Jainism the Creed for All Times

Author(s): D S Baya
Publisher: Prakrit Bharti Academy
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006564/1

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JU JAINISM THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES Dr. (Col.) D.S. Baya 'Sreyas'

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THIS BOOK This work is the result of nearly two years' intensive search and research for the right contents for a book that dwells on the subject of "Right Vision', 'Right Knowledge' and Right conduct' for the evolution of the soul. It is not a mere coincidence that the book has been completed on the occasion of the 2006 Birth Anniversary of Lord Prophet Mahavira whose teachings form its very basis. No time could be more suitable. The comprehensive nature of the book is evident on each page. The very first section starts with a tribute to the Lord who was, undoubtedly a 'Messiah of Mercy.' A lucid introduction to Jainism also brings out its eternality in a historical perspective and rounds it up with a chapter on Non-violence, the most important hallmark of Jainism. It is followed by sections on Jaina Philosophy and Metaphysics, Jaina view of Cosmology (presented from a unique angle with reference to matter, space, time and mode), Two tiered Jaina Ethics and gems from the Jaina legends. To address the practical utility of the Jaina precepts, the author has taken care to include six valuable essays on as diverse subjects as "Personal Happiness', 'Social Harmony', 'World-Peace', *Environmental Protection', "Personality Development, and "Leadership and Management Through Anekanta'. The appendices on Jaina Glossary and Bibliography enhance its utility. It is hoped that this book will fulfill the much-felt need for a comprehensive but a handy book on Lainiem

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Prakrit Bharti Pushpa-188 JAINISM THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES Dr. (Col.) D.S. Baya 'Sreyas' PRAKRIT BHARTI ACADEMY, JAIPUR SOCIETY FOR SCIENTIFIC & ETHICAL LIVING, JAIPUR

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Publisher: Prakrit Bharti Academy 13-A, Main Malviya Nagar, Jaipur - 302017 Phone : 0141 -2524827, 2520230 Society for Scientific & Ethical Living 13-A, Main Malviya Nagar, Jaipur - 302017 Phone : 0141 -2524827, 2520230 (c) Dr. (Col.) D.S. Baya First edition 2006 Price: Rs. 500 - Computerization: Shubh Sankalp E-26, Bhaupalpura Udaipur - 313001 (Raj.) Shyam Agarwal, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur - 302 017 (Raj.) Printed at: Raj Printers, Jaipur Phone No. 0141-2621774 Mob. 93 14511048 JAINISM : THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES Dr. (Colonel) D.S. Baya 2006

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TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE NO. XV XVII XIX XX XXI PUBLISHER'S NOTE FOREWORD DEDICATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENT PREFACE BENEDICTION BENEDICTION EXPLAINED Arihanta Siddha Acarya Upadhyaya Sadhu Abridged Forms of Namaskara Mahamantra 11 SECTION - I:MAHAVIRA AND JAINISM 1. MAHAVIRA: THE MESSIAH OF MERCY Vardhaman Mahavira Birth Chidhood And Education Mahavira Mahavira Prince Mahavira Monk Mahavira Omniscient Tirtharikara Mahavira Messiah Of Mercy Revolutionary Mahavira Liberated Mahavira 19 21

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23 30 46 5 0 2. JAINISM : AN INTRODUCTION Jaina Dharma Universal Character Of Jainism Eternality And Historicity Of Jaina Dharma The Twenty-Four Tirthankaras Three Hallmarks Of Jainism Non-Violence (Ahimsa) Restraint (Samyama) Penance (Tapa) Nature of Reality The Soul And The Karma The Theism Of Jainism Jaina Axioms 3. AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): THE FOREMOST HALLMARK OF JAINISM What Is Wrong With Himsa? The Life-Cycle The Universal Character Of Non-violence Non-Violence (Ahimsa) The Basis of Non-Violence The Jaina Concept of Non-Violence What is Violence? Manifestations of Violence Who are the victims of Violence? Non-Violence Proscriptive Non-Violence Positive Side of Non-Violence Non-Violence in Relation to Environment Non-Violence in the Scientific Age The Ideal of Non-Violence The Social Aspect of Non-Violence Compassion : The Liberating Force Compassion : The Concept Compassion and Auspiciousness What Is Compassion? 51 56 56 61 62 63 64 64 69 71 74 74 76 IV: JAINISM : THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Who Deserves Compassion? Compassion and Spiritual Emancipation Can Compassion Ever Be Sinful? Non-Violence in Practice The Lay Followers' Non-Violence The Monastic Non-Violence Vegetarianism: An Essential Attribute Of Non-Violent Lifestyle Non-violence: An Assurance Of - Healthy Environment Conclusion SECTION - II: JAINA PHILOSOPHY 4. TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) The Fundamentals 1. Jiva Tatva (The Living Matter) or The Soul 2. Ajiva Tattva (The Non-Living Matter) Pudgala Dravya (Manifest Matter) Dharma Dravya (Medium Of Motion) Adharma Dravya (Medium Of Rest) Akasa Dravya (Space-Matter) Kala-Dravya (Time-Matter) Pancastikaya (Five Bodied Existences) 3. Punya Tattva (Pious Activities) 4. Papa Tattva (Sinful Activities) 5. Asrava Tattva (Karmic Influx) 6. Bandha Tattva (Bondage) The Causes Of Karmic Bondage The Psychic And Substantive Bondage Four Types Of Karmic Bondage 7. Samvara Tattva (Karmic Stoppage) The Means To Achieve Karmic Stoppage 8. Nirjara Tattva (Karmic Separation) 9. Moksa Tattva (Liberation) Conclusion TABLE OF CONTENTS: V BBB LLL 77 78 79 80 80 81 81 83 85 87 89 89 91 95 96 98 99 100 101 102 102 103 105 108 109 109 109 111 112 114 118 120

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122 122 122 124 128 130 131 135 5. SAMYAGDARSAN (THE RIGHT-VIEW) Everyone's Own Peep-Hole Darsan And Samyagdarsan The Importance Of Right-View The Indicators Of Right-View Four Organs Of Right-Vision Types Of Right-Vision Conclusion 6. SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) The Ultimate Aim Of Life The Right-Knowledge Jaina View On Knowledge What Is Knowledge? What Is Right-Knowledge? Five Stages Of Right-Knowledge Jaina Canonical Literature Ardhamagadhi Canonical Literature The Arga Sutras The Fourteen Purvas Angapravistha and Angabahya Agama The Four Anuyogas The Latest Classification Forty-Five Agamas Five Canonical Recitations Sauraseni Canonical Literature Satkhandagama Kasayapahuda (Kasaya Prabhrta) Canon-Equivalent Sauraseni Literature Acarya Kundkunda's Works Tiloyapannatti By Yativrsabha Mulacara By Vattakera Bhagavati-Aradhana By Sivarya Kartikeyanupreksa By Svami Kartikeya Acarya Nemicandra's Literature Conclusion 138 138 138 139 139 139 140 146 147 148 153 155 157 157 160 162 164 164 165 166 166 167 167 167 167 168 168 VI: JAINISM : THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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7. ANEKANTAVADA AND SYADVADA 170 Anekantavada and Syadvada 170 Anekantavada 171 Syadvada 174 Applied Anekanta 178 Conclusion 179 8. KARMA-SIDDHANTA 181 Soul And Karma 181 Karma 181 The Karma Theory 182 The Importance Of Karma Theory 182 The Jaina Doctrine Of Karma 186 Causes Of Karmic Association 186 Karma At Material And Volitional Levels 187 Four Types Of Karmic Bondage 188 Various Stages Of Karma 196 The Means Of Achieving Karmic Separation 199 Karma : A Scientific Analysis 200 The Spiritual Benefits Of The Doctrine Of Karma 202 The Summary Of Jaina Karma Theory 204 9. GUNASTHANA : STAGES OF SPIRITUAL ADVANCEMENT 206 The Soul's Journey From Delusion To Deliverance Rise From Deluding Falsehood 207 Gunasthana : 208 The Fourteen Virtue-Stations (Gunasthana) 210 1. Falsehood Stage(Mithyatva Gunasthana) 210 2. Lingering Taste Stage(Sasvadana Gunasthana) 210 3. Mixed Stage (Misra Gunasthana) 211 4. Right-Beliefed Unrenounced Stage (Avirat Samyagdrsti Gunasthana) 211 5. Part-Renounced Stage (Desavirat Gunasthana) 212 206 TABLE OF CONTENTS : VII

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213 213 214 214 215 215 216 217 218 6. Negligent Restraint Stage (Pramatta Saniyatta Gunasthana) 7. Vigilant Restraint Stage (Apramatta Samyatta Gunasthana) 8. Gross Passion Dissimilarity Stage (Nivrtti Badar gunasthana) 9. Gross Passion Similarity Stage (Anivrtti Badar Gunasthana) 10. Fine Passions Stage (Suksma Samparaya Gunasthana) 11. Passion-Subsided Detachment Stage (Upasantakasaya Vitaraga Gunasthana) 12. Delusion-Destroyed Detachment Stage (Ksinamoha Vitaraga Gunasthana) 13. Embodied Omniscient Stage (Sayogi Kevali Gunasthana) 14. Incorporeal Omniscient Stage (Ayogi Kevali Gunasthana) Conclusion SECTION - III : JAINA COSMOLOGY 10. DRAVYA LOKA (MATERIAL UNIVERSE) Universal Matter Soul : The Life Non-Soul : The Lifeless Universe Tangible Matter Soul-Bodies : Life-Lifeless Combined Conclusion 11.KSETRA LOKA (SPATIAL UNIVERSE) Universal Space The Universe The land Of The Liberated (Siddhaloka) The Upper Universe (Urdh valoka) The Middle Universe (Madhyaloka) The Nether Universe (Adholoka) Conclusion VIII : JAINISM : THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES 218 219 221 221 221 225 226 226 229 230 230 231 232 232

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239 12.KALA (TIME : THE FOURTH DIMENSION) 233 Time (Kala) 233 Time As A Material Constituent Of The Universe 234 The Importance Of Time 235 Measuring Time 236 Conclusion 238 13.BHAVA (MOODS AND MODES) Reality : Permanence And Transience 239 Constantly Changing Moods And Modes 239 The Living Changes 240 The Non-Living Changes 241 Changes In Six Substances 242 Conclusion 244 SECTION - IV: JAINA ETHICS 245 14.SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT) 247 Two Tiered Dharma Based On Right-Conduct 247 The Householders' Conduct (Sagara Dharma) 248 On The Right Track 248 The Faithful Householder 250 Theism Of A Faithful Householder The Reverent Householder 252 The Householders' Vows And Their Excesses 252 Householders' Advanced Practices (Sravaka-pratima) 268 Conclusion 271 15.ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT) 272 The Monastic Conduct (Anagara Dharina) 272 The Monastic Vows 273 1. The First Great Vow : Pranatipata Viramana Vrat (Renunciation Of All Kinds Of Violence) 273 2. The Second Great Vow : Mrsavad Viramana Vrat (Renunciation Of All Falsehood) 274 251 TABLE OF CONTENTS : IX

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283 3. The Third Great Vow : Adattadina Viramana Vrat (Renunciation of Taking any Ungiven Thing) 275 4. The Fourth Great Vow : Maithun Viramana Vrat (Renoucing Sexual Indulgence) 276 5. The Fifth Great Vow: Parigraha Viramana Vrat (Renouncing Encumbrance) 277 6. The Vow Of Refraining From Eating At Night (Ratribhojan Viramana Vrat) 279 Ten Monastic Duties (Dasa Muni-Dharma) 280 Monastic Virtues 280 Six Essentials (Salavasyaka) 281 Monastic Routine (Samacari) 282 Twelve Advanced Monastic Practices (Bhiksu Pratima) Preparation And Practice Of Voluntary Death (Sallekhana Santhara) 287 Improper Monastic Conduct 288 Bearing Monastic Hardships 290 Types Of Monastic Ordinations 292 Renunciation And Exceptions 293 Vigilance (Samiti) And Restraint (Gupti) 293 Care Causes No Sins 293 Five-way vigilance (Panca Samiti) 295 1. Vigilant Movements (Irya Samiti) 295 2. Vigilant Speech (Bhasa Samiti) 297 3. Vigilant Seeking Of Food Etc (Esana Samiti) 298 4. Vigilant Care Of Monastic Equipage (Adana-bhanda Nksepana Samiti) 299 5. Vigilant Disposal Of Wastes And Excretions (Paristhapanika Samiti) 300 Three-Way Self-Control (Trigupti) 300 1. Mental Self-Control (Manogupti) 301 2. Vocal Self-Control (Vacan-Gupti) 301 3. Physical Self-Control (Kaya-Gupti) 302 Conclusion 302 X: JAINISM : THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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303 311 SECTION -V: JAINA LEGENDS 16.NAMI PRAVRAJYA (THE ORDINATION OF NAMI) 305 Nami's Plight 305 Nami's Detachment 306 Sakra : The Heavenly King's Sojourn To Mithila 306 Sakra Talks To Nami 307 The Moral Of The Story 17.ANDAK (THE LEGEND OF THE EGGS) 313 Peahen's Eggs 313 The Merchants' Sons 313 The Doubting Son Of Sagardatta 315 The Trusting Son Of Jinadatta 315 Success Through Firm Belief 316 The Moral Of The Story 316 18.MRGAPUTRIYA: (THE TALE OF MRGA'S SON) 317 Mrgaputra 317 The Detachment Of Mrgaputra 318 The Rigours Of Monastic Life Moral Of The Story 19.ROHINI KATHA (THE LEGEND OF ROHINI) 323 Rohini 323 Dhanya's Thought 323 The Council 324 Ujjhika's Logic Bhogavati's Logic 325 Raksika's Logic Rohini's Logic Thoughts Into Action 326 Dhanya Recalls The Paddy Grains 327 Ujjhika's Insult 327 Bhogavati's Bungling 328 Respected Raksika 329 319 322 325 325 326 TABLE OF CONTENTS : XI

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Rohini's Glorious Surprise The Moral Of The Story SECTION - VI: PRACTICAL JAINISM JAINISM AND PERSONAL HAPPINESS Personal Happiness Causes Of Misery Jaina Way For Happiness Happiness Through Meditation Happiness Of The Clerical Life Happiness Through The Lay Followers' Life-Style Conclusion JAINISM AND SOCIAL HARMONY Importance Of Social Harmony Causes Of Social Conflicts Jainism: The Remedy For Social Conflicts Conclusion JAINISM AND WORLD-PEACE World-Peace: The Need Of The Time Causes Of Conflict Jaina Answer For Conflict Resolution And For Ushering World Peace Conclusion ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS OF JAINISM Environmental Calamity Environmental Concerns Of Jainism The Causes Of Environmental Degradation The Jaina Remedy Ecological Balance And Jaina Way Of Life Jaina Vows And Environmental Protection Vegetarianism: The Most ImportantEnvironmental Protection Conclusion XII: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES 329 330 333 335 335 335 336 337 338 338 339 340 340 341 342 345 346 346 347 349 351 353 353 353 354 354 354 355 356 357

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359 359 360 361 363 365 366 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THROUCH ANEKANTA APPROACH Management And Anekantavada Applied Anekanta In Various Fields Of Management Organisational Essentials And Anekanta Anekanta And Areas Of Management Anekanta And Management Functions Conclusion JAINA PRECEPTS FOR PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Personality Personality Development Physical Aspect Of Personality Intellectual Aspect Of Personality Psychological and Emotional Aspects of Personality Influance of Jaina Precepts on Personality Development Moral Aspect Of Personality Conclusion 368 368 368 368 369 370 371 373 374 CONCLUDING REMARKS APPENDICES 1. Transliteration Convention 2. Selected Glossary 3. Bibliography iv tij TABLE OF CONTENTS : XIII.

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PUBLISHER'S NOTE Jainism is known for its antiquity. Paradoxically, it is equally modern and rational in its philosophy and approach. It highlights the inviolability and moral status and sanctity of all living creatures. It also recognizes the freedom available to each human being, but juxtaposes it with the responsibilities of the rational human beings. Jainism is also a compassionate religion, though over time, because of ignorance or misunderstanding, some of the sects have downplayed this aspect. Indeed, Jainism is the religion of the 21s century. A large number of books on Jainism are available in Hindi and other Indian languages. But there is a need for a comprehensive book on Jainism in English language. It is encouraging that in the past two decades some scholars of international repute have made significant attempts in this direction. However, many more efforts are needed. We are happy that Dr. (Colonel) D.S. Baya has responded to this requirement and come up with a very lucidly authored book that covers almost all the aspects of Jainism. Rightly, the book starts with a tribute to the last Teerthankara Mahavira and goes on to touch Philosophy, Cosmology and Ethics of the Jainas. The historical perspective included in the book enhances its utility. The most important feature of this work is a full Sixth Section, with six essays, devoted to the practical aspects of Jainism. The author discusses the application of Jaina precepts in diverse fields like personal happiness, social harmony, world peace,

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environmental protection, personality development and management and leadership. This is a book both for the lay readers and scholars. Dr. Kusum Jain and Shri Surendra Bothra have gone through the manuscript and given valuable suggestions, I thank them for their efforts. M/s Computer Hut, Udaipur too deserve our thanks for computer type setting and graphics. Thanks also to all others involved in the publication of this book. D.R. Mehta Founder and Chief Patron Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur. XVI : JAINISM : THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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FOREWORD 'LIVE AND LET LIVE' is the credo of Jainism, the faith preached by omniscient Jinas who founded it on the noble principle of non-violence towards all living-beings. It is this emphasis on nonviolence that makes it the 'Creed for All Times'. The eternal principles of this wonderful and eternal creed and the conduct-rules that govern its ethics have been commented upon by various commentators that have left their marks on the sands of time, from time to time according to the demands of their times. However, the need for a good and easily comprehensible book on Jaina precepts and practices, in English language, has been felt for a long time. I am very happy that Dr. (Colonel) D. S. Baya 'Sreyas' has answered this call and has presented the eternally relevant Jaina principles in such simple English language that even a layman will have no difficulty in understanding this noble faith. I am sure that not only the Jaina readers but a large number of non-Jaina ones will also benefit from this work. An authentic life-sketch of Bhagvan Mahavira, that reconciles the beliefs of both the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions, at the very outset, certainly adds a unique dimension to this work that is being published quite close to the 26th liberation-centenary of that noble soul. The second introductory chapter adds a historical perspective to this faith that was initially propounded by Bhagvan Rsabhadeva who lived aeons ago. Also, it is a praiseworthy effort to introduce Jainism's indicators, its concept of reality, the interrelation between the soul and Karma and to establish that in spite of its lack of belief in the existence of an Omniscient, Omnipresent and Omnipotent God, Jainism is a theist faith that believes in the existence of the soul and rebirth after death. Ahimisa or non-violence is the central theme of Jainism and I am

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satisfied to see that the author has done justice to this theme by devoting an entire chapter of the book to it. The most important section of this book is its second section that contains its fundamental principles and describes the fundamental verities, the concepts of right-vision and right-knowledge and that of Non-absolutism and its predication. The 'Jaina Doctrine of Karma' has been covered very lucidly and it also explains it very scientifically. The original thinking of Dr. Baya comes out in its third section in which he has explained the Jaina Cosmology with reference to the four variable parameters of matter, space, time and change. The fourth section covers the two tier Jaina ethics - 'The Monastic Conduct' and 'The Lay Followers' Conduct' in an easy to follow manner. Another feature of this book is its 'Legendary Section' that narrates four stories from the abundant Jaina lore. These stories - Andak', Mrgaputriya', 'Nami Pravrajya' and 'Rohini Katha' emphasise the importance of detachment, steadfast belief, knowledge and flawless practice of monastic conduct respectively. They certainly add to the attraction of this work. The sixth and the last section is rightly entitled 'Practical Jainism' as it addresses itself to the problems facing the individuals, the society and the world at large and suggests that the Jaina precepts and practices offer sustainable solutions to these problems. The application of the Jaina principles, specially that of Non-absolutism, to the areas of 'Leadership and Management' and 'Personality Development' certainly adds to its value for the younger generation. I must compliment the author for this excellent work and hope that his pen will remain tireless in pursuing similar other pursuits. Dr. Sagarmal Jain Founder Director Prachya Vidyapeeth, Shajapur (M.P.) XVIII : JAINISM : THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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DEDICATION DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF MY LATE FATHER SVANAMADHANYA SRI GANESALAL JI BAYA WHO INITIATED ME ON THE PATH OF RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is not possible to accomplish a work of this magnitude without guidance and help from different scholars and their works and I must admit that I have been immensely benefited in my search for the subject-matter for this work and have derived them from various sources, which I must acknowledge. The ancient and present Jaina masters and scholars whose works have immensely helped me are Acarya Kundakunda, Acarya Nemichandra Siddhantachakravarti, Acarya Nanalalji, Acarya Hastimalji, Acarya Devendramuni, Muni Madhukar, Muni Mishrimalji, Pt. Sukhlal Singhvi, Pt. Ratanlal Doshi, Dr. N. L. Jain, Sadhvi Dr. Vidyutprabha, Sadhvi Dr. Vineetpragya, Dr. Hermann Jacobi, Dr. Walther Schubring, Dr. Sagarmal Jain, Dr. Prem Suman Jain, Dr. T.G. Kalghatagi, Sadhvi Vineetabai Mahasatiji, Sri Jnanamati Mataji, Dr. Subhash Kothari, Sri Jinendra Varni, Dr. Nemichandra Jain, Dr. Bhagchand Bhaskar, and Sri A.L. Sancheti. I am deeply indebted to all of them. I am also indebted to Prof. Sagarmal Jain who has constantly encouraged me in my endeavour and who has also, very kindly, written the 'FOREWORD' for this work. My gratitude also extends to Shri D. R. Mehta Sahib and Mahopadhyay Vinayasagarji of Prakrit Bharati, Jaipur who have given it a place amongst their prestigious publications and by whose efforts it is reaching the readers' hands. The printers also deserve my thanks for bringing it out in such a fine shape. - Sreyas

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PREFACE Jainism -- the faith propounded by Tirthankaras (the Prophets Propounders of the Jaina faith), call it a creed, a faith or a religion - places a great emphasis on the universally appealing principle of 'LIVE AND LET LIVE' enshrined in its guiding principle of absolute non-violence towards all fine and gross living-beings of the universe. Though Jainism, as the very name suggests, is the creed or the set of beliefs propounded by the Jina or the conqueror of the self by vanquishing the spiritual foes that hinder the soul's progress towards its ultimate goal of spiritual emancipation or liberation from the mundane existence, which is fraught with sorrow and misery. However, it is not a sectarian religion within the confines of its rituals and traditions but a religion of humanity. With its comprehensive perspective and vision of spreading world-wide the culture and practice of non-violence, peace and harmony integrated with the concepts of detachment and lack of dogma, it has a global relevance in the contemporary world. No claim about the superiority of any creed over the others can be justified. However, all faiths are a reflection of the stage of evolution of the seers who propound their precepts and principles and to that extent it can be said that Jainism, as a creed reveals a high degree of evolution of noble thoughts on the part of its Propounding-Prophets or Tirthankaras and it compares well with other noble creeds such as Buddhism, based on the noble principle of universal compassion, and Christianity that preaches

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universal love. Also, it stands to the credit of Jainism that while other noble religious philosophies extend their compassion or love to humans or at the most to the visible gross life forms like animals, birds and fishes; Jainism extends the ambit of its practice of non-violence, compassion and love to all fine and gross lifeforms up to the one sensed unicellular life. Jainism's is one of the highly evolved religious philosophies of the world and it is based on the perfect vision (Omnivision or Kevalya-darsan) and the perfect knowledge (Omniscience or Kevalya Jnana or Sarvajnata) of its Prophet-Propounders and is, therefore, based on absolutely true and logical bases. The logical base of Jainism is most visible in its 'Doctrine of Karma' (KarmaSiddhanta), which is based on the principle of 'cause and effect' and has been perfected to mathematical precision by its seers. It lays down, to minutest detail, the relationship between the actions (at physical, vocal and thought levels) and the inevitable fruits or retribution thereof. Its importance and universal appeal lies in the fact that it is a complete creed that encompasses the three essential areas of enquiry - Philosophy and Metaphysics, Cosmology, and Ethics that urges its adherents to abide by the five most important moral and ethical precepts of Non-violence (Ahimsa), Truthfulness (Satya), Non-stealing (Acaurya), Sexual discipline or righteous conduct (Brahmacarya) and Rational possession meaning 'non-accumulation of undue wealth' coupled with lack of encumbrance in the form of attachment to whatever essential possessions one has (Aparigraha), which not only ensure their spiritual upliftment but also preserve good social order. The most non-dogmatic creed, Jainism's underlying thought-current is that of Non-absolutism (Anekantavada), which says that everything in this world is relative (depending upon the view-point - 'Naya' taken) and not absolute. This makes it the XXII: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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world's most tolerant creed that can see and appreciate the others' points of view with an open mind without the blinkers of dogma. Its method of seven-fold predication (Saptabhangi Syadvada) that makes its own assertions and others' criticisms mild and inoffensive, giving it the most non-violent form of speech ever possible. The twenty-four Prophets that propounded this creed, since time immemorial, are known as Tirtharikaras or ford makers because they organised their followers in a four tiered religio social organisation (Tirtha) that serves as a ford to cross over the chasm of worldliness to attain nirvana. This organisation is so sound that it has kept its essential form intact even after two and half millennia have elapsed since the nirvana of the last Tirthankara Bhagvan Mahavira. It is its sound organisation, universally appealing principles and wholesomeness of the creed that make it eternally - THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES'. I have presented the essential features of this wonderful creed, called Jainism, if at all it can be called an 'ism', with their relevance in the solution of the problems of the present times, in six sections besides the benediction. The first section is introductory in nature. Along with a brief but authentic description of the life-events of the last Prophet-Propounder of the current form of Jainism - Bhagvan Mahavira, some light has been thrown on the eternality, historicity, originality, form, concept of reality, the concept of the soul, that of karma, the beginningless association of soul and karma, freedom from the clutches of karma (mukti) and the question of theism or atheism of Jainism have been dealt with in the following three chapters of this section : - 1. Mahavira : The Messiah Of Mercy, and PREFACE : XXIII

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2. 3. Jainism : An Introduction. Ahimsa (Non-violence) : The Foremost Hallmark of Jainism The second section is about the Jaina Philosophy and Metaphysics and has the following six chapters: -- 4. Tattvartha (The Fundamentals). 5. Samyagdarsan (The Right View). Samyagjnana (The Right-Knowledge). Anekantavada and Syadvada (Non-Absolutism and its Predication), 8. Karma-Siddhanta (The Doctrine of Karma), an 9. Gunasthana (Stages Of Spiritual Advancement). The third section is on Jaina Cosmology. This subject has been dealt with in the following four chapters:10. Material Universe (Dravya Loka). 11. Spatial Universe (Ksetra Loka). 12. Jaina Concept Of Time (Kala), an 13. Changing Modes Of The Universe (Bhava). In the fourth section on Jaina Ethics (Samyakcaritra or Right-Conduct), the two tiered Jaina moral code (Dvividh Vinaya) has been dealt with in the following two chapters:14. Monastic Conduct (Anagara Vinaya or Muni Dharma), and 15. Lay Followers' Conduct (Sagara Vinaya or Sravaka Dharma). The fifth section is on Jaina legends. In this section I have given the following four representative tales from the abundant Jaina lore that bring to the fore the importance of detachment, right vision, right knowledge and right conduct respectively :16. Nami Pravrajya (The Ordination Of Nami) from the Uttaradhyayanasutra, XXIV: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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17. Andaka (The tale of the eggs) from the Inata-Dharmakatha, 18. Mrgaputriya (The legend of Mrgaputra) From the Uttaradhyayanasutra, and 19. Rohini Inatakatha (The legend of Rohini) from Inata Dharmakatha) In the sixth and the last section of this work, entitled 'Practical Jainism', the universal principles of the creed preached by Bhagvan Mahavira and their relevance in the present day times have been brought out in relation to the practical applications of the Jaina precepts in as diverse fields as 'Personal Happiness', Social Harmony', World Peace', 'Environmental Protection', Leadership And Management' and 'Personality Development through the following six essays: - a. Jainism and Personal Happiness, b. Jainism and Social Harmony, c. Jainism and World Peace, d. Environmental Concerns of Jainism, e. Leadership and Management Through Anekanta, and f. Personality Development Through Jaina Precepts. At this stage I must admit that due to the constraints of space, it has been possible to cover the subject only cursorily. But, as it is meant for the uninitiated laymen, it will eminently serve the purpose of exposing them to the essentials of this incredible creed - Jainism. - Sreyas Udaipur, Makar Sankranti, January 14, 2006. PREFACE: XXV

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JAINISM THE CREED FOR ALL TIME

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BENEDICTION NAMO ARIHANTANAM Obeisance to the Arihantas the (Venerable) Slayers of (Spiritual) foes. NAMO SIDDHANAM Obeisance to Siddhas, the ultimate accomplished. NAMO AYARIYANAM Obeisance to Acaryas, the (venerable) masters heading the religious orders. NAMO UVAJJHAYANAM Obeisance to Upadhyayas, the (venerable) teacher preceptors. NAMO LOE SAVVASAHUNAM Obeisance to all the Sadhus, the (venerable) ordained ascetics. ESO PANCA NAMUKKARO Such five-way obeisance - SAVVA PAVAPPANASANO Is the destroyer of all sins (and) - MANGALANAM CA SAVVESIM Of all the auspiciousnesses - PADHAMAM HAVAI MANGALAM It is the very first (and the foremost) auspiciousness. Also 'NAMO ARHANTANAM' meaning "obeisance to the venerable spiritual leaders.

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BENEDICTION EXPLAINED For any devout Jaina, the day starts with a reverent recitation of this benediction involving bowing to the five venerable paragons of spiritual virtues called 'Panca Paramesthi'. These five paragons epitomise spiritual achievements and, in turn, guide the spiritual journeys of the other followers of the faith. A brief account of each of these five paragons will be in order at the very beginning of this work. Arihanta Or Arhanta Arihanta means the slayer of the foes. The term foe ordinarily means a person who is inimical to one's interest. Here, however, the term refers to enemies of the soul rather than those of the physical persona. They are - delusion (Moha) brought about by attachment and aversion, anger (Krodha), pride (Mana), guile (Maya) and greed (Lobha), which are related to desire for the mundane welfare and its fulfilment or otherwise. The spiritual aspirant who slays these spiritual foes sheds delusion (Mohaniya Karma) and, thereby, gains true flawless vision (Kevala-darsan), perfect unlimited infinite knowledge or omniscience (Kevala-jnana) and unhindered prowess as his hindering (Antaraya) karma are also destroyed in the process. In other words such a person (Arihanta, the slayer of spiritual foes) becomes enlightened (endowed with perfect vision and perfect knowledge) and capable of not only seeing things in their right perspectives but also of making others see them as such. He also becomes endowed with perfect and flawless conduct (Yathakhyata Caritra) and sets a perfect example for the others to emulate. In other words he becomes an Arhanta or the most venerable one. Being endowed with such enlightenment and perfect conduct, 4: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the Arhantas feel obliged to propound and preach the true faith, as seen and realised by them, for the greater good of all. It goes without saying that such a true faith, preached by such perfect Prophet-propounders, is bound to be for the betterment of one and all. The Arhantas not only propound and preach the faith but they also establish a sound four-fold socio-religious order, consisting of ordained monks (Sadhu) and nuns (Sadhvi) and lay male and female followers (Sravaka and Sravilka) to ensure that the faith so propounded and preached by them is propagated down the ages. Such a religious order is known as "Tirtha' and the Prophet-propounders who set up such orders are called "Tirtharikaras? It is quite right that every follower of the Jaina faith, a beneficiary of the precepts propounded and preached by the Arhantas, remembers and bows to them the first thing in the morning every day of his life. Siddha Siddha means a person who has accomplished what he has set out to accomplish. As the ultimate goal of every soul is to achieve the ultimate spiritual purity and liberation from the miserable mundane existence, spiritually speaking the term Siddha means the soul that has attained complete freedom from the karmic bondage, which soils it, and achieved spiritual salvation or nirvana. They are the ultimate role models for every spiritual aspirant and every one looks forward to duplicate their accomplishment and resultant perfection that is manifested in the infinite quartet of infinite perfect vision or omni vision (Ananta Darsan), infinite or perfect knowledge or omniscience (Ananta Inana), Infinite (spiritual) prowess (Ananta Virya) and Infinite bliss (Ananta Sukh). The freedom from karmic bondage means completely separating or shedding of eight types of karma that bind the soul and keep it tied to mundane existence. They are - BENEDICTION : 5

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four types of destructive karma (Ghatiya Karma) that destroy the soul's capacity to attain enlightenment and four types of nondestructive karma (Aghatiya Karma) that, though, do not hinder enlightenment but keep it tied down to the worldly life. The four former types (destructive or Ghatiya types) of karma are shed by the Arhantas before they attain enlightenment. They are - 1. Deluding (Mohaniya) karma that distorts the view or perspective of the soul, 2. Knowledge obscuring (Inanavaraniya) karma that bars the soul from gaining right-knowledge, 3. Vision obscuring (Darsanavaraniya) karma that bars the soul from gaining right view or perspective on things and thoughts, and 4. Obstructive (Antaraya) karma that bars the soul from realising its true potential. On destroying these four Ghatiya or destructive types of karma the soul becomes enlightened and potent Arhanta but it is still confined to the physical body with which it was born. It is only on shedding the remaining four types (non-destructive or Aghatiya types) that it becomes perfectly pure and ultimately accomplished or Siddha. They are - 5. Feeling producing (Vedaniya) karma that makes one to feel pleasure and pain, 6. Life-span deterinining (Ayusya) karma that decides the longevity of a living being when it is born in a particular life, 7. The physique or personality determining (Nama) karma that decides the type of body or personality a living being will have during a particular birth and 8. The status determining (Gotra) karma that decides his place in the hierarchy of his fellow beings in a particular birth. 6: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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It can be seen that these four types of karma are associated with the body, which the soul resides in, in its corporeal form in a particular birth. Complete separation from these types of karma means complete freedom from the encumbrance of the body or to achieve bodylessness (Asariratva or incorporeality), which is the case with the Siddhas. Siddhas are venerable and worthy of worship, as they are the ultimate in spiritual accomplishment and perfection and present an example of what can be achieved through adherence to the tenets of the right faith. It is, therefore, in fitness of things that every Jaina bows to them every day Acaryas - Acaryas or the spiritual masters, who head the four-fold religious order, comprising the ordained monks and nuns and lay male and female followers of the faith, are saints with high a very degree of renunciation and spiritual accomplishments. They command reverence by virtue of their thirty-six qualities, namely, 1-5. Restraint of five sense-organs, 6-14. Observing perfect sexual abstinence characterised by nine types of restrictions, 15-18. Freedom from four great passions of anger, pride, guile and greed, 19-23. Observance of five great vows of complete non-violence, complete truthfulness, complete avoidance from accepting anything not offered by its rightful owner, complete sexual continence and complete lack of material encumbrance (possessions or attachment thereto), 24-28. Capable of undertaking five types of monastic duties, and 29-36. Observing five types of vigilance (Panca Samiti) and three types of self-controls of body, mind and thought (Trigupti). BENEDICTION : 7

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Such spiritual masters wield great spiritual influence on the followers (ordained ascetics as well as the lay followers) of their respective orders and are highly venerated by them. They administer and control their religious orders in all its spiritual and organisational aspects and ensure that every member of their flock remains on the right path. They not only lead by their own personal example but also by ensuring that the writ of the faith prevails. They are also empowered to punish the defaulters in accordance with the scriptural provisions. No wonder, then, that every member of the order feels obliged to bow to them every day, day after day. Upadhyaya - Upadhyayas are the ordained monks who are preceptors, learned in scriptural learning, and who propagate the message of the Prophet-propounders by teaching and preaching the Jaina precepts to the fellow monks and nuns and the laity. They are venerated for their unsurpassed learning and are remembered and bowed to by every follower of the faith everyday. Sadhu - Sadhu or the saints (including the ordained monks and the nuns) are those who renounce the mundane life of worldly pleasures and accept monastic ordination for pursuing the goal of spiritual purification through the practice of non-violence, restraints and penance. Their restraints are all aimed at ensuring perfect non-violence towards all gross and fine creatures and include strict and flawless observance of five great vows (Panca Mahavrata), five types of vigilance (Panca Samiti), three controls (Trigupti), ten monastic duties (Muni-dharma) and twelve advanced monastic practices (Pratima). They are the true followers of the path of liberation and are worthy of worship and veneration by the laity as well as by the fellow ascetics. They, 8: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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too, are remembered and bowed to by everyone everyday. It will be noticed that this benediction, which is also known as the Namaskara Mahamantra (Great hymn of obeisance) and which has been hailed as the destroyer of all sins and giver of all that is auspicious is nothing but remembering and showing veneration to the five venerable paragons of spiritual virtues. It is also worthy of note that there is no mention of any particular person in its text. It is purely qualitative in nature and says that our obeisance is to all those who exhibit these spiritual qualities. It goes without saying that by remembering, recalling, venerating and bowing to such virtuous personae we are forced to reflect on the qualities that made them so venerable and feel motivated to inculcate them in our own selves. This motivation itself is the very first step on the journey to spiritual progress and perfection. Abridged Forms of Namaskara Mahamantra - Several abridged forms of this great hymn are in vogue. The following four that are more famous and in wide circulation are as follows: - 1. "Arihanto Bhagavanta Indra-Mahitah, Siddhasca siddhisthitah/ Acaryah Jinasasanonnatikara), pujyah Upadhyayakah || Sri siddhanta-supathakah Munivarah, Ratnatrayaradhakah / Pascaite Paramesthinam pratidinam, kurvantu no mangalami ll" (Lords Arihantas, the slayers of spiritual foes, are venerated by even Indras the celestial kings; Siddhas, the ultimate accomplished perfected souls, are situated in their eternal abode - Siddhi; Acaryas, the heads of religious orders, ensure the progress of the Jina order; Upadhyayas, the preceptor-teachers are highly venerated and Munivara, the dedicated ordained BENEDICTION : 9

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ascetics engaged in the study of the right precepts and practice of three conceptual gems. May these five paragons of spiritual virtues bring beneficence to the religious order everyday). 2. "Namorhatsiddhacaryopadhyayasarvasadhubhyah //" (Obeisance to all the Arihantas, Siddhas, Acaryas, Upadhyayas and the monks). 3. "ASIAUSA" It is an acronym that stands for the five paragons as follows: Arihanta or Arhanta, Siddha, A - Acarya, Upadhyaya, and SA - Sadhu. 4. 3 - pronounced as 'A "'UM'It is also an acronym that is expanded as follows: Arihanta or Arhanta Asariri (Incorporeal or body less Siddha) Acarya, Upadhyaya, and Muni (ordained monk or Sadhu). Like this, we can see that within the Jaina fraternity the reach of this great hymn, believed to be bestowed with miraculous powers to ensure the well-being of its believers, is universal. 10 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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SECTION - I MAHAVIRA AND JAINISM

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This section - MAHAVIRA AND JAINISM -- I introduces, in a historical perspective, Mahavira, the last Prophet-propounder of the creed, called Jainism and comprised of Non-violence (Ahimsa), Restraint (Samyama) and Penance (Tapa) as the giver of the auspicious to its followers. After stating the three-fold nature of reality (Sat) according to the Jaina thought, it proceeds to state the Jaina view on the nature of the soul (Atma) and the karma and the concept of the beginningless association and that of liberation. While doing so it also dwells on the issue of theism versus atheism and whether Jainism is theist or atheist. In view of the paramount importance of Ahimsa or non-violence in the Jaina way of life, it has been dealt with in an entire chapter.

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MAHAVIRA : THE MESSIAH OF MERCY Vardhaman Mahavira - Born a prince in the principality of Ksatriyakundagrama of the republic of Vaisali, Vardhaman Bhagvan Mahavira was the apple of the eyes of His parents - Noble king Siddhartha of the Jnatrlineage and his charming queen consort, Trisala, the beloved daughter of famous king Cetaka of Videha. He became the twenty-fourth and the last Tirtharkara (Prophet Propounder of the Jaina faith). Birth - He was born on the midnight of the thirteenth of the bright half of the lunar month of Caitra in the year 599 BC when the moon was in conjunction with the Uttara-falguni constellation. There are a number of incidents associated with His birth. Some of them are equally believed by both the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions and on some there are differences of opinions between the two. However, they are as follows: - 1. As a Tirtharikara to be he was endowed with the three perceptions - Sensory, Scriptural and Clairvoyant - since his conception in the mother's womb. 2. His mother to be had the vision of fourteen divine and auspicious dreams', which only the mothers to be of the Digambara tradition believes in 16 auspicious dreams.

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Tirtharkaras and the Cakravartins have. These fourteen dreams were - 1. The white elephant, 2. The ox-bull, 3. The Lion, 4. The goddess Laksmi, 5. The flowergarland descending from the heavens, 6. The Moon, 7. The Sun, 8. The flowing flag, 9. The golden pot filled with clean water, 10. The lotus pond, 11. The sweet water sea, 12. The lotus shaped heavenly spacecraft (Vimana), 13. The pile of precious gems and 14. The smokeless fire. 3. As soon as He was conceived, the gods showered great wealth and filled king Siddhartha's treasury with precious metals and gems. 4. Since his conception the republic started prospering in every way and the parents decided to name the child as 'Vardhaman? 5. The Svetambara tradition believes that Vardhamana's soul was first conceived by Devananda, a Brahmin lady, the wife of Rsabhadatta, a learned Brahmin scholar. When Sakra, the heavenly king, realised that a Tirtharkara must be born of noble parentage such as the kings and the queens only, he asked his lieutenant Harinagamesi god to interchange the foetus in the womb of Devananda with that in the womb of queen Trisala. The order was duly carried out and Vardhaman Mahavira was, thus, born of the royal womb. 6. While Vardhaman was still in his mother's womb, he thought that his foetal movements might cause discomfort to his mother and he stopped moving. The mother, however, thought differently and interpreted the lack of movement by the foetus as foetal death and became very much distressed. Realising the intensity of mother's affection and attachment for even an unborn child, the Prophet to be vowed that he would not accept monastic ordination as long as his parents lived. 14: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Chidhood And Education - Vardhaman was a very handsome, healthy, intelligent, accomplished and an extraordinarily brilliant child who was rather serious by nature and very quick to learn. At the age of eight he was sent to the professors of arts and crafts (Kalacarya and silpa carya), who were very happy to have him as a pupil and taught him all that they knew with great enthusiasm and alacrity. Vardhaman quickly learnt all that they had to teach and became proficient in worldly as well as divine knowledge. Mahavira Mahavira - In his childhood itself Vardhaman was quite bold and fearless. Some events that brought his this quality to the fore and earned him the title of Mahavira that stuck to him for all times to come, were as follows: - 1. Once when Vardhaman was playing in the garden with his friends, a fierce serpent wound itself on the trunk of the tree on which they had climbed. The children were frightened and started crying. However, Vardhaman quickly got down and fearlessly catching the serpent from its tail left it at a safe distance. 2. Once a mad elephant loosened itself and started creating havoc in the streets. People panicked and started running helter-skelter. Vardhaman confronted it bravely and skilfully subdued it. Everyone praised him for his bravery. 3. Once a villainous magician adopted the form of a child and started playing with the group that was playing pick a back". As soon as Vardhaman rode his back, the magician started growing taller and taller. The other hildren panicked but not Vardhaman, he keeled him by pressing the magician hard on his vital points and forced him to bag his pardon for his villainy. MAHAVIRA : THE MESSIAH OF MERCY : 15

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Prince Mahavira Mahavira Vardhaman grew into a fine young man but he was given to deep thought and kept to himself thinking and reflecting over things that others found of little interest. He thought about the pain and misery of the world at large and the pitiable plight of the worldly living beings. He wanted to devote his life to finding ways and means to mitigate the miseries and to discover a way of life that could make everyone happy. His parents and the elder brother, Nandivardhan, however, had different plans for him and got him married to a beautiful princess Yasasvati.' Soon he was a father of an extraordinarily beautiful daughter whose name was Priyadarsana. However, his mood did not undergo any substantial change and he remained aloof and withdrawn from mundane pleasures. The time flew and soon he was twenty-eight when his parents passed away. He thought that the time was then ripe for him to leave the worldly life and to become a monk. He was, however, persuaded by his brother to wait for another two years, which he agreed. Monk Mahavira - At the age of thirty Vardhaman Mahavira left the princely life and accepted monastic self-ordination and became a monk. Immediately he also gained the unlimited telepathic perception. He plucked his hair in five handfuls disrobed himself of all clothes save a divine body wrap devotedly presented by Devendra the king of heavenly gods.2 This piece of cloth, too, was discarded by him when it got entangled in the thorny bushes. Mahavira left his home-town and toured the countryside observing most severe penance and mostly devoting his time to intense meditative This is the Svetambara belief; the Digambara tradition believes that Mahavira did not marry and was ordained a monk as a celibate. 2 The Digambara tradition believes that no such piece of cloth was retained by Him. 1 16: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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contemplation. He went about like this for a period of twelve and a half years during which time he observed complete silence, speaking only to enquire about the route, or to seek permission to stay or to answer someone's questions. He also toured the part of the country inhabited by uncivilised and wicked tribesmen who subjected him to unbearable physical torture such as beating, etc. Once some cow-heard even drove pegs in his ears. He bore all those afflictions with courage and fortitude. At the end of this period, his penance and meditation bore fruit. He destroyed the four types of destructive karma and gained enlightenment. Omniscient Tirthankara Mahavira - Having destroyed the four destructive karma, Mahavira became perfectly undeluded, gained omniscience, omnivision and realised his full spiritual potential. When the news of His enlightenment reached the highly learned Brahmin priests Indrabhuti, Vayubhuti, Agnibhuti, etc, they decided to challenge Him. Eleven of them came and had a change of heart as soon as the Lord removed their lingering doubts about the real form of the soul etc. They became His very first and principal disciples (Ganadharas). Omniscient Lord Mahavira now started preaching and established a four-fold religious order comprising monks, nuns, as well as lay male and female followers. This order is known as 'Tirtha' or the ford to go across the ocean of mundane existence and, therefore, the Lord Prophet is known as 'Tirthankara' or the establisher of Tirtha. Vardhaman Mahavira, thus became the twenty-fourth and the last Tirthankara of the descendant phase of the current time-cycle. His teachings were on time honoured lines but he gave a new insight with which to interpret the existing knowledge. His very first sermon was regarding the nature of reality, which was continuously changing yet constant. When he said, "The reality about things and beings is that they are born, they are destroyed and they are constant." This seeming contradiction was resolved when he explained that MAHAVIRA: THE MESSIAH OF MERCY : 17 -

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for everything the matter remains the sane but its modes change all the time. When one mode gives way to another, the former is destroyed while the latter is born. This new insight into the reality of things enabled His principal disciples to interpret their learning with a new perspective and compose the twelve primary cannons and the fourteen pre-canons. Messiah Of Mercy - Mahavira's teachings were based on only one principal premise - non-violence towards all the living beings how-soever big or small, developed or undeveloped, one-sensed or fivesensed, intelligent or unintelligent. All the precepts that He gave were designed to ensure this perfect non-violence in thought, words and deeds, and in action, order or approval. He maintained that all living beings wanted to live, none wanted to die; all of them loved pleasure and shunned pain. Therefore, our actions might be such as to ensure that we did not kill any creature, did not cause any hurt to any of its ten kinds of vitality and treated all of them with utmost care and compassion. He preached, "We must seek friendship with all and animosity towards none. We must not only live ourselves but let others live as well". His merciful disposition and the feeling of universal love were so potent that His very presence could calm the most poisonous serpent, Candakausika, that was famous for its poisonous hiss and was known to kill at sight. He saw that the soul in its purest form was an abode of infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite prowess and eternal bliss and preached a three-way path to gain spiritual emancipation, on attaining which all these qualities of the soul are realised. He maintained that this was the most natural state of the soul, which was disturbed by the karmic encumbrance that could be shed by right endeavour (conduct) in the light of right-vision and rightknowledge. He preached that right-vision was nothing but the 18: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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ability to see things as they are in an undeluded state of mind. Right-knowledge was the knowledge that was interpreted in the light of the right perspective gained through right-vision and that the mental, physical and vocal activities in accordance with the right--knowledge and right-vision was the right-conduct. He preached a two-tiered code of conduct. One for the clergy was more severe and stringent and left no room for any violation. The other, for the laity was less so and catered to their need for leading householders' lives. He said that all the vows -- major or minor -- were to support one view that we must be as non-violent as possible. We must refrain from untruth and theft because they hurt others while we resort to them for meeting our selfish ends. Celibacy is advisable for it prevents us from indulging in many a sinful deed. We must renounce possessions as far as possible and completely overcome attachment for them, for it is one of the most potent cause of violence and thereby of keeping the soul shackled in mundane bondage. He preached non-violence and universal friendship that translated itself into kindness and compassion for all. He was the true 'messiah of mercy'. Revolutionary Mahavira - Mahavira was a revolutionary in the true sense of the term. His message was far ahead of its time. He preached equality at a time when the society was in the grip of untouchability. He fought caste--system and maintained that it is the actions of a person and not the accident of his birth that determine his caste. One is a Brahmin if one's actions are righteous; one is a Ksatriya if one protects the others; one is a Vaisya if one trades with honesty and one is a true servant if one serves faithfully. He had the courage of His convictions and stood up to condemn the violence that marred the religious ritual offerings in which the animal-sacrifice was rampant. He gave the clarion MAHAVIRA : THE MESSIAH OF MERCY : 19

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call that nothing beneficial could result from bad and sinful deeds like killing innocent animals in the name of religion and that the perpetrators of such violence would certainly be condemned to suffer the miseries of hells. At a time when intellectual strife was at its pinnacle and various religious philosophies, plunged in the darkness of their absolutist views, were at loggerheads with each other, each trying to prove others false, Lord Mahavira presented His unique gift of enlightened Non-absolutist view (Anekantavada) that paved the way for appreciation of the others' views in relation to their respective frames of reference. Lord Mahavira could appreciate the changing needs of time and the changing human nature and tailored his creed to suit the needs of time. While twenty-two Prophets before him preached only a four vowed ethics, He could summon the courage to break from tradition and preached a five vowed code and convinced the learned followers of Lord Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankara, that the time then needed the fifth vow of celibacy to be explicitly taken rather than implicitly understood. All of them appreciated the need and accepted the five-vowed faith of Mahavira. No wonder, then, that His creed found followers in large numbers amongst all classes of the society and kings and knaves alike became His followers. Srenika Bimbisara, the king emperor of Magadha, the most potent potentate of the time, became His follower and many more followed. His monastic order was open to all the four castes of noble Brahmins and Ksatriyas and not so noble Vaisyas and Sudras. He had the courage to accept the untouchable eaters of carrion, like Harikesibala, into His fold and convert them into highly accomplished monks that became venerated by gods, demigods, kings and laymen alike. 20 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Liberated Mahavira - Mahavira preached His gospel for thirty years for the benefit of the humanity, divinity, animal kingdom and the rest of the living world. His message of universal love and non--violence reverberated in the four corners of the country as well as in the heavens above. At seventy-two, He was still spreading His gospel far and wide but time now came for His departure from the mundane existence, the event for which all living beings crave - liberation. He was staying for the rainy season at Pava, when His four non-destructive types of karma were also exhausted and His spirit was ready to leave behind the confines of a body and was knocking at the doors of perfectly pure incorporeal existence. It wanted to go and make an abode on the Siddhasila in the uppermost part of the universe beyond which there is nothing but the infinite expanse of the non-universal space. At midnight on the fifteenth of the dark half of the lunar month of Kartika, in the year 527 BC, the nirvana call came and leaving the order established by Him in the able hands of His able principal disciple, Sudharma, He breathed His last to be one amongst the supremely accomplished, perfectly pure souls the Siddhas. The Jains celebrate this day as Dipavali till date. The following verse candidly sums up His supreme accomplishment: - "Virah sarva suarasurendra mahitah, Virami budha samisrta / Virenabhihatah svakarmanicayah, Sri Viraya nityami namah|l" (Meaning - "Daily obeisance to Vira by whom His own karmic accumulation has been completely annihilated and so He MAHAVIRA: THE MESSIAH OF MERCY :21

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has become venerated by all the gods and their kings and whose praise is sung by the learned.") What follows in this work is a brief exposition of the precious precepts preached by such enlightened and omniscient Lord Prophet Bhagvan Vardhaman Mahavira. 22: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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JAINISM : AN INTRODUCTION Jaina Dharma - Jaina dharma is the faith propounded and preached by the enlightened Jina (the spiritual conqueror), on attaining omniscience. Universal Character Of Jainism - Jainism, though practised by a minuscule minority of the people of the world, has all the qualities of a universal faith. A religion or faith becomes confined to a particular region or a set of people by virtue of its lack of liberality imposed by its absolutist view--point or dogma. It is this lack of liberality that brings it in conflict with other religions and faiths. Jainism is, possibly, the only faith that has not come into any conflict with any other faith because of its non-absolutist heritage. Universal character is ingrained in its very nomenclature, its outlook, and its actions as well as in its key prayer-verse that we have already cited as BENEDICTION'. The name Jainism is derived from the word Jina', which means conqueror (of the spiritual foes like delusion, passions, etc.) and anyone who attains this accomplishment is a Jina irrespective of one's religious denomination. Its outlook is the most liberal as it maintains that there is a grain of truth in every view - presented by the believers of any philosophies - how-so

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ever limited in scope it may be. Therefore, there is no need to refute any view-point as false. It is this liberal outlook that keeps Jainas out of conflicts that rage between various other faiths and gives it its universal character. The Jaina activities or ethics are, again, not in conflict with any other faith as they are based on the principle of universal non-violence and aim at spiritual upliftment and plead a life-style of restraint and penance for its followers - both the clerics and the laymen. The key-prayer incorporates only bowing to five paragons of spiritual virtues and is absolutely qualitative in nature without any emphasis on any particular person or persons. Again, all those who possess those qualities are venerable to the Jainas irrespective of the caste or creed to which they might belong. What could be more liberal, more universal? Eternality And Historicity Of Jaina Dharma - Eternality - Jaina mythology holds that Jainism is an eternal faith that is believed to have been preached by infinite number of such Jinas in the beginningless past, is being preached by the Jinas present in another inaccessible region called Mahavideha Ksetra at present and which will be preached by infinite number of more such Jinas in the coming times. Each Jina re-emphasises the precepts, preached by the Jinas before Him, as their effect fades with the passage of time. According to the Jaina belief, each aeon (Kala-cakra or time cycle) consists of two phases -- the ascendant phase known as Utsarpini Kala and the descendent phase known as the Avasarpini Kala. Each of these phases is further sub-devided into six eras known as Ara. In each of these phases twenty-four Jinas or Prophet-propounders propound and preach the faith at widely separated epochs of time in the third and the fourth Aras of each phase. Presently, we are living in the fifth Ara of the Avasarpini Kala or the descendent time phase of the current time-cycle. In the third and the fourth Aras of this descendent time phase, too, 24 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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twenty-four Prophet-propounders (Tirtharikaras)propounded and preached the faith to the people of their times. The first of these Tirtharkaras was Lord Ksabhadeva who lived and preached innumerable years ago and the last - twenty-fourth -- Tirtharkara, Lord Mahavira, lived and preached nearly two and a half millenniums ago. The version of Jainism that we follow today was preached by Bhagvan Mahavira. Historicity - The historicity of the Jaina tradition is amply borne out by both literary as well as archaeological evidence. The traditional history of the Jainas from the earliest times of the first Tirthankara Lord Rsabhadeva (Circa third period of the present descendent time cycle) to the last Tirtharkara Lord Maha vira (Circa 6th Century BC in the fourth period of the same phase of the current time cycle) can be traced from the events mentioned in the Jaina scriptures. According to the Jaina tradition, ages ago the first Tirthankara, Lord Rsabhadeva, was the initiator of the transition of the human civilisation from that of the culture of enjoyment (Bhoga samskrti in which one didn't have to work for one's livelihood as all one's needs were fulfilled by divine trees called Kalpavrksas) to that of the culture of action (Karma samskrti in which one had to work for one's livelihood). He also established the traditions of agriculture, education, warfare, state-craft, legal system, etc. Actually, before Him the society was led by the headmen who were called Kulakaras (Rsabha's father - Nabhiraj - was the last Kulakara) and He was the first ever king who ruled the country. After firmly establishing the systems of the society and the state and ruling for an immeasurably long period of time Rsabha relinquished His temporal powers in favour I "Adimani Prthvinathani ca, adimani Nisparigraham/ Adimani Tirthanathani ca, Sri Ksabhasvaminami stumah //" - Sakalarhat Stavan, 3 JAINISM : AN INTRODUCTION: 25

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of His eldest son, Bharata, and became the very first ascetic! engaged in the pursuit of spiritual enlightenment, after attaining which He preached the faith and established the four-fold religious order referred to as 'ford (tirtha)'and became the very first Tirthankara (founder of the ford)', and salvation, which He, ultimately, attained atop Mt. Kailasa referred to as Astapada in the Jaina lore. The eldest of His one hundred sons, Bharata, became the very first paramount sovereign or king--emperor (Cakravarti) of the land that was named as Bharatavarsa after him. In this connection Dr. Hermann Jacobi wrote, "there was nothing to prove that Lord Parsvanatha was the founder of Jainism. Jaina tradition is unanimous in holding Lord Rsabhadeva, the first Tithankara as its founder and there may be something historical in the tradition which takes Him as the first Tirtharkara." With such reliable evidence being available, there is nothing to prevent us from believing that Jainism is the most ancient religious philosophies of the world that started with the advent of human civilisation and evolved with time. After Lord Rsabhadeva, there was a succession of twentythree Tirtharkaras who propounded and preached almost the same precepts and practices that the first Tirtharikara had propounded with due modifications felt necessary due to the changing times and the changing human nature. Lord Mahavira (599-527 BC) became the last Prophet--propounder (Tirthankara). Lord Parsvanatha, the twenty-third Tirtharkara, is accepted as a historical personality by the modern historians such as Vincent Smith, RC Mazumdar and RK Mukerjee, who regard Him as a great preacher of Jaina Dharma. He was the prince of Varanasi, who became an ordained monk, practised grave penance and achieved spiritual enlightenment, propounded the faith and preached it for nearly seventy years before He ultimately attained nirvana atop Sammedasikhara (Parasnath Hill) in the Jharkhand state. Before Him, the twenty-second Prophet, Lord Aristanemi, 26 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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was a cousin of Lord Krsna and there could be little doubt about His historical veracity. He lived and preached in the Saurastra region in the western India and attained nirvana atop the Urjayantagiri or Mt. Girnar. Similarly, historical instances are found in the Jaina lore about the remaining twenty-one Tirtharikaras as well and there is no reason to question Their historicity in the absence of evidence to the contrary. Also, there is ample archaeological evidence to prove that the Jainism did not originate with the accepted historical figure - Lord Parsvanatha, but aeons ago with Lord Rsabhadeva, who is referred to as Adinatha (the first lord) for this very reason. The following is an account of such archaeological evidence: - . It has been recorded that king Kharavela of Kalinga, in his second invasion of Magadha in 161 BC, brought back an idol of Agrajina or the first Jina (Rsabhadeva), which had been carried away from Kalinga three centuries earlier by king Nanda-1. This shows that in the 5th century BC, Lord Rsabhadeva was worshipped and that His idol was highly valued by His followers. B. In the Indus valley excavations some nude male terracotta figures were found. It clearly shows that Jaina faith was followed by the people of the Indus valley civilisation as the worship of nude male deities is a very well-established practice in Jainism. C. On one of the seals were found engraved nude figures of six male deities standing in contemplative mood with their hands held very close to their bodies' (Kayotsarga mudra). This practice of contemplating in standing posture is peculiar only to the Jainas. This shows that the figures were of Jaina ascetics. JAINISM : AN INTRODUCTION: 27

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D. The figures of male deities in contemplative mood in standing or sitting postures resemble the currently worshipped figures of Jaina Tirthankaras. E. On some seals we find the figure of a bull engraved under the figure of a nude male deity practising penance in the Kayotsarga mudra i.e. in a standing posture. These figures appear to be those of Lord Rsabhadeva as in the Jaina tradition there is an established practice of depicting the emblem (lanchana) of each Tirthankara below their figures and that a bull is the emblem of Lord Rsabhadeva. F. Sacred signs of swastikas, drawn in Jaina and Hindu style are also found engraved on some seals. G. Some motifs on some seals found in Mohan-Jo-Daro resemble those found in the ancient Jaina art of Mathura and suggest that Jainism was prevalent in that civilisation at that ancient time (3500-3000 BC). Recently, reputed scholar saint Acarya Vidyanandaji, has concluded from his research on the relics from the excavations at Mohan-Jo-Daro in the Indus valley, that Jainism was prevalent at least 5000 years ago. All this evidence points at a very ancient origin of Jainism and it is now recognised as one of the oldest religions of the world. We, therefore, can justifiably conclude that all the twentyfour Tirthankaras mentioned in the Jaina scriptures and religious lore were historical persons and that Jainism originated an immeasurably long time ago with the advent of the first Tirthankara, Lord Rsabhadeva, and that twenty-three Prophets that followed down the ages preached essentially the same precepts with certain modifications necessitated by changing times. 28: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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The Twenty-four Tirtharkaras - The twenty-four Tirtharkaras, who propounded and preached the Jaina precepts to the people of their times in the current descendent time phase are -- 1. Lord Rsabhadeva, 2. Lord Ajitanatha, 3. Lord Sambhavanatha, 4. Lord Abhinandana, 5. Lord Sumatinatha, 6. Lord Padmaprabha, 7. Lord Suparsvanatha, 8. Lord Candraprabha, 9. Lord Suvidhinatha, 10. Lord Sitalanatha, 11. Lord Sreyanisanatha, 12. Lord Vasupujya, 13. Lord Vimalanatha, 14. Lord Anantanatha, 15. Lord Dharmanatha, 16. Lord Santinatha, 17. Lord Kunthunatha, 18. Lord Aranatha, 19. Lord Mallinatha, 20. Lord Munisuvrata, 21. Lord Naminatha, 22. Lord Aristanemi, 23. Lord Parsvanatha, and 24. Lord Vardhamana Mahavira. The faith preached by these Tirtharkaras - fordmakers - was essentially the same with modifications incorporated by each to suit the needs of His time. For example, the first and the twenty-fourth Tirtharkaras preached a five dimensional faith (Pancayama dharma), consisting of the five great vows of completely refraining from violence, untruth, stealing, sexual JAINISM : AN INTRODUCTION: 29

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indulgence and possessions or attachment thereto, for the members of the clergy of their religious order while the remaining twentytwo Prophets preached a four dimensional faith (Caturyama dharma) consisting of only four great vows except that of refraining from sexual indulgence. It, however, does not mean that they propounded a permissive monastic order but only means that their monks and nuns perfectly understood that completely refraining from any possessions or attachment thereto also had an implied injunction against sexual indulgence. The Three Hallmarks Of Jainism - When we talk about any creed our attention goes to the very basic components that give it a distinct identity. In the case of Jainism the three very basic ingredients that characterise it are 1. Non-violence (Ahimsa), 2. Restraint (Samyama) and 3. Penance (Tapa). These three can, very easily, be said to be its hallmarks. The word 'Dharma' has very wide connotations and various seers and thinkers down the ages have defined it variously. One view holds that Dharma is nothing but a capacity to distinguish between the right and the wrong and then doing the right and to avoid the wrong. In this sense it is the very philosophy of life. Another view, very close to the first one, holds that Dharma is to do one's duty. The Jaina view is that to act in accordance with one's true nature is Dharma (Vatthu-sahavo dhammo). In keeping with the Jaina concept and definition of Dharma, the Jaina faith emphasises only those activities for its followers that lead them towards their true selves. The three hallmarks of Jainism - Non-violence, Restraint and Penance - are the means to lead the soul towards its true nature -- purity- and to its ultimate destination - freedom from the misery of mundane existence, which is variously stated as Spiritual salvation, Spiritual emancipation, Liberation, Final deliverance, Mukti, Nirvana or Moksa. 30 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Three Hallmarks - The ultimate aim of any endeavour of any living being is to gain pleasure. Pleasure could be either physical that feels good to the body and senses or it can be spiritual in which case it is called bliss. It is a matter of common experience that what is auspicious is blissful and what is inauspicious is painful. Dharma, which is sublime, ought to be auspicious. The Jaina seers have said that Dharma is the foremost auspiciousness. However, they have specified that only that Dharma is auspicious, which is characterised by Non-violence, Restraint and Penance and they have stated that even the heavenly gods bow to them that have their minds always firmly established in such a faith. The very first verse of famous Jaina scripture 'Dasavaikalika-sutra reads "Dhammo mangalamukkittham, Ahimsa Sanjamo Tavo | Deva vi tami namamisanti, jassa Dhamme saya mano ||" Non-Violence (Ahimisa) - Non-violence is the first and the foremost tenet of Jainism. Every Jaina proclaims that it is every follower's foremost duty to practice non-violence (Ahinisa paramo dharmah). This concept is so central to Jainism and it is it's so important a hallmark that I have devoted entire third chapter of this book to it. Restraint - The second hallmark of Jainism is self-restraint or Samyama. Samyama means control. Hence restraint is nothing but proper self-control. The Jaina thought places great emphasis on Samyama (Vinaya), so much so that the faith is said to be rooted in Vinaya (Vinaya mulao dhammo). Restraint is an exact opposite of lack of restraint, which is nothing but recklessness dealt with in the last section on non-violence. As recklessness arises from negligence, restraint is an outcome of vigilance. In more specific terms restraint is control on one's body, mind and speech as well as on passions - anger, pride, guile and greed. It is not difficult JAINISM: AN INTRODUCTION: 31

