Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies Vol 01 Jaina Art and Architecture

Author(s): Sagarmal Jain, Others
Publisher: Parshwanath Vidyapith
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/006774/1

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Encyclopaedia of Taina Studies
Jamna Art & Architecture
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वाराणसी
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About the Volume
Volume 1 entitled Jaina Ant and Architecture has been written by Prof. 11. NP Tiwari. Prof. Kamal Giri and Prot. Hurihar Singh. It is dividod into three parts Part I written by Prof. Harihar Singh gives a detailed account of Jaina buildings available in the forns of stupa, rock-cut caves and temples and structural temples spread throughout the country Besides it discusses the architectural materials contained in the Jaina canonical texts as they copiously make reference to both the religious and secular buildings. Part Il authored by Prof. Tiwari discusses the sculptures of the Tirthankaras and their Yaksus and Yaksis, other Jaina gods and goddesses, Bahubali and such sculptural manifestations as Samavasaran, Sammeta Sikhar. Nandisvaradvipa. Astamangalaka etein the light of the available textual references. In the treatment of the subject the author has taken into account not only the chronological perspective but also the aesthetic and iconographic Standpoint. Part III written by Prof. Kamal Giri deals with Jaina paintings available in mural and miniature fornis. The writer has discussed at length the wall paintings of Ellora. Siltannavasal and Tiruparuttikunram. Under the miniature paintings the authoress has discussed illustrated palm-lear and paper manuscripts of important Jaina texts, Patalis and Patacitras in chronological order. The work is fully illustrated and has glossary of technical terms and detailed bibliography.important Jaina texts. Pätalis and Patacitrus in chronological order. The entire work is fully illustrated and has glossary of technical terms and detailed bibliography.
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF
JAINA STUDIES Volumes under preparation
Vol. II Ethics and Moral Code : its Modern Relevance
Vol. III History of Jainism
Vol.IV. Language and Literature
Vol. V Science & Technology
Vol. VI Philosophy & Psychology
Vol.VII. Religious Practices
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Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Vol. - I
Jaina Art & Architecture
Chief Editor
Prof. Sagarmal Jain
Editors
Prof. Maruti Nandan Pd. Tiwari
Prof. Kamal Giri Prof. Harihar Singh
PARSHWANATH VIDYAPEETH
2010
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Parshwanath Vidyapeeth Series No. 155
© Parshwanath Vidyapeeth ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER COPYRIGHT ACT OF INDIA
First Edition 2010
ISBN: 81-86715-89-4
Price : Rs. 4000.00
US $: 100.00
PRINTED IN INDIA
Published by: PARSHWANATH VIDYAPEETH I. T. I. Road, Karaundi, Varanasi- 221005
(INDIA)
No part of this work may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission,
in writing from this publisher.
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Dedicated to
Late Lala Harjas Rai Jain
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Late Lala Harjas Rai Jain
(13.06.1896 - 18.06.1986)
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LALA HARJAS RAI JAIN
Late Lala Harjas Raiji was a visionary and a man of principles who had a clean and transparent public life of the highest order. He was one of the founders of Parshwanath Vidyapeeth, a research institute for Jaina studies. Parshwanath Vidyapeeth is a living monument of his selfless services and dedication to Jaina studies. All his life as an Honorary Secretary of this august institution, he performed his duties by head and heart. He dedicated both his time and money to build up this institute of Jainological Research. Lala Harjas Raiji developed deep interest in Jaina literature and felt an urgent need for research and translation of works not only in Jaina philosophy and religion, but also in all the branches of Jinistic literature comprising science, geography, astronomy, art and architecture, the occult and religious practices, philosophy, management, political and social science and history which for the major part are composed in various ancient Indian languages such as Prakrit, Pali, Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, Ardhamagadhi, Kannad, Gujarati etc. Lala Harjas Raiji, known for his integrity and dedication, both in public and private life, was compassionate, calm and composed with clear goals. He was a pious person with true devotion, never one to compromise his principles. In the words of his very close and intimate friend Late Shri Sardari Lal Khanna, "Harjas Rai was a man of forbearance, gentle, soft-spoken and heedful in nature. He was never aggressive but at the same time he was not prepared to lose sight of his objectives or his values". His sobriety, affable manners and cheerful disposition always attracted people, not only of the Jaina community, his friends and relatives but also of those who came in his contact. In short he was the personification of all virtues. What was planted as a seedling and nurtured so lovingly by him has today grown to be a tree that has become a Global name and a centre of higher studies in Jainology and Indic Studies. Parshwanath Vidyapeeth continues to be nurtured by his family till date, now in the third generation with the same dedication and selfless zeal to the cause. This Volume of Jaina Art and Architecture is hence dedicated to the great soul that was Lala Harjas Raiji, who devoted his full life for this noble cause.
"Tvadiyam vastu Govindam tubhyameva samarpaye" (We dedicate to you - all that was received from you)
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EDITORIAL
The Jaina tradition is one of the oldest and richest traditions of the world. Through the ages it has preserved many of its original doctrinal characteristics. The Jaina thinkers have contributed in every branch of knowledge from the earliest time but unfortunately it is not well recognized, as there is no source for ready reference. At present, there is an awakening of interest world over in the study of Jaina philosophy, religion, theology, psychology, history, art, culture and sciences. A constant flow of publications on these subjects through research in modern languages is the great need of the day. Keeping in view the same Parshwanath Vidyapeeth, which has research publications of more than 156 to its credit, decided to take a mammoth project of preparation of Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies.
Aims & Objectives
The primary aim in bringing forth this Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies is to present a complete picture of the Jaina religion with its various aspects and dimensions in a possible manner so that it could satisfy the curiosity of layman as well as necessities of a scholar. The work will cover Jaina spirituality, religious culture besides covering Jaina contributions to literature, sciences, art and architecture, Jaina rites, ceremonies, festivals and customs. It will explain each Jaina school and movement in the proper perspective along with scholarly interpretations and observations. The aim is also to discuss each and every concept in its historical perspective.
This Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies is to cover the following subject areas:
Art & Architecture Temples, stūpa, caves, pillars, Jaina iconography, Jaina deities and their iconographical characteristics, paintings and Jaina antiquities in foreign museums.
Ethics and Moral Code : its Modern Relevance
Moral standards of Jainas, postulates of Jaina morality, determinism and free will, threefold path of liberation, code of conduct of monks and householders, transgressions of Jaina code of conduct, Jaina theory of punishment, and Jaina doctrine of passions and aurations.
History of Jainism
From prehistoric times onwards, brief life-sketches of selected Tirthankaras and other torchbearers, history of the development of Jaina sects, literary, social and political history of Jainas, prominent Jaina monks and nuns, kings and devotees, Jainism through the ages till modern times both in India and abroad and Jaina holy places.
