Critical Analysis of Jain Architecture in Bihar Region and its Influence on Regional Architecture

Author(s): Ravish Kumar
Publisher: Department of Architecture National Institute of Technology Patna
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/034443/1

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Critical Analysis of Jain Architecture in Bihar Region and its Influence on Regional Architecture By Ravish Kumar (Roll No. 095AR03) submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Under the Supervision of Prof. (Dr.) Fulena Rajak (Supervisor) Professor Department of Architecture NIT Patna And Dr. B. K. Das (Co-Supervisor) Assistant Professor Department of Architecture NIT Patna NIT PATNA TUTE OF DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA PATNA 800 005, BIHAR August 2018

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CERTIFICATE This is to certify Mr. Ravish Kumar, Roll No. - 095AR03, Enrollment No. -92244 is a registered student for Ph.D. Program under Department of Architecture of National Institute of Technology Patna. The undersign certify that he/she has completed all other requirements for submission of the thesis and hereby recommended for the acceptance of a thesis entitled, in the partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Ph.D. Degree by National Institute of Technology Patna. Dr Fulena Rajak Professor, Department of Architecture National Institute of Technology Patna Patna- 800 005 Date: - Dr Bijay Kumar Das Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture National Institute of Technology Patna Patna- 800 005

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DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT I Ravish Kumar Roll No. - 095A RO3 Enrolment No.- 92244 a Registered student for Ph.D Programme under Department of Architecture of National Institute of Technology Patna, declare that, this is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other University Institute for a similar or any other Degree award. Date: - Signature of the student This thesis is a copy right material protected under the Berne Convention, the copy right at 1999 and other International and National enactments, in that behalf, or intellectual property. It may not be reproduced by any means, in full or in part, except for short extracts in fair dealing, for research or private study, critical scholarly review or discourser with an acknowledgment, without written permission of the Department on both the author and NIT Patna.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The cherished moment of this threshold of my life has come with long time perseverance and support of my family member, friends and lot of peoples who helped during this work and all through the journey towards my destination. My professors, colleagues and everyone have extended their possible assistance and guidance in accomplish my aim. Their support accrues obligation on my career in making. First of all, I wish to express my deep sense of gratitude and sincere thanks to my guides Dr. Fulena Rajak, Professor and Dr. Bijay Kumar Das Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, National Institute of Technology Patna, Bihar for their deep involvement, rational guidance, constructive criticism and moral encouragement throughout the period of study. I would like to take this opportunity to thank all faculty members of the department for their timely valuable suggestions, help and good wishes extended to me. My sincere thanks are due to staff of Patna University Library, Patna, IGNCA Library, New Delhi; ARCHIEVES Library, Patna and many others for providing with the information and required data. My thanks are due to the students of Department of Architecture for helping me at difficult times in Research work specially research scholars Mr. Rakesh Kumar and Mr. Naveen Nishant. My special thanks to my colleagues for constant moral support, and whose presence has been a catalyst in the process of completing this work. I wish there had been better word than thanks to express my gratitude and appreciation to the tremendous effort laid by my family to be a constant source of inspiration during my stumbling moments and in giving a final shape to this work. Moreover, with deep sense of respect, I would like to thank my parents who have always stood behind me in my endeavors. I also would like to thank my dearest wife Kirti and son Himank, who had given me spirit to finish this work. Date: - (RAVISH KUMAR

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DEDICATED TO MY MOTHER AND FATHER

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ABSTRACT Each style of Architecture mirrors an essential rule that represents a specific culture and time. In this setting the Indian Jain temple architecture are not just the house of Tirthankar idol and place of worship, they are additionally the depository of information, craftsmanship, architecture and culture. The practices and customs of temples exist in history as well as in present time impact. The socio-cultural existence of its kins offers congruity to conventional religious and cultural qualities. The advancement of Jain architecture is set apart by its strict adherence to the first ancient models that were gotten from religious thought and that proceeded over numerous centuries. The Jain religion and its logic incredibly affected Jain temple Architecture in its developmental procedure which proceeds till this date. Hence this exposition through authentic research and other narrative, literary works and hypothetical examination on ancient treatise and current research works on the Jain temple Architecture of India draws out the ideas that have been received since ancient circumstances for the construction of the holy Jain caves and temples, the science associated with the construction of the temple structure and the procedures required alongside the expertise it took to build such buildings. India has given with the gifts of the different religious beliefs. Jainism is one of them, Jain Tirthankars religious ministers spread the message of peace, peacefulness, love and edification everywhere throughout the world. The center of this awesome religion and its proclaiming is clear in its temples, in the concentrated shaped and in the various outlined remains. The commitment of Jain workmanship to the standard craftsmanship in India has been extensive. Each period of Indian workmanship is represented by a Jain form and every single one of them is deserving of careful study and comprehension. The considerable Jain Architecture and formed landmarks of Bihar region like Khandgiri, Udaygiri, Sammed Shikhar, Koluha, Patna, Ara, Bhagalpur, Jammui, Rajgir, Nawada, and Nalanda are world iii

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eminent. The most awesome of every Jain temple are found in Bihar Region. In India, Bihar has a portion of the essential examples of Jain Artchitecture. Jain architecture can't be certified with its very own style, for in any case it was just about a branch of the Hindu and the Buddhist styles. In the underlying years, numerous Jain temples were made abutting the Buddhist temples following the Buddhist rock-cut style. At first these temples were basically cut out of rock faces and the utilization of blocks were relatively insignificant. In any case, in later years Jains began building temple-urban communities on slopes in view of the idea of mountains of interminability. Contrasted with the quantity of Hindu temples in India, Jain temples are few and dispersed out. The Jain used to separate their more prepared and harmed sanctuaries and made new ones of every comparable place. Then again Jain temples had a specific aggressor air around them, likely as a result of looters who may have diverted wealth. Encompassed by troubled dividers, the Jain temples are partitioned into wards in a way like sustained urban communities with parapets and specialties to repulse equipped animosity. Each ward thusly was watched by monstrous bastions at its closures, with an invigorated portal as the principle entrance. The reason being that Jain temples are the most extravagant temples in the world, outperforming even Mughal buildings as far as loftiness and material richness. Together these viewpoints draw out the workmanship, science and theory behind the construction of the Jain temple which is as significant today as it used to be in the ancient circumstances. A congruity of custom and a science which has its root in the beginning of human consciousness. India has a profound established culture and human progress returning to 5000 years ever. India's ancient yet proceeding with human advancement has entranced and hypnotized the world. Exceptionally rich and differing culture has been a subject of study over the world. A voyage through popular Jain temples in Bihar, India was made to study the visual theory in architecture of temples and symbols of Jain groups. Amid the study a voyage through celebrated Jain journey puts in particular, Patna, Vaishali, Ara, Bhagalpur, Nalanada, Kundalpur, Rajgir, Nawada, Jharkhand and Orissa were gone by over the Bihar region of India. It has been watched that all the concentrated sacred spots are remarkable for their iv

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ancient history, architecture of icon and temple. The temples are of profound feeling of recommendation and the inside for peace and contemplation. The present work investigates, to some degree impressionistically, the geometrical, engineering, building material and construction examination of brilliant Jain caves of Orissa and Jain temples in Bihar and Jharkhand States. Over a traverse of this time and space, the author takes note of, a masterful development and development inside "a tolerating cultural stillness that can be best comprehended with a specific mythopoeic reference that goes past the negligible actualities of history." Using these temples as nodal focuses for a photographic and intelligent study, the author has presented the inconspicuous wonders and the imaginative subtleties of the gems like plan form, elevation form, interior layout and intricate carvings of the Jain temples through his delicate focal points and persuasive explanation.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Certificate Candidate's Declaration Acknowledgment Abstract List of Figures List of Tables List of Annexures Description of Plates S. No. Chapter -1 1. 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 Chapter -2 2. 2.1 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.2 2.3 2.3.1 2.4 2.5 Chapter-3 3. 3.1 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.2 3.3 33 Research background Introduction Chapter Present state of Research on Jain Architecture Review of the existing Literature Rationale of the Study Aim of the study Objectives of the study Research Questions Hypothesis Research Methodology Scope and limitation of the Study Overview of Thesis Jainism and its relevance to Architecture Origin of Jainism Jain Architecture Sects in Jainism Jain Cosmology Spread of Jainism with time Jain Architecture (3rd century B.C-17th century A D) Gods and cults Summary Indian major Religion, Timeline And Its Relevance To Architecture And Elements Hindu Architecture Beginning and Purpose Early Influences Relevance of Hindu Architecture Timeline of Hindu Architecture vi Page No 114567== 8 8 12 12 18 22 24 24 25 27 22222 28 28 29 29 31

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3.4 3.4.1 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.8.1 3.8.2 3.9 3.9.1 3.10 3.11 3.11.1 3.12 3.12.1 3.13 3.13.1 3.13.2 3.13.3 3.13.4 3.14 3.14.1 3.14.2 3.15 3.15.1 3.16 3.17 3.18 Chapter 4 Elements of Hindu Architecture Structural Components of Hindu Architecture Islamic Architecture Timeline of Islamic Architecture Relevance of Islamic Architecture Architectural elements of Islamic Architecture Architectural ornamentation Spiritual Foundations Buddhist Architecture The main branches of Buddhism Enlightenment of Buddha Buddhist Monasteries The four noble truths of Dharmas Elements of Buddhist Architecture Temple elements of the Buddhist Architecture Timeline of Buddhist Architecture Buddhist Monasteries in India The Historical Buddha The Buddha Shakyamuni Development of the Buddha image Sikh Architecture Timeline of Sikh Architecture Relevance of Sikh Architecture Jain Architecture Relevance of Jain Architecture Timeline of Jain Architecture Elements of Jain Religion Summary 102 102 4.1 104 4.2 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.3 4.4 4.4.1 4.4.1.1 4.4.1.2 4.5 4.5.1 The Jain Temple The Origin of Jain Temples Evolution of Architectural Style Jain Philosophy Tirthankars Jain Temples in India Jainism in Odisha Udaygiri and Khandgiri caves Caves of Udaygiri Caves of Khandgiri Jainism In Bihar Historical Background Jain Temples of Bihar Patna Sri Sudarshan Kamaldah Ji Temple, Gulzarbagh Sri Sthulbhadra Sadhana Sthal, Gulzarbagh Sri Kamaldah Sidhakshetra, Gulzarbagh 104 104 106 106 107 108 109 115 118 118 4.6 118 118 4.6.1 4.6.1.1 4.6.1.2 4.6.1.3 120 121 121 vii

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4.6.1.4 122 4.6.1.5 123 4.6.1.6 123 4.6.1.7 124 4.6.1.8 124 125 126 126 127 127 127 129 129 130 130 4.6.1.9 4.6.1.10 4.6.1.11 4.6.1.12 4.6.1.13 4.6.2 4.6.2.1 4.6.3 4.6.3.1 4.6.3.2 4.6.3.3 4.6.3.4 4.6.3.5 4.6.3.6 4.6.3.7 4.6.3.8 4.6.3.8.1 4.6.3.8.2 4.6.3.8.3 4.6.4 4.6.4.1 4.6.4.2 4.6.4.3 4.6.5 130 131 131 132 Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Gurara Temple, Haziganj, Patna City Sri Aadinath Digamber Jain Temple, Kalibibi ka Katra, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Kachauri Gali, Patna City Sri Parshavnath Swetamber Jain Temple, Bare ki Gali, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Panchayati Temple, Macharahatta, Patna City Sri Dadawari, Begampur, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Chaityalaya, Muradpur Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Mithapur Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Chaityalaya, Nalaroad, Patna Sri Suparshavnath Digamber Jain Temple, Naubatpur, Patna Vaishali Jain Temple at Bamapur Ara Sri 1008 Parshavnath Digamber Jain Temple Sri 1008 Thirthkar Shantinath Digamber Jain Tempe Sri Chandra Prabhu Digamber Jain Temple Sri Digamber Jain Chandraprabhu Chaityalaya Sri Digamber Jain Mahavir Swami Chaityalaya Sri Digamber Jain Prabhudas Temple Sri Parswanath Digamber Jain Temple, Masadh Bisram, Dhanupura, Ara Sri Jain Bala Temple and Manasthambha, Bisram Sri Adinath Digamber Jain Temple, Dhanupura Sri Mahavir Swami Digamber Jain Temple, Dhanupura Jammui Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kshatriyakund, Lachhuar Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Lachhuar Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kakan Bhagalpur Sri Champapur Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Bada Mandir, Nathnagar Sri Vasupujya Swami Jain Temple, Nathnagar Sri Vasupujya Swami Swetamber Jain Temple, Champanagar Banka Sri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Moksha Kalyanak Temple Sri Digamber Jain Temple Sri Vasupoojya Swami Jinalaya Nalanda Jal mandir, Pawapuri Samosaran Temple, Pawapuri Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Pawapuri Sri Kundalpur Digamber Jain Atishaya kshetra 132 133 133 133 134 134 134 135 136 136 4.6.5.1 136 138 138 138 138 139 4.6.5.2 4.6.5.3 4.6.6 4.6.6.1 4.6.6.2 4.6.6.3 4.6.7 4.6.7.1 4.6.7.2 4.6.7.3 4.6.7.4 139 140 140 140 141 141 viii

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4.6.7.5 143 144 145 145 146 Sri Digambar Jain Tirtha Kshetra Prachin Mandir Kundalpur (Kalyanak Kshetra) Rajgir Samosaran Temple, Bipulachal Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Ratnagiri Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Ratnagiri Udayagiri Sri Digamber Jain Temple , Udaygiri Sri Swetamber Jain Sanwaliya Parshavnath Temple, Udaygiri Sri Parshavnath Swetamber Jain Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri Sri Dhanna Shalibhadra Swetamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Sri Mahavirswami Swetamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Sri Munisuvaratswami Mukhya Jinalaya ,Vaibhargiri Sri Gautamswami Nirwan Temple , Vaibhargiri Sri 1008 Mahavir Swami Jinalaya Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Nawada Sri Digamber Jain Sidha Kshsetra, Gunawaji Jainism in Jharkhand Sri Rijubalika Tirtha, Barakar Sri Parshvnath Digamber Jain Temple, Palganj Sri Digamber jain Temple, Isari Bazar, Jharkhand Sri Parshavnath Digamber Jain Temple, Kolhua Mountain Sammed Shikhar, Madhuban, Parashnath 4.6.8 4.6.8.1 4.6.8.2 4.6.8.3 4.6.8.4 4.6.8.5 4.6.8.6 4.6.8.7 4.6.8.8 4.6.8.9 4.6.8.10 4.6.8.11 4.6.8.12 4.6.8.13 4.6.8.14 4.6.9 4.6.9.1 4.7 4.7.1 4.7.2 4.7.3 4.7.4 4.7.5 Chapter-5 146 147 147 147 148 148 149 149 149 150 150 151 151 152 152 154 154 155 155 162 5.1 5.2 162 5.3 167 Geometry of Jain Temple Introduction Cosmology and Jain temples The Ritual Instrument The Concept The layout of Jain Temple The Plan Auxiliary components The pillared hall or the Mandapa The divider The Superstructure or Sikhara The supporting elements The structural system Trebeated system Corbelling System Conclusion 167 168 169 171 172 5.3.1 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 5.5 5.5.1 5.5.2 5.6 Chapter - 6 172 172 173 174 174 176 176 6.1 Dimensional Analysis Introduction Elements of Jain caves 177 177 6.2

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177 183 188 189 190 191 6.2.1 6.2.2 6.3 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 6.3.7 6.3.8 6.4 192 193 194 194 195 195 Udaygiri Caves Khandgiri Caves Elements of Jain Temples of Bihar Region Orientation of Mula Nayak Garbhgriha Plan Form Overall Plan Form Carving Detail Detail of Vedi of Tirthankar Element / Motif of Elevational form Elevational form of Temple Principal Building Material and Finish Dimensional Analysis Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the height of Jain Temples in Bihar region Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the area of Jain Temples in Bihar region Relation and comparison between the height and ground coverage of Jain Temples in Bihar region Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the percentage of wall area of Jain Temples in Bihar region Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the length width ratio of Jain Temples in Bihar region Relation and comparison between the time of construction and Height to length ratio of the Jain Temples in Bihar region Conclusion 6.4.1 196 6.4.2 197 6.4.3 198 6.4.4 198 6.4.5 199 6.4.6 200 6.5 200 Chapter - 7 201 201 203 203 203 7.1 7.2 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 7.2.7 7.2.8 7.2.9 Influence of Jain Architecture on Traditional Architecture in Bihar region Introduction Influences on Arts and Architecture Architecture Stupas Cave Temples Temples Temperate urban areas Manastambha Model Update of sculpture Painting Trend of Jain Architecture on upcoming religious buildings in Bihar region Conclusion 204 204 205 205 206 206 207 7.2 207 208 7.3 Chapter - 8 8.1 8.2 210 Inference Scope of future research References 215 216

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Annexure 225 Annexure-I Annexure-II Annexure-III 227 229 Annexure-IV Annexure-V Udayagiri caves Khandagiri caves Date of construction of the various temples, Sect, Orientation of Mula Nayak and Plan form Dimensional Analysis (All Dimensions are in meters) Vedi of Tirthankar, Superstructure of temple, Element/motif, Type of Carving, Elevational form of Temple and Principal Building material and finish Inventory for Jain Religion Cave / Temple under study in Bihar Region 233 238 Annexure-VI 251 Page No. Annexure-VII Glossary List of Figures Figure No. Description Figure: 1.1 Research Methodology (Qualitative Bottom up approach) Figure: 1.2 Research Methodology (Quantitative analysis) Figure: 2.1 Spread of Jainism from 500 BC to present date Figure: 2.2 Lord Parshavanath Statue Figure: 2.3 Jainism: Major Sects and Sub-sects Figure: 3.1 Durga Temple, Aihole Figure: 3.2 Gorpuram and Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram Figure: 3.3 Brihadishvara Temple, Tanjavur Figure: 3.4 Principal Plan and Cross Section of a Hindu Temple (Malikarjuna Temple in Aihole, 8th century) Figure: 3.5 Unfinished rock-carved temples Figure: 3.6 Plan of the Gondeshvara Temple in Sinnar, in the Panchayatana form Figure: 3.7 Vishvanatha Temple of the Northern type, Khajuraho Figure: 3.8 A Himalayan wooden Temple at Sungra Figure: 3.9 Lorojonggrang Temple at Prambanan, Java Figure: 3.10 Various features of the north Indian temple Figure: 3.11 The sacred site showing the different elements of the temple of southern India Figure: 3.12 Base-Moulding features of the North Indian Temple Figure: 3.13 Base Moulding features of the South Indian Temple Figure: 3.14 The cushion type of column

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Figure: 3.15 The Ghatapallava type of column Figure: 3.16 The different parts of the columns Figure: 3.17 The Phamsana type of Sikhara Figure: 3.18 The Latina type of Sikhara Figure: 3.19 The Sekhari type of Sikhara Figure: 3.20 Sikhara of the south Indian temples The north Indian temple Mandapa form The north Indian temples Mandapa Islamic basic Architectural Components Figure: 3.21 Figure: 3.22 Figure: 3.23 Figure: 3.24 The Eight Great Places of Buddhism (Four Great Places are plotted in red) The Stupa Sanchi, India Architectural element showing the Buddha's first sermon The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves Location of Udaygiri and Khandagiri Caves Location of Jain temples in Bihar Memorial of Lord Mahavir Proposed model of new temple in Nagara Style View of ongoing construction of temple at Vaishali, Basokund Main Temple Sri Kundalpur Digmaber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Birth place Sri Mahavir, 24th Tirthankar Figure: 3.25 Figure: 3.26 Figure: 4.1 Figure: 4.2 Figure: 4.3 Figure: 4.4 Figure: 4.5 Figure: 4.6 Figure: 4.7 Figure: 4.8 Figure: 4.9 Figure: 4.10 Figure: 4.11 Figure: 4.12 Figure: 5.1 Figure: 5.2 Figure: 5.3 Figure: 5.4 Figure: 5.5 Figure: 5.6 Figure: 5.7 Manastambh, Sri Kundalpur Digmaber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Samosaran Temple, Bipulachal Remains of old temples preserved at Udaygiri hill, Rajgir Location of Jain temples in Jharkhand Jain Tirtha, Shravanabelagola Large-scale representation of a samosaran at Pavapuri in Bihar, Chatumukha Style Plan (Type-1) Chatumukha Style Plan (Type-II) Internal ceilings of the Jain temple with Trabeated System The pillars and the beams of the Jain temple Rotating and diminishing squares and circles in internal ceiling circles xii 54 55 56 56 56 57 58 59 60 71 73 84 109 109 119 128 128 128 142 142 143 145 146 153 163 165 170 171 174 175 175

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175 176 178 178 179 180 180 185 186 Figure: 5.8 Intricately carved rotating and diminishing squares and circles inside internal ceilings Figure: 5.9 Rotating and diminishing squares and circles inside internal ceilings with idols Figure: 6.1 Number of floors in Udaygiri Caves Figure: 6.2 Plan form in Udaygiri Caves Figure: 6.3 Number of cell in Udaygiri Caves Figure: 6.4 Area of single cave in Udaygiri Caves Figure: 6.5 Total area of each cave in Udaygiri Caves Figure: 6.6 Type of roof in Udaygiri Caves Figure: 6.7 Ceiling Hight in Udaygiri Caves Figure: 6.8 Internal / External features Figure: 6.9 Number of floors in Khandgiri Caves Figure: 6.10 Plan form in Khandgiri Caves Figure: 6.11 Number of cell in Khandgiri Caves Figure: 6.12 Area of single cave in Khandgiri Caves Figure: 6.13 Total area of each cave in Khandgiri Caves Figure: 6.14 Type of roof in Khandgiri Caves Figure: 6.15 Ceiling Height in Khandgiri Caves Figure: 6.16 Internal / External features Figure: 6.17 Distribution of temple among Digamber and Swetamber Figure: 6.18 Orientation of Mula Nayak Figure: 6.19 Orientation of Mula Nayak in Digamber Temple Figure: 6.20 Orientation of Mula Nayak in Swetamber Temple Figure: 6.21 Garbhagriha Plan form Figure: 6.22 Garbhagriha Plan form of Digamber Sect Figure: 6.23 Garbhagriha Plan form of Swetamber Sect Figure: 6.24 Overall Temple Plan form Figure: 6.25 Level of Carving Detail Figure: 6.26 Level of Carving Detail in Digamber Temples Figure: 6.27 Level of Carving Detail in Swetamber Temples Figure: 6.28 Vedi of Tirthankar Figure: 6.29 Element / Motif of Elevational form Figure: 6.30 Elevational Form of Temples 186 187 188 188 189 189 189 190 190 191 191 192 192 193 193 194 194 xiii

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195 196 197 198 198 Figure: 6.31 Principal Building Material and Finish Figure: 6.32 Graph 1- Time and Height graph of Jain temples of Bihar region Figure: 6.33 Graph 2- Time and Height graph of Jain temples of Bihar region Figure: 6.34 Graph 3- Height and Ground Coverage graph of Jain temples of Bihar region Figure: 6.35 Graph 4- Time and Percentage of wall area graph of Jain temples of Bihar region Figure: 6.36 Graph 5- Time and length width ratio graph of Jain temples of Bihar region Figure: 6.37 Graph 6- Time and height to length ratio graph of Jain temples of Bihar region Figure: 7.1 Samosaran Temple Figure: 7.2 Jal Mandir at Pavapuri, Bihar 199 200 202 207 xiv

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Page No. List of Table Table No. Table: 2.1 Table: 3.1 Table: 3.2 Table: 3.3 Table: 3.4 Table: 3.5 Table: 8.1 Description Twenty four Tirthankar's Detail Time line of Hindu temple Architecture Time line of Islamic Architecture Time line of Buddhist Architecture Time line of Sikh Architecture Time line of Jain Architecture Comparison between Buddhist and Jain Caves 213 Description of Plates Plate No Plate: -I Plate: - II Plate: - III Plate: - III Plate: - III Plate: - III Plate: - IV Plate: - IV Plate: - IV Plate: - IV Plate: -V Plate: - V Plate: - V Plate: - V Plate: - VI Plate: - VII Plate: - VII Plate: - VII Plate: - VII Plate: - VIII Plate: - IX Plate: - IX Plate: - IX Plate: - IX Plate: - X Plate: - X Plate: - X Plate: - XI Plate: - XII Plate: - XIII Plate:- XIV Name of the Temple / Site Khandgiri -Udaygiri Caves Cave 1: Rani Gumpha Cave 2: Bajaghara Gumpha Cave 3: Chota Hathi Gumpha Cave 4: Alkapuri Gumpha Cave 5: Jaya-vijaya Cave 6: Panasa Gumpha Cave 7: Thakurani Gumpha Cave 8: Patalapuri Gumpha Cave 9: Mancapuri Gumpha Cave 10: Ganesa Gumpha Cave 11: Jambesvara Gumpha Cave 12: Singh Gumpha Cave 13: Sarpa Gumpha Cave 14: Hathi Gumph Cave 15: Dhanaghara Gumpha Cave 16: Haridasa Gumpha Cave 17: Jagannath Gumpha Cave 18: Rasui Gumpha Cave 1 and 2: Tatowa Gumpha Cave 3: Ananta Gumpha Cave 4: Tentuli Gumpha Cave 5: Khandagiri Gumpha Cave 6: Dhyan Gumpha Cave 7: Navamuni Gumpha Cave 8: Barabhuji Gumpha Cave 9: Trusula Gumpha Sri Sudarshan kamaldah ji temple, Gulzarbagh Sri Sthulibhadra shadhna, Gulzarbagh Sri kamaldah ji sidhakshetra guljarbagh Sri parshavnath Digamber Jain gurara temple hajiganj Patna city

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Plate:- XIV Plate:- XV Plate:- XVI Plate:- XVII Plate:- XVIII Plate:- XIX Plate:- XX Plate:- XXI Plate:- XXII Plate:- XXIII Plate:- XXIV Plate: - XXV Plate: - XXVI Plate:- XXVII Plate: - XXVIII Plate: - XXIX Plate: - XXX Plate: - XXXI Plate: - XXXII Plate: - XXXIII Plate: - XXXIV Plate: - XXXV Plate:- XXXVI Plate: - XXXVII Sri aadinath Digambe rJain Temple, Kalibibi ka katra Patnacity Sri Digamber Jain temple kachauri gali patna city Sri Parshavnath Swetamber Jain Temple, Bare ki Gali, Patna, city Sri Digamber Jain Panchayat Temple, Macharahatta, Patna, City Sri Dadawari, Begampur, Patna City Sri Digmaber Jain Chaityalaya, Muradpur Sri Digmaber Jain Temple, Mithapur Sri Parshavanath Digmabar Jain Chaityalaya, Nalaroad, Patna Sri Suparshavnath Digmaber Jain Temple, Naubatpur, Patna Bamapur temple vaishali Sri 1008 Parshavnath Digmabar Jain Temple, Ara Sri 1008 Thirthkar Shantinath Digmabar Jain Temple, Ara Sri Chandra Prabhu Digmabar Jain Temple Ara Sri Digmabar Jain Chandraprabhu Chaityalaya, Ara Sri Digmabar Jain Mahavir Swami Chaityalaya ,Ara Sri Digmabar Jain Prabhudas Temple Ara Sri Parswanath Digamber Jain temple Masadh Sri Jain Bala Temple Bisram Ara Sri Adi Nath Digamber Jain Temple, Dhanupura, Ara Sri Mahavir Swami Digamber Jain Temple, Dhanupur Ara Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Kshatriyakund, Lachhuar Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Lachhuar Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Kakkan Sri Champapur Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Bada Mandir, Nathnagar Bhagalpur Sri Vasupujya Swami Jain Temple, Nathnagar, Bhagalpur Sri Vasupujya Swami Swetamber Jain Temple, Champanagar Sri Digmabar Jain Siddha Kshetra Moksha Kalyanak Temple Banka Sri Digmabar Jain Temple Banka Sri Vasupoojya Swami Jinalaya, Banka Jal mandir, Pawapuri, Nalanda Jal mandir, Pawapuri, Nalanda Samosaran Temple, Pawapuri, Nalanda Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Pawapuri, Nalanda Sri Digamber Jain tirth kshetra prachin Mandir, kundalpur (kalyanak kshetra ) Nalanda Sri Digamber Jain tirth kshetra prachin Mandir, kundalpur (kalyanak kshetra ) Nalanda Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Ratnagiri, Rajgir Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Ratnagiri, Rajgir Sri Digamber Jain temple, udaygiri rajgir Sri Swetamber Jain sanwaliya parshavnath Temple, udaygiri Rajgir Sri Parshavnath Swetamber Jain jinalaya vaibhargiri, Rajgir Sri dhannashalibhadra Swetamber Jain Temple vaibhar, Rajgir Sri Digamber Jain Temple vaibhargiri, Rajgir Sri Mahavirswammi Swetamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Plate: - XXXVIII Plate: - XXXIX Plate: - XL Plate: - XLI Plate: - XLII Plate: - XLIII (A) Plate: - XLIII (B) Plate: - XLIV Plate: - XLV Plate: - XLVI (A) Plate: - XLVI (B) Plate: - XLVII Plate: - XLVIII Plate: - XLIX Plate: -L Plate: - LI Plate: - LII Plate: - LIII Plate: - LIV xvi

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Plate: -LV Plate: - LVI Plate: - LVII Plate: - LVIII Plate:- LIX (A) Plate:- LIX (B) Plate: - LX Plate: - LXI Plate: - LXII Plate: - LXIII Plate:- LXIV (A) Plate:- LXIV (B) Plate:- LXIV (C) Plate: - LXIV (C) Plate:- LXIV (C) Plate:- LXIV (C) Plate:- LXIV (D) Plate:- LXIV (D) Plate:- LXIV (D) Plate:- LXIV (D) Plate: - LXIV E) Plate: - LXIV E) Plate: - LXIV (E) Plate: - LXIV (E) Plate: - LXIV (F) Plate:- LXIV (G) Plate:- LXIV (G) Plate:- LXIV (G) Plate:- LXIV (G) Plate:- LXIV (H) Plate: - LXIV (1) Plate: - LXIV (I) Plate:- LXIV (I) Plate: - LXIV (I) Plate: - LXIV (J) Plate: - LXIV (J) Plate: - LXIV (J) Plate:- LXIV (J) Plate:- LXIV (K) Plate:- LXIV (K) Plate:- LXIV (K) Plate:- LXIV (L) Sri Munisuvaratswami mukhya jinalaya, Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Sri Gautamswami nirwan Temple, Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Sri 1008 mahavir swami jinalaya, Rajgir Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Rajgir Sri Digamber Jain siddha kshetra, gunawaji, nawada Sri Digamber Jain siddha kshetra, gunawaji, nawada Sri Rijubalika tirth, barakar, jharkhand Sri Parshwanath Digamber Jain Temple, Palganj, Giridh, Jharkhand Ishari bazar, parashnath, Jharkhand Sri parshavnath Digamber Jain Temple kolhua mountain, Jharkhand Samed Shikhar, Madhuban, Parashnath Gautam Swami Tunk Bhagawan Kunthunath Tunk Eternal Jina, Rusabhanan Tunk Eternal Jina Bhagawan Chandranan Tunk Bhagawan Neminath Tunk Bhagawan Arnath Tunk Bhagawan Mallinath Tunk Bhagawan Shreyansanath Tunk Bhagawan Suvidhinath Tunk Bhagawan Padmaprabhu Swami: Tunk Munisurvat Swami Tunk Bhagawan Risabhadev Tunk Bhagawan Anantanath Tunk Chandra prabha Swami Tunk Bhagawan Shitalnath Tunk Bhagawan Sambhavnath Tunk Bhagawan Vasupujya Swami Tunk Bhagawan Abhinandan Swami Tunk Jalmandir Ganadhar Subh Swami Tunk Bhagawan Dharmanath Tunk Varisen, the eternal Jina Tunk Vardhaman, the eternal Jina Tunk Bhagawan Sumatinath Tunk Bhagawan Shantinath Tunk Bhagawan Mahavir Swami Tunk Bhagawan Suparshvanath Tunk Bhagawan Vimalnath Tunk Bhagawan Ajitnath swami Tunk Bhagawan Neminath Swami Tunk Sri Digamber Jain Temple Parshavnath, Sammed shikhar xvii

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CHAPTER 1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND 1.1 INTRODUCTION In the legitimate works of Jain (called Agamas), the beautiful word "Arhat" joins Lord Rishabh Dev. The religion proposed by "Arhat" is known as "Arhat dharma". This is the obsolete name of the Jain religion. In the ancient structure of Vaidika, for example, Padmapurana, Matsyapurana, Shiv Purana, therefore, we find the proposal for Arhat dharma. The verbalization "Arhat" remained in vogue until Lord Parshvanath. The lord Sri Mahavir was better known as 'Shraman Bhagwan' (Dutt, 1908). The statement of "Jin" is the institution of the "Jain religion". One who has relied on the preaching of "Jin" and that which follows him is called "Jain". Since the Buddhism, religion was supported by Buddha and Christianity was supported by Jesus, so too the religion supported by Jin (Arhat) was called Jain Religion (Dwivedi 0. P., 1989). Since the follower of Shiva is called 'Shaiv', the supporter of Vishnu is called Vaishnav; therefore, the admirer of "Jin" is called Jain. Jesus, Shiva and Vishnu are precious names. In any case, the "Jin" verbalization does not refer to any person. The Jain religion does not appreciate the evaluation of a man. He loves the genuine properties of a soul that has reached the state of "Jin", that is, which has destroyed the front of the karma in learning, in the nature and in the essence of the soul (Dwivedi R. C., 1975). As per Jain religion, there were twenty-four Tirthankars who existed. As per Jain custom, Lord Rishabh was the first who taught the lesson of Ahimsa to the world. So he could be known as a reformer of the Jain religion or a rejuvenation of security that existed a long time ago and had a long tradition (Eisenstadt, 1984). 1.2 PRESENT STATE OF RESEARCH ON JAIN ARCHITECTURE Jain temples of India reveal the impact of Jains in the country. Due to the presence of a number of pilgrimage sites and historical sites in Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha, Jain Architecture has a special impact. The Jains have been great temple builders in India, particularly in Rajsthan, Karnataka, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Bihar and Odisha. In Patna,

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there are thirteen Jain temples, which belong to both the Swetamaber and Digamber sects. Jainism has had a critical effect on the elaboration of an agreement of logic and ethics that has had an essential effect on all parts of Indian culture through ages; from the Upanishad period to the circumstances of Mahatma Gandhi. The philosophical thoughts that are regularly considered Indian are Karma, Ahimsa, Moksa, restoration; these began at the school of thought of Sramana or were disseminated and elaborated by the teachers of Jain. These ideas were later adapted to Hinduism and to different religions, regularly in an alternative framework and with different nuances of implications. The Jains have also had a major impact on the culture and language of Karnataka, southern India and Gujarat in general. The Jains are among the richest and the most generous Indians. The Present day and medieval Jains assembled numerous temples, particularly in western India. The most punctual Jain landmarks were temples in light of the Brahmanical Hindu temple design and cloisters for Jain ministers. Generally, specialists in antiquated India had a place with non-denominational societies which were set up to loan their administrations to any supporter, regardless of whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain. Large portions of the styles they utilized were an element of the time and place as opposed to the specific religion. Thus, Jain craftsmanship from this period is elaborately like Hindu or Buddhist workmanship, in spite of the fact that its subjects and iconography are particularly Jain. With some minor varieties, the western fashion of Indian craftsmanship continued all through the sixteenth century and until the seventeenth century. The rise of Islam was added to affect the Jain Art and Achitecture but did not affect its character that badly. Among the most important monuments of Jain are the caves of Udaygiri and Khandgiri, situated close to the city of Bhubaneshwar in Odisha, India. The Dilwara Temple complex consists of five intricate marble temples, each one dedicated to the Tirthankar. Among its most important components is the Rang Mandap, a magnificent passage maintained by twelve columns and crowned by an imposing central vault, and the navchowki, an accumulation of nine rectangular roofs, equally luxuriously cut. The columns in the main hall are cut into the similarities of the 2

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women playing melodic instruments and sixteen vidyadevis, or goddess; everyone has an image that speaks to his learning branch. > Jainism is a trans-theistic religion endorsing peacefulness toward every living being; it started in the Indian subcontinent in the sixth century BC. > Jainism has affected and added to numerous aesthetic circles in India, for example, painting, model, and Architecture. > Modern and medieval Jains fabricated numerous temples, particularly in the western India. The most punctual Jain landmarks were temples in view of the Brahmanical Hindu temple design and religious communities for Jain community. Among the important Jain point of interest are the Udaygiri and Khandgiri Caves in Odisha, rock cut caves as private squares for Jain monks were built in the midst of the leadership of King Kharavela of Kalinga (200- 170 BC). Built under Chalukya's supervision in Rajasthan between the years 11th and 13th CE, the Dilwara Temple complex includes five extravagant marble shrines cut; each product is a Tirthankar's place. > Ten sanctuaries in Pattadakal, Karnatakawith a Jain sanctuary, is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. There is a combination of different construction styles of Hindu and Jain temple. > The Jain Shrine (Jain Narayana Shrine) was constructed by Rashtrakutas. It almost took the floor and height design after the Kailasnath shrine at Kanchipuram. It was a totally creative and admirable period of Dravida's design. > Jains were, in the same way, skilled designers such as Hindu sanctuaries and shrines and excursion sites can be discovered throughout the country. The most important destination for Jains is Bihar region. 3

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In Deccan, probably the most important Jain temples are found in Ellora, Maharastraand Aihole, Karnataka. There are a number of important historical and unique temples and structure lying throughout the country. Specifically in the region of Bihar, we have a number of pilgrimage sites and temples with unique features. All these were recorded, but there is no information about the Architectural feature and style known. This work is an attempt to deliberate the work of Architecture of Bihar region. 1.3 REVIEW OF THE EXISTING LITERATURE Each style of building development reflects a clear central domain that addresses a specific culture and time. For instance, the firm and condition based building layout in Jain Architecture demonstrates an intricate tendency, anyway the building arranges for which is an important even by current measures depending upon their religion and legacy (Brown, 1942). As evidence from the ancient sacred texts of Jain, the sanctuary is the microcosm of the universe and the enormous application is considered fundamental for the human body, the psyche and the soul; with the individual a microcosm (Hardy, 2007). The structure of the Jain temple presents the basic data about the science and cosmology of the period in which they were produced. It is an image of the outer universe and the internal universe. In which the outer universe is conferred to such an extent that the galactic relationship varies between the structures of the temple. The movements of the sun, the moon and the planets, while the internal cosmos is directed with respect to the perception in the core of the temple. The distinctive levels of the superstructure contrast with the levels of consciousness (Kak, 2005). There were no cases of the use of vaults or arches in Hindu temple Architecture, however, curved specialties were made on the surface of the seperators and occasionally carried loads from above. In the middle of the Mauryan administration, the stone was used as a means for segments and statues. The Mauryan ruler Ashoka (268 BC-232 BC) used stone as a means of presenting the bill and resilience known as "Dhamma" through stone orders and section orders. The stone decrees were cut into the living rock, which later advanced towards the opportunity to be a source of comfort for the structural exercises in the stone (Beck, 2006).

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The Tirthankars populated their skies with a segment of the divine creatures. Jain's temples, in the same way, required a great deal of images presented in unique style of Architecture and for a given region and period, the design of the Jain temple is still different from the design of other temples fundamentally for its iconography and for some surviving to its design (Hardy, 2007). The Chalukya-Rashtrakuta domain of the district toward the west understood the upper Deccan affiliations winding up greatly unmistakable from what obtained in the lower Deccan, in this way demonstrating two neighbourhood expressions. That was because the northern zone laid closer the destinations of the prior Jainism give in artistry and shake design. The abilities and customs that had won for over eight centuries among the close-by organizations of specialists like this proceeded in the ages that took up by Jain shake Architecture and surrender craftsmanship (Deglurkar). Pranoti Kiran Meghal (Meghal, 2018) introduced Jain Architecture from 5th century, which is still seen in different parts of Maharashtra. According to 2011 enumeration, biggest populace of Jain dwells in Maharashtra. The creation was finished in the Fifth century in the Architecture, and the arrangement of material is likewise changed. This change is unmistakably seen in the above case from Ellora caves and Anjaneri temples as of late developed by Shirdi temple. At the point when separated into locales, Marathwada and Western Maharashtra indicates maximum advancement of Jain Architecture from antiquated circumstances, while Khandesh demonstrates minimum improvement while Konkan zone demonstrates no improvement of Jain Architecture. Vidarbha indicates improvement of a wide range of Architecture besides cave Architecture. As it may be, with change in time, new temples are getting worked in all districts of Maharashtra including Konkan. Furthermore, they are developed by utilizing current material, procedures and arranging of ideas. 1.4 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY Art and Architecture for long have gone about as vehicles of communicating personality of a particular community or culture through their particular styles and attributes. An architectural style helps in keeping up notable coherence inside the limits of a particular culture, while again it likewise gives peculiarity to the shape in contrast with the surrounding assembled environment. All things considered, all

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through the world, religion has propelled Architecture, which is obvious from the archeological records essentially in light of the fact that religious landmarks were frequently worked from more perpetual building materials (Flugel, 1999). The Temples are, an indispensable part of the Jain religious and social life. The Temples are more than a position of worship. They fill in as focus of education, meeting place and a rest house for the voyagers notwithstanding typifying the Tirthankars. The investigation of the Art and Architecture of the Jains has, lamentably, remained a subject of concern for architects and art historians. Since little work has been done on the Jain Architecture, the present work may end up being a search of its own style and uniqueness after critical analysis of Jain Caves of Odisha and Jain temples of Bihar and Jharkhand. There is a requirement for saving the tradition, and for expanding it through procedure of modernisation. Without a doubt, there is an earnest requirement for comprehensive documentation, top to bottom investigation and intensive research in the field of the Jain Architecture. 1.5 AIM OF THE STUDY > Study Jainism through its history, ethics, values, culture and other important religions (Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, Shikhism) in India and elements of religious buildings. > Study the influence of Jain religion and other parallel religious buildings on religious buildings and vice versa. > Analyzing the elements of Jain Architecture in the Bihar region with reference to time and other religious buildings. > Identifying the changes in Architectural style / construction material occurred during the various periods. > Analyzing the influence of Jain Architecture on Regional Architecture.

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1.6 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY > Exhaustive study of Jain Religion to understand their history, ethics, culture and values. > Study important religions (Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Shikhism) in India and element of religious buildings. > To list the religious buildings in Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha build by Jain community. > To group these religious buildings on the basis of Jainism Sects and its time periods. To study the Architectural character of religious buildings such as plan form, elevational form and interior and exterior features. > To study the applied building materials and technology inside and outside the listed buildings. > To study the various catalysts that influenced Jain Architecture namely scale, proportion, ratio, local material, climate, socio-economic, religious belief and sects. > To analyze the influence of Jain Architecture on Regional Architecture 1.7 RESEARCH QUESTIONS a) Why do we have to take Jain Architecture as a research topic? b) What is an inadequate in the current research on the proposed region of research directed up until now? c) How is Jain philosophy not quite the same as different religions of the region? d) Do have any contribution of the Jain philosophy on Jain Architecture? e) What were the Socio political exigencies in the advancement of the Jain Architecture? f) How has the Jain Architecture developed through various periods of Jain history? g) What are the general classifications of the structures developed by the Jains?

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h) What were the requirements / contemplations behind the development / formation of such structures / temples? i) What are the elements, which the Jains have acquired from the proceeding or existing architectural styles of the period? j) What are the elements, which obviously separate the Jain Architecture? k) Who were the artists and supporters of the Jain Architecture? 1) What are the present patterns and practices of the Jain Architecture? m) What effect do have of globalization on the Jain Architectural pretentions? 1.8 HYPOTHESIS H1: There is a relation between Jain religion and Jain Architecture. H2: Jain Architecture influences the Architecture of other contemporary religion. H3: Jain Architecture influences the Architecture of Bihar region. H4: Jain Architecture has relation with the magnificent artistic creation. 1.9 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Based on the problem of research, the present research work is divided into two parts. The first part of research is qualitative bottom up approach. In this, author attempt to understand Jain history, values, culture and ethics and try to relate its implication on Jain Architecture. As there are several religions in India, so the style of all these Hindu, Islamic, Budhhist, and Sikh religion and their Architecture with time period need to be understood. The author attempt to make a relation between their Architecture, which influences each other. It categorize Jain Architecture and its elements as native or nonnative to its style of Architecture. Second part of research is based on quantitative type. Details of all the sample caves and temples of Bihar region is collected in standard format as given in figure 1.2 and annexure VI (Inventory for Jain religion buildings under study in Bihar Region).

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After analysis of collected data, Jain Architecture in Bihar region will be concluded and it is compared with Jain Architecture in India. Finally, the proposed "four hypothesis" is examined for its validation. Research Methodology Inductive Method SLNO. 1 2 Part-1 Qualitative Analysis Literature Study Ethics Value Culture Study of Hindu Architecture, Islamic Architecture, Buddhist Architecture, Jain Architecture Style / Elements in Various part of India 4 BOTTOM UP Outcome Impact Analysis SLNO. Understanding Impact of Jain Relgious and other Major Indian Religion on Building Sect Division and thus variation on Religious Buildings SL No Digamber Swetamber Popuktion Socioeconomic, religious behet Interior Exterior Interior Exterior Decorative Simplicity Highly Decorative Decorative 2 Nude Cloth Outcome Broad categories of Jain Architecture SLNO. Timeline study of Jain religion and temples Evolution time period of Jan temples in India and Bilhar region Important Temples Outcome Validating appearance of Architectural style in Jains reference to time in India and in Bihar region Thus Qualitative study Aim Categorising Jain Architecture, Validating its element as native or non native in reference to India/Bihar region Figure: 1.1- Research Methodology (Qualitative Bottom up approach). Source: (Author)

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Quantitaive Analysis 2 Critical Analysis of Jain Architecture style and elements in India SLNO. Jainism 1 2 13 14 15 16 17 Result 1 Architectural Studies Over all Form Plans Elevation Roof Structure Elements Material Constructional details Result 2 Compare Part-2 Final Hypothesis Critical Analysis of Jain Architecture style and elements in India Jainism Architecture In Bihar Region/Result 1 Result 2 H1: There is a relation between Jain religion and Jain Architecture. 10 H2: Jain Architecture influences the Architecture of other contemporary religion. H3: Jain Architecture influences the Architecture of Bihar region. H4: Jain Architecture has relation with the magnificent artistic creation. Figure: 1.2- Research Methodology (Quantitative analysis). Source: (Author)

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1.10 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY The scope of work primarily focus on the study of temples and other structures of prayer in Jain religion and contemporary buildings of similar nature in Hindu, Islamic, Budhhism and Sikh religion in India. The Architectural features of all these temples and other structures of prayer is discussed. The research is limited to study of the Jain caves of Odisha and Jain temples of Bihar and Jharkhand. All these three Jainism centres are collectively termed as Bihar region in this research. The Khandgiri and Udaygiri caves of Odisha and Jain temples of Bihar and Jharkhand have been taken as the sample case study. The plan form, elevational form, interior and exterior features, building material and construction techniques of these structures and temples are covered under study. The analysis of these samples are only for the superstructure and not substructure. The major limitation is that, the research is essentially based on primary sources - opinion surveys, consultation with historians and archeologists and authors own case study as well as secondary sources - literature survey. Due to constraints in accessibility of certain sources, some information might have been omitted from the study. Therefore, the work is largely dependent on personal observation and understanding of the author as well as of the experts in various fields, along with subjective assessment of various fields of considerations. 1.11 OVERVIEW OF THESIS Chapter 1: Research Background Chapter 2: Jainism and Its Relevance to Architecture Chapter 3: Indian Major Religion, Timeline and Its Relevance to Architecture and Elements Chapter 4: The Jain Temple Chapter 5: The Geometry of Jain Temple Chapter 6: Dimensional Analysis Chapter 7: Influence of Jain Architecture on Regional Architecture Chapter 8: Inference 11

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CHAPTER 2 JAINISM AND ITS RELEVANCE TO ARCHITECTURE 2.1 ORIGIN OF JAINISM Adinath or Rishabh Dev is "considered as the harbinger of human progress. Since he presented the Karma-bhumi (the season of development); set up the social foundations of marriage, family, law, esteem, state, and so on. He demonstrated mankind the headway of land, unmistakable articulations and claims to distinction, analyzing, composing and number juggling; amassed towns and urban communities; and essentially, drove the various types of activities with a view to give another sort of social demand suggested for developing the welfare of human animals". The Jain most of the time express that the indigenous name of India, that is BhArat, comes after the name of Bharat the eldest son of Lord Rishabh Dev. He had surrendered his position of remarkable quality and had denied the world for plausibility; his other discernible young son was Bahubali, who is on the same path adored by the Jain, but not as a Tirthankar. From now on, the other twenty-three Tirthankars that ended with the Lord Sri Mahavir followed the Lord Sri Rishabh Dev. A time-line spread of Jain religion in India from the 500 BC till present date is shown in figure 2.1. As per the census 2011 presently Maharashtra has highest population of Jains in India, followed by Delhi, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and other states. Bihar region (Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha) have only 1.02% of Jain Population. As it is evidence that, the Jain religion first started in Bihar and spread to other parts of India. 2.1.1 Jain Architecture The dedication of Jain Architecture to standard art in India has been remarkable. The extensive Jain temples and the extraordinary framed purposes of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Rajasthan are acclaimed worldwide. The Jain Architecture cannot be confirmed by its particular exceptional style, since it was only a branch of Hindu and Buddhist styles. In significant years, several Jain temples were built that flanked the Buddhist temples following the style of the Buddhist beating cut. In the beginning, these temples were regularly cleaned up by the shake faces and the use of squares in every 12

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realistic sense was immaterial. However, in recent years, Jains have begun to build temple urban groups on slopes in light of the likelihood of accumulation of propagation. Jainism Spread Present Era Maurya -Chandra Gupta 500 BC Kushana Jainism P Spread Present Era eriod- Mathura 14 Century BC Valabhi Jainism Kunala Gupta Period 300 AD Spread 240-590 AD Samprati Jainism Spread 300 BC 300 BC Present Era Khavella-Cheta Jainism Spread Dynasty 300 BC Ganga Dynasty astu w 200 BC Jainism Spread 2nd AD Present Era Kadamba Dynasty 4th AD Jainism Spread Jainism Spread 300 BC 400 BC Jainism Spread 300 BC Figure: 2.1- Spread of Jainism from 500 BC to present date. Source: (Author) Shown variously in association with the extension of Hindu temples in India, the Jain temples are few and remain outside. The latter used to break down the more stable, demolished temples, and build new ones on a relative site. Naturally, the Jain temples had a specific quality of assailant around them. The reason is that the temples of Jains are the richest temples on the planet, even surpassing the Mughal structures. 13

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Interior design of Jain temples The dedication of the Jains to the craftsmanship and the setting was extremely important in shaping the famous dazzling appearances, particularly in the type of paintings, temples and representations scattered throughout the country and covering a period of exploration in the perception from more reliable until time limit. The settlement of the Indus Valley (around 2300-1750 BC) is India's most provoked human progress. Mohen-Jo-Daro male seal figure also indicates existence of Jain religion (Shah, 1998, p. 3). In the third century BC, the exposed and kayotsarga-mudra, which proposed the full gravity of photography, were related only to Jin. In the 1st century, with the figure of Parsvanatha, scheduled dhyanamudra inside, is in the collection of the State Museum of Lucknow. In the middle of the period, new structures and iconographic features (except the Jin) of various deities were pointed. The parikara (casing) of the images of Jin is also made up of figurative frames Navagrahas, Sarashwati, Lakshmi and small figure Jin. Furthermore, the standard figures Astapratiharyas and yaksa-yaksi have been cut in the same way. Precision and folding near ornaments and other distinctive ornaments are parts of the Jain medieval figures (Pal, 1996). Lord Parshavanath Figure: 2.2 - Lord Parshavanath Statue Source: (Samet-Shikhar, 2018) 14

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Jain craftsmanships and works have the fundamental objectives of keeping up-to-date, protecting and extensively recommending the lifestyle. Palitana is a standout among the different habitats for a meeting of icons. At one point recently, all the Jin icons were uncovered, with no signs of identification, in any case, later had inscriptions such as a lion (Mahavira), a hooded cobra (Parshavanath) and a bull (Rishabhadev) and so on occasionally without eight promising images on both sides to see the confirmation prints. The photographs of various lesser heavenly creatures were in like way intertwined they included demigods etc (Eliade, 1961). This symbolizes that craftsmanship is particularly basic in the conditions of Gujarat and Rajasthan in India. The temple that makes manpower is equally notable in Jain's Achitecture. The great design and the Jain figure are found in the caves excavated in Mathura, Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha. In Udaigiri and Khandgiri various caves have been found. A piece of cells has cutting grids on the spacers. In a little bit of the cell, the floor rises to the back to fill it like a pillow. A couple of cells has low levels for the beds (Eliot, 1962). The extension of the cells is centered with authorities that receive enough light, and the cells open on a tunnel. The natural spaces of Udaygiri in some of caves have two floors and a patio in the front. The best and most beautiful of the caves of Udaigiri is cave - 1 called Rani-Gumpha or Rani. (Gumpha, the word of the area to be kept). The design of the campus is rectangular, arranged on three sides of a quadrant. The highest portion of the verandah expands outward like a ledge (eaves). The areas have been cut to support the roof of the house and give the holes an effect of essential homes. Lower storey has a cell with three small caves and a gallery with columns. Two dwarpalas (guards) are prepared ready to secure on both sides of the verandah. Despite the way the columns have been separated, the capitals must be discovered with bulls and carved lions. The way to the cells are determined by the themes of the lotus and the vines that come out of the mouth of the animals. The cutout friezes that represent the social theme of a master who returns successfully from a fight embellish the rear partitions of the galleries. Work in upper 15

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storey is superior to that of lower storey. The shape of the Tirthankars cut into cell separators is a subsequent expansion to the Khandgiri. Jain Architecture in the History of India The Jains, who have contributed to the craft and design field since the early days. Statues of Tirthankar Risabhadeva and figure revealed yogis or key uncovered ideas recorded on some ceramic seals. Artifacts from the ancient Indus Valley civilization found in Mohenjodaro, and beyond the denudated red stone statue are equivalently old. The last one is remarkably similar to focus stone to clean up the image of Jain of Lohanipur (Patna), sometimes attributed Mauryan (fourth BC). King Kharavela of Kalinga as engravings Hathigumpha, who has restored the image of Jain taken from Magadha to (4th century BC). During the period of Satavahana (60 BC to 225 AD), Mathura and Saurastra were the central reign (Shah, 1998, pp. 3-7). In the Gupta period It is said that the Gupta period (from 4th to 7th AD) was the splendid time of ancient Indian culture. After the period of Gupta; Kakkula, Vatsaraja and Mahendrapala were Jains rulers in the Pratihara line. Chittod was the capital of Paramaras where Kalakacarya and Haribhadra gave their lives for the change of craftsmanship and design. Jains, in the middle of Candela, Khajuraho, Devagadh, Mahoba, Madanapur, Canderi, Ahar, Papora and Gwalior line wrapped around celebrating his Jainism craftsmanship. Some essential incisions, toranas, images and other sculptural material can be found in Tripuri. As noted in recent times, the status of Bihar has been evident from the early days with regard to Jain culture (Shah, 1998, pp. 13-16). East India Jainism has a long history since the ninth century BC just like the 23rd Dharma Chaturyam Tirthankar Sri Parshvanath, who focused on Satya (truth), Ahimsa (quiet), Achaurya (not taken) and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness) that was served. Chaturyam Dharma was the pioneer of Sri Mahavir's religious and social demand. The Eastern India as needed are unequivocally preserved in the ancient history of Jainism. Jainism had a phenomenal support in the time of King Chetaka, the pioneer of Vaishali, Bimbisar (Shrenika) and king Ajatshtru of Shishunaga (642-413 BC), the rulers of 16

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nandas (413-322 BC) and the emperor Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C.) of the Maurya dynasty. In this context, it is also proposed that Jainism was on a similar path slandered by Emperor Ashoka before it was changed to Buddhism. He also helped to spread Jainism in Kashmir. Ashoka's nephew, Emperor Samprati was on a similar path, extended his help to Jainism (Ghosh, 1974, p. 69). South India Jainism reaches south India at Shravanbelagola 300 BC due to drought in Bihar region for the long time. The sangh moved to south under the leadership of Acharya Bhudrabahu. The sovereign Chandragupta Maurya was part of the sangh. Jainism also made an "obligation concerning the realization and gigantic during the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1565 C.E.) (Ghosh, 1974, p. 92). West India The improvement of the Jains from the eastern part to the western part of India did not produce any vulnerability at some time in the third century BC. Taking after the diminution of the influence of Jain in the Maurya Empire. Some ideas of the relic of Jainism in the West India by the way in which Lord Neminath, the twenty-second Tirthankar of the Jain had attended the salvation on Mount Girnar in the Junagarh area of Gujarat in the second millennium BC. "In addition, ancient academic statements claim that Lord Sri Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankar, had gone to the place of Marathavada and Maharastra in the middle of his religious journey to various parts of India". The main group of religious seriousness Jain met in Vallabhi and expressly expressed the Jain law. Maharashtra from the third century onwards, "the decision arrangements equipped Satavahanas of Paithans, Chalukyas of Kalyan, Rastrakutas of Malakhed, Yadava of Devagiri and Silaharas of Kolhapur and Konkan increased their praise praised to a huge extent to the Jain religion". Jains in Maharastra claim to have four essential Siddhakshetras (places where Tirthankars or blessed individuals in particular, to have nirvana) in Gajapantha (Nasik District), Magitungi (Khamdesh District), Kunthalagiri (Osmanabad District) and Muktagiri (Amraoti District) (Ghosh, 1974, p. 85).