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to appreciate that a person under the influence of these passions and not vigilant enough to control the activities of his body, mind and speech will tend to be unrestrained and reckless. Part And Whole Restraint - Whole or complete restraint means carefully avoiding and not indulging in any sinful activity, which, in turn, involves complete suppression of passions and media of action - body, mind and speech - and is quite difficult to achieve. Only the very highly righteous monks are able to achieve this supreme accomplishment. However, even giving up one or more means of sinful activities by partly suppressing passions and media of activities is desirable and is, therefore, termed as part restraint. It must be understood that all unrestrained activities are sinful and they soil, tarnish and vitiate the soul as they result in karmic bondage and even part restraint prevents this karmic bondage to the extent that restraint is practised. Types Of Self-restraint (Saniyama)? - In the Jaina literature various types of restraints have been mentioned. They depend upon the media, means and victims of one's actions. Four types of divisions based on these varying considerations are as follows: - 1. This division is based on the control of senses and care in dealing with ten types of vitality of the living beings. The seventeen types of controls that fall in this category are given below:A. Restrained Senses (Indriya Samyama) involving - i Restrained sense of touch, ii Restrained sense of taste, iii Restrained sense of sight, iv Restrained sense of smell, V Restrained sense of hearing, ? First Steps To Jainism, pp. 93-96. 32 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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vi vii Restrained sense of thoughts (mind is considered to be half a sense-organ), Restrained speech, which is also a function of the mind and the tongue. B. Restrained activities in relation to the vitalities of the living beings (Prana Samyama) --- V111 Not hurting touch-vitality (Sparsa-prana Samyama), ix Not hurting taste-vitality (Rasa-prana Samyama), Not hurting sight-vitality (Caksu-prana Samyama), xi Not hurting smell-vitality (Ghrana-prana X Samyama), xii Not hurting hearing-vitality (Sabda-prana Samyama). xiii Not hurting respiratory-vitality (Svasocchavasa-- prana Samyama), xiv Not hurting longevity-vitality (Ayu-prana Samyama), XV Not hurting Power-vitality (Bala-prana Samyama), xvi Not hurting verbal-vitality (Vacana-prana Saniyama), xvii Not hurting thought-vitality (Mana-prana Samyama). 2. The second division, also prescribing seventeen selfcontrols is based on types of victims of our actions and miscellaneous other controls. They are as follows: A. Restraints in dealing with five kinds of static one-sensed beings -- Restraints in dealing with Earth-bodied beings, ii Restraints in dealing with Water-bodied beings, Restraints in dealing with Air-bodied beings, 111 iv Restraints in dealing with Fire-bodied beings, Restraints in dealing with vegetational-bodied beings, V JAINISM: AN INTRODUCTION: 33

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B. Restrained dealings with four types of mobile living beingsvi Restraints in dealing with two-sensed beings, vii Restraints in dealing with three-sensed beings, viii Restraints in dealing with four-sensed beings, ix Restraints in dealing with five-sensed beings, C. Miscellaneous restraints - x Avoidance of attachment towards possessions, xi Vigilance in sitting, sleeping, walking, etc. xii Indifference towards mundane activities, xiii Careful disposal of the wastes and excretions, xiv Careful inspection and maintenance of monastic equipage, XV Thought control, xvi Speech control, and xvii Body control. 3. The third division also prescribes seventeen self controls and is as follows: - A. Restrained Senses (Indriya Samyama) involving: i Restrained sense of touch, ii Restrained sense of taste, iii Restrained sense of sight, iv Restrained sense of smell, v Restrained sense of hearing, B. Restricting five means of karmic influx: vi Restricting violence, vii Restricting untruth, viii Restricting stealing, ix Restricting sexual indiscipline, X Restricting accumulation, 34 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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C. Conquerit g passions: xi Conquering anger, xii Conquering pride, xiii Conquering guile, xiv Conquering greed, D. Restrictions over the media of action: XV Controlled mind, xvi Controlled body, xvii Controlled speech. 4. The fourth division prescribes control over the four media of action - i Control over mind, ii Control over body, iii Control over speech, and iv Control over the implements of violence. It is plain from this analysis that Jainism accords very high priority to self-restraint and the comprehensive coverage given to it proves that it is an essential part of Jaina ethics. From this analysis it also becomes quite apparent that self-restraint and non-violence are complementary and that it is impossible to practice one without adhering to the other. Penance - Penance (Tapa) is the third hallmark of Jainism. Observance of non-violence and self-resteraint only result in avoiding fresh karmic bondage with the soul. However, the soul cannot achieve its ultimate goal of attaining spiritual emancipation without shedding the karmic bonds bonded earlier. Penance is the means to achieve such separation of the soul from the earlier bonded karma matter. The glorious place accorded to penance in the scheme of spiritual progress is evident from the fact that it has JAINISM : AN INTRODUCTION: 35

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been accepted as one of the three hallmarks of the faith. When the karmic bonds are destroyed, as a result of penance, the soul becomes purer and purer and there comes a time when all the karmic covers obscuring infinite vision and infinite knowledge are removed and the soul becomes enlightened and omniscient. With the passage of time when even the four non-destructive types of karma are also exhausted, the soul becomes fully emancipated and liberates from the shackles of mundane existence. Qualities Of Penance - From the qualitative point of view, penance may be of two types. The first type is the penance of the ignorant (Bala-tapa), which is undertaken with a view to achieve mundane accomplishments such as wealth, good health, freedom from worldly worries, supernatural accomplishments like changing form at will, walking on water, walking on air, etc. The second type is the penance of the wise (Pandita-tapa), which is undertaken without any mundane desires and purely with a view to shed the karmic bondage associated with the soul and aims at only the final liberation of the soul. It is the second type of penance, which is the real or the right penance as it is the one that ensures freedom of the practitioner soul from mundane desires and passions. External And Internal Penance - From the practice point of view, the penance is either external (Bahya-tapa) that is the visible type of penance by virtue of its mainly physical nature and relationship with external agencies or internal (Abhyantara--tapa), which is the invisible form of penance by virtue of its mainly mental and spiritual nature and lack of relationship with external agencies. These two types of penance are respectively interrelated to each other as each type of external penance aids the practice of the corresponding type 36 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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of internal penance. For instance, fasting aids expiation; reduced diet penance makes the practitioner humble; mendicancy penance is mainly with a view to serving the elders, ailing and the feeble of the order; forsaking taste helps one overcome lethargy and consequent negligence and aids self-study; tolerance for physical pain gives one stability necessary to maintain the concentration while meditating and withdrawal helps in giving up all types of attachments. Each of these types are six in number, as follows: - un AWN 6 External Penance Internal Penance Fasting (Anasana) Expiation (Prayascitta), Reduction (Avamaudarya) Vinaya (Humility) Mendicancy (Bhiksacarya) Service (Vaiyavrtya) Taste-control Self-study (Svadhyaya) (Rasa-parityaga) Physical tolerance Meditation (Dhyana) (Kaya-klesa) Withdrawal (Pratisallinata) Renunciation (Vyutsarga) The following are the details of these types of penance: - External Penance (Bahya-Tapa) - 1. Fasting Penance (Anasana Tapa) - Asana means food, which is of four types - Staple food (Asana), Liquid food and drinks (Panak), nutrititional supplements (Khadya) and taste improvers or mouth fresheners (Svadya). Fasting means willingly giving up these types of food and the desire thereof. The fasting can be for fixed pre-decided duration (Itvarika anasana) or for the entire duration of the rernaining life (Yavatkathita or Amarana anasana). While the fasts of pre-decided fixed duration could be undertaken in various permutations and combinations, the fasts unto death are of three types, namely 1. Bhaktapratyakhyana, which involves giving up foods with no other restrictions, 2. Ingini-marana, which involves confinement to a pre-decided place besides giving up of JAINISM : AN INTRODUCTION: 37

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all types of food, and 3. Padapopagamana, which, apart from giving up all foods, involves cessation of all movements and lying motionless, like a fallen tree. 2. Reduction Penance (Avamaudarya or Unodari Tapa) Reducing one's diet, clothing, other equipage and passions is called Avamaudarya tapa or reduction penance. The first two types are physical in nature and are referred to as material reduction penance and the third category is at the psychical level and is called psychic or volitional reduction penance. Each of these categories has several sub types. 3. Mendicancy penance (Bhiksacarya Tapa) - To beg for one's means of sustenance, which involves giving up one's pride, as well as for serving the other old, feeble, ill and students in the monastic groups is called Bhiksacarya tapa or mendicancy penance. With reference to matter, place, time and mode, this penance is of four types. Here it must be understood that this form of mendicancy is not out of penury but with a view to rendering service, limiting one's requirements and conquering pride. The Jaina mendicant has several restrictions placed on the type of food and other necessities that can be accepted as alms and ensures that he accepts only the flawless ones, which help rather than hinder his spiritual practices. 4. Penance of Forsaking Taste (Rasaparityaga Tapa) - The aim of eating, according to the Jaina view is to sustain life and not to eat for tingling the taste buds. In other words a follower of the Jaina faith eats to live rather than living to eat. Also, it is more than probable that tasty food eaten with delight is overeaten and may result in lethargy, which will ultimately result in negligence and adversely affect spiritual performance. The six types of tastes/foods that are considered especially tasteful and result in attachment to food and which a steadfast adherent of the 38 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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faith gives up are milk, curds, butter, oil, sweets and salts. 5. Penance of Tolerating Physical Discomfort (Kaya-klesa Tapa)- The aim of this type of penance is to make the body so tolerant and pliable that it does not flinch when rigours of spiritual life present themselves. However, body is also the medium of all religious practices and it is not to be hurt or harmed in any way by undertaking unduly harsh measures. To train oneself to overcome the love for physical comforts and to endure the hardships of spiritual life, the spiritual aspirant adopts various bodily postures, endures vagaries of weather, plucks own hair, etc. It is the physical adventure of the spiritualist that gives him the same type of pleasure as a mountaineer feels while enduring hardships while scaling the peaks. 6. Withdrawal Penance (Pratisallinata Tapa) - This penance involves withdrawal from mundane pleasures and devoting oneself to spiritual upliftment only. In other words all extrovert interests are subjugated in favour of introversion and means that the body, mind and speech are constantly watched and diverted inwards. This endeavour succeeds best when the physical environment is conducive to such withdrawal and, therefore, lonely residence free from distractions of residents, animals and way-fareres as well as from the attractions wrought by various sounds, smells, touches, tastes and sights is recommended for the aspirant desirous of practising withdrawal. Such withdrawal results in conquest of passions and desires and ensures full attention towards spiritual pursuits. Internal Penance (Abhyantara Tapa) -- 1. Expiation Penance (Prayscitta Tapa)- To accept one's faults in observing the accepted vows of right-conduct and sins committed under the influence of passions etc, JAINISM: AN INTRODUCTION: 39

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to atone for them and to resolutely endeavour not to repeat such faults is the expiation penance. It can be achieved through confession and repentance by the defaulter himself and punishment and relegation or rustication awarded by the head of the monastic group. 2. Humility Penance (Vinaya Tapa) - To show reverence and veneration towards one's superiors in knowledge, virtues and monastic seniority by bowing, welcoming, rising on their arrival, recalling their virtues with admiration etc. is the humility penance or Vinaya tapa. To show veneration to the learned is Jnana vinaya, to those of steadfast faith is Darsan vinaya, to those of steadfast conduct is Caritra vinaya, to have reverent thought for such venerated personae is Mana-vinaya, to show veneration verbally is Vacana-vinaya, to do it physically is Kaya-vinaya and to do so formally for the sake of courtesy is Lokopacara-vinaya. We have to admit that humility and courtesy are important personal attributes in social life of even the laymen, what to say of the ascetics. 3. Service Penance (Vaiyavrtya Tapa)- Rendering service to the needy, that is to the elders, the ailing ones, the feeble ones and those engaged in scriptural study, etc. has been called a penance as it requires the noble qualities like tolerance, patience, attention, and extra-ordinary will to serve in the person rendering it. The glory of service is evident from the fact that it has been given priority over gaining knowledge. It has been said in the Uttaradhyayanasutra (29.43) that one who renders selfless service to the deserving may, when one's psychic disposition is of the noblest kind, gain the fruit of rebirth as a Tirthankara. However, such service must be rendered without any selfish motives and includes providing food, accommodation, medicine, etc. 40: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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4. Self-study penance (Svadhyaya Tapa) - Svadhyaya includes scriptural study, teaching, reflection and dissemination. It is considered to be the extra-ordinarily highest form of penance as it helps one acquire rightknowledge on which the entire edifice of spiritual accomplishments can stand. It involves teaching and learning of scriptures (Vacana), enquiry to clarify the doubts (Pracchana), revision (Paravartana), reflection (Anupreksa) and preaching (Dharma-katha). Also, through self-study one destroys the knowledge obscuring karma (Uttaradhyayana, 29.19). 5. Meditation Penance (Dhyana Tapa) - According to the Tattvarthasutra meditation is the concentration of the inner thoughts of a person of good constitution on a single subject ("Uttamasam hanansaikagracintanorodho dhyanam - Tattvarthasutra, 9.27). For an unenlightened worldly being the duration of concentration on a subject or an object is said to be one antarmuhurta or a period of less than forty-eight minutes after which his concentration shifts to focus on a different subject or object. Jaina thought categorises meditation in the following four categories: - A. Despondent Concentration (Arta-dhyana) - The current of thoughts that flows within one's mind when one is beset with miseries or apprehension thereof is called 'Despondent concentration or Arta-dhyana'. The reasons, which actuate this concentration are - 1. Apprehension of something untoward to happen, 2. Apprehension of separation from the dear ones, 3. Apprehension of illnesses and 4. Acute desire to obtain objects of mundane pleasure. This type of concentration is signified by crying, sorrow, wailing and shedding of tears. JAINISM: AN INTRODUCTION: 41

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B. Cruel Concentration (Raudra-dhyana) - The current of cruel thoughts that are directed towards violence, lies, theft, and preservation of worldly pleasures is said to be 'Cruel Concentration or Raudra-dhyana". Such concentration is of four types - 1. Constant Cruel thoughts, 2. Comprehensive cruel thoughts, 3. Several cruel thoughts and 4. Life-long cruel thoughts. C. Pious Concentration (Dharma-dhyana) To concentrate one's mind on the teachings of the Lord, the means of karmic influx and the ways to stop them, the ultimate retribution of the performed actions and karmic bondage incurred therefrom, on the righteous conduct and it's spiritual benefit is said to be 'Pious meditation or Dharma-dhyana'. According to the phases of concentration, the pious concentration is said to be of four types - 1. Concentrating on the scriptural teaching is called Ajna-vicaya dhyana, 2. To concentrate on means of refraining from bad thoughts - passions, attachment and aversion, etc is said to be Apayavicaya dhyana, 3. To concentrate on the inevitable retribution of pious as well as sinful thoughts and deeds is termed as Vipakavicaya dhya na and 4. To concentrate on the form (Samsthana) of the universe is Samsthana-vicaya dhyana. A person who remains engaged in Dharma-dhyana can be recognised by his voluntary inclination, interest and faith in the right faith and the scriptures that contain its teachings. and deeds - D. White (pure) Concentration (Sukla-dhyana) - The concentration achieved when an aspirant totally withdraws from worldly thoughts and concentrates on the spirit and the spiritual subjects is said to be 'Pure meditation or Sukla-dhyana'. This concentration is progressive in nature and starting 42 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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from 1. Concentration on the matter and modes in accordance with the Pre-canons to 2. Concentration on matter or mode of a single object, to 3. Concentration on the final and fine respiratory concentration of the omniscient Lords near their time of liberation to 4. Concentration on the purest soul when even the finest physical, mental and vocal functions are stopped in the final moment of liberation. It follows that this meditation is possible for only those aspirants who have achieved sufficient spiritual purity to be irrevocably on the path to spiritual liberation. This type of concentration is signified by discretion (Viveka), complete renunciation (Vyutsarga), lack of remorse (Avyatha) and lack of delusion (Asammoha). 6. Renunciation Penance (Vyutsarga Tapa) - To renounce everything or being in an 'other than the Self" frame of mind is said to be 'Renunciation penance or Vyutsarga Tapa'. Renunciation can be either material in which the aspirant renounces attachment to own body (Sarira vyutsarga), the monastic order (Gana-vyutsarga), the monastic equipment (Upadhi vyutsarga) and the food (Bhakta-pana vyutsarga) or dispositional in which he renounces the passions (Kasaya vyutsarga), all mundane desires (Samsara vyutsarga) and the means of influx and bondage of eight types of karma (Karma vyutsarga). Nature of Reality - Various Indian philosophies define reality (Sat) variously. The Vedanta says that reality is permanent (dhruva or nitya); the Buddhists believe in an invariably transient (Niranvaya-ksanika) reality; Sankhya philosophy believes in permanent (Kutastha nitya) conscious (living) reality and a permanently transient (Parinami nitya or Nityanitya) non-living reality and the Nyaya and Vaibesika philosophies believe that some elements of the JAINISM : AN INTRODUCTION: 43

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reality are permanent and the remaining elements are transient. However, none of these propositions can explain all the facets of reality and they all have their grey areas. The Jaina philosophy's stand on the nature of reality is reflected in the aphorist Umasvati's words - "Utpada-vyaya-dhrauvyayuktam sat /" (Tattvarthasutra, 5.29) maintains that the entirety of reality exhibits 'creation (utpada), destruction (vyaya) and permanence (dhrauvya). Every object, either animate or inanimate is composed of two parts - one that remains permanent and ever unaltered while the other part is constantly changing with its one mode being expended when the following mode (paryaya) comes into being. The examples of these seemingly contradictory propositions are very easily explained. The animate reality is the soul that resides in every living being. Its modes (dispositions or paryaya) are constantly changing. When one spiritual disposition gives way to its following disposition the earlier disposition is said to have expended (vyaya) and the latter one is said to have been born (utpada), while the conscious matter (Jiva-dravya) remains permanent and unaltered (dhruva) in all the time periods - past, present and future. As an inanimate example, let us take the case of water. When the water freezes we say that it has become ice. In this case the water (liquid) mode (taral paryaya) is expended (vyaya) in favour of the ice (solid) mode (thosa paryaya), which is created (utpada) while the water-matter (Hydrogen-oxide H,O) remains permanent (dhruva) in both its forms. It is also the case when water is heated and becomes steam or when it evaporates and becomes water-vapour. While its modes change from liquid to gaseous, the water-matter (Jala-dravya) remains unaltered in both its forms. The Soul And The Karma - We have referred to the living matter and the non-living matter earlier. It is the living matter that is called spirit or soul. 44 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Jainism believes in plurality of souls and maintains that the universe is inhabited by infinite number of souls, each a conscious unit similar to the other in the sense that in its purest form it is incorporeal, without a wish or a will of its own and is endowed with the infinite quartet of knowledge, vision, bliss and spiritual prowess. The other attributes of the soul are that in their mundane existence they are corporeal and capable of associating themselves with inanimate matter. They assume the shapes and sizes of the bodies in which they are embodied. They have an initial association with karmic matter and depending upon the quality of the actions of their minds or bodies or speech they either attract and bond with particular types of matter called karma pudgala (tangible matter) or shed the earlier bonded karma-matter. The term 'karma' is, generally, taken in two senses. Karma means action as well as the karma-matter that is attracted and bonded with the soul due to the actions of the corporeal mundane soul. In the first sense karma is action and its reaction is the inevitable retribution or fruition that the embodied soul has to experience at some point of time. In the second sense the karma (karma-matter) associated with the soul soils and tarnishes its purity and keeps it bound to the mundane existence. Karma is of two types - meritorious or pious (punya) whose fruition is pleasurable and the sinful (papa) whose fruition is invariably painful. The only way to rid the soul from the initial as well as the freshly bonded karma is to practise penance. When the soul achieves complete and irresidual separation from karma-matter, it breaks away from the mundane existence and rises to the uppermost part of the universe where the abode of such liberated souls (Siddhaloka or Siddhasila or Isatpragbhara prthvi) is. We shall examine this issue in greater detail when we come to the chapter on the 'Jaina Doctrine of karma'. JAINISM: AN INTRODUCTION: 45

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The Theism Of Jainism - According to the orthodox Indian philosophies, believing in the teachings of the Vedas, Jainism is a heterodox atheist religious philosophy that does not believe in the existence of a trinitist God, who is the creator, sustainer and destroyer of the world and who, thereby, controls the destinies of everything and every being. However, in the context of the Indian religious philosophies, this premise is self defeating as the Mimamisa philosophy, which is accepted amongst four orthodox theist philosophies also does not accept God as creator and stands with Jainism in refutation of the postulate that God is at the root of everything that exists. Actually, theism is a type of religious philosophy that incorporates a conception of God as a unitary being and everything in the world as a part-manifestation of His omniscient omnipresent omnipotence. However, Jainism believes in plurality of souls and maintains that all those souls that attain ultimate purity by irresidual separation from karmic bondage, gain omniscience, omni-vision, infinite bliss and infinite spiritual prowess and become Godheads. The Jaina concept of Godheads, however, does not subscribe to the theory of their reincarnation or their involvement in mundane affairs of guiding the actions and the destinies of the worldly beings as the perfected souls (Siddhas) are totally without attachment (Vitaraga) and do not have any wish or will of their own. They also do not, therefore, reincarnate to settle any untoward worldly affairs. Against this backdrop, the Jaina concept of theism is that the religious philosophy that believes in the existence of the soul that keeps taking rebirth as long as it is in its mundane form and is responsible for its actions and the inevitable retribution thereof; the soul that is its own master and that, by its suitable actions and when the time ripens, by completely shedding the karmic bondage becomes a 'Perfect being' or Godhead. It is, therefore, not a Unitarian religious philosophy but a Pluralistic one. 46: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Jainism is, thus, a pluralist theist philosophy that believes in infinite number of souls capable of achieving the status of Godheads. Jaina Axioms The Jaina thought and its logic is based upon certain foretruths that do not brook any arguments. The following are the Jaina axioms: -- A. There are infinite numbers of souls, which are doers of actions through their bodies and enjoyers of fruits thereof. B. There is karma-matter, which soils the soul by its association. C. All souls have an initial association with karma-matter. D. All worldly existence is miserable. E. There is liberation from the misery of the mundane existence. F. There are means to achieve such liberation. is because of belief in these fore-truths that every faithful Jaina considers liberation from mundane existence as his foremost aim, and endeavours to achieve it. All Jaina Prophets visualise these truths, preach them and propound knowledge, and conduct that lead their flocks towards spiritual liberation. Entire Jaina philosophy, metaphysics, cosmology and ethics are based on these fore-truths. We shall examine them in the sections that follow. Wan JAINISM: AN INTRODUCTION: 47

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AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE) THE FOREMOST HALLMARK OF JAINISM What Is Wrong With Himisa? If we keep our eyes open and look around us, we cannot help noticing the huge incidence of violence that pervades the world in its most hideous and nefarious manifestation. We must be shocked out of our reverie at the fact that 99.99 percent of this violence is man-made. The humankind has gone berserk. The world is beset with the killer instinct of the humans sharpened, many-fold, by the newer and newer means of destruction at its command. Be it the wars that rage amongst nations for political and economic reasons or the killing of the members of another creed in the name of religion or those of another race in the name of racial superiority or those of lesser species like the animals, birds and fishes for food or fun or the wanton destruction of the flora and fauna of any region in the name of progress or an unconcerned fouling of the environment, it is all violence in its most devastating forms. But are we so shocked? Each one of us must ask this question to oneself. The humankind is drunk with the power bestowed upon it by its superior intellectual capacity as compared to other species that inhabit the planet Earth. The (so called) scientific and technological progress gives it the power of mass destruction, at times annihilating the complete species of living--beings. Many

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a species is already extinct and many more are at the verge of extinction. Are many of us moved by this grim reality? The present indicators force us to infer that the answer to this vital question is in the negative. This leads me to another vital question -"Whither are we headed?" Not to the dark doom of the world of concrete and steel - totally bereft of vegetation and other lesser species of living-beings, I hope. If we go at the present rate, that day may not be in too distant a future. And if that happens, how long thereafter the human race, too, will last? 'Not much longer should be the voice of reason. What can save the Earth, its flora and fauna, its lifesustaining environment and the human race itself is a realisation of the harmful effects of unnecessary violence and disciplining ourselves so that the human race may continue to live in harmony with other living-beings of the Earth. The answer lies in the concept of Ahimisa or non-violence preached in greater or lesser measure by the seers down the ages - the seers or Prophets that brought various faiths and creeds into being. The Jaina concept of Ahimsa excels both in form and content as it touches upon the finer facets of non-violence hither to unnoticed by many others. The omniscient Jaina prophets -- Trirtharkaras - saw the ultimate in violence and the means to overcome it not only at the physical level but at the thought level as well. They spelled the norms for the survival of the members of not only the human race but that of all other species of livingbeings down to the microscopically minute life-forms such as the fine creatures of vegetable origin as well. They presented vividly detailed models to show that the survival of any one species depends on the support and co-operation extended to it by the creatures of other species. In other words they preached non-violence so that the perpetuation of the natural life-cycle can be ensured and no species becomes extinct. They emphasised that harming or extinction of one species jeopardises the survival AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 49

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of other species also. In their deeply realised wisdom, they gave us the declaration of dependence and the mantra of 'interdependence of species' by saying that all living-beings live with each-others' support (Parasparopagraho jivanam). The Life-cycle - What we and the animals, birds and fishes eat comes from the world of vegetation; what we excrete becomes food for the plants; we inhale the vital Oxygen released by the plants and they convert the Carbon-di-Oxide exhaled by us as food by the process of photosynthesis; the micro-organism survives on and converts the waste into manure that serves the food needs of the plant-life and the plants, in turn, provide food for higher life forms. The nature has its own checks and balances to keep everything to the required levels. The deer eats grass, the predators eat deer, the predators die and their bodies become the food for insects and carrion birds, and so the life cycle goes on balancing itself and providing for everyone's needs. It is only the human interference, driven by the race's greed rather than its need that the natural balance is disturbed. It is the human greed that results in mass deforestations, large-scale movements of species from their natural habitats to inhospitable circumstances and consequent destruction and extinction. The deforestation results in lesser rain-falls, global warming and famines and avoidable all-round misery. The human greed wipes out entire species and puts the survival of the others in gross jeopardy. The industrial progress, sans environmental concerns, has resulted in drilling holes in the Ozone layer, massive industrial and town effluents have polluted both, the ground and ground-water and effluent gases have not only resulted in global warming but have made breathing difficult for the living-beings. Who is responsible for all this dismal picture that stares us in the face and who can take us out of this morass? The answer 50 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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is as clear as the lines on oui palms; it is that the thoughtless and unconcerned gross violence that is responsible for all this misery and that only the pursuit of non-violence can save us. This chapter endeavours to examine, at some length, the issues relating to Ahimsa (Non-violence) as juxtaposed to Hinisa (Violence). The Universal Character of Non-violence - Non-violence supports not only the human lives but also those of all other creatures - big and small- of the universe. It is not possible to think of life without the support of non-violence. Also, no progress is possible in an atmosphere of violence and, therefore, non--violence is an essential ingredient of progress, material as well as spiritual. It is the pursuit of non-violence that results in noble human qualities like love, mercy, compassion, sympathy and morality. All the religions, societies and cultures of the world - Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism Jainism, etc - have accepted the concept of non-violence in greater or lesser measure in accordance with the development of human values in their respective societies and cultures. The concept of non-violence emanated from a consideration for one's own kith and kin and gradually extended to the entire societies, cultures, humanity and to all the living creatures of the universe. It is, therefore, not surprising that all major religious philosophies of the world have preached non-violence in one-way or the other. The Jaina Prophets propounded it as the central theme of their creed around which their entire religious philosophy and ethics were woven. While the Vedic seers saw it as a means of co-existence and mutual protection and universal friendship, the authors of the Upanisadas looked at it as a means of spiritual emancipation and accorded it the same importance as to austerity, charity, simplicity and truth. Manusmrti, the foremost book of Hindu law, prescribed AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 51

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Non-violence, truth, non-stealing, piety and sensory restraint as the complete religion for the members of the four social classes of Brahmins (the wise), Ksatriyas (the warriors), Vaisya (the tradesmen and the traders) and Sudras (the menials). Mahabharata, the most famous and important epic tale of victory of the good over the evil, says that 'Non-violence is the complete creed and violence the ultimate sin'. Buddhism, yet another major religion of the Indian subcontinent, says that one who kills the living cannot be noble; the noble practice non-violence towards all the living. Depicting non-violence as spiritually liberating, it says that those nonviolent ones who practise bodily restraints undoubtedly liberate. Lord Buddha is quoted as having said that he considered only those noble ones as Brahmins who never troubled the stationary or moving classes of creatures. Guru Nanak, the first spiritual master of Sikhism, said that if a piece of cloth is soiled by blood-stains, how could the inner selves of those who drink blood be pure and pious? "Thou shalt not kill' is the most important of Ten Commandments of the Old Testament realised by the Moses. On the positive side it preaches love, service and charity. Jesus Christ not only accepted the Ten Commandments but went a step ahead and said, "Killing apart, you must not hurt the others. If someone slaps your one cheek, offer the other one to him. Love not only your friends but also your enemies." It is plain that He emphasised non-violence even more than it was done in the Zoroastrianism. Islam also advocates non--violence. "One who kills others without reason is liable to death-sentence as per law", it says. To overload and to underfeed the animals is prohibited there. There, Allah (the supreme self) has been described as generous and merciful (Rahaman-ur-Rahim). 52 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Thus we see that non--violence has been universally accepted as a noble virtue and all religious philosophies of the world have emphasised it. Non-Violence (Ahimisa) - As mentioned earlier, non-violence is the only saviour of life and, hence, it ought to be the most important tenet and hallmark of any rational creed. Jainism has given it that distinction. In the following sections of this chapter I have examined various facets of violence and as to how they can be avoided for enjoying a wholesome life. Not limiting the discussion only to the negating of violence by prohibitive means, I have also dwelled, at length, on to the positive and creative side of non-violence. Although non-violence is an essential ingredient of almost all the religions of the world; the meanings ascribed to it differ widely in accordance with the development of humane qualities like social consciousness, human discretion and sensitivity. The more socially conscious, discreet and sensitive a society became the more emphasis it laid on the observance of non-violence. Likewise, the scope of non-violence also enlarged from that towards the kith and kin to towards the members of one's own culture and creed to the entirety of the living universe. It will be worth our while to have a bird's eye view of the meanings ascribed to non-violence in various religious traditions. The concept of non-violence preached by the Zoroastrians, Christianity and Islam remained limited to the kith and kin or, at best to the members of their own creed or the human race. Though the Christianity preached universal love and tolerance, the Crusades of the days of yore told a different story of hatred and intolerance. Though, in Islam the Allah has been depicted as the epitome of generosity and compassion, in practice the followers of Islam have not been seen to be sensitive enough to the AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE) : 53

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sensibilities of the members of other creeds whom they referred to as heretics and pursued holy wars against them. On the Indian peninsular soil also, in the human societies before the Vedic period, the scope of non-violence was limited to the members of the human race. Although the Vedic seers emphasised the noble values like universal friendship and mutual protection and also preached the noble precepts of not killing any living being, in practice it did not flinch at praying for the annihilation of those inimical to their interests and prescribing animal-sacrifice as a religious ritual. They even went to the extent of saying that any violence to perform rituals prescribed in the Vedas was no violence. The Sramanic traditions - Buddhism and Jainism amongst others - took the concept of non-violence to newer heights and opposed the religious violence on the ground that if shedding blood of innocent animals on the altar of the ritual sacrifice was not violence and did not yield hellish rebirths for the perpetrators of such violence, then what did? This resulted in more sublime form of Hinduism that shunned such gross violence and replaced the ritual sacrifices with pursuit of knowledge and devotion to the deity rather than offering animal sacrificial offerings. The Hindu ascetics - Sanyasins also shunned flesh foods and subsisted on bulbs, roots and fruits abundantly found in the forests. The Jaina thought gave the fullest possible expression to the meaning of non-violence and included not only the visible, gross and moving living beings in its ambit but also the immovable static living beings of the vegetable and other origins such as earth, water, air and fire bodied living beings. It did not stop at saying that non-violence was not confined only to not killing any creature but also to not hurting or compromising any of it ten kinds of vitality (described later in this chapter). It said that non-violence must be practised at nine levels - 1-3. Not indulging 54: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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in any violent activity bodily, vocally or mentally; 4-6. Not asking anybody else to indulge in any violent activity bodily, vocally or mentally; 7-9. Not approving of anybody's indulgence in any violent activity bodily, vocally or mentally. It is only a sad corollary to this noble and rigorous prescription of non-violence by the Jaina Prophets that even there the violence (towards fine creatures of the one sensed static living beings) practised in the construction of temples and prayer-halls, idol-worshipping, pilgrimage, etc has been condoned, thus taking the edge off from their criticism of the violence in performing the rituals by the Hindus and the followers of the other faiths. The Basis Of Non-violence - Various philosophers have advanced various grounds that promoted non-violence. Some said that the fear of counter violence prompted the weaker sections of humanity to follow the path of reconciliation and consequent non-violence. However, there are not many that subscribe to this misplaced view-point. If this were so, one would be non-violent only towards the strong and not towards the weak. The concept of non-violence towards the weakest of the weak is the non-violence of the strong and brave and not that of the weak and the cowardly. Others - liberal Hinduism and Lords Buddha and Mahavira advanced more logical explanations. The Jaina thought placed the concept of non-violence on a sound psychological footings. "All livingbeings love life, none wishes to die or suffer", it says. "Therefore, we must not kill or torment the others as we would not like to be killed or tormented ourselves", it proceeds to round the argument. According to this thought, this psychological truth and not fear or any such negative instinct is the basis of non-violence. Buddhism preached equality of life in all forms and so, no one might kill anyone. The Gita also says that one ought to treat the others as one's equals and treat them with kindness and compassion. This shows that the real bases of non-violence are AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 55

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the concepts of equality of life-forms, consequent respect for life, and the feeling of oneness towards the other creatures. The Jaina Concept of Non-violence - In the Jaina tradition, the concept of non-violence has clearly been interpreted in two ways the proscriptive and the prescriptive. The very term 'Ahimsa (non-violence)' is proscriptive as it preached negating of violence while the prescriptive form of non-violence prescribes the noble activities like help, service, charity, compassion, etc. From negating of violence point of view, the very term 'nonviolence' suggests that it is avoidance of violence towards all living beings. It will, therefore, be pertinent to examine what is violence. We shall examine this issue at three levels 1. What can be termed as violence? 2. What are its manifestations? 3. Who are the victims of violence? What Is Violence? From a gross or perceptible point of view violence is to kill, injure or hurt any noticeable living being either knowingly or unknowingly. From a finer point of view, however, the term violence has different connotations. Generally, it means to kill, slay or hurt any living being through violent acts, injury, harm, deprivation, mutilation, disfigurement and causing pain and suffering to others. Again, violence or himsa can be either physical (Dravya Himisa) or at the thought or intention level (Bhava Himsa). According to the Tattvartha-sutra of Vacaka Umasvati it means impairing or even hurting any one of the ten vitalities (Prana) of even the most minute microscopic creatures of the finest Nigoda variety and includes such fine creatures of the vegetable kingdom that are seen, with difficulty, even under very powerful microscopes. The concept of violence is so firmly associated with the vitalities of the living beings that in the Jaina parlance violence is known as injury to vitality Pranatipata). 56: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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The ten vitalities are - 1. Vitality of the sense of touch (Sparsa-prana), 2. Vitality of the sense of taste (Rasa-Prana), 3. Vitality of the sense of smell (Ghrana-prana), Vitality of the sense of sight (Cakesu-prana), Vitality of the sense of hearing (sbade-prana), Respiration vitality (Svasocchavasa prana), 7. Longevity (Ayu prana), 8. Physical prowess (Bala prana), 9. Verbal vitality (Vacana prana) and 10. Mind-power (Manah prana). Killing a creature terminates all it's vitalities while an injury or hurt may impair one or more of its vitalities either temporarily or permanently. Also, it must be understood that all creatures are not endowed with all the vitalities. While the finest creatures, the Unisensory or one-sensed (Ekendriya) ones like earth, fire, air, water and vegetation bodies have only four vitalities of touch, respiration, longevity and physical prowess, the rational pentasensory or intelligent five-sensed beings such as intelligent animals and human beings have all the ten vitalities. Coming back to the question of violence, to cause even such a minor hurt as to render even one vitality, of even the finest unisensory being, incapacitated is violence because, even the most minute creature - the unisensory Nigoda or plant life- is endowed with consciousness (Cetana), the power to feel pleasure and pain, wishes to experience all its vitalities and derive the pleasure due to it thereby. Hurting, injuring or impairing any vitality of any such being causes pain to it and is, therefore, violence. It can be deduced that the living beings of the higher categories are more so and that they can feel the effects of violence more vividly. Having defined violence, we can now venture to define nonviolence as 'Not causing hurt, injury or impairment to any one of AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 57

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the ten types of vitality of any living being either intentionally or unintentionally'. This, of course, is the ideal situation or absolute non-violence. In practice, however, it may not be possible to practise such absolute non-violence. We, therefore, have to draw a distinction between absolute non-violence (Niscaya Ahimsa) and practical non-violence (Vyavahara Ahimsa). Practically, we ought not to cause hurt, injury or impairment to any vitality of any creature by any of our intentional and deliberate action or through negligence. As long as we are alive in the mundane existence, we constantly interact with our environment, which comprises both the gross as well as fine animate beings and inanimate objects. This interaction constantly results in violent hurt, injury or impairment of one or the other vitality of mostly fine and invisible creatures but at times those of the gross and visible ones as well. The first type of violence is, generally, unavoidable and cannot be helped and will be caused in spite of our acting with utmost vigilance and will always be unintentional. We, possibly, cannot live without it. However, the violence of the second type to gross and visible creatures is generally caused either through intentional and deliberate action or through negligence. Both are sinful and avoidable. Out of these two, again, the intentional and deliberate violence is the most deplorable, abhorrent and disgusting and in the interest of peace, harmony and greater good of all, it is to be avoided at all cost. The violence caused by negligent or reckless action (Pramattacarana) is though not that abhorrent, can be avoided by vigilance (Apramada) and ought to be so avoided by all those who are right-minded and wish to promote good life for themselves as well as the others. This can only be achieved by - "Kahani care kaham citthe, kahamase kaham sae/ Kaham bhunjanto bhasanto, pava-kammam na bandhai? ||" 58: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES Dasavaikalika, 4.7.

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firstly, having non-violent intentions and, secondly, by acting with utmost vigilance. Lord Mahavira, when asked by His principal disciple - Ganadhara Gautama - as to how one ought to act, stand, sit, lie down, eat and speak so as not to incur sin', replied that one, who acts, stands, sits, lies down, eats and speaks carefully (vigilantly), does not incur sin?. So much so for vigilance as a tool of nonviolence. Pramada or recklessness or negligence being the sole and potent cause of avoidable violence, a little deliberation on it will not be out of place here. Pramada is caused by one or more of the following fifteen causes ? : - The activities are of three types - those of the mind, body 2 " Jayam care jayam citthe, jayamase jayani sae/ Jayani bhunjanto bhasanto, pava-kammam na bandhai //" - Dasavaikalika, 4.8. First steps to Jainism, p. 84. Intoxication (Mada), Sleepiness (Nidra), Anger (Krodha), Pride (Mana), Guile or deceit (Maya), Greed (Lobha), Misuse of the sense of touch (Sparsanendriya), Misuse of the sense of taste (Rasanendriya), Misuse of the sense of sight (Caksurendriya), Misuse of the sense of smell (Ghranendriya), Misuse of the sense of hearing (Karmendriya), 12. Gossip about food (Bhakta katha), Amorous talk/thoughts (Kama katha), 14. Talking about the matters of the state (Raja katha), and Thinking or talking about the matters of administration (Desa katha). ritvoriou 15. AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE) : 59

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and speech and consequently, one ought to be vigilant about what one thinks what one does and what one speaks if one has to avoid violence. We can conclude this discussion on practical non-violence by saying that one, who acts (mentally, bodily and verbally i.e. by thought action and words) without recklessness (vigilantly), without any ill-will towards anybody and without any intention to cause hurt, injury or impairment to any vitality of any livingbeing practises practical non-violence (Vyavahara ahimsa). In other words practical non-violence includes not thinking ill, not acting ill and not speaking ill. From this deliberation emerge two constituents of violencenegligence and injury to vitality. These two give rise to the following four combinations: - 1. Absence of negligence as well as injury, 2. Injury in spite of utmost vigilance, 3. Negligence not resulting in any injury, and 4. Negligence resulting in injury. It can be appreciated that the first combination is the ideal combination and is perfectly non-violent. The second combination is practically non-violent as one can only be vigilant in his actions and if an injury occurs in spite of being vigilant, it is unavoidable and cannot be helped. The third combination cannot be accepted as non-violent, even from a practical standpoint as it is only a matter of chance that the injury did not occur in spite of the negligence of the perpetrator, it could have occurred and is, therefore, not to the credit of the negligent person. Though it did not result in any physical violence (Dravya Himsa) but such violence is termed as volitional violence (Bhava Himsa) and ought to be avoided. The fourth category in which there is injury occurring due to the negligence is the worst case in point and ought to be avoided at all cost. From this discussion it is 60 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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quite clear that negligence is violence whether or not it results in injury to any vitality of any living being. This is quite logical, too, as negligence or recklessness is a state of mind and any act performed under such a state of mind will constitute volitional violence. Violence to Others And Violence To Self (Para Himisa Aur Sva-Himsa) - About violence we generally think that it is an activity that hurts others. However, it must be clearly understood that while this may be true of the physical violence, the volitional violence (Bhava Himsa) hurts the self more than it hurts the others. The violent thoughts or intentions or ill-will towards others injure the real nature of the self(soul) by disturbing its equanimity. Therefore, it is Sva-Himsa as well. Manifestations Of Violence - According to Jaina thinkers' view violence manifests itself in the form of acts of violence of different gravity under different circumstances. The four types of violence, categorised on the basis of the intention behind the acts of violence and the circumstances under which it is practised are - 1. Intentional Violence (Sankalpi Himsa) - This is intentional, deliberate, aggressive and purposeless violence, which is to no one's benefit. It is violence for violence's sake. The examples of this type of violence are terrorist activities, hunting, organising bullfights, ram fights and cockfights, gladiators' contests etc. 2. Violence In Self-defence Virodhi Himsa) - This is an essential form of violence, which is committed in selfdefence when one's life, people and property are threatened and can be termed as protective violence cominitted in order to protect lives and honour and to establish peace and order in personal, social and national lives. AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 61

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3. Industrial or Occupational Violence (Udyogi Himisa) This type of violence is unavoidable for the householders when they pursue various vocations for earning a livelihood. The examples of this kind of violence are agricultural and industrial activities. This may be termed as essential violence but only in some cases where the intention is to earn a livelihood through the practice of minimum violence. While even deliberate but necessary violence towards the static uni-sensory (one sensed) living beings, such as plants, earth, water, air, fire, etc. is permissible, the householders are forbidden to practise deliberate and intentional violence towards mobile bi-sensory (two-sensed) and higher forms of life. Even the lay followers of the Jaina faith are not supposed to pursue highly violent vocations such as running slaughter houses or plying the trade of butchers, poultry farming, cutting of forests, making of charcoals, etc. 4. Essential Violence (Arambhi Himsa) - This type of violence is always unintentional and is necessary for performing various kinds of tasks necessary to lead a normal and meaningful life. The examples of such violence are walking, talking, bathing, washing and carrying out various household chores such as cooking, cleaning etc. Who are the victims of violence? Having considered violence and its manifestations we must deliberate on the victims of violence if we wish to get rid of gross or fine violence from our lives. As the readers must have gathered by now that violence being an aggression on one or more vitalities of the living beings its victims are all kinds of living beings with four to ten vitalities. The unintentional violence towards fine creatures of uni-sensory (one sensed) category with only four types of vitality is, generally, unavoidable and is termed 62 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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as fine violence (Suksma Himsa) while the intentional violence against the mobile bi-sensory (two sensed) beings and other higher forms of life is considered to be gross violence and is to be totally avoided. Non-violence Having dealt with the concept and form of violence in sufficient detail, we can now deal with the concept and form of non-violence. As we had done with the term violence, to define it at the thought and action levels, so we can do with non-violence as well. As violence is taken as violation of one or more of the vitalities (pranatipata) of the living beings, so the term nonviolence must mean lack of violation of any of their ten types of vitality (pranatipata viramana). This lack of violation can be at the thought level as well as at the action level. Actually, for the rational beings the thoughts precede any deliberate and intentional action and, hence, volitional non-violence is more important than the physical non-violence. All life forms love life and fear death, they like pleasure and avoid pain. They are equal in this consciousness. The concept of non--violence, therefore, must spring from the thought of considering and treating all life forms as equal to oneself. To be non-violent is to honour the rights to life and pleasure of the other living beings just as we would like our rights to life and pleasure to be honoured by the others. According to Jaina point of view all forms of living beings have equal right to lead peaceful lives. Just as we think that the others have no right to kill or hurt us so we, too, have no right to kill or hurt the others. The principles (mooted by some selfish thinkers) like 'Tivo jivasya bhojanam (one creature is the other's food) and "living by killing' are selfcontradictory as they violate the very basic principle of equality of lives. AHINSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 63

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We can appreciate that it may not be possible to avoid violence, especially that of the fine one sensed creatures, completely, "lesser violence' better living should be our guiding thought. As I had pointed out earlier, life is sustained by mutual support and cooperation between creatures of various species, therefore, the phrase 'co-operation for existence' must replace the phrase 'struggle for existence in our life's dictionary. Proscriptive Non-violence - From the abovementioned it follows that from the negation of violence point of view, proscriptive non-violence means possible and avoidable avoidance of killing, hurting or compromising of any of the ten kinds of vitality of any living being either deliberately or through negligence. It is true that the Sramana tradition in general and Jainism in particular have given the term 'non-violence' a much wider and deeper meaning than their other counterparts. The emphasis on the equality of life from the lesser developed one sensed beings to the fully developed rational five sensed beings has resulted in the proscriptive side of non-violence to overshadow its prescriptive or positive side. Here, we must not forget that Jaina philosophy is a non-absolutist philosophy and any one-sided interpretation of its principles is likely to lead one astray. From the multifaceted standpoint, the proscriptive side of non-violence is more relevant for the ordained ascetics while the laypeople have to adhere to it's positive and prescriptive side. We shall examine this aspect of non-violence in greater detail in the next section of the chapter. Positive Side Of Non-violence - So far all the examples of violence taken are destructive ones and non-violence has been defined as negation of such destructive activities. However, life based on only a set of denials 64 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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will not be a wholesome one but a form of drudgery. There are positive and creative sides of non-violence, which should not be lost sight of. We must recall that violence is causing hurt or injury to or impairment of any of the ten vitalities of any living being and is, therefore, undesirable. It must, there from, follow that any activity that promotes the well-being of the living beings and their vitalities must be the opposite of violence and must, therefore, be considered as desirable. Therein lies the positive or creative side of non-violence. The acts of charity, service and forgiveness; mercy, compassion and sheltering; helping, cooperating and protecting the helpless creatures must constitute acts of creative non-violence. The Lord (Mahavira) when asked by His principal disciple, Gautama, as to who was the true believer, the one who worshipped or the one who served, replied that the one who served was the true believer According to the Jaina thought non-violence is not a negative command only but also embraces the noble thoughts and acts. Jainism takes non-violence as synonymous to compassion (Anukampa), which is so important a concept that it has been taken as an essential attribute of Samyaktva or right-vision, the starting point of the right path to spiritual emancipation. Compassion is the feeling for the others' pain and misery and a desire and endeavour to do everything in one's power to mitigate it. It is this feeling for the others that actuates creative nonviolence. It is not limited to not tormenting others but also to relieve the tormented ones of their pain and misery. If one studiously avoids hurting others but fails to be moved by their torments and does not act to relieve them, he could only be called heartless. It is true that the prescriptive non-violence will certainly have some element of violence towards the fine creatures but we cannot shun it by saying that it is poisoned milk. The students of the science of medicine well know that even some poisons when AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 65

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used in judicious doses save lives. So is the case of positive nonviolence. The element of violence in such non-violence is for the greater good of the greater numbers and from the nonabsolutist standpoint, it is perfectly justifiable. Even then, it is essential that though condonable, the violence part in the positive non-violence is still violence the tendency of the person rendering service must be to resort to as minimal violence as possible. The issue of positive non-violence at the expense of some even minimal violence to lesser life forms has been hotly debated and some schools of thought proscribe violence totally and ban any act of compassion or service that involves such violence. They advance the following arguments in favour of their stands:a. All life forms are equally important and one must not be saved at the expense of the other, b. Violence is bad, nothing good can come out of a bad practice, c. If a life is saved or served at the expense of another (even much lower form of) life, it smacks of attachment for the saved or served life and aversion towards the other forms of life. Attachment and aversion are causes of karmic bondage and must be shunned totally, d. Even the pious deeds result in karmic bondage, If we examine each of these arguments in the light of nonabsolutist view-point, they do not stand scrutiny as follows: - a. The natural life-cycle is such that one form of life thrives at the expense of the other. Plant life thrives at the expense of soil and water; the animal life thrives at the expense of plant life and so on. If we wish to save a mobile creature of two to five senses it would necessarily involve compromising the lives or vitalities of the lower species of one-sensed beings. When confronted with this problem of violence towards creatures of the lower species the masters had to resort to the principle of lesser and greater 66 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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violence and surmised that the violence towards the creatures of the lower species cannot, per se, be equated to that towards the creatures of the higher species. This principle, in itself, is also not arbitrary. It is based on the considerations like the mentality or the motivating factors behind such violence. The motivating factors can also be of two types - 1. Based on just discretion and 2. Based on selfish interests. It goes without saying that if the necessary violence towards the creatures of lower species is being resorted to with a just and discrete consideration, it is unlikely to result in same kinds of karmic bondages as the one resorted to with selfish motives. b. There is no doubt that from the absolute standpoint all violence is bad and must be shunned. However, life in this mundane existence cannot be led by sticking to the absolute alone and, of necessity, we have to resort to practicality. From the practical standpoint the necessary violence resorted to with just and discrete motives with a view to render selfless and detached volition is considered to be condonable and is said to be free from the incidence of karmic bondage. Therefore, from the practical standpoint all violence is not bad and the pious deeds do bear good fruits even when they involve some unavoidable violence towards lower forms of life in spite of taking all due care to avoid it. c. It is not wholly logical to say that when an effort is made to save some life at the cost of causing some inconvenience to another being it must involve attachment towards the former and aversion towards the latter. When we save a pigeon being attacked by a cat with a purely unselfish motive it does not involve any attachment towards the pigeon and aversion towards the cat. The whole action is motivated by our sense of duty. Surely, such action (termed as iryapathik karma or detached action) cannot result in karmic bondage. AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 67

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d. Yes, the pious deeds do result in positive karmic bondage that is much easily shed than that of the impious variety. Even in fruition they are pleasurable as opposed to the painful retribution of the latter. Again, while analysing the issue of pious action in helping, protecting and rendering selfless service to the others, the point of detached action being free from karmic encumbrance must not be lost sight of. Here, it is pertinent to cite the example of the Tirtharikaras who earn the merit by rendering selfless service to the ill, old and feeble and also of resorting to an yearlong spree of charity just before accepting the monastic vows as also their going about on preaching peregrinations after gaining enlightenment while they could have just sat at one place and avoided all fine violence towards the fine one-sensed beings. The reason why the enlightened ones chose to move about and preach rather than sitting silent and inactive was that all these actions were selflessly pious and with a view to benefit other lesser beings. These actions fell within the ambit of detached actions and were free from the incidence of karmic bondage. Also, I would like to mention that the ultimate aim of all spiritual endeavours is spiritual salvation and it is easy to approach through the path of piety rather than that of sin or inaction. The way from sin to salvation must pass through the patches of piety. Non-violence In Relation To Environment The environmental issue was never more relevant than it is today. We are not only passing through the phase of environmental crisis but through that of environmental catastrophe. The Jaina concept of violence and non-violence impinges on this issue squarely. The Jaina seers had seen beyond the unseen and given us the concept of live earth, live water, live air, live fire and live vegetation much before Sir Jagdeesh Chandra Basu mooted the idea of vegetable life in early twentieth century. 68 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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This being so and the Jaina concept of violence being related to violation of any one of the four vitalities of these one-sensed life-forms, observance of non-violence towards them would necessarily involve refraining from polluting the earth, water, air and resorting to cutting of trees and forests. I must emphasise that even in admissible industrial violence for plying one's trade and earning one's livelihood the Jaina precepts proscribed highly environment degrading activities like deforestation, burning of jungles, charcoal trade, emptying and drying water reservoirs, trading in animals and animal-produce like teeth and tusks, hides, bones, flesh etc; trading in drugs and poisons was also prohibited. Another environment balancing aspect of wild and marine life must also not be ignored. It is a well-known fact that undisturbed wild life restores ecological balance and that marine life maintains the purity of river and ocean water. Hunting and fishing are, to say the least, not only violent acts towards gross and rational five-sensed beings but also heavily environment degrading acts. Non-violent life cannot and must not permit such gross violation of life and environment. Non-violence In The Scientific Age - The scientific and technological advancement has been a mixed blessing for the humanity. It has given us the means of physical pleasure and eased the tedium but it has also resulted in some negative throw back in the form of competition, rat-race, tensions, environmental degradation, industrial diseases and the like. The increased mechanical and nuclear power at our command have also given us a false sense of security and a mentality to tread on the others' toes. All this does not augur well for the lifesystem in general and the human race in particular. After all, the means of mass destruction are only the tools of self-destruction more than they are the tools of others' destruction. The reports from the more advanced nations are more disturbing. The AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 69

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incidences of alcoholism and drug addiction amongst the populace of so-called developed nations tell a different story. All the scientific and technological advancement has resulted in loss of peace of mind that was our very strength in the primeval existence. Rather than making us more humane such advancement has made us more and more beastly. Even as beasts we had our natural levels of satisfaction, which are sorely lacking in this age of grabbing more and more irrespective of requirements. The greed is the operative word instead of need and it is taking its toll. The science and technology has made the world a smaller place with greater distances between hearts. From peaceful, loving and co-operative human beings we have become warring, hating and hostile beings. Even our animal instincts are gone. Rather than having a sublimating influence on our nature it has made us more racy and self-centred. The weapons that are considered as the means of security have, actually, become the sources of fear and insecurity. They have only resulted in armsrace and resultant increased threat. Our undue reliance on power of science and technology rather than the power of human heart and healing touch has made us more dangerous than the dragons of the days of yore. Who is responsible for all this danger lurking at our doorsteps? The science and technology that was supposed to serve the humanity has become its master. Does the fault lie with science or with our thinking? 'Nothing is good or bad, only thinking makes it so' is an age-old adage, which is as relevant today as it was aeons ago. Science is neither good nor bad but its good and bad use makes it good or bad. What is the way out of this morass? We have to revert back to our non-violence as it is the only glimmer of hope in the otherwise dismal scenario. 70: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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The Ideal Of Non-violence - Non-violence has been defined at two levels - volitional and practical. While it is perfectly possible to attain completely non-violent attitude, in practice it is well nigh impossible to achieve its ideal perfection, which means not hurting even a single vitality of any - even the finest one-sensed living beings. However, it must be appreciated that even in practice the amount of violence that anybody indulges is directly proportional to the amount of physical facilities he indulges in. It implies that reducing one's sensory indulgence will also proportionately reduce violence and make one non-violent to that extent. From this we can conclude that the ascetics who enjoy minimal physical facilities commit minimal violence and amongst the lay people, too, those who lead an indulgent life are guilty of greater violence as compared to those that lead frugal lives. It follows that as long as we live an embodied corporeal life it is possible to avoid gross violence only and impossible to abstain from fine violence. For the corporeal existence complete and perfect non-violence is impracticable and remains only an unfulfilled ideal. Here, it is worthy of comment that although the Jaina monks and nuns themselves lead reasonably non-violent lives, the amount of violence perpetrated in their names is substantial. If we take the examples of a large number of people walking with them from place to place when they go about their monastic peregrinations or a large number of people travelling long distances for gaining their glimpses and then setting up kitchens so that they may earn the merit of giving alms to them or undertaking the constructions of frivolous temples and prayer halls, at their behest, while simple ones will serve the purpose as well if not better. We can conclude this discussion by saying that while it is not possible to avoid the minimal violence towards the fine AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE) : 71

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creatures as we continuously hurt one or the other kinds of their vitalities as we breathe, as we move about, as we speak, as we do any thing for that matter, as long as we remain conscious of the fact that we do so only because it is unavoidable and, thereby, avoid any unnecessary violence, we remain volitionally nonviolent. The Social Aspect Of Non-violence - In the last section our thoughts were centred around nonviolence at the personal level. However, our discussion will not be complete unless we also considered its social aspect also. One may argue that it may well be possible for an individual to practice utmost non-violence by grossly limiting his needs and activities but on the social plane it may well not be possible at all. Here, it is pertinent to note that the very fibre of society, which means co-existence, is made up of positive qualities like love, affection, sensitivity, tolerance, co-operation, etc, all of which spell nonviolence. Any violent society will exhibit negative qualities like hatred, animosity, aggressiveness, etc and co-existence will well nigh be impossible. Violence, even at the thought level, breaks up societies. Generally, there is a conflict of interests and sometimes it so happens that the interests of one rest on harming those of the others. Such circumstances give rise to violence in the society. As long as the interests of one conflict with those of the other and as long as there are individual interests that conflict with the group interests and the individuals act against the group interests; as long as there are individuals or groups of individuals that are bent upon meeting their ends at the expense of the others; as long as one state or nation act contrary to the interests of another state or nation and does not heed the voice of reason or justice; violence becomes unavoidable. Non-violence, certainly, does not mean that the non-violent individuals, societies or nations have to put 72 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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up with undue hegemony and violence of the others. When confronted with circumstances that are detrimental to their just and reasonable interests they have to act to defend their interests even by violent means. They, certainly, cannot be expected to observe cowardly non-violence. As long as even one member of human society believes in animal behaviour the society will have to act to restrain him in its larger interest. Until each individual member of the society becomes fair and just, it is futile to think of a non-violent society. Ridiculous as it may seem, one might have to resort to violence even to protect one's non-violent culture. The scriptures have vexed themselves eloquent to say that when the safety and security of the religious order or any of its members is threatened the members of the order, even ordained monks and nuns might act to protect themselves and the order. Violence in self-defence by the laymen and in the defence of the order even by the ordained ascetics have been condoned as necessary and unavoidable violence. As an example of one such necessary and avoidable violence we may consider that if a young nun is being abducted or molested in the presence of some monks, they must protect her, even by resorting to violence, rather than remaining impotent and silent spectators. The struggle for existence may, at times, become violent, but it can, certainly, not be called unnecessary and wanton violence. The same is the case with minimum necessary violence resorted to for the sake of life sustaining activities and industries. Compassion: The Liberating Force -- Compassion has been variously hailed as a liberating force for the dispenser and as a mitigating force for the receiver. William Shakespeare has rightly said, "The quality of mercy is twice blessed; it blesses him that gives and him that takes." In this section of the chapter we will try and appreciate various facets of this force. AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 73

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Compassion: The Concept Lord Mahavira laid down the scheme of soul's liberation from the mundane existence in the form of following a threeway path comprising Right-vision (Samyagdarsana), Rightknowledge (Samyagjnana) and Right-conduct (Samyakcaritra). Out of these three, too, He laid the most emphasis on the first constituent of the liberating path - Samyagdarsana or the right vision. The concept of compassion is inseparably linked to the very first and the most important ingredient of the liberating path -right-vision that it has been hailed as one of its five indicators. The vision is closely related to the very inner thoughts of a person known as parinama. The Parinama is said to have three kinds of manifestations, namely inauspicious (asubha parinama), auspicious (subha parinama) and pure (suddha parinama), in their increasing order of spiritual benefit. The first, inauspicious thought current or asubha parinama results in bonding of inauspicious karmic bondage and resultant painful retribution and increasing worldly transmigration. From the spiritual point of view, it is the most undesirable type of psychic disposition to have at any point in one's life. It hinders soul's liberation and keeps it wandering in the worldly wilderness. The spiritual journey from the inauspicious thought-current to the pure one must pass through the auspicious or subha parinama. Subha parinama, therefore can be looked upon as a launching pad for the pure thought-current or suddha prinama. Compssion and Auspiciousness Compassion is the crux of auspiciousness. It is at its very core. Speaking purely from the karma-doctrine point of view, although the auspicious psychic disposition and the resultant actions are also taken as karma-bonding, it must be remembered that firstly, they are auspicious karma-bonding thoughts and actions, which result in pleasurable fruition, and secondly, they 74: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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also lead the soul towards purity of thought that frees it from the karmic bondage. Viewed from this standpoint, the auspicious thoughts and activities are desirable from the spiritual emancipation point of view as well. The Jaina scriptures have vexed themselves eloquent in eulogising the auspicious thoughts and actions and in condemning the inauspicious ones. The auspicious thought-currents and activities have been termed as spiritually meritorious (Punyakarma) while the inauspicious ones have been called sinful thoughts and actions (Papa karma). Further, the soul whose psyche is imbued with the thoughts of compassion attracts the auspicious karma-matter towards itself, and the one who torments others attract the inauspicious or sinful karma--matter. The importance of compassion has been highlighted in the Upasakadhyayana by saying that it is at the very root of dharma. According to Prasnavyakaranasutra, the Lord had preached protection and kindness towards all creatures.? In the canon laying down the essential duties for the followers of the faith, the Lord has once again said that service to the diseased is the true obedience to the Jina teachings and that one who serves the ill serves me. Another canonical dictate is to be ever ready to help the helpless. "Suhaparinamo punnam asuho pavani ti havadi jivassa /" - Pancastikaya, 132. "Rago jassa pasattho anukampasanisido ya parinamo/ Cittanhi natthi kalusam punoani jivassa asavadi // Paraparitavapavado pavassa asavani kunadi //" - Ibid, 135, 139. "Dharmasya paramam mulamanukampa pracaksate / - Upasakadhyayana, 230. Prasnavyakaranasutra, 2.2.22. Avasyaka, Haribhadriya Tika, fol. 661-62 Sthanarga, 8 AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE) : 75

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What is Compassion? Defining compassion, the author, Acarya Kunda Kunda, says that anyone who feels the pain and misery of others like those suffering due to hunger, thirst, and other maladies and acts favourably in order to mitigate their misery is said to be compassionate. The Vrhatkalpa Bhasya also says that anyone who is not moved by the others' misery is said to be compassionless; because, compassion means 'to be shaken by seeing others shaken'." Another definition of compassion describes it as friendliness towards all the living beings,'2 and yet another one as mercifulness towards all static and moving beings.13 The Tattvartha Bhasya by Haribhadra also describes it as a feeling of mercy for the miserable. The Tattvartha Bhasya by Siddhasena Gani defines compassion as the feeling of a well meaning, charitable and merciful person by which he identifies with the others in pain and treats their misery as his own and acts in a manner so as to mitigate their pain and misery.'s According to Kunda Kundacarya, to be religious one has to be merciful.16 The Dhavala commentary to Satkhandagama says that compassion is natural to the living and to say that it is karmic activity is 10 "Tisidam bubhukkhidami va duhidam datt, huna jo du duhidamanao/ Padivajjadi tam kivaya tassesa hodi anukampa //" -- Ibid, 137. " "Jo u parani kampantam datthuna na kampae kadhina bhavo/ Eso u niranukampo anu paccha bhava joenani //" - Vrhatkalpabhasya, 1320. 12 "Sarvapranisu Maitri anukampa /" - Tattvarthavartika, 1, 2, 30. 13 "Trasasthavaresu daya anukampa /"- Tattvarthaslokavartika, 1,2,12 14 "Anukampa duhkhitesu karunyam/" - Tattvarthabhasya, Haribhadriya Vrtti, 1, 2. "Anugrahabuddhyardrikrtacetasah parapidamatmasamisthamiva kurvato 'nukampanamanukampa /" - Tattvartha Bhasya, Siddhasena Gaol Vrtti, 6, 13. 16 Bodhpahuda, 25 76 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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against the scriptural spirit.!? According to the 'Yoga Sastra', compassion is nothing but a strong and uncompromiseable desire to relieve and mitigate the pain and misery of the other without favour.'8 Acarya Sivakoti has also said that the disposition to relieve the pain of the miserable beings is compassion.'' Muni Candra, while commenting on Dharma Bindu, has said that favour shown to the living beings in pain and misery is compassion.20 Other works like Anagara Dharmamsta (2, 52); Lati Samhita (3,89), and the Tattvartha commentary by Srutasagarasuri(1, 2) have also given similar definitions of compassion and have upheld the view that compassion is the feeling of identification with the miserable and the mentality and activity of relieving their pain and misery. However, the term does not mean only being moved by seeing others in pain at the psychic or thought level but also to act, according to one's capacity, to relieve their pain and misery. In this sense, the term compassion is quite comprehensive and includes both - compassionate thoughts and mitigating actions. The concept of charity is closely linked to compassion because it can relieve others' misery in more than one ways. Who Deserves Compassion? Generally, any human or subhuman creature that is in pain and is miserable for some reason deserves our compassion. However, in our immediate vicinity, the children, the old and the aged and the handicapped ones deserve our compassion the most.21 It is for this reason that our scriptures have always 17 18 19 Dhavala, Book 13, p.362 "Anukampa duhkhitesu apaksapatena duhkhaprahaneccha /" - Yogasastra, Svopajna Vivarana, 2, 15. "Klisyamanajantuddharanabuddhihanukampa /" - Bhagavati Aradhana, Mula Comm. 1696. "Anukampa duhkhitasatvavisaya krpa /" - Dharma Bindu, Municandra Vrtti, 3, 7. 20 AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE) : 77

