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The Role of Ahimsa in Healthcare Ethics : 57
directed toward equanimity and the Three Jewels (ratna-traya) of Right Faith, Right Knowledge, and Right Conduct.
Ancient Jaina texts explain that violence (himsa) is the intention to harm, and that the absence of compassion makes actions violent. Mahāvīra said: "You are that which you intend to hit, injure, insult, torment, persecute, torture, enslave or kill.”
The supremacy of human life does not reduce non-violence to social considerations. According to the Acārānga Sūtra: "A wise man...should know and consider the happiness of all things. For nothing is inaccessible to death, and all beings are fond of themselves. they shun destruction and cling to live...to all things life is dear.''17 Biologist H.J. Campbell thinks this accords with modern Scientific views inasmuch as all animals are pleasure seekers.18
One distinctive practice of Jains is vegetarianism, based on compassion for (Jīvadayā). Their diet is limited to the use of onesensed life in the form of vegetables. It is an interesting coincidence that the Pythagorean circles in which the Hippocratic Oath "do no harm" originated (6th. century B.C.E), were also forbade the killing of animals. Moreover, in common with the Indians, the Ionian philosophers believed in the immortality and transmigration of the soul.
Ahimsa is also the first principle of Buddhism. The Buddha opposed Brahmanical sacrificial rituals on the two-fold grounds of cruelity to animals and also because of their inability to secure the objects of their intent. He taught that all beings undergo rebirths and experience suffering. Hence the admonition of the Dhammapada: "All men tremble at punishment, all men fear death. Likening others to oneself one should neither slay nor cause to slay."'19
Aśoka (c. 269-232 B C.E.) was the grandson of Candrapupta (c. 322-298 B.C.E.) who had expanded the Mauryan empire over North India to Afghanistan. Aśoka went further. He extended the
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