्बिस wretched ; प्रगल्भ % पगब्भ developed ; कल्प = कप्प period of time : विकल्प = वियप्प doubt ; वल्ग् = वग्गइ boasts.
The syllabic division of these groups must have been ark/kaḥ which became akko. 75 MUTES AND SIBILANTS
A. Mute followed by a sibilant. Except for such groups as त्स and प्स become च्छ.
The Sanskrit sibilants are voiceless and naturally allow only a surd before them. If the surd is velar or palatal the result is ks (vak-si; &ik-su). With labials and dentals the groups are ts. and ps. In a few words these groups have become cch in Sk. itself (guccha = *grpsa ; ucсhanna = utsanna). When we consider that t is dental and s an alveolar fricative the result should be an affricative of the dental or alveolar type something like

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[S. 75.
Marāthi ts before back vowels. But the stronger friction of s made it an aspirate like tah and this must have been the pronunciation of the Prākrit cch in such cases. That it was further palatalised as in North Indian languages is probable. Pischel, however, suggests the aspiration of the sibilant as the cause of the change as ts = tsh = cch. The syllabic division of a word like jugupsā must have been jugup/psā.
(i) त्स= च्छ : चिकित्सा = तिगिच्छा diognosis; बीभत्स = बीभच्छ ugly; मत्सर-मच्छर envy; वत्स-वच्छ child; उत्साह = उच्छाह. energy; संवत्सर =संवच्छर year; कुत्सनीय = कुच्छाणिज detestable.
(ii) प्स = च्छ : जुगुप्सा = दुगुच्छा disgust ; लिप्सु = लिच्छ longing for ; अप्सरस् = अच्छरा divine damsel.
76 In a number of cases, however, a mute followed by a sibilant shows a regressive assimilation, i. e. the sibilant prevails over the mute. उच्छ्रित = उस्सिय raised ; उच्छुल्क = उस्सुंक free from tax ; उछास = उस्सास breathing; उत्सर्ग = उस्सग्ग rule ; उत्सेध = उस्सेह height; उत्सुक = उस्सुय eager ; उत्सव = उस्सव festival; षट्शत = छस्सय six hundred.
The reason for this change is to be found in the fact that the speaker was conscious of the compound nature of the word, the first being a prefix or an independent word. Dr. Varma suggests that the mute became a fricative by the force of the succeeding fricative.
77 Changes of ks. This sound-group is a complex phenomenon and gives in Prakrit च्छ; क्ख; झ and च.
(i) क्ष = च्छ : क्षण = छण festival; क्षुधा= छुहा hunger ; अक्षि = अच्छि eye; मक्षिका मच्छिगा fly ; वृक्ष = वच्छ tree; तक्षक = तच्छग carpenter.
(ii) क्ष= क्ख : क्षत्रिय = खत्तिय man of warrior caste ; क्षीर = खीर milk ; क्षुद्र = खुड्डु small; शिष = सिक्ख to teach; दक्षिण = दक्खिण south; राक्षस= रक्खस demon.

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S. 78.)
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
45
In few cases this kkh is further changed to h: ikşā= ihā investigation; tūkņa = lūha harsh; daksina= dāhina = south ; śaikşa = seha pupil. Sometimes the same word may show both cch and kkh as in AMg. ikṣu = ikkhu, ucchu sugar cane; kukși = kucchi, kukkhi womb; kşāra = chāra, khāra ashes, acid.
(iii) 8= : a = us to flow ; 9TH = Eh emasculated ; fra Fruite is weakened. (iv) =T: TH=ye younger ; JEITA = Esger uncle.
Historically the sound group kş of Indo-Aryan represents a number of sounds. In the first place it represents the I-E. sonant aspirates of the labio-velar and palatal articulation followed by s i.e. *gh + s ( = Av. Yž), *ghts (= Av. ž), in which cases it is represented by AMg. jh. In the second place it represents the I-E. * ks ( = Av. š) which according to Pischel corresponds to AMg. cch, and thirdly I-E. *qs (i= Av Xš) which becomes in AMg. kkh. On account of disagreement between Av. and Pkt. the last two equations cannot be accepted. cf. dakkhina Av. dašina. A difference of meaning has developed in chana festival, khana moment; chamā earth, khamā forbearance.
78 Sibilant followed by mute. Generally the mute assimilates the sibilant but it in turn aspirates the mute. So * = z; 5 = Re; 2 =; q = 0%; ** = Fe; F = 221; F9 = 44.
In all these cases it is clear that the sibilant is opened into the aspirate which goes to the end of the group as usual.
(i) Sibilant श : आश्चर्य = अच्छेर wonder; पश्चात् = पच्छा afterwards; H =qfesh west; afa=qfegat expiation ; fazer = Faroegy resolution ; 1919 = faregger scorpion.
(ii) Sibilant q: geoape iter lotus ; fanu = Farrah going out ; निष्क = निक्ख gold coin ; दुष्ट = दुट्ठ wicked ; लेष्टु = लेटु log of earth; काष्ट = कट्ठ log of wood ; पृष्ट = पुट्ठ back ; दृष्टि = faig view ; gog=gon flower ; 045 = facenes fruitless.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 78.
(iii) Sibilant स: स्कंध =खंध shoulder; तिरस्कार = तिरक्खार insult ; संस्कृति संखडि feast; हस्त = हत्थ hand ; विस्तार वित्थार expanse; प्रस्तर = पत्थर stone; हस्तिन् = हत्थि elephant; अवस्था = अवत्था condition; मध्यस्थमज्झत्थ impartial; अगारस्थ = गारस्थ householder ; स्पर्श = फास touch; वनस्पति = वणप्फइ plant ; स्फटिक = फलिह crystal.
In some cases s cerebralises the following dental : asthi = atthi%; adhastāt = hettha (?) *sthati = thai%; upasthital= uvaIthiya.
79 In a number of cases, the aspiration of the surviving mute is absent.
(i) With श : निश्चल = निच्चल motionless ; दुश्चरित = दुच्चरिय bad act; तपश्चरण=तवच्चरण penance. __ (ii) With ष : चतुष्क = चउक्क square ; शुष्क =सुक्क dry; निष्कारण = निक्कारण without reason; दुष्कर =दुक्कर difficult; निष्कृप= निक्किव cruel; इष्टका = इदगा brick ; चतुष्पद = चउप्पय animal; निष्पाप = निप्पाव sinless; दुष्प्रेक्ष्य = दुप्पेच्छ difficult to observe.
(iii) With स : नमस्कार = नमोक्कार salutation; तस्कर - तक्कर thief ; संस्कृत = सक्कय polished ; दुस्तर-दुत्तर difficult to cross; समस्त =समत्त all; परस्पर परोप्पर each other. .
This two-fold treatment of the group of a sibilant and a mute is difficult to explain (hasta = hattha, dustara = duttara). It is probable that while in case of hasta the division of the syllable was hast/ta where the fricative and the mute were found in the same syllable, it may have been in case of dustara as dus/ tara probably helped by the consciousness of the etymology. In such a case, as the sibilant was in another syllable, it failed to aspirate the following mute though the preceding syllable was kept close. Dr. Varma, however, is not inclined to accept such a division.
80 When the visarga is followed by a mute the mute assimilates it. दुःख = दुक्ख misery; अंत:करण = अंतक्करण heart.

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S. 84.)
.
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
• GROUPS WITH NASALS 81 In case of a and , when conjunct, mu should be written when Sanskrit contains ण; अरण्य = रण्ण forest; पुण्य = gout merit; thui = Juul old ; qui = goot full; aloi = faoul crossed ; qui = Tuu crushed. In all other cases i should be written : किन्नर a divine being; कन्या = कन्ना daughter; प्रतिज्ञा =951 vow; a=fee given ; fast=fary knower.
Some grammarians (Vararuci) enjoin only nn while others (Hemacandra) allow both nn and nn in all cases. The writing of nn is preferred in purely Māhārāștri works. The Jain Mss. show a preference for nin as they do in case of intial n. Thus they would write ranna, tinna etc. In general the medial double consonants in Prākrit are of the same type as initial single consonants and stand in contrast with medial single consonants which are weaker. This is seen in the further development of the double stops into single one in Modern languages and in case of nn the result is n.
82 As a result of AMg. phonology if two nasals of different classes come together the first becomes anusvāra. quhr = EXHRI six months; TSJE= The averse; Tef= via row; qret = unfruitful; fredy = fale name of a mountain; सन्ध्या -संझा evening..
The anusvāra may be replaced by a parasavarṇa and one may, write chammāsa, panti etc. The difference is purely orthographical and the sound remains the same.
83 In a conjuct of a and # the assimilation is regressive. J 5 = 3 from the roots; HET= A birth; gre =
one facing upwards; H T=The cupid; farzatot = Free river; Affara low; yg = 45€ Pradyumna.
84 NASALS AND SEMI-VOWELS All the three nasals o, a, # assimilate both 2 and a.
(i) With 0 : fecue = lecuur gold; fque = fopoint oil cake ;quat=quo merchandise ; que=quut merit.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 84.
(ii) With न : अन्य = अन्न another; कन्या - कन्ना girl; सैन्य - सेन्न army; मन्युमन anger; धन्य धन्न fortunate; धान्य-धन्य corn ; शून्य =सुन्न zero ; अन्वेषण = अन्नेसण search.
(iii) With म : सौम्य = सोम्म docile; रम्य = रम्म charming; क्लाम्यति = किलिम्मइ fades ; ताम्यति = तम्मइ languishes.
85 NASALS AND LIQUIDS
A. Nasal followed by a liquid : Initially the nasal assimilates the liquid : म्रक्षयति = मक्खेइ anoints; म्लेच्छ = मेच्छ barbarian. Medially a glide, mostly ब, is developed which assimilates the following liquid. आम्र = अम्ब mango; ताम्र = तम्ब red ; आम्ल = अम्ब (also अंबिल) acid.
The physiological explanation of the glide is obvious. In pronouncing āmra the speaker has to cut off the nasal passage and pronouncer at the same time with the simultaneous opening of the contact. In fact he cuts off the nasal passage earlier and instead of the sound , breaks the "plosion with the result that he pronounces mb:
B. Liquid followed by a nasal. The nasal assimilates the liquid and the assimilation is regressive.***
(i) with र : कर्ण = कण्ण ear; पण = पण्ण leaf ; ऊर्मि = उम्मि wave; कर्मन् = कम्म act; धर्म = धम्म religion.
(ii) with ल : कुल्माष = कुम्मास beans; गुल्म = गुम्म bush; वल्मीक = वम्मिय ant-hill.
86 NASALS AND SIBILANTS
If the sibilant follows the nasal becomes anusvāra in Sanskrit itself. If the nasal follows, groups of 7 and of give us ण्ह and groups of म give us म्ह.
(i) इन = ण्ह : प्रश्न = पण्ह question ; अश्नाति = अण्हाइ eats.

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S. 88.]
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
(ii) ष्ण = ण्ह : उष्ण= उण्ह hot; कृष्ण = कण्ह black ; विष्णु =विण्हु name of a god ; उष्णीष = उण्हीस head-dress; वृष्णि = वण्हि name of a tribe..
(iii) स्न= ण्ह : स्नात = हाय bathed ; प्रस्नुत = पण्हुय flowing. (iv) श्म =म्ह : श्मश्रु =मंसु beard.
(v) म = म्ह: ग्रीष्म-गिम्ह summer ; युष्मादृश = तुम्हारिस like you; उष्मा = उम्हा heat; काश्मीर = कम्हीर Kashmir.
(vi) स्म= म्ह: स्मः =म्हो we are ; अस्मादृश = अम्हारिस like us ; विस्मय = विम्हय wonder.
The sibilant is opened and aspirates the following nasal giying us nh and mh. Conjuncts of three consonants give us the same result ślakşnai= sanha; pakşman = pamha; jyotsnā = jonhā; tikşna = tinha, mh may further become anusvāra and bh; śleşmani= sembha; saṁsmarati= sambharai. In few cases the nasal remains unaspirated : sneha = neha; nisneha = ninneha. Rarely the nasal may be assimilated by the sibilant : Taśmi = Tassi ; śmaśāna = susāna; bhasman = bhāsa.
.87 NASAL AND ASPIRATE
Sanskrit groups of followed by the nasals interchange places in AMg. अपराह्न = अवरण्ह latter part of the day ; मध्याह =मझण्ह noon; गृण्हाति = गेण्हइ takes ;. वह्नि = वण्हि fire; ब्राह्मण बम्हण Brahmin.
GROUPS WITH SEMI-VOWELS 88 Among semi-vowels zy becomes 7 and 4 becomes ब्व : शय्यासेज्जा bed ; काव्य कञ्व poetry; हव्य हव्व oblation; कर्तव्य =कायब्व duty; व्यय = वय loss; व्याल =वाल elephant; व्यापृत = वावड engaged ; व्याकरण = वागरण explanation.
The change of yy to jj is related to the change of y to j in the initial position as we have seen that a double consonant in the middle corresponds to a single consonant at the beginning. That

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 88.
a conjunct like vy is possible is due to the contact present in v which naturally assimilates the weakest. y.
89 SEMI-VOWELS AND LIQUIDS
A. Semi-vowel followed by a liquid. The only possible group is vr a which shows progressive assimilation. Elle = alle rice; a = ferea sharp ; feitas = groapem a monk.
B. Liquid followed by a semi-vowel. .
(i) Groups with a show variety of treatment of becomes 57: = y sun; gjer = cat duty ; AJEI = Hollent limit; opf 345 noble.
(ii) ल assimilates य : मूल्य =मोल्लं value ; कल्य = कल्ल welfare; Twith = 4819h a measure of time.
In a number of cases Ty shows a different treatment. Y is dropped and I alone remains when the preceding vowel is long. sūrya = sūra; türyal= tūra; dhairya = dhira, tiryate = tirai ; pūryate = pūrai; jiryate = jirai. A similar case may be found in daśārņa = dasāra. In spite of the statement of the Sanskrit grammarians it appears that I was capable of lengthening which, by its nature, consisted in a series of taps which made it survive at the cost of the other consonant.
(iii) व assimilates र : सर्व सव्व all; पर्वतपब्वय mountain; te = 77a pride ; qaia = qoq joint.
(iv) ल assimilates व : पल्बल = पल्लल pond ; बिल्व = बिल्ल kind of leaf ; गल्वर्क = गल्लक्क king of jewel.
90 SEMI-VOWELS AND SIBILANTS
The semi-vowel, which can form only the second member, is assimilated to the sibilant.
(i) Groups with 7: apei = 3776i necessarily; pala= नस्सइ vanishes; वैश्य = वइस्स a merchant; अश्व = आस horse; 978=qre side; geha= JRKI breathes ; e = arc beast of prey.

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S. 93.]
(ii) Groups with ष: आरुष्य - आरुस्स angrily; मनुष्य = मणुस्स भविष्यति = भविस्सइ will happen ;
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
man ; शिष्य = सिस्स pupil; पितृष्वसा = पिउस्सिया aunt.
(iii) Groups with स : वयस्य = वयस्स friend ; रहस्य = रहस्स secret ; तपस्विन् = तवस्सि a mendicant ; सरस्वती सरस्सई goddess of learning ; तस्य = तस्स his.
51
=
1
91 SEMI-VOWEL AND ASPIRATE
The semi-vowel forms the second member and hy gives jjh ज्झ and ho gives bbh ब्भ : गुह्य = गुज्झ secret : सह्य = सज्झ bearable ; अभिरुह्य = अभिरुज्झ having climbed ; परिगृह्य : परिगिज्झ having taken ; अनुग्राह्य अणुगेज्झ worthy of acceptance; जिह्वा = जिब्भा tongue ; विह्वल = विन्भल troubled.
Pali shows interchange of place of hy = yh and ho = vh in conformity with similar changes of the aspirate and nasals. In the case of semi-vowels, however, AMg. appears to preserve an older aspirate than both Sanskrit and Pāli.
GROUPS WITH LIQUIDS
=
92 Of the two liquids, ल assimilates र : निर्लज्ज - निल्लज्ज shameless; दुर्लभ = दुलह difficult to get ; निर्लेप = निल्लेव without
dirt.
93 LIQUIDS AND SIBILANTS
A. Liquid followed by a sibilant gives a regressive assimilation. दर्शन = दस्सण sight; स्पर्श = फस्स touch.
The more usual method in this case is to avoid assimilation and follow anaptyxis or substitute an anusvāra.
B. In a group of a sibilant followed by a liquid the sibilant assimilates the liquid. मिश्र = मिस्स mixed ; श्रेष्ठ = सेटू superior ; श्लक्ष्ण - सण्ह fine ; लाग्ध्य = सग्घ praise ; सहस्र = सहस्स thousand ; तमिस्रा = तमिस्सा darkness ; विस्र = विस्स bad smelling.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 94.
94 The liquid can form only the second member. They show interchange of place. Per = PER kind of flower ; "Egrih = TERTIPUT delightful; 6 = cea a name; 6 = or & pond.
95 Visarga followed by a sibilant gives regressive assimilation. The =TRE difficult to bear ; auto=farete all. In Sk. this is allowed as an optional Sandhi.
OTHER GROUP CHANGES 96 As in case of simple consonants, groups of consonants are cerebralised by < or # occuring in the word : f = HERM earth; a = a round; aqua = faqe finished; RETEZ = इड्डि prosperity; वृद्धि = वडि growth; श्रद्धा = सट्टा faith ; ग्रंथि = To knot.
Even here the process, of cerebralisation is not uniform and consistent : nirvịtta = nivvattá; yathāvịtta = jahävatta; śraddhā = saddhā; the verb always saddha- ; nirgrantha = niyanţha and niggantha; grantha!= gantha 'book'; Cerebralisation without a r sound is found in : pațțaņa; kavittha = kapittha ; bhhindimāla = bhindipāla.
97 Normal rules of assimilation may be violated in cases like : 9 4 4 freed ; T = 977*able; ce=3, bitten; ETA EZT = ATH ability ; FE = Te affection ; PARE = fare etc.
Pischel explains mukka from *mukna ; sakka from *sakna while Bloch supposes the influence of mukkai, sakkai. Sāmaccha may be a misreading of sāmattha, neha is due to dissimilation of n.
GROUPS OF THREE CONSONANTS 98 With groups of three consonants the same rules of assimilation apply, the weakest member falling out "first.
(i) If a nasal begins the group it becomes anusvāra and the remaining group is simplified. रन्ध्र = रन्ध hole ; कक्षा

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S. 99.]
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS
53
seal doubt ; asy = fäst name of a mountain; TRETI = FH evening ; पक्ति = पंति row.
(ii)" If a liquid or a visarga forms the first member it is first dropped : Hef=## mortal; achar al way; these = सामत्थ strength; निःस्थान = निट्ठाण base.
(iii) If a liquid or a semi-vowel stands at the end of the group it is first dropped : उष्ट्र = उट्ट camel ; दंष्ट्रा = दाढा fang; TEETI = Te road; te=fabe difficult; 144 = pertaining to step-mother.
(iv) In case of , and the first mute is dropped : stept = fue fine ; 947= wing ; JUTTGART = Fivel moonlight; aicut = ferua sharp.
INITIAL GROUPS 99 All the rules of medial groups apply to the initial conjuncts except that the process of doubling is not to be followed. This is due to the fact that AMg. does not allow a conjuct to stand at the beginning. प्रभा=पहा lustre; व्याघ्र = are tiger ; laats engaged ; Stu= au moment; = चाग abandoning; स्तव%थव praise; ध्वज=झय banner; क्रम कम step ; क्षुर = खुर razor; क्षत्रिय = खत्तिय chieftain.
In Sanskrit itself not all conjuncts can stand at the beginning of a word. In a group the first member is implosive and if the second is a stop, the first cannot be heard and so no two mutes can begin a word. If the second is a semi-vowel or a nasal the explosion of the first takes the form of these sounds and both become audible. But in AMg. all such conjuncts are reduced to groups of mutes and as such they must be simplified at the beginning of a word. ñh in nhāna and mh in mho are only apparent exceptions. They are simply aspirated forms of the nasals and correspond to such sounds as kh or gh. Moreover they differ from sounds in words like kanha or vimhaya where the first syllable is heavy by position and the sounds are nnh: and mmh.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 99.
Ex. 1 Give AMg. words for : Ha broken, of creation, अपवर्ग liberation, मुक्त released, भक्त food, सप्त seven,, उप्त sown, उक्त spoken, शुभ्र white.
Ex. 2 Give Sk. words for : Ha good intention, fra divine, वण्ण colour, सुन्न empty, रण्ण forest, लद्ध obtained, मद्दव, softness, a being, he thorn, 47es bark garment.
Ex. 3 Give AMg. words for: Tebare honour, Arant fly, मध्याह्न noon, विष्णु name of a god, हस्त hand, प्रस्तर stone, समस्त all, आर्यपुत्र Lord, उद्यम exertion, अस्मादृश like us. :
Ex. 4 Give Sk. words for: green child, her head, bitten, कट्ठ difficult, तच्छग joiner, कुन्छि womb, सुटू well, भजा wife, he middle, w to-day.

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CHAPTER FOUR
SONANTS, VOWELS AND VISARGA
SONANTS
100 Ardha-Māgadhi lacks all the sonants of Sanskrit namely F, # and e. They are represented by different vowels or syllables consisting of a vowel and a consonant.
Sanskrit ? represents the I-E. liquid , in the function of a sonant. But Sk. î has nothing to do with the I-E. *; (if it existed) which is represented in Sanskrit by -it- -ūr-. Sk. longi is the result of analogy in forms like pitin like agnin, dātīnām like agninām, Sk. I is found in one root only klp, and represents I-E. 7.
101 The vowel is changed to either 37 or zor y or R. No definite rules can be laid down for the purpose of determining the proper substitute. The usage alone decides it.
As compared to other languages Sk. alone has preserved the sonant ļ which is represented in other speeches as a combination of r and a vowel (Av. er Gr, ya, ar). The pronunciation of the sound is variously given as velar (Rg. Prāt.) alveolar (Tait. Prāt,) or cerebral (Pāņini) which may have something to do with its further development into different vowels. In actual pronunciation it is a r sound followed by a central vowel resembling i [i]. This (Cf. kȚmi krimi) distinguishes the Indian from the Iranian where the sound follows a vowel (Sk. krnoti Av. keranaoili). A trace of this nature of ? is found by Brugmann in forms like kuryāt from ks, but which are regarded by Wackernagel as analogical.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 101.
The sound proved unstable and changed differently. In Sanskrit itself we find pituḥ from pit?- and in Middle Indian all three vowels a (cf. Sk. vikata from vikrta) i (Sk.' kina from *kına) and u (Sk. mātula from *mātr-la) are found. Of these u is due to the presence of a labial sound nearby. From the evidence of the Asokan inscriptions Bloch concludes that a is peculiar to western and i to north-west and estern languages. It was all along regarded as a simple vowel but initially the i sound is preserved in Middle Indian in the change to ri, where a vowel is also admissible and appears to be older.
(i) ऋ=अ: घृत =घय ghee; तृण-तण grass; वृषभ वसह bull; वृक= वग wolf ; 'तृष्णा = तण्हा thirst; भृति = भइ wages; प्राकृत = पायय ordinary; मृत्तिका = मट्टिया mud.
In the Past Passive Participles of roots in the usual substitute is अ: कृत = कय, कड done ; मृत-मड dead; हृत = हड carried; कृष्ट= कट्ट dragged; हृष्ट-हट्ट delighted; मृष्ट-मट्ठ polished; also in compounds: सुकृत सुकय well done; विकृत = वियड deformed ; संस्तृत संथड spread; आहृत = आहड brought; निकृति = नियडि deceit.
(ii) =इ : कृश = किस weak; कृपण = किविण miser ; दृष्टि = दिट्टि sight; शृगाल=सियाल jackal; शृंग= सिंग horn; हृदय-हियय heart; मसृणमसिण soft; गृह = गिह house; वृत्ति = वित्ति maintenance; कृत्य = किच्च rite.
In a number of words . becomes रि: सदृश =सरिस like; ईश = एरिस like this; कीदृश = केरिस like which ; तादृश तारिस like that; अस्मादृश = अम्हारिस like us; युष्मादृश= तुम्हारिस like you. Cf. 43.
(iii) = उ: मृणाल = मुणाल lotus stalk; मृषा= मुसा false ; निभृत = निहुय calm ; पृच्छति - पुच्छइ asks ; स्पृशति - फुसइ touches; पृथ्वी-पुढवी earth.
If a word ends with # and forms the first member of a compound the ऋ is changed to उ: मातृमरण =माउमरण the death of the mother; भ्रातृघातक= भाउघायक murderer of the

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S. 104.)
VOWELS
57
brother ; HTHIYA = F(H184 son-in-law; HILANGE FIAT = HTETASFry of good birth from father and mother. (iv) Initial # becomes : #ra = fifa sage ; #01 = Rut debt ;
=Rhe bull; #fprosperity. Originally the vowel was the proper substitute which is the only one in Pāli. Pk. also show's şi = isi; Ina= ana ; ītu = uu ; ışabha = usaha ; ?ksa = accha; ?ddhi = iddhi ; rju = ujju. Besides there are a few peculiar changes like vrkșa=vaccha, rukkha, gļhņāti=genhai, ginhai. In compounds I also gives i: māimarana; māirakkhiya; bhāisoga; ammāpiisamāna etc. R is presupposed in such changes as sadhila from * śȚthila ; bhiudi from * bhrkuti.
102 # becomes for 5 : 3441150i = Araraquira of father and mother ; माईणं मातृणाम् of mothers.
The originai ļ gives ū in tūha, annautthiya, junna. Pischel supposes an intermediate stage of *anyatūrthika, *tūrtha and Vedic jūrna. As noted above long i can occur in definite grammatical forms only.
103 E becomes sfos:
paressa imagined;
a = falsafa
trick.
.
.
Unlike ? Į is regarded as a combination of the liquid 1 and a vowel sound. Pāli, however, shows changes which regard it as a pure vowel.
VOWELS
104. Ardha-Māgadhi lacks the two diphthongs g and a and possesses two additional vowels short ğ and 311. These short vowels are usally followed by a conjunct consonant. In the words क्षेत्र = खेत्त field; ओष्ठ = ओ? lip, they will be found short.
Sanskrit diphthongs ai, au represent the original I-E. diphthongs with the first element long (*ãi, *āu), while the diphthongs with the first element short (I-E. *ai, * au) have become the simple

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58
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 104.
vowels e and o. But because they behave like diphthongs (a-y, a-i, a-v, a-u) in Sandhi they are regarded as diphthongs in grammar. The process which led to the Sanskrit system from the primitive vowels has further resulted in the development found in Middle Indian. The predominent consideration has been to preserve the quantity and ai and.e and au and o have the same metrical value. In a group like veștana and viştara the first syllable has the same metrical length in both (v-e-s; v-i-ş) though the first has a long vowel and the second has a short one. The only difference was that e was longer than i and ș of the first shorter than the s of the second. With the assimilation of the conjunct the fine distinction of length was lost and the preceding vowel was shortened without, however, losing its distinctive quality. These sounds, however, proved unstable and were reduced to the neutral a in later' Prākrit (Pk. kahenti Ap. kahanti).
105 ऐ usually becomes ए : वैर = वेर hatred ; शैल = सेल mountain ; नैरयिक = नेरइय hellish being ; मैत्री = मेत्ति friendship; दैवत =देवय deity; नैमित्तिक-नेमित्तिय fortune-teller; वैद्य = वेज physician; भैषज्य = भेसज्ज medicine;' वैताढ्य = वेयड्ड name of a
mountain (really vedyardha); वैशालि = वेसालि name of a town; शैवल सेवल moss. . In few cases it. is dissolved into अइ : सैन्य = सइन्न army; दैत्य = दइच्च demon ; दैन्य = दइन्न poverty; वैशाख = वइसाह name of a month; स्वैर = सइर free ; कैलास=कइलास Himalaya ; दैव = दइव्व fate. ___106 औ usually becomes ओ: औषध = ओसह medicine;
कौतुक = कोउय a ceremony ; कौतूहल = कोऊहल curiosity ; द्वा=दो two; पौराण = पोराण old; सौख्य =सोक्ख happiness; सौम्य = सोम्म docile ; क्षौम = खोम garment; गौर = गोर fair; लौकिक = लोगिय worldly; कौमुदीकोमुई moon light; पौरुषी = पोरुसी a period of time; सौकुमार्य = सोगुमल्ल tenderness. ___In a few cases it is dissolved into अउ : कौशल=कउसल dexterity; पौरुष = पउरिस manliness; गौड = गउड Bengal; मौलि = मउलि crest; पौर = पउर citizen ; सौध-सउह mansion.

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S. 107.]
VOWELS
59
The two-fold development of the diphthongs is difficult to explain. While the normal change is to turn them into e, o in few cases they show optional forms of ai and au, though the usage is nof precise in this respect. Neither are the conditions under which this dissolution takes place known except that the sound is not followed by a conjunct, in most cases. The change may be due to the desire to preserve the sound-value because of its semantic value. In gārava Sk. gaurava we have a parallel development of the vocalic resonance of the sonant *or which developed in Sk. as i (giri) or u (guru) when it formed an independent syllable with a following vowel. Pāli and Pk. have garu, garuya.
107 SHORTENING OF VOWELS
(i) Long vowels are shortened before conjuncts. 312= att mango fruit; a =da red; proy= 8a poetry ; 2167= रज kingdom; मुनीन्द्र = मुणिंद great sage; तीर्थ=तित्थ holy place; qui=quor powder ; 12 = field ; 21 = Aire liberation.
The short values of ě and ő are sometimes represented by į and u which alone may be found in some words like ikkhāga I= aikşvāka ; saņicchara = śanaiścara. But writings like picchai = pecchai, khitta = khetta, miccha = meccha are due to the absence of signs for short ě and o
The same shortening is found before enclitics beginning with a geminated consonant : GRAT FT; 78 Ft; float ca ; FET FENT ; चाइ त्ति ; गिरि व्व; सव्वन्नु त्ति.
(ii) Long vowels before simple consonants are shortened when the consonant is doubled : T = fragt sport; ela = TETT ditch; ag=des oil; as = gus garment; era= may happen ; Grefrire = Fifosit should know; ara= fauis is given.
Pischel explains this change as due to the accent on the end of the word which causes the doubling of the consonant and naturally the shortening of the vowel. In any case both these changes are based upon the preservation of the syllabic value as can be seen from kavya (-u) kavva (- ) yauvana (-vu) jovvana (-uu).

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 107.
(iii) Long vowels are shortened when followed by an Bear : qiz = 48 dust ; RA= A flesh; SFERA = 5410 now.
(iv) When a word increases its syllables by anaptyxis the long vowel is shortened : श्री = सिरि goddess of wealth; ही =
shame; aşef=aarsu lapis lazuli; FEHE TEA fine ; Grei= 3rfe teacher.
(v) in compounds the final of the first member is often shortened : Acacia = or the bank of the river; gezinta = geraakt weapon of 'earth; f27a7ales = fuprafales time of begging ; क्रीडाकर = किड्डकर making sport.
(vi) In verses we find short vowels in grammatical forms where we expect long vowels, but where Sanskrit shows short vowels. ताइणं = ताईणं Sk. नायिणाम् of those who protect; GOTE = Flug Sk. gfag in births; quoi = quoftui Sk. aforaire of living beings.
(vii) The rhythm explains some shortenings : atas, aprange = * friqlat causes to make; base = trufa places; HISEE, E = Es curiosity ; 37rafia = stora brought.
Of these the change due to the presence of the anusvāra and anaptyxis certainly come under the law of metrical length as the quantity of the word remains the same in both cases mõisa (-u) mamsa (-u) sri (-) siri (vv). The short vowels in declensional forms in verses are clearly due to the metrical necessity helped by the Sanskrit forms. The shortening of the first member of the compound and that due to rhythm are the result of a well known tendency of ancient times by which the word tried to preserve some kind of balance in the number of short and long syllables. Thus in Sanskrit we find vāvīdhe and vavardha, in Pāli satimato, ditthigata and in Modern languages forms like Mar. kida, kidā.

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S. 108.]
VOWELS
61
103 LENGTHENING OF VOWELS
(i) Short vowels followed by a conjunct are represented by long vowels followed by simple consonants. कर्तव्य = कायव्व duty; वर्ष = वास year ; पश्यति = पासइ sees.
(ii) Long vowels followed by a conjunct are represented by long vowels followed by simple consonants. ईश्वर = ईसर god ; दीर्घ =दीह long ; शीर्ष =सीस head; गात्र =गाय limb; गोत्र =गोय name.
(iii) Short vowel with an anusvāra is represented by a long vowel : विंशत् = वीसं twenty; दंष्टा = दाढा fang; सिंह =सीह lion; संरक्षण = सारक्खण protection.
All these cases find their explanation in the law of metrical length which is preserved everywhere.
(iv) On account of emphasis a vowel is lengthened, when followed by एव : एवामेव indeed thus ; खिप्पामेव quickly; तणामवि even a blade of grass; Arnê even in minor directions.
(v) Vocative forms, imperative and other words used in addressing, lengthen their final vowel which may be called प्लुति : आणंदा इ 0 Ananda; पासहा see; होऊ णं let it be so.
(vi) The end of the first member is often lengthened in compounds. रजतमय = रययामय made of silver; वज्रमय = वइरामय
made of dimonds; compounds with perfixes : प्रकट =पायड clear; प्रवचन = पावयण preaching; अभिजित् = अभीइ a constellation; व्यतिव्रज्वीईवय to proceed ; with the suffix कः मुहूर्तक= मुहुत्ताग moment; क्षुद्रक = खुड्डाग small; अनादिक = अणाईय endless.
Here also the rhythm may be partially responsible for the length of the vowels, particularly when the word is composed of a series of short syllables. ___(vii) Purely metrical lengthening is found in : मईमं= मतिमान् wise ; सहई = सहते suffers; वियाणिया = विज्ञाय knowing; कयाई = कदाचित् at some time.

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62
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 109.
109 WEAKENING OF VOWELS (i) 37 is weakened into 3: in syllables before the accent FAH = 3TIA best ; (uttamá); DRA=ITH (caramá) last; 199 = 94 (pakvá) ripe; H A = ARTH (madhyamá) middle; PH GTI = HAI (majjá ) marrow; $7= (msdangá ) drum.
Geiger and others, who accept the stress accent as against Pischel, would explain this change as due to initial accent on these words. Thus cárama becomes carima..
(ii) 371 is weakened into sin syllables after the accent : an=aar (tésām) of them; AH = HATA: (námāmaḥ) we salute; af = SEIHE (vándāmahe) ; FILEJH = HERT (sáhāyya) help.
In these cases the expiratory accent will also fall on the first syllable and will have the same effect. That i represents the weakening of a or ā is well known in Sanskrit ablaut-series through the intermediate step of schwa ( ) as can be seen from hita from daa-, sthita from sthā-. A similar accent may be supposed in cases like jai *yádā; tai *tádā; sai *sádā.
(iii) Long vowels become shortened after the accented syllable : उक्खय = उत्खात (utkhata) dug; कुलल कुलाल (kurala) potter; आणिय = अनीक (anika) army; अलिय = अलीक (alika) false ; वम्मिय = वल्मीक (valmika) ant-hill; उलुय = उलूक (alaka) owl. Fe = 72T (yátha) as; e = 7271 (tátha) so: 31€ = Fram (anyátha).
(iv) Long vowels are shortened before accented syllables : Th1991= SHTETT (amāvāsyā) new-moon-day ; 3a = pula (sthāpáyati) places; R = FAR ( kumāra ) prince; Esg= afea (khäditá) eaten ; qa6 = Tae (pravāhá) flow; TEE nafte ( gabhîrá) deep ; fecon=(vedaná ) pain."
Both these changes cannot be explained by the supposition of the penultimate stress accent and we must postulate the shift

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S. 110.]
VOWELS
ing of the accent on the initial syllable. The final vowel is shortened in udūhu =utāho. Initial syllable is shortened in kahāvana = kārşāpaņa, niggoha = nyagrodha, dujivha= dvijivha.
110 STRENGTHENING OF VOWELS
(i) इ becomes ए : पिण्ड = पेण्ड oil cake ; सिंदूर=सेंदूर red powder ; लिच्छवि-लेच्छइ a tribe ; मेत्त=* mi-tra Sk. मात्र only; गिण्हाति=गेण्हइ Sk. गृण्हाति takes, विन्त=वेण्ट Sk. वृन्त stalk.
(ii) ई becomes ए before conjuncts : क्रीडा खेड sport; आमेल=* आपीड्य crest ; जाणेजा = जानीयात् should know. . (iii) उ becomes ओ before conjuncts : पुष्करिणी = पोक्खरिणी lotus pond; पुष्करपोक्खर lotus; तुण्ड=तोण्ड mouth; मुद्र मोग्गर club; पुद्गलपोग्गल matter ; कुट्टिम = कोट्टिम pavement; पुस्तक=पोत्थग book.
(iv) ऊ becomes ओ before conjuncts. : कूपर कोप्पर elbow; मूल्य = मोल्ल value. ।
pok.
Some of these words may be derived from the VỊddhi forms as suggested by Bloch (molla =marulya). The long vowels first fell in with the short ones and both are represented by the short ě, which approached the sounds of i, u.
(v) In open syllables aiso ई and ऊ become ए and ओ: ईश = एरिस like this ; कीदृश = केरिस like what ; तांबूल = तंबोल betel nut ; लांगूल = नंगोल tail.
Pischel derives erisa from Vedic ayā + dịś, kerisa = kayā + dịś. Geiger supposes the gemination of consonant which is further 'simplified.
(vi) अ becomes आ: प्रत्येक = पाडिएक each one ; चतुरन्त= चाउरन्त of four corners; गृहपति = गाहावई householder; समृद्धि= सामिद्धि prosperity; चतुर्दशी= चाउद्दसी the fourteenth day; प्रमुख = पामोक्ख chief ; चतुरंगिणी = चाउरंगिणी army.
Geiger would explain these changes as due to initial accent on these words (anubhava = anubhava: aroga = aroga).

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHĪ
111 EFFECTS OF NEIGHBOURING VOWELS becomes by assimilation:
(i)
sugar cane; इषु = उसु arrow ; शिशु = सुसु child; शिशुमार = सुंसुमार crocodile. (ii) उ becomes इ : स्वप्न = सुमिण = सिमिण dream ; ईषत्
little.
64
[S. 111.
-
—
ईसिं
(iii) becomes before another by dissimilation : मुकुल= मउल bud; मुकुट = मउड crown ; दुगंछा = जुगुप्सा disgust. (iv) अ may change a following उ into अ : तिरक्षु = तिरक्ख.. In many of these cases Pischel thinks that a may be the original sound and Sanskrit u may be due to assimilation of the other u.
112 EFFECTS OF NEIGHBOURING CONSONANTS
(i)
becomes under the influence of labial sounds: प्रावरण = पाउरण covering; कर्मणा = कम्मुणा by action; श्मशान = सुसाण cemetary.
(ii) becomes near a palatal sound: bed; ब्रह्मचर्य=बंभचेर celibacy; आश्चर्य = अच्छेर wonder ; सौंदर्य - सुंदर beauty.
=
113 A number of words in Prakrit have come from words differing from Sanskrit or formed differently, which has made the grammarians give a number of apparent changes. Thus kiha Vedic katha; puvvim = pūrvīm; heṭṭhā=*adheṣṭ(h) at: gejjha = *gṛhya; simbali Vedic simbala; olla from und-; pārevaya = *pārepata; initial iya (Sk. iti) as in Latin ita; vicchuya (Sk. vṛcchika) geruya (Sk. gairika) neyauya (Sk. naiyayika) going back to the suffix -uka as contrasted with Sk. -ika; vihūņa from dhu (Pk. dhunai); ubhao = *ubhataḥ; uvviḍha from ud-vidh; 40 neura *nepura; annanna Vedic nayanya; theva from stip; and many other individual words..
VISARGA
114 Visarga coming from Sanskrit
becomes : अंतः = अंतो inside; अहः = अहो day; प्रातः = पाओ in the morning ; पुनः = पुणो again.

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S. 116.]
VISARGA
65
In antahpura it becomes e as anteura.
115 Visarga coming from Sanskrit s Ę becomes 34 : aa: = it then; paa:=Hozzi everywhere ; 3ta: = 3731 hence ; gart: कओ whence ; यतः=जओ because ; धर्मतः=धम्मओ according to religion.
116 In a number of adverbs Visarga has become g: 374T:=Ề down; gr:= formerly; magis previous activity ; E:= in secret ; *=tà to-morrow.
In these cases Bloch suggests that the change is due to regarding the forms as those of locative.
Ex. 1 Give AMg. words for : 4 compassion, ira greatness, BEE unseen, taa nectar, escali inquiry, ऋषिदत्त given by a sage, वैतरिणी name of a river, क्लप्ति trick, acra deceit, AH name of Mahāvīra's disciple, sila mansion, atha: according to name.
Ex. 2 Give Sk. words for: sf prosperity, graut name of Indra's elephant, ओसहि plant, मच्चु death, मउय soft, जोव्वण youth, heyst medicine, nes takes, ass growth, fog back,
old.
Ex. 3 Give AMg. words for : AUTA middle, rey value, तृतीय third, कुमार prince, यतः because, पुरुष man, मुकुट crown, मात्र only, पक्व ripe, पुष्कर lotus.
Ex. 4 Give Sk. words for : FIEST help, holl bed, taken, अलिय false, चरिम last, ओल्ल wet, गरुय heavy, तम्ब red File liberation. .