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encouraged the followers and exhorted them to be compassionate and charitable. They have variously said the one may not be compassionless, may never be unmerciful, may never be proud, may ever be charitable and always content with oneself.22 How Does Compassion Contribute Towards Spiritual Emancipation? As already highlighted in the introductory paragraph, compassion is one of the five (subsidence, desire for liberation, aversion from mundane existence, compassion and unshakeable faith)23 indicators or signs of right-vision -- Samyaktva or Samyagdarsana. Anyone with right-vision must display the inner core quality of compassion. In other words we can say that a compassionate soul that is easily moved by the others' troubles and travails must be endowed with the quality of right-vision. Converse of this proposition is also evidently true: "anyone 22 2: "Ma hoha niranukampa na vancaya kunaha tava santosam/ Manatthaddha ma hoha nikkimpa hoha danayara ||" - Kuvalayamala, para 85. 1. "Uvasama samvego vi ya nivveo taha ya hoi anukampa / Atthikkani ciya pancavi havanti sanumattalingaim //" - Pancalingiprakaranani, 1. 2. "Prasamasani veganukampastikyabuhivyakti laksanam samyaktvami/" - Dhavala, 11 1,1,4. "Sanivego cia uvasama nivveo taha ya hoi anukampa atthikkam cia ee sammatte lakkhana panca/" - Vrhatkalpavrtti, 1.2. "Saniyaktvam kidrsam bhavati? Panceti, pancabhih samasamveganirvedanukampastikyaripairlaksanaih lingairlaksitamupalaksitani bhavati/" - Dharma Sangraha, Ch. 2. 5. "Sanivegah prasamah sthairyani asammudhatvamasmayah astikyamanukampetijneya samyaktvabhavana /" - Mahapurana, 29/97. 78: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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without compassion is certainly devoid of right-vision and therefore far from being religious or spiritually or even temporally dutiful'. Anyone who denies acts of compassion under selfcontrived explanations of the canonical literature and quote scriptures to support their misplaced and false views is like devil quoting the scriptures. Acarya Abhayadevasuri, the commentator of as many as nine canonical works, has, while commenting on the 36th aphorism of the 8th section of the fifth primary canon Vyakhya prajnapti - that the Lords Jina have never proscribed the compassionate charity.24 Right-vision is the very first step towards the final goal of spiritual emancipation and final deliverance. There is no gainsaying the fact that only the rightly inclined and righteous souls proceed in that direction. Thus, compassion is an essential ingredient in the psychic make up and activity profile of any spiritually inclined devotee. A compassionate soul is imbued with the highest and the noblest thoughts of selfless service to not only the humans but to the entire living world at large. Selfless service has been hailed as one of the twelve kinds of penance and makes a potent means of karmic separation from the soul and resultant liberation. Can Compassion Ever Be Sinful? No, compassion is the noblest manifestation of humaneness, which has been hailed as one of the four (humanity, rightknowledge, right--faith, and right-endeavour in the direction of self-restraint) rarest of the rare achievements that comes about after a lot of wandering in other species.25 These four have been described, as the liberating quartet and the very crux of humanity 24 25 Vyakhyaprajnapti, Comm. by Acarya Abhayadevasuri, 8.36. "Cattari paramangani dullahaniha jantuno Manusuttam sui-saddha sanjamammi ya viriyam (" - Uttaradhyayanasutra, 3.1. AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 79

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is compassion. How can, then compassion ever be sinful? Yes, there is only one possibility and that is if one is not compassionate at heart and just puts up a show of it for name and fame, he certainly gathers no merit but collects a lot of sin in the process. Otherwise true compassion can never be sinful. We can conclude this discussion on compassion by saying that compassion is meritorious. It is a stepping-stone towards higher spiritual achievements, and that it is the noblest form of selfless service, which makes it karma-shedding penance. Thus, compassion, at its best, is liberating and, at its least, it is meritorious. Non-violence In Practice - In the Jaina tradition the practice of non-violence has been prescribed at two distinct levels -- monastic and laypersons. The prescriptions for the monastic non-violence are justly more rigorous and stringent while those for the laypeople are comparatively lax. The details of such practices have been discussed, at length, in the fourteenth and the fifteenth chapters that deal with Jaina ethics in relation to the lay followers and the ordained ascetics respectively. However, a brief account is being given here for the sake of continuity. The Lay Followers' Non-violence - The lay followers have fewer restrictions as compared to the ascetic members of the order. Their non-violence is limited to not committing any intentional, unnecessary and avoidable violence against any innocent creatures that are capable of motion. They as a rule can act in self-defence and also to protect their kith and kin as well as their servants, live stock and other material wealth. This is termed as refraining from committing any gross violence. The householders' violence may fall in any of the four 80 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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categories like - 1. Necessary violence that results from their day-to-day activities such as cooking, cleaning, etc. This type of violence is called Arambhi Himsa. It can also be purposeful and unrelated or arbitrary. While purposeful violence is condoned, arbitrary violence is not. 2. Intentional Criminal Violence or Aparadhi Sankalpi Himsa, which is committed with criminal intent, is strictly prohibited for the believers. 3. Violence committed in pursuing means of livelihood such as that committed in constructing houses and business premises, digging wells, ploughing and irrigating the land for farming, etc. is termed as industrial violence or Udyogi Himsa and is condoned. And 4. Retaliatory violence or Virodhi Himsa becomes necessary for protecting the self, family and social institutions. Such intentional violence is condoned. The Monastic Non-violence As can be expected, all ascetics - monks and nuns -- - observe a much more stringent and rigorous code of conduct with much harsher and stricter mode of non-violence. They observe nonviolence at action and thought levels and neither knowingly kill or hurt any creature nor have them killed or hurt nor approve of any such violence either physically or verbally or volitionally. This is the most important of their monastic vows - Mahavrataand all their actions and thoughts are directed towards its most careful observance. Vegetarianism: An Essential Attribute Of Nonviolent Lifestyle - It is said that the kind of food that a person takes shapes his thoughts. If his very food is derived by the most violent means AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 81

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of hunting, slaying or killing animals, birds or fishes it is not possible for him to nurture non-violent thoughts. It has been observed that the flesh foods are deficient in the amino acid called Triptofen and this deficiency causes a reduction in the quantity of Serotonin in the brain, which, in turn, makes the non-vegetarian flesh eaters cruel, merciless, violent and aggressive. Statistics also support the view that flesh foods increase a person's tendency to commit criminal acts of violence. It is plain that flesh foods, derived from animal sources, cannot be obtained without killing. Slaying of animals is essential for getting flesh foods. One can hardly slay a living writhing and bleating goat or calf, or any other creature for that matter, without being cruel and heartless. On the other hand, even when we concede to the existence of vegetable life-forms, foods of vegetable origin are obtained with comparatively much lesser violence. These two types of violence cannot be compared, as the animals, birds and fishes are fully developed life-forms that are capable of expressing themselves and struggling to escape the cruel fate that awaits even the most harmless of these creatures. Only the cruellest of the cruel can slay such creatures. It is, therefore, not surprising that flesh foods breed barbarous wildness in a person and makes him uncivilised. It deprives him of humane sensitivity, which is the very hallmark of humanity. The flesh eater may still look like a human being on the outside but within himself he is full of animal instincts worse than those of a predator. Even from the health considerations vegetarian foods have long been accepted as healthier than the flesh foods. Flesh eating has been associated with a large number of diseases that the vegetarians do without. Flesh foods are difficult to digest, remain longer in the intestines and increase acidity, flatulence and many other disorders of the digestive system. Flesh foods are also carriers of many contagions of animal origin, which are transmitted to the humans consuming them. Even in the western 82: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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world, where the people are traditionally flesh eaters, they have realised the harmful effects of flesh foods and are converting to vegetarianism in large numbers. It is ironic that the Indians, especially the Jairas and Vaishnavas that have traditionally been vegetarians, are falling prey to the menace of flesh eating in the name of fashion. Vegetables are the natural food for the human beings. Even the flesh eaters eat almost two thirds of their food from the vegetable origin. There are pure vegetarians but there are no pure non-vegetarians. One can, possibly, not survive on animal foods only. Flesh eating is against the very grain of human nature. Non-violence : An Assurance Of Healthy Environment The mother Earth is not so much reeling under the pressure of population as it is under the environmental pollution caused by the irresponsibly consumerist human race. Whenever we tinker with nature even in the name of so called progress and industrial growth, we damage the natural balance between various elements and creatures of nature and disturb the ecological balance and damage the environment. The heavily polluted environment due to poisonous, carcinogenic and toxic solid wastes as also the liquid and gaseous effluents and consequent wasting of lands, unacceptable levels of toxicity in farm produce that gives rise to diseased men folk and livestock and heavily laden air that makes breathing not only difficult for the time being but results in many a breathing disorders are all results of human greed. The greedy humans exploit rather than explore the natural resources such as water, forests, minerals, fossil-fuels and the like without taking into account their rate of regeneration and, thereby, deplete them to a level whence they cannot recoup. All this is also a form of violence because it adversely impinges on not only fine, static and invisible one-sensed life-forms of earth, water, air, fire and AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 83

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vegetation origin but also on gross, visible and mobile two-sensed to five-sensed life-forms of insects, animals and humans. The overall picture is so frightening that in the coming times, in not a very distant future, we are going to be faced with gross deficiencies of coal and petroleum products and cooking and natural gases but also of drinking water and clean air fit for breathing. The environmentalists have predicted that the time is not far when the current scenario of masked humans on the streets may change to those walking about with cylinders of clean air. It must be a matter of grave concern for all of us. The question of restoring ecological balance and ensuring environmental protection has, therefore, assumed vital importance and global dimension. It is essential that the efforts in this direction be directed immediately. If we fail to wake up to the disturbing signals like global warming, holes in the ozone layer, changes in weather and seasons patterns for the worse, progressive lessening of rainfall (Cherrapunji, known as a place for world's heaviest rainfall, receives only scanty rainfall now), and thickening of the air in the atmosphere, we and our future generations will be doomed to not only unhealthy but miserable lives from which there will be no remission. To ignore this concern is certainly gross violence towards not only the present generations of living beings but also towards the future ones. We vex ourselves eloquent about chemical and nuclear pollution but give little thought to noise pollution and thought pollution that are even more dangerous. If we have to evolve any system for pollution free environment we have to address ourselves to these two forms of pollution also. It is a welcome sign that due to the initiatives of some sane and well-meaning ecologists and environmentalists and those of the propagators of non-violence, the awareness has dawned and efforts are being made in this direction. Some scholars have also woken up to the teachings of their seers and prophets that may 84 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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translate themselves into environmental friendly policies. Religions, after all, have profound influences on their followers and anything that has religious overtones are likely to be observed with due alacrity. From this point of view, it is pertinent here, to mention the Jaina precepts that are environment friendly. The following precepts and conduct rules that are the offshoots of the Jaina insistence on non--violence, and which are clearly enunciated in the Jaina scriptures go to promote not only environmental awareness but also make a positive contribution in restoring ecological balance and environmental protection: - a. Non-violent life-style that includes non-killing and non destruction of any vitality of any living being - fine or gross (Fine life in the form of Water-bodied creatures, Earth-bodied creatures, Air-bodied creatures, Firebodied creatures, Vegetation-bodied creatures and gross life in the form of bacteria, insects, animals, birds, fishes and humans). b. Restrained life-style, c. Non-accumulation of material adjunct, d. Prohibiting pursuit of grossly violent forms of professions or industries, e. Prohibition of hunting and eating of flesh foods, f. Prohibition of eating at night, etc. Conclusion - Non-violence is at the centre of Jaina thought and philosophy. In this chapter I have tried to examine, at some length, the issues connected with violence and its opposite - nonviolence. In doing so I have tried to explain that though the term non-violence seems to be a negative command, it also encompasses its creative and positive side in the form of rendering AHIMSA (NON-VIOLENCE): 85

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selfless service to the threatened, ill, old and feeble as well as protecting of life and environment. As mentioned earlier, non-violence is at the very root of Jainism and, therefore, all its precepts and practices are designed to serve this single and solitary purpose of ensuring enduring non-violence as far as possible. 86 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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SECTION-II JAINA PHILOSOPHY

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his is the most important section of this book This deals with the Jaina philosophy and metaphysics in all their vivid details and far-reaching ramifications. As would be expected, it starts with the chapter on fundamentals and then goes on to examine the issues of vital importance like the rightvision, right-knowledge, Anekantavada and Syadvada, Karma Theory and Stages of spiritual progress of an aspirant, who treads the spiritual path, right up to his liberation from the mundane existence.

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TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) The Fundamentals - The Jaina view holds that the ultimate aim of all living existence is to attain nirvana or liberation from the mundane worldly existence beset with the pain and miseries of birth, disease, decay and death. The Jaina philosophy does not believe in an almighty God who can grant liberation to any soul that serves Him or His cause and holds the individual living-beings responsible for their own actions -- good or bad. The Jaina thinkers, therefore, have found the answer to this puzzling riddle of miserable worldly existence and liberation there from in terms of nine fundamentals that can logically explain the way it is attained. The liberating path lies in having the right-vision or right attitude (Samyagdarsana), the right-knowledge (Samyagjnana) and observing the right-conduct (Samyakcaritra). Of these three ingredients of liberty, too, the first - Samyagdarsana is the very basic requirement because in its absence any amount of knowledge and any type of conduct only amount to false knowledge and false conduct. Vacaka Umasvati, in his Tattvarthasutra, has said that Samyagdarsana is nothing but a firm belief in the fundamental verities (Tattvartha), their proper knowledge is the right-knowledge and the conduct in accordance

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with these fundamentals is the right conduct. The Tattvarthasutra of Vacaka Umasvati mentions only seven fundamentals excluding the Punya and Papa. However, the later thinkers have included them and we shall describe them as such. This chapter enumerates and briefly describes the nine fundamental verities - Jiva (the living), Ajiva (the non-living), Punya (acts of piety), Papa (sinful acts), Asrava (karmic influx), Sanivara (karmic stoppage), Bandha (karinic bondage). Nirjara (karmic separation) and Moksa (liberation). Before we actually embark on the description of these fundamentals, it will be worth our while to have some understanding of the way these come about and influence the entire process of the soul's journey to its ultimate destination - liberation or Moksa. The entire universe is composed of two types of matter the living matter and the non-living matter. The living matter or the souls are all essentially the same conscious and formless. The non-living matter is, again, of several types; only one of them (Pudgala) being concrete or tangible or formed. The souls are, however, susceptible to association with the concrete non-living matter (Pudgala), which gives them bodies as well as binds them to the world during their mundane existence. This accounts for the two fundamentals - the living matter (Jiva) and the nonliving matter (Ajiva). The way in which the concrete non-living matter (Karma-pudgala) comes into the soul-field, and thereby in contact with it, is known as influx (Asrava) and the process of binding of the karma matter with the soul is known as bondage (Bandha). It is the sinful or pious actions of a living-being (Papa or Punya) that are responsible for such interplay of the living and the non-living matters or for the karmic influx and bondage. Again, the soul cannot liberate unless the process of karmic influx and bondage is not stopped and the karma-matter already bonded with the soul is not irresidually separated from 90 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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it. The way in which the karmic influx and, thereby, bonding as well) can be stopped is termed as karmic stoppage (Samvara) and the way it is separated from the soul as separation (Nirjara). Once a complete separation of the soul from the karmic bondage is achieved, it liberates or gains its ultimate destiny called liberation (Moksa). Thus, if we look at them carefully, the basic fundamentals are only two- the living-matter (Jiva) and the nonliving matter (Ajiva). Remaining seven fundamentals come about either through their association or dissociation. The time is now ripe for their detailed description. 1. Jiva Tatva (The Living Matter) Or The Soul - Jiva or living matter is the one that is endowed with consciousness (upayoga), which makes it feel pleasure or pain. Another practical definition says that the Jiva is signified by the possession of at the very least four types of vitality - sense(s), power, life-span and respiration. Consciousness is nothing but the ability to feel and perceive or to visualise and know. (We shall deal with the subjects of visualisation (Darsana) and knowledge (Jnana), in detail, in the second and the third chapters respectively). However, we must recall that Jiva, by itself, is formless, unmanifest and eternal. It manifests itself through its association with formed non-living matter in the form of its body and karmic adjunct. Detailing its other attributes, Acarya Nemicandra Siddhanta-Cakravarti says that it occupies the space afforded it by its body, it is the doer of its actions and enjoyer of the fruits thereof, it is either mundane or liberated and, in its natural state, it has a natural tendency to rise. This brings us to the classification of the souls. As we have mentioned in the last paragraph, the souls are either mundane (Samsari - in the worldly existence) or liberated (Siddha). The liberated souls (Siddha) are free of all (eight types of) karmic bondage, they are incorporeal and unmanifest, subtle but TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 91

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spatial, they are neither heavy nor light and they have infinite knowledge, infinite vision, infinite spiritual prowess and eternally rest in the abode of the liberated souls, situated at the forefront of the universe, which is known as the Siddhasila or Siddhaloka or Isatpragbhara prthvi. * The worldly living-beings are, again, of the following fourteen types: - Developed (Paryapta) Undeveloped (Aparyapta) i. Fine one-sensed beings viii. Fine one-sensed beings (Suksina Ekendriya) (Suksma Ekendriya) ii. Gross one-sensed beings Gross one sensed beings (Badar Ekendriya) (Badara Ekendriya) iii. Two-sensed beings Two-sensed beings (Dvindriya) (Dvindriya) iv. Three-sensed beings xi. Three-sensed beings (Trindriya) (Trindriya) v. Four-sensed beings xii. Four-sensed beings (Caturendriya) (Caturendriya) vi. Irrational five-sensed beings xiii. Irrational five-sensed (Asasjni Paricendriya) beings (Asanjni Paricendriya) vii. Rational five-sensed beings xiv. Rational five-sensed (Sanjni Pancendriya) beings (Sanni Paricendriya) The first, second, eighth and ninth categories of these living beings are immobile and are referred to as static living beings (Sthavara Jiva) and include the Earth-bodied creatures (Prthvikaya), Water-bodied creatures (Apkaya), Air-bodied creatures (Vayukaya), Fire-bodied creatures (Tejaskaya) and Plant life (Vanaspati-kaya). The rest are known as mobile creatures or Trasakayika Jiva and have two to five senses. The five-sensed beings are, again, with or without reasoning minds. having two to four senses are also known as incomplete sensed creatures (Vikalendriya Jiva) and those having five senses as complete sensed creatures (Parnendriya Jiva). Some thinkers also consider 92 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the Air-bodies and the Fire-bodies as mobile as they can move in the three dimensions. Sufficient And Insufficient Creatures - Developments in respect of the living beings are in six areasability to imbibe food (Ahara paryapti), ability to form a body (Sarira paryapti), ability to respirate (Anapana or Svasocchavasa paryapti), ability to feel through sensory organs (Indriya paryapti), ability to communicate through vocal language (Bhasa paryapti) and the ability to think and reason (Manah paryapti). These are referred to as paryaptis or sufficiencies. On conception in the mothers' wombs the creatures enter the place of their birth (Yoni-sthana). There, through their food consuming organ they consume the material necessary for the formation of their bodies and thereby form their bodies, respiratory organs, sensory organs, vocal organs and thinking organs, in this order. There are infinite number of creatures who die before developing these abilities, However, the living beings that are able to form their bodies before their deaths are said to be sufficient creatures (Paryapta Jiva) even when they might not have acquired the latter four developments of respiration, senses, language and thought. The others that die before forming their bodies are said to be insufficient creatures (Aparyapta Jiva). The sufficient creatures may have a minimum of four sufficiencies of food, body, respiration and senses in the cases of static fine one-sensed living beings through a maximum of all six in the cases f rational fivesensed beings. They might also be endowed with four to ten vitalities as under: - Class of Creatures No. And Types of Vitalities Present i-11. Fine and gross one sensed beings FOUR - Sense of touch, bodypower, life-span and respiration. TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 93

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iii. Two-sensed beings SIX - Senses of touch and taste and body--power, speech-power, lifespan and respiration. iv. Three-sensed beings SEVEN - Senses of touch, taste and smell and body-power, speech--- power, life-span and respiration. v. Four sensed beings EIGHT-Senses of touch, taste, smell and sight and body-power, speech-power, life-span and respiration. vi. Irrational Five-sensed beings NINE - Senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing and bodypower, speech-power, life--span and respiration. vii. Rational Five-sensed beings TEN - Senses of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing and body-power, speech--power, mind power, life span and respiration. There is yet another classification of the living--beings on the basis of the part of the universe in which they dwell. They are as under: - 1. The hellish creatures (Naraka Jiva) dwelling on the seven hellish grounds (Naraka--Bhumi)in the nether world (Adholoka), 2. Sub-human creatures (Tiryanca) live in the middle universe (Madhyaloka), 3. The human-beings (Manusya), too, live in the human part of the middle universe ( Manusyaloka) and 4. Heavenly gods (Deva) living in the heavens (Devavimana) in the upper universe (Urdhvaloka). 94 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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At this stage it would be right to dwell a little on the matter of life and death. We have said earlier that the soul is unmanifest, incorporeal - bodiless and eternal. Then, who are the creatures that we see around us? Why are they born? Why do they die? Who takes birth and dies? Yes, the soul is unmanifest, incorporeal, bodiless and eternal but, by virtue of its associability and bonding with the manifest non-living matter (pudgala), it acquires bodies and becomes corporeal during its mundane - worldly existence. What we see around us are the worldly souls that have bodies and are in front of us as corporeal creatures. We cannot and do not see the liberated souls that are incorporeal. As the eternal soul transmigrates in its mundane existence it continuously acquires and relinquishes bodies after specific periods of time called life-span (Ayusya) that is determined by its karmic associations prevailing at different times. Acquisition of a new body by the soul is termed as birth and relinquishing an existing body as death. It is like changing of clothes. Material body is nothing more than a garb for the soul. The Srimad Bhagvadgita also says that the soul discards a worn out body and takes a new one just as a person discards worn out clothes and takes new ones. So, actually, it is the body, which is created and destroyed or the body is born and the body dies while the soul remains constant, eternal. 2. Ajiva Tattva (The Non-living Matter) - As mentioned earlier, the universe consists of the living and the non-living matter. Also, that the living matter has a beginningless association with a particular type of non-living matter called karma-matter and which is the cause of its worldly existence and transmigration. The non-living universe consists of five types of non-living matter namely - Pudgala, Dharma, Adharma, Akasa and Kala. These are widely divergent in their characteristics and have only one thing in common that they are TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 95

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all lifeless. Of these only the Pudgala matter is manifest or formed, others are unmanifest or unformed. This section of the chapter is devoted to a reasonably detailed description of these types. Pudgala Dravya (Manifest Matter) - The elemental matter that is variously referred to as physical element or physical matter is known as pudgaia in the Jaina parlance. This is the manifest part of the non-living universe and all that we see around us is a manifestation of this single type of matter. It is endowed with the attributes of form (rupa), taste (rasa), smell (gandha), sound (sabda) and touch (sparsa), ineaning that it can be seen, tasted, smelt, heard or felt by a touch. However, the pudgala manifests itself through its various modes that are caused by its properties of making sound (sabda), bonding of one part with the other(s) (bandha), fineness (suiksamata), grossness (sthulata), configuration (samsthana), divisibility (bheda), darkness (tama), casting shadows (chaya), radiance (udyota), and heat (atapa). The constantly changing universe we see and experience is nothing but the manifestation of the changing modes of the pudgala matter. If we analyse the name pudgala itself, it is made up of two parts 'pud meaning 'to combine' and "gala'meaning to disintegrate'. Thus pudgala, by its very nature, constantly keeps changing its modes by combination and disintegration. This change comes about in three different ways - 1. Naturally as the shapes of clouds keep changing on their own, 2. By conscious endeavour when it undergoes a change through some effort and 3. By a combination of nature and effort. Because of its constantly changing nature, the pudgala is defined in terms of four variables, namely - 1. Dravya(Matter), 2. Ksetra (Spatial position), 3. Kala(Time) and 4. Bhava (Mode). Together, they are known as its own quartet (Sva-catustaya). Eight major types of pudgala matter, called pudgalavargana, are 1. Audarika vargana, the matter type that forms the 96 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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physical bodies of the living-beings, 2. Vaikriya vargasa special type of pudgala matter that is capable of transformation, 3. Aha raka vargana, the matter type with which the accomplished spiritual practitioners form bodies with special powers, 4. Taijas vargana, the type of matter with which the subtle body electric field is formed that gives the body its glow, heat and power to digest, 5. Karmana vargana, the highly subtle karma-matter that binds with the soul and becomes the cause of its worldly existence and transmigration, 6. Svasocchavasa vargana, the gaseous matter that is inhaled and exhaled by the living beings, 7. Bhasa vargana, the mode of matter that creates intelligible sounds, and 8. Manah vargana, the type of matter that creates thoughts in the minds of the rational living beings. All pudgala matter is made up of ultimate indivisible particles called 'Paramanu', which combine to form various types of aggregates called "skandha? Here, it must be clearly understood that paramanu is the ultimate and indivisible finest part of matter * and it ought not to be confused with the currently employed scientific term "atom', which has been divided into finer particles long ago. The finest particle known to science, today, is 'quark? and it may not be the ultimate finest particle. Of course, the science is yet to cross many frontiers of discovery. Two, three or more (including numerable, innumerable and infinite) number of ultimate particles form the aggregates. The ultimate particle is not perceptible by senses but the aggregates are and the manifest universe we see around us is in the form of aggregates (pudgala-skandha) of various shapes, sizes, colours, tastes, smells, and touches. According to their sizes the material aggregates are of six types - 1. Very fine, 2. Fine, 3. Fine-gross, 4. Gross-fine, 5. Gross and 6. Very gross. The Jaina thinkers also accept a relationship between matter and energy and consider energy as a mode of matter, the contention that has been borne out by Albert Einstein's discovery and the resultant equation TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 97

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(E=MC2) giving a mathematical veracity to this relation. Any discussion about the manifest matter will be incomplete if we did not mention its spatial dimension. All matter whether manifest or otherwise occupies space. This space is provided to it by the space-matter known as Akasa. As we shall dwell upon the details of the space-matter separately, it will suffice, here, to say that, depending upon their density, the smallest unit of space, known as pradesa, is capable of accommodating a single pudgala particle as well as infinite number of such particles. We conclude this exposition on pudgala by mentioning its twenty characteristics and five configurations as follows : - Eight types of touches - Cold, hot, dry, oily, light, heavy, smooth or rough; Five types of tastes - Sour, sweet, bitter, astringent and pungent; Two types of smells - Fragrant and foul or pleasant and unpleasant; Five types of colours - Blue, red, green, yellow and white; and Configurations - Spherical, circular, triangular, tetrahedral and cuboidal. All other configurations are various combinations and permutations of these basic configurations. Dharma Dravya (Medium Of Motion) - The second type of non-living matter is Dharma or the medium of motion. It is defined as an abstract neutral agency that supports the motion of the souls and the manifest matter through space without urging those at rest to move'. It has been compared to water that supports the motion of the fish but does not urge the fishes, that wish to rest, to move. It only provides a neutral medium for such motion and it neither moves with the 98 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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objects that move through it nor does it urge them to move. It is eternal and its expanse is uninterrupted in the entire universal space comprising innumerable space units. Though the concept of a neutral medium of motion is unique to the Jaina thought and it is not found mentioned in any other religious philosophy, the modern scientific concept of dynamic inertia, which states that any object in a state of uniform motion will continue to move unless acted upon by an external force, comes closest to it. The Dharma-dravya can be compared to 'ether' in which everything, including the electromagnetic waves, moves. It must be noted that the expanse of the Dharma-dravya is only up to the universal space and, therefore, no motion is possible in the non-universal space outside the universal space. Adharma Dravya (Medium Of Rest) - The next category of non-living matter is Adharma or the medium of rest. It is defined as "an abstract neutral agency that supports the state of rest of the souls and the manifest matter in the space without urging those in motion to come to rest'. It has been compared to the shade of a tree that supports the rest of a traveller but does not urge to rest those that wish to move on. It only provides a neutral medium for such rest and it does not urge them to stop. It, too, is eternal and its expanse is also uninterrupted in the entire universai space comprising innumerable space units. Though the concept of a neutral medium of rest is also unique to the Jaina thought and it is also not found mentioned in any other religious philosophy, the modern scientific concept of static inertia, which states that any object in a state of rest will continue to stay in a state of rest unless acted upon by an external force, comes closest to it. It must be noted that the expanse of the Adharma-dravya is also only up to the universal space and, therefore, no parition for either the souls or the manifest matter is possible in the non-universal space outside the universal space. TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 99

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From the discussion on the Dharma and the Adharma Dravya, two things emerge - 1. They are the mediums of all motion and position in the space, and 2. They define the limit of the universal space. The universal space extends up to the extent that these mediums are present. Beyond this limit is the nonuniversal space in which no motion or position of any kind of matter -- sentient or insentient - is possible. Akasa Dravya (Space-matter) - As the very name suggests the Akasa--dravya or the spacematter is the abstract matter that provides space to all other types of matter - Jiva, Pudgala, Dharma, Adharma and Kala. The ultimately smallest unit of space is known as pradesa and, depending upon their density, it is capable of accommodating one particle of matter or infinite number of them. Here, it is worthy of mention that a single particle of matter requires at least one unit of space for its accommodation but one unit of space is also capable of accommodating infinite number of material particles. This particular attribute of the space-unit (pradesa) is known as miraculous power of accommodation or Avagahana-siddhi. The concept of 'black holes', into which large objects vanish by being reduced to dense material points, may be explained by this definition of space-units. The space, according to the Jaina thought, is divided into two parts - 1. The universal space (Lokakasa) that accommodates all other types of matter, living (liva) as well as non-living (Pudgala, Dharma, Adharma and Kala), and 2. The non-universal space (Alokakasa) that affords no location to other types of matter for the media of motion and position are not present therein. In other words, it is only the space-matter, which is not restricted to the universal space and extends beyond it. About the nature of space-matter, the Jaina concept is in conformity with the concept of real void (Sunya-vastavika) capable of accommodation - Avagahana-yogya. 100 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Kala-dravya (Time-matter) - The next type of matter is Kala or time. It is characterised by its passage and its presence is limited to the universal space. It is responsible for all the change in the living and non-living matter. The time is eternal and endless and is composed of time units that are known as samaya - the smallest unit of time defined as the time taken for a paramanu to travel from one space-unit to the next. The very next higher unit of time - nimisa is innumerable times greater than the samaya. The Jaina precept believes in a three-fold division of time in two ways - Firstly - 1. Past, 2. Present, and 3. Future and secondly - 1. Measurable time (Sankhyat kala) mentioned in terms of samaya, nimisa, kastha, kala, ghati, Muhurta, Ahoratra , paksa, masa, varsa, up to purvakoti, 2. Immeasurable time (Asankhyat kala) mentioned in terms of Palyopama, Sagaropama, etc, and 3. Infinite time (Ananta-kala). Though the measurement of time has been dealt with, in detail, in the ninth chapter, the following is one of the representations of measurable time - Measurable Time (Sarikhyat Kala) - Sainaya The smallest unit of time according to Jaina precept. Nimisa Time taken to bat an eyelid. However, it is equal to innumerable Samayas. Kastha 15 Nimisa. Kala 20 Kastha. Ghati or Nali - 20 Kala (24 minutes approx.) Muhurta 2 Ghatis (48 minutes approx.) Ahoratra 30 Muhurtas (24 Hrs. or a day and a night) Paksa 15 day-nights, Masa 2 Paksa (a month), Rtu 2 Masa, Ayana 3 Rtu, Varsa 2 Ayana or 6 Rtu or 12 Masa (an year), Purva varsa 7056x10 10 years, TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 101

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10+ years, etc. Pancastikaya (Five Bodied Existences) - Out of the six types of matter one living and five nonliving- mentioned above, five except the Kala, are real (i.e. they exist) and form aggregates (bodies) while Kala is real (it exists) but it does not form aggregates. The five that exist in bodied existence are termed as Astikayas while time is excluded from this classification for its inability to form aggregates. Singly, they are respectively called I. Jivastikaya, 2. Pudgalastikaya, 3. Dharma-stikaya, 4. Adharmastikaya and 5. Akasastikaya. Collectively, the five are referred to as Pancastikaya. Kotakoti Varsa - 3. Punya Tattva (Pious Activities) - Punya is defined as those actions that yield pleasurable fruition for the doer to enjoy when he reaps the fruits of his actions. This definition is linked with the action (karma) and its inevitable favourable or pleasurable retribution. The meritorious actions attract pious karma-matter towards the soul (Punyasrava) and under right psychic dispositions they get bound with it (Punyabandha). When such karmic bondage ripens and yields fruits, they are invariably pleasurable. Thus, the discussion about the fundamental of merit cannot be de-linked from that of karmic influx and bondage. The types of actions that are considered pious or meritorious are - Prasasta Raga (commendable attachment towards the faith, the Prophets and the preceptors), Anukampa or compassionate disposition, Dana or giving charity of food, clothes and shelter to the deserving, thinking well of others, giving verbal solace to the suffering, serving the elders and the aged, helping the needy. bowing to the venerable, etc. From the stand-point of types of karmic influx and bondage that takes place while enjo, ing the fruits of earlier bonded 102: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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meritorious acts, the punya is of two types - 1. Punyanubandhipunya in which one gathers more merit while enjoying the fruits of earlier merit. The example of such punya is when one gives charity out of the wealth that one got as a result of one's earlier merit, and gathers further merits. 2. Papanubandhi Punya, in which one gathers demerits or sins while enjoying the fruits of earlier merit. For example, when one squanders the wealth obtained through earlier merit in sinful pursuits, one gathers demerits while enjoying the fruits of earlier merit. The list of favourable fruition that one can get through meritorious acts is long. However, some of them are as follows:i. Pleasurable feelings, High status, Human rebirth, Heavenly rebirth, Good body and health, vi. Fame, vii. Rebirth as a Prophet, etc.. Here, it must be clearly understood that punya is both, desirable and undesirable at the same time. From the point of view of pleasurable and favourable fruition, it is desirable but from the point of view of ultimate liberation from the mundane existence, it is undesirable. The reason being that it is itself binding upon the soul though with favourable karmic bondage. But, bondage is bondage, after all. Shackles whether made of steel or of gold are shackles and one type binds the captive as good as the other. 4. Papa Tattva (Sinful Activities) - Papa is defined as those actions that yield painful fruition for the doer to suffer when he reaps the fruits of his actions. This definition is also linked with the action (karma) and its inevitable unfavourable or painful retribution. The sinful actions attract TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 103

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impious karma-matter towards the soul (Papasrava) and under right psychic dispositions they get bound with it (Papa-bandha). When such karmic bondage ripens and yields fruits, they are invariably painful. Thus, the discussion about the fundamental of demerit is also linked with that of karmic influx and bondage. In his work 'Pancastikaya' Kundakundacarya defines sin as actions that are predominantly negligent, wicked thoughts, indulgent attitude in sensual pleasures and tormenting others. The activities that are considered sinful are - violent actions, telling lies, stealing, sexual indiscretion, unlimited accumulation, conspicuous consumption, anger, pride, guile, greed, aversion, quarrelsomeness, laying false blames, back-biting, jealousy, wrong beliefs, impious attachment towards the mundane pleasures and objects of sin, lack of compassion and uncharitable disposition, thinking ill of others, verbally tormenting the suffering, speaking ill of others, etc. From the stand-point of types of karmic influx and bondage that takes place while enjoying the fruits of earlier bonded sinful acts, the papa is of two types - 1. Punyanubandhi papa, in which one gathers merit while suffering the inevitable retribution of earlier sins. The example of such papa is when one suffers in silence and in a state of equanimity of mind thinking that it is his own karma that he is to blame and helps others in spite of his suffering, and gathers merit. 2. Papanubandhi Papa, in which one gathers further demerits while suffering the retribution of one's earlier sins. For example, when one laments, cries and yells while suffering the retribution due to one's earlier bonded sins as well as indulges in further sinful pursuits, one gathers further demerits. The list of unfavourable fruition that one can get through sinful acts is long. However, some of them are the bonding of following karma : - 104: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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i. Knowledge obscuring (Inanavaraniya) karma, ii. Vision obscuring (Darsanavaraniya) karma, iii. Delusion producing (Mohaniya) karma, iv. Pleasure hindering (Antaraya) karma, V. Inauspicious physique (Asubha Nama) karma, vi. Low status (Nica Gotra) karma, vii. Painful feelings (Asatavedaniya) karma, and viii. Inauspicious rebirth (Nica Gati Ayu) karma. Here, also, it must be clearly understood that papa is always undesirable. It is undesirable from the point of view of painful and unfavourable fruition as well as from that of barring the ultimate liberation of the soul. One must, therefore, desist from sinful pursuits how-so-ever enticing they may seem at the outset, in ultimate analysis they are painful and binding. 5. Asrava Tattva (Karmic Influx) - All activities of a living being whether they are physical, mental or verbal result in vibrations that attract karma-matter (karina-pudgala vargana) in its vicinity. This attraction and resultant entry of the karma-matter into the soul-field is termed as Asrava or karmic influx. There are three schools of thought as to the causes of karmic influx. They are as under: - A. The first school of thought believes that karmic influx results from the presence of passions (kasaya) and the activities of the yoga (body, mind and speech). B. The second school believes that it is caused by false-belief (mithyatva), indiscipline (avirati), passions and yoga. C. The third school of thought is of the view that karmic influx is a result of falsehood, indiscipline, negligence (pramada), passions and yoga. From the consideration of the quality of karmic influx, it can be of two types, namely --- TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 105

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A. Pious karmic influx (Punyasrava) is caused by pious psychic disposition of the creature while performing the activities of body mind and speech. The creature that has pious attachment towards the Prophets, preceptors and the co-believers, who is of compassionate disposition and whose mind is devoid of bad thoughts invites pious karmic influx. B. Sinful karmic influx (Papasrava) is caused by impious psychic disposition. One, who is negligent in his actions, whose mind is full of envy and ill-feelings for others, who is indiscreet, undisciplined and unrestrained, who always remains engrossed in the pursuit of mundane pleasures, etc invites impious or sinful karmic influx. From the consideration of level of influx, again, it is of two types - A. Psychic Influx (Bhavasrava) - The attraction of the karma-matter due to the mental thought processes of the pious and the impious types is termed as Bhavasrava. B. Substantive Influx (Dravyasrava) - The physical entry of the karma-matter into the soul field due to the thoughts and activities of various kinds is termed as Dravayasrava. Again, from the consideration of the potentiality of the influxed karma-matter to bond with the soul also it is of two types, namely - A. Non-bonding Influx (iryapathik Asrava) - When the activities of the body, mind and speech are conducted in the absence of any passion or desire or attachment, the karma-matter attracted towards the soul does not get bound with it and they fall apart in the very next instant that they are attracted. Such influx is termed as Iryapathik Asrava. The example that illustrates such influx is when dry sand is thrown on a dry and smooth wall it readily falls to the ground without sticking to the wall. 106 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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The coming in contact of the sand with the wall can be compared with karmic influx and its falling to the ground in the absence of any sticking agent to the absence of passions, desire and attachment that act as bonding agents for the influxed karma-matter. B. Bonding Influx (Samparayik Asrava) - On the contrary, when the activities of the body, mind and speech are conducted in the presence of passions or desire or attachment, the karma-matter attracted towards the soul gets bound with it. Such influx is termed as Samparayik Asrava. Again, in the same example if the sand is thrown on a wet and rough wall, it gets stuck there. Similarly, the influxed karma-matter gets bonded with the soul in the presence of bonding agents in the form of passions, desire and attachment. It will be worth our while to dwell a little on the five causes of karmic influx. A. Mithyatva (False-belief) - The false belief corrupts a person or a creature's vision. He is unable to see things in their right perspective and indulges in sinful activities thinking them to be pious. However, the law takes its own course and karmic influx takes place into his soulfield even if he thinks otherwise. He is not even aware of the harm being caused to himself. Falsehood is, therefore, a very potent cause of karmic influx. B. Avirati (Indulgence) - When one indulges in various pious and impious activities, the karmic influx takes place due to the vibrations caused in the soul-field. Indulgence in violence, untruth, theft, sex and unlimited possession and conspicuous consumption can be considered to be in this category. C. Pramada (Negligence) - When one neglects to exercise due care in what one does due to the influence of arrogance, sensuality, passion, sleep or sloth and gossip TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 107

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about food, sex, king or state, one invites karmic influx into one's soul-field. D. Kasaya (Passions) - When one is under the influence of passions such as anger, pride, guile and greed, one invites karmic influx into one's soul-field. E. Yoga (Activities of the body, mind and speech) - As mentioned earlier, such activities cause special vibrations in the soul-field that attract karmic influx. This discussion on the fundamental of karmic influx' can be summed up by mentioning its forty-two causes - A. Five sense-organs of touch, taste, sight, smell and hearing B. Four passions - anger, pride, guile and greed. C. Five indulgences in violence, untruth, theft, sex and attachment for possessions. D. Three types of activities of the body, mind and speech. E. Twenty-five activities like physica), jealous, violent, possessive, unrestrained, falsehood prompted, deceptive, instrumental, supervisory, creative, ordered, social, etc. 6. Bandha Tattva (Bondage) - While discussing the fundamental of karmic influx we had mentioned that in the presence of suitable karma bonding agents such as passions, desire or attachment, the influxed karma-mater gets bound with the soul. This is termed as bondage and is brought about by the bonding properties of the bonding agents. The karma-matter bonded with the soul makes it impure and heavy and forces it to dwell in the mundane existence. It may be called the impure mode of the soul. When the karma-matter is completely separated from the soul by suitable means, it becomes pure and light and rises to the uppermost end of the universe to dwell in the abode of the liberated souls. This is the pure mode of the soul. Karmic influx and bondage are associated with the 108 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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impure mundane mode of the soul while stoppage (Samvara) and separation (Nirjara) with the process of liberation resulting in its pure mode. The question that arises is "Since when has the soul been in the grip of the karma--matter?" In the introductory chapter in Section-I, we have mentioned that the beginningless association of the soul with the karma-matter is one of the unquestionable axioms of Jainism. All mundane creatures, by virtue of their mundane status, have initial karmic encumbrance, which they keep reducing or augmenting through their thoughts, deeds and words. The Causes Of Karmic Bondage - The causes of karmic bondage are the same as the causes of karmic influx. It is only the presence or the absence of the karmic bonding agents - passions, attachment etc that makes the influxed karma-matter to stick or fall off. In the first case the bondage takes place and in the second it does not. The Psychic And Substantive Bondage - The subtle karmic bondage caused due to the psychic states such as attachment, aversion, delusion, etc of the creature is said to be the psychic bondage or Bhava-bandha. The substantive karmic bondage is the gross bondage in which the karma-matter actually bonds with the spatial units of the soul. This is known as Dravya--bandha. Four Types Of Karmic Bondage - Just as the food, when digested, is converted into flesh, blood, bone, bone-marrow and energy, the karma-matter while in the process of bonding with the soul gets converted into four states, which decide their nature, duration, potency and magnitude. TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 109

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A. Nature Of Bondage or Quality-bondage (Prakrti Bandha) - According to the type of activity and psychic state at the time of bonding of karma-matter with the soul, it gets converted into any one or more of the following eight types of karma-matter that bonds with the soul and that decides the nature of retribution it will ultimately yield when it comes to fruition. These eight types are - Knowledge obscuring (Inanavaraniya) karma, Vision obscuring (Darsanavaraniya) karma, iii Feeling producing (Vedaniya) karma, iv Deluding (Mohaniya) karma, V Life-span determining (Ayu) karma, vi Physique determining (Nama) karma, vii Status determining (Gotra) karma, and viii Obstructive (Antaraya) karma. B. Duration Of Bondage (Sthiti-Bandha) -- Each of the above mentioned eight types of karmic bondage remains bonded with the soul before it separates from the soul after yielding its fruition. This period is known as duration (sthiti) of that type of karmic bondage. C. Potency Of bondage (Anubhaga-Bandha) - The intensity with which a particular type of karma yields its fruition is called its potency of bonding or anubhaga. It goes without saying that this potency and resultant intensity of retribution depends upon the intensity of the passions with which such karmic bonds are bonded. D. Magnitude Of Bondage or Quantity-bondage (Pradesa-Bandha) - the amount of different types of karma-matter that gets bonded with the soul due to certain action is said to be the magnitude of that particular bondage or Pradesa-bandha. On this magnitude depends 110 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the amount of resultant suffering or enjoyment to be yielded when the specific karma comes to fruition. Here, the difference between the potency and magnitude must be very clearly understood. The most potent karmic bondage resulting in very intense retribution may not be of maximum quantity. The potency depends on the intensity of passions and the magnitude upon the amount of activity at the time of bonding. Persistent action at low intensity will bond more quantity of karma-matter than momentary action under the influence of intense passions. Though a more detailed discussion on the subject of karma will ensue in the chapter on 'Karma Theory', it is pertinent here to mention that all bonded karma-matter is separated from the soul either by giving its due retribution, on coming to fruition, or by expiation through appropriate penance. However, there are some immutable (nikacita) types of karma that admit of no expiation but can be separated only by suffering their due retribution. Another feature of karmic bondage is that one is free to act at will but is compelled to suffer the retribution due to his actions. One must, therefore be vigilant while acting rather than be repentant while suffering. 7. Samvara Tattva (Karmic Stoppage) - Sanivara or karmic stoppage is the seventh of the nine fundamentals. It has been defined as the prevention of karmic influx (Asrava-nirodh) into the soul-field. Therefore, the means of stoppage will be just the opposite of those that result in karmic influx. Such stoppage prevents the incoming of the karma-matter into the soul-field and, therefore, precludes any possibility of its bonding with it. It, thus, indirectly helps in preventing further karmic bondage and leaves the way open for the spiritual aspirant TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 111

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to concentrate on the process of karmic separation, which will ultimately pave the way for his liberation from the mundane existence. This can be understood by the example of a boat that has developed a leak in it and water has started seeping in. A wise sailor will first try to plug the leak and then concentrate on belching out the accumulated water. Unless the leak has been effectively plugged, no amount of belching out will result in throwing out all accumulated water. It is the case with the spiritual aspirant who wishes to achieve complete separation from the accumulated karma-matter in order to attain liberation from the mundane existence. Plugging the leak in the boat can be compared with karmic stoppage (Samvara) and belching out of water with karmic separation (Nirjara). The second cannot be effective without the first. From the considerations of psychic and physical means of stoppage the Samvara has been said to be of two types - i. Substantive Prevention (Dravya-Sanivara)- To give up activities that result in substantive karmic influx is substantive prevention. ii. Psychic Prevention (Bhava-Sanivara) - To bear such psychic disposition that precludes the possibility of any psychic karmic influx is psychic prevention. The Means To Achieve Karmic Stoppage - At the very outset it must be understood that as the karmic influx results from self-indulgence, karmic stoppage can only be achieved through self-restraint. As the karmic stoppage is just the opposite of karmic influx the means to achieve it are also just the opposite of those responsible for karmic influx. This can be easily seen from the following table that compares the means of karmic influx with those of karmic stoppage: - 112 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Means Of Karmic Influx i. False belief, ii. Indulgence, iii. Negligence, iv. Passions, and v. Indiscreet yoga, i. ii. iii. iv. V. Means Of Karmic Stoppage Right belief, Restraint, Vigilance, Controlled passions, and Discreet yoga. From this discussion emerge the twenty types of medium Do's and fifty seven types of maximal Do's that constitute a detailed classification of these means that result in karmic stoppage. They, as will be seen, form the 'Jaina ethics' and will be dealt with in detail later in this work. They are as follows: - A.Twenty Do's - Observing five means of karmic stoppage, namely Right-belief, restraint, vigilance, controlled passions and discreet employment of body, mind and speech. (i-v) Five types of renunciations, namely - violence, untruth, theft, sex, and possession. (vi-x) Restraint over five senses, namely - those of touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing. (xi-xv) Three disciplines over mind, body and speech, (xvi-xviii) and Discretion in the use of equipment and implements. (xix-xx). B. Fifty-seven Do's - Three disciplines of mind, body and speech (Trigupti), Five types of vigilance in moving, seeking, speaking, equipment maintenance and disposal (Panca-samiti). Ten monastic duties - forgiveness, humility, simplicity, contentment, truth, restraint, penance, renunciation, poverty and celibacy (Dasa Muni-dharma). Twelve types of pious contemplation (Dvadasanupreksa). These are about transient nature of everything in the universe (Anityanupreksa), helplessness against - TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS): 113

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karmic retribution (Asarananupieksa), miserable nature of the worldly existence (Samsaranupreksa), loneliness of the individual in taking the consequences of its actions, duality of the body and the soul (Ekatvanupreksa), un cleanness of the body constituents (Asucitvanupreksa), means of karmic influx (Asravanupreksa), means of karmic stoppage (Sanivaranupreksa), means of karmic separation (Nirjaranupreksa), form of the universe that makes our own insignificance in the cosmic design dawn on us (Lokanupreksa), difficulties to be encountered in gaining enlightenment and hence its value (Bodhidurlabhanupreksa) and, finally, the certainty of liberation through the practice of the faith as preached by the Lords Jina (Dharma-nupreksa). Twenty-two monastic hardships (Bavisa Parisaha) such as hunger, thirst, heat, cold, etc. And Five types of ascetic ordination 1. Equanimity type (Samayika Cairitra), 2. Relegation and reinstatement type (Chedopasthapaniya Caritra). 3. Specially purifying type (Parihara-visuddhi Caritra), 4. Minimal greed-passion type (Suksma-samparaya Caritra) and 5. As enunciated type (Ythakhyata Caritra). - To conclude the discussion on Samvara, we can say that it is an important landmark in one's journey to the ultimate destination of liberation and that unless this landmark is crossed no spiritual progress is possible. 8. Nirjara Tattva (Karmic Separation) - The importance of karmic separation lies in the fact that unless the soul gets separated from the bonded karma-matter it cannot liberate. Nirjara is nothing but a partial destruction or separation of the karma-matter bonded with the soul. It is natural that by such partial separation the soul gets partially purified of the karma--mire that soils it. This fundamental is, thus, reverse of 114: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the processes of karmic bondage. Through the means of karmic influx the karma--matter enters the soul-field and through the process of bonding it gets stuck to the soul. It is the gradual process of karmic separation that renders the soul gradually purer and purer and then, if the means of karmic stoppage are in place, there comes a time when the karma-matter gets completely separated from the soul and it becomes absolutely pure. As we had mentioned in the characteristics of the living matter, the soul in its pure mode (liberated state) has a natural tendency to rise to the uppermost limit of the universe and reside there on the Siddhasila or the Isatpragbhara-prthvi i.e. in the abode of the liberated souls. In this section of this chapter we shall examine the means and the process of such karmic destruction or separation. Two Types Of Karmic Separation - The karma-matter bonded with the soul gets destroyed or separated from it in two ways. 1. The karma-matter gets separated on yielding the due retribution when it comes to fruition. This is termed as Savipaka Nirjara (separation on fruition) and is possible only of that karma-matter that has already matured and come to the stage of fruition (udaya). This type of karmic separation happens all the time. The individual aspiring to karmic separation must mark that if he takes the retribution of his actions due to him calmly and without remorse, thinking that it is his own actions that he is answering for and without resorting to despondent and angered thoughts, he does not bind new sets of karmamatter and his separation is final. On the other hand, the aspirant who resorts to remorse, despondence and anger while suffering the retribution of his earlier bonded karma binds new set of karma-matter while getting separated from the earlier bonded ones and the whole process TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS): 115

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becomes recurrent. It can be seen that this type of separation is involuntary and that one has no control over when and how of the karmic fruition. 2. It gets separated from the soul by the process of expiation through proper penance. This is called Avipaka Nirjara (separation, through expiation, without fruition) and is possible even in the case of that karma-matter that has not matured to come to the fruition stage. This process of premature separation of karma-matter through expiation is called Udirana. This type of separation happens only when the subject undertakes appropriate penance in order to expiate for his karmic encumbrance. This is the process that can uplift the soul and give it its desired goal of spiritual emancipation and liberation. As this is the process under our control, we must now concentrate our thoughts on it. However, it must be borne in mind that there are some types of karma that do not brook any interference in the process of their due and inevitable retribution. Twelve Types Of Nirjara - Penance is the only means to achieve voluntary karmic separation or Sakama-nirjara. Therefore, the term penance and separation are, at times, taken synonymously. In this section we shall describe twelve types of penance that result in karmic separation. They are as follows: - A. Six Types Of External (Physical) Penance Anasana (Fasting), i. ii. Avamaudarya (Reduced diet), iii. Bhiksacarya (Mendicancy), iv. Rasa-parityaga (Taste renunciation), Kaya-klesa (tolerating body-pain), and V. vi. Sallinata (Withdrawal from physicality to concentrate on spirituality). 116: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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B. Six Types Of Internal (Psychic or Volitional) Penance - i. Prayascitta (Repentance), ii. Vinaya (Humility), iii. Vaiyavrata (Service), iv. Svadhyaya (Scriptural study), v. Dhyana (Meditation), vi. Vyutsarga (Giving up bodily attachment). The details of these types of penance have been given under the treatment of penance in the first chapter. However, here we shall dwell a little more on the subject of meditation. Meditation - Meditation is the penultimate penance and one of the most potent agent of spiritual purification and, thereby, of liberation. Spiritual benefits apart, meditation has been recognised as a means of reduction of tension and attendant maladies, which makes it a potent tool for leading a healthy life as well. Its importance in the modern era, beset with incessant rat-race and haunting schedules cannot be understated. It reduces tension, improves concentration and increases efficiency and what else? Meditation is directly related to consciousness and, through improved concentration, effects it at all three levels, namely - those of cognition (specific knowledge or Jnana), feeling or Vedana and conation (general mental awareness or Darsana). Periods of meditation are moments of rest for the intellect and the senses tired from over indulgence. They become a means of relief from the tortures of physicality and also pave a path to tread away from tensions and upheavals of tiring schedules. Thus, we see that penance is not all hunger and abstinence, but besides being a means of karmic separation, it is also a way of leading a healthy and hearty life. It is the redirection of the life-force or vitality in the right direction. TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 117

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Moksa Tattva (Liberation) -- Liberation or Moksa is the last and the most important of the nine fundamentals of Jainism. It is the final and ultimate destination of every living being to attain. It is quite natural for the soul to seek liberation, as it is its natural state, the state of bondage being the unnatural one. It has been defined as 'complete separation of the soul from the karma-matter'. The karma, as has been mentioned earlier, is of eight types four of them being destructive and the other four being non-destructive. The destructive types destroy the souls' power to gain enlightenment while the non-destructive types do not prevent enlightenment and have only to be gone through their due fruition before one can finally exit the mundane existence and reach the final destination. The separation from four destructive types of karma results in enlightenment and an assurance of the fact that once the four non-destructive types are exhausted the soul will exit the mundane world and enter the realm of the incorporeal liberated souls. This is, therefore, called the psychic or objective liberation of the soul while the exit of the soul from the mundane existence after exhausting the four non-destructive types of karma as well is termed as substantive or physical liberation. 9. Here, I wish to make it quite clear that complete separation from the karma-matter means separation from the good as well as the bad types of karma-matter. This means that one cannot liberate unless one rises above sinning as well as piety. Piety, too, results in influx and bonding of karma-matter, though of the good variety that yields pleasurable fruition, but they also are binding on the soul and unless and until it sheds even the good type of karma-matter, and reaches a state of total freedom from karma, it cannot liberate. Once the soul is liberated from the shackles of bonded karma-matter both the good and the bad types it becomes - 118: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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absolutely pure and rises to the uppermost part of the universe where the land of the liberated or emancipated pure souls, called Isatpragbhara-prthvior Siddhasila or Siddhaloka is situated and dwells there in a state of absolute bliss, complete consciousness, infinite knowledge and vision and spiritual prowess. There, the liberated pure souls exist in formless incorporeal state and pervades the space just like the light of a lamp. Liberation being so important and desirable, the entire emphasis of all the religious philosophies, including that of Jainism, has been to devise and prescribe the means of attaining this goal. The Jaina thinkers realised that the path to spiritual emancipation lies in the pursuit of three gems of Samyagdarsan (right-vision), Samyagjnana (right-knowledge) and Samyakcaritra (right-conduct). Some consider Tapa (penance) to be the fourth prong of the path to spiritual emancipation while the others consider it to be a part and parcel of right-conduct. Here, it will be pertinent to mention the order in which the karma-matter is separated from the soul. Out of the four destructive types, first of all, the twenty-eight sub-types of deluding karma are separated from the soul and the soul is established in absolute right faith. Instantaneously all the subtypes of other three destructive karma namely the knowledge obscuring, the vision obscuring and obstructive are shed and there rises the sun-like Kevalajnana or omniscience. Thereafter only the pleasurable feeling producing (sata-vedaniya), physique making (Nama), status determining (Gotra), and life-span determining (Ayu) karma are left. These are such that they have to be shed by experiencing their fruition only. Some times it so happens that objectively liberated souls Ayu karma is about to be exhausted but its Vedaniya karma is still left in a considerable quantity. Under such circumstances, in the final moments of its life, the objectively liberated soul undergoes a phenomenon called Kevali-samudghata in which it so spreads its soul spaces in the TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 119

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entire universal space that it can feel all the remaining Vedaniya karma instantaneously and become completely free from the shackles of karma-matter to exit the world and enter the abode of the all accomplished (Siddha) souls. From the rigorous process of attaining karmic-separation, it may seem that it is quite a dull and drab process. However, the reality is quite contrary to this mistaken view. The smallest separation also has its own compensation and as the soul becomes purer and purer its powers, intellectual capacity, physical wellbeing and material prosperity increase proportionately. The road to liberation is quite shady and full of blessings. Only one must stick to it faithfully. About the nature of Moksa all philosophies are unanimous in holding the view that it is a state of the soul where there is all pleasure and no pain. Though different philosophies believe in plurality or singularity of the supreme soul, there is no dichotomy about the nature of Moksa. Lastly, it will not be out of place to mention the attributes of the liberated souls. They are omniscience (Ananta Jnana), limitless vision (Ananta Darsan), infinite spiritual power (Ananta Virya), absolute bliss (Ananta Sukh), indestructibility (Anasvarata) and formless incorporeality (Asariratva) that is neither heavy nor light (Aguru-laghutva). Conclusion One can only be wonder--struck by the logical simplicity of the systematic development of the subject-matter of the nine fundamentals mentioned herein. Their cause and effect relationship between various fundamentals is so apparent that no necessity of an arbitrator of a creature's destiny is ever felt in the scheme of things propounded here. We can conclude this chapter on the note that the nine 120: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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fundamentals, described herein, are the very foundation stones on which the entire edifice of Jaina philosophy has been erected. Their proper understanding and belief in their existence and truth is vital to the spiritual progress of an aspirant. Vacaka Umasvati in his Tattvarthasutra, has clearly stated that right-vision is nothing but a firm belief in the existence and truth of these fundamentals. Also, right-vision being the first and the vital part of the path to spiritual emancipation, it follows that without a firm belief in the existence and the truth of these fundamentals the liberation may only be a distant dream. The fundamentals are thus firmly linked with the concept of right-vision or right-belief or right--faith or right-view or right-inclination or right-attitude or right way of thinking. This, then, forms the subject of our next chapter. Li TATTVARTHA (THE FUNDAMENTALS) : 121

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SAMYAGDARSAN (THE RIGHT-VIEW) Everyone's Own Peep-hole - A. G. Gardiner, the famous essayist, said, "Everyone looks at the world outside him through his own peep-hole", this underlines the importance of having the right-view. In the presence of the right-view the things appear in their right perspective and in its absence even the right things appear to be wrong and vice versa. The Jaina thinkers have delved deep on the subject of having the right-view or the right-vision or the right-belief or the right-faith or the right-inclination or the rightattitude or the right perspective. So much so that they consider it to be the very basis of the faith at the very root of it when they say that the faith is founded on the (right) view itself (Damsana mulao dhammo). Another view has it that those of corrupt conduct can correct themselves and liberate but those of corrupt vision cannot liberate. This chapter presents the essential features of the Right-View, as seen by the Jaina seers of yore and interpreted by the saints and scholars down the ages. Darsan And Samyagdarsan - Darsan is defined as an expression of a living being's capacity for discrimination or the way it perceives things. In its true sense it can be said to be the intuitive perception coupled with discretion. It has also been said to be the general view or conation of things

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around itself rather than specific perception or cognition, which is termed as knowledge. Thus a person or a living being for that matter, endowed with darsan develops a wider world-view rather than a limited one. This is what distinguishes conation (darsan) from cognition (jnana). This very conation when coupled with right discrimination that can give its holder a right perspective on things that he perceives around himself, becomes rightconation or Samyagdarsan. It goes without saying that the outlook of a conative seer is much wider in its scope and it includes diverse points of view. In other words we can say that a seer has a synoptic view or a holistic view on things, which is completely comprehensive. In the context of a religious philosophy, however, it would mean having the right-faith or an unwavering belief in that faith. This brings us to the two meanings given to the word darsan - 1. Right-view and 2. Right-faith. In the first sense, the Jaina view ascribes it the quality of having a right-view by rising above attachment and aversion. It implies that one rises above dogma and parochialism. In the second sense it is synonymous with devotion to the view presented by the Prophets that propounded the faith we follow. Here, it is implied that we, the ordinary believers are not wise enough to have a completely comprehensive view and, therefore, we must steadfastly believe in the view presented by the Prophets, who had such comprehensiveness. The Jaina analysts have, over the ages, subscribed to the latter meaning of the term darsan. Vacak Umasvati's Tattvarthasutra mentions, at the very outset that Samyagdarsan is nothing but a firm faith in the fundamental verities enunciated by the seers (Prophets). Here, we must not gloss over the fact that taken in its second sense, the meaning of darsan militates against a man's reason, against the very speciality that sets him apart from the animal world. However, this is not an irreconcilable conflict. As long as man's reason looks outwards, it is in conflict with faith; as SAMYAGDARAAN (RIGHT VISION): 123

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soon as it starts looking inwards or becomes introspective it gives rise to faith. It not only becomes an aid to faith but an integral part of it. The Importance Of Right-View - To realise the full import of right-view, we must appreciate the dreadful nature of false-vision and gauge the harm that can come our way by having it. It has been said that false-vision is the ultimate disease, the ultimate darkness, the ultimate enemy and the ultimate poison. It is the greatest disease because the physical maladies adversely affect only the body, the mental illnesses do so to the mind but false vision corrupts the very soul. It is the darkest of the dark because even the darkest of night can be lighted by a mere lamp but the soul in the grip of false-vision cannot see right even in the broad day-light. It is the most potent enemy, for the other enemies only harm our worldly interests but it hurts to the very core and condemns the false-visioned to eternal cycle of worldly transmigration. It is, also, the most fatal poison since it kills the spirit rather than the body. Its importance had been realised from the very early stage as is evident from the first place accorded to it amongst the three gems of the path of spiritual emancipation, namely - Samyagdarsan (Right-view), Samyagjnana (Right-knowledge) and Samyakcaritra (Right-conduct). The Tattvartha-sutra very clearly states that these three, in that order, constitute the path of liberation. From the spiritual point of view, the ultimate goal of every living being is liberation from miserable mundane existence. All that aids the realisation of that goal is important. Again, it is quite logical to think that one can liberate by following the religious faith. The importance of Samyagdarsan or the right faith lies in the fact that it is at the very root of the religious faith (Danisana-mulao Dhammo). Another view says that liberation 124 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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is possible by adhering to the ethical norms that constitute the right-conduct. Again, the logic tells us that the knowledge of the right-conduct is possible only through the right-knowledge, which is, in turn, possible only through the right-view. When information combines with perspective it becomes knowledge. In the absence of the right-perspective, given us by holding the right-view, the knowledge becomes only a set of information and is not integrated with the intellect to be assimilated as rightknowledge. It is the perspective that converts information into knowledge and the right-perspective converts the information into right-knowledge. Therefore, there is a lot of substance to the saying contained in the 30th verse of the 28th chapter of the Uttaradhyayanasutra- 'one who lacks vision, lacks knowledge; without knowledge the conduct does not become virtuous and without the virtuous (right) conduct there is no liberation.' The most important spiritual feature of right-vision is that it keeps the aspirant, endowed with it, free from sinful pursuits. The very first Jaina primary canonical scripture, Acararga says - 'the right visioned aspirant commits no sin (Sammattadamsi na karei pavam). There are several reasons why it is so. 1. Firstly, the right-visioned aspirant sees things in their right perspective. His view of the fundamental verities is as it should be. He distinguishes the living from the non-living and thereby establishes a unity between his own self and the other living beings and treats them as such. He is, therefore, able to observe non-violence as per the dictates of his station in life. 2. Secondly, such an aspirant, by virtue of his subsided passions, controls his drives and remains away from sinful pursuits. 3. Thirdly, he is able to appreciate the duality of the soul and the body and, thereby, distinguish between the matters spiritual and those that are physical. By concentrating on SAMYAGDARSAN (RIGHT VISION): 125

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the spiritually beneficial pursuits, he remains free from sins. 4. Fourthly, he is able to appreciate the miserable nature of worldly existence and, therefore, strives for liberation from it. 5. Fifthly, his detached attitude keeps him away from many a sin. 6. Sixthly, he has a realistic view about the pleasure and pain, loss and gain, and honour and insult and is not unduly perturbed by them and, therefore, is not given to sins of revenge, retribution, despondence or anger, all of which ultimately result in committing of sins. 7. Seventhly, his discretion helps him in choosing the right from the wrong. 8. Eighthly, he is aware of the transient nature of life and wishes to spend his life in spiritually beneficial pursuits rather than wasting it in sinful ones. 9. Next, he realises the futility and ultimately painful nature of all sensory pleasures and, therefore does not lead a life of indulgence. 10. Next, his actions are in tune with his thoughts which are pious at the very least and spiritual at large. 11. Again, the right-visioned aspirant is afraid of only one thing in his life and that is committing sins. This fear of sins keeps him away from them and leads him to virtuous piety and righteousness. From the worldly point of view also the importance of having a right-view cannot be denied. How the perspective changes the attitude of a person can be very well understood from this story from the Buddhist Jatakas. Once, the only son of an old lady passed away. She couldn't 126 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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accept the fact of her son's death and insisted that the doctor should keep treating him. She not only cried inconsolably but also wouldn't let him be cremated. The old and sage doctor, who was treating her son, advised that she went and saw Lord Buddha, who only could help her son. The old lady went to Lord Buddha and requested him to make her son well. Buddha knew that if he plainly told her that her son had died, she wouldn't believe Him. He told her to fetch a handful of mustard grains from any household from the village that hadn't had a death in it. "I shall make your son alright as soon as you bring the mustard grains", He said. The old lady rushed to the first house in the village and asked for the mustard grains. The lady of the house brought the grains readily and offered them to her. However, she couldn't accept the grains as she was told that the household had had deaths in the past. She faithfully went round each and every house in the village but couldn't find a single one that hadn't had deaths. Someone would say, "My father died here, my mother died here." Someone else would say, "only recently my son died in this very house." Dejected, the old lady went back to where Lord Buddha was and said that she couldn't find the mustard seeds as there was no household in the village that hadn't had deaths in the past. At this stage Lord Buddha explained the reality about the births and deaths to her. He said, "all those that take birth certainly die, this is the way of the nature." Your son was born and lived his life. He had to die now. There is no escape from death", He said. This changed the old lady's perspective on death. The grief of losing a son that seemed unbearable a little while ago did not seem so unbearable after this change of perspective. SAMYAGDARIAN (RIGHT VISION): 127