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North India With minor special cases, all of the finished Jainism structures was to be impeded to ensure sublime help in the middle of a couple of times fundamental to Muslim control in northern India. As part of its Din-e-Elahi approach, Mughal emperor Akbar was clearly dedicated for Jainism. He had rejected the butchering of animals between the days of Paryushan in 1583 CE. At first, Jahangir had denied this course of action. Again announced the same in 1610 CE. The sovereign Shahjahan was more tolerant of Jainism and allowed a Jain Temple to construct first. Jains have contributed the structural parts of the Red Fort at New Delhi and in the same way; they traded with the inhabitants of the area (Ghosh, 1974, p. 143). 2.1.2 Sects in Jainism Even in this case Jainism was not an unprecedented case. Spreading expansive parts of India, shifting the clarifications of Jain's statutes, and limiting current leaders, at the time caused the marked areas and sub-fragments within Jainism in different inspirations that led time in its long history. The most fundamental sects in Jainism are known as Digamber and Swetamber groups. The division of sects took place is about 600 years after Lord Sri Mahavira's nirvana. Bhagwan Mahaveer (599-527 BCE) Shvetambar Digambar Taranpanth (Ca 1490) Lonka Sect 1452 CE Sthanakvasi 1653 CE Terapanth (1760 CE) Kanjiswami (1889-1981) Terahpanth (1626 CE) Terapanth Deravasi Murtipujak Sthanakvasi Rajchandra Sub-sects Kanjipanth Bisapanth Terakpanth Tarampanth Figure: 2.3 - Jainism: Major Sects and Sub-sects Source: (Sect division, n.d.) 18

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Sub-sects of Digamber There are three basic subsections within the Digamber Jain, which are in particular Bisapantha, Terapantha, and Taranpantha. Bisapanth This is the main extraordinary sub-sect (appreciating the image) of the janism of Digamber, whose devotees strengthen the relationship of Bhattarak (head of religious or mythological meetings) that flourished in the medieval period from the fourteenth to the nineteenth century. The temple is based on cult icons of Kshetrapals, Padmawati and other deities along with those of the Tirathankaras. The Bisapanthi "appreciate these icons with saffron, fragrant agargianti. (Sangave, 2006). Terapanth This reformist sub-group began within Bisapantha sooner or later in the middle of the seventeenth century as a restriction on the control and direction of the Bhattaraka. Hence, his motivation compares in the same way after the improvement of Adhyatma in northern India. As shown Lath "the Terapanth itself a branch of the Adhyatma of Banarsi proclaims quickly, and inverts its Adiguru, the creator instructor". In their temples, the Terapanthis show symbols Tirathankaras and not of Kshetrapalas, Padmawati and various deities. They worship icons with sustenance created by the oldest plant (known as sachitta), with the holy rice called 'Aksata', nails of carnation, stick sandle, almonds, dry coconuts, dates, etc. Taranpanth This non-reverential subquestion was created by Taran Swamy (1448-1515 C.E.), who suffered from Islam from the point of view and lessons of Lonka Shah, the coordinator of the subsection of meaning Sthnakvasi of Jainism Swetamber from the other. In their temples, Taranpanthis worship blessed coordinator fourteen books, near consecrated books Digamber Jainism. As for the station's capabilities, the Taranpanthis are surprisingly liberal and other Digamber subsections.

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Shrimad Rajchandra 'Sub-Sect' Shrimad Rajchanda (formal name Rajchandbhai Ravjibhai Shri Mehta) was considered to be the who started this sect. "The different emotions and practices of Mahatma Gandhi began from the position of his Rajchandra Gandhi organization towards the adjustment of women, the opportunity to reduce positions, Satyagraha (battle of truth) and was developed for Rajchandra. Kanji Swamy Panth In recent decades, another sub-band called Kanji Panth Swamy has emerged in Digamber Jainism, known by its creator, Kanji Swamy. The nischaya-Naya provides a supplement on discernment and a true method for the evaluation of the spirit with a perspective of refinement; in any case, the vyavahar-Naya is a short point or brief passenger leading us to modify the problems of useful life in daily existence. Highlighting the past, the Kanji-Panth obviously needs to force religious traditions into Jainism (Fischer, Jain, & Jyotindra, 1977). The panth is similarly not perfect for the state exposed in Jainism. It is much celebrated with the educated class and the diasporic encounter, and its effect has spread widely. In any case, another interesting conclusion is that "the poorer and smaller Digambers tend to strengthen the KSP". However, the Kanji Panth has made a clear division within the social order of Digamber Jain in the north and center of India. The intellectuals took for granted rejecting the Anekantavada instruction in this context the tendency of a naya to the heaviness of Sonagarh. Moreover, Jaipur and Mumbai are the basic convergences of Kanji-Panth. Sub-Sects Swetamber As a Digamber, Swetamber Jain also isolated in three sub-sects imperatives, for particular Murtipujak, Sthanakavasi and Terapanth. These are quickly discussed as below: 20

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Murtipujak Murtipujakas (these people generally called Dera-vases or Chaitya-vases (Temple tenants), Mandir-Margi (frequented the temple) or Pujera (fans) were the main source of Swetamber Jainism. Recovered Tirthankars icons are extravagant decorated with materials. It is complete with flowers, common things, saffron and other things. Both male and female, religious severity wear white cloths and mouth covered with cloths while talking, otherwise keep them in hands and remain in temples or in specially preserved structures known as Upashrayas estimators of this subgroup are mostly concentrated in Gujarat, but constantly now also found in most of the cities gigantic and urban groups of India. Sthanakvasi This group was initially known as the Lonka petition developed by Lonka Shah in Ahmedabad in 1474 C.E. it was then updated in 1653 CE by a layman based in Surat, Viraji. Around that time, the devotees were known as Dhundiliyas (seekers). Sthanakavasis do not place values in the construction of temples, a symbol of love and excursion. The life of the monks uses white cloths and cover the mouth with superficial stripes. Sthanakvasis are generally found in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. Terapanth A branch of the sub-association Sthnakvasi, Terapanthi sub-sect was developed in 1760 AD. Acharya Bhikanji like Sthnakvasis, even Terapanthis have no confidence in symbolizing appreciation. Since its inception nearly 250 years ago, it has been solidly administered with less than eleven progressive Acharyas del Panth, including the current occupant Acharya Mahashraman. His ninth pro-Acharya Tulsi (1914-1997) had earned a great name and distinction for his development of Anubrata, who emphasized five small guarantees in Jainism for the proper flourishing of the masses. For the most part, especially by accumulating areas of Rajasthan, Terapanthis are similarly a bit honest and urban communities in northern and central India (Fischer K. , 1957). To add, there is nothing surprising that a religion indicating Anekantvad (fundamental relativisim) should have such a variety of sects and sub-seven and that even with assortments of controversies and experiences occurring within and between them. In 21

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addition to responses including doctrinal feelings and differentiations, open considerations, conflicts and heat modes, also have been observed and clashes between Digamber and Swetamber for even the obligation related to places. Jain Architecture Associations All Jain cults, sects and sub-classifications have their specific affiliations whose annual social affairs are managed locally, nationally or internationally. It subordinates to the level of the alliance and the needs of the moment, think of a wide range of issues related to the meeting at these events and social traditions. Thus, for example, around Bharatvarshiya Digamber Jain Mahasabha, for several years, had considered endless questions. For example, the need to maintain a specific character of the Jains recovery and proper maintenance of Jain sites. A prerequisite for social change within the meeting, especially as regards the marriage of young people, the sharing of framework development houses and homes for disadvantaged people. Education and opportunities for women; enthusiasm for Mahavir Jayanti's declaration as an open possibility in 1939 and shortly thereafter, in the mid-1950s; fortifying for the developments of Satyagraha, Swadeshi and habitual challenge of Mahatma Gandhi. The possibility, in a Jains tradition required another constitutive role and delimitation of the Council, in any case, has not increased (Flugel, Peter, 1995-96). 2.2 JAIN COSMOLOGY As indicated by the Jain-doctrine, the world is eternal and ephemeral. It listens just to its own laws and stays unaltered in its essential nature despite the fact that its parts change. No god has made it, ruled it and can destroy it. As opposed to most different religions, since Jains deny most unquestionably the existence of an imperishable, allforceful most noteworthy "Lord" who creates the universe, rules it, and destroys it. The acknowledgment of a creator and destroyer appears to them to be unjustified and selfcontradictory and must be rejected both from the perspective of logic and profound quality The perspectives on the nature of god are altogether different among the individual. Indian and non-Indian systems, which Jains have questioned and do as such, even at this point. Most importantly, Hinduism has delivered a wealth of different doctrines on god and his association with the world. Doctrines, which seem to have depleted every 22

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one of the conceivable outcomes of considering, begun with the outrageous monotheism, which makes the most honed qualification between god, matter and souls. Up to the absolute best theophany for which the world is an unfilled appearance and god is everything. Three sorts of belief in god can be principally recognized. The primary view: God is a perfect, omniscient, all-powerful, inescapable, kind and favored element. Which creates and destroys the world, which is too generic but not the same as it is and controls autonomously the souls and substances in it. This view, which is to be sure near Christianity and of Islam. It has been pushed especially by the NyayaVaisesika-rationalists and the scholars of various Vaisnavite and Saivite sects. A moment gathering of systems educates: matter and souls are doubtlessly unique in relation to god at the season of the origin of the world and are managed by him. In any case, they have risen originally from god; god has formed himself into them and takes them back again into himself. These hypotheses have been proposed by the Vaisnavite and Saivtaism schools in the most extraordinary ways (Flugel, 1999, pp. 7-75). The third view at long last takes a gander at god, Brahma, as the main genuine sat, the total. The majority of the marvels in the world are just a Maya, a fantasy, which is "developed" from the supreme being by the oblivious; actually, every soul is indistinguishable with God, and all distinction is just an illusionary appearance, as incredible as a fantasy or a Fata Morgana. An acosmic theophany of this sort experienced its weighty improvement in Sarikara's Advaita-philosophy; yet it is additionally found among Vaisnavas, Saivas, and Saktas and in other Indian systems. Jain-savants considered inside and out every one of these doctrines and attempted to discredit them in the most acuminous way. The suspicion that the world must have a creator originates from the origination that it is a product, similar to a pot; and precisely in this way, similar to the products having a cause, the world all in all must likewise have one. As an evidence for this that the world is to be likened with natural products, it is said that it is liable to change like those. If this somehow happened to be right, then god should likewise be a product, in light of the fact that specific changes must also occur in it on account of the movement of making, pulverizing, and so on practised. 23

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2.3 SPREAD OF JAINISM WITH TIME > Lord Sri Mahaveer, the last Tirthankar is generally regarded as the founder of Jain religion. > There are twenty-four jinas or saints who were attained nirvana and possessed high place in Jain Architecture. > Jina implies "conqueror" or, then again "leader" from which the Jain is determined. One particular variety found in Jain temples is that they are four confronted or "chaumukh". Thus rather than a solitary figure with single face, one path, with one access to the cell, they gave a fourfold picture or a gathering of four different Tirthankars. > This requires the holy place chamber with four entryways, which influenced impressively the layout design of temples. 2.3.1 Jain Architecture (3rd century B.C-17th century AD) > Jains exploited its necessity in the construction of the outside and fit as a shape of vimana. > They presented the colonnaded gathering of little places of worship around the four sides of the courtyard in which the primary temple stands. Eight to twelve columns are masterminded as an octagonal set inside a square. The dome is supported by these columns joined by section sort raking struts. The dome is built on flat courses with successively reducing square, laid corner to corner to each other, with "Amalaka" or, on the other hand decorative "Kalasa" at the top. > Another innovation was the construction of flawlessly cut and marbled roof with central pendants practically like light fixtures in their delicacy and grace.

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2.4 GODS AND CULTS Jainism adopts worship of Shakti in a number of structures. These structures might be placed in isolation in temple. Goddesses worshipped in Jainism: A. Less Known Goddesses: 1. Mothers of Tirthankars. 2. Goddess of Knowledge. 3. Dikkumaris. 4. Laxmi B. Broadly known Goddesses: 5. Shasandevis or Shasansundaris 6. Saraswati 7. Prabodhit Devis or Dixit Devis. The Jain philosophy perceives importance of gods and goddesses. The perceptions put forward in a few books, mantras, yantras and stotras plainly state it. On the off chance that look painstakingly, one may discover at each Jain temple gods and goddesses speaking to the chief God. They are defenders of the soul of the chief God. To start with comes a line of Tirthankars that makes a sum of twenty-four Tirthankars. They are: Table: 2.1 - Twenty four Tirthankar's detail. Source: (Tirthankar, 2014) Shashan Devi Colour Maru-Devi Golden Vijaya-Devi Golden Golden Sena 60,00,000 Siddhartha Golden 50,00,000 Sumangla Golden 40,00,000 Susima Red 30,00,000 Prithvi Golden 20,00,000 Lakshamana White 10,00,000 White 2,00,000 Golden 1,00,000 Golden 84,00,000 Red 72,00,000 Golden 60,00,000 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Sr.No Name 1 2 3 4 Rishabhanatha (Adi Bull Ajitanatha Sambhavanatha Abhinandananatha Sumatinatha Padmaprabha Suparshvanatha Chandraprabha Pushpadanta Shitalanatha Shreyanasanatha Emblem Vasupujya Vimalanatha Elephant Horse Monkey Heron Padma Swastika Crescent Moon Crocodile Shrivatsa Rhinoceros Buffalo Boar 25 Rama Sunanda Vishnudri Vijaya Suramya Age 84,00,000 72,00,000

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14 16 Shant Sr.No Name Anantanatha 15 Dharmanatha Shantinatha 17 Kunthunatha Aranatha 19 Mallinatha 20 Munisuvrata Naminatha Neminatha Parshvanatha 24 Mahavira Emblem Falcon Vajra Antelope or deer Goat Nandyavarta Kalasha Tortoise Blue lotus Shankha Snake Lion Shashan Devi Colour Sarvavasa Golden Suvrata Golden Acira Golden Sri-Devi Golden Mitra-Devi Golden Rakshita Blue Padmavati Black Vapra Golden Sivadevi Black Vama Blue Priyakarni Golden Age 30,00,000 10,00,000 1,00,000 95,000 Years 84,000 Years 55,000 Years 30,000 Years 10,000 Years 1,000 Years 100 Years 72 Years These twenty-four Tirthankars have twenty-four "Shasandevi", goddesses. The Jain econography of B. C. Bhattacharya notices sixteen "Vidhyadevis", goddesses of knowledge who are less known. There are "Dikkumarikas" who incorporate "Shrim", "Hrim", "Kirti", "Biddhi" and "Laxmi". All the Tirthankars are related with "Yakshas" and "Yakshinis". Among the Yakshinis, those like Sri Chakkeshwari, Jwalamukhi, Ambika, and Padmavati are worshipped on a more extensive scale. Specially, Goddess padmavati who is a "Shasandevi" of the twenty-third Tirthankar, Sri Parshvanath. In the eleventh century of the Vikram era, Shri Nayavimalsuri addresses the goddess as Saraswati, Durga, Tara, Shakti, Aditi, Laxmi, Kali, Tripursundari, Bhairavi, Ambika and Kundalini. In this manner, worship of goddess Padmavati in Jainism might be identified with worship of Shakti in Hinduism (Fohr, 2001). To worship this goddess, a few stotras, "kalpas", supplications, and psalms are written. An investigation of Jain goddesses uncovers that these goddesses do an imperative work of quiet down obstacles and pressures and to produce welfare for individuals. These goddesses of Jainism are similarly more "satvik" or spiritual, sobre and peaceful by nature. Jainism is not a worshipper of God, but rather it proliferates worship of Tirthankars. Masters and ministers are worshipped as gods. Jain temples have idols of goddesses as objects of worship. The worship indicates similitude in strategies with routine about contemplation and mantra scriptures. Hemachandrasuri's "Yogashastra" acknowledges worship of Shakti and its practice with mantras. For example, the "Namskar-Mahamantra" contains the sole embodiment of the Jain confidence. It contains the quintessence of the whole "Dwadashanga Vani". The NamaskarMahamantra consolidates in it knowledge like 'Tatva', Padarth', 'Dravya', 'Guna',

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'Paryay', 'Nay', 'Nikshep', and so on. The whole mantra scriptures of Jainism have risen out of these mahamantras. Any strategy worship perceives essentiality of mantra. Add up to responsibility, patience, inclusion, confidence, certainty and progressions are the cardinal standards of worship by mantras. Mantras like Biamantra, Kutamantra, Shatakshari, Sahasrakshari, Malamantra, Pauranik mantra, Nama mantra Shabar mantra, Rishimantra, Siddhaguru mantra, and so on are among well-known mantras. The reality of the matter is that worship by mantra benefits a worshipper with achievements and success. The Jain philosophy states that unique worship and custom for Goddess Padmavati empowers one to secure forces of mantras and particular results are created with them. The Namaskar Mahamantra goes this way: This Jain Paramanta pays respect to the five Supreme Elements like: 1. Arhat, 2. Siddha, 3. Acharya, 4. Upadhyaya, 5. Sadhu. The mahamantra acknowledges presence of the God, Guru and religion. To worship this mahamantra is tantamount to worshipping the God, Guru and religion. 2.5 SUMMARY The current state of anthropological / sociological writing unequivocally prescribes the need for more accurate research of Jainism and the group of Jains, which relates it to the development of its own style of Architecture. Obviously, there is a fundamental need to recognize data gaps in the anthropological / sociological examinations of the Jain group. The collection of a good record of reference in the group of Jainism people should be the main walk that is worth mentioning to build a considerable variety of human sciences compared to the subject. In addition to human examinations and social sciences, history, political science and demography are different controls that can also improve the human science research of the group of Jain people and the Architectural style.

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CHAPTER 3 INDIAN MAJOR RELIGION, TIMELINE AND ITS RELEVANCE TO ARCHITECTURE AND ELEMENTS 3.1 HINDU ARCHITECTURE Hindu Architecture has advanced for hundreds of years from the simple slice of sake into sacred places to gigantic and sumptuous temples that extend across the Indian subcontinent and past, giving shape to a canonical style that is still maintained in current Hindu temples throughout the world. The basic components of the style are the exact and congruent geometry when viewed from each of the four sides or more, the square structure and the terrain drawing of the net, removing the towers and exposing the improved mold that incorporates divine beings, worshipers, erotic scenes, botanical and geometric animals and examples. Hinduism did not have a specific organizer as in Christianity or Islam. It subsumed each marvel in the immense domain of India, including even neighborhood beliefs and tribal gods, so they could even be contradictory to each other. As indicated by Hindu hypothesis, even Buddhism and Jainism are only orders of Hinduism (Banerjea, 1941). In the field of Architecture as well, those of Buddhism and Jainism, which were raised is an indistinguishable climate from that of Hinduism, have no incredible aberrations from Hindu Architecture, making it conceivable to state that their structural systems and types of their parts are totally the same. 3.1.1 Beginning and Purpose Since the 4th AD, another type of cult or reverential known as Bhakti Hinduism develops on India subcontinent, and the ancient Vedic divine beings have been supplanted by Gods like Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna, Brahma and Devi. The sanctuary was seen as the residence of a specific god (devalaya). Hindus do not need to go to consistent services, but an accidental walk around the inner sanctuary, known as pradaksina and completed clockwise, was considered positive. Temples have inevitably become the particular focal objective of a network and, as required, maintenance is assured using rewards and 28

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blessings of the type of decision, as evidenced by the numerous temples registered (Rao, 1993). 3.1.2 Early Influences At that point, with the landing of the Gupta project in the 400-500 AD, the main Hindu temples without ties were produced with reflections, such as towers and previous niches. The main materials used were wood and ceramics; however the designer's little by little in blocks and stones, mainly sandstone, rock, and marble. No mortar was used as part of the more seasoned techniques, so a precise cut of the coated stones was necessary. The extraordinary cases of persuasives in temples merge those of Udaygiri in Malwa and date back to the fifth century of our era. The first detached temples will expire in Deogarh and will establish the 600 CE Dasavatara sanctuary dedicated to Vishnu. ZETTEK Figure: 3.1- Durga Temple, Aihole Source: (Durga temple, 2015) 3.2 RELEVANCE OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE The Hindu temple is laid out as shown by the eight cardinal bearings and a divine being speaking to everybody (dikpala) may some of the time be spoken to in sculpture on the temples outside. Based on a complicatedly cut stage (adhisthana), the temple is 29

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frequently suggested in antiquated Hindu messages on Architecture (the Vastu Shastras) as the consecrated mountain Meru or Kailasa, the residence of Shiva in the Himalayas. STOLT Figure: 3.2- Gopuram and Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram. Source: (Chidambaram-northgopuram-navalingashrine, 2016) Early temples comprised of just a garbhagriha, however after some time increases were made in constructed and duplicated crosswise over temple sites to make an accepted architectural style by the tenth century AD. The most evident of these highlights were a patio entrance (ardhamandapa) and pillared lobby (mandapa) which prompted the garbhagriha - highlights which created in the Deccan from the eighth century AD. Significantly more amazing, over the garbhagriha, a colossal corbelled pinnacle shikhara was developed. 30

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Figure: 3.3 - Brihadeeswarar Temple, Tanjavur. Source: (Brihadeeswarar-temple, 2015) 3.3 TIMELINE OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE The forerunner of Hinduism is called Brahmanism, in which just Brahmans (priests), the most astounding class among four varnas into which individuals were partitioned by birth in antiquated India, could middle of the road amongst gods and believers. It was basically a religion of ceremonies stressing penances of creatures to gods. On the opposite side, Buddhism and Jainism were agnostic religions built up around the sixth century BC in logical inconsistency to the standing framework and the conciliatory practices of Brahmanism, so their temples were in a general sense spots of seeking after illumination for monks and explaining lessons to laypeople.

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Table 3.1:- Time line of Hindu temple Architecture Period Place Description (Circa) SI.No. Name of Temple Image Bhitargaon Temple Source: (Bhitargaon, 2017) Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh This is oldest temple and constructed with 5th century brickwork and still existing in India. Its features AD are very similar to Mahabodhi temple constructed in 250 BC Lad Khan Temple Source: (Lad-khantemple-in-aihole, 2017) Aihole, Karnataka 675 - 725 AD Aihole was a meeting place of medieval times and a cradle for experimentation of Hindu arts, especially temple Architecture. The artisans and regional architects of the Aihole region have created prototypes of 16 types of independent temples and 4 types of rock-hewn shrines to express the theology of Hinduism in stone. 32

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Table 3.1:- Time line of Hindu temple Architecture SI.No. Name of Temple Place Period (Circa) Description Image A fully develped Dravida style of Architecture, very closely resembling Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram Virupaksha Temple Source: (Hampi, 2017) Natri, Karnataka 740 AD Parashurameshvara Temple Source: (parashurameshvaratemple-bhubaneswarodisha-3740, 2017) Built in the style of nagara, which emphasizes the vertical structure and has all the main features of the temples of the Odisha style of the century before the tenth. Bhubaneswar 750 AD Ellora, Maharash Kailasanatha temple Source: (Kailasanathartemple, 2017) 770 AD It is oldest rock cut Hindu temples. It is India's most notable cave temples due to its size, Architecture and sculptural treatment. The Architecture of the temple shows vestiges of the Pallava and Chalukya styles. tra 33

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Table 3.1:- Time line of Hindu temple Architecture SI.No. Name of Temple Place Period (Circa) Description Image Pattadakal Temple complex Source: (Pattadakaltemples, 2017) Constructed during 7th to 8th century AD, the form of temple is asymmetric. The interior has the influence of rock-cut Architecture. Bagalakote, Karnataka 7th-8th century AD Mamallapuram temples or Mahabalipuram temples Source: (Mahabalipuram, 2017) Mamallapuram, Tamil Nadu 7th-8th The site have number of temples such as Rath century AD temple, viharas, rock cut temples etc. Temple with open mandapam and group of temples Badami, Bhutanatha temples Source: (Bhutanatha group-of-temples, 2017) 7th to 11th century AD Karnataka

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Sl.No. 10 11 Name of Temple Mukteshvara Temple Source: (Mukteshvara temple-bhubaneswar odisha-3735, 2017) Lakshmana Temple Source: (Lakshmana+Temple, 2017) Kandariya Mahadeva Temple Source: (kandariya mahadev-temple, 2017) Table 3.1:- Time line of Hindu temple Architecture Period Description (Circa) Place Bhubaneswar Khajuraho Khajuraho 950 AD 954 AD 1000-1025 AD Culmination of all previous developments started and Initiation of a period of experimentation in Hindu temple Architecture that continues in whole century. Hindu temple of the tenth century built by Yashovarman. It is a temple of Sandhara of the Panchayatana variety. The entire temple complex is located on a high platform (Jagati), as seen in the image. The structure is composed of all the elements of Hindu temple Architecture. The concept of urushirnga "multiple Sikhara" started with the sculptural details in the elevation at different levels. 35 Image

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Sl.No. 12 13 14 Name of Temple Brihadisvara Temple Source: (Brihadisvara temple Thanjavur, n.d.) Lingaraja Temple Source: (Lingaraja, 2017) Rajarani Temple Source: (Rajarani-temple, 2017) Table 3.1:- Time line of Hindu temple Architecture Period Description (Circa) Place Thanjavur Bhubaneswar Bhubaneswar 1010 1025 AD 1050 AD 1105 AD One of the largest temples in South India and an exemplary example of a fully realized Dravidian Architecture. "One of the best examples of purely Hindu temple in India". The temple has a vast courtyard surrounded by hundreds of small shrines. A panchratha style of temple on a raised platform built in red and yellow opaque sandstone. 36 Image

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Table 3.1:- Time line of Hindu temple Architecture SI.No. Name of Temple Place Period (Circa) Description Image Nataraja Temple Source: (Chidambaram temple, 2017) 15 Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu The temple, as it is, had a pre-Chola existence and the Architecture is clearly Dravidian with the Sanctum Sanctorum, which closely resembles the structures of Kerala or Malabar. 1150-1200 AD 16 Hoysaleswara Temple Source: (Hoysaleswaratemple, 2017) Halebidu, Karnataka 1160 AD The temple had towers at the top of each sanctuary, but now they have disappeared. The temple was built with chlorite schists, more commonly known as greens or soapstone. Soapstone is soft when extracted and easier to cut into complex shapes, but hardens over time if exposed to air. Jagannath Temple Source: (History-ofjagannath-puri-temple, 2017) Puri, Odisha 1174 AD Most magnificent temple of India and it contains at least 120 temples and shrines.

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Table 3.1:- Time line of Hindu temple Architecture SI.No. Name of Temple Place Period (Circa) Description Image 18 Sun Temple Source: (Konark, 2017) Konark, Odisha 1250 AD Built in stone in the form of an elegant giant car dedicated to the Sun God, the Konark temple presents this large-scale iconography. It has 24 elaborately carved stone wheels that have a diameter of nearly 12 feet (3.6 m) and are towed by a series of seven horses. 19 Chennakeshava Temple Source: (Chennakesava- temple, 2017) Belur, Karnataka 1346 AD The temple had a tower (Bhumija style), which was repeated damaged and destroyed, rebuilt and restored. This tower shape is rather rare in pure dravidian Architecture. Madurai, Tamil 20 Meenakshi Temple Source: (History of temple, 2017) 16th century AD The temple has total of 14 raised entrances. Each of them is a multi-story structure and shows thousands of mythological stories and several other sculptures. The temple also has numerous rooms with pillars called "Mandapam". Nadu 38

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Hinduism, which was built up around the start of the Common Era, was an exceptionally created phase of Brahmanism in readiness for hypothetical question. Retaining society beliefs and neighborhood divinities in different locales, it was a thorough going pantheistic religion in light of, most importantly, worship for the gods that began in the Vedas. Each Hindu temple has one of those gods cherished as the primary divinity, and is as hospitable to it as though it were a living personality (Davison, 2003). MANDAPA Figure: 3.4 - Principal Plan and Cross Section of a Hindu Temple (Malikarjuna Temple in Aihole, 8th century). Source: (Plan_ba, 2017) Figure: 3.5 - Unfinished rock-carved temples. Source: (Xpid_eng, 2017)

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Cave Temples and Rock-Carved Temples It is assumed that ancient India was plentiful in wood and most temples were work of timber, however none have survived. The ancient Architecture that we can see now is comprised of cave temples, which were unearthed into rough mountains and architecturally cut in detail. This frame was started by Buddhist monks and workers, executing upwards of a couple of hundred in numbers from the 2nd century BC crosswise over India (Kolapen & Kolapen , 2002). Then again, since the Hindus favored model more than any of the developmental expressions, they needed to make even their architectural fills in as though forms. Solid temples, etched not as caves but rather straight forwardly upon one shake in the round in this demeanor, are called 'shake cut temples'. Begun in Mahabalipuram in the seventh century, it accomplished its apogee in the Kailasha Temple at Ellora in the eighth century. Such a sculptural character in Indian Architecture would remain as the essential component in later stone temples as well. Figure 3.6:- Plan of the Gondeshvara Temple in Sinnar, in the Pancha-yatana Form Source: (Hind_eng, 2017) Although the less complex Hindu temples did not have Mandapas, made up of a single garbhagriha (sanctum) running with a patio, they progressively extended to scale, according to the institution of the form. The garbhagriha itself did not expand, in light of the fact that it was a square room flanked by thick dividers; however it extended its game plan, surrounded by a circumambulatory passage for worship, and was surpassed 40

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with a pinnacle laden with stones, showing its sculptural exterior view (Mookerjee, 1985, p. 180). The mandapa, before the garbhagriha, was also, in a general sense, a square room with four pillars, which sometimes turned into an imposing hypostyle hall. Keeping in mind the end goal to solemnize temples, designers regularly expanded the quantity of mandapas, setting them in a line in the front, and occasionally included an open mandapa without fringe dividers, the yards, and even an independent holy place for a Nandi (bull), vehicle for Shiva, all in line on the pivot. The purpose behind this way is a Hindu temple was bound to have a decided pivotal heading, following the way that garbhagriha as a god's home just a single passageway entryway in front to be bolted around evening time. This confinement made the temple difficult to spread in four ways, and induced another strategy for the solemnization of temples, including four little independent shrines in four slanting corners on the platform, giving the whole temple the type of Pancha-yatana (five shrines). Figure 3.7:- Vishvanatha Temple of the northern type, Khajuraho Source: (Vishvanath, 2017) The Northern and Southern Types Through the considerable improvement of Hindu temple Architecture in the medieval period, equaling stone Architecture in Europe and the Middle East, its style was generally partitioned into two: the southern type and northern type. It may have mirrored the distinctions of likings between northern Indo-Aryans and southern 41

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Dravidians, languages of which were in totally unique branches (Bhaktipada, 1989, p. 390). The temple that demonstrates the distinction between them most unmistakably was the outline of their towers over the haven. In the northern Type, the pinnacle takes off in the state of an ordnance shell, which is known as a 'shikhara'. On the highest point of the shikhara is a fluted plate, an amalaka, impersonating the state of a sacrosanct organic product, anmalok, and further over it is a pitcher-like finial, a kalasha. Comparative little shikharas with similar segments are heaped up to make a more prominent shikhara, rehashing this cycle in a few layers to frame the entire mind-boggling body. Instead of this, in the southern Type, lined smaller than normal shrines make a flat story and numerous storied heaped up in steps frame a pyramidal pinnacle. Over it is an extensive hemispheric or octagonal vault like crown stone, which is known as a 'shikhara' in southern India, truly meaning a mountain summit in sanskrit. Among the southern type temples, the Karnataka area incited star-molded plans for garbhagrihas and a one of a kind frame made out of a few garbhagrihas and a mutual mandapa, showing their towers in the transitional state of the northern and southern types (Dehejia, 1994, p. 150). Figure: 3.8 - A Himalayan wooden Temple at Sungra Source: (Sim_eng, 2018) Correspondence to Climate In spite of the fact that the Indian subcontinent has a place with the zone of storm to a vast degree, its substantial geographical territory incorporates decent variety from the 42

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frosty area of the Himalayas to southern India in the subtropical zone through hot-dry western India grasping an awesome desert. Hindu temples have likewise a wide assortment relating to those climates. The first component achieving the variety is the building materials. Central India, having countless rough mountains, turned into the most swarmed territory for cave temples. The delta districts along the Indus in the west and the Ganges in the east don't produce stone of good quality, so block has been utilized as the fundamental material since the season of the Indus Valley Civilization. Block temples in Bengal secured with earthenware boards, prepared with carvings executed on not completely dried dirt, colored towns the shade of Indian red. Wooden temples plummeted from ancient Architecture to some degree are found in the Himalayan district in the north and the Kerala locale in the south, both are honored with much precipitation and forests. Particularly in hilly Himachal Pradesh there are interesting wooden temples surmounted with tapered or gambrel roofs, totally unique fit as a fiddle from stone temples in the lower Indian planes. Be that as it may, what underlies these wooden temples is the piece of; there is no contrast amongst these and stone temple in demonstrating the dwelling place god by its wooden 'shikhara' on a little chamber (Banerjee, Jitendra Nath, 1941). Figure: 3.9 - Lorojonggrang Temple at Prambanan, Java Source: (Prambanan temple compounds, 2018) 43

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Hindu Architecture was conveyed to Burma (Myanmar), Khmer (Cambodia), Champa (Vietnam), Java and Bali (Indonesia) in undefined structures from Buddhist Architecture. In this procedure, it produced different transfigurations as indicated by the traditions and climates. The best illustrative case is the Lorojonggrang temple at Prambanan, Java, committed to Shiva. Somewhat on account of the ancient custom of precursor worship in Java, a 'place of god' additionally came to have the character of a mausoleum for ancestors. This is likely the motivation behind why most temples were not went with mandapas but rather a patio just, situated in the focal point of its podium. The type of their towers depended on the southern type, in which flat floors were heaped up in steps. Khmer Architecture's transfiguration is best appeared in the Angkor Vat, in which the temple and Lord's tomb were joined in one. Fitting in with the 'Deve-Raja' (god-ruler) philosophy, building its areas on an immense scale than at any other time existed in India, on a square arrangement like an augmented type of mandala (Michell, 2000, p. 220). It was made conceivable by the beauty of the type of the Chaturmukha (four-confronted hallowed place) design created in Jain temples, which was conveyed to Southeast Asia alongside Hindu Architecture. Thus, rather than Hindu temples in India, those in south east Asia could spread in four directions, shaping incredible mandala-like designs. In the garbhagriha of the Angkor Var, as a four-colored place of worship, there would have been cherished the God Vishnu. Its pinnacle is thought to have begun from the artillery shell shape of the northern type. 3.4 ELEMENTS OF HINDU ARCHITECTURE 1. Plan It is a roundabout, container or arch shaped. Mud and Bamboo sticks were utilized for development. Over the span of development number of plans were consolidated in the temple Architecture, for example, round arrangement, square, rectangular, circular, upsidal, stellar, and so forth. Content like Manasara notices thirty-two types of square plans. Plan is basic for any structural temple. Plans of the temples rely on the quantity of parts that existed inside the temple. The most straightforward arrangement of the 44

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temple comprises of a garbhagriha and sabhamandapa or patio. This straightforward arrangement does not suggest that the structure had a place with the most punctual period. The temples developed in the later period likewise have basic plans. Development of a temple relies on the financial position of the builder. At the point when an antarala is included amongst garbhagriha and mandapa, at that point the arrangement of the temple comes minimal bigger. At the point when a pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path) is added to garbhagriha and antarala, the arrangement of the temple ends up noticeably more extensive. At that point, it is called as Sandhara temple. Over the span of time, number of parts of the, temple expanded like mandapas, shrines for auxiliary deities; prikaras, and so on, and the arrangement of the temple turned out to be huge and more extensive. With the entry of Agamas in Hindu religion, the subtle elements of Architecture turned out to be more sophisticated in the temple and mirrored the principal symbolism of mandalas. The Yoga Tattva Upanishad talks about the symbolism as far as the five essential components that constitute the material premise of the whole universe. Earth components are spoken to by' a 'Square', Water with a 'semi-hover", fire by a Triangle', air by a 'six-calculated figure' and ether (sky) by a circle. The point without measurement dab (bindu) is the concentration of all vitality. The symbol in the sanctum possesses the focal position and the temple speaks to the next essential structures. The architectural subtle elements of a sophisticated temple mirror this key symbolism. The over five structures are spoken to in a mandala known as Vishva-Karma mandala, which is viewed as essential to all temple Architecture. The four sides of the mandala symbolize the four principle directions and the edges of the square speak to four middirections and each of the eight quarters is managed by a god. The internal circle symbolizes the 'Creator' (Brahma), which is emblematic of movement, monitored by the eight directions. The mandala is emblematic of the whole universe. The 'allproducer (Creator) is additionally the ancestor. The entire mass of scripture, comprising of manuals of Architecture, figure and painting by and large are known as Agama. Early temples were presumed to be worked by this All-creator. 2. Sanctum The sanctum is in fact known as the garbhagriha, the womb house. It is an imperative part in the temple appropriate. Generally, the garbhagrihas are square fit as a fiddle. 45

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Some garbhagrihas, which are longer, and against the standard pivot, additionally can be seen. Garbhagriha used to be little at the outset and could concede just a single worshipper at any given moment; however, the holy place was implied for open and the essential sanctuary, sanctum alone constituted the real temple. This kind of single cell shrines likewise can be found in the present day temple Architecture, which are for the most part committed to the mother Goddess or gramadevatha or gramapurush. The temple should comprise of a sanctum in which the God is to be introduced and housed. The structural associations close-by the temple are likewise basic for the essential worship and rituals (Rajan K. S., 1972, p. 230). Writings like Sri Prasna depicts that the sanctum is the body of the heavenly nature and the symbol is its spirit (Jiva). Typically it is a stone structure, square fit as a fiddle and basically plain with some anticipated chunks in the divider or specialties. There ought not to be any pillars in the sanctum hall. The sanctum ought to be furnished with windows for air and light, which in the end help in conservation of the symbol. In long time past days, the wooden stucco or mud windows were given to the sanctum. The sanctum spoke to then by an unfilled low stage (Vedi) oblivious room. A copper vessel (kumbha), a conciliatory chimney (kunda) or an etched symbol (bimba) used to be put on a seat oblivious space to forestall sick impacts of weathering other than the secret of the perfect nearness in the sanctum. The sanctum was normally worked in stone; however, developments in block are not uncommon (Patil, p. 191). Vishnu Tilaka notices that while the stone sanctum is the best, the block one is the following best. The wooden sanctum however is second preference and the mud sanctum is to be viewed as the most exceedingly awful. The sanctum of the temple must be built first. Before development of the sanctum a huge function known as 'impregnating' (Garbha-dana or Garbha-Nyasa) ought to be performed. This custom includes letting into the earth a stately copper pot containing nine valuable stones, a few metals and minerals, herbs and soil (cleansed earth by ants), symbolizing creation and prosperity. The building that contains the womb is said to be prosperous. After finishing of this custom, a stone section (Adhara-sila) is put over the spot. The copper pot here symbolizes the womb and the symbol symbolizes the spirit. This is the centrality of the sanctum, which is known as the 'womb-house'. Writings like Silparatna, Tantra-Samuchchaya and Isana-Shivaguru Paddhati give a detailed 46

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record of this custom. At the point when the course of action of the garbhagriha is more than one in a few temples, they are called as a Dwikutachala, Trikutachala temples etc. In a couple of temples, anticipating sections and specialties are found in the dividers of garbhagrihas. (E.g. Tambdi Surla temple has anticipating sections and in Mahadeva temple at Curdi have specialties). The useful parts of these are for giving space to keeping certain items utilized for worship. These specialties and anticipated pieces are given by their comfort and introduction of the temple entrance e.g. anticipated pieces in Mahadeva temple Tambdi Surla were settled in the western mass of the sanctum (raise divider), while a recessed specialty was given in the Mahadeva Temple at Curdi in the southern mass of the sanctum. Some garbhagrihas will have a stone projection from the back mass of sanctum touching the picture kept at the inside. The pictures of deities in standing posture are of significant tallness. The focal point of gravity of such pictures falls in reverse far from the inside on the grounds that the heaviness of the back part of the Prahhavali is heavier than that of the front bit of the picture. Despite the fact that pictures are settled on pithas by embeddings anticipating join into the sockets; the likelihood of their fall can't be discounted. Under these conditions, the pictures require bolster at a more elevated amount from the back divider (e.g., Temple of Lakshminarayana at Balaganur and Sangameswar at Kurdi in Raichur area of Karnataka). Most of the temples in Goa have the fundamental god at the focal point of the sanctum and set over pranala. 3. Pradakshinipatha: All around the sanctum a passage is kept regularly limited, allowing the devotees to go round the sanctum in the standard demonstration of commitment. This circumambulatory way thusly turned into a structural contribution as the temple developed in measure; it was more open normally, as it was in the early stage. The temple, which has the circumambulatory passage, is known as Sandhara temple, e.g. Jain temple at Kudne and the temples of Ponda and Bardeztalukas have this element. The temple, which doesn't have pradakshinapatha is known as Niradhara temple. 4. Shikhara Shikhara or superstructure is the best individual from a holy place. A level roof stone slab that covers the sanctum is additionally called as Kapota. Level roof (Kapota) of 47

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the sanctum on which the pinnacle rests and rises is over-laid by a single stone slab, referred to in the texts as 'Brahma randrasila' (the stone). This fills in as the base (adhisthana) for the superstructure those ascents over the sanctum known as Vimana or Shikhara, which frames the vital piece of the temple. In early days, this vertical accentuation was laid on just a single tier (prathamatala). Afterward, number of tiers (talas) was added to this superstructure. It was trusted that the whole region, which the vimana or shikhara neglected was rendered sacred and the territory secured by this shikhara, would be prosperous. Superstructures of temples of Kalinga sort are straightforward with arrangement of subsiding courses shaping ventured pyramids. Another kind of superstructure that is of storied sort contains a few talas (stories) (Rao, 1993, p. 103). Archana-Navnita, an old content arranged these sacred spots into five sorts 1) SvayamVyakta (self-show) 2) Daivika (introduced by Gods) 3) Arsha (introduced by sages) 4) Pauranika (celebrated in the Puranas) and 5) Manusha (manmade) shrines". Nagara: Actually implies squarish, cruciform in design and its Shikhara has a vertical accentuation. Vesara: Circularly stressed flat perspective shape, as domical or octagonal or in the shape of vaulted roof. Another element is storied towers and tall gopuras. It is a mix of Dravida and Nagara style of shikhara highlights. Dravida: Polygonal or octagnal (six or eight sided): It is round about in design or apsidal. General origination is that Nagara kind of temples wins in the land between the Himalayas and Vindhya ranges. Vesara kind of temples exists in between Vindhya ranges and Krishna stream. Dravida sort of temples exists in the middle of River Krishna and Kanyakumari. The term Shikhara signifying 'Mountain top' may show that it implied 'Meru' which means mountain or Kailasa, so tall and consecrated place of Shiva. The North Indian vimana or shikhara is delegated by a substantial round (Wheel shaped) capstone piece known as 'amalaka' (ribbed plate looking like an amalaka organic product, emblic myrobalan), while its south Indian partner closes in a vault (Srnga) or wagon roof (khakra). The south Indian vimana is broader and shorter than 48

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the north Indian vimana. The north Indian temples ascend from a platform (Pitha or Jagati), however the divider (tiara) and primary body (gandi) to the head (mastaka), which comprises of a rib, is surmounted by a 'skull' (khapuri) on which is introduced the kalasa (finial). What's more, finial will be seen as the weapon (ayudha) of the deity, a trident or a plate signal e.g. temples in Odisha and Khajuraho. The Jain temple at Cudne, Goa remains on Pitha (Jagati) like north Indian temple (Bhaktipada, 1989, p. 390). Contrasted with the north Indian temple shikharas, in the Dravidian vimana, the stature is less underlined. The arrangement of the virmana could be round or square. It could likewise be six-sided or eight-sided. It transcends the sanctum with level roof of the sanctum (bhumika or kapotha) as its base (adhisthana). Here and there, in any case it incorporates the zone secured by the circumambulatory way round the sanctum and also the rectangular porch quickly before the sanctum. Its mass lays on a square base called bolster (adhisthana or pitha) and ascends through adapted treatment of dormer windows in a few tiers to a vault shaped pinnacle (shikhara) surmounted by a dome (Srnga or Stupi) 5. Kalasa It was an old custom to introduce a crowing part as a conciliatory 'Vase (Kalasa)' made of metal. Kalasa indicates a characteristic of exaltation. It possesses the highest piece of the temple underneath the Ayuda. 6. Porch The rectangular porch before the sanctum sanctorium (mukha-mandapa or mukha-sala) is a pillared hall, enabling the lovers to stand and watch the worship rituals as they are directed inside the sanctum. At the point when the temple ended up noticeably famous and enthusiasts expanded, the sanctum required extra hall and this porch turned out to be just a vestibule (antarala). Its principle work is to suit more enthusiasts of the temple. The porch (vestibule) is structurally interfacing the sanctum with the extra hall (gathering hall). Like the antarala before the sanctum, a low raised structure called Sukhanasi' delegated antarala. It is raised before the Shikhara, which remains on sanctum appropriate. Dissimilar to the sanctum secured by level roof stone slabs, antarala is additionally filled in the comparable way, which fills in as the base 49

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(adhisthana) for the super structure. Mahadev temple at Tambdi Surla is the best case for antarala with sukhanasi. Here the level roof slabs are organized in light sort (Kadlikakarna) and two rotative squares (trabeats) put consistently in subsiding way to lessen space for ceiling and secured at the best with wonderfully cut lotus stone (Padmasila). This sort of ceiling, find in the sanctum of a similar temple and sanctum and porch of the Mahadev temple at Curdi. Despite the fact that the Khandepar caves are solid up to the stature of kapotha, trabeat framework was appeared in the alleviation of the ceilings of sanctum and porch; however, they are not structural temples (Rajan K. V., 1981, p. 336). 7. Door Door is another critical factor in temple Architecture. The doors of the temple should dependably be two framed and the two are depicted as mother and daughter. BrihatSamahita endorses that the door must be situated amidst the front divider and that it must be an indistinguishable way from the symbol. As indicated by Agnipurana, the door should dependably be set in one of the four directions and never in the corners (Tulasi, 2011). Dwiira-Sakha (doorjamb) is single framed in early temples without much ornamentation. Ornamentation created in the later period in the door panels, and it got comfortable as Sakhas in temple Architecture, for example, LataSakha, PatraSakha, PushpaSakha, and so on. 3.4.1 Structural components of Hindu Architecture In the temples of northern India, the sanctuary or garbhagriha is designed on a raised base, or a plinth (pitha) on which is the plinth (vedibandha). The entire temple complex, including the mandapas and distinctive consecrated sites, is usually erected on a portico (jagati) that sometimes has essential dimensions. The sanctuary has a level roof on the inside and the superstructure is generally empty from the inside to reduce weight. 50