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CHAPTER FIVE
OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES
117 A conjunct occurs because two consonants come together without a vowel between them. Naturally a conjunct can be avoided by inserting a vowel between the two members of a conjunct. Thus in the word 'a jewel' the conjunct made of a and can be got rid of by inserting between them. Then we get the form and by applying the rules of single consonants we arrive at the form This process is called ANAPTYXIS . The vowel thus inserted is usually but and also occur. Other vowels are exceptional. Anaptyxis is found when one member of the conjunct is a semi-vowel viz. a, a,, or a nasal.
उ
While assimilation is the rule with the treatment of conjuncts. in Middle Indian, there are cases where it is inapplicable. Particularly when a fricative and an occlusive come into contact, anaptyxis takes place. The sonants can act as both vowels or consonants and this gives them a peculiar position in the soundsystem of a language. When they are of the nature of continuants they naturally lack contact and could not be easily assimilated either before or after another sound. In an attempt to preserve both the sounds a part of voice of the sonant gets freed from the sonant and develops into a vowel of indistinct nature which may further, assume the form of any one of the short vowels. Thus with the two semi-vowels -y- and -w- the Vedic language preserves the voice in the form of an additional syllable (j(i) ya, Gr. biós; d(u) vā Gr. dúo). The same is true

Page #80

S. 117.]
OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES
of the other sonants r, I, n, m. (cf. rudhira Gr. eruthrós). The Indian grammarians call this phenomenon svarabhakti and state that it,occurs after 7, I when followed by a fricative and a vowel. in groups like th or ry it is found most frequently as assimilation is impossible. The nature of the vowel was indefinite as the Sikşās give all the three vowels a, i, and u and even e. Thus indra gave ind (-)ra, darsatadar (-) Sata. The word purusa thus comes from *pürşa. In Classical Sanskrit we find a few cases like manoratha from *manortha or dahara from dabhra. The Prākrit languages show the phenomenon to a vast extent.
(i) Insertion of इ : भव्य भविय auspicious ; चैत्य चेइय temple ; कृष्ण-कसिण black ; कृत्स्न=कसिण all; किन्न-किलिन्न wet ; केश=किलेस trouble; हर्ष हरिस delight; नग्न नगिण naked ; प्रश्नपसिण question; गर्दा=गरिहा censure ; सूर्य=सूरिय sun; आचार्य=आयरिय teacher; भार्या=भारिया wife ; स्नान-सिणाण bath; श्री सिरि goddess of wealth ; व्ही=हिरि shame ; क्रिया= किरिया action; उष्ण=उसिण hot ; वीर्य=वीरिय energy ; स्पर्श=फरिस touch ; श्लोक= सिलोग verse ; क्लान्त=किलिन्त exhausted.
___ (ii) Insertion of अ : अर्हत् =अरहा venerable ; अग्नि=अगणि fire ; अभीक्ष्णं-अभिक्खणं often ; गर्हा=गरहा censure ; पृथ्वीपुढवी earth ; अरनिरयणि cubit ; भस्मन्=भसम ashes ; हद-हरय lake.
(iii) Insertion of उ : द्वार=दुवार door ; द्वे=दुवे two ; पद्म =परम lotus ; छद्म-छउम guise ; श्व:-सुवे tomorrow; ऋग्वेद रिउव्वेय Rgveda ; स्मरति=सुमरइ remembers.
118 Another way of dealing with conjunct is to simplify it. After one member of the conjunct is dropped, instead of doubling the remaining consonant, the preceding vowel, if short, is lengthened. Thus in the word अश्व ‘a horse' when 9 is dropped, instead of doubling we lengthen 37 to 311 and get the form F1. This method is generally used when the conjunct is made up of the semi-vowels य, व, र, ल and the sibilants श, ष, स.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHİ
(S. 118.
As a matter of fact the simplification of the conjunct with the compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel must be regarded as a later development than assimilation. Thus aśva = assa = āsa. In all the stages the quantity of the syllables remains intact. The process must have started with long vowels after which, as noted by Pāṇini, the consonants are not doubled, thereby suggesting that the first member of the following group was pronounced lightly and finally lost as being not needed for syllabic quantity. In such cases the division of the syllables may have been pā/tri and the development may be regarded as: parallel with Latin paterm becoming Fr. père.
(i) Conjunct with 7 : paura sees; 1719=4742 family name ; शिष्य-सीस pupil ; नश्यति=नासइ vanishes.
(ii) Conjunct with : famA=TATA rest ; fx=rte mixed ; id=ste head; Fart=914 touch; gratarea unfortunate; a=HR measure; 99=TR vessel ; = TP limb; podty=ffy duty; a=ar year; a=cultivator.
(iii) Conjunct with : antes=ames bark garment.
(iv) Conjunct with : antaratele faith ; furgare god ; उच्छ्वास-ऊसास breathing ; अश्व=आस horse.
(v) Other conjuncts : Com=&Eur south ; JH=349 festival ; 35=strum order ; F =Fier tongue; HHT=HTH ashes; आत्मा=आया soul.
In a number of cases instead of lengthening, strengthening occurs. Thus kuşthai= kodha; gìddhi = gehi; ślişti = sedhi. No lengthening occurs in asta = adha; nişīşta= nisadha. The prefix ā remains long before the two roots khyā- and jñā- ag āghāya=ākhyāya; āghavei=ākhyāpayati; āņavei=ājñāpayati ; anatti =ājñapti.
119 Sometimes I or a palatal sound in a conjunct is represented by an anusvāra on the preceding syllable. This is called SPONTANEOUS NASALISATION. =aje crooked ;

Page #82

S. 121.)
OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES
39=sių tears; a=q beard; a= 40 sight; age= area friend ; 1 =gjë tax; pat=64 touch ; HG=ÄN marrow; a=Fri famous; He farmas salutes ; Fariqui=* faen garment; a=da triangle ; 99=de wing.
No satisfactory explanation can be given for this change. Very frequently a long vowel alternates with a nasalised one and that may be due to slackness in allowing the soft palate to fall down and produce a nasal sound. The presence of the fricative may well help this change.
120 For the simplicity of pronunciation a vowel or a consonant may be inserted at the beginning of a word. This is called PROTHESIS. F=geeft woman ; TE=Ga very ; 59= विय like ; उक्त-वुत्त spoken..
The first is due to the desire to help pronunciation of a conjunct at the beginning of a word. Pischel thinks that the Präkrit form preserves the original dissyllabic value of the word.
121 EFFECTS OF ACCENT
Accent formed an important phonetic element of the I-E. speech. Sanskrit in its earliest stage shows a movable accent like Greek and must have been predominantly musical as is proved by the names udātta anudātta and the statements of the grammarians. The question whether some changes in the phonology of Prākrit languages are due to accent is much disputed. Bloch would deny any effect of a stress accent like the one in Germanic on the initial syllable or Latin regulated by the quantity of the last three syllables of a word. Both Pischel and Jacobi agree in attributing some phonetic changes in Prakrit to the effects of an expiratory accent but while Pischel places it on the same syllable on which the original musical accent rested and even suggests that the Vedic accent may have been to some degree stress, Jacobi would place the accent on the long syllable before the final. Considering the difficulty of regarding the change of a musical accent into a stress, it is probable that from the earliest times there was a stress accent side by side with the musical one mostly on the same syllable, and it may have produced such

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 121.
changes as the lengthening or loss of vowels and doubling of consonants. 122 VOWEL CHANGES
(i) An unaccented vowel is lost : q=39% (udaká) water ; पोसह= उपवसथ (upavasathi) fast ; लाउ=अलाबु (alaba) gourd; ry=f fa householder ; alt=raia past; aiša =अवतंसक crest.
The changes áranya = Tanna, árişta = rittha agree more with Jacobi's system of accentuation. :
(ii) The initial vowel of the enclitics is often lost : a= ( after anusvāra ) a (after vowel ); gara ( after anusvāra ) FA ( after short vowels ) & (after long vowels); sa=a ( after anusvāra ) 67 (after vowel ).
(iii) A vowel in the middle may be lost : सुरभि सुन्भि smelling good ; दुरभि-दुभि smelling bad; उपरिउ above; Azilca=H59 noon. 123 CONSONANTAL CHANGES
(i) The consonant in the accented syllable may be geminated, doraes (tailá) oil; 14=(premán) love ;
cara ( daivá ) fate; grocerquin (tūsrākám ) silently ; Gw= (rjú) straight ; fest= T= ( krida ) sport ; 15 =ais (nidá) nest; tra=ne ( nakhá) nail ; s=gapore ( dukūlá ) garment.
(ii) In a number of cases the accent is not known: Floqurian youth ; 4541=hal service ; To=filu according to meaning; the suffixes To, 58, 59.
In such cases Bloch sees, not the effect of accent, but the gemination due to expressiveness as found in Sanskrit itself, itthā, iyattikā, katthate etc. All such doubling and those of the suffixes illa, ulla, alla may be of popular origin:

Page #84

S. 126.]
OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES
71
(iii) Some cases of gemination are due to hesitation between anaptyxis and assimilation : सश्रीक=सस्सिरीय full of beauty; ऋग्वेद-रिउब्वेय Rgveda ; सक्रीय=सक्किारय doing deeds ; शुक्ल-सुक्किल white.
In paroppara and namokkāra the conjunct in Sk, is responsible for the doubling though the -as has become o.
___(iv) Analogical doubling is found in : आलीन=अल्लीण concealed; कायगिरा=कायग्गिरा with words and deeds; परवश= परव्वस dependent ; अनुवश=अणुव्वस amicable ; बहुफल=बहुप्फल with abundant fruits; पुरुषकार=पुरिसक्कार manliness ; सचित्त= सञ्चित्त with life.
(v) Etymology or a different conjugation may be responsible in the gemination of words like : कुतः कत्तो whence; अन्यतः=अन्नत्तो from another; सर्वतः सव्वत्तो from everywhere ; लगाते-लग्गइ sticks; उन्मीलति-उम्मिल्लइ blooms ; चलति-चल्लइ moves.
In these and similar verbs Pischel supposes a fourth conjugation like *calyati, *lagyati, while Jacobi suggests an accent on the thematic vowel. '
124 When a whole syllable is dropped the change is called SYNCOPE. अवट=अड well; निःश्रेयस निस्सेस highest good ; नूनं=णं indeed ; जीवित-जीय life ; देवकुल-देउल temple ; राजकुल-राउल royal family.
125 When the dropping of the syllable is caused by a similar sound near it, the change is called HAPLOLOGY. हृदय-हिय heart; सिचय=सिय garment; एवमेव=एमेव thus; अपररात्र=अवरत्र latter part of the night; अनायतन=अणायण improper place.
____126 When two consonants interchange place in the word the change is called METATHESIS. वाराणसी वाणारसी Benares

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 126.
उपानही वाहणाओ shoes ; हृदक हरए pond ; दीर्घ=दीहर long ; महाराष्ट्र=मरहट्ठ Maratha country.
Metathesis is found in case of two successive sounds mostly of the cerebral class as n or r which are difficult to pronounce or such conjuncts as hr where the two sounds in the order always tend to replace each other. 127 ANUSVĀRA AND LONG VOWELS ALTERNATE
(i) Anusvara replaces a long vowel : वीसावीसं twenty; तीसातीसं thirty; तिरिया=तिरियं animal; सम्मा = सम्मं properly; अट्ठा=अटुं for ; मुसा=मुसं false; हेठा हेठं down.
(i) Long vowel replaces Anusvara : संदंश=संडास pincers; शक्यं=सक्का possible ; इथिं=इत्थी woman.
(iii) The finals of many adverbs are nasalised : इह= इहं here ; पभिइपभिई etc.; उवरि-उवरि above; बहिः=बाहिं outside ; मुहुः-मुहुं again and again.
The alternance is old (cf. Vedic itthā, ittham). The syllablic value of a long and a nasalised vowel is the same which helps the interchange. Moreover all long vowels tend to become nasalised because of the difficulty of keeping the soft palate raised for a long time and all final vowels tend to become long. Pāṇini notes the fact that final short vowels a, i and u were nasalised. In case of adverbs analogy may be partly responsible for the presence of the anusvāra.
128 When the semi-vowels & and a become the vowels इ and उ the change is called संप्रसारण.
(i) = इ : अभ्यंतर=अभितर inside ; प्रत्यनीक-पडिणीय inimical; व्यतिक्रान्त=वीइकंत gone over.
(ii) क् = उ : त्वरितं = तुरियं quickly; त्वम्=तुमे you ; स्वप्न सुविण dream ; स्वस्तिक-सोत्थिय a kind of figure; श्वपाक-सोवाग low caste man.
(iii) अय् =ए: कथयति कहइ tells ; नयतिनेइ leads; लयन लेण cave; त्रयदश-तेरस thirteen..

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S. 128.]
OTHER PHONETIC CHANGES
(iv) अव्=ओ : अवस्वापिनीओसोवणी producing sleep; अवधि: ओहि a kind of knowledge; लवण-लोण salt; अवम= ओम less; भवति होइ becomes.
The semi-vowels act like consonants before vowels and when the vowel is lost or weakened they become vowels.
Ex. 1 Give AMg. words for : Filca novice, Brget model, आदर्श mirror, वज्र diamond, श्लेष sticking, स्मरण remembering, सस्य corn, मनुष्य man, अस्त्र corner, वर्षति rains.
Ex. 2 Give Sk. words for : वयंस friend, नीसास sigh, पयाहिण going round, पुंछ tail, मोरिय name of a tribe, गिलाण sick, सिणेह affection, सुहुम fine, रयण jewel, वेरुलिय kind of jewel.
___Ex. 3 Name and explain the phonetic changes observed in the following equations : करेणुकणेरू elephant, महाराष्ट्र=मरहट्ठ name of a country, पादपीठ-पावीढ foot-stool, शिबिका-सीया palanquin, नख नक्ख nail, कौतूहलकोउहल्ल curiosity, अलावु% लाउ gourd, अवश्यायओस frost, व्यजन=वियण fan, भवति होइ becomes.

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CHAPTER SIX
SANDHI
129 The observance of Sandhi rules in Ardha-Magadhi is not so strict and consistent 'as in Sanskrit. Two vowels can, in this language, come together and remain without combining. Hiatus or the presence of two vowels without forming Sandhi occurs in the body of a word or between two words in a sentence. Nearly in all cases Sandhi is optional. In practice, however, it is usually observed in a compound and in groups of words forming one phrase in a sentence.
The phenomenon of Sandhi in Classical Sanskrit does not reflect the real nature of the language. but the influence of grammatical theory on the literary aspect of a language. Even grammarians admit that samhita is optional and dependent on the will of the speaker. The Vedic texts show, on metrical consideration, that the writing does not show in all respects the real sounds of the language and in many cases the written Sandhi must not be present originally. In few words like titaü we find hiatus in the body of a word.
VOWEL SANDHI
130 Sandhi is forbidden in the following cases:
(i) A vowel left behind by the dropping of a medial consonant does not combine with another : यति- जइ an ascetic ; मृदुक = मउय soft; ऋतु उउ season ; रिपु- रिउ enemy ; वियोग = विओग separation.

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S. 131.]
SANDHI
75
Exceptions : (a) In a few cases such a vowel combines with a similar vowel : 9122=rata expiation ; Harrer venerable ; fecurata second; gar=aru third ; cargar fig ; पादातिक=पाइक्क foot soldier ; शिबिका=सीया palanquin; wahaia=rstor west.
In such cases the length of the word and the accent on the surviving syllable help the contraction.
(b) अ or आ is combined with इ or उ : स्थविर=थेर old man; A =#Te peacock ; aget=a fourteen ; 4=TA lotus; agra diamond.
(c) Such a vowel is combined with the vowel of the second member of a compound : कुंभकार=कुंभार potter ; PAR=AHR worker ; 9492=ami a kind of bird; TAR
=This tender ; sifa=sien darkened; pear=Ear camp; वर्षाकाल=वरिसाल rainy season.
(ii) The vowel of the termination, if it is the only syllable of it, does not combine with others : aprile he does ; stesse let him go; gang of the queen ; rs to give. Exceptions : les = net he will do; alfese = are he will know; ETTES = he will become.
(iii) If the first vowel is not 27, no Sandhi is formed between dissimilar vowels : ‘जाइअंध born blind ; बहुअट्रिय having many seeds; पुढवीआउ earth and water ; सत्तिअग्ग the point of a larice; grily well adorned ; geefs great prosperity; asics having two senses ; Tesaria calm by nature; GERT well studied. · The only Sandhi possible in such cases is the change of the vowel into the semi-vowel forming a conjunct with the preceding consonant. Now Prākrit shows a tendency to dissolve such groups with semi-vowels and will naturally not allow such Sandhi.
131 Prākrit shows Sandhīs of both Sanskrit type and of a peculiar Prakrit nature. As pointed out by Jacobi the rules of :

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 131.
Sanskrit Sandhi are based on preserving the quantity and quality of both the vowels coming together. The earliest stage of Sandhi is nothing but the formation of diphthongs where one of the vowels, acts as coefficient of the other. The general tendency in IndoAryan is to weaken the final of the first word. In Sanskrit itself both a and a give the same result with the following vowel and we know that the original long diphthongs (āi, āu) are represented in Sanskrit by ai and au. The next stage was to let the first short vowel fall before a heavy initial as in Prākrit and Pāli narinda. With a light initial the first step was to preserve the quantity of both as in Pāli nūpalabbhati, seyyathidam. Later on the final was fully lost as in kumārassuvari. Thus the peculiar Prākrit Sandhi was formed by dropping the final before a long initial or one heavy by position.
132 When similar vowels come together they combine to form long vowels :
(i) 37 or 377+37 or 347 = 37: fa + sila = sifatpira living and lifeless things; धम्म+अधम्म = धम्माधम्म religion and irreligion; +3769 = fere things to be done and not done; prestales = arrears proper and improper time; sfora+SITIR sfpirir intention and gestures; it + 3 = fiere singing and other arts; ET + TAM = larant end of religious discourse; + = ante as the chief of the low caste men; past+3mpre = arra the teacher of arts.
(ii) or $ +5 or g = $ : geef +$= gefter the lord of earth; ytt e = Forrere great sage.
(iii) 3 or 5+3 or 5= 3: +355= TEM abundant water; H16 +3EM=HTEGT sweet water.
This Sandhi is often not observed as in : samaņamāhanaaihi; dagaagani ; indanilaayasikusuma; mahāadavi; manaagutti. Desire for clarity appears to be the main reason.
133 If however, the second vowel is followed by a conjunct the result of the Sandhi is a short vowel: •

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S. 136.]
SANDHI
(i) धम्म+अज्झयण = धम्मज्झयण a religious chapter; गुण+ अटि = गुणहि desirous of merit ; भिक्खा +अट्ठा भिक्खट्ठा for alms. ... (ii) मुणि+इंद = मुणिंद great sage.
(iii) बाहु+उद्धरिय = बाहुद्धरिय raised with the hand; साहु+ उत्त = साहुत्त spoken by the sage.
Even in such cases the vowels may not combine : mahāakkanda ; maiidąhigārava ; bahuuppala ; suuddhara etc.
134 When अ or आ is followed by इ or उ the vowels combine into ए or ओ :
(i) राय+इसि = राएसि royal sage; महा +इसि = महेसि great sage..
(ii) सव्व+उउय = सव्वोउय of all seasons; समण+उवासग= समणोवासग follower of the monks; तस्स+उवरि = तस्सोवरि above
it.
___Absence of Sandhi is found as in : savvauvarilla ; āyariyauvajjhāya ; appaudaga ; samjamauvaghāya.
135 If, however, the second vowel is followed by a conjunct the resulting vowel is s or उ: गय+इंदगइंद best elephant; एग+ ईदिय-एगिदिय having one sense ; नील+उप्पल=
नीलुप्पल blue lotus; रयण+ उजल-रयणुजल bright with jewels. . In reality, in such cases, we must suppose the loss of the first
vowel and the second vowel only as remaining. Thus final a is lost in cases like jen'evam ; ih'eva; jāv'esā; ta'tth'atthamie ; ubhayass'antarena. Jacobi's rule of the loss of the final a after a long penultimate as in majjh'uvari has few illustrations and does not appear to be widespread in the Prākrit stage. i is lost in natt'etha; santime; ke'ittha; tarant'ege ; e is lost in s'evas;
tubbh'ettha ; im'eyārūve ; im'ettha ; o is lost in guruņ'antie. .. 136 When अ or आ is followed by a long vowel, it is lost . तियस+ईस = तियसीस lord of gods; राय+ ईसर = राईसर king of .
kings; महा+ऊसव-महूसव great festival; एग+ऊण - एगूण less

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
[S. 136.
by one ; इह + एव = इहेव in this very place ; कमेण+एव = कमेणेव in due order ; भक्ख + ओयण = भक्खोयण food to eat'; जल+ओह = . जलोह flow of water; तहा+एव = तहेव thus ; महा+ओसहि = महोसहि a great plant ; वासेण+ओल्ल = वासेणोल्ल wet with rain.
137 Sometimes अ or आ followed by' ई or ऊ becomes ए or ओ: नर+ईसर = नरेसर a king ; अह+ईसर = अहेसर the sun; एग+ऊरु = एगोरु having one thigh; करिकर+ऊरु = करिकरोरु having thighs like the trunk of an elephant; प्र+ ईक्षते = पेच्छइ sees ; अप +ईक्षते = अवेक्खइ considers.
This is a remnant of Sanskrit Sandhi and the whole phrase may be regarded as being taken in Prākrit with the necessary phonetic changes.
138 In a sentence no Sandhi is formed : में आया my self ; चत्तारि एए these four ; एगे आह one said ; एयाओ अज्जाओ these nuns. खीणे आउम्मि when the life is exhausted.
(i) a usually forms Sandhi with the following vowel : नत्थि there is not ; नाइदूरे not very far ; नारभे should not begin; नेव not indeed.
(ii) When one of the words is a pronoun, an adverb, or a preposition, Sandhi is usual : अहावरा now another; चावि also ; दारिंगेसा this girl; जेणाहं so that I, इहाडवीए in this forest; सिहरोवरि on the top; एत्थोवरए disgusted with this.
139 Very often in verses the second vowel is lost after the first, when long. Thus अ is lost after इ: जाइजरामरणेहि भिया; जावन्ति विजापुरिसा as many ignorant men there are ;
चत्तारि भोजाई four types of unallowed food ; after ई : वैतरिणी भिदुग्गा Vaitarini difficult to cross; after ए : फासे हियासए he should suffer touches ; से गुतप्पइ he repents; after ओ : इणमोब्बवी this he said ; बालो वरज्झइ the ignorant man commits fault.
इ is lost after ए : जेमे these ; जे त्थ those here.

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S. 142.]
SANDHI
79
ए is lost after ओ: अकारिणो त्थ here the innocent ; अन्ने त्थ here another.
In many of these cases the preposition or the adverb or pronominal form appears to have been used like an enclitic and being accentless has lost its initial.
SURVIVALS OF SANSKRIT SANDHI 140 When 3 and 3 of a preposition are followed by a dissimilar vowel the Sandhi according to Sanskrit is observed. GARR=37* very much; 3784450=3755C attached ; area=q TM renouncing; Ba =this passes ; pia=que sufficient ; qu=31224 search.
141 When sifa and ça are followed by a dissimilar vowel the Sandhi in Sanskrit is followed : अप्येके अप्पेगे some ; grife=aug and others; stir thus ; gapiri for this reason.
In many cases the process of Anaptyxis is followed : nātyuşņa =nāiunha ; adhyāvasate. = ahiyāsai; pratyāgata = padiyāgaya ; *prat yācakṣita = padiyāikkhiya. In such cases it is not possible to say whether there is absence of Sandhi or the Sanskrit Sandhi is dealt with by anaptysis.
CONSONANTAL SANDHI 142 In many cases when the first word originally ended with a consonant and the following word began with a vowel the consonant present in Sanskrit asserts itself. In other words before a vowel the final consonant is not lost. catacurt=UTRIO covering it ; R=FERA whatever there is; geromarguren repeated; garsa=goría again; q ara six only ; अवितथमतेत्=अवितहमेयं this is true.
This is particularly the case with the two prepositions and fas: SA=T&A difficult to cross ; fateme=aare constantly ; Farragut without covering ; facraie=farruia without joy ; निरुपम=निरुवम uncomparable.

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80
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
[S. 143.
143. In a compound usually the final consonant of the first member is assimilated to the first consonant of the second member. दुश्चरित = दुच्चरिय bad behaviour ; दुर्लभ-दुल्लह. hard to get ; सत्पुरुष = सप्पुरिस good man ; दुर्वर्ण = दुव्वण्ण of bad° colour ; प्रादुर्भाव = पाउब्भाव origin.
In a few cases, however, the first word is treated as having no final consonant : सदिक्षु-सभिक्खु good monk; दुर्लभ-दुलह difficult to get ; विद्युद्विलसित-विज्जुविलसिय the flash of lightning ; एतदनुरूव = एयाणुरूव like this.
144. Very often Sandhi is avoided between two words by inserting a new sound which is called the SANDHI-CONSONANT.
(i) म is inserted frequently : अन्न+अन्न = अन्नमन each other; एग+एग= एगमेग mutual; हट्टतुट्ठजित्त+आणदिय = हट्टतुट्ठचित्तमाणंदिय with mind delighted ; गोण+आई = गोणमाई cows and other animals; अंग+अंग =अंगमंग all the limbs ; आरिय+अणारिय =आरियमणारिय Aryans and Non-aryans
(ii) य is inserted : दु+अह = दुयाह two days ; दु+अंगुल = दुयंगुल having the length of two fingers; सु+अक्खाए =सुयक्खाए well-explained.
(ii) is inserted : धि+अत्थु - धिरत्थु fie upon ; सिहि +इव = सिहिरिव like fire ; दु+अंगुल = दुरंगुल two fingers long.
Originally m must have been the form of the adverb stereotyped as in the case of anyam anyam and from these cases it was extended to others. R may be a remnant of the original r in Sanskrit but appears to be extended where it is not justified by etymology.
Ex. 1 Combine the following into Sandhi : महा+अडवी ; रत्त+अच्छ; वाम+इयर ; देह । उवचय ; सव्व+उवरि ; सुर+असुर; गाम+ ऊसव ; बाहिर+उजाण ; देव+इड्डि; सु+अहिजिय ; करिमो+ एण्हि. .
___Ex. 2 Dissolve the following Sandhis : एत्योवरए; नारंभ, मालोहड, वरोरु, देसुण, तेइंदिय, महिडि, जीवीयत्त, महेसि, वासेणोल्ल.

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PART TWO MORPHOLOGY

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LESSON ONE
145 Like Sanskrit Ardha-Māgadhi words have three genders viz. Masculine (Mas.), Feminine (Fem.) and Neuter (Neu.). The gender of a particular word is, in most cases, the same as the one current in Sanskrit or many of the Modern Indian languages.
Even though the majority of the nouns have retained their original gender there are not lacking cases showing a change in this respect. Most of the changes show traces in the history of Sanskrit itself. If some of them may be due to idea (mitra n. mitto m.) others are due to the ending vowels in the Prākrit forms.
146 Like Modern languages there are only two numbers the Singular (Sing.) and the Plural (Plu.). The sing. is used to denote things that are one, while the plu. denotes things that are more than one. The dual number of Sanskrit is expressed by the plu. in AŃg. ae gute AUTE I 'He hears many things with his ears.
The only dual forms surviving are do (dvau), duve (dve). For the use of the numbers cf. 345-348.
147 There are six cases which are the same as those in Sk. except the Dative which is lost. Its place is taken by the Genitive. These cases are :
The Nominative (N.) denoting the subject : dal Ê Å AHARI 'Even the gods bow to him.'

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84
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHİ
(S. 147.
The Accusative (A.) denoting the object : HAUT NTFR
'The monk preaches religion.' The Instrumental (I.) denoting a person or thing byo which something is done : à CuSe ar a t I They beat the thief with sticks' ATO ga ORENI 'The man spoken by the friend.'
The Ablative (Ab.) denoting the starting point and meaning 'from’: PETSİ Tisfres ! 'He starts from the house.'
The Genitive (G.) denoting 'to, for' (original Dative) the fact that I 'The minister tells the king'; and meaning * of' : faserka affrir GĦT I 'The son of the chieftain Vijaya.'
The Locative (L.) meaning in, on, at': denoting time and place : igre gerig ootu I ' In the town of Campā the king was Kūņiya.' 37 gares i 'In the days gone by.'
Besides these there is the additional case Vocative (V.) used in addressing : gai eg cią! 'Thus indeed, O Jabmū.'
For other meanings and uses of the different cases cf. the syntax of the cases : 349-403.
148 Mas. nouns in AMg. end in -a, -i or -u. Those ending in -a take the following terminations in different cases and numbers. Sing. N. -e, -o; V.-; A. - ; I. nam ; Ab. -ā, -0; G. -ssa ; L. e, -risi, -mmi. Plu. N. ā; V. ā; A. -e, ā; I. -hi, -him; Ab. -hinto ; G. -ņa, ņam ; L. -su, -sum.
In applying the terminations the following changes occur. 1. Before the terminations of Ab. sing. and G. plu. the -a of the stem is changed to -ā. 2. Before the terminations of I. sing and plu. Ab. plu. and L. plu. the -a of the word is changed to -e. 3. It should be noted that the two forms of I. sing. plu. G. plu. and L. plu. differ from each other only in having or wanting the anusvāra. Sometimes this anusvāra is pronounced as an anunāsika giving rise to three forms in these cases : devena, devenam, deveņā.

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S. 150.)
LESSON ONE
85
149 The declension of a Mas. noun ending in a like da a god' will be :
देवो, देवे
देवा देवा
देव
देवे, देवा देवेण, देवेणं
देवेहि, देवेहि देवा, देवाओ देवेहिन्तो · G. देवस्स
देवाण, देवाणं L. ea, data, dar dag, dag AMg. prose prefers the form deve in the N. sing. and devansi in the L. sing. Other forms in prose and all forms in verses are used without distinction and often side by side. 150 CHANGE OF GENDER:
(i) Many neuter nouns ending in consonants have dropped their finals and while becoming vowel-ending have also changed their gender. (Cf. Sk. dharman n. 'order' dharma m. religion '). Such cases are : mano, mane 'mind' (manas); tavo, tave
penance' (tapas) ; tamo, tame * darkness' (tamas); vao, vae 'age' (vayas); kamme 'action' (karman); oe 'blood' (ojas); vacche 'breast' (vakşas); soo 'current' (srotas).
(ii) Neuter nouns ending in - have also changed their gender and become Mas. (Cf. Sk. artha m.meaning' artha n.) thāne 'place' (sthāna); rayane jewel' (ratna); vīrie 'energy' (virya) ; daṁsane 'faith' (darśana); marane ' death' (marana) ; jivie 'life' (jivita); bale strength' (bala'); rūvā ‘forms' (rūpáni); vaņā 'forest' (vanāni). It is equally possible to regard the ending -e of the N. sing. as pertaining to Neu, nouns as contended by Bloch. Pischel regards that the change of gender was due to the similarity of forms in N. plu. of Mas. and Neu. in -a as Vedic yugā.
(iii) Fem. nouns have become Mas. pāuso 'rainy season' (prāvīş); disa quarter' (dis); sarao autumn' (sarad); dāla 'branch' .(Pk. dālā).

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 151.
151 The THEMES of this declension, besides the corresponding nouns in Sanskrit, are taken from (i) the strong base of Sk. nouns of consonantal declension and all are thematised. Strong bases : in -anta of pr. part. Tamanto 'taking delight' -vanta bhagavanto 'venerable', manta buddhimanto 'wise'; appāna. attana, āyāna (atman) ; addhāma wayo (adhoan) ; muddhāna 'head' (murdhan); juvāņa 'youth' (yuvan) ; sāņo 'dog' (śvan); barahiņa 'peacock' (barhin); gabbhiņa pregnant' (garbhin); nahaсārino 'wandering in the sky' (nabhocărin).
(ii) Strong bases with the dropping of the finals : bambha supreme god' (brahman); nāmo 'name' (nāman); pantha way' (pathin).
(iii) Weak bases, are taken in : bhagavo 'venerable' (bhagavat); ajānao, 'not knowing'. (ajānat); paha 'way' (pathin); vimano 'of distracted mind' (vimanas); seo 'welfare' (śreyas); jāyaveya 'fire' (jātavedas). Extended weak bases are : kaniyasa 'younger" (kaniyas); seyamsa 'welfare' (śreyas); viuso wise' (viduş); bhisao physician' (bhișak).
(iv) In case of a few Mas. nouns ending in -u the plural base in -a is taken as the theme : sāhaveņa 'by the sage' (sādhu); bāhava 'arm' (bahu).
152 The PRIMARY DERIVATIVES of Sk. are not felt as such and on account of sweeping phonetic modifications cannot be recognised. Thus jana 'people' (jan-a); rahassa 'secret' (rahasya); nāņa “knowledge' (jña-na) ; calana 'foot' (car-ana) ; dhamma religion' (dhar-ma); gāya limb' (ga-tra); vāya 'wind' (vā-ta) and many others. SECONDARY DERIVATIVES are more apparent : vesaliya 'belonging to Vesāli' (vaišalika); mānasa 'thought' (mānasa) sundera 'beauty' (saundarya). Only compound expressions preserve some faint trace of derivation : gihattha householder' (gļhastha); andava 'born of egg' (andaja).
153 ADDITIONAL FORMS : I. sing. forms by analogy like kāyasā beside kāeņa 'with body' vayasa 'with words' after manasā 'with thought'. Balasā beside balena 'with force' after sahasā. Also niyamasā (niyamena), jogasā, bhayāsā. .

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S: 154.]
LESSON ONE
87
Dative sing. in -ãe is frequent. sāgapāgāe 'for vegetables' purisattāe 'for manhood' devattāe 'as god', neraiyattāe as a hellish being' and many others; also in -āya, vahāya 'for destruction' gabbhāya ‘for birth'.
Ab. sing. often weakens the final -o into -u for metrical reasons : pāvāu 'from sin', dukkhâu 'from misery'.
Voc. sing. bhante 'O lord', from bhadanta (Sk. bhadram te) the noun itself being secondary ; ajjo 'Sir' (ārya) and with protracted final goyama 'O Goyama' usually before i 'thus '.
154 HISTORICAL : (i) Sanskrit forms continued : N. sing. devo (devah) with the tendency of changing the final into -o before sonants extended to all cases. The alternative form deve is said to be dialectal. Gray suggests a purely phonetic development giving rise to -0 and -e. N. plu. devā (devāḥ); A. sing. devam (devam); I. sing. devena (devena); Ab. sing. devā (devāt); G. sing. devassa (devasya) ; plu. devānam (devānām); L. deve (deve); plu. devesu (deveşu).
(ii) Of older stage are : I. plu. devehi (devebhih) or Bloch : the stem deve- extended by the additional -hi.
(iii) Of pronominal declension are: L. sing. devamsi (*devasmin) and the other devammi from Pāli devamhi from the same form. A. plu. deve according to Pischel, Geiger, Bloch : analogical liko aggihi : aggi; purisehi : purise.
(iv) Mixed origin : I. sing. 'rare form devehi from old forms like uttarāhi, dakşiņāhi. Ab. sing. devão from devā (devāt) and -o from tas. Ab. plu. devehinto from devehim of I. plu, and -tas.
The dat. sing. in -āya from Sk, dat. devāya. The one in. -ñe from the D.-G. of Fem. in -tā parallel with tvar. Pischel allows the termination -ai for Mas. Neu. dialectally or compares it with Av. yasnāi Gr. hippo.
(v) Analogically the anusvāra is extended from G. plu. to I sing. (devenam) plu. (devehim); L. plu. (devesum). Or the final short becomes nasalised instead of getting lengthened. A. plu. devā is not Sk. devān but analogical like aggi : puttā.

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88
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 156.
नर
155 Similarly are to be declined the following Mas. nouns :
अणुग्गह favour जणय father मेह cloud आयरिय teacher धम्म religion · लोग world आस horse
man वग्ध tiger ईसर god निव, भूव king वच्छ, रुक्ख tree कण्ण ear पण्ह, पसिण question वण्ण colour काग crow पवण wind वाणर monkey किंकर servant पाउस rain
समण
monk कोव anger पाय foot सरीर body खग्ग sword पुत्त . son सियाल jackal गय elephant भक्ख food सिंह lion गाम village मउड crown हत्थ hand
156 When a word ends in g all forms which contain a syllable other than y or must be written with a vowel by dropping the consonant į according to the rule of phonology. So पाय has N. sing. पाओ I. plu. पाएहिं : जणय has N. plu. जणया but I. sing. जणएण.
157 Mas. and Neu. nouns have the same forms from the I. sing. onwards. Thus वण n. 'forest' I. sing. वणेण plu. quite and so on.
158 (I) किंकरेण; धम्माण, पुत्तेहि, ईसरे, भक्खं, रुक्खेसुं, वाणरेहिं, आयरियाण, गयस्स, पाएहि, गिहेहिन्तो, हत्थाओ, कोवा, लोगंसि, पाउसम्मि, समणो, वग्घेहिं, अणुग्गहेण.
(II) 1. देवस्स अणुग्गहो। 2. नरस्स हत्थो वा पाओ वा । 3. आयरियस्स पण्हो। 4. वाणरो रुक्खाओ रुक्खं गच्छद। 5. भूवस्स पुत्तो। 6. सिंहो वग्घाओ सेट्ठो। 7. नरा गामंसि वसन्ति । 8. वग्घेण' सियालो मारिओ। 9. आसस्स कण्णो। 10. पवणेण मेहो दरं नीओ। 11. आसाणं पाया। 12. ईसरस्स कोवो। 13. अंधस्स दीवो विजा । 14. अहिंसा परमो धम्मो। 15. सीलं नरस्स भूसणं । 4 16. जहा. वच्छो तहा फलं। 17. निद्धणस्स कओ सुहं । 18. नमो सुयणाण। ___ 1 380. 2 382. 3 362. 4 350. 5474. 6 391.

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S. 161.]
159 (1) Of the servant; by the crow; with the teachers; from god; to the villages; in the ear; on the body; by religion; from the town; with swords; of men; from the cloud; the monks; in the world; in the trees; from the father; by the lion; with horses; of the monkey.
LESSON TWO
6.
(II) 1. The sword of the king. 2. The foot of the lion. The teacher's religion.
3. The hand of the servant.
4.
The monkey from the tree.
5. The tree in the village. 7. The king of the people. The king's crown. 9. The crow on the tree. 10. The rain from the cloud. 11. The ears of the elephant. 12. The colour of the body. 13. Food for the monks. 14. Horses from the villages. 15. The son's father.
89,
8.
LESSON TWO
160 In AMg. there are three tenses, the Present expressing actions that are being performed at the time when the statement is made or actions outside the scope of timerelation, the Past expressing actions that are already performed and the Future which expresses acts which are yet to be performed.
For the uses of the tenses cf. 416-429. The aspects of the verbs are not preserved except in the present when expressing a general statement.
161 Unlike Sk. there is only one set of terminations to be applied to the roots and it is the same as that of the Parasmaipada of Sanskrit. All verbs in AMg. take these very terminations. Some forms of the Atmanepada are, however, met with in literature, but are of limited occurrence and may be regarded as irregular forms.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 161.
(i) The forms of ATMANEPADA found in literature are : I. sing. vatte, plu.-; II. sing. vattase plu.-; III. sing. vattae, plu. vaţtante. A form of the I. plu. vattāmahe is used for the sing. in Vas.
(ii) The following forms of this conjugation are frequent : I. sing. jāne I know', na-yāne ; manne I think' rame I take delight' lahe 'I get': vande 'I bow" II. sing. pabhāsase You speak', avabujjhase You know'. III. sing. lahae 'He obtains' bhañjae 'He breaks' titikkhae 'He suffers' sampavevae 'He trembles'. III. plu. uvalabhante They obtain' riyante They wander' citthante 'They stand'.
(iii) Because it was the normal Pada for the passive in Sk. it is frequently found in passive forms in AMg. as well. tirae = tiryate, jujjae = yujyate, fhijjhae = kşiyate, bhunjae. = bhujyate, muccae = mucyate etc.
162 A verb is conjugated in two numbers: singular and plural and in three persons: the First Person (1. p.) denoting the speaker, the Second Person (II. p.) denoting the person addressed and the Third Person ( III. p. ) denoting all other things.
The exact meaning of the plural forms of the three persons may best be seen by noting the agreement of the finite verb containing a multiple subject. Thus I. p. plu. is I. p. sing. and II. p. sing. or plu. or III. p. sing. and plu. The II. p. plu. is II. p. sing. and III. p. sing. and plu.
163 The roots in AMg. are divided into three Classes for the convenience of conjugation. The C. I. consists of roots ending in the vowel 37 and includes most of the roots in the language. C. II. comprises roots ending in 3 but adding & before the terminations. C. III. comprises roots ending in other vowels namely 341, g, or sht.
This is purely a matter of convenience. The formation of the present base of the root is effected by the addition of different thematic suffixes (a, -ya), by reduplication (da-dadāti) or by the

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S. 166.]
LESSON TWO
91
infix of a nasal -(kệt- krnatti). This gave rise to the ten-fold classification of the Sk. roots which has left a good deal of trace in AMg. C. II. of AMg. generally agrees with the derivative conjugation of Sk., while the other two classes include verbs of all the nine conjugations according to the endings they assume in this language.
164. The terminations of the present tense are: I. p. sing. -mi, plu. -mo; II. p. sing. -si, plu. -ha; III. p. sing. -1, plu. -anti. Before adding these terminations to the roots of C.I., the following rules are to be observed : 1. Before the terminations of the I. p. the -a of the root is lengthened into -ā. 2. The -a of the root combines with the -a of anti to form -a as followed by the conjunct.
165 The conjugation in present of a root like ra 'to see' will be I. p. पासामि
पासामो II. p. पाससि .
पासह III. p. पासइ
पासन्ति Like qe are to be conjugated other roots like :अच्छ.. to be चिन्त to think फुस to touch omroy to come up to conquer WTA to speak But to dig जाण to know भक्ख to eat खिव to throw दुरूह to climb भण to speak Togy to go धाव to run
सर to move गेह to take पड to fall
वस to live PEE to stand gery to ask
TOP to kill.
166 The bases of this Class are taken from all the nine primary conjugations of Sanskrit. In the majority of the cases the forms of the two languages agree with great precision. But in a few cases the verbs have changed their mode of forming the bases and have taken up another conjugation. The thematic conjugation is preserved as it is while the athematic one has lost

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
S. 166.
its Ablaut series and is thematised. Nothing definite could be said about the choice of the base except that the apparently thematic form was preferred.
THEMATIC BASES. (i) The first conjugation of Sk. with a base in full grade with accent and the thematic suffix -a. Sk. roots with the vowel -a and a consonant (monosyllabic) show no change : cal-'to move' calai ; khan- 'to dig' khanai ; car- 'to move' carai ; jval- 'to burn' jalai ; tyaj- 'to abandon' cayai; nam- 'to bow' namai; pac- 'to cook' payai; pat-'to fall padai; yat-'to strive' jayai; ram- 'to take delight' ramai ; lap'to speak' lavai; vad- 'to speak' vayai; vam 'to vomit' vamai ; vas- 'to live' wasai; has- 'to laugh' hasai.
(ii) If the root-vowel is -i or -u they become gunated (full grade) : tuh- 'to grow' rohai; jim- 'to eat' jemai ; akruś- 'to cry' akkosai; nud- to push' nollai. In case of r it becomes ari- (Sk. ar-): krs- 'to cultivate' karisai; mȚs- 'to forgive' marisai ; vȚs-'to rain' varisai ; vst- 'to behave' vattai (with cerebralisation and assimilation).
(iii) Some verbs of this type change their conjugation as ghas- 'to eat' ghisai ; Tuh- 'to grow' tuhai, according to the sixth conjugation ;.cal- 'to move' callai ; jim- 'to eat' jimmai; TUC- 'to like' ruccai; laga 'to cling' laggai; vraj- 'to proceed' vaccai (with devoicing), all according to the fourth conjugation (Pischel) or gemination due to penultimate accent (Jacobi). Bhan- 'to speak' bhaņāi may be after the ninth ; labh- 'to get' lambhai after the nasal sixth ; labbhai passive with active meaning; kam- 'to love' kāmei denominative in origin as in Sk.; kram- 'to step' kamai differing from Sk.; bhram- 'to wander' bhamai preserves an old conjugation.
(iv) If the monosyllable root ends with a short vowel it is naturally gunated (full grade): cyu- 'to fall' cavai ; plu- 'to float' pavai; bhū- 'to become' bhavai, harai ; hi- 'to take away' harai ; t?- 'to cross' tarai ; snap- 'to remember' sarai, sumarai; stu- 'to flow' savai. Older conjugational forms are preserved in: dhr- to hold' dharai ; my 'to die' marci; vi"to choose' varai ; s- 'to move' sarai ; change of conjugation is met in: ji- 'to conquer' jinai after the 9th.

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S. 167.]
LESSON TWO
93
(v) A long vowel of the root remains unchanged : jiv- 'to live' jivai; khād-' to eat' khāyai ; dhāv- 'to run' dhāvai ; bhās- 'to speak' bhāsai ; virādh- 'to violate' virāhai; sev- 'to serve' sevai. Metrically long vowel is also kept : takş- 'to chop' tacchai; kamp 'to tremble' kampai; pragalbh- 'to boast' pagabbhai; nind-'to blame' nindai; raks- 'to protect' rakkhai ; śikṣ- 'to learn' sikkhai ; gari. 'to roar' gajjat.
(vi) Weak grade, as in the 6th conjugation, is found in : bhās- 'to shine' bhisoi ; dhāv- 'to wash' dhuvai ; and dhovai after the secondary base dhuva-. More regular than Sk. are the forms chai (ihate) sajjai (sañj. sajati); mil- 'to close' has (um) millai.
(vii) The roots with the thematic suffix -sko- (S. -cch-) are : gam- 'to go gacchai ; and a generalised form murch- to fall in a swoon' mucchai.
(viii) Forms of the reduplicated type are : pā- 'to drink' pivai; sthā- to stand' citthai ; and sad- (I-E. *sed-) 'to sit' siyai.
(ix) Dissyllabic roots are: gai- 'to sing' gāyai ; dh yai- 'to think jhãyại, jhiyāyai ; trai- to protect tãyai.
167 (i) Roots of the sixth conjugation with a weak grade base and the accented thematic suffix -á. Identical with Sk. are : spré- 'to touch' phusai (while phāsai after the first); samkuc* to contract' samkucai; kşip- 'to throw' khivai ; dis- 'to point' disai, ud disai; likh- 'to write' lihai (lehai after the first); vis"to enter' visai ; vyutssj- 'to abandon’ vosirai.
(ii) Change of conjugation is found in: trut-'to break' tuttai; sphut- 'to burst' phutsai; vidh- 'to pierce' vijjhai, all after the fourth. mil- to join' melai and vidh- to pierce.' vehai after the first. gi- (gar-, gira-) 'to swallow' gilai and sphur (sphar-) to throb' phurai are due to the effect of the original sonant becoming an independent syllable.
(iii) Roots inserting a nasal are : lip- 'to besmear' limpai: lup-. 'to conceal' lumpai ; vid-'to get' vindai ; sic- 'to sprinkle' siñcai; muc- 'to release' muñcai (also mu yai); krt- 'to cut' kantai, vigiñcai.

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94
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 167.
(iv) Roots with the suffix -sko- are : iş- to wish' icchai ; !- (ar-) “to go’ acchai (Pischel) or ākşeti (Turner).
(v) Roots of the fourth conjugation with a low-grade base with accent and the suffix -ya show the assimilation of the final consonant with the -ya and palatalisation when the root ends with a dental. nrt- 'to dance' naccai; yudh- 'to fight' jujjhai ; trut-'to break' tuttai; kup- 'to be angry' kuppai; lubh- 'to covet' lubbhai; ruş- 'to be angry' russai, rüsai; tus- 'to be pleased' tüsai ; śuş-'to get dry'sussai, sūsai ; dus- 'to be soiled' dūsai; dussai; kut-'to strike' kuttai; krudh- 'to be angry' kujjhai; klis- 'to be afflicted' kilesai; (with full grade) ; gıdh- 'to covet' gijjhai ; budh- to know" bujjhai; sidh- 'to be accomplished' sijjhai.
(vi) Of full grade are : hțs-'to be delighted' harisai (Epic harşati); ślis- 'to cling' silesai ; iş- 'to go' esai ; visīj- 'to let go' visajjai; of doubtful grade : man- 'to. think' mannai ; nas
to be destroyed' nassai ; pad- 'to step' pajjai ; mȚg- 'to search' maggai; vidh- 'to pierce' vindhai.
(vii) Dissyllabic roots with a weak grade or a lengthened grade may be found in : jan- 'to be produced' jāyai ; ji - 'to be old' jirai; tam- 'to languish' tammai; viśramt 'to rest' visamai; klam- 'to fade' kilammai; mad- 'to be exhilarated' majjai.
(viii) Differing from Sk. : sam- 'to be pacified' samai ; mā'to measure' māyai ; ali- 'to collect ' alliyai.
168 ATHEMATIC BASES. (i) Roots of the second conjuga. tion of a bare base before the terminations are preserved in case of -ā ending and fall under Class III. Others are thematised. Thus : sü- 'to give birth' (pa) savai; nhu- 'to conceal' ninhavai, ninhuvai ; rū- 'to cry' tuvai, rovai from the secondary base tuv- ; bhā- 'to shine' (padi) hayai ; si- 'to lie down' sayai ; stu- 'to praise' thunai ; śvas- to breath' sasai, ūsasai ; svap- 'to sleep' suvai, sovai from the secondary base suva- ; ās- 'to sit' aniyāsai, pajjuvāsai ; śās- 'to rule' sāsai; jāg?- 'to keep awake" jāgatai; vid-'to know' veyai (from the causal), han- 'to kill" hanai.

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S. 170.]
LESSON TWO
95
Rootsin -ā are optionally thematised: mā- 'to measure' māyai, vā- 'to blow' vāyai ; yā- 'to go' pattiyai ; khyā- 'to tell” agghāyai, äikkhai.
Dissyllabic roots are : rud-'to cry' ruyai, royai ; brū- 'to speak' falls under C. III.
(ii) Of the third conjugation formed by reduplication we have : hä- 'to abandon' jahai ; bhi- 'to fear' bihai, bhāyai (Pischel derives biha- from bhis-'); hu- 'to sacrifice' hunai; ?- 'to go' riyai. Others ending in -ī in C. III.
(iii) Of the fifth conjugation are: (falling together with the 9th) ci- to collect' ciņai; dhū- 'to shake' dhunai; śru- 'to hear' sunai ; āp- 'to obtain' pāunai ; (also pappoi, pāvai); sak
to be able' sakkunai (also sakkai); sti- 'to spread' vittharai; kr. 'to do' kuņai.
(iv) Roots of the seventh conjugation have generalised the thematic form of the weak base : chihd-'to cut' chindai; bhaj'to break' bhañjai ; bhid- to break' bhindai ; bhuj- 'to enjoy * bhuñjai; yuj- 'to join' juñjai (also jujjai) ; rudh- 'to obstruct' Tundhai; hims-'to kill' himsai; abhyañj- 'to bathe' abbhangei.
(v) Of the so-called eighth conjugation (originally a part of the 5th) we have only : kr. 'to do' karai (strong) kuvvai (weak) and kșan- 'to hurt' chanai.
(vi) Roots of the ninth conjugation are: jñā- to know' jāņai, jāņāi; kri- 'to buy' kinai; pū- 'to purify' punai ; aś- 'to eat' anhãi ; grah- 'to take' genhai : badh- 'to bind' bandhai.
• 169 The origin of the forms of the present offers no difficulty. All of them are directly derived from Sk. Thus bhavāmi (bhavāmi), bhavāmo (bhavāmaḥ), bhavasi (bhavasi) bhavaha (bhavatha), bhavai (bhavati), bhavanti (bhavanti). The length of the vowel in the first person is due to the o of the thematic vowel elo.
170 The root are to be corresponds to Sk. forms :I p. (E) zifa, F# I am, ( ) #1, y we are. II. p. (H) afa, fa thou art, (a ) 4 you are. III. p. (a, , 7, 8 ) af he is etc. (à, asi) Afia they are.

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96
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 170.
Often the III. p. form atthi is generalised for all persons and numbers.
___171. Conjugate : अहं चिट्ठामि, अहं भासामि, अहं गेण्हामि, अहं जाणामि, अहं गच्छामि.
हणामो. जाणसि. दुल्हन्ति. वससि. पडइ. अच्छन्ति. पुच्छामि. फुसइ. खिवह. भक्खह. जाणइ. धावन्ति. खणामि. आगच्छह. जयइ.
1. किंकरो अडं खणइ। 2. वाणरा रुक्खेसु वसन्ति। 3. गामेसु नरा सन्ति । 4. सो खग्गेण वग्धं हणइ। 5. सियालो मणसि' चिंतई। 6. सिंहो मिगे भक्खइ। 7. . मणुस्सा भासन्ति। 8. तुम्हे सिग्धं सरह। 9. अम्हे सिलोगं भणामो। 10 वायसो सियालस्स वियारं जाणइ । 11. मिगो रण्णे रुक्खस्स मूले चिट्ठइ । 12. सो हत्येण आसं फुसइ। 13. निवो बलेण जणवयं जयइ । 14. पुत्तो आयरियं पासणे पुच्छइ । 15 दासो भारं वहइ। 16. नस्थि जीवस्स' नासो। 17. सुयणो न कुप्पइ। 18. चंदस्स किरणा अमयं मुंचन्ति । 19. सीलं वरं कुलाओ दारिदं च रोगाओ।
172 (I). They. speak. I go. We run. You kill. I take. Thou givest. We ask. They conquer. It falls. She lives. They throw. He moves. You climb. She eats. It comes.
(II). 1. I think. 2. The lion eats men. 3. The king lives in the city. 4. The child runs fast. 5. The teacher asks questions. 6. The servant falls from the tree. 7. Men come from the villages. 8. We go to the town'. 9. He kills a dog with a stick. 10. He climbs the tree. 11. The child catches the ear of the horse. 12. The warrior discharges arrows.
1
395.
2 354.
३ 387.
4 353.