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The Indicators Of Right-View - Samyagdarsan or the right-belief has been said to be the very basis of 'dharma' the faith. The belief (darsan) can be false (Mithyadarsan) as well as right (Samyagdarsan). Though it is an abstract and an internal phenomenon, it has its external indicators, too. The following are the eight external indicators of right-view or right belief according to the Digambara tradition of Jainism: 1. Samvega 2. Nirveda 3. Ninda 4. Garha 5. Upasama 6. Bhakti 7. Vatsalya 8. Anukampa 2. Samvega 3. Nirveda - These eight can, however, be included in the following five that are mentioned in the works of the Svetambara tradition - 1. Sama or Upasama including 'Ninda' and 'Garha". including Vatsalya' and 'Bhakti'. Detachment from the mundane affairs, Compassionate disposition, and steadfast spiritual belief. 4. Anukampa, 5. Astikya An intense desire for salvation, Detachment towards everything else, Condemnation for the falsehood, Censure for the unrighteous, Cessation of evil ways. Devotion for the faith, Selfless affection, and Compassion. Prasama And Upasama - The complete suppression of passions - anger, pride, guile and greed - and resultant state of spiritual calmness and serene tranquillity is Prasama. It includes upasama, which is only their part subsidence. In the case of upasama, it is only the most persistent infinitely bonding passions, called Anantanubandhi kasaya, that are subsided. Unless the infinitely bonding persistent passions are subsided, the subject cannot hope for the right-vision to dawn, for such persistent passions cloud the vision. Once the 128 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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stage of Prasama is reached, the spiritual aspirant is at the verge of enlightenment or self-realisation. As the outer disposition of an aspirant is indicative of his inner calmness or otherwise, Prasamaor Upasama are vital indicators of his right or false vision. Samvega - The second indicator of right vision is Samivega or intense desire to attain liberation from the miserable and spiritually inhibiting mundane existence. The state of purity of the soul is its natural state and there is no wonder that every rightly inclined soul desires to revert back to its natural state, just as every traveller desires to reach back home from a tiring journey. As it is natural for every traveller, who is not a homeless nomad, to wish to come back home, so is the case with every soul, which is not false-- visioned, to crave to reach the home ground of liberation. Nirveda - Nirveda is the psychic state in which the aspirant constantly feels that his worldly existence is like a prison where he has been .imprisoned. He feels the futility of the worldly relations and mundane affairs from the spiritual point of view and develops a sense of detachment towards the mundane. This neutral detached disposition is evident in his every action. He does everything expected of him but as a matter of duty, without any sense of involvement and attachment. This sense of detachment is the third sign of right-vision. Anukampa - Anukampa or compassion is the fourth sign of right-vision. An aspirant imbued with compassion is not only moved by the pain and sufferings of the others but is also aware of the sufferings that the karmic bondage and worldly existence have wrought upon his own soul. As much as he is eager to mitigate the sufferings of the others by helping them, he is equally eager to mitigate his own sufferings by leaning on to the spirituality. SAMYAGDARSAN (RIGHT VISION): 129

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Astikya - Finally, the right-visioned aspirant can be recognised by his unwavering faith in the existence of the fundamentals, the universe with hellish grounds, heavens, human and animal world and the land of the liberated souls, which is the ultimate destination of all the souls. This firm faith keeps him on the right-track and gives him the wherewithal to achieve liberation from the mundane existence and reach the land of the liberated. Four Organs Of Right-vision - There are four well-defined organs of Right-vision. They are - 1. Acquaintance with the ultimate meaning and aim of life (Paramartha-samistava) that includes a sense of deep devotion to the right path, its propounding Prophets and the preceptors that propagate it, 2. Visible practice of activities that lead to the ultimate goal like devotion and worship of the right faith and its propounding Prophets and preceptors (Sudrsta Paramartha-sevana), 3. Shunning the company of those of corrupted vision (Vyapanna-varjana) and 4. Not following the precepts of the false faiths (Kudarsana varjana) are the four limbs of right-vision. The wholesome right-vision has all these limbs intact. If any of these is not intact such vision can, at best, be only lame or mutilated. Samyaktva or the right-belief has the following eight attributes and their corresponding flaws: 130 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Attributes Flaws Sanka (Sanka) -- doubt. Nissankiya (Nijsarkita) or freedom from doubt. Karkha (Kariksa) - desire. Nikkarkhiya (Nihkanksita)freedom from desire. Nivigiccha (Nirvicikitsa) - Freedom from revulsion. Vigiccha (Vicikitsa) Amudhaditthi (AmudhadTsti) - Comprehension of the faith. Mudhaditthi (Mudhadrsti) --Non-comprehension. Upaguhana - Protection of the faith. Anupaguhana - Nonprotection of the faith. Sthitikarana -- Firming of the faith of the deviants. Asthitikarana- Non-firming of the deviants. Vatsalya- Affection for the faithful followers of the faith, and Avatsalya- Non-affection for the faithful followers of the faith, and Prabhavana - Promotion of the faith. Aprabhavana - Nonpromotion of the faith. Types Of Right-vision - From the point of view of dawning of the right-vision, it can be of two types - 1. Naturally dawning (Nisargatah) and 2. Dawning through external stimulation (Adhigamtah). These have been further categorised into the following ten categories:1. Nisargaruci - The right-vision that dawns naturally by virtue of earlier recall, etc. 2. Upadesaruci - The right-vision that dawns by someone else's preaching, SAMYAGDARsAN (RIGHT VISION): 131

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3. Ajnaruci - The right-vision that dawns through the - teaching of the Lords Jina, which is referred to as instruction or ajna. 4. Sutraruci - The right-vision that dawns by studying scriptures, 5. Bijaruci - The right-vision that dawns by germination of the seed of one part of right-vision that ultimately grows into comprehensive right-vision. 6. Abhigamaruci - The right-vision that dawns when the meaning of the canonical texts becomes clear, 7. Vistararuci - The right-vision that dawns by studying the explanatory literature on the scriptures, 8. Kriyaruci-The right-vision that dawns through various religious activities, 9. Sarkseparuci-The right-vision that dawns by knowing, in nut-shell, that whatever has been preached by the Lords Jina is true and beneficial, and 10. Dharmaruci -The right-vision that dawns by believing in the fundamentals stated by the Lords Jina. In the present times the sources of acquiring right-vision and maintaining it are - serving the right preceptors, listening to their discourses and studying the scriptures. From the point of view of stability the right-vision has been said to be of the following three categories, which comes about by suppression (upasama) or destruction cum suppression (ksayopasama) or the destruction (ksaya) of one or the other or all of the seven types of bonded karma-matter - 1-4. Infinitely bonding persistent passions, namely anger, pride, guile and greed (Anantanubandhi krodha, mana, maya, lobha), 5. Falsehood producing deluding karma (Mithyatva Mohaniya Karma), 6. Mixed delusion producing karma (Misra Mohaniya Karma) and 7. Right-vision obscuring deluding karma (Samyaktva Mohaniya Karma) that produce false-vision and inhibits the right one: - 132 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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1. Aupasamika Samyaktva - This is the right-vision that comes into being only through suppression of the aforementioned seven types of karma and is temporary, its duration being limited up to a period of one muhurta (48 minutes approx.). This type of right-vision vanishes when the deluding karma comes to fruition and the passions come to the fore. 2. Ksayopasamika Samyaktva - This type of right-vision comes into being through the suppression of some and destruction of the others of the aforementioned seven types of karma. It is also temporary and lasts up to a maximum duration of 66 Sagaropama. 3. Ksayika Samyaktva - This is the permanent type of right-vision that comes into being by complete destruction of the aforementioned seven types of karma. This type does not lapse after it dawns. From the angle of absolute and practical standpoints, again, the right-vision is of two types - 1. The absolute right-vision is only a state of mind and does not manifest itself in the form of devotion or worship of any deity etc. It considers the own soul itself as the treasure of all spiritual virtues that are waiting to be revealed through self-exploration. 2. On the other hand practical right-vision is visible in the form of devotion and worship of the prophets, preceptors and propagators of the right-faith. Lastly, let us have a look at the five means that promote right-vision and the other five that endanger it. The five that promote it are - 1. Stability (Sthirata)- to believe in and steadfastly adhere to the path of liberation preached by the Lords Jina is stability. SAMYAGDARSAN (RIGHT VISION): 133

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- 2. Promotion of The Faith (Prabhavana) - the right visioned aspirant must consciously promote the right-faith and dispel the doubts that arise from within or without. 3. Devotion (Bhakti) - the right-visioned aspirant must remain devoted to the pillars of the faith such as its Prophets, preceptors and propagators. 4. Skill (Kausal) - To gain a complete knowledge of the tenets of the faith with reasons thereto so that one is able to clarify any doubts expressed about it. 5. Service to The Four Organs of The Faith (Tirthaseva)- serving the four organs of the faith, namely - the monks, the nuns, the lay male followers and the lay female followers not only promotes the right-vision but also strengthens it. On the other hand, the five means that endanger the rightvision are - 1. Doubt (Sarka) - doubt and disbelief in the words of the Lords Jina tarnishes the right vision. Sometimes we are unable to comprehend something and start doubting its veracity. The steadfast belief requires that on such occasions we only lament the limit of our intellect and not doubt the words of the Prophets who were omniscient. 2. Desire or Lust For Pleasures (Karksa) -- At times it happens that we are attracted by certain temptations and fall prey to false-faiths. The right-visioned aspirant must be constantly vigilant to guard against such inducements and remain firm in the belief that own faith is equally beneficial if not more and one does not have to look over one's shoulders for any worldly welfare. 3. Doubting The Result of Following The Faith (Vicikitsa)- One must realise that all our actions -- pious or otherwise - do not fructify immediately. There is 134 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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always a gestation period after which they come to fruition. There is, therefore, no reason to despair if our pious deeds or religious practices do not yield immediate benefits. This despair and consequent doubt in the beneficial effects of the religious practices is Vicikitsa. 4. Praising The Other Faiths (Parapasanda Prasamisa)- it is a general observation that the poor merchandise comes in better packaging. The false-faiths are, similarly very well presented and they are, generally, able to attract more gullible people. A right-visioned aspirant ought to see through this guile and realise the truth of the matter and not fall prey to false propaganda. If he is discriminating enough, he will not be unduly attracted towards such other faiths, leave aside praising them. 5. Familiarity With The followers Of False faiths (Parapasanda Paricaya) - Frequent contact with anyone has an induction effect on one's thoughts. 'Familiarity breeds friendship' is an age-old adage. One must, therefore, guard against who one fraternises with in the matters of the faith. Familiarity with those of the false faith is bound to corrupt one's own vision. Hence, the injunction to avoid contact with the others of the false faith. Also, one is known by the company one keeps.' If someone is seen in wrong company frequently, he is bound to be mistaken for being wrong himself. Conclusion To conclude this chapter, I give below, in tabular form, a comparison between the right-visioned and the false-visioned in order to impress upon the readers the distinction between the two SAMYAGDARSAN (RIGHT VISION): 135

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THE RIGHT-VISIONED THE FALSE-VISIONED Desires spiritual liberation. Desires mundane pleasures. Looks inwards. Looks outwards. Limits worldly existence/ Perpetuates worldly existence/ transmigration transmigration. Voluntarily endeavours to Involuntary separation of shed karmic bonds through karmic bondage by suffering penance. inevitable retribution. Bonds karmic bonds of Bonds karmic bonds of longer short duration. duration Becomes fully involved in Indulges in ritual observances religious practices. only. Considers spiritual pleasure Considers bodily enjoyable as the real pleasure. pleasures as the real pleasure. Believes in the fundamental Does not believe in such verities like living, non- fundamentals. living, etc. Has firm faith in the right- Believes in all the wrong ones. faith propounded by the right Prophets, taught by the right preceptors and propagated by the right preachers. Distinguishes between the Dose not so distinguish. soul and the body. Remains aloof from the Remains engrossed in sensual sensual pleasures. pleasures. He sheds more karma It is otherwise. matter than he bonds. Gains right-knowledge. Gains false-knowledge. Achieves suppression, part Is unable to achieve such an 136 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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THE RIGHT-VISIONED THE FALSE-VISIONED suppression and part accomplishment. destruction or complete destruction of the infinitely bonding persistent passions and delusion Stops the bonding of karma Cannot stop such bonding. -matter resulting in infinite worldly wandering. Considers renouncing Considers mundane pleasures worldly pleasures to be to be beneficial. beneficial. Remains detached even if Remains attached and deeply a householder engrossed in worldly affairs. Is discreet of worthy, is devoid of such discretion. unworthy and knowledge -worthy. Can reach advanced Cannot go beyond the spiritual practices. preliminary ones. Is endowed with eight Is not so endowed. attributes of right-vision. Firmly believes in the Doubts and questions JinaJina-words. words. Sheds great karma-matter Sheds little karma-matter with little penance. through great penance Employs his knowledge in Employs it in the furtherance furthering the spiritual of the worldly encumbrance. cause. Chooses the death of the Chooses the death of the wise. ignorant. SAMYAGDARSAN (RIGHT VISION): 137

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SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) The Ultimate Aim Of Life - The ultimate aim of animate existence is to liberate from the mundane world, which is full of pain and misery of birth, disease, decay (old-age) and death. However the liberation or final deliverance depends upon irresidual separation of the karmamatter from the soul. Jaina seers prophesied a three-way path for attaining this stage of irresidual separation from karma-matter, called moksa, comprising - 1. Samyagdarsana, which we have already dealt with in the second chapter, 2. Samyagjnana, which the subject of this chapter and 3. Samyakcaritra, which shall be covered in the section on Jaina ethics. This stage cannot be attained without practising right and righteous conduct, which, in turn, depends on knowing what is right and what is wrong in relation to the conduct. This discretion between the wrong and the right comes from right-knowledge. However, I must not sound so simplistic about.a vast subject that has taken the seers ages to develop. The Right-Knowledge - The importance of Right-knowledge becomes evident when it is said that the knowledge comes first, the righteousness later (Padhamami nanam tao daya). This chapter traces the concept of

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five types of knowledge and dwells at some length on the subject of Jaina canonical literature, which is an ocean of traditional spiritual wisdom. Jaina View On Knowledge - We have already seen that amongst the knowledge and conduct the emphasis is on knowledge. Although it would not be correct to view any of the three ingredients of the practices to attain liberation as more or less than the others but practically speaking we can feel that knowledge takes precedence over the conduct as without the right-knowledge the conduct can never be right. What Is Knowledge? All living beings have one thing in common and that is consciousness. Through the awareness wrought by consciousness comes about the knowledge about the other living beings and the non-living things. Thus, knowledge is not something that comes from outside but it is that, which comes about from the inherent consciousness of the living-beings. Knowledge can, thus, be called an innate quality of the living-beings. Because through such knowledge one comes to know about the self as well as the others, it is said to be both - the self-illuminating as well as the other-illuminating. Here, it is worthy of note that all living beings, even the finest and inconsequential creatures like the Nigoda are endowed with knowledge, only its manifestation is very subdued. What Is Right-knowledge? Now, we can deal with the question, "What is rightknowledge?' It's simplest definition is that the knowledge that makes us distinguish between the beneficial and the harmful is the 'right-knowledge'. On the contrary, the knowledge that does not so enable us is 'ignorance' and the knowledge that makes SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 139

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us to accept the harmful as the beneficial is 'false-knowledge'. Here, the question arises as to how any knowledge, inherent to the soul, be false. This can be understood through an example. It is natural for a mirror to reflect a true image of the object that is put in front of it. However, if the mirror-surface were covered with a layer of dust, the image that it would reflect would not be clear and sharp. The thicker the layer of dust covering the mirror, the worse will be the image reflected by it. Now, through a beginningless association with the karma-matter, a layer of knowledge obscuring (Inana-varaniya) karma covers the inherent knowledge of the soul and it dulls its perception. The thicker the layer of the knowledge obscuring karma, the duller will be the perception and more distorted it will be. The dull perception is nothing but ignorance and the distorted one is false-knowledge. Through the process of separation of the karma-matter from the soul, we gradually remove this layer of knowledge obscuring karma as well and there comes a stage when we can see and perceive things as they are. This is called the dawn of rightvision and right-knowledge. When the layer disappears completely, there dawns the complete knowledge that can perceive and know all the universal entities in all their modes in all the three times - the past, the present and the future. This is enlightenment or omniscience or Sarvajnata. Five Stages Of Right-knowledge - We have already discussed that right-knowledge is the knowledge from which the curtain of knowledge obscuring karma has been lifted to a certain extent. As this curtain obscuring the knowledge lifts progressively higher and higher, the higher and higher stages of right--knowledge get revealed. According to the clarity and extent to which it can perceive things, which is, in turn, achieved through destruction (ksaya) or destruction cum subsidence (ksayopasama) of knowledge obscuring karma, five types of right-knowledge have been mentioned in the canonical 140 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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works. These are as follows : -- 1. Matijnana (Sensory Knowledge) - The perception gained through five sensory organs and the mind, which is considered as half a sense-organ, is called Matijnana. It is gained in the following four stages : - a. Avagraha or apprehension that something is there, haor consideration that what it could be by drawing on past experience, Avaya or determination that it is such and such, and d. Dharana or retention for further reference and gaining the capability for timely recall in future. As all living beings are endowed with one or more sensory organ(s), they also have Matijnana. It is also known as deductive knowledge (Abhinibodhika-jnana) as it is deduced from the experiences of the sensory organs. This type of knowledge has been said to be indirect (paroksa), as it is not through direct realisation by spiritual means but through the medium of sensory organs and the mind. However, another view takes it as practically direct (Samvyavahara pratyaksa), as it is gained through own senses and without the aid of any external agency. 2. Srutajnana (Scriptural Knowledge) - The second type of right-knowledge in the indirect category is scriptural knowledge. It is the knowledge gained through the study of and listening to discourses on scriptural contents. As the senses of sight, hearing, speech and thought are involved in reading, listening to and reciting the scriptures, it cannot be gained in isolation of the sensory knowledge. There are fourteen sub-types of the scriptural knowledge. Some of these merit description - a. Samyagsruta or right scriptures are the ones that contain the teachings of the omniscient Prophets (Tirtharkaras) and have been composed either by SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 141

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d. their principal disciples (Ganadharas) or the canon omniscient preceptors (Srutakevalis) or the preceptors in the know of at least ten purvas (Precanons). The scriptures composed by the preceptors knowing less than ten pre-canons may be right (free from corruption) or may be corrupted. Agamika Sruta - these timely studiable scriptures, such as Acararga, etc, include those canonical texts that can be studied only within time-periods laid down for scriptural studies. Arigapravista Sruta - These are the twelve primary canonical works composed by the principal disciples of the Tirtharikaras (Prophet-propounders). These have been described in the next section on "Jaina canonical literature'. Argabahya Sruta - These are the extra-primary canonical works, based on the primary canons and composed by the later preceptors. The scriptural knowledge is prophesied, composed and propagated in three forms - 1. Meaning form (Artharupa) in which the Lords Prophets preach. They only present views or thoughts or the ideas or the sense of what they wish to convey. This form is available to only those fortunate listeners, who form a part of the Lords Prophets' congregation (Samavasarana) and listen to their discourses. 2. Maxim form (Sutra-rupa). The teachings of the Lords Prophets are composed into maxims or aphorisms, for the benefit of the posterity, by their principal disciples. These are now available to us in the form of primary canonical works. 3. Sutrartha-rupa or in both the maxim and meaning forms. This version is also available to those disciples of the Lords Tirthankaras or those of their principal disciples, who were fortunate enough to listen to the discourses of the Lords Tirtharkaras and hear the maxim-version as well from the Ganadharas. 142 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Presently what we have available is the maxim form of canonical texts in the Angapravista and Angabahya category and their meanings as interpreted by the commentators down the ages. According to the canon-omniscient sage Acarya Sayyambhava, the author of the Dasavaikalika-sutra, it is the study of these scriptures that awakens a sense of discrimination between the sinful and pious acts and keeps the aspirant away from misdeeds and engaged in the spiritually beneficial ones. 3. Avadhijnana (Clairvoyant Perception) - The first direct type of knowledge, which is not derived through the sensory organs and is, therefore, said to be extra-sensory, is Avadhijnana or clairvoyant perception. Direct perception is also either complete or incomplete. Clairvoyant perception being limited in its scope to only specific regions comes in the category of incomplete direct perception. It is of two types, namely - 1. Bhavapratyayika or class induced type, which is by virtue of birth in certain classes of living beings and is found in the heavenly gods and the hellish denizens. However, the clairvoyant perception of the hellish creatures is of the false variety and is referred to as Vibhanga-jnana. 2. Ksayopasamika or destructo-subsidential type. It is the type that is gained through the destruction cum subsidence of the clairvoyant perception obscuring karma and is possible in the case of the humans as well as in some five-sensed rational animals. The latter type of clairvoyant perception is of six sub-types again - i. Anugamika, which follows the soul birth after birth, ii. Ananugamika or the one that does not accompany the soul after death, iii. Vardhamana, which keeps on increasing in its scope, iv. Hiyamana or the one that decreases with the passage of time, v. Avasthita, which remains constant, and vi. Anavasthita or the one that keeps flickering. SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 143

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From the consideration of permanence, it is either Pratipati or revocable, which can disappear after manifesting itself or Apratipati, which is irrevocable, i.e. it does not disappear after it manifests itself. All the Tirtharikaras are also born with clairvoyant perception, which is irrevocable or permanent. However, even though it is by birth itself, it is of the Ksayopasamika type rather than the Bhavapratyayika type. It must be clarified, here, that though the two types of clairvoyant perceptions have been named as Bhavapratyayika and Ksayopasamika, the former, too cannot dawn without the due destruction or subsidence of the clairvoyant perception obscuring karma. The only difference between the two is that while for the former the hellish and the heavenly living beings have already achieved that destructo-subsidence before they are born as heavenly or hellish beings and they do not have to make any conscious effort like undertaking penance, etc, the latter type is an outcome of destruction cum subsidence achieved through conscious effort. It is, therefore, also referred to as Gunapratyayika (virtue induced type) Avadhijnana. 4. Manahparyayajnana (Telepathic Perception) - It is the second type of perception that falls in the incomplete direct category. It is signified by its holder's capability of reading the others' thoughts. Depending upon the stage of spiritual evolution of the holder, it can be either Rjumati, which can only apprehend some features of the thoughts rather in the form of an outline, or Vipulamati that can apprehend the others' thoughts in complete detail. Therefore, the Vipulamati type is purer and more comprehensive than the Kjumati type in as much as it is in a position to clearly apprehend the subtler and more numerous particular features of the objects being thought 144 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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of by the others. Also, the Vipulamati Manahparyayajnana is permanent while the Kjumati type is transient. A word about the comparison between the two types of incomplete direct perceptions, namely Avadhijnana and Manahparyayajnana will not be out of place. 1. While the spatial extent of the former (entire universe in the case of the most potent type) is much vaster than that of the latter (only up to the Mt. Manusottara), the purity and, consequently, the clarity of the latter is much better than that of the former. 2. The former type of perception is possible in all four classes of living beings while the latter is possible only in the case of spiritually evolved human beings. 3. The former addresses all types of objects while the latter has only the others' minds or thoughts as its objects. These four types of knowledge - Mati, Sruta, Avadhi and Manahparyaya, are destructo-subsidential in nature and they invariably disappear at one stage or the other. Even the Apratipati Avadhijnana, by birth in the case of the Tirthari karas and the Vipulamati Manahparyaya-jnana, which appears at the time of their monastic ordination, also disappear when the purest of pure complete and direct type of perception-omniscience or Kevalajnana dawns. Now, we shall describe that supreme and ultimate perception that dawns only on complete destruction of not only the knowledge obscuring (Inanavaraniya) karma but the other three destructive types-deluding (Mohaniya), vision obscuring (Darsanavaraniya), and weal obstructing (Antaraya) as well; which does not disappear after it has appeared once, not even on death or nirvana. 5. Kevalajnana (Omniscience) - Destructional (ksayika), completely direct (sakala-pratyaksa), extrasensory SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 145

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(indriyatita), supreme (parama), pure (suddha)and infinite (ananta) knowledge is what is called Kevalajnana. It appears only on the complete destruction or separation of the four destructive types of karma that hinder the development of complete consciousness of the soul. Having appeared once, it becomes a permanent attribute of the soul and never separates from it. It appears in conjunction with and simultaneously with Kevaladarsana, which makes the perspective absolutely right and remains with the soul in its liberated state as well. This knowledge is unlimited in its scope, and infinite in its potential. Actually only change of modes that takes place in a liberated soul is in respect of its Kevalajnana and Kevaladarsana. As the images in a perfectly clean mirror appear perfectly clear and real, the apprehension of all the modes of all the objects of the universe and the nonuniversal space, in the past, present and future is absolutely clear and uncorrupted. The Kevalajnana can perceive all these as easily as one can perceive an object placed on the palm of one's hand. Commenting on the divine nature of Kevalajnana, Kundakundacarya remarks, "Who would call a perception that cannot perceive the past, present and future modes of everything in this universe and the non-universal space) clearly, divine?" Jaina Canonical Literature - In every faith scriptures or canonical works occupy an important position amongst religious texts. Agamas enjoy the same position and importance in the Jaina faith as the Vedas in Hinduism, Tripitaka in Buddhism, the Bible in Christianity and the holy Koran in Islam. The agamas are the compilations of the preaching of the most venerable Arhantas (enlightened and omniscient Tirthankaras), who had realised the truth and attained enlightenment through spiritual practices and purification. 146 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Though the scriptures say that the Arga Sutras or (the Primary Canons or the Foremost scriptures) are considered to have been preached by the Tirtharkaras (Lords Prophet-Propounders of the Jaina faith), we must remember that they preached only the meaning (Artha), which was then codified into sutras (maxims or aphorisms) by their principal disciples (Ganadharas). In other words, the Tirtharkaras only presented the thoughts or the ideas, which were then given the garb of words and codified into sutras (maxims) by the Ganadharas. Other extra primary canonical works (Arga-bahya Sutras) were subsequently composed by the Acaryas (Heads of religious orders or Spiritual Masters), Sthaviras (Senior monks) and other learned preceptors (Upadhyayas). The Jaina tradition doesn't lay as much emphasis on words as the Hindu tradition. It considers words only as a means to convey the thought, idea or meaning. In its view the meaning is important not the words. It is this lack of emphasis on words that the agamas of the Jaina tradition could not keep their linguistic character unaltered as the Vedas have been able to do over the millennia. This is the reason why the Jaina Canonical literature got divided into two streams, namely the Ardha-magadhicanons and the Sauraseni canons. At present, the Svetambara tradition follows the Ardhamagadhiscriptures and the Digambara tradition the Sauraseni canonical works. Ardhamagadhi Canonical Literature - Ardhamagadhi Canonical works, as the name suggests, are the sacred Jaina scriptures composed in the Ardhamagadhi language that was prevalent as the language of the masses in the region between Magadha (South Bihar of the present time) and the Surasena(Western U.P. of the present). As this was the region in which the last and the twenty-fourth Jaina Prophet, Lord Maha vira, generally toured and preached, He chose this language as the medium of His sermons. His teachings were subsequently SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 147

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composed into canonical works by His principal disciples called Ganadharas and these were called Anga Agamas or the primary canons. Later, as the time passed several other works of fundamental spiritual value were composed by other masters down the line and they were called Angabahya Agamas or the extraprimary canons. However, this classification didn't prove to be final and for a long time several classifications of Ardhamagadhi canonical works have been available. They are as follows - The Anga Sutras - The earliest available classification of the Ardhamagadhi canonical literature, which draws a line of demarcation between the works compiled and composed, by principal disciples of Lord Mahavira, on the basis of His teachings and those inherited from those of the twenty-three Prophets before Him. It is in the form of the Purvas and the Anga Sutras. Arga Sutras are twelve in number and the Purvas fourteen. However, in the context of the canonical literature prevalent in the religious order of Lord Mahavira, the fourteen Purvas form a part of the twelfth Anga Sutra -- Drstivada, which is believed to have been lost to the ravages of time and its knowledge, including that of the fourteen Purvas is not currently available. It has, therefore, become traditional to list only eleven Arga sutras and mention the Drstivada and the Purvas separately. The Eleven Ariga Sutras are - 1. Acararga - It is a treatise on the right monastic conduct. It is divided into two parts called Srutaskandhas. The first part consists of nine chapters and within them forty sections called Uddesakas. According to the content, language and the style of composition, the first part (Srutaskandha) of the treatise is quite ancient. The second part is in the form of supplements (Calikas) and consists of three supplements and sixteen chapters. From the very 148 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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beginning there flows a current of non-violence towards all the living beings of the universe and an emphasis on the point that all the living beings love life, therefore one must avoid killing or hurting life in any manner. The subsequent chapters lay down the rules for monastic conduct based on this underlying philosophy of nonviolence. The ninth chapter of the first part, entitled Upadhanasruta, contains a fairly detailed description of the severe penance undertaken by Lord Mahavira before He gained enlightenment and omniscience as well as that of his tours in the land of the non-believers and consequent hardships and afflictions suffered by Him. The second part contains detailed regimens for various monastic practices. 2. Sutrakrtanga - It is a treatise that contains a detailed description of the Jaina and other religious philosophies of the time. This treatise is also divided into two parts - Srutaskandhas/-containing sixteen and seven chapters respectively. Its importance lies in the fact that it deals with all the major religious philosophies of the time such as Kriyavada, Akriyavada, Niyativada, Ajnanavada, Jagatkartrtvavada, Loka-vada, etc and then proves as to how these are not fundamentally true. 3. Sthananga - A treatise with ten chapters and seven hundred and eighty-three aphorisms, this work enumerates various things and concepts - both concrete as well as abstract as per their numbers. In this regard it can be compared to the Anguttaranikaya of the Buddhist scriptures. 4. Samavayarga - Just like the Sthanamga, this treatise also lists various things according to their numbers. However, while the things mentioned in the Sthananga are of a general nature and interest, those that have found a mention in this work are the ones connected with the monastic life and conduct. Its first two hundred and ten SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE): 149

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aphorisms list things from one to Kota-koti (1014) and the remaining aphorisms contain information of miscellaneous nature. 5. Vyakhya-Prajnapti or Bhagavatisutra)-A treatise with eight hundred and sixty-seven aphorisms in forty-one chapters and with many sub-chapters in each, it contains the explanations and analyses of various things, concepts and precepts as given by Lord Mahavira to Ganadhara Gautama. The explanations given in this treatise are in the form of questions and answers. Ganadhara Gautama asks questions related to the fundamental principles, which are then answered by Lord Mahavira. At many places, in this treatise, there are descriptions of discussions between the followers of Lord Mahavira and those of the twentythird Prophet Lord Parsvanatha wherein the latter were convinced of the importance of the five dimensional faith (Pancayama dharma) preached by Lord Mahavira under the changed circumstances and embraced it with pleasure. Amongst other things this work also mentions the historically important events such as two great wars fought, in Vaisali, between the Vajjis and the Ajatasatru Kunikaon one side and almost all the rest of the kingdoms and republics of the eastern and central India (comprising nine Mallakis, nine Licchavis, Kasi, Kausala and the eighteen other republics) on the other. 6. Jnata-Dharmakatharga - A treatise in two parts (Srutaskandha), it contains moral and religious stories told by the Lord (Inataputra) Mahavira. The nineteen chapters of the first part contain nineteen moral stories, which uphold moral values and expound morality. Ten stories of the second part are religious stories that aim at propounding and establishing the Jainatenets through this medium of lucidly told captivating stories. All of them aim at promoting the value of renunciation, restraint and penance towards the attainment of spiritual emancipation. 150 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Some of the well-known stories of this work are - . Meghkumara, Sthapatyaputra, Rohini, Draupadi, Gajasukumala, etc. The remarkable thing about this work is that the fourth chapter of the first part contains animal stories, which, it can be surmised, sowed the seeds of a major literary style in the coming times which ultimately gave major animal stories like in Pancatantra, Aesop's fables etc. 7. Upasakadasanga - It is a treatise containing the accounts of the lives and spiritual practices of ten lay followers (Upasakas or Sravakas) of Lord Mahavira in ten chapters. The rules of conduct to be followed by the lay followers of the Jaina faith have been laid down and explained through the medium of these stories. In the very first chapter the five minor vows (Anuvrata), three virtue enhancing vows (Gunavrata) and four educational vows (Siksavrata) as well as the possible excesses (aticara) that can be committed have been very lucidly presented. Ananda, the subject of the first chapter, was a very devoted devotee of Lord Mahavira and had taken the vows at the hands of the Lord Himself. He had attained the highly sensitive and extensive accomplishment of clairvoyant perception (Avadhi-jnana) after undertaking rigorous lay followers' practices for twenty years. The remaining nine chapters also have similar accounts of the lives and practices of the other nine Sravakas. This work can easily be termed as the Acaranga for the lay followers. As the first primary canonical work, Acaranga lays down the conduct for the monks and the nuns, this work does the same for the lay followers of the faith. 8. Antakrddasarga- A treatise in eight chapters to describe the lives and spiritual practices of ninety spiritual aspirants, from the religious orders of the twenty-second Tirtharkara Lord Aristanemi and the twenty-fourth Tirtharkara Lord Mahavira, who practised severe penance and liberated in SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 151

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the same birth. All of them studied all the possible scriptures and practised severe penance followed by embracing of voluntary peaceful deaths through fasts unto deaths. The most moving accounts are those of Rathanemi's chastisement by Rajimati and the ordination and nirvana of Gajasukamala. Anuttaropapatikadasarga - It is a treatise containing the accounts of the lives and spiritual practices of thirtythree great aspirants whose spiritual practices yielded them rebirths in the five ultimate heavens called Anuttara-vima nas. The gods of the ultimate heavens are unique in the sense that they are destined to attain the final deliverance in the human rebirth that they take after descending from these heavens. This work also contains a detailed description of the most severe type of end-practice (Voluntary Peaceful Death) of the Padapopagamana type of Samadhimarana in which the aspirant practitioner accepts fast unto death and lies down like a fallen tree without any movement what so ever except when he has to answer the nature's calls. 10. Prasna-Vyakarana - The title of this treatise suggests that it ought to have been a treatise containing questions and answers related to spiritual matters pertaining to the own faith as well as the others. However, this purported original form of this work seems to have undergone some change over time. In its present form it exists in two parts that deal with karmic influx (Asrava) and stoppage (Samvara). The first of the two parts of this work contains the descriptions of the five causes of karmic influx (Asrava-dvara) and the second part that of the five measures for ensuring karmic stoppage (Sanivara-dvara). 11. Vipaka Sutra - It is a treatise that outlines the inevitable retribution of one's actions - both, pious and impious. In its twenty stories the first ten are devoted to showing as to how the sinful actions result in painful retribution 152 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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(Duhkha-vipaka) and the next ten stories underline the pleasurable results of pious actions (Sukha-vipaka). The Twelfth Anga Agama 'Ditthivada (Drstivada)' --- This Anga Sutra, which is believed to have been lost over time, had five parts. They were - 1. Parikarma-containing the mathematical procedures and formulae for various calculations. It had five sub-sections, namely (a) Candra Prajnapti, (b) Surya Prajnapti, (c) Jambudvipa Prajnapti, (d) Dvipasagara Prajnapti, and Vyakhya Prajnapti. (e) 2. Sutra- describing each of the 363 false faiths, prevalent at that time, and then logically refuting each of them. 3. Purvagata - containing the fourteen Purvas. 4. Anuyoga- containing the descriptions of the lives and practices of sixty-three great personalities or torch-beares (Trisasti Salaka purusa) of the Jaina faith. 5. Culika --containing the supplements to various Purvas. The third part - Purvagata comprised the fourteen Purvas (Pre-canons). The Fourteen Purvas 1. Utpada Purva It described the coming into being (Utpada), permanence (Dhrauvya) and destruction (Vyaya) of animate and inanimate matter. 2. Agrayaniya Purva It contained the descriptions of seven hundred good and bad standpoints (Naya), six matters (Sad-dravya), seven fundamental verities (Sapta tattva), and nine substances (Nava padartha). 3. Viryanuvada Purva It described the potentialities of six matters. -- SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 153

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4. Asti-nastipravada Purva - It explained the existence and the non-existence of the animate and inanimate matter with reference, respectively, of their own quartet (Svacatustaya) of matter (dravy), place (ksetra), time (kala) and mode (bhava) and that of the others (Paracatustaya). 5. Jnanapravada Purva - describing the number, types, subjects and effects of knowledge. 6. Satyapravada Purva - describing various tendencies of the truth and the untruth. 7. Atmapravada Purva - It described the qualities like doership (Karttva), enjoyership (bhoktrtva), etc. of the soul (Jiva) from both, the absolute (Niscaya) and practical (Vyavahara) stand-points (Nayas). 8. Karmapravada Purva- it contained the descriptions of the bonding (Bandha), existence (Satta), fruition (Udaya), premature fruition (Udirana), etc of karma. 9. Pratyakhyana Purva - It describes various types of renunciations. 10. Vidyanuvada Purva -- It contained the descriptions of 700 types of petty and 500 types of great learning, procedures for perfecting various incantations for obtaining desired results (Mantra-siddhi Vidhana), and eight-fold prognostics (Astanga Nimitta). 11. Avandhya Purva - Describing the auspicious events in the lives of sixty-three great personalities or torch-bearers (Salakapurusa) of the Jaina faith. 12. Pranayu Purva-containing the knowledge of the science of healing and that of incantations (Mantra prayoga) for relieving the spells cast by evil spirits. 13. Trilokabindusara Purva - containing the descriptions of the three worlds - higher, middle and nether; and the Moksa (the abode of the liberated souls) as also the actions that lead to Moksa. 14. Culika Purva - detailing the procedures for attaining 154 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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various unusual accomplishments as follows - A. Jalagata Culika - the art of walking on water by stabilising it. Agnigata Culika- the art of stabilising fire, entering it and walking on it. Sthalagata Culika the art of treading the inaccessible lands such as Mt. Meru etc. Mayagata Culika - the art of breaking the magic and evil spells. Rupagata Culika - the art of adopting various forms such as those of lion, goat, elephant, horse, etc. at will. the art of flying in the sky Akasagata Culika (Janghacarana vidya). Angapravistha And Angabahya Agama - B. C. D. E. F. -- The second classification of the canonical works is in the form of Anga included (Angapravistha) or Intra Primary canons and Anga excluded (Angabahya) or Extra Primary Canons. Nandisutra describes this classification, which is as shown in the chart given below: Agama or Sruta Angapravistha Acaranga Sutrakrtanga Sthanamga Samavayanga Vyakhyaprajnapti Jnatadharmakathanga Upasakadasanga Angabahya Avasyaka Avasyaka-vyatirikta Samayika Caturvimsatistava Vandana Pratikramana SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE): 155

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Kayotsarga Pratyakhyana Antakrddasanga Anuttaropapatikadasanga Prasnavyakarana Vipakasutra Drstivada Kalika Uttaradhyayana Dasasrutaskandha Utkalika Dasavaikalika Kalpikakalpika Kalpa Vyavahara Nisitha Mahanisitha Rsibhasita Jambudvipa-prajnapti Dvipasagara-prajnapti Candra-prajnapti Ksullikavimanapravibhakti Mahallikavimanapravibhakti Argaculika Vaggacalika Vivahaculika Arunopapata Varusopapata Garudopapata Dharanopapata Vaisramanopapata Velandharopapata Devendropapata Utthanasruta Culla-Kalpasruta Mahakalpasruta Aupapatika Rajaprasniya Jivabhigama Prajnapana Mahaprajnapana Pramadapramada Nandi Anuyogadvara Devendrastava Tandulavaicarika Candravedhyaka Surya-prajnapti Paurusimandala Mandalapravesa Vidyacaranaviniscaya Ganividya Dhyanavibhakti Maranavibhakti Atmavisodhi 156 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Samutthanasruta Nirayavalika Kalpika Kalpavatanisika Puspika Puspaculika Vrsnidasa Vitaragasruta Viharakalpa Caranavidhi Aturapratyakhyana Mahapratyakhyana The Four Anuyogas - The third classification of the canonical texts is based on the subjects dealt with therein. All the agamas were divided into four parts called Anuyogas. They are as under:1. Carana-Karananuyoga - dealing with the rules of monastic conduct, flaws and atonement therefor. The canonical works included within this anuyoga are - Kalika Sruta (Timely studiable canonical works), Maha kalpa, Chedasutras, etc. Dharmakathanuyoga - the canonical works that predominantly contain religious stories, such as - Rsibhasita, Uttaradhyayana, etc. are included within this anuyoga. 3. Ganitanuyoga - the canonical texts such as Surya Prajnapti, etc., which can be studied through mathematical rigour, form the content of this anuyoga. 4. Dravyanuyoga - the canonical works dealing with the material science, such as Drstivada, etc., are included within this anuyoga. The Latest Classification - The latest classification of canonical works is in the form of Anga Sutras, Upanga Sutras, Mula Sutras and Cheda Sutras. Thirty-two scriptures recognised by the Sthanakavasi (Prayerhouse dwelling) and the Terapanthi Svetambara (White-clad) SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 157

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Jaina tradition as canonical works (Jaina Svetambara Murtipujaka - White-clad Idol-worshiping tradition recognises forty-five scriptures as such) include eleven Anga Sutras (Primary canons), twelve Upanga Sutras (Subsidiary canons), four Mula Sutras (Basic canons), four Cheda Sutras (Disciplinary canons) and Avasyaka-sutra (Esssential scripture). They are as follows:Eleven Anga Agamas - These are the same as mentioned under Angapravistha agamas. Twelve Upanga Agamas - The Upanga (subsidiary) canonical works generally correspond to their respective Anga (primary) counterparts. They are - 1. Aupapatika, 2. Rajaprasniya, 3. Jivabhigama, 4. Prajnapana, 5. Jambudvipa-prajnapti, 6. Surya-prajnapti, 7. Candra-prajnapti, 8. Nirayavalika (Kalpika), 9. Kalpavatamsika, 10. Puspika, 11. Puspaculika, 12. Vrsnidasa, Four Mula Sutras 1. Uttaradhyayana-sutra-made famous by the belief that it is a compilation of the last sermons of Lord Mahavira, delivered just before His nirvana, it is believed to be the 158: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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essence of entire Jaina sacred lore, hence the work of supreme importance and the best of Jaina study. Its thirtysix chapters contain the essence of the Jaina thought on almost every area of spiritual and moral issue. It contains material on all the four Anuyogas and its importance is all the more enhanced by the fact that it is one of the few Jaina scriptures that form the set of Sramana poetry. Thirty-five of its thirty-six chapters are in melodious metric verse. Most popular of the Jaina scriptures, it is also known as the Jaina-Gita. 2. Dasavaikalika - It is a compilation of the essential rules of right monastic conduct in a nut-shell. 3. Nandisutra - This basic canonical work by Devavacaka Gani is an expose on the right-knowledge. The subject of five kinds of knowledge -- sensory, scriptural, clairvoyant, telepathic and omniscience - has been dealt with in relation to their various aspects. It also contains the rolls of heads of monastic groups starting from Arya Sudharma right down to Devardhigani Ksamasramana of the Valabhi conclave fame. 4. Anuyogadvara-Mainly explanatory in nature, this work is considered to be an essential aid in the study of all the primary and secondary canonical works. Four Cheda Sutras - 1. Nisitha - Nisitha enjoys the most important position amongst the Cheda Sutras (Disciplinary canons) that prescribes censures and atonement for various monastic misdemeanours. 2. Vyavahara - It is again a treatise, by canon omniscient Bhadrabahu, on the rules of monastic conduct that prescribes rules for seeking food (Pindaisana) by monks and nuns, monastic tours (Vihara), repentance and atonement for various infractions, etc. 3. Vrhatkalpa - This Cheda Sutra is complementary to SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 159

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Vyavahara Sutra and deals with similar subjects of monastic conduct, renunciation, exceptions and expiation thereof. 4. Dasasrutaskandha - Another Cheda Sutra by Acarya Bhadrabahu, this work is also known as Acaradasa. Its ten chapters deal with various aspects of monastic conduct. Its eighth chapter is the famous Kalpasutra describing the Caturmasa-kalpa (conduct during the four months of the rainy season) of the Jaina clergy. The Thirty-second Agama -. Avasyakasutra - This canonical work prescribes and describes six essential activities that must be undertaken by the monks and the nuns everyday without fail. These activities are - 1. Samayika (observing periods of equanimity), 2. Caturvimsti-stava (paying homage to the twenty-four Tirtharkaras), 3. Vandana (Bowing to the five venerable paragons of spiritual virtues), 4. Pratikramana (Retracting from the transgressions committed during the day, the night, the fortnight, the month-quartet or the year as the case may be, 5. Kayotsarga (Observing periods of detachment towards the physical body) and 6. Pratyakhyana (Giving up some sinful activity, food or physical facility as a part of one's daily spiritually uplifting activity). Forty-five Agamas - As mentioned earlier, the White-clad Idol-worshiping tradition recognises forty-five scriptures as agamas. They are as follows: Eleven Ariga Agamas as listed earlier, Twelve Uparga Agamas as listed earlier, Six Mula Sutras - 160 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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1. Avasyakasutra, 2. Dasavaikalikasutra, 3. Uttaradhyayanasutra, 4. Nandisutra, 5. Anuyogadvarasutra, and 6. Pindaniryukti-Oghaniryukti. Six Cheda Sutras - 1. Nisithasutra, 2. Mahanisithasutra, 3. Vrhatkalpa, 4. Vyavaharasutra, 5. Dasasrutaskandha, and 6. Pancakalpa. Ten Prakirnakas Generally, "Prakirnaka' means 'a treatise compiled on miscellaneous subjects'. According to Malyagiri, the commentator on the Nandisutra, the monks used to compose the Prakirnakas based on the sermons of the Tirtharkaras (the Prophets Propounders of the Jaina faith). Today, only ten of the twentytwo available Prakirnakas are recognised amongst the forty-five canonical works. These are as follows : 1. Aturapratyakhyana, 2. Bhaktaparijna, 3. Tandulavaicarika, 4. Candravedhyaka, 5. Devendrastava, 6. Gani--vidya, 7. Mhapratyakhyana, 8. Catuhsarana, 9. Virastava, and 10. Samstaraka. SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 161

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The Five Canonical Recitations - From the very beginning the question of preservation of the sacred canonical lore was a matter of great concern for the Jaina monks. Unlike the Brahmin Vedic scholars, the Jaina monks didn't write the canonical texts on palm-leaves etc, but committed them to memory and passed them on to the next generation of monks by the word of mouth. This practice prevailed because according to the Jaina tenets use of mediums of writing such as the palm-leaves, bark, ink, pen, etc was considered as acts of violence towards the plant life and hence as sinful acts. The second reason for this concern was that the members of the Jaina clergy were a wandering lot, who never stayed in one place as per the dictates of their precepts. They were, therefore, unable to devote as much time to reciting and repeating the canonical knowledge as they might have liked to. Thirdly, unlike the Vedic hymns the canonical maxims had no role to play in the social and civic life of their followers and, as a result, weren't repeated often. Fourthly, at least twice in the known history, long famines, each lasting for as long as twelve years, had disrupted the monastic orders when the monks dispersed from the famine hit regions to distant places where they could find the where--with-alls to sustain their lives. They, obviously, could not keep up with their recitals and the canonical knowledge partly lost. Due to these various reasons the canonical knowledge had withered and five times the efforts were made by assembling the conclaves of monks and collecting the canonical lore by collective recitations. The First Recitation 'Pataliputra Vacana' The very first recitation was held at an assembly of monks called at Pataliputra (Patna, Bihar) 160 years after Lord Mahavira's nirvana. This conclave, under the direction of Canonomniscient (Sruta-kevali) Bhadrabahu and Acarya Sthulibhadra, 162 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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could recall the eleven Primary canonical texts (Anga-pravistha Agamas) and ten out of the fourteen fore-canons (Purvas) from the twelfth primary canon - Drstivada. According to the Jaina lore, after Bhadrabahu, Sthulibhadra was the only monk, who knew the fourteen fore-canons in text and only ten of them in meaning. The Second Recitation - The second recitation was held at a conclave assembled in the second century BC nearly three hundred years after the nirva na of Lord Mahavira, at the Kumari hill in Orissa, during the reign of emperor Kharvela. Not much is known about this conclave except that the efforts were made, here, to recall and revive the canonical knowledge forgotten during the Mauryan reign. The Third Recitation 'Mathuri Vacana' This recitation was held at Mathura under the direction of Arya Skandila about 840 years after the nirvana of Lord Mahavira. The Fourth Recitation 'Nagarjuniya Vacana" Yet another recitation was organised under the direction of Arya Nagarjuna at Vallabhi in the Saurastra region of Gujarat almost at the same time as the Mathura conclave. The forgotten canonical knowledge was recollected but it was not reduced to writing The Fifth Recitation 'Vallabhi Vacana - The fifth recitation was again held at a conclave assembled at Vallabhi, in the year 980 after the Vira-nirvana, under the direction of Acarya Devardhigani Ksamasramana. It is popularly known as the 'Vallabhi Vacana'. While in the earlier four conclaves the canonical lore was only recited orally and recommitted to memory, it was at this conclave that the canonical SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 163

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texts were organised in their present form and reduced to writing. Sauraseni Canonical Literature - As has been pointed out earlier, the Digambara tradition holds the view that only a part of the canonical knowledge, inherited from tradition and imparted by Lord Mahavira, was retained by the monks through their monastic Sruta-tradition and the Sauraseni canonical works were composed by the learned masters based on this remnant knowledge. The Sauraseni canonical works are as under Satkhandagama - This most revered and the most voluminous of the Saurseni canonical works, in six parts, was composed by two Digambara monks Puspadanta and Bhutabali under the auspices of Acarya Dharasena. By various considerations and available evidence it has been surmised that this work was composed in the first century of the Saka Era. The details of its six parts are as under: 1. Jivatthana- In this part, Jivasthana, various attributes, nature and conditions of the living beings have been described in relation to eight considerations. These eight considerations are 1. Reality (Sat), 2. Number (Sankhya), 3. Area (Ksetra), 4. Touch (Sparsan), 5. Time (Kala), 6. Difference (Antar), 7. State (Bhava) and 8. Maximum-Mimimum (Alpa-bahutva). 2. Khuddabandha In this part, 'Ksudrakabandha', in thirteen chapters, the karmic bondability (bandhatva) or otherwise (Abandhatva) of any living being has been analysed in accordance to his station in the journey towards spiritual emancipation (Margana-sthana or way-- station). This part is very important from the point of view of 'Theory of karma (Karma-Siddhanta)'. 164: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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3. Bandhasamitta-vicaya - This part, 'Bandhasvamitvavicaya' deals with the eligibility of various types of karmic bondage in various stages of spiritual development (Gunasthana) and various stations in the journey towards spiritual emancipation (Margana-Sthana). This part is also very important for the study of Karma-Siddhanta. 4. Vedanakhanda The first two parts of the Karmaprabhrta - Krti and Vedana are, together known as Vedana-khanda. This shows that this part is quoted from the Pre-canons (Purvas). The first of these two, Krti, is mainly devoted to benediction and supplemented by stating various types of Krti. The second, Vedana, has been analysed in, great detail, in sixteen chapters. - - 5. Vargana Khanda - This part deals with the types of material particles that constitute Karma Vargana or karmic material particles capable of bonding with the soul. The analysis is in three parts called 1. Sparsa (Touch), 2. Karma and 3. Prakrti (Nature). ... 6. Mahabandha - After the bondability study (Bandhaniya adhikara) in the Vargana Khanda, this sixth part of Satkhandagama deals with the four aspects of bondage -- 1. Nature of bondage (Prakrti Bandha), 2. Quantum of bondage (Pradesa Bandha), 3. Duration of bondage (Sthiti Bandha) and 4. Intensity of bondage (Anubhaga Bandha) in such great detail and it is so voluminous that it has been named as Mahabandha. Kasayapahuda (Kasaya Prabhrta) -- This important Sauraseni canonical work, which basically deals with the subject of attachment (Raga) and aversion (Dvesa) was composed by Acarya Gunadhara. Conversion of these two basic attributes of the living beings into four great passions (Kasaya) and their nature, duration, intensity and incidence constitute the subject-matter of this work. According to SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE): 165

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Dr. Nemicandra Jain this work is of an earlier origin than the Satkhandagama and much earlier than the works of Acarya Kundakunda. Its period of composition might be as early as the first century AD. The linguistic evidence also supports this inference, as its language is more ancient than the language of the Satkhandagama. Kasaya Prabhrta has a total of sixteen chapters (Adhikara). The first eight of its chapters vividly describe the nature of deluding (Mohaniya) karma that is primarily responsible for the worldly wandering of the living beings. The remaining eight chapters are devoted to the analyses of spiritual evolution effected by gradually decaying deluding karma and its various conditions under various circumstances of spiritual awakening. The aspects of karmic influx, bondage, duration, fruition, separation, etc have been lucidly dealt with in great detail. In a nutshell this treatise presents a vivid analysis of attachment and aversion wrought by delusion; karmic influx, bondage, etc due to activities guided by such delusion and karmic separation when deluding karma is checked. Canon-Equivalent Sauraseni Literature - The following are some of the Sauraseni works of the most revered of great Acaryas of the Digambara Jaina tradition that are considered to be equivalent to the canonical literature:-- Acarya Kundkunda's Works - The important works of Acarya Kundakunda are - 1. Pravacanasara, 2. Samayasara, 3. Pancastikaya, 4. Astapahuda comprising i. Damsanapahuda, ii. Suttapahuda, 166 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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iii. Carittapahuda, iv. Bohapahuda, v. Bhavapahuda, vi. Mokkhapahuda, vii. Lingapahuda and viii. Silapahuda. 5. Niyamasara, 6. Barasanuvekkha, 7. Rayanasara, etc. Tiloyapannatti by Yativrsabha This work is the Sauraseni version of the Jaina cosmology that has some differences from the descriptions contained in the three prajnaptis - Surya-Prajnapti, Candra-Prajnapti and Jambudvipa-Prajnapti - on the subject, under the Ardhamagadhi canonical works. Mulacara by Vattakera - This is a valuable treatise that describes, in great detail, the rules and regulations of monastic conduct. Many of its verses are also found in the Ardhamagadhiworks like Avasyaka niryukti, Pindaniryukti, Bhattapainna, Maranasamadhi, etc. Bhagavati-Aradhana by Sivarya This is yet another ancient Sauraseni treatise by Acarya Sivakoti (Circa 3rd Century Vikrami Era) that is divided in four parts - Samyagdarsana Adhikara, Samyagjnana Adhikara, Samyakcaritra Adhikara and Samyaktapa Adhikara. These parts cover the subjects indicated by their titles in great detail. Kartikeyanupreksa by Svami Kartikeya - It is a treatise devoted to twelve types of reflections that promote spiritual well-being. SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 167

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Acarya Nemicandra's Literature - Acarya Nemicandra Siddhantacakravarti, an erudite scholar monk of the 11th century AD, wrote a number of works that are famous to date. They are: 1. Gommatasara, 2. Trilokasara, 3. Labdhisara, 4. Ksapanasara, and 5. Dravyasamgraha. Conclusion Knowledge is all-important. Its importance lies in the fact that all living beings are endowed with consciousness comprised of vision and knowledge and, therefore, it is a natural and essential attribute of all living beings. Knowledge is the recognition of consciousness. Lack of knowledge is inertia and a sign of inanimate existence. Another important feature of knowledge is that right-conduct is possible only through right-knowledge and, hence, the seers have echoed the thought, "Knowledge first, conduct later". Even though knowledge is a natural attribute of life, its manifestation is hindered by the karmic veil known as Inana, varaniya (knowledge obscuring) karma. The five types of knowledge - Matijnana, Srutajnana, Avadhijnana, and Manah, paryaya-jnana become manifest as this karmic veil is gradually lifted. Once the four destructive karmic bonds are destroyed, the soul realises its full glory and the pure, irrevocable, infinite and divine omniscience dawns along with the simultaneous dawn of Kevaladarsana. It is to this end that entire gamut of spiritual practices is played. The dawn of omniscience is the culmination of all spiritual practices. Nothing remains hidden once this divine 168 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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enlightenment is realised. The ordinary mortal self becomes immortal supreme self. The pursuit of knowledge, and the right-knowledge for that matter, is therefore, all-important, too. SAMYAGJNANA (THE RIGHT-KNOWLEDGE) : 169

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7 ANEKANTAVADA AND SYADVADA (NON-ABSOLUTISM AND ITS PREDICATION) Anekantavada And Syadvada - Anekantavada echoes the spirit of Jainism. It is the foundation on which stands the entire edifice of Jaina philosophy. The three stanzas that the Lord Tirthankara Mahavira uttered the first thing in His maiden discourse laid the foundation of nonabsolutist view-point that the faith propounded by Him was going to take. In 'Uppannai va (things come into being)', ' Vigamai va (things are destroyed)' and 'Dhuve va (things are constant)' the Lord hinted at the relativity of approach that was against the prevalent dogmatic absolutist approach, responsible for all the intellectual conflict and resultant strife between various religious philosophies of the time. He gave a conciliatory way of consideration that reconciled these conflicts and paved the way for better understanding of varying view-points. Anekantavada or the theory of Non-absolutism is the unique philosophical gift to the humanity by the twenty-fourth Jina or Prophet Lord Mahavira. Herein, he says that the reality. or the truth is many faceted and any ordinary being, with his limited vision and wisdom, can see only a few of its aspects. There is a lot that remains unseen and unknown by him. It will, therefore, be a perjury of truth to consider the partial truth, seen and known by him, to be the absolute truth, the whole truth and nothing but

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the truth. It is this realisation and not a dogmatic insistence on one's views that gives the Jaina creed the tolerance that it is credited with and the right perspective to see and appreciate others' view-points as well. This chapter brings out various facets of this wonderful theory in all its glory and, with suitable examples, impresses upon its readers the desirability of the relative view developed by adherence to this theory and many an acrimonious exchange that can be thwarted by its application in personal, social, national and international lives. So far, this important gift has remained confined to theoretical study only and, therefore, has failed to yield the desired fruits in personal and social lives of its followers. There is, therefore, a need to take it out of the scriptures and present it to the people at large so that they may put it to a pragmatic use and derive the benefits that can accrue thereby. Syadvada, on the other hand, is the inoffensive and, therefore, verbally non-violent way to express the relative truth that one gathers by the application of the theory of Anekanta. It is said to be the linguistic side of Anekanta. Anekantavada - Lord Prophet the ford maker, (Tirtharkara) Mahavira, was absolutely committed to the investigation and propagation of truth. On attaining enlightenment He could see the fallacy of the absolute and dogmatic adherence to part-truths and the intellectual strife that it generated. He could see that if all the part-truths are reconciled and a comprehensive view is taken, we can be much nearer the whole truth. This view formed a part of His realisation and His real knowledge. He felt that when one aspect of an issue or an object is mentioned in isolation of the other aspects, it generates controversy, as the others may not be viewing it from the same view-point. The key to reconciliation, therefore, lay in considering an issue or an object from various angles and when ANEKANTAVADA AND SYADVADA: 171

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it is possible to view it from a limited perspective only, to make allowance for the other view-points as well. This is, in essence, the non-absolutist view or Anekantavada. Several examples have been cited to illustrate the futility of the absolutist view and the utility of the non-absolutist one. The classical example is that of six blind men coming across an elephant and each feeling it from different parts of its body and forming an opinion of it according to his own experience. The first blind man who felt the elephant's trunk said it was like a banana-tree; the second one who felt its legs said it was like a pillar; the third one who felt its body said it was like a drum; the fourth one who felt its ears said it was like a fan; the fifth one who felt its tail said it was like a rope and the sixth one who felt its tusks said it was like a spear. They all stuck to their respective views and started quarrelling amongst themselves. They couldn't help it as each could not appreciate the others' views. Then came along a sighted person who heard their dispute and made each one feel the other parts of the elephant as well and thus, also made them see the others' view-points. When this happened, all their differences that seemed irreconcilable earlier were reconciled and all of them had a better concept of the elephant than they had earlier with their limited perspectives. Non-absolutism does this to all of us. It makes us open to others' view-points and enables us to have better concepts of things or issues. In our day-to-day lives, too, we can see that the utility of the things around us and the relationships that we have in relation to others are never absolute. If we stuck to absolute view about them, we would find life difficult or make ourselves a laughingstock in front of the others. Take the example of food. Food is essential and beneficial. This is an absolute statement. If we stick to it in isolation of the other considerations and keep eating in excessive quantities, we are inviting trouble for ourselves. When we correct ourselves and make the relative statement that 172 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the food is essential but it is beneficial only in requisite quantities, we are saved all the trouble. This is non-absolutism in practice. Take another example of relationships. Rama, as is well known, was Dasaratha's son, Laxman 's brother, Sita's husband, Luvand Kusa's father and Ayodhya's king. If someone took an absolute view and maintained that Rama was only a son, or a brother or a husband or a father or a king, he will not only be making a fool of himself but also show his ignorance and arrogance. One has to accept the relative relationships in different contexts to be practical and non-controversial. This is practical non-absolutism: The examples abound - the water, which is a giver of life by virtue of its qualities of quenching thirst and irrigating crops, is also a perpetrator of death by virtue of its being a cause of floods and drowning. Who does not know that the fire is destructive but, at the same time, it also helps us in cooking, warming etc. The food sustains life but the same food is poison for those suffering from Typhoid and Dyspepsia. Let us take a philosophical example. The beauty of nonabsolutist view is most evident in the Jaina concept of reality. The Upanisadas and the Vedanta, as presented by Sankara believe in the absolute constancy (Kutastha-nityata) of reality and say that the changes we see around us is all Maya or illusion. The Buddhist school of thought believes in absolute transitory nature of reality and maintains that everything changes every moment, nothing is constant and everything is in a state of flux. It believes that things originate every moment and they are destroyed the very next moment. The believers of Sankhya philosophy advance the view that the conscious reality (Purusa) is constant while the inert nature is variably constant (Parinami nitya). The Nyaya and Vaisesika philosophies, on the other hand, believe in absolute constancy of the soul, ultimate particle, etc but maintain that the things like the pot (Ghata), cloth (Pata), etc, we see around us are only transient and they just originate and get destroyed. Now, if ANEKANTAVADA AND SYADVADA : 173

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we were to stick to any one of these views in isolation, we would never get anywhere. The contradictions in these absolute statements are just too visible to merit any explanation. These absolutist approaches also resulted in such violent disagreements that Buddhists were forced to abandon the country of their origin as they were neither ready to reconcile to the majority view held by the Vedantis nor could they withstand the virulent opposition that the latter forced upon them. The Jaina concept of reality, as enunciated in the three phrases mentioned in the very first paragraph of this chapter, summarised in the maxim 'UtpadaVyaya-Dhrauvyayuktami Sat'so beautifully and so completely reconciles these two opposite views that there remains no room for any disagreement. It is a relative concept of reality that states the truth as seen by the omniscient Tirtharkaras. Truth, as we can see, is never absolute. Absolutely stated, we can at best grasp the part-truth. Sticking to absolute statements is arrogance and can be termed as violence. The Jaina thinkers call such arrogance as thought-violence. Such arrogance cannot promote non-violence. That is why they said, 'first be moderate in your views and then state them with reference to the contexts. It is not sufficient to state one's own position from one's own point of view; one must permit the other to state his point of view as well. Only then can one see the truth; only then can one be truly and practically non-violent.' It is, here, that the non-violent way of stating things from limited but relative perspectives comes in. This was made possible by the discovery of Syadvada or relative predication. Syadvada - Syadvada, is a reflection of Lord Mahavira's absolute commitment to non-violence. His life's whole commitment and endeavour had been to uphold the view that while the truth must be revealed in its real sense, its statement must not suffer from 174 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the flaw of opposing others in absolute terms and, thereby, hurting them; thus, causing violence of speech. However, this is possible only through relative statements when while stating one aspect of a thing or issue, we also keep an eye on its other aspects. The Syadvada style of predication makes it possible by prefacing 'sya t' meaning 'in a certain context' before a statement. From the Syadvada system of seven-way predication, the Jaina seers have brought the precept of Anekantavada to the level of vocal practice. We all know that in this world nothing is absolutely good and that nothing is absolutely bad. Everything has in it some goodness and some badness. There are traces of goodness in bad things and vice-versa. If we were to make practical statements about something that we are not absolutely certain about, and know that there is something that is good in it and there is something that is bad as well and we are not sure * about how much of it is good and how much of it is bad, the readers would agree that absolute statements like 'This is good' Or 'This is bad will not be the true statements of its true nature. Under such circumstances, we can state the truth in one or more of the following seven ways: - 1. In a certain context it is good. 2. In a certain context it is bad. 3. In a certain context it is good and bad both. 4. In a certain context it is not possible to say whether it is good or bad. 5. In a certain context it is good but how good is not possible to say. 6. In a certain context it is bad but how bad is not possible to say. 7. In a certain context it is good in some way and bad in some other way but how good or how bad is not possible to say. ANEKANTAVADA AND SYADVADA: 175

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In philosophical terms these very alternative ways of expression (bhanga) can be put as follows: - 1. Syadasti 2. Syannasti 3. Syadasti-nasti - In a certain context it is. In a certain context it is not. In a certain context it is as well as it is not. 4. Syadavaktavyani - In a certain context it is inexpressible. 5. Syadasti-avaktavyani - In a certain context it is but it is inexpressible. 6. Syannasti-avaktavyam - In a certain context it is not but it is inexpressible. 7. Syadasti-nasti-avaktavyani - In a certain context it is as well as it is not and it is inexpressible. Here, I wish to quote an example (suitably modified) from daily life, which I have read in the book, 'First Steps To Jainism' by AL Sancheti, and which, I am sure, will make this rather abstract discussion quite easily understood. If a person is ill, say he has common cold and fever, and if someone enquires about his state of health, he is likely to come across one of the following seven alternative answers to his query, which are illustrative of all the possible conditions of the sick man. Also, these alternative replies beautifully represent the seven-fold predication of his state of health: - Statement 1. He is somewhat well 2. He is somewhat unwell 3. He is well as well as unwell 176 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES Interpretation The cold is better (the fever is not). The fever has not improved (but the cold has). As far as the cold is concerned, he is