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pot-shaped finialalaia) - capstone 10 shape at grooved disc (amalasak shoulder course Iskanda) spire miniature grooved dises karnanda bmw aralasaraka entablature (varanda wall Cargha socle e vetibandha plinth Figure: 3.10 - Various features of the north Indian temple Source: (North Indian temple, 2016) supole (sikhara) superstructure rectangular miniature shrine of parapot (sala) square miniature shrine of parapet Ckota) parapet thera) miniature wall elements OT poropel Chorontara) entablature (prostoro) (pod) 10m Socle adhisthana) Figure: 3.11- Various features of the north south temple India Source: (South Indian temple, 2016) 51

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The base or the Pitha The Hindu temple base consist of the moulding. These frame levels are groups that contrast with the block courses that support the walls and the excellent structure of the Hindu temple. In the design of Hindu temples, mouldings do not exist as edges or adjustments of the various components, but as components with older components. These are more like the architrave, frieze and cornice of an established pediment than the mouldings inside these. JANGHAI KUMBIA KHARA GAJATHARA THAS IGRAHAPATI KAM JADAMBA [VNATA Figure: 3.12 - Base-moulding features of the north Indian temple. Source: (Hardy, 2007) dedika padin prati kapota n gala adisthana kummida jagati Figure 3.13:- Base moulding features of the south Indian temple. Source: (Hardy, 2007) 52

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The Supporting Elements The temple is composed of tall, thin, separate columns that support the roof, beams and temple structure. Columns are not the parts that represent Hindu temple Architecture like classical western Architecture. It is difficult to organize Indian columns, as there is no specific provision of the section. The contours of the columns of every age and style have intertwined in various ways, but one of a kind, which has passed from one period to another or switched to new ones. The Indian scriptures orchestrate the columns in their transverse area. Cross-sectional area varies round and polygonal square (faceted) through scalloping (corrugated), lobed, star and phase (Hardy, 2007). Development and collaboration widely isolate Indian columns on five essential components to be precise; writing columns as, tall, square, round composition, Ghata-Pallava pillow columns and bharana columns. Figure: 3.14 - The cushion type of column. Source: (Hardy, 2007) 53

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Figure: 3.15 - The Ghatapallava type of column. Source: (Hardy, 2007) However, the unmistakable Indian columns are composed of parts designed vertically, similarly to cut the temple base and is usually seen in all periods and styles. The basic parts of the columns are: bar (Uttara), the highest segment of the segment is the pillar, and these are the rays of the base temple. The region below is the section, that supports the columns. The section indicates the direction of the pillar and shortens the path between the columns. This section leads instead of the pillar directly and acts as a shock absorber for limited loads. Head or capital segment is called ghata, a regulated part or swelling that is fixed by the neck and the shoulder section (Lasuna). This information works like a mattress for the pile of structures. Under the bone and the pair is Lasuna band, a pan, malasthana and down band of another level. These two components are inseparable and are cut by a square of solitary stone. 54

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M Figure: 3.16 - The different parts of the columns. Source: (Hardy, 2007) The Superstructure or the Shikhara The Latin Shikhara is curvilinear in the graph and consists of the plane of one on the roof tiles of the other level. The surface of the entire sikhara is ensured by a vine-like interwoven work, made of a modest candrasala of fantasy. Shikhara decreases in the best of cases and is hit by a regular course (skandha), above which a roundabout (griva) forms, which passes over a vast wrinkled circle called amalasaraka. The phamsana sikhara has a rectilinear frame and is worn in stature in contrast to the Latin one. It also includes slabs and is fixed by a part in the form of a tall part, which is called ghanta. 55

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Figure: 3.17 - The phamsana type of shikhara. Source: (Hardy, 2007) YA Figure: 3.18 - The Latina type of shikhara. Source: (Hardy, 2007) Figure: 3.19 - The Sekhari type of shikhara. Source: (Hardy, 2007) 56

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In the 10th century, another type of shikhara or tower created called sekhari. In this part, in the form of a tower created Latin focal of at least a row of half needles including the sides and on the bottom hung with spirals. Corners present here are loaded with spirals, the whole mass of the carved masonry reminiscent of a mountain with lots of auxiliary peaks (South Asian arts, 2018). Temple in northern India, Latin and sekhari are generally in the holy place and phamsana are usually found in the mandapa. In the temple of south India, the super structure is that of the script of kutina and shala. The super structure has a pyramidal shape and is part of adventurous stories. Each story recreates the main story and imagines that it has its "wall" enclosed by a parapet. In antiquated temples, these adventurous stories of the superstructure with its parapets proved increasingly ornamental, so that over time they became very enriching groups around the pyramidal superstructure (South Asian arts, 2018). The vented structure surmounted by a strong arch or dome or a roofing vault. The first is kutina and the second is the shala script. The structure is delegated with a pot and finial. Figure: 3.20 - Shikhara of the south Indian temples. Source: (Hardy, 2007)

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The Mandapa and the Pillared Hall The first Hindu temple will have a portico in front of the sanctuary. The most important temples have no less than a mandapa, the group of spectators before the fundamental sanctuary. The mandapa can be closed or opened with one or two corridors. In the middle of the 7th and 8th century, the mandapa have level ceilings generally set with huge slabs of stone. The space between the columns was solved in the introduction taking into account the rationality of extraction and transport. The stone slabs for the material have been cut down into dazzling models, continuing with the use of stone cutting. In the temple of northern India, in the mid-ninth century, the mandapas were based on the hypothesis and geometry of the vastupurashamandala. The mandapa reflects the central plan of the place of the fundamental cult, the focal abyss of the mandapa orders the course of the action and has a width indistinguishable from that of the garbhagriha. A distinctive type of roof motifs, including most light ceilings, has generally been perceived. OCCO Figure 3.21: - The north Indian temple mandapa form. Source: (Hardy, 2007) 58

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Figure 3.22: -The north Indian temples mandapa. Source: (Vardia, 2008, p. 39) 3.5 ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE So far, there is no archaeological confirmation of the primary Islamic structures on Indian soil. Which, in all probability, were delivered by the triumph of Sindh in the eighth century. Despite the fact that, the elimination in the introduction was embraced in Bhambor (Pakistan) and in another place could possibly discover the Daybul site. The structures after the start of the twelfth century, whatever it is, clearly demonstrate the response of the Muslims to the indigenous construction. Because the traditions of symbolic sanctuaries, with their abundant representation of flourishing figures, their unhappiness and mystery, or more the whole idea of love they suggested, was an abomination to Islam. (Alfieri, 2000). The most of the Islamic construction in Delhi, there was reuse of material looted by Hindu and Jain sanctuaries. The main illustration, the Al-Islam Quwwat Mosque in Delhi, is actually based on a sanctuary foundation, and somewhere in the range of twenty-seven shrines were attached to give segments, separators, roofing materials and ceiling; the figures drawn were mutilated or divided into divisions that the untwisted. sides of the stones were all that could be seen. 59

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a. Dome b. Arch Figure: 3.23-Islamic basic Architectural Components. Source: (Basic Architectural components, 2017) 3.6 TIMELINE OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE c. Mugamas Vault How Did It Begin? In the seventh and eighth centuries, Islam spread to Spain and India. Islam arrived in India mainly with sellers, merchants, celestial men and debtors. Despite the fact that in the eighth century the Muslims had begun to develop in Sindh, Gujarat, etc. The development of Turkish was initiated by the Turkish state, founded after the Turkish success in the country. Until the thirteenth century in north, an essential part of these relocations and victories was that Muslims consumed many highlights of nearby culture and tradition and consolidated them with their own compositional highlights (Grover, 1996, p. 190). 60 Thus, in the field of Architecture, a blend of numerous basic procedures, adapted shapes, and surface improvements occurred through consistent intercessions of acknowledgment, dismissals or changes of building components. These building elements or classes displaying different styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or IndoIslamic Architecture. By the twelfth century, India was at that point acquainted with fantastic development in pompous settings. Certain strategies and embellishments were common and mainstream, for example, trabeation (the utilization of shaft instead of

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arches or vaulting), sections, and numerous columns to help a level rooftop or a little shallow dome. The arches in early developments were molded in wood and stone, and were not able to manage the heaviness of the domes/ top structures. Such arches should have been built with voussoirs (arrangement of interlocking squares) and fitted with cornerstones (Volwahsen, 1970, p. 190). By following the tradition of the Prophet, i.e. building a mosque when they begin to possess another settlement. Change of structures utilized by the general population before the Muslims assumed control over the state/nation, for e.g. Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey. Islamic Architecture is the whole scope of Architecture that has advanced from Islam as a social, political and religious wonder. Thus the term includes religious structures and also mainstream ones, noteworthy and in addition present day articulations, and the creation out of every other place on earth that have gone under the fluctuating levels of Islamic impact. At the time of the Muslim victory, India was a land full of usual inventiveness: shrines and cloisters multiplied Hindu places of worship and dimensions taken into account for all purposes. Every slope and spring, urban areas were rich and specially laid out, Hindu rulers had worked for their strength and imperial residences, and the remaining portions of the early periods of Indian human progress, for example, Hindu, Buddhist and Jain surrender sanctuaries and Buddhist stupas and religious communities were different. The field of Islamic Architecture is a key case of this rich heritage. As an aspect of Islamic development, Architecture is a natural verbalization of solidarity of beliefs and Islamic finds that considers social and common boundaries. This address presents the historical setting of Islamic societies through their most materialistic signs: an authoritative Architecture that lasted for fourteen centuries and in three continents Asia, Africa and Europe. Islamic Architecture as a chronic convention and as a social implication that has influenced and has been influenced by developments with which it has come into contact. Since the Islamic in west along the Atlantic and the Mediterranean Sea to the far east Asia, Architecture has shown the encapsulation of Islamic research results into various structures and styles at once, which are creative virtuoso. 61

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SI.No. Name of structure Cheraman Juma Masjid Source: (Cheramanjuma-masjid, 2017) Table 3.2:- Time line of Islamic Architecture Place Period Description (Circa) Kodungallur, 629 AD (Possibly Foundation stone year by King Thrissur, Kerala Cheraman but Completed possibly 680-700 AD by Malik Deenar who was a disciple of Hasan Basri who was born in 642AD). It is the first mosque in India. Kilakarai, Tamil | 628-630 | The oldest mosque in Tamil nadu. It is also Nadu AD known as Meen Kada Palli or Old Jumma Palli. Palaiya Jumma Palli Source: (kilakarai the oldest mosque in india, 2017) Jama Masjid Budaun 1223 AD Source: (Great Mosque Budaun, 2017) This mosque reflects Persian and Afghan Architecture. The floor is in white marble. This mosque is the third oldest and second largest mosque in the country after Jama Masjid in Delhi. The central dome of the mosque is considered the largest for any dome of the mosque in the country.

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Table 3.2:- Time line of Islamic Architecture SI.No. Name of structure Place Description Period (Circa) 4 Madurai, Tamil Nadu | 1284 AD One of the oldest and Second mosque in Tamil Nadu. Kazimar Big Mosque Source: (Kazimar-BigMosque-in-Madurai India, 2017) 1363 AD Adina Mosque Source: (Adinamosque-malda, 2017) Maldah, West Bengal The largest mosque in South Asia built by Sultan Sikandar Shah at that time. Jaunpur 1408 AD Atala Mosque Source: (Atala-mosquejaunpur-1408, 2017) The architectural style of Atala Masjid is known as Sharqi Style. The use of minars was avoided in Atala Masjid.

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SI.No. Name of structure 7 8 9 Sidi Saiyyed mosque Source: (Siddi-saiyedmosque, 2017) Charminar Source: (Charminar, 2017) Fatehpuri Masjid Source: (Masjidfatehpuri, 2017) Place Ahmedabad Hyderabad Delhi Table 3.2:- Time line of Islamic Architecture Period Description (Circa) 1573 AD The mosque is completely arched and is famous for its trussed windows (jalis) of ten beautiful windows carved into the side and back arches. 1591 AD Four fluted minarets with profusion of stucco decorations and the arrangement of its balustrades and balconies. 1650 AD The mosque had canalized dome with mahapadma and kalash at the top. 64 Image

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SI.No. Name of structure 10 11 Jama Masjid Source: (Jama-masjid, 2017) Aasfi Masjid Source: (Bara Imambara, 2017) Place Delhi Lucknow Table 3.2:- Time line of Islamic Architecture Period Description (Circa) 1656 AD It has similarities to Buddhist pagodas and is constructed in Persian style. 1784 AD Also known as Bara Imambara, its Architecture reflects the maturation of ornamented Mughal design 65 Image

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3.7 RELEVANCE OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE The Islamic rule in India has also seen the introduction of many new elements in the style of construction. The first buildings of the slave dynasty did not use authentic styles of Islamic construction and consisted of false domes and false arches. Then, authentic arches and authentic domes begin to appear; the oldest illustration is Alai Darwaza next to Qutb Minar (Desai, 1970, p. 110). These designs were cut on a stone with little modification, cut into plaster, painted or inlaid. The use of lime as a mortar was also a remarkable component distinct from the conventional construction style. The Architecture of the tomb is also another component of Islamic Architecture since the act of internment of the dead was adopted. The Mughals also made huge gardens on different levels and terraces in the design of the bagh (garden). The academics follow the progress of the example bagh to plant the first Mughal country, Kabul Valley, where landscape and territory, gardens and housing complexes were established. The Mughals purchased this script from the garden and transformed it beautifully according to the new lands in India. For the Mughals they are also credited with having introduced the dual-vaulted dome-style Architecture and Dura stone-cut decorations (Parihar, 1999, p. 255). 3.8 ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE Each Islamic structure, for example, a mosque, is made out of various spaces and infrequently it is conceivable that new spaces to be added as an option to different structures. Mian Sara (courtyard): is an important element for Islamic Architecture. The vast majority of the mosques, schools, and caravanserais, have a focal courtyard or yard. Mian Sara had two important aspect in the Islamic period: First, it could fulfill Muslim's requirement for a place to preform bathing and purging in the mosques. Second, it could isolate the working from the commotion and movement regular day to day existence by putting the attention on the inside of the building. 66

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Ravagh: Covered spaces that are set around the mosque's overskirt or Mian sara. The passage of such spaces is towards the overskirt and associates the mosque's entrance to the Shabestan or the vault. Dome: A dome covering has various qualities in Islamic Architecture and has had more capacities that some other covering. Stellar Shabestan: They don't have much stature and are typically set around the domes. These Shabestans are planned in a way that they could be extended or made littler by including or evacuating sections. Minaret: Minaret or Minar implies the place of light, and is utilized to allude to high structures that were normally set near religious structures, for example, mosques (Kiyani 2007). Prior to the development of Islam, minarets were worked between the urban areas and fires were lit upon at that point, and they were called guiding towers. Later on, that Islam turned into the prevailing religion, minarets were assembled wonderfully and a Mazene was put over it (Al-Naghsh, 2001, p. 45). Passage: In Iranian Architecture, the section propylaeum and the finials were one of the most unmistakable and fundamental visual components. In such structures, the endeavor was that the section be additionally striking in appearance contrasted with others around. The withdrawal in the entryway of the mosques welcomes individuals in and invites them. In the eighth century, in the great mosque of Damascus, the minaret had become a cornerstone of Muslim religious Architecture. The Islamic Architecture could be linked to the components of the scheme that are accompanied: Large domes Minarets or towers (in the eighth century, in the great mosque of Damascus, the minaret had become a fundamental component of Muslim religious Architecture) Large courtyards they often converged with a corridor of focal attraction Use of geometric and monotonous craftsmanship (Arabesque) Wide use of animated Arabic calligraphy 67

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> Use of symmetry > ablutions of wellsprings A mihrab inside the mosques shows the course towards Mecca We can recognize the components of the Islamic Architecture that wound up plainly significant impacts in the cutting edge plan as: Calligraphy: Because the images were forbidden as an architectural device, several Arabian couplets were engraved on the walls, in the form of calligraphy and embellishments. These are still used in several current buildings. They add to the magnificence and give a spiritual and academic atmosphere to the place. Domes: Perhaps the most perceived factor in Islamic Architecture, they continued to appear without the bomb, in the Islamic world at any time. They are still used in current buildings where the planner wants a gigantic space inside and does not have the desire to limit himself to inflexible forms. The domes have proved to be representative of the Islamic world and have two main symbolic meanings: representing the vault of paradise and the divine force that overwhelms the enthusiastic and physical being of the trustworthy. It also had a utilitarian use that had to emphasize specific areas such as the ship or the mihrab, while it also illuminated the interior of the building. Minarets: The towers around the buildings enhance the splendor and give a majestic appearance to the structure that is located in the middle. The oldest remaining minaret is the Qal'at of Beni Hammad, built in 1007 in eastern Algeria. It was luxuriously enriched with an opening that gave light and which diminished the weight of the structure, different types of arches were used in the frames of these windows, including the clover, the semi-round and the polylobed arches. Vaults: It is an architectural curve that forms a roof or a roof that allows to have a roof over a large space made of bricks, stone or rubble. Types of arches were used by the Romans, but the Muslims refined them so that they could manufacture more and more. They did times that were so strong, but better with walls of thinner curtains, so they let in more light. The great mosque of Cordoba 68

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was the launching pad for many European Architecture. Its wide vestibule of polychrome arches, horseshoe-shaped and at the intersection, cross vaults and domes, all developed towards the north, and it is significant that the ribbed vaults do not appear in the churches that existed at that point. The first ribbed type of vault was used in the 13th century Abbasid palace of Ukhaydar in Iraq. A four-iwan plan, with three subordinate halls and one essential one that countenances toward Mecca. inside divider was Mihrab or supplication specialty on an demonstrating the heading to Mecca. Pishtaq is the formal passage to the iwan, as a general rule the essential supplication corridor of a mosque, a vaulted lobby or space, walled on three sides, with one end entirely open; a Persian expression for a portal foreseeing from the facade of a building, typically embellished with calligraphy groups, covered tilework, and geometric designs. Iwans too widely appealed between various pavilions. Arches: It is essential element in Architecture because they enclose large spaces while supporting huge loads. Being strong and adaptable, they have become larger and larger, and today Greek, Romans, and Byzantines were acquired by the Islamic who had great plans for their mosques and palaces. So, they grew new forms like the horseshoe, multi-thwart, pointed, and ogee curve, which was urgent for architectural progression. Muslims were so certain of their mastery of the curve that they did some spectacular experiments with forms and techniques of its construction - one of these was the intersecting arches, which gave an extra structural element. 69

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3.8.1 Architectural Ornamentation The ornamentation incorporates epigraphs, verses of holy book, brickwork and geometric ornamentation and calligraphy. Arabesque designs are selective to Islam and are made from two elements; interweaved designs and vegetable plans. Interlaced designs are basically a grandstand of geometric idea. While the vegetable plans are an indication of endeavors to diagram weight, and since they are comprised of interwoven shapes, one might say that it has been enlivened less from a genuine vegetable than a simply linear method (Imeni, 2011, p. 142). 3.8.2 Spiritual Foundations It incorporates the accompanying elements: Space: The Muslim designer considers the rhyme of climb in every one of his structures and looks to rise above from the natural domain and come to a more prominent and more significant space. They likewise free himself from the progressions and advancements of this world. Shape: The universe is comprised of certain however inconspicuous truth and it will come back to it. Shapes have dependably been in the ideal immaculateness and flawlessness; it is this virtue and flawlessness that qualities Architecture with a supernatural trademark and conveys it near the pictures of the other domain. Symmetry: Symmetry in Architecture is propelled by nature. Symmetry itself comprises of two sorts: vertical and even. In vertical symmetry the pictures of the building was made so utilizing the waterfront, and in even symmetry wall inverse to each other are indistinguishable. The Orientation of the Mosque: The entire building is arranged towards Qibla. The pivot of Mosques towards the close-by rows originates from a similar regard. Absence of Orientation: Rather than the general view that is arranged towards Qibla, the inside of the mosque is totally without orientation and plans to regard the absence of any visual segregation in the mosque by either total majority or outright straightforwardness.

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Color: Although the Muslim model focuses on the visual importance of colors. It exhibits the aggregate solidarity of space by the differentiating colors set other than each other. It is motivated by the perspective in such a utilization of colors. Teacher Pope says so in regards to colors: "In the vast majority of Islamic periods, the utilization of various and vivacious colors achieved such a stature and agreement, to the point that was never observed. Such an extreme reliance on colors is required by the viewpoint and the landscape" (Pourjafar, 2014, pp. 10-19). Light: Light enters the mosque using glass in the windows and spirituality to the space. 3.9 BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE The religion that began in India was faced with so many different structures. It was adapted into such a vast assortment, to the point that it is often difficult to see how the various organizations of Buddhism are connected. When religion changes and adapts, the Buddha is loved: Buddhism began in today's India, where it became a composed religion proven by priests, nuns and laity (Kashyap E. B., 1958). Sankasia Sravasti Lumbini Kashara Vaishal Sarnath Pagin Bodn Gaya Figure: 3.24 - The Eight Great Places of Buddhism (Four Great Places are plotted in red). Source: (Images, 2017)

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Maintaining the ultimate aim of welcoming the degree of achievement of the Buddha, we must strive to imagine what life was like in the first months in India, especially in towns and villages in the Ganges river valley, such as Kapilavastu at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains, is now the country of Nepal. This is the district, where the Buddha was probably conceived; around 560 BC consistently, the current has dominated the valley by destroying crops. The storms also came every year, making devastation. The Brahmins (Hindu priests) chanted Vedic chants (the most established writings of Hinduism) and penances offered fire to Brahma (Hindu divine power of creation). In any case, they have not updated the conditions for the typical man. From the most specific circumstances, the Hindu society was stratified. The castes settled the economy firmly with the Brahmins, the managers and the performers of extremely positive by their social order. The middle way One of the greatest spiritual conquests of the Buddha was the beginning of the middle way. He discovered the regulation of the middle way simply after having lived for a long time as ascetic. This experience has convinced him that the extremes must be avoided. Karma transgresses beginning with one life and then the next. Determine how a being (major or minor) will be renewed. Karma is not predestination because the possibility of predestination does not consider an unbridled decision. Current circumstances are controlled by events from previous life, but there is a total opportunity between the present and the future. The upward compactness is possible. A being can experience the Buddha and have a privileged point of view in human domination. How can salvation be achieved? Everything is short, everything is intermittent, everything is distressing. Nirvana is the usual name for what is not samsara. Where is Nirvana? There is no place Nirvana is out of the vertical thinking of the universe (I.B.Horner, 1975-77). 72

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3.9.1 The main branches of Buddhism Over the centuries, two major branches of Buddhism have emerged: a transmission that was established in southeast Asia and a transmission that has progressed in east Asia. A new branch of transmission from the north has also been created. Each of the three branches started in India and grew even more when they crossed Asia. They are known as Buddism Budd Theravada and Mahayana Budd Buddhism (Smith, 1966-72). Figure: 3.25 - The Stupa Sanchi, India. Source: (Stupa at sanchi, 2017) 3.10 ENLIGHTENMENT OF BUDDHA Buddhists visit the stupas to achieve rituals that help them achieve one of the most significant goals of Buddhism. To understand the teachings of the Buddha, known as the four noble truths (also known as the dharma and the law) so that when the pelvis kicks it stops being accelerated in samsara, the infinite cycle of birth and death (Cowell, 1973). The Four Noble Truths: 1. Life is suffering (suffering rebirth). 2. The cause of suffering is desire. 3. The cause of desire must be overcome. 4. By the time the desire is overcome, there is no more suffering. 73

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Actually, Buddha means "the enlightened One" and the learning that the Buddha learned on his path to enlightenment that Buddhist practitioners individually seek to travel to enlightenment (Buddhadatta, 1980). The circle or wheel One of the earliest sutras (a collection of sayings accredited to the Buddha that forms a religious substance) account that the Buddha gave specific instructions regarding the correct strategy for respecting their remains (Sutra del Maha-parinibbana). Buddha ashes had to be kept in a stupa at the intersection of the incredible four incredible ways (the four directions of space), for the purpose of fire rotates motionless, the place of the enlightenment. Circumbulation The devotee does not enter the stupa; it is a solid protest. Instead, they surrounds him (walks through it) as a meditative work focusing on the teachings of the Buddha. This development suggests the infinite cycle of resurrection (samsara) and pathway (eight guidelines that help professionals) that lead to learning the four noble truths and the central focus of the fixed focal point of the wheel illustration. The devotee can walk around the stupa or move through a series of prostrations (a development that lowers the body of the expert on the ground in a submission position). A torrid and indirect movement around the stupa increases the temperature of the body. Practitioners do this to reflect the brightness of the fire that burned the body of the Buddha, a process that resumed burned the bonds of egocentrism and association with the ordinary world and without complications. Attachments to common domination are considered obstacles on the path to enlightenment. 3.11 BUDDHIST MONASTERIES The work of the monastery However, in Buddhism and Christianity, instead of statues, monks or nuns beg for the benefit of the general public. The monastery usually becomes the spiritual center of the city or the nearest city. In Christianity, the monks ask God for the salvation of the souls of the living. However, in Buddhism, there is no understanding of the soul. The goal is

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not heaven, but the cessation of the infinite cycle of resurrection (samsara), to reach moksha, which is the opportunity or the release of the association with the internal identity or the material world and the conclusion of samsara, and recognize nirvana ., which will be released in the interminable state of unity with everything. 3.11.1 The four noble truths or dharmas It is difficult to reach moksha, which is why the Buddha's teachings focus on achieving enlightenment or learning that helps way to moksha. This is briefly described in its four noble truths, as also mentioned dharma (law): . * * Life is (suffering = resurrection). The cause of suffering is desire. The cause of desire must be overcome. Just when desire survives, it is no longer (suffering = resurrection). The skilled practitioners of Buddhism understood that only one in two people had been established to perform the rites necessary to obtain the authorized purposes of the consummation of samsara (resurrection). However, the typical person could improve their karma (an activity or action that establishes a cycle of cause and impact) through standard altruistic acts that, for the most part, were planned for the religious group. Buddhist monks and nuns considered and prayed in the interest of the secular group (or average citizens, practically all those who were not priests or priests), those who did not have specific data on certainty, helping them to achieve the goal of understanding the four noble truths. Monks and nuns also instructed the lay expert on the most capable strategy for coordinating rituals, on how to think about them and advising them on which divine nature of Buddhism to focus (this depended on the problem or obstacle in the specialist's path to enlightenment). The people, therefore, supported the monks with donations of sustenance and other necessary goods (Kashyap B.J., 1960).

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The beginnings of monasteries In the early years of Buddhism, following the practices of contemporary religions such as Hinduism and Jainism (and distinctive beliefs that never existed again), the monks engaged in an ascetic life (a routine with respect to a specific search for self of religion or spiritual goals) that envelops the country without endless homes. They were fed, dressed and hosted in the harsh atmosphere by people who want to justify themselves, who earn spiritual credit through virtuous acts. In the end, the monastic complexes were made for the monks close enough to a city with a real purpose of obtaining alms or charity from the villagers, far enough not to be disturbed in the midst of contemplation. 3.12 ELEMENTS OF BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE 1. Stupa - The first was the stupa, an important element in Buddhist Architecture. On an incredibly basic level, it is an internment track for the Buddha. The first stupas contained the ashes of Buddha. 2. Vihara - Second was construction of vihara. It is Buddhist monastery, which contained a residencial camplex for the monks. 3. Chaitya - Third was the chaitya, a campaign of assembly that contained a stupa (however a discharge of relics). This has become an essential component for the monasteries in central India. The focal passage of the chaitya was designed to contemplate the circumbulation of the stupa. 3.12.1 Temple Elements of the of Buddhist Architecture Roof shapes Multiple levels of the roof are a basic component of the Thai temple. The use of multiple decorated levels is provided for roofs in temples, castles and open basic structures. A couple of levels are used routinely; however, some glorious temples have four. The use of multiple levels of the roof is more elegant than useful. Because the temple rooms are large, their roof regions are huge. To help the roof look, the smallest level is the largest, with a smaller focusing layer and smaller roof to finish everything. Multiple levels in each roof: a roof with two layers can have 2-4 breaks in each level.

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Rivets on the roof Most of the decorations are attached to the bulletin board; the long, thin edge at the end of the roof at the end of the pinnacle. The enriching structure is known as lamyong. The lamyong is streaked in a wavy and sinuous sadung shape drawn by the naga. His forehead as the projections called bai raka recommends both naga blades and garuda feathers. Its lower end is known as Hang Hong, which usually looks like the head of a detached naga and looks from the ceiling. The head of the naga can be drawn in flames like kranok motifs and can have different heads. 3.13 TIME LINE OF BUDDHIST ARCHITECTURE Ashoka: the first King to embrace Buddhism The special sites for King Ashoka (304-232 BC), the first ruler (of northern India) to capture Buddhism, were also an essential for the functioning of the monasteries. Ashoka included one of his famous pillars in this area: proclaiming his pillars claim to Buddhism, and served as educational objects in the Buddhist belief system. A vihara was home or perhaps some stories, in front of a terrace with columns. The cells of the monks or nuns have been designed around a focal meeting room as in the Ajanta vihara arrangement (left). Each cell contained a stone bed, a pillow and a specialty for a light. With a specific purpose aimed at perceiving the right point in which the Buddha attained enlightenment, Ashoka has built an important precious stone position (actually vajrasana gemstone seat) emphasizing the indestructible form of dharma. 3.13.1 Buddhist Monasteries in India In India, in the first century, many monasteries were established as learning centers sites currently associated with the Buddha and Buddhism. These sites come together in which the Buddha Lumbini, Bodh Gaya where lord Budhha attained enlightenment and learning Dharma (the four noble truths), and Sarnath (Deer Park), where lord Budhha delivered his first discourse sharing the dharma was conceived, and Kushinagar in which Lord Budhha kicked the container. 77

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3.13.2 The Historical Buddha A Human Endeavor Among the founders of the great religions of the world, Buddha was the principal instructor who did not claim to be another typical person. The distinctive teachers were God or simply inspired by God. However, the Buddha was an immaculate human being who came to be seen in a religion definitely meant to be superhuman. Man's position, as Buddhism shows, is supreme. Man is his particular teacher, and there is no being or superior control that judges his destiny. If the Buddha should be known as a "savior" by any creative effort, it is simply in the sense that the Lord Budhha has discovered and shown the way to an opportunity, for Nirvana. It is with this level of individual responsibility that the Buddha offers an opportunity for his disciples. This change of thought is exceptional in the history of religion and is necessary because, as the Buddha demonstrated, man's freedom depends only on the affirmation of truth, and not on the merciful magnificence of a God or an external power as a reward for his submission to behavior (Cunningham, 1963).

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Table 3.3:- Time line of Budhhist Architecture Period (Circa) Description SI.No. Name of structure Place Image Sanchi Stupa Source: (Sanchi, 2017) Sanchi 3rd century BC It is the oldest stone structure of India and built by Ashoka. 2 Lomas Rishi Cave Source: (Barabar-caves, 2017) Barabar Hills, Jehanabad 3rd century BC The cottage-style facade at the entrance to the cave is the first survival of the cave or chandrashala "chaitya arch", which has been an important feature of Indian sculptural Architecture and sculptural decoration for centuries. It is considered by many scholars as "the prototype of the Buddhist caves of Western Deccan, in particular the structure of the chaitya hall built between the 2nd century BC and the 2nd century CE". Example of Hinayana Architecture.

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Table 3.3:- Time line of Budhhist Architecture Period (Circa) Description SI.No. Name of structure Place Image Bodhgaya, Mahabodhi Temple Source: (Mahabodhi temple, 2017) 250 BC Originally established by Ashoka, and then expanded during the second to the seventh century AD. Its present pyramidal structure dates back to the Gupta empire, in the 5th-6th century AD Bihar Dhamek Stupa Source: (Dhamek Stupa, 2017) Sarnath 249 BC Dhamek built with a substantial core of bricks, but facing a solid "shell" of stone masonry. It was rebuilt later in 500 AD Ajanta Caves Source: (Welcome to Ajanta Caves, 2017) Aurangabad, Maharashtra 200 BC - 480 AD The caves of Ajanta are ancient monasteries and worshipers of different Buddhist traditions carved into a 250-foot rock face. Both developments of Hinayana and Mahayana are in Ajanta. It began to understand the durability and stiffness of stone as a building material; its understanding gave a streamlined Architecture 80

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Table 3.3:- Time line of Budhhist Architecture Period (Circa) Description SI.No. Name of structure Place Image Amravati Stupa Source: (Intro, 2017) Vijaywada, Andhra Pradesh 200 BC - 300 AD The Amravati art school has had a great influence on art in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. It also had influence on the southern Indian sculpture. Barhut Stupa Source: (Bharhut, 2017) Satna, Madhya Pradesh 125-100 BC One of the earliest examples of Indian and Buddhist art, later of the monumental art of Ashoka (about 260 BC), and a little later of the first reliefs of Sunga on the railings of Sanchi Stupa. Takh-I-Bahi Source: (Takht-i-Bahi, 2017) Mardan, Pakistan 1st century BC Considered among the most impressive relics of Buddhism throughout Gandhara and a prominent representative of the Architecture of the Buddhist monastic centers of his time.

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Sl.No. 9 10 Name of structure Ghantashala stupa Source: (Into the Glory of Ghantasala, 2017) University of Nalanda Source: (Nalanda (Mahavihara), 2017) Place Table 3.3:- Time line of Budhhist Architecture Period (Circa) Vijaywada, Andhra Pradesh Nalanda, Bihar Description The stupa is of an exclusive design that recalls the Architecture of the Satavahana periods and is also 1st century BC known as 'Maha Chaitya'. It is a brick arrangement 5th to 12th century AD 82 that forms a cubic solid placed at the center that is embellished with twelve signs of the zodiac. A large Buddhist monastery in the ancient kingdom of Magadha. The excavations revealed eleven monasteries and six large brick temples arranged in an orderly manner. Image

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3.13.3 The Buddha Shakyamuni Shakyamuni Buddha is the creator of the Buddhist religion. He lived and was educated in India in the sixth century BC, a period of prosperity of religious and philosophical thought from Greece to China. Conceived as the ruler of the crown of the immense Kingdom of Shakya, the young Siddhartha Gautama was prepared to be a teacher according to the wishes of his great father. However, when she was about twenty nine, he learned about the significant suffering experienced in life by people. He left his life as an imperial resident; he abdicate his beautiful clothes and gems to discover the causes of this suffering and the means to overcome it. What does this statute say? The Buddhist figure talks with signals of hands and body. Shakyamuni's correct hand stretches out descending to contact the earth. This motion speaks to the minute in which he called the earth to witness his amazing quality in the territory of illusion (maya), the incomparable God of the world (samsara), who had attempted to divert him from his consideration. Accordingly, the earth shook and shivered to detect the acknowledgment of Shakyamuni's Buddhahood. Shakyamuni's left-hand rests in his lap in a signal of reflection and holds his charity bowl. How was this sculpture used? This style is essentially the same as can be found in Tibet, as it has been instructed by Tibetan craftsmen to Mongolian specialists and takes after the strict and positive benchmarks of customary Tibetan Buddhist iconography. Tibetan consecrated workmanship dependably meets a religious point of confinement. This figure, as the majority of the Tibetan work, can be utilized as a part of reflection as a manual to envision the brightening of one, and in addition of different creatures. Sacrosanct model gives the master guide access to the Buddha. Once he is formally enabled as the embodiment of the Buddha. It is thusly conceivable to get adoration, offers, admissions and petitions of each assortment of the expert. These sacrosanct pictures are welcome to have a state of regard in a Buddhist conciliatory stone, both at home and in a religious community. There they transform into a condition of experience for examination and custom. 83

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3.13.4 Development of the Buddha image Figure: 3.26 - Architectural element showing the Buddha's first sermon. Source: (Development of the Buddha Image, 2017) There is a significant verbal meeting regarding the improvement of the Buddha image: where it happened for the first time, why and when. Understandably, the photo of the Buddha created in the middle of the early CE in two critical centers of Indian craftsmanship in the middle of the Kushana period. One of the main region of artistic creation was the old district of Gandhara, an area that includes the north-west of India, and today parts of Pakistan and Afghanistan (David's, 1969). Amidst the Maurya time frame, in the period of the sovereign Ashoka (272-231 BC), essential landmarks and different show-stoppers were carved in stone, clearly from nothing. While stone carvings, similar to the tremendous segments delegated with pictures of lions and wheels, communicated imagery and on Buddhist themes, there are no Buddha pictures of this period. Various researchers have theorized that there was an aneconic period (without icons) in Buddhist elaboration, where there was abandonment against the picture of the credible Buddha, and a few images supplanted an unequivocal human portrayal. A few researchers have deciphered story reliefs in early Buddhist landmarks to show old Buddhist parades or devours, where an iconic images, instead of human images, dedicated to the Buddha.

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Not all researchers perceive these speculations, autonomously. It appears to be likely that different kinds of religious imagery, in Buddhist, Hindu and diverse settings, have been made of transient materials beforehand made of stone. When in doubt, the momentous refinement and the peculiar condition of the sculptural abilities communicated in the Maurya stone figure infer that the sculptural convention was then uncommon today. The incomparable way and Buddhist tendencies of the sovereign Ashoka may have been the principal unprecedented instigators of a change to a sweeping stone figure in India. 3.14 SIKH ARCHITECTURE The history of Sikh Architecture began with Guru Nanak Dev Ji, the first guru of the Sikh tradition in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent. Religious practices were formalized by Guru Gobind Singh Ji on April 13, 1699. These latter baptized five people of different social backgrounds to form Khalsa. The first five, Pure: One then baptized Gobind Singh in the fold of Khalsa. This gives the order of Khalsa, a history of about 300 years. History of Sikh Architecture is closely associated with the history of Punjab and the socio-political situation in the northwest Indian subcontinent of the sixteenth century (present-day Pakistan and India). During the Mughal domination of India (1556-1707), Sikhism was in conflict with the laws of the Mughal Empire. Affecting the political successions of accumulated Mogul, while the saints of Hinduism and Islam. Eminent Sikh gurus have been killed by Islamic rulers for refusing to convert to Islam and opposing the persecution of Sikhs and Hindus. 3.14.1 TIMELINE OF SIKH ARCHITECTURE In the series of developments made by Sikh Gurus, the Sikh town/cities were made in various historical layers. The town of kartarpur (now in Pakistan), khadoor, Goindwal, Tarn Taran, Amritsar. The development of the city Amritsar in the guru period was in the pattern of bead and thread. The site was selected by the third and the fourth Guru for development of the town. The city was planned on the basis of the topography of the town, climate and vegetation, the regional linkages available to connect new settlement with the main cities like Delhi and Lahore. The fourth Guru formed secular city and the religious complex. The construction of the religious complex was 85

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undertaken by fifth Guru. Further, the sixth Guru developed Akal Takhat, Lohgarh fort and Bibeksar. So, during the succession of the various Gurus the city developed in the linear form; although the overall form was conceived by the fourth guru. The city took form in the bead and thread pattern in which different nodes acting as the beads and the streets or linkages connecting them acts as the thread weaving those beads. All the spaces to be used as socio-religious purposes are based on specific functional zones, which are further based on the spatial philosophies that describes for how the spaces are to be designed. This may be understood by knowing how the various zones are to be put together or to be arranged in particular manner that suits them best as per concept design philosophy of these spaces. The basic design philosophy in any religion for designing of religious structures is pre-defined with set of rules and regulations. For example in Hindu, Muslim or any other religious Architecture typology, the design is based on mythic-spatial design. In Hindu temples, the zones are divided in set pattern. The various zones like mandapa, garbhagriha etc have the special significance with respect to their location and use. Many a times these encapsulating zones divide the space in fixed pattern in which the use of the space is defined. Similarly, in Muslim Architecture, in Indian sub-continent, the western face has to be kept closed with a deep arched niche to pray in the direction of Mecca. 86

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SI.No. Name of Temple Place Image Table 3.4:- Time line of Sikh Architecture Period Description (Circa) The temple is built around an artificial lake. The building material for the temple was brick. As rebuilt 1577 AD by Ranjit Singh, current design is an adaptation of the Mohammedan styles, seasoned with a good deal of Hindu tradition. Golden temple Source: (Golden Temple, 2017) Amritsar, Punjab 2 Tarn Taran Sahib Source: (Taran Taran, 2017) Tarn Taran Sahib, Punjab 1590 AD After several restorations and additions to the original structure, the current temple recalls the Golden temple. There are seventeen huge entrance doors in the Taran Tarn where elephants could easily pass. 3 Gurdwara Sri Keshgarh Sahib Source: (Anandpur sahib, 2018) Anandpur Sahib, Punjab 1665 AD The Guru Granth Sahib is kept under a canopy outside the sanctuary, on which stands a fluted lotus dome surmounted by a high ornamental pinnacle of golden metal, and a golden khanda as a final touch. On the ceiling, the corners of the room and the balcony are adorned with vaulted kiosks.

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Table 3.4:- Time line of Sikh Architecture Period Description (Circa) SI.No. Name of Temple Place Image Takht Sri Patna Sahib Source: (Gurudwara Patna Sahib, 2017) Patna, Bihar 1666, 1954 AD One of the five takhts or the highest positions of religious authority for the Sikhs. Patna Sahib is the birthplace of the guru Govind Singh ji. Gurdwara Katalgarh Sahib Source: (Gurudwara Chamkaur Sri Katalgarh Sahib, Sahib, Ropar Chamkaur Sahib, 2017) 1831 AD The main building called Mariji Sahib is an elegant three-storey vaulted structure that stands on a high base. The large sofa room contains an eight-meter square sanctuary. Another large room nearby is called Akal Buriga. It was used for daily congregations before Mariji Sahib was built. 6 Sri Hazur Sahib Source: (Gurdwara Hazoor Sahib, 2018) It is based on the scheme of Takht Sri Patna Sahib. It Nanded in | 1832 AD is the place for Sri Guru Granth Sahib and Sri Maharashtra Dasam Granth. Gurdwara Fatehgarh Sahib Source: (Fatehgarh Sahib, 2017) Fatehgarh Sahib, Punjab 1711 - 1813, 1944 AD The Gurdwara Fatehgarh Sahib campus is made up of many other Gurdwaras. MAAILLDA . 88

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SI.No. Name of Temple Place Image Table 3.4:- Time line of Sikh Architecture Period Description (Circa) Average base to height ratio is 0.15, meaning there by that overall height of the dome is more than the Late 19th diameter at the base. Facade is divided into a number century of small panels with the help of AD marble cladding and play of levels. 0.85 M wide Eave projects out at first floor ceiling level. Gurdwara Achal Sahib Source: (Achal Sahib Gurdwara,Batala, 2017) 8 Batala, Amritsar Gurdwara Battha Sahib Source: (Gurdwara Bhatta Sahib, 2017) Ropar, Punjab 1914 AD Four shrines are located on the first floor and have approach through a flight of steps. Sri Damdama Sahib Source: (Takht Sri Damdama Sahib, 2017) 10 Talwandi Sabo, Bhatinda, Punjab It is sacred fifth Takht of the Sikh. It is also known as 1970 AD Guru ki Kashi.

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3.14.2 Relevance of Sikh Architecture The Sikh architectural style and the design of a very popular Sikh building are mainly due to their religious monuments. Their ancient buildings such as fortresses, palaces, samadhi (mausoleums built on cremation sites), havelis (fortified houses), bungas (residential houses and educational houses), educational institutions, etc. They are no different from the contemporary style that is generally a blend of Mughal and Rajput Architecture. Percy Brown, an art historian, described a late form of the Mughal style of Architecture. Examples of this type are the Samadhi of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in Lahore and Khalsa college in Amritsar. While massive columns, portals, interior structures, bukharchas (3 or 4 windows projected in rows) in penda or gharvahj (projection in base) in the form of open split lotus, the chhatn (kiosks) on the parapet, all traces the origin of the Rajput Architecture, the dome, the arches, the minarets and the underground cellars bear the mark of the Mughal style. The Sikh religious buildings, the Gurdwaras, also show the essentially eclectic nature of their architectural design, but at the same time possess characteristics and present an identifiable image of a style that can undoubtedly be called Sikh Architecture. For example, compared to Hindu temples, they are more spacious (with the addition of an adjoining sofa or meeting rooms when needed) and, in most cases, have access on all four sides. There is no space is oriented like Muslim mosques. The Guru ka Langar (common kitchen and dining room) is a necessary addition to a gurdwara, and most gurdwaras have sarovar (bathtubs) nearby. Each gurdwara is recognizable from afar by the nishan sahib, the Sikh that penan in yellow or blue that flies over a high flag. The gurdwaras, unlike Hindu temples, have no image carved in or around them. In principle, gurdwara buildings do not have to conform to any established architectural pattern. The only established requirement is the installation of the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh Holy Scripture, in a building under a canopy or a canopy post, usually on a platform higher than the floor on which the devotees sit. However, in due course more and more Gurdwaras had buildings of a particular design that more or less imitated the model of Harimandar, the holiest sanctuary of the Sikhs located in the walled city of Amritsar. 90

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When classified according to the shape of their plan, the buildings of Sikh shrines are of four basic shapes: the square, the rectangular, the octagonal and the cruciform. However, the latter is rarely used, the only notable example is gurdwara Nanak Jhira in Bidar in Karnataka. Among the octagonal, the best known is Gurdwara Baba Atal in Amritsar. Many gurdwara have an octagonal sanctuary in their square or rectangular room. A circumscribed passage usually runs around the sacred place. In elevation, the gurdwaras have structures ranging from one to nine floors, usually surmounted by a dome. Several gurdwaras have basements below the ground floor. A recurring element of gurchvara design is the preferred, use of two-storey height with a half-height circular gallery, leaving the center of the ground floor covered only by the upper roof and / or dome. As a general rule, a gumbad (dome) is the main characteristic of a gurdwara. Even the rectangular fluted gurdwara buildings often have a decorative dome on the site where Guru Granth Sahib is installed. Sometimes, a small sanctuary of a single room is surmounted by palaki, a palanquin like a roof, derived from the architectural style of Bengal. Most often, the dome is fluted or ribbed. Different dome shapes characterize our sanctuaries as tarus, hemispherical, oblong and conical or three quarters of a sphere, the last mentioned is the most used. In general, the dome arises from a floral base and has an inverted lotus symbol on the top from which the kalas or fine ornaments rise. Usually, a dome is painted white or sometimes gold. The domes of some important gurdwaras are covered with gilded copper plates. Some domes are covered with slabs of marble or pieces of white or colored porcelain. In addition to the large central dome, there are often four other domes, one at each corner and several solid domes that embellish the parapet. The dome is invariably crowned by an ornate temple, the kala. Based on Mount Kailash, the kala shoots in the form of a cylindrical construction, often with some concentric disks, and spheros that culminate in a small canopy with hanging pendants on the outer edge. The kalas are generally made of brass or gilded copper. Recently, the use of steel or golden khanda (double-edged sword) as a pinnacle is fashionable. Elevation is usually treated by dividing the facade according to the structural lines of columns, pillars and pillars with vertical divisions that create areas with well-modeled surfaces.