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S. 175.]
LESSON THREE
173 Like Mas. nouns Neu. nouns in AMg. also end in -a, -i andu. The terminations for those in a are: N. A. sing. -m; plu. -im, -ni. Before the plu. terminations the preceding vowel is lengthened. The other terminations are the same as those of the Mas. nouns (cf. 148).
LESSON THREE
As regards origin, the sing. is identical with the Sk. form (vanam) and the plu. termination ni is the same as Sk. -ni (phalani, phalani). The other form phalaim or phalai offers difficulty. Bloch, Alsdorf and others accept the phonetic change of the loss of the nasal -n and the nasalisation of the following vowel. Gray suggests that phalai comes from the Vedic plu. phala + (i) ini which is borrowed from nouns ending in -n (cf. balini) with analogical shortening of -i- .or (ii) -in of pre-Sanskrit as in Av..
N. V.
A.
174 A Neu. noun like a 'a forest' will be declined as follows:
I.
Ab.
G.
L.
qui
qui
वणेण, वर्णणं
वणा, वणाओ
वणस्स
aui, auifè, aufer.
"
97
avis, quo
वाई, वाणि
auife, quife
वणेहिंतो
वणाण, वणाणं
ady aug
"
175 CHANGE OF GENDER. Besides the usual neuter nouns in Sk. some vowel-ending Mas. nouns show a plural form of the Neu. declension. gunāim 'virtues' (guna); pasinaim questions' (praśna); māsāim 'months' (māsa); phāsāim touches (sparsa); rukkhāim 'trees' (vṛkṣa).
Fem. nouns becoming Neu. are: tayāni barks' (tvak); pāuyāim 'shoes' (pādukā); pantiyāim row' (pankti); bhamuhaim eyebrows" (Pk. bhamuhā).
BASES. Nouns ending in consonants become shortened by the dropping of the consonant: jaga 'world' (jagat); tava 'penance'
7

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 175.
मंस
(tapas); naha 'sky' (nabhas) ; ura 'breast' (uras) ; sira 'head' (siras); raya 'dust' (rajas).
176 Like aur should be declined neuter nouns in 37 as : उज्जाण garden quum leaf : HOT: mind 1 deed 979 sinf
wine Tu virtue पुण्ण merit
flesh TTE, R house
flower
kingdom दाण gift पोत्थग book वीरिय energy देवउल temple फल fruit सुत्त thread,
passage नह sky बल power सुवण्ण gold.
177 Present tense of roots of Class II. 1. Before the terminations g is added to the root. 2. 37 of afar is dropped. Thus the forms of a root like the 'to do' will be:I. p.
करमो II. p.
: III. p. parte
करन्ति To this class belong verbs
(i) belonging to the 10th Gana in Sk. plate to tell. TOT to count
वण्ण to describe साह to speak लज्ज to feel ashamed अञ्च to worship उड्डु to fly चोर to steal
दण्ड to punish (ii) denominatives or nouns used as verbs निवेद to inform काम to wish आहार to eat पण्णव to preach निमंत to invite उवक्खड to cook पहाण to bathe मइल to soil सद्दाव to call (iii) causal forms of all verbs ठाव to place जाणाव to teach मार to kill जीवाव to revive पाड to fell
दाव to show नास todestroy भाम to whirl कार to cause.

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S. 180.)
LESSON THREE
99
Historically all the three groups are a development of one primitive type which explains the uncertainty of distinguishing between them. In all probability nouns were originally used as verbs with a variety of meanings and from them arose the causal forms whenever the meaning was factitive and the verbs of the 10th Gana where no such meaning was preseni. When the form could not be brought in relation with a verb it was felt all along as a denominative.
178 The -e- before the terminations is the phonetic development of the syllable -aya- of the Sanskrit forms. This syllable is often preserved in AMg. particularly before the III. p. plu. termination (tālyanti).
Besides these three types of verbs, other roots have analogically taken place in this class. Thus from the first conjugation we find dharei (dhr-) ; sumarei (smr-) ; kāmei (kam-) ; namei (nam-) ; rakkhei (rakş-); from the second ; uțthei (utthā-) : thunei (stu-) ; from the third : bihei (bhi-) ; from the fifth : pāvei (prāp-) ; from the eighth : karei (kar-). In some of these cases the original long syllable must have helped the presence of -e- (karoti, karei ; prāpnoti, pāvei). : 179 ADDITIONAL FORMS : I. sing. jāņimi, jānami, sahami, ha
sami, etc. where the second syllable is weakened. plu. hasāmu, hasāma, accemu, accimo, jampimo, vandimo ; icchāmu etc. where either the second or the third syllable is weakened. II. p. sing. jānāsi (survival of Sk.), III. p. acchahim, ādhāhi, parijānāhi all suggesting borrowal from Apabhraíśa or the popular language.
180. (1.) Decline in full gour, quul, Sout, gravur.
(II.) HAT. T. qraialska. atrami. Tritt. TEM. THE Ami. qasetit. NEEM. Jule.
(III.) 1. Ata Par SHIÙ 4931 2. apei set TUTE I 3. रुक्खाओ फलं पडइ। 4. फलं च पुप्पं च रुक्खाणं अलंकारा। 5. पावकम्म करेह दुजणो, न य लजेह। 6. लोए पुण्णेहिंतो पावाइं अहिगाई। 7. समणो
. 1 335..
2 382.

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[S. 180.
मजं च मंसं च न भक्खइ। 8. अरहंतो धम्मं भासइ, गणहरा तं सुणेन्ति । 9. ali pri quoise i 10. E STE TEE I 11. SPS gase qfag i 12. B SHIUT TEESITA I 13. ETANT QUE | 14. ghean gauoi diezi 15. Fie A TOT gati 16. PHASIS PEÀ
are a alfa afsus I 17. araca qui fage
181 (1) Of the mind. Flowers. With leaves. Of the thread. To the temple. In the kingdoms. From the sky. With power. Of the deeds.
(II) 1. The houses of the monkeys are on the trees. 2. There are trees in the garden. 3. He gives a garland of flowers to the god. '4. He wishes (for) power and energy. 5. Birds fly in the sky. 6. Wise men preach religion. 7. The tree has leaves, flowers and fruits. 8. God punishes wicked men. 9. Fools do not understand the meaning of books. 10. I do not see flowers on the trees. 11. The crow says to the jackal 'You do not speak the truth.' 12. You want my food.
LESSON FOUR
182 Feminine nouns end in 371, 3, &, 3, or o All of them are declined similarly except in the case of L. sing. where nouns ending in g and have an additional form with the termination sit.
As compared to Mas. and Neu, nouns the endings of the Fem. nouns appear to be numerous. But there is no real distinction between -i, -u and i, -ū. Nor do these endings preserve any different types of declension. There is no predominant type as in
1 387. 3 352.
2 Make 'trees' the subject. 4 394.
5478.

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.
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case of Mas. -a, and the system of Fem, declension is the result of the interaction of all the types.
183The terminations for the Fem. nouns are : N. sing.-A. -m, V.-, -, I. -e, Ab. -0, -e, G. -e, L. -e, -msi; Plu. N.--, -0, A.-, -०, V.-, -0, I. -hi, -him, Ab. -hinto, G. -na, nam, L. su, -sum. Before the termination of the A. sing. the long vowel of the stem is shortened as it is followed by an anusvāra.
A.
मालं
Ab. (माल
)
184 The full declension of a feminine noun ending in 3 like Hret' a garland' will be :माला
माला, मालाओ ___V. माले, माला
माला, मालाओ
माला, मालाओ मालाए
मालाहि, मालाहिं (मालाए), मालाओ मालाहिन्तो G. मालाए
मालाण, मालाणं L. मालाए
मालासु, मालासुं Similarly are to be declined other Fem. nouns ending in आउम्हा heat देवया deity मज्जाया limit कन्ना daughter नसाला theatre लया creeper किवा campassion नावा 'boat वेला time गंगा Ganges पया subjects साला school छाया shade पूया
worship HIET branch जउणा . .Jumna भज्जा, भारिया wife सेणा army
185 CHANGE OF GENDER. Mas. nouns ending in consonants become Fem. along with a change in the final : (cf. Sk. siman m. simā f.) addhā 'way' (adhvan); sembha 'mucus' (śleşman); umhā 'heat' (uşman); the change of gender being caused by the N. •sing. ending in-a. gimha 'summer' (grisma) hemanta winter' (hemanta) due to the association with vāsā "rainy season' (varsāh); garima greatness' (gariman)..

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(S. 186.
186 THE THEMES are either shortened forms : sumaņā of good mind' (sumanas) ; accharā divine damsel' (apsaras) ; parisā 'assembly' (parişad) or extended forms: sariyā 'river' (sarit) ; citāusā of long life' (citā yuşi); āsīsā' blessing' (aših); disā direction' (dis); vāyā' speech' (vāc); girā 'words' (gir); sampayā 'wealth' (sampad); chuhā 'thirst' (ksudh).
187 Of the PRIMARY DERIVATIVES only few are felt as such : root-nouns niddā 'sleep' (nidrā), payā 'subjects' (praja), pahā 'light' (prabhā). The use of the suffix -a is frequent : kidda * sport' (krid-ā); dayā 'compassion' (day-ā); nindā 'blame (nind-ā); samkā doubt' (sankā); himsā killing' (hims-ā); khamā 'forgiveness' (kşåm-ā); bhāsā 'speech' (bhās-ā); sevā
service' (sev-ā); cintā 'thought' (cint-ā); bhikkhā "begging' (bhikṣ-ā); with the suffix -yā: vijja learning' (vid-yā): bhajja " wife' (bhār-yā); sejjā 'bed' (say-yā); other rare suffixes : veyaņā 'pain' (ved-anā), gāhā 'verse' (gā-thā); tanhà 'thirst' (tặş-nā); jonhà 'moon-light' (jot-snā); māyā “measure' (mā-trā).
With the FEMININE SUFFIX -ā are formed feminine adjectives like pāvā ‘sinful' (pāva); taruņā 'young' (taruna) etc. The abstract suffix -tā: devayā 'deity' (deva-tā); the suffix -ikā (as feminine for-aka): kumārigā girl' (kumāra); ajjiyā “grandmother'(äryikā); ājiviyā mode of life' (ājīvikā), ganiyā *courtezan' (ganika); cūliyā 'crest' (cūlikā). Differing from Sk. mahāliyā 'great'; ammayā 'mother'; citāusā of long life'; abbhatthaniya 'request'; nattuniya 'grand-daughter'; māgaha * belonging to Magadha'.
188 ADDITIONAL FORMS : In the singular mālāe is often weakened into mālāi. In the L. plu. we have hatthuttarāhim, gimhāhim, visāhāhim all of which could be considered as forms of I. plu. used as L. or from Apabhraíśa or popular language.
189 ORIGIN. Fully agreeing with Sk. are N. sing. mālā; plu. mālā (mālāh); V. sing. māle, A. sing. mālam (mālām); I. plu. mālāhim (mālābhiḥ); G. plu. mālānam (mālānām); L. plu. mālāsu (mālāsu). N. V. A. plu. form mālāo after the forms of -i and -u endings. Pāli matiyo (Sk. matayaḥ) with the lengthen

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ing of the vowel after the analogy mati : matiyo, mālā : mālāyo Pk. mālāo. Gray suggests that it is mālā and the consonantal ending -as. Ab. sing. mālāo is analogical after devāo. Ab. plu. mālāhinto is composite as devehinto. I. G. L. sing. mālāe is according to Pischel, Bloch, Geiger the D.-G. mālayai of the Brahmanas and Upanişads used as G. Alsdorf suggests that mālāe is a phonetic variant of mālāya which is older and in agreement with Pāli kaññāya. This form may have arisen by rhythmic change like muninā : munina ; sāhunā; sāhūņa of Mas. nouns.
190 Present tense of roots belonging to Class III. They usually end in 31, T or 37. The terminations are directly applied to them. The termination for loses its 37 after roots ending in g or sit, and optionally becomes upar after roots ending in 347. 191 The forms of a root like a 'to be will be :
I. p. A होमो II. p. alle de
III. P. ETE Elfar (but arufaa) Similarly are to be conjugated other roots like :झिया to think उवट्ठा to wait upon गा to sing a to blow 8 to stand À to lead
to give à to speak 5 to come. 192 Athematic roots of the second class usually preserve a stem ending in -ā: māi 'to measure' (mā-) ; vā- 'to blow' vāi; bhā- 'to shine' bhāi; snā- 'to bathe' nhāi, siņāi ; khyā- 'to tell' akkhāi ; ;- 'to go' ei; brū- 'to speak' bei ; some roots of the third conjugation : dā- 'to give' dei ; dhū- 'to place' ādhāi ; ha* to abandon' jahāi ; one of the ninth conjugation : aś- 'to eat' aṇhāi. Of thematic roots we have ji- 'to conquer' jeu ; ni- 'to lead' nei ; di- 'to fly'uddei ; Ti- 'to cling' lei; bhū- 'to become' hoi ; gai- 'to sing" gāi ; dhyai- 'to think' jhāi, jhiyāi ; sthā- 'to stand' thāi; khād-'to eat' khāi ; in conformity with the epic

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(S. 192.
usage are found : mlai- 'to fade' milāi (mlāti); glai-'to languish' gilāi (glāti) ; ghrā- to smell' agghāi (aghrāti), Between jan- 'to be born' and ya- 'to go' there is a difference in the third person jāyai : jāi; jāyanti : janti..
193 The adjective in AMg. always agrees with the noun which it qualifies in Gender, Number and Case.
(i) Agreement in Gender : महुरो सहो sweet word. तरुणा कन्ना young girl. पिकं फलं ripe fruit.
(ii) Agreement in Number : एगो समणो a monk. बहूइं पसिणाई many questions. '
(iii) Agreement in Case : सो ,महुरेण सद्देण आलवइ He speaks with a sweet voice. सज्जणो सच्चं वयणं न चयइ A good
man does not abandon true words. तुंगाओ वच्छाओ फलं पडइ A fruit falls from the lofty tree. जुण्णेसुं उज्जाणेसुं लयाओ पासइ He sees creepers in the old gardens.
For further details of agreement cf. 337, 338. 194 (I) Decline in full : देवया, वेला, लया, कन्ना.
(II) नदृसालाए. पयाणं. उम्हाए. भारियं. लयाहिं. नावाए. मज्जायाओ, किवं. गंगे. कन्नासुं. पूयाओ. साहाहितो. नेन्ति. वाइ. झियामि. देमो. बेसि. गायह.
(III) 1. बालया सालं गच्छन्ति । 2. देवयाओ मंगलं रुक्खं आरुहन्ति । 3. निवो पयं पालेइ । 4. ते गंगाए जलेण पुप्फाइं सिंचन्ति । 5. गोवा जउणाए तीरेसुं कीलन्ति । 6. वीरा सेणाए मुहे जुज्झन्ति । 7. इब्भो विउलं धणं लुब्भइ । 8. जणा महुरं अन्नं भक्खन्ति । 9. कढिणण तवेण समणो मोक्खं पाउणइ। 10. धम्मिगेण आयारेण पावाइं नस्सन्ति । 11. सुयणो फरुसं वयणं न भणइ । 12. मिया रुक्खस्स सीयलाए छायाए । वसन्ति । 13. लयाणं पुप्फाइं सुंदराई । 14. समणवत्थाणि दुस्सीलं न तायन्ति । 15. नमी राया भोगे परिच्चयइ। 16. सुसीलो नरो देवाणं पि वल्लहो होइ। 17. आसा खलु रक्खए जीवं ।
1_389.

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195 (I) To the girl. In time. Of Jumna. By the deity. In the school. With branches. From the boundary. With the army. Of the creepers. In a boat. They sing. The wind blows. Men speak. We think. You stand.
(II) 1. The flowers fade by the touch of the heat. 2. The servants wait upon the king and (his ) son. 3. A wicked man kills living beings. 4. Gods and demons fight for nectar. 5. A monk cuts (his) strong bonds. 6. The boundaries of the ocean are inviolable. 7. Time is valuable. 8. The tree has long branches, green leaves, and sweet fruits. 9. The beatiful girls dance in the theatre. 10. Sītā is the wife of Rāma. 11. The worship of the gods is meritorious. 12. The boat sinks in the deep ocean.
LESSON FIVE
196 Mas. nouns ending in -i and -u take the following terminations. Sing. N.-, V.- ; A. -, I. ņā, Ab. -ņo ;-0 ; G. -ņo, -ssa ; L. -ṁsi, mmi ; Plu. N. V. A. -ņo, -o; I. -hi, -him ; Ab.- hinto; G. -ņa, -nar ; L. -su, sus. Before the terminations of N. and V. plu. -no ; A. sing. -rn, plu. no I. sing. -ņā; Ab. G. sing. -ņo, -ssa; and L. sing. -rsi, -mmi the preceding vowel is short, while in all other cases it is long.
197 The full declension of a Mas. noun inę like enfin 'fire' will be :N. Sperma
अग्गिणो, अग्गीओ I V . sifir
अग्गिणो, अम्गीओ .: A. affit
अग्गिणो, अग्गीओ
1. 373.
2 394.
3 350.

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(S. 197.
L.
___I. अग्गिणा
अग्गीहि, अग्गीहि ___Ab. अग्गिणो, अग्गीओ अग्गीहिन्तो G. अग्गिणो, अग्गिस्स अग्गीण, अग्गीणं
अग्गिसि, अग्गिम्मि अग्गीसु, अग्गीसुं A Mas. noun ending in 3 is ars' wind' वाऊ
वाउणो, वाअवो ___V.
वाउणो, वाअवो A. वाउं
वाउणो, वाअवो वाउणा
वाऊहि, वाऊहिं Ab. वाउणो, वाऊओ वाऊहिंतो. G. वाउणो, वाउस्स वाऊण, वाऊणं L. वाउंसि, वाउम्मि वाऊसु, वाऊसुं
वाउ
198 Few other nouns of -i and -u endings have become Mas. Thus äu 'water' (āpas f.); teu 'fire' (tejas n.) vau 'words (vacas n.).
The THEMES are taken from the consonantal endings as well, mostly by dropping the final consonant. hatthi elephant' (hastin), tavassi 'ascetic' (tapasvin); nāni 'knower' (jñānin) mehāvi wise' (medhävin); bambhayāri celibate monk (brahmacārin); pakkhi 'bird' (pakşin), sāmi lord' (svāmin); sasi' moon' (Sasin); oyamsi full of vigour' (Ojasvin); teyamsi jasamsi etc.; cakkavatti — sovereign king' (cakravartin); manti " minister' (mantrin); dandi 'staff bearer' (dandin); sakkhi
witness' (sākşin) ; joi 'star' (jyotis); havi' oblation' (havis); and compounds with -jña 'to know' like savvannu, 'omniscient' vinnu knower' etc. The weak base is found in viu knower' (vidus).
199 Few derivatives are apparent in these types of nouns. Root-nouns may be found in vihi 'fate' (vi-dhi); sandhi 'joint' (san-dhi); pahu lord' (pra-bhu). nai — relative' (ina-ti); vanhi "fire' (vah-ni); jantu animal' (jan-tu), maccu death' (mịt-yu); vāu 'wind' (vā-yu); and a few others.

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200 ADDITIONAL FORMS. I. sing. ațțhina, mutthina after the analogy of devena; L. sing. Tão (tātrau), ghińsu (grīşme) as survivals from Sk., V. sing. gāhāvai, munī, jambū with the pluti of the final ; N. V. A. plu. aggi, vāū, vāavo, risao, bahave (always so); girisu, vagguhim etc. preserve the original short vowel in verses ; Ab. sing. aggiu, vāūu show the weakening of the finals.
201 ORIGIN. Agreeing with Sk., are aggi (agniḥ) vāü (vāyuh), aggi (agnim) vāum (vāyum) ; aggiņā (agninā) vāuṇā (vāyunā), aggihi (agnibhiḥ) vāūhi (vāyubhiḥ), agginaṁ (agninām) vāūnam (vayūnām). N. A. plu. aggio, risio, vāūo from the fem. declension like maio ; Ab. G. sing. aggino, vāuņo from the consonantal declension of words like balin (balinah) ; G. sing aggissa etc. from the -a- declension ; L. sing. aggirsi, aggimmi etc. from the pronominal declension or after the analogy of the -a- declension ; Ab. sing. aggio from the adverbial -tas with analogical lengthening cf. Pali: cakkhuto; N. A. plu. aggino from the -indeclension ; L. plu. aggīsu, vāūsu after the analogy of aggini, aggiņam, or after devesu.
202 Other Mas. words to be similarly declined are : इसि sage . पहु lord. राव sun उसु arrow , बंधु brother रिउ enemy कह poet बाहु arm विहि fate तेउ fire भिक्खु monk
enemy fare store मच्चु death साहु monk पइ husband मणि jewel सेउ bridge पक्खि bird मुणि sage are elephant.
203 In AMg: the past tense of all the verbs is formed by adding the terminations :
I, II, III, p. Run (EPART) (ENG) It should be noted that these two forms are used for all the persons. Similarly from other roots are formed:

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TE
रीइंसु विहरिंसु
संपज to obtain संपजित्था संपजिंसु रोय to like रोइत्था एस to beg एसित्था एसिंसु रीय to wander रीइत्था विहर to live विहरित्था भुंज to eat भुंजित्था
भुंजिंसु सेव to serve सेवित्था
सावसु 204 ORIGIN. Both these forms are originally of aorist. The singular termination -itthā or ittha may come from the Sk. -ista of the Il'I. p. sing. Atmanepada of the -is-aorist. The form with the dental instead of the expected cerebral leads Pischel to doubt the derivation. The plu. -imsu, according to Pischel, Geiger, comes from -işuḥ of the IIP. p. plu. Parasmaipada of the -iş-aorist. Gray explains the presence of the nasal as due to the contamination of *avattum and *avattisum (cí. Sk. avịtan : avartișur) i.e. of the -a-aorist and the -iş-aorist. For the dental of the singular Bloch suggests the influence of -ttha of as- or according to Smith it is due to the contamination of the thematic aorist.
205 All the three types of past tenses of Sk. have left a few oft-used forms in AMg. which are used in nearly all the persons and numbers thus suggesting that their original value is fully lost. The augment is kept in a few cases.
(i) IMPERFECT. as- 'to be asi, āsi. Use : ke aham āsi Who was I?'amhe asi 'we were' cattāri mittā asi 'had four friends.' brū- 'to speak' abbavi. Use. bālā imam vuyanam abbavi 'the ignorant men spoke these words.'
(ii) AORIST. Beside the regular forms I. p. sing. kr. 'to do' akarissam, pracch- 'to ask' pucchissam. II. p. sing. kr. akāsi, akāsi Use : jamaham puvvam akāsi 'which I did formerly' jahā vayam purā kamman akāsi' as we did the Kamma before '. vad- to speak' vayāsi (like Pāli agamāsi). III. p. sing. akāsi, akāsi, sthä- to stand' thāsi ; car- 'to move' acāri ; kath- 'to tell' kahesi; bhū- 'to become' bhuvi; ahesi. I. p. plu. vas- 'to live' vucchāmu ; III. p. plu. vayāsi. From causal base a form of the s-aorist pavvāvesi.

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(iii) PERFECT. āhu, udāhu and analogical āhamsu used for sing. and plu. as well.
206 More often the meaning of the past tense in AMg. is expressed by using the past passive participle. It is formed by adding the termination zu to the root. So from the following roots :
हस to laugh हसिय laughed
भण to speak भणिय spoken • पुच्छ to ask
greget asked रक्ख to protect रक्खिय protected चिंत. to think चिन्तिय thought भक्ख to eat
भक्खिय eaten TS to fall : पडिय fallen 207 In many cases, however, the Sk. form of the past passive participle is changed according to the ordinary rules of phonology. The following are the most important of such forms: गम to go गय कर to do कय, कड दे to give दिन जाण to know नाय आरभ to begin आरद्ध ने to carry नीय छिंद to cut छिन्न• बंध to bind बद्ध मर to die मय लह to obtain लद्ध पय to cook पक्क पास to see दिट्ठ गा to sing गीय नस to vanish न? पविस to enter पविट्ठ पाव 'to obtain पत्त तर to cross तिण्ण चिट्ठ to stand ठिय सुण to hear सुय चव to fall चुय बंध to bind बद्ध हण to kill हय डह to burn दड़ वय to speak वुत्त
208 The PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE forms of Sk. formed by the accented suffix -tá and preceded by the vowel -j- are generalised in AMg. so as to give rise to the regular mode of formation. But as in Sk. many of the past participles had assumed the value of nouns and adjectives and were not felt as verbal forms, most of them were directly taken over in AMg. with the necessary phonetic changes.

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[S. 208.
(i) With the suffix -tá and the weak grade of the base:
(a) roots ending in vowels: kr- to do' kaya, kada, kri- to buy kiya; gai- to sing' giya; cyu- 'to fall' cuya; jā- to be born' jāya; ya 'to go' jāya; ji- to conquer' jiya; dhyai- to think' jhaya; stha- 'to stand' thiya; snā- 'to bathe' nhāya; dhu- 'to shake' dhuya; jñā- 'to know' nāya; ni- to lead' niya; pa to drink' piya; bhi- to fear' bhiya; bhu- 'to become' bhūya; my- to die' maya; va- to blow' vaya; śruto hear' suya; hy to take away' haya, hada;
(b) roots ending in surd consonants: äjñāp to order' anatta; kṣip- to throw' khitta; sthap- to place' thaviya; tap- to heat' tatta; prap to get' patta; pravṛt- to start payatta, pavaṭṭa; pracch- "to ask' puttha, muc- to release mutta lup to conceal' lutta; vrt to turn' vatta; vijñāp 'to request' vinnatta; svap- to sleep' sutta; vac- 'to speak' vutta;
(c) roots ending in sonants: aparadh to be guilty' avaradhha; ärabh to begin' äraddha, adhatta; krudh 'to get angry' kuddha; grdh- to be attached giddha, gadhiya; tyaj to abandon' catta; yuj to join' jutta; pavutta; badh'to bind baddha; budh to know' buddha; bhuj 'to enjoy' bhutta; raj- 'to colour' ratta; rudh to obstruct' ruddha; labh to get' laddha; vidh- to pierce' viddha; sidh 'to accomplish' siddha; sudh- to purify' suddha; han- 'to kill' haya;
(d) roots ending in nasals: kam to love' kanta; kram to step' kanta, kamiya; klām- to languish kilanta; khan to dig' khaya; gam- 'to go' gaya; dam to control" danta; nam to bend naya; ram to take delight' raya;
(e) roots ending in sibilants: upavis- to sit' uvavi ttha; krs- to drag' kaddha; kliś- 'to be troubled' kiliṭṭha; gaves to seek' gaviṭṭha; tras- 'to frighten' tattha; tus'to be satisfied' tuttha; dams- to bite' dattha; dyś to see" dittha; nas to vanish' naffha; pravis- to enter pavittha; musto rob' muttha; rus- 'to be angry' ruttha; vṛs- 'to rain vuttha; sas- 'to rule' sittha;

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(f) roots ending in h : grah- 'to take' gahiya ; guhto conceal' extdha : dah- to burn' daddha; muh- 'to be deluded' müdha; ruh- 'to grow' rūdha; lih- 'to lick' lidha ; vah- a to carry' vūờha; sah- 'to bear' sodha.
(ii) With-ta differing from Sk. las- 'to desire' lattha ; vas- 'to live' vuttha; trut-'to break' tutta; samlap- 'to converse' samlatta.
(iii) With -ita from the present base : tras- tasiya; taptaviya ; yaj- jaftha; samavasy- samosariya ; vism?- vissariya ; işicchiya ; pracch- pucchiya.
(iv) With -na : khid- to become exhausted' khinna : ci'to collect' cinna ; chad- to cover' channa ; chid- to cut' chinna ; ji 'to grow old' jiņna, junna ; tĩ 'to cross' tiņņa ; dā'to give' dinna; palāya- 'to run away' palāna; prapad- 'to get' pavanna; bhaj- 'to break' bhagga; bhid-'to break bhinna ; rud-'to cry' runna; lag- 'to stick' lagga ; śak- 'to be able' sakka; ha- 'to abandon' hiņa..
(v) Substitutes : pac- 'to cook’ pikka ; sphut- 'to bloom' phulla.
209 The use of the p. p. p. depends upon the nature of the verb.
(i) If the verb is transitive the logical subject is put in the Inst., the object in the Nom. and the participle agrees with the object in number and gender. quitario e fareri The food was eaten by the beggar = the beggar ate the food. वग्घेण मिगो दिट्ठो। The tiger saw the deer. जंबूगेण 957 after I The fox took off the fruits.
(ii) If the verb is intransitive the subject is put in the Nom. and the participle agrees with it in number and gender. स गओ। He went. रामो नयराओ पथिओ । Rāma started from the town, .. (iii) Sometimes the object is suppressed or the whole sentence forms the object of a verb when the participle is put

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(S. 209.
in the neuter gender and singular number. तेण चिंतियं । He thought. रामेण भणियं Rāma spoke. इइ वुत्तं महेसिणा। Thus it was said by the great sage.
210 Compare the following active and passive constructions in the past tense and p. p. p. respectively.
i. मणुस्सा भाणंसु । मणुस्सेहिं भणियं । ___ii. कई फलं भक्खित्था । कइणा फलं भक्खियं ।
iii. गणी धम्मं भासित्था । गणिणा धम्मो भासिओ।
iv. इसिणो वयाइं पालिंसु । इसीहिं वयाइं पालियाई। For the uses of p. p. p. ci 445-450. 211 (I). Decline in full : मुणि, हल्थि, मच्चु, साहु.
(II). 1 सियालेण मओ हत्थी दिट्रो। 2 साहणा चिंतियं । 3 इसिणा भक्खो लद्धो। 4 सिंहो आगओ। 5 जूए पराइया पण्डवा वणं गच्छिसु । 6 गुरुणा भणियं । 7 तेणं कालेणं तेणं समएणं कुण्डग्गामे नयरे सिद्धत्यो नाम खत्तिओ होत्था। 8 सो य समणस्स महावीरस्स जणओ आसि । 9 अईयम्मि कालम्मि कईहिं समुद्दे एगो दीहो सेऊ बद्धो। 10 रामेण रावणो पराइओ। 11 ईसरेण कडे' लोए। 12 भणिया निवेण देवी। रायहंसो विय तव पुत्तो होइ । पडिसुयं देवीए । परितुट्रा चित्तेणं । अइक्वंतो को वि" कालो । जाओ तीए दोहलो । संपाडिओ सो निवेण । पसूया एसा । जाओ दारगो । कयं वद्धावणयं कयं नाम' रायहंसो त्ति ।
212 1 Sages performed penance. 2. The jewel fell into the ocean. 3. The fire burnt the forest, birds, beasts and trees. 4. The monk preached religion. 5. He sang a song. 6. People asked questions to the ascetic. 7. The king thought of the causes of the battle. 8. He cut the head of the enemy with the sword. 9. The poet praised the merits of the king. 10. The sage obtained liberation.
1449. 5 445.
2 400. 6 270.
3 365. 7293.
4 350.

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LESSON SIX
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213 Use the past passive participles in the following sentences : 1 पई भजाए विउलाई अलंकाराइं देइत्था । 2 जणा पेक्खणंगं गच्छिसु। 3 पक्खिणो आगासे उड्डुिसु । 4 सेणा दियस्स पोयं हरिंसु। 5 समणा कढिणेण तवेण देवा सिद्धा य भविंसु।
214 Put the following sentences in the active voice : 1 महावीरेण संसारसागरो तिण्णो । 2 भिक्खू नयरीए उज्जाणे ठिओ। 3 कण्हेण सरीरं अलंकारेहिं विभूसियं । 4 मिगा गहणे रण्णे पलाइया। 5 रामेण केगईए आणा पालिया।
LESSON SIX
215 Neuter nouns ending in इ and उ are declined like the corresponding Mas. nouns except in the N. V. and A. N. V. A. दहिं
दहीइं, दहीणि . N. V. A. महुं
महूई महूणि In all the remaining cases they have the same forms as Mas. nouns ending in इ and उ (cf.. 197).
Other nouns are : . अच्छि eye दारु wood वारि water . अंसु tears धणु bow . सप्पि ghee आउ life रेणु dust सालि rice
चक्खु eye . वत्थु object 216 A few masculine nouns have become neuter : sālīņi * rice' (śāli); vīnīņi 'rice' (vrihi) ; heüim 'causes' (hetu).
A number of Neuter nouns are included in this type by dropping their final consonant : cakkhu eye' (caksus); aur life (āyus) ; dhaņu 'bow' (dhanus) ; sappi 'ghee' (sarpis).
8

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(S. 216.
As regards origin the plu. forms show the normal development met with in nouns ending in -a. The singular forms with the anusvāra dahim, mahum are either due to the analogy of vanam or are due to the nasalisation of the final vowel, a beginning of which is found in the anunāsika preached by Pāṇini in such cases (Sk. dadhi, madhũ).
217 FORMATION OF THE FUTURE The first set of terminations of the future are : I. p. II, K
T ÀI II. p. e . The III. p. I
इस्सन्ति It will be seen that the terminations of the future are formed by prefixing to the terminations of the present the characteristic future mark -issa- corresponding to Sk. -isya-.. Like Sanskrit the -i- may be dropped after stems ending in -e- and -0. (nessāmi, neissāmi, hossāmi, hoissāmi) while it is retained unlike Sk. after stems ending in -ā (thāissāmi : Sk. dāsyāmi). The reason for this distinction is to be found in the fact that while -e- and -0- can be pronounced short before the conjunct -ssa-, -ā- could not be so pronounced without modifying the appearance of the root (*thassāmi). This is the commonest method of forming the future in AMg.
218 The future forms of a root like 'to do' will be :
I. p. PRIETAILÀ, PRI DRAMAT II. p. aftene
करिस्सह III. p. करिस्सइ
करिस्सन्ति The base used in forming this future is nearly identical with that of the present. Thus ji- ' to conquer' jinissai; bhū- 'to become' bhavisswi, hossai, hokkhai ; vihar- to wander' viharissai ; tì- 'to cross" tarissai; gam- 'to go’ gamissai, gacchissai ; sthā- 'to stand' citthissai, thāissai; preks- 'to see pekkhissai ; pecchissai ; labh- 'to get' labhissai ; pracch-'to ask' pucchissai ; pravis-'to enter' pavisissai; pravraj- 'to become a monk' par

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vajissai; prajan- 'to give birth' payāissai; dā- 'to give' dalaissai ; pratyākhyā; 'to renounce' paccāikkhissai; nirvā- 'to extinguish' nivväissai ; i- 'to go' essāmi ; vid-'to know' vedissai ; śraddha- 'to put faith' saddahissai ; ci- 'to collect ' cinissai ; śru-'to hear' sunessai : prād-'to obtain' paunissai : bhid-'to break' bhindissai; kr- 'to do'karissai (vik?- 'to produce by magic' viuvvissai); jñā- 'to know' jāņissai ; grah- 'to take genhissai; badh- to bind' bandhissai; bhan- 'to speak' bhanis
sai
219 Another method of forming the future is to add the following set of terminations. I. p. STEA, ETA
इहिमो, इहामो II. p. इहिसि
इहिह III. p. sponse
इहिन्ति These terminations are formed by prefixing -ihi- to the terminations of the present. In all probability it represents a phonetic variation of -issa- which arose by simplification and change of -sto -h-, beginning with roots ending in long vowels. When the root ends in a long vowel the terminations drop their initial -;-. The forms like nehimi, nehimo go back to neşyámi, neşyámaḥ, the -y- explaining the presence of -;-. 220 The future forms of a root like me 'to see'
I. p. Merera, NFAETH Wuferre , MPETH II. p. R . M ILEE
III. p. Mares : Natha and of a root like a 'to lead': I. p. arti
नेहिमो II. p. aretat . III. p. alles
नेहिन्ति 221 Forms of this future are : ni- 'to lead' nehii ; bhū- 'to become' bhavihinti, hohii ; tị- 'to cross' tarihinti ; gai- 'to sing' gāhii ; ?- 'to go acchihisi (?); gam- 'to go' gamihii, gacchihii;
नेहिह

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[S. 221.
pā- 'to drink' pāhii ; sthā- 'to stand' thāhii; utthehii; praviś. 'to enter' pavisihii ; saj- 'to cling' sajjihii ; gìdh- 'to covet' gijjhihii ; muh- 'to be attached' mujjhihii ; budh- 'to know bujjhihii ; sidh- 'to accomplish' sijjhihii; vịaj- 'to go' vaccihii ; pavvaihii ; man- 'to think' mannehi; prajan- 'to give birth' payāhui ; i- 'to go' ehii ; dā- 'to give' dāhii ; prāp- 'to obtain' pāunihii ; sak- 'to be able' sakkehii; chid-'to cut' chindihüi ; bhuj- 'to enjoy' bhunjihii ; kr- 'to do'karihii ; kāhii ; jñā- 'to know' jānihii ; nāhii ; bhan- 'to speak' bhanihii.
वोच्छह
222 In case of a few roots the future is formed by adding the terminations of the simple present to a peculiar future base of the root irregularly formed. Thus from the root open 'to speak' the future base is ales and the future forms are :
I. p. alegla, ale BPESIAT II. p. aastat III. p. alege
वोच्छन्ति The following roots have special future bases :the root
the future base 3. p. sing. छिंद to cut
छेच्छ
छेच्छा e to give
दच्छइ भुंज to eat मुय to abandon मोच्छ रुय to cry face to know
वेच्छा सुण to hear
सोच्छ 223 These are in reality forms derived from Sk. future forms with the suffix -sya- without the binding vowel -,- to verbs ending in consonants which give rise to the conjunct group -kşawhich becomes either -ccha- or -kkha. Thus we have further, gam- 'to go' gacchāmi (identical with the ordinary present) ; dịś- 'to see' dacchāmi, pekkhāmi ; bhuj- 'to eat' bhokkhāmi and bhū- 'to become' hokkhāmi (analogically formed). .
भोच्छ
भोच्छ मोच्छइ रोच्छ।
रोच्छ वेच्छ
सोच्छइ

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224 ADDITIONAL FORMS of the future are : I. p. sing. hokkhāmi, hokkham; pāhāmi, pāhan ; daccham; kāham ; essāmi; I. p. plu. pāhāmo ; vakkhāmo; kāhāmo ; II. p. sing. pāhisi ; nāhisi ; Il. p. plu. kāhiha, dāittha ; III. p. sing. kāhi ; nehi ; III. p. plu. uvanehinti.
225 The first person pronoun अम्ह (अस्मद् ) is declined as follows: N. अहं, हं
अम्हे, वयं A. ममं, मं, मे
अम्हे, णे I. मए, मइ, मे
अम्हहिं Ab. ममाओ, मत्तो
अम्हेहिन्तो. G. मम, मह, मज्झ, मे · अम्हाणं, अम्हं, णो L. ममंसि, मइ
अम्हेसुं
226 Sk. forms continued are aham, vayam, mam (mām), mama, mai, N. sing. ahayam comes from ahakám, ham from aham after vowels; A. mamam is G. mama with analogical anusvāra ; I. mae (weakened form mai) is according to Bloch either a combination of mayā and me or due to nominal inflection. Ab. mamatto is from G. mama and tas, matto from mat and tas, mamāo analogically after devāo with mama as the base ; majjha is Sk. D. mahyam, and maha goes back to I-E. * meghe ; the plu. amhe is Vedic asmé (Pischel); G. amham is the base amha with the consonantal ending -ām; amhāņam from *asmānām and similarly all plural forms after the -a- declension.
227 . The present active participle is formed by adding अन्त or माण to the root. कर to do करत, करमाण seeing चर to move . चरंत, चरमाण moving चिट्ठ . • to stand चिटुंत, चिट्ठमाण standing जल to burn जलंत, जलमाण burning पास to see पासंत, पासमाण seeing

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होन्त
If the root ends in the long vowel g or at the termination 377 drops its 37: e to give
giving हो to be
being After it becomes sant? • गा to sing
गायन्त singing वा to blow
वायन्त blowing These participles form their feminine bases by adding qit (a woman who is seeing; Triat a singing woman.
228 The strong form of the suffix -anta- of the Parasmaipada is generalised. The Atmanepada suffix -māna is used for all verbs ending in -a. Moreover a number of forms are taken from Sk. or are produced analogically : as- 'to be' santa, samāna ; an adverbial formation jayam, putthavam ; with the suffix -miņa : āgamamīņa, ādhāyamiņa; with the suffix -āņa and -iņa : vihammāna, āsiņa, meliņa.
The heavy termination -māņa cannot be easily applied to roots ending in long vowels (-ā, -e, -o in AMg). So these assume a stem ending in -a (-ya): śî-' to lie down' sayamāņa (but Pāli, semāna); gai- 'to sing' gāyamāna ; dā- 'to give' deyamāņa ; sthā- 'to stand' thāyamāna; dhyai- 'to think' jhiyāyamana; Hem. gives a form like homāņa, which cannot be illustrated. After -e- we have katemāņa, āhāremāņa.
229 These participles are used as adjectives meaning * doing' and qualify the noun in Gender, Number and Case. संजमं चरमाणो भिक्खू मोक्खं पाउणइ। The monk practising selfcontrol obtains liberation. Hanguroidut her ass rais Burr Mahāvīra, practising self-control suffered many
miseries. अजयं भुंजमाणो उपाणभूयाइं हिंसइ। While eating carelessly he kills many living beings. केसिमेवं बुवन्तं तु गोयमो SUTHocati Goyama spoke thus to Kesi who was speaking in that manner.
Cf. for use : 440-444.

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LESSON SEVEN
119
230 1 अजयं चरमाणो पाणभूयाइं हिंसइ । 2 अहं पउमचरियं समासेण वोच्छामि। 3 माहणा अग्गिसि साप्पिं पक्खिवन्ति । 4 से खत्तिए सुणमाणे भणइ न सुणेमि त्ति, असुणमाणे भणइ सुमि त्ति । 5 से महामुणी रीयंते वाराणसिं पुरि पत्ते । 6 जइ जाणन्ता वि न कहिस्सह ता सव्वे निग्गहिस्सामि। 7 भदं लहइ जियन्तो जो य मओ सो मओ च्चेव । 8 वप्पीहयकुडुंबे मए जलहर वरिसिहिसि नीसेसं च भुवणं भरिहिसि । 9 अत्थं गच्छन्तस्स वि रविणो किरणा उडू चिय फुरन्ति । 10 अहं पुण कहं एत्तिएण कालेण वञ्चिस्सामि। 11 अज मे गेहे आगमिस्सइ असोगो। 12 मए अजुत्तं कयं न पुणो एवं करिस्सामि । 13 दो वि विहरन्ता पाडलिपुत्तं पत्ता। 14 सो य गीयं गायन्तो सयलं जणं रंजइ। 15 कुणालो भणइ 'मह नंदणो संपई रजं करिही। 16 हे नरणाह, कयत्था अम्हे, अम्हाणं जीवियं सफलं । 17 संपइ सुरट्ठदेसम्मि तित्थनमणत्थं वच्चिस्सामो अन्नसमयम्मि एरिसो सत्यो मग्गे न होहिइ ।
231 1. In the town of Kundaggama Mahavira will be born in the family of Siddhattha. 2. Tisalā will give birth to him. 3. In the household he will live for thirty years. 4. Then he will become a monk and will practise penance. 5. He will obtain omniscience and will preach the true religion. 6. People will honour him. 7. We will bring wood and water from the forest. 8. The poor man came to me running and said. “I saw a golden fruit falling from the sky.' 9. He win throw dust in my eyes. 10. What is the use of a bow without arrows?..
LESSON SEVEN 232 Declension of Feminine nouns ending in इ and उ. कुच्छि 'womb' . . N. कुच्छी
कुच्छी, कुच्छीओ • v. कुच्छि
कुच्छी, कुच्छीओ A. कुच्छि
कुच्छी, कुच्छीओ

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[S. 232.
_I. कुच्छीए
कुच्छीहि, कुच्छीहिं ___Ab. कुच्छीओ
कुच्छीहिन्तो - G. कुच्छीए
कुच्छीण, कुच्छीणं __L. कुच्छीए, कुच्छिसि कुच्छीसुं घेणु 'a cow' _N. घेणू
घेणू, घेणूओ v. घेणु
धेणू, धेणूओ A. धेj
घेणू, घेणूओ I. घेणूए
धेहि, धेहि Ab. धेणूओ
घेणूहिन्तो G. धेणूए
घेणूण, घेणूणं L. घेणूए, धेणुंसि घेणूसु, घेणूसुं
233 Similarly are to be declined other Fem. nouns like :-- अरइ aversion तुहि joy रइ delight कणेरू an elephant धाउ metal रज rope कंति lustre
nature
power 173 motion
intellect
peace जाइ birth भूमि earth सुद्धि purity
234 A number of Mas. nouns ending in -i have become Fem. because of the change of the final vowel into -i which was peculiarly feminine : añjali 'folded hands' (añjali); kucchi 'womb'. (kukşi) ; ganthi 'knot' (granthi); vihi 'fate' (vidhi) ; sandhi 'joint' (sandhi); pitthi "back' (prsta) with a change of the final vowel.
The themes of this type are produced either by dropping the final consonant : vijju "lightning' (vidyut); acci 'flame (arcis); or by extension : āvai 'calamity' (āpad); vivai (vipad).
The primary derivatives are not felt as such : Tui lustre' (Tuc-i); ditthi 'sight' (drs-ți); vuddhi 'growth' (vyd-dhi *vīdh

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121
ti): thii condition.' (sthi-ti); jāi 'birth' (ja-ti); joni 'place of birth' (yo-ni); bhūmi ' earth' (bhū-mi).
The declension is in full agreement with that of -a- nouns. The L. sing. forms in -rsi are borrowed from Mas. nouns as many of these nouns were originally Mas.
235 THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. The terminations for the imperative are :
I. p. II. p. III. p.
ho
, 3
अन्तु
Before these terminations the roots undergo the same changes. as in the present. The contrast between III. p. sing. ti, tu and. plu. anti, antu is carried to I. p. sing. mi : mu, II. p. sing. si : su. Lassen derived the form vattasu from vartasva which agrees favourably with Pāli vattassu and Bloch considers both the possibilities as probable. Alsdrof su= sva. In the plu. -mo and -ha are taken from the present indicative, while the peculiar form of I. p. plu. gacchamha, citthamha is derived by Pischel as based on the injunctive of the -s- aorist found in Veda as gesma, jesma, etc. Before the terminations -mu, -mo and -hi, the preceding vowel is long.
236 A root of Class I as 'to be' will be conjugated as: I. p. aere
वामो : II. p. 7E, ET, TEIL DER III. p. 165
वहन्तु A root of Class II pre 'to do' _ I. p. करमु
करेमो ' II. p. parente, ill . ale III. p. to .
करेन्तु

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 236.
जामो
A root of Class III FII' to go'
___I. p. जामु __II. p. जासु, जाहि
III. p. जाउ For the use cf. 430-432. .
जाह जायन्तु
237 The I. p. sing. form is known from the grammarians only. Schubring notes a single form demu. Alsdorf explains it as the plu. form used for the singular. II. p. sing. karesu, bhuñjaisu, jāsu, kahasu, sad dahasu, khamasu, varasu, sarasu. kunasu.; the athematic termination hi(dhi) is extended : bhanāhi, gacchāhi, jānāhi ; bhuñjāhi; vasāhi ; harāhi, vandāhi, viharāhi; karehi, maggchi, hohi ; the mere stem, bhana, gaccha, peccha, vigiñca. I. p. plu. and II. p. plu. are forms of the indicative : gacchāmo, genhāmo ; hanaha, khamaha, payaha, etc. .
238 The second person pronoun तुम्ह (युष्मद् ) is declined as follows:N. तुमं, तं, तुमे
तुम्हे, तुझे, तुब्भे A. तुमं, ते
तुम्हे, तुझे, तुम्भे, भे I. तुए, तुमे, तए, तुमए तुम्हेहि, तुज्ञहिं, तुब्भेहिं Ab. तुमाओ, तुमत्तो . तुम्हेहितो, तुब्भेहितो G. तव, ते, तुज्झ, तुम्ह, तुह तुम्हाणं, तुम्हं, तुब्भं
L. तुमंसि, तइ, तुमम्मि तुम्हेसुं, तुझेसुं, तुम्भेसुं N. sing. tumam continues the dissyllabic form of Vedic tuvam3; the -m- as after mamam ; G. tuha after maha; tubbham from Sk. dative tubhyam, tujjha after majjha ; in the plural t- is carried throughout from the singular. Three bases tujiha, tubbha and tumha are analogically declined in the plural.
239 1. तुम्हे मा भायह, न एत्थ तुम्हाणं भयं। 2. उजाणं गच्छिस्सं जुजेहि रहं। 3. मा तुमं पावा धम्मा फुसन्तु। 4. निवइणो पयं अप्पमाएण' पालेन्तु। 5. तुम्हे सुहंसुहेणं जीवह । 6. चैइयं
.
1
432.
___2 364...