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4. I cannot say. well, but as far as the fever is concerned he is not well. His condition is such that nothing can be said for sure. He is somewhat improved but nothing can be said for sure. He is somewhat unwell but nothing can be said for 5. He is well but cannot say. 6. He is unwell but cannot say - sure. 7. He is well as well as unwell - He is somewhat improved, somewhat not improved and nothing can be said, for sure, about his condition. We notice that all these alternative statements are relative and none of them is absolute. Also, they truly represent the goodness or badness of the thing under scrutiny in the first example and the condition of the patient in the second. Also, when we preface each statement with the phrase 'In a certain context (syat)', we make our statements absolutely inoffensive. The modern scientific method of criticism also advocates bringing out the good points first and then the bad points, and that, too, only contextually and to present a happy mix of the two, in an as much inoffensive way as possible, so that it does not hurt. In the philosophical example of the nature of reality, the Jaina view states that in the context of matter, everything is ANEKANTAVADA AND SYADVADA: 177

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constant and in the context of modes, every one of its modes comes into being and gets destroyed. This can, also, be understood by an example - Suppose, we give a golden ornament, a bangle, to the goldsmith, to be melted and remade into a necklace and he does our bidding. In this case, the bangle mode of the gold has been destroyed and the necklace mode has come into being but in both the modes the gold, as material, remains constant. Thus, the Jaina concept of reality is relative. From the material standpoint everything is constant but from the stand-point of modes (moods for the soul), everything is given to creation and destruction. When a person grows, his childhood gives way to youth, which in turn, yields to old age but the person remains constant in all three modes of life. This distinction between the matter part and the modes part of everything is clearly visible in nature as well as in life. Syad-vada way of seven-fold predication brings this out beautifully. I wish to make it quite clear that 'syat' is the most misunderstood phrase of the logic-terminology. It does not mean 'perhaps' as interpreted by the other philosophers who decry the Anekata of the Jaina philosophy and its seven-fold predication by prefacing 'syat' before every statement as philosophy of uncertainty. It means 'In a certain context', as already stated earlier, and restated now for emphasis. Applied Anekanta - There are infinite numbers of objects around us and each has infinite modes that keep changing continuously. Through absolute predication, we can describe only one mode and make the truth disappear from our statement. To an ordinary person Margosa (Nima) is a plant whose every part tastes bitter. However, for the ailing its constituents make for invaluable medicines. Therefore, it will be improper to view 'Nima'from one angle only and to disregard its other qualities. When the 178 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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position in respect of an ordinary Margosa plant is such, it is well nigh impossible to know and state the infinite qualities of infinite number of things through absolutist statements. The Jaina philosophers deeply realised this and therefore, they did not limit their concerns up to the human-beings only but extended them to include the sensibilities of the other creatures as well. They realised that like the humans the other creatures, too, enjoy the right to live. They, too, are free to express themselves through the means at their command. This is the outcome of the Syadvada of Jaina philosophy. The non-absolutist view is as essential in the day-to-day practice as it is essential in the field of philosophy and thought. Actually, this view-point gives us an essential flexibility and discriminating insight whereby we can distinguish between the good and the evil. The experience tells us that Absolutism is the root cause of differences and conflict while Non-absolutism that of agreement and friendship. In order to understand it more clearly let us take the example of traffic signs. Those who follow the traffic signs reach their destinations unhindered. Similarly, the seven ways of predications that constitute Syadvada can be taken as the seven traffic-signs that regulate the traffic on the intellectual high-way. Following them does not augur any accidental conflict of thoughts and, therefore, Syadvada is the surest remedy for intellectual conflict as well as intellectual exploitation. Conclusion - From the Syadvada of the Jaina philosophy it is evident that we must also accommodate others' views and thoughts. The doors of our minds must always be open for the guest-thoughts. From the childhood itself we have, generally, been writing on the paper after leaving a margin so that we leave some space for correction as well as expansion and, resultantly, make our writings complete and error-free. The Saydvada gives us a message to ANEKANTAVADA AND SYADVADA: 179

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leave a margin in every field of our thought and activity. Whether we engage ourselves in gathering knowledge or wealth and fame, the relativity must always be an essential attribute in all our endeavours. We must remember that to share is to understand non-absolutism and herein lies the key to our character. Nonabsolutism makes our thinking flawless; flawless thoughts lead to flawless and relative speech and such speech is the vehicle of intellectual non-violence. The non-violent attitude does not permit us unnecessary accumulation and exploitation and our lives become free from binding attachment. Thus, Syadvada is the formula for spiritual purification. The Jaina masters have said - 'our salutation to the revered doctrine of Anekantavada, which is the preceptor of this whole universe and without which the conduct of the very worldly business itself is impossible'. "Jena vina loyassa vi vavaharo savvaha na nivvadai/ Tassa bhuvanekkaguruno namo Anegantavayassa //" 180: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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8 KARMA-SIDDHANTA (THE DOCTRINE OF KARMA) Soul And Karma - Soul or spirit is the basis of entire Jaina philosophical development. Jainism believes that the soul is an independent entity responsible for its actions, performed through the medium of the body that envelops it as long as it stays in its worldly existence, and their inevitable retribution good or bad, pleasurable or painful - in accordance with the quality of its actions. The soul is abstract, formless and manifests itself through its embodiment. Further it believes that such an independent soul is forced to suffer or enjoy the sufferings or enjoyments, that come its way, because it is kept in bondage by the karma. According to the Jaina thought the reason for this bondage and worldly wandering is the karma-matter that associates with it as a result of the actions of its bodily encumbrance. It is the karma that is responsible for the worldly transmigration and repeated births and deaths in various classes like heavenly gods, hellish denizens, human beings and sub-human creatures. Karma - Karma is a much talked about word that has universal circulation. It has its application in all walks of life in all parts of the world. Not only Indian religious philosophies but also the western ones have given importance to karma by referring to it

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as good deeds and bad deeds. However, most philosophies do not go beyond action as its meaning. It is the Jaina philosophy that has given it a much wider meaning. In Jaina philosophy the word karma has two connotations - 1. The action and 2. The karma-matter. The Karma Theory - The Jaina theory of 'Karma and its inevitable retribution' is nothing new as many religious philosophies, including the western ones have talked about it. When Gosvami Tulasidasa says in his epic 'Ramacaritamanasa'- "Jo jas karahi so tas phal cakha', he means the same thing as the western proverb "As you sow, so you reap". However, Jaina Karma Theory is unique in its evolution to mathematical precision. This chapter brings out this perfection of the 'Karma Theory' as seen and propounded by the Lords Tirtharikaras and propagated by the masters and preceptors over time. "Karma' is important, from the spiritual point of view, because it is a constant companion to all worldly souls and unless this association between the karma and the soul is completely and irresidually ended Moksa (liberation : the ultimate goal) remains unattainable. In the Jaina parlance, the term "Karma' has two meanings - 1. Any mental, verbal or physical action and 2. The karma-matter (matter of the Karma pudgala pudgala vargana) that comes in contact with the soul and sticks to it as a result of this action. This needs certain getting used to and this chapter endeavours to clarify this aspect. The Importance Of Karma Theory - Famous Jaina spiritual master of the eighth century AD, Acarya Haribhadrasuri, has said in his equally famous work 'Samaraicca Kaha'that 'everyone gets the fruits of one's earlier performed actions; in his pleasurable and painful experiences the others are just means and not the substantive causes'. This is one 182 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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truth that truly states the essence of 'Karma Theory', which if properly understood and appreciated may save us from many a trouble and misery. Most of the times we make the mistake of taking the agents as the principals and consider them as out friends and foes when they become the means of our pleasurable and painful experiences. If we develop the right perspective and take the agents as such, we can also develop the truly detached disposition and consequent victory over the delusion that causes attachment and aversion. A proper understanding and appreciation of Karma Theory' can, in this way, become the means of breaking the bondage of delusion with its attendant attachment, aversions and passions -- anger, pride, guile and greed -- and pave the way for not only a harmonious life but also for the ultimate goal of liberation. The Place Of Jaina Karma Theory In The Indian Philosophical Field Jainism has contributed many unique features to the Indian religious philosophical field. Just like theories of absolute Nonviolence and Non-absolutism, propounded by the Lords Tirtharkaras. Karmavada is yet another major contribution of Jaina philosophy to the field of Indian religious philosophies. Generally, it is believed that Jainism is a philosophy that is based on the Karma Theory. Although this belief is not incorrect but it is not wholly true as well. To say that Jainism is based on the theory of karma only is a misrepresentation of facts. According to Acarya Siddhasena Divakara, it is a philosophy based on five theories namely Kalavada (Theory of time), Svabhavavada (Theory of nature), Niyativada(Theory of destiny), Purvaktavada (Theory of earlier action) and Purusarthavada (Theory of endeavour). However, the reason for this misplaced belief is that the literature related to Karma Theory has, over time, occupied so much space that the other four theories, taken together, have been unable to get even a hundredth of its coverage. KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 183

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The Available Literature On Karma Theory - Though all primary (Arga) and subsidiary (Angabahya) canonical works mention karma and its impact on the soul, none of them can be said to be wholly devoted to the theory of karma alone. The professors and preceptors of Karmavada are unanimous in holding the view that the theory of karma originated from the eighth pre-canon (Purva) called Karmapravada Purva? As all the fourteen pre-canons have been lost, to the present generation of Jainas, due to the ravages of time; the original work is presently not available. Presently the available works on Karma Theory are as follows: - A. Works by Svetambara masters - a. Karma Prakrti, b. Panca Sangraha, c. Karma Granth, d. Karmastava, e. Karma Svamitva, f. Sadsitika, g. Sataka, and h. Saptatika. The last six works from this list have been composed by Acarya Devendrasuri, a Svetambara Jaina master of the 14th century AD. They are, currently, more popularly known as first to sixth Karma Grantha and form the basis of the study of Karma Theory in the white clad sect of the Jainas. B. Works by Digambara masters - a. Mahakarma-prakrti Prabhrta, and b. Kasaya Prabhsta. Both these works are believed to be quoted from the precanon referred to above. 184 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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The Existence Of The Soul - The Jaina answer to the question "who gets bound by the karma and who suffers the retribution due to it?' is that it is the soul that is bound by the karma and it is the soul that suffers the inevitable retribution due to it. It is for this reason that we must establish the existence of the soul before we proceed any further with the subject of 'Karma Theory'. The following seven proofs prove the existence of the soul: - 1. The self-experience, 2. Absence of any evidence to the contrary, 3. Denial also proves the existence of the denier, 4. Logic that like everything else in nature that exists in opposite pairs, the sentient soul exists as an opposite of insentient inanimate matter, 5. Scriptural proofs, 6. Opinions of the present day scientists, and 7. Rebirth. The Beginningless Association Of Soul And Karma - We have mentioned earlier that soul by itself is an independent entity, which is held in bondage by the karma-matter bonded with it. This bondage itself is the cause of its worldly existence and transmigration in various classes and species of worldly creatures. When the soul frees itself from the karmic bondage, it liberates and resides in the abode of the liberated souls called Siddhaloka or Siddhasila, never to return from there. This forces us to think as to when the initial association of the soul and the karmic matter took place. As the worldly soul, with its karmic encumbrance (without the karmic bondage the soul will not be a worldly soul but a liberated - siddha one), is supposed to be in this world from the beginningless time, from ever in the past, and no particular time or epoch can be assigned to its association with the karma-matter. Thus, as it is not possible to KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 185

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trace any beginning for this association, it is believed to be beginningless. Soul And Karma Are Separable - Though the soul and karma have a beginningless association, they are separable with due effort. This separation and consequent liberation of the soul from the mundane world is the ultimate goal of all spiritual practice. This separation is so much desired because it is the only escape for the soul to gain freedom from the miseries of the world and to attain the eternal bliss. It also stands to logic because the state of freedom is natural (Svabha va) for every living being and that of bondage is unnatural (Vibha va). Every organism wishes to move from the unnatural state of bondage to the natural one of freedom. The entire gamut of Karma-siddhanta is about achieving this state of separation or liberation from the karmic bondage. THE JAINA DOCTRINE OF KARMA Karma : Definition - Karma is defined as the insentient matter (Pudgala dravya) that associates with the worldly soul, beset with attachment and aversion, because of the constant vibrations that take place due to the activities of its body, mind and speech (together known as yoga). Causes Of Karmic Association - The five causes that promote such spiritual vibrations and consequent karmic association and bondage are -- 1. False View-Point - It makes the subject see things in a wrong perspective and consider spiritually harmful activities as beneficial. 186 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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2. Indulgence or Lack of Discipline - It keeps the embodied soul constantly engaged in intense activities, which incurs further karmic bondage. 3. Negligence - It causes unintentional activities yet it results in avoidable karmic bondage. 4. Passions - Passions like anger, pride, deceit and greed make one lose the sense of balance and discretion and under such a state of imbalance the soul indulges in unimaginable sins. 5. Yoga - In Jaina parlance the aggregate of body mind and speech is known as yoga. Though the reasons for indulging in any activity are the aforementioned four factors, all activities are carried out by these three agencies. Karma At Material And Volitional Levels - Although we have listed five causes of karmic association and bondage of the soul, they can all be contained in only the last two namely - Passions and Yoga. Also, it may not be incorrect if we said that the passions are primarily responsible for such an association and bondage for even the activities of the yoga do not result in karmic bondage in the absence of passions. Yet, again, the effect of four passions - anger, pride, guile and greed - may also be ascribed to only two reasons of attachment and aversion as these two only give rise to passions. We must be clear that what we do with our body and speech are actions, what we do with our mind are thoughts and passions or attachment and aversion are only psychic conditions or volitional dispositions. Now, we may have the following two situations: - 1. Physical mental and vocal activities influenced by attachment and aversion. 2. Passionate thoughts without any activity of the body and speech. KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 187

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It can be appreciated that in the first case the karma-matter (Karma pudgala vargana of matter) is attracted towards the soul due to the vibrations caused by the physical, mental and vocal activities and they get bonded with it due to the presence of passions. These are referred to as material karma or Dravya karma. In the second case though there is every possibility of karmic bondage as soon as there is any yoga-activity, the actual bonding is not taking place due to the absence of such activity. This potentiality of attachment and aversion or passionate volitional disposition for incurring karmic bondage is said to be volitional karma or Bhava karma. Four Types Of Karmic Bondage - We have seen that karmic bondage takes place due to passions and physical, mental or vocal activities. Depending upon the qualities and quantities of such actions and the intensity of passions while performing those activities, the karmic bondage may also be of varying degrees in respect of the following four variable parameters: - 1. Nature of bondage or quality-bondage (Prakrti Bandha), 2. Quantity of bonded karmic matter (Pradesa Bandha), 3. Intensity of retribution on fruition (Anubhaga Bandha), and 4. Duration of bondage (Sthiti Bandha). We shall deal with these aspects of karmic bondage one by one. Nature Of Bondage (Prakrti-bandha)- The soul is endowed with infinite qualities. The karmamatter associated with it adversely affect one or the other of these qualities, depending upon the type of action and volitional disposition that resulted in the bondage and, which, in turn, attract and bond different types of karma-matter. By this reasoning the 188 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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karma-matter and consequent nature of karmic bondage should also be of infinite varieties. They may well be. However, they have been grouped under one or the other of the following eight categories: - 1. Knowledge obscuring (Inanavaraniya) karma, 2. Vision obscuring (Darsanavaraniya) karma, 3. Feeling producing (Vedaniya) karma, 4. Delusion producing (Mohaniya) karma, 5. Life-span determining (Ayu) karma, 6. Genetic classification (physiques of different classes such as heavenly gods, human, animal or hellish denizens) determining (Nama) karma, 7. Status (within a particular class) determining (Gotra) karma, and 8. Weal Obstructing (Antaraya) karma. The functions of these different types of karma are obvious from their nomenclature itself. These have further been grouped in two groups, as follows, depending upon their ability to hinder the basic qualities of the soul or otherwise. The two groups are - 1. Destructive (Ghatiya)karma, which inhibit the soul from realising it's potential of enlightenment and omnisciencea. Knowledge obscuring karma, b. Vision obscuring karma, c. Delusion producing karma, and d. Obstructive karma. 2. Non-destructive (Aghatiya) karma - a. Feeling producing karma, b. Life-span determining karma, c. Genetic classification determining karma, and d. Status determining karma. This, however, is their basic classification. Each of these KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 189

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types also has some sub-types, which are 158 in all, as under: - Basic Karma Type No. Of Sub-types Knowledge obscuring 005 Vision obscuring 009 Feeling producing 002 Delusion producing 028 Life-span determining 004 Physique determining 103 Status determining 002 Obstructive 005 Total : 158 The sub-types of this secondary classification are as follows: 1. Five subtypes of Knowledge obscuring karma are - a. Sensory perception obscuring (Matijnanavaraniya)karma, b. Scriptural perception obscuring (Srutajnanavaraniya) karma, c. Clairvoyant perception obscuring (Avadhijnanavaraniya) karma, d. Telepathic perception obscuring (Manahparyayajnana varaniya) karma, and e. Omniscience obscuring (Kevalajnanavaraniya) karma. 2. Nine sub-types of Vision obscuring karma are -- a. Ocular vision obscuring (Caksu-Darsanavaraniya)karma, b. Non-ocular vision obscuring (Acaksu--Darsanavaraniya) karma, c. Clairvoyant vision obscuring (Avadhi-Darsanavaraniya) karma, d. Omnivision obscuring (Kevala-Darsana varaniya) karma, e. Sleep : Vision obscuring (Nidra-Darsanavaraniya)karma, f. Deep sleep : Vision obscuring (Nidranidra - Darsanavaraniya) karma, g. Drowsiness : Vision obscuring (Pracala Darsana varaniya) karma, 190 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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h. Deep drowsiness : Vision obscuring (Pracalapracala Darsanavaraniya) karma, and i. Very deep sleep : Vision obscuring (Styanagrddhi Darsanavaraniya) karma. 3. Two sub-types of Feeling producing karma - a. Pleasurable feeling (satavedaniya)producing karma, and b. Painful feeling producing (Asatavedaniya) karma. 4. Twenty-eight sub-types of delusion producing karma - a. Three Vision deluding types -- 1. Falsehood actuated delusion, 2. Mixed delusion and 3. Permanent right-vision obscuring. b. Sixteen passions - anger, pride, guilc and greed - actuated delusion producing karma - |--4. Infinitely bonding passions actuated, 5-8. Partial renunciation obscuring passions actuated, 9-12. Renunciation obscuring passions actuated, and 13-16. Momentary passion actuated deluding karma, and c. Nine quasi-passions deluding karma actuated by --- 1. Laughter, 2. Attraction, 3. Distraction, 4. Fear, 5. Sorrow, 6. Hatred, 7. Female libido, 8. Male libido, 9. Neuter libido. 5. Four sub-types of Life-span determining karma -- a. Heavenly life-span determining karma, b. Human life-span determining karma, c. Hellish life-span determining karma, d. Sub-human life-span determining karma, 6. 103 sub-types of genetic configuration determining karma fall in fourteen types of major body-configurations, eight types of peculiar physique giving karma, ten types of mobile physiques giving karma and ten types of immobile physiques giving karma which in turn, have their own sub categories. KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 191

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A. Fourteen body-configuration (Pinda prakrti) determining karma - a. Four types of destiny-class (Gati nama) determining karma, Five types of organic-class (Jati nama) determining karma, Five types of bodies (Sarira nama) determining karma, Organs such as hands feet etc and sub-organs such as fingers etc determining (Argoparga nama) karma, Physique bonding (Bandhana nama) karma, Physique making material collecting (Sarighata nama) karma, Six types of bone-joints (Sam hanana nama) determining karma, Joint-nail determining (Kilika nama) karma, Six types of shapes (Samsthana nama) karma, Complexion determining (Varna nama) karma, Body--odour determining (Gandha nama) karma, Body-taste determining (Rasa nama) karma, m. Body-touch determining (Sparsa nama) karma, n. Birth-order determining (Anupurvi nama) karma, and 0. Auspicious and inauspicious body-ambulation determining (Vihayogati nama) karma. B. Eight peculiar (Pratyeka prakrti) physiques determining karma - a. Victory giving (Paraghata Nama) karma, b. Special respiratory power giving (Ucchavasa Nama) karma, Special heat radiation power giving (Atapa Nama) karma, d. Cool light radiation giving (Udyot Nama) karma, 192 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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e. Neither light nor heavy body giving (Agurulaghu Nama) karma, f. Birth as a Tirthankara giving (Tirthankara Nama) karma, g. Proper placement of body-organs giving (Nirmana Nama) karma, and h. Painful organs such as split tongue or six fingers etc giving (Upaghat Nama) karma. Ten types of mobile physiques giving karma ( Trasa Dasaka) - a. Mobile physique giving ( Tras Nama) karma, b. Gross physique giving (Badara Nama) karma, Developed physique giving (Paryapta Nama) karma, Individual physique giving (Pratyeka Nama) karma, Stable physique giving (Sthira Nama) karma, Auspicious physique giving (Subha Nama) karma, g. Beauty and fortune giving (Subhaga Nama) karma, Pleasant voiced physique giving (Susvara Nama) karma, i. Obedience yielding (Adeya Nama) karma, and j. Name and fame giving (Yasah-kirti Nama) karma, D. Ten types of immobile physiques giving karma (Sthavara dasaka) - a. Immobile physique giving (Sthavara Nama) karma, b. Fine physique giving (Suksma Nama) karma, Underdeveloped physique giving (Aparyapt Nama) karma, Common physique giving (Sadharana Nama) karma, Unstable physique giving (Asthir Nama) karma, Inauspicious physique giving (Asubha Nama) karma, Ugliness and misfortune giving (Durbhaga Nama) karma, Unpleasant voiced physique giving (Duhsvara Nama) karma, KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 193

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i. Disobedience yielding giving (Anadeya Nama) karma, Name and fame depriving (Ayasah-kirti Nama) karma, 7. Two types of status giving karma are -- a. High status giving (Ucca-Gotra) karma, and b. Low status giving (Nica-Gotra) karma, 8. Five types of Obstructive karma are - a. Charity obstructing (Danantaraya) karma, b. Gain obstructing (Labhantaraya) karma, c. Major enjoyments obstructing (Bhogantaraya) karma, d. Minor enjoyments obstructing (Upabhogantaraya) karma, and e. Endeavour obstructing (Viryantaraya) karina, Quantity Of Bonded Karma-matter (Pradesa Bandha) -- The amount of karmic matter that the soul gathers and gets bonded with due to the activities of the body, it is embodied in, under the influence of passions or the delusory effects of attachment and aversion is said to be Pradesa Bandha. Such karma--matter is bonded with the soul in the form of eight types of karma described under the head of Prakrti Bandha. The comparative shares of each of the eight types is as follows: - a. The share of the 'Life-span determining (Ayu) karma' is the least, b. That of 'Genetic classification determining (Nama) karma' is slightly greater, c. The share of 'Status determining (Gotra) karma' is equal to that of the Ayu karma. d. The shares of the 'Knowledge obscuring (Inanavaraniya) karma', 'Vision obscuring (Darsanavaraniya) karma' and *Obstructive (Antaraya) karma' are equal to each other but somewhat more than that of Ayu karma?. 194 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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e. The share of the 'Deluding (Mohaniya) karma' is more still, and f. That of the 'Feeling producing (Vedaniya) karma' is the greatest. The amounts of karma-matter in these eight categories gets further divided into their sub-categories. Intensity Of Karmic Bondage (Anubhaga Bandha) - According to the Taina Karma Theory' the intensity of karmic bondage depends upon the intensity of passions while performing the activities that bond it. The soul under the influence of more intense passions will incur more intense karmic bondage and the one with less intense ones will bond the karmic bondage of lesser intensity. In other words the greater the intensity of inauspicious psychic dispositions, the greater will be the intensity of the painful retribution yielding karmic bondage or sin. On the other hand the soul under the influence of highly intense pious volitional disposition will bond very intense pleasurable fruition yielding karmic bondage or piety. The intensity of pious karma is inversely proportional to that of the sinful ones and vice versa. Duration Of Karmic Bondage (Sthiti Bandha) The time-period for which any bonded karma remains associated with the soul before its separation therefrom is called Duration Of Bondage' or 'Sthiti Bandia'. This period of association is described in terms of minimum and maximum possible in respect of each type of karmic bondage. In Jaina terminology the minimum possible period of association for a particular type of karma is termed as its "Jaghanya Sthiti'and the maximum possible one as 'Utkrsta Sthiti'. The maximum and minimum possible periods of association in respect of each type of karma are as follows: - KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 195

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Ser Type Of Karma Maximum Minimum No. Duration Duration 1 Inanavaraniya 30 Kotakoti Sagaropama Antarmuhurta 2 Darsanavaraniya 30 Kotakoti Sagaropama Antarmuhurta 3 Vedaniya 30 Kotakoti Sagaropama 12 Muhurta 4 Mohaniya 70 Kotakoti Sagaropama Antarmuhurta 5 Ayu 33 Kotakoti Sagaropama Antarmuhurta 6 Nama 20 Kotakoti Sagaropama & Muhurta 7 Gotra 20 Kotakoti Sagaropama 8 Muhurta 8 Antaraya 30 Kotakoti Sagaropama Antarmuhurta Notes : 1. A period of 48 minutes is known as a 'Muhurta'less than that is an 'Antarmuhurta'. Sagaropama (Ocean measure) is an immeasurably long period of time that is 1015 times the pit measure (Palyopama) estimated as the time taken to empty a large pit nearly eight miles cube and filled with smallest possible pieces of fine hair from which one piece is taken out after a lapse of 100 years. 3. Kotakoti equals 1014. Various Stages Of Karma - The description of various stages - such as bonding, fruition, transformation, existence, destruction etc - of karma-matter associated with the soul is available in the Jaina Karma Theory. Various stages of karma are - 1. Bonding (bandhan), 2. Existence (Satta), 3. Fruition (Udaya), 4. Premature fruition (Udirana), 5. Augmentation (Udvartana), 6. Reduction (Apavartana), 7. Transformation (Sarikramana), 8. Suppression (Upasaman), 9. Unchangeability except augmentation and reduction (Nidhatti), 10. Absolute unchangeability (Nikacan), 11. Gestation (Abadhakala), and 12. Separation (Nirjara). 196 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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A brief account of these stages is as under: - 1. Bonding - The process of association of karma--matter with the soul and their becoming intermingled like the water mixes with milk is said to be the process of bonding or 'Bandhan'. It is of four types, namely - Nature, Quantity, Intensity and Duration of bondage. 2. Existence - The karma-matter so bonded with the soul remains associated with it up to the time that it (karma) separates from it (the soul) after yielding due fruition. This period of association is called 'Satta. It must be understood that the karma--matter remains associated with the soul even during its gestation when it is not yielding fruition. 3. Fruition - This is the stage when the bonded karma actually yields the due fruition in the form of pleasurable or painful retribution. This stage is called 'Udaya'and is followed by separation of the relevant karma-matter after yielding due retribution. Premature Fruition - Bringing some types of karmamatter to yield fruition before their time with due effort, like penance etc, is called premature fruition or Udirana? It can be explained by the example of ripening of fruits - In the normal course a particular fruit may take a specified period of time for ripening. However, by suitable physical or chemical methods, such as warming or sprinkling Calcium Carbide (CaC) powder, it can be made to ripen much earlier. Likewise the karma-matter of some kinds can be made to yield fruition before the lapse of their normal course of time. It must be noted that only those types of karma can be made to come forward for early fruition whose similar karma are yielding fruition at the time. 5. Augmentation - Increase in the intensity and duration of the bonded karma due to specific action or volitional disposition is called its augmentation or Udvartana. It is also known as Utkarsana. KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 197

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6. Reduction - Decrease in the intensity and duration of the bonded karma due to specific action or volitional disposition is called reduction or Apavartana. It is also known as Apakarsana. (From the principles of Udvartana and Apavartana it follows that the intensity or otherwise of some types of karma can be varied with due effort and under suitable states of volitional dispositions.) 7. Transformation - Changing the nature, duration, etc of one sub-type of karma-matter into another sub-type of the same basic type is known as transformation or Sankramana. (It must be noted that transformation is possible only amongst the sub-types of any basic type and not across the basic types. Only the karma-matters of similar nature are susceptible to transformation, those of different basic types are not so susceptible. However, there are some exceptions to this rule, too. No transformation is possible amongst the four sub-types of the Ayu karma as well as amongst the two sub-types of the deluding (Mohaniya) karma - Darsan Mohaniya and Caritra Mohaniya.) 8. Suppression - The state of bonded karma-matter in which fruition, premature fruition, augmentation, reduction and unchanged retribution are not possible is said to be the state of suppression or subsidence or Upasaman. Exceptional Immutability (Nidhatti) - The state of the bonded karma-matter in which no changes like premature fruition, transformation, etc are possible is said to be that of Nidhatti. However, there are some exceptions. The changes in intensity and duration of the bonded karma-- matter by way of augmentations and reductions are possible in this state. 10. Absolue Immutability - The state of karmic bondage in 198 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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which no change what-so-ever is possible and its fruition compulsorily takes place in the same form as destined, is known as Nikacana or absolute immutability. This can also be referred to as destiny or Niyati. 11. Gestation Or Period of Inactivity - The time that elapses between the bonding of a particular karma and its coming to fruition is known as hibernation or Abadhakala. It is part of existence of karma, which is defined as the period between bonding and separation. This is the period in which the karma remains associated with the soul in the same form as it was bonded. It must be appreciated that it starts changing its form in terms of quantity, intensity and duration on coming to fruition. 12. Separation - the state of karma-matter, bonded with the soul, when it gets separated from it after yielding due retribution is said to be the stage of separation or Nirjara. The Means of Achieving Karmic Separation - We have understood that the soul that is naturally free, pure and flawless is flawed and bound to stay in the miserable mundane existence due to its association with the karma-matter. It is now time to dwell upon the means to achieve separation of the soul from bonded karma-matter so that it can reveal its true, pure and flawless form and liberate from the clutches of the worldly existence to dwell in the abode of the liberated perfect souls - the Siddhas Jainism prescribes three means to achieve such separation. They are - 1. Right-Vision 2. Right-Knowledge and 3. Right Conduct. Some thinkers mention only two - knowledge and action. They take it that right-vision is an integral part of rightknowledge because we have concluded earlier that rightknowledge is not possible in the absence of right-vision. Again, some others mention four means - right-vision, right-knowledge, right-conduct and right-penance. The advocates of this view KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 199

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consider penance as a separate means while those of the threeway path consider it included within the right-conduct. Here, a question can be raised that when the Vedic philosophy considers the four-way path comprising action, knowledge, Yoga, and devotion as the liberating path, how is it that the Jaina philosophy advocates only a two or three way path for such an accomplishment? With a little thought it is not difficult to understand that the two out of four ingredients of Vedic path of liberation, namely action and yoga are included in the rightaction of the Jaina path. Right-conduct of the Jaina pursuit includes - thought control, sensory organ control, purity of disposition, equanimity and the means to achieve them. The Vedic ingredient 'action' includes mind and body control and purity of disposition and equanimity are included in the 'Yoga part. They are thus the same. The devotion part of the Vedic philosophy is equivalent to the right-vision of the Jaina philosophy. Both are based on belief. Knowledge ingredient is common to both these pursuits. Like this, we can see that while the numbers and names of the means followed in the Jaina way and those prescribed by the philosophies of the Vedic stream, the three-way path prescribed by the Jaina seers is the aggregate of the liberating practices laid down by the other philosophies as well. Karma : A Scientific Analysis - Karma is a much talked-about word that has universal circulation. It has its application in all walks of life in all parts of the world. Not only Indian religious philosophies but also the western ones have given importance to karma by referring to it as good deeds and bad deeds. However, most philosophies do not go beyond action as its meaning. It is the Jaina philosophy that has given it a much wider meaning. In Jaina parlance the word 'karma'has two connotations - 1. The action and 2. The karma-matter. 200 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Now, I present a scientific analysis of the nature of karma and the way it gets associated with the soul and affects its destiny. According to Jaina thought, karma--matter or 'Karma pudgala-- vargana is the finest variety of matter that has the capacity of invading the soul-space and associating with the soul. When we compare it with the existing scientific knowledge about matter and its wave and energy transformations, we can see that karmamatter may be in the form of some kind of electromagnetic waves that vibrate at different frequencies. The fact that our thoughts and actions are affected by surrounding electromagnetic field is a foregone conclusion. People living in the vicinity of high tension (HT) electric transmission lines are known to suffer some neurological and psychosomatic disorders. It is because the strong electromagnetic field in their vicinity adversely affects their normal functioning and throws them out of tune. Similarly, the electromagnetic field created by the vibrations of karma-matter casts its influence on our neurological system and endocrine glands that are regulated by body-electricity and force us to behave in a particular manner. The karmic (electromagnetic) waves are grouped in eight wave-bands, termed as asta-karma, just like normal electromagnetic waves are classified as Low-frequency band, High-fequency (HF) band, Very High Frequency (VHF) band, Ultra High-frequency (UHF) band, microwave band, etc. Each of these types gets attracted towards the soul when it performs any physical mental or vocal activity that itself causes it to vibrate at specific frequencies. Just like a radio receiver can select specific frequency-band when it is tuned to that frequency, the soul vibrating at a particular frequency also receives karmic waves of matching frequency and that is how some actions attract and bind knowledge obscuring karma-matter while some others bind other types. Then comes the question of destiny and karmic retribution. Like a pre-set television-set, set to receive different channels at KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 201

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different times, the karmic associations also have a built in clock that decides the dormancy (Abadha-kala) and the time of fruition (Udaya) of a particular type of karmic bondage. When the time of fruition of a particular type of karma comes, the karma-body (Karmana Sarira) and the soul associated with it are forced to vibrate at a specific frequency. This vibration manifests itself in the form of tendencies (Bhava)that forces the soul (in its corporeal state through its body, mind and speech) to act in a particular manner and generates a resonance in the environment which attracts only those types of people and objects that resonate with it, the others remain unaffected. This explains as to why out of a plethora of people and objects we rhyme and click with only a few. Such association with specific people and objects result in our pleasurable or painful experiences in accordance with our karmic adjunct. This is our karmic retribution and this is our destiny. This scientific model has been graphically illustrated in the flow-chart on the facing page. The Spiritual Benefits Of The Doctrine Of Karma - Spiritual benefits of a soul are directly linked with its capacity of looking at things in the right perspective, its victory over passions, overcoming attachment and aversion and development of a truly detached disposition. Attachment (raga) and aversion (dvesa) are the two generals of the army of delusion (moha) that constantly attack the worldly living beings. Succumbing to delusion and attendant attachment and aversion gives rise to passions like anger, pride, deceit and greed, which are, in turn, responsible for all worldly misery and karmic bondage. A proper understanding and appreciation of 'Karma Theory' helps us in understanding the mechanism of attachment and aversion and can become the means of breaking the bondage of delusion - 'Mohaniya Karma' with its attendant attachment, aversion and passions - and pave the way for not only a harmonious mundane life but also for the ultimate goal of liberation through consequent 202 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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victory over the delusion that causes attachment and aversion. A little deliberation on how a lack of proper perspective results in attachment and aversion and how a proper understanding of the basic principles of karma-theory helps us in overcoming them will not be out of place. Lack of perspective distorts our thought-process and makes us think that the person detrimental to our worldly interests is responsible for our misery Different thoughts, vocal and physical activities Generate Vibrations of different frequencies in the soul-field Which attract Karma waves of matching frequencies Get bonded with the soul Which is the presence of passions and attachment In the form of Karmic body or Karmana Which is nothing but Sarira A pre-programmed karma-clock that goes off from time to time to give rise to relevant vibrations in the karma-matter associ-ated with the soul Which effect Pleasant and unpleasant asso-L ciations with animate beings and inanimate objects Which gives rise to Our neurons and endocrine glands and, thereby, our behaviour. Karmic retribution or Which is, IN SHORT DESTINY KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 203

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and we have a feeling of aversion (dvesa) towards him and a feeling of attachment for the one whom we consider helpful to our mundane interests. A proper understanding of the underlying principle of karmic association and retribution puts our thoughts on the right track and we develop a feeling of neutrality or ma dhyastha bhava so essential for spiritual advancement. This ma dhyastha bhava ensures lack of attachment and aversion and consequent destruction of moha, which opens the sim-sim of enlightenment and emancipation. The Summary Of Jaina Karma Theory - Jainism believes that the pure and freedom loving soul is rendered impure and held in bondage by the karma-matter that gets bonded with it due to the activities of its embodying body and its passionate volitional dispositions. The karma matter is generally referred to as "karma' only, not withstanding the fact that the word "karma' also means action. According to Jaina philosophy each karma exists in three states in relation to the soul - 1. Bonding state, 2. Associated state and 3. Fruition state. These three states are respectively known as 1.Bandha, 2. Satta and 3. Udaya. The karma has been classified in the Jaina literature on the theory of karma in eight basic types and 158 sub-types. Such detailed and self-realised analysis of karma in relation to the worldly souls is not available in the literature of any other religious philosophy. For example - The Yoga philosophy by Patanjali mentions three types of fruition of karma, namely 1. Organic class, 2. Life-span and 3. Enjoyment. This pales to a degree of inconsequentiality in comparison to the detailed description available in the Jaina literature. The Jaina Karma Theory answers such questions as "How does karma get bonded with the soul?" "What are the causes of such karmic bondage?" For how long can the karma remain associated with the soul? "For how long will a particular type of 204 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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bonded karma lie dormant before it comes to the fruition stage?" Can the predestined time of fruition be altered?" "If yes, how?" "What are the types of volitional dispositions and endeavours of the body, mind and speech are essential for such alteration?" "When can a particular type of karma be changed into another type?" "What are the limitations of such a change?" "How can the intensity and period of association of bonded karma be increased or decreased?" "How can the fruition of most potent karma be stopped by stronger spiritual force?" "Why the retribution of certain types of karma cannot be tampered with even through the most rigorous endeavour?" "How the soul and not the body is the doer and the enjoyer of karma and its fruits?" "How the spiritual force is able to dislodge the most strongly entrenched karma-matter from the soul-space and achieve separation?" Etc. We can conclude this chapter by saying that the 'Theory of Karma' is not unique to the Jaina philosophy but its treatment by the Jaina masters, in unsurpassed details, certainly is. KARMA-SIDDHANTA (DOCTRINE OF KARMA): 205

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9 GUNASTHANA (STAGES OF SPIRITUAL ADVANCEMENT) The Soul's Journey From Delusion To Deliverance - The condition of the naturally pure and free soul in a state of karmic bondage is quite different from its natural state. When the bonded inauspicious karma-matter is on the rise its (the soul's) spiritual power is subdued. It cannot realise its deplorable condition and its unlimited power and prowess. The all-powerful sovereign spirit becomes unable to feel its reality. Under such a state of bondage the conscious soul starts thinking that it is one with the inert body composed of insentient matter. It fails to appreciate the duality of the sentient soul and the insentient body and becomes totally engrossed in the pursuit of bodily enjoyment. It throws the spiritual concerns to the winds. This is its lowest state that of complete delusion (Moha) - induced by the false belief that soul and body are the same. However, when the pressure of such deluding karmic influence reduces a bit due to karmic separation achieved through the process of inevitable retribution, albeit unconsciously, it starts to realise the duality of the body and the soul and comes to recognise the soul's powers. This is the dawn of right-belief and the beginning of its journey to rise from the dungeon of falsehood to the garden of truth. Though this journey to the final spiritual destination is a

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continuous one, it is marked by certain land-marks on its way just like a train journey is continuous but is marked by some stations and junctions on the way. The final destination of the soul that has awakened from the deep sleep of delusion is deliverance or Moksa. In this chapter we shall discuss the fourteen way-stations that mark a soul's journey from delusion to deliverance. In Jaina parlance they are known as "Virtue-stations or Gunasthana or Jivasthana. Rise From Deluding Falsehood - Delusion is caused by the false-belief that soul is not different from the body that embodies it. Under the influence of such delusion the spiritual flaws like attachment and aversion, indulgence in material pleasures, negligence towards spiritual duties occurs and actions directed by the gripping passions take place. According to the Jaina belief infinite number of extremely fine creatures belonging to vegetable kingdom and known as Nigoda live in a permanent state of delusion. Their condition is so acutely miserable due to continuous and quick births and deaths (they get born and die a innumerable times in as short an interval of time as blinking of an eye) that they get no respite to become conscious of their miserable condition. They live in such condition for an eternity and only some of them occasionally get a chance to come out of such miserable existence and come into the mainstream of living beings where it is possible to rise above falsehood and delusion. It is believed that only as many Nigoda creatures come into the mainstream as attain liberation and become Siddha. Again out of the Nigoda creatures that break free from their lot and come into the mainstream, too, only a few are endowed with the quality of liberatability and can rise above falsehood. They are called Bhavya. A large number of them are GUNASTHANA ( SPIRITUAL STAGES ): 207

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not so endowed and cannot part with their false-beliefs and, consequently, can never hope to liberate. Such creatures are Abhavya. Amongst the liberatable creatures there comes a time for each of them when pressure of karmic bondage eases due to one or more of the three reasons - 1. Destruction or separation (Ksaya), 2. Suppression or subsidence (Upasama), and 3. Part destruction and part subsidence (Ksayopasama) of deluding karma after yielding its due retribution and the truth in the form of rightvision or right-faith dawns like a glimmer of light in the blinding darkness. This dawn of rightness, which is the first step in the right direction, may be compared to the cutting of the Gordian knot. This chapter is about the spiritual journey of the liberatable Bhavya living beings. Gunasthana - Gunasthana or Jivasthana is an epoch or a way-station in a soul's journey from binding and deluding falsehood to liberating and emancipating perfection of absolute right-belief, perfect knowledge or omniscience, eternal bliss and unlimited spiritual prowess. There are fourteen such identifiable epochs that mark the spiritual progress of a soul from absolute imperfection to absolute perfection. Here, we shall give a brief description of each of these stages of spiritual advancement. However, before we proceed to describe these virtue-stations (Gunasthana) we must understand some processes that are integral to their attainment. The following are the hallmarks of this process: - A. The process of progression or regression is a continuous process with infinite points on the way. Fourteen virtue stations are only the traditionally identifiable stations. B. The process of ascending or descending on the scale of 208 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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virtue-stations is a spiritual phenomenon and there are no physical manifestations of this process. The process is controlled by the karma-matter associated with the soul at any given point of time. These are, in turn, the outcome of the physical, mental and vocal activities of the material embodiment of the soul as well as of its psychic or volitional dispositions such as passions, attachment and aversion and delusion or their opposites. (The position of the soul on this scale is, therefore, a continuously changing one depending on the changes in these causatory factors.) D. There are three processes (Karana) that help the process of spiritual progress. They are 1. Normal endeavour method (Yathapravrtti Karana) in which the progress in cutting the Gordian knot of false-belief or getting bogged down in the mire of falsehood depends on the soul's own efforts, 2. Exceptional endeavour method (Apurva Karana) in which the soul's progress in accelerated by exceptional spiritual endeavour, and 3. Passions annihilating method (Anivrtti Karana) in which the most persistent passions are shed by the soul. E. During its spiritual journey beyond a certain stage the soul is helped further only by karinic destruction (separation by annihilation) and not by suppression or destruction cum suppression. Accordingly, beyond the eighth station there are two paths or ladders that the soul can take. These are known as Subsidential ladder (Upasama Sreni) and Destructional ladder (Ksapaka Sreni). The first is reversible, that is the soul that ascends the subsidential ladder certainly regresses back. The second ladder is irreversible. The ascendance on this ladder is permanent and leads to the ultimate accomplishment of perfect spiritual emancipation and liberation from the miseries of the mundane existence, GUNASTHANA ( SPIRITUAL STAGES): 209

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The Fourteen Virtue-Stations (Gunasthana) - Now, we proceed to briefly describe the fourteen waystations on the soul's journey to perfection. 1. Falsehood Stage (Mithyatva Gunasthana) - This is the lowest spiritual stage of a soul. At this stage it is fully in the grip of false-belief and consequent delusion. All the infinite number of creatures of the Nigoda and stationary one sensed beings and a majority of the innumerable living beings of the mainstream classes of heavenly gods, human beings, animals and other subhuman beings and the hellish denizens also belong to this category. Their vision is coloured by the colour of falsebelief and they are unable to see things in their right perspective. They either have no beliefs like the Nigoda creatures or if at all they have a belief it is invariably false. Even amongst the fivesensed living beings the false-faithed beings are always innumerable times more than those of the right-faith. It follows that the grip of falsehood is very strong and breaking away from its shackles is very difficult, to say the least. Also, the duration of this stage of the soul is also extremely long. The only way out of this stage is that of cutting the Gordian knot and breaking free by one of the three reasons of karmic separation, subsidence or destruction cum subsidence. 2. Lingering Taste Stage (Sasvadana Gunasthana) - This is the second spiritual stage of a soul, attainable only on its way down from the stage of right-belief. When a soul that has not attained permanent right-vision regresses from higher stages of right-belief towards falsehood, there comes a stage when it nears wrong-belief but still has a lingering taste of right-belief. This stage has been compared with the state when someone who has eaten sweet milk-rice-pudding (Khira) and vomits it back. Though the pudding has been vomited back the mouth remains filled with its lingering sweet taste for some time. Its maximum 210 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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duration is six Avalikas and the minimum one is one Samaya. It is easily seen that from this stage the soul goes to the first stage of falsehood only. 3. Mixed Stage (Misra Gunasthana) - This is the third spiritual stage, attainable by a soul on the ascendant as well as on the descendant. The soul with a traceable falsehood-stage can ascend to this stage directly from the first while the soul that descends from the higher stages, of rightbelief, passes this stage on its way down. This stage is attained when a soul that has attained temporary right-vision regresses from higher stages towards falsehood; there comes a stage when it is mixed up in the right as well as wrong beliefs. It has been compared to the state when someone who eats sweetened curds. His mouth if filled with the sweet and sour taste of sugar and the curds. This stage is not passed by a soul on the ascendant. Its duration is that of less than a Muhurta (a period of 48 minutes). Again, if the infinitely binding passions of the soul are not on the rise, it ascends to the fourth stage of a soul with right-belief but without restraint. If such passions are on the rise it descends to the first stage through the second. 4. Right-Beliefed Unrenounced Stage (Avirat Samyagdrsti Gunasthana) - This is the fourth spiritual stage, attained by a soul on the ascendant as well as on the descendant. As has been mentioned above, a soul that has been able to overcome the infinitely binding passion quartet (Anantanubandhi Kasaya Catuska) and vision deluding (Darsan Mohaniya) karma, by either destroying them or suppressing or partly destroying and partly suppressing them, realises the right perspective. He is, then able to discriminate between the self (soul) and the other (body), as well as between the beneficial (upadeya), the knowledge worthy (jneya) and the deplorable (heya). At this stage it believes in the true form of reality and has a steadfast belief in the fundamentals. It realises GUNASTHANA (SPIRITUAL STAGES): 211

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that the path of spiritual emancipation goes through the rightbelief, the right-knowledge and the right-conduct. That the belief in the fundamentals, as stated by the Lords Prophets, is the rightbelief; the knowledge of these fundamentals is the rightknowledge and a conduct in accordance with the right-belief and the right-knowledge is the right conduct. However, due to the rise of the conduct deluding (Caritramohaniya) karma and renunciation prohibiting passions (Apratyakhyana Kasaya) it cannot restrain itself according to the dictates of the right-conduct how-so-ever much he desires to do so. The duration of various ingredients of this virtue-station are as follows: - A. Right-belief - a. Minimum - Less than a Muhurta, b. Maximum - i. Destructional - For ever, ii Destructo-subsidential - 66 Sagaropama. B. This Gunasthana - a. Minimum - Less than a Muhurta, b. Maximum -- Somewhat more than 33 Sagaropama. * This duration holds good only if the subject soul stays in this virtue-station only throughout. If it accepts restraint in the mean while, it can proceed further on the scale of spiritual virtues. 5. Part-Renounced Stage (Desavirat Gunasthana) - This is the fifth spiritual stage, attainable by a soul on the ascendant as well as on the descendant. This virtue-station is attained by a soul that has achieved the partial destruction or destruction cum subsidence of the conduct-deluding karma as well as the complete renunciation obscuring passions (Pratyakhya na-varana Kasaya). Still the complete restraint is hindered and the subject is able to adopt only partial restraints or the vows of the lay follower. Here, too, it must be understood that amongst such souls also there are some who observe all the twelve vows 212 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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and eleven advanced practices of the householders (Sravaka Pratima) while some only accept and observe one or more of them. This stage can last from a minimum duration of less than 48 minutes to a maximum of somewhat less than a Purvakoti Varsa. 6. Negligent Restraint Stage (Pramatta Samyatta Gunasthana) This is the sixth spiritual stage, attainable by a soul on the ascendant as well as on the descendant. At this stage even the conduct deluding karma in the form of complete renunciation obscuring passions are either destroyed or subdued. As a result the soul shuns violence and accepts monastic ordination and leads an ascetic life of five great vows etc. However, the soul is still under the influence of the gleaming passions (Sanjvalana Kasaya) and therefore, given to negligence in observance of monastic vows that it has accepted. In this virtue-station there is every possibility of the subject falling prey to such negligence as sleep, gossip, sense-enjoyments, passions, etc. The maximum and minimum durations of this Gunasthana are also the same as those of the fifth one. 7. Vigilant Restraint Stage (Apramatta samyatta Gunasthana) This is the seventh spiritual stage, attainable by a soul on the ascendant as well as on the descendant. The souls at this virtue-station do not exhibit any negligence and remain fully vigilant in the pursuit of their monastic vows. Unlike their counterparts at the last virtue-station, they do not fall prey to the negligence inducing practices like sleep, gossip, sensory indulgence and passions. At this stage the subjects are free from all forms of negligence and ever engaged in pious contemplation (Dharma Dhyana). This is also the stage where the soul applies the first of the three soul purifying processes mentioned in the GUNASTHANA (SPIRITUAL STAGES): 213

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earlier part of this chapter - that of normal endeavour or Yathapravrttikarana. The minimum extent of this Gunasthana is one Samaya and the maximum is less than one Muhurta. 8. Gross Passion Dissimilarity Stage (Nivrtti Badar Guna sthana) - This is the eighth spiritual stage, attainable by a soul on the ascendant as well as on the descendant. The vigilant soul that has completely freed itself from the clutches of the first three vile types of passion-quartets - Infinitely binding, Renunciation hindering and Complete renunciation obscuring - attains this stage. This is the stage, which also decides the future of the subjects' spiritual progress. Here, the souls prepare to mount the Destructional or the Subsidential ladder. Here, a word about the nomenclature 'Nivrtti Badar Gunasthana' will not be out of place. The word 'nivstti' here means dissimilarity. It is because the volitional dispositions of the souls at each samaya of its duration of one Antarmuhurta are innumerably dissimilar. Again, the passionate states of the souls remain gross up to the ninth stage and become fine only at the tenth stage, it is also known as 'Badar?. Another feature of this stage is that the souls employ exceptional endeavour method (Apurva-karana)to attain spiritual purity and, therefore it is also known as Apurva-karana stage. According to 'Gunasthana Kramaroha' spiritual contemplation is possible at this stage. The minimum and maximum durations of this stage are also the same as those of the seventh Gunasthana. 9. Gross Passion Similarity Stage (Anivrtti Badar Guna sthana) - This is the ninth spiritual stage, attainable by a soul on the ascendant as well as on the descendant. 'Anivrtti' means similarity. It is because the dispositional states of souls at specific points of time during the duration of this stage are similar, and 214: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the types of passions that are being annihilated or suppressed are still gross (Badar), it is known as Anivrtti Badar Gunasthana. Also, as the souls employ the most intense gross passionannihilating method (Anivsttikarana), it is also known as Anivrttikarana Gunasthana. At this stage also the gleaming passions are not completely annihilated and their finest traces still persist. Here, the souls mount the Destructional or the subsidential ladder. Those who mount the Destructional ladder, begin the destruction of the remaining gleaming passions as well. Those that mount the subsidential ladder achieve their suppression, only to raise their heads, at a latter stage, the event that ultimately marks their downfall. 10. Fine Passions Stage (Suksma Samparaya Gunasthana) - This is the tenth spiritual stage. At this stage, too, the remaining very fine traces of greed, the most persistent of passions, are annihilated or subsided according as the soul has mounted the destructional or the subsidential ladder at the ninth stage. Because of the presence of the fine traces of greed-passion this stage is also under the grip of delusion, how-so-ever minute, and remains attached. Once, these traces are also suppressed or destroyed the soul progresses to the higher stage -- 11"" stage if it is on the subsidential ladder and directly to the 12th stage if it is on the destructional one. Also, this is the stage up to which both yoga-- body, mind and speech -- and kasaya-passion are present. After this stage even the greed-passion is absent and so are delusion and attachment. 11. Passion-subsided Detachment Stage (Upasantakasaya Vitaraga Gunasthana) This is the eleventh spiritual stage on the scale of spiritual progress, attainable by only those souls that mounted the subsidential ladder at the ninth stage. The souls that achieve complete suppression of the gleaming passions' quartet except GUNASTHANA ( SPIRITUAL STAGES): 215

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some traces of persistent greed-passion at the ninth stage and even the traces of greed at the tenth stage come to this stage of complete passion-subsidence and consequent state of complete detachment, albeit temporary. However, this stage can last only for a maximum period of less than a Muhurta, after which it starts its descent in the same way as it ascended due to the assertion of the suppressed passions and resultant attachment, aversion and delusion. This descent can be checked at any stage depending upon the strength or weakness of the subject's volitional disposition. However, the soul that has achieved permanent rightvision in the past does not slide back beyond the fourth stage but the one that had attained only subsidential or destructosubsidential right-vision may also revert back to the first stage of falsehood and delusion. It must be understood that there is no way in which a soul can progress further from this stage. It is because any further spiritual progress requires complete separation of deluding karma from the soul, an accomplishment that is possible only when the passions have been completely annihilated and not merely suppressed. Also, those souls that mounted the destructional ladder at the ninth stage do not even touch this stage. . They rise, directly, to the twelfth stage of Delusion-destroyed Detachment Stage. The duration of this stage is one samaya. 12. Delusion-Destroyed Detachment Stage (Ksinamoha Vitaraga Gunasthana) - This is the twelfth spiritual stage on the scale of virtue stations, attainable by only those souls that mounted the Destructional ladder at the ninth stage and thereby achieved complete destruction of the gleaming passions' quartet except some traces of persistent greed-passion at the ninth stage and even the traces of greed at the tenth stage. The complete annihilation of the passions results in total freedom from delusion induced by them and hence a state of complete detachment from everything worldly prevails and the subject concentrates only on 216 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the contemplation of the pure and unflawed form of the soul. This pure and white contemplation (Sukla Dhyana), possible only in the absence of delusion, goes on to achieve the soul's separation from the other three destructive types of karma, namely the Knowledge obscuring karma, the Vision obscuring karma and the Obstructive karma. As soon as this is achieved the soul rises to the next (thirteenth) stage on the spiritual scale - that of Embodied Omniscient Stage, the stage, which can be considered as a stepping stone to final deliverance or Moksa. The duration of this stage is only an Antarmuhurta. 13. Embodied Omniscient Stage (Sayogi Kevali Gunasthana) This is the thirteenth stage on the scale of spiritual virtues, attained by a soul that has achieved a complete and irresidual separation from the four destructive types of karma. This stage is marked by Perfect delusion free disposition achieved by the destruction of Deluding (Mohaniya) karma, the Omniscience achieved through complete annihilation of the Right-knowledge obscuring (Inanavaraniya)karma, Perfect vision achieved through destroying the Right-vision obscuring (Darsana-varaniya)karma and Perfect spiritual prowess achieved by the separation of Obstructive (Antaraya) karma. It is called 'Sayogi' because the perfect soul is still embodied in the body that is associated with it from birth. The freedom from the confinement of the body can be achieved only when the remaining four non-destructive types ofkarma are also shed by the soul. This happens with the passage of time as the life-span determining karma comes to an end. Two other non-destructive types of karma - Nama karma and Gotra karma also come to an end with the Ayu karma. In some cases, however, some portion of feeling producing (Vedaniya) karma remains unexhausted and that has to be exhausted before the soul can liberate. As it is not possible to extend the life-span in any case, this exhaustion of the unexhausted Vedaniya karma is achieved by a special procedure called Kevali Samudghata in which the soul-spaces of the omniscient soul are spread GUNASTHANA ( SPIRITUAL STAGES): 217

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throughout the universal space and as a result it can experience the remaining Vedaniya karma in the remaining life-span. Having exhausted all the eight types of karma in this manner, the soul leaves the mundane existence forever and rises to the ultimate stage of attainment of spiritual perfection or Siddhatva, which is the fourteenth and final stage of spiritual progress called Incorporeal Omniscient Stage (Ayogi Kevali Gunasthana). The soul can stay in the thirteenth stage of embodied perfection for a minimum period of an Antarmuhurta and a maximum of somewhat less than a Purvakoti varsa. 14. Incorporeal Omniscient Stage (Ayogi Kevali Gunasthana) This is the fourteenth and the final stage of spiritual progress. It is attained by a perfected soul that has irresidually exhausted all the eight types of karma at the thirteenth stage. This accomplishment is achieved by stopping the bodily functions by the omniscient soul at the end of its life-span in the thirteenth stage. The soul stays in this state only for a time taken to pronounce five short vowels a, i, u, rand l, after which it rises to the uppermost part of the universe and permanently resides on Siddhasila, or Isatpragbhara Prthvi, the abode of the perfected incorporeal souls. Conclusion - The foregoing description of the fourteen spiritual virtuestations or Gunasthana reveals as to how systematically and methodically the Jaina seers have realised these concepts in their lives and preached them for the benefit of the posterity. It tells us the various ingredients of spiritual progress - rightness of faith, belief, vision or perspective, gaining of right-knowledge, controlling of passions, restraining one's body, mind and speech, to be vigilant in performance of one's spiritual duties, not succumb to the lure of sleep, gossip, sensory pleasures, etc. so that one can make uninterrupted progress towards one's ultimate goal of spiritual emancipation and final liberation. 218 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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SECTION - III JAINA COSMOLOGY

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This section deals with the second area of I enquiry - the form of the universe (Loka) that the thinkers from time immemorial have been curious to know. The subject has been dealt with in four chapters on the material (Dravya), spatial (Ksetra), time-related (Kala) and constantly changing (Bhava or changing modes and moods) nature of the universe.