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The treatment often creates bas-reliefs of geometric, floral and other motifs. Where the magnitude is the goal, the work in relief gilded copper or brass, often occurs extravagant. The interior is embellished with gachch or stucco, fixing mirror, jaratkari or inlay work, mohrakashi or filigree, Pinjra or trellis or stone grids, and the fresco. These techniques are used for the production of beautiful designs and friezes based on vine motifs, plants, flowers, birds and animals. These techniques, in addition to consuming a lot of time and comfort, require very experienced artists. Therefore, they are used in very important sanctuaries. Excellent examples of this type of work can be seen in the Golden Temple. As many have painted the frescoes on the walls of the first floor of Baba Atal. A very special aspect of Sikh Architecture regarding the construction of gurdwara buildings is the contribution and participation of the common man. Except for some shrines have their income from donations made by previous rulers, resources for new construction or reconstruction are collected through voluntary contributions, and although bricklayers and artisans can be salaried workers, unskilled workers and rations for the the whole labor force comes from the karseva system, free voluntary service of devotees. 3.15 JAIN ARCHITECTURE The responsibility of Jain workmanship to the standard craftsmanship in India has been great. Each time of Indian craftsmanship is addressed by a Jain change and every last one of them is meriting critical examination and cognizance (Stevenson, 1915, p. 360). Jain Architecture can not be authorized with its novel style, as it was suitable around a branch of Hindu and Buddhist styles. In the years, various Jain sanctuaries were constructed connecting Buddhist sanctuaries following the Buddhist style of the shake cut. At first, these sanctuaries were mostly cut with smoothness and the utilization of squares was basically insignificant. Regardless, as of late the Jains started to assemble in sanctuary urban communities on the slopes in the light of the likelihood of mountains. Rather than the quantity of Hindu sanctuaries in India, the Jain sanctuaries are few and scattered. The Jain used to separate their more prepared and harmed sanctuaries and made new ones of every comparable place. Normally, the Jain sanctuaries had an air of particular attacker around them, likely in light of the raiders who may have involved 92

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the wealth. Encompassed by bothered dividers, the Jain sanctuaries are disengaged in the corridors in a way like urban areas held with parapets and claims to fame to fight off ill will out fitted. Each area like this was seen by colossal defenses in its terminations, with an enlivened entry as a crucial section. The reason is that the Jain sanctuaries are the most extravagant sanctuaries on the planet, outperforming even the Mughal structures as far as size and material richeness. Sanctuary urban areas did not depend on a particular understanding; rather, they were the symptoms of sporadic improvement. The standard levels of the slant on which the "city" had been constructed required unmistakable levels, to such an extent that as Architecture expanded the design and grandness expanded. Every sanctuary, notwithstanding, was thought about a progression of representations, styles, arranged in the benchmarks of design utilized as a part of the center of the period. The primary grouping resembled chaumukh or four-sided sanctuaries. In these, the photograph of a Tirthankar would oppose four sides, or four Tirthankars would be set up successively to challenge four cardinal methodologies. The section to this sanctuary would be four entryways. Lord Adinath's chaumukh sanctuary is a typical example of the fourentryway sanctuary (Nahar & Ghosh, 1988, p. 830). Normally, the exits lead to a progression of the chambers cut into the focal corridors of the temple. These sections, which remain around without an unequivocal reason, can have an impact on the place in such a way as to seem an unreflective maze, but on closer examination, it ends up showing that there is a style and a method in it. These are temples inside a temple, isolated in the sacred and surrounded by a field of chapels and shrines, and the labyrinth of segments extends as a limit against the looters. The standard imprint collected from these temples is however the variety of their segments according to each other. The pointed towers of each curve are unique, but indicate the position of a congregation, a corridor. 3.15.1 Relevance of Jain Architecture Jains commitment to the workforce and Architecture was extraordinarily basic in the perspective of sublime artistic creations, especially in the types of images, temples and works of art scattered throughout the country. It covering a period of lucidity from short at the most cutting-edge times. Jain craftsmanship with a vast assortment changes 93

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progress and embellishments (despite Jin's images) has never been monotonous. The human advancement of the Indus Valley (around 2300-1750 BC) is the most flourished development in India. The figures in a bit of Mohen-Jo-Daro estate and, in addition to a Harappa male torso will help to remember the images of Jina ethics of their nudity and posture, such as kayotsarga-mudra, shown with more emphasis at Lohanipur, Patna. However, nothing can be said for sure until the contents of the Indus Valley are finally deciphered. These figures gave rise to five seven-wind caps depicted as sky clad and remain in the exclusively-mudra kayotsarga. The first century BC with the figure Parsvanatha, in dhyanamudra posture, is the accumulation at the state museum of Lucknow. The representation of dhyanamudra Jin (leg put on the leg) and the representation of the swastika the central part of his chest, figures unprecedented for Mathura Sunga-Kusana. (Nahar & Ghosh, 1988, p. 830). In the Gupta period (from the 4th to 6th century AD) the Jain models are represented by a couple of destinations, such as Mathura, Rajgir, Kahaum, Nachna, Durjanpur (Vidisha), Varanasi, Chausa and Akota. Jain's trades and composition prospered with more enthusiasm between the tenth and fifteenth centuries. In the period, a large number of Jain temples were constructed with idealized sculptural sculptures. In the middle of the period, the new structures and iconographic aspects (except that of the Jins) of different deities were characterized and continuously the number of weapons and in this line that is attributed extended to get the maximum benefit possible from the most like the copies of the texts organized. The parikara (environment) of the Jin images is also realized with the figurative representations of Navagrahas, Sarasvati, Laksmi and the humble figures of Jin. In addition, the images of the Astapratiharyas and the Yaksayaksi figures were also cut. Precision and bending together with ornaments and ornaments were other unmistakable highlights of the medieval Jain models. Models of Parsvanatha and Mahavira Jin were cut in the middle of the period (Glasenapp, 1999, p. 600). Jain's Art and Architecture have the essential goal of keeping up, saving and broadly recommending the lifestyle. In addition, devotee also praise for mental pleasure. Jain realized that genuine art speaks to the soul of true religion. In addition to his religious esteem, he was taken as a treasure of the country. This is why Jain's numerous artistic approaches have become vacation destinations. 94

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The Jains could be satisfied with their rich social heritage by the most specific circumstances. He has a religious introduction to his art in modified structures. Being overwhelmingly idolatrous, they have an iconography and an art of making extraordinary symbols. which could make various symbols of various sizes, materials (wood, stone, metal, marble, etc.) and postures (lying or standing). They could cut the stone symbols on the side. The sum total of the symbols that have been made by weighting measures appealing faces of the Jin who transmit the possibility of a productive moment of everyday life. There are numerous credential idols in the world, one of them is Bahubali in Shravanbelgola in Karnataka (983 AD), and Lord Rishabhdev in the state of Madhya Pradesh require a remarkable opinion for its size and height. The symbols are worshiped simply after the sanctification function continues for seven days with great glory and spectacle. This service has an expansive repetition for the last quarter of this century. The Jain symbols were discovered as early as 400 BC in various parts of India. In general there are several symbols. Seeing theses several different symbols in each exhibition hall, one can judge the improvement of the iconography with respect to the material and the excellence with the style. Palitana is extraordinarily in contrast to another place for a variety of idols. Impressions are also a distinctive part of Jain art that has an impact on a point to be taken. The stamped and venerated images were also made as an evident and subsequent proof. Many temples have the art of appalling nature, for example in Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mount Abu, Ranakpur, and so on. Temples everywhere have a glorious story before them, for example, in Hastinapur, Mathura etc. Numerous temples have separated pillars called pillars of vanity control again a strong point of the Jains in the religious Architecture (Schubring, 1962, p. 330). The magnificent Architecture and the Jain model can also be found in the caves carved into the rock of Mathura, Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha. Several caves carved into the rock are located in Udaigiri and Khandagiri, twin hills in the Bhubaneswar district of Odisha and Ellora in Maharashtra. 95

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During the 2nd century BC, Jain caves primarily as retreats for the life of Jain monks they have a place with the essential requirements. The eighteen caves of Khandagiri and fourteen caves of Udaigiri with total thirty-two caves design the bruises as the rockcut Buddhist caves. The Jain Viharas here do not have the assembly request or mediator embraced by any cell or sanctuary as Buddhist Viharas. Caves are on multiple levels and are cramped with low ceilings. There are no specials on the walls. Cells are practically nil and simple, compared to the strict abnegation of Jain monks. A segment of the cells has frames cut on the walls. The doors are practically nothing and one has to turn or scroll to enter a cell. In one part of the cells, the floor rises to the back to fill as a cushion. A couple of cells have low levels for the beds. The extension is such that the cells receive sufficient light, the cells open on a tunnel. The caves of Udaygiri have two floors and have a patio in front. The largest and best caves in Udaygiri are called Rani-Gumpha or performances. (Gumpha is the adjacent word to yield). The Rani-Gumpha is essential for its friezes of intense forms. Architecture rendered is basic, having been brought to light on three sides of a quadrilateral. The gallery ceiling extends outward like a ledge (eaves). The pillars have been cut to help the roof of the caves impact the structural houses. The curator of the lower floor has a cell with three small steps and a gallery with columns. Two furnished dwArapalas are raised to protect both sides of the verandah. The corridors towards the cells are designed with lotus and vines themes that emerge from the mouths of creatures. The back of the gallery is protected by a frieze of luxury cut figures. 3.16 TIMELINE OF JAIN ARCHITECTURE (3rd Century B.C-17th Century A.D): Lord Sri Mahavir, the last "Tirthankar" is for the most part viewed as the organizer of Jain religion. There are twenty-four of these jinas or holy people who were opposed and involved high place in Jain Architecture. - Jina signifies "hero" or "pioneer" from which the Jain is inferred. Tirthankars mean producers of the stream crossing who lead the path over the working life torrents of the interminable cycle of resurrection. One impossible to miss variety found in Jain temples is that they are four confronted or "chaumukh". Consequently, rather than a single figure with single face, one path, with 96

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one access to the cell, they gave a fourfold image or a gathering of four different Tirthankars. It requires the shrine chamber with four doorways, which influenced extensively the layout of temples 3rd Century B.C-17th Century A.D Janis exploited this necessity in the development of the outside and fit as a fiddle of vimana. They presented the colonnaded gathering of little shrines round the four sides of the courtyard in which the primary temple stands. The temple comprises of a Temple patio. Eight to twelve columns are masterminded as an octagonal set inside a square. The dome is upheld by these columns joined by section sort raking struts. The dome is based on even courses with progressively lessening square, laid diagonally to each other, with "Amalaka" or, then again ornamental "Kalasa" at the best. Another innovation was the development of flawlessly cut and fussed marble ceiling with focal pendants practically like light fixtures in their delicacy and elegance (Nyaya vijaya ji, 1998, p. 490) Neminath Temple (Gujarat, 13th Century) The well-known temple by the Jains is on the hills of Girnar, almost 915m above mean ocean level, close to the memorable city of Junagadh. The temple comprises of a courtyard of 58m x 40m and is encompassed by pillar. It houses containing more than seventy cells. The vimana is made out of a grouping of turrets around the central tower. 97

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Sl.No. 1 2 Name of Temple Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves Source: (Udaygiri caves bhubaneshwar, 2016) Badami Caves Source: (Badami, 2016) Place Table 3.5:- Time line of Jain temple Architecture Period (Circa) Bhubaneswar, Odisha Badami, Karnataka 2nd century BC 6th century AD Description Partially natural and partly artificial caves, which have total thirty two, cave with features intricately carved and ornate caves. The temples of the cave of Badami consist of four caves, all carved into the soft sandstone of Badami on a cliff at the end of the 6th century AD. Only one of these four caves is the Jain temple. The caves are considered an example of Indian Architecture carved into the rock, in particular the Architecture of Badami Chalukya. 98 Image

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Table 3.5:- Time line of Jain temple Architecture Period SI.No. Name of Temple Place Description Image (Circa) 3 Brahma Jinalaya Source: (Brahma Jinalaya, 2016) Lakkundi, Karnataka 1172 AD Mount Abu, 4 Dilwara temples Source: (Dilwara Jain Temple, 2016) 11th - 13th century AD The general structure with its well-proportioned levels and the finial (amalaka, kalasha) gives the superstructure a "majestic" appearance. The decorative ornaments are brought to a new level compared to the previous temples. It is believed that the temples of Dilwara are the most beautiful example of Jain's architectural perfection. The ornamental detail that extends onto carefully carved ceilings, doors, pillars and panels is simply wonderful. Shatrunjaya, on top of a steep hill, is full of temple complexes with individual examples built in the standard 'nagara' style: that is complete with shikharas and ceilings with an angle of 45 degrees above the mandapas. Rajasthan / Shatrunjaya temple Complex Source: (History of Shatrunjay tirth, 2016) Palitana, Bhavnagar | 11th - 16th centuries AD

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Sl.No. 6 7 8 Name of Temple Saavira Kambada temple Source: (Saavira Kambada Basadi, 2016) Ranakpur Jain temple Source: (Ranakpur temple, 2016) Lal Mandir Source: (Shri Digambar Jain Lal mandir, 2016) Place Moodabidri, Karnataka Ranakpur, Rajasthan Delhi Table 3.5:- Time line of Jain temple Architecture Period (Circa) 1430 AD 15th century AD 1658 AD Description Known for its 1000 pillars, the temple is also known as "Chandranatha Temple" as it pays tribute to the Tirthankar Chandraprabha. The city of Moodabidri is characterized by its eighteen Jain temples; The temple of Saavira Kambada is considered the best among them. one of the biggest and most important temples of the Jain culture. The campus includes numerous temples such as the Chaumukha temple, the Surya temple, the Parsavanth temple and the temple of Amba. Light marble was used. Lal Mandir known for its red stand stone. It was reconstructed in the beginning of nineteenth century. 100 Image

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Sl.No. 10 Name of Temple Hutheesing Jain temple Source: (Hutheesing Jain temple, 2016) Nasiyan temple Source: (Nasiyan Temple, 2016) Place Ahmedabad Ajmer, Rajasthan Table 3.5:- Time line of Jain temple Architecture Period Description (Circa) The architect of the temple was Premchand Salat. The front is exquisitely decorated with a domeshaped structure. The temple has a unique manastambha (or column of honor) inspired by Jain manastambha and kirtistambha in Chittore in Rajasthan. 1848 AD 1865 AD In constrction of temple, tooks twenty-five years. The corridor of temple have fascinating series of large gilded wooden figures and scene from Jain Agam 101 Image

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3.17 ELEMENTS OF JAIN RELIGION Jainism educates a detailed doctrine of atman. The majority of selves (atman) is a principal doctrine of Jainism, though Buddhism precludes the truth from claiming atman by and large. The Jain atmavada contrasts from Vedantic atmavada. In the Upanisads and the Bhagavadgita, a definitive solidarity of atman is instructed, while in Jainism infinite number of atmans is underestimated. A most critical component of Jainism is the thing that might be depicted as yoga. The word yoga suggests two things: contemplation or dhyana, and renunciation or parsimonious method of life. Jain yoga is non-theistic. Jainism has reliably focused on religious austerity. Cases of extraordinary type of austerity are depicted in various Jain writings. Lord Sri Mahavira is known to have accomplished freedom through extraordinary types of austere practices. One of the cardinal precepts of Jain thought and culture is the possibility of ahimsa. This word has regularly been interpreted as peacefulness (Jacobi, 1884, p. 500). Logically, the most critical doctrine of Jainism is that of anekantavada. The doctrine shows that the distinctive points of view about truth speak to just incomplete. viewpoints. A few scholars have alluded to this doctrine as the rule of relativity. It is a non-absolutist hypothesis, which might be said to have advanced the opportunity of theoretical perspectives 3.18 SUMMARY Starting with humble caves and squat level roofed temples, Hindu design, at that point, developed throughout the centuries and, notwithstanding some provincial variety, landed at a standard course of action, which included a tremendous walled complex with huge enlivening gateways offering access to a holy space of lesser sanctums overwhelmed by the fundamental temple and its monumental arrangement of towers. The idea of workmanship and Architecture managed as Islamic religious Architecture focuses on Mosques. Masjid e-Ala is two storied building which was continuation of the Deccan Islamic tradition of mosque building. Hyder Ali developed Idgah at Kolar, Arohalli, and Devenehalli. The Jumma Masjid at Srirangapatna is as grand as the 102

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Sultan who build it. The Palaces, Zananas, Hava Mahal and different landmarks of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan have the highlights of Indo-Islamic Architecture. They were motivated by the Mughal style of Architecture. Dariya Daulat was the late spring royal residence of the Sultan. It looks like the Mughal style of Architecture particularly the Akbar's Darbar at Agra. It has the highlights of Indo-Islamic Art. Buddhist Architecture has its underlying foundations profoundly established in Indian soil: the inception of the lessons of the Buddha. Buddhist Architecture started with the change of a few pictures that talk about parts of the Buddha. The Indian sovereign Ashok, who not just settled Buddhism as the state religion of his tremendous Magadha realm yet additionally chose to construct landmarks to spread Buddhism to better places. Specific Buddhist structures and models are for instance, stupas, pagodas, cloisters. Jainism has from the beginning introduced a religious enthusiasm among its devotees, the solid articulation of which seen everywhere throughout the nation in showstoppers and Architecture, figures, caverns and sanctuaries. Jain writing isn't just religious yet in addition grasps numerous common branches of getting the hang of including arithmetic and stargazing. All through the time of history, Art has remained a spurring power for the general population. Religion assumes a critical part in its improvement. The Jains are among the most seasoned religion with religious philosophy, logic, religion-socio-customs, scholarly traditions, and so forth. The social history of the group, in this manner, can be depicted on the premise of contemporary Jain writings, their dialects; content gives a unique identity in the Jain religion a flawless systematic way expounding every one of the qualities and reflected through its Art and Architecture. 103

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CHAPTER - 4 THE JAIN TEMPLE 4.1 THE ORIGIN OF JAIN TEMPLES A Jain temple is the place of worship of Jain community to Tirthankar, Derasar is a word utilized for a Jain temple in Gujarat and southern Rajasthan. Basadi is a Jain place of worship or temple in Karnataka. The word is utilized basically as a component of south India and, furthermore, in Maharashtra. Its true use in northern India is protected in the names of the temples of Vimala Vasahi and Luna Vasahi of Mount Abu. A Vatteluttu inscription discovered from Talakkavu at Putadi near pulpally reveals the connection of Talakkavu Jain temple with Trikkannamatilakam, which was the most important Jain centre of ancient Kerala. The script and language of the inscription would suggest that the Jain temples settled here in the 9th to 10th AD. Today there are neither Jains nor Jain temples available. 4.2 EVOLUTION OF ARCHITECTURAL STYLE 4.2.1 Jain Philosophy The Jain structure, similar to the Buddhist structure, is not mysterious. It does not see the proximity of a creator or God. Another fundamental component is that it is the pluralist system. Souls are numerous, infinite. Moksha maintenance is not unusual, but rather the realization of the impeccable soul, splendid and blessed has no body or physical exercise. Religious method of reasoning Jainism shows that there are nine truths or substances (Nav-tattva) are: (1) soul (jiva), (2) non-soul (ajiva), (3) legitimate (Punya), (4) sin or failure, (5) waves of Karma (asrava), (6) stop the karmic matter (Samvara), (7) oppression (bandha), (8) release karmic matter (nirjara), and (9) possibility (moksha) (Flugel, Peter, 2003, pp. 7-53) (Flugel, Peter, 2006, pp. 91-112). Karma Philosophy The word has two ramifications, one is "any activity" and the other is fine particles that are absorbed and adhere to the spirit because of its development. What is being done is that "karma" is the actual institution of the term kamma. Both suggestions conform to 104

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the unique condition. The whole universe is stacked with fine karmic particles. However, when these particles are maneuvered in the spirit, adhere to it, and bind through their activity, at that point they are simply distributed by the term Karma. Karmic particles linked with the spirit are called "dravya karma" or physical karma. The spirit (normal soul) is the expert of both these karma. They are usually connected as conditions and final products, similar to a seed and a tree. In the course of philosophy not Jain, running with words is used for karma: (i) Cause of slavery: The particles of karmic material are first attracted by the spirit and subsequently bound by it. The limit of attracting them to the spirit is realized through the movement of the mind, of the conversation and of the body. So the movement is called asrava immersion), rather ratio of magnification and limiting karmic particles spirit is performed mithyatva (healthy or certain inclination or convinced), having you (without control), pramada (slow) and kasaya (vitality). So they are known like the way of slavery. Every movement that exists with these four becomes a reason to subjugate. Only yoga or movement is called asrava, the remaining four as kasaya or not asrava or fusion, but the reasons for the asrava. From this we can appreciate that yoga (movement) is the reason for both immersion and oppression. (ii) Philosophy of rebirth: Every birth of a spirit is rebirth in the context of its previous birth. There can never be a birth that is not linked to the previous birth. The course of the action of the birth of the soul does not begin. In case one way or another we have the courage to hope that a shocking born spirit, which induces possible that even a perfect soul has been freed from the cycle of birth under its attainment of impeccability will end up being born. This would make it infinite, go out and admire an inscrutable opportunity. It would be foolish to believe that the spirit remains free from birth and eventually begins to wait for birth. It is reasonable to maintain that the course of the birth action continues, in the case in which it precedes any extension of the creative capacity, without interruption and which once breaks; it is broken until the end of time. As indicated by conviction of Jain religion freedom is described as, "correspondingly as the oil plant is attempted to separate oil from sesamum seeds, blending is grasped to 105

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separate ghee from margarine deplete and fire is used to separate metal from metal, so in like manner the spirit achieves freedom reparation through and restriction." Jain Traditions Indian culture can be characterized in two general social issues: (1) Brahman culture (Vedic) (2) shramana culture. The philosophical school of Mimansa, Vedanta, Nyaya and Vaishesika is at the top of the list. The philosophical schools of Jain, Buddhist and Sankhya have a place in the culture of Shraman. The custom of the Jain and Tirthankars philosophy is largely ancient. The Jain philosophy is Sanatana; Confirmations of closeness of Tirthankar Rishabhdev were found in the work of human advancement of the Indus Valley (Flugel, Peter, 2007). 4.2.2 TIRTHANKARS Jainism is the ancient religion of India and in the midst of its long and uninterrupted proximity is proclaimed by twenty - four Great Preachers known as "Jinas", ie "Victories" or "Tirthankars", ie "Creators of authority over the wave of proximity". In the context of these twenty-four Tirthankars progression, Sri Adinath is the first and Sri Mahavir is the last and twenty-forth Tirthankar (Flugel, Peter, 2008, pp. 181-271). 4.3 TEMPLES OF JAIN RELIGION The Jain religious buildings are broadly classified as follows. 1. Chaityalaya 2. Tunk 3. Temples 4. Jal Madir 5. Samosaran 6. Manastambha Chaityalata is a house temple in the Jain religion, where the people can visit and host different kind of rituals. Normally east facing Mulanayak is placed in the temple with highly decorated vedi. Tunk is small structure with the foot idols of the Tirthankar or the saint. Temple or city temple is place of worship. Jal Mandir is basically Samadhi mandir dedicated to Tirthankar and Samosaran is a replica of Tirthankar facing all 106

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cardinal dirction and giving preaching. Manastambha is a freestanding column generally infront of the temple with the four facing Tirthankar. 4.4 Jainism in Odisha The stature of Odisha as a place where there is significant spirituality is seen by the way in which it has had an association with the three-orthogenic religious traditions of India: Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism. Speaking of Jainism in Odisha, it was thetwenty-third Tirthankar, Parsvanath, which gave impetus to the custom and made an important speech here in the eighth century BC. Buddhism saw an awakening with emperor Ashoka, but Jainism was worshiped in a similar way (Foot & Brown). History has wide support of Jainism from the Kharavelas the Chedi administration in the first century BC, which developed indoor caves in Kumari Parvata, now known as Khandgiri and Udaygiri, on the edge of Bhubaneswar, so that the Jainist monks can live and reflect. The significant inscriptions inside these caves reveal numerous certainties of history. They speak of the lords of the Chedi line, also called Mahameghavana who administer Kalinga around the 1st century BC. The predominant part of these caves began in the middle of Kharavelaa time, when Jainism was the religion of the Kalinga state. The inscriptions also make one specific to two other rulers of this line, Kudeparisi and Vadukha, as contributors. Equipping records that confirm the success of ambitious Kharavela vocation, the construction of cave temples and recovery of Kaling-Jin statue by the king Nandas of Magadha in (4th century BC) and its reinstallation on the Kharavela hills. Indeed, even after the death of the sovereign Kharavela, Jainism continued to have an impact under its successors, the governments of the Ganges and Jainism Saladod excessively treated with surprising consideration, this witnessed by numerous archaeological finds have revealed the state (Foot & Brown). The hollows at Khandagiri and Udayagiri, with their sculptures what's more, engravings are the earliest remains. Despite the fact that no early Jain Shrines or monuments, aside from the above, have been found, it is early Jain hallowed places or monuments, aside from the above, have been found, clearly the extensive quantities of 107

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symbols, sculptures, and so on spread around Odisha recommend that there were Jain temples and monuments, which are currently totally broken down. Of the various, heterodox groups Jainism as the most accommodative to the Brahmanical religion. In spite of the fact that the Jains did not have faith in the expert of God and that God was the maker, they started to worship the Tirthankar and a few Gods from the Hindu pantheon (Forester, 1973, pp. 16-36). Consequently, the Brahmins never truly restricted the Jains and endured it. The iconographic portrayal of the Jain gods and Brahminical gods is like a layman. In any case, to recognize the Jain from the Brahmanical obligations one ought to pay special mind to recognizing "Signs". These components are the remaining of sitting position of the symbols, the chauri bearers, the kevala tree, flying gandharvas with festoons, champaka check, umbrella, the trifoiled curve and so on and the nakedness of the picture. As Jainism stayed for so long in Odisha, on occasion going to the front line and at different circumstances taking a backbench, it is numerous ways influenced a few different cliques in Odisha. The Jagannatha faction is obligated to Jainism for a large portion of its ceremonies and celebrations. 4.4.1 Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves Date of Construction : 200-170 BC Plate Number: - I Among the first Jain landmarks are the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri, situated near the city of Bhubaneshwar in Odisha, India. These caves are to some extent typical and have been cut off as private pieces for the Jain monks in the middle of the reign of King Kharvela of Kalinga (200-170 BC). There are in total thirty-two caves existing in these two caves. The monks are accepted to have lived here under unforgiving conditions but then have possessed the capacity to produce dazzling and unpredictable figures delineating the royalty, courts, religious symbols, and customary existence of society. 108

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Figure: 4.1 - The Udaygiri and Khandagiri Caves. Source: (Author) 4.4.1.1 Caves of Udaygiri The caves in Udayagiri are to some degree better known because of a few imperative monuments of history and art. Jharkhand West Bengal Chhattisgarh 18+14 Caves Bhubanesw Andhra Pradesh Figure: 4.2 - Location of Udaygiri and Khandagiri Caves. Source: (Author) Cave 1: Rani Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - II 109

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Architectural features Rani Gumpha is also known as Rani ka Naur and Queen's Cave or Queen's Palace cave. It has a double storeyed monastery. There are seven entry doors with frontal face. Apart from that, there is an upper floor, which contains nine columns. There is a monument of women, who is dancing and playing musical instrument. The cave is famous due to its exceptional acoustical characteristics. The sizes of cells are varying from 222-0" X 8?-O" to 82-0" X 6'-0". The height of the cells is 3'-6". The height of entryway verandah is 6-3". Cave 2: Bajaghara Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - III Architectural features It is known as a simple and small cave. It is made for Jain monks because it has bed and pillows made of stone. It has rectangular shaped pillars. There is no other sculpture found in this cave. The sizes of cells are 8?-0" X 8'-0". The roof of cell is gable and height of the cells is varies from 5'-6" to 62-6". Cave 3: Chota Hathi Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - III Architectural features Chota Hathi Gumpha is known as a small size. There are six small elephant's figures in the facade. The word 'chota hathi' means 'small elephant'. Chota Hathi Gumpha has a front door on both sides along with the exquisite relief with elephants. The sizes of cells is 8'-0" X 6'-0". The height of roof is 3'-6". Cave 4: Alkapuri Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - III Architectural features Alkapuri Gumpha is known as double storied cave. There are part of columns is built. This cave consists of sculpted ornaments and sculptures. There are exquisite reliefs depicting elephants on rock-cut pillars's capitals, winged creatures and people. The 110

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sizes of cells is 6'-0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is gable and height of the cell varies from 5'-6" to 6'-6". The entry of the cave is from 14'-0" X 8'-0" verandah. Cave 5: Jaya-vijaya Gumpha Temple Type-Cave Plate Number: - III Architectural features Jaya-vijaya Gumpha is known as double storied cave. In this cave there are some rockcut columns and some built. The sizes of cells are varying from 27'-0" X 7'-0" to 7'0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is gable and height of the cell varies from 5'-6" to 6'-6". The height of entryway verandah is 6'-3". Case 6: Panash Gumpha Temple Type-Cave Plate Number: - IV Architectural features Panash Gumpha is known as simple cell along with two built columns. It is another shelter with ochre paintings near to this cave. The size of cells is 6'-0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cell varies from 6'-3". The entry of the cave is from 18'-0" X 8'-0" verandah. Cave 7: Thakurani Gumpha Temple Type-Cave Plate Number: - IV Architectural features Thakurani Gumpha is known as double storeyed cave. In this cave there are some rockcut and other are built. It has a relief carving with winged animals. It has few tiny relief sculptures. The size of cell is 8'-0" X 6'-0". The height of roof is 3'-6". The entry of the cave is from 8'-0" X 5'-0" verandah. Cave 8: Patalapuri Gumpha Temple Type-Cave Plate Number: - IV 111

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Architectural features Patalapuri Gumpha is cut cave designed roughly. There are two columns at verandah. The columns are decorated with reliefs depicting winged beings. The size of cells is varying from 322-0" X 7'-0" to 6'-0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is gable and height of the cell varies from 5'-6" to 62-6". The height of entryway verandah is 62-3". Cave 9: Mancapuri Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - IV Architectural features Mancapuri Gumpha is double storeyed cave. There are four columns on the lower floor. There are several sculptures and reliefs, inscriptions in this cave. Out of those inscriptions, two inscriptions resemble. The sizeof cells is varying from 212-0" X 7'-0" to 7'-0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cells is 32-6". The height of entryway verandah is 6-3". Cave 10: Ganesa Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - V Architectural features Ganesa Gumpha is known because of its stone monument. It has monument of Jain Tirthankar and some of like fighting people in action. There is an inscription also. It consists of two dwelling cells with low ceilings along with the verandah with a bench in front. The sizes of cells are 8-0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cell is 3'-6". The size of entryway verandah is 17'-0" X 4'-0" and height is 6-3". Cave 11: Jambesvara Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - V Architectural features Jambesvara Gumpha has a two plain door opening with low cell. There is an entrance with one column and two pilasters. There is an inscription also which indicates that the cave of Nakyia, wife of Mahamade. The size of cell is varying from 10'-0" X 7'-0" to 112

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7'-0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cells is 3'-6". The size of entryway verandah is 10'-0" X 4'-0" and height is 62-3". Cave 12: Singh Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - V Architectural features Singh Gumpha is a small cave temple. Its entrance is shaped like some animal's head and entrance door is look like the animal's throat. The entrance is decorated with domed elements. Some inscriptions are also there which talk about this cave which belongs to the city of Judge Sabhuti. The size of cell is varying from 8'-0" X 7'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cells is 3'-6". Cave 13: Sarpa Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - V Architectural features Sarpa Gumpha is a small cave, which is unusual and decorated on the upper side of the entrance. It names 'sarpana' because 'sarpa' mean snake. There are two inscriptions found in this cave. The sizes of cells are varying from 8'-0" X 8'-O". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cells is 3'-6". Cave 14: Hathi Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - VI Architectural features Hathi Gumpha is a great history and records of king Kharavelaa's empire. It has a natural artificial structure like columns of verandah. There is an inscription in this cave. Apart from this, there are lots of symbols and foot idols drawn on this cave. There is a hollowed boulder with entrance doors and windows in the front of Hathi Gumpha. The sizes of cells are varying from 15'-0" X 8'-0" to 62-0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cell is 3'-6". The entryway of these caves are natural topography. 113

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Cave 15: Dhanaghara Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - VII Architectural features Dhanaghara Gumpha has an entrance of two columns, which are massive and unfinished, decorated adorned with doorkeeper's sculpture. The sizes of cells is 14'-0" X 7'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cell is 32-6". The size of entryway verandah is 14'-0" X 6'-0" and height is 6-3". Cave 16: Haridasa Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - VII Architectural features Haridasa Gumpha is cut cave designed roughly, verandah with one column. There is an inscription in this cave. The sizes of cell is 14'-0" X 7'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cells is 32-6". The size of entryway verandah is 12'-0" X 6'-0" and height is 6-3". Cave 17: Jagannath Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - VII Architectural features Jagannath Gumpha is also a roughly rock cut cave. The sizes of cells is 18'-0" X 7'0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cell is 3'-6". The size of entryway verandah is 18'-0" X 6-0" and height is 62-3". Cave 18: Rasui Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - VII Architectural features Rasui Gumpha is a very small cave and it has only one entrance. The sizes of cells is 7'-0" X 6'-0". The roof of cell is flat and height of the cells is 3'-6". 114

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4.4.1.2 Caves of Khandgiri The Khandgiri hill contains to a certain extent less caves. The Khandgiri caves are progressively encroached by the Brahmins, turning them into Hindu shrines, but the internal carvings still tell the story of Tirthankars. Cave 1 and 2: Tatowa Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - VIII Architectural features Cave 1: The entrance has the form of parrot and so it is named as Tatowa Gumpha. Cave is luxuriously carved, decorated with two door assistants too. The two entries in the cells are "watched" by two bulls and two lions as depicted. Cave 2: Tatowa Gumpha has a gallery decorated with pilasters; pilaster capitals contain impeccable sculptures. Cave 3: Ananta Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - IX Architectural features Ananta Gumpha consists of dazzling figures of women, elephants, athletes, geese conveying blossoms. Cave 4: Tentuli Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - IX Architectural features Tentuli Gumpha is a small rock-cut chamber. There is a verandah with one column. Entrances in shrines decorated with portals. 115

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Cave 5: Khandgiri Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - IX Architectural features Khandgiri Gumpha is known as double storied cut cave. The ground floor - first cell size is 13'-0" X 6'-0" and second cell size is 6-0" X 6'-0" with height of 3'-6". The first floor have three cells with cell size of 6'-0" X 6'-0" with height of 3'-6". Cave 6: Dhyan Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - IX Architectural features Dhyan Gumpha is generally has a roughtly cut cell Architecture with cell size of 160" X 14'-0" with height of 62-9". Cave 7: Navamuni Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - X Architectural features Navamuni Gumpha is generally has a cut cell, raise wall embellished with Jain Tirthankars, Sasana Devis and Ganesh. Inscription is carved here. There is a small figure of Lord Chandrparbha seated on a lotus. There is a figure of Naga also. The size of cell is 28-0" X 10'-0" with height of 3'-6". Cave 8: Barabhuji Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - X Architectural features Barabhuji Gumpha is embellished with Jain Tirthankars, Sasana Devis and rock-cut foot idols. Some Tirthankarssculptures are also found in this cave. The entry to the cell is from 6P-O" wide and 62-9" height verandah. The size of cell is 182-0)" X 6'-0" with height of 3'-6" 116

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Cave 9: Trusula Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Plate Number: - X Architectural features Trusula Gumpha was displayed in medieval circumstances through a few changes. The entry to the cell is from 6'-0" wide and 6-9" height verandah. The size of cell is 18'0" X 6'-0" with height of 3'-6". Cave 10: Ambika Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Architectural features Relief images of Sasan devis is present in this cave. The entry to the cell is from 6'-0" wide and 6deg-9" height verandah. The size of cell is 122-0" X 6'-0" with height of 3'-6". Cave 11: Lalatendukesari Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Architectural features Lalatendukesari Gumpha also known as Keshari Cave has a raise wall embellished with reliefs of Mahavira, Parsvanatha, and Jain Tirthankars. The entry to the cell is from 6'-0" wide and 6-9" height verandah. The size of cell is 18'-0" X 6'-0" with height of 3'-6". Cave 14: Ekadasi Gumpha Temple Type - Cave Architectural features Ekadasi Gumpha has a basic cell structure. It is very small and simple. No inscriptions are found here. The size of cell is 6-0" X 6'-0" with height of 3'-6". Cave 12 and cave 13 (Lalita Gumpha) of the khandgiri, hills are roughly cut caves of very less architectural significance. 117

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4.5. JAINISM IN BIHAR 4.5.1 Historical Background Unpartitioned Bihar was the centre of Shraman culture' is the place where twentytwo, out of twenty-four Tirthankars attained salvation (Nirvan). Out of these twenty - two, the six were born here. Hence the sacred place of Bihar occupies the special place in the world. Lord Sheetalnath (10hTirthankar) was born at Bhadrikapur; Lord Vasupujya Swami (12th Tirthankar) at Champapur, Lord Mallinath Swami (19th Tirthankar) and Lord Mahavir Swami at Vaishali. Out of twenty-four Tirthankars Sri Rishabdevji and Lord Neminath Swamiji attained salvation at Kailash Mountain and Girnar Mountain respectively. The sacred land of Bihar has also the privilege of having fourty-six Kalyanak of human welfare. Politically Bihar is now divided into two parts; The Macca of Jain Religion "Sammed Shikhar" is now in the state of Jharkhand. It was on this sacred land of Bihar that monarchs from Sishunag dynasty to Gupta dynasty resigned and ruled all over Indian territories and far off provinces. The Jain emperor Chandragupt of the Maurya Empire renounced everything for the initiation of knowledge as "Nirgranth Muni", at the end of his life. The great "Sheelvratdhari Mahamuni Sudarshanji" got salvation here. "Acharya Sri Sthoolbhadra Swami" presented unique example of "Sheelvrat" after spending four month of rainy season (Chaturmas) in the "Chitrashala" of "Nagarvadhu Kosha" of Patliputra. The ancient Jain pilgrimage of Bihar has a rich story. It is a unique place of the two sects of Jainism, which has been the birth and growth of Jainism. 4.6 JAIN TEMPELS OF BIHAR 4.6.1 Patna Patliputra has been the meeting point of different religion: "Sheelvratdhari Mahamuni Sudarshan" of Jain religion attained salvation (Nirvaan) at Gulzarbag. The birthplace of 10th Guru of Sikh religion; Guru Govind Singhji Maharaj. Phulwari Sharif is the place of pilgrimage of the believers of Islam. Lord Buddha embraced and sanctified this place with his advent here and the santifying river the holy Ganga flows through this region. 118

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119 Figure: 4.3 Location of Jain temples in Bihar. Source: (Author) 13 10 PATNA 2 4 6 Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Chaitayalaya, Nalaroad Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Gurara Temple, Haziganj Sri Adinath Digamber Jain Temple, Kalibibi ka Katra Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Kachauri Gali Sri Parshavanath Swetaber Jain Temple. Bare ki Gali 10 Sri Digamber Jain Panchayat Temple, Macharahatta 11 Sri Kamaldah Sidhakshetra 12 Sri Acharya Schulbhadra sami footprint 13 Sri Sudarshan Kamaldah Ji Temple 7 8 9 Sri Suparshavnath Digamber Jain Temple, RustamGanj Naubatpur 2 Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Mithpur Sri Digamber Jain Chaityalaya, Muradpur Sri Dadawari Begampur AARAH 7 Jain Temple at Masadh Sri 1008 Shantinath Digmaber Jain Temple Sri 1008 Parshavnath Digmaber Jain Temple Sri Chandra Prabhu Digamber Jain Temple Sri Digmaber Jain Chandraprabhu Chaityaya Sri Digamber Jain Mahavir Swami Chaityaya Sri Digmaber Jain Prabhudas Temple Sri Jain Bala Bishram Sai Mahavir Swami Temple, Dhanupura Sri Adinath Temple Dhanupra 5 Uttar Pradesh sl Buxar Sasaram NALANDA Jal Mandir, Pawapu 2 Sri Swetambar Jain Temple, Parapur 3 Samosaran temple Kundalpur Digambar Jain Temple Kundalpur old jain temple Bagaha Dehri 12 Bettiah Siwan Mobhari RAJGIR Bipulachal Ratnagi 3 Udayag Vaibhag Swang NAWADA Muzaffarpur .Gaya Hajipur Bihar Jharkhand 2 Sri Digamner Jidha Kshetra, Ounawaji Dachanga 3 JAMUI 3 Begusarai 1 NEPAL VAISHALI Munger Jain Temple, Bawan pokhar 42 Sri Vasupujya Swami Jain Temple, Nathnagar 3 Sri Padam Prabhu Jinalaya, Nathnagar BHAGALPUR 1 SHRI CHAMPAPUR DIGAMBER JAIN SIDDHA KSHETRA BADA MANDIR, NATHNAGAR Sri Vasupujya Swami Swetamber Jain Temple shanganj galpur Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Kakan Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Lachhuar Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Kshatriyakund Sri Mahavir Chayavan Kalyanak Temple, Lachhuar Sri Mahavir Diksha Kalyanak Temple, Lachhuar Pumia Kathar 4 50 km BANKA 30 mi BAN. West Bengal 4 Sri Mandargini Digamber Jain Sidha kshetra 2 Sri Vasupoojya Swami Jinalya 3 Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Mandar Hill Sri Digamber Jain Keval Gyan Kalyanak Temple

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History, Archeological surveys and holy Scriptures inform us that this city of Patna is closely associated with Jainism. A number of broken "Jain statutes, Voluptuous Yakshini, Jain Chakra, Kalp tree" of Maurya period preserved in Patna Museum were collected from Lohanipur area of Patna. Kamaldah santuary, the foot idol of "Acharaya Sthoolbhadra Swami" on the ruins of picture gallery of "Nagarvadhu Kosha", the lane adjoining the "City Chowk" after the name of merchant "Hira Lal Shah", Langoor lane, Katra of Kali Bibi, the ancient Digmaber Jain temple in Tamolin lane, the ancient Swetambar Jain temple in "Bare-Ki-Gali" and "Dadavadi" situated in "Begumpur" area speak loudly about Patliputra to be associated with Jain culture from the ancient times. 4.6.1.1 Sri Sudarshan Kamaldah Ji Temple, Gulzarbagh Location : Gulzarbagh, Patna Date of Construction : - 1791's Temple Type - Siddha Kshetra of Jain Saint Sudarshan, Swetamber Jain Plate Number: - XI Historical Background Salvation place of Mahamuni Sudarshan Swami - This auspicious place is half kilometre south of Gulzarbag (Patna) Railway Station. In this structure the foot idol of swami are inscribed on black marble. The common belief is that swamiji was sentenced to go to gallow but by miracle the gallows converted in seat of monarch and swamiji attained "Kevalgyan". In the course of time, he attained salvation at this auspicious place. Devotees visit this place all round the year. The structure of temple is such that, in past temple is like Jal mandir as Jal mandir at pawapuri. This is why, it is known as auspicious kamaldahji. The evidence of the temple on the left side and pound on the other side is intact. The road leading to this temple is made of ancient bricks. Every year the salvation ceremony of "Sudarshan Swami" is celebrated with great fan fare by the followers of Jainism on the day of and the annual Rath Yatra of Jain ends here through the temple of Sri Parswanath Digmaber Jain Guraraji, Langoor lane and Hajiganj (Jain B. K., 2012). 120

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Architectural features of the Temple The temple Sudarshan Kamaldah Ji Temple has been magnificently decorated dome with groove and flower pattern. The size of garbhagriha is 9'-6" X 9'-6" with 6'-0" circumambulatory path. The total height of temple is about 21"-3", 4.6.1.2 Sri Sthulbhadra Sadhana Sthal, Gulzarbagh Location: Gulzarbagh, Patna Date of Construction : 1791's Temple Type - Siddha Kshetra of Jain Saint Sudarshan, Swetamber Jain Plate Number: - XI Historical Background On way to the salvation place of Sudarshan Swamiji, on the right side leading to a mound, the temple has foot idols auspicious inscribed on black marble. The popular belief is that, it was the picture gallery (Chitrashala) of Kosha the Nagarvadhu and Rajnartaki of Patliputra where Muni Sthoolbhadra Swami spent four months and it was in his memory that his scared foot idols was installed for the gracious view (Darshan) for which devotees come here round the year. Architectural features of the Temple The temple is situated on a mound measuring 65'-6" x 65'-6". The temple has magnificently decorated dome with groove. The size of foot idol garbhagriha is 3'-6" X 3'-6" with sadhana space of 5'-6" x 2'-6". The total height of temple is about 10' 6" 4.6.1.3 Sri Kamaldah Sidhakshetra, Gulzarbagh Location: Gulzarbagh, Patna Date of Construction : 1910's Temple Type - Siddha Kshetra of Jain Saint Sudarshan, Swetamber Jain Plate Number: - XIII Historical Background Towards the north of Gulzarbhag station is Digmaber Jain temple and office; there is a charming statue of Lord 1008 Sri Neminath Swami in black marble. Other ancient 121

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idols of white marble and eight metals are also found there. There is proper arrangement for the stay of travelers in the guesthouse, which is available there. Architectural features of the Temple The main garbhagriha of the temple is square size 10'-0" X 10'-0" with a central dome and four-miniature dome at corners. There is 5'-0" wide circumambulatory path around garbhagriha. The total height of temple is about 202-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. The temple is finished with cement mortar. 4.6.1.4 Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Gurara Temple, Haziganj, Patna City Location : Haziganj, Patna City Date of Construction : 1864's Temple Type - Sri Parshavvanath Digamber Jain Temple Plate Number:-XIV Historical Background This is also called Langar Gali as it was the birthplace of 10th Sikh Guru Sri Guru Govind Singhji. This temple is situated in this lane. Earlier the idol of 1008 Shri Parswanath was placed on the main alter, but at present the charming idol of Lord Mahavir Swami can be seen there. There are three idols of black color on the east alter: two idols of Bhagwan Chandaprabhu Swami and one of Bhagwan Mahavir Swami. These idols appear to be of tenth and eleventh century and the total number of idols in the temple is fifty-five. Architectural features of the Temple The temple is in dilapidated condition and encroached by the group of people at present. The statues present here is about 10th to 11th century. As per the inscription outside temple it was constructed in 1864. At present the temple is not properly maintained. There are in total fifty-five statues in this temple. In early time these was a statue of Lord Sri Parshavanath but at present there is a beautiful sitting posture statue of Lord Mahavir. The size of garbhagriha is 22-0" X 182-9" with madapam hall of size 18'-0" x 10'-0". The temple is constructed with Brick and lime mortar. 122

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4.6.1.5 Sri Aadinath Digamber Jain Temple, Kalibibi ka Katra, Patna City Location : Kalibibi ka Katra, Patna City Date of Construction : 1942's Temple Type - Sri Aadinath Digamber Jain Temple Plate Number:-XIV Historical Background In the temple idol of Sri Adinath Swami is established. This idol of black colour belonging to the tenth or eleventh century is particularly charming and worth seeing. An idol of Lord Sri Vasupujya Swami is also there which is of red marble and appears to belong to the fifteenth century. Eight idols are made of marble and other eight are made of metals of which chaubisi is highly artistic. Architectural features of the Temple The entry to the temple is from very narrow lane. The structure of the temple is incomplete since, the upper part of superstructure is not completed. As mula nayak the statue of Lord Sri Aadinath in black color is present. The statues present here is about 10th to 11th and 15th century. As per the inscription outside temple it was constructed in 1942. There are in total seventeen statue in this temple out of which eight are of stone, eight are of asta dhatu and oneis of chaubisi. The size of garbhagriha is 16'-0" X 11'9" with madapam hall of size 16'-0" x 7'-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 4.6.1.6 Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Kachauri Gali, Patna City Location : Kachauri Gali, Patna City Date of Construction : 1880's Temple Type - Sri Munisubratnath Jain Temple Plate Number:-XV Architectural features of the Temple In Kachauri lane there is a Shikharband Jain temple, in which the idols of 1008 Bhagwan Sri Munisubratnathji is established. The statues present here is about 10th to 11th century. As per the inscription outside temple it was constructed in 1880. The size of garbhagriha is 8'-0" X 7'-2" with madapam hall of size 142-8" x 16deg-4". The height of temple is 26'-6". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 123

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4.6.1.7 Sri Parshavanath Swetamber Jain Temple, Bare ki Gali, Patna City Location : Bare Ki gali, Patna City Date of Construction : 1880's Date of Re-construction: - 2015's Temple Type - Sri Parshavanath Swetamber Jain Temple Plate Number:-XVI Historical Background Adjacent to the main gate of Harmanirji Sahib and inside the big gate there is a temple where idols of Lord Vimalnath Swami, Lord Vasupujya, Lord Shantinath, Lord Aryanath and some metal idols are established. In the next chamber, white marble idols of Lord Adinath Swami and metal idol of Parswanath Swami are established. At the altar by its side, Lord Kuthunath Swami is present. On the upper floor there is white and black marble idols of Lord Paraswanath and Parswanath Swami respectively and also the idols of Adinath and Avinandan Swamiji are present. Outside the temple, on its left side in a small and new temple one can also see the presence of Sri Bhumiaji Maharaj. Architectural features of the Temple The old temple is almost in dilapidated condition. In 2009 right side of the existing temple, construction work of new temple is started on the basis of nagara style. The size of garbhagriha is 22'-4" X 22'-6" with madapam hall of size 22'-4" X 22'-6". The new temple is constructed with brick and cement mortar and finished with marble cladding. The height of temple is 41'-0". 4.6.1.8 Sri Digamber Jain Panchayat Temple, Macharahatta, Patna City Location : Kachauri Gali, Patna City Date of Construction : 1860's Temple Type - Sri Chandraprabhu Swami Panchayat Jain Temple Plate Number:-XVII Historical Background In this zigzag lane inside a big gate and on the left of the orchard there is an ancient temple which is known as Panchayati temple. On the main altar there is a very beautiful idol of Lord Sri Chandraprabhu Swami. On both side there are metal idols of mother 124

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Padmavati and Chetrapal. In the left hall there is very ancient black marble idols of Lord Sri Adinath Swami is established. Architectural Features of the Temple The size of garbhagriha is 14'-0" X 15'-0" with madapam hall of size 24'-0" X 12'0". There is another garbhagriha of Sri Adianath in the back of main temple having size of 8'-0" X 8'-0". The temple pyramidical shikhara is a unique in charateer with a total height of 402-0". There are rest rooms for the visiters. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 4.6.1.9 Sri Dadawari, Begampur, Patna City Location: Begampur, Patna City Date of Construction : 1780 s Date of Re-construction: - 2012 s Temple Type - Sri Chandraprabhu Swami Panchayat Jain Temple Plate Number:-XVIII Historical Background The ancient temple is situated at the centre of large park on the southern side of Patna city rail track. The descendents of Sri Hirachand, the jeweller of King Jehangir built it in 1780. On the main altar of the temple the foot idol of Gurudev and Bhomiaji is presented in the backyard. This temple is managed by Patna group of Swetamber Jain temple committee. Architectural features of the Temple The campus have two temples front and rear. The size of front temple garbhagriha is 7'-0" x 82-8" and the rear temple garbhagriha is 8'-0" x 82-0". The height of front temple is 242-0 and rear temple is 222-0". Front temple has grooved floral pattern decorative dome and while the rear temple have simple dome. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. The temple is recently renovated with the marble cladding. 125

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4.6.1.10 Sri Digmaber Jain Chaityalaya, Muradpur Location : Muradpur, Patna Date of Construction : 1920's Temple Type - Sri Digamber Jain Chaityalaya Plate Number:-XIX Historical Background and Architectural Features It is a beautiful chaitalaya established by late Sri Surajmal Jain. Eleven small and big metal idols are here including the main idols of 1008 Bhagwan Sri Adinath Swamiji. The chaityalaya is on the first floor of a residential building. The idols are placed in 22'-0" X 22'-0" size hall. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 4.6.1.11 Sri Digmaber Jain Temple, Mithapur Location : Mithapur, Patna Date of Construction : 1962's Temple Type - Sri Digamber Jain Chaityalaya Plate Number:-XX Historical Background and Architectural Features On khagaul road and in front of Bhanamal mill there is three-storied temple. On the ground floor there is arrangement for the stay of devotees and visitors; on the second floor at the big hall of size (22'-0" X 28'-0"), there is a white marble idol of Sri Mahavir Swami. An ancient idol made of white marble of Lord Sri Parswanath Swami, and sixth other idols made of metals are also there. In front of this hall, one finds "Jinwani" which is a storehouse of Jain literature. On the third floor there is white marble idols of Lord Sri Shantinathji and three other idols made of metals in a hall of size (222-0" X 30'-0"). The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 126

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4.6.1.12 Sri Parshavanath Digmabar Jain Chaityalaya, Nalaroad, Patna Location : Nalaroad, Patna Date of Construction : 1980's Temple Type - Sri Digamber Jain Chaityalaya Plate Number:-XXI Historical Background and Architectural Features The chaityalaya was constructed in 1980's with a view of living and worship purpose for a specific time period. Prayers are offered in all solemnity by Jain in this chaitalaya. On the occasion of Daslakshan religious celebration Religious Guru and team of spiritual talkers are invited for awaking of consciousness and knowledge of religion from different places for ten days. The main idol of this small chaitayala is of Lord 1008 Sri Shantinath Swami placed in a hall of size 12'-4" X 322-4" on the fourth floor of building. 4.6.1.13 Sri SuParshavanath Digmaber Jain Temple, Naubatpur, Patna Location : Naubatpur, Patna Date of Construction : 1940's Temple Type - Sri SuParshavanath Digmaber Jain Temple Plate Number:-XXII Historical Background and Architectural Features The temple is dedicated to Sri Suparshavanath Ji and it was constructed in 1950. It is located at about 20 KM west of Patna. The temple is managed by Ara Digamber Jain samiti trust. The temple has square garbhagriha 8'-0" X 8'-0" with three side door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 422-0". The shikhara of temple is octagonal pyramid. The temple is constructed with Brick and lime mortar. 4.6.2 Vaishali Vaishali is 50 km away from Patna is blessed with the birthplace of Lord Mahavir. A memorial of Lord Sri Mahavir was established here on 23rd April 1956 by Dr. Rajendra Prasad, the first president of India. Now, by the blessing of Jain muni Acharya Sri 108 Vidyanandji, Vidyasagarji, Vardmansagarji Maharaj, A spacious park and a large temple are under construction under the supervision of Bhagwan Mahavir Smarak Samiti consisting of Sri Naresh Kumar Sethi of Jaipur (Chairman), Sri Ratanlalji 127

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Gangwal (Secretary), Sri Puranmalji Sethi of Ranchi, Sri Satish Jain of Delhi, Sri Kailash Chand Jain (Pandya), Sri B. K. Jain (Ara), Sri Syrendraji Gangwal of Patna and many others. The style of newly constructed temple resembles Nagara style of Hindu temple Architecture. model of Figure: 4.4 - Memorial of Lord Mahavir Figure: 4.5: - Proposed Source: (Author) new temple in Nagara Style. Source: (Author) Figure: 4.6 - View of ongoing construction of temple at Vaishali, Basokund. Source: (Author) 128

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4.6.2.1 Jain Temple at Bamapur Location : Bawan Pokhar, Vaishali Date of Construction : 800's Temple Type - Sri SuParshavanath Digmaber Jain Temple Plate Number:-XXIII Historical Background Bhawan Pokhar temple is located in Basarh, Vaishali in Bihar, India. More specifically, it is situated on the northern banks of a pond called Bhawan Pokhar. The Bhawan Pokhar temple was built by the Pallavas, during the Pala period. Bhawan Pokhar Temple is constructed using stone. Interior of the temple has images in ruined condition. It is said that during the Mughal period the idols were destroyed and thrown into pond. This collection of different idols is made of black basalt, dating back to the Guptas and Palas period. Architectural Features of the Temple The campus have two temples front and rear. The size of front temple garbhagriha is 10'-0" x 102-0" and the rear temple garbhagriha is14-0" x 122-0". The height of front temple is 24'-0 and rear temple is 16"-4". Both the temple have pyramidical shikhara. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 4.6.3 Ara Historical Background This pilgrimage is 55 km from Patna. It is reputed for number of ancient temple, which have artistic and charming. In eastern India, Ara is known by "Jainpuri". There is fourteen famous shikharband temples and twelve chaityalaya - all are ancient and charming. There is a temple at Dhanupra with a rest house for girls and aashram for women established by respected Matasati Chandabai. On the hillock, there is threemeter tall white marble idols and a manstambha. Ara provides good arrangement for stay in its rest houses. "Jain Siddhant Hall" has been established by Babu Dev Kumar Jain, which has a rich collection of manuscripts, significant books, handmade paintings and pictures. Ara has a good treasure of ancient religion and spiritual wisdom for its visitors. Here total eleven number of structure is taken as sample, out of which seven 129