Language and Literature
Prakrit and its dialects, Jaina Canonical works and their commentaries in Prakrit and Sanskrit, Jaina philosophical and religious works, Jaina narrative literature in different languages, technical literature, Jaina literature in modern Indian and Western languages, Apabhraíša literature, doctoral dissertations, and Jaina journals, catalogues, etc.
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Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Science & Technology
Cosmology, geography, mathematics, physical sciences, life sciences, technical sciences, environmental sciences, food and medical sciences.
Philosophy & Psychology
Basic assumptions, ontology, metaphysics, epistemology, philosophy of karma and omniscience, Jaina psychology, theism and atheism, bondage and liberation.
.Religious Practices
Concept of five Paragons (Pañca Paramesthins) and Fordmakers (Tīrthankaras), austerities, Jaina Yoga and Meditation and other spiritual practices, six essentials for the monks and householders, Jaina way of worship, its various forms and objects, rituals, festivals, ceremonies, Sarsakāras, Mantra and Tantra in Jainism, Sanllekhanā, and evolution of pure consciousness.
The Organization and people behind the Project
A memorial to Pujya Acharya Sohanlalji Maharaj was set up in 1937 as "Parshwanath Vidyashram" (presently known as Parshwanath Vidyapeeth) at Varanasi. During 73 years of its working, the Institute has done commendable work in teaching, research and publications in the field of Jaina studies. The Institute is recognized by Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, for Ph. D. Degree and till date 61 scholars have been awarded Ph.D. Degree.
In this noble effort the Institute has been fortunate to receive the guidance of distinguished and well known scholars like Pt. Sukhlalji Sanghvi, Acharya Narendra Devaji, Dr. Vasudeva Sharan Agrawala, Pt. Bechardas Doshi and Padmabhushan Pt. Dalsukh Malvania. Further, the Institute has received the blessings, patronage and inspiration of many Acāryas, Sädhus and Sadhvīs.
The Team of Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Parshwanath Vidyapeeth has engaged many scholars of repute to this prestigious project which is first of its kind. Led by Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Chief Editor, Shri Indrabhooti Barar, Chief Coordinator and Dr. Shriprakash Pandey, Asstt. Director, Prashwanath Vidyapeeth, the team consists of the following selected experts from all over India.
Prof. Maheshwari Prasad, Prof. Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, Prof. Kamal Giri, Prof. Harihar Singh, Prof. Nand Lal Jain, Prof. Ratan Chand Jain, Prof. Raman Bhai C. Shah, Prof. S. S. Lishk, Prof. Raj Kumar Jain, Prof. Jyotirmitra, Dr. Arun Pratap Singh, Dr. Ashok Kumar Singh and Dr. Shriprakash Pandey. Out of these thirteen scholars, four have left this world. We pay our sincere tribute to Prof. Nand Lal Jain, Prof. S. S. Lishk, Prof. Jyotirmitra and Prof. Raman Bhai C. Shah whose sudden demise was a great loss for us as well as this project.
Volume I of this mega project entitled Jaina Art and Architecture has been written by Prof. M. N. P. Tiwari, Prof. Kamal Giri and Prof. Harihar Singh. It is divided into three parts. Part I which has been written by Prof. Harihar Singh gives a detailed account of Jaina buildings available in the forms of stūpa, rock-cut caves and temples, and structural temples spread throughout the length and breadth of the country. Besides, it discusses the architectural materials contained in the Jaina canonical texts as they copiously make reference to both the religious and secular buildings. To facilitate the readers Prof. Singh has given first region-wise and then site-wise description of Jaina edifices with their approximate date.
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Editorial
Part II authored by Prof. Tiwari discusses in detail the sculptures of the Tīrthankaras and their Yakşas and Yakşīs, other Jaina gods and goddesses , Bahubali, and such sculptural manifestations as Samavasarana, Sammeta Sikhara, Nandīśvaradvipa, Astamangalaka etc. in the light of the available textual references. In the treatment of the subject the author has taken into account not only the chronological perspective but also the aesthetic and iconographic standpoint.
Part III written by Prof. Kamal Giri deals with Jaina paintings which are found both in mural and miniature forms. The writer has discussed at length the wall paintings of Ellora, Sittannavasal and Tiruparuttikunram. Under the miniature paintings the authoress has discussed illustrated palm-leaf and paper manuscripts of important Jaina texts, Patalis and Patacitras in chronological order.
The entire work is fully enriched with halftone illustrations and line drawings and has glossary of technical terms and detailed bibliography.
We express our sincere thanks and gratitude to all the three authors as well as editors for their full cooperation in the completion of this volume.
The ist Volume of Encyclopedia of Jaina Studies has been sponsored by Harjas Rai Jain Public Charitable Trust, Faridabad. We extend our hearty thanks to the Trustees.
We are very thankful to Shri B. N. Jain, Ex-President, Shri Romesh C. Barar, President, Shri Indrabhooti Barar, Secretary, Managing Committee, Parshwanath Vidyapeeth and Chief Coordinator of this project and Prof. S. L. Jain, Director of the Institute, for extending their full support and arranging infrastructure for the completion of this volume.
Our thanks are also due to Dr. Shriprakash Pandey, Asst. Director, Parshwanath Vidyapeeth and one of the editors of the Volume on Jaina Philosophy & Psychology for his dedication towards the project and hard work to get this volume published.
We are thankful to Shri Sunil Kumar, Add-vision and Shri Vimal Chand Mishra for composing the text methodically.
We thank to Jauhari Printers Pvt. Ltd., Varanasi for fine printing of this volume.
Sagarmal Jain
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PREFACE
The present volume is a study of Jaina art and architecture from the earliest time to the thirteenth century A.D., but in regard to Jaina painting it goes even beyond this time bracket since the bulk of material available to us is posterior to this date. It is of late that the world of scholars started recognising Jaina contributions to Indian art and architecture and wrote some handsome volumes on them. But the materials so far published are scattered and brief and hence it is very hard for the readers to have a complete picture of the subject at one place. Another point worthy of note is that the earlier works do not contain an elaborate glossary of required technical terms to facilitate not only the common readers but also to the researchers to comprehend the contents fairly well. Therefore, the entire material on Jaina art and architecture has been collected and collated in a chronological order, or in a thematic order wherever necessary, in one volume.
This encyclopaedic work is divided into three parts - architecture, sculpture and iconography, and painting and treats the entire contents into 23 chapters and 12 appendices.
Part I is on architecture and consists of six chapters dealing virtually with all types of secular and religious buildings the Jainas have either raised out of love and devotion to their faith or made reference to them in their literature.
Chapter I is introductory and aims at giving a brief outline of architectural development of Jaina monuments during the period under review. It also deals with various other aspects which would hopefully prove to be useful for the comprehension of Jaina edifices.
Chapter II gives a detailed account of different types of secular and religious buildings that are described in the Jaina canonical texts. We know a lot about the religious buildings but this chapter is significant because it throws welcome light on the secular buildings.