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10 DRAVYA LOKA (MATERIAL UNIVERSE) Universal Matter - According to the Jaina view the universe is comprised of six types of matter (Sad-Dravya) of which only one is tangible, visible and concrete and the rest are intangible, invisible and abstract. The tangible matter is known as "Pudgala', which is responsible for all the visible part of the universe and the five intangible ones, namely - Jiva(the animate matter), Akasa(space), Dharma (Ether or the neutral medium of motion or dynamic inertia)), Adharma (Non-ether or the neutral medium of rest or static inertia) and Kala (time). This chapter presents a bird's eye view of the material universe. Soul : The Life - We have dealt with this subject, in some detail, in the chapter on nine fundamentals. The Living beings or the souls form the very first of the nine fundamentals that support the entire edifice of Jaina philosophy. There, we have described the aggregate of fourteen types of living beings starting from undeveloped fine one-sensed creatures to the developed intelligent five-sensed ones. We also dealt with the four classes of living beings, namely the heavenly gods, human-beings, animals, birds, fishes, insects, as well as the microscopically fine organism belonging to the

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sub--human category and the denizens of hells. There, we learnt about the misery caused by the karmic bondage and saw that the culmination of the evolution of all life-form is in the form of perfectly pure ultimately emancipated soul liberated from the karmic bondage. These souls reside in the dwelling place of the perfected souls or Siddhaloka. Non-Souls : The Lifeless Universe - Again, the intangible part of the universe composed of all pervading space that extends even beyond the universal boundaries, the static and dynamic inertial forces that neutrally support motion and rest of souls and tangible matter, time that is eternal, that waits for none, that constantly moves ahead never to look back and that is responsible for all change, as well as the tangible matter have received some attention from us in the first chapter. Here, we shall deal with the tangible, concrete and visible ingredient of the universe - Pudgala - in greater detail. Tangible Matter - Everything in the universe that is visible and experienced through our senses is its tangible material part. It can be seen and experienced because it is formed, has definite shape, size and comes in the form of smallest particle paramanu to the great aggregate or skandha. Further, the tangible matter can be experienced because of its properties of colour, smell, taste, touch and shape. Colour - tangible matter comes in five basic colours and innumerable shades resulting from their combinations. The five basic colours are black, blue, red, yellow and white. Smell - the smells are two - pleasant and unpleasant. Taste - the five kinds of tastes are - bitter, pungent, astringent, sour and sweet. 222 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Touch -- touches are of eight types, namely - hard, soft, heavy, light, cold, hot, smooth and rough. Shape -- the five kinds of basic shapes from which all forms are generated are -- globular, circular, triangular, tetrahedral and cuboidal. All the tangible properties of visible and noticeable part of the universe is due to these five fundamental properties and all possible variety that we see in the universe is because of various combinations and permutations of these fundamental properties Soul-Bodies : Life-Lifeless Combined - The tangible lifeless matter associates itself with the souls in two ways - 1. As karma-matter bonded with it that forms its invisible karmic body (Karmana sarira), which remains associated with it, birth after birth, as it transmigrates in its worldly existence, and 2. As the visible material body (Audarik Sarira). What we see around us everywhere are the soul-bodies in multifarious manifestations of their material properties. Besides the living beings that we see moving about, swimming about and flying about, there are bodies of motionless earth-bodies, water-bodies, vegetation, fire-bodies and air-- bodies as well as other mobile and immobile items composed of one or more of these bodies. Earth-bodies - Earth--bodies are either subtle or gross as well as either developed or undeveloped. Subtle earth-bodies are of one variety only and are spread all over the world. However, the gross earth-bodies are found only in parts of the world and are, of two types - soft or hard. Soft earth is in the form of black, blue, red, yellow, white and pale clay or fine dust. The hard one is in the from of earth, gravel, sand, stone, rock, rock-salt, iron, copper, tin, lead, silver, gold, diamond, orpiment, vermilion, realgar, antimony, coral, DRAVYA LOKA (MATERIAL UNIVERSE): 223

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compact mica, mica dust, hyacinth, natron, crystal, ruby, emerald, sapphire, Candan, red chalk, Sulphur, Lapis Lazuli, etc. Water-Bodies - Water-bodies are either subtle or gross as well as either developed or undeveloped. Subtle water-bodies are of one variety only and are spread all over the world. However, the gross water-bodies are found only in parts of the world. The developed gross water-bodies are found in the form of pure water, dew, exuding moisture, fog and snow. Vegetational-Bodies - Vegetation-bodies are either subtle or gross as well as either developed or undeveloped. Subtle vegetation-bodies are of one variety only and are spread all over the world. However, the gross vegetation-bodies are found only in parts of the world. The developed gross vegetation-bodies are found in the form of common-bodied ones in which innumerable souls share a common body and individual bodied ones. The individual bodied vegetation is of many kinds like - trees, shrubby plants, shrubs, large plants, creepers, grass, palms, knotty stemmed plants, mushrooms, water-plants, cereal plants, lentils, herbs etc. Common bodied plants are found in the form of bulbous roots like potatoes, roots like radishes and carrots, ginger, onion, garlic, plantains, Haridra (turmeric) etc. Fire-Bodies - Fire-bodies are either subtle or gross as well as either developed or undeveloped. Subtle fire-bodies are of one variety only and are spread all over the world. However, the gross fire-bodies are found only in parts of the world. The developed gross fire-bodies are found in the form of amber, ash-covered simmering fire, fire, flame, meteors, lightening, etc. Air-Bodies - Air-bodies are either subtle or gross as well as either developed or undeveloped. Subtle air-bodies are of 224 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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one variety only and are spread all over the world. However, the gross air-bodies are found only in parts of the world. The developed gross air-bodies are found in the form of squalls, whirlwinds, fierce winds, high winds, storms, low winds, breezes, hurricanes, and many other kinds. Though these air-bodies cannot be seen with eyes but they can, certainly, be felt with other sensory organs like sense of touch and sense of hearing when the wing blows. Composite Bodies We have described bodies composed singly of earth, water, fire, air and vegetation. However, what we see around us are many composite bodies, which are composed of more than one of these bodies. For example, we can take the human and animal bodies that are composed of earth, water, air, fire and space. Even the inanimate objects like buildings, furniture, vehicles, clothes, etc are all composed of one or more of these bodies. Conclusion The material universe is a complex entity, composed of living and lifeless matter. While we can see and feel the tangible mater in the form of its manifestation as various bodied like earth, water, air, fire and vegetation as well as in the form of composite bodies composed of more than one of these bodies. Xin DRAVYA LOKA (MATERIAL UNIVERSE): 225

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11 KSETRA LOKA (SPATIAL UNIVERSE) Universal Space - This chapter affords the reader an idea about the spatial expanse of the universe and its various parts such as the nether world (Adholoka) comprising the seven hellish grounds, the middle universe (Madhya Loka) where the humans dwell (Manusya Loka) including the Jambudvipa, the upper universe where the gods live in their respective heavens (Devaloka) are and, ultimately, the abode of the liberated perfect souls (Siddhaloka). Spatial Dimensions (Arigula, Yojana And Rajju) The universe is immense and equally immense are the units of measures that are used to describe its dimensions. Here, we start with introducing these units first. Argula (The Finger-Measure) - The basic Jaina units of measuring lengths is Arigula or finger-measure. The practical unit of finger-measure is an Utsedhangula (UA - used for measuring heights of bodies and idols), which is 1/7,68000th of an Utsedha Yojana. According to Dr. NL Jain, the value of one Utsedhangula comes to about 1.7 cm on the average. Also, the Utsedhangiula is taken as equivalent to the width of eight barley grains put side by side. The other

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finger measures are Atmangula (the length of the finger tip of an average healthy person :1/84" of his height) that is equivalent to two Utsedha-angula and Pramanangula, which is equivalent to 500 or 1000 Utsedhargula. These three finger-measures were used for measuring heights of bodies and idols, lengths of items of utility and lands, land and sea distances as well as astronomical distances. Yojana (The Larger Unit of Distance) - The Yojana, too, has been variously described. According to one view an Utsedha Yojana is equivalent to 7,68,000 UA or eight miles. Another view expressed in the book entitled Our True Geography', published by Jambudvipa Vijnana Samsodhana Kendra, Palitana, holds it that the present day equivalent of an Utsedha Yojana, which equals four Gau or nine miles or 15 Km. Again, the Utsedha Yojana was only a measure of terrestrial measurement. For astronomical measurements the unit in vogue was the Pramana Yojana, which is 400 times that of an Utsedha Yojana or equivalent to 3600 miles at the very least. Rajju: The Measure Of Universal Space - When the distances are immensely incalculable, the units also have to be equally immense. Rajju is one such unit. The universal space has been mentioned in terms of this unit in the Jaina scriptures. To have an idea of the immensity of Rajju, we have this formula that beats all imagination - "If a heavenly god were to go at a speed of a hundred thousand (Pramana) Yojana in an instant, for a period of six months, the distance described by him will be one Rajju. It is also the diametrical distance between one end of the outermost Svayambhuramana Samudra (of the middle universe) to the other. No known measurable distance comes anywhere near. The present day concept of a 'Lightyear' distance is quite stupefying but the finite but incalculable distance of a Rajju is decidedly flabbergasting. KSETRA LOKA (SPATIAL UNIVERSE): 227

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Infinite Non-Universal Space 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00 Infinite Non-Universal Space 5 Jyotiska Vimanas 0 1 ..... 0 11 On QAAAAA. Ou 2 3 5 6 7 5 Infinite Non-Universal Space Siddha Loka Anuttara Vimana Heavens -9 Graiveyakas 1-12 Vaimanika Heavens 228 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES Upper Universe 9 Lokantika gods I-III Kilvisika Heavens Middle Universe 1-7 Hellish grounds of the Nether World Infinite Non-Universal Space 2 4 5 6 3 FOURTEEN RAJJU UNIVERSAL SPACE Tras Nadi 7

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The Universe - The universal space, according to the Jaina reckoning is in the shape of a man standing with his feet apart and arms akimbo. As can be seen in the figure on the facing page, it is in the shape of two truncated cones, with their bases joined together, placed over another truncated cone. The distance from top to bottom is fourteen Rajju and the width at the base is seven Rajju, at the widest part between the top and the middle the width is five Rajju and that at the top and the narrowest part in the middle is one Rajju. This is the measure of the universal space in which exist all the heavens (Svargaloka), hells (Naraka-bhumis), the humanlands (Manusyaloka) and the abode of the perfected souls (Siddhaloka) It stands to logic that the lower half of the universal space, known as Adholoka, is occupied by the seven hellish grounds inhabited by the denizens of hells, the middle part of the universe, called Madhyaloka, is where the human-beings and the animal existence reside. The upper near half of the universal space is taken up by twelve Vaimanika heavens, nine Graiveyaka heavens and five Anuttara-vimana heavens where the respective gods reside in all their heavenly splendour. The Siddhaloka or the abode of the liberated perfect souls is in the uppermost portion of the universe, beyond which there is nothing but non-universal space. The one Rajju wide cylindrical space in the middle from top to bottom of the universal space is known as Tras-nali and it is the only space in which the mobile living-beings of the universe are found. Rest of the space is filled with either the inanimate entities or the immobile living beings of the one-sensed variety. KSETRA LOKA (SPATIAL UNIVERSE): 229

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The Siddhaloka At the very apex of the universal space is the abode of the liberated perfect souls known as Isatpragbhara Prthvi or Siddhaloka. It lies 12 Yojana above the Sarvarthasiddha, the topmost heaven. It is of shiny white colour, forty-five hundred thousand Yojana in diameter and eight Yojana thick in the middle, which tapers down to the thinness of a fly's feather at the edges. The universal space extends up to one Yojana above this land and the liberated souls reside in the rarest atmosphere in the uppermost sixteenth part of this space over the Siddhasila. The Upper Universe - The upper part of the universe that is above the middle universe and extends upwards up to somewhat less than seven Rajju are located the heavenly grounds where the gods of various categories reside. These are - 1. Heavens of the twelve types of Kalpa Vaimanika gods, 2. Nine Graivaiyaka heavens, and 3. Five Anuttara-vimana heavens. (The gods of the Bhavanapati, Vanavyantara and Jyotiska categories reside in the nether and the middle parts of the universe respectively). 1. Twelve Kalpa--Vaimanika Heavens - Directly over the middle universe are the twelve Vaimanika heavens. They are 1. Saudharma, 2. Isana, 3. Sanatkumara, 4. Mahendra, 5. Brahma, 6. Lantaka, 7. Mahasukra, 8. Sahasrara, 9. Anat, 10. Pranat, 11. Arana, and 12. Acyut. 2. Nine Graivaiyaka Heavens -- 1. Sudarsan, 2. Amogha, 3. Suprabuddha, 4. Yasodhara, 5. Vatsa, 6. Suvatsa, 7. Sumanasa, 8. Somanasa, and 9. Priyadarsan. 3. Five Anuttara-vimana Heavens - 1. Vijaya, 2. Vaijayanta, 3. Jayanta, 4. Aparajit, and 5. Sarva rthasiddha. 230 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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The Middle Universe - According to Jaina cosmology, this part of the universe, which is also known as Tiryak-loka is one Rajju wide and 1800 Yojana thick (900 Yojana above the middle level and 900 Yojana below it). It has innumerable oceans and continents in the form of concentric rings. Right in the middle is the continent called Jambu-dvipa that is one hundred thousand Yojana in diameter and, which is surrounded by the Lavana-samudra or the salty ocean, which is two hundred thousand Yojana in diameter. The outermost ring of the Madhyaloka is the ocean known as Svayambhu-ramana samudra. This middle universe is the habitat of the human-beings as well as the creatures of the animal kingdom. One of the subcontinents of the Jambu-dvipa is Bharatksetra or the land of our residence. The Bharataksetra - Our subcontinent of Jambudvipa is somewhat more than 526 yojana wide which is divided into two halves by a great mountain range known as Vaitadhya that runs from east to west. The northern half of the subcontinent is irrigated by two great rivers called Ganga and Sindhu that flow eastwards and westwards respectively and finally into the Lavana-samudra. These two rivers and the Vaitalhya mountain divide the Bharatksetra into a total of six parts, by conquering which a king could earn the title of Cakravarti. The land of our habitation is supposed to be in the south-central part of this subcontinent, which is known as the Arya-ksetra or the land of the noble people. This is the part of the subcontinent on which the Jina Prophets take births and prophesy the right-faith from time to time in the eternal timecycles. Mahavidehaksetra - There is yet other subcontinent, called Mahavidehaksetra, which is ever blessed with the presence of Jina Prophets. It is KSETRA LOKA (SPATIAL UNIVERSE): 231

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believed that twenty Viharman Jinas are presently touring this subcontinent and preaching the Jina gospel there. The Nether Universe (Adholoka) - As we have already mentioned, the seven hellish grounds are suspended in the nether universal space, one above the other. The vertical expanse of the nether universe is 900 Yojana less than seven Rajju. The seven hellish grounds therein are -- 1. Ratnaprabha Prthvi, 2. Sarkaraprabha Prthvi, 3. Balukaprabha Prthvi, 4. Pankaprabha Prthvi, 5. Dhumraprabha Prthvi, 6. Tamahprabha Prthvi, and 7. Mahatamahprabha Pithvi. All these hellish grounds are wider than the previous ones the seventh ground being seven Rajju wide. Conclusion - This is a very brief description of the universal space. All worldly living beings constantly transmigrate into its various parts except the Siddhsila; form where there is no coming back. Even this cursory coverage on Jambudvipa and Bharatksetra is enough to tell us that it does not conform to the modern cosmic and geographic details. The reasons for this difference are buried in the antiquity and a lot of research and further discovery is needed before the two may eventually reconcile. 232 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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12 KALA (TIME : THE FOURTH DIMENSION) Time (Kala) - Jaina concept of time runs along two distinct streams. According to the first, the time is characterised by its passage. This is a continuous and incessant process that never stops for anybody or anything. The time has been in a state of continuous flux from ever in the past, it is in a state of flux at present and will be in a state of flux forever in the future. It is this characteristic of time that has earned it the epithet, "Time and tide wait for none". According to the second concept the time is the medium of change for everything and every-being that ever was, that is or that will ever be there. Things change with the passage of time, for in this ever-changing universe there is nothing that is constant and invariable. Time is the fourth dimension that controls everything in the universe by not letting it to remain unaffected by its passage. It has never happened in the past, it is not happening at present nor is it ever likely to happen in future that the time has passed and the things have remained the same. In this chapter we shall deal with the passage part of time. With respect to its passage, the time is divided into three distinct parts, the measurable time, the immeasurable time and the infinite

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time. The measurable time ranges from the minutest Samaya' to the largest measurable unit Purvakoti. The immeasurable time can only be described in terms of guesses and ranges from the Palyopama (Pit-measure) and the Sagaropama (Sea-measure) through its cyclic measures in terms of ascendant time-phase (Utsarpini Kala) and the descendant time-phase (Avasarpini Kala), Time-cycle (Kala-cakra) to the ultimate concept of timemeasure called Pudgala-paravartana. The aim is to familiarise the readers with the intricacies of time that waits for none. Time as a Material Constituent of The Universe - As per the current available classification, the time is included amongst the fundamental substances amongst intangible inanimate types of matter. However, there has been some discussion on the issue of including time amongst material substances. The concept of Pancastikayathat excludes kala from its reckoning and its mention as a non-astikaya forces us to believe that its inclusion amongst fundamental inanimate material substances could have been an afterthought. The advocates of rejecting the independent matter status of kala treat it only as a mode of jiva and pudgala. Another view, point that treats it as an independent universal material entity says that just as the motion and position have Dharmastikaya and Adharmastikaya as causatory universal entities, the change must also have a causatory universal entity. That causatory universal entity can be time only. Hence, time' is also an independent universal matter. The Passage of Time - Jaina canons mention two types of time. 1. The practical time (Vyavahara Kala), which can be measured in terms of numerable units such as Samaya to Purvakoti, etc. or which can be measured in terms of innumerable units such as Palyopama 234 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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and Sagaropama etc. and 2. The absolute time, which is invariably infinite. The basic Jaina unit of time is "Samaya? It is so minute that one second has some 10500 Samayas. The Importance Of Time - Although it may not be possible to measure the passage of such minute time-unit with the measuring devices at our disposal toady, we can claim that our Prophets did not leave even such minute period of time unaccounted for and preached that one ought not to succumb to negligence in the performance of one's spiritual duties even for a samaya. This clearly shows the importance that the Jaina seers attached to even immeasurably small periods of time. Some pertinent points that highlight the importance of time are as follows: - 1. Time is the medium of change. It upholds the universal law of change. 2. It provides continuity in the three time-periods - the past, the present and the future. Time is the only entity, which is there in these three times as a constant. Everything else is variable as far as its modes go. 3. It is the most dutiful of all media. It passes regularly irrespective of any irregular changes in the universe. 4. It does not repeat itself. The time once passed does not come back, ever. 5. Everything depends on time for its ageing and maturing. 6. All animate and inanimate objects change and wither with : time. It does not spare anyone. 7. All-powerful nature also keeps in tune with the time. 8. All-powerful karma also depends on time for its maturing and fruition as per its limitations of time. 9. Even the God and the Lords Prophets are not beyond time. KALA (TIME : THE FOURTH DIMENSION): 235

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10. The God's incarnates (not according to Jaina belief) and Tirtharkaras also abide by the dictates of time. They, too, cannot increase or decrease their life-spans even by as minuscule time as a samaya. These reasons are enough to force us to realise the importance of time and not to trifle with it. Measuring Time - Jaina tradition mentions time-measurements that fall in two categories. 1. Measurable but in terms of countless smaller units and 2. Measurable in terms of countable smaller units. We have mentioned one system of reckoning time under the sub-head of Kala-dravya'in the fourth chapter while dealing with inanimate substances in the Jaina concept of fundamental verities. Here, we shall present another system, found in the scriptures, as per the Jaina Tattva Darsan'by Sri Vanita Bai Mahasatiji - Measurable Time (Sarikhyat Kala) - Avalika The smallest measurable unit of time. (It equals innumerable Samaya, the minuscule time-unit). Ksullaka Bhava (KB) 256 Avalika, Svasocchavasa (Prana) 17 plus KB, Stoka Lava 7 Stoka, Muhurta 77 Lava, Ahoratra (Day and Night) 30 Muhurta, Paksa (The lunar fortnight) - 15 Ahoratra, Masa (The lunar month) 2 Paksa (The bright and the dark lunar fortnights), Rtu (Season) 2 Masa or 2 lunar months, Ayana 3 Rtu, 7 Prana, 236 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Yug Varsa (Year) 2 Ayana (6 seasons or 12 months), 5 Varsa, Satabdi 20 Yug or 100 years, Purvanga 84 hundred thousand years, Parva 84 hundred thousand Purva nga or 7056x1010 years, Sirsaprahelika The largest measurable time-unit that equals 8436x 10180 Immeasurable Time (Asankhyat Kala)Palyopama Pit-measure (Said to be equivalent to a time period taken to empty a pit measuring 1 Yojana (8 miles approx.) cube and filled with fine pieces of hair when each piece is taken out after the lapse of a 100 years), Sagaropama Sea--measure (10 15 or ten Kotakoti Palyopamas), Time Cycles (Kala-cakra) - Each time-cycle consists of an ascendant time phase called Utsarpini Kala and a descendant time phase called Avasarpini Kala. Each of these phases is of ten Kotakoti (1014) Sagaropamas. Thus, each time cycle is of twenty Kotakoti Sagaropamas. Utsarpinikala- Ascendant time phase comprising six eras (Aras) in which the pleasurable time is on the ascendant and painful time is on the descendant, Avasarpinikala - Descendant time phase, again comprising six eras in which the pleasure is on the decrease and the pain is on the increase. KALA (TIME: THE FOURTH DIMENSION) : 237.

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Currently, we are in the fifth era of the descendant (Avasarpini) time phase of the current -- Hunda time cycle of the duration of twenty Kotakoti Sagaropamas. According to the Jaina precept, the age of the universe is infinite number of such time cycles in the past and it will continue to survive for another infinite such time cycles. Time Of Complete Material Experience (Pudgala Para vartana Kala) - Time taken for any living being to experience the pleasure or the pain due to each and every particle of tangible matter in the universe is called Pudgala Paravartana Kala. Its variations are material, spatial, time related and mode related as well as gross and fine. This time is so inestimably immense that no formulae for its estimation have been given. Infinite Time (Ananta Kala) - As the very classification suggests, it is endless time. It will be seen that the Jaina concept of time is quite immense and mentions of such time-scales is not found in other religious philosophies. Yet another feature of time is that its ultimate particles do not combine to form aggregates and, therefore, time exists in the form of individual time-particles only. Conclusion - Time is an essential material as well as controlling feature of the universe. It's characteristics of uninterrupted passage and of changing everything that comes its way, makes it the most powerful medium that exists. It is rightly said that everything depends on time. 238 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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13 BHAVA (MOODS AND MODES) Reality : Permanence And Transience - The Jaina concept of reality is three-fold. It is endowed with the attributes of production (Utpada), destruction (Vyaya) and permanence (Dhrauvya). It is evident that due to constant production and destruction the reality or sator the universal entity is changing all the time. What changes is called mode (Paryaya) and what does not (the permanent aspect) is called matter (Dravya). This chapter dwells on the constantly changing nature of the universe and, with suitable examples, brir.gs the lesson home that all that changes is transitory and not worth getting attached to. One must rise above the transient and dwell upon the permanent. Constantly Changing Moods And Modes - Change is the law of nature. It is natural for everything or being to change. Nothing remains the same as the time passes. The living beings are born, they get old, they suffer from diseases, they die, and they are reborn either in the same species or in some others. This is their change of modes or Paryaya Parivartana. The living beings, especially the intelligent ones, also undergo changes in their thoughts, their psyches, their volitional dispositions and their moods. The things are created they wear

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out, they are broken, they are destroyed, they disappear and they reappear in some other forms. Nothing, living or lifeless remains the same. Everything or being is in a state of flux. The things change their modes; the living beings change their modes as well as their moods. If we have a careful look at things and beings around us, we cannot be oblivious to this process of change. We see that in the nature the seasons change, the weather changes, the days and nights change, the landscape changes, the trees and plants change, a small seed becomes a sapling and grows to become a big Banyan tree. The trees grow, shed leaves that grow again, it ages, falls and is reduced to fire-wood or dust. The child is born, grows to be a young man, and becomes a father himself. He grows old and dies. But is it the end of life? No, the person dies but the life goes on. He is reborn in another life to go through the same cycle of birth and death. How long? As long as the karmic bondage holds him to this worldly existence and he is forced by all-powerful karma to transmigrate in this world. He can liberate only after he has irresidually shed the karmic burden and freed himself to become a Siddha. But this is also not an end to the eternal process of change. Changing Modes of The Living and The Non--living - We must understand the process of change within the inherent permanence of everything that exists. As we have already seen, the universe is comprised of the living beings and the nonliving things. The Living Changes - We must understand as to how the living souls change their modes and in what way they remain permanent. Jainism believes in rebirth after death. As long as a soul is in its worldly existence it is reborn after the death in a particular life. A worldly soul is 240 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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always embodied, that is it always has a gross material body, which is born, which grows old, which falls ill, and which dies. We must understand that all these changes are in respect of the body. Though the soul experiences the pleasures and pains through the body, it is embodied in, and undergoes consequent changes in moods; the sentient matter that the soul is does not change. It passes from one body to the other with every death and rebirth of its bodies. The soul is permanent. The bodies are its modes that change all the time, the sentient soul-matter does not. The bodies are born (production or utpada), the bodies become diseased, they decay and they perish (destruction or vyaya), the souls remain eternally permanent (permanence or dhrauvya). The changes in the modes in the form of visible changes in the bodies and even the change of bodies on death and rebirth are easy enough to understand. Subtler are the changes in moods of the living beings and they take some understanding to follow. As we have mentioned earlier, the bodies are only means to generate experiences for the souls. The soul experiences pleasures or pains according to the fruition of the auspicious or inauspicious karmamatter associated with it owing to its past actions. The pleasurable and painful experiences generate corresponding feelings in the souls and they undergo suitable changes in moods. Though the change is not observable every time a change of mood takes place, it can be felt by the soul all the same. The mood-changes are also continuous and happen all the time. Even the liberated souls undergo changes of moods in the form of what they perceive from time to time (Jnana parinaman) as well as what they see from time to time (Darsana Parinaman). The Non-living Changes - We must also understand as to how the non-living matter undergoes constant change and even then maintains its permanence. Let us take the example of an earthen brick. The brick maker takes the earth and processes into a brick. Someone BHAVA (MOODS AND MODES) : 241

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buys it and constructs a house from it. With passage of time the house falls to the ground and the brick crumbles back to become earth. In these instances the basic matter is earth. It has undergone the following changes of modes: - 1. From earth to brick, 2. From brick to house, 3. From house to rubble, and 4. From rubble to dust or earth again. All these are changes of mode. The basic matter was earth, which was in the dust mode earlier and had been cast into a brick. The dust mode was destroyed, the brick mode was created but the basic matter - earth - remained the same in both these modes. Again, the brick mode gave way to house mode with the brick mode having been destroyed and the house mode coming into being. When the house falls to become rubble and when it is once again converted into dust the similar changes in modes take place. As far as the earth is concerned it was there in the dust mode, it was there in the brick mode, it was there in the house mode, it was there in the rubble mode and it is still there in the reconverted dust mode and it will remain the same in any other changes of modes that might be there in the future. The modes or the shapes of the basic matter -- earth - have undergone the change, they have been created and destroyed but the earth maintained its permanence. That is the way of the reality - production, destruction and permanence. Changes In Six Substances - We have described the changes in the living matter and the tangible non-living matter or pudgala. The other four substances are - medium of transition or ether, medium of position or antiether, space and time. They also undergo change of modes constantly and remain constant as well. Let us see how? 242 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Medium of Motion (Dharmastikaya) -- This inanimate matter that fills the universal space supports motion of the souls as well as the tangible matter, which are also in states of constant flux. As anything transits through it, the arrangement of the medium in which it does so also undergoes a change. Thus every change in the modes of the souls and the tangible matter is also accompanied by a corresponding change in the mode of the medium ether. However, in spite of this change of modes, the basic matter ether remains constant. Change of modes is a result of destruction of one mode and the creation of the other and both these happen to the matter that is constant in the two situations. Medium of Position (Adharmastikaya) -- Having understood the change and constancy of the medium of transition, it would not be difficult to understand the changes that take place in the modes of the medium of position as anything or being changes its position in it. Space (Akasastikaya) - The function of space is to accommodate all other universal substances. As anything or being undergoes any change (which they do all the time), their spatial form also undergoes a change and hence the spatial arrangement of the space in which they accommodate themselves also changes. This is the change of mode for the space. However, the space-matter remains constant and unchanged. Time (Kala) - We have dealt with the changes in time and the changes wrought by it in other things and beings in the last chapter and it needs no further elaboration here. BHAVA (MOODS AND MODES): 243

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Conclusion - Bhava or the modes and moods of things and beings are changing all the time. They are continuously being destroyed and recreated and, in spite of all this change the basic substances are maintaining their inherent integrity - their permanence. This is, of course, in keeping with the true nature of reality, which is endowed with the qualities of production, destruction and permanence. If we understand this, we understand reality. Wan 244: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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SECTION - IV JAINA ETHICS

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The Jaina thought lays a great emphasis I on the purity of conduct in monastic as well as the lay social order. This section devotes itself to the codes of conduct and various other rules and regulations that regulate the monastic life and lay orders of the followers of Jainism.

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SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT) The Two Tiered Dharma Based on Right-Conduct In keeping with great emphasis on right-conduct by its followers, which is echoed in the epithet. Vinaya mulao dhammo' meaning 'The religion is based on (right) conduct', Jainism prescribes a two tiered code of conduct - one, the more rigorous one, for its clergy (Anagara Vinaya) and the other, with lesser rigour for the laity (Sagara Vinaya). It stands to reason that the code for the clergy has to be more rigorous and stringent as compared to that for the laity. This chapter brings out the salient features of these codes in necessary but sufficient details. Though we are dealing with the conduct part of the faith here, we must not lose sight of the three pillars that uphold it and constitute the path of spiritual emancipation and final deliverance. They are right-vision, right-knowledge and right-conduct. It has been brought out earlier that the right-conduct is based on right-knowledge and, which, in turn, is based on right-vision. Also, it can be appreciated that a person steeped in wrongdoing cannot be expected to be endowed with right-knowledge and right-vision. These three prongs of religion are, thus, interdependent and support each other. Out of these two the first two - right-vision and right-knowledge coexist. Every living being has a fund of information stored in its mind all the time. It

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is the vision or perspective that converts such information into true or false knowledge. If the perspective is wrong the interpretation of the information is bound to be wrong and it becomes false-knowledge; if the perspective is right the interpretation is right and the information becomes rightknowledge. Thus, the knowledge and view-point stand together. The right-knowledge gives a person discretion to distinguish the wrong from the right and a frame of mind to accept the right and to reject the wrong. It is this frame of mind which gives rise to actions - wrong or right. If the chain of thoughts is based on right-knowledge the actions will be right and it is bound to be wrong if the opposite is the case." In this chapter we are dealing with the right-conduct for the Jaina laity in accordance with the right-knowledge preached by the Lords Tirtharkara, which in turn, is based on the right vision, right--faith, right-belief and right-inclination centred around the soul rather than the mundane. The monastic conduct or the rightconduct for Jaina clergy has been dealt with in the next chapter. The Householders' Conduct (Sagara Dharma) The householders' right-conduct that must help him in leading a wholesome life and also keep him moving in the right direction as far as his spiritual progress is concerned has many parts. They range from simply being on the right track to the more rigorous observance of twelve householders' wows and eleven advanced practices (Pratima). These are being described in this section. On The Right Track - The least that can be expected of a person having a right-- perspective on things is to lead his life in accordance with ethically accepted norms. These norms are not specific to any particular religion but are universally acceptable norms of leading a 248 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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wholesome life by not treading on others' toes. It is visible in the form of an unblemished life-style marked by thirty-five indicators, as follows, which are known as indicators of righttrack or Marganusarita: - 1. Just-livelihood, 2. Courteous nature, 3. Maintaining similarity of status and life-style in making social relationships, Fearing sinful activities, 5. Observance of well-known auspicious regional and traditional customs, 6. Refraining from undue criticism, 7. Ensuring safety of household, 8. Keeping good company, 9. Rendering service to the parents, 10. Maintaining trouble-free habitation, 11. Refraining from ignoble activities, 12. Spending according to income so as not to incur debt, 13. To dress according to the regional and seasonal customs, 14. Gaining wisdom by - a. Developing a desire to listen to the scriptures, b. Listening to them, c. Understanding the scriptural meaning, d. Logically accepting it, e. Discarding the illogical, f. Dispelling doubt by analysis, g. Be certain about one's knowledge. 15. Listen to religious discourse daily, 16. Fasting periodically. Especially when there is lack of appetite, 17. Observing regular meal-times, 18. Pursue the goals of religious customs, monetary gain and worldly enjoyments in such a way that the duty and justice are not compromised, SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 249

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19. Giving charity to the ascetics, the poor and the destitute, 20. Avoiding stubbornness, 21. Siding with the virtuous, 22. Not travelling to the regions that are well-known for their wickedness, 23. Indulging in endeavours within one's capabilities, 24. Venerating the learned and the virtuous, 25. Supporting the dependants, 26. Being farsighted, 27. Being a specialist in one's field, 28. Being grateful, 29. Being popular by being humble, serving, helping, etc. 30. Having shame for undesirable activities, 31. Being kind and compassionate, 32. Being calm and quiet, 33. Being helpful, 34. Refraining from anger, pride, guile, greed, sensuality and giggle as far as possible, and 35. Exhibit sense-control. The Faithful Householder - The primary requirement of the faith that makes one a faithful householder is the right-vision gained by annihilation, subsidence or destruction cum subsidence of the deluding karma. The householder who achieves this stage is known as a faithful householder or Darsan Sravaka. According to Jaina precepts the indications of faith are - 1. 2. Unwavering belief in the teachings of the Lords Tirthankaras, the To believe that such Jina-teachings are wholly true, best, complete, just, pure, sting-mitigating, liberating, and giver of eternal bliss by ending all forms of miseries. That one who abides by these teachings ultimately becomes the supreme soul. 250: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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3. Freedom from doubt in the truth of the Jina-teachings. 4. Wholehearted acceptance of Lords Jinesvara as one's saviours, the knotless sramana (the monks who have cut the Gordian knot of attachment) as one's guru and the path shown by the Lords as the only liberating path. Acceptance of the shelter of the Arihanta, Siddha, knotless Sadhu and the faith preached by the Tirthankaras for one's spiritual emancipation. To have full faith in the six matters, seven substances, nine fundamental verities and the liberating path comprised of right-vision, right-knowledge and rightconduct. 5. 6. Theism Of A Faithful Householder - Unlike the definition of theism that considers only a belief in the almighty God that brings into being, supports and destroys the world is theism, its Jaina definition is much more broadbased. According to the Jaina view, one who believes in the existence of the soul, its eternal nature, its bondability with karma-matter, its destiny to enjoy or suffer the due retribution of the karmic bondage incurred due to its own actions performed through its bodily entity, belief in the existence of a state of liberation from karmic bondage and that of means to achieve such liberation is a theist.. The indicators of theism are as follows: - He knows and describes the fundamental verities as they 1. are, He believes in the eternal blissful nature of the soul, He believes in rebirth, 4. He believes in the existence of sentient (Jiva) and insentient (Ajiva) matter, karmic bondage (Karmabandha), liberation (Moksa), sins (Papa), merits (Punya), karmic influx (Karma-asrava), stoppage (Samvara), experiencing pleasure and pain owing to one's pious and SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 251 2. 3.

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sinful karma, and karmic separation (Nirjara). 5. He believes that sinful activities result in hellish miseries and the pious ones in heavenly pleasures, 6. 'He believes in the existence of the Lords Arhantas as well as that of other extra-ordinary personalities such as Cakravarti, Baldeva, Vasudeva, etc and venerates them. 7. He believes in the existence of all that exists and in the absence of all that does not. The Reverent Householder - A faithful householder must show reverence towards the objects of veneration like the Lords Jina as well as the venerable ordained ascetics of the order. They can show this veneration in three ways - 1. Physically -- by bowing to them with folded hands, 2. Verbally - by verbally acknowledging their sermons or teachings, 3. Mentally - by having a feeling of praise, deference, reverence and admiration and by holding them in great esteem. The Householders' Vows And Their Excesses - The householders' conduct is guided by certain prescribed vows and their supporting rules and regulations. These vows fall in three categories - Five basic minor vows (Anuvrata), three qualitative vows (Gunavrata) and Four educational vows (Siksa -vrata). These are further supplemented by eleven advanced practices known as Sravaka Pratima. Also, there are certain activities that go to compromise these vows. The vows can be compromised in four stages - thinking or intending to flaw the vow (Atikrama), preparing to flaw the vow (Vyatikrama), collecting material to translate the intent into action (Aticara) and compromising the vow by acting as per intention (Anacara). The excesses of the vows fall in the third category (Aticara). 252 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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The householders' twelve vows as under: - 1. Five Basic Minor Vows - These are the householders' five basic vows that are in the five fundamental areas of non-violence, truthfulness, nonstealing, sexual discipline and non-possession or attachment thereto -- of Jaina tenets. Giving up Gross Violence (Sthula Pranatipat Viramana)-To refrain from intentional killing or hurting of any vitality of the movable two and more sensed living beings is to observe the minor vow of 'Gross Nonviolence. 1. For obvious reasons the householders' nonviolence cannot be as stringent as that of the ascetics. The violence can be classified into following three categories and we can see that with due care and vigilance the householders can avoid unnecessary violence. a. Necessary Violence (Avasyak Himisa) - The violence that results from necessary day to day activities such as cooking, cleaning, constructing houses, etc and business establishments, digging wells and ploughing and irrigating or farming cannot be avoided by the householders. This necessary violence can also be further sub-divided into household violence in which case it is called Arambhi Himsa and the violence indulged in activities connected with earning a livelihood in which case it is called Udyogi Himsa. One must, however, be careful to avoid any unnecessary violence on this account. b. Intentional Violence (Sarikalpi Himisa) - Killing or hurting any living being intentionally is intentional violence. However, there are two types of intentional violence - 1. Criminal violence and 2. Retaliatory violence. While the householders are prohibited from SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 253

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indulging in any type of criminal violence, they may have to resort to some kind of retaliatory violence when some criminals or aggressors threaten the safety, honour or welfare of their selves, dependants, country, property and possessions. These are some exceptions to this rule of avoiding Intentional violence or Sankalpi Himsa. c. Relative Violence (Sambandhi Himisa) -- The violence towards the innocent is, again, of two types -- relative and unrelated. The relative violence is one that is essential to safeguard the lives of the self as well as that of the others who depend on him for its safety. The removing of tics from the coats of the domestic animals can be taken as an example of this kind of violence. Unrelated violence is the violence that has no purpose behind it and is an outcome of reckless behaviour. It follows that the householders must never indulge in unrelated violence towards the innocent but might resort to duly punish the criminals and relative violence towards the innocent as well. Excesses (Aticara) Of The Vow Of Non-violence There are five excesses of this vow -- a. Bandha- To tie persons or animals in tight bondage and to encage birds and animals. b. Vadha - To beat or punish a person or an animal unnecessarily and mercilessly. c. Chaviccheda - To dismember a living being. d. Atibhararopana-To unduly heavily burden the porters, labourers and beasts of burden beyond their capacities to carry. e. Bhaktapanaviccheda - To deprive the servants and domestic animals of their food and drink. 254 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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2. Giving up Gross Untruth (Sthula Mrsavada Viramana) To refrain from telling any intentional gross lies is to observe the minor vow of 'Gross Truth'. The five types of gross lies are I. Telling lies about a girl with bad intentions to damage her matrimonial chances (Kanyalika), 3. II. Telling lies about livestock with an intent to earn undue profit by selling bad stock as good or to damage someone else's profits by spreading bad rumours about his good stock (Gavalika), III. Telling lies about immovable property with the similar intentions (Bhumi-alika), IV. To embezzle the property placed in trust (Nyasapahara) and V. To give motivated false evidence (Kutasaksya). The excesses (Aticara) of this vow are a. Sahasabhyakhyana - To put blame on someone without due thought, b. Rahasyabhyakhyana - To reveal someone's entrusted secrets, - c. Svadara-mantrabheda by one's own wife, d. Mrsopadesa - To preach false sermons, and e. Kutlekhakarana - To falsify documents. To reveal the secrets shared Giving up Gross Stealing (Sthula Adattadana Viramana) To refrain from intentionally misappropriating any one's material or animal property to own use is to observe the minor vow of 'Gross Nonstealing'. Smaller thefts are taking of inconsequential things such as dust, ash, toothpick, etc that has no ill intent behind the theft and that does not cause a considerable loss to the owner. On the other hand gross theft is always with bad intent of causing loss to the owner. The five types of gross thefts are as follows; SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 255

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1. Theft by breaking into the house, 2. Theft by pilfering from bundles and parcels, 3. Stealing by breaking the lock, 4. To misappropriate things left or unknowingly dropped by someone, and 5. Plundering by waylaying the people, travellers or wayfarers. The excesses (Aticara) of this vow are - a. Stenahrta - To purchase stolen goods, b. Stenaprayoga - To motivate someone to steal, c. Viruddha Rajyatikrama - Smuggling, tax evasion etc. d. Kuta-tula Kuta-mana - To keep false weights and measures with a view to give less while selling and to take more while purchasing, and e. Tatpratirupaka Vyavahara - To sell bad and spurious copies of good popular brands. Giving up Gross Sexual Indiscipline (Sthula Maithun Viramana)- To refrain from intentional indiscriminate sexual indulgence with one's own spouse or with other members of opposite sex or neuters or animals is to observe the minor vow of Gross Sexual Continence. This vow prescribes abstinence from all sexual activities with any other human member of the opposite sex or a neuter or a heavenly god or an animal except one's own married spouse. With one's own spouse also its prescription is that of moderate rather than excessive sexual indulgence. For these reasons this vow is also known as the vow of limited sexual indulgence and remaining content with one's own spouse or Maithun Parimana Evari Svapatni (or Svapati)-santosa Vrat'. 256 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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The five excesses (Aticara) of this vow are - a. Intercourse with an immature wedded spouse or Itvarika Parigrhitagamana, b. Intercourse with a person other than the wedded spouse or Aparigrhitagamana, c. Unnatural sexual or amorous act or Anangakrida, d. Unnecessary matchmaking or Paravivahakarana, e. To have intense sexual desire or Kamabhoga Tivrabhilasa. Giving up Gross Possessions (Parigraha Parimana) - To refrain from unlimited and unnecessary possessions or material adjunct with undue attachment towards them is to observe the minor vow of 'Gross Non-possession'. This vow has two dimensions - physical possessions like money, grains, land, buildings, servants, maids and birds and quadruped livestock and pets and an attached disposition towards such possessions and consequent desire and greed for them. The first is external parigraha and the second is internal one. The intent and purpose of this vow is to instruct the faithful householder to suitably limit the external possessions and to control the internal desire and greed. The five excesses (Aticara) of this vow concern exceeding the laid-down or accepted limits in respect of physical or material possessions. They are as follows:a. Ksetra-vastu Pramanatikrama - Exceeding the limit for lands and buildings, b. Hiranya-suvarna Pramanatikrama - Exceeding the limit for wealth in the form of precious metals like silver and gold, C. Dhana-dhanya Pramanatikrama - Exceeding the limit for wealth in the form of money and grains, d. Dvipad-Catuspad Pramanatikrama - Exceeding the limit for two legged and four legged personal and animal wealth, SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 257

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e. Kupya Pramanatikrama - Exceeding the limit for wealth in the form of non-precious metal articles and other household goods. II. Three Qualitative Vows - The qualitative vows are meant to enhance the quality of observance of the five basic vows. They can be considered to be supplementary to the five basic vows. They are as under:6. Limiting Movement In All Directions (Disa Parimana Vrat) This vow, as the name suggests aims at limiting the movement of the subject householder in ten directions - four cardinal directions i.e. East, West, North and South; four angular directions - Northeast, Northwest, Southeast and Southwest as well as two vertical directions - vertically upwards and vertically downwards. This vow, as can be guessed, is supplementary to the vow of nonviolence. The lesser the area of operation, the lesser the violence committed in doing so. The householder accepts suitable practical limits in these ten directions and abides by them throughout his life. The five excesses (Aticara) of this vow concern exceeding the laid-down or accepted limits in respect of areas of operation in these ten directions. They are - a. Urdhva-disa Pramanatikrama - Exceeding the limit in the vertically upward direction, b. Adho-disa Pramanatikrama - Exceeding the limit in the vertically downward direction, C. Tiryak-disa Pramanatikrama - Exceeding the limit in the eight horizontal directions, d. Ksetra-vrddhi - Increasing the area of operation in one or more directions, e. Smrti-bhramisa - Forgetting the laid down limits. 258 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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7. Limiting Items Of Utility (Upabhoga-Paribhoga Parimana Vrata) - The householders' seventh vow and the second qualitative vow is about laying down a limit on the number of items of utility that one can use. It is not difficult to imagine that this vow is supplementary to the vow of limited possessions. Upabhoga means one-time use. Hence all those items that can be used only once come into its ambit. They are - food, water, etc. Paribhoga means repeated use and all those items that are used again and again such as -- house, clothes, jewellery, seats, beds, etc. fall in this category. There are as many as twentysix types of items of food and utility that have been mentioned in the seventh primary canonical work - Upa sakadasanga and Sravaka Pratikramana-sutra. They cover almost all types of items that were prevalent in the households at that time and during that period The excesses (Aticara) of this vow concern two areas of a householder's activities, namely concerning his food-habits and his vocation. The first part concerns infringement of the laid-down or accepted limits in respect of items of food and the second part about the vocational pursuits. The Excesses included in the first Part are as follows: - a. Sacittahara - To eat the raw food beyond the accepted limit, Sacitta Pratibadhahara - To consume converted food attached to raw part, c. Apakva-ausadhi Bhaksanal- to consume uncooked food, d. Duspakva-ausadhi Bhaksana-to consume half-cooked food, and e. Tuccha-ausadhi Bhaksana - to consume such food in SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 259

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which eatable portion is lesser than the portion that has to be discarded. The fifteen excesses, included in the second part, which are connected with the householders' vocations that involve considerable violence (Karmadana)and that must be avoided are as follows: - a. Arigara Karma - To earn one's livelihood through the vocations that run on fire. Vocations like making charcoal, running brick-kiln, smithy, pottery, etc. fall in this category, b. Vana Karma - Dealing in forest produce such as timber, gum, etc that involves cutting of trees, logging, sawing etc, c. Sakata Karma - Cart making, d. Bhati Karma - Hiring beasts of burden as well as giving carts and vans on hire, e. Sphotaka Karma - Blasting operations in digging wells and ponds and levelling and ploughing of ground, etc, f. Danta Vanijya-- Tooth-trade meaning trading in organic products of animal origin such as ivory, shells, hair, tiger nails, hide, etc, g. Laksa vanijya - Trading in shellac, h. Rasa Vanijya - Trading in wines and distillates, i. Visa Vanijya - Trading in poisonous substances such as opium, arsenic, etc, j. Kesa Vanijya - Trading in hairy beings such as slaves and animals, k. Yantrapidana Karma- The oil-mills, ginning mills, etc, where crushing and squeezing by machines is involved, 1. Nirlanchana Karma-Castrating, neutering and spaying of people and animals, m. Davagni-dapan Karma - Burning down farms and forests, n. Sar-draha-tala Sosana Karma - Drying of reservoirs, and 260 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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8. o. Asatijana Posana Karma-Sheltering ignoble creatures and plying the trades such as prostitution, and hunting with dogs and birds of prey. Refraining From Meaningless Punishment (Anarthadanda viramana) -This vow is about refraining from such activities as do not benefit a householder in any way but proves to be harmful in the ultimate karmic analysis. The incurring of karmic influx and bondage for the purpose of earning one's livelihood and for protecting one's interests is called meaningful punishment (Arthadanda), and has to be gone through. However, activities like impious contemplation (Apdhyanacarana); Negligent conduct (Pramadacarana) like drinking, indulging in passions, oversleeping, gossiping; Giving or lending tools of violence (Himsa-pradana) and rendering advice that might result in sinful activities (Papakarmopadesa) etc are such that no good comes out of them. Indulgence in such activities is said to be meaningless punishment and must be avoided by a rational thinking householder. Five excesses (Aticara) of this vow are - a. Kandarpa - To indulge in such gossip as to enhance amorous thoughts, b. Kautkucya - To make suggestive gestures, c. Maukharya - Volubility or to speak more than required, d. Samyuktadhikarana - Assembly of tools of violence so that they can be readily used, e. Upabhoga-Paribhogatirikta - Accumulation of means of sensory enjoyment in quantities more than the accepted limit. This may result in infringement of the limits. III. Four Educational Vows - The aim of 'Educational vows' is to educate the householders in a manner that they may feel inclined to renounce more and more and to accept the monastic vows when the time is ripe. SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 261

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Actually, they can be called monasticism preparatory vows. The four 'Educational vows' are as follows: --- 9. Observing Periods Of Equanimity (Samayik Vrat) In this practice the householders are required to set aside periods of a muhurta (48 minutes) each and to change into prayer rig and sit down on the specified mat or rug and devote the time to scriptural study or pious contemplation. This practice is called Samayik and is practised at two levels 1. Practical level (Vyavahara Samayik) in which all the external arrangements are as mentioned and one is physically sitting in the contemplative posture and 2. Volitional level (Niscaya Samayik) in which one establishes oneself in a volitional state of equanimity and contemplates only about the self. No external paraphernalia are necessary for achieving this state and it depends purely on the volitional state of the practitioner. - According to Visesavasyaka Bhasya, the practical Samayik is of four types - a. Srut-Samayik - Observing periods of equanimity devoted to scriptural studies, b. Samyaktva-Samayik- The state of equanimity gained through the attainment of right-vision by dispelling falsehood: the fourth stage of spiritual progress, c. Desavirat-Samayik- The state of equanimity attained through partial renunciation: the fifth stage of spiritual progress, and d. Sarvavirat-Samayik- The state of equanimity attained by the renunciation of all worldly relations and material adjuncts in the sixth and higher stages of spiritual advancement It is evident that the state of equanimity starts with the attainment of right perspective and becomes 262 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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progressively more and more refined up to the final stage of incorporeal perfection of the soul. In practice the periods of equanimity must be observed in as much purity as possible. Purity is expected in respect of - 1. Material means of this practice such as mat or rug used to sit on, woollen sweep, the mouth-wrap, study material, etc. (Dravya suddhi), 2. The place for this practice should be peaceful and away from the hubbub of the worldly affairs (Sthana-suddhi), 3. The practice can be undertaken at any time of the day or night. However, it must be ensured that the practiceperiod is not less than a muhurta (Kala-suddhi), and Utmost care must be exercised to maintain the purity of mood during the period of this practice and anger and despondence must not be allowed to pollute the pious mood (Bhava-suddhi). From the above-mentioned description it becomes obvious that even a householder becomes like an ascetic during the period of this observance. Visesa-vasyaka Bha sya says, "While undertaking the practice of Samayik the layman also becomes like a monk. Therefore, he must undertake this practice more and more". Five excesses of this vow are as follows: - a. Manoduspranidhana - To let the mind wander from the state of equanimity and piety and to think of worldly affairs. The flaws of indiscretion, desire for fame, desire for gain, pride, fear, binding wish (nidana), doubt, anger, arrogance, and irreverence fall in this category. b. Vacana-duspranidhana - To allow oneself to utter inappropriate words during the practice of Samayik. The flaws like bad language, thoughtless utterances, selfwilled talk, unduly brief or verbose utterances, querulous talk, gossip, ridiculous utterances, incorrect SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 263

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10. pronunciations, talking out of context and mumbling fall in this category. c. Kayaduspranidhana - Making undue body movements. The flaws that fall in this category are Sitting badly, keep moving, wandering gaze, violent bodily actions, taking unnecessary support of the wall or pillar etc, unnecessary spreading and collecting of arms and legs, sloth, cracking of fingers, to remove body-mire, downcast posture, sleeping or drowsiness, and accepting service from others during the period of practice. d. Samayikasmrtyakarana - Forgetting that one is practising Samayik, and e. Anavasthitakarana - Inappropriate conduct of the practice of Samayik. To leave the practice before the expiry of specified period and undue hurry are the flaws that come in this category. Area Limiting Vow (Desavakasika Vrat) - This is the second educational vow. It further limits the areas of operation accepted for the whole life but only temporarily, for specified periods. This vow takes the householders'' practice very near that of the ascetics. In this vow the householder accepts stringent limits for movements in various directions as well as for the five basic vows on day-to-day basis. This vow is characterised by daily acceptance of the following fourteen limitations -- a. Limiting consumption of raw and live consumables (Sacitta-maryada), b. Limiting number of items to be taken as food and drink (Dravya-maryada), c. Limiting number of highly nutritious foods or drinks that hinder concentration (Vigaya-maryada), d. Limiting number of foot-wears (Panni-maryada), e. Limiting use of mouth-freshners (Mukhavasamaryada), 264: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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f. Limiting use of items of clothing (Vastra-maryada), g. Limiting use of fragrant items (Sugandha-maryada), h. Limiting use of vehicles (Vahana-maryada), i. Limiting use of beds (Sayana-maryada), j. Limiting use of body applications and deodorants (Vilepana-maryada), 11. k. Limiting sexual activities (Brahmacarya-maryada), 1. Limiting movements in all directions (Disamaryada), m. Limiting number of baths and washes (Snanamaryada), n. Limiting the number of times to eat or drink (Bhaktamaryada), - Five excesses of this vow are as follows: a. Anayan Prayoga - To fetch something from outside the limited area, b. Presya Prayoga-To send something outside the limited area, c. Sabdanupat - To call someone from outside the limited area by non-verbal vocal calls, d. Rupanupat - To subvert the vow by attracting somebody's attention by bodily gestures, and e. Bahirpudgal-praksepa - To subvert the vow by attracting somebody's attention by throwing something at him. Fasting And Psychic Purity Vow (Pausadhopavasa Vrat) This is the third educational vow of the householder also known as Pratipurna Pausadh. In this vow he is expected to spend a day and night in spiritual pursuits only. This special observance, of fasting while observing periods of equanimity, is of much spiritual benefit. However, in practice it is observed at one of the following four levels: - SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT) : 265

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a. Aharatyaga Pausadh - Observance with the renunciation of the four types of foods, b. Sarira Samiskaratyaga Pausadh-Observance with the renunciation of all bodily cares such as bathing, massaging, brushing of teeth, etc. c. Brahmacarya Pausadh - Observance with the renunciation of all sexual activities, and d. Avyapara Pausadh - Observance with the renunciation of all household and business activities. There is yet another type of observance that prescribes only part renunciations. It is known as Desa Pausadh. Five excesses of this vow are as follows: - . a. Using uninspected and badly inspected shelters and beds, b. Using undusted and badly dusted shelters and beds, c. Using uninspected and badly inspected disposal grounds, d. Using undusted and badly dusted disposal grounds, and e. Improper practice of the vow. All the flaws of the Samayik Vrat also apply to this vow. Sharing With The Uninvited Ascetics (Atithi Samivibhaga Vrat) - The fourth educational vow and the twelfth vow of the householders is to share his food and other necessities with the members of the ascetic order who come to him to beg for them uninvited. The vow of poverty taken by the monks and the nuns makes it incumbent on them to beg for everything that they need and consequently makes it equally incumbent on the lay followers of the faith to happily part with such of their food and other necessities that the memhers of the ascetic order might need. Here, it must be noted that the Jaina ascetics do not accept anything on invitation. It is their limitation and practice that they can accept their food, in small quantities, from out of that cooked by the householders for their own consumption. Also, they can 266 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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accept any other item of necessity from out of that purchased by the householders for their own requirements. At the same time the ascetics can accept only those items that are free of various flaws, which might not be possible if they accepted invitations or fetched their requirements through someone else. It is because of these stringent conditions attached to the practice of mendicancy by the Jaina ascetics and consequent hardships faced by them that the lay followers consider it a privilege if they can provide them food and other monastic necessities when they call at their households for begging. As the Jaina ascetics can accept only flawless items of food and other necessities, it is essential that the householders must also know about those flaws and offer only flawless items when the ascetics call at their households. Inclusion of this vow amongst the twelve duties of the householders ensures such knowledge and consequent purity of the practice of monastic mendicancy. A householder who knows about these rules of offerings and willingly offers food and other monastic requirements to the monks and nuns is said to be a noble householder. Excesses Of The Vow Of Sharing - a. Sacitta-Niksepa - To put the cooked food etc with the uncooked one with an intention of not giving to the mendicants. b. Sacitta Pidhana - To cover the cooked food etc with the uncooked one with an intention of not giving to the mendicants. c. Kalatikram - With an intention of not giving to the mendicants, to make oneself scarce at the usual time when the mendicants may call and then to perform the formality of showing readiness to give afterwards. SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 267

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d. Paravyapadesa - With an intention of not giving to the mendicants, to declare own items as those of the others. e. Matsarya - To envy the reputations of the other givers. Advanced Spiritual Practices For The Lay Followers (Sravaka-Pratima) - Besides the twelve householders' vows, mentioned in the last section, there are eleven advanced practices that they can undertake with a view to make spiritual progress. These are known as 'Upasaka Pratima'. They are as under: - 1. Darsan Pratima - While the practices connected with the right-faith of an ordinary layman may suffer due to various constraints put on him by the society or the state, the faithful householder who accepts this pratima, does not let his right-faith be compromised on any account. This advanced practice is undertaken for one month before he becomes ready to accept the second pratima. 2. Vrat Pratima - At this stage the lay faithful observes his householders' vows except the Samayik, Desavaka sik and Pausadhopavasa vows flawlessly. He has to practice this pratima for two months before graduating to the next. 3. Samayik Pratima - In this pratima, he flawlessly practices his Samayik and Desavakasik vrat for three months when he becomes ready to go over to the next advanced practice. 4. Pausdhopavasa Pratima - At this stage he undertakes the flawless practice of Pausadhopavasa on every eighth and fourteenth of the two halves of the lunar months. He has to do this for four months to become eligible for practising the next pratima. 5. Diva Brahmacari Pratima - In this observance he observes complete sexual continence during the days and limits his indulgences during the nights. The other 268 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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restrictions are on taking bath, night-eating, loose loincloth, etc. Its observance is prescribed for a minimum period of one to three days and a maximum of five months. 6. Brahmacarya Pratima - The lay faithful is now ready to give up sexual indulgence completely albeit for a limited duration. He undertakes this pratima for a minimum period of one to three days and for a maximum of six months. 7. Sacitta-tyaga Pratima Having practised the six advanced practices, he is now in a position to give up the use of live uncooked and unprocessed foods and other items of necessity. He does this for a minimum period of one to three days and for a maximum of seven months. 8. Arambha-tyaga Pratima - In this observance he gives up doing anything involving even minute violence himself. The minimum period of this observance is also one to three days and the maximum is eight months. 9. Presyarambha-tyaga Pratima - Here, he also gives up getting tasks involving violence done by the others. The only concession he has is to accept the food cooked for him. He undertakes this pratima for a minimum period of one to three days and for a maximum of nine months. 10. Uddista-Bhakta-tyaga Pratima - At this stage he also gives up the food cooked for him. This he does for a minimum period of one to three days and for a maximum of ten months. - 11. Sramanabhuta Pratima - In this final advanced spiritual practice, to be undertaken by the householders, a lay follower leads the life like an ascetic except that he still maintains his worldly relations and begs for food etc only from his relatives, friends and acquaintances. Like the monks he stays in the prayer-halls, plucks his hair or gets tonsured and accepts the rules of five-way vigilance and three-way restraints. The minimum period of this observance is also one to three days and the maximum is eleven months. SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 269

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It must be understood that these observances are progressive in nature and going on to the next stage does not mean discontinuing the practices of the earlier stages. A practitioner who goes on to the second stage, observes the practices of the first stage as well and the one who goes on to the third stage also observes those of the first two stages and so on and so forth. The Three Desires Of A Faithful Lay Follower - A faithful householder always desires the following three accomplishments: - a. Limiting of one's possessions in order to reduce one's sinful activities, b. Acceptance of monastic ordination in order to become free from all sinful activities, and c. To embrace death voluntarily and peacefully when his times comes. Acceptance Of Voluntary Peaceful Death (Samadhimarana Birth, disease, decay and death have been described as greatest miseries and everyone is afraid of these events unless one methodically prepares oneself to face them boldly and with equanimity when these inevitable happenings happen. By overcoming fear of death and to accept the inevitable with grace reduces its misery. Therefore, this is the desire of every faithful householder to die in a state of peaceful psychic disposition. For attaining this equanimity at the time of death the psychic preparation starts much earlier. The faithful contemplates the inevitability of death for all those that take birth. He knows from his scriptural studies and listening to religious discourses that one who lives a noble life of non-violence, truthfulness, propriety, and moral discipline has to get a better rebirth than the present one and consequently stops fearing death. On the contrary, he seems to welcome it to the extent that when his time comes he 270 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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stops taking food and takes the vow of fast unto death. He spends his last days in pious contemplation and the peace and tranquillity that is a natural outcome of this psychic disposition. In other words he embraces death voluntarily and peacefully rather than with fear and trepidation. The Flaws Of The Practice Of Samadhimarana - All such psychic dispositions that may disturb the state of equanimity of the practitioner of Samadhimarana are considered as flaws of this practice. They are as follows: a. Ihalokasamisa Prayoga - To desire power and pelf in the human worldly rebirth that is to desire rebirth as a king or a courtier or a wealthy merchant, etc. as a result of the merit earned by this practice. b. Paralokasamisa Prayoga - To desire power and pelf in the other worldly rebirth that is to desire rebirth as a heavenly god or celestial king, etc. c. Jivaitasanisa Prayoga - To desire to live on longer for the respect, honour and adoration showered by the people after accepting this vow. d. Maranasanisa Prayoga- To desire to die quickly when tormented by hunger, disease and geriatric discomforts, and e. Kamabhogasamsa Prayoga-To desire human or divine enjoyments as a result of the merit so earned. Conclusion - We can sum up this chapter on the right-conduct for the lay followers of the Jaina faith by saying that their non-violent disposition makes them the protectors of all living beings. Also, that the provisions of this conduct are the prescriptions for noble, non-violent, truthful, proper, reliable, devoted, honourable, studious, and fearless citizenry that live honourably and harmoniously and die honourably and peacefully. What else could be a nobler way of life or of death? Wan SAGARA VINAYA (THE HOUSEHOLDERS' CONDUCT): 271

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15 ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT) The Monastic Conduct (Anagara Dharma) - The very desire of every soul is to gain its natural state of infinite knowledge and perception and that of eternal bliss and unlimited spiritual prowess. All sentient beings, in general, and the intelligent thinking five sensed living beings like humans, gods and some animals desire it more intensely than others. However, it is only the human beings that can actually endeavour to attain this state of the soul that has been variously described as perfection, liberation, final deliverance, Moksa and Mukti. The secret of this supreme and ultimate accomplishment, after which nothing remains to be achieved, lies in the irresidual separation of the karma--matter that has a timeless association with the soul and, which associates itself with it with every action of the embodied soul coupled with specifically karma-binding false and passionate psychic dispositions of delusion, attachment and aversion. The monastic conduct with suitable psychic dispositions is the spiritual highway that can facilitate such karmic separation. The five great vows of complete and flawless observance of nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, sexual continence and non-- encumbrance with their attendant psyches stops further karmic associations and what remains is to achieve the separation of the

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earlier bonded karma-matter, which can be achieved by appropriate penance. The resultant progressive purity of the soul ensures its spiritual progress; through the fourteen stages mentioned earlier, culminating in its ascent to the final stage of 'Incorporeal Perfection' known as "Siddhatva'. The Monastic Vows And Associated Psychic Dispositions - The five monastic vows that are known as great vows for their stringent provisions are observed by the exclusion of any sinful activity by three means - mind, body and speech as well as three methods - doing, ordering or approving. They are the same as the five vows of the householders except that they are observed totally flawlessly and absolutely strictly. They accept these vows for life and observe them with utmost care as long as they live. The five great vows and corresponding psychic dispositions that enhance their effectiveness are as follows: - 1. The First Great Vow : Pranatipata Viramana Vrat (Renunciation Of All Kinds Of Violence) - All ascetics - monks and nuns - take the vow not to kill or hurt any living being in any manner, nor to get them killed or hurt by others nor to approve of such killing or hurting by others. They avoid all forms of violence - physical, mental or vocal in all possible ways. In doing so they take care not to infringe upon any of the ten types of vitality of any fine or gross, movable or immovable, one sensed through five sensed, intelligent or unintelligent, developed or undeveloped living being. For observing such stringent non-violence they are known as the friends and protectors of all living beings. Thus, they inhibit the most potent source of karmic influx and bondage. This is the most important of the five vows taken by the ascetics and all their practices and dispositions are geared to promote this single ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 273

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aspect of their lives. This vow is known as 'Pranatipat Viramana Vrat' or vow to refrain from hurting or compromising any vitality of any living being because it is this that constitutes violence and refraining from it is non-violence. The psychic dispositions and cares that help in observing this great vow and enhance its effectiveness are as under: a. To carefully observe the ground and sweep it of any fine creatures that might be in the way while walking or moving from one place to the other. b. Not to bring any sinful or worldly thoughts to the mind. c. Not to utter any sinful or violent words. d. To seek and accept food and other monastic necessities after careful observation for any flaws and without showing any undue humility or gratitude, fear or favour to the giver. To carefully observe and sweep the places for disposal of waste materials or excretions for any fine and difficult to observe creatures in order to avoid hurting them in any manner. 2. e. The Second Great Vow (Renunciation Of All Falsehood) - Mrsavad Viramana Vrat The ascetics neither tell any lies, nor do they ask the others to tell any lies nor do they approve of anyone else telling any lies. They avoid falsehood mentally, bodily and vocally. They neither resort to lies either under the influence of passions, nor under the influence of attachment and aversion nor due to any fear or any other compulsion. Falsehood is deluding and defaming; it encourages enmity, hatred, disinterest and many other mental miseries. It ultimately takes the soul to bad destinies and is, therefore, worth giving up altogether. Having taken this vow, the ascetics always speak the truth, only the truth and nothing but the truth. The rule that guides his speech is to speak beneficial truths and to avoid verbosity. He neither gossips, nor utters 274 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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querulous words nor decries others nor enters into unnecessary argument. He, thus, reveals the truth and refrains from the lies. The psychic dispositions and cares that help in observing this great vow and enhance its effectiveness are as under: a. To speak thoughtfully and what one is sure about withou undue hurry and haste. b. Not to speak in anger. C. To avoid greed. d. Forgo fear, and e. Forgo jocularity and ridicule. 3. The Third Great Vow: Adattadana Viramana Vra (Renunciation Of Taking Any Ungiven Thing) - - The Jaina ascetics do not accept anything unless its rightful owner offers it to give it to them. Besides many other restrictions as to its suitability for their acceptance, this is one of the most important injunctions that they cannot take anything unless its rightful owner gives it to them. They can neither take anything like this themselves, nor cause it to be taken by someone else on their behalf nor approve of anyone taking anything without the permission of the rightful owner. Their vow also makes it binding on them neither to think of taking any ungiven thing nor to speak of such an infraction nor to physically take it as such. It is clear that taking anything ungiven is a direct outcome of greed. Therefore, the ascetics have to overcome greed in order to observe this vow flawlessly. What to say of valuable articles, the ascetics cannot accept even any trivial items like a toothpick or a blade of grass unless their rightful owners offer them. The bylaws of this vow even prohibit the ascetics to use those items that are brought by them for others' use. The ascetics that have given up taking of ungiven things overcome fear, worry, sorrow and envy and are able to lead peaceful monastic lives. This vow applies equally to the items of food and other monastic necessities. ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 275

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The psychic dispositions and cares that help in observing this great vow and enhance its effectiveness are as under:a. The ascetics must seek permission for the use of suitable places of residence only after due thought and consideration of their requirements even if more accommodation is available. b. The shelters and beds etc must be used only after seeking due permission. Even trivial items must be used only after their owners have given permission for their use. c. While seeking permission for residential accommodation, the permission for using the prayer-halls etc must also be taken. Also, they must use only the permitted portions and not more. d. The brought food must be consumed only after seeking the permission of the guru or the most senior ascetic in the group. e. If the ascetics of other monastic groups are also staying in the same premises, the portion under their permission must be used only after seeking their permission. 4. The Fourth Great Vow : Maithun Viramana Vrat (Renoucing Sexual Indulgence) - Under this great vow, the most difficult of all vows, the monks and nuns renounce all forms of sexual activities with the human and divine members of the opposite sex or with the neuters or the animals. This they do with three means and three methods. They neither indulge in such activities themselves nor do they get others to indulge in them nor do they approve of anyone indulging in such activities. They do not indulge in any amorous activity at thought, speech or physical level. For ensuring a flawless observance of this great vow the ascetics comply with nine provisions that have been especially formulated for the safety of this vow. They are -- 276 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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a. The celibate monk must not stay, sit or sleep in a place that is inhabited by women, neuters and animals. He must stay in lonely shelters. b. He must not indulge in amorous gossip concerning the enticing qualities of women. c. He must not cultivate familiarity with women and must not talk to them for long and never in secluded places. d. He must not observe the beauty of women nor must he look at the enticing parts of female anatomy. e. He must not pay any attention to the women's laughter, sensual talk, sweet voices, etc audible from across the wall, curtain or partition. f. He must not recall the sexual and sensual enjoyments enjoyed when he was a householder. g. He must not take highly nutritious and invigoratingly stimulating foods as they awaken sensual desires. h. He must not overeat. i. He must not be unduly concerned about his physical appearance and must not use cosmetics. These provisions are quite comprehensive and also include the psychic dispositions and cares that help in observing this great vow and enhance its effectiveness. 5. The Fifth Great Vow : Parigraha Viramana Vrat (Renouncing Encumbrance) - The possessions are of two types - External and Internal. The external possessions are material and the internal ones are volitional and psychic. All kinds of wealth such as lands and buildings, gold and silver, servants and animals, etc belong to the first category and attachment, attraction, revulsion, laughter, fear, sorrow, hatred, anger, pride, guile, greed, libido, and falsehood belongs to the second. Actually, concern for anything other than the self (soul) is an encumbering adjunct and must be avoided by those who have their sights set on spiritual ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 277

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emancipation. Even if there is attachment towards own body, it is an encumbrance. As the Jaina ascetics are said to be unencumbered (Nirgrantha). The question can be raised as to how is it that they are still in the possession of their own bodies as well as some monastic equipage such as woollen or peacock-feather sweep, wooden utensils or gourd for carrying water, books and other study material, as also some items of clothing and other necessities - how so ever minimal - by the ascetics of the white-clad (Svetambara) sect? The answer lies not in their physical encumbrance but in the lack of attachment towards them. The encumbrance is also an outcome of the greed-passion. It causes further spiritual damage, by associated anger, pride and deceit, that goes into their receipt, accumulation, enhancement, etc. Also, the gain gives rise to further greed and the vicious cycle goes on uninhibited unless it is checked consciously. We must recall, here, that greed is the most persistent passion that stays with the soul till the tenth stage of spiritual progress. Therefore, a conscious effort is called for overcoming this persistent passion. The Jaina ascetics not only do not possess any valuable material belongings and whatever they have for sustaining their monastic practices is not encumbering for them, as they have no attachment for those belongings and look upon them as only necessary monastic aids. In doing so they abide by certain regulations such as - a. They do not desire to possess anything how-so-ever valuable or trivial. b. They do not accept anything unless it is within the limit laid down for their monastic equipage. c. They accept only that much of food that can be consumed then and there for the Digambara ascetics and that very 278 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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day for those of the Svetambara pursuit. d. They cannot store anything or even keep it overnight. e. The ascetics accept clothing for protection from the vagaries of weather, for saving themselves from social censure and covering their nudity only and not for looking good. The Jaina canons are so emphatic about the bondage of encumbrance that the very opening verse of the second primary canon - Sutrakratanga-says, "Anyone who has an iota of sentient or insentient encumbrance, cannot liberate". For the ascetics the Acaranga goes a step further and says, "The monk who is encumbered is like a householder". Such being the damaging influence of encumbrance, it is in fitness of things that the Jaina ascetics do everything possible to shed it. The psychic dispositions and cares that help in observing this great vow and enhance its effectiveness are as under:a. An ascetic must be indifferent towards the pleasant or unpleasant words or sounds. b. He must be indifferent towards the pleasant or unpleasant sights. c. He must be indifferent towards the pleasant or unpleasant smells. d. He must be indifferent towards the pleasant or unpleasant tastes, and e. He must be indifferent towards the pleasant or unpleasant touches. So stringent are the five great monastic vows. 6. Ratribhojan Viramana Vrat (The Vow of Refraining From Eating at Night) Besides these five great vows the Jaina clergy also accepts a sixth vow of not eating or drinking at night. The sixth aphorism of the fourth chapter of the famous Dasavaikalikasutra, that ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 279