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numbers are temples two numbers are chaitayalaya and one Bahubali statue and one manasatabha. 4.6.3.1 Sri 1008 Parshavanath Digmabar Jain Temple Location: Ara Town Date of Construction : 1880's Temple Type - Sri Parshavanath Digmaber Jain Temple Plate Number: - XXIV Architectural Features of the Temple The garbhagriha of the temple is a unique in nature, based on Chaturmukha Mahaprasad. In which the main chaturmukha vedi is at the center and around it there are other vedi arranged at all cardinal directions. The size garbhagriha is 28'-6" x 18"6" in octagonal shape with circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 50'-0". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire. The brick and lime mortar is used in construction of temple. 4.6.3.2 Sri 1008 Tirthankar Shantinath Digmabar Jain Temple Location: Ara Town Date of Construction : 1894's Temple Type - Sri Shantinath Digmaber Jain Temple Plate Number: - XXV Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has vedi of Tirthankar Shantinath in sitting posture. The temple has square garbhagriha 16'-0" X 16'-0" with three side door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 67'-8". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire and decorative grooved dome at all four corners of the circumambulatory path. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 4.6.3.3 Sri Chandra Prabhu Digmabar Jain Temple Location: Ara Town Date of Construction : 1870's Temple Type - Sri Chandra Prabhu Digmaber Jain Temple Plate Number: - XXVI 130

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Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has octagonal vedi of Tirthankar Chandraprabhu in sitting posture. The temple has square garbhagriha 10'-0" X 10'-0" with four side door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 47'-3". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire and decorative dome at all four corners of the circumambulatory path. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. There is a manastabha in front of temple of 40'-0" height. In the rear side of temple there are tunks of all twenty four Tirthankar. 4.6.3.4 Sri Digmabar Jain Chandraprabhu Chaityalaya Location : Ara Town Date of Construction : 1965's Temple Type - Sri Chandraprabhu Chaityalaya Plate Number: - XXVII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has vedi of Tirthankar Chandraprabhu in sitting posture. The temple has rectangular garbhagriha of 142-0" X 182-0" and double height mandapam. It is placed on the first floor of building. The height of temple is 28'-6". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 4.6.3.5 Sri Digmabar Jain Mahavir Swami Chaityalaya Location : Ara Town Date of Construction : 1962's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Swami Chaityalaya Plate Number: - XXVIII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has vedi of Tirthankar Mahavir in sitting posture. The temple has square garbhagriha of 82-0" X 8'-0" and entry from 62-0" verandah. It is placed on the first floor of building. The height of temple is 302-4". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 131

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4.6.3.6 Sri Digmabar Jain Prabhudas Temple Location: Ara Town Date of Construction : 1870's Temple Type - Samosaran Plate Number: - XXIX Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has octagonal vedi of samosaran Temple of Tirthankar Sitalnath. The temple has square garbhagriha 12'-0" X 12'-0" with four side door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 55'-10". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire and miniature pyramid at all four corners of the circumambulatory path. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 4.6.3.7 Sri Parswanath Digamber Jain temple Masadh Location: Masadh, Ara Date of Construction : 1870's Temple Type - Sri Parswanath Digamber Jain temple Plate Number: - XXX Historical Background Sri Parswanath Digamber Jain temple is situated in masadh, which is twelve km away from Ara - where black marble idols of Lord Sri Parasnath and white marble of Lord Adinath is placed. The Chinese traveller "Hwensheng" made its reference in 637 AD in his travel journey. The present temple was completed in 1819 AD (Jain B. K., 2012, p. 158). Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Parsvanath. The temple has square garbhagriha 12'-0" X 12'-0" with three side door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 44'-1". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire and grooved dome at all four corners of the circumambulatory path. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. These are subsidiary rooms and halls constructed with the temple. 132

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4.6.3.8 Bisram, Dhanupura, Ara Historical Background The name 'Bisram' in Hindi, translates to 'rest'. During the travel of Sri Mahvir seeked rest here, in the village. There are two temples dedicated to Sri Adi Nath and Sri Mahavir. In addition, one Bahubali statue and one manastambha infront the statue is present. Sri Jain Bala Bisram This first Jain institution for promotion of female education in India was founded in 1921 by Pandita Chanda Baiji, aunt of Late Sri Nirma Kumar Jain, at Dhanupura, two miles east of the town. Its teaching is based on religion and the ideals of Indian womanhood. Situated in a compound amidst natural surroundings, the institution is in the lap of nature and has won appreciation from one and all. It has quite a few units within its campus, and they include Sanskrit Mahavidyalaya, and School of Arts and Crafts. 4.6.3.8.1 Sri Jain Bala Temple and Manasthambha, Bisram Location: Ara Town Date of Construction : 1955's Temple Type-Bahubali Satue and Manastambha Plate Number: - XXXI Architectural Features of the Temple This temple stands in the compound of Jain Bala Bishram. The statue is 15 feet high in a single white Jaipur marble stone. It stands over an artificial mountain amidst beautiful natural surroundings. It is a replica of the famous 57-feet-high ancient image of Bahubli Swami, the illustrious son of the first Jain Tirthankar Lord Rishabhadev, which is established at Shravanabelagola in Karnataka. The size of garbhagriha is 10'-0" x 14"0" with height of 27'-0". The top of the temple has chhatri style dome. A twenty-four feet high manasthambha was also built by Pandita Chanda Baiji on the campus. 4.6.3.8.2 Sri Adinath Digamber Jain Temple, Dhanupura Location: Ara Town Date of Construction : 1870's Temple Type - Bahubali Satue and Manastambha 133

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Plate Number: - XXXII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Adinath. The temple has square garbhagriha 122-0" X 122-0" with three side door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 532-6". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire and grooved dome at all four corners of the circumambulatory path. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. These are subsidiary rooms and halls constructed with the temple for the other Tirthankar. 4.6.3.8.3 Sri Mahavir Swami Digamber Jain Temple, Dhanupura Location : Ara Town Date of Construction : 1870's Temple Type - Bahubali Satue and Manastambha Plate Number: - XXXIII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Mahavir. The temple has square garbhagriha 122-0" X 122-0" with three sides door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 432-0". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. These are subsidiary rooms and halls constructed with the temple for the other Tirthankar. The front portico of temple is semicircular with round pillars. 4.6.4 Jammui Historical Background Consider to be the birthplace of Lord Sri Mahavir by Swetambars. There are two beautiful temples in nagara style. One is in the village Lachhuar and other is on the hill valley. The hill near Lachhuar in sikandra Police Station is also known as "Chhatriya Kund" The whole area known as "Kundgram" divided into two parts by the range of hills, one part is called "Brahman Kundgram" and the other part "Chhatriya Kundgram". 4.6.4.1 Sri Swetambar Jain Temple, Kshatriyakund, Lachhuar Location : Kshatriyakund, Lachhuar 134

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Date of Construction : 1870's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Swetamber Jain Temple Plate Number: -XXXIV Architectural Features of the Temple The complete form of temple is completely inspired from Hindu Nagara style of temple. The complete hierarchy as ardhamandam, mandapam, antarala and garbhagriha is completely seen here. The size of garbhagriha is square 62-0" X 6-0" followed by antarala followed by square mandapam of 18-0" x 18'-0" followed by ardhamandam. The plan is completely based on square - circle - square concept of vastupurushamandala. The elevation form is completely derived from nagara style with exception of intricately carved marble corbelled arches, ceiling, columns and other surfaces. The total height of temple is 50'-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and intricately carved sand stone and marble. 4.6.4.2 Sri Swetambar Jain Temple, Lachhuar Location : Lachhuar Date of Construction : 1870's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Swetamber Jain Temple Plate Number: - XXXV Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Sri Mahavir. The temple has square garbhagriha 14'-6" X 14'-6" with three sides door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 46'-10". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire and grooved dome at all four corners and four sides of the circumambulatory path. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. There are subsidiary rooms and halls constructed with the temple for the other Tirthankar. The rang mandap of temple is rectangular size of 372-3" x 30'-0" with intricately carved arches covered with grooved dome. 135

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4.6.4.3 Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kakan Location : Lachhuar Date of Construction : 1870's Temple Type - Sri Suvidhinath Swetamaber Jain Temple Plate Number: - XXXVI Historical Background The history of the sanctuary begins with the ninth Tirthankar Sri Suvidhinath. According to the Swetamber traditions, the four Kalnayaks (Chayvan, Janm, Diksha and Keval Gnan) of Sri Suvidhinath have occurred here. Sri Suvidhinath is also called Pushpadanta (Society, Shri Jain Swetamber, 2018). Architectural Features of the Temple The size of garbhagriha is rectangular 82-0" x 10'-0" followed by antarala followed by rectangular mandapam of 362-9" x 212-3" followed by ardhamandam. The elevation form is completely derived from nagara style with exception of intricately carved cement mortar corbelled arches, ceiling, columns and other surfaces. The total height of temple is 432-8". The temple is constructed with brick and lime and intricately carved in cement mortar. 4.6.5 Bhagalpur 4.6.5.1 Sri Champapur Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Bada Mandir, Nathnagar Location : Nathnagar, Bhagalpur Date of Construction : 1760's Temple Type - Sri Vasupujya Digamber Jain Temple Plate Number: - XXXVII Historical Background Champapur is rather old and historic Teerth Kshetra. Champapur is the only "Panch Kalyanaka Kshetra" in the world. It is related to Panch Kalyanaka: - "(i) Garbha, (ii) Janma, (iii) Tapa, (iv) Gyan and (v) Moksha" of the 12th Tirthankar Bhagwan and arrival of "samosaran" of all the twenty-four Tirthankars. 136

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Architectural Features of the Temple The main temple of Champapur Siddha Kshetra is quite old (about 2500 years). This symbolic temple of 'Panch Kalyanaka' is adorned with five altars, a magnificent spire and two famous columns. The gateway to this temple is built in the hawamahal style of Jaipur (the pink city), it is large, attractive and artistic. An ancient "Adinath Jinalaya from the northeast" is also present on the southern campus, near the main temple. Here is also a Khadgasana idol 'Kushan periodic' of Lord Adinath, who is 2000 years old. These are many older idols present in this temple. In this temple, the statues of all twenty-four Tirthankars are present in marble collectively and this seems wonderful and unique. The magnificent 61-feet high "Column of Dignity" is here and is one of the massive pillars of dignity present in eastern India. The four idols of Jin present in the upper part on the four sides of the column, the four idols are established respectively on four altars present in the central part of the column. Around these four altars, the 16 dreams are carved in marble that respected Tirthankar's mother before conceiving a child. "Tunks" of twenty-four Tirthankars are built around the three sides of this column of dignity. The first of these "Tunks", the temple of Bhagwan Bahubali is quite attractive. At the end of these twenty-four "Tunks" there are the standing images of "Ganadhar Mandar". Sri Mandar was the first Ganadhar of Bhagwan Vasupoojya. Lord Shantinath temple with a magnificent idol of 9.25 feet tall and Lord Sri Mahavir Swami temple with a magnificent 7.25 foot tall idol are also present at this campus. Here is also the artistic temple decorated with a mirror, in which the idol 'Khadagasan' of Lord Parshvanath , 7.25 feet tall, crowned by 'seven snake caps' is installed. A magnificent 'Jal Mandir' is also built here, in which a 16-foot tall idol of Lord Vasupoojya is established on a large lotus flower. The water is filled with an artificial lake around the altar. The huge umbrella marble is present above the idol. 137

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4.6.5.2 Sri Vasupujya Swami Jain Temple, Nathnagar Location: Nathnagar, Bhagalpur Date of Construction : 1960's Temple Type - Sri Vasupujya Digamber Jain Temple Plate Number: - XXXVIII Architectural Features Of The Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Vasupujya swami. The temple has square garbhagriha 11'-0" X 11'-0" with one side door followed by rang mandapa of size 9'-6" x 22'-0" and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 43'-0". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and intricately carved in cement mortar. These are subsidiary rooms constructed with the temple for the other Tirthankars. 4.6.5.3 Sri Vasupujya Swami Swetambar Jain Temple, Champanagar Location: Champanagar, Bhagalpur Date of Construction : 1936's Temple Type - Sri Vasupujya Swetamber Jain Temple Plate Number: - XXXIX Architectural Features of the Temple There are three main garbhgriha in the temple. Two on ground floor depicting the all five kalyanaka of Sri Vasupujya Swami and one garbhagriha of samosaran temple on first floor of first temple. The size of first and samosaran garbhagriha is 20'-0" X 20"0", second garbhagriha is 14'-0" x 14'-0" with one opening in each. There are three entryway to all these garbhagrihas with circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 43'-6". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and intricately carved with mortar. There are subsidiary rooms and Tunk constructed with the temple for the other Tirthankars. 4.6.6 Banka 4.6.6.1 Sri Digmabar Jain Siddha Kshetra Moksha Kalyanak Temple Location: Mandargiri, Banka Date of Construction : 1820's Temple Type - Sri Vasupujya Moksha Kalyanak Temple Plate Number: -XL 138

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Architectural Features of the Temple The temple is on the Mandar hill. It is a great place of for Hindu and Jain both. This place is a Nirvana place for Sri Vasupujya Swami. The temple have two square garbhagriha of size is 20'-0" x 20'-0". In first garbhagriha, there is Samadhi of Sri Vasupujya Swami with an opening in the wall and other garbhagriha has standing statue of Sri Vasupujya Swami is present. The top of both the temple have round base pyramidicial shikhara. The height of temple is 51-10". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. 4.6.6.2 Sri Digmabar Jain Temple Location : Boisi, Banka Date of Construction : 1880's Temple Type - Sri Vasupujya Moksha Kalyanak Temple Plate Number: - XLI Architectural Features of the Temple The temple is situated at boisi railway station, Banka. The temple have two square garbhagriha of size is 8'-0" x 8'-0 on ground floor and first floor of same premises. From the top of this temple Sri Digmabar Jain Siddha Kshetra Moksha Kalyanak temple is clearly seen. In first garbhagriha, there is sitting posture vedi of Sri Vasupujya Swami with three side entry, while on the first floor foot idol of Sri Vasupujya Swami is established. The top the temple have hexagonal base grooved pyramidicial shikhara. The height of temple is 38'-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. The exterior of temple is highly decorated with mosaic work. 4.6.6.3 Sri Vasupoojya Swami Jinalaya Location : Boisi, Banka Date of Construction : 1977's Temple Type - Sri Vasupujya Moksha Kalyanak Temple Plate Number: - XLII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Vasupujya swami. The temple has square garbhagriha 7'-0" X 7'-0" with one side door followed by antarala followed by rang mandapa hall of size 15'-0" x 122-3". The height of temple is 29-0". The top 139

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of temple has pyramidical shikhara. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and carved groove in cement mortar. The temple has two very decorative carved column and balcony with grooved half dome in cement mortar. 4.6.7 Nalanda 4.6.7.1 Jal mandir, Pawapuri Location : Pawapuri Date of Construction : 1760's Date of Renovation/Reconstruction: 1920's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Nirvana Temple Plate Number: - XLIII (A) and XLIII (B) Historical Background The Jal Mandir which means Water Temple, is in Pawapuri also known as Apapuri. Which means a city without sins, is a very revered temple dedicated to Lord Sri Mahavir, the 24th Tirthankar (religious preacher of Jainism), which marks the place of his cremation. Sri Mahavir reached Nirvana (salvation) in Pawapuri in 528 BC. The temple was built inside a pool full of red lotus flowers. It is said that the temple was built by King Nandivardhan, the elder brother of Sri Mahavir. The foot idol of Sri Mahavir is deified in the temple. Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has foot idol idol of Tirthankar Sri Mahavir swami. The temple has square garbhagriha 12'-0" X 12'-0" with three side door and 8'-0" wide circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 23'-6". The top of temple has chhatriya dome at center and all cardinal directions and decorated grooved dome at all the four corners. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and finished with decorative marble cladding in wall, ceiling, columns and arches. 4.6.7.2 Samosaran Temple, Pawapuri Location : Pawapuri Date of Construction : 1910's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Samosaran Temple Plate Number: -XLIV 140

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Architectural Features of the Temple The temple is in the form of circular audiotorium with facing all cardinal dirctions standing posture Tirthankar Sri Mahavira. The size of garbhagriha is 12'-6" X 12'6". It is belived that the Lord Sri Mahavir preaches at this place several times. In the memorial, it was constructed in 1910. It has three level of storey with a height of 34'6". The entire samosaran is finished with white cladded marble. Its arches, railing and the top of shikhara in tree replica is intricately carved. 4.6.7.3 Sri Swetambar Jain Temple, Pawapuri Location: Pawapuri Date of Construction : 1880's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Swetambar Jain Temple Plate Number: - XLV Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Sri Mahavira. The temple has square garbhagriha of 10'-0" X 10'-0" with three side door and circumambulatory path. The height of temple is 53'-0". The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara with spire and grooved. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and carvings of plaster in ceiling, eaves, and columns. 4.6.7.4 Sri Kundalpur Digmaber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Location: Kundalpur Date of Construction : 1710's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Digmaber Jain Temple, Manastambha Architectural Features of the Temple According to the Digamber Jain sect, Sri Kundalpur Digamber Jain Teerth Kshetra is the sacred place of Sri Mahavir, Garbha, Janma and Tapa Kalyanaka. There are two temples and a manastambha on the campus. The first temple is a huge and glorious temple with beautiful spirers at Sri Kundalpur Digamber Jain Teerth Kshetra. The main idol is an attractive idol of Padmasana of Lord Sri Mahavir, white in color and four and a half feet of height established in this temple. The other temple is an underground temple with a pyramidal superstructure, the temple symbolizes Sri Mahavir birthplace. manastambha is a huge and brilliant tower where eight idols of Lord Sri Mahavir are 141

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established in front of each of the cardinal directions in two levels with intricate carvings. The height of the manastabha is 52 feet. In between the temple and manastambha, there is beautifully marble carved tunk with the foot idols of Lord Sri Mahavira. Figure : 4.7 - Main Temple Sri Kundalpur Digmaber Jain Atishaya Kshetra Source: (Author) Figure : 4.8 - Birth place Sri Mahavir, 24th Tirthankar. Source: (Author) 142

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Figure : 4.9 - Manastambha, Sri Kundalpur Digmaber Jain Atishaya Kshetra. Source: (Author) 4.6.7.5 Sri Digamber Jain Tirtha Kshetra Prachin Mandir Kundalpur (Kalyanak Kshetra) Location : Kundalpur Date of Construction : 1840's Temple Type - Sri Digamber Jain Chaubisi Jain Temple complex Plate Number: - XLVI (A) and XLVI (B) Architectural Features of the Temple This is a temple comples with five temples and rest house. The first temple is totally based on the life history of Sri Mahavir ji in three floors. The temple is cladded with red sand stone. The second temple is dedicated to Sri Rishavnath ji. The standing posture statue is palced in the temple. The third temple is dedicated to Sri Mahavir ji. 143

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The forth temple is dedicated to all the navgrahs. As per the mythological consideration, these have impact on the human karmas. The top of these temple have very decorated pyramidical shikhara with spire finished in cement mortar. The fifth and last temple is dedicated to past chaubisi, current chaubisi and future chaubisi. In the Jain tradition, it is believed that the universe is a continuous process, it cannot be destroyed and created so; there are past chaubisi, current chaubisi and future chaubisi in present tradition. The temple has three floors dedicated to different period chaubisi. The temple have highly decorated corbelled arches and multiple miniature pyramidical shikhara is placed on the top. 4.6.8 Rajgir Historical Background This place is particularly significant for the followers of Jainism and for archaeological point of view. This area is known as "Panchpahari Siddhchhetra". There are Panchpahari-Bipulachal, Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, Swarnagiri and Vaibhargiri. All these hills have about twenty-one temples on the hilltops constructed in different periods by Digamber and Swetamber Sect. This place is blessed by "Garbha", "Janma", "Tap" and knowledge - four kalyanak of Lord Munisuvratnath Swami. The first sermon of Lord Mahavir Swami was delivered on "Vipulachal Hill" in the memory of this place was particularly blessed by the stay of Lord Sri Mahavir. The first "Gandhar", Indrabhuti Gautam attained salvation on the "Vaibhavgiri" mountain. In this Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra there are ten temples located in the hills and two are located in the valley. On the first hill known as Vipulachala, there are four magnificent temples located. A huge and attractive monument was built here in the memory of Lord Muni Suvratnath. On the second hill of Udaygiri there are two temples. It is said that these temples were discovered while digging the place. Even the idols have recovered from here and kept in Lal Mandir, in the valley. Swarnagiri is the fourth hill also known as Shranangiri. There are three temples. There are two caves in the southern part of this hill. The images of 'Jin' have been carved on the walls of the caves. In the fifth hill known as Vaibhavgiri there are five temples. From this place a large Jain temple was recovered about 1200 years after having excavated twenty four rooms. Many old artistic idols are established here. 144

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4.6.8.1 Samosaran Temple, Bipulachal Location: Bipulachal, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1878's Temple Type - Samosaran Temple Architectural Features of the Temple The temple is in the form of circular audiotorium with facing all cardinal dirctions standing posture Tirthankar Sri Mahavira. The size of garbhagriha is 10'-0" X 10'O". It is belived that, the Lord Sri Mahavir preaches at this place first time after the enlightenment. It has three level of storey with a total height of 50'-0". The entire samosaran is finished with white cladded marble. Its railing and the top of temple in tree replica is carved with marble. Figure 4.10 Samosaran Temple, Bipulachal. Source: (Author) 4.6.8.2 Sri Digmaber Jain Temple, Ratnagiri Location: Ratnagiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1935's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Temple Plate Number: - XLVII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Sri Mahavira. The temple has irregular octagonal garbhagriha of 19'-6" X 16"-11" with single entry followed by mandapam of size 12'-5" x 8'-7". The height of temple is 38'-0". The top of temple has octagonal pyramidical shikhara and mandapa has floral pattern chhatriya dome in 145

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plaster. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. The main entry has cuppsed arches. 4.6.8.3 Sri Swetambar Jain Temple, Ratnagiri Location : Ratnagiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1960's Temple Type - Sri Chandraprabhu Temple Plate Number: - XLVIII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Sri Chandraprabhu. The temple has square garbhagriha of 18?-0" x 18'-0" with single entry. The top of temple has corbelled pyramidical shikhara. The height of temple is 27'-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and finished with marble. 4.6.8.4 Udaygiri In this hill some remains of old temple have beed found, which clearly indictes that, existance of Tirthankar worship on these hills. All these remains have preserved by the Jain society. The temple has three entryway with circumbalatory path. Presently wall upto a height of 3'-0" have been constructed and preserved with the pyramid shape miniature foot idol. Figure : 4.11 - Remains of old temples preserved at Udaygiri hill, Rajgir. Source: (Author) 146

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4.6.8.5 Sri Digmabar Jain Temple, Udayagiri Location : Udayagiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1942's Temple Type - Sri Digamber Jain Sri Adinath Temple Plate Number: - XLIX Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Sri Aadinath. The temple has square garbhagriha of 10'-0" X 102-0" with single entry followed by mandapam of size 10'0" X 6'-0". The height of temple is 332-9". The top of temple has octagonal pyramidical shikhara and mandapa has floral pattern chhatriya dome in plaster. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. The main entry has cuppsed arches. 4.6.8.6 Sri Swetambar Jain Sanwaliya Parshavanath Temple, Udayagiri Location : Udayagiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1957's Temple Type - Sri Parshavanath Temple Plate Number: -L Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Sri Parshavanath. The temple has hexagonal garbhagriha of 10'-6" x 10'-6" with single entry and circumcumbulatory path. The top of temple has corbelled pyramidical shikhara. The height of temple is 24'0". The temple has four foot print idols established at the cardinal directions with the miniature corbelled shikhara. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and finished with marble. 4.6.8.7 Sri Parshavanath Swetambar Jain Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri Location : Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1908's Temple Type - Sri Parshavanath Swetambar Jain Jinalaya Plate Number: - LI Architectural Features of the Temple 147

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The temple has sitting posture vedi of Sri Parshavanath and two foot idol on the side wall. The temple has square garbhagriha of 10'-0" X 10deg-O" with single entry followed by mandapam of size 14'-0" x 14'-0". The height of temple is 33'-6". The top of temple has decorated pyramidical shikhara. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and cladded with marble. 4.6.8.8 Sri Dhanna Shalibhadra Swetambar Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Location : Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1901's Temple Type - Sri Swetambar Jain Temple Plate Number: - LII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has almost similar features as Sri Parshavanath Swetambar Jain Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri. The temple has sitting posture vedi of Sri Parshavanath and two foot idol on the side wall. The temple has square garbhagriha of 9'-0" X 9'-0" with single entry followed by mandapam of size 92-0" x 92-0". The height of temple is 312-9". The top of temple has decorated pyramidical shikhara. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and cladded with marble. 4.6.8.9 Sri Digmabar Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Location : Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1890's Temple Type - Sri Digmabar Jain Temple Plate Number: - LIII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has almost similar features as Sri Parshavanath Swetambar Jain Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri. The temple has sitting posture vedi of Sri Parshavanath and two foot idol on the side wall. The temple has square garbhagriha of 9'-0" X 9'-0" with single entry followed by mandapam of size 92-0" x 9?-O". The height of temple is 312-9". The top of temple has decorated pyramidical shikhara. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and cladded with marble. 148

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4.6.8.10 Sri Mahavirswami Swetambar Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Location: Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1890's Temple Type - Sri Mahavirswami Swetambar Jain Temple Plate Number: - LIV Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Sri Mahvirswami. The temple has square garbhagriha of 10'-0" x 10'-0" with single entry and circumcumbulatory path. At the corner of circumambulatory path these are four hexagonal niches having foot idol of Tirthankars. The top of temple has floral pattern groved dome and at corners of temple offset pyramidical shikhara is constructed. The height of temple is 29'-5". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and finished with marble. 4.6.8.11 Sri Munisuvaratswami Mukhya Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri Location: Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1820's Temple Type - Sri Munisuvaratswami Mukhya Jinalaya Plate Number: - LV Architectural Features of the Temple The temple has sitting posture vedi of Tirthankar Munisuvaratswami. The temple has square garbhagriha of 8'-0" x 8'-0" with single entry and circumcumbulatory path. The top of temple has corbelled pyramidical shikhara. The height of temple is 30'-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and finished with marble. 4.6.8.12 Sri Gautamswami Nirvan Temple, Vaibhargiri Location: Vaibhargiri, Rajgir Date of Construction : 1835's Temple Type - Sri Gautamswami Nirvan Temple Plate Number: - LVI Architectural Features of the Temple This is the place where the first disciple of Sri Mahavir taken Samadhi. The temple has foot idol of Gautamswami. The temple has square garbhagriha of 8'-0" x 8'-0" with single entry and circumcumbulatory path. The top of temple has corbelled pyramidical 149

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shikhara. The height of temple is 16'-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and finished with marble. Sri 1008 Mahavir Swami Jinalaya, Rajgir 4.6.8.13 Location: Rajgir Date of Construction : 1919's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Swami Jinalaya Plate Number: - LVII Architectural Features of the Temple The temple is situated at the Rajgir city. The temple has sitting idol of Tirthankar Sri Mahavir swami. The temple has square garbhagriha of 8'-0" x 8'-0" with single entry and circumcumbulatory path. The top of temple has pyramidical shikhara and front dome above verandah. The height of temple is 35'-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar. Sri Swetambar Jain Temple, Rajgir 4.6.8.14 Location: Rajgir Date of Construction : 1961's Temple Type - Sri Mahavir Swami temple Plate Number: - LVIII Architectural Features of the Temple The complete form of temple is completely inspired from Hindu nagara style of temple. The complete hierarchy as ardhamandam, mandapam, antarala and garbhagriha is completely seen here. The size of garbhagriha is rectangular 16'-2" X 12"-8" followed by antarala followed by square mandapam of 30'-0" x 30'-0" followed by ardhamandam. The plan is completely based on square circle - square concept of vastupurusamandala. The elevation form is completely derived from nagara style with exception of intricately carved marble corbelled arches, ceiling, columns and other surfaces. The total height of temple is 57'-0". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and intricately carved sand stone and marble. 150 -

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4.6.9 Nawada Historical Background This place is on Patna-Ranchi road towards Biharsharif. This holy place is considered as salvation (Nirvana) place of Gautam Gandharva. The Sidha Kshetra have one Digamber Jain Temple, manastambha, one Swetamber Jal Mandir and rest house. This place has therefore special significance and attraction for Jain pilgrims all over the world. 4.6.9.1 Sri Digmabar Jain Sidha Kshsetra, Gunawaji Location: Gunawa ji, Nawada Date of Construction: Jalmandir (1876's) and Temple (1880's) Temple Type - Sri Jal Mandir and Sri Mahavir swami temple Plate Number: - LIX (A) and LIX (B) Architectural Features of the Temple There are two important temple is at this sidhha kshetra. One is Jal mandir with the totally dome superstructure placed in a centre of the pond. The temple has single entry square garbhagriga of size 8'-0" X 8'-0" with the three sitting posture vedi of Tirthankars. There is circumambulatory path around the garbhagriha. The total height of temple is 17'-6". The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar and finished in decorative plaster. The second temple is adjacent to Jal mandir and has sitting posture vedi of Lord Sri Mahavira. The size of garbhagriha is square (10'-0" X 10'-0") with three side openings. There is a mandapam hall of size 20'-0" X 28'-0". The top had octagonal pyramidical shikhara. There is a manastambha in the front of temple of height 31'-6". The third temple is of Gautam Swami in the same campus of octagonal in plan with circumambulatory path. The top of temple has dome with the lotus petals. All these temples are constructed with brick and lime mortar and finished in decorative plaster. 151

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4.7 Jainism in Jharkhand Shikharji, Jharkhand, India, is situated at Parasnath. It is a Jain Tirtha acknowledged to be the nirvana place of twenty of the twenty-four Jain Tirthankars. The site of Architectural importance are Barakar, Palgang, Isari bazar and Kolhua Mountain. All these places are pilgrimage site for the Jain community. 4.7.1 Sri Rijubalika Tirtha, Barakar Location : Barakar, Jharkhand Date of Construction : 1865 Temple Type - Siddha Kshetra of Lord Sri Mahavir Plate Number: -LX Historical Background The current river Barakar was the Rujubaluka river of ancient times. It is believed that this great place was called Rujuvaluka. On Farmer Shyamak's farm on the bank of this river under a shal tree at the auspicious moment of Vijay Muhurta, on the tenth day of the brilliant month of Vaishakh Lord, Sri Mahavir attained omniscience. Therefore, this place is considered a very sacred and sacred place in the history of Jain (Sangh, Sri Jain Svetambar, 2018). Architectural Features of the Temple The temple of Sri Rujuvaluka Teerth houses the deity of Lord Sri Mahavira. The temple has been beautifully decorated with intricate artistic designs. The creative work of the temple boasts of the skills of the craftsmen. The idol of the Lord is about 15 cm tall and is white. The idol has been beautifully carved into a single stone and looks very attractive. The smiling face of the Lord seems very calm and serene.The temple having square garbhagriha with size 14'-0" X 14'-0" with 6-0" circumambulatory path. The total height of temple is 332-0". The central part of the temple have Pyramidical shikhara with spire and decorative dome at the all four corners. The arch is corbelled unique feature of the temple. The facia is cladded with marble. 152

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153 Figure: 4.12- Location of Jain temples in Jharkhad. Source: (Author) 5 JHARKHAND Sri Digambar Temple Digambar jain Temple, Palganj Oridih -- Samed Shikhar, Maduwan Paranath Uttar Pradesh SRjubalika Tirtha Bark kshetra Chatra d-maps.com Chhattisgarh 60 km Daltonganj Bihar Ranchi Orissa West Bengal

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4.7.2 Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Temple, Palganj Location: Palganj, Jharkhand Date of Construction : 1970 Temple Type - Sri Parshwanath Digamber Jain Temple, Palganj Plate Number: - LXI Historical Background Raja Parasnath Singh and his ancestors had developed this village. It is 17 Km south from Giridih at Giridih Dumari Road. It is famous place of worship Jain. Palganj was the original foot of Sammed Shikhar and the current Madhuvan is located at a distance of 20 kilometers from Palganj. Architectural Features of the Temple The temple of Sri Parshwanath Digamber Jain Temple Palganj houses the deity of Parshwanath. The temple has been magnificently decorated on octagonal shikhara, dome, lintel and columns in lime mortar plaster. The idol of the Lord is black in colour. The temple having square garbhagriha with size 14'-0" X 14'-0" with 6'-0" circumambulatory path. The total height of temple is about 34'-0". The central part of the temple have octagonal Pyramidical shikhara dome at the all four corner. The main entrance of temple is with arch supported with pilaster. 4.7.3 Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Ishari Bazar, Jharkhand Location: Parasnath, Jharkhand Date of Construction : 1924 Temple Type - Sri Digamber jain Temple Plate Number: - LXII Architectural Features of the Temple This temple is very near to Parasnath railway station constructed in 1924. The temple is having rest houses. The tourist travelling to Parasnath hill come here for darshana and rest. The temple houses the diety Sri Chandraprabhu, Sri Adinath and Sri Mahavir. The principal diety is Sri Mahavir. The temple has octagonal shikhara, with two front corner shikhara. The temple is finished with lime mortar plaster. The temple main garbhagriha is square with size 8'-0" X 8'-0" with 5'-0" circumambulatory path. The total height of temple is about 38'-0". 154

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4.7.4 Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Temple, Kolhua mountain Location: Chatra, Jharkhand Date of Construction : 1625 Temple Type - Shri Kolhua Pahad Digamber Jain Teerth Kshetra Plate Number: - LXIII Historical Background According to Jain's ethic, the tenth Tirthankar Bhagvan Sheetalnath was born in Bhadrikapuri or Bhaddalpur. He accepted the monk's hood in the nearby Bhaddalpur forest called Sahetuk-Van. Until three years he practiced penance and meditation, often absorbed in himself to experience eternal joy and happiness, thus conquering the ills of affection and the aversion of the world, to break the web of birth and death. Finally, in the day - Paush Krishna Chaturdashi, he reached divinity - again in Sahetuk-Van. This Sahetuk-Van is now Kolhua Pahad. This area, including Bhaddalpur, saw the four Kalyanaka of Bhagvan Sheetalnath, Kalyanakas-Garbh-Janma-Tapa-Gyan. Today's Bondalgaon in the Chatra district of Jharkhand is Bhadrikapuri or Bhaddalpur. There are also three other places called Bhadeja, Bhaddia and Bhadiyagaon, but these villages do not have symptoms of Jainism. However, Bhondalgaon and its surroundings have a huge material linked to Jainism, so many ruins of idols, temples and other symbols. Therefore, many history scholars such as Sir Willium Hunter, Dr.Stane after a thorough study and investigation have discovered and declared Kolhua Pahad, a Jain Teerth and Bhondalgaon, the birthplace of Lord Sheetalnath (Kshetra, 2018). Architectural Features of the Temple This Temple is present on the hilltop of Kolhua Mountain. In front of temple these is a big lake, which have water throughout the year. The temple houses the diety Sri Parshavanath. The temple has rectangular shikhara and is finished with lime mortar plaster. The temple main garbhagriha is rectangle with size 11'-0" X 18-0". The total height of temple is about 40'-6". 4.7.5 Sammed Shikhar, Madhuban, Parashnath Location : Madhuban, Jharkhand Date of Construction : 1955 Temple Type - Nirvan place of twenty Tirthankar 155

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Plate Number: - LXIV (A) Historical Background and Architectural Features Sammed Shikhar Hill near Madhuban at an altitude of 4450 feet from the sea surface. The history of this hill is very old. Twenty Tirthankars of this twenty-four Tirthnkaras and a series of Tirthankars of the last twenty-four Tirthankars groups, achieved salvation in this holy hill. (1) Gautam Swami Tunk Plate Number: - LXIV (B) The first tunk is of Sri Gautam Swami. In the temples there are twenty-four froot print idols of all twenty-four Tirthankar. All the tunks of Sammed Shikhar can be seen by this tunk. The temple is finished with marble. The temple main garbhagriha is square with size 8'-0" X 8'-0" with 5'-0" circumambulatory path. The total height of temple is about 252-0". The top of the temple having grooved dome. (2) Bhagawan Kunthunath tunk Plate Number: - LXIV (C) In this tunk of Baba Kunthnath, seventeenth Tirthankar, The foot print idols are established. (3) Eterna Jina, Rusabhanan tunk Plate number: - LXIV (C) In this tunk of Eterna Jina, Rusabhanan, The foot print idols are established. (4) Bhagawan Chandranan tunk Plate number: - LXIV (C) In this tunk of Bhagawan Chandranan, The foot print idols are established. (5) Bhagawan Neminath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (C) 156

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In this little temple there are the black foot print idols of Bhagwan Neminath. For Bhagawan Neminath a Jain temple with four mouths is built. This tonk of Bhagaan Neminath, the twenty-first Tirthankar, is also known as mitradhar tunk. (6) Bhagawan Arnath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (D) In this tunk of Bhagawan Arnath, eighteenth Tirthankar, there are the idols of the black foot of Bhagawan Arnath. There is a new four-mouth temple of Bhagawan Arnath. It is known as the Natakgiri tunk. (7) Bhagawan Mallinath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (D) In this tunk of Bhagawan Mallinath, the nineteenth Tirthankar is also known as Sabalgiri. At this tunk, there are the black idols of Bhagawan Mallinath. (8) Bhagawan Shreyansanath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (D) In this tunk of Bhagawan Shroyansanath there are the black idols of Bhagawan Shrenshanath. Tunk is also known as Sankulgiri. (9) Bhagawan Suvidhinath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (D) In the ninth tunk of Bhagawan Suvidhinath, there are currently the white idols of Bhagawan Suvidhinath. It is known as the suprabhgiri. (10) Bhagawan Padmaprabhu Swami tunk Plate number: - LXIV (E) In this tunk of Bhagawan Swami Padmaprabh, the sixth Tirthankar, now there are black idols of the Swami Padmaprabha foot. It is also known as the Mohangiri. (11) Munisurvat Swami tunk Plate number: - LXIV (E) In this tunk of Bhagawan Munisuvrat Swami, twentieth Tirthankra, today there are the idols of the black foot of Baba Munisurvat Swami. It is also known as the Nirjargiri Tunk. 157

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(12) Chandra prabha Swami tunk Plate number: - LXIV (F) In this tunk of Chnadra prabha Swami, the eighth Tirthankar, at the moment there are the black idols of Bhagawan. It is known as the Lalitghat tunk. It's on a high hill and the climb up to hill is difficult. It is at a distance of two miles from Jalmandir. Of all the caves on the high hills, here is the largest and most excellent cave. It is good for meditation. (13) Bhagawan Risabhadev tunk Plate number: - LXIV (E) In this tunk of Risabhdev Bhagawan, the first Tirthankar, there are idols of white feet of Bhagawan. (14) Bhagawan Anantanath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (E) At this tunk of Bhagawan Anantanath, the fourteenth Tirthankar, there are now blackfooted idols of Bhagawan Anantanath. It is also known as the Svayambhugiri tunk. (15) Bhagawan Shitalnath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (G) In this tunk of Baba Shitalnath, the tenth Tirthankar, there are standing idols of Baba Shitalnath. its ascent is difficult. (16) Bhagawan Sambhavnath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (G) In this tunk of Baba Sambhavnath, the third Tirthankar, there are now standing white idols of Baba, also known as the Dunk Dhaval tunk. (17) Bhagawan Vasupujya Swami tunk Plate number: - LXIV (G) At this tunk of Vasupujyaswami, the twelfth Tirthankar, foot print idols are installed. (18) Swami Abhinandan tunk Plate number: - LXIV (G) In this tunk of Abhinandan Swami, the fourth Tirthankar, are his foot print idols. It is also known as the Anadagiri tunk. 158

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(19) Jalmandir Plate number: - LXIV (H) This Jalmandir is the splendid temple of Shamaliya Parshvanath. Shamaliya Parshvanath is Mulnayak in this temple. Only this temple have Tirthankar statues established, others have only foot print idols. The Tirthankar Bhagawan is only seen in this Jalmadir. There is a large open space, which can accommodate five hundred people. In the main temple shrine, there are idols of Shamaliya Parshvanath, Bhagawan Abhinandan andSwami Sambhavnath. In the sanctuaries openings are to the right and left portion, there are twenty-eight idols of Tirthankaras, gods, goddesses and parshva Yaksha. The great wealthy merchant Khusaldas built this beautiful temple in 1768 AD. The temple is finished with marble. The temple main garbhagriha is rectangular with size 24'-0" X 8'-6", mandapam (24'-0" X 24'-0"), and ardhamandapam (27'-0" x 8'0"). The total height of temple is about 39'-6". It has entry from three sides and the top of entryway have marble finish decorative dome supported with column and arches. The mandapam of the temple has a marble finish decorative dome and garbhagriha has Pyramidical shikhara with spire. (20) Ganadhar Subh Swami tunk Plate number: - LXIV (I) In this tunk there are currently the foot print idols of Ganadhar Subh Swamiare established. (21) Bhagawan Dharmanath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (I) In this tunk there are currently the foot print idols of Bhagawan Dharmanath are established. (22) Varisen, the eternal Jina tunk Plate number: - LXIV (1) In this tunk there are currently the foot print idols of Varisen are established. (23) Vardhaman, the eternal Jina tunk Plate number: - LXIV (I) In this tunk there are currently the foot print idols of Vardhaman are established. 159

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(24) Bhagawan Sumatinath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (J) It is tunk of Bhagawan Sumatinath. Foot print idol of Lord are established. (25) Bhagawan Shantinath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (J) It is tunk of Bhagawan Shantinath. Foot print idol of Lord are established. (26) Bhagawan Mahavir Swami tunk Plate number: - LXIV (I) It is tunk of Sri Mahavir Swami. Foot print idol of Lord are established. (27) Bhagawan Suparshvanath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (J) It is tunk of Bhagawan Suparshvanath. Foot print idol of Lord are established. (28) Bhagawan Vimalnath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (K) It is tunk of Bhagawan Vimalnath, the thirteenth Tirthankar. Foot print idol of Lord are established. (29) Bhagawan Ajitnath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (K) It is tunk of Lord Ajitnath, the second Tirthankar. Foot print idol of Lord are established. (30) Bhagawan Neminath tunk Plate number: - LXIV (K) At this tunk of Bhagawan Neminath, the twenty-second Tirthankar, there are currently the foot print idols of Lord is installed. Architetural features of Tunk:All the tunks have almost similar Architectural features. garbhaghiha's dimensions is 4'-0 "x 4'-0" in most tunks with a height of about 14'-0". All tunks are constructed of with decorative marble slab. The superstructure of the tunk is either dome or pyramidical shikhara or combination of both. 160

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(31) Sri Digamber Temple Jain Parshavanath, Samed Shikar, Parshvanath Plate number: - LXIV (L) Mulnayak: almost 92 cm in height, black-colored Parshvanath Baba idol (Baba Shamaliya Parshvanath) in the Padmasana posture. This temple of Lord Sri Parshvanath, the twenty-third Tirthankar is the Mokashanagari of Sammed Shikharji Giriraj. After seeing the temple, after reaching Mokshanagari, one gets lost in the real joy and pleasure of seeing paramatmas directly. This is the highest temple on the highest hill. There are 80 steps leading to the Lord temple, "Meghadambar" is another name for this temple. There are idols of Lord standing on the stone slab where Lord reached final liberation. This stone slab is adorable. At this peak there is a temple of the pinnacle. In it, there are the standing idols of Baba Purusadaniya Parshvanath. The temple is finished with marble. The temple main garbhagriha is square with size 14'-0" X 14'-0" have vedi with Parshvanath foot idols miniature in marble with combination of dome and pyramidical shikhara, mandapam (14'-0" X 12'-0"). The total height of temple is about 50"-3". It has entry from three sides. The mandapam of the temple has a marble finish decorative grooved dome and garbhagriha has pyramidical shikhara with spire. The temple is constructed with brick and lime mortar with marble cladding (Kothi, 2018). 161

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CHAPTER 5 GEOMETRY OF JAIN TEMPLES 5.1 INTRODUCTION Jainism has constructed a specific iconography and has created a large number of religious images and custom tools that are not used or adored by peoples of various religious and social events in the subcontinent. Several themes have been given by Jain fables, who give clear representations of incredible constructions, some of which have become a physical obstacle in Jain's Art and Architecture. In light of a habitual type of temple and worship of the statues, specific personalized devices that were reserved a couple of minutes to adapt and help the complex religious ceremony of Jain. This document will analyze three unmistakable Jain religious elements: meru, Samosaran and simhasana. Meru is a cosmological component, samosaran, considered all, an amazing development, and simhasana is a personalized tool. In its particular forms, each of the three things is new to Jainism. The three components form a unique entity because they are apparently unequivocally related. Each of the three is perfectly healthy pyramidal and includes three significant levels of overlap. The association between them, independently, is not just visual or basic (Hegewald, 2009). 5.2 COSMOLOGICAL AND JAIN TEMPLE Jain's cosmological works offer minute representations of astronomical oceans and island rings. They represent what is recognized as the physical idea of the Jain universe, regardless of how its standard point is to give the disciples a manual for salvation. With the sole understanding of the form and geography of this moral and extraordinary universe, a superior kind of spiritual closeness. Essential for most of the representations of the universe, and the Jains can leave the generous world and go to the individual world, the terrestrial masses are the proximity of the consecrated mountains. Everywhere, these are particular vertices, but are consistently represented as complete mountain ranges. The Mount Meru, as the meaning of the mountain of Jain, has expanded the immensity in such a way that it has modeled a picture, which is illustrative of all the consecrated mountains of Jain. 162

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Figure: 5.1 - Jain Tirtha, Shravanabelagola. Source: (Jain Tirtha, Shravanabelagola, 2018) Despite the expressive arts of painting and small-scale-themed divider, the threedimensional images of meru. Such data may be almost zero, about one meter high and made of brass, or it may be more noticeable routine contours such as white marble. Typically, the insignificant metallic representations of meru are held in places of the application side, which contain the rooms and the largest temple mandapas structures. Going through the section, it will be shown that the representations of meru and samosaran are clearly correlated in a lasting way and an extraordinary part of the time is almost indistinguishable. From the open material, independently, the impression is created that it is more typical that meru figure is octagonal and sometimes has a square base, and that the three-dimensional samosaran are round. The mythological dimension Jain's social group built typically has a policy of confusing astronomical geography, as well as a significant unambiguous drive and fables. In the concentrations of myths and legends of Jain are the biographies of the twenty-four Jain Tirthakaras. The records of the Jin are inexorably related and are taken after a controlled agreement and those that portray the life and actions of Adinatha and Mahavira are the lowest. It is said that all the Jin are familiar with a ksatriya family, the heavenly creatures to their destiny mixed as meaningful instructors, deny life wrenching sensible world, monk wrapping and after gravity strenuously achieve enlightenment. As a result, the celestial creatures have an impact on an 163

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amphitheater, a similar external structure. This is insinuated as samosaran, or more casually as samvarsana, which really connotes the collection. As noted some time ago, meru and samosaran are apparently linked tirelessly. In this context, it is essential that in various philosophical and religious messages on Architecture, for example, the vastuvidya of visvakarma, merus and samosaran be administered jointly and inspected in practically identical passages. Its structure similar to an amphitheater, containing three courtyards or fortifications to satisfy the assembled spectators of celestial creatures, individuals and animals that affect the formalized essential education of Jin. The samosaran can be round or square in the diagram, regardless of their appearance, from all angles, more usually have an indirect plane. Pyramidal connecting door is topped by a square stage suggested as pitha, in which Jin seat. Creatures of the sky then make three images of misty Tirthankar arranged on practically indistinguishable stools, to face the gathering of individuals in everything else. This fragment of the story gives the sound of having a quadruple symbol at the top. The quadruple image is provided by a structure (Sri-mandapa) or fixed under a tree part of the three-layer structure. In numerous illustrations, the two segments, a place of affection and tree, are accessible. The protective tree creeps like caitya-vrksa or, more particularly, as Asoka tree. In the perspective of the contiguous relationship between the realization of Jina's omniscience and samosaran structure, which gives the scene in his first speech, surprising group meeting models are representations as important kevalajnana Tirthankar. It is interesting that despite what representations of samosaran divided into three layers do not appear in the surviving ayagapatas first century to the second century AD, there is what radiates the impression of the first cut representations in the cavities of Jain in Udaygiri in Odisha. (Shah 1955: 94). 'In the construction and decoration of later temples, both medieval and contemporary, paintings of this type are most likely placed on the vertical walls of the temples. This can be seen in the Nasiyan Temple 164

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Figure: 5.2- Large-scale representation of a samosaran at Pawapuri in Bihar, Source: (Author) The stone samosaran engravings are constantly identified as burning with dimensional stone merus discussed above. The stone samosaran indicated generally have an underlying module base, three circular support levels surmounted by a square structure that matches a photograph of a Jin quadruple. in Ajmer (Ajmir), in Rajasthan, and in the outer walls of the Badaga Basadi temple complex in Mudabidri (Mudabidri) in Karnataka. In these temples, images of samavasarana are used to announce a distinct and distinct Jain identity outside the temple structures 165

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Especially in the last hundred years, the pyramids of samosaran are equally appreciated within the central points of the cult temples. In these illustrations, photos on top of the structures are small, which emerges from the enormous amazing addressing rooms, which have been represented with great interest and aim to present the fundamental part of the strategy. In this way, the inclination is created that in recent cases works of Architecture and without figurative statues show the basic grouping of the cult. This confers a general bias of Jain's work to show interest in reliably expanding. It focusing on extravagant and cosmological points, which are excellent for Jainism and give clear motivations behind the partition of various religious social events in the subcontinent. Hypothetical messages on Architecture It is pleasant to note that in all additional high beam span; the structure at the top of the structure is occasionally entangled, obscuring the various images inside. In these cases, it seems, inside and out, to be legitimately kevalajnana part "the achievement of enlightenment" in general that ultimately is the purpose of each Jain. In contrast to the design of the first preaching recorded in a specific tirthankar that is symbolized. While the samosaran in the southwestern temple complex constructed in the Papora, Madhya Pradesh, is particularly associated with the first speech delivered by Lord Sri Parsvanatha. Three samosaran in the northeast temple district, regardless of the unreasonably should be overcome by specific images of Jin are, as it were, revered as images of kevalajnana in general terms. Pawapuri's case is particularly huge, because it is recognized to verify the place in good faith in which the irrefutable Lord Sri Mahavira delivered his first sermon. One of the best representations of this kind was delivered to Palitana, at the base of Satrujaya. Despite the fact that the most humble samosaran are generally solid, filling and fantastic patterns and allowing visitors to climb the structures, the second representation is a "real" in its interpretation of an inner space is enclosed. In this specific form, it has not been related to various religious and social issues in the broader Asia or outside the territory. 166

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5.3 THE RITUAL INSTRUMENT Despite their unmistakable cosmologies and incredible stories, based on Tirthankars, the Jains have built similar to a specific type of personalized temple. This is based on its strategy for the management of discrete blessed images and the proximity of different religious figures, remaining as often as possible in a number of rooms arranged in various levels sacred places of the floor. Impeccability considerations are of great value for the association with the hallowed symbols of Jain and especially for the mulnayaka. In its general sense, the term is used to insinuate the seat placed above the custom supports next to it. Despite everything, it is associated with greater frequency to the entire three-level structure. Such a custom three-layer stage is found in most of the Jain temples each time. Most simhasana are arranged in the main mandapa on the front of the garbhagriha, which houses the focal photograph of a Jain temple, but in the same way, they can be arranged in front of the side cells. It is evident from the description that the personalized post-simhasana are in a general sense solidly identified with the following three-level structures, meru and samosaran, previously discussed. Above all basic is so capable; they seem to represent an association between the other two things. 5.3.1 The Concept The sacred statues of Jain must be formally presented and purified through the execution of a complex development of services that recalls a specific goal of working in a ritual way and of being solid religious things. In a Jain environment, these traditions of constitution and refinement are consistently suggested as panchkalyanaka-pratistha. 167