Chapter III discusses the ruined Jaina stupa of Mathura which is the lone Jaina stupa so far known to us in concrete form. Here, an attempt has been made to restore the past glory of this stūpa by piecing together all the evidences for the mode of its construction and decoration and also by making a comparative study of the Jaina stupa with its Buddhist counterpart. A special attention has been rendered to its railing which is fully decorated with varieties of full-blown lotus flowers on account of which it has been rightly called Padmavaravedikā, a name given to this type of railing in the Jaina texts only.
Chapter IV gives a state-wise description of rock-cut Jaina caves excavated throughout the country both in the cut-in and cut-out forms as we find with regard to Brahmanical excavations. The history of Jaina cave architecture begins with the dwelling caves at Rajgir in the third century B.C. and it continues in this form at Udayagiri-Khandagiri, Pabhosa and Junagadh. But when it reaches the soil of the Deccan and South India it takes the form of shrines which were produced at Ankai-Tankai even as late as the twelfth century A.D. All these Jaina caves have been described in their entirety so that one can make an estimate of Jaina share of rock-cut architecture which is second only to the Buddhist.
Chapters V and VI deal with structural Jaina temples of North and South India respectively in the same pattern as we notice in case of rock-cut architecture. The structural temples which constitute a major part of
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Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
this volume are the latest development of Indian architecture beginning from the 5th-6th century A.D. Here, we have made an extensive survey of all the intact Jaina temples and described them in an intelligible manner with a good number of line drawings pertaining to plan and elevation. In describing the temples an extensive use of Sanskrit technical terms contained in the Indian architectural texts for indicating different components of temples has been made because the English alternatives do not always carry the exact meaning of the Sanskrit words. The Jaina temples are not very different from the Brahmanical ones in the general plan and design but the compartments like mukhamandapa and devakulikās in the Jaina temples of Western India are exclusively Jaina features. Another point worth mentioning is that many Jaina temples are stupendous in size and very rich in decoration and bear precise dates of their foundation. The Mahāvīra temple at Osian, the Vimalavasahi and Lūņavasahi at Abu, the Jaina temple at Jhalrapatan, Mahāvīra temple at Kumbharia, Neminātha temple and Vastupālavihāra at Girnar, Meguti temple at Aihole, Akkana-basadi at Sravanabelagola, the Great Jaina temple at Lakkundi, Pārsvanātha temple at Halebid, the Jaina temple at Belgaum etc. are some such temples which are precisely dated by inscriptional evidences. These dated temples provide us definite clues not only for ascertaining the relative chronology of both the Jaina and non-Jaina temples but also for tracing the evolution of their style in a particular region.
Part II deals with Jaina Sculpture and Iconography in seven chapters and six appendices. It brings out important aspects of the renderings of the Jinas and their Sāsanadevatās (Yaksas and Yaksīs) and other Jaina gods and goddesses such as Mahavidyas, Laksmi, Sarasvati, Brahmaśānti and Kaparddi Yakşas, Astadikpälas, Navagrahas, Sāntidevi, Vijaya-Vijayanta-Jayanta-Aparājita, Nine-Nāradas, Eleven-Rudras, Kāmadevas, GanipițakaYakşarāja and Tribhuvana-Svāmini. Besides, other important sculptural manifestations like those of Bahubali and Bharata Muni, Jaina-Ayāgapata, Samavasarana, Aştamangala, Nandiśvara-dvīpa, Sammeta-Sikhara and PancaMeru, Mānastambha and Parents of the Jinas are also discussed to make the study complete. The study is based on the corroborative and analytical study of both the textual and sculptural data with comparative and aesthetic assessment thereof.
Chapter VII of Volume is an Introduction which gives background of Jaina Sculptures and Iconography by way of succinct mention of the patronage, pantheon and landmarks of the Jaina sculptures of North and South India. Some observations on art and aesthetics have also been made as it is alleged that the Jaina art is monotonous and merely spiritual in content and expression.
Chapter VIII deals at length with the iconography of each of the 24 Jinas or Tirthankaras on the basis of texts and images. The iconographic features and formulations are outlined with suitable explanations for particular association. In tracing the development of the images of each of the 24 Jinas their iconography and regional features have been discussed on the basis of the data procured from important Jaina sites of Svetambara and Digambara traditions of North and South India. Examples from different important museums of India and abroad are also included.
Chapter IX discusses Yaksas and Yakşīs (Säsanadevatās) shown invariably with the Jinas. While Vītaragi Jinas represent the highest moral and ethical values of truth, non-violence, austerity, renunciation and nonacquisition, the Yakşas and Yakşīs, shown in close association with the Jinas from Gupta period and gradually occupying independent status to enjoy veneration, were as per texts capable of fulfilling worldly aspirations of the worshippers and removing the sorrow and pangs caused by grahas, bhūtas and piśācas. It also takes note of the process of interaction between the Brahmanical and Jaina cults in so far as the iconography of Yakşas and Yaksis is concerned.
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Preface
Chapter X deals with sixteen Mahavidyās who were important Jaina Goddesses of Tantric impact and whose iconography is enunciated both in Svetāmbara and Digambara texts. However, their renderings were confined mainly to the Svetāmbara Jaina sites of Osian, Delvada, Kumbharia, Taranga etc.
Chapter XI deals with some other important Jaina gods and goddesses such as Sarasvati, Lakşmi or Sridevi, Ganesa, Brahmaśānti Yakşa, Kaparddi Yaksa, Kșetrapala, Harinaigameși or Naigameşa, Astadikpālas, Navagrahas, Dikkumāris, Santīdevi, Pratihāras, Vijaya-Vijayanta-Jayanta-Aparājita, Nine-Nāradas, Eleven-Rudras, Kāmadevas, Ganipitaka-Yakşaraja and Tribhuvan-Svāmini.
Chapter XII deals with the images of Bāhubali, Bharata Muni and Jivantasvāmi. Bāhubali and Bharata Muni were two sons of Rsabhanatha and were accorded veneration on account of their rigorous austerity and renunciation. As a consequence of this their images, particularly of Bahubali, were carved in abundance. Jivantasvāmi image represents Mahavira prior to his renunciation. He is shown in art as standing in kāyotsargamudră with royal ornaments. This concept was subsequently extended to several other Jinas also.
Chapter XIII pertains to some important artistic and iconographic manifestations, namely Jaina Ayāgapata, Samavasarana, Astamangala, Nandiśvara-Dvipa, Sammeta-Sikhara and Panca-Meru, Mānastambha and Parents of Jinas.
The first five Appendices deal with the names of the original texts along with their dates and authorship, list of important Jaina sites with their dates, and tables showing the iconography of Jinas, Yakşa-Yakşi and Mahavidyās. A map of important Jaina sites is in the form of Appendix VI. These will make the whole discussion more understandable in terms of time, space and details.