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LESSON EIGHT
123
गच्छसु जक्खं पूयाहि । 7. सव्वे जीवा सिद्धिं पाउणन्तु । 8. नको वि निरए पडउ । 9. जणा पावगेण वा जलेण वा सिद्धिं न पाउणन्ति । 10. तुह बलाओ मज्झ बलं अहिगं। 11. सच्चं वा असच्चं वा तुम चिय मुणसि । 12. गच्छह णं देवाणुप्पिया विजयवद्धमाणे खेडे महया सद्देणं एवं वयह । 13. वेजो गिलाणस्स ओसहं देउ । 14. असाहूणं संसगिंग चय । 15. बालय, तुह सोगस्स कारणं कहहि। 16. पस्स बालस्स बालत्तं । 17. पायवा फुलंतु फलंतु य। 18. मा करउ को वि गव्वं एत्थ असारम्मि संसारे । 19. रिसहनाहं नमह। 20. मज्झ पासो पसीयउ ।
240 1. Rāma, go to the garden and bring the bark of the tree for me. 2. Let there be rain in the country. 3. Show your strength on the battle field and conquer your enemies. 4. Bind the elephant with the rope and take her out of the thicket. 5. O Monks, believe in religion and obtain peace. 6. Let us not show delight in birth and aversion to death. 7. Child, always obey thy father and mother and respect thy preceptor. 8. Let us give food to the hungry and water to thirsty. 9. Do not go by the path of sin, leave off pride and serve the wise. 10. Always praise the merits of the people and hide their faults.
LESSON EIGHT
241 Feminine nouns ending in ई and ऊ are declined exactly like those ending in and J except in the Loc. sing. where those with the long vowels have only one form in g. The declension of het ' earth’ will be :
N. मही मही, महीओ . ... महि
1396.
2
Loc.

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(S. 241.
.
ddon
महिं मही, महीओ . महीए . महीहि, महीहिं महीए महीहिन्तो महीए महीण, महीणं
महीए महीसु, महीसुं Other words to be similarly declined are:कोडी crore धाई nurse पुहवी earth गावी cow नई river सिरी Goddess of wealth छाही shade नलिणी lotus सेढी stair-case तणू body पडिहारी door-keeper हिरी shame.
242 Many nouns, adjectives and participles form their feminine with the suffix -i: denti 'giving' gacchanti 'going' karemāņi 'doing' bhagavai 'venerable' guvvini pregnant' ghariņi 'mistress of the house' assavini (nāvā) 'a leaking boat' bambhacārini 'a celibate woman' vagghi 'a tigress', migi 'a female deer', hatthini 'female elephant', kalabhi 'a female young elephant', māhani 'a Brahmin woman', samani a nun', nig. ganthi 'a nun'. With the sufix -ņi : bhikkhuni 'a nun' gāhāvaiņi 'mistress of the household', sāhuni 'nun ' sissini 'female pupil', khattiyāni wife of a Kh.' jakkhini ' demi-goddess', sāni 'bitch'. A few root-nouns extended : vai 'words' (vāc); gāvi 'cow' (gan).
243 THE POTENTIAL MOOD The terminations are:
एज्जाम
___ I. p. एज्जा, एज्जामि __II. p. एज्जा, एज्जासि, एज्जाहि III. p. ए, एज्जा,
एज्जाह
एज्जा
These terminations are applied to all the roots directly. They retain their -e- after the roots ending in -ā but. lose it after verbs ending in -e- and -0-. The -e- is often represented by -i-.

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S. 247.]
LESSON EIGHT
125
244 The potential forms of qre to see' I. p. TGT, TTSTIH
पासेजाम II. p. HIT, TESTIRA, TAHIRE पासेज्जाह III. p. 9, RTG
पासेजा For the use cf. 433-437.
245 I. p. sing. hanejjā, bandhejjā, tajjejjā, tālejjā, pāsijjā, muccejjā, langhejjā, with the final vowel shortened : karejja, lahejja ; with the inflection of the present karejjāmi found rarely. .
II. p. sing. udāharejjā, uvadarsejjā ; with short final vinaejja ; with present inflection -si : payāejjāsi, parakkamejjāsi, vattejjasi; with the termination -e: dāve, gacche, pamāyae, care etc. ; with the vowel before -si short : hanejjasi, ejjasi, vavarovejjasi ; with the imperative inflections -hi, -su :' vandejjāhi, bhanejjasu, karejjāsu, sāhijjasu.
III. p. sing. vivajjejja, paharejjā, kuppejjā, labhejjā, rakkhejjā; with short final : viņaejja, sevejja ; with the termination -e: gijjhe, harise, kine, care, citthe, labhe, dahe.
I. p. plu. are not met with. II. p. plu. with the imperative ending : bhavejjāha, viharejjāha, khamejjäha, kahejjāha. III. p. plu. ágacchejjā, manne (used in plural).
246 Remnants of Sk, forms are : siyā (syāt) it may be', kujjā (kuryāt) ‘he may do', būyā (brūyāt) he may speak ', haniyā (hanyāt) 'he may kill'.
Pischel further regards the adverbial use of sakkā as Vedic sakyāt ; labbhā as labhyāt.
The precative forms are : hojjā (bhūyāt) 'it may happen', hojjāmi, hojjāsi ; dejjā (deyāt) 'he may give' sardhejja (sardheyāt).
247 ORIGIN. Jacobi derived the form of the potential karejjā from the form of the thematic conjugation (bhaveyam) ; Pischel takes it to represent the termination of the athematic conjugation (-yāt) applied to the present base * karyāt becoming by Svara

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(S. 247.
bhakti * kariyāt and karijjā, karejjā. So in his opinion -j- is the original vowel which may have become -e- under the influence of the present indicative forms. Geiger explains the corresponding forms in Pāli as due to the analogy of the inherited forms on the form of the first person kareyyam supplied with the terminations of the present. Bloch suggests that it may be due to contamination of the inherited form like kuppe with the form like dejjā giving kuppejjā. Gray thinks of a contamination of the optative and the Vedic subjunctive.
248 The Gerund in AMg. is formed in many ways. The following are the regular terminations to form it :
(i) El or get: Rall, and having done; forgal TOT having gone, FATIT, IT having laughed ; IUITIT TUTTIT having said : afati, EFIT having destroyed; foreil, BŪTIT having beaten. ..
(ii) garui or gevi: franci, mai having seen ; DEFINI, JE TIU having obtained.
(ii) इत्तु or एत्त : भुंजित्त having enjoyed ; बंधित्त having bound.
(iv) in after roots ending in 37: afisut having done, nisur having seen; with sup after roots ending in other vowels : 1, having given, or having placed.
249 The distinction in Classical Sk. between the suffixes -tvā for primary roots and -ya for roots with preverbs is not to be found in AMg. wherein it agrees with the Epics. The extension of the additional element in una is to be found in all cases, a rare illustration of which has been preserved by the grammarians in pilvina (Pāṇini). The use of -:- as a binding vowel is much more extensive in AMg. and the base is in many cases that of the preseni (and not necessarily weak as in Sk.).
(i) Sk.-tvā becomes -ttā: vandittā 'having bowed', vasittā 'having lived', caittā 'having abandoned', gantā (Pāli gantvā but Sk. gatvā) 'having gone' vantā 'having vomited

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LESSON EIGHT
127
hantā 'having killed', bhavittā becoming' pivittä drinking muittā "leaving aņugacchittà 'following:
(ii) -ttānam from *-tvānari: duruhittānam “having mounted', citthittānam having stood', āpucchittānam 'having taken leave.
(iii) -tüņam after consonants and nasals and -unan after vowels from *tvāna with samprasārana : gantūņa 'having gone' nāūna 'knowing', hoūna 'becoming', namiūna 'bowing' dāūna
giving' bhareūnam 'having filled '; without anusvāra : jiņiūna 'having conquered' daţthūna seeing', laddhūna getting', rajjiūna 'avoiding' mottūna leaving' (forms in ūņa are rare in AMg.).
(iv) •ccă from utvā by palatalisation : (Gray supposes. the influence of Vedic -tya, -tyā), hoccā becoming' thiccă
standing', ciccă abandoning.' vuccă speaking' soccā 'hearing' kiccă doing' bujjhā “knowing '.
(v) -ccāna from *-tvāna : hiccāna 'abandoning', naccānam “knowing'.
(vi) -ya- assimilated : uvalabbha 'having obtained' nikkhamma 'going out' pakkhippa 'throwing, samārabbha 'beginning' abhirujjha 'climbing', pariccajja 'abandoning', viukkamma “transgressing", pappa 'obtaining', pariggijjha 'receiving , samecca 'coming together', āhacca 'suddenly', passa 'seeing ' pavissa entering' nisamma 'hearing'.
(vii) -ya- separated by anaptyxis : anupāliya 'observing ', āroviya 'mounting', padivajjiya' accepting', pariccaiya 'abandoning' pecchiya' seeing ', thuniya 'praising ', ch labhiya 'getting', dhuniya 'shaking off'; sometimes the -ya- is lengthened (cf. Vedic -tya : -tyä), vihāniyā, iyāniyā, dhuniyā etc.; sometimes extended by na after the analogy of other forms: āviliyāna 'having pressed' lahiyāna 'having got' paripiliyāņa 'having oppressed', ārusiyāna 'getting angry'.
(viii) -ya- after roots ending in vowels : parinnāya “knowing', ādāya 'taking', gahāya ‘receiving', jahāya 'abandoning'. In many cases the final sound is -e: parinnäe, samāyāe, āyāe, utthāe, pehãe, nissãe, samkhāe which are regarded by Pischel as

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[S. 249.
I. sing. of Fem. nouns in -a. It is more convenient to regard the change of -ya to -e which Pischel expressly denies.
(ix) - ttu- -ttu- ( Pischel regards them as Infinitives ini-tum used as Gerunds ) : kattu doing', avahattu, āhattu, sāhattu, uddhattu, vandittu, caittu, tarittu, sunittu etc.
·
250 When two acts are performed by the same subject one after another the verb expressing the first is put in the form of a gerund. समणो कम्मं खवित्ता मोक्खं गच्छइ । Amonk becomes liberated after the destruction of the Kammas. - गोयमो सिलोगं सुणिऊण पुच्छइ । Having heard the verse Goyama
asks.
These gerunds may also form a negative form by prefixing अ or अण् to them. Thus अणापुच्छित्ता ' without asking' अगच्छित्ता without going'.
For other uses cf. 453-458.
251 1. महावीरस्स पावयणं सुणिऊण गणहरो भासइ । 2. तए णं सा काली देवी समणस्स अंतियं एयमहं सुणित्ता धरणीयलंसि निवडिया | 3 मुहुत्तरेण आसत्था समाणी' उट्ठित्ता एवं वयासी । 4. से कूडग्गाहे सुबहु पावकम्मं समज्जिणित्ता पंच वाससयाई परमाउयं पालइत्ता निरएसु उववन्ने । 5. सो चण्डरुद्दो देवउलं अवक्कमिऊण नई गओ । 6. विसायं मोत्तण लहुं अवक्कमसु । 7. कहं चरे कहं चिट्ठे कहं भासे कहं सए । कहं भुंजन्तो भासन्तो पावं कम्मं न बंधइ । 8. जयं चरे जयं चिट्ठे जयं आसे जयं सए । जयं भान्तो भुंजतो पावं कम्मं न बंधइ ॥ 9. मेहावी सुद्धं जीवियं आयरे । 10. कयाइ दुक्खं पि सुहस्स मूलं हवेज्जा । 11. सच्चेण अलियं जए । 12. सत्तणो गुणाई पिण्हेज्जा न उण गुरुणो दोसाइं । 13. रक्खिज्ज कोहं विणएज माणं मायंन सेवेज्ज पयहेज्ज लोहं । 14. सुपुरिसाणं हिययाइं तरूणं च सिहराई फलसंपत्तीए नमन्ति ।
252 1. Having done many good deeds the child went to heaven. 2. Worshipping and saluting Mahāvīra king Seniya
1 441.

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S. 254.]
went to his palace. 3. Having bound the thief with ropes they brought him to the minister. 4. Having known the true religion one should not kill animals, eat flesh, drink wine or commit misdeeds. 5. Men should study books and grasp their meaning. 6. Who will not wish for happiness ? 7. But how many would get it? 8. Having abandoned Sītā Lakṣmaṇa returned to Ayodyā. 9. Having experienced the miseries of the worldly life they became monks. 10. The monk should wander with a calm mind and should control himself.
Mas.
LESSON NINE
LESSON NINE
253 The demonstrative pronoun तत् that' has three different forms for the three genders. It is declined as follows:
N. सो, से
A. तं
I. तेण
Ab. ताओ
G. तस्स, ते
L. तंसि, तम्मि
तेहिं
तेहिंतो
तेसिं
सुं
Neu.
सा
तं
Fem.
ताए, तीए
ताओ
"
129
ताए तीए तीसे
तीए, तीसे
ताओ
ताओ
ताहि
ताहिंतो
तासिं
सुं
N.A.
तं
ताई,
the remaining forms are the same as those of Mas. gender. For use cf. 406-410.
254 The contrast between the theme sa- and ta- is I-E. It is extended in AMg. for other cases than N. as se for A.I.G. etc.
9

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[S. 254.
In the Ab. plu. we have the old form tebbho (tebhyaḥ) and a new formation taohinto. Peculiarly pronominal forms are N. plu. te and G. plu. tesim and tāsim. All others agree with the nominal declension.
255 CAUSAL. Besides the regular base of a verb we have a causal base with a change in the meaning. It denotes that the action of the primitive root is performed through the agency of another. In case of intransitive verbs the causal is hardly distinguishable from the transitive meaning. It is formed by adding
___ (i) वे to the roots ending in आ : ठावे to place, ण्हावे to bathe, quà to show, Hà to cause to elapse.
(ii) आवे to roots ending in अ: करावे to cause to do, गेण्हावे to cause to take, हसावे to cause to laugh, जाणावे to make known.
(iii) In a few cases ç is added and the penultimate vowel is lengthened : ar to kill, and to cause, is to fell, ori to cause to get.
(iv) If the root ends in g or sh the termination St becomes यावे : ने to lead, नेयावे to cause to lead.
256 (i) The I-É. termination -aya- has become -e- in AMg. though in favourable cases it may remain as -aya (janayanti): The root shows the full or long grade before it :
(a) Originally long roots : sampāvei 'causes to get', vedhei 'makes wind', kilāmei 'causes to fade' pinei delights'.
(b) The root-vowel in a close syllable : vaddhei 'increases' parivațţei 'turns round' samukkasei elevates'.
(c) The root-vowel -a becomes long : sarcarei 'causes to move' ujjālei 'causes to shine', āyāvei 'heats', tāvei, aivāei 'make fall', gāhei 'causes to take', vittāsei 'troubles' khāmei ' forgives'. Roots originally ending in -i, -U, -I have fallen in with these : kārei 'causes', dhārei 'holds' nivātei 'prevents', pasārei 'spreads' tātei 'protects', hārei 'loses'."

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S. 257.)
S. 257.1
LESSON NINE
LESSON NINE
131
131
(d) The root-vowel -;-, -4- takes Guna : posei 'nourishes, moei 'releases', kovei 'angers', tosei delights', khevei 'causes: to throw!, veei 'knows', roei 'likes', visohei 'purifies' pavesei 'causes to enter'.
(e) In a number of cases the root-vowel remains short (as in Sk.) : namei 'bends', janayai 'produces', abhitaventi ' torment', sarayanti 'urge'.
(ii) -ve- comes from Sk. .-paya- (after roots ending in -ā- and few others) : jāvei 'spends', thāvei 'places', hāvei 'loses' khävio 'made to eat', āņāvei 'orders', dāvei 'gives nhāvei 'bathes' pāyae, pāio, pāenti are without -p- due to dissimilation. Like Sk. some roots have short vowel : pannavei, ānavei, vinnavei, pariţthavejjā, thavei.
(iii) An extension of this suffix is found in -īve- (Sk. āpaya) : jaggävei 'causes to keep awake', samārambhāvei 'makes do', chindāvei 'makes cut' pavvāvei initiates', rayāvei 'cause to arrange', ginhāvei 'cause to take', bandhāvei 'cause to bind', haņāvei 'cause to kill', khaṇāvei 'cause to dig', jalāvei 'cause to burn', payāvei 'cause to cook', kiņāvei 'cause to sell’, lihāvei 'cause to write', nihāvei 'cause to deposit'.
(iv) With the use of this suffix to causal base we get the so-called double causal : kārāvei 'causes to make', bhoyāveum
in order to feed', khevāvei 'causes to throw': with phonetic shortening of a syllable : kāravei, karāvei, davāvei.
(v! With the suffix -āda- ; bhamāļai, dekkhāļai, paisārai.
(vi) A few peculiar forms of Sk. are also inherited : ghāei 'kills', dansei 'shows', pālei protects', pajjei 'causes to drink.'
257 From the causal base all the tenses and moods are produced with the application of the usual terminations and regarding the base as belonging to Class II.
Present : are causes to make, veç teaches, grans places, हसावेइ makes laugh.

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__INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
[S. 257.
Future : गेण्हावेस्सामि I shall make him take, मारिस्सइ He will
kill.
Past : पवावेसी 'converted'. Imperative : व्हावेह bathe (him), कारेउ let him cause.
Potential : छिंदावए he may cause to cut, आरंभावेजा he may cause to begin. Compare for meaning :
i. सो कम्मं करेइ । सो किंकर कम्मं करावेइ । ii. अहं दाणं देमि । अहं दाणं दवावेमि । iii. देवो वरिसेज्जा । देवो वरिसावेजा। iv. समणो न हणइ न हणावेइ। ,
v. तं चोरं पुरिसेहिं गिण्हावेइ ।
vi. नो कोवए आयरियं अप्पाणं पि न कोवए । 258 The infinitive of purpose is formed by adding to the root
(i) इत्तए or एत्तए : करित्तए, करेत्तए to do, पासित्तए, पासेत्तए to see, पाडित्तए, पाडेत्तए to fell.
(ii) 3 to roots ending in 311, g or 3ft: qr to give, tars to do, पाउं to drink, नेउं to lead, होउं to become ; इ5 to roots ending in अ : पासिउं to see, गेण्हिडं to take.
209 (i) The infinitive in -um or -ium corresponds to Sk. -lum (originally the A. of noun in -tu): (a) from verbs ending in vowels : dā- 'to give' dāum, ni- 'to lead' neum, pā- 'to drink' pāum, Sru- 'to hear' soum, ji to conquer' jeum, ina* to know 'nāum, āghrā- 'to smell' agghāuñ, gai- 'to sing' gāum gāium. (b) with roots ending in consonants : han- 'to kill' hantum, khan- 'to dig' khantem, gam- 'to go' gantum, labh*to obtain' laddhum, vah- 'to carry' vodhur, chind- 'to. cut' chettum, bhid- 'to break' bhettum, bhuij. 'to eat' bhottum, muc- “to realise' mottum, Tud- 'to cry' Tottum, svap- 'to sleep' sottum, grah- 'to take' ghettum, vac- 'to speak vottum.

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S. 261.]
LESSON NINE
133
(ii) with -ium : pib- 'to drink' pivium, jina to conquer' jiņium, bhinda 'to break' bhindium, mara 'to die' marium, kara 'to do'karium, hara 'to take away' harium, daha 'to burn" dahium, khāya to eat' khaium, pāva to get' pāvium, utthei to get up' utthāum, all of them from the present base.
(iii) with -ittae (corresponding to Vedic tave or -tavai) : mostly from the present stem: pivittae 'to drink', gamittae 'to go', pāubbhavittae 'to arise', viharittae 'to wander' sumarittae 'to remember', tarittae 'to cross', citthittee 'to stand', thāittae nisiittae 'to sit', pucchittae 'to ask'. päsittae 'to see, puraittae, 'to fill' dhārittae 'to hold' sunettae 'to hear' karittae 'to do'.
(iv) from other stems : pāyae to drink', bhottae 'to eat', vatthae 'to live', hottae 'to become'.
260 The infinitive is used to point out the purpose or intention of an act. सो फलं पाडिउं इच्छइ । He wishes to fell down the fruit. अहं गाम गच्छित्तए जयामि । I try to go to the village. समणो मोक्खं पाउणित्तए उग्गं तवं तवइ । The monk performs hard penance to obtain liberation.
For other uses : cf. 459-462.
261 1 पलित्ते गेहे वाविं खणिउं न उज्जमसु । 2 माया मित्ताणि नासेइ । 3 तवस्सी न छिंदे न छिंदावए न पए न पयावए। 4 अदिन्नं समणा अप्पणा न गेण्हन्ति नो य परं गेण्हावेन्ति । 5 हिंसगं न मुसं बूया नो य अन्नं वयावए । 6 कोहो पीइं पणासेइ। 7 दुल्लहं माणुसत्तणं लहिउं जिणधम्मं आयरसु। 8 अकए वि पिए सुयणा पियं चिय काउं जाणन्ति । 9 चिंतियं तीए। गच्छामि अन्नत्थ । पयट्टा नईतीराए दिट्ठा य धरणेणं । पुच्छिया सा 'सुंदरी कुओ सि तुमं'। तओ सा रोइडं पयहा। भणिया य तेण, 'सुंदरि, मा रोव । एरिसो एस संसारो । धन्नो य अहं जेण तुमं संपत्ता सि ।' तओ तीए भणियं । 'अजउत्त अहं तक्करेण गहिया सि'। 10 सन्ते पाइयकव्वे को सक्कइ सक्कयं पढिउं । 11 खलसजणाण दोसे गुणे य को वण्णिउं तरइ लोए। 12 स्वविसेसं वोत्तं अस्थि किमंधस्स अहिगारो। 13 थोवो वि अग्गी समग्गं पि कंतारं डहिउं समत्थो । 14 तओ दाणं दाउं पवत्तो जणो ।

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[S. 262.
262 1. Do not kill animals nor make others kill them. 2. Who makes a seryant steal steals himself. 3. Wishing to go to Benares he started to travel. 4. Mahāvira performed penance to obtain omniscience. 5. Gosāla wished to defeat his teacher. 6. Good people never try to hurt others. 7. Hemacandra wished to become a monk even in his childhood. 8. Suddhodana wished to make Goyama enjoy pleasures. 9. Bad men make good men commit sins and suffer. 10. Ajātasattu, the king of Magadha, attempted to kill his father Seniya.
LESSON TEN
263 Roots have a special base in Passive which is conjugated in all the tenses and moods. . It is obtained by adding go to the primitive root and then the usual terminations are added. The passive base is conjugated like a verb of Class I. Thus from rei 'to see' the passive base is The 'to be seen' and the III p. sing, present R .
264 In a number of cases the passive base is directly taken from the corresponding base in Sk. with the necessary phonetic changes. They may be regarded as irregular bases in AMg. A few important of them are : pore to do is, amiben epa to bind he खा to eat खजइ भिंद to break भिजइ fea to throw faces भुंज to enjoy भुजह fega to touch focus मुह to faint मुझइ जाण to know नजइ मुंच to release मुच्चइ
_to burm डज्झइ लह to obtain लभइ तर to be able तरिह रुंभ to obstruct रूरूभइ दे to give दिजइ वय to speak वुच्चइ ने to lead निजइ विढव to earn विढप्पड़ पा to drink पिजइ gut to kill

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S. 266.]
LESSON TEN
135
265 (i) The passive base in AMg. is formed by adding to the root -ya-," the passive characteristic in Sk., which becomes ija- after vowels.
(a) The root shows the weak grade in the majority of cases : dū- 'to give' dijjai, stu- 'to praise' thuvvai (the base being *thuv-) dhū- 'to shake' dhuvvai, śru- 'to hear' suvvai, summai, ni- 'to lead' nijjai, gai- 'to sing' gijjai, pa- to drink' pijai, ādhā- 'to place' āhijjai, jñā- 'to know' najjai, ji- 'to conquer' jippai, jivvai.
(b) Roots ending in -!, -show -ir as in Sk. : ti- 'to cross' tirai, hì- 'to take away' hirai, kr. 'to do' kīrai, kijjai, kajjai.
(c) Roots ending in consonants : gam- 'to go' gammai, han- 'to kill' hammai (Jacobi. analogical ; Pischel denominative of *hanman), dřs- 'to see' disai, labh- 'to get' labbhai, vah'to carry' vubbhai, kịt-'to cut' kiccai, muc- to release' muccai, lup- 'to conceal’luppai, sic- 'to sprinkle' siccai, pid- 'to oppress' piddai, vac- 'to speak' vuccai, duh- 'to milk' dujjhai, bhaj- 'to serve' bhajjai, bhid- to break' bhijjai, bhuj- 'to enjoy' bhujjai, grah- 'to take' gheppai, gejjhai, badh- 'to bind' bajjhai, bhan- 'to speak' bhaņņai, rudh- 'to obstruct' rubbhai, muh- 'to faint' mujjhai, kşip- 'to throw' khippai, dah- 'to burn' dajjhai, prabhav- 'to be able' pahuppai, lih- 'to lick' libbhai, siap- 'to sleep' suppai, ārabh- 'to begin ' ārabbhai, rud-'to cry' ruvvai. In all these cases the -ya- is assimilated to the final consonant.
(ii) With the suffix -izja- from Sk. -ya- as applied to causal and other bases like māryate becoming by anaptyxis Pāli māriyati Pk. mārijjai, extended to other roots and mostly apphed to the present base : gam- gamijjai, gacchijjai, stu- thunijjai, śrusuņijjai, dh?- dharijjai, sm?- sumarijjai, tī- tarijjai, pi- pūrijjai, khan- khanijjai, pracch- pucchijjai ; ci- cinijjai, bhuj- bhuñjijjai, kr- karijjai etc.
266 Forms of different tenses from the passive base :
Present: fe they are heard, afuulis it is described, as it is eaten, gas it is said.
Past: ure they were released.

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(S. 266.
_ Future : वोच्छिजिहिइ it will be cut, डज्झिहिइ it will be burnt, मुच्चिाहइ he will be released.
Imperative : सुव्वउ let it be heard, सुमरिजउ let it be remembered, HIRUS let him be killed. .
Potential : विणिहम्मेजा it may be killed, मुच्चेजा he may be freed.
The presence of the past passive participle restricts the use of the passive form of the past to only sporadic cases. The krtya and the forms of the potential are found side by side, while the passive forms find the fullest scope in the present.
267 When the passive form is used the logical subject is put in the Ins. and the object in the Nom. The verb agrees with the object. साहुणा धम्मो कहिजइ । The monk preaches religion. पभूयं अन्नं खजइ । Abundant food is eaten. तेण वुञ्चन्ति साहुणो । 'For that reason they are called monks.
Compare the following active and passive constructions : ___i दुक्कामाई तेणं पीडेन्ति । तेणे दुक्कम्महिं पीडिजइ । ___ii ते एलयं भुंजन्ति । एलए तेहिं भुजइ ।
iii सेणिओ महावीरं वंदइ । महावीरे सेणिएण वंदिजइ । iv सव्वे कामा भिक्खुं न लिंपन्ति । सव्वेहि कामेहि भिक्खू न लिप्पइ । 268 The interrogative pronoun fe is declined as follows: Mas.
Fem. N. के, को
काओ A. कं
काओ केण
काए काओ
केहिन्तो काओ काहिन्तो कस्स
केसि काए, कीसे कासिं L. कंसि, कस्सि, कम्मि केसुं काए, कीसे. कासुं
का
काहें
काहिं

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S. 271.
LESSON TEN
137
Neu. N. A. कि
काइं, काणि the remaining forms are like Mas.
Like Pro (base $) are to be declined other pronouns or pronominal adjectives : ज which, अन्न other, अवर another, पर other, कयर which of the two, कयम which of the many, सव्व all, एग one स or सग oneself.
269 By adding चि (after an anusvāra) or इ (after vowels ) to the forms of foo we get an indefinite pronoun. केणइ कारणेण सो आगओ। He came for some reason. अहं कस्सि चि घरे वसामि । I live in some house. कासिं चि नारीणं वत्थाई। The garments of some women.
270 Note the uses of किं : के तुमं। Who are you? का नारी which woman? काई फलाइं तुमं गण्हसि । Which fruits do you take? केण उवाएण संरक्खोमि । By what means should I protect? (Cf 415). With पि or वि it may express indefiniteness or indescribability. अन्नो को वि सहाओ वम्महसिहिणो । Something peculiar is the nature of the fire of love. को वि कालो। Some time.
271 1. भारहे वासे रायगिहं नाम नयरं विजइ। 2. धम्मसवणेण जणा सव्वेहिं पावेहिंतो मुच्चन्ति । 3. सुक्कटं च बाले य भिन्जइ न नमिजइ । 4. नजइ कुलं विसालं विसालचरिएण पुरिसस्स। 5. जीववहेण सग्गो न लब्भइ। 6. कत्थ वि दलं न गंधो कत्थ वि गंधो न पउरमयरंदो । एक्ककुसुमम्मि महुयर बे तिन्नि गुणा न लब्भन्ति ॥ 7. अस्थमियचंदबिंबे ताराहि न कीरए जोण्हा। 8. चंदो राहुणा गिलिजइ। 9. न दुक्करं किं पि कुसलाणं । 10. छन्नो वि चंदणदुमो किं न कहिजइ परिमलेणं । 11. गुरुणा वुत्तं 'बालय, किं नामो कस्स वा सुओ तं सि'। 12 हंसबयाणं अंतरं गरुयं जाणिजइ। 13. चंदो धवलिजइ पुण्णिमाए अह पुण्णिमा वि चंदेणं । 14. कजे मणो दिजउ । 15. को वि न अब्भत्थिजइ किज्जइ कस्स वि न पत्थणाभंगो। दीणं न य जंपिजइ जीविज्जइ जाव इहलोए ॥ 16. कत्तो उग्गमइ रखी कत्तो वियसन्ति पंकयवणाई ।

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[S. 272.
272 1. By what weapon is that man killed ? 2. Which of the two animals has broken the tree? 3. A gift is given to the beggar. 4. One who abandons pleasures which he gets is called a monk. 5. A man following religion is freed from birth and death. 6. It is not possible to cross the ocean with arms. 7. If occasion arises one should show one's strength. 8. Can one produce an obstacle in my way? 9. Our actions are known by the gods. 10. The deer is killed by the hunter with an arrow. 11. Many rewards be given by the king to the brave. 12. I shall be deceived by the rogue.
LESSON ELEVEN
273 The present passive participle is formed by adding to or mu to the passive base of the root. Thus g to come gust = gaia, GOTHM
to give foot = Pausia, familie धवल to whiten धवलिज्ज = धवलिज्जंत, धवंलिज्जमाण 97 to drink fat = fouria, WATT पाव to obtain पाविज्ज = पाविजंत, पाविजमाण
हस to laugh हसिज्ज = हसिजत, हसिज्जमाण 274 They are used as adjectives and therefore qualify the noun in Number, Gender and Case. GHEORE starswiat PREIST Swists I The palace whitened by the rays of the moon shines. HQGHURAT POSTAVITE U trecereri goui que el The gifts given with a contented mind give birth to greater merit. भिक्खाए पाविजंतण अन्नेण भिक्खू वित्तिं कप्पेजा। A monk should maintain himself by food obtained by begging.

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S. 277.1
LESSON ELEVEN
139
275 Of other participles we have few forms. Thus past active participle : putthavam, Future participle : bhavissam āgamissam.
276 The potential passive participle is formed by adding to the root
(i) णिज to roots ending in अ: पासणिज to be seen, वंदणिज to be saluted, करणिज to be done.
(ii) इयव्व to roots ending in अ: पासियव्व to be seen, Hillarroa to be known, alferon to be stolen.
(iii) यव्व to roots ending in आ, ए and ओ: ठायव्व to to stand, नायव्व to be known, होयव्व to happen, नेयव्व to be carried.
(iv) A few forms of Sk. are taken with the necessary phonetic changes : कज = कार्य to be done, पेज = पेय to be drunk, देज = देय to be given, वज = वयं to be avoided.
277 (i) The suffix -yavva- (Sk. -tavya-) forms: (a) (from the present base) ho yavva 'must be', acchiyavva 'must remain citthiyavva 'must stand', pucchiyavva 'to be asked', puccheyavva, vigiñciyavva 'to be removed', pāsiyavva 'to be seen', paritāveyavva 'to be tormented', uddaveyavva 'to be troubled ', dameyavva 'to be chastised', suniyavva 'to be heard', bhindiyavva 'to be broken', bhuñjiyavva 'to be eaten', janiyavva 'to be known'. The -;- before the termination is extended in AMg. to cases not having it in Sk.
(b) (to the root): soyavva 'to be heard', bhottavva 'to be enjoyed', ghettavva 'to be taken', vattavva 'to be spoken', dafthavva 'to be seen', mottavva 'to be freed,' rottavva to be lamented', kāyavva 'to be done'.
(ii) nijja- (Sk. -aniya-): to the present base : pūyanijja “to be honoured', sārakkhanijja 'to be protected', darisanijja "to be seen', dansanijja, vippajahanijja 'to be abandoned.'
(iii) Sk. -ya- assimilated to the root : kajja 'to be done' dullangha difficult to cross ', neya 'to be known', pejja 'to be drunk', bhavva 'worthy', anappa 'worth ordering', vacca 'to be

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[S. 277.
spoken', vojjha 'to be carried', gejjha 'to be grasped', khajja 'to be eaten', gujjha 'to be concealed', cajja 'to be abandoned', dejja 'worth giving', dojjha 'to be milked', nejja 'to be carried', bojjha 'to be understood', pujja 'to be honoured', bhejja 'to be broken', vajja 'to be avoided', vajjha 'to be killed ', vinnappa 'to be requested', lejjha 'to be licked' mejja 'to be measured', vejja 'to be known.' 278 These participles are used as :
(i) Adjectives : Alepoane TEI Things to be known. पेजं जलं। Water to be drunk. वंदणिजा पुरिसा। Men to be honoured.
(ii) In place of the verb : ag aften i He should be spoken by you. सव्वेहिं धम्मकहा नायव्वा| All should know the religious story.
(iii) Impersonally: a guillo iced I You should go to the park. Qurant and you I He is to tell it in due order.
Cf. 451-452.
279 NOMINAL DERIVATIVES. Possessive adjectives are formed from nouns and adjectives by adding (a) 315 : सदाल from सद्द, noisy, महालय, from महा, great, (b) इल्लः तणइल्ल from aui, full of grass, ose from a thorny, Hice from माया, deceitful, बाहिरिल्ल from बाहिर, outsider, पढमिल्ल from पढम first, उत्तरिल्ल from उत्तर, of the nothern direction. . (c) अल्लः महल्ल from महा, great.
Other illustrations are : niyadilla, sāsilla, ganthilla, kalankilla, satthillaya, gotthillaya, gāmellaya, andhillaga, ādilla, uvarilla, dāhinilla ; puratthimilla, majjhilla, hetthilla, puvilla, āņilliya, ekallaya, andhalla, pisalla. All these suffixes appear to be of popular origin. Pischel suggests that they were accented to explain the doubling of 1.
280 Possessive adjectives and nouns are formed by adding to the nouns मन्त and वन्तः आयारमन्त

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S. 283.]
LESSON ELEVEN
141
possessed of conduct, Perihan having mind, quorfin colour, ama wealthy, Hissant of good conduct.
having
The two suffixes are the extended forms of the strong base of the Sk. suffixes -vat and -mat. The following cases will show that the suffix -manta has usurped the place of the other. gandhamanta, rasamanta, pāsamanta, vijjāmanta, silamanta, gumamanta, pupphamanta.
281 Abstract nouns are formed by adding to the noun or adjective (a) त्त: मूलत्त from मूल, the root thing, देवत्त from देव, godhood, पुत्तत्त from पुत्त, sonhood, सामित्त from सामि, lordship. (b) त्तण : तक्करत्तण from तक्कर, the nature of a thief, आयरियत्तण from आयरिय, the nature of a teacher, महुरत्तण, from HET, sweetness.
The suffix -tta corresponds to Sk. -tva. The other termination -tā is frequent in forming the Dat. sing. as in devattae, neraiyattāe etc. The suffix -ttana is the Vedic -tvana and is frequent in AMg.
282 The suffix sa is added to verbs to form adjectives mostly of the value of potential participle. I things to be eaten, Eigh things to be tasted, H H things to be fried, gerea of the eastern direction. .
Other cases are : ganthima, vedhima, pūrima, samghāima, ubbheima, nivvațțima, vandima, pāima. Renou suggests that the suffix -ima-, known to Sk. in cases like pākima, sekima, and in the earlier stage in khanitrima, kstrima, was originally the -ma of past participle extended by the vowel -- when applied to denominatives. From the original meaning of 'got by the means' it developed the meaning of necessity.
283 The suffix is added to the roots to point an habitual action: afar trembling, Edre laughing, Tere going back, it wandering.

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___INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
[S. 283.
The suffix is added to different types of words without a change in the meaning : बहुय many, अलदुय not obtained पुत्तय a child, इहयं here, माच्चिय a mortal.
284 The comparative degree of adjectives is formed by adding तर or यरः; तराय or यराय ; तराग or यराग to the adjectives. अणिट्टयर, अणि?यराग, कंतयर, कंतयराग.
The superlative degree is formed by adding ah or यम : अण्ठितम, अणिट्टयम, कंततम, कंतयम.
A few forms are taken aver from Sk. सेयं श्रेयस् better, सेट=श्रेष्ठ best, कनि? कनिष्ठ youngest, कणीयस=कनीयस् younger, जेट=ज्येष्ट eldest, पावीयंस=पापीयस् sinful, पाविट्ठ=पापिष्ठ most sinful.
285 1. तस्स कजं अणिट्टयरं भूयं । 2. सक्कराए महुरत्तणेण निंबस्स कडुयत्तणं किं विपरिणामिजइ। 3. आयरियस्स य तं दारगं पेच्छन्तस्स नेहो जाओ । 4. न सोयणिज्जा कुमारा। 5. तीए आवईए किं कायव्वं तेण वरागणं। 6. मुसा भासा पंडिएहि न भासियव्वा । 7. अप्पहियं कायव्वं जइ सक्कइ परहियं च कायव्वं । अप्पहियपरहियाणं अप्पहियं चेव कायव्वं ।। 8. सप्पस्स जहा दिन्नं दुद्धं पि विसत्तणमुवेइ । 9. जइ मरणं न साहारणं ता सोगं काउं जुजइ। 10. मच्चुणा गसिजमाणं जीवियं को क्खइ । 11. समणेण य अणवजा कहा कहेयव्वा। 12. ता भो भव्वा, लद्धण माणुसत्तणं, निद्दलियब्वो पमाओ, वंदणिज्जा देवा, कायव्वा गुरुचरणसेवा, दायव्वं सुपत्तेसु दाणं, कायव्वो जिणाययणेसु पूयासकारो, जेण संसारकंतारं वोच्छिजइ ।
286 1. What one must do one should do without delay. 2. Better than all virtues is the virtue of non-violence. 3. His younger brother is cleverer than he. 4. The wealthy man. thinks wealth more valuable than goodness or virtue. 5. A powerful hero kills many cowardly persons on the battlefield. 6. The lamp lighted by the maid is carried along the current. 7. A penny received as a reward is better than a lump of gold. 8. Abstain from wealth which is stolen. 9.

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S. 289.]
LESSON TWELVE
143
The scriptures should be explained by the teacher to the pupils. 10. If a man becomes devoid of wealth his relatives should not forsake him.
LESSON TWELVE
287 The AMg. declension is mostly of nouns ending in vowels. A few nouns, however, which originally ended in consonants in Sanskrit have peculiar forms of the consonant al declension and can be said to form the irregular declension in AMg.
I.
288 Words which end in F in Sk. fall into two groups, those denoting agency and those denoting relationship. They are differently declined in a few cases. 289 Words denoting agency. कत्ता doer' N.. कत्ता
कत्तारो, कत्ता V. कत्ता
कत्तारो 'कत्तारं
कत्तारो, कत्ता कत्तारण
कत्तारेहि ___Ab.. कत्ताराओ कत्तारोहितो
G. कत्तणो, कत्तारस्स कत्ताराणं ___L. कत्तारे
कत्तारेसुं Similarly are declined दाया giver, नेया leader, नाया knower, सत्था preacher, पसत्था expounder, गन्ता goer.
The forms of older 'declension are: N. sing. neyā, chettā, dāyā, (forms from plu. used as sing. are : udagadāyāre, bhattāre, uvadamsettāre, bhattāro); A. sing. bhattāram, dāyāram, neyāram, N. plu. akkhātāro, āgantāro, pannattāro, neyāro.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 289.
I. sing. kattārena, plu. kattārehim, Ab. sing. kattārāo, plu. kattaTehinto, G. sing. kattārassa, plu. kattārāṇam, L. sing. bhattāte, plu. dāyāresu are from the -a- declension. G. sing. kattuno, bhattuno from the -U- declension.
290 Words of relationship. Mas. foren' father N. पिया
पियरो .. A. पियरं
पियरो, पियरे I. पिउणा
पिईहिं, पिऊहिं Ab. पिउणो
पिऊहिंतो, पिईहितो G. पिउणो, पिउस्स
पिऊणं, पिईणं L. पियरि
पिऊसुं, पिईसुं Similarly are declined : भाया brother, जामाया son-in-law, अम्मापिया father and mother (in sing. and plu.), मायापिया (sing. and plu.).
Historical forms are : N. sing. piyā, bhāyā, plu. piyaro, bhāyaro, bhāyarā, ammāpiyaro. A. sing. piyaram, bhāyaram, ammāpiyaTam, L. sing. piyari, G. plu. ammāpiunam, ammāpiinam, māyā
piinam, and after them I. plu. piahim, pahim, bhaihim, ammaphim. I. sing. piunā, bhāuṇā, G. sing. piuno, Ab. plu. piūhinto
are after -- or u- declension. G. sing. piyarassa after a declension.
291 Fem. माया " mother'. माया
मायरो मायरं
मायरो मायाए, माऊए मायाहिं, माईहिं माऊए
माजाहतो, माईहितो मायाए, माऊए
मायाए, माऊए माईसुं, माऊसुं The word māyā has been fully assimilated to piyā even in A. Plu. Dhüyā daughter' is regular like mālā. Older forms are
ż creo

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S. 293.]
LESSON TWELVE
145
A. Sing. dhiyaram l. plu. dhhiyarahim (analogical with the extended base). Only N. sing. sasā sister' is found.
292 Words ending in-n. राजन् ‘king'. N. राया
रायाणो राइणो V. राय, राया, रायं रायाणो, राइणो A. रायाणं, रायं
रायाणो I. रना, राइणा, राएण राईहिं __Ab. राइणो, रन्नो
राईहितो _G. राइणो, रन्नो, रायस्स राईणं, रायाणं ___L. . रायसि
राईसुं Historical forms are: N. sing. rāyā, plu. Tāyāņo, rāyāṇam, 1. sing. Tannā, Ab. G. sing. Tanno. Others are from a -z- base and rāyassa and rāena from an -a- base. Both the types of forms are met with in compounds. N. sing: ikkhāgarāyā, vikkamarão, A. sing. gaddabhillatāyānam, I. sing. devarannā, nāgarāena, etc.
293 आत्मन् ‘self '. It has two bases : अप्पा and अत्ता : ___N. आया, अप्पा
अप्पाणो, अत्ताणो A. अप्पाणं, अत्ताणं, आयाणं अप्पाणो, अत्ताणो I. अप्पणा, अत्तणा
अप्पाणेहि, अत्ताणेहिं Ab. आयओ, अत्तओ, अप्पओ . अप्पाणहितो, अत्ताणेहितो . G. अप्पणो, अत्तणो
[अप्पाणं, अत्ताणं] ___L... [अप्पणि, अत्तणि] | [अप्पेसुं अत्तेसुं]
Similarly are declined अध्दा road, बम्भा Brahman, मुध्दा "head.
Sometimes the shortened base appa is used : A. sing. appam, I. sing. appena, L. sing. appe, sometimes the lengthened base : N. sing. appāno, I. sing. appānena, G. sing. appānassa. So also yuvan youth' has juvā or juvāna; śvan 'dog' sāna. The Neuter word nāman 'name' has in the N. sing. nāmam or nāma. karman 'act' has : I. sing. kammanā, kammunā, G. sing. kan
10

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 293.
. अरहन्ते
miuno. All other words ending in -in, -vin, and -min become -i-ending. 294 Words ending in -t. अर्हत् ‘venerable' N. अरहं, अरहंतो
अरहन्तो . A. अरहन्तं I. अरहन्तेण, अरहया
अरहन्तेहिं Ab. अरहओ
अरहन्तेहितो G. अरहओ अरहंतस्स
अरहंताणं . L. अरहंते, अरहंतसि
अरहंतेसुं Similarly are declined all present participles like करन्त, गच्छन्त and possessive adjectives like धण
These words show all the forms of the -- declension with the base in -anta, -vanta, and -manta extended from the strong base in Sk. Historical forms are : N. sing. janam, vijjam, cak khumam, ditthimam etc. I. sing. maimayā, janayā, mahayā, G. sing. mahao, bhagavao, viharao, kuvvao, dhiimao etc. V. sing. bhayavam, āuso, samaņāuso. Forms from the weak bases are : N. sing. bhagavo, A. sing. maham.
295 Re m n ants of other declensions. gau 'cow', N. sing.... go, gave, N. plu. gão, gavā, A. plu. gão, I. plu. gohim, G. plu. gavam. The feminine gavi is regular. nane 'boat' N. sing. nāvā, A. sing. nāvam, etc. regular. Word ending in -f : L. sing. jagai.. Words ending in -as : N. sing. dummanā, sumaņā, I. sing. manasā, vayasā, teyasā, tavasā. L. sing. tamasi. In -is, us: I. sing. cakkhusā, viusā. In -ś : Ab. sing. diso, A. sing. disam. vāc : I. sing. vāyā. tvak : I. sing. taya. vid : N. sing. veyavi, parisad : N. sing. parisā.
296 1 तओ सो वयंसपरिगहिओ मायापिईहि य सद्धिं ससुरकुलं गओ। 2 नमोत्थु णं समणस्स भगवओ महावीरस्स। 3 अरुहन्ते वंदिमो सिरसा । 4 सुयं मे आउसं तेणं भगवया एवमक्खायं । 5 जे मायरं च पियरं च पोसेन्ति ते लोए पसंसणिज्जा भवन्ति । 6 रायाणो रायमच्चा य गाणं पुच्छन्ति । 7 ते अप्पणा न गिण्हन्ति नो य गिण्हावए परं । 8 जे वा दायारं निंदइ अप्पलाभे से भिक्खू अकजं कुणइ । 9 पुव्वं बुद्धीए पेहित्ता पच्छा वयमुदाहरे। अंचक्खुओ व्व नेयारं

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S. 298.]
LESSON THIRTEEN
147
बुद्धिमन्नेउ ते गिरा ॥ 10 तए णं से मेहे कुमारे अम्मापिऊहिं एवं वुत्ते समाणे अम्मापियरो एवं वयासी । 11 तस्स णं कूणियस्स रन्नो धारिणी नामं देवी होथा। 12 अप्पा चेव दमेयव्वो अप्पा हु खलु दुद्दमो। अप्पा दंतो सुही होइ अस्सि लोए परस्थ य॥
297 1. The orders of the king should be followed by all the people. 2. King Aśoka's religion preached obedience to parents and elders. 3. Know thyself was the motto of the Greek philosophers. 4. The word arahanta is explained as one who deserves honour', 'one who kills enemies' and 'an honourable person'. 5. The preaching of the venerable lord Mahāvīra should not be thought to be the same as that of Buddha. 6. The ministers of the king brought before him the young prince of the vanquished enemy. 7. When asked what he wanted the child began to cry and lament the death of his father. 8. Men follow their leaders without thinking. 9. 'It is better to control oneself with penance and self-control. 10. The man who has eyes should be the leader of blind men.
LESSON THIRTEEN
298 The demonstrative pronoun gag is declined as follows: ___Mas.
Fem. - N. एस, एसो
एसा एयाओ A. एयं . I. एएणं
एएहिं एयाए एयाहिं . Ab. एयाओ एएहिन्तो एयाओ एयाहितो - G. एयस्स
एयाए एयासिं L. एयंसि, एयम्मि एएसुं एयाए एयासुं
एयाओ
एएसिं

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 298.
Neut. N.A. एयं
एयाई, एयाणि.. all other forms are the same as those of the Masculine.
This pronoun is used to point out things which are near the speaker. (cf. 411).
The declension is identical with that of tat which is here extended by prefixing e-. Additional forms are N. sing. ese, Ab. sing. etto, G. plu. eyānam (both Mas. and Fem.).
इमाहि
299 The pronoun इदम् is declined as follows : Mas.
Fem. N. इमे, अयं, इणमो इमे इमा, इयं
इमाओ A. इमं इमे इमं .
इमाओ I. इमेण, पेण, इमिणा इमेहिं इमाए Ab. इमाओ इमेहिंतो इमाओ
इमाहितो G. इमस्स, अस्स, से इमेसिं, एसिं इमीए, इमाए, इमीसे, से इमासिं L. इमंसि, अस्सिं इमेसुं इमाए, इमीसे इमासुं
Neut. N. A. इम, इदं
इमाई, इमाणि the rest like Mas. It is used to point out what is in the presence of the speaker. (cf 412).
As in Sk. this pronoun is pieced out of a number of stems. The original stem a-or i- gives : N. sing. ayam (for all genders),
A. sing. imam, G. sing. assa, L. sing. assim, I. plu. ehim, L. plu. esu, and the extended form L. sing. ayamsi. The stem ana- gives I. sing. anenam, the base ena- (becoming ina-) gives Mas. N. sing. inamo A. sing. inam, nam, I. sing. nena, plu. nehim, Neu. N. A. sing. inam, Fem. I. sing. nae, plu.nahim.
The base ima- is extended to all the cases and assumes the form of imā- or imi- in the Fem.