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5.4 THE LAYOUT OF JAIN TEMPLE For the most part, courses lead to a movement of fragmentary charges in the central part of the temple. These segments, which remain for no apparent reason, can impact the site to look like a maze negligence; however, after careful consideration, it closes in a recognizable way. It is obvious that there is a style and a system in it. > The paths of the Jain temples lead to a movement of chambers segmented in the central vestibules of the temples. > These temples inside a shelter, divided into sanctuaries and included by a number of places of supplication and sacred places, and the labyrinth of segments develops as a defense against looters. The dedication of the Jains to work and Architecture was incredibly basic in the context of the incredible creative signs, particularly in the types of paintings, temples and pieces, scattered throughout the country and covering a period of time in the sense of the most provocative through the times avant-garde. Jain's craftsmanship with an inexhaustible assortment changes progressions and embellishments (despite the images of Jin) has never been boring. Moreover, the advancement of the Indus Valley is the fastest human progression in India. Figures of a seals and male torso of Mohen-Jo-Daro are opinion pictures of Jin ideals of their nudity and position in kayotsarga-mudra. Jain's craftsmanship and composition thrived with great energy between the 10th and 15th centuries. In the period, a large number of Jain temples were constructed with sculptures. In the middle period new structures and the iconographic characteristics (with the exception of Jin) of various deities were established. The parikara (environment) of the Jina images was also realized with the figurative representations of Navagrahas, Sarasvati, Laksmi and the minor figure of Jin. Furthermore, the Astapratiharya and Yaksa-yaksi installed have been cut in the same way. Precision and bending in statues and ornaments were other specific features of medieval Jain models. The craftsmanship and Architecture of the Jain have the vital objective of maintaining, guaranteeing and cultivating in an integral way. The Jains could be happy for their rich social heritage from the most tried and true conditions. He has a religious presentation in his art in mixed forms. Being 168

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overwhelming admirers of another God, they have an iconography and craftsmanship of extraordinary images. They could also evacuate stone symbols. The set of symbols that were made by the appealing estimates thought on the faces of the winners the possibility of transmission to convince the withdrawal of basic life. The Jain religion was already spreaded in 500 BC in various parts of India. They are generally unique. Seeing several different symbols in each presentation step, one can judge on the difference in iconography on the material and on the perfection with the style. Palitana is a unique among other places for the accumulation of images. The temple that makes design is equally splendid in the Jain plan. These temples are places where the symbols of Jin near demigods and goddesses, are preserved in stone or marble. Numerous temples are the specialty of improving the incredible nature, for example in Khajuraho, Deogarh, Mount Deogarh, Mount Abu, Ranakpur and and others. In Udaygiri and Khandgiri various agitated cuts were found; two hills in the Bhubneshwar district of Odisha. The stories for the religion are also found in various temples and caves that deal with religious stories, statutes and conspicuous events of the lives of the Jin. Dreams of the mother, breathtaking scenes, decorations smaller than expected on paper or ornaments of palm leaves (unique copies), that in the same way a specialty of respect. The cases of decision of this trade are found in several libraries of extraordinary copies of Jain. Even the felling of trees has been artisanal. It seems that, in general, some of these expressions have diminished widely. 5.4.1 The Plan The genuine differentiation is the advancement of 'temple' by the Jains rather than solitary Hindu temples, which are the standard instead of the exception. A Jain place of affection is moreover noted for its rich materials (routinely marble), and what's more the abundance of ornamentation which decorates the structure. Consequently, that it isn't uncommon to find four of these pictures put successive, one for each cardinal course. Certainly, housetop outlines, for instance, at the temples at Mount Abu; end up being exceptionally point by point with marble divine beings and concentric rings of cutting. 169

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An even more disapproved view, of course, is that the urban areas of the temple also served as fortifications, which has made an immunological site far from possible attackers. Clearly, with the arrival of Qutb-ud-din Aibak and successive rulers, it was typical that some Jain and Hindu temples "lost" their portions as building material for mosques, the new religious typology that emerged in India after the twelfth century. Figure: 5.3 - Chaturmukha Style Plan (Type-I).Source: (Kumar S. , 2001, p. 100) The central place of plan is called "Mula-Prasada", within which is "garbhagriha" (sacred place), and its guide statue is "mulanayaka". For a place of worship chaturmukha (four faces), not in any way like the temples of the Mount Abu. There is no "gudha-mandapa" (closed entrance) or "Trika-mandapas" (vestibule), however, there are four "ranga-mandapas" (A social hall) before four steps from the essential heavenly place. Each ranga-mandapa is connected to a three-storey "meghanadamandapa". Having four "mahadara-prasada" (despicable celestial place) from one corner to another in four methods for the essential sanctuary, the temple that compose it is "panchayatana" (type of five chapels). Furthermore, there are two east and west sides "bhadra-prasada", which make the total piece much more complex. A line of 170

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"deva-kulika" (small temple of worship) along "bhamati" (house) incorporates all the perplexity. Locabu9999 + 13 ** * Add : Figure: 5.4 - Chaturmukha Style Plan (Type-II). Source: (Kumar S., 2001) Plan 2:- The ideal plan of the Jain Temple, with a view to the definition of somapura, 1960. In a general sense, this is a type of "pancha-yatana" wrapped in meetings, each space is reliable and is united as in the temple of Ranakpur. The five places of worship are all "chaturmukha" having independently four "ranga-mandapas" before four faces. There are more critical "meganada-mandapas" at the crossing points that connect five sanctuaries and continue with "balanaka" (entrance campaign) on four sides. In the peripheral line there are four "Mahadara-prasadas" (unreliable holy places) and eight "bhadra-prasadas" despite ninety two "deva-kulikas". The total number of Tirthankar statues is 124 on the ground floor only. All the holy places have "shikhara" (tower in the sanctum) and the flag pole, the mandapas are protected by vaults or "roofs of samosaran". 5.4.2 Auxiliary components Temples linked to different convictions in South Asia often share Architectural parts and show essential styles in a region and an indisputable period. In any case, Jain temples sometimes share constructive and amazing segments found in the temples of 171

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various religions, they are particularly Jain. Their religious structures are specially changed according to Jain's supernatural meditations and customs. There are three surprising features of Jain's religious structures. Immediately, there is everything around more than one shrine in a temple. Thus, most are merged with additional structures that cover part of the religious building. With all that is taken into account, temples are often assembled to build temple structures or "temple and city groups". A Jain temple could be mentioned by a wide variety of names. The terms for "temple" used as a bit of Jainism were occasionally dark as early work, for example, teaching, worship and life had no exceptional areas and consistently occurred in an equivalent place. As structures and rooms in the Jain temples were twisting unequivocally engaged to particular purposes after a while, the writing ended up being correct. The term used as a bit of today changes as shown by the territory of India and the neighboring vernacular. 5.4.3 The pillared hall or the mandapa The sanctum of the temple is made as meeting palace and can accommodate a statue of a consecrated religious figure or hypothetical segment for example, eight great images, the siddhachakra, unlimited individual, yantras and sacred syllables or mantras. All that is considered the place of worship contains gigantic quantities of sacred items. Most of the temples, throughout the India, have some sacred places. The arcades are practically nothing, the clear brokers offering access to altars and mandapas. 5.4.4 The divider Almost in any case, Jain temples are enclosed by high compound dividers. Known as prakara, these divisors do not disengage compound separators, incorporating the entire sacred temple domain: some types of temples have developed these dividers to create structures that look alert and solid. The dividers have joined the exterior of the temples of the complex, so there are the same prakaras. This can happen with a great variety of temples; however, it is particularly common in haveli temples. 5.4.5 The Superstructure or Shikhara Shikhara or superstructure is the best individual from a sanctum in Jain Architecture. This fills in as the base (adhisthana) for the superstructure that climbs over the sanctum known as vimana or shikhara, which outlines the fundamental part of the temple. In 172

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early days, this vertical emphasis was laid on only a solitary level (prathama tala). A short time later, number of levels (talas) were added to this superstructure. It was assumed that the entire locale, which the vimana or shikhara overlooked was rendered brilliant and the area secured by this shikhara, would be prosperous. Archana-Navnita, an old substance described these heavenly places into five sorts "1) Svayam-Vyakta (self-appear) 2) Daivika (presented by Gods) 3) Arsha (presented by sages) 4) Pauranika (celebrated in the Puranas) and 5) Manusha (synthetic) havens". 5.4.6 The supporting Elements Jain temples have different segments having an especially formed structure, molding square. The squares thusly molded make chambers, used as meager places of petition and contains the statue or idol of a divine being. From these segments are extravagantly cut areas that create at around two third of their stature. The rooms of these temples have pointy vaults and wherever there is curve, the sections are blocked to make an octagonal space inside. The only assortment in Architecture specific to Jain temples is is chaumukh layout. The from which have been observed time to time. In these, the Tirthankar faces back to back in all cardinal directions. Entry to these temples is moreover from four doors that face the cardial directions. 173

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5.5 THE STRUCTURAL SYSTEM Jain temples frequently share design and inventive fragments found in temples of different religions, they are unmistakably Jain style. Their religious structures are particularly changed as per Jain significant custom practices. There are three main highlights of Jain temples. There is generally more than one place of worship in a temple. Most are wrapped by extra structures that shape some segment of the temple. Temples are as routinely as possible stuffed together to pass on temple structures or 'temple-urban zones'. 5.5.1 Trebeated system In the trebeated framework, simply the flat and the vertical support members are used. For instance, columns or pilasters together overpowering with cross shafts and lintels. During the tenth and eleventh century the internal rooftops were laid circuitous with stone courses, arranged one over the other in reducing widths of span, to deliver complex plans. Figure: 5.5 - Internal ceilings of the Jain temple with trabeated system. Source: (Vardia, 2008, p. 30) 174

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Figure: 5.6 - The pillars and the beams of the Jain temple. Source: (Vardia, 2008, p. 30) Figure: 5.7 - Rotating and diminishing squares and circles in internal ceiling. Source: (Vardia, 2008, p. 30) Figure: 5.8- Intricately carved rotating and diminishing squares and circles inside internal ceilings. Source: (Vardia, 2008, p. 30) 175

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Figure 5.9:- Rotating and diminishing squares and circles inside internal ceilings with idols. Source: (Vardia, 2008, p. 30) 5.5.2 Corbelling system The corbel system of the load transfer of the structure is adopted in Jain temple. The adjustment measures, all considered, from procedures to curves, vaulting and various types of utilitarian construction rules have never had an incredible impact on the movement of the Jain temple. There were no examples of the use of vaults or curves in the Jain temple Architecture, but the strengths on the surface of the separators were determined and from time to time, they transmitted loads from above. The organizers of Jain temple remained attached to particular methods and reached their progress with the gravity law i.e. assurance with the weight acting vertically and transmitting all the weight down by using corbelled system. 5.6 Conclusion The Jain cosmology and Jain temple have very strong relation. Every Architectural style has reflection of their own religious belief and worship of God. After systematically examination of the features like cosmological belives, it found that, the primary form of temple evolved from the concept of meru. Subsquentely the ritual intruments, layout of temples and structural systems have beed analyzed and interpreted. It gives an idea about the plan form features and constructional detail. 176

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CHAPTER 6 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 6.1 INTRODUCTION Every religion have uniqueness in their Architectural style. All these Architectural styles defined by the plan form, elvational form, site area, height of the structure, orientation. This chapter discusses and examines the results of the dimensional analysis of the Jain caves and temples in the Bihar region. In this section, the strategies for analysis and relation between different parameters for the thirty-two caves and fiftyeight temples are discussed. The twenty-nine tunks on the Sammed Sikhar assumed to be one structure, because of the unique characteristic of these tunks. 6.2 Elements of Jain caves During the study thirty-two caves of Khandgiri- Udaygiri, Odisha were documented. Various elemnets of these structures like number of storey, number of cells, plan form, type of roofs, and roof height are discussed in the following section. Table containing the detailed information about these elements is attached at Annexure I and II. 6.2.1 UDAYGIRI CAVES All the eighteen caves of Udaygiri is analyzed for different parameters and the results are as follows: Number of floors Udaygiri caves are mostly single-storeyed - only two of the eighteen caves found and surveyed in Udaygiri are double storeyed. The average ceiling of these cells were 1.33 m high. The cells in Rani Gumpha, Manchapuri Gumpha are double storeyed caves and have ceiling height of 1.05 m at both levels. 177

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Double-storeyed caves 11% Plan form Figure: 6.1-Number of floors in Udaygiri Caves. Source: (Author) Single-storeyed caves 89% Most of the Jain caves as shown in the above chart have a rectangular plan. Sixteen out of eighteen caves are rectangular in plan. Bajaghara Gumpha and Sarpa Gumpha have square shapes. Square Plan 11% 178 Rectangular Plan 89% Figure: 6.2-Plan form in Udaygiri Caves. Source: (Author)

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Number of cells Rasui Gumpha Jagannatha Gupha Haridasha Gumpha Dhanghara Gumpha Hathi Gumpha Sarpa Gumpha Singh Gumpha Jambesvara Gumpha Ganesha Gumpha Manchapuri Gumpha Patalpuri Gumpha Thakurani Gumpha Panash Gumpha Jaya Vijya Gumpha Alkapuri Gumpha Chota Hanthi Gumpha Bajaghara Gumpha Rani Gumpha 2 2 3 5 5 10 15 Number of Cells - 179 20 25 27 30 Figure: 6.3 - Number of cell in Udaygiri Caves. Source: (Author) On an average, there are more than three cells in each of the caves of Udaygiri. However, it is further observed that the double-storeyed caves were having more number of cells than those in single-storeyed caves. Rani Gumpha and Manchapuri Gumpha, which are double storeyed, have twenty-seven and five number of cells in them respectively. Of the sixteen single-storeyed caves as mentioned above, only seven caves have more than one cell. Of these however, Hathi Gumpha, Jaya-Vijya Gumpha and Patalpuri Gumpha has three and more number of cells. Area of single cell The average size of cells in the Udaygiri caves is 8.13 Sq.M. Patalpuri Gumpha had the largest cell size of 20.16 Sq.M. and there are three cells in the cave. Panash Gumpha and Alkapuri Gumpha had smallest cells of area 3.24 Sq.M. each having only one cell.

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3.78 11.34 8.82 8.82 10.8 5.76 5.04 6.3 4.32 Rasui Gumpha Jagannatha Gupha Haridasha Gumpha Dhanghara Gumpha Hathi Gumpha Sarpa Gumpha Singh Gumpha Jambesvara Gumpha Ganesha Gumpha Manchapuri Gumpha Patalpuri Gumpha Thakurani Gumpha Panash Gumpha Jaya Vijya Gumpha Alkapuri Gumpha Chota Hanthi Gumpha Bajaghara Gumpha Rani Gumpha 13.23 20.16 4.32 3.24 17.01 3.24 4.32 5.76 - 10.08 in 20 25 - 10 15 Average size of one Cell (in Sq.M.) Figure: 6.4 -Area of single cave in Udaygiri Caves. Source: (Author) Total Area of each Cave Rasui Gumpha 4 Jagannatha Gupha 123 Haridasha Gumpha Dhanghara Gumpha 117 Hathi Gumpha Sarpa Gumpha 16 Singh Gumpha 6 Jambesvara Gumpha 1 14 Ganesha Gumpha 1 15 Manchapuri Gumpha 40 Patalpuri Gumpha 38 Thakurani Gumpha 8 Panash Gumpha 117 Jaya Vijya Gumpha Alkapuri Gumpha I 14 Chota Hanthi Gumpha 5 Bajaghara Gumpha 6 Rani Gumpha 48 0 200 400 1600 1800 2000 600 800 1000 1200 1400 Total Area of each Cave (in Sq.M.) + Figure: 6.5 -Total area of each cave in Udaygiri Caves. Source: (Author) Rani Gumpha cave having area of 1832 Sq.M. is the largest of group of caves at Udaygiri. Rest of the caves are much smaller in comparison. Average area of the rest 180

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seventeen caves is 23.5 Sq.M. Among the rest seventeen caves, Rasui Gumpha is the smallest; having area of 4.0 Sq.M. whereas Hathi Gumpha is 122 Sq.M. only next to the Rani Gumpha. Its shows that Rani Gumpha and Hathi Gumpha is more imporatant on Udaygiri hill. Type of Roof There are usually gable shaped roofs and flats roofs cut from natural rocks. About 72% of the caves have flat roof profile, while 22% have roofs with gable profile. Hathi Gumpha has unique roof, having natural terrain as cover to the cave. Natural topography 6% Gable 22% Flat 72% Figure: 6.6 -Type of roof in Udaygiri Caves. Source: (Author) Ceiling height Fourteen of these caves had a verandah in front of the cells. The ceiling of the verandah was usually different from that of the cell. Average ceiling height of cells was 1.30 M. While for verandah, it was 1.90 M. It is evident that entrance to the cells was so arranged that the user had to move from larger space to smaller space. The cells were mostly used for meditation and sleeping purposes, as it was difficult to stand up under a ceiling only 1.05 M high. 181

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Rasui Gumpha Jagannatha Gupha Haridasha Gumpha Dhanghara Gumpha Hathi Gumpha Sarpa Gumpha Singh Gumpha Jambesvara Gumpha Ganesha Gumpha Manchapuri Gumpha Patalpuri Gumpha Thakurani Gumpha Panash Gumpha Jaya Vijya Gumpha Alkapuri Gumpha Chota Hanthi Gumpha Bajaghara Gumpha Rani Gumpha 0.5 1.05 1.05 11.05 1.05 Internal/External features 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 11.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.5 Average Roof Height (in Sq.M.) - Cell ht. (in M) Verandah ht. (in M) 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 182 1.95 1.875 1.875 1.91 1.875 1.875 1.95 1.95 1.95 2 1.875 Figure: 6.7-Ceiling Hight in Udaygiri Caves. Source: (Author) 2.5 The architectural features or the religious/ symbolic ornamentations have been observed and sorted here. Almost one-third of the caves have such features only on the exterior, while equal number of caves have carvings and sculptural features in the interior. In only 6% of the caves, ornamentation features were found in the exterior as well interior sides. The author found that 22% of the caves had blank walls in the exterior as well as interior of the caves - devoid of any kind of conscious effort towards decoration. Absence of architectural features as such may also be attributed to gradual decay with time or vandalism. The present form has been observed and noted here. Only 6% of the caves had simple cells, i.e. where there were hardly any architectural features visible of the exterior as well interior of the cells.

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Simple cell 6% Carving and Sculpture on Exterior and Interior of Cave 6% Simple cave 22% Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave 33% Exterior features and carvings 33% Figure: 6.8- Internal / External features. Source: (Author) 6.2.2 KHANDGIRI CAVES All the fourteen caves of Khandgiri is analyzed, as above in the case of udaygiri for different parameters and the results are as follows: Number of floors Khandgiri caves are mostly single-storeyed - only two of the fourteen caves found and surveyed in Khandgiri are double storeyed. The average ceiling of these cells were 1.18 m high. The cells in Tatowa Gumpha-1 and Khandgiri Gumpha are double storeyed caves and have ceiling height of 1.05 m at both levels. Doublestoreyed caves 14% SingleLstoreyed caves 86% Figure: 6.9-Number of floors in Khandgiri Caves. Source: (Author) 183

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Plan form Most of the Jain caves as shown in the above chart have a rectangular plan. Twelve out of fourteen caves are rectangular in plan. Khandgiri Gumpha and Ekadashi Gumpha have square plans. Square Plan 14% Rectangular Plan 86% Figure: 6.10-Plan form in Khandgiri Caves. Source: (Author) Number of cells No. of cells in Khandgiri Caves Ekadashi Gumpha Cave 13 Lalita Gumpha Lalatendukesari Gumpha Ambika Gumpha Trusula Gumpha Barabhuji Gumpha Navamuni Gumpha Dhyana Gumpha Khandagiri Gumpha Tentuli Gumpha Ananta Gumpha Tatowa Gumpha-2 Tatowa Gumpha-1 2 Number of Cells Figure: 6.11 - Number of cell in Khandgiri Caves. Source: (Author) 184

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All the caves in Khandgiri have only one cell, with an exception of Khandagiri Gumpha (its name is same as, the group of caves itself), which has five cells, distributed across two levels. It is also noted that the only cave with two floors is square in shape. Area of single cell The average size of cells in the Khandgiri caves is 9.7 Sq.M., which is approximately 48% of the average cave size itself. Navamuni Gumpha cave had the largest cell size of 25.2 Sq.M. and there is only one cell in the cave. Ekadashi Gumpha and Khandgiri Gumpha had smallest cells of area 3.24 Sq.M. It is noted that despite having smallest size of cells, Khandgiri Gumpha has five cells. Ekadashi Gumpha Cave 13 Lalita Gumpha Lalatendukesari Gumpha Ambika Gumpha HHHHHH 6.48 25.2 Trusula Gumpha Barabhuji Gumpha Navamuni Gumpha Dhyana Gumpha Khandagiri Gumpha Tentuli Gumpha 15.36 Ananta Gumpha 9.72 7.56 Tatowa Gumpha-2 Tatowa Gumpha-1 11.34 - 25 30 10 15 20 Average size of one Cell (in Sq.M.) Figure: 6.12 - Area of single cave in Khandgiri Caves. Source: (Author) Total Area of each Cave Navamuni Gumpha cave having area of 36 Sq.M. is the largest of all caves in this group of caves at Khandgiri. Average area of the fourteen caves is 23.5 Sq.M. Ekadasi Gumpha having are of 12 Sq.M. is smallest of all. 185

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Ekadashi Gumpha Cave 13 Lalita Gumpha atendukesari Gumpha Ambika Gumpha Trusula Gumpha Barabhuji Gumpha Navamuni Gumpha Dhyana Gumpha Khandagiri Gumpha Tentuli Gumpha Ananta Gumpha Tatowa Gumpha-2 Tatowa Gumpha-1 0 5 10 30 35 40 15 20 25 Total Area of each Cave (in Sq.M.) - Figure: 6.13 - Total area of each cave in Khandgiri Caves. Source: (Author) Type of Roof There are usually gable shaped roofs and flat roofs cut from natural rocks. About 86% of the caves have flat roof profile, while 14% have roofs with gable profile. Gable 14% Flat 86% Figure: 6.14 -Type of roof in Khandgiri Caves. Source: (Author) 186

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Ceiling height Ekadashi Gumpha Cave 13 Lalita Gumpha Lalatendukesari Gumpha Ambika Gumpha Trusula Gumpha Barabhuji Gumpha Navamuni Gumpha Dhyana Gumpha Khandagiri Gumpha Tentuli Gumpha Ananta Gumpha Tatowa Gumpha-2 Tatowa Gumpha-1 0 0.5 Internal/External features 1 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 187 1.05 1.05 1.05. 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 11.05 Average Roof Height (in Sq.M.) Cell ht. (in M) Verandah ht. (in M) 1.5 1.9 1.9 1.9 2 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.95 1.95 Figure: 6.15 - Ceiling Height in Khandgiri Caves. Source: (Author) Eleven of these caves had a verandah in front of the cells. The ceiling of the verandah was usually different from that of the cell, it was 1.90 M. It is evident that entrance to the cells was so arranged that the user had to move from larger space to smaller space. The cells were mostly used for meditation and sleeping purposes, as it was difficult to stand up under a ceiling only 1.05 m high. 2.5 The architectural features or the religious symbolic ornamentations have been observed and sorted here. Almost 14% of the caves have such features and carvings only on the exterior. In 29% of the caves, ornamentation features like carvings and sculptures were found in the interior sides. The author found that more than half of the caves (57%) of the caves had blank walls in the exterior as well as interior of the caves - devoid of any kind of conscious effort towards decoration. Absence of architectural features as such may also be attributed to gradual decay with time or vandalism. The present form has been observed and noted here.

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Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave 29% Simple cave 57% Exterior carving and features 14% Figure: 6.16- Internal / External features Khandgiri Caves. Source: (Author) 6.3 Elements of Jain Temples of Bihar Region Fifty-eight temples of Bihar and Jharkhand were documented. Various elemnets of these structures like plan form, elevational form, type of roofs, roof height, carving type, orientation, style of Vedi, principal building material and finish are discussed in the following section. Table containing the detailed information about these parameters are detailed at Annexure III and V. As it is known that, Jain community is divided into two major sects Digamber and Swetamaber. In this region, temples belonging to both the sect are present. Out of fiftyeight Jain temples of Bihar and Jharkhand surveyed under this study, it was found that 66% of the temples are of the followers of Digamber Sect of Jainism, and the rest 34 % belongs to Swetamber Sect. Swetamber 34% Digamber 66% Figure: 6.17 - Distribution of temple between Digamber and Swetamber. Source: (Author) 188

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6.3.1 Orientation of Mula Nayak All Cardinal Directions 4% North 24% West 5% Figure: 6.18 - Orientation of Mula Nayak. Source: (Author) Majority of the temples have their deity facing east - about 67%. Approx one-fourth (24%) of the temples are having deity that face towards North. Only a few ie. 5% of the temples' deity face West. Two temples (4 %) have their deity facing all the cardinal directions All Cardinal Directions 2% North 26% West 0% East 72% Figure: 6.19 -Orientation of Mula Nayak in Digamber Temple. Source: (Author) In case of Digamber temples majority of the temples have their deity facing east - about 72%. Approximately one-fourth (26%) of the temples are having deity that face towards north and 2 % have their deity facing all the cardinal directions. No any deity face south or west. It means they are very particular that the deity should preferably east. The temple haveing mula nayak face all cardinal direction is Samosaran Temple. All Cardinal Directions North 20% 5% West 15% East 60% Figure: 6.20 - Orientation of Mula Nayak in Swetamber Temple. Source: (Author) 189

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In case of Swetamber temples majority of the temples have their deity facing eastabout 60%. Approximately one-fifth (20%) of the temples are having deity that face towards north. In case of 15% temples deity face west and 2 % have their deity facing all the cardinal directions. It means they are very flexible in the face of diety but prefer east direction. 6.3.2 Garbhagriha Plan Form Circular 2% Octagonal 5% Rectangular 28% Square 65% Figure: 6.21-Garbhagriha Plan form. Source: (Author) Sanctum of the temple is called "Garbhagriha". More than half of the temples have square plan form for the sanctum. As shown in the above pie chart, there are four plan forms - namely Square, Rectangular, Octagonal and Circular - observed respectively in 65%, 28%, 5% and 2% of the temples. Circular 0% Octagonal 3% Rectangular 34% Square 63% Figure: 6.22 - Garbhagriha Plan form of Digamber Sect. Source: (Author) In case of Digamber Sect, more than half of the temples have square plan form for the garbhagriha. As shown in the above pie chart, there are three plan forms - namely 190

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Square, Rectangular, Octagonal observed respectively in 63%, 34%, and 3% of the temples. Circular 5% Octagonal 10% Rectangular 15% Square 70% Figure: 6.23:- Garbhagriha Plan form of Swetamber Sect. Source: (Author) In case of Swetamber Sect, more than half of the temples have square plan form for the garbhagriha. As shown in the above pie chart, there are four plan forms - namely Square, Rectangular, circular, Octagonal observed respectively in 70%, 15%, 10% and 5% of the temples. Similarly, most of the Digamber sect temples have square sanctum plan profile (63%) None of the Digamber sect temples have circular sanctum. Therefore, square Garbhagriha is preferred in both the sect. 6.3.3 Overall Plan Form Overall Temple Plan Form - Chaityalaya ( 4 Nos) one side opening with circumcumbulatory path ( 7 Nos) one side opening with enclosed circunctunbulatory path ( 8 Nos) Three side opening with circumcumbulatory path ( 6 Nos) Three side opening with enclosed circumcumbulatory path ( 13 Nos) *Four side opening with enclosed circuncumbulatory path ( 3 Nos) Nagara Style of Architecture ( 16 Nos) Samosaran (1 Nos) Figure: 6.24:- Overall Temple Plan form. Source: (Author) 191

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Out of fifty-eight temples, the overall plan form of most of the temples built in this region are of typical Hindu nagara style of Architecture with 28%. The form. Samosaran is only 2% with one number of temple. The details of other overall plan form can be seen in figure: 6.24 above. Which clearly shows that effect of Hindu temple Architecture on the Jain temple Architecture. Jains also maintain its own Architecture in the form of Samosaran temple as religious symbolism with the representation of tirthankar worship unique to the Jain Architecture. 6.3.4 Carving Detail Simple Carving, 21% Moderate Carving, 50% Figure: 6.25-Level of Carving Detail. Source: (Author) It is the unique feather inherent with Jain Architecture. Comparatively, half of the temples have moderate carvings as part of their decoration, while around one-third of the temples ie. 29% have much detailed "Intricate" carvings in them. Rest of the temples have simple carvings. Simple Carving, 24% Intricate Carving, 29% 192 Level of Carving Details Intricate Carving, 21% Moderate Carving, 55% Figure: 6.26-Level of Carving Detail in Digamber Temples. Source: (Author) In case of Digamber temples, half of the temples have moderate carvings as part of their decoration, while around one-third of the temples ie. 21 % have much detailed "Intricate" carvings in them. Rest of the temples have simple carvings.

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Figure: 6.27-Level of Carving Detail in Swetamber Temples. Source: (Author) In case of Swetamber temple, the level of details in carving is found to be from moderate to intricate in Swetamber Jain Temples. The level of details in carving is found to be mostly moderate in Digamber Jain Temples. 6.3.5 Detail of Vedi of Tirthankar Simple Carving, 15% Sitting posture Thirthnakara statue Moderate Carving, 40% The platform on which the statue of deity (called Tirthankar in Jainism) is placed is called "vedi". Vedi's of the Jain temples are categorised by the author under nine types - 1.Kshatriya dome style, 2. Decorative Arch niche with foot idols, 3. Foot idol Idol, 4. Statue of Platform, 5. Standing posture, 6. Sitting posture, 7. Samosaran Temple standing, 8. Smaadhi, 9. Pyramidal Shikhara - as shown above. 2% Samosaran Temple standing 3% Kshatriya dome style vedi is the most popular type, which is found in 76% of the temples. Samadhi 2% Pyramidical Sikhara 2% Intricate Carving, 45% Kshatriya dome style 76% Standing Posture 2% 193 Staue on a platform 2% Footprint idol 10% Decorative Arch Nich with footprints 1% Vedi of Thirthankar Figure: 6.28- Vedi of Tirthankar. Source: (Author)

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6.3.6 Element / Motif of Elevational form Pyramid 48% Highly decorated tree shape structure 2% Pyramidical Curvilinear Shikhara In Mosaic Work & Miniature Dome 2% Super Structure With Multiple Domes 3% Superstructure With Nagara Style Hindu Temple 5% Superstructure With Pyramidical Shikhara With Spire And Multiple Domes 16% Figure: 6.29- Element/ Motif of Elevational form. Source: (Author) Almost half of the temples have pyramidal element on the upper part of superstructure, also called as Shikhara. As shown in the above chart, 17% temples have domes, while 23% temples have a combination of dome and pyramid. 6.3.7 Elevational form of Temple Superstructure With Pyramidical Shikhara And Miniature Shikhara At Corners 3% Superstructure With Corbelled Pyramidical Shikhara 10% Dome 17% Flat Roof 10% Dome and Pyramid 23% 194 Elevational Froms of Temple Element / Motif Superstructure With Only Dome 21% Superstructure With Pyramidical Shikhara 19% Superstructure With Pyramidal Shikhara With Spire 21% Figure: 6.30- Elevational Form of Temples. Source: (Author)

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As shown in above chart, almost 71% of the temples have some or the other form of pyramidal elevation. Several variations of pyramid is achieved in these temples - with the help of additional elements like spire, domes, corner Shikhara, corbelling, etc. Various elevational forms and their occurence in these temples is shown in above chart. 6.3.8 Principal Building Material and Finish All these temples were built using brick as main building material. Lime mortar was used as binding material in 90% of the temples. Only rest 10% had cement mortar as substitute. A third of the temples had marble finish. Other finishes found here were - decorative plaster, carving on mortar and mosaic cladding. 6.4 Brick and lime mortar with marble finish 33% Brick and lime mortar with lime mortar carving 2% Brick and lime mortar finished with decorative plaster 1% I. Brick, lime mortar, with mosaic cladding on sikhara 2% Brick and cement mortar 10% Brick and Lime mortar 52% 195 Principal Building material and finish Figure: 6.31:- Principal Building Material and Finish. Source: (Author) Dimensional Analysis To arrive at conclusion for the special features and uniqueness with the Jain Architecture for the Bihar region fifty-eight temples are selected as a sample for the Dimensional Analysis. The following characterictics were analysed for Jain temple sample data of fifty-eight temples. Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the height of Jain Temples in Bihar region.

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Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the area of Jain Temples in Bihar region. Relation and comparison between the height and ground coverage of Jain Temples in Bihar region. Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the percentage of wall area of Jain Temples in Bihar region. Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the length width ratio of Jain Temples in Bihar region. Relation and comparison between the time of construction and Height to lenght ratio of the Jain Temples in Bihar region. VI. The Jain temple sampled in the region of Bihar belongs to 9th century to 20th century. Majority of these temples belong to 18th, 19th and 20th century. The details of date of these temples are attached as annexures IV. 6.4.1 Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the height of Jain Temples in Bihar region. 20.34 - 21.09 17.97 -18 -16.08 -16.53 14.19 - 15.33 - 17.1 15 - 15.9 -15 15 13.23 12.34 12.9 13.5 13.14 123 12 Height of Temple (in Metre) 11.4 13.08 12.6 10.17 +11.55 10.38 10.08 -9.57 -10 ! -10.38 8.07. 8.88 2981 888 66 - 10.2 8.58 - -9.12 8.7 72 - 7.83 HIHI -5.22 HIIHIIIIIIIIII 3.6 800 1750 1760 1780 1791 1820 1835 1850 1864 1870 1870 1880 1880 1920 1935 1942 1950 1955 1957 1960 1962 1965 1970 1980 Year of Construction (Average Height = 10.74 m, Range = 3.30 - 21.09 m) Figure: 6.32: - Graph 1- Time and Height graph of Jain temples of Bihar region. Source: (Author) The average height of fifty-eight temples studied in this report is 10.74M. Shri Sthulbhadra Sadhana Sthal with least height of 3.3 M. was constructed in 1791 AD, while Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Lachhuar, which is the highest with 21.09 M. height, was constructed in 1955 AD. From the timeline graph shown above, it is observed that 196

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the mean average height of these temples slightly increased during 800 AD to 1980 AD. The averahe height in case of north Indian style of temple is 15.79 M and in case of south Indian style of temple is 12.99M. If the height profile compared with Hindu temple, the average height of the Jain temple in this region of Bihar is 10.63 M, which is less than Hindu style of temple althought the style matching with the Hindu Temple style (Vardia, 2008). 6.4.2 Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the area of Jain Temples in Bihar region. Area of Temple (in Square Metre) - 8072 - 571.82 625 750.31 605.27 - 686.88 -387.3 381.02 397.8 298.61 329.4 - 267.63 315 216.71 230.51 267.63 - 344.84 302.76 295.65 199.38 230.18 164.16 - 210.6 - 127.15 + - 143/98 -123.15 -99.78 112.68 107.48 - 135.25 117.47 - 143.44 -146.55 -74.77 57.51 - 106.18 -488.16 -140,5 918 155.75 174.24 96,82 115.2 - 112.32 70.34 - 65.92 -178.71 -147.87 158.76 37.49 66.56 28:58 -181.47 - 42.84 800 1750 1760 1780 1791 1820 1835 1850 1864 1870 1920 1935 1942 1950 1955 1957 1960 1962 1965 1970 1980 Year of Construction - (Average Area = 246.91 Sq.M., Range= 9.0 -1460.0 Sq.m.) Figure: 6.33:- Graph 2- Time and Area graph of Jain temples of Bihar region. Source: (Author) It is observed that, overall temple area has decreased over a period of 12 centuries, as regards these 58 temples under our study. The average area is 249.91 Sq.M. The Tunks at Parasnath are the smallest in size, average size being 9.0 Sq.M. Sri Champapur Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Bada Mandir, Nathnagar is the largest temple, with area of 1460 Sq.M. Declining trend of the area is due to the less number of temple constructed in this region in recent time. As the population of Jain Community is lesser in these area but number of pilgrimage site are present. During the case study, number of new temples were under construction and number of temples is proposed at the sites Barakar, Parasnath, Patna, and in Vaishali. 197

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Height of Temple (in Metre) - 6.4.3 Relation and comparison between the height and ground coverage of Jain Temples in Bihar region. Wall Area (in % wrt. temple area) 25 20 15 O 0 40 35 30 25 20 15 10.38 10 12.34 17,44 -16.98 12.6 ?TOT 23.69 12.3 800 1750 1760 1780 1791 1820 1835 1850 1864 1870 13.14 0/8T 11.4 4.5 42.84 3.6 65.52 70.34 81 84 96.82 106.18 112.32 115.2 123.15 135.25 143.44 146.55 155.75 164.16 178.71 199.38 216.71 230.51 267.63 298.61 Ground Coverage (Sq.M.) Eco Figure: 6.34:- Graph 3- Height and Ground Coverage graph of Jain temples of Bihar region. Source: (Author) There is a direct relationship between the ground coverage and the height of the temple, as seen from the trend-line of the above graph plotted for the sampled temples. It shows that the as the ground coverage of the temple is increased, their height is also increased. 8.88 1806 6.4.4 Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the percentage of wall area of Jain Temples in Bihar region. 198 +15.33 1.55 Year of Construction - (Average=19.86 %, Range=3.07% -36.93%) 1912 1920 1935 1942 1950 16.08 10.38 SS6T 14.19 1.09 0961 15b17.97 13.23 315 344.84 387.3 488.16 571.82 686.88 1962 40.34 80 ET 1965 1970 1980 Figure: 6.35:- Graph 4- Time and Percentage of wall area graph of Jain temples of Bihar region. Source: (Author) TZI 7:108

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There is a slight decrease in wall percentage with respect to the overall temple area during the construction of the first temple to the latest. Samosaran Temple, Pawapuri has least wall area percentage (3.07%), while Sri Muni suvaratswami Mukhya Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri has the highest wall area percentage (36.93%). the reason behind the least wall percentage (3.07%) for Samosaran Temple, Pawapuri is, it is an open circular auditorium temple. It is symbolic temple represented as the Tirthankar giving sermon to the gathering. Slight decrease in graph trend is due to use of modern material and technology. The average value 19.86% indicates the common value for the religious building constructed in India. Which indicate uses of the uniform building material and technology in all types of religious building in India (Vardia, 2008). Length - Width Ratio of Temples 6.4.5 Relation and comparison between the time of construction and the length width ratio of Jain Temples in Bihar region. 3 2.5 2 1.5 0.5 1750 09/1 1780 1791 1820 1835 osiat 1864 1870 1870 1880 121 1880 1890 1901 1910 1912 1920 1935 1942 1950 1955 1957 Year of Construction - (Average=1.36, Range=0.92-2.43) 096T 199 1962 596T 1970 1980 Figure: 6.36:- Graph 5- Time and length-width ratio graph of Jain temples of Bihar region. Source: (Author) The ratio of overall length and overall width of the temple is seen to be slightly increasing in the last twelve centuries during which these temples were constructed/ erected. Sri Dadawari, Begampur, Patna City has the least Length-Width ratio (0.92) constructed in 1780 and Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Chaityalaya, Nalaroad, Patna has the highest length-width ratio (2.43) constructed in 1980. It indicates that there is increasing trend of constructing rectangular buildings rather than square.

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6.4.6 Relation and comparison between the time of construction and Height to lenght ratio of the Jain Temples in Bihar region. 1.36 139 1.18 1.06 1.01 To 880 0.89 S80 0.76 Height to Length Ratio of Temples - 0.74 0.79 0.69 -0.58 -0.69 0.71 0.76 40.71 0.68 0.64 0.7 0.62 -0.62 0.78 0.68 -0.58 -0.59 0.5 +0.81 -0.65 0.54 0.52 -0.56 -0.56 : 0.54 0.48 0.35 0,33 0.53 -0.57: 0.44 -0.53 -0.45 0.46 0.45 0.29 HHHHHHHHHHHH 980 IIIIIIIIII -0.35 -0.17 0.18 HHHHHHHHHHHHHH LLLLLLLLLLLLL 800 1750 1760 1780 1791 1820 1835 1850 1864 1870 1935 1942 1950 1955 1957 1960 1962 1965 1970 1980 Year of Construction - (Average=0.71, Range= 0.17-1.5) Figure 6.37:- Graph 6- Time and height to lenght ratio graph of Jain temples of Bihar region. Source: (Author) The ratio of overall height and overall length of the temple is seen to be slightly increasing with time in the twelve century period during which these temples were constructed. Shri Sthulbhadra Sadhana Sthal has the least Height-Length ratio (0.17), and average Tunk at Parshavanath Hill has the highest length-width ratio (1.5). Average length to width ratio is 0.71.the trend line represents that the height of the temple is increased with the time due to advancement of building material and technology. 6.5 Conclusion In this chapter, various parameters are anlaysed for Jain caves and Jain temples of Bihar region with respect to annexures I to V. The main idea for analysis is to establish co-relation with the Jain Architecture and other contemporary religious buildings. 200

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CHAPTER 7 Influence of Jain Architecture on Traditional Architecture in Bihar region 7.1 INTRODUCTION The Jain Art and Architecture like decorated Indian Art in the early century's stupas out of appreciation for their holy people with their adornments of stone railings, enlivened gateways, stone umbrellas, pillars, and statues were raised. Lovely Jain statues are found in Bihar, Rajgir and northern Bihar. The statue of Bahubali called Gomatesvara at Sravan Belgola and Karkal in Karnataka are examples of superb Jain Architecture. The statue of Bahubali metered high, cut out of a mass of granite was raised in 984 A.D. by Chamundaraya, the clergyman of Ganga Dynasty, Rachamalla (Vasantharaj, 1985). Numerous Jain focuses of Pilgrimage, for example, the Parsvanath Hills, Pavapuri and Rajgir in Bihar and Girnar and Palitana in Kathiawar have temples and other Architectural monuments. Jainism is more seasoned than 'Buddhism'. It raised its voice against the Brahmanical dominance of Hinduism. Mahavira's own case of simplicity, penance and austerity popularized Jainism. Jainism can't turn into a dominant religion in India. Jainism couldn't be spread abroad. Be that as it may, it remained as a powerful order in the nation. Today the Jains are a small however well off group, dwelling generally in Bihar region. Jainism has left its effect on Art, Architecture and sculpture of India. Despite everything, it remains as one of the critical all India religion. Jainism that today boasts that a considerable number of followers were first incited. The fundamental safeguard of the Jain religion, Mahavira was born near Patna, capital of Bihar, in 599 BC. In the particularly youthful age, he became a self-sacrifice and considered for a long time before clearly enlightened and from there it went on long until he got nirvana or salvation. Today Bihar region is immersed in relics and Jain temples. However, despite everything, a number of these temples and relics has 201

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darkened in the darkness of time. In any case, these remain are a declaration of the strong Jain tradition of Bihar. The Jalmandir, a temple of white marble, in the middle of a lotus pond, is the place where Lord Mahavira was cremated. There is another samosaran temple is constructed near this site. Figure: 7.1- Samosaran Temple. Source: - (Author) Pawapuri and Nalanda, accumulate many reasons to make it a sacred place of fundamental importance for the Jains. It is recognized that, the Lord Sri Mahavira spend here fourteen rainy seasons, he stayed here for many years; Furthermore, Muni Suvaratanath, the twentieth Jain Tirthankar, was born here. The contemporary Rajgir is a remarkable pilgrimage for Jainism. There are five hill, these are Bipulachal, Ratnagiri, Udaygiri, Swarna giri and Vaibhargiri. On the Bipulachal hill Lord Sri Mahviara given his first sermon after, enlighten. These hills have numbers of Jain temples on the top. The temples of Swetamber and Digamber sect were constructed in the city of Rajgir. Ara, 61 km from Patna, is another Jain destination in Bihar. Several relics, antiques and ancient temples of Jain revealed that Jainism flourished here since after the 600 BC. 202

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Between the last two decades, the Jains of Ara have been freely religious and, in light of its commitments, this area now delights with more than forty Jain temples, which act as a countless coherent environment. Some of these Jain temples are proliferations of ancient Jain temples elsewhere. The image of Bhagwan Bahubali, fifteen feet tall, Shri Bahubali Mandir of Ara, is a duplicate of the statue of Sri Bahubali Swami in Karnataka. The statue is presented on an artificial mound, and the area around is deliberately landscaped with plants of flowers. Nalanda, about 90 km from Patna has given several archaeological diamonds, which helps to record the important links of the current city with Jainism. In Patna there are thirteen Jain temples belongs to both the sects. Out of these, two are the chaityalayas and two new temples are proposed for the construction. Patna's historical approach is superior to normal. To discover Jain religion curiosities, relics and portraits of ancient Jain revealed in various archaeological excavations in Bihar has transversal influences. 7.2 INFLUENCES ON ARTS AND ARCHITECTURE The Jains have reliably contributed to advance expressions of human experience in the country. Jains have exhausted their varmints by modifying India's distinction in a couple of branches of expressions. Differentiated and their number, their commitments appear, from all angles, particularly interesting and specific (Norton). 7.2.1 Architecture It must be remembered that Jainism did not influence its extraordinarily exceptional Architecture, for anywhere the Jains went they obtained the neighboring construction conventions. The Jains stupas are ill defined by those of the Buddhists, and a curvilinear bell tower of Jain is not defined on the map with that of a Brahmanical temple. 7.2.2 Stupas Like the Buddhists, Jains also brought stupas to appreciate his blessed individuals, with their ornaments of stone grilles, planned portals, stone umbrellas, clear columns and rich statues. The first cases of these were found on the Kankali hill near Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, and should have a place in the century BC. 203

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7.2.3 Cave temples Once again, the Jains like the Buddhists have developed a pair of temples with buckles cut into the rocks from the first circumstances. However, to the extent, the construction of the Jain temples was smaller than Buddhists. In light of the way in which the Jain religion offered a customs of unmistakable individualistic rather than congregational quality. The most diverse cave temples are found in the hills of Udaygiri and Khandgiri in Odisha. The cordiality of its structures, the character of its figures, and building together intrigue with its incredible make them stand out among the most important structure. Odisha has a place in the second century BC. 7.2.4 Temples Since the Jain religion thinks of temple development as a reputable exhibit. The Jains constructed an abnormally greater number of temples through out India. About ninety percent of the Jain temples are enriching individuals and, at that limit, one senses that the Jain temples explain discrete components and make complete decisions. The two temples are exceptional as fantastic models of the architectural style of northern Bihar, which is depicted through the free use of segments cut with all possible lavishness, sections of pillars and bright marble roofs with suspended slopes and design (Laidlaw, 1995). James Laidlaw comments that: "The measure of incredible detail clarified that extends over these temples of the carefully trimmed ornament ceilings, columns, pedestrian crossings, leaves and distinctive strengths. It is basically wonderful: the new, thin, translucent marble treatment in the shape of a shell surpasses any what is seen elsewhere and some of the plans are true dreams of greatness, the work is delicate, so much that a standard illustration would have been terrible." The largest Jain temple with identity and wide in India and the most complete custom group in Mewar (Rajasthan). The temple typically covers about 48,000 square meters of land and in the benefits of its surroundings, the unmistakable apprentice of history, 204

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Dr. Fergusson comments that: "The huge number of parts under construction, and diminutividad general maintains its advance as a guard for something similar compositional height. However, their mixture, the enormity of details. There are no two columns around the construction are quite similar. The brilliance with which they were designed. The rich mix of domes of different sizes with level ceilings, and how the light is shown, fuse to convey an overwhelming influence. Certainly, I do not know any other work in India, of an equivalent class leaving such a satisfactory impression, or bringing such an imperative amount of information bits for rich piece methodologies into an interior." The light and columnar style of the temples, Jain did not provided materials that were more suitable for Muslim purposes, but also provided evidence that Muslim architects did not withdraw for profit. A mosque thus acquired was, for comfort and glory, unmatched by something that Muslims some time later raised their specific diagrams of one kind. Therefore, the large mosques of Rajgir, Odisha, Jharkhand and Bhagalpur are only reproductions in the temples of Hindus and Jains. 7.2.5 Temperate urban areas Furthermore, the assembly of their temples in what might be called 'urban temples community' is a registered trademark that the Jains have developed more significantly than the disciples of some other religion in India. Such prominent urban areas of the temple are found, among several points, in Bihar. 7.2.6 Mana-stambhas Another surprising commitment of the Jains in the field of Architecture is the development of numerous stambhas or pillars of the satisfactory plan and of the specific good taste. These were discovered to add vast series of temples (H. Sompura, 1996). There is a certification that shows that, separated by the columns, the Jains, especially from the north of India, produced a marvelous number of exquisite towers for their Tirthankars. There is such a peak that, in a not too distant past, it improves Bihar, and it is considered a standout among other points of reference in India. 205

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7.2.7 Model The unlimited examples of the models of Jain found primarily in all parts of India show that the Jains enlisted the artisans organizations with particularly ancient circumstances. His most basic model to date is to show images or statues of his Tirthankars. In any case, alive and well for these figures were not granted titles for the free play of the imaginative vitality of individual stone specialists. Since the general measures, concerning the shape and position of the Tirthankar statues had been prescribed by the Jain Religion of the phase of more timely start. Subsequently, all the images of Jain are linked to a class, and in this way, images of Jain from any part of the nation can not be seen by their style despite the way they have a place with various ages of complete. In addition, note that the images of Jain were created equal and all substances, and often have a stable mentality, regardless of whether they are arranged or standing (Kumar N. , 2003). The largest single statues in Asia, which are three in total, orchestrated in the state of Karnataka (created in 981 AD and height 56.5 feet). All three images of Lord Bahubali, the descendants of the first Tirthankar Adinatha, which are most important, are visible from kilometers away, and the movement of his formalism becomes aware of their gigantic mass and the articulation of the majestic silence. 7.2.8 Update of the sculpture Regarding the rival Jains progress without resuscitation model, as seen by specific statues, Dr. Vincent Smith says that, "The Jains retained an interest in glory. They splendor, used to update the greatest exceptional and pillar. It was its nothingness, on the planet and it able to overcome the magnificence and delicacy of the details of the marble with the ceilings of the temples, and it is undoubtedly not difficult to fill a huge volume with performances of works virtually indistinguishable in several points." 206

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7.2.9 Painting Together with the Architecture and the figure, the Jains contributed immensely to the improvement of painting in India. The Jain painting convention is as old as Buddhist painting. It is an essential to note that Jains have, for the most part, a fortune of unique duplicate artistic creations, designed in the style of early Western Indians, sometimes called or in particular the "Jain style" or "Gujarat Style". 7.2 Trend of Jain Architecture on upcoming religious buildings in Bihar Region Lord Mahavira was born close to Patna, the capital of Bihar, in 599 BC. In young age, he became a self-sacrifice and meditated long before got enlightened. After he spend in Bihar for a long time until he achieved nirvana or salvation. Rajgir, which implies a "magnificent arrangement of living", the capital of Magadha of the Empire in the 6th BC. Master piece near Pawapuri and Nalanda, credible reasons that make it a celestial place of great importance for the Jain. It is known that Sri Mahavira spend here fourteen rainy seasons, many of his best teachings transmitted here; in the same way, Sri Munisuvarata, the twentieth Jain Tirthankar, was born here. Figure: 7.2 - Jal Mandir at Pavapuri, Bihar. Source: (Author) 207