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contains the essence of monastic conduct, lays down that all ordained ascetics must, at the time of their ordination itself, take the vow of refraining from imbibing all four kinds of foods - staple food, fluids, nourishing foods and taste improvers - after the sun sets. They may neither imbibe such foods themselves, nor ask someone else to so imbibe such foods nor approve of anyone imbibing any food at night. Ten Monastic Duties (Dasa Muni-Dharma) The venerable ascetics also observe the following ten monastic duties besides the aforementioned five great vows and the vow of refraining from eating or drinking at night: - 1. Noble Forgiveness - by overcoming anger and developing tolerance. 2. Noble Greedlessness - by overcoming attachment for material adjunct.. 3. Noble Simplicity - by developing a guileless disposition. 4. Noble Softness - by overcoming pride. 5. Noble Lightness - by renouncing external and internal encumbrance. 6. Noble Truthfulness - by overcoming falsehood. 7. Noble Restraint - by overcoming indulgence. 8. Noble Penance - by overcoming desire. 9. Noble Renunciation - by overcoming greed, and 10. Noble Celibacy - by overcoming lust. Monastic Virtues - The Jaina ascetics are endowed with 27 monastic virtues as under: - 1-5. Observing five great vows of non-violence, truthfulness. Not taking of ungiven things, sexual continence and non encumbrance (Five Mahavrata), 6-10. Controlling five senses of touch, taste, hearing, smell and sight (Pancendriya Nigraha), 280 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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11-14. Careful about four passions - anger, pride, guile and greed (Kasaya-Vivek), 15. Volitional truth (Bhava Satya), 16. True of methods (Karana Satya), 17. True of means (Yoga Satya), 18. Forgiveness (Ksama), 19. Detachment (Vairagya), 20. Propriety of thoughts (Mana-Samadharanata), 21. Propriety of speech (Vacana-Samadharanata), 22. Propriety of body (Kaya-Samadharanata), 23. Scriptural knowledge (Inana-Sampannatal), 24. Right-belief (Darsan-Sampannata), 25. Right-conduct (Caritra-Sampannata), 26. Tolerance for pain and hardhips (Vedana Sahansilata), and 27. Equanimity in death (Mrtyu Sahansilata). Six Essentials (Sadavasyaka) Monastic life is essentially spiritual. It, therefore, prescribes certain essential practices that must be undertaken by every member of ascetic order without fail. There are six such activities, which are called six essentials or "Sadavasyaka? These activities have been so designed that they afford an ascetic aspirant opportunity for introspection and consequent correction if he starts going wrong at some stage in his monastic life. These six essential activities that must be undertaken everyday are as follows: - 1. Samayik - Practising equanimity. 2. Caturvimisatistava-Singing praise of twenty-four Lords Prophets who gave us the right-faith for our spiritual emancipation. This practice is to show gratitude to our greatest benefactors. 3. Vandan - reverently bowing to the spiritual preceptors who show us the path of salvation. 4. Pratikramana - recalling all the infringements of the ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 281

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right-conduct committed during the period under review and repenting for and retracting from the committed infractions with a reaffirming of one's faith by vowing not to commit such infringements in future. These are done every morning (Ratrik Pratikramana)and evening (Devasik Pratikramana), at the end of a fortnight (Paksik Pratikramana), at the culmination of fourmonthly cycles (Caturmasik Pratikramana) and at the end of the year (Samvatsarik Pratikramana). These observances afford the aspirant timely and periodic opportunities for introspection and correction. 5. Kayotsarga - Practising periods of detachment from the body in order to achieve better concentration for spiritual pursuits. 6. Pratyakhyana - Regularly renouncing something or the other in order to develop an attitude of detachment from the physical and an inclination for the transcendental. Monastic Routine (Samacari) - The monastic life will cease to be the effective tool of spiritual emancipation if it did not adhere to a systematic and regular routine to direct their practical day-to-day conduct. The guideline for daily monastic routine is known as Samacari. Besides matters like - obtaining the guru's permission for going out on some essential detail (Avasyaki), reporting back to him on return (Naisedhiki), doing anything with the approval of the guru (Aprccha), asking again if the permission is denied the first time and the reason is pressing enough (Pratiprccha), showing any food and other necessities brought from begging-rounds to the guru and then, with his approval, to invite the other members of the monastic group to share those things (Chandana); requesting help from other members of the monastic group if it is convenient for them to render such help (Icchakara); atoning for one's misdemeanours by repenting for them by uttering Miccha me dukkadami (may my actions become false meaning that 'may I 282 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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be pardoned') '(Miccha-kara); acknowledging instructions from the guru and the elders by saying 'taha tti' (Tathakara); rising from one's seat on the arrival of the guru and the elders in order to show reverence to them (Abhyutthan) and migration to other monastic groups for specific accomplishments (Upasampada), the Uttaradhyayanasutra mentions timely observance of the following eight monastic duties at their appropriate times of the day and the night: - 1. Scriptural study - in the first and fourth quarters of the day and the night, 2. Meditation - in the second quarters of the day and the night, 3. Inspection And Dusting Of Monastic Equipage - in the first fourths of the first and the last quarters of the day, 4. Service - as and when required by the guru and other old, feeble, student and sick members of the monastic group, 5. Seeking And Consuming Food - in the third quarter of the day, 6. Disposal Of Wastes - generally in the third quarter of the day, exceptionally at any time of the day or night, 7. Sleep - in the third quarter of the night, and 8. Tour - generally in the third quarter of the day, exceptionally at any time of the day. Following such a regular and rigorous monastic routine keeps the members of the ascetic order in their best spiritual frame of mind and conduct. Twelve Advanced Monastic Practices (Bhiksu Pratima) - Monks resort to some advanced practices when they notice that leading prolonged normal monastic lives has not yielded the desired spiritual progress. These advanced monastic practices, known as Bhiksu Pratima, have been so designed as to achieve ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 283

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great annihilation of karmic bondage in short periods of time. It is only to be expected that these advanced practices would be much more tedious than the normal ones. There are several kinds of advanced practices, undertaken by those who dare, all of which require a complete detachment from the bodily cares. Here, we describe those twelve advanced monastic practices and the special conditions under which they are observed as given in the canon 'Dasasruta-Skandha'of the conduct genre. The special conditions that are equally applicable to all the twelve advanced practices are as under: - 1. The practitioner of these advanced monastic practices must, generally, remain silent only and speak only on one of the four occasions such as a. To beg for food and water, b. To enquire the route, etc. c. To seek permission for staying at a place, and d. To answer the asked question. 2. The practitioner of these advanced practices must not leave a place once stayed in on the occurrence of any afflictions such as burning by somebody, etc. He must stay calm and composed and maintain a state of equanimity of mind even under such murderous and fatal afflictions. 3. He must not take out any insect that may fall in his eyes nor must he rub his eyes for any relief. 4. He must remain engrossed in his meditation even if provoked by some person(s) for sexual intercourse. 5. He must not bother about and endeavour to take out if some thorn or wooden wedge gets lodged in his feet while on his monastic tours. 6. On his way from one place to the other he must stop and take shelter, even under a tree, as soon as the sun sets. 7. He must not sleep on the bare ground even for the wink of an eye. 284 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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8. He must not bathe or wash except when soiled by food or excreta. 9. He must not change his course to save himself.from the attacks of wild beasts, maddened horses, bulls or elephants. 10. He must not change place for comfort from the discomfort of cold and heat. It is only such unimaginably difficult observances that annihilate the karmic bondage in no time. The twelve advanced practices are as follows: -- 1. First Month Long Advanced Practice (Masiki Bhiksu Pratima) - In this month-long practice the monk lives on only one helping of food and one helping of water once a day, taken in his own hands joined together to form a receptacle (Kara-patra). For seeking this little food and water, too, he lays down several conditions and accepts the food and drink only if those conditions are fulfilled and goes without food and water if the conditions are not fulfilled. 2. Second Month Long Practice (Dvaimasiki Bhiksu Pratima) - At this stage the aspirant monk lives on two helpings of food and two of water for a period of one month. Other conditions remain as in the case of first Pratima. 3. Third Month Long Practice (Traimasiki Bhiksu Pratima) - At this stage the aspirant monk lives on three helpings of food and three of water for a period of one month. Other conditions remain as in the case of first Pratima. 4. Fourth Month Long Practice (Caturmasiki Bhiksu Pratima) - At this stage the aspirant monk lives on four helpings of food and four of water for a period of one month. Other conditions remain unchanged. ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 285

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5. Fifth Month Long Practice (Pancamasiki Bhiksu Pratima). At this stage the aspirant monk lives on five helpings of food and five of water for a period of one month. Other conditions remain as in the first Pratima. 6. Sixth Month Long Practice (Sanmasiki Bhiksu Pratima) - At this stage the aspirant monk lives on six helpings of food and six of water for a period of one month. Other conditions remain as in the first Pratima. 7. Seventh Month Long Practice (Saptamasiki Bhiksu Pratima)- At this stage the aspirant monk lives on seven helpings of food and seven of water for a period of one month. Other conditions remain as in the first Pratima. 8. First Seven Day-night Long Practice (Pratham Sapta Ratridivas Bhiksu Pratima)- At this stage the aspirant monk observes waterless fast for a period of seven days and nights. He leaves the inhabited area and goes out in the wilderness to meditate in lying down posture without bodily movements except for answering nature's calls at specified places. He remains unmoved in his meditation in spite of afflictions caused by humans, beasts or gods. Other conditions remain unchanged. Second Seven Day-night Long Practice (Dvitiya Sapta Ratridivas Bhiksu Pratima)- At this stage the aspirant monk observes waterless fast for a period of seven days and nights. He leaves the inhabited area and goes out in the wilderness to meditate lying down or sitting on one's feet. Other conditions remain unchanged. 10. Third Seven Day-night Long Practice (Tritiya Sapta Ratridivas Bhiksu Pratima) - At this stage the aspirant monk observes waterless fast for a period of seven days and nights and meditates in cow-milking or warrior posture. Other conditions remain unchanged. 11. Day-night Long Practice (Ahoratra Bhiksu Pratima) - At this stage the aspirant monk observes waterless fast 286 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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for a period of two days and meditates in a posture in which he stands with his legs slightly bent and his arms stretched to his knees. Other conditions remain unchanged. 12. Night Long Practice (Ratriki Bhiksu Pratima) - At this final stage of advanced monastic practice, the aspirant monk observes waterless fast for a period of three days and nights and meditates in a posture in which he keeps his body bent forward and keeps his arms outstretched. He keeps his eyes open and his gaze fixed on one inanimate object and bears all afflictions with equanimity. Other conditions remain unchanged. This practice is considered to be most critical and while its successful culmination may render the aspirant monk achieve great spiritual accomplishments such as clairvoyant perception or telepathic perception or even omniscience, failure may render him insane or afflicted with incurable malady. These advanced practices used to be observed in the distant past and are no longer in current practice. The reason being lack of bodily prowess of the present day monks who lack the make and mettle of the monks of the days of yore. Also, for similar reasons, in those days too, these practices used to be carried out only by the monks and not by the nuns. Preparation And Practice Of Voluntary Death (Sallekhana Santhara) - The ascetics also undertake this practice for the same reasons and rationale as mentioned under the same heading in the part of this chapter on Householders' conduct. The practice is carried out in two parts - the preparatory part called Sallekhana and the practice part called Santhara. Sallekhana is the preparatory penance in order to purify the soul by weakening the body and may extend up to a period of twelve years. After the preparatory ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 287

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penance, the ascetic proceeds to embrace death by giving up food when he realises that his living any longer is not only spiritually unproductive but, actually, counterproductive due to his inability to carry out the usual monastic practices for want of bodily strength or owing to disablement due to disease. The Santhara or the actual embracing of voluntary death in a state of equanimity of mind is carried out in one of the following three ways: - a. Bhakta Pratyakhyana -- Renouncing all four kinds of food - Staple food, water, nourishing food and mouth, fresheners - for life and accepting fast unto death. In this form of observance, no restrictions are placed on his movements as well as on taking care of his own needs or accepting the services from the others. b. Ingini-marana - Besides accepting fast unto death, confining oneself to a predetermined premises. Movement within the specified area is permitted. The subject may attend to his own requirements but may not avail of the others' services. Padapopagamana - Besides accepting fast unto death the subject practitioner confining himself to the deathbed only and keeps lying like a fallen tree without any movement. Improper Monastic Conduct - There are some activities that are considered unsaintly and are contraindicated for the monks and nuns. Dasavaikalikasutra mentions 52 such activities. They are - 1. Taking food cooked for them, 2. Taking items purchased for their sake, 3. To accept invitation, 4. Accepting food brought to their place of residence, 5. Night-eating, 6. Bathing, 7. Using perfumes, 288 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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8. Wearing flower garlands, 9. Fanning oneself, 10. Storing food, 11. Using householders' utensils, 12. Taking food from the royal households, 13. Accepting food from the giver who gives on desire, 14. Getting one's body pressed for relieving pain, 15. Mouthwash, 16. Enquire after householders' worldly welfare, 17. Looking at one's mirror image, 18. Gambling, 19. Wearing umbrellas, 20. Taking undue treatments without any serious ailment, 21. Wearing shoes, 22. Starting fires, 23. Accepting food from the provider of shelter, 24. Sitting on chair, sofas, etc. 25. Using beds and bedsteads meant for the householders' use 26. Sitting in others' households without any just reason, 27. Using body-pastes, 28. Accepting householders' services, 29. Working for a living, 30. Using untreated water, 31. Recalling household comforts when tormented by monastic hardships, 32. Taking fresh and raw roots even as medicine, 33. Eating ginger, 34. Sucking at sugarcane pieces, 35. Eating bulbous roots, 36. Eating roots like radish, carrots etc, 37. Eating fruits like mangoes, citrus fruit etc. 38. Eating raw seeds, 39. Eating raw rock-salt, 40. Eating raw salt from the salt-lakes, ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 289

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41. Taking raw salt of the Romak variety, 42. Taking raw table salt of sea origin, 43. Eating raw salt collected from the saline sodic lands, 44. Taking raw black salt, 45. Perfuming the clothes etc by burning incense, 46. Vomiting by taking medicines, 47. Taking animas for clearing the bowels, 48. Taking laxatives, 49. Applying mascara to the eyes, 50. Applying tooth powder or brushing the teeth with twigs or brushes, 51. Massaging the body with oils, and 52. Adorning the body with good clothes and jewellery, etc. It is plain from this list of unmonastic activities that the Jaina monastic code of conduct aims at spiritual beautification of the soul rather than its physical embodiment. The ascetics are required to lead a simple and spiritual life and not a comfortloving, food-loving, physical and fashion-loving life. Bearing Monastic Hardships Monastic life is not a bed of roses. It is a life to be devoted to spiritual pursuits by renouncing physicality. On its way to spiritual perfection the spiritual aspirant comes across many a hardship that tests his mettle. Those who endure these hardships succeed in achieving their ultimate aim of spiritual perfection and those who succumb to them fall by the way-side. The twenty second section of Samavayanga and the second chapter of the Uttaradhyayana-sutra mention twenty-two such hardships that the ascetics must endure. They are as follows: 1. Hunger - when suitable flawless food is not available. 2. Thirst when suitable flawless water is not available. 3. Cold-bearing intense cold in few clothes or wraps, 4. Heat-bearing intense heat of summer without fanning, bathing as well as by walking barefoot. 290 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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5. Insect-bite-bearing mosquito and other insect-bites with equanimity, 6. Nakedness - bearing nudity or discomfort of living with few clothes only, 7. Distraction - patiently bearing the distraction caused by hardships, 8. Opposite sex - remaining detached in the presence of the members of opposite sex, 9. Touring - patiently bearing the discomfort of constantly touring the country side for spreading the gospel, 10. Uneven seat - patiently bearing the discomfort of uneven seat, 11. Unsuitable shelter - to bear the hardship of unsuitable shelter, 12. Wrath - to calmly bear somebody's even uncalled for wrath, 13. Beating - to bear the beating with equanimity, 14. Begging - not to consider monastic mendicancy as degrading and bearing the insults, if any, with fortitude, 15. Non-gain - to bear the non-gain of food etc unruffled, 16. Disease - not to despair on falling ill, 17. Grass-touch- to bear the discomfort of getting scratched when sleeping on grass-beds, 18. Mire - to bear the discomfort of body and cloth mire when they get soiled, 19. Reverence - not to be proud when revered by important people, 20. Learning - to bear the discomfort of constant enquiry by the learners, 21. Ignorance - bearing the curse of ignorance with the thought that it is due to the effect of the knowledge obscuring karma, and 22. Faith - to remain steadfast in own right-belief and not waver by seeing others' name and fame. ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 291

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Types Of Monastic Ordinations - The scriptures mention five types of monastic ordinations starting from the simplest type called 'Samayik Caritra'to the ultimate monastic conduct of the enlightened souls known as 'Yathakhyat Caritra'. The three that fall in between are - 'Chedopasthapaniya Caritra', 'Pariharavisuddha Caritra' and "Suksma Samparaya Caritra'. 1. Samayik Caritra - In this type of ordination the initiated aspirant renounces all forms of violence, sensory enjoyments, passions and encumbrance as well as night eating and aspires to gain a state of volitional equanimity. 2. Chedopasthapaniya Caritra - the aspirant ascetic is taken off the Samayik conduct and re-established in the five great vows. This type of ordination has provisions for exceptions to the rules of conduct and awarding of due expiation therefor. The term 'ched' refers to reduction in monastic seniority or expulsion from the monastic order as a punishment depending upon the severity of the infraction and upasthapana means reinstatement after due expiation. 3. Parihara-visuddha Caritra - this is a more stringent form of monastic conduct in which both, the flaws and consequent karmic bondage are minimised. 4. Suksma Samparaya Caritra - In this type of conduct the aspirant ascetic overcomes all types of passion except some traces of greed-passion. 5. Yathakhyat Caritra - This is the monastic conduct of ultimate purity in which there are no spiritual flaws left. This state of conduct is achieved by the corporeal and incorporeal omniscient souls. 292 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Renunciation And Exceptions - Out of the five aforementioned types of monastic ordinations only the first two are being practised in the present times. The reason for such a limitation is the limitation of physical inability of the present day ascetics for the lack of appropriately strong physical constitutions. The second type of ordination - Chedopasthapaniya - indicates that in the present times the ascetics are bound to flinch from their expected monastic conduct and, therefore, prescribes suitable expiating penance or punishments in the form of reduction or excommunication. If there were no exceptions to the prescribed conduct there would be no necessity to prescribe the expiating penance and the punishments as well. However, the monastic code for the present times also has some acceptable exceptions to the true monastic practices for which one can atone by undertaking awarded expiating penance or reduction in monastic seniority. The faults that exceed these acceptable exceptions come in the category of monastic misconduct and calls for severe punishments like excommunication or re-ordination after ascertaining that the subject defaulter is unlikely to commit such misconduct again. VIGILANCE (SAMITI) AND RESTRAINT (GUPTI) Care Causes No Sins - When Lord Mahavira was asked as to how should an ascetic walk, stand, sit, sleep, eat and speak so as not to incur sin, the Lord replied that an ascetic who walks, stands, sits, sleeps, eats and speaks carefully does not incur sin. It can be inferred from this adage that one who is casual and careless in doing anything incurs sin. We can sum up this exchange in this phrase --- "Care causes no sins, casual conduct does". Therefore, for obvious reasons, Jaina ethics is very particular in ensuring physical, mental ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 293

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and vocal discipline of its followers to the minutest details. There are, therefore, rules that govern the DOs and DON'Ts for the Jaina clergy in the matters of walking, talking, and thinking, as well as in seeking and consuming or using necessities such as food, clothing study material etc and discarding and disposal of wastes. These are at two levels -- Prescriptive and Prohibitive. Five types of vigilance (Panca Samiti) fall in the first category while the three types of restraints (Trigupti) fall in the second. Samitis constitute the DOs as they tell the clergy as to how to do while Guptis constitute the DONTs as they tell it as to how not to do things. This chapter deals with these DOs and DON'Ts. This alertness and self-control guards the purity and thereby protects the sanctity of the five great monastic vows. Therefore, taken together, these are also known as Pravacan Mata or the godmother of monastic wisdom. To understand this status, we must appreciate that these DOs and DON'Ts are at the conduct level, which, in turn, are guided by knowledge and vision or 'monastic wisdom'. Samiti - Cautious or watchful action with due care and attention is called 'vigilance' or 'Samiti'. The Jaina thought talks of five-way vigilance to be observed by the members of its ascetic order. The five areas of activity in which an ascetic is expected to be vigilant are - 1. Exercising vigilance in moving from place to place (Irya Samiti), 2. Exercising vigilance in the use of language while talking or preaching (BhasaSamiti), 3. Exercising vigilance in seeking food etc. (Esana Samiti), 4. Exercising vigilance in looking after monastic equipage (Adanabhanda Niksepana Samiti), and 5. Exercising vigilance in disposal of wastes and excretions (Paristhapanika Samiti). It can be seen that Samitis are prescriptive in nature for they advocate cautious or watchful action. Gupti - Withholding improper action is called self-control or Gupti. Depending on the type of activity to be withheld, they 294 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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are of three types. Withholding improper mental activity is mental self-control or Manogupti, doing away with improper speech is vocal self-control or Vacan-gupti and withholding improper physical activity is bodily self-control or Kaya-gupti. It is easy to see that these three types of self-controls or Guptis are prohibitive in nature as they advocate refraining from mental, vocal and physical impropriety. In other words we can say that discrete activity is Samiti and refraining from indiscretion in the interest of preservation of the Self is Gupti. However, this classification is not final. The Uttaradhyayana-sutra mentions eight Samitis instead of five Samitis and three Guptis. The author of that monumental work argues that the three Guptis are also not only prohibitive but prescriptive as well. When withholding of improper thoughts is recommended, proceeding with the proper thoughts is implied and it becomes prescriptive by implication. Similar arguments can be advanced for the vocal and physical activities as well. In keeping with the present trend, we shall follow the classification of five Samitis and three Guptis. Five-way Vigilance (Panca Samiti) - Bringing out the importance of vigilance, Acarya Sivakoti (Sivarya) of Bhagavati-aradhana fame has written in his famous work Mularadhana that the vigilant ascetic who is ever alert and cautious does not get mired by the karma-mire and incurs no sin even while living in the world beset with it. As pointed out earlier, there are five areas of activity in which an ascetic is required to exercise vigilance. They are as follows: - 1. Vigilant Movements (Irya Samiti) - To exercise vigilance while moving from one place to the other by carefully observing the ground in front up to a distance of four hands (six feet) is Irya Samiti. For proper exercise of this ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 295

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type of vigilance it is essential to be careful about four considerations of movement, namely 1. Reason (Alamban), 2. Time (Kala), 3. Path (Marga), and 4. Care (Yatna). From the first consideration of reason, the ascetic must move out of the place of residence only on purpose when it becomes absolutely essential. He is not to move about aimlessly. Even when going out on essential purpose, he must seek his Guru's permission by stating his purpose aloud three times. The essential purposes for which an ascetic may move about are for scriptural study, meditation, seeking food, water and other essential monastic requirements, for answering nature's calls, etc. From the second consideration of time, the ascetic must move about only during the day-light hours and not at night. The reason for this injunction is obvious. They can observe any small creatures on the way during the day, which is not possible at night. While they are totally prohibited to go out at night for the purpose of seeking anything, movements with due care and continuous sweeping of the ground ahead with their woollen sweeps is permitted for answering the nature's calls. Even when ascetics are moving from one village or town to the other and it becomes dark on the way, they must find the nearest shelter and stay there until next morning when they can resume their tour. It is prescribed that they ought to stop as soon as the Sun sets even if they have to take shelter under a tree. For similar considerations of protecting fine lives, the ascetics are not allowed to tour or peregrinate from place to place during the rainy season. From the third consideration of path, ascetics must generally move along only those land routes that are even. Only under exceptional circumstances can they move along uneven land routes and water-ways. They must also avoid treading on wet ground, water puddles, grassy or moss infested patches, etc. As far as air travel is concerned, the scripture mentions the flying 296 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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prowess of some specially accomplished saints who could make use of their special accomplishment under exceptional circumstances. The Jaina lore is silent about air-travel in the current sense of the term for the simple reason that it was not prevalent at the time when they were composed or even reduced to writing. From the fourth consideration of care, the ascetics move with due care by observing the ground in front up to a distance of four hands while moving during the day, by sweeping the ground with their sweeps when it becomes necessary to move at night, and that, too, with due concern. The ascetics are not supposed to distract themselves by talking reading or reciting anything while moving so that they may concentrate only on the path ahead and their attention is not divided. 2. Vigilant Speech (Bhasa Samiti) - To speak in discrete language without anger, pride, guile and greed, ridicule, fear, verbosity, and gossip when required and to speak in few true and beneficial words is to observe the rules of vigilant speech or Bhasa Samiti. Vigilant speech requires that the ascetics speak only purposefully and not without purpose, they must avoid ambiguity and speak at the appropriate time only and not out of turn. They must, at all times, be concerned that their speech does not compromise truth and, at the same time, does not hurt someone. They must not speak in harsh and querulous tones, avoid using fractious language, and must never utter such words as may cause violence. They must avoid speaking while walking and must not speak aloud late at night when others are either meditating or sleeping. We can sum up the provisions of Bhasa Samiti in terms of the famous Upanisadic adage "Satyam bruyat, priyam bruyat, Ma bruyat asatamapriyam" meaning 'Speak the truth, speak the beneficial truth; Don't speak harmful or untrue words'. ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 297

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Vigilant Seeking Of Food etc (Esana Samiti) - To seek and obtain food and other monastic necessities like shelter, clothes, utensils, etc with due discretion is to observe the rules of vigilant seeking or Esana Samiti. Food is the prime necessity for preserving the body, which is a means to perform even the monastic duties. According to the practices followed in the two traditions - Digambara and Sveta-mbara - there is some amount of monastic equipage that their ascetics keep. Seeking these necessities requires exercise of a lot of care and watchful discretion. The ascetics have to be extra careful because exercising due care may even deprive them of accepting available food and other necessities and they may be tempted to overlook some provisions. Jaina practices prescribe seeking and accepting food only for sustaining life for preserving the body for monastic duties and not for satisfying their taste buds or enhancing their bodily strength and looks. They are, therefore, to avoid 42 flaws of seeking food. Mulacara by Vattakera also mentions 46 flaws of origin, production, purposive food, etc, which must be avoided by the ascetics while seeking and accepting food. The spatial constraint of distance directs that food can be sought only within a distance of two miles, that of time specifies that food must be sought, brought and consumed within the third quarter of the day (these days, however, the food is sought brought and consumed three times a day. Nevertheless, time-constraint still applies and the ascetics are not supposed to keep the food for more than threequarters of the day), the constraint of mood requires them not to have any attachment towards food or other material monastic possessions. 3. For a proper observance of these discretionary provisions, only those monks or nuns are allowed to proceed on food-seeking rounds, who have studied the 'Pindaniryukti 'that contains detailed descriptions of all the flaws of seeking food and the ways to avoid them. Only those monks or nuns who have studies 298 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Acarangacan seek shelters and clothing. Even if the other ascetics may have to seek food etc under special circumstances the items brought by them are not used by other ascetics. 4. Vigilant Care Of Equipage (Adana-bhanda Niksepana Samiti) - The ascetics are required to carefully inspect and maintain all their possessions such as clothes, utensils, books, etc twice a day in the first fourths of the first and the last quarters. To take these items carefully, to clean them carefully so as to avoid killing or hurting any living being, how-so-ever small and to put them back on swept ground equally carefully after such an inspection and maintenance is vigilant care or 'Adana Bhandamatra Niksepana Samiti'. The four considerations of this vigilance are 1. To take and put back, after inspection and cleaning, carefully, 2. To inspect and clean all the area under use, 3. To carry out such inspection twice a day at appointed hours, and 4. To be duly concerned about the timely inspections and cleaning. Even the ground for disposal of wastes and excretions is required to be inspected and cleared, before hand, during the day-light hours and swept again just before disposing of something. The reason for this provision is that anything that lies unused for some time harbours small insects and microscopic organism. Timely inspection, airing and cleaning prevents such harbouring and growth and consequent violence towards them. The procedure for such inspections and cleaning has also been very carefully drawn and requires that the ascetics perform these tasks, with utmost care, by separating individual items and unfolding them for proper scrutiny. They are not supposed to shake them violently and not to distract themselves in other activities while carrying out these inspections and cleaning. ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 299

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5. Vigilant Disposal Of Wastes And Excretions Paristhapanika Samiti) - The ascetics have to dispose of certain waste materials such as broken utensils, worn out sweeps and unusable pieces of clothes as well as certain body-excretions such as faeces, urine, sputum, nasal discharge etc. Their vow of observing complete nonviolence towards all forms of living being makes it incumbent on them to dispose of these things in such a way as to cause no or as minimal hurt to life as possible. For ensuring such vigilance they inspect the areas in the vicinity of the places of their stay and identify such places that are comparatively free from the infestation of insects and other difficult to observe fine creatures. Also, there is a social angle to the selection of disposal grounds. The items to be disposed of are of repulsive nature and their disposal at places in the vicinity of the habitation in the clear view of other inhabitants may invite social censure and ill-will from the neighbourhood. From these considerations the selected disposal grounds may fall in one of the four categories in their diminishing order of suitability - 1. Away from habitation and out of sight, 2. Away from habitation but observable, 3. Near the habitation but out of sight and 4. Near the habitation and within sight. However, the care must be taken to select places, which are free of living creatures. Dry grounds, dry pits, funeral grounds where the fire of the pyre has been extinguished recently, where no grass is growing and which is free from seeds. Having selected the place, the ascetics dispose of various disposable things there only after carefully inspecting the place for any fine creatures and sweeping them off if there are any. Three-way Self-control (Trigupti), Withholding inappropriate action is Gupti. Depending upon the type of activity the self-controls may be of three types - mental, vocal or physical. Consequently, there are three Guptis 300 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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known as 1. Manogupti, 2. Vacan-gupti and 3. Kaya-gupti. 1. Mental Self-control (Manogupti) - To withhold the violent thoughts of the mind and to direct them towards non-violence is mental self-restraint or Manogupti. For example, to think of causing harm to someone, to think of the means to cause such harm and to think of collecting such means and of proceeding to cause such harm are the stages of mental impropriety and to withhold such thoughts is mental selfcontrol. Mental self-control is of paramount importance for a spiritual aspirant as concentration and meditation both result from a controlled mind only. An out of control mind is like a stubborn horse with vice, which can only harass the rider. On the contrary, a restrained mind is like a well-trained horse that gives the rider immense riding-pleasure. It is said of the mind that it is the cause of all karmic bondage (Manah eva manusyanam karmabandhan- karayoh) as well as liberation therefrom. The inappropriate thoughts can be withheld in two ways -- 1. By killing the thoughts and 2. By directing them in right direction. The first method results in resistance and revolt and many psychosomatic manifestations. It is the second method, which is positive and desirable. 2. Vocal Self-control (Vacan-gupti) - Withholding inappropriate vocal activity is vocal selfcontrol or Vacan-gupti. The examples of restrained speech are - not to utter hurtful words, not to order violent activities, not to tell lies, not to gossip, not to back-bite, to observe periods of silence etc. Vocal self-restraint is highly important because the sword-wounds heal with time but word-wounds rankle forever. Also, the whole body and the soul suffer the harmful effects of a bad tongue. According to the Uttaradhyayanasutra the Lord said to Ganadhar Gautam that by vocal self-restraint one can achieve the mental restraint as well. ANAGARA VINAYA (THE MONASTIC CONDUCT): 301

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Physical Self-control (Kaya-gupti) - To refrain from physical preparation and execution of deeds harmful to the others is to observe physical self-control or Kaya-gupti. This is evident in refraining from thoughtless activities, unnecessary movements; sitting, standing and sleeping carelessly and in refraining from inauspicious activities. The direct outcome of physical self-control is achievement of karmic stoppage. Actually, physical self-ontrol is the stepping stone to the vocal and mental self-control. 3. The way to achieve physical self-control is to develop a spiritual outlook. Unless we stop concentrating on physicality and sensory pleasures we cannot expect to control the physical self. The Jaina concept of duality of body and soul is an effective tool to achieve physical self-control and thereby the vocal and the mental self-controls as well. The vigilance and restraint, Samiti and Gupti, or eight mothers of monastic spiritual wisdom (Asta Pravacana--mata) are the means of ensuring the purity and rightness of the monastic conduct. In the words of Sivarya in Bhagavati-aradhana, "Samiti and Gupti protect the right-belief, right-knowledge and rightconduct of the ascetics in the same way as the mothers protect their children. Conclusion Right-conduct is an inescapable requirement for the aspirants of liberation from the mundane miseries and gaining of eternal bliss. This chapter brought out, in sufficient details, the right conduct for the members of the monastic order in all their glories. However, as the taste of the pudding lies in eating it, the gains to be gained from these conducts can also be gained only by practising them and not by merely reading about them. Wan 302: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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SECTION -V JAINA LEGENDS

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Jain aina literature, both canonical and otherwise, is very rich in religious tales or parables that the Prophets and the preceptors have been using since time immemorial to illustrate their points. This section narrates four representative tales from the Jaina lore. These are not the usual run of the mill type of stories, full of gossip, but stories with morals.

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16 NAMI PRAVRAJYA THE ORDINATION OF NAMI The ninth chapter of the Uttaradhyayanasutra carries the story of the ordination of Nami, the legendary king of Mithila. This tale is illustrative of the depth of true detachment when it occurs and that once it has occurred, one cannot be moved away from it even by the most enticing inducements. Juxtaposing the truly detached aspirant with the greedy one, it unequivocally declares that for the greedy the wealth of the three worlds is also insufficient, while for the contented it is quite meaningless. Like this it brings out the universal truth that nothing belongs to the truly detached and, whatever happens, he remains unmoved in his spiritual quest. Nami's Plight - Nami, the king of Mithila, once suffered from burning high fever for six months. All treatments failed. His condition did not improve in spite of best of court physicians treating him with all the curative skills at their command. One of them suggested that sandal paste be applied all over his body. The queens started grinding sandalwood for making the paste. While grinding, their bangles struck against each other and made a tinkling noise that

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the king, in his desperate disposition, could not bear. He asked the queens to stop the noise. The queens, in turn, retained only one bangle each, as a mark of their fortunate wedded status, and removed the rest. The noise stopped forthwith. How could a lone bangle tinkle? Nami's Detachment When the king noticed that the sandal was still being ground but without the attendant noise, he inquired and was told about the queens having retained a bangle each and removing the rest. This incident proved to be a turning point in his life. He thought that crowd is the cause of noise, struggle, pain and misery and that loneness is the cause of relief, peace and tranquility. Where there is the crowd of physicality, senses, mind, wealth, family and fraternity, there can only be pain and misery; there cannot be any solace. Where there exists only the loneness of spirituality, there cannot be any pain, only spiritual solace. Thinking like this his heart was filled with pious detachment from the mundane and his inclination became spiritual. He declared his intention to become a monk, left everything as it was and went out of the capital to take the monastic vows. Nami was a highly benevolent and popular king. He was the apple of his subjects' eyes. When the word went round that the king had abjured the throne to become a monk, there was utter confusion in the capital. Everyone started wailing as if the whole capital was on fire. All over the capital there was pandemonium let loose. Sakra : The Heavenly King's Sojourn To Mithila - The news of king Nami's detachment and abjuration reached the heavens as well and hearing it Sakra, the king of heavenly gods, thought of testing the steadfastness of the king's detached 306 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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disposition. He donned the garb of a Brahmin mendicant and came to the place where the royal ascetic was and started talking to him. Sakra Talks To Nami - The dialogue that ensued between them went like this - Sakra - 'O'Royal monk ! Why is there a din of pitiable wailing in your erstwhile capital town of Mithila?" Nami - "In Mithila there was a great, attractive, fruity and shady tree that sheltered all the birds that perched on it and was, generally very useful for all the towns-folks. Today that tree has been blown down by a great storm and fallen. The shelterless birds are, therefore, wailing and there is general pandemonium in the town." Sakra - 'O' Royal monk ! Your erstwhile palace and queens' quarters are on fire and a strong wind is fanning the fire. O'Lord ! why don't you even look at it?" Nami -"Those, who do not have anything to lose, live happily and peacefully. There is nothing that is mine in Mithila, which I may lose if it burns? For a monk, who has freed himself of the attachment with sons, wives, household, business and affairs of the state, there is nothing that is dear or otherwise. I am alone. There is nothing that is mine nor am I of anybody or anything. There is perfect bliss for a monk with such detached disposition, who sees only the spiritual benefit and nothing else." Sakra - 'O'Royal warrior ! First you must secure your capital town by getting the city-wall with observation posts, sentry posts, city-gates, and moat constructed and setting up hundreds of fire-launchers thereon and only then take the vows if you must." Nami - "One liberates from the mundane existence when the NAMI PRAVRAJYA THE ORDINATION OF NAMI : 307

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city-gate of faith is secured with the stoppers of penance and restraint; the moat, posts and fire-launchers of forgiveness; protected by the city-wall of restraint of mind, body and speech. When the bow of endeavour is held at the handle of patience and when the bowstring of vigilant movements is tied with the hand of truth and when the armour of karmic bondage, holding the soul captive in this world, is pierced by the arrows of penance." Sakra - 'O'Royal warrior ! You must go on your spiritual quest only after getting the palaces, the affluence giving houses and the lake-palaces constructed for your own aggrandisement and the benefit of your people." Nami -"One, who doubts his capability to reach the destination only constructs a house on the way. Therefore, one must built a house at the final destination only." Sakra - "O'Royal warrior ! You must accept monastic ordination only after bringing the thieves, way-layers, murderous robbers and pick-pockets under control." Nami - "In this world, many a time the wrong punishments are awarded. Innocent people are punished and the wrongdoers escape punishment. I must, therefore, not resort to such punishment." Sakra - 'O'Royal warrior ! You must accept monastic ordination only after bringing the kings and principals that do not accept your suzerainty, under subjugation." Nami -"What is the use of winning external wars? The warrior that wins his own self is much superior to the one that wins millions of warriors on the battle field. His conquest is the real and supreme conquest. Therefore, one must fight against one's own self. Real happiness lies in conquering the self. Five sense-organs, passions such as anger, pride, guile and greed and the mind are really very difficult to conquer. By self-conquest all these are won." 308 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Sakra - "O' Royal warrior ! You must accept monastic ordination only after getting abundant religious ritual offerings performed and after performing such offerings yourself, after feeding many Sramanic and Brahaminic mendicants, after giving ample charities to the deserving and enjoying the fruits of your pious actions." Nami - "The observance of self restraint, inherent in monastic life, is better than giving a million cows in charity every month. Monasticism is beneficial and an assurance of spiritual wealth even when the monks cannot give anything in charity." Sakra - 'O' Royal monarch ! your desire to become a monk by leaving the household is not right. You must perform many a pious deed while staying a householder." Nami - "One, who undertakes even such rigorous penance as observing fasts for months on end and taking only as little food as can be held on the tip of a blade of grass, but with ignorance, cannot gain even the sixteenth part of the benefit to be drawn from observing the right monasticism as preached by the Lords Jina." Sakra - "O'Royal warrior ! You must accept monastic ordination only after filling your treasury with invaluable gems and pearls as well as gold and silver and after acquiring abundant quantities of clothes, pots and vans." Nami - "The greed is insatiable and great like the expanse of the sky. Even if there be innumerable heaps of gold and silver, each as large as Mt. Kailasa, they are not enough for the greedy. All the wealth of the earth like land, grains, gold and cattle are not enough to satisfy the greed of even one greedy person. I must, therefore not pursue the path of worldly wealth and follow that of spiritual wealth, restraint and penance to be gained through spiritual pursuits." NAMI PRAVRAJYA THE ORDINATION OF NAMI: 309

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Sakra - 'O' Royal Lord of the land ! It is surprising that you forsake the pleasures that are readily available to you here and hanker after the unavailable, unseen and uncertain pleasures of the afterlife. It seems you are being duped by useless intentions." Nami - "The worldly pleasures, which you talk about, are like thorns in the side that constantly rankle. They are like fatal poison or poisonous snake. Even those who cannot enjoy them but only desire them are also condemned to miserable destinies. The anger results in hellish rebirth; pride in lowly rebirths, deceit hinders good destiny and greed results in fear in this life and the one hereafter. " After this long dialogue the heavenly king, Sakra, was convinced of the steadfastness of king Nami's detachment from the mundane pleasures and his intense desire to seek the ultimate goal of spiritual emancipation. He shed his disguise and coming into his real divine form, bowed to him and praising the royal ascetic with sweet and melodious words said - Sakra - 'O' Royal monk ! what a surprise of surprises ! you have conquered the anger, you have vanquished the pride, you have dispelled guile and you have controlled the greed. Oh! your simplicity is praiseworthy, Oh! your humility is noble, Oh! your forgiveness is graceful, and Oh! your contentment is noble, too. O'Lord! you are noble in this world and you will gain supreme nobility in the world hereafter as well. Shedding all karma-mire, you shall achieve the ultimate destination of liberation." Thus, praising Nami venerably, sakra, the king of heavenly gods, devotedly circled around the royal ascetic three times and bowed to him again and again. Thereafter, bowing at his feet, marked with the auspicious marks of conch-shell and elephantgoad, the king of heavens, who wore beautiful and radiant crown 310 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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and ear-jewels, flew upwards into the sky and left for his heavenly kingdom. The royal ascetic Nami, however, forsook his kingdom with royal riches and remained steadfast in his spiritual pursuits even after he was variously prompted, tempted, lured and enticed by Sakra, the king of the heavenly gods, himself. The Moral Of The Story - This story amply brings out the fact that those, who are spiritually motivated, do not consider the worldly wealth and grandeur of any consequence. They are neither prompted by the lures of worldly pleasures nor do they fall prey to the temptations of power and pelf. They overcome the attachments of the past associations and their detachment is so strong that they do not consider anything theirs and themselves of anyone's. Nami's words, "Nothing that is mine burns when Mithila burns." Is an eye-opener for all those who remain firmly attached to their meagre wealth as well as deeply engrossed in inconsequential mundane pleasures. This story clearly brings out the importance of spiritual pursuits over those of worldly ones when it says that self-conquest is much more important than conquering millions of warriors in a war. This fact is further emphasised when the royal ascetic refutes the contention of the king of gods that he should first subjugate those that do not accept his suzerainty. Here, Sakra tries to strike at the very ego of the royal ascetic but even then he does not rise to the bait offered. Hinting at the nobility of monastic life Nami remarks that the pursuit of monasticism is better than giving great charities and indulging in other pious deeds while staying as a householder. Even the charity as great as giving away a million cows everyday is nothing as compared to the pursuit of proper monasticism in a state of detached disposition. NAMI PRAVRAJYA THE ORDINATION OF NAMI: 311

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The passions in general and the greed in particular is roundly denounced when it is said that the entire wealth of the earth also cannot satisfy the greed of one greedy person and that greed is as vast as the expanse of the sky. Like this, all the moral values that one ought to practice in order to lead a wholesome life and to achieve the ultimate destiny of liberation, have been amply highlighted in this story. The story ends on the appropriate note that all the extraordinary, enlightened and learned persons so get detached from worldly pleasures as the royal ascetic Nami had.' 312 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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17 ANDAK THE LEGEND OF THE EGGS This story from the sixth primary canonical volume (Ariga Agama) Jnata-Dharmakathanga underlines the importance of steadfast belief and the favourable and unfavourable result that a believer or a doubter earns as a result of his right, belief or the lack of it. This legend brings out, in vivid details, the importance of steadfast belief through the parable of a peahen's eggs. Peahen's Eggs - In ancient times, in the Subhumibaga garden of the capital town of Campa, a colourful and beautiful peahen laid two eggs in the shrubbery of Tulsi bushes and started protecting and hatching them with great care. The Merchants' Sons In that beautiful capital town of Campa, thare lived two prosperous merchants, by the names of Jinadatta and Sagardatta. Their sons were good childhood friends who had played and pranced together and were very fond of each other. So much so

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that they met daily, discussed their household and business matters with each other and did everything with each other's counsel. They never hurt each other's feelings and never did anything that was against the other's wishes. Theirs was a perfect friendship where each trusted the other fully and co-operated wholeheartedly. In Campa, there also lived an extremely beautiful young courtesan called Devadatta who was endowed with all attractive feminine charms. She was the apple of every one's eyes and even the highly placed government officials and royal personages vied with each other for a favourable glance from her. Once, the two merchants' sons decided to go to the sylvan surroundings of the Subhumibhaga garden and enjoy themselves in the company of charming Devadatta. Accordingly, they arranged for suitable vehicles, a large entourage of servants and followers and equipped themselves with ample foods and drinks and went to the courtesan's palace and invited her to accompany them to the garden for a tour of its natural abundance. Such was the reputation of the two merchants' sons that Devadatta accepted their invitation readily and agreed to accompany them to the garden. The three of them mounted the excellent chariot and enjoying the ride they reached the Subhumibhaga garden. Bathing in the clean spring of the garden they helped themselves to the best food that was served to them by the fawning servants. They enjoyed themselves with various games and sports and when they refreshed themselves with some rest they started to walk down the lawns and shrubberies of the garden. Walking down the lanes, and alley-ways, they chanced to come to the same shrubbery where the peahen had laid her eggs. Seeing them coming towards her thicket the peahen took fright quacked loudly and flew away to perch on the branch of a nearby tree. The two merchants' sons were surprised at this commotion and decided to investigate the reason behind it. They entered the Tulasi thicket and were happy to see the peahen's two fine eggs. 314 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Seeing the eggs they thought that it would be nice if they took the eggs home and got them hatched by their best hens and get two fine pea-chicks for their entertainment when the eggs hatched. They could also get the chicks trained and play wagers with them when they grew into fine and fully trained peacocks, they thought. Accordingly, they called their servants and asked them to take an egg each to their respective homes and put them for hatching under the best hens in their respective poultry farms. The servants did as they were bid and took away an egg each and put it with the hens. Having enjoyed the outing to their hearts' content, the merchants' sons also returned home and resumed their respective businesses. The Doubting Son Of Sagardatta - After the night's rest when merchant Sagardatt's son woke up in the morning, he thought of the peahen's egg and went to the poultry farm to have a look at it. He looked at the big and beautiful egg with admiration and started contemplating the gains he could get from the egg in due course. However, he was soon beset by doubt and thought what if the egg did not hatch at all. He picked it up caressed and shook it to check if the egg was still alive. He did so each time he visited the poultry farm. By his meddlesome activities the egg became bad and the foetus died inside. The egg never hatched. Sagardatt's son became hopeless and cursed his fate. The Trusting Son Of Jinadatta - Jinadatta's son, too, went to the poultry farm and looked at the peahen's egg with admiration but he was fully assured that the egg would hatch with time and yield a beautiful peachick. He, therefore, left it alone untouched and untampered. When the time was ripe the egg hatched and a beautiful peachick came out of it. As the chick grew the merchant's son sent his servants to ANDAK THE LEGEND OF THE EGGS: 315

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fetch the peacock trainers and asked them to look after the chick well and to train it to become fine dancing peacock that could be shown in fairs and that could be competed against other such peacocks. The peacock trainers did their best by the chick and with the passage of time it became a healthy and handsome dancing and prancing peacock with full shock of beautiful shiny peacock feathers. It danced away to everyone's pleasure at the mere snap of fingers. When the merchant's son snapped his fingers the peacock arched its neck delicately, spread its feather into full drawn umbrella of colours and danced to the tune of music. Success Through Firm Belief The fame of the merchant's son's peacock spread far and wide and he was invited to stage its shows at various fairs and to participate in various peacock competitions in the town of Campa and elsewhere as well. He won a number of wagers and earned ample wealth and name and fame. The Moral Of The Story - Concluding this tale the Lord Jnataputra (Mahavira) said that O' blessed ones! those monks and nuns who remain undoubting and retain steadfast belief in the words of the omniscient Jina earn fame and honour here and noble rebirth or liberation hereafter. However, such monks and nuns as doubt the Jina-words become perplexed and lose even their available gains and misery becomes their fate. Therefore, all of you must develop the virtue of freedom from doubt and steadfastness of belief. Wan 316: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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18 MRGAPUTRIYA THE TALE OF MRGAPUTRA: THE SON OF MRGA This story from the first Mulasutra, Uttara dhyayana, brings out, in vivid details, the virtue of proper knowledge of what one sets his mind to do and then, by the strength of one's -right-knowledge, to set all doubts at rest. In this story Mrgaputradecides to become a monk and when his parents raise various doubts about his life as a monk, he replies to each of their questions to their satisfaction and wrests their permission after satisfying them. Mrgaputra In the ancient times there ruled in the town of Sugriva, surrounded on all sides by the sylvan surroundings of parks, gardens and forests, the king Balabhadra. Mrgavatiwas his queenconsort and the crown-prince was Balasri who was also known as Mrgaputra. Balasri, was a very dear and obedient son and a valorous and brave crown-prince whom the foes feared. In the ample and opulent palace he lived luxuriously like a young heavenly god.

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The Detachment of Mrgaputra Once, while looking out of the palace-balcony, Balasri saw a pious, austere and restrained Sramana monk who was passing that way and recalled his monastic life that he had led in his past life. He realised the futility of leading a mundane life and became totally detached from worldly ways. He wanted to become a monk and went to his parents to seek their permission to do so. He said, "O' father ! O' mother! I have come to know the misery that attends the worldly creatures and have realised the futility of leading the miserable worldly life; I have realised the transient nature of things including my own body and have come to know of the fallacy of sensory pleasures that ultimately result in more misery than the pleasure they give; I have realised that the worldly wealth and riches do not accompany anybody when one dies and that one day I, too, shall have to leave all this and die; I have, therefore, set liberation from this miserable mundane. existence as my goal and I do want to leave this miserable world beset by birth, decay, disease and death and follow the path of liberation. As a wayfarer who leaves without victuals falls on bad times and is tormented by hunger and thirst, so a traveller of the path of liberation who goes without having taken the way, fare of spiritual practices also falls on bad destiny and wanders. As the owner of a burning house takes out expensive items and leaves worthless ones to burn so do I wish to salvage my soul from this world that burns in the fire of decay and death. I seek your permission to become a monk." On hearing Mrgaputra's detached talk his parents who were in the grip of parental affection and were deeply attached to him, wished to dissuade him from his intended monastic ordination and wanted to frighten him away from his intent by narrating the hardships and affliction that he was likely to encounter in his monastic life. However Mrgaputra's detachment was steadfast 318 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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and he was not to be dissuaded by any fear of inducement. What follows is a dialogue between Mrgaputra and his parents that brings to the fore the deep insight he had about his intended monasticism and consequent firmness of his intent. The Rigours of Monastic Life - Mother -- "Son ! the monastic life is very hard, the mendicant has to take many a difficult vows and has to lead a very austere life. It is very difficult to observe the vow of not hurting the vitalities of any creatures so is to be ever vigilant about not to utter any lie. It is equally difficult observe the vow of non-stealing like not to take even a toothpick without being given by its rightful owner; even to observe the vow of celibacy will be very difficult for a person like you who has revelled in luxury and sensual pleasures all his life. Also, it is very difficult to renounce everything like riches and grains, servants and animals, etc. It is very difficult to give up attachment towards all these things and beings." Father - "Son ! it is very difficult to give up night-eating for ever and to bear hardships like hunger and thirst, heat and cold, reprimand and beatings etc are very difficult too. For a soft and delicate person like you the monastic practices such as plucking the hair etc, not once but repeatedly throughout your life, will be as difficult as to swim across an ocean. Similarly, to observe penance is like walking on the edge of a sword or to chew the grains of steel. To lead monastic life in the prime of one's youth is as difficult as swallowing the flame of fire, as holding the air in a cloth-bag and as weighing Mt. Meru on a kitchen-scale. Therefore, O'son ! stay in the royal palace and enjoy pleasures that are difficult to get even by the heavenly gods. Once you have enjoyed these pleasures to your content go and become a monk in your old-age." MRGAPUTRIYA (THE TALE OF THE SON OF MRGA): 319

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Mrgaputra-"O'mother ! O' father ! what you have just said is true but nothing is difficult for one who has overcome the delusion caused by mundane attachment. In this indefinite worldly wandering, birth after birth, I have experienced many fearful pains and miseries, faced many a frightful fear, bore many a tormenting tortures in hellish and other births in four living species. In the hellish births I have born heat that was infinitely hotter than fire, cold that was colder than ice. There, I was cooked on fire, sawed by saws, dragged on pointed thorns, pierced by swords, spears, beaten by iron bars and cut to pieces. There, I was pressed in large and heavy presses and torn by frightening wild beasts. There, I was put under redhot yokes, lashed by whips and picked by the sharp beaks of fearful birds of prey like vultures and eagles. O' dear father! Hellish pains and miseries are infinite times more unbearable as compared to the ones we see here. There, there is no respite even for a moment. Thus, I have born many hardships, afflictions and painful miseries such that the hardships of monastic life will pale in comparison." Seeing that their son was steadfast in his detachment from the mundane and that he knew about what he was wanting to do, it was clear to the parents that there was no stopping him from becoming a monk. However, they tried again. The Parents - "Son ! it is fine if you wish to become a monk but have you thought that in the monastic life it is very painful not to take treatment when one becomes ill and indisposed? Mrgaputra - "O' mother ! O'father! what you say is true but who treats a dear in the forest when it falls ill, who gives it medicine and who feeds it looks after it? As it recovers health all by itself and returns to the grazing ground so I will also lead the monastic life without treatment and 320 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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looking after by others. As a dear moves about in the jungle unrestricted so a monk also goes about his monastic peregrinations and rises in the spiritual purity. As a dear goes alone in the forest so, sustained by my monastic restraints and austerities, I will also move about alone and discharge my duties." Rendered speechless by irrefutable arguments of their son, the parents yielded to his request and permitted him to accept monastic ordination, as he desired. They said - The Father - "Son ! do as it pleases you." Mrgaputra - "O' mother ! O'father ! permitted by you, I shall lead a perfect dear like monastic life that will help me in destroying the karmic bondage responsible for all miseries. The Mother - "Son ! do as it pleases you." Thus, having obtained the parents' permission after variously convincing them, Mrgaputra discarded all delusion and attachment just as a great serpent discards its old skin. Renouncing all worldly possessions as one sheds the dust from one's clothes; he proceeded on his monastic sojourn. He became endowed with five great monastic vows, he was carefully guided by five comportments (Samitis) and restrained by three self-restraints (Guptis). He was ever-ready to accept increasingly rigorous external and internal penance and shed pride and prejudice altogether. He became a protector of static and mobile life-forms and developed equanimity in gain and nongain, pleasure and pain, praise and criticism, honour and insult and life and death. He freed himself from the clutches of pride, passions, punishment, spiritual thorns, fear, laughter, wishes, worry and bondage and became fully engrossed in the pursuit of perfect monastic practices. Like this, after leading a monastic life full of the pursuit of MRGAPUTRIYA (THE TALE OF THE SON OF MRGA): 321

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right-vision, right-knowledge, right-conduct and right-penance for a number of years, Mrgaputra observed a month-long endpractice of Sallekhana-Samadhimarana for a period of one month and gained the unparalleled gain of spiritual perfection of the Siddhas. Moral of The Story - Concluding this story, the Lord said, "O'blessed ones! Just as, becoming detached, Mrgaputra stuck to his detachment and was not dissuaded from accepting monastic ordination in spite of the best persuasion by his parents who painted a frightening picture of monastic hardships and discomforts and liberated to attain spiritual perfection, you, too, must treat worldly wealth as a source of misery and worldly attachments as the most frightening and pursue the path of monasticism unwaveringly. It is the only unparalleled path that can yield spiritual emancipation and ultimate destination of spiritual perfection endowed with infinite vision, infinite knowledge, infinite bliss and infinite spiritual prowess. 322 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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ROHINI KATHA THE LEGEND OF ROHINI This story from the sixth primary canonical volume (Ariga Agama) Inata-Dharmakathanga brings out, in vivid details, the importance of steadfastly adhering to the monastic vows and the glory or otherwise that the observers or the shirkers earn as a result of their earnest endeavour or the lack of it. Rohini In the Rajagrhi town of yore, ruled by King Srenika, there lived a wealthy merchant by the name of Dhanya. His wife, Bhadra, was gentle and beauteous. He had four sons named Dhanapala, Dhanadeva, Dhanagopa and Dhanaraksita, in that order. The four daughters in law of the merchant Dhanya were, respectively, called Ujjhika, Bhogavati, Raksika and Rohini. Dhanya's Thought Once, while sleeping at night, Dhanya had a thought that he was quite influential in the matters of the state and the society. So much so that even the king consulted him on important social, political and business matters of the state. It was because he was

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very wise and reliable that not only his family and relatives but even the people at large shared their secrets with him and consulted him and sought his advice on their private affairs and he provided them with appropriate guidance that was to their benefit. It was so because he was reliable, authentic, dependable and worthy of their trust. It was so because he always kept their trust, never betrayed them, and never let them down. Truly, he was their friend, philosopher, guide, leader, guardian and well-wisher. He was, however, besieged by the thought that if something untoward like crippling illness, seizure, losing the trust of the king and consequent deportation, disablement in an accident like falling from a height, falling from grace, getting bed-ridden, migration to another state or death happened to him, who will support his family and friends and keep them together like the string that ties the broom-strands. "It will, therefore, be proper for me to invite the members of the families of my four daughters-in-law and call a council of all my relatives, friends and well-wishers in the morning and after welcoming them with due respect and ceremony and treating them with ample food and drinks and giving them abundant gifts test their (four daughters-in-law's) capabilities in front of them so that I and they might know as to which of them is what", he thought. "By testing them like this I will be able to know as to which types of duties each of them is capable of handling in the household, within the family, amongst the family and friends and in the society, at large", he went on thinking. "I shall give each of them, five grains of paddy and see as to what each does with them", his thoughts ran on. The Council - Accordingly, in the morning he invited his family, friends, well-wishers and the members of the families of the four daughters-in-law and having welcomed them with due ceremony 324 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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and respect and treating them with ample food and drinks and presenting them with abundant gifts he called their council. Then, in front of all of them and the four daughters-in-law took five grains of paddy and called the eldest daughter-in-law, Ujjhika, to his presence and said, "O' dear daughter ! here, I have in my hands, five grains of paddy that I wish that you take from me and preserve and protect them and return them to me when I ask for them." Saying this, he handed over those five grains of paddy to Ujjhika and asked her to take her seat. Ujjhika accepted those grains very politely and said, "Very well, father! I shall do as you command." Ujjhika's Logic - However, taking those five grains of paddy, she went to her chamber and thought that her father-in-law's stores were full of sacks full of paddy and that she could take out five grains from any of the sacks and return as and when he asked for them. What was the use of going through the botheration of preserving and protecting those very five grains, she thought. Thinking like this, she threw them away and resumed her business. Bhogavati's Logic - Similarly, the second daughter-in-law, Bhogavati, was also given five grains of paddy and asked to preserve and protect them and to return them when asked for. She, too, took them and retired to her chamber and thought that she could take five grains of paddy from the store and return them when the father-in-law asked for them. However, she did not throw them away but dehusked them, popped them in her mouth and swallowed them. Raksikaos Logic Likewise the third daughter-in-law, Raksika, too, was given the five grains of paddy with similar instructions. She took them and going back to her chamber thought that there might be ROHINI KATKA THE LEGEND OF ROHINI: 325

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something special about the grains given her if her father in law, a wise man, had asked her to preserve and protect them. She tied them in a neat cloth and put them away in her jewellery-box, put the jewellery-box under her pillow and taking due care to check them three times a day, went about her work as usual. Rohini's Logic - Then, Dhanya, the merchant called the youngest daughterin-law, Rohini, and gave her the five grains of paddy with the same instructions as he had given to the three elder daughtersin-law. However, she thought that there ought to be some very special reason for the sage father-in-law's instructions and that the best way to preserve and protect and increase the five grains was to multiply them through cultivation. Thoughts Into Action - She, then, called the members of her maidenhood family and requested them that they must sow those five grains in the next sowing season and when the crop came, they must collect the produce there from and re-sow them and keep on repeating the process until she asked for the resultant produce. She also asked them to protect the crop by erecting fence around the plots in which they sowed those grains and the produce from the pests by suitable preservation. They did as she bid them to do. In the very first sowing season, her brothers cleaned and prepared a small plot of land and when the rain fell they sowed the five grains given them by their sister. Gradually those grains sprouted and grew into fine plants with glistening and tender green leaves. The brothers transplanted them in proper plots and they grew into paddy plants with dark green leaves and stout stems. Soon, the plants fructified and were laden with paddy ears. On ripening they cut the stems, with ripened yellowed ears, with freshly sharpened sickles and put them away to dry. When the ears dried 326 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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they rubbed them to separate the outer husk and collected the fresh paddy in suitable bowls and stored them in a corner of the granary When sowed a second time, the paddy so collected became many a bowls full, which, too, they stored till the next sowing season. They repeated the process in the third and the fourth rainy seasons as well and each time the quantity of paddy increased many times. Dhanya Recalls The Paddy Grains - When it was the fifth year running since the merchant, Dhanya, gave the paddy grains to his daughters-in-law, he had the thought that he must call the council of his family, friends and well-wishers again and find out as to what each of them (the daughters-in-law) had done with the grains given her. Accordingly, he invited them and after welcoming them with due ceremony and respect and treating them with ample food and drinks called the four daughters-in-law to his presence and proceeded to enquire of them one by one. Ujjhika's Insult - First of all he called the eldest daughter-in-law, Ujjhika, to his presence and said, "Dear daughter ! is it true that five years ago I had given you five grains of paddy and had asked you to preserve and protect them and to return them to me when I asked for them?" Ujjhika - "Yes, father ! it is true." Dhanya - "Then, daughter ! return those paddy grains to me now." Ujjhika - "Very well, father! I shall get them presently." Saying this she went to granary and taking out five grains of ROHINI KATHA THE LEGEND OF ROHINI : 327

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paddy from one of the bags returned to where Dhanya was and said, "Here, father ! here are those five grains of paddy." Thereupon the merchant asked her to tell him under oath if they were the same grains that he gave her five years ago?" Ujjhika - "No, father ! they are not the same, they are different." Dhanya - "Well ! whatever happened to the grains I gave you to preserve and protect?' Ujjhika - "Father ! when you gave me those grains I had agreed to preserve and protect them as you had asked me to but when I went to my chamber and thought that the granary was full of paddy, so, what was the use of preserving and protecting merely those five grains. I could give you the grains out of the granary when you asked for them", I thought. "Thinking like this, I threw those grains away and brought these grains from the granary to give them to you." Hearing this, the merchant was very angry and fuming with anger and in front of all the family and friends and well-wishers, admonished her and appointed her the cleaning woman of the house and said, "You are very apt at throwing away things. Therefore, this is the only job fit for you. Henceforth, you will clean and collect all the refuge from the house and throw it away, as is your wont." Everyone present there also discredited her for her carelessness and frivolity. She accepted her assignation with much shame and censure. Bhogavati's Bungling Then he called the second daughter-in-law, Bhogavati, and asked her to return the five grains of paddy that he had given her five years ago. Bhogavati, too brought five grains of paddy from 328 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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the store and gave them to her father-in-law. On being asked if those were the same grains as were given to her, she too replied that they weren't as she had swallowed them and gave the same reason for her action as Ujjhika had. Again, the merchant was annoyed and appointed her the kitchen maid of the house and entrusted her with the tasks of cleaning, beating, de-husking, cooking and serving food to the members of the family and the guests that came to the house. She, too was shamed by all those present there and had to look down for her inaptitude and lapse. Respected Raksika - The third daughter--in-law, Raksika, when asked to return the grains, could readily bring back the same grains as she was given and gave them to the merchant. When asked, she confirmed that those were the same grains as she was given and that she had preserved them in her jewellery-box and had carefully looked after them for all those five years. The merchant was happy on hearing her reply and praised her for her careful preservation of the entrusted grains. He, then, appointed her the treasurer of the household and entrusted her all the wealth for safekeeping. All those present there also praised her for her sense of responsibility and careful preservation and perseverance. Rohini's Glorious Surprise - Then, it was the turn of the youngest daughter--in-law, Rohini. When the merchant asked her to return the five grains that he had given her for preserving and protecting five years ago, she said, "Well, father! kindly provide me with many carts and vans so that I may return those five grains to you." Dhanya - "How is it, my daughter ! that you will bring ROHINI KATHA THE LEGEND OF ROHINI : 329

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those five grains of paddy in many carts and vans?" Rohini - "It is like this, father ! In these five years, through successive cultivation, those five grains of paddy have become hundreds of pots full of paddy. Therefore, O'father ! I require many carts and vans to fetch them here." Then, the merchant, Dhanya, gave her many carts and vans. Taking those carts and vans she went to her parents' house and brought back those hundreds of pots full of paddy to the place where the council met. As she drove through the town with those many carts and vans full of paddy, the towns-folks commented, "Behold the wise daughter-in-law of Dhanya, who can return five grains of paddy in so many carts and vans. Dhanya is fortunate to have a daughterin-law like her." When the carts and vans full of paddy were presented to the merchant, he was very happy and contented and accepted them with hearty satisfaction. Then and there he appointed Rohini as the chief of the household and declared her as capable of taking his place whenever the need arose. The Moral Of The Story - Concluding this story, the Lord said, "O'blessed ones ! like those four daughters-in-law of Dhanya, the monks and nuns are also of four types. Those who take the monastic vows only to throw them to the winds are like Ujjhika. They not only earn bad names for themselves in this world, but also endlessly wander in the cycle of mundane existence. Many a monk and nun and lay follower also makes fun of them. The monks and nuns who take the vows, fall prey to the 330 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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lures of the tongue, and compromise their vows in favour of the worldly pleasures like gastronomic delights are like Bhogavati. They, too, earn bad names for themselves in this world and transmigrate endlessly. Monks, nuns and lay follower also make fun of them. The monks and nuns who take the monastic vows and protect and preserve them carefully are like Raksika. They are praised, honoured and worshipped by many a monk, nun and lay follower and they practice flawless monasticism in their lives. The monks and nuns that not only protect and preserve their monastic vows but also enhance them by steadfast and creative imagination are like Rohini. They earn everyone's praise and are worshiped by all the monks, nuns and the lay followers in this world; in the world hereafter, too, they gain divine rebirth or altogether liberate from the mundane existence. Ye ROHINI KATHA THE LEGEND OF ROHINI : 331

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SECTION - VI PRACTICAL JAINISM

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This section is about the problems facing the world and how I the Jaina precepts and practices help in finding solutions to those problems. These are as shown in the model given below: JAINISM RESULTS IN NON-VIOLENCE PERSONAL HAPPINESS TRUTHFULNESS SOCIAL HARMONY NON-STEALING WORLD PEACE SEXUAL CONTINENCE ECOLOGICAL BALANCE NON-ENCUMBRANCE BETTER PERSONALITY NON-ABSOLUTISM EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT PRACTICAL JAINISM

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JAINISM AND PERSONAL HAPPINESS Personal Happiness - When we discuss personal happiness, our attention must focus on the matters and attitudes that ensure this vital ingredient of a wholesome life. While most spiritual leaders down the ages have pictured the worldly existence itself as full of pain and misery, Jainism offers a glimmer of hope in an otherwise hopeless situation. This essay examines the issues that cause misery and explains as to how adherence to Jaina precepts and following the Jaina way of life can relieve such misery and give happiness. The first question that we must answer before proceeding any further is - "What is happiness?" The Oxford dictionary defines happiness as a feeling or expression of pleasure, contentment or satisfaction. If that were the case, unhappiness or misery is a feeling or expression of pain, discontent or dissatisfaction. Causes Of Misery - Now, we come to the causes that result in such a feeling or expression of pain, discontent or dissatisfaction. They are not far to seek. We can list them as follows: - A. Attachment for the desirable things and beings and aversion for the undesirable ones, which can be grouped under one head - delusion -and which, in turn give rise to the following four,

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B. Greed, C. Deceitful disposition and actions, D. Anger emanating from violent disposition and activities guided by such mentality, and E. Vanity and pride. The sequence is very straight and easy to follow. The attachment for the desirable and physically pleasurable objects, called material wealth, and living beings that make for one's physical and emotional comfort, called animal or personal wealth, results in an insatiable desire for them. This is greed. The greedy person resorts to deceit in order to gain such wealth by depriving the others of the things and beings desired by him. If his scheming fails and he fails to gain such wealth and his desires remain unfulfilled, it gives rise to anger. An angry person invariably resorts to mental and physical violence, which is most of the times indiscriminate and at times misplaced. If his schemes succeed and he is able to accumulate the desired wealth by fooling others to part with it, he goes on an ego trip and his pride hits a new high. Such a vane and proud person is often unreasonable and irrational. This lack of reason and rationality causes all the misery for which, too, he blames the others and if this goes on unchecked his misery and pain find no end. Greed is, therefore, termed as the mother of al evils. Even the Bhagvadgita condemns it as an agent of destruction and indiscretion. Jaina Way: Panacea For Ending All Misery And A Potion For Happiness - When we have a look at the Jaina precepts and practices, we are astounded to find that they present to the miserable world the remedy for ending all misery and finding real happiness. Right-Perspective - The very first principle that the Jaina seers 336 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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and preceptors present to their followers is the inescapable need to have the right perspective on everything - live or lifeless that surrounds us. We term this as 'Right-view' or Samyagdarsana. This right perspective helps us in overcoming undue attachment and aversion and, thus, enables us to free ourselves from the clutches of delusion. This, in turn, helps us in rationalising and limiting our desires and the chain of misery is broken paving the way for happiness to dawn. Right-Knowledge - Next we come to the right-knowledge or Samyagjnana, which gives us the ability to know the right from the wrong and saves us from avoiding the pitfalls that are, mostly the result of ignorance. Right-knowledge also results in the development of right perspective through the appreciation of the transitory nature of the world and a comprehension of the fundamentals like the agents of karmic bondage and liberation and is, thus, another powerful instrument of happiness. Right-Conduct - Having dealt with the precept part, let's now come to the practice part or the right-conduct as the Jaina philosophy calls it. It is the right-conduct that is the essence of Jaina way of life. This is the practice part of Jainism. This runs in two distinct streams one for the clergy and the other for the lay followers. The first is much more rigorous than the second but they run on parallel lines - each incorporating the basic injunctions and guidelines that steer clear of misery and lead to much wanted happiness. It is the practice of contentment and satisfaction derived through limiting of needs and desire. Unlimited desires can never be fulfilled and they always cause misery, dissatisfaction and discontentment. Happiness Through Meditation Jainism lays a great emphasis on meditation by its followers and out of the four kinds of meditations decries the first two inauspicious kinds - despondent reflection and reflection actuated JAINISM AND PERSONAL HAPPINESS : 337

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by anger and advocates pious and pure reflections. It can be easily seen that the first two types cause unhappiness while latter two promote happiness. Happiness Of The Clerical Life - The life for the clergy is governed by the five great vows of observance of complete non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, sexual abstinence and non-possession and guided by the regulations that help them in a flawless observance of their vows. Let us examine the positive effects of observing these vows on their lives. For a better comprehension we shall do it in the reverse order. The vow of non-possession keeps them away from all forms of greed - the mother of all evils. The vow of sexual abstention keeps them away from the most powerful temptations and consequent miseries. The vow of non-stealing or, put in better words, the vow of not taking anything ungiven keeps them from eyeing others' possessions and from misappropriating them to one's own use. The vow of complete truthfulness helps them in accepting their faults, if any, undertaking the due atonement and forgetting the matter for all times to come rather than hiding their faults and getting constantly stung by the attendant feeling of guilt. The vow of complete non-violence towards all the creatures from the smallest to the biggest ones helps them in developing a feeling of universal love and brotherhood, to overcome the feeling of animosity towards even the wrongdoers and gain an inner equanimity and harmony. All the five vows if truly observed, thus, reduce all tensions and help the monks and nuns to lead a life of complete contentment and satisfaction. Happiness Through The Lay Followers' Life-style - The Jaina injunctions and regulations that govern and guide the Lay followers' lives are essentially the same as the ones for the clergy but at a lesser degree of rigour. They are, therefore, termed as minor vows - Anuvrata as compared to the great vows 338 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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or Maha-vrata of the clerics. The five minor vows for the laity are abstention from 1. Intentional gross violence, 2. Intentional gross lies, 3. Intentional gross thefts, 4. Intentional gross violations of the sexual discipline and 5. Unlimited possessions and conspicuous consumption. There are seven other supporting vows which help them in flawless observance of these basic vows and promoting the social harmony between the members of the religious order. These wows go to create a sound personal life and a harmonious social order in which an individual member can lead a life of satisfaction and contentment that is devoid of undue tensions and frictions arising from leading unregulated lives that infringe upon the lives of the others by treading on their toes. Need we to mention that such life is the life full of pleasure, contentment, satisfaction and happiness. Conclusion - We can conclude this essay by saying that Jaina tenets and a life led in accordance with their dictates is a life free of tensions, grudges, discontentment, dissatisfaction and attendant misery and full of relief, harmony, contentment, satisfaction and attendant happiness. In other words - Jaina way of life is the answer to personal happiness. Wan JAINISM AND PERSONAL HAPPINESS : 339

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JAINISM AND SOCIAL HARMONY Importance of Social Harmony - Everyone is aware of the pain and misery that is wrought upon the society and its individual members in a society torn by strife and conflict and the state of pleasure and happiness that prevails in a society blessed with harmony, agreement and understanding. A state of social harmony is of paramount importance because the societies in states of disharmony are in states of discontent as well and it is the harmonious societies that make all-round progress. Harmony is nothing but a state of agreement and understanding of mutual feelings, interests and opinions. The conflict arises when we fail to appreciate the feelings, interests, opinions and view-points of others and abruptly reject them in favour of conflicting views. In any society such a state of affairs breeds mutual hatred and results in unresolved conflicts. As the very aim of every form of existence is to gain pleasure and happiness, it stands to logic that human beings have been in search of ways and means to resolve such conflicts and promote harmony. Jaina seers are no exception to this rule and they, too, have been on the lookout for such means. In this essay we propose to examine as to how effective the search by the Jaina seers down the ages has been and how effective the Jaina precepts and a life led in accordance with these precepts are in resolution of social conflicts and paving the way for social harmony.