Part III deals with Jaina paintings in ten chapters and six appendices. It begins with Chapter XIV which is introductory giving an outline of Jaina miniature paintings from the 11th century A.D. to early 18th century. Here, it has been tried to show that it were the murals of Ellora (Indra Sabhā) and Ajanta which inspired the artists of the Jaina miniature paintings to produce illustrated manuscripts first in palm-leaf and then in paper. It also discusses the history of Jaina miniature painting in a chronological order so that the readers might comprehend its stylistic development.
Chapter XV is on Adipurana which describes the cosmic cycle of the life of Tirthankara Rsabhanātha, his ten former births and the life of Cakravartin Bharata. The painted paper manuscripts of Adipurāņa datable to 15th-16th century A.D. illustrate different stories narrated in the text.
Chapter XVI deals with Kalpasútra which is taken to be the most revered book by the Svetämbaras. The text consists of three parts - Jinacarita (lives of Jinas), Sthaviravali (succession of pontiffs) and Sadhu-sāmăcari (rules for monks at the time of Paryusana) - and all these, particularly the lives of Mahavira, Pārsvanatha, Aristanemi and Rşabhanātha under Jinacarita, have been discussed in reference to their illustrations.
Chapter XVII is related with Kālakācāryakathā which is a Svetāmbara legend pertaining to the life of monk Kālaka. This text is generally treated as an integral part of Kalpasūtra. During the 13th century A.D. the Kalakācāryakathā and the Kalpasūtra were transcribed even as hyphenated texts. Both these texts were embellished with illustrations from A.D. 1250 to 1555. The illustrations of the text represent different episodes from the life of monk Kālaka.
Chapter XVIII deals with Uttaradhyayanasūtra, a text commendable for describing in 36 chapters the various duties of Jaina monks. The manuscripts of this text belong to 15th-16th century A.D. and the scenes illustrated therein show only some minor changes in different manuscripts. We have discussed here the different chapters of the text in the light of their illustrations.
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Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Chapter XIX is on Yasodharacarita which imparts religious instructions through stories interwoven with the life of king Yasodhara. The stories are carefully illustrated in the manuscripts of the text in prominent colours like red, indigo blue, yellow, white etc. but the illustrations lack the landscape. The illustrated manuscripts range in date from 15th century A.D. to 18th century.
Chapter XX exclusively discusses the wall paintings available in Jaina edifices of Ellora, Sittannavasala, Kundavi Jinalaya and Tiruparuttikunram. The murals of the Indra Sabha at Ellora depict maximum number of human figures. These have been discussed in detail with reference to their placement, subject and colour, comparing also with those of other caves there. The paintings in the Jaina cave at Sittannavasal are the earliest examples of frescoes and their technique is similar to those of Ajanta and Bagh. The wall paintings in Kundavi Jinālaya at Tirumalai depict Samavasarana of Neminätha and is of less artistic merit but its importance lies in that. It shows angular treatment of nose and chin and also the protrusion of farther eye into space. The art of wall painting was encouraged at the time of Vijayanagar rulers in the 15th century A.D. at Tiruparuttikunram. As a result, a number of Jaina temples were endowed with the representation of the life and birth of Tirthankaras.
Chapter XXI deals with Patali (wooden book-covers for palm-leaf and paper manuscripts) which bears paintings not only of flora and fauna but also of scenes of historical importance, Jaina Ācāryas, Tirthankaras, mothers of Jinas, Salākāpuruşas, Mahavidyas etc.
Chapter XXIV discusses Pata-citras (cloth painting) which are available in the form of painted scrolls, banners etc. They are of two types - Tantric and Non-Tantric. The Tantric Pata-citras show yantras, mantras, symbols, syllables and images of deities, while the Non-Tantric ones consist of pictures with religious contents. The Jambudvīpa-pata, Vidyā-pata, Sūrimantra-pata and Tirtha-pata are some examples of Pata-citra.
Chapter XXIII deals with Samavasarana which is a celestial assembly hall raised by gods for the first sermon of a Jina. It has been represented not only in wall and miniature paintings but also in sculptural form. We have discussed it in detail with regard to its structure, shape and representation of figures of gods, goddesses, human beings and animals who assembled to witness this occasion.
The six Appendices entitled Citta-sabha (Picture Gallery) and Citta-kamma (Art of painting), life of Tirthankaras, Painting and Jaina canonical literature, Jñana-bhandara, Bhattāraka (Administrative head of the Jaina religious establishment) and Tada (Palmyra Tree) would further elaborate the subject.
The scheme of writing this volume on Jaina Art and Architecture was chalked out about a decade ago by the dignitaries of the Parshwanath Vidyapeeth of Varanasi and the work was entrusted to us. We are happy that this difficult task has ultimately been completed and the book will soon go in the hands of the readers. For its completion and all sorts of help and cooperation we offer our sincere thanks and gratitudes to Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Chief Editor of this volume, Shri Indrabhooti Barar, Secretary, Prof. Sudarshan Lal Jain, Director, Dr. Shriprakash Pandey, Asst. Director, Shri Om Prakash Singh, Librarian, and other staff of the Vidyapeeth. We are deeply indebted to all those authors whose sources have been utilised in writing this Volume. We shall fail in our duty if we do not place on record our indebtedness to individuals and institutions whose illustrations have been reproduced and acknowledged. We also thank Shri Sunil Kumar and Shri Vimal Chandra Mishra for composing and scanning the manuscript and photographs. Mahavira Jayanti
M.N.P. Tiwari 28th March, 2010
Kamal Giri Harihar Singh
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are indebted to the following institutions and individuals for the reproduction of illustrations published in their books or kept in their possession. 1. American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon, Haryana : Pls. 1 - 43, 46, 49-51, 54
62, 64 -75, 78-118, 122, 123, 126, 129-132, 134, 135, 141-145, 147, 149, 152-154, 156, 159, 163, 164, 166-172, 177-181, 185-187, 191, 192, 194, 200-207, 209-214, 218, 219, 221-226, 230, 233-236.
Text Figs. 47-49, 55-58, 65-76, 102, 103, 106, 107, 113, 115-119.
2. Author is thankful to Dr. Saryu Doshi for her permission to use her publications and
illustrations in Part III: Pls. 242-245, 247-249, 252, 253, 255, 256, 259-261, 283-286. 3. Bharat Kala Bhavan, B.H.U., Varanasi : Pls. 246, 250, 251, 257, 291-293. 4. Moti Chandra and Karl Khandalavala, 'New Documents of Indian Paintings': Pls. 258,
287.
5. 6. 7.
8. 9.
W.N. Brown, 'Manuscript Illustrations of the Uttarādhyayanasütra': Pls. 262-282. P. Pal, “Jaina Art and Architecture' : Pls. 254, 288-290. Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi : Figs. 1 - 44, 59-64, 77-80, 88-96, 100, 101, 104, 114, 121. Pt. Bhagwan Das Jain, 'Prāsādamandana': Figs. 45, 46, 50. Department of Archaeology, Govt. of Gujarat : Figs. 81-87, reproduced after M. A. Dhaky. George Michell, 'Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture,' Vol. 1, Pt. 1: Figs. 97-99, reproduced after M. A. Dhaky.