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S. 304.]
LESSON THIRTEEN
149
300 Only a few forms of अदस् are met with. N. sing. असो and the extended forms अमुगो, अमुगे, I. sing. अमुणा L. sing. अमुगंसि (cf. 413).
301 The Denominatives or nouns used as verbs are formed
(i) by using the noun as a verb : अप्पिण to offer, जम्म to take birth, पच्चप्पिण to return.
(ii) by adding य to the noun, before which the preceding vowel is lengthened : ममाय to desire, सिंहाय to act like a lion, अमराय to look like a god.
(iii) by adding ए : आहारे to eat, फले to give fruit, उवक्खडे to cook, मइले to soil, वंते to vomit.
(iv) by adding आवे : सद्दावे to call, दुक्खावे to harm, धीरावे to console, सच्चावे to take an oath.
302 A few desiderative forms are borrowed from Sk. जुगुच्छ to become disgusted, तिगिच्छ to examine, सुस्सूस to serve.
303 The intensive forms borrowed from Sk. are: जागर to keep awake, चंकम to wander, लालप्प to fondle भिब्भिस to shine.
304 1. एयं विहिणा सुकयं सुयणा जं निम्मिया भुवणे। 2. जा जा वच्चइ रयणी न सा पडिनियत्तइ । अहम्मं कुणमाणस्स अफला जन्ति राइओ॥ 3. जा जा वच्चइ रयणी न सा पडिनियत्तइ । धम्मं च कुणमाणस्स सफला जन्ति राइओ॥ 4. वित्तेण ताणं न लभे पमत्ते इमंसि लोए अदु वा परस्थ । 5. जया मिगस्स आयंको महारण्णम्मि जायइ । अञ्चतं रुक्खमूलम्मि को णं ताहे तिगिच्छइ ॥ 6. सो सेणायइ काओ सीहायइ कोल्हुओ अबुद्धीओ। 7. एवं अणुसासिएण भणियं आग्गसम्मेण । भयवं एवमेयं न संदेहो त्ति । ता जइ भगवओ ममोवरि अणुकंपा, उचिओ वा अहं एयस्स वयबिसेसस्स ता करेहि मे एयवयप्पयाणं। इसिणा भणियं 'वच्छ , को अन्नो एयस्स उचिओ त्ति ॥ 8. एयमायण्णिऊण भणियं वरधणुणा 'किमयस्स मुक्खबडुयस्स कए अप्पाणं खेएह'।

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[S. 305.
3051. Teach this pupil the principles of religion. 2. The dog was stolen from me by the thief. 3. These students wait upon the teacher. 4. The physician examines the disease of the king. 5. Why do you get angry with these servants ? 6. Salutation to the god who created this whole universe. 7. Who lives in that cottage ? 8. The ascetics living in this forest are seen by that king.
LESSON — FOURTEEN
306 The numeral एग or एक is declined in three genders and in the singular number.
N.
A.
I.
Ab.
G.
Mas.
एगे
एगेण
गाओ
22
दोहिं
दोहिंतो
दोन्ह
दो
Neu.
एगं
एगं
Fem.
"
एगा
एगं
एगस्स
एगाए
एगाए
L. एगम्म एसि In the plural it is used to mean 'some'. N. ege, G. egesim.
तीहिं
तीहिंतो
तिन्हं
तीसु
एगाए
307 दो ' two ' ति 'three' and चउ 'four' are declined in the plural only and all the genders have the same forms.
N. दो, दुवे, दो
तओ, तिण्णि
चत्तारो, चउरो, चत्तारि
A.
I.
Ab.
G.
L.
गाओ
""
चउहिं चउहिंतो

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S. 309.]
LESSON FOURTEEN
151
Do (dvan) is Mas. duve and be (dve) Neu. and Fem. donni after the model of trini. Other forms are in the plural. tao (travah) Mas. tinni (trini) Neu. cattāro (catvārah) Mas. cattāri cat väri) Neu. cauro (caturah) Mas. Acc.
308 Numerals from पंच five' to अट्ठारस ‘eighteen' are declined only in the plural and have one set of forms only. N. एंच A. पंच I. पंचहिं Ab. पंचहिंतो G. पंचण्हं L. पंचसु.
They are 6 छ, 7 सत्त, 8 अट्ट, 9 नव, 10 दस, दह, 11 एक्कारस, एयारह, 12 दुवालस, बारस, 13 तेरस, 14 चउद्दस, 15 पंचरह, पन्नरस, 16 सोलस 17 सत्तरस. ___All other numerals except 49-58 are declined in the singular like nouns having the respective endings. Thus numerals from 19-48 may be regarded as Neu. nouns ending in -a or Fem. nouns ending in -ā in the Nom. Numerals from 59-99 may be regarded as Neu. in -i or Fem. in -i in the Nom.. In all other cases they are declined like Fem. nouns. Numerals from 49 to 58 are to be declined like panca. (cf. 339-340).
309 The remaining numerals are : 19 एगूणवीस, अउणवीसइ अउणवीस, 20 वीस, वीसइ, 21 एक्कवीस, 22 बावीस, 23 तेवीस, 24 चउवीस, 25 पणवीस, 26 छन्वीस, 27 सत्तावीस, 28 अट्ठावीस, 29 अउणतीस, 30 तीस, 31 एगतीस, 32 बत्तीस, 33 तेत्तीस, 34 चोत्तीस, 35 पणतीस, 36 छत्तीस, 37 सत्ततीस, 38 अट्टतीस, 39 एगूणचत्तालीस, 40 चत्तालीस, 41 एगचत्तालीस, 42 बायालीस, 43 तेयालीस, 44 चउयालीस, 45 पणयालीस, 46 छायालीस, 47 सीयालीस, 48 अढयालीस, 49 एगूणपन्न, 50 पन्नास, 51 एगावन्न, 52 बावन्न, 53 तेवन्न, 54 चउवन्न, 55 पणवन्न, 56 छव्वन्न, 57 सत्तावन्न, 58 अट्ठावन्न, 59 एगूणसट्ठि, 60 सट्ठि, 61 एगढ़ि, 62 बासट्ठि, 63 तेसट्टि, 64 चउसट्टि, 65 पणसहि, 66 छावट्ठि, 67 सत्तसट्ठि, 68 अट्ठसट्टि, 69 एगणसत्तरि, 70 सत्तरि, 71 एक्कसत्तरि, 72 बावत्तरि, 73 तेवत्तरि, 74 चोवत्तरि, 75 पंचहत्तरि, 76 छावत्तरि, 77 सत्तहत्तरि, 78 अट्ठहत्तरि, 79. एगूणासीइ, 80 असीइ. 81 एक्कासीइ, 82 बाईसि, 83 तेसीइ, 84 चउरासीइ, 85 पंचासीइ, 86 छलसीइ, 87 सत्तासीइ, 88 अट्रासीइ, 89 एगूणनउइ, 90 नउइ, 91 एक्काणउइ, 92 बेणउइ, 93 तेणउइ,

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94 चउणउइ, 95 पंचाणउइ, 96 छन्नउइ, 97 सत्ताणउइ, 98 अट्ठाणउइ, 99 नउणउइ, 100 सय, 1000 सहस्स.
310 The ordinals are : पढम first, बीय, बिइय, दोच्च second, तइय तच्च third, चउत्थ fourth, पंचम fifth, छ? sixth. The remaining are formed by adding # to the cardinal number. सत्तम seventh, दसम tenth, वीसइम twentieth...
311 To express fractions of half अड़ is added to the next number : दियडू one and one half, अद्धट्ठम seven and one half.
312 सई once. The remaining m ultiplicatives are formed by adding खुत्तो (Sk. krtvah).. दुक्खुत्तो two times, farger three times, AFFET seven times..
313 The distinctives are expressed by putting the ordinal in Neuter singular. पढमं firstly, दोचं secondly.
314 Numeral adjectives are formed by adding विह (Sk. vidha) to the number. एगविह simple, दुविह two fold पंचविह fivefold. They can also be formed by adding हा (Sk. dha) : सयहा hundred times, सत्तहा seven times.
315 Numeral adverbs are formed by adding #T: HERIET by thousands, सयसो by hundreds.
316 दो two ' becomes दो in compounds when the accent is on the first syllable. Otherwise it becomes दु: दोमासिय but, दुगुण. ति ‘three' becomes ते in compounds : तेइंदिय * having three senses'.
317 1. तए णं सा नवण्हं मासाणं बहुपडिपुण्णाणं अध्दट्ठमाणं राइंदियाणं वीइक्कन्ताणं पुवरत्तावरत्तकालसमयंसि दारगं पयाया। 2. तेणं कालेणं तेणं समएणं पासे अरहा तीसं वासाई अगारवासमझे वसित्ता, तेत्तीसं राइंदियाई तवं तवित्ता, सत्तरिवासाई केवालपरियायं पाउणित्ता, एकं वाससयं सव्वाउयं पालइत्ता सव्वदुक्खपहीणे अहोसि। 3. जं रयणिं कालगओं अरहा तित्थं

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करो महावीरो। तं रयणिमवंतिवई अहिसित्तो पालओ राया ॥ 4. तस्स णं आणंदस्स गाहावईस्स चत्तारि हिरण्णकोडीओ निहाणपउत्ताओ। 5. एवं खलु अम्हाणं सामी, सुमिणसत्थगसि बायालीसं सुमिणा, तीसं महासुमिणा, बावत्तरि सव्वसुमिणा निहिट्ठा। 6. तं भोगसमत्थं जाणित्ता अम्मापियरो बत्तीसाए इब्भकुलबालियाणं एगदिवसेणं पाणिं गेण्हावेन्ति ॥ 7. से मुणी छट्ठी भत्ताइं अणसणाए छेएइ। 8. से बालए आयरियकुले बावत्तरि कलाओ सिक्खइ।
318 1. On the 27th day of this month there was an assembly of wise men. 2. There are 36 chapters of the Uttarādhyayana. 3. The Jain canon has 45 books of different nature. 4. Of the 9 chapters of the first book of Āyāra the 8th called Mahāparinnā is lost. 5. The Nandisūtra deals with the five kinds of knowledge. 6. In this Avasappiņi 24 Jinas are born in the country of Bharata. 7. Rāvana had only one head and not ten. 8. The eleven brothers became the eleven Gañadharas of Mahāvīra.
LESSON FIFTEEN
.319 ADVERBS. Adverbs 'of place : एत्थ, इहं here, तस्थ, तहिं there, जत्थ, जहिं where, कत्थ, कहिं where? कत्थइ, कहिंचि, कहिंपि somewhere, इओ, एत्तो from here, तओ, तत्तो from there, जओ, जत्तो from where, कओ, कुओ, कत्तो from whence ? एगत्थ in one place, अन्नत्थ in another place, उड़े above, सव्वत्थ everywhere, बाहिं outside, अग्गओ before, पच्छा behind, दूरओ from afar, अंतरा in the middle.
320 Adverbs of time : अज, एण्हि, एत्ताहे, इयाणिं, संपयं now, ता, तया, वओ, तो, तइया, ताहे then; जया, जइया, जाहे when; कया कइया when? जाव...ताव, जा...ता while...then, कल्लं yester

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day, gà tomorrow, grea, gar earlier, fai, FI, E, pri always, सहसा, झत्ति suddenly, नवरं only, नवरि thereafter, पुणो again, ताव य, एत्थंतरे in the mean while.
321 Adverb of manner : A. Al, not, ga, faer, fa, za like, एवं, तहा so, कहं पि somehow सम्मं properly, समं together; बाढं, धणियं very, ईसि मणं little, अवस्सं necessarily, लहुं, सिग्घंquick1y सणियं slowly, कमेण in course, सुट्ठ well, केवलं only, सेयं better.
322 The adverbs have a twofold origin. (i) Some of them are old case forms and others are formed with suffixes. Acc. Sing. is found in : uddham (ürdhvam), būhim (bahih), iyānim (idānim), sampayar (sampratam), kallam (kalyam), miccari (nityam), sayayam (satatam), puvim (*pūrvim), bādham, dhaniyam, evaņ (evam). Inst. is found in: antarā, sahasā, kamena (kramena), diyā (divā), purā ; Ab. is found in : bahiyā (bāhyāt); hetthā, pacchā; Loc. in : etthantare, Tāo, rahe, suve, pure.
(ii) With the suffix -ttha (Sk. rra): ettha, tattha, jattha, kattha, egattha, annattha, savvattha. With the suffix -tas, io, etto, tao, tatto, jao, jatto, kao, katto, kuo, dūrao, aggao. With the suffix -ha (Sk. tha); ihan, jaha, taha, kaham. With the suffix -dā: tayā, jayā, kayā, sayā. With -hini : jahim, tahim, kahim. With -he: Pāhe, tāhe.
323 PREPOSITIONS. Used with nouns. (i) Governing Acc. : अंतरेण without, जाव until, पइ towards, मोत्तण except, 3GP, MERT with.
(ii) Governing Ins. : H, ANË, Ak with, farm without. (iii) Governing Abl.: 3762 from.
(iv) Governing Gen. : पुरओ before, उवारें above, समीवं near, कए for, हेट्ठा below, बाहिं outside पञ्चक्खं in the presence etc. 324. Prepositions used with verbs.
अइ (अति) beyond, over, अइक्कमइ crosses, अइगच्छइ goes over.

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अणु ( अनु.) after, behind, along : अणुकरेइ imitates, अणुजाणइ consents. 'अव ; ओ (अप) away, off : अवक्कमइ, अवरज्झइ, ओहरइ.
अभि (अभि) towards, to : अभिगच्छइ, अभिवइ, अभिभवइ. अव, ओ (अव) away, down : अवतरइ, ओगाहइ अवमाणेइ. आ (आ) upto, on : आरहइ आगच्छइ. उद् (उद् ) upon : उग्गमेइ , उत्तरइ, उद्दिसइ. उव (उप) towards, near : उवागच्छइ, उवमेइ, उवधारेइ. दुस (दुस) bad, hard : दुच्चरेइ, दुक्करेइ. निसू (निस) out, away : निग्गमइ, निस्सरइ. परि (परि) all round : परिगणेइ, परिवडेइ. पडि, परि (प्रति) towards : पडिवालेइ. वि (वि) apart, separate : विक्किणइ, विकुब्वइ, विवरेइ. सं (सम्) together : संगमइ, संतोसेइ. सु (सु) well : सुलद्धे, सुकरेइ. पाउ (प्रादुः) open : पाउकरेइ, पाउब्भवइ. 325 CONJUNCTIONS. (i) Copulative : अह now, च, य and, किंच moreover. (ii) Disjunctive : वा or (iii) Adversative: अहवा or किंत but. (iv) Conditional : जड if. (v) Of direct speech : त्ति, ति, इ, इइ thus. (cf 463-478).
326 1. कहं तुम एगांगी भीसणारण्णे आगओ। 2. अहवा दंडेण चेव नीयाणं उवसमो, न सामेणं। 3. जत्थ सागरे मिलिया गंगा तत्थ गंगासायरतित्थं जायं। 4. जाव न एइ आएसे ताव जीवइ सो दुही । अह पत्तम्मि आएसे सीसं छेत्तण भुजइ ॥ 5. सव्वं जगं जइ तुहं सव्वं वावि धणं भवे । सव्वं पि ते अपजत्तं नेव ताणाय ते तव ॥ 6. कोहा वा जइ वा हासा लोहा वा जइ वा भया । मुसं न वयई जो उ तं वयं बूम माहणं॥ 7. जहा पोम्मं जले जायं नोवलिप्पइ वारिणा । एवं अलित्तं कामेहिं तं वयं मबू माहणं ॥ 8. · जरा जाव न पीलेइ वाही जाव न वडूइ । जाविंदिया न हायन्ति ताव धम्मं समायरे ॥

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327 1. Who can help me without you ? 2. Go in the northern direction of the tree and I will follow you. 3. When he was speaking with the girl Asaņivega came there. 4. What difference is there between men and beasts if men behave like animals? 5. The thief concealed the stolen wealth below the tree. 6. Goyama came to the garden outside the city of Campā with five hundred monks. : 7. The god slowly produced the form of a big serpent to frighten the pious householder. 8. Even though fish live in water they do not get liberated.

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PART THREE SYNTAX AND COMPOUNDS

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I ARTICLE
328 There is no article in Ardha-Māgadhi. The meaning of both the definite and indefinite articles is inherent in the word itself. So great means 'a man' and 'the man' according to the context. If they are to be pointed out prominently the definite article is expressed by the demonstrative pronoun, a GRATI' the man'. At saft I ' that lady', alegur di 9 TEI the child took the fruit'. The indefinite article is expressed by the use of g. grit PETI a lion', ilg OTT HEUT Ran I ' A certain Brahmin lived in Campā'.
Historically the article has arisen out of the demonstrative pronoun which has lost much of its original force. In AMg. however, it has never lost its force to such an extent as can be compared with the article of the European languages. The same holds good of the indefinite article arising from the numeral 'one'. But a close approach to the use of article is found in the canonical prose in cases like: tae nam se jāiandhe purise Vip. 11. ' then the blind man' tae nam se purise tam purisaṁ evam vayāsi Sut. 2.13 then the man spoke to the other man', tae nam se ānande Upa. 10. then Ananda.'
II AGREEMENT
329 Agreement relates mainly to such aspects as Gender, Number, Case and Person, regarding which the words must formally agree to form congruence between them. • Various factors help to break down this congruence. Thus the impression produced by the actual fact like a collective idea

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with a grammatical expression in plural : abhū jiņā atthi jiņā adu vā vi bhavissai U. 2.45. "There were Jinas, there are Jinas and there will be Jinas.' A fixed form may disturb, it; tattha je te āriyā te evam vayāsi Ay. 1.4.2. There those who were noble spoke thus'. Sometimes an important word may disturb the agreement : chajjīvaniyā nāmam ajjhayaņam paveiya Das. 4. The chapter called 'Chajjīvaniya' is preached'. The speaker himself may change the mode of expression : siehi asie bhikkhū āmokkhāe parivvaejjäsi Sut. 1.1.4.13. "A pious monk should live as a man free from fetters among those who are bound with fetters. A compromise may be effected : tāhe Tāyā sā ya jayahatthimmi ārūdhāi Erz. 34.29. Then the king and queen mounted the victorious elephant'.
330 AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE. The agreement found between the subject and the predicate of a given sentence pertains to the number and person when the predicate is in the form of a finite verb and to number and gender when it is a verbal derivative.
(i) Normally the number of the subject and the predicate is the same. alfa a afera I Das. 1.1. 'Even the gods adore him.' HARI
S E TI Das. 1.2. "The bee drinks the juice.
As the dual forms are lacking in all the Prākrits the verb is in the plural with a dual subject : do vi gacchanti soggair Das. 5.1. 100. Both of them go to a good birth'.
This agreement holds good with the grammatical gender and number when the actual fact may not conform with it. When a person is spoken of in plural as a sign of respect the predicate will be in the plural : tao tubbhe eyam aţtham äikkhaha Nay. 1.14. Then tell me this fact.'
(ii) A multiple subject. If the words forming the subject are joined with the particle q' and 'the predicate is naturally in the plural. Tru PAI 7 geraal Das. 6.2. * The kings and the ministers of the king ask'. Et q huit

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161
7 ore T Das. 8.40. 'Anger and pride which are not controlled '.
· The other alternative that the predicate should agree with the nearest of them is also found : किं वा करेइ मम विरहे HERI3 37791 of 1 Erz. 21.10. "What is the king and my mother doing in my absence ?'
Sometimes the rule is violated : sampayam ca davvaharanam parimoso ya kena vi kayan Erz. 67.19. Just somebody took away the wealth and committed theft.'
(iii) If the nouns forming the subject are joined by the disjunctive particle al or' the predicate naturally remains in the singular. A goot a ga art Sut. 1.1.1.12. * There is neither merit nor demerit.'
331 When the subject is made of nouns of different numbers the verb agrees according to following possibilities. When the subject consists of two singular nouns joined with ca 'and' or any other particle like vi also', the verb is found either in the singular or plural. na tassa māyā va piya va bhāyā kālammi tammamsaharā bhavanti U. 13.22. Neither his mother nor father nor brother take a, share (of his acts) at the time of death.' When the subject consists of more than one word of different numbers the verb is usually in the plural and only occasionally in the singular. sehanti ya nam inamāiņo māya piyā ya suyā ya bhāriyā Şut. 1.2.1.19. His father, mother, children and wife, who claim him, admonish him.' palenti puttă ya pai ya majjham U. 14.36. My sons and husband run away.' jattha natthi jarā maccū vāhino veyaņā tahā U. 23.81. Where there is neither old age nor death nor diseases nor pains.' When the subject consists of many words all of which are in the plural the verb is naturally in the plural except for exceptional cases, dārāņi ya suyā ceva mittā ya taha bandhavā jīvantam anujīvanti U. 18.14. "Wives, sons, relatives and friends depend upon him as long as he lives'. dahara buddhā ya patthae Sut. 1.2.1.16. Young and old may request.'
11

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[S. 331.
Principal exceptions to the rules may be due to the lack of distinct forms of morphology: te sumiņapäḍhaga evam vayasi Nay. 1.12. those astrologers said thus or for an unknown cause pantam sejjam sevimsu Ay. 1.9.3.2. He used a low bed'; with a collective idea: jattha jarāmaraṇarogadosä natthi Vas. 4.3. 'where there is neither old age nor death nor diseases nor faults', first person with a plural verb: tao ham tão lavamo Vas. 290.28. 'then I speak to them'; inclusive first person: avi yavi cittä jänissämo Ry. 18. Moreover O Citta, let us know'; dual subject with a singular verb: do vi tattha nimantae Das. 5.1.38 Both of them may invite him'; a change of number may occur in a relative clause aggi ciṭṭhai Goyama je dahanti sariratthe U. 23.50. There is fire in the body, O Goyama, which burns."
332 The subject and the finite verb normally agree as regards person. If the subject consists of more than one. word of different persons, the plural verb is in the first person rather than in the second or third and in the second rather than in the third. अहं च तुमं च मा कुले गंधणा होमो ।. Das 2.8. 'You and I, let us not become Gandhana serpents in our family'. già fà Kum. 53. 'Let you and
I both fight'.
Disagreement in Person is only occasional: bhikkhu amokkhae parivvaejjāsi Sut. 1.1.4.13. The monk should wander till he is liberated.' na tumam jāne U. 26.16. You do not know'.
333 Usually the predicate agrees with the gender of the subject whenever it is an adjective or a verbal derivative. This agreement pertains to the grammatical gender of the word. Erz. 54.10. I married myself". Giàn U. 22.29. That I am abandoned by him.'
334 When the subject consists of words of Masculine and Feminine nouns AMg. uses masculine form of the predicate. माया य लोहो य पवद्रुमाणा । Das. 8.40. Deceit and greed growing'.

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S. 338.)
II AGREEMENT
163
In later Prākrit the neuter form was preferred : (rāyā devi ya) niyabhavane gayāi Erz. 84.6. "The king and the queen went to their palace.
335 If the predicate is a noun it is not free to agree with the subject as regards gender. FHI FENERTE l 'Birth is
misery and old age is also misery.' तवो जोई जीवो जोइठाणं । U. 12. 'Penance is fire, the soul the altar.
336 In the Prākrits we find the slow process by which the active construction has replaced the passive though the grammatical form remains passive. Past passive participles derived from a transitive verb are used in an active construction: F IÀ qahrauj I U. 23.46. “I have abandoned the eating of poison.' llegit efl i Pau. 6. 111. ' The lord of Lankā spoke. Many transitive verbs use their participles actively : ai FISTT TI I U. 20.10.' Then the king laughed.'
337 AGREEMENT BETWEEN THE SUBSTANTIVE AND THE ADJECTIVE. On the whole the adjective agrees with the substantive on which it depends in Gender, Number and Case. The exceptions to this rule are only occasional.
When a substantive is pointed out by means of a superlative from a group of nouns usually in the genitive and the two nouns differ ir. gender, the superlative usually agrees with the noun in the nominative and not with the one in the genitive : cando va tārāna mahānubhāve Sut. 1.6.19. ‘Just as the moon is the most lustrous among the stars.' gandhesu vā candanam āhu settham Sut. 1.6.19. “As sandal is the best among the scents.' Attraction is responsible for this usage.
338 The agreement of adjectives with more than one substantive is on parallel lines with that of the predicate. The usual practice is to make it agree with the nearest substantive; TË Gengar Og ATSITI ATITI U. 19.70. “You like

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wine, drink and other liquors.' 41537 F Fresneden aan ala
TO TI U. 19.70. “I was made to drink, burning fat and blood.'
Cases of disagreement may be (i) those of gender : teī cittamantam akkhāyā Das. 4. Fire is said to possess life.' iham puna samīve girikūļam nāma gāmo Vas. 182.6. Here nearby there is a village called Girikūda'. (ii) disagreement in case cf. Das. 5.1.29. (iii) disagreement in number of doubtful occurrence.
339 AGREEMENT OF NUMERALS. The cardinal number meaning 'one' fully agrees with the noun. Tria Ti TIHTyusstel Sut. 2.1. ' He sees an excellent lotus'. In its plural form it means 'some'. git BIE! 'Some say '.
The cardinal numbers from two' to 'eighteen' are regarded as adjectives. But by the nature of their meaning they are used in the plural. Moreover they have only one set of forms for all the three genders. aifour la Territ I Nir. 26. “Both the kings'. T ITÀ SUA I U. 22.2. 'He had two wives.' Brett WATHERINË ART, synge i Nay. 5.53. “Surrounded with eighteen thousand monks.'
Numerals over 'twenty' are all regarded as substantives and stand in apposition to the noun which they qualify. Their agreement pertains only to the case forms. ating SCHEUGIAT Tifu hugtafel Nay. 5.53. 'They marry him with thirty-two girls of rich families. Geng atat i Nir. 24.' with 72 years.'
Words expressing bigger numbers like 'hundred ', thousand' are regarded as substantives and stand in apposition to words which they qualify. jeg Kap. 142. 'Five hundred'.
340 In many cases numerals remain without any inflection. solasa rogāyankā Vip. 22. 'sixteen diseases.' sattari vāsāi Kap. S. 70. '70 years.'

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Numerals over twenty being substantives, can govern the genitive of the noun : atthasayam māhanadāragānam Vip. 107. eight hundred Brahmin boys.' puttānam saţthi sahassā Sag. sixty thousand sons.'
Numerals also enter into compounds with the nouns: atthasahassalakkhanadharo U. 22.5. possessing eight thousand marks.' sirāsayāi satteva nava nhārusayā bhave Erz. 4.14. "There are 700 veins and 900 sinews.'
341 AGREEMENT OF PRONOUNS. Usually the pronoun agrees with the noun in Number and Gender. There are some cases of disagreement of gender: neuter pronoun with a masculine noun: graf og om! Das. 6.10. 'All living beings in the world.' जावन्तविज्जापुरिसा सव्वे ते CREATET I 1.6.1. As many ignorant persons there are, are all born in misery.'
When the pronoun refers to words of different genders it may be in the masculine or neuter gender. kasāyā indiyāni ya te jiņittu U. 23.38 'senses and passions, having conquered them."
342 The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in number and gender but its case is determined by the clause in which it occurs. जे य बुद्धा महाभागा सुद्धं तेसिं परकन्तं । Sut. 1.8.23. “These who are enlightened and great, their activity is pure.' gei que totes en EES Erz. 37.1. 'He who takes this staff will become a king.'
There are a number of exceptions. acchandā je na bhuñjanti na se cãi tti vuccai Das. 2.2. 'those who do not enjoy because unable to do so are not called relinquishers.' ke ettha khattā uvajoiyā vā.... khalejja jo nam U, 12.18. Who are the door-keepers appointed here who may remove him?'
343 The relative pronoun is neuter when it refers to a whole sentence.' 59 391 gå ge TIC FIOTHÌ fê PETER FAHRET gregoshti U. 13.19. 'This is the effect of

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my deed for which I have not repented, that even knowing religion I am attached to pleasure of senses.' अजउत्त सोहणं ai À 7091 Faruit | Erz. 8.29. 'O Lord, you did well in killing that wicked man.'
344 If the predicate of a relative pronoun is a noun having a different gender from the gender of the antecedent noun, the relative pronoun agrees with the predicate rather than its antecedent. The demonstrative pronoun naturally agrees with the antecedent noun. जे माहणा जाइविजोववेया ताई I ET EASIE I U. 12.13. 'Those Brahmins who are endowed with birth and knowledge are the best fields.'
III NUMBER
345 The Singular number naturally gives expression to an idea which is by nature one or when the contents of an idea are homogeneous or an idea of a collective nature. The collective words in the singular are always treated as singular and never as plural. FUIT STAAkt gå 3715451 Bhag. 15.1.3. 'People were speaking to each other.'
Many words which are used only in the plural in Sanskrit are found in Prākrit as both singular or plural. pruttesu dāresu ca yā apekkhā Sn. 38. 'the attachment towards sons and wife,' pudhavi au teū ya Sut. 1.1.1.18. ' earth, water and fire'. somilam māhanam pāņehi kaddhāvei Ant. 66. 'He caused Somila to be deprived of his life.'
346 Singular is used to denote whole class or material things forming one class. ape Far ATI U. 2.27. 'There is no destruction of the soul'. पूयं च सोणियं च आहारेइ । Vip. 27. 'He eats pus and blood.'
A curious use of the singular is found in dasaddhayanne kusume nivāie Bhag. 15.1.7. Flowers of five colours were thrown down.'

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347 The -dual is lost and its place is taken by the plural even when the numeral at may be used : ce quis AVON a Stele 1eggel Das. 8.20. 'He hears many things with his ears and sees many things with his eyes.' afi Que A GA GET THAT I U. 22.2. “Their two dear sons were Rāma and Kesava.'
348 The plural primarily denotes multiple things when the speaker wants to emphasise its plurality. Hoa IAT gargal 1 U. ‘All pleasures bring misery. The plural is used to make a general statement : से जहानामए बीयाणं
fregiu gorêt Blyth a Hag | Aup. 155. “Just as there cannot arise the sprout from seeds burnt with fire.'
Natural objects may be used in the plural : salila na sandanti na vanti vāya Sut. 1.12.7. Waters do not flow and winds do not blow'. Abstract things : aniccam devasokkhāi Aup. 50. "The happiness of gods is momentary.' tesim sikkhā pavaddhanti Das. 9.2.12. Their instructions increase.' Substances : mamsesu mucchiyā Upa. 240. addicted to flesh.' Names of countries : tam jahā angānam vangānam .... ghāyāe Bhag. 15.1.28. just as for the destruction of Angas, Vangas ....' Constellations : aha nikkhamai u cittāhim U. 22.23. He then becomes a monk at the time of Citta'. Objects naturally plural : kesā pandurayā havanti te U. 10.21, * your hairs grow white'. A curious usage is : bhanai sumitto nisasu vanamaları Pau. 12.19 Sumitta says to Vaņamālā in the night.'
IV CASES 349 NOMINATIVE. It expresses the subject of the sentence. Be a FIETTI Das. 2.11. "Thus act the enlightened men.' It expresses the object of the passive construction ; aut AT HOTETT I He said to her.'
Nom. of the word in apposition to the suppressed subject : jāvajjīvam bambhayārī viharissam Vas. 3. 28. 'I will live as a celibate throughout the life.'

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350 Nominative of the predicate of a few verbs of incomplete predication. For at Hag arag I Das. 9.4.14. 'He becomes an eternal Siddha.' कसाया अग्गिणो वुत्ता । U. 23.53. 'Passions are said to be fires.' Bg SITAT I Ay. 1.1.1. 'Who was I?' Ta poate faît o 1 Erz.' The king made her the owner of the whole kingdom.'
Words standing in apposition to the subject and words joined with nāma naturally remain in the nominative; atthi iheva bhārahe väsve pondavaddhanam nāma puram/tammi siharaho nāma rāyā Erz. 48.24, ‘There is in this very country of Bharata a town P. by name. There the king was S. by name.' Note the use of the predicative nominative : (te) nigganthā pavvaiya Pau. 5.58. they became Niggantha monks.'
351 Nominative is used with a to form the logical object of a sentence. À qui a I Sut. 1.2.3.16. 'The fool regards it as protection. Qui ad F F ar i Das. 7.12. He should not call a thief as thief.'
Acc. may be found as in riddhimantan ti alave Das. 7.52. 'may call him as rich. Further Nom. for Acc. adverbs : payatto vanābhimuho Erz. 35.3! started towards forest'. For infinitive : esa vi ya nam kanhe mamam antiyam pāyavandae havvam āgacchai Ant. 40. ^ This Kanha comes to me for saluting my feet.' With the interjection aho: aho dujjayattam mohassa Erz. 3.35.
O the difficulty of conquering delusion.' In enumeration : pudhavī āu teū vā vāu āgāsapancamā Sut. 1.1.1.7. 'Earth, water, fire, wind and sky as the fifth.' In cases like pādei rayanavutihi Pau. 3.69.‘he showers jewels.' bhañjanti bālassa vahena pitthi Sut. 1.5.2.14. 'They break the back of the ignorant man with weapon.' kahehi dārayauppatti Vas. 119.14. “Tell the origin of the child' we should better admit the interchange of a long vowel for a nasalised one. A disjunctive use of the Nom. is found in : so eva bhaniyametto viņiggao naravai Paum. 28.31. " When he said thus the king went away.'
352 ACCUSATIVE : It expresses the object of transitive verbs : acela a El Sut. 1.1.2.1. “They undergo

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happiness and misery.' Here fori Tel Sut. 1.3.2.4. * Maintain your father and mother.'
Some intransitive verbs of Sanskrit are used transitively : piuuaramam ca te sumaramāni Vas. 36.13. ' remembering the death of your father.' roemi nam bhante niggunthar pāvayaņam Upa. 12. I like, O Lord, the Niggantha preaching.' jāim bālo varajjhai Das. 7.7. about which the fool commits faults.' vippo nāmamuddam jio jūe Pau. 5.32. 'The Brahmin was deprived of the ring in gambling.'
353 Verbs denoting motion are used with the Accusative of goal or destination. The apT JĦT I Sut. 1.3.2.6. *Come, child, let us go home.' al TESTÀ FERDİ 36 nila at STATË gauch FARMASTATA 1 Therefore, I will go to Himālaya and taking that herb give it to Sirivijaya.
354 A double accusative may be found in the following cases (i) used predicatively : ogāsam phāsuyam naccā Ay. 1.2.1. 'knowing the place to be pure.' sañjayam sāhum ūlave Das. 8.49. One should call a self-controlled one sage.' (ii) in apposition to the object : asanam vā pāņam vā āhāram āhārettae Kalp. 1.19. 'to eat food either food or drink.' (iii) expressing the person and thing: gihino tam na äikkhe Das. 8.50. He should not tell it to the householders.' (iv) with causal verbs : thanagam pejjamāņi dāragam Das. 5.1.42. giving suck to the child.'
355 A number of verbs may take a cognate accusative: 37 HRUI HABEI U. 5. 16. 'He dies an untimely death.' JHET gyak atera I Sut. 1.5.2.15. 'Urged on with arrows they carry loads of elephants.' किं पि तहाविहं झाणं Hupati Sm. 14.9. “Meditating some thought of that
type.'
356 Accusative expresses the extent of time and place. 1931). Et fa fari ang si Erz. 8.30. 'He remained with her for some time.' 38 AIG Frat pa ! Ay. 1.9.4.5. The Lord spent eight months. 37a1for EFI zijcito age 1

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Erz. 37.2. “It grows another four Angulas.' gcmoi suri HTET E ! Vip. 205. He follows the monk S. seven or eight steps.'
Acc. may also denote a point of time : tam mā nam amhe iyānim avaikālam pi adinnam ginhāmo Aup. 86. Therefore, let us not take what is not given even in this time of difficulty.'
357 A few verbal nouns may govern accusative : JEHARRESTI II Sut. 1.1.2.20. “We are observing religion.' 49equuit t ai UMT27015 I Vas. 4.2. With a serene face he salutes his parents and says.' A number of prepositions govern this case: spai Sai Sut. 1.7.8. * with reference to one's happiness'., P arfoi re ARTET geet! Vas. 84.9. 'the question of N. to the prophet S.' Particles : E HE STATil Sur. 2.48. “Fie upon my manhood.'
358 Acc. gives rise to a number of adverbs. khippam gacchanti amarabhavaņāi Das. 4.28. They quickly go to the heavenly regions.' mandar parakkame bhayavam Ay. 1.9.4.12. "The Lord wandered slowly.' So also phudan clearly, siggham quickly, niccam always, pruvviñ formerly.
359 Very often the accusative of destination is expressed by an analytical construction : जेणामेव अज्जसुहम्मे थेरे तेणामेव Jamesys | Nay. 1.5. 'He goes to the elder Arya Sudharma'.
360 INSTRUMENTAL. It is used in the sociative meaning and is often accompanied by prepositions like AE, HH and NIE. SIFT HET a CAIE I U. 8.18. 'They play with them as with slaves.' Hogar ERST F it I Erz. 48.26. With all the army he started from the town.'
A more abstract association may be seen in : bambhacerena se vase Sut. 1.1.3.13. 'He should live in celibacy.' jāe saddhāe nikkhanto Ay. 1.1.13. With what enthusiasm he became a monk.'

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361 It commonly denotes the means or instrument of the action both physical or mental : एगेण चैव सरेण दो वि विणिवाइया । Erz. 1.14. Both of them were killed by the same arrow. मसावि न पत्थए । Sut. 1.8.14. He should not desire it even in his mind. '
6
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362 It denotes the acting agent in the passive construction. Erz. 12.26. How should I know him?' Sut. 1.1.3.6. 'God created the world.' With causal forms the primary subject of the verb may be also in the instrumental : पच्चयपुरिसेहिं सुरंगा खणाविया । Erz. 6.8. He caused an underground passage to be dug by faithful men.
•
9
171
4
363 The reason or motive of an action is denoted by this case: U. 9.84. On account of pride one gets a low birth.'i fa on account of greed.' मम हत्थाओ खग्गं पमाएण निवडियं । Erz. 42.9.
Das. 5.2.31. He conceals
"
The sword fell from my hand because of carelessness.
"
Words like hetu, kārana, nimitta when used may be in the instrumental, accusative or ablative. eena kāranena sāmi amhe kumbhaena rannā. nivvisayā āṇattā Nay. 1.8. For this reason, O Lord, king Kumbaya expelled us from the country.' no annassa heum dhammam āikkhejjā Sut. 2.2.15. He should not preach religion for food.' royanti ya puttakarana Sut. 1.2.1.17. They lament for the son.'
"
364 It denotes the mode of action: fauoi ayvi qîeyufa | Ray. 12. They hear the words with modesty.' Erz. 17.11. He remains silent.
This gives rise to the phrases like suham suheņam, in happiness; majjhammajjhenam through the middle; and others.
365 It is used to denote the lapse of time. पच्चागच्छइ । ' He will come back after a year. ' कम्मसहा कालेण

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sigari Sut. 1.2.1.6. ‘Living beings suffer the results of their acts after some time.'
Instrumental also points out a point in time : tenam kälenarit tenam semaenam at that time and period." aha teneva kālenar purie tattha māhane U. 25.4. 'Now at that time in the town lived a Brahmin.' With constellations : nikkhamai ya cittāhim U. 22.23 He becomes a monk at the time of Cittā'.
366 In its spacial sense it denotes the direction : quui pruit par Erz, 79.29. In this direction there is a forest.' TRUI HÙ HERRAT I Nir. 96. "To the north is king Vesamaņa.'
367 It often denotes the characteristic of the subject. BITÈ Faut gari I U. 11.16. - The horse best in speed.' TE HEChaur ga urecat I U. 9.6. 'Sakka spoke these words in the guise of a Brahmin.'
368 The instrumental has given rise to a number of adverbs. attahiyam khu duhena labbhai Sut. 1.2.2.30. 'One's welfare is got with difficulty.' ukkosenam saim bhave U. 5.3. 'At most it may happen once.' Similarly jahātahenam in reality'; dūrenam 'from a distance'; anupuvveņam 'in due order'; samjūhenar, samāsenam 'in short'; chandeņa 'at will?; cirena' after a long time' etc.
369 It is governed by a number of verbs :
(i) of association : ES FATTI U. 27.15. 'Coming to possess bad bulls.' (ii) separation : TETTA 919 P OTI Sut. 1.2.1.19. Refrain from sinful acts, O man.' (iii) covering etc: ANEO 91361 I Sut. 1.2. 2.22. Covered with ignorance. (iv) sacrificing : pero ETÀ ETET I U. 12.43. 'With what sacrifice do you sacrifice ?' (v) living: Aysu Fiat ! Sut. 1.7.21. ' he should live on pure water.' (vi) invite: ito?