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Causes Of Social Conflicts - Every society can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous. The societies with its members from same caste and creed and that exhibit similar attitudes, interests and dispositions are said to be homogeneous and those that have members belonging to different castes and creeds, that exhibit varying attitudes, interests and dispositions are said to be heterogeneous. We can well infer that it is the heterogeneous societies that are more prone to social conflicts rather than the homogeneous ones. However, there may be occasions when even the homogeneous societies also suffer pangs of social conflict. The causes of social conflict can be grouped under the following heads: A. In Heterogeneous Societies - (i) Religious intolerance, (ii) Intolerance for different social customs, (iii) Lack of appreciation for different views, (iv) Racial and cultural differences, (v) Exploitative and expansionist attitudes of some social groups, etc. B. In Homogeneous Societies (i) Sectarian views and ambitions, (ii) Conflicts arising out of property and possession disputes or those over wealth and women, (iii) Personal vanities and ambitions, (iv) Passional dispositions of individuals and leaders, etc. When we have a look at these causes of social conflict, it dawns upon us that none of these causes are irremediable and that these can be resolved with due application and sincerity on the part of the individuals and the leaders of the societies concerned. In what follows we will be able to see and appreciate that sincerely applied and followed the Jaina precepts have the JAINISM AND SOCIAL HARMONY: 341

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capacity to resolve all such conflicts and are, therefore, prime need of the hour at a time when the societies everywhere are being torn asunder by these very causes. Jainism: The Remedy For Social Conflicts - In this part of the essay we will see as to how various Jaina principles and precepts resolve various causes of social conflicts and contribute to the promotion of social harmony. The most potent conflict resolvers are the principles of right-vision, rightknowledge, non-violence, respect for others' property rights, truthfulness, controlled greed, sexual discipline, simplicity of lifestyle, inconspicuous consumption, non-absolutism, subdued passions, mutual respect and universal love. We shall now discuss their effectiveness one by one. Right-Vision - Most conflicts arise out of our inability to see things in their right perspective. The Jaina thought lays most emphasis on development of this ability and thereby equips its followers with an insight that can see things as they are and not with a distorted view. This insight resolves the conflicts arising out of lack of proper perspectives. The causes that fall in this category and which are easily resolved by having a right perspective are racial, religious and cultural intolerance. Right-Knowledge -- Lack of proper knowledge also gives rise to conflicts. Most religious and cultural conflicts fall in this category. We are unable to appreciate the others' religious tenets, precepts and norms for want of their knowledge and feel threatened by this lack of knowledge. Gaining proper knowledge of own as well as that of the other religions and cultures are of utmost importance for conflict resolution. Jaina emphasis on gaining right-knowledge is well known. So much so that it is considered to be one of the three liberating elements. 342 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Non-Violence - If we were to state the most important tenet of Jainism, it is non-violence. We cannot help but realise that violent thoughts are at the very root of all conflicts and the conflicts escalate when such thoughts are translated into actions. Jainism advocates giving up violence at both levels, resolution of all differences in a non-violent manner and thereby facilitates a conflict free life for its followers as well as for the society at large. Respect For Others' Property Rights - History is evidence to the fact that wealth and women have been the causes of most conflicts. The third major and minor vows for the clergy and the laity respectively enjoins them to respect others' property rights and refrain from their thefts or forcible possession. All conflicts arising out of matters of wealth either do not arise or get readily resolved if this principle is sincerely and faithfully followed. This applies equally effectively in both types of societies - homogeneous as well as heterogeneous. Another aspect of this issue is greed control. We have discussed earlier in this work that greed is the mother of all evils. Most conflicts have greed for material as well as emotional adjuncts as the root-cause. Jaina vow of non-possession for the members of the clergy and those of simplicity of life-style, limited possession and inconspicuous consumption by the laity is the clarion call for neutralising all conflicts that arise out of uncontrolled greed. Subdued Passions -- Another related aspect is that of rising passions - anger, pride, and deceit that, too, is a contributory factor in initiation as well as escalation of conflicts. Jaina precept holds that passions form the glue that binds the karma matter with the soul to inhibit its spiritual progress. All right minded Jaina believers are, therefore, advised to subdue their passions in the self-interest, which indirectly helps in conflict resolution and promotion of social harmony. JAINISM AND SOCIAL HARMONY : 343

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Truthfulness Lies, lies and lies. Some never seem to tire of telling lies. Many a conflict has lies at its root. Lies when found out give rise to disbelief and consequent lack of trust, which, in turn results in conflict. The Jaina way firmly denies its followers the taking of shelter behind lies and advocates strictest adherence to truth in all walks of life. Need it be mentioned in so many words that adherence to truth promotes trust and resolves conflicts. Sexual Discipline Jaina vow of sexual abstinence by the members of clergy and that of strictly disciplined sexual life by its lay followers keep them away from conflicts originating from the most potent cause of conflict women. Principle Of Non-absolutism One of the most important agent of social harmony that is the remedy for conflicts arising out of differing view-points is the principle of non-absolutism that states that in this changing world of ours nothing is absolute. There are, therefore, no absolute truths and no absolute untruths. The truth has infinitely many facets, which only an omniscient visionary can see and know. We, with our limited vision and perception can at best see and appreciate only a few of those infinitely many aspects. Therefore, it is imprudent for any of us to insist upon that insufficient knowledge as the absolute truth and thereby cause conflicts. This realisation instils in us a respect for the others' views and is, thus, the greatest harmonising factor. Universal Love - The spirit of universal love is reflected in the Jaina addict that reads, "Friendship for all the creatures, respect for all the virtuous, compassion for all the miserable, a disposition of equanimity in adversity; Grant me O' Lord! always and every 344 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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time." Most conflicts arise out a feeling of animosity towards the others for one reason or the other. A feeling of universal love, when it starts flowing in our veins drives a death knell in any such feeling of animosity and paves the way for absolute social peace tranquillity and harmony. Jainism is so particular about this principle of universal love for all the living beings that it advocates complete or all possible avoidance of hurt or injury not only to the big and discernible life but also to the smallest microscopic creatures like the invisible bacteria and Nigodias of the vegetable origin. It goes without saying that such feeling of universal love transfers itself to the members of the society at large and promotes social harmony. Conclusion - We conclude this essay on social harmony through the pursuit of Jaina precepts by saying that the very Jaina way of life is to rise above conflicts and seek harinony in personal as well as the social life. Following the Jaina precepts, therefore, paves the way for social harmony. JAINISM AND SOCIAL HARMONY : 345

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JAINISM AND WORLD-PEACE World Peace: The Need Of The Time - The world today is in the grip of conflict and strife. It is being torn asunder by threats of wars and terrorism. The Ethnic conflicts are at an all time high and various fundamentalist groups are fanning these conflicts to make their presence felt and to make political capital out of them. The world today is at its most unsafe epoch. The situations are being made more complicated by political and economic hegemonistic tendencies of some powerful nations and terrorising tendencies of some ethnic groups. Wherever we cast a glance on the globe, our eyes fall on trouble spots. Be it the Middle East, Far East or Southeast. Arab-Israel conflict has become a festering sore; the United States of America has waged wars in Afghanistan and Iraq and is now threatening Iran with dire consequences; North Korea is escalating its fatal arsenal at the annoyance of the USA; Pakistan is fomenting trouble and actively supporting the separatist terrorist groups in Kashmir with men and material and moral support and the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka has claimed thousands of innocent lives and it still shows no sign of subsiding. This is not to mention the lesser intra-national insurgent movements that have various political, economic, religious and ethnic reasons. All of them are violent in nature and portend death and destruction. The world, at large, is in their grip and is looking askance for some hope of amity and peace.

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Causes Of Conflict The causes of conflict can be broadly divided into the following four categories: A. Political-The political aspirations, justified in some cases and unjust in some others, of some groups, when not met, result in their violent expressions and the conflicts come into being. However, whether just or unjust they result in human misery and loss of not only human but other forms of life as well. The examples abound - The Chechen movement in Russia, the Tamil movement in Sri Lanka, and insurgency in Kashmir are glaring examples of this kind. B. Economic - When one group or nation greedily eyes the economic resources of another group or nation the conflict becomes inevitable. The US ambition of controlling oil resources of the Middle East is one such example. C. Ethnic The separatist tendencies of one ethnic group from the domination of another group as well as rejection of just claims of one ethnic group by another numerically or otherwise stronger group always results in ethnic discord and violent conflict. The Arab-Israeli conflict, the Tamil insurgency in Sri Lanka, the Chechen uprising in Russia can be seen in this light. 1 D. Religious - When one religious group tries to dominate the other, when there are forcible or enticing conversions, when there is religious intolerance amongst various religious groups that have to coexist for geopolitical reasons, the conflict cannot be avoided. The expansionist tendencies of some religious denominations also significantly contribute to such conflicts. The Religious fundamentalism of all kinds and conversions by some missionary groups fall in this category. There is no need to say that this single cause is the most dominant cause of JAINISM AND WORLD-PEACE : 347

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strife in the world today. Whether it is the WTC episode of September 11 or Terrorist strikes in India and Indonesia, they have a common message for all of us. Religious expansionist ambition and religious intolerance mean war, terrorism, conflict and strife. Besides these major causes of conflict there are some more that must not be overlooked if we aim at a world at peace with itself. They are as under: - A. Egocentric Approach - When an individual or a group starts thinking that what it thinks or believes in is the only right thing, everything else is wrong, it spells trouble for every other individual and group may also think likewise and the conflict becomes inevitable. Such approach is called absolutist approach and is a surest cause of conflict. All the religious discord and animosities between the followers of different creeds from times immemorial including the religious wars and campaigns are witness to conflicts arising from this mentality. B. Economic Inequity - Wealth when concentrated in the hands of some classes, attracts the envious attention of the deprived masses. The root cause of this inequity is greed. C. Tensions - Undue ambition, extravagance and lack of understanding results in tensions, which when left unresolved manifest themselves in the form of psychopathic disorders and violent expressions. They shatter peace and tranquillity and make lives miserable. D. Unethical Applications Of Science And Technology - Scientific and technological advancements were meant to be boons for humanity in particular and for the other forms of life on the planet in general. Instead their unethical application has resulted in the development of nuclear, biological and chemical weapons of mass 348 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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destruction. The unethical means employed by the producers of such weapons to find market for their wares have resulted in sponsored wars where the parties instigated by such traders go to war and become hapless buyers of such weaponry manufactured by these unscrupulous perpetrators of misery. Jaina Answer For Conflict Resolution And For Ushering In World Peace - Jainism offers solutions to all the problems cited above that cause conflicts. The Jaina precepts such as non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, moderate possessions and inconspicuous consumption, non-egocentric approach and universal love go a long way in the direction of resolving all such conflicts. In the paragraphs that follow, we will see as to how each of these precepts contributes to conflict resolution and thereby to promote world peace. Non-violence - is the single most potent conflict-resolving factor. It is as effective in international arena as it is in national, social and personal lives. Here I would like to mention that as long as India and China both sincerely adhered to the principle of Pancasila, their conflicts did not come to a head. Following the principle of non-violence makes it possible for nations to avoid wars and even smaller armed conflicts. An appreciation of this most humane principle may induce a feeling of abhorrence for wanton killings even in the minds of the most hardcore terrorists. There is no doubt that a universal acceptance and application of this Jaina tenet will leave the world tranquil and peaceful. Truthfulness - Diplomacy these days has come to mean saying one thing and doing quite the other. This queer policy may succeed for some time but when the affected parties realise that they had been taken for a ride by clever diplomatic manipulations JAINISM AND WORLD-PEACE : 349

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the conflict complicates further rather than getting resolved. Such sheltering behind cleverly hidden lies becomes the greatest stumbling blocks in the process of achieving peace. It will also not be incorrect to say that creating markets for one's warlike merchandise by the manufacturing country is often based on its false propaganda and falsely instigating one neighbouring country against the other. It is not difficult to imagine that if a world order based on absolute adherence to truth could be created, it will be a world bereft of strife and full of peace and amity. Non-stealing - The Jaina concept of non-stealing is not only refraining from theft as such but also to refrain from taking or accepting anything, how-so-ever small and inconsequential, without the permission of its rightful owner. Such absolute adherence to respect for the others' property rights in the international dealings will not leave any room for disputes of territory and other economic conflicts. It can be said with some authority that if such a situation prevails, no conflicts will assume the proportions where wars may have to be fought and peace may have to be shattered. This applies equally to the matters of tangible as well as intellectual properties. Moderate Possessions And Inconspicuous ConsumptionImagine a world order where the developed countries moderate their needs, which often border on wasteful luxury and conspicuous consumption, and share their wealth with the underdeveloped countries. Will there be hungry and deprived billions in the world then? The answer is an obvious 'No'. Can there be any conflict in a world with no hunger and deprivation? The answer will again have to be a 'No'. This seems to be a Utopian ideal but that is what Jainism preaches to its followers. If the entire world were to follow the Jaina precept of moderate possessions and inconspicuous consumption, the world may well be rid of conflict and the peace may prevail. 350 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Anekantavada: The Harbinger Of Peace And Prosperity - It is the egocentric approach to things where an individual or a country thinks that what it feels for the world at large is the only right thing to do for each and every nation and who-so-ever disagrees with its views is to be roundly thrashed. It spells doom for the world. Such absolutist views are resented by everyone and give rise to conflict at every stage. Jainism with its nonabsolutist principle of Anekanta, which advocates that the truth is multifaceted and everyone's views may have something that is right and worth consideration and thereby respects everyone's views, is the surest formula for conflict resolution and melting away of tensions in international matters. All sorts of conflicts, ethnic disputes, religious intolerance, ideological differences and racial discrimination can be resolved through the application of this one principle. Need I to mention that if all disagreements are sorted out in accordance with the Anekanta approach, there will be no discord or contention and peace will be within reach. Universal Love - A feeling of universal love, friendship and fraternity that runs through the Jaina way of life, which respects the integrity of even the microscopically small life-forms, be adopted universally, it will result in universal non-violence and a feeling of compassion for all. The world so imbued with love and compassion will not resort to violence in finding solution to any of its problems how-so-ever complex. This, we can appreciate, is the most potent potion for remedying the problems of the world riddled with violence, strife and terrorism. Conclusion - In this essay we have tried to examine the problems that give rise to conflict and consequent disputes, wars, armed uprising, insurgency, terrorism and strife in general. We identified the political, economic, ideological and egocentric reasons for such disharmonious state of affairs. When we examined all these issues JAINISM AND WORLD-PEACE : 351

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in the light of Jaina perspective and its precepts of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, moderation in consumption and accumulation of wealth, non-absolutist view-point, and universal love, we noticed that if the world be imbued with these noble ideals, the conflicts will not be able to withstand their radiance. It is quite reasonable to conclude that Jainism, with its nobility of approach, is certainly the way of life that can put an end to the world-wide conflict and contention and pave the way for peace, prosperity, amity, harmony and tranquillity in the international life. Jaina ideals offer a hope for the world torn by violence and terror. 352 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS OF JAINISM Environmental Calamity - The human greed, consequent reckless exploitation of natural resources and careless release of polluting wastes into the vulnerable Eco-system has taken the toll of the ecological balance in nature and has resulted in the environmental imbalance that has made life difficult not only for the humans but also for all the other forms of life on this planet. Environmental Concerns Of Jainism - The Jaina motto 'Parasparograho Jivanam' voices the environmental concerns of Jainism. This motto means that all forms of lives, how-so-ever big or small and how-so-ever higher or lower on the scale of evolution are interdependent and one form cannot survive without the support of the other forms. It, therefore, implies that all living beings must maintain a judicious balance with the other living beings and live in harmony with them. This is further strengthened by the basic Jaina precept of non-violence towards all forms of life from the microscopic one sensed earth, water, air, fire bodied creatures as well as vegetation through the intelligent five sensed creatures such as some animals and the humans.

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The Causes Of Environmental Degradation - The causes of environmental degradation and ecological imbalance are not far to seek. They can be grouped under the following heads: - 1. Unplanned and reckless exploitation of natural resources, 2. Wasteful conspicuous consumption by human beings, 3. Removal of balancing agents from the Eco-system, and 4. Thoughtless release of polluting wastes from homes and industries into the delicately balanced Eco-system. The Jaina Remedy - The Jaina way of life firstly prevents all these causes and secondly, helps in the restoration of the disturbed ecological balance as it regards non-violence and harmony between various parts of the Eco-system as inseparable. Lord Mahavira, in His preaching, laid utmost emphasis on maintaining harmony between the six types of life forms and said, "A considerate follower of the faith must treat all the six forms of life with equal concern and never act so as to hurt or injure them." (Dasavaikalika, 4.29). Ecological Balance And Jaina Way Of Life - The Jaina answer to this eternal problem lies in making the most evolved of the earthly beings, the human beings, responsible for its solution. As the Jaina way of life, for both - the clergy as well as the laity, has been evolved around the principal of nonviolence towards all life forms irrespective of their stages of evolution from the most evolved humans through the animals, birds and fishes as well as the insects and the microscopic organism, it makes for the preservation of the ecological balance by countering all the causes that go to disturb it. Jainism prohibits its followers from destroying of the interdependent life support systems that ensure such a balance by realising that other living 354 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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beings that constitute the Eco-system also do a lot of good. Jainism tackles these issues on two levels -- spiritual as well as practical. Spiritually, it advocates that protection of all the six categories of living beings and that leading a life of minimal interference in the natural existence is soul purifying because it does not incur any sin and helps one in achieving separation from the earlier bonded karma. Practically, the Jaina injunctions for the clergy as well as the laity are such as to inhibit them from any interference in the Eco-system of the nature. Jaina Vows And Environmental Protection - As far as the Jaina clergy is concerned, their vows of complete non-violence, complete adherence to truth, nonstealing, sexual abstinence and non--possession are so stringent that that their way of life does not militate with the ecological balance in any way. From the non-violence point of view, they do not kill hurt or torment any living being, do not eat meat, do not trample or pluck vegetation, do not use anything that may be live and thereby may have a chance to hurt it. For them to pollute, disturb, hurt or destroy anything in the nature is to commit violence towards the creatures that constitute it and, therefore, they walk, talk, eat, sit, stand and lie down after taking care that they do not hurt any living being in the process. Their observance of complete and absolute non-violence ensures that they do not interfere with the ecological balance but promote its protection They faithfully abide by the dictates of their holy canons that maintain that all life is equal and to hurt or kill any living being of the lowest denomination such as that from the vegetable kingdom or from the microscopic variety is also sinful. So much so that the Jaina monks and nuns do not eat raw vegetables, drink untreated water, or tread upon wet patches or cross over puddles or rivers unless there is no other way to go across. Also, they do not enter rivers or pools or lakes for bathing. Their vows of celibacy non-possession, five-way vigilance and three-way ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS OF JAINISM : 355

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restraint also keeps them away from all temptations and helps them in practising complete non-violence and thereby helping protection of the ecological balance. They are so conscious about environmental pollution that monks and nuns of some sects even tie pieces of cloth over their mouths so as not to cause air pollution. Jaina laity, too, observes such restrictions as the monks and the nuns but only less rigorously. Their minor vows of refraining from gross violence (meaning strict and inviolable vegetarianism), gross untruth, gross stealing, gross violation of sexual discipline, and unlimited possession and conspicuous consumption go a long way in making them follow a life style that does not grossly infringe upon the natural environment. Besides the fact that many Jaina laymen and lay women follow some of the restrictions meant for the clergy, the Jaina householders are also prohibited from pursuing such vocations as cause mass destruction of life of any fine or gross kind. They do not fell trees, cut or burn forests, empty ponds and dig mines, run slaughterhouses or trade in meat or any products thereof. They even do not run such industries that have harmful effluents and cause heavy pollution of ground, air or water. They do not hunt or keep animals or birds of prey as pets. They also do not resort to use of pesticides and, in general, refrain from all forms of avoidable violence towards all forms of life that constitute the Eco-system. They consider all these as grave sins and term them as 'Maharambha'. Some Jaina householders also restrict the quantity of water and number of vegetables that they can take. Vegetarianism : The Most Important Environmental Protection - Vegetarianism is one of the strictly inviolable injunctions for the Jaina clergy as well as the lay followers. Also, it is the most important environment protecting measure. It is said that the animals that the non-vegetarians eat in one month eat away vegetable food that can sustain hundreds of hungry humans for 356 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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one whole year. Non-vegetarianins is an environmental threat in more than one ways. Firstly, it takes away those animals from the Eco-system that are the natural food of the animals of prey. Secondly, it causes the extinction of a large variety of floras by the animals that are artificially raised for meeting the demands of the flesh-foods. Thirdly, it is responsible for the extinction of many kinds of faunas by starving them of their natural food. Fourthly, It disturbs the natural ecological balance by tampering with its ingredients. Fifthly, the chemical fertilisers and pesticides used in order to meet the artificially inflated demand of vegetable food for feeding the livestock for flesh-foods and poultry also cause irreparable harin to the Eco-system. Sixthly, the butcheries and slaughter houses release such effluents in the surroundings, which are a major cause of ground, surface water, sub-soil water and atmospheric pollution. All these considerations force us to conclude that meat eating is most injurious to the environment. Conclusion We can conclude this essay on environmental concerns of Jainism by quoting from the Rio declaration that very significantly incorporates the Jaina thought: "We believe that the universe is sacred because all is one. We believe in the sanctity and the integrity of all life forms. We affirm the principles of peace and non-violence in governing the human behaviour towards one another and all life." ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS OF JAINISM : 357

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"We view ecological disruption as a violent intervention into the web of life. Genetic engineering threatens the very fabric of life. We urge governments, scientists and industry to refrain from rushing into genetic manipulation." Also, to quote from Dr. N.P. Jain: "Jaina ecological consciousness is grounded in a judicious blend of divine holism and vision of non-exploitative science and technology. Instead of ignoring or side tracking one another, religion and science must go hand in hand and chart a single path to guide humans spiritually in the direction of preservation of our planet and conservation of its resources. The scientific approach, reasoning and practices prescribed by Jaina religion are, thus, highly relevant today when environmental concerns are on the top of human agenda." "Jaina philosophy exhorts and inspires human beings to become the spiritual agents for preserving the grace and dignity of Mother Earth and enhancing the productivity and vitality of the natural phenomenon. After all, all human beings, nature and the other living beings are a part of an organic whole - a oneness in the vast eternity of time and space." - Jainism has preached this from time immemorial. 358: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THROUGH ANEKANTA APPROACH Management and Anekantavada - Management means the art of optimal application of resources to achieve the organisational goals. Here, the key word is optimal application of resources. If the resources were unlimited or there was no compulsion to achieve the organisational goals, there would be no need for management of any kind. However, the resources being limited and there being a need to realise the organisational goals, the managerial skills are needed. All organisations need management. The organisations can be broadly classified into two categories -- service providing organisations, which only provide human services and do not manufacture or sell any material products and industrial organisations, which produce and sell material products. The first kind of organisations are basically man-power organisations and they mainly depend on man-management for their best output. The second kind is more comprehensive as it manages finance, material, as well as man-power resources for ensuring best output. The time resource is common to both these types. In managing any kind of resource a manager has to consider many factors that affect his decision and profitability of the organisation. It is where the multidimensional approach or Anekantavada comes into play.

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Anekantavada or multidimensional approach means that we consider an issue from all possible angles and do not get swayed by one of its more prominent aspects. Considering only one of the aspects is called one-sided approach and may not produce the best results. As any organisation would demand from its managers the best results that can be produced through the given resources of enterprise, land, man-power, money, material and machine, it becomes incumbent on them to resort to multidimensional approach. Anekantavadais, thus, essential for the success of the management systems. Its application is as relevant in the field of man-power management as it is in the fields of enterprise, land, money, material and machine management. In the following paragraphs we shall consider as to how the application of Anekanta or multidimensional approach helps in optimising profits. Applied Anekanta in Various Fields of Management As the aim of any organisation is to apply limited resources in order to maximise profits, it employs management techniques through its managers. Here we must be very clear about the term 'profit'. Profit always does not mean monetary gain only. It can be tangible as well as intangible. For example when a company produces and sells some product, its sales revenue minus its production and marketing costs means its profit and it can be measured in terms of monetary gain. However, when a religious organisation such as an order of the priests preaches the gospel the profit is in terms of moral ethics and spiritual upliftment of the parish, which cannot be measured in tangible terms. However, both the organisations try to get the best output from their resources and therefore, take into account a host of considerations for ensuring it. This consideration of more than one aspect of things and reconciling seemingly conflicting inputs is where the theory of Anekanta is best applied. 360 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Organisational Essentials and Anekanta - Any organisation needs certain essential inputs for it to function effectively. One or more of the following ingredients are essential for an organisation: - A. Enterprise - It is the individual or a group of individuals that shoulder the entire responsibility for the organisation. They employ the capital, which in turn hires or purchases the other ingredients, and enjoy the profits or suffer the losses. In the ultimate analysis it is the entrepreneur that has the final say on any matter in the organisation. However, he delegates powers and responsibilities to the managers for day to day functioning of the organisation. In smaller organisations, however, the entrepreneur is also the manager. The entrepreneur decides the location (land) of his enterprise, the capital to be employed (money), the personnel to be hired (man--power), raw material to be purchased (material) and the machines to be installed (machine). For taking all these decisions he has to consider many inputs some of which may be mutually conflicting and has to reconcile them. He employs the multiple approach in all these fields. He can hardly dispense with Anekanta. B. Money - Once the entrepreneur decides to raise an organisation he has to arrange capital for translating his ideas into action. He can do so from own resources, by taking loans from the banks and other financial institutions, from private moneylenders, etc. Each of these sources has its own pros and cons. While the loan from the banks may be at lower interest rates, it may have some conditions attached to it, which may be difficult to fulfil. Also it may not be available at the nick of time. At such times the private loan at higher rates of interest may be the only answer. One has to weigh the pros and cons and decide as to which type of money source to mobilise when. LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THROUGH ANEKANTA : 361

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A strict adherence to only one norm say bank loan only may cause some very critical operations to be stalled at times and may result in heavy losses. One has to consider all the aspects and adopt the multiple approach in accordance with Anekanta. -- C. Land - Land includes the factory, offices or the business premises of the organisation. Again a number of variables have to be considered before a decision can be taken about a suitable site. Considerations like cost, distance from the habitation or market-place, distance from the area where the raw material is available, etc are mutually conflicting. The inexpensive land may be very far from the main business district of the town and may not prove profitable in the long run. The transportation of raw materials and final products to far off places may prove quite expensive. So saving on the cost of land may mean a direct saving but may result in indirect expenses, which may be very heavy and adversely affect the profitability of the organisation. The Management has to reconcile these conflicting issues and take a decision in accordance with the rules of multiple approach - Anekanta. D. Manpower - Again, the hiring of manpower resource is riddled with many conflicting elements like quality versus wages. One has to consider as to which positions are to be filled with well-qualified personnel, of proven ability, at much higher wages and which ones to be filled with those of minimum qualifications at lower wages. One has also to consider as to which staff can be trained on the job and which have to be hired fully trained. All these decisions depend on the multiple approach and are best decided in the light of Anekanta. E. Machine-Considerations of cost always militate against those of quality. Again, shutting down for regular maintenance and replacement of worn out parts requires 362 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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careful consideration. Too early and too late may both be counterproductive. Too early means higher costs and too late means frequent breakdowns. Both spell doom for the organisation. The manager has to be resilient enough to take decisions on the merits of each situation, taking into account different conflicting considerations. Here, too, Anekanta comes to his aid. F. Material - Material management is a rather complex subject. Judicious inventory of raw materials and finished products are important. Inventories mean costs but lack of inventories means starving plants and dissatisfying shortages and consumer alienation. Multiple approach is essential to handle this subject as well. Anekanta is the answer, again. Anekanta Applied to Different Areas of Management Anekanta approach also comes to the fore in different areas of management such as Financial, Personnel, Production and Marketing management. This is being discussed in the paragraphs that follow: - A. Financial Management - Capital investments, borrowing of capital and its application in various areas of operation such as rent, wages, installations, maintenance, procurement, production, inventory holdings, marketing, advertisement as well as profits taking and ploughing back requires consideration of a host of conflicting issues. Only Anekantic multiple approach can help the managers to arrive at judicious and balanced decisions that can maximise profits. B. Personnel Management - Besides the considerations of hiring and firing discussed earlier, one has to consider the motivation of the workers to put in their best and to LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THROUGH ANEKANTA : 363

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interdepartmental and intradepartmental co-ordination. The manger has to know that he is dealing with people, who have different motives and propensities. Some may be moved by pecuniary benefits while for some recognition may be more important. Again, rewards promotions and punishments - demotions may persuade some others. Trade unions are also ever-ready to throw the spanner in the wheel. Manager who cannot reconcile these conflicting considerations cannot ensure the desired profitability of the organisation and may soon be shown the door. C. Production Management Production management involves procurement of raw materials of right qualities in right quantities, to have their adequate stock in order to meet the plant's demand for a considerable period, to ensure proper running of the plant with lowest mean time between failures (MTBF), to ensure proper quality assurance, to produce in accordance with projected market demand so as to avoid shortages as well as inflated inventories. Some of these requirements are in direct conflict with some of the others. The reconciling of such conflicting requirements is the hallmark of Anekanta. D. Marketing Management - No organisation can survive unless it can sell what it produces. The Marketing pundits aver that in a market steeped in competition, it is not only the best product that sells but also the best-advertised one that does. Marketing involves market-research, advertisement, demand and supply analysis, customer satisfaction, and competitive price-structure and a host of other considerations. The marketing manager has to consider as to how much to spend on the marketing research, advertisements, incentives to the marketing network and the customers, so as to attract enough attention and yet to keep the prices competitive. The 5 364: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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P's of 'Marketing Mix' that includes the considerations of Product, Price, Place, Promotion and Packaging beautifully sum up all these considerations. No need to mention that Anekantic multiple approach is the only one that can save the day for the marketing manger when the chips are down. Anekanta and Management Functions - Finally, we come to the important area of management functions and examine as to how the time-tested principle of Anekanta aids the managers to discharge these functions effectively. The management functions are four - 1. Planning, 2. Organising, 3. Co-ordinating and 4. Controlling. A. Planning - No endeavour can be expected to succeed unless it is backed by sound planning. Planning requires taking into account, and reconciliation of as diverse and conflicting considerations as costs of various material as well as service inputs, market-research, competition, etc. Planning can be effective only if various factors are not only considered and reconciled but different view-points are also taken into account and rationality is always maintained. Any bias based on absolutism makes the planning flawed and renders the organisational goals susceptible to failure. An Anekantic manager will not be swayed by such biases and ensure maximising the profitability of his organisation. B. Organising - A manager is as effective as his organising ability. To a large extent it depends on his leadership qualities like ability to enthuse and motivate the workers and management cadres to draw the best out of them, to ensure proper financial, material, production and marketing management. To do all this he has to constantly juggle with a large number of conflicting considerations. His success or failure depends on his ability or inability LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THROUGH ANEKANTA : 365

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to consider all these and to draw logical conclusions. It is obvious that only a multiple approach or Anekantic approach can accomplish this seemingly impossible miracle. C. Co-ordinating Modern industrial, service-sector, social, political or religious organisations are agglomerations of large number of departments and subordinate organisations. Unless all these function as organic wholes, the success of the organisation remains questionable. The top manager who has to achieve this organic integrity of the organisation has to co-ordinate their functioning. As all the departments and sub-organs have their own motives, such co-ordination is by no means a simple task. It is not difficult to see that such coordination can only be achieved through the reconciliation of the motives of various sub-organs by following the Anekantic approach. D. Controlling - Having co-ordinated, the top manager has also to ensure that all the sub-organs of the organisation function in accordance with the arrived at decisions. This is the function of management control. Again, for effective control the top manager has to depend on various means such as Management Information System, Systemic checks, giving timely corrections, subordinate accountability, etc. It goes without saying that an effective control can only be achieved by dealing with all these means by adopting the multiple approach or Anekantavada. Conclusion - In this essay we have seen that the effectiveness of any organisation depends on its ability to function as an organic whole. This involves planning, organising, co-ordination and controlling by the manager in as diverse areas as finance, personnel, 366 JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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production and marketing by judicious balancing the six essential ingredients of organisation like enterprise, land, money, manpower, machine and material to ensure maximum profitability of the organisation. At each stage in the three divisions of this essay we have concluded that effective management is possible only through the adoption of Anekantic multiple approach at all levels of management. LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT THROUGH ANEKANTA: 367

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JAINA PRECEPTS FOR PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT Personality - Personality is the sum total of a person's physical, intellectual, psychological, social, moral and dynamic traits. It is also the overall impression that a person makes on the others. A person, as is evident, may have desirable as well as undesirable traits. These traits make him likeable or disliked. The importance of a desirable personality lies in the fact that a person's success or failure in every walk of life - professional, family, social, political, religious and spiritual - depend on it. Personality Development - As the very name suggests, personality development means development of desirable physical, intellectual, psychological, emotional, social, moral and dynamic qualities of a person. Physical Aspect Of Personality - The visual impact of a person is due to his physical personality. It includes all those aspects that are externally noticeable. They include : -- (a) Appearance - (i) Physique, (ii) Grooming, and (iii) Dress.

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(b) Bearing - (i) Gait, (ii) Carriage, and (iii) Seat and posture. (c) Body-language shows - (i) Confidence or diffidence, (ii) Submission or resistance, and (iii) Careful or careless nature, etc. (d) Mannerisms - These are significant body movements that indicate various personality traits such as emphasis, nervousness, confidence or the lack of it, etc. (e) Eye-contact - A person's eyes tell much more in an instant than it is possible to find out about him by talking to him for hours. They are indicative of his inner qualities and his nature. Intellectual Aspect Of Personality - The audio-visual impact of personality is complete only when the visual physical personality is supplemented by the audio intellectual personality. Intellectual aspect of personality includes all those elements, which project a person and create an impression at the intellectual level, which is much stronger than the visual physical impact. These elements are - (a) Intelligence -- It is a person's ability to understand abstract relationships between things and objects. It can be verbal, and non-verbal. Intelligence tests are designed to test this aspect of a person's personality. (b) Knowledge -- It involves 1. Learning, and 2. Memory, which is a combination of retention, and timely and relevant recall. (c) Imagination - It is a person's ability to visualize various JAINA PRECEPTS FOR PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT : 369

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aspects of things and situations. It has a direct impact on his (d) Creativity and Problem solving ability - It is the applied aspect of imagination, knowledge and skill. (e) Expression - Effective expression of one's thoughts has always been important for achieving success. There is a colloquial saying that means 'one who speaks well sells well. There is a lot of sense in this saying. In all our endeavours from trade and industry to preaching by the religious leaders, one sells something or the other. Some sell merchandise, some sell services, some sell ideas and some sell themselves. Nevertheless, there is some kind of selling that goes on all the time. For selling well or in other words making our wares or ourselves acceptable to others we must have good expression. Psychological And Emotional Aspect - This is the most invisible aspect of a person's personality, yet it is in no way less important than the others are. It manifests itself in the form of - (a) Quality of adjustment with others at home, work, and in the society in general. (b) Mental health and emotional stability including tensions or the lack of it, Depression and other psychosomatic manifestations and enjoyment or otherwise of work in particular and the life in general. The impacts of this aspect of personality on personal, social and professional lives are multidimensional. They include - (a) The person may be happy or unhappy according to his emotional and psychological disposition, (b) A happy person spreads happiness around himself and an unhappy person does just the opposite. 370: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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(c) The family, social and professional lives of an emotionally stable person are well-adjusted and happy, (d) A happy person is a much better worker than the unhappy one. His output and quality of work are many times superior than those of the unhappy ones. (e) A well-adjusted person enjoys much better popularity, respect and recognition than an ill-adjusted one. (f) An ill-adjusted and emotionally unstable person easily succumbs to the lure of vices such as drinking, drugs, etc. Solutions to psychological and emotional problems include (a) Having role-models, (b) Analytical rather than emotional approach to problems, (c) Rationalisation of unfavourable situations, (d) Expression of pent-up feelings in constructive ways such as painting, music, vigorous physical activities - sports, etc. (e) Catharses, and lastly, (f) Professional help, if needed. Moral Aspect Of Personality - The character qualities like honesty, truthfulness, nonstealing etc. fall under the purview of moral aspect of a person's personality. No gainsaying the fact that on these characterqualities depend a person's dependability and acceptability. Influence Of Jaina Precepts on Personality Development - The Jaina precepts cast a lasting impression on the personality and mould it in the most desirable mode. The following paragraphs contain an analysis of the way in which it is achieved. JAINA PRECEPTS FOR PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT : 371

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A. Physical Personality - Appearance- A person's appearance is deeply influenced by his state of health. It is now a proven fact that vegetarianism is healthier than non-vegetarianism. As the Jaina precepts strongly advocate vegetarianism, it helps its followers in ensuring better health and appearance. Bearing - Gait, carriage and posture of a humble person create a much better impression than those of a proud or arrogant one do. Jaina emphasis on humility is wellknown and hence it is a positive influence on personality. Dress - The thumb-rule for acceptable way to dress is simplicity. Jainism is a strong advocate of this virtue and it makes for a good dress-sense. B. Intellectual Personality - Intelligence And Knowledge - Study or Svadhyaya is an integral part of Jaina way of life. The very words of the Lord echo though the pages of Uttaradhyayanasutra that one must study at the appointed times and then reflect on the studied subject in lonely isolation. The study part itself includes the steps such as learning, questioning, repeating, contemplation and teaching. Needless to say that these injunctions go a long way in improving the intelligence and knowledge part of the intellectual aspect of personality. Imagination Creativity And Problem Solving AbilityThe Jaina emphasis on simplicity, frugal existence, limited possession and inconspicuous consumption instil in its followers a spirit of improvisation and it is impossible without fertile imagination and creativity. Problem solving is only a natural corollary to these two traits. Verbal Expression - The importance of good expression for creating a good impression has been 372 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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brought out earlier. The Jaina precepts deal with this aspect of personality at two levels - prescriptive and prohibitive. While it prescribes true, beneficial and limited speech, it prohibits gossip and bad talk. No need to say that these two injunctions make for good and impressive expression and spell success for the subjects. C. Psyche And Emotions - Adjustment - Jaina precepts of non-violence and universal love make its followers universally well-- adjusted not only in the limited sense of the family, social and professional lives but on a much wider scale with each and every living being as well as with his natural environment. Mental Health Emotional Stability And Freedom From Tensions - We have brought out in the preceding essays that following the Jaina precepts yields Personal happiness, social harmony and overall peace and amity. It stands to reason that in such an environment conducive to peace and harmony induced by the Jaina precepts the tensions melt and emotional stability and mental health prevail. The causes of tensions are ill-adjustment, greed, pride, machination and guile. Also, the regular practice of meditation helps in tension-reduction. Jaina emphasis on contentment, humility and straightforwardness, detachment and love for others effectively neutralise these causes and induce a tension-free atmosphere. Moral Aspect Of Personality - It goes without saying that entire Jaina lore is about promoting moral values amongst its followers. Be it truthfulness, non-stealing, sexual discipline or rational possessions and simplicity of life-style, they all aim at the same thing - morality. Need I to mention that a strong moral fibre that runs through the JAINA PRECEPTS FOR PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT : 373

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Jaina precepts makes its followers the most ethical, reliable and dependable people that we can come across. This single aspect of personality overshadows all the others put together and makes the holders of this single trait the most acceptable and desirable persons. Conclusion We conclude this essay on the note that Jaina precepts and the strict moral code that they advocate develop the most desirablepersonality traits in their adherents. They make the best personality development course that can ever be had. 374 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TI.

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CONCLUDING REMARKS In conclusion we can say that Jainism is a wholesome creed that not only caters to the spiritual emancipation of an individual but also makes him a righteous, honest, unselfish, charitable, peace-loving and well adjusted person with sound family functions and social satisfaction; a better citizen with national outlook and a better human being with a wholesome world-view. Its principles of non-violence, truthfulness, nonstealing, sexual discipline, rational possession and inconspicuous consumption make it a sound philosophy to live by for a better and happier living, social harmony and world peace. With the motto "Parasparopagraho Jivanam' its tenets are such as to ensure perfect non-violence and integrity of all forms of life, environmental protection and ecological balance. Its practical applications in the fields as diverse as personal happiness, social harmony, international relations, world-peace, leadership and management, personality development and environment makes it suitable as a universal creed.

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At this stage I must admit that given the constraints of space, it has been possible to cover the subject only cursorily. But, as it is meant for the uninitiated, it will eminently serve the purpose of exposing them to the essentials of this incredible creed - Jainism. The all time eternal and universal appeal of the Jaina precepts truly makes Jainism the 'CREED FOR ALL TIMES'. 376 : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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APPENDICES Transliteration Convention Selected Glossary Bibliography

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1. TRANSLITERATION CONVENTION (Key To Diacritical Marks) pa a A, a 341A, a I, i al est en U, u 35 5 ai 37 311 aM 37: 7 Uu E, e AI, ai 0,0 AU, au AM,am AH, ah K, ! LI PA, pa PHA, pha BA, ba BHA, bha MA, ma YA, ya RA, ra LA, la VA, va SA, sa ka KA, ka kha KHA, kha TGA, ga gha GHA, gha 5 NA, na ca CA, ca 8 CHA, cha ja JA, ja jha JHA, jha 37 NA, na Ta TA, ta T THA, tha 3 DA, da T DHA, dha HTNA, na ta TA, ta &T THA, tha DA, da ET DHA, dha na NA, na SA, sa SA, sa KSA, ksa TRA, tra JNA, jna SRA, sra K, k, etc. o APPENDICES : i

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2. SELECTED GLOSSARY Acarya- (Spiritual) Master; Head of a monastic order. Agama- Received; imported. In the present context it means the canonical knowledge received from the tradition of omniscient Tirtharkaras and the canon-omniscient Acaryas (at least in the know of ten purvas. Agama- Scriptures or Canonical works. Particularly, Jaina canonical works are referred to as Agama. Alocan - Confession and criticism of own conduct flaws. Agnipravesamarana - Death by self-immolation. Akamamarana - Involuntary death by the ignorant. Anagara Caritra -- Monastic conduct. Anusisti - Instructing given by i. by the departing Acaryato his successor and ii. By the Niryapakacarya to the ksaaka, in accordance with the canonical dictates. Aniyat Vihara - Unpredicted residence or tour. Antahkriya - The end-practice of embracing "voluntary peaceful death' or Samadhimarana. Aprassta - Ignoble. Aprassta marana - Ignoble death --suicide committed in a fit of depression, frustration, etc. This is the suicide committed under the influence of most severe passions. Ariha - Eligibility. iii : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Artha - Meaning; interpretation. Arthasuddhi - Correct interpretation of text specially that of the scriptural text. Aticara - Flaws or excesses of right conduct. Avicara - Without deliberate consideration. Bahumana- Great regard. Bala The ignorant one who has the right view but does not practice the right-conduct or the one is at the Avirat Samyagdrsti stage of spiritual development. Bala-bala- The most ignorant who is devoid of all three -- the right-vision, right-knowledge and the right-- conduct (Avirat Mithya-drstti). Bala-balamarna - The death of the most ignorant who is devoid of all three - the right-vision, right-knowledge and the right-conduct. Balamarana - The death of an aspirant at the bala or Avirat Samyagdesti stage. Bala-pandita - The lay aspirant who is endowed with the right vision and right-knowledge but devoid of the right monastic conduct. However, he is part renounced (Desavirat Samyagdrsti). Bala-panditamarana - The death of the lay aspirant who is endowed with the right-vision and rightknowledge but only part renounced (Desavirat Samyagdrsti). Bhaktapratyakhyana-Renouncing (three or four kinds of) food. Bhaktapratyakhyana-marana - Embracing voluntary death by renouncing food. Bhavana - Repetition; Contemplation; Thought current. APPENDICES: iv

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Bhiksu Pratima-Advanced monastic practices. Caritra - Conduct. Cyavit- Forced separation by using external means. Cyut -- Natural separation. Desavrati - Part renounced, Observer of one or more of householders' twelve vows. Dhyana- Meditation. Disa - Direction; Liberating sermon. Dvesa - Aversion. Gitartha - Master or preceptor highly learned in scriptural or canonical knowledge Garha Self denouncing and denigration for own misconduct. Giripattanamarana - To die by jumping off a mountaintop. Grddhaprsthamarana - Death by entering the carcass of a large animal and waiting for the carrion birds to pick one's flesh and bones, Hani - Loss, depletion. In the present context it means gradual lessening of food given to the ksapaka who has not been able to overcome the desire for food. This is done by explaining to him the value of overcoming the attachment for food. Inginimarana - Embracing voluntary death by renouncing food and restricting movements to a confined area and service and assistance by the others. Jalapravesamarana - Death by self- drowning. Kala- Time. Kalamana- Period. V: JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Karma 1. Action. 2. Karma matter or particles of Karma Pudgala Vargana. 3. Karmic encumbrance earned through one's actions. Kasaya- Passions - anger, pride, deceit and greed. Kavaca- Armour. Here, it means the quality of the ksapaka to remain calm in the face of extreme hunger and pain by constantly reminding himself that such pain and misery is due to the rise and fruition of earlier bonded karma and that his very endpractice is a means to find a release from such trouble in future. Kevali- Enlightened omniscient. Kevalimarna -The death of the enlightened practitioners who have realised omniscience. (Also refer to Panditamarana) Kevalajnana - Purest and infinite knowledge or omniscience. Ksamana- Quality of tolerance developed by forgiving others for their faults. Ksamana - Seeking others' forgiveness for own faults that may have hurt them. In the present context, it is the pardon begged by an Acarya aspiring to practice Sallekhana-Samadhimarana just before he departs for joining another monastic group. Ksamapana - begging others' pardon for one's faults that may have hurt them. In the context of Sallekhana-- Samadhimarana, it is the last pardon begged, near the final moments of one's life, from the members of the monastic group to which a ksapaka had migrated for his end-practice. Ksapaka- The practitioner aspiring to undertake the practice of Sallekhana-Santhara. APPENDICES : vi

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Lesya - Spiritual hue or aura. Linga- Gender or appearance. Marga- Way : the liberating path. Margana- Journey (for searching the supervising Acarya for the practice of Sallekhana-Samadhimarana). Mithyadarsana- False vision, false view, false belief, false attitude or false inclination. Mithyadrsti - One who is in the grip of Mithyadarsana. Mithyatva - Falsehood. Moha- Delusion produced by false-vision. Nama - Name. Nama niksepa - Describing or referring by name. Naya - Standpoint; Point of view. Nldanamarana - To die after making a binding wish. Niksepa - Description; reference. Ninda - Decrying or condemning own misconduct. Ninhava - Heretic; preacher of falsehood against the precepts propounded by the omniscient Lords; Ungrateful disciple. Niruddha - Restricted or constrained. Niruddhatara - Very restricted or highly constrained. Niryamaka/Niryapaka -- Serving and assisting monk or nun. Niryamakacarya/Niryapakacarya - The Acarya under whose supervision and guidance the practice of Sallekhana-Santhara is undertaken. Niscaya naya - Absolute standpoint. vii : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Pandita - The enlightened and restrained practitioner (vigilant monk) endowed with right-vision and right (monastic) conduct. Spiritually speaking, one at the Apramatta--sanyatta stage is said to be a Pandita. Panditamarana - The (voluntary) death of the enlightened and restrained practitioner or a vigilant monk endowed with right-vision and right (monastic) conduct. Pandita-panditamarana - The (voluntary) death of the ultimately enlightened (omniscient) and ultimately restrained (practising the purest monastic conduct known as Yathakhyat Caritra) practitioner or a Kevali. It is also known as Kevalimarana. Suitability test, examination. Paramaniruddhatara - Most restricted or extremely constrained. Parinama - Contemplation; Thought current. Parityaga Renunciation; Disposal. Pascatapa Repentence. Phala - Result or fruit of one's actions. Praganacarya - Migration to another monastic group. Prakashan Pariksa Exhibition. In the present context it means exhibiting various kinds of food to the ksapaka in order to gaugae his lack of desire for food or otherwise. Prasasta Noble. Prasasta marana-Noble and peaceful voluntary death embraced by any of the three means of SallekhanaSamadhimarana. Pratilekhana - Inspection and rectification. APPENDICES : viii

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Pratima- 1. Idol, image; 2. Advanced practices. Pratyakhyana - Taking the vow of some renunciation such as of giving up food, etc. Atonement for a flaw or a misconduct. Prayascitta Prayopagamana/Padopagamana/Padapopagamana Pudgala marana Embracing voluntary death by renouncing all kinds of food and lying down at a place without any movement, like a fallen tree, and doing away with self-service as well as with service and assistance by the others. - * Concrete formed matter that can be discerned by sense organs. Attachment. Raga Ratnatraya- The 'TRI-GEM' or the triad of right-vision, right-knowledge and right conduct that constitutes the liberating path. Education; Scriptural learning. SiksaSravaka Pratima - Lay followers' advanced practices. Sreni -- Ladder or stair case. Sstravapatanamarana Death by the use of a weapon such as self-slaying or self-disembowelling, etc. Samadhi Sagara Caritra - Householders' or lay followers' conduct. Sakamamarana- Voluntary death by the enlightened practitioners. External and internal penance to weaken the body and passions before undertaking the practice of Samadhimarana. Sallekhana --- Samnyasamarana- A synonym of Samadhimarana, meaning 'the death of an ascetic'. State of equanimity of mind or psychic ix : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Samadhi disposition; spiritual peace. The state of equanimity of mind or that of being peaceful, calm and tranquil. Samadhimarana - Voluntary Peaceful Death. Samata - Maintaining equanimity in the face of favourable and unfavourable situations. Samaya The immeasurably smallest unit of time; Instant; Precept. Samyagdarsana - Right vision, right view, right belief, right attitude or right inclination. Samyagdrsti- One who is endowed with Samyagdarsana. Samyagjnana - Right-knowledge. Samyakcaritra - Right conduct. Santhara 1. erally, the grass-bed on which the ksapaka lies for his end-practice. 2. Metaphorically, the practice of Samadhimarana. Savicara - With due and deliberate consideration. Smarana - Recalling; reminding. To remind the ksapaka, who loses his balance due to hunger or pain, about the nobility of the vow of end-practice taken by him. Susthita - Well established - Acarya who is practices flawless monastic conduct himself and is capable of guiding others in the practice of such monastic conduct. Sutra - Text. Tadbhavamarana- repeated deaths in the same species. Tadubhaya - Both - text and meaning. Tapa - Penance or austerity. APPENDICES: X

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Tarupattanamarcina- To die by jumping off a treetop. Tyakt - Renounced or left voluntarily. Udyuktamarana - A synonym of Samadhimarana, meaning deliberate (voluntary) death. Upadhana - Observance with a specific purpose. Upadhi - Monastic equipage such as Peacock-feather whisk (Picchi) and Water-gourd (Kamandalu) in the Digambara tradition and permitted clothes (Vastra), pots (Patra), blanket (Kambal), Woollen whisk and broom (Rajoharana and Katasana), etc in the Svetambara tradition. Upadhyaya - Teacher-preceptor of canonical knowledge. Upasampada - Appraoaching the selected Acarya for acceptance as a disciple. Uttamartha-1. Literally - the ultimate goal of spiritual liberation, 2. Metaphorically - seeking the ultimate goal of spiritual emancipation and final deliverance by practising Samadhimarana. Vaihayasamarana - Committing suicide by hanging oneself. Valanmarana -- Death after breaking the monastic vows due to inability to bear the hardships of monastic life. Vargana - Class. Particularly of concrete matter (Pudgala). Vinaya - Humility; conduct-rules. Visabhaksanamarana - Death by self-poisoning. Vrati - Monk, observer of fully restrained monastic conduct. Vrata - Vow, renunciation. Vyasijana -- Consonant; meaningful word. Vyavahara - Practice; Business. Vyavahara naya - Practical standpoint. xi : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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3. BIBLIOGRAPHY A Sourcebook Of Jaina Philosophy, Devendramuni Shastri, Eng. Tr. by Dr. TG Kalghatagi, Taraka Guru Jaina Granthalaya, Udaipur, 1983. Abhidhana Rajendra Kosa : Parts 1-7, Shri Vijaya Rajendrasuri, Ratlam. Anagara Dharmamrta, Pt. Ashadhar. Ardhamagadhi Kosa : Parts 1-5, Pt. Muni Ratnacandraji, Amar Publications, Varanasi. Bodhapahuda, Kunda Kunda, Astapahuda, Kundkunda Kahan Trust Jaipur, 1994. Canonical Literature Of The Jainas, HR Kapadiya. Dasavaikalikasutra, ABS Jain Sanskriti Rakshaka Sangha, Sailana, 1973. Dictionary Of Jaina Technical Terms, Dr. RC Jain, SJVGI, Songir, Datia, 1994. Dravya Sangraha, Acharya Nemichandra Siddhanta Chakravarti, Shri Paramashrut Prabhavak Mandal, Agas, Ed.-V, 1988. Dravya-Vijnana, Sadhvi Vidyutprabha, Prakrit Bharti, Jaipur, 1994. Essence Of Jainism, Pt. Sukhlalji, Eng Tr. By RS Betai, LD Institute Of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1988. First Steps To Jainism, Parts I and II, AL Sanchti and MM Bhandari, Sumchti Trust, Jodhpur, 1984. Hamara Sacca Bhugol, Jambudvipa Shodh Sansthan, Palitana. Jaina Acara : Siddhanta Aur Svarupa, Devendramuni Shastri, APPENDICES: xji

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Taraka Guru Jaina Granthalaya, Udaipur, 1982. Jaina Agama Sahitya : Manana Aur Mimamsa, Devendramuni, Taraka Guru Jaina Granthalaya, Udaipur. Jaina Dharma Aur Paryavarana, Dr. Bhagchand Jain, New Bharatiya Book Corporation, Delhi, 2001. Jainendra Siddhanta Kosa ; Parts 1-4, Jinendra Varni, Bharatiya Jnanapeeth, Delhi. Jainism In A Global Perspective, Edtd. Prof. Sagarmal Jain and Dr. SP Pandey, Parshvanath Vidyapeeth, Varanasi, 1998. Jina Dhammo, Acharya Shri Nanesh, Samata Sahitya Prakashan Trust, Indore, 1984. Karma Grantha, Muni Mishrimal, Marudhar Kesari Sahitya Prakashan Samiti, Beawar, 1974 Karma Siddhanta : Bindu Mein Sindhu, Devendramuni Shastri, Taraka Guru Jaina Granthalaya, Udaipur, 1997. Karma Vijnana, Vols. 1-9, Devendramuni Shastri, Taraka Guru Jaina Granthalaya, Udaipur, 1990-97. Lingapahuda, Kunda Kunda, Astapahuda, Kundkunda Kahan Trust Jaipur, 1994. Moksa Marga, Ratanlal Dosi, ABS Jain Sanskriti Rakshaka Sangha, Sailana, 1971. Multi Dimensional Application Of Anekantavada, Edtd. Prof. Sagarmal Jain and Dr. SP Pandey, Parshvanath Vidyapeeth, Varanasi, 1999. Prakrta Bhasa Evani Sahitya Ka Alocanatmaka Itihasa, Dr. Nemicahndra Jain, Varanasi, 1988. Rajasthan Patrika, Udaipur, Oct. 24, 2002. Sacitra Jain Tattva Darsan Pts. I and II, Sadhvi Vineetabai Mahasatiji, Jaina Darshan Prakashan, Rajkot. Sacred Books Of The East, Vol XLV, Jaina Sutras, Hermann xjii : JAINISM: THE CREED FOR ALL TIMES

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Jacobi, Motilal Banarasidas, Delhi, 1980. Samanasuttam, Sarva Seva Sangha Prakashan, 1975. Scientific Contents In Praksta Canons, Dr. NL Jain, Parshvanath Vidyapeeth, Varanasi, 1996. Sutrakrtanga, Muni Madhukar, Agama Prakashan Samiti, Beawar. Sutrapahuda, Kunda Kunda, Astapahuda, Kundkunda Kahan Trust Jaipur, 1994. Tattvartha Sutra, Vachak Umasvati, Comm. By Sukhala Sanghvi, Eng. Tr. By Dr. KK Dixit, LD Institute Of Indology, Ahmedabad, 2000. The Bhagvadgita, S Radhakrishnan, BlackieAnd Son, Mumbai, 1982. The Jaina Concept Of Omniscience, Ram Jee Singh, LD Institute Of Indology, Ahmedabad, 1974. Upasakadasanga Aur Uska Sravakacara, Dr. Subhash Kothari, Prakrita Sansthan, Udaipur, 1988. Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Sadhvi Shrichandana, Sanmati Jnanapeeth, Agra, 1972. Jaina Darsan Ke Nava-tattva, Sadhvi Dharmasheela, Prachya Vidyapeetha, Shajapur (MP), 2000. Peace, Religious Harmony And Solutions Of World Problems From Jaina Perspective, Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Prachya Vidyapeeth, Shajapur (MP), 2002. Ahimsa Ki Prasargikata, Prof. Sargarmal Jain, Prachya Vidyapeeth, Shajapur (MP), 2002. Jinavani (Monthly Journal), Samyagdarsan Visesanka, Samyag, jnana Pracaraka Mandala, Jaipur, Aug. 96. APPENDICES: xiy

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OPINIONS fi An admirable feature of the work is its attempt to reconcile the beliefs of both Svetambara and Digambara traditions - which is very much noticeable in the section providing the life-sketch of Bhagvana Mahavira. - Prof. Kusum Jain The original thinking of Dr. Baya has come out where he has explained the Jaina Cosmology with reference to the four variable parameters of matter, space, time and change. - Dr. Sagarmal Jain This is a book both for the lay readers and scholars. - D.R. Mehta

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THE AUTHOR Dr. Col. Dalpat Singh Baya 'Sreyas', who comes from a devout Jaina family of Udaipur, was initiated into the realm of Jaina studies by his illustrious father Svanamdhanya Shri Ganeshlalii Baya, himself a renowned exponent of Jainism, and devoted to spreading the gospel. With his inherited dedication to the cause, Dr. Baya took up Jaina studies after his retirement from Military service and did his M.A. in Prakrit and Jainology and Ph.D. subsequently. An erudite scholar and a prolific writer, Dr. Baya has, to date, authored three English/Bilingual commentaries on Jaina canonical works like Uttaradhyayna Sutra, Tatttvartha Sutra and Ashta Pahuda; ten English translations of rare Prakirnakas and three original works besides a large number of well researched papers published in reputed Research Journals. His talent has been well recognized and he has been awarded prestigious awards like Ganesh Lalvani award and Late Shri. Pradeep Kumar Rampuria Award for his notable contribution to Jaina literature. This book, an original contribution of the author, is an outcome of his studious and intensive research for presenting the essential but comprehensive basics of Jainism from the laymen's point of view. With its conceptual clarity, simplicity of expression and lucid style of explanation the book will prove to be highly useful in providing basic understanding of the fundamental tenets of Jainism for the layman as well as the non-Jaina scholars. The author has successfully tried to encompass almost every aspect and dimension of Jain faith including its history, cosmology, ontology, epistemology, ethics and even mythology. The last section "Practical Jainsim" attempts to establish relevance of Jain precepts to the problems faced by our contemporary society and highlights the applied aspect of this universal creed. * Another admirable feature of the work is its attempt to reconcile the beliefs of both Svetambara and Digambara traditions - which is very much noticeable in the section providing the life-sketch of Bhagvana Mahavira. - Prof. Kusum Jain Dean, Arts College, Rajasthan University, Jaipur SOCIETY FOR SCIENTIFIC & ETHICAL LIVING PRAKRIT BHARATI ACADEMY 13-A, Gurunanak Path, Main Malviya Nagar, Jaipur