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Paras Nath Hills Sammed Shikharji or Parshvanath Pahad, twenty Tirthankars of this Chowbeese (twenty-four Tirthankars), obtained salvation in this sacred land. On the hill, there are Tirthankars tunks those have achieved salvation from here. The entire route covers the distance of 18 miles. Jain's workforce commitment to standard craftsmanship in India has been expansive. Every moment of Indian work is assisted by a Jain framework, and each of them justifies careful examination and intuition. The impressive Jain temples and the points of interest formed by Bihar region are acclaimed. Jain's Architecture cannot testify with his particular style, since it was around a branch of Hindu and Buddhist styles. At first, these temples were generally cut with shaky faces, and the use of the squares was tolerably unimportant. However, in recent years, the Jain began to build territories of urban sanctuaries on the hills in the light of the deposits of eternal state. According to the measure of Hindu temples in India, the Jain temples are few and disconnected. The latter used to break down their decayed and more serrated temples and collect new ones in a nearby place. Of course, the Jain temples had an air of specific aggressor around them, almost in light of the marauders who could possess riches. The reason is that, the Jain temples are the richest temples on the planet, even surpassing the Mughal structures to the point of material wealth and wealth. Jainism is a basic religion that has supporters of just over two million or more. His commitment to the Indian legacy is more objective, generally appreciated the actual support, and has made great priests and laymen of people in general can be cheerful. 7.3 Conclusion The India had very rich history for the Jain Architecture starting from the Indus valley civillzation to till date. As the religion is movement against the Hindu religion and it parallally grow. It is almost supported by the all the dynasty throught out the time. The region of Bihar having number of pilgrimage site, all these have its own importance. All these places are related with the imporatant event of twenty-four Tirathankars. 208

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In Odisha, khandgiri and udaygiri hill have thirty-two caves still existed build during 200 BC by kharvela king. Influenced by that time of prevailing Budhhist cave Architecture style. Parasnath known for the nirvana place of twenty Tirthanakars, there are in total twenty-nine tunk one Jain temple and one Jal mandir situated on the hill, also there are number of temples existing at the base of Parasnath hill. The other nearby places of great importance are Rijubalika tirtha, Barakar, Palganj, Ishari bazar. These places are properly developed and attract the tourist throughtout the year. Bihar have number of important sites related to Jain religion. Such as Patna - nirvana place of Sri Sudarsana muni, Ara - the Lord Sri Mahavira taken rest here during the religious visits, Vaishali- The birth place of Lord Sri Mahavir, Jamui - this place considered as birthplace of Lord Sri Mahavir by Swetamber sect, Bhagalpur- The place associated with Sri Vasupujya Swami, Banka - Nirvana Place of Sri Vasupujya Swami, Nalanda - Nirvana place for Sri Mahavir, Rajgir-associated with Sri Munisubratnath and Sri Mahavir, Nawada- Nirvana place for Sri Gautam Swami. All these places are of great importance and pilgrimage site for the Jains. At all these locations, there are number of temples existed in their own style, which reflect the richness of Jain Architecture of the region. At the time of site visit author found number of temple existed and number of new ongoing construction of temples, all those inheritate Jain temple architectural style. All those have one very common features as the carving and decoration of the interior that reflect inner richness of Jain religion. The style of temple construction techniques inheriate by the Jain Architecture tradition style such as Jal mandir, Samosaran and Manastambha is maintained, and keep on growing. 209

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CHAPTER 8 8.1 INFERENCE The Jain religion has its long and lively history dating back to 2500 BC. As per Jain tradition, Lord Sri Mahavir was the last and twenty-fourth Tirthankar (Spritual teacher of Jain Religion). All the twenty-four Tirthankars gave message for the path of liberation - moksha to the world. Out of these twenty-four Tirthankars, twenty-two had attained nirvana from the holy land of Bihar and Jharkhand. In addition, many saints attained nirvana in this region. In this regard this region has a number of pilgrimage sites like Khandgiri hill , Udaygiri hill, Patna, Vaishali, Ara, Jamui, Bhagapur, Banka, Nalanda, Rajgir, Nawada, Barakar, Palganj, Sammed Shikharji, Parasnath, Kolua pahad. The uniqueness of Jain religion is that, they worship the living being who came to this world, lived like a common person and got enlightened and attained nirvana. They all are known as Tirthankars. As per the Jain literature, in life of a Tirthankar five chief auspicious events are believed to occur. These are known as Chyavan kalyanak, Janma kalyanak, Diksha Kalyanal, Kevala Janana Kalyanak, Nairvana Kalyanak. As per Jain literature, the tradition of worshiping statue has existed in Jainism, as evidenced from the "torso" found in Indus Valley Civilizatin in 2000 BC and in Kumharar, Patliputra dating back to 300 BC. In Jain Architecture, it's a practice of constructing an enclosure for worshiping the statue, which lead to construction of temple with timber or in brick. As per literature review, no exhaustive work in the area of Jain Architecture was found. Different scholars have concluded that, Jain Architecture grew parallel with contemporary Architecture style of India. All the religion and culture have its distinct feature and style. Therefore, there is unique style of Architecture with the Jain Architecture also. It is the first attempt to analyse the features of Jain caves and temples through the case study of thirty-two caves of Udaygiri, Khandgiri and fifty-eight Jain temples of Bihar and Jharkhand. In present research work all the places were identified, which are pilgrimage site or otherwise important to Jain religion in the Bihar, Jharkhand and Odisha. As per Hathi 210

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Gumpha inscription, caves of Khandgiri-Udaygiri hill was constructed in 200-170 BC by King Kharavela for Jain monks as living space and religious activity spot. There are in total thirty-two caves still existing at this location giving strong message for the existence of Jain Architecture in those eras. The construction time of these caves is later from the Lomas Rishi caves built by Ashoka in 300 BC at Jahanabad, Bihar. It was contemporary with Ajanta caves constructed during in 200 BC - 480 CE. As the cave Architecture appeared in the Budhhist Architecture first, these Khandgiri - Udaygiri caves are evidently inspired from those Budhhist caves. The cells of caves have the plan form either square or rectangular and height at reduced scale lower than human height. The interior of caves have raised surfaces used as pillow for the monks to rest. It shows that, these were constructed for the monk's meditation and living space. The interior had rock cut artwork carvings on the walls, telling the story of that period and the twenty-four Thirtankars. Some of the caves are double storey. These aspects clearly show that, the Jain caves are more engineered and have artistic qualities at that point of time. The scale of the Jainism caves is less than human scale, which shows that they believe in inner spiritual qualities and it was reflected in the future Jain temple Architecture also, in which the height of Jain temple is less than other religious buildings. The Lord Sri Mahavir born in Vaishali (Bihar) got enlightened at Barakar and gave his first sermon at Bipulachal hill Rajgir. In 527 BC, Sri Mahavir got Nirvana at Pawapuri, Bihar. At the same location Lord Mahvira was cremated, there came a huge crowd to collect the ashes of his mortal remains, which resulted in removal of huge volume of soil from that place, creating a pond there. Later on a Samadhi temple with footprint idol vedi known as Jal Mandir was constructed as a distinct style. It still exists there, though in a new form. Later this concept of Jal Mandir was adopted in the other religious building also e.g. Golden Temple Amritsar (in Sikh Architecture). To understand the Jain temple Architecture of Bihar region, fifty- eight temples were selected which were constructed during the time period of 9th century to 20th century AD. All these temples have been documented under standard format. The oldest temple in its existing state is at Bamapur, Vaishali, built during the 800 AD. The temple has plan form of three-side opening with circumambulatory path a pattern very commonly found at other places of sampled data. The Shikhara form is simple pyramidical. 211

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Comparing this temple with other temple of same time period, it is seen that the Hindu temple Architecture had reached at very advance stage, for example Bhitargaon temple, 500 AD and Lad khan temple, 675-725 CE. All the fifty-eight temples were classified under different plan forms and elevational forms for the purpose of analysis and checking the resemblance with their contemporary Architectural style. Most of the temples have very simple plan form with only garbhagriha, generally with the footprints idol of Tirthankar. This type of structure is generally known as "tunk" and is constructed with marble. The second type of temple has garbhagriha with a circumambulatory path. It is very similar to typical Hindu temple. The third type of temple is with three-side opening and a circumambulatory path was found as a prominent plan form, next prominent style of form was typical Hindu Nagara style. It clearly reflects that there is influence of Hindu temple Nagara style plan form in which the hierarchy of spaces are garbhagriha followed by antarala followed by mandapa followed by ardhamandapa. Similar pattern is found on third type of Jain temple plan form. In the elevation form, the temple with dome was prominent in most of the Jain temples. Next prominent style was pyramidal Shikhara with spire and multiple domes. It reflects that there is influence of Hindu temple Nagara style elevational form and Islamic Architectural form on the Jain temple elevational form. It is total amalgamation of both the Hindu and Islamic Architectural style. Unlike Hindu temple Architecture, where male deity is placed in square garbhagriha and the female deity is placed in square or rectangular garbhagriha, In Jain temple both the square and rectangular shape garbhagriha is very common for Tirthankars with majority of temples with square form. As per the Hindu temple Architecture, the deity should face towards east direction, if not possible in that case, it should face west direction. In Jain temple, the face of the deity is in east in the most of cases followed by north. In some of the cases, it faces west. No temple have been found in which deity faces south direction. Concept of temple around pond is a unique style belonging to the Jain religion; the examples are Jal mandir at Pawapuri and Jal mandir at Nawada. Other distinct style of temple is observed as Samosaran and freestanding pillar "Manastambha". It is a unique style of temple, in which Tirthankar sitting in the center at the top faces all 212

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cardinal directions. The sitting arrangement is like circular auditorium. Manastambha is a freestanding pillar in front of Jain temple, Samosaran and Tirthankar statue. On the top of Manastambha Jain Tirthankar idol is placed facing in cardinal directions. An important feature of the Jain temple for which it is well known throughout in the world is intricate carving. Dilwara temple is a well-known example of such type of carvings. The same type of features have been found in the Jain temples at Lachhuar, Kakan, and Rajgir belonging to Bihar region. Size of doors and windows in Jain temples is on human scale. It resembles the temples and other secular buildings of India. There are total thirty-one religious structures were constructed during various time periods at pilgrimage site Sammed Shikhar. The site has one Jal Mandir, one Jain temple and twenty-nine "tunk". Tunk is a small structure with the footprint idols of the Tirthankar or the saint. It is an enclosure made of intricately carved marble, and its top consists of a Shikhara either dome or pyramidal in form. The conclusion drawn from the study is that the Jain Architecture has been influenced by the Architecture of other contemporary religions in the plan form as well as elevational form through the course of time. Despite that, it has unique style of Architecture, which is concluded from following characteristic features of Jain Architecture: a. Earliest Jain Architecture dates back to 200 BC when Udaygiri and Khandgiri were cut- when Budhhism was flourishing in India. The first rock cut cave was Barabar Hill at Jahanabad, Bihar in 300 BC, and it was Buddhist in nature. The comparison between these two contemporary religions is objectively shown below: Table:- 8.1 Comparison between Budhhist and Jain Caves Budhhist Jain Description Plan form Storey Height of cave Art work * Square Rectangular Circular Single Human scale Exterior carving 213 * Square Rectangular Single Double Reduced scale lower than human height Interior & exterior carving

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From the table it is observed and we come to the conclusion that: The Jainism caves were more engineered and have artistic qualities at that point of time. Scale of the Jain caves size is less than human scale, which follows Jainism's belief in inner spiritual qualities, and it got followed in the future temple Architecture also. Scale of Jain temples is comparatively lesser than that of other religious buildings. b. The concept of Jal mandir came from the reference of creation of pond due to removal of soil by devotees from where Lord Mahaviar had cremated. After that, a Jain temple was constructed in the middle of the pond appropriately named as 'Jal-Mandir'. The style was later adopted in Sikh religion (Golden Temple). c. The circular open-air theatre of Samosaran temple evolved from the Jain practice of oral preaching regularly conducted by the Tirthankars, with devotees sitting all around Him. The central statue installed in name of the Tirthankar faces all the cardinal points. Such a structure is not found in any other religion and is native to Jain religion as symbolism. d. Manastambha, a free-satnding pillar with the idols of four-faced Tirthankar is unique and distinct feature of Jain Architecture. e. Tunk is a small enclosure constructed with marble. Inside the tunk footprint idols of Tirthankar is installed. This is a unique architectural feature -"enclosure with intricately carved marble" is present in Jain Architecture. f. Intricate carving with marble and plaster in the interior and exterior of temples is an inherent characteristic of Jain Architecture. From the above, it can be said that there is no impact of Jain religion on Jain Architecture. It moved on a parallel way with the other contemporary Indian religious Architecture for its style. Therefore, other contemporary religious Architecture influenced the style of Jain Architecture. A number of pilgrimage sites are available in the region with the examples like Jal Mandir, Samosaran, Manastambha and intricate carving in the temples. All such structures are result of religious belief and unique in nature but their elements are borrowed from the contemporary Indian Architecture. It 214

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clearly shows that, Jain Architecture has influenced the Architecture of the Bihar region in the form of Caves, Chaityalaya, Temples, Jal Mandir, Samosaran and Manastambha at various pilgrimage sites. The kind of uniqueness that the Jain religion holds in terms of its distict Architectural types such as Jal Mandir, Samosaran, Manastambha and intricate carving has to be maintained, preserved and glorified. 8.2 Scope of future research The Jain temples in India have been the subject of reflection for various historical features complied by authorities such as technocrats, religious analysts, classical artists, historians, archaeologists and other experts. There is a requirement of in-depth research of Jain temples in various parts of India, not only in the light of iconography and change, but also for the innovation in temple form and its auxiliary elements. It is understood that various temples have fallen down from time to time due to various disaster, invasion, and natural decay. However, there are examples of Jain temples well preserved from storm and other recorded disasters. It is to be noted that, these temples have been filled as an interlaced structure as indicated in the obsolete manuals. Therefore, these temples had ability to sustain during various calamities. From now on there is need of expansion to include the structural features of theses Jain temples. It can be a more basic subject of research such as the safety examination and the examination of the structures of good disposition, including the most notable concern of these temples, its various elements, Shikhara, lintel, arches, domes etc. Due to the presence of a number of pilgrimage sites in the Bihar region, present study focuses only on the Jain temples of Bihar, Jharkhand and caves of Odisha as a case study. As the Jain community belongs to business class people, they have established themselves all over the India and the world. They have a number of temples and templecities like Dilwara, Shantrunjaya, Rankapur, Lal Mandir in New Delhi, Karnataka, and Mathura etc. the present work can be extended to next level to examine their architectural characteristics, structural qualities and other features. 215

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Smith, E. H. (1966-72). Paramatthajotika II, Commentary on Suttanipata (Vol. 3). London: RT Society, Shri Jain Swetamber. (2018, August 01). KAKANDI TIRTH. Retrieved from jainsite.com: https://jainsite.com/jain-tirth/kakandi-tirth/#ixzz5MvCqpiM2 visited on 01/08/2018 South Asian arts. (2018, June 15). Retrieved from Encyclopaedia Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/art/South-Asian-arts South Indian temple. (2016, 2 25). Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/South Indian-temple-architecture/media/556260/3558. Stevenson, S. (1915). The Heart of Jainism. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal. Stupa at sanchi. (2017, 10 16). Retrieved from https://anitasan.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/the-grand-stupa-at-sanchi-2.jpg. Takht Sri Damdama Sahib. (2017, 12 24). Retrieved from http://www.discoversikhism.com/sikh_gurdwaras/takht_sri_damdama_sahib.html. Takht-i-Bahi. (2017, 10 16). Retrieved from https://www.worldheritagesite.org/list/Takht-i Bahi. Taran Taran. (2017, 12 14). Retrieved from https://www.tourmyindia.com/pilgrimage/taran taran.html. Tirthankar. (2014,5 31). Retrieved from https://ipfs.io/ipfs/QmXoypizjw3WknFijnKLWHCnL72vedxjQkDDP1mXWo6uco/wiki/ Tirthankar.html. Tulasi. (2011, Nov. 26). Panaji: Then Navhind Times. Udaygiri caves bhubaneshwar. (2016,6 7). Retrieved from http://www.bhubaneswaronline.in/city-guide/udaygiri-caves-bhubaneshwar. Vardia, S. (2008). Building science of Indian Temple Architecture- A master Thesis. Universidade do Minho. Vasantharaj, M. D. (1985). Puja or Worship as Practised among the South Indian Jains. Perspectives in Jain Philosophy and Culture, 98-105. Vishvanath. (2017, 10 5). Retrieved from https://web.njit.edu/~delano/vishvanatha.htm. Volwahsen, A. (1970). Living Architecture, Islamic India. New York: Grosset and Dunlap. Welcome to Ajanta Caves. (2017, 10 16). Retrieved from http://ajantacaves.com/. Xpid_eng. (2017,9 23). Retrieved from http://www.kamit.jp/01_introdctn/3_hindu/xpid_eng.htm. 224

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ANNEXURES Annexure-I No. Roof height Cave no Name UDAYGIRI CAVES Time of Construction:- 209 BC to 170 BC Area of Total Cell size single area of cell Cave Length Breadth (in M) in M) SqM SIM No of storeys Shape of plan Of Type of roof Internal/External feature cells Verandah Cell Rani Gumpha 1 2 27 Rectangular 4.2 2.4 10.08 1832 1.875 1.05 Flat Carving and Sculpture on Exterior and Interior of Cave Bajaghara Gumpha Square 24 5.76 Varies from 1.65 to 1.95 Gable Exterior features and carvings Exterior features and carvings Chota Hanthi Gumpha Rectangular | 2.4 1.8 4.32 1.05 Flat Alkapuri Gumpha Rectangular 1.8 3.24 Varies from 1.65 to 1.95 Gable Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Jaya Vijya Gumpha 5 Rectangular 8.1 2.1 17.01 48 1.875 Varies from 1.65 to 1.95 Gable Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Panash Gumpha Rectangular 1.8 1.8 3.24 1.875 1.95 Flat Thakurani Gumpha Rectangular 2.4 1.8 4.32 1.875 1.05 Flat Simple cell Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Varies Patalpuri Gumpha Rectangular 9.6 2.1 20.16 38 1.875 from 1.65 to 1.95 Gable

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9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Manchapuri Gumpha Ganesha Gumpha Jambesvara Gumpha Singh Gumpha Sarpa Gumpha Hathi Gumpha Dhanghara Gumpha Haridasha Gumpha Jagannatha Gupha Rasui Gumpha 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 2 2 1 1 4 1 2 1 1 UDAYGIRI CAVES Time of Construction:- 209 BC to 170 BC Rectangular Rectangular 6.3 2.4 Rectangular Rectangular Square Rectangular Rectangular 4.2 Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular 3 2.4. 2.4 4.5 4.2 5.4 2.1 2.1 00 1.8 2.1 2.1 2.4 2.4 2.1 2.1 2.1 1.8 226 13.23 4.32 6.3 5.04 5.76 10.8 8.82 8.82 11.34 3.78 40 15 14 6 6 122 17 17 23 4 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 varies 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.875 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 Flat Flat Flat Flat Flat Natural topography Flat Flat Flat Flat Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Simple cave Exterior features and carvings Exterior features and carvings Exterior features and carvings Exterior features and carvings Simple cave Simple cave Simple cave

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Annexure-II S. no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Name Tatowa Gumpha-1 Tatowa Gumpha-2 Ananta Gumpha Tentuli Gumpha Khandgiri Gumpha Dhyana Gumpha Navamuni Gumpha Barabhuji Gumpha Trusula Gumpha Ambika Gumpha Cave no. - 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 No of storeys 2 1 1 I 2 1 1 I 1 1 No. Of cells 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 1 1 KHANDGIRI CAVES Time of Construction:- 209 BC to 170 BC Area of single cell Shape of plan Cell size Length Breadth (IN M) (INM) Rectangular 6.3 Rectangular 4.2 Rectangular 5.4 Rectangular 3 Rectangular 1.8 Rectangular 4.8 Rectangular 8.4 Rectangular 5.4 Rectangular 5.4 Rectangular 3.6 227 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 3.2 3 1.8 1.8 1.8 SQM 11.34 7.56 9.72 5.4 3.24 15.36 25.2 9.72 9.72 6.48 Total Roof area of heig cave ht SQM 17 26 19 14 13 21 36 22 22 15 Vera ndah (IN M) 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 Cell (IN M) 1.05 1.05 1.65 TO 1.95 1.05 1.05 1.95 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 Type of roof flat flat gable flat flat flat flat gable flat flat Internal/External feature Exterior carving and features Exterior carving and features Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Simple cave Simple cave Simple cave Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave Simple cave Simple cave

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11 12 13 14 Lalatendukesari Gumpha Lalita Gumpha Cave 13 Ekadashi Gumpha 11 12 13 14 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 KHANDGIRI CAVES Time of Construction:- 209 BC to 170 BC Rectangular 5.4 1.8 9.72 Rectangular 5.4 1.8 9.72 9.72 Rectangular 5.4 Rectangular 1.8 3.24 228 1.8. 1.8 24 18 23 12 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.05 1.05 1.05 1.05 flat flat flat Simple cave Simple cave Carving and Sculpture on Interior of Cave flat Simple cave

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Annexure-III Date of construction of the various temples, Sect, Orientation of Mula Nayak and Plan form Name of Temple and place Year of Constructi on (circa) Sect Orientation of Mula Nayak Garbhagriha Plan form No. Jharkhand Sri Rijubalika Tirtha, Barakar 1865 Swetamber East Square Digamber East Square Digamber East Square Digamber East Rectangular Sri Parshavanath Digamber 1970 Jain Temple, Palganj Sri Digamber jain Temple, 1924 Isari Bazar, Jharkhand Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Temple, Kolhua 1625 Mountain Samed Shikhar , Madhuban, Parashnath Tunk at Parshavanath Hill - 1955 29 Nos. Jal Mandir, Samed Shikhar 1768 Sri Digamber Jain Parshavanath Temple, Samed 1750 Shikar Digamber East Square Digamber East Rectangular 7 Digamber North Square Patna 8 1791 Swetamber East Square 1791 Swetamber East Square 10 1910 Swetamber East Square Sri Sudarshan Kamaldahn Ji Temple, Gulzarbagh Sri Sthulbhadra Sadhana Sthal, Gulzarbagh Sri Kamaldah Sidhakshetra, Gulzarbagh Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Gurara Temple, Haziganj, Patna City Sri Aadinath Digamber Jain Temple, Kalibibi ka Katra, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Kachauri Gali, Patna City 1864 Digamber North Rectangular 1942 Digamber East Rectangular 1880 Digamber North Rectangular 229

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S. No. 14 15 16 17 Sri Dadawari, Begampur, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Mithapur Sri Parshavanath Digamber 18 Jain Chaityalaya, Nalaroad, Patna 161 19 20 22 23 24 25 Vaishali 21 Bamapur Jain Temple Ara 26 Name of Temple and place 27 Sri Parshavanath Swetamber Jain Temple, Bare ki Gali, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain 28 Panchayati Temple, Macharahatta, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Chaityalaya, Muradpur Sri SuParshavanath Digamber Jain Temple, Naubatpur, Patna Sri 1008 Parshavanath Digamber Jain Temple Sri 1008 Thirthkar Shantinath Digamber Jain Temple Sri Chandra Prabhu Digamber Jain Temple Sri Digamber Jain Chandraprabhu Chaityalaya Sri Digamber Jain Mahavir Swami Chaityalaya Sri Digamber Jain Prabhudas Temple Sri Parswanath Digamber Jain Temple, Masadh Year of Constructi on (circa) 1880 1860 1780 1962 1980 1920 1950 800 1880 1894 1870 1965 1962 1870 1819 230 Sect Swetamber Digamber Swetamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Digamber Orientation of Mula Nayak West East East North East East East East East East East East North Cardinal Directions East Garbhagriha Plan form Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Rectangular Square Rectangular Rectangular Square Square Rectangular Square Square Square

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Name of Temple and place Year of Constructi on (circa) Sect Orientation of Mula Nayak Garbhagriha Plan form No. 1955 Digamber North Rectangular Bisram, Dhanupura, Ara Bahubali Statue Temple and 29 Manastambha 30 Sri Mahavir Swami Temple 31 Sri Adinath Temple 1850 1870 Digamber Digamber East East Square Square Jamui 32 1970 Swetamber North Square 1955 Swetamber East Square 1980 Swetamber East Rectangular Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kshatriyakund Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Lachhuar Sri Swetamber Jain Temple 34 Kakan Bhagalpur Sri Champapur Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Bada Mandir, Nathnagar Sri Vasupujya Swami Jain Temple, Nathnagar Sri Vasupujya Swami 37 Swetamber Jain Temple, Champanagar 35 1760 Digamber East Square 1960 Digamber East Square 1936 Swetamber West Square Banka 38 1820 Digamber East Square 39 1880 Digamber North Square Sri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Sri Digamber Jain Temple Sri Vasupoojya Swami 40 Jinalaya Nalanda 41 Jal mandir, Pawapuri 1977 Digamber East Square 1760 Digamber Square East Cardinal Directions 42 Samosaran Temple, Pawapuri 1910 Swetamber Circular 1880 Swetamber East Square Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Pawapuri Sri Digambar Jain Tirtha Kshetra Prachin Mandir Kundalpur (Kalyanak Kshetra) 44 1840 Digamber North Square 231

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Name of Temple and place Year of Constructi on (circa) Sect Orientation of Mula Nayak Garbhagriha Plan form No. 1935 Digamber North Octagonal 1960 Swetamber North Square 1942 Digamber North Square 1957 Swetamber North Octagonal 1908 Swetamber East Square 1901 Swetamber East Square Rajgir Sri Digamber Jain Temple, 45 Ratnagiri Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Ratnagiri Sri Digamber Jain Temple , Udaygiri Sri Swetamber Jain Sanwaliya Parshavanath Temple, Udaygiri Sri Parshavanath Swetamber Jain Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri Sri Dhanna Shalibhadra Swetamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Sri Mahavirswami Swetamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Sri Munisuvaratswami Mukhya Jinalaya , Vaibhargiri Sri Gautamswami Nirwan Temple ,Vaibhargiri Sri 1008 Mahavir Swami Jinalaya 56 Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Nawada Sri Digamber Jain Sidha Kshsetra, Gunawaji Jal Mandir, Gunawaji 1890 Digamber East Square 1912 Swetamber East Octagonal 1820 Swetamber East Square 1835 Swetamber North Square 55 1919 Digamber East Square 1961 Swetamber West Square 1880 Digamber East Square 1876 Digamber East Square 232

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Annexure-IV Dimensional Analysis (All Dimensions are in meters) Height Area of Wall Length Wall Temple Area to Name of Site / Temple Size of Garbhagriha (In SqM) Length of Temple (In M) Width of Temple (In M) Area (In width temple (In M) (In SqM) Page SIM) ratio Jharkhand 9.24 0.69 Sri Rijubalika Tirtha, Barakar Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Temple, Palganj Sri Digamber jain Temple, Isari Bazar, Jharkhand 9.24 1 14.4 12.6 21.9 10.5 11.4 12.6 13.5 8 10 10.2 11.55 12.34 164.16 158.76 295.65 84 28 16.75 45.72 21.56 17.06 10.55 15.46 25.67 1.26 1.00 1.62 1.31 3 5.76 17.82 1.18 Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Temple, Kolhua Mountain Samed Shikhar , Madhuban, Parashnath 5 Tunk at Parshavanath Hill - 29 Nos. 6 Jal Mandir, Samed Shikhar 19 16.8 3 3 2 323.00 | 15 | 12.3 4 . 590 .46 12529 72.86 15 1 40.5 23.86 5.11 13.77 16.98 1.00 1.00 1.22 1.50 0.52 1.00 7 Sri Digamber Jain Parshavanath Temple, Samed Shikar Patna 8 8.13 0.54 Sri Sudarshan Kamaldahn Ji Temple, Gulzarbagh Sri Sthulbhadra Sadhana Sthal, Gulzarbagh Sri Kamaldah Sidhakshetra, Gulzarbagh 11.58 | 19.68 9 .66 10.98 6.3 19.68 3.3 7.746 127.15 387.3 74.77 21.84 68.44 17.62 17.18 17.67 23.57 1.05 1.00 1.25 10 9 0.17 0.62 233

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S. No. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 Vaishali 21 Ara 22 23 24 Name of Site/Temple Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Gurara Temple, Haziganj, Patna City Sri Aadinath Digamber Jain Temple, Kalibibi ka Katra, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Kachauri Gali, Patna City Sri Parshavanath Swetamber Jain Temple, Bare ki Gali, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Panchayati Temple, Macharahatta, Patna City Sri Dadawari, Begampur, Patna City Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Mithapur Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Chaityalaya, Nalaroad, Patna Sri Digamber Jain Chaityalaya, Muradpur Sri SuParshavanath Digamber Jain Temple, Naubatpur, Patna Bamapur Jain Temple Sri 1008 Parshavanath Digamber Jain Temple Sri 1008 Thirthkar Shantinath Digamber Jain Temple Sri Chandra Prabhu Digamber Jain Temple Size of Garbhagriha (In SqM) 33.87 17.14 5.18 35.08 18.9 5.54 53.45 37 43.56 5.76 9 74.13 23.04 9 234 Length Width Height of of of Temple Temple temple (In M) (In M) (In M) 19.65 10.02 11.52 17.34 20.58 9 20.66 10.2 8.1 12.48 9.0 21.09 31.8 25.5 13.62 7.02 9.33 7.8 10.53 9.78 8.65 4.2 7.1 9 8.4 12.69 21.6 15.6 3.6 4.5 7.98 12.3. 12 7.2 13.5 3.6 3.6 12.6 4.9 15 20.34 14.19 Area of Wall Temple Area (In (In SqM) SqM) Wall Area %age 83.16 Length to width ratio 267.63 30.69 11.47 1.44 0.18 14.5 17.44 H/L 70.34 16.52 23.49 1.43 0.45 107.48 25.53 23.75 1.23 0.69 135.25 27.26 20.16 2.22 0.71 216.71 51.34 23.69 96.82 11.87 12.26 178.71 17.23 9.64 42.84 5.84 13.63 57.51 13.95 24.26 112.32 33.97 30.24 1.95 0.58 0.92 0.80 2.39 0.65 2.43 0.35 1.14 0.44 1.39 1.01 1.07 0.49 267.63 45.13 16.86 1.66 0.71 686.88 101.43 14.77 1.47 0.64 397.8 137.54 34.58 1.63 0.56

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Length Wall Length Wall Size of Garbhagriha of of Area Name of Site / Temple Width Height Area of of Temple Temple temple (In M) (In M) SIM) Area width (In SIM) Temple (In M) (In SqM) %age ratio 22.68 29.12 1.71 54 179 13:30 3:50 120 136 1.20 5.76 12.96 12.96 15.9 9.3 8.58 147.87 6.725.589.1237.49 15.6 13.5 16.53 210.6 | 27.6 21.93 13.23 605.27 43.06 13.31 44.89 179.25 1.16 21.32 29.61 1.26 0.48 Sri Digamber Jain Chandraprabhu Chaityalaya 26 Sri Digamber Jain Mahavir Swami Chaityalaya 27 Sri Digamber Jain Prabhudas Temple 28 Sri Parswanath Digamber Jain Temple, Masadh Bisram, Dhanupura, Ara 29 Bahubali Statue Temple and Manastambha 30 Sri Mahavir Swami Temple 31 Sri Adinath Temple 12.6 8.4 7. 8 10.38 15.64 1.08 1.24 12.96 10.14 9.84 12.9 65.52 99.78 329.4 27.98 23.87 28.04 24.13 1.03 .27 12.96 18. 3 18 16.08 79.48 1.02 0.88 Jamui 3.24 10.776 .18 15 66.56 12.29 18.46 1.74 1.39 19.18 0.78 27.03 14.79 18.06 12.27 21.09 13.14 488.16 181.47 114.26 22.12 23.41 12.19 1.50 1.21 34 7.2 0.89 32 Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kshatriyakund Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Lachhuar Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kakan Bhagalpur Sri Champapur Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Bada Mandir, Nathnagar Sri Vasupujya Swami Jain Temple, Nathnagar 37 Sri Vasupujya Swami Swetamber Jain Temple, Champanagar 35 15.21 40.83 35.76 | 12 1460 163.96 11.23 1.14 0.29 36 1.22 0.68 10.89 17.64 26.4 36.78 21.66 20.4 17.97571.82 60.99 13.08 750.31 | 119.33 10.67 15.90

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Length Width Wall Length Wall of of Area Name of Site / Temple Size of Garbhagriha (In SGM) Height Area of of Temple temple (In (In M) SqM) Area width Temple Temple (In M) (In M) %age SqM) ratio Banka 38 39 40 Sri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Sri Digamber Jain Temple Sri Vasupoojya Swami Jinalaya 36 5.76 20.19 15.42 11.01 1 4.79 12.93 7. 8 15.33 11.4 .7 298.61 199.38 85.87 80.45 51.91 24.57 26.94 26.04 28.61 1.37 1.19 1.41 0.76 0.74 4.41 8 0.79 Nalanda 41 Jal mandir, Pawapuri 19 8 1.00 0.90 18.57 9 18.57 15 .07 81 10.38344.84 15.9 315 18.21 10.58 44.31 22.48 3.07 14.07 1.00 21 1.40 076 29.16 12.83 9.3 123.15 14.88 12.08 1.38 1.40 42 Samosaran Temple, Pawapuri Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Pawapuri Sri Digambar Jain Tirtha Kshetra Prachin Mandir Kundalpur (Kalyanak Kshetra) Rajgir 45 Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Ratnagiri Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Ratnagiri Sri Digamber Jain Temple , Udaygiri Sri Swetamber Jain Sanwaliya Parshavanath Temple, Udaygiri Sri Parshavanath Swetamber Jain Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri 50 Sri Dhanna Shalibhadra Swetamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri 1.02 46 0.59 28.4 29.16 9 10.11 9 7.29 11.13 9.54 11.4 13.2 13.2 7.83 12 9. 6 1 0.17 12.48 12.48 7.2 16.239.03 | 10.08 13.74 10.44 9.57 106.18 11.38 10.72 174.2436.79 21.11 115.2 13.75 | 11.94 | 155.75 37.72 24.22 146.55 32.59 22.24 143.44 35.79 24.95 1.17 1.00 1.25 1.00 1.80 1.32 0.85 0.58 0.62 0.70 236

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S. No. 51 52 53 54 55 56 Nawada 57 58 Name of Site/Temple Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Sri Mahavirswami Swetamber Jain Temple,Vaibhargiri Sri Munisuvaratswami Mukhya Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri Sri Gautamswami Nirwan Temple, Vaibhargiri Sri 1008 Mahavir Swami Jinalaya Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Sri Digamber Jain Sidha Kshsetra, Gunawaji Jal Mandir, Gunawaji Size of Garbhagriha (In SqM) 5.76 9 5.76 5.76 5.76 18.66 5.76 9 237 width (In SqM) Length Width Height Area of Wall of of of Temple Area Temple Temple temple (In (In M) (In M) (In M) SqM) ratio 117.47 31.73 27.01 1.47 0.68 230.18 60.96 26.48 1.21 0.53 381.02 140.7 36.93 143.98 22.41 15.56 302.76 90.34 29.84 807.2 75.86 9.40 1.76 0.35 1.43 0.33 1.00 0.57 1.46 0.50 13.14 16.68 25.92 14.37 17.4 34.32 11.28 20.88 8.94 13.8 14.7 10.02 17.4 23.52 9.99 11.04 8.88 8.88 9 4.8 9.9 17.1 5.22 9.48 Wall Area %age Length to 112.68 22.72 20.16 230.51 35.68 15.48 1.13 1.89 H/L 0.46 0.45

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Annexure-V Vedi of Tirthankar, Superstructure of temple, Element/ motif and Principal Building material and finish S. No. Name of Temple and place Vedi of Tirthankar Overall Plan Form Element/ Motif Type of Carving Elevelational form of Temple Principal Building material and finish Jharkhand Sri Rijubalika Tirtha, Barakar Intricate Carving Pyramidal Shikhara with Dome at all four Kshatriya style dome Four side opening Pyramid in Marble with Sitting with enclosed and dome Statue posture circumambulatory path corners Brick and lime mortar with Inticrate marble carving on Shikhara, Arches and dome Brick and lime mortar with lime mortar carving on Shikhara, Arches and dome Sri Parshavanath Temple, Palganj Digamber Jain Kshatriya style dome in Marble with Sitting Statue posture Simple Carving Three side Pyramid opening with circumambulatory path Octagonal Pyramidal Shikhara with Dome at all four corners Sri Digamber jain Temple, Isari Bazar, Jharkhand Simple Carving mortar Kshatriya style dome Three side Pyramid in Marble with Sitting opening with Statue posture circumambulatory path Kshatriya style dome one side opening Pyramid in Marble with Statue with enclosed in Sitting posture circumambulatory path Octagonal Pyramidal Shikhara with Pyramid at at front corners Pyramidal Shikhara with spire Brick and lime Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Temple, Kolhua Mountain Intricate Carving mortar 238

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S. No. Elevelational form of Temple Principal Building material and finish Marble grooved Carving dome Brick and lime mortar with marble cladding Pyramidal Shikhara with spire and Dome Overall Plan Element / Type of Name of Temple and place Vedi of Tirthankar Form Motif Carving Samed Shikhar , Madhuban, Parashnath Tunk at Parshavanath Hill - 29 Decorative Arch Nich one side opening Dome Intricate Nos. with foot idols with enclosed circumambulatory path Jal Mandir, Samed Shikhar Kshatriya style dome Hindu Nagara Dome and Intricate in Marble with Statue style Pyramid Carving in Sitting posture Sri Digamber Jain Parshavanath Miniature in marble Hindu Nagara Dome and Intricate Temple, Samed Shikar with combination of style Pyramid Carving Dome and Pyramidal Shikhara Patna Foot idol Three side Dome Simple Sri Sudarshan Kamaldahn Ji opening with Carving Temple, Gulzarbagh circumambulator y path Foot idol one side opening Dome Simple Sri Sthulbhadra Sadhana Sthal, with enclosed Carving Gulzarbagh circumambulatory path Kshatriya style in Three side Dome Simple Sri Kamaldah Sidhakshetra, Marble with Statue in opening with Carving Gulzarbagh Sitting posture Brick and lime mortar with marble cladding Brick and lime mortar with marble caldding Pyramidal Shikhara with grooved Dome Flower pattern dome Brick and Lime mortar Dome Brick and Lime mortar and Lime Flower pattern dome Brick Battlement Parapet mortar 239

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Type of Carving Principal Building material and finish Elevelational form of Temple and dome at all four corners of roof Decorative facade Brick and Lime Moderate Carving mortar Brick and Lime Name of Temple and place | Vedi of Tirthankar Overall Plan Element / Form Motif circumambulatory path Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Sitting posture Hindu Nagara Flat Gurara Temple, Haziganj, Patna | Thirthnakar statue style City Sri Aadinath Digamber Jain Kshatriya style in Hindu Nagara Flat Temple, Kalibibi ka katra, Patna Marble with Statue in style City Sitting posture Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Kshatriya style in Hindu Nagara Dome Kachauri Gali, Patna City Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture Sri Parshavanath Swetamber Jain Kshatriya style in Hindu Nagara | Pyramid Temple, Bare ki Gali, Patna City Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture Simple Carving mortar Decorative facade Brick and Lime Simple Carving mortar Pyramidal Shikhara Intricate Carving Brick and Lime mortar in old temple. New temple constructed in Brick and cement mortat with Marble exterior finish Brick and Lime mortar Nagara Pyramid Decorative facade Moderate Carving Sri Digamber Jain Kshatriya style dome Hindu Panchayati Temple, in Marble with Statue style Macharahatta, Patna City in Sitting posture Sri Dadawari, Begampur, Patna Foot idol Three City opening 16 Flower pattern dome | Brick and cement side Dome with Moderate Carving mortar 240

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S. No. Name of Temple and place Vedi of Tirthankar | Overall Plan Form circumambulatory Element / Motif Type of Carving Elevelational form of Temple Principal Building material and finish path Simple Decorative facade Brick and cement Carving mortar and cement Simple Carving Brick mortar Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Kshatriya style in Hindu Nagara Flat Mithapur Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture Sri Parshavanath Digamber Jain Kshatriya style in Chaityalaya Flat Chaityalaya, Nalaroad, Patna Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Sri Digamber Jain Chaityalaya, Kshatriya style in Chaityalaya Flat Muradpur Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Sri SuParshavanath Digamber Kshatriya style in Three side Pyramid Jain Temple, Naubatpur, Patna Marble with Statue in opening with Sitting posture enclosed circumambulatory and cement Simple Carving Brick mortar and lime Simple Carving Octagonal Pyramidcal Shikhara Brick mortar path Vaishali Bamapur Jain Temple Staue on a platform Pyramid Pyramidal Shikhara Brick and lime Three side opening with circumambulatory Simple Carving mortar path

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S. No. Type of Carving Moderate Carving Elevelational form of Temple Pyramidal Shikhara Principal Building material and finish Brick and lime mortar Overall Plan Vedi of Tirthankar Element / Name of Temple and place Form Motif Sri 1008 Parshavanath Digamber Kshatriya style in Three side Pyramid Jain Temple Marble with Statue in opening with Sitting posture enclosed circumambulatory path Sri 1008 Thirthkar Shantinath Kshatriya style in Three side Pyramid Digamber Jain Temple Marble with Statue in opening with and dome with and dome Sitting posture enclosed circumambulatory path Sri Chandra Prabhu Digamber Kshatriya style in Four side opening Pyramid Jain Temple Marble with Statue in with enclosed and dome Sitting posture circumambulatory and lime Moderate Carving Pyramidal roof with Brick Dome at all four mortar corners and lime Intricate Carving Pyramidal Shikhara Brick with Dome at all four mortar corners path and lime Moderate Carving Brick mortar Pyramidal Shikhara Brick and lime Sri Digamber Jain Chandraprabhu Kshatriya style in Hindu Nagara Flat Chaityalaya Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture Sri Digamber Jain Mahavir Kshatriya style in Three side Pyramid Swami Chaityalaya Marble with Statue in opening with Sitting posture enclosed circumambulatory path Moderate Carving mortar 242

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S. No. Name of Temple and place Sri Digamber Jain Prabhudas Temple 27 28 29 30 Sri Parswanath Digamber Jain Kshatriya style in Temple, Masadh Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Bisram, Dhanupura, Ara Bahubali Manastambha Vedi of Tirthankar Samosaran Temple standingposture of Tirthankar in marble Statue Temple and Standing Posture statue in marble with chatriya style dome Sri Mahavir Swami Temple Kshatriya style in Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Overall Plan Form Four side opening with enclosed circumambulatory path Three opening enclosed circumambulatory path Three opening circumambulatory path side Pyramid with and dome path Three opening enclosed circumambulatory 243 Element/ Motif Pyramid side Dome with side Pyramid with Type of Carving Moderate Carving Moderate Carving Elevelational form of Temple Pyramidal Shikhara with spires Pyramidal Shikhara Brick and lime with Dome at all four mortar corners Moderate Dome Carving Principal Building material and finish Brick and lime mortar Moderate Pyramidal Shikhara Carving Brick and cement mortar Brick and lime mortar

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S. No. 31 32 33 34 Name of Temple and place Sri Adinath Temple Vedi of Tirthankar Kshatriya style in Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Overall Plan Form Three opening enclosed circumambulatory path Jamui Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kshatriya style in Hindu Kshatriyakund Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kshatriya style in Three Lachhuar Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Element/ Motif side Pyramid with and dome path Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kshatriya style in Hindu Kakan Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture 244 Nagara Pyramid opening enclosed circumambulatory side Pyramid with and dome Nagara Pyramid and dome Type of Carving Moderate Carving Intricate Carving Intricate Carving Intricate Carving Elevelational form of Temple Pyramidal Shikhara with Dome at all four corners Pyramidal Shikhara Principal Building material and finish Brick and lime mortar Pyramidal Shikhara with spire and dome Brick and Lime mortar in old temple. New temple constructed in Brick and cement mortat with Marble exterior finish Pyramidal Shikhara Brick with Dome at all four mortar corners and lime Brick and lime mortar finished with decorative plaster

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S. No. Type of Carving Elevelational form of Temple Principal Building material and finish 35 and lime Intricate Carving Pyramidal Shikhara and dome with manastabha Brick mortar Nathnagar 36 Overall Plan Element / Name of Temple and place Vedi of Tirthankar Form | Motif Bhagalpur Sri Champapur Digamber Jain Kshatriya style in | Three side Pyramid Siddha Kshetra Bada Mandir, Marble with Statue in opening with and dome Sitting posture enclosed circumambulatory path Sri Vasupujya Swami Jain Kshatriya style in Three side Pyramid Temple, Nathnagar Marble with Statue in opening with Sitting posture enclosed circumambulatory path Sri Vasupujya Swami Swetamber Kshatriya style in Three side Pyramid Jain Temple, Champanagar Marble with Statue in opening with Sitting posture enclosed circumambulatory and lime Moderate Carving Pyramidal Shikhara Brick with spire mortar Intricate Carving Pyramidal Shikhara with spire Brick and lime mortar with marble finish path Banka Sri Digamber Jain Siddha Kshetra Samadhi 38 and lime Nagara Pyramid and dome side Pyramid with and dome Moderate Carving Moderate Carving Hindu style Three opening enclosed Pyramidal Shikhara and dome Pyramidal Shikhara and dome Brick mortar Brick 39 Sri Digamber Jain Temple and Kshatriya style in Marble with Statue in Sitting posture lime mortar 245

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Name of Temple and place Vedi of Tirthankar | Overall Plan Form circumambulatory Element / Motif Type of Carving Elevelational form of Temple Principal Building material and finish path 40 Sri Vasupoojya Swami Jinalaya Nagara Pyramid Pyramidal Shikhara Brick and lime Kshatriya style in Hindu Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture Moderate Carving mortar Nalanda Jal mandir, Pawapuri Intricate Decorative Dome Carving Brick and lime mortar with marble caldding Samosaran Temple, Pawapuri Foot idol Three side Dome opening with enclosed circumambulatory path Samosaran Temple Circular Highly standing posture of Auditorium decorated Tirthankar in marble tree shape structure Kshatriya style in Three side Pyramid Marble with Statue in opening with Sitting posture enclosed circumambulatory Intricate Carving Circular audiotorioum Brick and lime mortar with marble caldding Temple, Intricate Pyramidal Shikhara Sri Swetamber Jain Pawapuri Brick, lime mortar, with marble caldding Carving path 246

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S. No. 44 45 46 47 48 49 Name of Temple and place Sri Digambar Jain Tirtha Kshetra Prachin Mandir Kundalpur (Kalyanak Kshetra) Sri Digamber Jain Temple Udaygiri Vedi of Tirthankar Kshatriya style in Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Sri Swetamber Jain Sanwaliya Parshavanath Temple, Udaygiri Rajgir Sri Digamber Jain Temple, Kshatriya style in Hindu Ratnagiri Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture Sri Swetamber Jain Temple, Kshatriya style in Ratnagiri Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Overall Plan Element/ Form Motif One side opening Pyramid with circumambulatory Kshatriya style in Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Kshatriya style in Marble with Statue in Sitting posture path One side opening Pyramid with circumambulatory path Hindu style Nagara Pyramid path Sri Parshavanath Swetamber Jain Kshatriya style in Hindu Jinalaya, Vaibhargiri Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture one side opening Pyramid with enclosed circumambulatory 247 Nagara Pyramid Nagara Pyramid Type of Carving Intricate Carving Moderate Carving Elevelational form of Temple Pyramidal Shikhara with spire Moderate Carving Octagonal Pyramidal Brick and lime Shikhara mortar Moderate corbelled Pyramidal Brick, lime mortar, Carving Shikhara with marble caldding Principal Building material and finish Brick, lime mortar, with marble caldding Octagonal Pyramidal Brick and cement Shikhara mortar Moderate Octagonal Pyramidal Carving Shikhara Moderate Pyramidal Shikhara Carving Brick, lime mortar, with marble cladding Brick, lime mortar, with floral pattern marble cladding

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S. No. Type of Carving Moderate Elevelational form of Temple Pyramidal Shikhara 50 Carving Principal Building material and finish Brick, lime mortar, with floral pattern marble cladding Brick, lime mortar, with mosaic cladding on Shikhara Brick, lime mortar, with marble cladding Moderate Carving Pyramidal Shikhara with spire Flower pattern dome Moderate Carving Overall Plan Element / Name of Temple and place Vedi of Tirthankar Form Motif Sri Dhanna Shalibhadra Kshatriya style in Hindu Nagara Pyramid Swetamber Jain Marble with Statue in style Temple, Vaibhargiri Sitting posture Sri Digamber Jain Temple Kshatriya style in Hindu Nagara | Pyramid Vaibhargiri Marble with Statue in style Sitting posture Sri Mahavirswami Swetamber Kshatriya style in one side opening Dome Jain Temple, Vaibhargiri Marble with Statue in with enclosed Sitting posture circumambulatory path Sri Munisuvaratswami Mukhya Kshatriya style in one side opening Pyramid Jinalaya Vaibhargiri Marble with Statue in with enclosed Sitting posture circumambulatory path Sri Gautamswami Nirwan Foot idol one side opening Pyramid Temple, Vaibhargiri with enclosed circumambulatory path Sri 1008 Mahavir Swami Jinalaya | Kshatriya style in one side opening Pyramid Marble with Statue in with enclosed Sitting posture circumambulatory path Moderate Carving corbelled Pyramidal Brick, lime mortar, Shikhara with marble cladding 54 Moderate Carving corbelled Shikhara Pyramidal Brick, lime mortar, with marble cladding Pyramidal Shikhara Brick, lime mortar Moderate Carving 248

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S. No. Name of Temple and place Vedi of Tirthankar Overall Plan Element / Form Motif Hindu Nagara Pyramid style Type of Carving Intricate Carving Elevelational form of Temple Pyramidal Shikhara Principal Building material and finish Brick, lime mortar, and marble cladding 56 Sri Swetamber Jain Temple Kshatriya style in Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Nawada Sri Digamber Jain Kshsetra, Gunawaji Sidha Nagara Pyramid Dome and Hindu style lime Moderate Carving Octagonal Pyramidal Brick Shikhara mortar Kshatriya style in Marble with Statue in Sitting posture Foot idol Jal Mandir, Gunawaji and groove and lime one side opening with enclosed circumambulatory Moderate Carving Plain dome Brick mortar path 249

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Annexure-VI Inventory for Jain Religion Cave / Temple under study in Bihar Region b Location city longitude latitude local name of Temple/Cave Address period of construction Uses Historical Importance a Early Period of construction bTime of renovation cJainism sects key photograph Name of God/Tirthankar / Saint Swetamber Digamber d Historical Significance A v Architectural Description Plot Area Shape of garbhagriha Size (in metre) Breadth Length a Rectangular b Square c Others Height Plan Form ISRC Code a Example b Square c Rectangle Cylinderical e Dome fPyramid Cone Co Elevational Form a Motif Orientation of Mool Nayak Material a Superstructure In Early construction In Renovation Wall Wood, Stone, Mud Brick, Fire Brick, RCC, Rock, Column Mortar Roof Cement Mud/time/surkhi). Shikhara Others Jointing Material b Unfinish c Finishing Wood, Stone, Fire Brick, Floor Marble, Sand stone, Granite, Wall Rock, Plaster, Pointing Column Paintings, Others Roof Shikhara Jointing Material Special Features Close to the historical method of construction (description) a Arch Lintel b Sculptures Internal Carving dExtemal Carving e Vedi fOther 250