10.
11.
Department of Archaeology, Karnataka : Figs. 105, 108, 109-112, 120, reproduced after M. A. Dhaky.
12.
D.R. Das, Arihanta', Vol. 3 : Figs. 51-54.
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Editorial
Preface
Acknowledgments
Chapter I Chapter II
Chapter III
Chapter IV
Chapter V

CONTENTS
PART I-ARCHITECTURE
By Prof. Harihar Singh
Deptt. of A.L.H.C. & Archaeology, Faculty of Arts Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005
:
Introduction
: Architectural Data in the Jaina Canons
Secular Architecture - Village Planning 6, Town Planning 8, Palace 8,
Other Buildings 10
Religious Architecture Stupa 11, Layaṇa 12, Jinālaya 13
: Jaina Stūpa Architecture
Jaina Stupa of Mathura 14
: Rock-cut Jaina Architecture
Bihar Rajgir 24
Uttar Pradesh - Pabhosa 24
Orissa Udayagiri 27, Khandagiri 31
Gujarat Junagadh 35
Madhya Pradesh - Udayagiri 37
Maharashtra Dharashiv 39, Ellora 40, Patna 52, Ankai-Tankai 53,
Chamar 58, Bhamer 58, Anjaneri 58, Chandor 58
Karnataka Badami 58, Aihole 60, Melkote 60
Tamil Nadu Vilappakkam 60, Pecciparai 61, Sittannavasal 61,
Armamalai 62, Vallimalai 62
Kerala Tiruccaranattumalai 62, Kallil 63
Jaina Temple Architecture North India
Historical Background 65, Architectural Features 70
Bihar
Rajgir 78
Bengal Pakbira 80, Deuliya 80, Paresanath 81, Ambikanagar 81, Deoli 81,
-

Page
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xi
XV
1-6
7-13
14-22
23-63
.64-186

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Chara 83, Harmashra 83, Deulbhira 83 Uttar Pradesh - Deogadh 84, Banpur 91 Madhya Pradesh - Kundalpur 92, Pithaora 92, Gyaraspur 93,
Khajuraho 96, Un 105 Chhattisgarh - Arang 106 Rajasthan - Osian 108, Varman 112, Rajorgadh 112, Ghanerav 113, Pali 117,
Lodrava 117, Nagada 122, Nadlai 122, Nadol 124, Nana 125, Nandia 126, Ahad 126, Sewadi 129, Abu (Dilwara) 131, Jhalrapatan 139,
Jhadoli 140, Sadri 140, Phalodhi 141, Mungthala 141 Gujarat - Vadnagar 142, Than 144, Taranga 145, Kumbharia 151,
Girnar 169, Sejakpur 175, Satruñjaya 177, Bhadreshwar 179, Sarotra 180,
Miani 183, Kanthkot 184 Jaina Temple Architecture : South India ...
.................... 187-249 Historical Background 187, Architectural Features 192 Karnataka - Aihole 195, Hallur 203, Humca 204, Pattadakal 207,
Kambadahalli 210, Śravanabelagola 213, Annigeri 223, Angadi 223, Harasur 225, Konnur 226, Lakkundi 226, Mulgund 231, Ron 232, Nagai 233, Kuppatur 233, Lakşmeśvara 233, Huli 236, Hangal 237, Halebid 239, Heragu 242, Puspagiri 242, Nittur 242, Heggere 243,
Udri 245, Jinanāthapuram 245, Belgaum 246 Tamil Nadu – Tirupparuttikunram 247, Vijaymangalam 248
Chapter VI
:
Chapter VII
:
PART II-JAINA SCULPTURE AND ICONOGRAPHY
By Prof. Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari Deptt. of History of Art, Faculty of Arts
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005 Introduction .........
253-261 Patronage 253, Pantheon 253, North India 255, South India 259, Art and Aesthetics 260 Jinas or Tirthankaras ....
...... 262-290 Rşabhanātha or Adinātha 263, Ajitanātha 266, Sambhavanātha 267, Abhinandana 267, Sumatinātha 268, Padmaprabha 268, Supārsvanātha 269, Candraprabha 270, Suvidhinātha 271, Sitalanātha 272, Sreyāmsanātha 272, Vasupujya 272, Vimalanätha 273, Anantanātha 273, Dharmanātha 273, Sāntinātha 274, Kunthunātha 275, Aranātha 276, Mallinātha 276, Munisuvrata 277, Naminātha 278, Neminātha 278, Pārsvanātha 281, Mahāvīra 285, Dvitirthi and Tritīrthì Jina Images 287, Jina Caumukhi 288,
Chapter VIII
:
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Chapter IX
Chapter X Chapter XI
Chapter XII
Chapter XIII

Contents
Jina Caturviṁsatikā 290
: Yakṣa-Yakşi or Śāsanadevatā
Gomukha 293, Cakreśvarī 294, Mahayakṣa 295, Ajitā 295, Trimukha 296, Duritārī 296, Iśvara 297, Kälikä 297, Tumbaru 297, Mahākālī 297, Kusuma 298, Acyută 298, Mätanga 298, Śantā 299, Vijaya 299, Bhrkuti 299, Ajita 300, Sutārā 300, Brahma 300, Asokā 301, Iśvara 301, Manavi 301, Kumāra 302, Canda 302, Sanmukha 302, Viditā 303, Pātāla 303, Ankuśā 303, Kinnara 303, Kandarpā 304, Garuda 304, Nirvāṇī 304, Gandharva 305, Balā 305, Yakşendra 305, Dharaṇī 306, Kubera 306, Vairotya 306, Varuna 306, Naradatta 307, Bhṛkuți 307, Gāndhārī 308, Gomedha 308, Ambika 309, Parsva or Dharaṇendra 311, Padmavati 313, Matanga 315, Siddhāyikā 315
Vidyadevis
:
Other Jaina Gods and Goddesses
Sarasvati 326, Lakṣmi 328, Gaṇeśa 329, Brahmaśānti Yakṣa 330, Kaparddi Yakṣa 331, Kṣetrapala 332, Harinaigameși 333, Aṣṭadikpālas 333, Navagrahas 336, Laukantika Gods 337, Dikkumārīs 338, Santi Devi 338, Pratihāras 339, Vijaya-Vijayanta-Jayanta-Aparajita 340, Nine Naradas 340, Eleven Rudras 340, Kamadevas 340, Ganipitaka-Yakṣarāja 341, Tribhuvana Svāminī Devi 341
: Bahubali, Bharata Muni, Jivantasvāmi Images
Bahubali 342, Bharata Muni 345, Jīvantasvāmī 346
: Some Other Aspects of Jaina Art
Jaina Ayagapaṭa 349, Samavasaraṇa 349, Aṣṭamangala 350, NandiśvaraDvipa 351, Sammeta-Śikhara and Pañca-Meru 352, Mānastambha 352, Parents of Jinas 352
Appendices I-VI :
I. Texts and their Dates
II. Jaina Sites and their Dates
III.