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AHRAGA i Syt. 'Invite with pleasures', (vii) to eat OPENI HIÊ Erz. 'Eat curds' and other verbs.
370 It is governed by nouns and adjectives: o go qayfa Atel Sut. 1.7.12. Some say that liberation is due to oblation.' Taur Gratuur F oto T EII Nay. 1.8. * Best as regards beauty, form and youth'.
371 It forms a number of expressions of a prohibitive nature: starska vil Ay. 1.2.5. Enough of the friendship of the fool.' TAU PE I U. 14. 17. 'What is the use of religion?'
372 It is used in comparison : santi egehi bhikkhūhim gāratthā sarjamuttarā U. 5.20. There are many householders superior to monks in self-control.' Sequence : eyassa pavarakitti geham gehena bhamai Pau. 15.66. His excellent fame wanders from house to house. In the sense of Loc. : Lādhehi tassa uvasaggā bahave Ay. 1.9.3.3. 'He had many difficulties in L.' sattā kāmeni māņavā Sut. 1.1.1.6. Men are attached to pleasures.' Absolute use : santeņa mae sāmiya Pau. 16.31. 'O Lord while I am here.'
373 DATIVE. The function of the dative to express the indirect object is taken over by the Genitive. The old dative form in org is often replaced by a compound expression in which , et and seg are added to the noun.
374 The dative expresses the person for whose advantage or disadvantage the act is performed. चेलगोलं कमारभूयाए। Sut. 1.2.4.14. “a ball for the son.' 3TCUET met al U. 1.25. either for oneself or for another.'
375. The usual meaning of this case is to express the aim or purpose of an action. हियनिस्सेसाय सव्वजीवाणं । U. 8.3: ''for the welfare and happiness of all beings.' G AUS GUS AT CUETTE EH I Das. V. 1. ‘what he may

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know or hear to be prepared for a gift.' एयनिमित्तेण पह एह
Dauerg | Pau. 27. 'For this reason, O Lord, come quickly to protect us.'
376 The dative gives rise to a few adverbial expressions. no havväe no pārāe antarā ceva Sut. 2.1.9. 'neither to this non to the other side but in the middle.' Similarly jāvaisīvāe throughout life'; cirāya 'for a long time'.
377 A few verbs of motion may govern the dative case : āgantā gabbhāya namtaso Sut. 1.2.1.9. 'He will be reborn for many times.'
378 It is used as the predicate of sentences meaning, proper for'. 4 a TFT TERT EIS I Das. 9. 'The fruit of the bamboo results in its death.' 3771 À TERT ETS I Das. 11.10. The disease results in his death.'
379 Dative is governed by a few nouns and adjectives. à quo agê 100151 Sut. “they are able to release both.' gaya n sarili Nay. 1.24. ‘Like the flower of fig, difficult to hear.
alam governs dative : nālam te tava tänäe Sut. 1.9.5. they are not able to protect you'.
380 ABLATIVE. It denotes the starting point of an action both as regards place and time. सो खु केसरी आगओ त्ति आयण्णिय घेत्तण कोयण्डं कण्णियसरं च एगागी चेव निग्गओ पल्लीओ। Sm. VI. “Having heard that a lion had come, he took a bow and arrow and went out of the camp.' fattorit maurisit fastisit arogati U. 22.13. “The best of the Vanhis went out of his house.' Flair AC ATAT Ateit a HITTEET Sm. 11.5. Throughout the life I am to take food after each month.'
From this evolves the mode of expressing continuous action. aprit à anafaa i Sut. 1.1.1.14. They go from

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darkness to darkness' हत्थाओ हत्थं साहरिजमाणे । Aup. 105. carried from hand to hand.'
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381 It denotes the origin of a thing, real and figurative. चंदणदारूओ देवो तं पडिमं करेइ । Erz. The god prepares the image from the sandal-wood.' अरणीओ अरिंग अभिनिव्वट्टिजा । Sut. 2.1.9. He may produce fire from the fire-sticks.' Aston a game aafaamet Erz. 53.1. These are envious because of being co-wives.'
Related to this is the meaning of motive, logical reason etc. thambha koha pamāeņa U. 11.3. on account of pride, anger and carelessness.' jai royanti ya puttakaraṇā Sut. 1.2.1.17. 'it they weep for the sake of the son.' sinehão aiva pamuiyahiyaena gahio Erz. 'Because of affection he was taken with a very delighted heart.'
382 Ablative is used in comparison. fleren që नु कुज्जा । Das. 9. 1. 5. What can it do more than the destruction of life? a Vas. 94.6. 'Is he better than I ?" विम्हिया सक्कवण्णियरूवसिरीओ अहिगं Erz. 'They were delighted to see the wealth
of beauty greater than the one described by Sakka.'
6
to fall etc. in heavenly region.' down from the best इमाओ संगामाओ | Erz. fare agen Ay. 1.3.4. killing.' (iii) fear, disgust: fear of the quarrel' of the present life.' (iv) विमुच्चइ | Sut 1.1.1.19. हस्थिसंभमाओ रक्खिया । Erz elephant.' (v). defeat: cock was defeated by the other.'
383 Ablative is used with verbs meaning (i) to proceed, die U. 9.1. 'falling from the nguon samen Ein U. 22. 23. got palanquin.' (ii) separation: uny Refrain from this battle.' तम्हा य वीरें Therefore the hero abstained from Erz. Do not at Erz. 'disgusted freedom, protection: Hoogezel He is freed from all misery.' protected from the attack of the fugget | Erz. 'The

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[S. 384.
384 Nouns of similar meaning also govern ablative. FET FETA ISH 2311 Das. 8.54. Just as the young one of a cock has always fear from the osprey.' facqui CHUISTOTIS I Sm. 9.2. 'mocking from wicked men.'
Adjectives implying comparison or difference also govern ablative : gunao samam vā U. 32.5. similar in virtue.' damsaņão vi dullaham vayanam Vas. 5.22. words are more difficult to get than sight.' jīvo tā sarīrāo vi bhinno Sm. 179. “ The soul is then difterent from the body.'
385 Ablative is governed by adverbs and preposicions. a algal TË ST arîti Sut. 1.6.24. 'There is no better knower than the scion of the Naya family.' बालभावाओ आरब्भ Erz. from the childhood.'
386 The ablative forms, particularly those in-37577 are very productive of adverbs. focent giraqi Sut. 1.3.2.4.
They recede backwards.' Seasi rretji Sm. 155.' It is told in brief.'
Similarly dhammao 'according to religion'; purao from ahead' pakkhao 'from the side'; davvao, khettao, kālao, bhāvao. sahāvao by nature. Other forms.of the ablative may form adverbs : niyamā 'as a rule'.
In the plural it is sometimes difficult to decide whether we have to do with the instrumental or ablative form. jharei romakūvehir seo Erz. "The sweat flows from the pores of the hair.'
387 GENITIVE. In its adnominal use genitive covers a very wide field of relations. (i) the commonest one is that of possession : fasihi effetto gêti Vip. 2. the son of King Vijaya.' FET CHT grupei Das. 1.2. 'as on the flowers of the tree.' (ii) subject : gei darui prii Sut. 1.11.38. 'This is the opinion of the omniscient teachers.' BET JAETTIU farti Erz. 'O the exciting nature of the

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senses.' qui foetui a ani Das. 7.50. 'in the fight of the gods and men.' (iii) object : CART HEFTI Erz. “O the difficulty of conquering delusion.' ITEA Fairtot i Sut. 1.1.1.2. * by the destruction of the body.' (iv) partitive sense :
अंतेउरस्स पढमा। Erz. — first among the wives.' सीहो मिगाण A m im I Sut. 1.6.21. 'the lion among the animals and Ganges among the rivers.' (v) origin : gauurki SATI
the image of gold.' (vi) as a nominal predicate: CE # FÀCT ÀI U. 1.38. 'blows and slaps given to me.' Per af HA † Frisui 41 Erz. 'Have I not what the other kings have?'
There are other relations which cannot be easily classified: na yarussa maggo 'way leading to the town.' na esa kālo visāvassa Sm. ' This is not the time of dejection.' pāņāņa vi samsayar kāhi Erz. She will put her life into doubt.'
388 It is used with verbs which take both the dative and and genitive in Sanskrit.
A. Verbs which take dative in Sanskrit. (i) to give, bestow ; TER I U. 8.16. 'may be given to one.' TESTS fareigai I Pau. 5.8.' giving the kingdom to his sons.' (ii) to speak, ask : aor aka DETI Erz. 'He told him,' GOSHUIRI AFA ANTTI U. 1.23. 'He should explain to the student asking.' (iii) to get angry: Efatha a FUSTI Das. 5.2.28. 'He should not get angry at one who does not give. (iv) to like: HH Sie 932571 tagere I U. 13.14. 'I think monkhood to be misery.'
B. Verbs taking other cases in Sanskrit (i) to hear : qfUETTİ ATAT I Ay. 1.8.3. 'hearing from the wise. Age oi SE A FIM at faraonui an gurash Ray. 5. 'If I had heard of my friends and relatives.' (ii) proper, allowed: at 20 Fancier at faporiefm 97 | Kap. 1.1. 'It is not allowed for monks and nuns.' (iii) know, remember : algui A ars i
12

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(S. 388.
Sut. 1.3.1.16 'The ignorant one remembers his relatives." (iv) fear: a les ERTUI I Vaj. 'Who is not afraid of wicked men ?' (v) filling : fecoursquumlere poi i ESOT I Erz. having filled the dish with gold, silver and pearls.' (vi) renounce: 169 Tah of HI I Das. 'I renounce it, O Lord.' (vii) forgive: sfauiterkt À Y EHEi Vas. 25.25. 'To-day forgive me who am insolent.'
Verbal nouns of similar meaning govern genitive : jassa ee parinnāyā U. 2.16. Who has known these.' kadāņa kammāna na mokkha atthi U. 4.3. There is no release from acts done.':
389 Genitive is governed by adjectives. Besides the adnominal uses it expresses (i) similarity : HH AHI 'like me'. (ii) liking: 5 fpret as i Pau. 6.173. 'who is dear to your heart.' (iii) possession Thi sifaren ESTI Pau. 'warriors belonging to him'. (iv) union : STARFI VITIT I Pau. 5.1. 'become united with others.'
390 It can take the place of the 'dative of destination. Alu qauraust argot 7 307 AM I Erz. 'He was like a terrible wind to the disputants and not to his pupils.' S TE GURT À fail. Erz. 'My heart is anxious for your sight'.
391 Genitive is governed by adverbs, prepositions and even particles : Sprant, grant, saf, EST, , ĦT, MT, EIT, a t etc. a frottoi l 'salutation to the Jinas.' for at F ATA I Das. 2.7. “Fie upon you, desirous of fame.'
Stan Spoquit als 3PCS TRAI Sut. 1.12.19. He is capable of protecting himself and others.'
392 Genitive also gives time : THTRTIRA AVSTRITJ Vas. 90.1. 'She died before seven days.' TT Ganaurka af at qaz Erz. 'The king went to the mountain on the fifth day.'

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179
393 The genitive absolute construction is used to denote the accompanying condition of time. राइणो निवन्नस्स अहं तए अक्खाणयं पुच्छियव्वं । Erz. When the king is sleeping you should ask me for a story.' तहा करेंतस्स अइकंतो कोइ कालो । Erz. 'Some time elapsed while he was doing so.'
4
394 Genitive gives rise to a few adverbs mostly of an imitative type. cirassa for a long time', sarasarassa, davadavassa. etc. In such cases as candagainaṁ kayā pūyā Pau. 28.45. 'C. performed the worship.' aha naravaina samayam Pau. 5.110. 'along with the king' we must admit an analogical form of the instrumental. The possessive verb 'have' is rendered by genitive tassa ya raino satta tanaya Erz. The king had seven sons."
395 LOCATIVE. It denotes the place of action both real and figurative तत्थ णं चंपाए नयरीए कूणिए राया | Nay. 1.1. 'There in the town of Campa lived king Kūniya.'
"
Erz. Struck on a vital part.' मर्णसि चिंतइ । Thinks in the mind.'
396 It denotes the place towards which the action of the verb is directed. कुमारुत्तमंगे अक्खए पक्खिवइ । Erz. She throws rice on the head of the prince.' gefa Sut. 1.5.1.3. Nay. 1.2. 'He steps on
They fall in hell.
1
the royal road.'
As an extension of this use the locative often replaces the accusative of destination or goal: egaya devalogesu gacchai U. 3.3 Sometimes he goes to heaven'. puravare gao siggham Erz. 'He quickly went to the town'.
397 Locative is used in a partitive sense. सहस्सेसु य पंडिओ । Vas. 105. 8. 'A hero is born among hundred men while a wise man is born among thousand. विरायई सुरमज्झ व इंदो । Das. 9.1.14. among gods: तवेसु वा उत्तमं बंभचेरं । Sut. 1.6.23. Celibacy is the best among the penances.'
"
He shines like Indra
"

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(S. 398.
398 Locative is used with verbs and verbal nouns :
(i) to be attached, desire : R THE PASI U. 1.5. “the ignorant man takes delight in bad conduct.' se ferait
eft I Das. 5.2.26 ‘not attached to food.' (ii) union, association : forum | Sut. 2. 6. 25. established in religion.' afa tekiti Ay. 1.4.4. 'living in celibacy.' (iii) general reference : THUTHU WA TITŪT CIUTY I Das. 5.1.89. * controlled as regards food and drink and going and coming.' afa PTE € U. 11.8. ' even gets angry towards friends.'
399 It is used with nouns in similar senses. SARAH af I U. 3.1. 'energy for self-control. 'AlHOUH PASTI Das. 5.1.18. 'doubt as regards his asceticism.' FPT EM agui family tree farm DIET I Sm. 7.7. “Where men are addicted to learning and have greed for pure fame.'
In some of these cases the locative has the sense of the infinitive : citthanti tattha pañca vi joentā mārane chiddam Erz. ‘All the five stand there looking of an opportunity to kill’. Takkhanaposane manusso si Sut. 1.4.1.14. You are a man for protecting and maintaining.'
400 Locative is used with adjectives : T r ailaren i Sut. 1.1.2.22. 'ignorant of religion and irreligion.' ATE SHOI' clever in arcs.
401 It denotes the time when something happens. FPT SHPATA Firei 25 l Sut. 1.3.1.4. when in the cold month cold touches him.' मासे मासे उ जो बालो कुसग्गेण उ
y 1 U. 9.44. ' Even if the ignorant person were to eat with the blade of grass in each month.' अन्नम्मि य दिणे समागओ allerait arato! Erz. 'One day V. came from outside.'
In some cases Locative may express the duration of time : Jajjam bhottuna suirakālammi Pau. 21.22. enjoying the kingdom for a long time.'

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V PRONOUNS
181
402 The Locative Absolute, consisting of a subject in the locative and a noun or participle in the same case as the predicate, expresses the temporal or other accompanying circumstances. a RT atema I Das. 5.1.8. 'He should not move while it is raining.' farefters FAIGSS SITUATIU. 4.9. 'He becomes disheartened when his life comes to an end.' 3 Targu Frei Erz. 'He got angry without reason.'
403 Locative is often used for Instrumental : sattisu hammamānā Sut. 2.6.26. 'struck with spears.' vammahasaresu bhinna Pau. 6.162. pierced by the arrows of Cupid.' Probably some form of the Instrumental may be admitted here. Loc. gives rise to a number of adverbs. rão ' in the night' dūre 'at a distance', antie 'near'; but in most cases the original nature of the case is obvious.
.V PRONOUNS
404 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. They are used when some emphasis is put on them. É a rere da le samedi U. 22.43. 'I am the daughter of king Bhoga and you are the son of A.' EN BÉTÈT U. 22.37. 'I am R. O good lady.'
Verbal forms of as- may also serve the function of the personal pronouns : tao mi niggao Vas. 281.16. then I went.'
405 In polite address the second person may be replaced by the forms of part which is used with a verb in the third person. at 7 Sm. 19.15. “So let your honour tell."
The enclitic forms of the personal pronouns cannot stand at the beginning nor in an emphatic place. loge kitti se jāyae U. 1. 45. "His fame spreads in the world.
406 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. The pronoun a is frequently used to serve the function of the third person pronoun. à sa T SI 30465 i Upa. 151. ' He flew up in the
sky.'

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(S. 407.
407 In conjunction with a noun it has the force of the definite article, though its demonstrative sense is not quite absent.ag op te treuren I Vip. 50. ' then the guards of the town.' तस्स णं विजयसत्तस्स रण्णो महेसरदत्ते नाम पुरोहिए। Vip. 106. The king V. had a priest M. by name.'
408 It is frequently used as the correlative of the relative pronoun ज. जंचिय विहिणा लिहियं तं चिय परिणमइ सव्वलोगस्स । Vaj. 674. “Whatever the fate has written, all that happens to
men.'
409 Used alone it points out the thing to be well-known or famous. à FIRMAET I Vaj. 221. those peaks of mountains.' Anaphorically it may refer to preceding noun or pronoun. Apen foreni... Are à Ta aprI U. 6.3. 'Father and mother, they are not able to protect you.' In such cases it is often followed by the personal pronoun. Ay. 1.1.1. 'that I.'
410 Forms of a are often used in adverbial senses. ARMI
Y ART aur sig far | Sut. 1.1.3.7. ‘M. spread his magic and therefore the world is transitory.' et go fareni for I Das. 6 46. 'therefore knowing this.' .
411 The pronoun ge refers to what is in the presence of the speaker. It is used as a correlative: goi fare un propri yun
Tadi Vaj. 36. 'The creator did this well that he created good men in the world.' Deictically it refers to an object before one. mi fa gatasi GETI U. 12.28. * This man, when angry, may burn the world also.' It is used with a emphatically: get 3 g graat 6971 U. 12.22. * This is that great-souled man of austere penance.' It may anaphorically refer to preceding nouns : ववहारे उवमा एसा। U. 7.15. This is the simile in everyday life.'

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S. 415.]
VI TENSES
412 The pronoun
points out what is near the speaker
or what is in his possession. हत्थगया इमे कामा कालिया जे U. 5.6. These pleasures are at hand, the future ones are yet to come.' for U. 19.12. 'This body is momentary.' It is used as a correlative: छट्टिमा जाई अन्नमन्त्रेण जा विणा । U. 13.7. which is without each other.'
This is our sixth birth
413 The forms of adas are very what is away. aso tattamakäsi ya Sut.
ment.'
183
3
rare.
It should refer to he did produce the ele
414 The relative pronoun may be used without the correlative : पडन्ति नरए घोरे जे नरा पावकारिणो । U. 18.25. Men, who commit sin, fall in the terrible hell.' It may stand for the whole statement महचोजं अमयमओ जं ससी डहइ | Vaj. 387. 'It is a great wonder that the moon full of nectar burns'.
415 The interrogative pronoun f expresses a question. पडिकम्मं को कुणई अरण्णे मिगपक्खिणं । U. 19.76. 'Who renders service to beasts and birds in the forest?' is used to put the whole sentence in the interrogative form. चित्ते वि ते तहा । U. 13.9. Is it the same with Citta?' The adverbial forms of किं imply reason : किमिह द्विओ सि । U. 12. 7. 'Why are you standing here?' Used with the relative pronoun it expresses totality: Sut. 1.1.4.8.
all those movable living beings'. With instrumental it expresses the futility of a thing : किं जंपिएण बहुणा । Sm. 5.1. What is the use of speaking much ?'
VI TENSES
416 PRESENT. It denotes a present action. smeri a muri | 'I bow to Arya Naga and Goyama.' It may be contrasted with past action. अतरिंसु तरंतेगे । Sut. some have crossed, others cross', or with future;
1.11.6.

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1S. 416.
SË FAJTTH tad teag EIER THI U. 9.58. 'Here you are best, O Lord, and afterwards you will become best.'
It may denote a continuous action : pahāragaruyaeva so mahāņubhāvo pānasamsae vattae 'On account of the deep wound that great man is in doubt of his life.' asante kame patthest samkappena vihammasi U. 9.51. You are desiring non-existent pleasures and suffering from mere thoughts.' It may be also an habitual action : tāhim samam lalai Erz. 'He sports with them.'
417 It expresses a general truth, a fact without any temporal determination : gauit a 7048fany OE HUGS a fants ! Vaj. 'A good man never gets angry and if he gets angry he never thinks bad of others.' दिणे दिणे आइच्चो उदेइ । ' The sun rises day by day.'
418 It expresses immediate future. If the peri T AI GUEU afariki au fosta Alegre comfiri Phi Vas. 'O Child, I go to the town. There will occur an eclipse of the moon. There I will beg money from some good man.' fata lui qrufa à i Sut. 1.11.20. “They will get liberation.'
Te H Gialah E H qui quife I Sm. VI. 'I will revive you if you will hear my words.'
419 It expresses a past action usually in the narration and is known as historical or dramatic present. grezzit ate,
a MA SE 3157737 Turg Tao siatg et al sufisi i Vas. “They asked him. Samba, why have you come here?' He said, 'I have been brought by the king and my mother by force.' THAT THE SYU I U. 9.61. ' Nami disciplined himself."
420 With a negative particle it has a future meaning: mā kule gandhanā homo U. 22. We shall not become Gandhana serpents in our family.' In conditional sentences of future or past the present is used in the condition : jāva esa kumāro rajjadhurāvahanajoggo hoi tāva amhehi eyam rajjam pāleyavvam Erz We should protect this kingdom so long as this prince is not able

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S. 424.)
VI TENSES
185
to bear the yoke of the kingdom.' java evam jampai sā kannagā tāva ya tena ukkhitto ajjautto Erz. While the girl was speaking like this he threw the prince up.'
In a general statement present may be used in both the condition and the result. jāva na ei kese tāva jivai so duhi U. 7.3.. * As long as the guest does not come so long does that wretched animal live.'
Sometimes present may have the force of a desire, advice or an order. gacchasi maggam visohiyā U. 10.32. Having purified the way you should go.' Some forms of the present may also be used paranthetically : keņa manne käraneņa Vas. 'For what reason, do you think.'
421 PAST TENSES. Of the three past tenses of Sanskrit the Aorist has given rise to the past tense of Ardha-Māgadhi while only sporadic forms of the imperfect and perfect are to be met with along with their peculiar use. On the whole the past tense is of limited occurrence in Prākrit and is replaced by the participle construction.
422 It expresses the past action. Tezglsti farmi arti SHTE aqui serefimi U. 12.8. 'Having covered his own body he spoke these words.' 3757 faut faETE I U. 23.9. 'Both of them lived there.'
423 With the negative particle it expresses prohibition. HT T queifase FIA I U. 1.10. Do not do wicked act.' In a number of cases the forms of the past tense express the result in a conditional sentence. उदगस्स फासेण सिया य सिद्धी faisa masa STIRE I Şut. 17.14. “If there can be liberation with the touch of water, many living beings in water may become liberated.' E O JAI Sport i Sut. 1.4.2.2.. "Many sinful teachers may carry him.'
424 The forms of imperfect also express the past tense. iņamobbavi kāsava asupanne Sut. 1.5.1.2. “Thus spoke the

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[S. 424.
prophet of the Kasava family, of quick intellect.' Similarly the forms of perfect in a present sense. iccahamsu pudho jana Sut. 1.3.1.6. Thus say the common people.'
425 FUTURE. It expresses a future action. अन्नो वि जो एवं करिस्लइ तस्साहं निग्गहं काहामि । Erz. 'I will also punish him whoever else does like this. एवं सुही होहिसि संपराए । Das. 2.4. Thus you will become happy in the next life.'
426 It is also used to denote an uncertain action which the speaker wants to express with subjective certainty without any reference to future. पाणियनिमित्तं ओइण्णो भविस्सइ ।
•
Erz. He may have descended for drinking water.' डवी भविस्सइ तो हिस्सामा | Erz. ' If he is indeed here in this forest we will get him.
"
427 It may express exhortation. ìvi aftenía vàa ami | U. 15.1. Let me follow monk's life by taking up religion.' Wish : जलं पाहिं ति चिंतन्तो । U. 19.9. thinking of drinking
water.
428 It may express uncertainty, doubt.
ççîà
सावगो भविस्सइ | Erz. not knowing who among them is a believer.' I aftzug gei aeneung U. 2.23. What can it do for a night, thus he should suffer it. ÞETTA सुरण भन्ते । U. 17, 2. What can I do with learning, O
Lord?
429 Very frequently it is used in conditional sentences. जया पुण एहि सुधम्मसामी विहरन्तो तया पव्वइस्सामि । Vas. 4.27. 'When S. comes wandering I will become a monk.'
VII MOODS
430 IMPERATIVE. With the first person it expresses desire and intention. भुंजामि ता कामगुणे पगामं । U. 14.31. Let us therefore enjoy the pleasures to our

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S. 434.]
VII MOODS
187
heart's contents' facer à av ISut. 1.3.3.8. 'We will give that also to you.'
With the second person it expresses order, injunction, exhortation etc. ORARH 997 uni Sut. 1.2.1.10. 'O man desist from sinful acts.' TRATE IT OTTEN THI Sut. 1.2.1.19. * Maintain them, you are the protector.' FUTST À giû qiel Sut. 1.5.1.1. 'O sage, tell me who am ignorant.'
With the third person it expresses permission, request, blessing etc. संथुया ते पसीयन्तु भयवं केसिगोयमे । U, 23.89. “Let the venerable Kesi and Goyama, praised, show you favour. SAAB TH TH 371279737 ai ga 93 Dafiri à aquil Vas. 6.20. 'Mother, if this is your intention, let it be so, I will do your order.'
431 Imperative may also express possibility, doubt etc. NATH ME 5 TERI U. 12.10. 'Let the ascetic get what is remaining.' sa goi faur 45 3781401 U. 12.16. “Let even this food and drink be destroyed.'
432 With the negative particle it expresses prohibition. Algo TOE U. 12.23. Do not insult him.' AT 91 TS
h ag Das. 7.50. 'He should not say, ' let it not happen?'
433 POTENTIAL. In its optative sense it expresses polite order or exhortation. à g# C FROSTIRE I Erz. “Then being careful you take hold of the tree.' General prohibition : fermeny EHMAT E ! Sut. 1.2.1.14. He should mortify his body by fasting.' Desire; wish : PT GÅ
en Elsie an TH gera i Erz. “When you will become a king you should give him a village. Fue a s a TOROVÝMI I U. 8.1. 'So that I may not go to a bad birth.'
434 As potential it may express possibility, probability: 691 BRACET era fantom I Vas. 43.22. 'Or being

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(S. 434.
without food he may die of himself.' कह वि आणियं होजा । Erz. "It may be brought somehow.'. Ability : par en agur sur rentfest i U. 18.10. "The monk, when angry, may burn crores of men by his lustre.' Doubt: Pata që FRUI forem I Sut. 1.3.3.6. 'What can there be after death ?' obat gur CA Häll Vas. 9.11.' Who can this be? 'Supposition: fotel faut fit a fi i Das. 9.1.9. “It may be that he may break the mountain with his head.'
435 Negatively it expresses impossibility, improbability : e ParTTI U. 14.15. How can one be careless?' a
Suj spil Das.. 12.10. If he does not get a good campanion.'
436 It is used in conditional sentences. Ugri T HAO El gat CESTÀ TIHO I Sut. 1.7.16. 'If water were to remove the dirt of Karma then happiness may be merely a matter of desire.
437 A form of the potential is often used to express a past action. आभरणाणि य सव्वाणि सारहिस्स पणामए। U. 22.20. ' He gave all his ornaments to the charioteer.' TIT STÅ
TS HET43 SERI U. 18.41. 'Having abandoned the best pleasures M. performed penance.'
VIII CAUSAL 438 The causal forms of the verb are often used in the sense of the primitive. BE SHITET RETT I Sur. 2.1. ' Now the caravan lived there.' Tawi groa Arti Erz. 'I will do all the desired object.'
439 On the other hand a few primitives may be used in the sense of the causal. Mi se fupra I Sur. 2.91. “It breaks the hearts of the travellers. ' CA I FAOI I Erz. 'I will make J. play.'

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S. 444.)
IX PARTICIPLES
189
IX PARTICIPLES 440 PRESENT PARTICIPLE. The usual meaning of the present participle is to denote the action which the subject performs simultaneously with the action of the main verb of the sentence. पुरओ जुगमायाए पेहमाणो महिं चरे। Das. 5.1.3. “He should walk over the ground inspecting it for a distance of a cubit before him.'
Sometimes the two actions may be consecutive : vindhai janassa hiyayaṁ pisina bānam va lagganto Vaj. 53. “The wicked, like an arrow, pierces the heart of men after striking it.'
441 It may express a habit or state. Tai a Alfori a Tahirit era fagfast i Vip. 27. 'They continue to give out blood and pus.' strai fares STATUTS I U. 10.2. “It remains there hanging for a moment.'
442 It can be used as an adjective serving the purpose of a subordinate clause. अधम्म कुंणमाणस्स अफला जन्ति राइओ। U. * The days of one who does irreligious acts pass off uselessly.' 7 AURA J This arii Sut. 1.5.2.22. “There cannot be any protection for one who kills.'
Like other adjectives they may enter into compounds : gurusoyāulijjantamānasassa jāyā Tayani Erz. "The night approached while he was troubled with deep grief.'
443 Many present participles approach adverbs in their meaning, i RATT 3 TE PAS ! Das. 4.1. He kills living beings while wandering with carelessness.' È STM 3751vi ai i Das. 6.10. Knowingly or unknowingly he may.'
444 It is used to form the conditional mood. 34551 allt oput Etat... That greg 1 Das. 9.9. ‘I would have become a monk if I had taken delight in the monk's life.' blo TTFETTO i Po asyia a III Vaj. 734. 'What would

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[S. 444.
have been the condition of the travellers if, O Banyan tree, you were not there."
Sometimes it may express desire: navari kirado kao honto Sut. 2.180. You should have been made only a worm.' In some cases it may stand for the finite verb: maham parehi dammanto U. 1.16 Let me not be chastised by others.' It is used with cognate verbs: suņamane saddaim sunai Ay. 1.1.4. He hears words while hearing.'
445 PAST PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. They are used to express the past tense and so form the regular means of narration : सुयं मे आउसं• तेणं भगवया एवं अक्खायं । Ay. 1.1.1. 'I have heard, O Long-lived one, thus being preached by the venerable Lord. '
446 In conjunction with the forms of the verbs and भू they express the idea of past perfect. तइयवासरे विज्जुधारण faargyı azar Harga 3 Erz. On the third day, being killed by the stroke of lightning, they were born in M.' दाहिणाओ वा दिसाओ आगओ हं अंसि । Ay. 1.1.1. 'I have come from the southern direction. '
447 The past passive participles of Ardha-Magadhi show both a passive and an active construction. HOYGY I Pau. 4. 14. He obtained highest prosperity.' det en a Vas. 16.11. 'King K. saluted.' qui fafafììvi | Sm. 136. The darkness of ignorance vanished.' a पहसिओ राया । U. 20.10. Then the king laughed.'
448 They often form nouns of action: o facfèri nizi qiz fazi U. 13.16. All singing is mere lamentation, all dancing is mockery.' U. 16.5. 'Crying, lamenting, singing.'
449 As adjectives:
thing of his must be got by begging. Erz. With the childhood over. '
U. 2.28. EveryIn compound:

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S. 453.]
450 lt may approach the meaning of an adverb: mae nāyam aṇāyam vā sā bālā neva bhuñjai U. 20.29. Either known or unknown to me, the girl does not eat.' Two past participles are used without a conjunction. samähie kalagaya gaya sohammam Erz. Dying with meditation they went to S.'
X GERUND
191
451 POTENTIAL PASSIVE PARTICIPLE. They express all the ideas of the potential mood: obligation, necessity :
qa Ay. 1.4.1. All living beings ought not to be killed.' न ते कस्स वि साहियव्वं । Erz. 'You are not to tell it to anybody' अत्थि तेण सह वत्तत्व्वं किं पि । Erz. 'I have something to speak to him.' तं भवियव्वं एत्थ कारणेणं । Nay. 1. 14. There must be some reason here.' possibility, expectation : कहं मए सो नायव्वो । Erz. How am I to know him?' certainty : होयव्वं एत्थ मयकरिणा । Erz. ' The rutted elephant must be here.' ता भवियव्वं केणावि इमणा सिद्धपुरिसेणं । Erz. Therefore, this must be a man of miraculous power.'
452 They can be used, as nouns or adjectives. g अवसरो पच्छा वलियव्वस्स | This is not the time for returning. तत्थ सरे न हु जुत्तं वसियव्वं रायहंसाणं । Vaj. 720. 'The residence of the royal swans there is not proper.'
X GERUND
453 When two actions are performed by the subject one after another the previous one is expressed by the use of the Gerund तं परिग्गिज्झ वायाए कम्मुणा उववायए । Das Having received it with words he should do it with his actions.' Das. 4.11. Hearing, he knows what is
good.'
Sometimes the two actions may not be quite consecutive : dāram avalambiya na ciṭṭhejjā Das. 5.2.9. He should not stand resting against the door.' Sometimes the subject may be different : siddhana namo kiccā atthadhammagaim suneha me U. 20.1. Hear from me the course of wealth and religion which is told

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(S. 453.
after saluting the liberated souls.' The subject may be in an oblique case : caittāna imam deham gantavvam avasassa me U. 19.16. 'Abandoning this body I must go helplessly
454 In exceptional cases the gerund may take the place of the finite verb. a fasoi fisiorent! Sut. 1.9.10. The wise know it.'
455 Often the form of the gerund serves the function of the infinitive. So faru THIETI I Pau. 28. 'He began to praise the Jiņa.' a HOT a GTI U. 13.33. 'You have no intention of abandorfing the pleasures.
456 The forms of Gerund may give rise to adverbs : pecca in the next life' pasajjha 'with force' arussa'angrily' ähacca suddenly'; also preposition : tam uddissa with reference to it' āyasuham paducca 'as regards one's happiness.' viggham mottuna
without difficulty.' phrases : tti kiccă or kattu thinking thus' tti ākaliūna 'knowing it to be so.''
457 In conjunction with the verb 'the gerund forms a peculiar idiom. Og vi etuie quitanas tg goi h a आपुच्छइ आपुच्छित्ता सयाओ गिहाओ पडिणिक्खमह। Upa. 69. “Then that Ananda, the disciple of the monks, takes leave of his eldest son and relatives, and taking leave goes out of his own house.'
458 The gerund in -am is used as in Sanskrit : vijayam takkaram jīvaggāham genhanti Nay. 2.39. They catch the thief V. alive.'
XI INFINITIVE
459 Infinitive expresses the motive, 'purpose, intention of an act. सो वि न सक्का चोरं गेण्हिडं। Erz. 'He also is not able to catch the thief.' sufre gri STRATEGI U. 10.34. 'Make hurry to go to the other shore.'

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460 It is used with a number of verbs to complete the sense, the FEET TRI Das. 2.7. You desire to eat what is vomited.' TEN JE HETI U. 11.14. 'He is worthy of getting alms.'
461 It is used with nouns, adjectives, prepositions etc. are au für Fry | Das. 5.1.79. It is not enough to quench the thirst.' TOÀ 91H | Nay. 1.19. 'Enough to give and enjoy.' Hein 347 pucenti Das. 9.3.6. 'It is possible to bear the thorns with hope.'
In a number of cases it has a passive sense: na ya sakko pahaneum Erz. 'He cannot be killed.' na ya tirai keņai genhium Erz. “Nobody is able to catch him. jujjai kāum sogo Sur. 2.140. 'It is proper to lament.'
462 It is often used for the gerund. a ang agu TER I U. 13.33. 'You have no desire to abandon the pleasures.' BiHSO PR maig i Pau. 3.5. 'Folding the hands on the forehead.'
The infinitive forms compound with FIA, M.yoag CHI Vas. 7.23. 'Desirous of becoming a monk.' TECHUTT I Vas. 4.4. Wishing to go.'.
XII PHRASE
463 Simple sentences are put together to form compound and complex ones. From the original method of putting two sentences together one after another, there developed two ways of sentence relation called co-ordination and subordination.
464 CO-ORDINATION : It may be effected without any explicit means and then is called asyndeton : when contrast is implied : सुत्ता अमुणी मुणिणो सययं जागरन्ति । Ay. 1.3.1.
The ignorant ones sleep, the wise always keep awake.'
13

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[S. 464
With forms of imperative : गेण्ह इमं असें वच्च मसाणस्स पच्छिमभागं । Erz. Take this sword and proceed to the western part of the burial ground.' In the description of a series of acts or facts: an yg að að U. 4.6. The moments are terrible and the body is weak.' To express causal relation: ari U. 4.1. 'Life is perishable, do not be care
Giây less.
194
9
465 Co-ordination may be effected by the use of the demonstrative pronoun. इओ य उज्जेणीए चण्डपज्जोयराया । तस्स Erz. In U. there was a king C. The messenger
told him.'
Sometimes the first sentence may contain a word pointing to the following sentence: santime ya duve thānā akamamaranam ceva sakāmamananam taha U. 5.2. These are the two points of death with or without one's will.'
466 Co-ordination effected by particles. Mere copulation by, fa etc. though they show slightly different senses. समासासिया । विवाहिया य । Erz. 'He consoled her and married. कत्तो सि तुमं सुंदर । अह भणिओ पवणचण्डेण । Erz. Whence have you come O Beautiful? Then spoke P. 'afa' moreover'.
f
"
In case of enumeration tava is used meaning in the first place'. acchau tava bhavantaragatisambandho Vas. 10.25. Let alone,. in the first place, the story of the former birth.'
467 The disjunctive particles are a, Aunâsəni ya fè an aada ya avigand Erz. some delusion of mind ?" अहवा पुच्छामि इमं । ask her.'
a, etc.
Is this S. or is it Erz. ' Or let me
etc.
468 Antithesis is expressed by particles like J, पहु निउण एस सव्वत्थ परं महाराय नियपसंसणेण लज्जन्ति जे महापुरिसा । Erz. Lord he is clever in all but, O king, good men feel ashamed of their own praise.'
•

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S. 473.]
469 The causal relation is expressed by . a ageg एवं धम्मा हि पाणिणो 'Do not lament for him for all living beings are subject to this fate.'
XII PHRASE
195
470 Adverbs of the demonstrative pronoun are used as conclusive particles चोरग्गाहा तं न सन्ति गेण्हिउं । तओ नयरे बहुरवो जाओ। Erz. 'The police were not able to catch him therefore there arose a great uproar in the town.' संखयमाहु जीवियं तह विय बालजणो पगब्भइ | Sut. 1.2.2.2. 'Life is not to be prolonged and yet the ignorant man boasts.'
Sometimes the first sentence may contain a word referring to the following sentence: savve te evam parūventi savve pāņā na hantavva Ay. 1.4.1.1. All of them preach thus that all beings. are not to be killed.'
471 When an affirmative sentence is joined with a negative one the negative particle is followed by others like तु, उण etc. विणणं य सप्पुरिसा नमन्ति न कस्स वि भएन । Vaj. Good men bend with modesty but not from fear of anybody.'
With two negative sentences the second contains a particle beside the negative. न एक्कम्मि पडियारे दोन्नि करवालाई मायन्ति न य अलोणियं सिलं कोइ चट्टेइ । Erz. 'In one sheath two swords do not remain nor does one lick a slab without salt.'
E ÂM
472 SUBORDINATION: a syndeton: araqui
Ay. 1.1.2.4. Enough of friendship with a fool, by which one increases hatred.'
473 The subordinate clause is introduced by the relative pronoun. â sì si facenas Erz. Is there somebody who can teach me?' or pronominal adjectives like जारिस • मूलदेवेण वि एरिसो सुमिणो दिट्ठो जारिसो मए । Erz.. 'M. saw a dream as I did' or pronominal adverbs: Hug a ♬ a कहियं ति | Erz. 'Do not say that you were not warned.'

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(S. 474.
474 जहा expresses comparison : जह एए तह अण्णे | Sanm. 1.15. Just as these so also others. It states the result: BU TARİ FET À FT EE! Vas. 106.21. 'Show me the favour so that I may be victorious.. sets forth objects of verbs 'to know,' 'hear' etc. : IT FHUNOT MUTE ER FFCUTI i I Sut. 1.4.1.3. 'Hear the enjoyments of the monks, how some monks enjoy them.'
475 PTT, 51, are mainly temporal in sense. They are followed by a4, 75, die and also SE. J Stahsia
fa ro farinusi Das. 4.14. “When he knows both the living and lifeless things.'
476 Fra with its correlative ara expresses simultaneous actions: Ala 7 gg e ata ofas ACETI U. 7. 3. ' As long as the guest has not come so long does that poor animal live.' It expresses a future action : जाव एस कुमारो रजधुरावहणजोग्गो Els are per te cui questa | Erz. 'We should protect this kingdom until this prince is able to carry the yoke of the kingdom.' With a it points out an action of the past : Fri has 379 Al a day 1 Sut. 1.3.1.3. He considers himself brave as long as he has not experienced the hard life.' With first person it states the intention: विसज्जह मं जाव णं TUTH I Vas. 9.12. ' Allow me to go so that I will know.'
477 जइ introduces a relative sentence : फुडं साहसु जइ HTRA I Erz. 'Tell me clearly if you know.' With fe it means “although': Jeg fã garo I Sut. 1.2.1.9. “Even though he wanders naked and lean.' It may express a condition: Pao age I Vaj. 266. “If there is moon what is the use of many stars?' with future condition: GTE STIT À FATTHETISHI NISTA À I Vas. 10. 2. 'If I can get out of this I will have no more desire for pleasures.' With a past condition : 7 METERE HAT QUE TARII Vas, 93. 15. 'If you have spoken the truth then show me

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197
the favour.' With hypothetical condition : f ta ot Harlat periti Vas. 16. 25. 'If I were there I would have punished them well.'
478 The direct narration is introduced by gfa which is placed at the end : अणगारा मो त्ति एगे पवयमाणा । Ay. 1.1.2.2. ‘some saying that they are monks.' It may merely express one's thought : BiH fHUI Ô TI Ay. 1.3.1. 3. 'knowing that this misery is due to sinful activity.' It may express the reason : 37077 FROI Ay. 1.2.5.3.
He should not lament because not getting. It may form an explanation of a word : कलं दाहि ति आसाए गच्छइ । Erz. 'He goes with the hope that he will give him tomorrow.' Instead of spa, we may be used which precedes the statement: Fellorar a vo FFET I Erz. 'He thought that...'.
XIII WORD ORDER
479 The word-order in AMg. is free to a considerable extent and only general tendencies forming the so-called normal word-order can be pointed out. These tendencies may be counteracted by the occasional order of words caused by the desire to emphasise a particular part of the sentence. By the very nature of the subject only prose works can be taken into account as the metrical demands make the order of words in verses extremely free.
480 In a normal sentence the subject begins it and the verb closes it. All other parts of speech are put between them. ahamo vam paumavarapundariyam unnikkhissāmi Sut. 2.1.2. I will pluck this excellent lotus.' In an interrogative sentence the intonation alone decides the question. vatthassa sohi bhavai ? hantā bhavai. Nay. 1.5. Will the cloth become pure? Yes.'
481 The predicate is usually placed after the subject. se hu muni parinnāyakumme tti bemi Ay. 1.1.1. “That sage has known the Kamma, thus do I say.' It may be placed before when em

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198.
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
IS. 481.
phasised. dhannāo nam tão ammayão Vip. 40. Fortunate indeed are those mothers.'
482 Adjectives precede the nouns which they qualify. tassa ya bambharāino uttamavarsasambhūyā mahārāyāno cattāri mitta āsi Erz. That king B. had four friends who were great kings and born in noble families. They may follow if they form a long list. sapparūvam viuvvai uggavisam candavisam .... Upa. 107. 'He produces the form of a serpent of terrible poison, of deadly poison.' A predicative adjective always follows the noun. kappai nigganthānam pakke tālapalambe abhinne vā bhinne vā padigāhittae Kal. 1.3. It is allowed to the N. monks to accept the ripe ears of Tāla whether broken or not.'
483 Words in apposition usually precede the substantives. sāhañjani nāmaṁ nayari hotthā Vip. 88. There was a town by name S.'
484 A pronominal form usually stands at the beginning of the sentence. tassa ya purimatālassa nayarassa Vip. 57. Of that town of P.' The interrogative pronoun always begins the sentence. kaham nam puttā mama tuţthi bhavissai Nir. 36. 'How can I be satisfied my son ?'
485 The vocative may stand at the head of the sentence, as it does not form an integral part of it. goyama i sumane bhagavam mahāvire bhagavan goyamam evam vayāsi Bhag. 15.1.4. 'O Goyama, thus spoke the venerable ascetic M. to G. Words like devānuppiya and bhante never stand at the beginning.
486 The accusative object immediately precedes the verb. vijayassa khattiyassa dhamma äikkhai Vip. 11. 'He preached religion to king V.' Of the two accusative objects the personal one is put first. mahābalam Tāyam eyamattham vinnaventi Vip. 74. They request this thing to king M..
487 The instrumental of condition immediately precedes the verb. kāle kumāre neraiesu neraiyattāe uvavanne Nir. 18. "Prince K. was born in the hellish beings as a hellish being.'. The instrumental of the subject comes earlier. assim ceva desakāle purajanavaeņa rāyā vinnavio Erz. 'At that time and place the king was requested by the people of the town and country. The

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199
instrumental of the means stands between the subject and the verb. vāhena egeņa ceva sarena do vi viņivāiyā Erz. "The hunter killed both of them by one and the same arrow.'
488 The dative of purpose occupies the last place. tae nam aham goyama kummaggaman nayaran sampatthie vihārāe Bhag. 15.1. Then, O Goyama, I started to the village K, for wandering'. With an auxiliary verb it may precede. āyanke se vahāya hoi Das. 11. 'The disease may result in his death.'
489 The ablative of comparison always precedes the other word. ahinavakārāvanāo ya puvvakayaparipālaņam varam Sag.
It is better to protect what is already done than to create new things.'
490 Genitive normally precedes the word it qualifies. pañcanham conasayāņam āhevaccam Vip. 59. 'Lordship of five hundred thieves.' Genitive dependent on numerals follows. atthasayam māhanadāragānam Vip. 107. “Eight hundred Brahmin boys.' Emphasis may also lead other types of genitives to follow the noun : aho dujjayattam mohassa Erz. O the difficulty of conquering delusion.'
491 The place of the genitive absolute is usually after the subject of the sentence. jan kumārā savve ekkapae ceva pecchantāna ceva amha daddha Sag. 'that all the princes were suddenly burnt while we were looking on.' It may stand at the beginning when closely related to the previous sentence. evam tesim mannantāna samāgao ego dio Sag. While they were thus thinking, there came a Brahmin.'
492 The locative of time and place heads the sentence and the more general clause precedes the more definite. So also other cases thus used. tenan kālenam tenam samaenam campā nāmañ nayari hotthā Upo. I. that time and period there was a town by name C.' So also the locative absolute. pacchimadisāe gae sūre wvvalio saravarão ajjautto Erz. When the sun has gone to the eastern direction my husband came out of the lake.'
493 The participles taking the place of the verb come at the end of their clause. seniyassa ranno antaram jāva mammam vā alabhamāne Nir. 35. 'not getting a weak point of king S.' In

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(S. 493.
narration they may be placed earlier for emphasis. annayā pārambhiyā cittasabhā rāiņā Erz. 'At some time the king began a picture hall.' The gerund usually ends its own clause. matthae añjalim kațțu evam vayāsi Kal. 37. 'he spoke with folded hands on the head.' It may come at the beginning because of emphasis : aviyāniūņa kajjākajjam aganiūna jaņāvavāyam Erz. Without thinking of the proper and improper acts, neglecting the blame of the people. The infinitive tends to occupy the last place. tam seyam khalu mama eyam purisam ginhittae Upa. 138. 'So. it is proper for me to catch this man'.
494 The normal place of the verb is at the end. But it may come first when stressed. santi ime tasā pāņā Ay. 1.1.6. These are the living beings'. A word may attract it. evam souņa gayā kappaṁ Erz. “Having heard this they went to K'. The imperative forma naturally occupy the first place. muñcasu uvveyam avalambasu dhirayan Erz. Abandon dejection, take up courage'. Of two imperative forms one goes at the end. tam gaccha nam ānandā .... eyamattham parikahehi Bhag. 15.1 Go, O Ananda and tell this thing'.
495 The normal place of the adverb is before the verb. bhujjo bhujjo uvadamsemi Sut. 2.1.7. I will show again and again'. If emphatic it may come first. khippāmeva bho devānuppiyā Upa. 206. 'Quickly, O beloved of the gods'.
496 The negative particle comes before the word which is to be negatived. attham puna se na jāņāmo Sut. 2.1.7. We, however, do not know its meaning'. At the beginning, if the whole sentence is to be negatived. no ya khalu eyam paumavarapondariyam evar unnikkheyavvam Sut. 2.1.6. 'This lotus is not to be plucked in this manner'.
497 In rare cases the prefixes of verbs are separated. taya sam va jahāi se rayam Sut. 1.2.111. He casts off the dust like skin'. Prepositions used with nouns usually follow them. egarr sāhammiyam samuddissa Ay. 2.1. With reference to a co-religionist'. The inverse order may be met with in special cases. uddham pāyatalā Sut. 2.1.9. 'Above the sole of the foot.'.