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Annexure-VII Glossary Abhinandanath The forth Thirthankar of Jain religion Adinath or The first Thirthankar of Jain religion Rishabhadev Agamas Original texts of Jainism based on Mahavira's teachings. Ahimsa Non-voilence, A principle propagated by Thirthankar, for the live life Ajitnath The Second Thirthankar of Jain religion Aksata Holy rice used during worshipof Jain Tirthankar Anantnath The fourteenth Thirthankar of Jain religion Aparigraha Concept of non-possessiveness Aranath The eighteenth Thirthankar of Jain religion Ardh Mandapa Entry porch to the temple Arhat or Arihant A Sanskrit word: "one who is worthy" in Jainism, a perfected person, one who has gained insight into the true nature of existence and has achieved nirvana (spiritual enlightenment) Arhat dharma The religion propagated by Arhat or Thirthankar Astapratiharyas Stone with carving of Jain Tirthankars images Ayagapatas Stone with depicting the Jain religion and features Balanaka entrance campaign on four sides Basadi Word used for Jain Temple in Karnataka Bharat The name of country India and as per Jain literature it is believe that, this name came from the elder son of Lod Rishav dev Bhattarak Head of Jain religion Brahmanism The religion of Vedic period Buddha The founder of Budhhism religion Buddhism An Indian religion started by Budhha in 5th Century BC Chaiya A Budhhist assembly hall Chaityalaya A residential temple in Jain religion Chandprabha The eighth Thirthankar of Jain religion Chaturmukha or Four faced Chaumukh Chaturyam Religious concept propagated by Tirthankar Mahavir Dharma 251

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Chowbeese Christianity Derasar Dhamma Dharmanath Dhyana mudra Digamber Dravida Dwarapala Garbhagriha Gujarat Gumpha Hindu Hinduism Islam Jagti Jain Jaindharma Jain Jainism The Twenty-four Tirthankars of Jain tradition Religion based on the teaching of Jesus Word used for Jain Temple in Gujarat or Rajsthan Use of stone as a means of presenting the bill and resilience by Mauryan ruler Ashoka The fifteenth Thirthankar of Jain religion Hand gesture used by Tirthankar Sect of Jain religion South Indian Temple style of Architecture Gate keeper or Guard The innermost sanctum of Jain temple A Indian state Rock cut shelter for the Jain monks Follower of Hinduism religion Indian religion or a way of life, practised in the Indian subcontinent an Abrahamic monotheistic religion Portico or entrywat to temple Follower of Jainism religion Jain Religion The follower of Jain religion An ancient Indian religion, orginated parallelly with the Hindu Religion The celebration of birth The republic Thirthankar of Jain religion known as Jin first-century Jewish preacher and religious leader A Indian state Wishing tree as imagined in Jain religion Basic principle within an overarching psycho-cosmology in Jainism. A Indian state A place in state Odisha, India King of Odisha, India during 200 BC The development of the social life as tought by Lord Rishav first Jain Thirthankar The seventh Thirthankar of Jain religion Janmotsava Janpada Jin Jesus Jharkhan Kalpa vriksh Karma Karnataka Khandgiri Kharvela Karma-bhumi Kunthunath 252

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Lakshmi Lucknow Mahavir Mallinath Mandapa Mantra Manastambha The Godess of wealth A city in state Uttar pradesh India The twenty forth Thirthankar of Jain religion The nineteenth Thirthankar of Jain religion A pillared hall in temple Word or sentence with psychological and spiritual power A free standing pillar with four faced Tirthankar facing cardinal direction one of the eighteen major Puranas, and among the oldest and better preserved in the Puranic genre of Sanskrit literature in Hinduism An Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya Sacred mountain in Jain religion Freedom from the cycle of death and rebirth Main diety of a Jain temple The twenth Thirthankar of Jain religion Matsyapurana Mauryan Meru Moksha Mula Nayak Muni Subratonath Nagara North Indian Temple style of Architecture Naminath The twenty first Thirthankar of Jain religion Navagrahas Astrological figure in the Jain religion Navchowki Nine delicately designed ceilings as in Dilwra Jain temple, Mountabu The twenty second Thirthankar of Jain religion Sermon by the Tirthankar Neminath Nirgranth Pravachan Nirvana Odisha Padmapurana Padmaprabha Pap Final release of soul from bondage An Indian state A Hindu religious text The sixth Thirthankar of Jain religion Sin Five auspicious event in the life of Tirthankar The twenty third Thirthankar of Jain religion The casing of the images Sacred place Circumambulatory path Panch Kalyanak Parshvanath parikara pilgrimage Pradaksina path 253

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Pari Nirvana Paridikshina Nirvana after death Circumcumbulatory path path Punya Purana Virtue, concept used in Jain religion The Puranas are ancient Hindu texts eulogizing various deities, primarily the divine Trimurti God in Hinduism through divine stories The ninth Thirthankar of Jain religion Central portion of temple just befor Garbhagriha for gathering and worship The first Thirthankar of Jain religion Pushpadanta Rang Mandap Rishabh or Rishav Dev Salvation Samosaran Sambhavnath Sangh Saraswati Satya Shikh Shikhism Shaiv Shantinath Shikhara Shiva Shiv Purana Freedom from the cycle of birth and death A four face Tirthankar temple in form of circular open air theatre The third Thirthankar of Jain religion Assembly or congregation The Godess of knowledge Sanskrit word for truth Follower of Shikh religion An Inidian religion, that originated in Punjab, India Followers of God Shiva The sixteenth Thirthankar of Jain religion Rising tower superstructure in Hindu temple Main deity of Hinduism The Shiva Purana is one of eighteen Purana genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism The tenth Thirthankar of Jain religion The eleventh Thirthankar of Jain religion Personalized tool in Jain religion Dormitary or rest room or prayer room Prayer or poem or description The fifth Thirthankar of Jain religion The seventh Thirthankar of Jain religion Sect of Jain religion Storey in building or temple Ceremonial Gateway Shitalanatha Shreyanasanatha Simhasana Sthanakas Stotras Sumatinath Suparshavanath Swetamaber Tala Torana 254

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Thirthankar Tunk Udaygiri Upanishad A person who has conquered samsara Small enclosure for foot print idol worship in Jain religion A place in state Odisha, India Series of Hindu sacred treatises written in Sanskrit c.800-200 BC Collection of spiritual and devotional literature Followers of God Vishnu Traditional literature of Architecture in Hindu religion Indispensable part of Indian Vastu shastra Vaidika Vaishnav Vastu shastra Vastu purusa mandala Vishnu Vasupujya Vedi Vihara Vimalnath Viman Yaksha Yakshi or Yakshini Yantra Yogis Main deity of Hinduism The twelth Thirthankar of Jain religion The sitting platform for Jain Tirthankar Monastery for Buddhist monks The thirteenth Thirthankar of Jain religion Tower above worship place Popular male celestial beings Jain religion Popular female celestial beings Jain religion Mystical diagram used for worship Saint 255

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KHANDGIRI - UDAYAGIRI CAVES 120 AL JAMBESVARA MCHA APSIDAL STRUCTURE LANESH GUMPHA SISIH GUMPHA 1 / 80 A DUMPHX A 190. MAGHARA dniu, stqucTURE 10 RASLI GUMIA ON JAGANNATH GAMPHARM ATHI GUMPHA DHANAGHARA CUMPHA KUMPHA UMP60 UDAYA GIR KHAND A GIRI TATOWA GUMPNA NCHPURGUMPAA Ramka dumRNA KATALPURI-GUMPHE ANANTA GUMPHA WOTENTILI GUMAM KHANDAGIR CUMPHA VPOTHAKURANI GUMPHA COMPHAS JAINA-TEMPLE DHAYIN Jumbo LTIM, PAKASH GUMPHXO IN JAYA VYA CUMPH MUNI ALKANURI GUMPU CHOTA HATHI GUMPHA IMGUMPHA O BARABHUJI GUMPHA ABAJACHARS GOMPHA HO TRUSULA CUMPHA VONAVAMUNI ALKANURI GUMPUT GUPTA-GANGA (DEVA-SABHA DHARMASALA 20! LALXTENDUKJESARI GUMPHA W AMBIKA GUMPHA AKASA-GANGA 190 170 180 150 TO INSPECTION BUNGALOW BANESWAR RADHA KUNDA CAVE 12 LALITA GUMPHA 50.0 2.0 50 100 20 150 200 250 300 FEET 40 60 39 METRES 100 SYAMA-KUNDA 100=177.172FT. (54.002m) ABOVE MEAN SEA-LEVEL CONTOUR-INTERVAL 10FT. (3.048m.) 150 140 NUMBERS OF CAVES SHOWN THUS: 0 EKADASI GUMPHA 20 SITE PLAN

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CAVE-1 (RANI GUMPHA) SECTION: - XX VIEW CELL 10-0X80 14-0X80 CHLE 10-07 X 8-0 car 12- 0 8 -09 SETs. 22-0" X8-0 CELL X 27-0" X 7-5 GROUND FLOOR PLAN CELL LUDX '-0" 10.0" X 8.0 CELL 10-0" X8-09 CELL 14'-0" X 8.0" VERANDAH CELL 8'-0" X 7.0" FIRST FLOOR PLAN

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CAVE-2(BAJAGHARA GUMPHA) CAVE-3 (CHOTA HATHI GUMPHA) VIEW 8- 06-09 PLAN 8-0" XB-0 PLAN SECTION-XX SECTION-XX CAVE-4 (ALKAPURI GUMPHA) CAVE-5 (JAYA VIJYA GUMPHA) CELL CELT VIEW SECTION-XX SECTION-XX VIEW CELL 6'-0X 6-0 CELL 6-0"X7 VERANDAH 14'-0" X -0" CELL 6-0"X7' CELL 27'-0"X7'-0" W CELL 15'-0"X6-0" VERANDAH 27'-0"X6'-0" PLAN

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VIEW CAVE-6 (PANASH GUMPHA) CELL 6'-0"X6-0 SECTION-XX VERANDAH 18'-0"X8'-0" PLAN CAVE-8 (PATALPURI GUMPHA) CELL 32'-0"X7'-0" CELL VERANDAH 18'-0"X60 PLAN VERANDAH CELL 6'-0"X8'-0" CELL 6'-0"X6'-0" SECTION-XX CELL 6-0"X60 IV CAVE-7 (THAKURANI GUMPHA) CELL SECTION-XX CELL 8'-0" 6'-0" VERANDAH 8'-0" 5'-0" VERANDAH CELL 13-0 X7-0 CAVE-9 (MANCHPURI GUMPHA) PLAN f SECTION-XX VERANDAH VERANDAH 28'-0"X7"'-0" CELL 21-X7-0 GROUND FLOOR PLAN CELL 14-07-0 VERANDAH 29-0"X8-0 VIEW CELL 6-0"x12 FIRST FLOOR PLAN CELL 7-0 x60

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CAVE-10 GANESH GUMPHA) CAVE-11 (JAMBESVARA GUMPHA) CELL 10-0'x7'-0" VIEW K VERANDAH 10'-0"X4-0 SECTION-XX CELL 7'-0"X8'-0" PLAN CELL CELL 8-06-01 IB-O'X6'-0" VERANDAH 17'-0"X4-0 PLAN SECTION-XX CAVE-12 (SINGH GUMPHA) CAVE-13 (SARPA GUMPHA) VIEW VIEW CILL 8-01-09 SECTION-XX 8'-"X7-00 SECTION-XX PLAN

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VIEW CELL 10'-0"X7'-10 CELL 6'-0"X6'-0 CAVE-14 (HATHI GUMPHA) PLAN VI CELL X VERANDAH || | | SECTION-XX CELL 15-0"X8'-0" CELL 8'-0"X10'-0"

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CAVE-15 (DHANGHARA GUMPHA) CAVE-16 (HARIDASHA GUMPHA) VERANDAH 14'-0"X7'-0" VIEW SECTION-XX SECTION-XX CELL 14- 07-09 CELL 14-0'x7'-0" X VERANDAH 14'-0"X8'-0" VERANDAH 12-06-09 PLAN PLAN CAVE-17 JAGANNATH GUMPHA) CAVE-18 (RASUI GUMPHA) in VERANDAH CELL SECTION-XX VIEW SECTION-XX 18- 07-09 CILL 7-0x6-09 VERANDAH 18- X6-09 VII

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CAVE-1,2(TATOWA-GUMPHA) SECTION: - XX VIEW SECTION: - YY CELL 21'-0" K 6'-0" CELL 14'-0" X 6'0" VERANDAH 21'-0" K 6'-0" VERANDAH 14'-0" X 7.0" GROUND FLOOR PLAN FIRST FLOOR PLAN VIII

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CAVE-3 (ANANTA GUMPHA) CAVE-4 (TENTULI GUMPHA). CELL CELL 10'-0" X 6'-0" VIEW KX SECTION: - XX VERANDAH 10'-0" X 6'-0" PLAN CELL 18'-0" X 6'-0" VERANDAH CELL VERANDAH 18'-0" X 6'-0" SECTION-XX PLAN CAVE-5 (KHANDAGIRI GUMPHA) CAVE-6 (DHAYAN GUMPHA) CELL CELL CELL VIEW VIEW SECTION: - XX SECTION: - XX CELL 6'-0" X 6'-0" CELL 6'-0" X 6'-0" CELL 6'-0" X 6'0" X X FIRST FLOOR PLAN CELL 16'-0"X14'-0" CELL 13'-0" X 6'-0" CELL -0" X 6-1/ X X PLAN GROUND FLOOR PLAN

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VIEW CAVE-7 (NAVAMUNI GUMPHA) GELL 28'-0"X10'-0" VERANDAH CAVE-9(TRUSULA GUMPHA) CELL SECTION-XX CELL 18'-0" 6'-0" VERANDAH 18'-0 X 6'-0" PLAN CELL SECTION -XX PLAN X VIEW CAVE-8 (BARABHUJI GUMPHA) VERANDAH CELL 18'-0"X6'-0" VERANDAH 18'-0" X 6'-0" CELL SECTION-XX PLAN

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SRI SUDARSHAN KAMALDAH JI TEMPLE (GULJARBAGH) www VIEW 4-0 ht, OLD WALL 4-0 ht. OLD WALL D GARBHAGRIHA 9'-6"x9'-6" F Iv. (+) 2'-0" GROUND FLOOR PLAN XI Iv. (+-)0'-0" wwwww ELEVATION DWAR PAL 5-4'x5'-4" Iv. (-) 2'-0" -21'-3"

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SRI STHULIBHADRA SHADHNA STHAL (GULJARBAGH) NOTICE BOARD NOTICE BO TERRACE 60'-0"X60-0 I. (+112-0 IV. (+10-01 SITE PLAN VIEW ELEVATION PLAN XII

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SRI KAMALDAH JI SIDHAKSHETRA (GULJARBAGH) ROOM 10-0"X10-0" ROOM 10-0"X10-01 HALL 35-8*X53-4" VIEW ROOM 8'-0"X8-0 ROOM 8'-0"X8'-ok VELIKIHEZA ROOM 18-0"X8'-0" ROOM 8'-0"X8-0 4"WIDE ENTERANCE LOBBY VITEZ 1..0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0: ROOM 18'-0"X8'-0" ROOM "8-0"X8'-0" ROOM 8'-0"X8-0" TOILET 8'-0"X8'-0" FRONT ELEVATION ROOM 8-0"X8'-0" 8-3" WIDE VERANDAH ROOM N 10'-0"X8'-0" 8-3" WIDE VERANDAH MWWWWWWWXXN ROOM 10'-0"X8'-0" 5'-0" WIDE VERANDAH VW GARBHAGRIHA 10'-0"X10'-0" 5'-0" WIDE VERANDAH 5'-0WIDE VERANDAH GARBHAGRIHA 10'-0"X10'-0" WA WA 5'-0" WIDE VERANDAH VII WEEEEEEE ROOM N 10'-0"X8-0 N 8-3" WIDE VERANDAH NNNNNNNNN 8-3" WIDE VERANDAH NNNNNNNXX VILLEA NNNNN V TEMPLE PLAN NRATH NOFFICE NOFFICE N CHAMBER /GODOWN N10-0"X30-0"N N10-0X30'-DN10'-0"X30"-2". ERNIETIETEEIERITIFFIFFET ZEEEETTTTTTTT MAIN GATE IIIIIIIIIIIITTO N GUEST STAFF ROOM NROOM N 10'-0"X30-ON 10'-0"X30-0"N SITE PLAN XIII

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SRI PARSHAVNATH DIGAMBAR JAIN GURARA TEMPLE, HAJIGANJ, PATNA CITY ROOM 8"-4"X18"-4" ROOM 8"-4"X15'-7" ROOM 8'-0"X16'-0" VIEW SH ROOM 8"-4"X18"-4" GARBHAGRIHA 22'-0"X18"-9" ROOM 5'-0"X6'-0" HALL 18'-0"X10'-0" 6' WIDE VERANDAH LV.(+)1'-6" LV.(+)0-0 COURTYARD 20'-0"X18'-0" GROUND FLOOR PLAN ROOM 8'-4"X15'-7" ROOM 8'-0"X16'-0" SRI AADINATH DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, KALIBIBI KA KATRA, PATNA CITY SPIRAL STAIR IN BRICK / STONE TRADE-10 RISE-1-6 XIV ROOM 5-4x20-0 VIEW OF INTERIOR D GARBHA GRIHA 16-0"x11" I 5' WIDE VERANDAH covered with A/C sheet COURTYARD 33-4x11-0 PLAN ROOM 5-420-0

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, KACHAURI GALI, PATNA CITY ULTURE -26'-6" 111 T VIEW FRONT ELEVATION STORE 5'-0"x15-8 GARBHAGRIHA 8'-0"X7-2 V ROOM 12-0"x15'-8" ATSO HALL 14'-8"x16-4" STORE 5'-0x11-2" PLAN XV

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SRI PARSHAVNATH SWETAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, BARE KI GALI, PATNA CITY 11. JEWEL SUV ILIYWY LILISISYYY 14.LV TO ELEVATION VIEW STORE 5 BHAIROBI TEMPLE 0 VERANDAH 10'-0"X10-0 oh 0 HALL 16-0"X53'-0" WOLD MANDAPAM HALL 221-4"x22 -6deg HALL 22-4deg22'-6" 0 0 16. PLAN XVI

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN PANCHAYAT TEMPLE, MACHARAHATTA, PATNA CITY CHARAN + GOD AADINATH STATUE 0259 VIEW Iv-6'-0" llllllll DILIK B GARBHAGRIHA 14'-0"X15-0" MANDAPA 24'-0"X12'-0" 8' WIDE VERANDAH V 30-0 6' WIDE VERANDAH 77UUVIIIIII COURTYARD 18'-0"X18'-0" STAFF GUARD 12-4*X8-0" W WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW WINNIIIIIII 6'-0" WIDE CH-109 VERANDAH IIIIIIIIII HALL 12'-4"X16'-0" CH-41 ROOM 8'-0"X6'7" ROOM 8'-0"X6'7" ROOM 8'-0"X6'7" ROOM 6-11"X6-7" VIVA ETITIE No MINUUTINIUMMUMUNITA GROUND FLOOR PLAN XVII

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** O VIEW SRI DADAWARI, BEGUMPUR, PATNA CITY TEMPLE TEMPLE zrIdAdAbAr3I FRONT ELEVATION OF FRONT TEMPLE SITE PLAN XVIII FRONT ELEVATION OF BACK TEMPLE 8"-9" WIDE CIRCUMBI CIRCUMBULATORY 7'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 8'-0" x 8'-0" MON-U 7'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH VEDI+CHARAN TEMPLE 2nd 7'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 7'-0" x 8"-8" -2-6" MARBLE RAILING 11-0 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH TEMPLE 1st GROUND FLOOR PLAN

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UP SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN CHAITYALAYA, MURADPUR XIX W BALCONY D HALL 22'-0"X22'-0" W W CHAITYALAYA FLOOR PLAN -N 12

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, MITHAPUR STORE ROOM 8,35 M X 2,00 M HALL 6.65 M X 6.64 M ROOM 6.95 M X 4.35 M M ATA ROOM 6.95 M X 3,30 M ROOM 3.00 X STORE ROOM 3.17 X 2.40 ROOM 3.35 X 2.10 5.00 MX 7.80 M ROOM 2.30 X 6,30 CLINIC 2.10 X 2.400 VIEW GROUND FLOOR PLAN FIRST FLOOR PLAN SARSAWATI HALL 6,80 M X 6.95 M SARSAWATI HALL 6.BD M X 6.95 M OD 0 OC HALL 6.80 M X 7.86 M SARSAWATI HALL 6,80 M X 9.00 M SECOND FLOOR PLAN THIRD FLOOR PLAN TERRACE FLOOR PLAN XX

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SRI PARSHAVANATH DIGAMBAR JAIN CHAITYALAYA, NALAROAD, PATNA STATUE 2'X3' BATHING PLACE 2'X4' HALL 12'-4"X32'-4" W 12'-0" WIDE ROAD XXI S

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SRI SUPARSHAVNATH DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, NAUBATPUR, PATNA WINTIS SIISSST SISSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS 22222222 TTTTT VIEW KXXXXXXX XX FRONT ELEVATION NNNNNNNN SITE PLAN 12' WIDE ROAD VIWIK VIIM WIDE VERANDAH 4 Y GROUND FLOOR PLAN XXII

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BAMAPUR TEMPLE, VAISHALI GARBHAGRIHA 14 X 12 CHARAN PADUKA GARBHAGRIHA 10' X 100 ROAD VIEW PLAN i.i.ii ELEVATION TYPICAL SECTION S XXIII

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SRI 1008 PARSHAVNATH DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, ARRAH MITE WEW 12'-0" WIDE VERANDAH 12-0" WIDE VERANDAH WWWWMWWW VIEW M DOUBLE HEIGHT 50-09 12'0' WIDE VERANDAH PLAN WAN - EIBIE TEIEBIE ELEVATION XXIV

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SRI 1008 THIRTHKAR SHANTINATH DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, ARRAH OOO 8'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH WA 8'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 16-0X16-09 8'-0WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 8'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH, WWW VIEW STORE 12'-0"x12-09 VERANDAH 40'-0"X14'-0" Lv.(-1-0") STORE 12-0"x12-0' 6-0" WIDE VERANDAH LV.(-1'-5") OPEN SPACE 68'-0"X32'-0" 67-84 LV.(-2'-0") SHOPS SHOPS ZAILROAD AR RAH PLAN ELEVATION -Z ZIN XXV

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SRI CHANDRA PRABHU DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, ARRAH VIEW ROUND CHABUTRA 471-3 MANASTA PLAN ELEVATION (1). - Sri Rishabhdev (2). - Sri Ajitnath ji (3). -Sri Shambhnath ji (4). - Sri Abhinandannath ji (5). -Sri Sumatinathi (6). - Sri Padamprabhu (7). -Sri Supaswarnath (8). - Sri Chandra Prabhu i (9). -Sri Puspduttnathi (10)- 51 Shitalnath ji (11).- Sri Shrayanshnath ji (12).- Sri Vasupujayanath ji (13).- Sri Vimalnath ji (14),- Sri Anantnath 11 (15).- Sri Dharmnath ji (16).- Sri Santinath (17) - Sn Akununath ji (18).- Sr Arashnath 31 (19).- Sri Mallinath ji (20).- Sri Munisubratnath ji (21),- Sri Naminath 11 (22).- Sri Neminathji (23).- Sri Paswaranath ji (24) - Sri Mahavir Swamili 0deg 0deg 1deg 0deg Z DOOO00000000000 PLAN S XXVI

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN CHANDRAPRABHU CHAITYALAYA, ARRAH OSIRONAREs my pap INTERIOR VIEW XXVII 3'-0" WIDE STORE UP O O 3'-0" WIDE BALCONY GARBHAGRIHA 14'-0"X18'-0" Lv. (+0'-0") OO Lv. (-6") DOUBLE HEIGHT ROOF OO VERANDAH 19'-0"X10'-0" Qie 3'-0" WIDE PASSAGE Qie N STORE 6'-0"X18'-0" O O FIRST FLOOR PLAN S 6'-0" WIDE VERANDAH ROOM 6'-0"X10'-0"

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-30'-6" SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN MAHAVIR SWAMI CHAITYALAYA, ARRAH XXX ELEVATION XXVIII 2'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH VIEW 3'-3" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 8'-0"x8'-0" WOODEN PILLAR 6'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH TERRACE PLAN 3 3'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH S N 8 M

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN PRABHUDAS TEMPLE. ARRAH SK 55-10 VIEW ELEVATION 6-T WIDE VERANDAH VI 8-1 WIDE CIRCUMULATORY PATH IZ VIZ GARBHAGRIHA 12-0'x12'-0" 12-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 12-0' WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 6-0 WIDE VERANDAH SAMVASAWAR STLE TEMPLE 6-0 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 3-0 WIDE BALCONY 15'-0" WIDE MAHADEVA ROAD FIRST FLOOR PLAN XXIX

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SRI PARSWANATH DIGAMBER JAIN TEMPLE, MASADH, ARRAH -44'-0" Onn TUTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT ELEVATION VIEW HUUMINI Z ZMIZ HALL 1841X47-4 ST WIDE VEXANDAH IMU CAKHHAGRIHA 12-17 X12- DE STORE 8- 0 2 -11 HALL 19-1TX25-T PLATFORM 16-0' X 160 MU WIDE VERANDAH W STORE COURTYARD 260X260 ATINI HIM IS IS PLAN XXX

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SRI JAIN BALA TEMPLE, BISRAM, ARRAH -34'-6" ELEVATION VIEW . . . 18 11 6' WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH STATUE 6' WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 10-0"X14'-0" 6' WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 6' WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH PLAN SITE PLAN XXXI

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SRI ADINATH DIGAMBER JAIN TEMPLE, DHANUPURA, ARRAH -53'-6" VIEW FRONT ELEVATION - - - - - - GARIS AGRDA 12-X12-0 13-8" WIDE VERANOAH - - - 12-0212-0 - WITZ - - - - - - - - - - 13-B WIDE VERANDAH 13-B WIDE VERANDAH - - 12- 12-0 - - 12- 12-0 13-B W E MAIN VERANDA WWZ W PLAN SITE PLAN E XXXII U

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SRI MAHAVIR SWAMI DIGAMBER JAIN TEMPLE, DHANUPURA, ARRAH VIEW ELEVATION II 7-0 WIDE CEROUMBULATORY PATH VENENEN 2-0 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH NNNNN CIRCUBAATORY PATH VENNEN GARBHAGRIHA 124012-0 ZXZ CIRCUMSULATORY PATH w SITE PLAN DOO ANS -Z PLAN XXXIII

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SRI SWETAMBER JAIN TEMPLE, KSHATRIYAKUND, LACHHUAR VIEW VIEW 8-6x50 MANDAPAM 98-0"X180 -09 PLAN SIDE ELEVATION Ottonewoo ooo QUORO. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60aidu p + + + + + + + . . . Qu920... . Robin . . . 192 PHOTOVO : idade wtbuoto 0 hinh chung thanh SITE PLAN XXXIV

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SRI SWETAMBER JAIN TEMPLE, LACHHUAR DOME ABOVE IN ALL FOUR CORNER 14-4x4-4 DOME RANG MANDAL PLAN CCC DOME ABOVE IN ALL FOUR CORNER -high le FRONT ELEVATION XXXV VIEW Cha Xiang Cha SITE PLAN

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WELC SRI SWETAMBER JAIN TEMPLE, KAKAN VIEW GARBHAGRIHA :8deg-0degX10-0deg ANTARALA B-10degXB-2 RANG MANDAP 36-9"X21'-3" Iv(+)6" PLAN XXXVI ************ FRONT ELEVATION ** DHARMSALX TEMPLE SITE SITE PLAN S P

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SRI CHAMPAPUR DIGAMBAR JAIN SIDDHA KHETRA BADA MANDIR, NATHNAGAR, BHAGALPUR ELEVATION D EJAN SIDOHAKSHETRA MAIN TEMPLE VIEW 14'-0" WIDE PATHWAY MAIN ROAD MAN STAMBH STORE ROOM FUROOM 10-0 WIDE PATHWAY LEADO 14-0 WIDE PATHWAY TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT LI MAIN TEMPLE PLAN JAL MANDIR bonnnnnnn ** O * PLAN OF MANASTAMBHA & JAL MANDIR WE * SITE PLAN XXXVII

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SRI VASUPUJYA SWAMI JAIN TEMPLE, NATHNAGAR, BHAGALPUR EET 669 mm mm HLUT (paayaa VIEW FRONT ELEVATION 6'-0" WIDE VERANDAH 8-6 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH PADMAVATI GRABHGRIHA 9-39X11-3 ANANT NATH GRABHGRIHA 9-3X11-3 - - - DHARAMSHALA - 20'-0" WIDE VERANDAH 20'-0" WIDE VERANDAH DHARAMSHALA AANANT NATH KSHEFRAST GRAVBHCRIHAA 9-3'>12-3 - MAIN ROAD - - RANGA MANDAPA 9-60X22-0 29-30X12-3 - VERANDAH 88-60"X27'-2 W SITE PLAN PLAN w XXXVIII

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SRI VASUPUJYA SWAMI SWETAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, CHAMPANAGAR, BHAGALPUR VIEW SITE PLAN U!T!! !DWAY BAT! ! !!!!! ! ! ! imma menemen98 1.1.1: ELEVATION WMMMMMMM 4 WIDE PRADAKSHINA PATH = WWW 8 WIDE VERANDAH 4 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 4 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH M 8 WIDE VERANDAH CARRHAGRIHA 20' O'X200" MANDAPAM 33'-0"X120 8' WIDE VERANDAH hwa TERRACE ROOF PLAN (REAR TEMPLE) FIRST FLOOR PLAN SAMVARSHAN TEMPLE (FRONT TEMPLE) VIITUNUMMU 4' WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH ZIIIIIIIA GARBHAGRIHA 200 X200 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH -0' WIDE VERANDAH WAWANAN MAXWXM 4' WIDE CIRCUMULATORY PATH WMAWAM NAV 8-0' WIDE VERANDAH VIZUIA WXN GARBHAGRIHA 140X140 2 120' WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 8 8.0WIDE VERANDAH 80' WIDE VERANDAH MW UZ 0 8.0" WIDE VERANDAH 8.0' WIDE VERANDAH 80" WIDE VERANDAH 60' WIDE VERANDAH GROUND FLOOR PLAN FRONT TEMPLE XXXIX GROUND FLOOR PLAN REAR TEMPLE

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN SIDDHA KSHETRA MOKSHA KALYANAK TEMPLE, BANKA AANVANDA 0000 FRONT ELEVATION VIEW yu GRABHAGRIHA 20-0X20-0 C.H.(15-09 AMMAWAN HALL MANDPA 20-0"XB-0 VM 20- 02 44-0X289 W Sa GROUND FLOOR PLAN SITE PLAN

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, BANKA ELEVATION TERRACE GARSHAGRIHA 8-08-0 COCO FIRST FLOOR PLAN DOWN XLI LVIDE VIEW 4 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH MANDAPAM 18-6X20-0 GARBHAGRIHA VERANDAH 12-0"X10-0 8-08-0 4' WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GROUND FLOOR PLAN S

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SRI VASUPOOJYA SWAMI JINALAYA, BANKA VIEW GRABHADRIHA 7.0x7 MANDAPAM 15-0X12-3 OPEN PLATFORM 60'-0"X40'-0" PLAN XLII ELEVATION 0

Page #318
JAL MANDIR. PAWAPURI. NALANDA 25 WIDE POEN SPACE 25 WIDE POEN SPACE 25 WIDE POEN SPACE 25 WIDE POEN SPACE VIEW on SITE PLAN XLIII (A)

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JAL MANDIR, PAWAPURI, NALANDA -26-9" Thummm112132 Huguettestteljesperto FRONT ELEVATION 25' WIDE OPEN SPACE 16' WIDE PLATFORM O 8 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH VM u O 25' WIDE OPEN SPACE 10' WIDE PLATFORM 8 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 10' WIDE PLATFORM O 25' WIDE OPEN SPACE & WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 12-0X12'-0" O O & WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH O 10' WIDE PLATFORM 25' WIDE OPEN SPACE DO 5 WIDE PASSAGE PLAN XLIII (B)

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VIEW SAMOSARAN TEMPLE, PAWAPURI, NALANDA 5' WIDE PLATFORM 5' WIDE BALCONY 5' WIDE BALCONY 5' WIDE PLATFORM 5 WIDE BALCONY 5 WIDE BALCONY GARBHA GRIHA 12'-6"X12'-6" 5' WIDE BALCONY PLAN ELEVATION XLIV 5 WIDE BALCONY 5 WIDE BALCONY 5' WIDE PLATFORM 5 WIDE BALCONY 5 WIDE PLATFORM

Page #321
SRI SWETAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, PAWAPURI, NALANDA VIEW pu D AW AWWWW A 0 D D All!!!!!!!! D 0 D GARBHAGRIHA 10'-0"X10'-0" D # PLAN 0 MANDAPAM 50'-0"X36"-3" XLV m 0 0 # Kou D ELEVATION

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SRI DIGAMBER JAIN TIRTH KSHETRA PRACHIN MANDIR, KUNDALPUR (KALYANAK KSHETRA) NALANDA AAAAA PHIA CHINA ARRRRRR VIEW SITE PLAN MOMO WMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMM Wenn MMMMMMMMMM FRONT ELEVATION (SRI JANM STHALI TEMPLE) MMMMM NMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMNMMMNINN EMMMMMMMMMMMMMMNNMN FRONT ELEVATION (TRIKAL CHAUBISI TEMPLE) 1000DDDDD GARBHAGRIHA 68'-0"X15-0" SECOND FLOOR PLAN (SRI JANM STHALI TEMPLE) SECOND FLOOR PLAN (TRIKAL CHAUBISI TEMPLE) WMMMM JOOOOOO GARBHAGRIHA 68-0"X15-0" DZBBBBBBBWIZ FIRST FLOOR PLAN (SRI JANM STHALI TEMPLE) FIRST FLOOR PLAN (TRIKAL CHAUBISI TEMPLE) MMMMMMMMMMMM OOOOOO GARBHAGRIHA 68-0"X15-09 IBIBB BIBIBIW WUM GROUND FLOOR PLAN (TRIKAL CHAUBISI TEMPLE) GROUND FLOOR PLAN (SRI JANM STHALI TEMPLE) XLVI (A)

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SRI DIGAMBER JAIN TIRTH KSHETRA PRACHIN MANDIR, KUNDALPUR (KALYANAK KSHETRA) NALANDA FRONT ELEVATION (SRI NAVAGRAH TEMPLE) Yi Kou O GARBHAGRIHA 30'-0 "X40'-0" PLAN (SRI NAVAGRAH TEMPLE) AAAAA FRONT ELEVATION (SRI MAHAVIR TEMPLE) O GARBHAGRIHA 18'-0"X18'-0" PLAN (SRI MAHAVIR TEMPLE) XLVI (B) FRONT ELEVATION (SRI RISHAV NATH TEMPLE) m RISHABH NATH GARBHAGRIHA 30-0X40'-0" PLAN (SRI RISHAV NATH TEMPLE)

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SRI DIGAMBER JAIN TEMPLE, RATNAGIRI,RAJGIR ITT VIEW ELEVATION 3' WIDE OPEN SPACE GARBHAGRIHA 19-6"X16-11" 3' WIDE OPEN SPACE WWW 3' WIDE OPEN SPACE MANDAPAM 12-5'XB-7 3' WIDE OPEN SPACE PLAN XLVII

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SRI SWETAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, RATNAGIRI,RAJGIR 271." VIEW ELEVATION WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW GARBHAGRIHA 18-0"X18-0 OPEN SPACE GARBHA GRIHA 4-0degx4-04 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIMMUUD VIIMII PLAN XLVIII

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, UDAYAGIRI,RAJGIR VIEW GARBHA GRIHA 10-0degX10deg-0deg MANDAPAM 10'-0degX6-0" LV(0-0) PLAN XLIX Wie Jr di Don't ELEVATION

Page #327
SRI SWETAMBAR JAIN SANWALIYA PARSHAVNATH TEMPLE, UDAYAGIRI,RAJGIR VIEW FOOT PRINT matapat FOOT PRINT 12' WIDE OPEN SPACE GARBHAGRIHA 10'-6"X10'-6" 12' WIDE OPEN SPACE R-2 PRINT PLAN L ELEVATION FOOT PRINT t

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SRI PARSHAVNATH SWETAMBAR JAIN JINALAYA, VAIBHARGIRI, RAJGIR LO/ -33-6 RA VIEW ELEVATION ECCE GARBHA GRUA 10'-0"X10.0" LD-7+7 POPUS LO:20 MANDAPAM 14'-0"X14-0" Ly00 LV.00" COURTYARD 30-0"X18-0" PLAN LI

Page #329
SRI DHANNASHALIBHADRA SWETAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, VIEW VAIBHARGIRI,RAJGIR 6-0 WIDE OPEN SPACE GARIA CRIA 9-09-0 O MANDAPAM 9-03-0 WARAY LYCTICES m 10-0" WIDE OPEN SPACE INAU-4 PLAN LII ........ WIDE OPEN SPACE 00000 ELEVATION

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, VAIBHARGIRI, RAJGIR 29-6 VIEW ELEVATION 29-84 VITTIIN TUTTTTTTT S-T WIDE OPEN SPACE CARRHAGRIHA - WE CAN SPACE BRAND OM 0.8 MANDAPAM 80 XR-O LUS ZITTIIN VIII PLAN LIII

Page #331
SRI MAHAVIRSWAMI SWETAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, VAIBHARGIRI,RAJGIR VIEW SILIEN 2-6" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 10-0'X10-0 2-6" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH ELEVATION LYCREMON PLATFORM 23-0'X13-0 KEUN LIV LIGHT PLAN 29-6"

Page #332
SRI MUNISUVARATSWAMI MUKHYA JINALAYA, VAIBHARGIRI,RAJGIR VIEW 4'-0" WIDE PASSAGE 0 2-6" WIDE CIRCUMULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 8-0X8-0 MANDAPAM 29-0X16-0 PLATFORM 39-4X22-0 PLAN LV ELEVATION 4'-0" WIDE PASSAGE

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SRI GAUTAMSWAMI NIRWAN TEMPLE, VAIBHARGIRI,RAJGIR VIEW D GARBHAGRIHA 8'-0"X8'-0" LE-T 6' WIDE OPEN SPACE LECION MANDAPAM 20-0"X8'-0" 14' WIDE OPEN SPACE PLAN LVI ELEVATION LEZUAK

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GARBHAGRIHA 12-09 GARBHAGRIHA 12-6X10-0 SRI 1008 MAHAVIR SWAMI JINALAYA, RAJGIR ELEVATION WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH Si GARBHAGHIHA 8-0 X 8 2 WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 10-0 WIDE VERANDAH PLAN GARBHAGRIHA 8-0x0-0 LVII Lx+(2-6) Y-0" WIDE VERANDAH s VIEW PLATFORM 12-0X13 Lv. 12-00 Lv.310 0%

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SRI SWETAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, RAJGIR ELEVATION ELEVATION VIEW PLAN - - - LVIII

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN SIDHA KSHSETRA. GUNAWAJI, NAWADA ELEVATION VIEW NYNON SITE PLAN PLAN LIX (A)

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN SIDHA KSHSETRA, GUNAWAJI, NAWADA 000000 MI FRONT ELEVATION FRONT ELEVATION VIEW WE PLAN LIX (B) - PLAN -

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SRI RIJUBALIKA TIRTH, BARAKAR, JHARKHAND 1200202020202020 20.0200.000000 XxxxxxxxxxxO00 XCX -33-1 YA VIEW FRONT ELEVATION 71/ 1 6'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH ROOM 28-0"X8'-0" ROOM 8'-0"X8-07 6'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 6'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH ARDHURIA 14'-0" X 4' OW 8'-0" WIDE VERANDAH 8'-0" WIDE VERANDAH TO 6'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 8'-0" WIDE VERANDAH PLAN LX

Page #339
SRI PARSHVANATH DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, PALGANJ, GIRIDIH, JHARKHAND TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT 34'-2 VIEW FRONT ELEVATION 10'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH VEDI 10'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 10'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH GARBHAGRIHA 14'-0"x14'-0" 10'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH PLAN LXI

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SRI DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, ISHARI BAZAR, PARASHNATH, JHARKHAND -37'-10" DICEMBER JAN TEMME ELEVATION VIEW VEDI ADINATH CHANDRA PRABHU W EZEUEN GARBHAGRIHA V 8-0X25'-09 GARBHAGRIHA 8-09X25-0" MAHAVIR GARBHA GRIHA 24'-0"X14'-0" Vil 5'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH MAHAVI GARBHAGRIHA 8-0"X8-0" 8'-0" WIDE VERANDAH 5'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 5'-0" WIDE CIRCUMBULATORY PATH 8'-0" WIDE VERANDAH FLAT CEILING MANDAPAM 24'-0"X14'-0" 10'-0" WIDE VERANDAH PLAN LXII

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SRI PARSHAVNATH DIGAMBAR JAIN TEMPLE, KOLHUA MOUNTAIN, JHARKHAND SODOROGBO MI COS MAMMI VIEW FRONT ELEVATION MU GARBILAGRIHA 11'0'x18'-0 TIITITITZ PLAN LXIII

Page #342
SITE PLAN SAMED SHIKHAR, MADHUBAN, PARASHNATH BOJMIYAJI TEMPLE O (MADHUBAN) GANDHARVNAL * * * * * * HIETAL NALA W SRI CHANGA PRABHA TUNK-12 O R SRI DIGAMBER PARSHVNATH JAIN TEMPLE - 31 SRI NEMINATH SWAMI -30 SRI AJITNATH SWAMI TUNK -29 RANNAR they I WARISEN TUKO SRI OSRINEMINATHILS 581 SUMATINATH TUNK-2 2 07 SANTIMATH TUNK OSOT A RUSAHAAN ANI TUMO LT-3 ORRI ARANATH THE MALLINATH TO SRI SHREYANSANATI ho SSRI MUNISURVATY SRI SUVEDHINATH US OSRIPADMAPRABHU TORKI S SWAMI TUNK-11 SRI RISASILADEV TUNK-13 SRI VIMALNATH SWAMI TUNK -20 SRI SUPARSHAVNATH TUNK-27 SRE ANANTNATH TUNK.140 SHITALNATH TUNK-15 JAL MANDIR-190 OSRI SHAMBHAVNATH TUNK-16 VO JOSRI VASUPLYA SWAMI TUNK - 17 * SRI GANADHAR SHUBH SWAMI TUNK-2 SRI ABHINA SWAMI TUNK - 18 LXIV (A)

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SRI GAUTAM SWAMI TUNK - 1 - Lighting Conductor 5' WIDE VERANDAH GAUTAN SWAMI CHARAN 5' WIDE VERANDAH GARBHAGRIHA 8-0"X8'-0" 5' WIDE VERANDAH -RAILING (Lv. +1'-6") (Lv. 20-0") (Lv. -2-6") UP PLAN VIEW 25 ELEVATION TYPICAL SECTION LXIV (B)

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WIDE VERANDAH (Lv. +0-0) 4-04-0 645 (Lv.+2'-0") WIDE VERANDAH PLAN WIDE VERANDAH 4-04-0 (Lv. +2'-6") UP IT WIDE VERANDAH PLAN SRI KUNTHUNATH TUNK - 2 ELEVATION ELEVATION Lighting Conduc -RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Texte SRI CHANDRANAN TUNK - 4 RAILING VIEW TYPICAL SECTION VIEW TYPICAL SECTION LXIV (C) WIDE VERANDAH A (Lv.+2-4) (Lv. 10-0) 2 WIDE VERANDAH 4 su (Lv. 45-0) WIDE VERANDAH PLAN SRI RUSABHANAN TUNK - 3 WIDE VERANDA 4-04-0 Get ELEVATION WIDE VANDAR PLAN RAILING ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR SRI NEMINATH TUNK -5 RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Tex VIEW TYPICAL SECTION VIEW TYPICAL SECTION

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3 WIDE VERANDAH 15-6 (Lv. +0-0) CARAN 4-04-0 (Lv. +2'-6") (Lv.42-0) WEE VERANDA UPI PLAN ELEVATION WEE VERANDAH 4'-0"x4'-0" SRI ARNATH TUNK - 6 Lighting Conduc SRI SHREYANSANATH TUNK - 8 WIDE VERANDA UP PLAN RAILING ELEVATION -RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Te LJ VIEW TYPICAL SECTION VIEW TYPICAL SECTION 15-0 LXIV (D) WIDE VERANDAH Brinn 4-04-0 WEDE VERANDAH PLAN ELEVATION WIDE VERANDAH 4-04-0 WILE VERANDAM IKI UP PLAN SRI MALLINATH TUNK - 7 -RAILING ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Te SRI SUVIDHINATH TUNK - 9 -RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR rewe VIEW TYPICAL SECTION VIEW TYPICAL SECTION

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16-0 WIDE VERANDAH 40x4-0 WWEE VERANDAH UP PLAN ELEVATION WIDE VERANDAH SRI PADMAPRABHU TUNK-10 4-0 x4-0 67 WE VERANDAH UP PLAN RAILING ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR 15:16 SRI RISABHADEV TUNK - 13 -RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR 7415 om foreligg VIEW TYPICAL SECTION VIEW TYPICAL SECTION 14-6 LXIV (E) WIEK: VIRANDAN WIDE VERANDAH D XA D WIDE VERANDA PLAN WIDE VERANDAH CHARAN SRI MUNISURVAT SWAMI TUNK - 11 4-0'x4'-0" ELEVATION UP PLAN WIE VERANDAH -RAILING ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Twe SRI ANANTNATH TUNK - 14 RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR rete VIEW TYPICAL SECTION VIEW TYPICAL SECTION 10

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SRI CHANDRA PRABHA TUNK - 12 ELEVATION VIEW Diya Stand 2-6" hight FILE (Lv. +4-0) EUR HUP PLAN S LXIV (F)

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15,3 B 5 WIDE VERANIA 40 XE WIDE VERANDA UP PLAN ELEVATION S WIDE VERANDA 4-04-0 SRI SHITALNATH TUNK - 15 UP PLAN WIDE VERANDAH -RAILING ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Text-s SRI VASUPUJYA SWAMI TUNK - 17 -RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR VIEW Texte TYPICAL SECTION VIEW TYPICAL SECTION LXIV (G) WIDE VERANDAH WE VERANDA 4-04-0 WIDE VERANDAH LA +247) SRI SAMBHAVNATH TUNK - 16 UP PLAN ELEVATION WIDE VERANDAH 4-04-0 SRI ABHINANDAN SWAMI TUNK - 18 WEE VERANDAH UP PLAN RAILING ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Texte RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR reve VIEW TYPICAL SECTION VIEW TYPICAL SECTION

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JAL MANDIR - 19 VIEW OTOTODAT TOOoo vlppnnn: HITTHIN cinna PLAN ELEVATION LXIV (H)

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146 SRI GANADHAR SUBH SWAMI TUNK - 20 WIDE VERANDAM 4-04-0 151 den WIDE VERANDAH UP PLAN ELEVATION WIE VERANDAN 4-04-0 WE VERANDAH UP PLAN -RAILING ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR 1-5 SRI VARISEN TUNK - 22 -RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR TEXTE VIEW TYPICAL SECTION unde VIEW TYPICAL SECTION 15,0" WIDE VERANDAH Lighting Cr LXIV (1) ee 5HIDE VERANDAH CHARA 4-04-0 VIEW SRI DHARMANATH TUNK - 21 WIDE VERANDAH UP PLAN ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Texte RAILING SRI VARDHAMAN TUNK-23 4-04-0 (Lv. 42-6") PLAN ELEVATION VERANDAH WIDE VERANDAH Diya Stand 2-6" hight (Lv. 20-0) arar forelect TYPICAL SECTION 3'-0" high marbal jali railing REALING VIEW 20 18-7

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SRI SUMATINATH TUNK - 24 SRI SHANTINATH TUNK - 25 RAILING ING SWD VERANEVE WE VRANEWS TYNYUM IM WER VANDALE VIEW VIEW PLAN TYPICAL SECTION ELEVATION TYPICAL SECTION SRI MAHAVIR SWAMI TUNK - 26 SRI SUPARSHAVNATH TUNK - 27 RAILING SW VIANA RAILING WE VERANDI WE VERAN WOE VERANTA VISADA DE VI VIEW VIEW PLAN PLAN ELEVATION TYPICAL SECTION ELEVATION TYPICAL SECTION LXIV (J)

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WEE VERANDAH WIE VERANDAH SRI VIMALNATH SWAMI TUNK - 28 Bein 4-04-0 WE VERANDAH UP PLAN ELEVATION WIDE VERANDAN 4-0x40 WIDE VERANDAH UP PLAN -RAILING SRI NEMINATH SWAMI TUNK - 30 ELEVATION LIGHTING CONDUCTOR EXTE RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR Te VIEW TYPICAL SECTION or Deleg VIEW TYPICAL SECTION LXIV (K) WIDE VERANDAH WEK VERANDAH 4-04-0 SRI AJINATH SWAMI TUNK - 29 WIDE VERANDA PLAN ELEVATION RAILING LIGHTING CONDUCTOR TEXT-E VIEW TYPICAL SECTION

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VIEW SRI DIGAMBER PARSHVANATH JAIN TEMPLE - 31 ELEVATION LXIV (L) VERANDAH 14-0X14-0 HVOINVISIA EKIM D WIDE VERANDAH 4 WIDE VERANDAH M GRABHAGRIHA 14'-0"X14'-0" M FOOTPAT www MADAPAM 14'-0"X12"-0" 8 WIDE VERANDAH PLAN Mainte

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PhD thesis by Ravish Kumar Submission date: 23-Aug-2018 08:40PM (UTC+0530) Submission ID: 992485798 File name: 08.18.Crtical_Analysis_of_Jain_Architecture_in_Bihar_Region.pdf (28.66M) Word count:70411 Character count: 354486

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PhD thesis ORIONALTY REPORT 7% 7% 1% % SMLARTYNDEX NTERNET SOURCES PUBLICATIONS STUDENT PAPERS PMRY SOURCES www.thesikhencyclopedia.com Womat Source en.encyclopediaofjainism.com Memet Source smarthistory.org Wernet Source www.isjs.in temet Source www.soas.ac.uk nemet Source www.khanacademy.org Hemet Source www.nitp.ac.in Hemet Source www.scribd.com Nemet Source www.digambarjalnonline.com Womet Source

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10 jaintours.blogspot.com Internet Source 11 pptfun.com Internet Source www.jainteerth.com Internet Source 13 en.wikipedia.org Internet Source jaindharmonline.com Internet Source digambarjainonline.com Intemet Source Li, Lin, Carol Valenzuela-Martinez, Mauricio Redondo, Vijay K. Juneja, Dennis E. Burson, and Harshavardhan Thippareddi. "Inhibition of Clostridium perfringens Spore Germination and Outgrowth by Lemon Juice and Vinegar Product in Reduced NaCl Roast Beef", Journal of Food Science, 2012. Publication 47 www.indiastudies.org Internet Source wondermondo.com Internet Source maca.contentdm.oclc.org

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Intemet Source collection 1.libraries.psu.edu Internet Source 2 www.flickr.com Internet Source www.sikhiwiki.org Intemet Source 23. jainsamaj.org Internet Source www.yogaprasad.in Internet Source www.pocheoltech.hs.kr Intemet Source library.ctr.utexas.edu Intemet Source jainsite.com Internet Source www.coursehero.com Internet Source www.rezrov.net Intemet Source bradscholars.brad.ac.uk Intemet Source

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www.britannica.com Intemet Source ethesis.nitrkl.ac.in Internet Source odishamuseum.nic.in Internet Source 24 pbpl.physics.ucla.edu Intemet Source 25 youtubehindivideos.com Internet Source 36 bharatdarshan.net Intemet Source www.steeldoordepot.com Internet Source www.steelman.com Intemet Source greenmerchantdirect.com Intemet Source www.pachpadra.com Internet Source 14 "DJ US Grain: Soybean Basis Bids - Aug 11.", FWN Financial News, August 11 2010 Issue <10 Publication

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www.encyclopedia.com Intemet Source A2 www.ravenecho.com Intemet Source Singh, Surinder. "Cost Model for Reinforced Concrete Beam and Slab Structures in Buildings", Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 1990. Publication library.iias.ac.in Internet Source www.vedamsbooks.com Internet Source Exclude matches <10 words Exclude quotes Exclude bibliography On On