Jina Iconography
IV. Yakṣa-Yakşi Iconography
V.
Mahavidyas Iconography
VI. Map of Important Jaina Sites

xix
291-317
318-325 326-341
.......... 342-348
.349-354
355-371 355
356-358
359-360
361-368
369-370
371

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...............................
PART III-JAINA PAINTING By Prof. Kamal Giri, Ex-Professor Deptt. of History of Art, Faculty of Arts
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi-221005 Chapter XIV : Introduction ....
375-382 Chapter XV : Adipurāņa
............... 383-384 Chapter XVI : Kalpasūtra ....
..... 385-390 Life of Mahāvira 384, Life of Pārsvanātha 385, Life of Aristanemi 385,
Life of Rşabhanātha 386, Sthavirävali 386, Sadhu-Sāmācari 386 Chapter XVII: Kālakācāryakathā
.............
391-392 Chapter XVIII : Uttarādhyayanasūtra
393-399 Chapter XIX : Yasodhara-carita ..................................................................
................ 400-403 Chapter XX : Wall Painting
.............. 404-409 Ellora 402, Sittannavasal 403, Sri Kundavi Jinalaya 403,
Tirupparuttikunram 404, Chapter XXI : Pāšali (Wooden Book Covers) .............
410-411 Chapter XXII : Pata-Citra (Cloth Painting) .............
412-415 Chapter XXIII: Samavasarana ..................................................................
416-419 Appendices I-VI: ...........
................. 420-497 I. Citta-Sabhā (Picture Gallery) and Citta-Kamma (Art of Painting) II. Life of Tirthankaras in Painting
422 III. Painting and Jaina Canonical Literature
426 IV. Jñāna-Bhandāra
429 V. Bhattāraka (Administrative Head of the Jaina Religious Establishment) 431 VI. Tāda (Palmyra Tree)
432 Glossary
433-447 Bibliography
448-456 Index
457-479 List of Illustrations
480-497 Text Figs : 1-120 Plates :
1-293
420
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Jaina Architecture
By
Prof. Harihar Singh
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The term architecture called Västuvidyā (Prakrit Vatthuvijja) in Indian tradition means the art and science of building. This connotation applies only to the visual and material aspect of the building and not to the conceptual one, though it is for the latter that the Indian buildings, particularly the religious ones, are justly famous. Indeed, the Indian religious buildings, including also the Jaina, are not only a material record of the Indian people but also a cultural record of their thought. belief, cult-worship and material life.
The term "Jaina Architecture" was first used by James Fergusson in his famous treatise entitled History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (London, 1876) in order to distinguish it from the "Buddhist Architecture" as the two are almost contemporaneous and their religious buildings, in many respects, closely resemble to each other. The present nomenclature of "Jaina Architecture" was, however, not adopted in the later works on the subject. This is obvious from the Indian Architecture of Percy Brown (Bombay, 1949) which deals with the whole of ancient Indian architecture under the Buddhist and Hindu periods only, although Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism, the three principal religions of India, flourished side by side and the followers of each of these sects raised buildings in accordance with their own religious requirements, following of course a common code of prescriptions contained in the Vāstusastras and the Dharmaśāstras. It is hard to say why the modern scholars of ancient Indian architecture had not used the above terminology for Jaina buildings after Fergusson. This was due probably to the fact that, except for the enshrined image, there is nothing Jaina, Buddhist or Brahmanical in Indian architecture. But in the latter half of the 20th century some such works as the Studies in Jaina art (Varanasi, 1955), Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture (Ahmedabad, 1975), Jaina
Art and Architecture (New Delhi, 1975) etc. were published with an exclusively Jaina title, suggesting that the Jainas, like other sects, ought to be recognized by their own name in the field of art and architecture as well. As a result of this it has now become a general trend to call the various traditions by their respective names, so that their contribution to different aspects of Indian history and culture can be properly estimated. In the present Volume of the Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies also the above title of Jaina Art and Architecture has been upheld.
The architectural data available in the Jaina texts (see next Chapter) and the innumerable Jaina buildings located throughout the country may be divided into two broad groups & secular and religious. The secular buildings consist of dwelling houses which, in old days, were made of wattle-and-daub and hence could not outlive the ravages of time. These were perhaps the houses of the common people raised mostly in the villages. Besides these buildings, there were fortified towns and palatial buildings which were built in somewhat durable material for the elite class. All these buildings are not represented by the actual examples but by the literary references preserved in the Jaina texts. A glimpse of the thatched cottages and the rampart embellished with battlements may, however, be had from the relief carvings found in the Jaina caves at Udayagiri-Khandagiri (Orissa).
The Jaina religious buildings consist of stūpa, rock-cut monastery and shrine, and structural temple. All of these buildings, barring the dwelling caves, enshrine an image of some or the other of the 24 Tirthankaras. Since the Jainas consider the Tirthankaras to be the most exalted Beings on the earth, they worship them alone. This does not, however, mean that the Jainas do not have a pantheon of their own, but the
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divine figures in Jaina shrines have always been kept in a subordinate position because they are regarded to be inferior to the Tirthankaras.
The stūpa is a visible symbol of the Great Beings like the Tīrthankaras who once existed and whose relics were enshrined in it. It is thus a sacred monument being worshipped by the Jainas. There is plenty of information about stūpa in the Jaina texts, but at present we know of only one Jaina stūpa, the others were probably destroyed during the course of time. The lone Jaina stūpa, that too in a very ruinous condition, is located at Kankāli Țīlá (Mathura); its architecture has been discussed in detail in the Chapter on Jaina Stupa Architecture of this Volume.
The rock-cut caves, which form the subject matter of Chapter IV, consist of both the monastery and the shrine and are represented by about 150 examples ranging in date from the 3rd century B.C. to the 15th century A.D. The caves were primarily excavated for the Jaina recluses to live in and do the penance as evident from the dwelling caves hewn at Rajgir, Udayagiri-Khandagiri, Junagadh etc., but later when the image-worship became popular and the construction of structural temples came in vogue, a good number of rock-cut shrines with Tirthankara images were executed at Udayagiri (M.P.), Ellora, Aihole, Badami, Sittannavasal, Ankai-Tankai etc. in the similar fashion as was being done in the contemporary structural temples. These caves fulfilled the requirement of both the monastery and the shrine.
Now, we come to the structural temples which are incorporated in Chapters V and VI and show the latest form of architectural development of the Jaina religious buildings. They are largest in number and are located at almost all the places where the Jaina community lives or has lived. The exigency of structural temples was primarily felt in the plains where the bulk of population lived, but owing to the absence of rocky hills the rock-cut temples could not be executed there.