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S. 502.1
498 Unaccented particles occupy the second place. tam seyam khalu amham Vip. 165. 'So it is better for us' aha, evam, avi may begin a sentence.
XIV COMPOUNDS
201
499 The subordinate clause introduced by the relative pronoun precedes the principal clause. je sappurisā havanti te maraṇavasanam na bahu mannanti Erz. Those who are good do not care much for the calamity of death'. The conditional clause usually precedes but sometimes may follow. rakkhāmi aham tumam jai bhumiharathio mama putte pāḍhesi Erz. 'I will save you if you instruct my sons living in the underground cell'. The direct narration with iti precedes. ha muṭṭho muṭṭho tti kalunam vaharanto Sag. 'Crying piteously that he was robbed'.
500 Loose and additional clauses may come at the end. no kappai nigganthānam asanam vā paḍiggakettae nannattha egena sejjāsanthāreņam Kal. 1.43. It is not allowed for N. monks to take food etc. except a bed and a mat'.
XIV COMPOUNDS
501 The compounds of the AMg. language are closely modelled on those of Sanskrit but show a greater variability both in the arrangement of words and the endings. This fact has led to the oft-cited dictum that there is no rule which guides the arrangement of words in Prakrit compounds. This is true to a limited extent and we know that the minute rules of Sk. grammarians were sometimes discarded by the Classical writers themselves. The Prakrit grammarians do not deal with compounds, and we have to follow the lead of Sk. and Pāli systems.
502 Compound is the name given to expressions produced by putting together two or more words to form a grammatical unity with a peculiar meaning of its own. The words thus used are usually nouns, adjectives and adverbs. According to the relation that exists between the words used to form the compound they are divided into four different

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202
[S. 502.
groups with further subdivisions. They are or Copulative, तत्पुरुष or Determinative, बहुव्रीहि or Possessive and अव्ययीभाव or Adverbial compounds.
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
503 A compound consists of two or more nouns put together to express them either individually or collectively. If the compound were not used the idea of the compound would have to be expressed by the use of 'and' with its members. In few cases " or is required. Thus a dvandva formed of the two memers food' and पाण drink ' भत्तपाण will be dissolved as भत्तं च पाणं च ' food and drink. '
"
6
504 When this compound has the gender of the final member and the number of its constituents it is called इतरेतरद्वन्द्व Here the things are viewed individually. समणमाहणा = समणा य माहणा य monks and Brahmins.' बीयहरियाइं - बीयाइं चहरियाई च ' seeds and grass. ' धम्मट्टकाम = धम्मो य अट्ठो य कामो य 'religion, wealth and pleasure.' रोगायंकाणं = रोगा य आयंका य तेसिं — of diseases and ailments.' गोपुरट्टालगाणि = गोपुराणि य अट्टालगाणि य towers and turrets.' The canonical prose is fond of such compounds and long lists of words are put together. कीयपयंगा, कुंधुपिवीलिया, पाणभूयाई, जीवाजीवे, गमणागमणे, दंसमसएहिं, कामभोगा, राईसरतलवरमाडम्बियकोडुम्बिय सेट्ठिसत्थवाहाणं, सिंघाडगतिगचउक्कचच्चरमहापहपहेसु, माहणखत्तियवइस्ससुद्दे, तिहिकरणदिवसनक्खत्तमुहुत्तेसु, सयपागसहस्त्रपागेहि, गामनगरागरसरिसिरिगिरिसरकाणणाइं.
"
505 When such a compound is used in the neuter gender and singular number it is called समाहारद्वंद्व Here the things are viewed collectively. मंससोणियं मंसं च सोणियं च flesh and blood अन्नपाणं अन्नं च पाणं च ' food and drink. ' वत्थगंध वत्थं च गंधो य garment and scent. ' तणकट्टसकरं तणं च कट्ठ चक्कराय grass, wood and gravel.' सयणासणवत्थं = सयणं च आसणं च वत्थं च ' bed, seat and garment. दासपोरुसं पुरिसोय ' slaves and servants' Other examples are :
4
दासो य असणपाण
=
-
-
=

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203
साइमखाइमस्स गंधेणं, पुप्फवस्थगंधमल्लालंकाराहारं, मित्तनाइनियगसयणसंबन्धिपरियणेणं, इड्डीसक्कारसमुदएणं, कणकुण्डगं.
506 The distinction between these two varieties is often overlooked. The compound is found sometimes to follow the first and sometimes the second variety. Thus TUHÈ or गंधमलं, पाणभूयं or पाणभूयाई. Examples which require वा 'or' are : निंदापसंसासु = निंदाए वा पसंसाए वा towards censure or blame.' लाभालाभेलामे वा अलामे वा in profit or loss.' चण्डालवोकसो चण्डालो वा वोक्सो वा either a C. or a V.'
507 Two or more adjectives may from a when they refer to different things. उच्चनीय = उच्चं च नीयं च ‘low or high.' उच्चावय = उच्चं च अवयं च 'high and low'. कल्लाणपावगंकल्लाणं वा पावगं वा good or bad.'
The grammarians do not admit dvandvas of two adjectives or participles used as adjectives.
508 A तत्पुरुष compound consists of two words of which one determines the sense of the other by qualifying, explaining or specifying it. Its two main varieties are the तत्पुरुष proper, where the relation between the two words must be expressed by a case other than the Nominative and कर्मधारय where the two words stand in apposition.
509 According to the case required the तत्पुरुष is divided into six groups. (i) द्वितीया : पुढविनिस्सियं = पुढवि निस्सियं resorting to the ground'. अंतेउरगए = अन्तेउरं गए ‘gone to the harem.' परिसागएपरिसं गए 'gone to the assembly.' आसारुढो आसं आरुढो 'mounting a horse.' (ii) तृतीयाः देवगंधव्वमणुस्सपूइए = देवगंधब्वमणुस्सेहिं पूइए ‘worshipped by gods, men and Gandharvas.' साहुपूइयं-साहुणा पूइयं 'honoured by the sage.' उण्हाभितत्ते = उण्हेण अभितत्ते ‘tormented by heat.' चक्खुदिट्ठा=चक्खुणा दिट्ठा "seen by the eye.' जाइअंधे-जाईए अंधे 'born blind.' (iii) चतुर्थी : मिक्खायरिया=भिक्खा चरिया ‘wandering for alms.'

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI [S. 509..
भिक्खकालो= भिक्खट्टा कालो ' time for begging.' उदगदोणि-उदगहूं दोणी 'a vat for water.' उदगभवणाणि उदगट्ठा भवणाणि ' houses for water.' (iv) पंचमी: मालोइडं - मालाओ आहडं 'brought from an elevated place.' रुक्खपडणं = रुक्खाओ पडणं falling from the tree.' मरणभयं = मरणाओ भयं ' fear of death' मज्जप्पमायविरओ - मज्जप्पमाएहिंतो विरओ abstaining from wine and fault." संकाभीओ = संकाए भीओ 'fearing doubt.' (v) षष्ठी : भासादोसे= भासाए दोसे 'faults of speech. ' जिणसासणं- जिणाणं सासणं ' preaching of the Jinas.' रुक्खमूले = रुक्खस्स मूले 'at the root of the tree.' गामसयं = गामाणं सयं ' hundred villages.' (vi) सप्तमी : अगारवासे = अगारे वासे ' living in the house. ' कामगिध्दे = कामेसु गिध्दे ' attached to pleasures.' राइभोयण - राओ भोयणं ' eating in the night.' Other examples are: संगामसीसे, पत्तपुप्फफलोववेए, नाणारयणपडिपुणे, गिहिमत्ते, रायपिण्डं, सिद्धिमग्गं, जीवनिगाय, दोसवज्जियं परागारं, पाणाहिवई, महुकारसमा, उदउल्लं, नाणदंसणसंपन्नं, अत्थसंजुत्तं, पाणवहो, सव्वसंजए, देवलोग, आसणगओ, मणोगयं, गोयरग्गपविट्ठ, वाससय, हत्थाया, मच्चुमुहं, सव्वदुक्खपहीणे घयसित्त, बुद्धपुत्त.
=
204
510 Sometimes the case termination of the first member is not dropped when the compound is called अलुक् तत्पुरुष. अंतेवासी = अंते वासी ' living near a pupil ; देवाणुप्पिय- देवाणं पिए ‘dear to the gods.' खेयर= खे चरो 'roving in the sky'.
--
511 In a far the two words stand in apposition, one. qualifying the other. It has different varieties according to the nature of both the words used in it. (i) When the first word is an adjective : सीओदगं सीयं उदगं ' cold water. पइरिक्कुवस्सयं = पइरिक्कं उवस्सयं 'empty residence.' पुण्वकम्माई - पुब्वाई कम्माई 'former deeds. ' महन्वए = महा वए 'great vow. नीयदुवारं = नीयं दुवारं 'low door.' (ii) When the second member is an adjective : पुरिसुत्तमे उत्तमे पुरिसे 'best man. पहारगाढे - गाढो पहारो 'deep wound.' पुप्फसुहुमं सुहुमं पुष्कं 'fine flower.' धम्मणुत्तरं = अणुत्तरं धम्मं 'highest religion.'. (iii) When both the members are adjectives : सीउन्हं = सीयं च उन्हं च ' hot.
=
=

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'S. 513.]
and cold.' दुस्सीलपडिणीए = दुस्सीले य पडिणीए य ' of bad conduct and inimical.' (iv) When both the members are nouns : पिवासापरीसहे = पिवासा एव परीसहे 'the difficulty of thirst.' धम्महियं
=
= धम्मं चिय हियं 'the welfare as religion.' दयाधम्मो = दया एव धम्मो 'religion consisting of compassion.' मायासलं = माया एव सलं ' the dart of deceit.' वडपायवो = वडो पायओ ' banyan tree. ' कट्टसगडिया = कटुमई सगडिया ' a wooden cart.' (v) When the first member is a particle : कुभोयणं = कुच्छियं भोयणं 'bad food.' दुस्सहं = दुक्खेण सं difficult to bear.' सुच्छिन्ने = सुछिन्ने
XIV COMPOUNDS
"
205
=
well cut'. (vi) When the first member is a negative particle : (called नन् तत्पुरुष) अविणीए = न विणीए 'not disciplined. असंसत्तं = न संसत्तं 'not attached'. अदीणो = न दीणो ' not down cast'. (vii) When both the members are verbal derivatives : कीयगडं = कीयं च कडं च ' bought and prepared'. (viii) When the first member is an adverb: अइभूमी = भूमिं अइ ‘beyond the limit'. अइदेवो = अइ देवो 'greater god.' अइदूरं = अइ दूरं ' very far'. अहुणोवलित्तं = अहुणा उवलित्तं ' newly besmeared.' परमदुच्चरं परमं दुच्चरं ' exceedingly difficult. ' (ix) When one member forms the standard of comparison : मुहकमलं मुहं कमलं विय ' a lotus-like face'. गामकण्टया गामाणं कण्या विय — like thorns to the senses. ' समुहगंभीरो समुद्दो विय गंभीरो grave like the ocean. Other examples are: नीलुप्पलं, परलोगो, अंधबहिरो, तवोकभ्मं, पुरेकम्मं, मुहालद्धं, उसिणोदगं, देसंतरं, भारुण्डपक्खी, पुव्वसंजोगो, काउरिसो, चिराधोयं, असंभंतो.
=
=
=
=
512 A variety of कर्मधारय is called द्विगु when one of the members is a cardinal number and the whole is used as a
singular word. तिहुयणं = तिन्हं भुवणाणं समाहारो 'the three worlds.' दोमासं दोन्हं मासाणं समाहारो 'two months. ' छज्जीवणिया = छण्हं जीवनिगायाणं समाहारो 'six groups of living beings. ' चउरंग = चउण्हं अंगाणं समाहारो 'four limbs.'
513 Another variety of तत्पुरुष is called उपपद when the second member of the compound is a verbal derivative

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 513
without an independent existence. कुंभगारो = कुंभं करेइ त्ति 'potter.' सुहदोसुहं देइ त्ति "giving happiness.' मुसावाई = मुसं वयइ ति 'speaking falsehood.' सागरंगमा = सागरं गच्छइ त्ति ‘going to the ocean.' तिंदुयरुक्खवासी = तिंदुयखे वसइ त्ति "living on the Tinduya tree.' अण्डया = अंडाओ जाय त्ति — born from an egg.' मुहाजीवी-मुहा जीवइ त्ति 'living without a profession.' दोसन्न = दोसं जाणइ त्ति 'knowing the fault.' तित्थकरो= तित्थं करेइ त्ति 'founder of a religious system.'
Other examples are : चित्ताणुया, बुद्धोवघाई, अत्तगवेसए, तंतुजं, निजरापेही, पावकारी, पडिबुद्धजीवी, आणाकरे, पसायपेही.
514 When an attribute is compounded with a noun and the whole compound qualifies another noun but none of the words of the compound separately do so it is called a बहुव्रीहि. While dissolving the compound the relation is to be pointed by the use of the relative pronoun 57 'which'in different cases
(i) Noun qualified by an adjective : महिड्रिए =महा इड्री जस्स सो ‘having great fame.' घोरपरक्कमे = घोरो परक्कमो जस्स सो 'of terrible power.' पावदिट्टी = पावा दिट्टी जस्स ‘of sinful view.' जिइंदिए = जियाइं इंदियाइं जण 'who has conquered the senses.' नीरए निग्गओ रओ जम्हा 'free from defilement.' पुढोसत्ता = पुढो सत्ता जीए ‘having separate living beings.'
(ii) Adjective following the noun : आयरक्खिए = रक्खिओ आया जेण 'who has protected his self.' दीवप्पणट्ठो = पणटो दीवो जत्थ 'where the lamp is lost.' संजमुत्तरा = उत्तरो संजमो जेसिं ते 'whose self-control is highest.'
(iii) Two nouns in apposition : कम्मकिविसा = कम्म एव किविसं जोर्स 'whose sin is the Karman.' चित्तसंभूयनामाणो - चित्तो संभूओ य नामा जोर्स 'whose names are C. and S.''
(iv) With the second member as आइ, पभिइ, मत्त etc. नियागट्ठा = नियागो अट्ठो जस्स 'with liberation as the goal.'

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S. 515.]
XIV COMPOUNDS
207
अणुमत्तं = अणु मत्ता नस्स , with the measure of a particle.' नाणाविहा= नाणा विहा जेसिं 'of various kinds.' इंदाइणो = इंदो आई जोसें ते 'Indra and others.'
(v) With two nouns in case relation : पूइकण्णी = पूई कण्णे जीए ‘with sore ear.' मरणंतिया = मरणं अंते जस्स 'ending with death.' Stocraften = 3pt Site Are 'with seed at the top.'
.. (vi) With the first member as a particle : अणगारेन अगारं विज्जइ जस्स 'one without a house.' अचेलए =न चेलयं जस्स 'without a garment' कुसीला = कुच्छियं सीलं जेसिं of bad conduct.' मिरटुं = निग्गओ अट्ठो जम्हा 'useless.'
(vii) With first member as adverb: आसुपने = आसू पन्ना जस्स 'of quick intellect'. अणेगरूवा = अणेगा रूवा जेसिं 'of diverse forms.'
(viii) Compounds of two words denoting the quarters: उत्तरपुरस्थिमे उत्तराए पुव्वाए य अंतरालं the north-eastern direction.' . (ix) Compounds with स : सपुत्तो = पुत्तेण सह — with the son.' सामरिसो= अमरिसेण सह 'angry. ' सावजं अवजेण सह 'with sin.'
515 When the compound is formed by joining a preposition or an adverb with a noun it is called अव्ययीभाव. It is usually an adverb in the Acc. case of the Neuter. अहासुयं = सुयं अणइक्वम्म ‘as heard' जावजीवंजाव जीवो ताव as long as one lives.' . जहक्कम = कम अणइक्कम्म 'in due order.' जहाभागं= जहा भागाइं तहा ' according to their portions.' Similarly : आणुपुट्विं जहोवइटुं, जहाठाणं, अहाउयं. Sometimes other cases are met with : जावज्जीवाए, पडिरूवेण, अहाकम्मेहि.

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APPENDICES

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516
CONJUNCT CONSONANTS I
क = क्य; क्र; क्ल; क्व; क; स्क; र्क; ल्क; :क.
क्ख = क्ष; ख्य; त्ख; र्ख; ष्क; स्क; स्ख; :ख.
ग्ग
= ग्ण; न; ग्म; ग्य; ग्र; न; द्ग; र्ग; लग.
ग्घ
= ; दूध; र्घ.
可
च्छ
ज्ज
ज्झ
ड
ट्ठ
ड्ड
GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY
= च्य; ट्र्च; त्य; र्च; श्र.
क्ष; छ; त्स; थ्य; प्स; च्र्छ; श्व.
=
ज्य; न; ज्व; ड्रज; द्य; ब्ज; य्य; र्ज; र्य.
= ध्य; र्झ; हूय.
= व्य; र्त; त्त.
ल्ल
ल्ह
व्व
= ष्टः ष्ठ; स्त; स्थ; र्थ.
= ड्य; र्त.
=
ग्ध; ढ्य; ; .
ज्ञ; ण्य; ण्व; र्ण.
ण्ह = क्ष्ण; इन; ष्ण; स्न; ; ह्म. त्त क्त; न; ; त्व; ; र्त.
=
त्थ =
क्थ र्थ स्त; स्थ.
द्द
= ग्द; द्र; द्वः ॐ र्द. द्ध = ग्ध; ध; ध्व; ब्ध; र्ध. न ज्ञ; न्य; न्व; म्न; र्न.
=
प्प
क्प; कम; त्य; प्य; प्र; प्ल; प; ल्प; :प. प्फ = त्फ; ल्फ; ष्प; ष्फः स्प; स्फ; :फ. ब्ब = द्व; ब्र; र्ब; ल्ब.
ब्भ = ग्भ; भ; भ्य; भ्र; र्भ; ल्भ; हृ. न्म म्य; म्ल; र्म; ल्म.
ण्ण =
म्म =
म्ह
= इम; ष्मः स्म; ह्म; क्ष्म.
ल; ल्य; ल्व.
=
= ह.
= द्व; र्व; व्य; व.
स्स =
म; इय; व्य; स्य; श्र; र्श; श्व; ष्व; त्र; स्व.

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INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
[S. 517.
517 CONJUNCT CONSONANTS II
क्त = त्त; क्थस्थ; पप्प; क्म=प्प; क्यक कक लक ख्य = क्ख.
का क्षच्छ, क्ख. ग्ण = ग्ग; ग्द=६; ग्ध-द्ध न ग; ग्भ=भ; ग्म, ग्य, ग्र=ग्ग.
ज्य, ज्र, ज्व-ज.
ड्ग = ग्ग; दुव्व.
FREER
ण्य = ण्ण; ण्व=ण्ण.. क = क; ख=क्ख; लत्त; त्प=प्प; त्फ फ; त्य=च्च; त्रत्त;
. [त्वत्त; स=च्छ. द् = ग्ग; द्घग्घ; ब्द=ब्ब; भब्भ; द्य-ज; द्र=६, हु
द्व=द्द, व्व. ध्य = ज्झ; ध्र-द्ध, ध्व ज्झ ; द्ध. न्म = म्म; न्य=न्न; न्व न्न . स = त्त; प्य, प्र, प्ल प्प; प्स=च्छ. ब्ज = ज; ब्द=६; ब्ध-द्ध; ब्र=ब्ब. भ्य = ब्भ, भ्रम. म्न = न; म्य, म्लम्म. स्य = ज.
= क्क, w=क्ख; र्ग=ग्ग; ग्यर्चच्च; छंछ; जज; झज्झ; f=ण्ण; तत्त, र्थ=स्थ, ट; =ह, थर्धद्ध,
डर्प=प्प; र्बब्ब; भब्भ, मम्म; र्यज; र्व=व्व. ल्क = क; लग=ग्ग; ल्प=प्प; ल्फफ; ल्बब्ब; ल्मम्म; ल्य, च्य; व्रव्व.
[ल्व=ल्ल. श्च = च्छ; इन=ण्ह; म-म्ह; श्य, श्र, श्ल; श्व-स्स; क, ख=क्ख;
ट, ठट्ठ; ष्ण=ण्ह; ष्प, फफ्फ; म-म्ह; ष्य, प्व:स्स. स्क; स्ख-क्ख; स्त; स्थ=त्थ; 8; स्त्र=ण्ह; स्प, स्फ-प्फ; स्म-म्ह;
स्य, स्व-स्स. ह ह=ण्ह; झ=म्ह; ह्य=ज्झ; हल्ह; ह्वभ.

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518 DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
S. 518.]
Case
| Mas. Neu.अ | Mas. Neu. इ | Mas. Neu. उ | Fem. आ| Fem. इ | Fem. ई | Fem. उ | Fem. ऊं
रई
GR
| Nom. देवो, वणं
Acc.| देवं, वणं Inst. देवेण
देवाओ Gen.
देवस्स Loc.
देवे, देवंसि (Voc.
देव
Singular
मही महिं. महीए महीओ
Abl.
। मुणी, दहिं साहू, महुं माला मुणिं , . | साहुं, , मालं मुणिणा साहुणा मोलाए साहूओ .
मालाओ मुणिणो साहुणो . मालाए मुर्णिसि साहुंसि | मालाए मुणि साहु माले
घेणू घेणुं धेणूए धेणूओ
रईए रईओ
मुणीओ
महीए
घणूए धे[सि
GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY
इंसि
महीए महि
धेणु
Nom.
देवा, वणाई मुणिणो, दहीइं साहुणो, महूई मालाओ रईओ
"
"
Plural
Acc. Inst. Abl. Gen.
देवेहिं देवहितो
मुणीहिंसाहूहिं मुणीहितो साहूहितो मुणीणं साहूणं मुणीसुं | साहूसुं
मालाहिं रईहिं मालाहिंतो रईहितो मालाणं मालासु
महीओ घेणूओ तणूओ महीहिंधेहि महीहितो घेणूहितो तणूहितो महीण महीसुं घेणूसुंतणूसुं
धेणूणं
Loc.
213

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519 IRREGULAR DECLENSION
214
कत्ता
पिया
माया
राया
अप्पा
अरहं
Nom.
कत्ता कत्तारं
माया मायर
Acc.
Singular
Inst. Abl.
कत्तुणा कत्ताराओ कस्तुणो कत्तारे
पिया पियरं पिउणा पिउणो पिउणो पियरि
मायाए माऊए मायाए मायाए
राया रायाणं रण्णा राइणो. राइणो, रनो
आया अप्पाणं अप्पणा अप्पओ अप्पणो अत्तणि
अरहं अरहन्तं अरह्या अरहओ अरहओ अरहन्ते
Gen.
I Loc.
रायसि
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHİ
कत्तारो
रायाणो रायाणो
| Nom.
Acc. Inst. Abl.
Plural
कत्तारो कतारेहि कत्तारेहितो कत्ताराणं कत्तारेसुं
पियरो पियरे पिऊहिं पिऊहिंतो पिऊणं पिऊसुं
मायरो मायरो मायाहिं माई हितो माईणं माईसुं
राईहिं राईहिंतो राईणं राईसुं
अप्पाणो अरहंतो अप्पाणो अरहते . अप्पाणेहिं । अरहन्तेहिं अप्पाणेहितो - अरहन्तेहितो अप्पाणं? अरहन्ताणं अप्पेसुं ? अरहन्तेसुं
Gen. Loc.
(S. 519.
..

Page #228

20 DECLENSION OF PRONOUNS
S. 520.1
Nom.
Acc.
""
कं जं
ist Per. | 2nd Demonstrative
. Interrogative etc. Mas. Neu. Fem. Mas. Neu. Fem. तुम सो एसो . तं एयं सा एसा
जं
को जोकिं का जा तं एयं' , ,
• तं एवं
त एय तए ..| तेणं एएणं ताए एयाए केण जेण
काए जाए तुमाओ ताओ एयाओ ताओ एयाओ काओ जाओ काओ जाओ -तस्स एयस्स ताए एयाए कस्स जस्स
काए जाए मह तइ तंसि एयंसि
तीए एईए सि जंसि
Inst.
Singular
Gen.
# # སྒྱུ,
(Loc.
GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY
(Nom.
तुम्हे
ते एए. ताई एयाइं ताओ एयाओ के जे
काई जाइं काओ जाओ
Acc.
Inst.
Plural
Abl.
अम्हेहिं तुम्हेहिं तेहिं एएहिं अम्हेहितो तुम्हेहितो तेहिंतो एएहितो
अम्हाणं तुम्हाणं तेसिं एएसिं । | अम्हेसुं तुम्हेसुं तेसुं एएसुं
ताहिं एयाहिं केहिं जेहिं ताहिंतो एयाहिंतो केहिंतो जेहिंतो तासिं एयासिं केसिं जेसिं तासु एयासुंकेसु जेसुं
काहिं जाहिं काहिंतो जाहितो | कासिं जासिं कासुं जासुं
Gen.
| Ld
215

Page #229

521 NUMERALS
216
ती
चउ
पंच
Mas.
Fem.
Neu.
।
एगं .
| दो दुवे दोण्णि तओ तिण्णि चउरो चत्तारि पंच
Nom. एगो, एगे एगा
एगंएगे
पंच
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MAGADHI
एगेणं
एगाए
एगेणं
तीहिं
चहिं
पंचहिं
Singular
Plural
एगाओ
एगाओ
एगाओ
दोहितो
तीहितो
पंचहितो
चऊहिंतो चउण्हं
एगस्स
तिण्हं
| पंचण्हं
| एगंसि
एगंसि
तीसुं .. चऊसुं
- पंचसुं
[S. 521.
-

Page #230

522 CONJUGATION OF CLASS I
S. 522.]
Present
Imperative
Potential
Past
Future
Pass.
I P.
पासामि . . पासामु पाससि पाससु
पासाहि
पासेज्जामि पासेज्जासि
Singular
पासित्था पासिस्सामि __पासिहिमि | पासिज्ज , पासिस्ससि पासिहिसि | दीस.
पास
पास
. पासउ
पासे पासेज्जा
___,
पासिस्सइ
पासिहिइ ।
Cau. पासावे दावे
GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY
I P.
पासामो
पासामो
पासेज्जाम
पासिंसु
Plural
Plural
II. P.
पासह पासन्ति
पासह पासन्तु
पासेज्जाह पासेज्जा
पासिस्सामो पासिहिमो
Ger.
पासित्ता पासिस्सह . पासिहिह | पासिऊण पासिस्सन्ति पासिहिन्ति
Inf. पासिउं पासित्तए
( III P.
पासिय
Participles
पासन्त पासमाण
पासणिज्ज पासियव्व दट्टव्व
दिह
217

Page #231

Singular
Plural
IP. करे
II P.
III P.
IP.
II P.
III P
Present
Participles
करेसि
करेइ
करेमो
करेह
करेन्ति
करन्त (रे) करमाण (रे)
523 CONJUGATION OF CLASS II
Imperative
करेमु
करे करे हि कर
करेउ
करेमो
करेह
करेन्तु
Potential
करेज्जामि
करेजा
करेजा कुज्जा
करेज्जाम
करेज्जाह
करेजा
कर णिज्ज
कायव्व
कज्ज
Past
करित्या
""
""
करिंसु
""
"
कय
करिय
Fut.
करिस्सामि काहि मि
करिस्ससि काहिसि
करिस्सर का हि
करिस्सामा काहिमो
करि सह काहिह
करिस्सन्ति काहिन्ति
Causal
करावे
कारे
Pass.
करिज्ज
किज्ज
Gerund
करिता
करिऊण
Inf.
करिजं करित्तए
218
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[S. 523.

Page #232

524 CONJUGATION OF CLASS III.
Pass.
S. 524.]
नेज्ज
Singular
Present. | . Imp. Pot. | IP. मा(या)मि
| गा(या)मु गाएज्जामि नेमि नेमुःनेज्जामि गा(य)सि गा(य)सु । गाएज्जासि नेसि गा(या)
हिनेज्जासि III P. गा(य)
नेसु नेहि गाएजा नेइ गायउ, नेउ नेजा
_Singular
Past
Fut. गाइत्था गाइस्सामि गाहिमि नेइत्था ने(इ)स्सामि नेहिमि गाइत्था गाइस्ससि, गाहिसि नेइत्था ने(इ)स्ससि, नेहिसि गाइत्था गाइस्सइ, गाहिइ नेइत्थाने(इ)स्सइ, नेहिइ
.
| Cau. |गावे
| नेयावे
Gerund
Plural
IP. गा(या)
मोगा (या)मो
नेमो . गा(य)ह
नेह | III P. गायन्ति ( नेन्ति नेन्तु
Plural__
गाएजाम नेजाम गाएज्जाह नेज्जाह गाएज्जा नेजा
GRAMMATICAL SUMMARY
गाइस्सामो, गाहिमो ने(इ)स्सामो, नेहिमो गाइस्सह, गाहिह ने(इ)स्सह, नेहिह गाइस्सन्ति, गाहिन्ति ने(इ)स्सन्ति, नेहिन्ति
नेह गायन्तु
नेइंसु
गाइत्ता गाइऊण नेइत्ता
नेइऊण
Inf.
Participles| गायन्त
गायमाण
गेज
गीय नेज, गायणिज गाइय नेइयव्च, गाइयव्व नीय, नेइय
गाउं, गाइत्तए नेउं, नेइत्तए
नेन्त

Page #233

525 PARTICIPLES
220
Name
Terminations
Constructions
Remark
Present active
Participle
3777, HM,
Subject is put in the Nom.
Denotes a present acObject in the Acc.
tion, & is mostly used Participle agrees with the Subject. as an adjective or to
serve the function of
a subordinate clause. Subject in the Inst. Object in the Scarcely used. Nom. Part. agrees with the object.
Present passive
1 Participle
34777, 91' added to the
Passive base
Past passive Participle
34; or taken from Sk.
Used ordinarily to express the past action.
A. Of transitive verb. Subject in the Inst. Object in the Nom. Part. agrees with the object. B. Of intransitive verb. Subject in the Nom. Part. agrees with the subject. C. With the object as a whole sentence or not expressed. Subject in the Inst. Part. in Neu. Sing.
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
Past active Participle
Subject in the Nom. The object in the Acc. The Part. agrees with the Subj.
Scarcely used.
वन्त added to the Past
Passive Part.
.
Potential passive
Participle
US. 34 . yod or taken | A. Subject in the Inst. Object in the from Sk.
Nom. Part. agrees with the object. B. When the object is a whole sent ence the Part. in the Neut. Sing.
Denotes obligation, duty, necessity, đesirability, possibility etc.
(S. 525.

Page #234

ARDHA-MĀGADHĪ ENGLISH GLOSSARY
अइकंत (अतिक्रान्त) p.p. elapsed, अणुग्गह (अनुग्रह) m. favour passed
अणुसासिय (अनुशासित) p.p. inअईय (अतीत) adj. past, gone structed अक्खाय (आख्यात) p.p. prea- अत्थंगम (अस्तंगम् ) v. to set ched
• अत्यमिय (अस्तमित) p.p. set अगारवास m. household
अदिन्न (अदत्त) p.p. not given अग्गि (अग्नि ) m. fire
अद्धट्ठम (अर्धाष्टम) seven one अचक्खुअ (अचक्षुष्क) m. blind half man
अन्न n. food अच्चंतं (अत्यन्तं) adv. exces- अन्नत्थ (अन्यत्र) adv. elsewhere sively
अन्ने (अन्वे) V. to follow अच्छ (आस् ?) V. to be अपज्जत्त (अपर्याप्त) adj. insuffiअजयं (*अयतन्) ind..carelessly
cient अज्जउत्त (आर्यपुत्र) m. lord, sir अप्प (आत्मन) m. self अजुत्त (अयुक्त) adj. improper अप्पमाय (अप्रमाद) m. carefulअट्र (अर्थ) m. thing, fact :
ness अड (अवट) m. well
अप्पलाभ ( अल्पलाभ) m. getting अणवज्ज. (अनवद्य) adj. faultless, free from sin
अप्पहिय (आत्माहत) n. one's अणसणा (अनशन) f. fast
welfare अणि? (अनिष्ट) adj. bad
अफल adj. useless आणिट्रयर (अनिष्टतर) adj. worse अब्भत्थ (अभ्यर्थ) V. to request अणुकंपा (अनुकंपा.) f. compas- अमञ्च (अमात्य) m. minister sion
अमय (अमृत) n. nectar
less

Page #235

222
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(risa
अरंहत, अरुहंत (अर्हत् ) m. pro- आयरिय (आचार्य) m. teacher phet
आवई (आपद् ) f. calamity, disअलंकार m. ornament
aster अलिय (अलीक) adj. false आस (अश्व) m. horse अवकम (अपक्रम्) v. cross आसत्थ (आश्वस्त) p.p. consoled अवररत्त (अपररात्र) m. later part आसा (आशा) f. hope of the night
इभ (इभ्य) m. merchant, अवंतिवइ (अवन्तिपति) m. king rich man of A.
इसि (ऋषि) m. sage असच्च (असत्य) adj. false इहलोय (इहलोक) m. this world असार adj. worthless . इंदिय (इंद्रिय) n. sense organ असाहु (असाधु) adj. wicked ईसर (ईश्वर) m. god अहम्म (अधर्म ) m. irreligion उचिय ( उचित) adj. proper अहवा (अथवा) ind. or उजम (उद्यम्) v. to try, to अहिग (अधिक) adj. more strive अहिगार (अधिकार) m. author- उजाण (उद्यान) n. garden ity
उट्ठा (उत्था) v. to get up आहेसित्त (अभिषिक्त) p.p. coro- उर्ले (ऊर्ध्व) adv. upwards nated
उदाहर V. to explain, to utter अहिंसा f. non-violence उम्हा (उष्मन्) f. heat अंतर ( अन्तर) n. difference उवलिप (उपलिम्प) ५. to beअंतियं (अन्तिकं) ind. near smear अंध (अन्ध) m. blind man उवसम (उपशम) m. pacificaआउय (आयुष्क) n. life
tion आउस (आयुष्मान् ) m. long
एक्क (एक) one lived one
एगागी (एकाकिन्) adj. alone आएस m. guest
एत्तिय (एतावत्) adj. so long आगच्छ V. to come
एत्थ (अत्र) adv. here आगास (आकाश) n. sky
एरिस (एतादृश) adj. like this आणा (आज्ञा) f. order
ओसह (औषध) n. medicine . आययण (आयतन) n. temple
कइ (कपि) m. monkey आयंक (आतंक) m. disease कओ (कुतः) adv. whence आयर (आचर) v. to follow कज (कार्य) n. work, duty

Page #236

ARDHA-MAGADHI ENGLISH GLOSSARY
गिलाण ]
कड (कृत) p. p. done, created कडुयत्तण (कटुकस्व) n. bitterness काढण (कठिन) adj. hard कण्ण (कर्ण) m. ear
life of an omniscient कोड ( कोटि) f. crore
कत्तो ( कुत: ) adv. whence, कोल्हुय ( क्रोष्टुक m. fox
where
कदम ( कर्दम ) m. mud
कन्ना (कन्या) f. girl, daughter
कमल m. lotus
कम्म (कर्मन् ) n. act, deed कत्थ ( कृतार्थ) adj. fortunate
कर (कृ) 0. to do कला f. art
कह (कथ् ) v. to tell
कहं ( कथं ) adv. how
4
कहा ( कथा ) f. story कंतार (कान्तार ) n. forest काम m. pleasure काय, काग ( काक ) m. crow
कारण n. cause काल m. time
कालय ( कालगत ) p. p. died किरण m. ray
किवा (कृपा) f. compassion किंकर m. servant
कील (क्रीड् ) . to play कुडुम्ब ( कुटुम्ब ) n family कुण (कु) . to do
कुप्प ( कुपू ) v. to get angry कुमार m. prince, boy कुल n. family
कुसल (कुशल) adj. clever कुसुम n. flower
223.
कूडग्गाह ( कूटग्राह m. hunter केवलिपरियाय ( (केवलिपर्याय) n.
कोव (कोप) m. anger
कोह (क्रोध) m. anger
खण (खन्) . to dig खत्तिय (क्षत्रिय) m. warrior
खल adj. wicked
खलु ind. indeed खेड (खेट) n. village
खेय (खिड्) 0. to torment, to trouble
. to go
गच्छ ( गम् ) गण ( गण ) v. to count
गणहर ( गणधर ) m. pupil, disciple
गणि ( गणिन् ) m. monk, leader hi ( गज) m. elephant गरुय (गुरुक) adj. great गव्य (गर्व ) m. pride . गस (ग्रस ) . to swallow गहण (गहन) adj. thick गहिय ( गृहीत) p. p. caught,
taken
गंध m. smell, scent गाय (गै ) . to sing गाम (ग्राम ) m. n. village गाहावइ ( गृहपति) m. house -
holder
गिल (गिर् ) o to swallow गिलाण ( ग्लान ) m. sick person

Page #237

224 INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI __[गिरा 'गिरा (गी:) f. speech, word जिय (जीव) v. to live 'गिह (गृह) n. house
जीव m. n. life . गुण (गुण m.) n. virtue जीव (जीव) v. to live गुरु m. teacher
जीविय (जीवित) n. life गेण्ह (ग्रह) ५. to take जुज (युज्). to be proper गोव (गोप) m. cow-herd जुज्झ (युध) ५. to fight चत्तारि ( चत्वारि) four
जुज (युज् ) v. to yoke चय (त्यज्) V. to abandon जूय (द्यूत) m. gambling चर (चर्) V. to wander जोण्हा (ज्योत्स्ना) f. moonlight चरण n. foot
झिया (ध्यै). to think चरिय (चरिय) n. conduct . डह (दह) v. to burn चंद (चन्द्र) m. the moon . तक्कर (तस्कर) m. thief चिट्ट (स्था) ५. to stand
तर . to be able चित्त n. mind
तव (तपस्) n. m. penance चिन्त (चिन्त् ) v. to think तवस्सी (तपस्विन् ) m. ascetic चेइय (चैत्य) n. temple तहा (तथा) ind. so छट्टि (षष्टि) sixty
ताण (त्राण) n. protection छन्न p. p. covered
तिगिच्छ (चिकित्स्) ५. to exa. छाया f. shade
mine छिंद (छिद् ) v. to cut
तित्थ (तीर्थ) n. holy place छेय (छेद् ) V. to cut
तित्थंकर (तीर्थकर) m. prophet जइ (यदि) ind. if
ताय (त्रै). to protect 'जणय (जनक) m. father art f. star जणवय (जनपद) n. country तावस (तापस) m. ascetic जयं ( यतन्) ind. carefully तीर n. bank जय (जि) v. to conquer तेत्तीस (त्रयस्त्रिंशत्) thirty-three जरा f. old age
तोल (तुल) V. to weigh 'जल n. water
थोव (स्तोक) adj. little, small जलहर (जलधर) m. cloud दण्ड m. punishment जहा (यथा) ind. as
दण्ड (दण्डय) v. to punish जंप (जल्प) v. to speak दम (दम्) v. to control जाण (ज्ञा) v. to know दल n. leaf जाय (जात) pp. arose दन्त (दान्त) p. p. •controlled

Page #238

नीसेस) ARDHA-MAGADHI ENGLISH GLOSSARY
225 दाण (दान) n. gift
धण (धन) n. wealth दाया (दातृ) m. donor, giver धन्न (धन्य) adj. fortunate दारिद्द (दारिद्य) n. poverty धम्म (धर्म) m. religion दास m. servant
धरणियल (धरणीतल) n. ground दिट्ट (दृष्ट) pp. seen
धवल (धवलय).. to whiten दिय (द्विज) m. bird, Brahmin धाव V. to run दिवस m. day
नई (नदी) f. river दीण (दीन) adj. poor
नदृसाला (नाव्यशाला) f. theatre दीव (दीप) m. lamp
TH v. to bow, to bend दीह (दीर्घ) adj. long
नमो (नमस् ) ind. salutation दुक्कर (दुष्कर) adj. difficult नयर (नगर) n. town दुट्ट (दुष्ट) adj. wicked नर m. man दुद्दम (दुर्दम) adj. difficult to नरणाह ( नरनाथ) m. king ... control
नव. nine दुद्ध (दुग्ध) n. milk
नह ( नभस्) n. sky दुम (द्रुम) m. tree
नंदण (नंदन) m. son
नावा (नौ) f. boat दुरूह ( उद्ह ) v. climb दुल्लह (दुर्लभ) adj. difficult to नास ( नाश) m. destruction
नास (नाश) ५. to destroy get दुस्सील (दुश्शील) adi. of bad निग्गह ( निग्रह) v. to chastise, conduct
to punish
का दुही (दुःखिन् ) adj. miserable .
निद्दल (निर्दल) . to destroy दूरं adv. away, far .
निद्दिट्ट (निर्दिष्ट) p. p. taught देव m. god
निद्धण (निर्धन ) m. poor man देवउल (देवकुल) n. temple
निम्मिय (निर्मित) p. p. created देवया (देवता) f. deity
farer m. hell
निवइ (नृपति ) m. king देवाणुप्पिय (देवानुप्रिय ) adj. be
निवड (निपत् ) V. to fall loved of gods
निहाण (निधान) n. deposit देवी f queen .
निंद v. to blame दोस (दोष) m. fault दोस (द्वेष).m..hatred
निम्ब m. kind of tree दोहल (दोहद ) m. pregnancy
नीय (नीच) adj. wicked longing
नीसेस (निःशेष) adj. all, whole

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__of P.
ने (नी) v. to carry परहिय (परहित) n. another's नेया (नेतृ) m. leader
welfare नेह (स्नेह ) m, affection
पराइय (पराजित) p.p. defeated
परिगहिय (परिगृहीत) p.p. surपइ (पति ) m. husband
rounded पउत्त (प्रयुक्त) p. p. placed परिचय ( परित्यज् ) V. to abanपउमचरिय (पद्मचरित) n. life don
परितुट (परितुष्ट) p.p. delighted. पउर (प्रचुर) adj. abundant परिमल m. fragrance पक्खिव (प्रक्षिप् ) v. to pour, पलाइय ( पलायित) p.p. run throw
पलित्त (प्रदीप्त) p.p. burning पच्छा ( पश्चात् ) ind. afterwards पवत्त (प्रवृत्त) p.p. begun पड (पत्) . to fall
पवर (प्रवर) adj. excellent पडिनियत्त (प्रतिनिवृत्) ५. to पविस (प्रविश ) ५. to enter return
पस्स (दृश) V. to see पडिपुण्ण (प्रतिपूणे) adj. com- पसंसणिज (प्रशंसनीय) adi. plete
praiseworthy पडिसुय (प्रतिश्रुत) p.p. heard
पसिण (प्रश्न) n.m. question पढ (प ) v. to recite, to
पसीय (प्रसीद) v. favour learn पण्ण (पर्ण) n. leaf
पसूय (प्रसूत) p.p. gave birth
पहीण (प्रहीन) adj. free from पण्ह (प्रश्न ) m. question
पंकय (पङ्कज) n. lotus पत्त (प्राप्त) p.p. reached पंकयवण (पंकजवन) n. plot of पत्थणा (प्रार्थना) f. request lotuses पमाय (प्रमाद) m. carelessness पाइयकव्व (प्राकृतकाव्य) n. Pkt. पय (पच् ) V. to cook
poetry पयट्ट (प्रवृत्त) p.p. started पाउण (प्राप) ५. to get पया (प्रजा) f. subjects पाउस (प्रावृष् ) m. rain पयह (प्रहा) v. to abandon पाणभूय (प्राणभूत) n.m. animal पयाण (प्रदान) n. giving पाणि m. hand पर adj. other
पाय (पाद) m. foot परत्थ (परत्र) ind. next world पायव (पादप) m. tree परम adj. maximum, highest पाल (पाल) v. to protect

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पाव (पाप) n. sin पाव (पाप) adj. sinful पावग ( पावक ) m. fire पावयण (प्रवचण) n. preaching पिय (प्रिय) adj. good पीई (प्रीति) f. affection पील (पीड्) v. to torment पुच्छ (प्रच्छ) v. to ask पुण्ण (पुण्य) n. merit पुण्णिमा ( पूर्णिमा) f. moon-lit
night पुत्त (पुत्र) m. son पुप्फ (पुष्प) n. flower पुर n. town पुरिस (पुरुष) m. man पुव्वं (पूर्व) ind. formerly पुव्वरत्त ( पूर्वरात्र ) m. forenight पूय ( पूज् ) . to worship पूया ( पूजा) f. worship पेक्खणग (प्रेक्षणक) n. drama पेच्छ (प्रेक्षु ) . to seer पेह (प्रेक्ष) v. to reflect, to : see पोम्म (पद्म).n. lotus पोय (पोत ) m. young one पोस (पुष् ) V. to nourish फरुस (परुष) adj. harsh फल n. fruit फल v. to give fruit . फलसंपत्ती (फलसंपत्ति, फलसंप्राप्ति) f.'accomplishment of ob-
ject ; getting the fruit फुर ( स्फुर ) v. to shine
फुल्ल V. to bloom फुस (स्पृश) . to touch बडुय (बटुक ) m. fellow, fool बत्तीस (द्वात्रिंशत् ) thirty-two बद्ध p.p. built बय (बक) m. crane बल n. army बंध (बंध ) . bind बायालीस (द्वाचत्वारिंशत् ) forty
two बाल m. child, fool बालत्त (बालत्व) n. childhood बालिया (बालिका) f.girl बावत्तरि (द्वासप्तति) seventy-two बिंब n. disc बुद्धि f. intellect बू (ब्रू) V. to speak बे (ब्रू) V. to speak भक्ख (भक्ष) m. food भक्ख (भक्ष) V. to eat भयवं (भगवत् ) m. venerable
one 'भण (भण) v.to say भत्त (भक्त) n. meals भद्द (भद्र) n. welfare भर (भृ) v. to fill भय n. fear भव्व (भव्य) m. good man भंग m. violation, refusal भाय (भी) ५. to fear भार m. burden भारिया ( भार्या) f. wife भास (भाष ) v. to speak

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(TAL
भासा (भाषा) f. speech, words माहण (ब्राह्मण) m. Brahmin भिंद (भिद्) v. to break मिग (मृग.) m. dear भीसण ( भीषण) adj. terrible मिलिय (मिलित) pp. joined भुवण (भुवन) n. world मुक्ख (मूर्ख ) m. fool भुंज (भुज्) V. to eat
मुण (ज्ञा) V. to know भूव (भूप) m. king
मुस (मृषा) adj. false भूसण ( भूषण) n. ornament मुसा (मृषा) adj. false भोग m. n. pleasure
मुह (मुख) n. face, head भोगसमत्थ (भोगसमर्थ) adj. able मुहुत्तंतरेण (मुहूर्तातरेण) adv. . to enjoy
after a moment मग्ग (मार्ग) m. way . मुंच (मुच्) ५. to drop, to मच्च (मृत्यु) m. death.
release मज (मद्य) n. wine
मूल v. root, cause मजाया (मर्यादा) f. limit मेह (मेघ) m. cloud मण (मनस् ) n. mind . मेहावी (मेघाविन्) m. wise मणुस्स (मनुष्य ) m. man मोर (मयूर) m. peacock मय (मृत) p. p. dead. रक्ख (रक्षु ) v. to protect मयरंद (मकरंद ) m. juice रज (राज्य) n. kingdom मलिण (मलिन) adj. dirty रण (अरण्य) n. forest महा (महत्) adj. great, big रयणी ( रजनी) f. night महुयर (मधुकर ) m. bee . रवि m. sun महुर (मधुर) adj. sweet रह (रथ) m. chariot महरत्तण (मधुरत्व) n. sweetness रंज (रज् ) v. to delight मंगल adj. auspicious राइ (रात्रि) f. night मंस (मांस) n. flesh
राइंदिय (रात्रिंदिव) n. day and मा part. not
night माण (मान ) m. pride रायहंस (राजहंस) m. royal माणुसत्तण (मानुषत्व ) n. man. swan hood
राया ( राजन् ) m. king माया f. deceit
रीय (ऋ) v. wander मायापिड (मातापितृ) m. parents रुक्ख (वृक्ष) m. tree मार V. to kill
रूवविसेस (रूपविशेष) m. beauty मास m. month
गारे m. disease

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सकार]
रोय ( रु ) . to lament वा v. to blow लज्ज v. to be ashamed वाणर (वानर ) m. monkey लद्ध (लब्ध) p. p. obtained वायस m. row लया (लता) f. creeper वारि n. water लह (लभ् ) v. to get वावि (वापि) f. well लहुं (लघु) ind. quickly वास (वर्ष) n. year लुभ (लुम) . to covet वास (वर्ष) m. country लोग (लोक) m. world वाहि (व्याधि) f. disease लोह (लोभ) m. greed विउल (विपुल) adj. abundant वग्ध ( व्याघ्र ) m. tiger विज (विद्) V. to be वच्च (व्रज्) v. to go
विज्जा (विद्या) f. knowledge वच्छ ( वत्स ) .m. child विणय (विनी) V. to control वच्छ (वृक्ष) m. tree
विणय (विनय) m. modesty वड (वृध् ) . to increase - fara n. wealth वण (वन) n. forest
विपरिणम V. to change वण्ण ( वर्ण) v. describe विभूसिय (विभूषित) p. p. deवद्धावणय (वर्धापनक) n. birth corated ceremony
वियस (विकस) v. to bloom वप्पीहय m. cataka bird वियार (विचार) m. thought वय (वचस् ) n.. word विसत्तण (विषत्व) n. poison वय (व्रत ) m. vow
विसाय (विषाद) m. dejection वय (वच) V. to speak विसाल (विशाल) adj. extensive वयण (वचन) n. word विही (विधि) m. fate वयंस ( वयस्य ) m. friend . वीइकंत ( व्यतिक्रान्त) p. p. past वरं ind. better
वीर m. hero वराग ( वराक) m. wretched वीर adj. brave man
वीरिय (वीर्य) n. energy . वरिस ( वर्ष) v. to shower
वेज (वैद्य ) m. physician वल्लह ( वल्लभ) adj. dear
वेला f. time वस (वस्) ७. to live
वोच्छ (विच्छिद् ). to cut वह v. to carry
सक (शक्) v. to be able . 'वह (व) V.. to kill सक्य (संस्कृत) n. Sanskrit वा ind. or .
सकार ( सत्कार.) m. honour .