From the architectural point of view also, the erection of structural temples was advantageous because they might be raised at any place of the choice of the builder, only that the latter had to compile the required building materials at the chosen site. Another advantage was that there was full scope for alteration and renovation. This is why the Jainas and the followers of other sects preferred to erect structural temples in durable materials like baked bricks and stone from the 6th century A.D. or even from the earlier time.
The Jaina shrine (Jinālaya) was, and now is, raised housing a Jina (Tirthankara) image for worship. In the actual monument a dark glooming chamber (garbhagsha) with Jina figure has been made for worshipping and a hall (mandapa) to perform the other religious works. While the interior of the garbhagrha is left quite plain, the exterior and the whole of attached mandapa or mandapas are usually embellished with divine figures and a variety of decorative patterns. The statuary and decorative elements, which bequeath us a plethora of information about the religious and material life of the contemporary period, are believed to have been displayed to protect the monument from the evil spirits because the plain surface is considered to be ugly and inauspicious in Indian tradition.
The Jaina shrines were not only a place of worship but also a place where the Jaina ascetics used to stay during the rainy season. After four months stay at a place during rainy season the Jaina ascetics have been enjoined to wander from place to place to preach Jaina tenets to the people and collect alms necessary for their sustenance. But about the 5h-6th century A.D. some Jaina monks used to stay for a longer duration of time in the Jaina monasteries and temples. In the beginning they stayed therein just to read and write Jaina texts, but later they made them their permanent abode. As a result, the Caityaväsa tradition belonging to both the Svetāmbara and Digambara sects came into existence. Owing to their permanent settlement the Jaina ascetics
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Introduction
of this tradition became lethargic and increased their belongings. Some of the Caityavasins (monks living in the temples) grew so influential that they got nonCaityavāsins ousted from the capital city of Aṇahillapāṭaka (modern Patan in Gujarat) during the time of the Capa ruler Vanaraja who ruled from about A.D. 745. Though there was a marked decline in the general ethics of the Caityavasins (Śvetambara) and the Bhaṭṭārakas (Digambara), their permanent living in the Jaina shrines proved very fruitful for the foundation of many Jaina Bhandaras (Libraries) within the premises of the temples. It was indeed at these centres of learning that thousands of Jaina texts were written after the 9th 10th century A.D. On account of its usefulness, such libraries were also established at other places with a good number of Jaina texts. Prior to the installation of the printing press, the copying and distribution of various texts were made from these places. The Jaina Bhandaras housed in the Jaina temples at Jaipur, Jaisalmer, Patan, Cambay, Kolhapur, Moodabidri etc. exist to this day with a good collection of handwritten manuscripts.
The Jaina caves are located at places where there are rocky hills. These places lie far from the residential areas and, except for a few places, are not reckoned among the religious centres of the Jainas. The Jaina stupa and structural temples, on the other hand, are generally situated amidst the Jaina localities or at the sacred Jaina spots. After the 6th century A.D. when the temple-building got a momentum, a large number of Jaina holy places (tirthakṣetras) associated with the life of the Tirthankaras and other Jaina ascetics were spotted and temples in honour of the Tirthankaras were raised there. Some of these places, e.g. Śatruñjaya in Gujarat, have such a large concentration of Jaina temples that they have developed into a temple-city.
In the construction of Jaina religious buildings various kinds of building materials have been used. Prior to the Mauryan period, the buildings were mostly made of wood, bamboo and straw. Burnt bricks were also used, but they were employed more frequently later

3
than earlier. The use of stone as a building material started from the Mauryan period in the 4th-3rd century B.C. This is evident from the remains of a palatial building at Pataliputra (Patna, Bihar), monolithic pillars, stupa, and rock-cut Jaina caves at Rajgir (Bihar). In the Jaina stupa of Mathura we find both burnt bricks and stone; rocky hills were a quarry for Jaina caves; and sandstone formed the basic building material of the structural temples. In the construction of Jaina temples different shades of sandstone have been used. This was due indeed to the fact that what shade and quality of stone was locally available was used in the construction of Jaina temples. Since sandstone was available in plenty throughout the country and was very tractable, it came to be used as the most common building material. Side by side sandstone, white marble in Rajasthan and Gujarat, soapstone in Karnataka and granite in Tamil Nadu were also used.
Wood has always been an important building material as it was easily available, it had the advantage of reducing the weight without affecting the strength of the structure, and was amenable to elaborate carvings not possible in brick or stone. The only limitation with wood is its perishable nature. It was employed in doors, windows, pillars, beams, brackets and railings. Teak wood was the first choice of the artist as it would last long and its oil content might preserve nails from rust. The railing of the Jaina stupa of Mathura is also worked out on the pattern of woodcraft. Many medieval Jaina temples and houses in Gujarat and Rajasthan were made of wood, bearing a wealth of carvings, because this region was comparatively drier than other parts of the country and the heat resistant quality of wood made the living very comfortable. Wooden beams may still be seen in the Ajitanatha temple at Taranga (Gujarat) built in A.D. 1164. Here they have been used to strengthen the domical ceiling in the upper storey of the gudhamandapa (closed hall in front of sanctum).
If we enlist all the Jaina buildings mentioned in the Jaina texts and the modern works on the subject,

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the number would not be in hundreds but in thousands, in spite of the fact that a large number of them were destroyed during the course of time. It is, therefore, worthwhile enumerating those factors which were responsible for their spoliation. The first and foremost is the natural one caused by earthquake, torrential rainfall etc. The second is foreign and continental invasions led by the bigoted Muslims who not only destroyed the religious Jaina buildings but also plundered them ruthlessly and converted them into mosques. Sometimes, the Muslims purposely dismantled the Jaina shrines to procure building materials for the construction of their mosques and tombs. The third is the internal disturbance caused by religious rivalry. Take for instance the case of the Solanki king Ajayapala who being a staunch Saiva persecuted the Jainas and destroyed their temples. The fourth is the philanthropic outlook of the Jainas who, out of zeal for preservation, have so inadvertently repaired and altered their religious buildings that their originality has considerably been marred. This is due to the fact that in Jaina tradition to build or rebuild a temple or to place an image therein was considered to be a highly meritorious act since it would secure them benefits here and hereafter. However repaired the Jaina buildings are, the Jainas must be commended for their philanthropic attitude for preserving monuments, because it was the result of this that the Jaina buildings are well-preserved to this day, retaining of course many restorations and alterations.
In the description of Jaina buildings the original Sanskrit and Prakrit words have been used to denote the various components of the building. This has to be done because the English synonyms of Indian words do not always carry the appropriate meaning. For clarification, however, a glossary has been appended at the end of the Volume.