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सक्कार ( सत्कारय ) v. to honour सक्करा (शर्करा ) f. sugar सग्ग (स्वर्ग) m. heaven सत्तरि ( सप्तति ) seventy
सत्तु ( शत्रु) m. enemy सत् (सार्थ) m. caravan सत्थ ( शस्त्र, शास्त्र ) n. science
weapon
सद्द ( शब्द ) m. sound सद्धिं (सार्धम् ) ind. with सप्प (सर्प) m. serpent सप्पि (सर्पिस) n. ghee सफल adj. fruitful समग्ग (समग्र) adj. whole समज्जिण ( समार्जय ) o. to quire
समण ( श्रमण ) m. monk समणवत्थ (श्रमणवस्त्र) n. monk's
garment
समय m. time
समायर ( समाचर ) 0. to form
संसार m. worldly life
साम m. conciliation सामि (स्वामिन् ) m. master साला (शाला ) f. school साहा (शाखा) f. branch 'साहारण (साधारण) adj. common साहु (साधु) m. sage साहु (साधु) adj. good सिक्ख ( शिक्षू ) . to learn सिग्धं ( शीघ्रम् ) ind. quickly सिद्ध m. liberated soul सिद्धि f. liberation सियाल ( शृगाल ) m. jackal सिर (शिरस ) n. head सिलोग (श्लोक ) m. verse सिहर (शिखर) n. top. सिंच ( सिच्) o to sprinkle सिंह m. lion
समासेणं (समासेन) ind. briefly
सर o to move
सय (शत ) hundred
सीयल (शीतल) adj. cool सील (शील ) n. good conduct सुकयं ( सुकृतं) ind. well done सुक्कट्ठ (शुष्ककाष्ट ) n. dry wood सुण (श्रु ) o to hear
सय, सुय (स्वप्) . to sleep सवण (श्रवण) n. hearing, ear सव्व (सर्व) pro all सव्वाउय ( सर्वायुष्क) n whole सुत्त ( सूत्र ) n. thread, passage सुद्ध (शुद्ध) adj. pure ससुरकुल ( श्वसुरकुल) n house of सुपत्त ( सुपात्र ) n fitting man सुपुरिस (सुपुरुष ) m. good man सुबहु adj. abundant
life
the father-in-law
ac
संदेह m. doubt
[सक्कार
per
संपइ ( संप्रति ) adv. now संपाडिय (संपादित) p.p. accomplished, fulfilled
संभव 2. to arise संसग्गि (संसर्ग) to contact

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सुमिण (स्वम) n.m. dream
सेव v. to serve समिणसत्य (स्वमशास्त्र) n. science सेवा. worship of dreams
सोग (शोक) m. grief सुय (सुत) m. son, p.p. heard सोयणिज्ज (शोचनीय) adj. lamenसुयण (सुजन ) m. good man table सुवण्ण ( सुवर्ण) n. gold
हण (हन् ) ५. to kill ससील (सुशील) adj. of good हत्थ (हस्त ) m. hand conduct
हर (ह) V. to take away सुह (सुख) n. happiness
हव (भू) V. to be become सुहंसुहेण . (सुखंसुखेन)
हंस m. swan. happily.
हाय (हा) v. weaken सुही (सुखी) adj. happy
हास m. mockery सुंदर adj. beautiful
हिरण्ण (. हिरण्य) n. gold सेउ (सेतु) m. bridge
हियय (हृदय) n. heart dj. superior सण (श्येन) falcon
हिंसग ( हिंसक) adj. harmful सेणा (सेना) f. army ' हो (भू) ५. to become
adu

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.
Abstain विरम. Always सया ind. Animal पसु m. पाण m. n. Angry adj. Arise पाउब्भव . Arm ale f. Army सेणा f.बल n. सेन्नn. Arrow सर m. उस m. बाण m. Ascetic तावस m. तवस्सि m. Ask पुच्छv. Assembly सहा f. Attempt पयत्त m. जय. Aversion अरइ f. .
Believe सहह . Below अहे ind. Benares वाणारसी f. . Better i ind. Big महा adj. महालय adj. Bind बंध. Bird खग m. दिय m. पक्खि m. Birth जम्म n. Blind man अंध m. Blow वा. वाय. Boat नावा. Body सरीर n. देह m. तणु. Bond बंधण n. Book पोत्थगn. गंथ m. Boundary मजाया f. सीमा. Bow धणु n. Branch साहा f. डाला f. Brave सूर adj. Break भिंद v. Bring आणे. Brother भाया m. भाउय m. Burn डह .
Bark तया f. छवी . . Battle जुज्झn. Battle-field रण n. रणभूमी . Beast पसु m. Be born जाय . Be called वुच्च . Become भव v. हव ५. हो . Begin आरंभ . पारंभ v. Before पुरओ ind. अग्गओ ind. Beggar वणीमग m. Behave आयर V.
Calm संत adj. पसंत adj. ' Canon आगम m.
.

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ENGLISH ARDHA-MĀGADHI GLOSSARY
233.
Carry वह v. ने . Catch गेण्ह ५. धर ५.. Cause हेउ m. n. कारण n. Chapter अज्झयण n. Child बालय m. Childhood बालभाव m. बालत्तण
n.
Clever पडु adj. निउण adj. Climb आरह v. Cloud मेह :m. पओहर m. जलहर
m. Colour वण्ण m. Come आगच्छ. Commit कर. आयर ए. Conceal गृह v. निगूह . Conquer जय ७. जिण '. Control संजम ७. दम . Cottage कुडीर n. Country जणवय m. विसय m.
देस m. . Cowardly भीरु adj. कायर adj. Create उप्पाय v. कर. Creeper लया f. Cross तीर V. उत्तर ए. Crow कागm. Crown मउड:m. Cry रुय५. रुव ए. रोय ५. Current सोय m. Cut छिंद .
Death मरण n. मच्चु m. Deceive वंच. Deed किच्च n. काम n. Deep गहिर adj. Deer मिग m. Defeat पराजिण. Deity देवया f. Delay विलम्ब m. Delight रइf. Demon असुर m. दाणव m. Deserve अरिह . Devoid of wealth धणहीण adj.
निद्धण-adj. Difference अंतर n. विसेस m. Different विविह adj. Direction दिसा f. दिसाभाग m. Discharge पक्खिव ए. Dog साण m. Drink पिबV. पा. Dust रयn. .
Ear कण्ण m. Eat भक्ख v. Eight 317 Elder गुरु adj. जे? adj. Elephant गय m. हस्थि m. करि Eleven एयारह, एकारस . Enemy सत्त m. अरि m. Energy वीरिय n. Examine तिगिच्छ ५. परिक्ख v. Enjoy भुंज V. सेव ए. Experience अणुभव m. Explain वियागर ५. विवर ए.
Dance नच्च . Day दिवस m. दियह m. दिण m. Deal ववहर v.

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[Eye
Eye नयण n. चक्खु क.
Give birth पसूय . Go गच्छ ए. वच्च . God ईसर m. देव m. Golden सुवण्णमइय adj. Good deed सुकम्म n. Goodness सील n. सुसहाव m. Grasp गेण्ह v. जाण V. Greek जवण m. Green हरिय adj.
Fade किलाम v. Fall पड . Family कुल n. कुडुंब n. Fast सिग्धं adj. Father पिया m. जणय m. Fault दोसm. Flesh मंसn. Flower पुप्फ n. कुसुम n. Fly उड्डे .
• Fight जुज्झ n. Fire आग्गि m. जलणn. First पढम Fish Hos m. Five पंच Follow आयर. अणुसर . Food भक्ख m. अन्न n. Fool बाल m. मुक्ख m. . Foot पाय m. चलण m. Forest वणn. रण्ण n. कंतार n. Form रूवn. Forsake चय". जहा . Forty-five पणयालीस Free मुंच ७. Frighten बीह ".
Hand हत्थ m. कर m. पाणि m. Happiness सुह n. Head सिर n. सीस .. Heat उम्हा f. Heaven सग्ग m. सुरलोय m. . Help साहेज n. Hero वीर m. Hide निगृह v. Himself अप्पा m. सय adj. Honour पूय . सक्कार . Honourable अरहणिज्ज, पूयणिज
adj. Horse आस m. तुरंगम m. Household गिह n. गेह n. घर n. Householder गाहावइ m. सावग
m. Hundred सय Hungry छुहिय adj. Hunter वाह m. Hurt हिंस . हण v.
Garden Jollut n. Garland माला f. हार m. Get लह. Gift दाण n. Girl कन्ना . Give दे.
Inviolable अणुलंघणिज adj.

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Pen.]
ENGLISH ARDHA-MĀGADHI GLOSSARY
235
Jackal सियाल m.. Jewel रयण n. मणि m.
Kill हण . मार ७. King निव V. भूव m राया m. Kingdom रज n.. Know जाण . मुण ७. Knowledge नाणn.
Misdeed दुक्कय n. पावकम्म n. Misery दुक्ख n. Monk समण m. साहु m. अणगार
m. Monkey वाणर m. कइ m. Month मास m. Mother माया f. जणणी f. Motto वयण n. Move सर .
Nectar अमय n. Never न कया वि Nine नव Non-violence अहिंसा f. Northern उत्तरिल्ल adj.
Lament सोय V. विलव . Lamp दीव m. . Leader नेया m. Leaf पण्णn. पत्तn. Leave चय. जहा. Liberated सिद्ध adj. Liberation सिद्धि f. मोक्ख m. Light पलीव ... Lion सीह m. सिंह m. Live जिय . वस . . Living being पाण m. n. जीव
m. Long ate adj. Lost qure adj. Lump of gold gquuntaus m.
Obedience आणाकरत्तण n. Obey आणं पाल v. Obstacle विग्घ n. अंतराय m. Obtain पाव ५. पाउण v. Occasion पसंग m. समय m. Ocean सायर m. Omniscience केवलनाण n. Omniscient केवलनाणि m. One एग, एक्क. Order आणा. Outside बाहिं adv. बहिया adv.
Maid कमा. Man नर m. मणुस्स m. Many बहु adj. Meaning. अत्थ m.. . Merit पुण्ण n. गुण n. Meritorious पुण्ण adj. Mind मणn.चित्त n. Minister अमच्च m. मन्ति m.
Palace पासाय m. Parents अम्मापिउ m. Path मग्ग m. Peace संति. Penance तव m.

Page #249

236
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[Pen.
Penny काहावण m. कवडिया f. Rope रज्जुf. People जण m. लोग m. Run धाव. Perform कर . तव. Person जण m. मणुस्स m.
Salutation aÀI ind. Philosopher तत्तविउ m. Salute नम. Physician वेज m.
Same तं चिय Pious धम्मिग adj.
Say भण. भास . Pleasure भोग m.
School सालाf. Poet aanse m.
Scriptures आगम m. .. Poor man दरिद्द m. निद्धण m. See पास ५. पेह v. Possible He adj.
Self-control संजम m.. Power बल n.
Serpent सप्प m. सरीसव m. Powerful सूर adj. बलवं adj. Servant किंकर m. दास m. Practise आयर V.
Serve सेव . उवट्ठा. Praise थुण V. पसंस ए. Show दंस .. Preach आइक्ख ५. कह v. उवइस Sing गाय . .
Sink निब्बुड ए. Preceptor आयरिय m. Sky नह n.. Pride गव्व m.
Slowly सणियं adv. Principle तत्तn.
Son पुत्त m. सुय m. Produce विउव्व. उप्पाय. Song गीय n. गाहा. Punish दण्ड .
Speak वय . भास .बे. Pupil सीस m.
Stand चिट्ठ..
Steal चोर . Question पण्ह m. पसिण n. Stick लग्ग. दण्ड m. .
Stolen चोरिय p.p. Rain पाउस m.
Strength बल n. Relative नाइm. नियग m. Strong दढ adj. काढण adj. Religion धम्म m.
Student अंतेवासी m. सीस m. Respect सम्माण V.
Study पढ ५. सिक्ख V. आहिज v. Return पच्चागच्छ . पडिणियत्त . Suffer सह v. अहियास v. . Reward पाहुड n.
Sweet महुर adj. Rogue सढ m.
Sword असि m. खग m. .

Page #250

You.]
ENGLISH ARDHA-MĀGADHI GLOSSARY
237
Take गेण्ह . Teach सिक्खाव . Teacher आयरिय m. Temple देवउल n. आययण n. Ten दस Theatre नट्टसाला f. There तत्थ adv. Thicket गहण n. Thief चोर m. तक्कर m. तेण m. Think चिंत. Thinking वियार m. Thirsty पिवासिय adj. . Thirty तिस Thirty-six छत्तीस Thread सुत्त n. Throw खिव ए. Time वेला .समय m. Touch फंस. फास. Town नयर n. .. Travel पवस v. Tree रुक्ख m. पायव m. Truth सच्च n. Try जय . उजम ७. Twenty-four चउवीस Twenty-seven सत्तावीस
Valuable महग्ध adj. Vanquished पराइयp.p. Venerable भयवं Village गाम m.n. Virtue गुण m.n. Wait upon उवट्ठा ५. सेव ए. Want इच्छ. Warrior जोह m. खत्तिय m. Water जल n. Wealth धण n. संपयाf. Wealthy धणिय, धणवंत adj. Weapon. सत्थ n. Wicked & adj. Wicked man दुजण m. Wife भारिया f. भजा f. Wine Hot n. Wind वाउ m. अणिल m. Wise man बुह m. मेहावि m. Wish इच्छv. Without विणा Whole सव्व adj. समग्ग adj. Wood दारु n. कट्ठ n. Word सद्द m. World जय n. लोग m. Worldly life संसार m. Worship पूय . अच्च . Year वास m. वरिस n. Young तरुण adj. Younger afurgere adj.
Understand जाण .... Universe जय n.. Use उवओग m. .

Page #251

EXPLANATORY INDEX
The figures refer to sections.
Abhinihita (abhinidhāna: im
plosion, incomplete articula
tion) 50. Ab. Ablative. Ablative (pañcami) sing. forms
of 153; uses of 380 f. of starting point 380; of continuous action 380 ; of origin 381; of motive 381 ; of comparison 382; with verbs 383; w. nouns 384 ; w. adverbs and prepositions 385 ; identical with Ins. 386; place of 489; Ab. compound
509. Ablaut (vowel gradation : the
variation of vowel in different forms of the same words due to former accentual conditions) in Sk. 109. Cf. Guna, Vyddhi, Sampra-
sārana. Absolute use of Inst. 372; of
Genit. 393 ; of Loc. 402. Accent (svara : musical ac-
cent, pitch, intonation : variations in the pitch of the
voice by the increase or decrease of vibrations of the vocal cords; marked by 'on the vowel of the accented syllable). 11, 107, initial 109,23; penultimate 109; effects of 121 f. producing contraction 130; on the thematic vowel 123 ; shifting of 11,109; words with
out accent 139. A. Accusative. Accusative (dvitiyā) for Nom. 351; uses of 352 f. w. verbs of motion 353 ; double 354 ; cognate 355 ; of time and place 356 ; w. verbal nouns 357 ; producing adverbs 358; place of 486 ;
Acc. compound 509. Active (where the subject is
not interested in a personal
manner. Cf. paras maipada). Adjective (višeşana) agreement
of 193 ; Fem. 187; as past pass. part. 208; as present part. 229; Fém. in -ī 242;

Page #252

Ana.)
EXPLANATORY INDEX
239
in-ni 242 ; possessive 279,- person) 529; causes of its 280 ; of the value of poten- break 329; of subject and tial - part. 282 ; its origin predicate 330; of substan282; comparative and super- tive and adjective 337. lative degrees of 284; Alphabet (varnasamāmnāya) numeral 314 ; agreement of 6. 337 ; w. Inst. 370 ; w. Dat. ALSDORF L. (Apabhrarsa379; w. Gen. 389; w. Loc. studien. Leipzig 1937.) 173; 400; place of 482 ; forming 189; 235 ; 237. compound 507 ; as the first Alternance (phonetic changes member of a compound by which closely connected 511; as second member of a words, which formerly had comp. 511; as both mem- the same or practically the bers of a comp. 511 ; in a same sound, become more or comp. 514.
less differentiated in sound) Adverb (kriyāvišeşana) as pre
between long vowel and sent part. 228; numeral
anusvāra 127. 315; of place 319; of time
Alveolar (dantamülya : sound 320 ; of manner 321 ; origin
produced by contact of the of 322 ; suffixes of 322 ;
tongue with the teeth ridge from Acc. 358 ; from Inst.
called alveoli) 5; n becom386 ; from Dat. 376 ; w. Dat.
ing alveolar 32.
· AMg. Ardha-Māgadhi. 1 f. 379; from Abl. 386; from Gen. 394 ; from Loc.
Anunāsika (a nasal vowel or a 403 ; place of 495 ; as first
consonant) 6; pronunciation
of 7; in Masc. nouns 148; member of comp. 511; 514 ;
in Neut. nouns 216. as comp. 515 ; phonetic
Analogy (the similarity of change in 73.
meaning of two words proAffricative (a consonantal
ducing a corresponding simicombination of explosive
larity of sound) in nominal and homorganic fricative
forms 153; in classes of forming one sound unit ;
verbs 178; in declension Sk. c, j,) 5.
189; 200; 201 ; 216 ; in Agreement (sāmānādhikaran- pronouns 226; in forms of
ya': concord, congruence : present active part. 228; in the formal similarity bet- forms of imperative 235 ; in ween two words as regards second person pronoun 238 ; gender, number, case and doubling by 123.

Page #253

240
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(Ana.
Ardha-Māgadhi 1: language
1; name of i, canon in 2 ; preserving older aspects than
Sk. and Pāli 91. Atsa (=AMg.) 2. Article, substitute for 328;
origin of 328; in canonical
prose 328. Articulation, mode of (pra
yatna) 5; place of (sthāna) 5; change of place of 24 ; retroflex (prativestita : a sound articulated with the tip of the tongue turned up and back towards the palate)
31.
Analytical construction for
Acc. 359. Anaptyxis (svarabhakti : the
development of a sound as a glide between two other sounds) 65; 117; in passive
265; in gerund 249. Ant. Antagadadasão ed. Dr.
Vaidya. Antithesis (contrast between
two statements) 468. Anudātta (grave accent) 121. Anusvāra (after-sound'). 6;
pronunciation of 7; for nasal 66; replaced by parüsavarna 82; for a long vowel 127; in declension 148; analogically extended 154 ;
216 ; 226. Aorist (luń, adyatani : morpho
logically a theme which admits of only secondary inflections in the indicative and semantically originally expressing a perfective action like that of 'find ') forms of 204; 205 ; injunctive
forms of 235. Apabhramsa 41 ; forms of
verbs in 179; of nouns 188. Apposition (of the two sub
stantives in the same case the one which determines the other in some particular or explains it further) place
of 483 ; in comp. 514. Archaism (older formation) in
vocabulary 14.
Asoka, inscriptions of 42. Acol Aspect (Aktionsart : nature of
the action denoted) of the
verb 160. Aspirate (üşman: a sound
containing the sound [h] 5; 6; nasal 15; aspiration of initial consonants 22 ; loss of aspiration 23; of medial consonants 37 ; loss of 38; influence of 38; absence of 79; followed by 'nasal 87; by semi-vowel 91 ; by liquid
94 ; free nature of 30. Assimilation (The total or
partial conformation of one sound to another) 55; principle of 57 ; regressive 58; 64; 76; 83; 95 ; progressive 63 ; 67; violation of the rules of 97 ; of vowels 111 ; of -y- 249; 277.

Page #254

Cer.]
EXPLANATORY INDEX
241
Association causing change of
gender 185. Ašvaghosa 42. Asyndeton (coordination or
subordination without the
use of a particle) 464 ; 473. Athematic (verbal forms or
verbs without the thematic vowel which was originally e/o (Sk. -a); in Sk. all the conjugations except the 1st, 4th and 6th, all of which have a theme in -a) ending of imperative 237; conju-
gation 168. At manepada (medial : action
in which the subject is personally interested) forms of 161 ; in passive 161 ; of
aorist 204. Augment (the vowel -a (*ė)
placed before a verbal form to express the meaning of a
past action) 205. Aup. Aupapātikasūtra ed. Leu
mann. Austro-Asiatic languages 25. Av. Avestā. Avagraha 12. Avyayibhāva (adverbial)
comp. 515. Ay. Acātānga ed. Schubring.
186 ; of Mas. nouns 198; weak 294 ; of verbs 166 ; thematic 166; athematic 168 ; of future 218; special
base of future 222. Bhag. Bhagavatisūtra ( Vya
khyāprañjapti). Binding vowel (it) in past
passive part. 208: dropping of 217; 219; origin of 219;
in gerund 249. BLOCH J. (La formation de
la langue marathe 1920; Some Problems of Indo Aryan Philology 1925 L'indo-aryen du veda au temps modernes 1934.) 39 49; 101 ; 110: 116; 1217 123 ; 154 ; 173 ; 189 ; 2041
226 ; 235 ; 247. BRUGMANN K. (Kurze Vergles
chende Grammatik der Indogermanischen Sprachel
1904) 101. [s] = palatal fricative like che
in German Bücher : origing
al value of Sk. s. Case (vibhakti) loss of Dat.
147. Causal (nic, kārita) 177 : origin of 177 ; formation of 255; 256; forms of 257 ;
use of 438; 439. Cerebral (mūrdhanya) 6;
softened 31 ; aspirated 37; influence of 39; origin of
39; opened 41. Cerebralisation (change to a
cerebral sound) spontaneous
Back vowel 5. Bahuvrihi (possessive) comp.
514. Bases of nouns, strong, weak,
extended 151 ;. of Neuter nouns 175; of Fem. nouns

Page #255

242
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
(Cla.
Construction (prayoga) act
ive and passive 210; active
replacing passive 336. Contamination (mixing of two
forms) of verbal forms 204 ; in pronominal forms 226; in forms of potential
247 ; of words 38. Co-ordination 464 f. with
demonstrative pronoun 465; by particle 466.
24; 38: 32; dependent 39; in past passive part. 39; 72 ; due to -7- 74 ; of groups
96 ; in Rgveda 74. Clause, place of additional 500. Commentaries, on Jain canon
1; on Pali canon 1. Compound (samāsa) words
152; 501 f. copulative, determinative possessive, adverbial 502; of quarters 514 : with adi etc. 514. Comparison with Inst. 372;
with Abl. 382. Conditional (lrn, kriyātipatti,
samketa) 444. Conjugation (tiganta) 162;
derivative 163; change of
167. Conjunct (samyoga) of
three consonants 86; 98; initial 99; simplification of
118. Conjunctions 325. Consonant (vyañjana, hal)
5; 6; pronunciation of conjunct 7; changes of 16; ini. tial (ādya), medial (madhyama), final (antya) 17; changes of initial con. 18; 19; 20; 21; initial con. of a compound 26; medial 28 f. preserved 29; becoming -h30; voiced 42; final 50 f. conjunct 54 f. doubling of 56; effect of a neighbouring con. 112; to avoid Sandhi 144.
D. Dative. Danda 12. Das, Dasavaikālikasūtra ed.
Abhyankar. Dative (caturthi) forms of
153 ; uses of 373 f. of advantage 374 ; of purpose 375; adverbial 376 ; predicative 378; with nouns 379; place of 488; Dat.
Compound 509. Declension (subanta : the
system of modification of noun, adjective or pronoun to express syntactical relations) of Mas. nouns in a 154 ; of Neuter nouns in -a 174 ; of Feminine nouns 184 : origin of Fem. 189; Ms. Neu. in -i, -u 197 ; its origin 201 ; Neu. in -i, -u 215 ; its origin 216 ; Fem. in -i, -u 232; Fem. in -i, -ū 241 ; consonantal 287 ; of ? 288; of Fem. in ? 291 ; of -1 292 ; 293 ; of -t

Page #256

Fin.]
EXPLANATORY INDEX
243
Dissyllabic (having two syl
lables) 166. Dravidian languages, influence
of 38; of D. origin 43;
borrowal from 49. Dvandva (copulative) comp.
503 f. itaretara 504 ; sama
hāra 505 ; of adjectives 506. Dvigu comp. 512. Idzl a affricate sound like Marathi j before back
vowels. [dz] affricate sound like Sk. j. [ə] a neutral vowel like Eng:lish above.
294 ; remnants of conso-
nantal decl. 295. Denominative (prat yayadhātu,
nāmadhātu) 177 ; 282; for-
mation of 301. Dental (dant ya : sound pro-
duced by the tongue articulating by approaching or touching the upper teeth) 5: 6 : becoming palatal 24; becoming cerebral 24 ; aspirated 37; not cerebralised 40; opened 41; sound of
-7- 44. Derivatives, primary (kịt,
from the root directly) 152; 187 ; of Fem. nouns 234 ; secondary (taddhita : from a primary derivative)
152 ; nominal 279 f. Desiderative (san: expres
sing desire) forms of 302. Devoicing (losing voice) 166. Dialectal changes of -? 101. Diphthongs (sandhyakşara: a
combination of two vowel sounds to form one syllable) of Sk. 104; two-fold development of 105; 106: long
131. Direct narration 478. Disagreement (vyadhikarana)
in person 332 ; in number
331 ; in gender 335 ; 338. Dissimilation (process by
which two similar sounds are made dissimilar to each other) 25; 40; of vowels 111; of - - 256.
Epic, language 1; usage of
verb in 192. Enclitic (a word forming one
accentual unit with the
preceding word) 139. Erz. Ausgewählte Erzählungen
ed. Jacobi 1886. Etymology (dealing with the
origin. of words) popular 14 ; 123.
Factitive (expressing the idea
of causing) 177. Fem. Feminine (stri). Feminine nouns becoming Mas. 150; becoming Neu. 175 ; endings of 182 ; suffixes differing from Sk. 187 ; Fem. base of present part.
227. Final, protracted (pluti :
lengthening of a vowel

Page #257

244
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[Fri.
sound at the end of a word) 390 ; w. adverb 391 ; of 153 : in Sk. 50.
time 392; absolute use of Fricative (sound produced by 393 ; place of 490; place of
the friction of the air pas- G. absolute 491 ; Gen. comsing through a narrow pas- pound 509. sage of the speech organs) Germanic, initial accent in 5; labio-dental 34; un- 121. voiced 41 ; becoming stop Gerund (ktvā) formation of 47.
248 ; origin of 249 ; uses of Front vowel 5.
250 ; 453 ; 458. Future (līt, bhavisyanti) for
Glide (a transitional sound mation of 217 : base of produced by the vocal or218; second formation of
gans moving from the arti219; forms of 221 ; irregular
culation of one sound to formation of 222; use of
that of another in speech) 425-429.
85. [g] =[g] a palatal voiced
Grade full (form having the stop different from the usual
vowel of the accented sylpalatal series of Sanskrit.
lable) 166.
GRAY L. (Observations on G. Genitive.
Middle Indian Morphology. GEIGER W. (Pāli Literatur
Bulletin of the School of und Sprache 1916). 24 ; 73;
Oriental Studies 1936.) 109; 110; 154 ; 189; 204 ;
173 ; 189; 204 ; 247.
'. Greek sound of 2 20; peúthoGemination (dvih, dvirbhāva,
mai 23 ; stizo 23; dachina
badēs 30; 41; telikos 43. doubling of consonant) of -7- 89; of consonants 110;
GRIERSON G. (On the Modern 123; geminated -nn- 32.
Indo-Aryan Vernaculars) 44. Gender (linga) 145 ; in Pra- Gujarāti sound of -n- 32; 41. krit 145 ; change of 145: Guna in roots 256. 150; 175 ; 185 ; 198; 216 ; 234 ; of a compound 504 ; [h] voiced h sound as in Sk.
505. Generalisation of meaning 14. Haplology 125. Genitive (şaşthi) uses of Heteroclite (made of different
387 f. with verbs 388 ; w. declensional schemes) proadjectives 389; for Dative noun 299.
247.
ha.

Page #258

Joh.]
EXPLANATORY INDEX
245
Hc. Hemacandra.. Hemacandra (Prakrit Grammar Ed. Pischel) 2 ; on conjuncts 57 ; on -j. śruti 28;
on Apabhramsa 42. Hiatus (absence of Sandhi)
129.
209; uses of 360 f. sociative 360; of means 361 ; of agent 362 ; of reason 363 ; of mode of action 364 ; of time 365 ; of space 366 ; of characteristic 367 ; forming adverb 368 ; w. verbs 369; W. nouns 370; of prohibition 371 ; of comparison 372 ; absolute use of 372 ; place of 487 ; Inst. compound 509. Intensive (yan, carkarita : ex
pressing repeated action)
forms of 303, Interchange of -v- and -b- 34 ;
of liquids 44 ; in Sk. 44 ; of semivowels 45 ; between -mand -7- 47. Intervocalic (placed between
two vowels). Intransitive (akarmaka) 209;
[1] open -j- sound like Eng
lish pin, think. [i] phonetically identically
with (j). I. Instrumental. I-E. Indo-European
226; 256. I-I. Indo-Iranian. Imperative (form of order,
lot, pañcami, ajñā), formation of 235 ; conjugation
236; uses of 430-432. Imperfect (lan, hyastani, an
ad yatanabhūta, a present action transferred into past)
forms of 205. Impersonal (bhāve) 209. Indicative (expressing a fact)
as imperative 237. Infinitive (tuman : a form of
the verbal noun felt as in- dependent of the verb) termination of used for Gerund 249; formation of 258; Vedic 259; use of
260 ; 459-462. Infix 4. . . Inflection 4. Instrumental (tytiyā) plural
as Loc. 188 ; of the subject
Iranian, atati 38; š. sound
39; 41; liquids in 44 ;
treatment of conjuncts in • 55 ; -T- sound in 100. Iterative (a verbal form ex
pressing repeated action).
lil the sound of y in English
yes, Sk. -y-, German ja. JACOBI H. (Introductions to
the editions of Bhavisattakaha and Sanamkumāracariu) 247 ; 121, 135; 131 ;
23. JOHANSSON 20.

Page #259

246
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[Jai.
Jain Canon 1; Jain Māhā-
rāştri 2; Mass. 28; scribes
32. JAIN B. (Phonology
Punjabi 1934.) 32.
[k] = [îl unvoiced palatal
stop differing from Sk. c. Kap. Kalpasūtra ed. Schubr. ing. Karmadhāraya (appositional)
compound 511. Kum. Kumārapālapratibodha
ed. Jinavijaya.
nasal 85; by sibilant 93 ;
conjunct of 92. Locative (saptami) 147 ; sing.
in AMg. prose 149; sing. from Sk. 200; uses of 395 f. place of 396; for Acc. 396; partitive 397 ; w. verb 398; w. noun 399; for infinitive 399; w. adjective 400; of time 401 ; absolute use of 402; for Inst. 403 ; of place · 492; Loc. compound 509;
confused with adverb 115. Loss (lopa) of mute 30; of
final consonant 51 ; of one member of the conjunct 57 ;
of vowel 123. Low grade = weak grade.
L. Locative. Labial (oşthya; sound pro-
duced by the contact of the
lips) 5; 6; aspirated 37. Labio-dental (dantoşthya :
sound produced by the lower
lip and the upper teeth). LASSEN 235. Lateral sound (sound produced
by allowing the air to escape on one or both sides of the tongue with its tip in con
tact with the palate). Latin, accent in 121 ; syllabic
division in 118; ita 113. Lengthened grade (vyddhi: a
form showing vowel length - ened to compensate the loss
of a following vowel). Liquid (a lateral, rolled or a
trilled sound) (antastha) 6; followed by mute 74; by
Māgadhi language 2 ; nirutti 2. Māgadhism 25; 44. Māhārāştri works 32 ; special
features of 42. Marāthi sound of c 75; ryth
mic change in 107. Mārkandeya (Prākļtasarvas--
va) on -j. śruti 28. Mas. Masculine. Masculine (pums) nouns be
coming neuter 175; becoming Fem. 186; becoming Neuter 216 ; in i becoming
Fem. 234. Meaning (artha) changes of
14; differentiation in 77. Media (ghoşavat) võiced
stop 5. Medial (cf. Atmgnepada).

Page #260

Nou.]
.
EXPLANATORY INDEX
247
MEILLET A. . (Introduction à
l'étude comparative des langues indo-européennes 1924)
73. Metaphor (a word denoting a
thing which has a similarity with its primary meaning)
as a resonator) 5; vowels 5; sounds 6; opened 41 ; becoming anusvāra 52 ; followed by mutes 66; -n81 ; two nasals 82 ; followed by semivowels 84 ; by liquid
85.
14.
Metathesis (varnavipar yaya)
126. Metrical length (length of a
syllable due to a following
conjunct) 107. MIA. Middle Indo-Aryan languages.
. Mood (artha: a verbal form
to express the subjective inclination with reference to the action like desire, in- tention, possibility etc.) imperative 235-237; potential
243-247. Monosyllabic (having one syl-
lable) roots 166. Morphology (tūpasiddhi : sys-
tem of inflections) 3. Mute (sparśa : the same as a
stop. plosive consonant) opened 41 ; becoming liquid 43; groups of 58; with nasals 63; followed by semivowels 68 ; 69; by liquid 71 ; by sibilant 75.
Nasalisation (change into or
addition of a nasal sound) spontaneous 119; of final
vowels 127. Nay. Nāyādhammakahão Ed.
of Āgamodaya Samiti. Neu. Neuter. Neuter (napumsaka, kliba)
becoming Mas. 150; of the past passive part. 209;
compound 505 ; 515. Neutral vowel (= central
vowels formed by the mid
dle of the tongue) 5. NIA. New Indo-Aryan Langu: ages. Nir. Nirayāvaliyão Ed. Dr.
Vaidya. Nominative (prathamā) sing.
in AMg. prose 149; sing. of neuter nouns in -a 150; plu. of Mas. Neu. 150; of the object 209; of the subject 209; uses of 349 f. of predicate 350; of apposition 350; with iti 351 ; in enumeration 351; disjunct
ive use of 351. Noun (nāman) ending of Mas..
148; declension of 149; bases of 151 ; derivation of
.
Grohe
orphology
N. Nominative. Nasal. (anunāsika, nāsikya :
speech sound in whose production the nasal cavity acts
o

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248
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[Num.
Orthoepy 3.
.
152; endings of Neut. 173; possessive 280; abstract 281 ; ending in -? 288 ; of agency, of relationship 288; 289; older forms of 289 ; 290 ; in-n 292, 293 ; in-t 294 ; w. Inst. 370; w. Dat. 379 ; w. Abl. 384 ; w. Loc. 399; as both members of a a comp. 511 ; w. adj. form-
ing comp. 514. Number (vacana) 146 ; sing.
(ekav.) dual (dviv.) plu. (bahuv.) 146; agreement of 345 f. in comp. 512; as punctuation mark 12; confu- sion of 205.
.: Numeral (sankhyā) declension
of 306-308; enumeration of 309; ordinal 310; fractions 311 ; multiplicatives 312; distinctives 313; adjective 314 ; adverb 315; in comp. 316; agreement of 339.
Padimātrā (use of a stroke to
mark the vowels -- -ai--0
-au- before the letter) 8. Paiśāci language 42. Palatal (tālavya : sound pro
duced by the tongue against the hard palate) 5; 6; pronunciation of 7; becom
ing dental 24.. Palatalisation (change of a
sound into a palatal one)
70; 249. Pāli language 1; canon 1;
interchange of semi-vowels
in 45. Pāņini (Aştādhyāyi) 2; 28;
43; 101 ; 118; 127 ; 216 ;
149. Parasmaipada (cf. active) 161. Participle (kydanta) formation
of past passive (karmaņi bhūta) 206 use of 209; formation of present active (kartari vartamāna) 227; use of 229; present passive (karmaņi vartamāna) 278; use of 274 ; past active (kartari bhūta) 275 ; future part. 275; potential passive (krtya) 276 ; use of 278 ; uses of present part. 440444; of past part. 445-450 ; of potential part. 451-452 ;
place of 493. Particle (nipāta) w. Inst. 371 ;
distinctive 467; of causal
Object (karma) 209; 352;
logical 351; indirect 373;
place of 486. OIA. Old Indo-Aryan langu
ages. Opening of stop 41 ; of sibi
lant 41; in future 219. Optative (= Potential : but
expressing the aspect of
wish) 247. Orthography 3; of AMG. 8;
of -n- 32; in Sk. 73; for ! 43.

Page #262

Pro.]
relation 469; conclusive 470; negative (nan) 471; jahā 474; jāva 476; jai 477; place of 496; unaccented 498; as first member of comp. 511; 514; sa in comp. 514; iti as punctuation 12.
Passive (karmani) formation of 263; irregular bases of 264; forms of 266; use of 267.
EXPLANATORY INDEX
Past (bhuta) formation of 203; origin of 204; uses of 421; to express prohibition 423. Pau. Paumacariya ed. Jacobi. Perfect (lit, parokṣā) forms of 205.
Person (puruşa) first (uttama) second (madhyama) third (prathama) 162; confusion of 205.
Phonology (varnavicāra) 3. Phrase (vākya) 463 f. PISCHEL R. (Grammatik der Prakrit-Sprachen 1900) 20; 46 57; 70; 73; 75; 77; 97: 102 107 110; 120; 121: 150 154; 189; 204; 226; 235 246 247 248 279. ;
Pk. Prakrit.
Plosion lost (28).
Plu. plural.
Plural (bahuvacana) base 151; meaning of 162; for sing. 237. Popular language 179; 188; suffixes of 279.
249
Potential (lin, saptami, vidhi: expressing capacity) formation of 244; forms of 245: mixed with imperative 245; origin of 247; participle of 276; uses of 433-437. Prakrit 1; 2; words differing from Sk. 113. Predicate
(vidheya) agree
ment of 330; in Dat. 378; place of 481.
Prefix (upasarga) 4; place of 497. Preposition (karmapravacaniya) 323; w. Acc. etc. 323; w. verbs (upasarga) 324. Pre-Sanskrit 173; sounds 48. Present (laf, bhavanti, varta
mānā) conjugation of 165; 178; 190; 191; origin of forms of 169; of as- 170; uses of 416 f. of general truth 417 for future 418; for past 419.
Preverb (prepositions • with the verb) 249. Proclitic (word losing losing its
accent and becoming own unit with the following word) 27.
Pronoun (sarvanäman) declension of personal 225; 238; demonstrative (darsaka) 253; interrogative (praśnārthaka) 268; other 268 uses of 261-270; indefinite 269; demonstrative 298 299 300; agreement
used

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250
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI
[Pro.
of, 341; use of personal 404-405; of demonstrative 406-413; of relative (sambandhi) 414 ; of interrogative 415 ; place of 484 ; relat
ive in comp. 514. Pronunciation (uccāra) 7; of
-V-34 ; of palatal 64 ; of Pk.
-cch- 75; of - y- 35. Prothesis (ādisvarāgama) 120 ;
prothetic s 23. PRZYLUSKI 25. Punctuation 12. Tal a velar sound like English
come.
tion 168 ; dissyllabic 168 : of V conjugation 168 ; of VII, VIII, IX, conjugation 168 ; of X conjugation 177 ; athematic 192 ; III conj. 192 ; of
IX conj. 192 : nouns 242. Rounded Vowels 5. Rv. Rgveda. Ry. Rāyapasenijja...
Quantity 10; syllabic 55.
.
Sl chuintant : English sound
of ship; French ch. [š] phonetically identical with
IS). Sag. Sagarasu yakahānaya Ed.
Ficke. Samprasarana 128 ; 249. Sandhi 129 f. vowel 130; in Sk.
131 ; history of 131 ; of simi·lar vowels 132 ; of conso
nants 142 f. extension of -min 144; Sandhi-consonant
144. Sanskrit, epic, classical, Vedic
Ir sonant sound of 1. (the
same sign with n, l, m). [or] r preceded by a reduced
vowel. . Reduplication (ābhyāsa : repe
tition of a syllable or word)
of roots 163; 166 ; 168. RENOU L. (Grammaire Sans-
crite 1930) 282. Rg. Prāt. Rgveda Prātiśākhya. Rhythm as cause of lengthening
108; change due to 189;
shortening due to 256. Root (@khyata, dhātu) classes
of 163; of I conjugation 166 ; monosyllabic 166; of VI conjugation 166, 167 ; with nasal 167 ; with -sko- 167; of IV conjugation 167 ; dis- syllabic 167 ; of III conjuga-
Sanskrit survivals in Loc. sing.
200 ; in past passive part. 207 ; in potential 246 ; in precative 246 ; in demonstrative pronoun 254 ; in causal 256 ; in comparative and superlative 284 ; in consonantal declension 289; 290 ; 292 ; 294; in Sandhi 140 ; 141 ;
written Sandhi in Veda 129. Sauraseni 42. SCHUBRING (Die Lehre der
Jainas 1935) 237.

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Syl.)
EXPLANATORY INDEX
251
Semi-vowel (antastha) 5; 6; Stop (sparsa : sound produced
34 ; origin of 67 ; conjunct of by a closure of the speech
88 ; followed by liquid 87. organs and characterised by a Sentence (vākya) 3.
complete break in the air Sibilant (üşman: a hissing current) 5.
sound) 6 ; history of 19; be- Stress (marked by ! on the coming affricate 20; influ- vowel of the stressed syllaence of 38 ; followed by mute ble in 11) accent 109. 78; cerebralises dental 78; Strong bases of the suffixes 280. followed by nasal 86; by Subject (kart?) agreement of
semi-vowel 89; by liquid 93. 330; number of 330; place Sikşās 34 ; 35.
of 480. Sing. Singular.
Subordination 473 f. place of Singular (ekavacana) as plu- clause 499.
ral 237 ; 245 ; comp. 505;. Subjunctive 247. 515.
Substantive agreement of 327; Sk. Sanskrit.
more than one 339. -sko a theme-building suffix Suffix (prat yaya) 4; forming
called incohative or inceptive. nouns 152 ; of Fem. nouns Sm. Samarāiccakahã ed. Jar 187 ; of Mas. 199; -ta 208; cobi.
-ita 208; -na 208; -7 227 ; SMITH H. 204 ; 24; 41.
-anta 228 ; -māņa 228 ; -āņa Sn. Suttanipāta.
228; -iņa 228 ; of gerund 249; Softening of tenues 28 ; pf con
of causal 256 ; of passive 265; sonants 29; 42; of cerebrals
of part. 277 ; 280; -ima 282 ;
ira 283'; -ka 283 ; of adverbs 31.
822 ; -tha 38. Sonant (ghoşavat : a sound
Sur. Surasundaricariya ed. characterised by the pre
Rājavijaya. sence of voice) with sonant
Surd (aghoşa) with a surd 59;. 62; 100; -7- 106 ; preserva
with aspirate 69. tion of 29.
Sut. Sūtrakṛtānga ed. Dr. VaiSounds 5; voiced, unvoiced 5; dya. origin of ks 77.
Svarabhakti 117; in Veda and Specialisation of meaning 14. Classical Sk. 117. Sporadic change (change OC- Syllable 5; 6; short and long
curring in a few stray words 107; open 110 ; syllabic quanin a language) 49.
tity 118; preservation of syllaStem (prātipadika) 4.
bic value 107 ; long syllable
29
the Pet
Surd (aghe rate 69., Dr. Val

Page #265

252
INTRODUCTION TO ARDHA-MĀGADHI.
(Syl
in verb 178; -aya- preserved 178; weakened 179; heavy by
position (marked X) 131. Syllabication, rules of 9; of
mute and semi-vowel 73; of liquid and mute 74 ; of sibi lant and mute 79; of mute
and sibilant 118. Syncope (varnalopa) 124. Syntax (kāraka) 3.
(U) open -u- sound as in Eng
l ish foot. U. Uttarādhyayana ed. Char
pentier. .. Udātta (accute) 121. Unrounded vowel 5. Upa. Upāsakadaśāḥ ed. Dr. Vai
dya. Upapada compound 513.
Tait. Prāt. Taittiriya Prātiśā-
khya. Tatpuruşa (determinative)
comp. 508 ; aluk 510; nañ 511. Terminations prat yaya) from Mas. -Q148; of present 164; of Fem. (striprat yaya) 183: of Mas. -;, -u 196 : of future 217; 219 ; of imperative 235;
of potential 243. Tenses (kāla) 160. Tenuis (aghoşá: a voiceless stop) aspiration of 23; be.
coming media 28. Theme (base). Thematic suffix 163; 167. Thematisation (change of an
athematic stem into a thema. tic one by the addition of suffixes) of verbs 166 : 168 ;
of nouns 53; in Sk. 53. Transference of meaning 14. Transitive verb (sakarmaka)
209; 352. [ts] sound of Marāthi c before
a back vowel. TURNER R. L. 167.
[v] voiced labio-dental frica
tive. . V. Vocative. . Vaj Vajjālagga ed. Laber. VARMA S. (Critical Studies in
the Phonetic Observations of Indian Grammarians 1929)
76; 79. . Vas. Vasudevahindi. Vedic, Neu. plu. 173 ; forms of
pronoun 226; forms of injunctive aorist 235; tuvam 238; suffix -tvana 281 ; dialect showing -T- 44 ; itthā 73 ; in
finitive 259. Velar (kanthya : sound pro
duced by the tongue against the velum or soft palate) 5; 6; aspirated 37. Verbal derivative in comp. 513 ;
image 4. Verb (ākhyāta, dhātu) w. Inst.
307 ; w. Dat. 377 ; w. Abl. 382 ; w. Gen. 388; w. Loc.
398 ; place of 484. Vip. Vipākasutra ed. Dr. Vai
dya. Visarga 95 ; 114. Vocabulary 3, of AMg. 13.

Page #266

EXPLANATORY INDEX
253
Vocative (sambuddhi) 147 ;
forms of 153 ; place of 485 ;
lengthening in 108. Vowel (svara, ac) short (hras
va) long (dirgha) 5; 6; pronunciation of 7; changes of 16; udvịtta 28 ; shortening of 107 ; lengthening of 108; weakening of 109; strengthening of 110 ; effects of neigh
bouring 111. Viddhi 110. V-śruti 8; 46.
Weakening of verbal forms 179;
in noun forms 153 ; 188 ; of
final 200. Weak grade of verbs (form con
taining the vowel without ac
cent) 208; in passive 265. Word-order 3 ; 479 f. Word (sabda, pada) tatsama
13; tadbhava 13; deśī 13; imitative 14 ; new formation of 14.
Y-śruti 8; 28; 35.
WACKERNAGEL Grammatik) 101.
(Altindische 23; 40; 43;
[z] voiced sibilant like English
rose. [žphonetically [2] as in Eng.
lish pleasure.

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