All the Jaina buildings of the period under reference are indigenous in their origins and development and bear no testimony of foreign influence, notwithstanding
the fact that India had to face many outside inroads led from time to time by the Persians, Greeks, Sakas, Pahlavas, Kuşāņas, Hūņas and the Muslims. The reason behind this was that, except for the Muslims, all of these tribes completely merged in the Indian society and adopted the latter's customs and beliefs. The Muslims, on the other hand, always maintained their independent entity and forcibly spread Islam in the subcontinent treating Indians as infidels because of the latter being idolaters. In the field of architecture also, the Muslims introduced a building style of their own consisting of mosque and tomb, which were built on the principle of true arch and dome. Although such buildings as these started making their appearance with the foundation of the Muslim rule in northern India in c. A.D. 1200 as exemplified by the Adhāi-dina-ka-Jhoprā at Ajmer (Rajsthan) which is nothing but a Jaina temple converted into a mosque, the construction of Jaina temples was continued without any modification in the indigenous style, and it is only after the 13th century A.D. that the Islamic traits such as arch, dome, merlon etc. are seen in the Jaina temples.
in the construction of Jaina temples well-dressed and finely jointed ashlars of various shapes and sizes have been used for the facing and rough-dressed stones for the hearting. The courses are laid dry one upon the other and kept in position by their weight and balance. The different courses of the wall up to the top of the plinth are splayed out by offsetting to counteract the lateral thrust, while the perpendicular walls are made solid or accommodate balconied windows and stone trellis with an overhanging cornice. The roofing is worked out by horizontal arch and dome and not by vertical arch of radiating voussoirs which was prevalent in the Roman and Western architecture. The simplest mode of roofing a small square space supported by four pillars is merely to run a stone beam from each pillar and cover the intermediate opening by a plain stone slab. In the second stage when the square space is
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Introduction
increased, the opening is covered by 5, 9 or 13 stones by cutting off the corners. In the third stage when the square space is increased as much as to be hardly covered by this process, then a dome of circular courses and central pendant is devised with its load supported on twelve pillars, four standing at the four corners and eight, two on each side, at the intermediate points. To bring the vertical pressure of the dome over the pillars, figure struts and cusped and corbelled arches are also employed. The spire or sikhara, whether curvilinear or pyramidal, over the square base of the cubical walls, is composed of horizontal square courses receding as they ascend and is capped at the top by a massive circular coping stone and vase. This method of roofing is called kadalikākaraṇavidhi (corbelling method) in ancient Indian architecture. The advantage of the horizontal mode of roofing is this that it does not have the defect of lateral thrust, while the vertical arches do suffer from it and to counteract it such expedients as buttresses and pinnacles have to be made. This is why the Jaina temples raised as they are in the indigenous tradition stand to this day in good condition.
The dates of the Jaina buildings are primarily fixed on the basis of inscription engraved on some or the other part of the Jaina edifice. The inscriptions being a contemporary document help us more than one way in the dating. Firstly, if an inscription has a date in Vikrama, Śaka or Vīra era which is current even to this day, the concerned Jaina building is assigned a precise date. Secondly, if it does not contain the date, the palaeography of the inscription helps us in ascertaining the date since we notice a continuous change and development in ancient Indian script. Thirdly, if the inscription has a reference to some known historical fact, then also the related building is assignable a nearly accurate date. In absence of the inscriptional evidence the style of the building is our only guide to ascertain its date. In fixing the relative date based on stylistic features we take note of the provenance of the building, the building material, the disposition and decoration of various parts on the

5
plane of plan and elevation, the mode of construction, the buildings contemporary to the Jaina buildings, and the various sculptures and decorative patterns.
Even though the Jainas have a rich heritage of their art and religion, they did not ever cross the boundaries of the subcontinent. As a result, no Jaina temple prior to Indian independence is to be seen outside the country. But recently many Jaina families have migrated to the European and American countries and got some Jaina temples built there.
The history of Jaina architecture begins with a couple of dwelling caves excavated at Rajgir during the Mauryan rule in the 3rd century B.C. This is followed by a small cave at Pabhosa, by a series of ornate caves at Udayagiri-Khandagiri and by a group of plain caves at Junagadh. These are also dwelling caves and were excavated from B.C. 200 to A.D. 200. During this period a Jaina stupa of great artistic merit was built at Mathura; later the same was repaired also. What is remarkable of these Jaina buildings is that they do not have the Jina images; it were the epigraphical records which prove their Jaina affiliation. But the later repaired stupa at Mathura certainly has a large number of Jina images and many stone slabs with auspicious Jaina symbols. Similarly, a large number of Jina images and the images of their Yakṣas and Yakṣis were carved in the Khandagiri caves during the early medieval period.
As we enter the classical phase of Indian history which is roughly dated from the 4th century A.D. to the end of the 6th century A.D., the work of excavating Jaina cave, e.g. the Jaina cave at Udayagiri (M.P.), is continued but it now contains Jina images for worship. Another significant development of this period is that structural temples make their appearance, housing a Jina figure in the sanctum. We know of as many as five kinds of structural temples having been made during this period (S.K. Saraswati, in The Classical Age, Bombay, 1954, p. 501). One of these is circular or cylindrical. Fortunately, a ruined Jaina temple of this variety still exists at Rajgir.

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From the 7" century A.D. to the end of the 13th century A.D. which is reckoned to be the last phase of the history of ancient India, the work of excavating caves was abandoned in northern India and new sites like Ellora, Dharashiv, Ankai-Tankai etc. in Maharashtra, Badami and Aihole in Karnataka, and Vilappakkam, Sittannavasal etc. in Tamil Nadu, all located in southern India, were patronised with rock-cut architecture. Some of these sites like Ellora etc. are adorned with beautiful Jaina caves. At Ellora some monolithic Jaina temples imitating the style of the structural temples were also executed. The architectural development of this long period, however, is to be particularly seen in the structural Jaina temples which manifested in a number of regional styles.
The Jaina buildings are so numerous and varied that it is very difficult to describe them all in one Volume. Secondly, the majority of Jaina temples of the
medieval and modern periods have not yet been properly studied and documented, and all that is published is very sketchy. We have, therefore, discussed here the Jaina buildings erected up to the 13th century A.D. only, those of the later period will be incorporated in the next Volume of this series.
The Jaina buildings are described here in the chronological order. But where there are more than one building, all the Jaina buildings of that site are taken together putting only the earliest one in the general chronological order, the others follow the chronological sequence at the site. This is followed in case of Jaina temples only. As regards the rock-cut Jaina caves, they are described in the same order as they are numbered today. In order to have a glimpse of the architectural development of the style in the various regions, the Jaina buildings are grouped State-wise and then described site-wise within that State.
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CHAPTER II
ARCHITECTURAL DATA IN THE JAINA CANONS
The Jaina canons, like the Buddhist and Brahmanical with fortification, garden, lake etc. They have been ones, adequately deal with different aspects of ancient discussed here under the following headings. Indian architecture. They have ascribed vatthuvijja as Village Planning (Gräma-sanniveśa) - The the art of building and vaddhai, the architect. The man Brhatkalpasūtrabhâsya, which copiously deals with having the qualification for testing a building-site was ancient Indian villages and their planning, enumerates known as vatthupādhaga. For building a new house, it ten types of villages : (1) a village planned in a circle has been said that after examining and levelling the ground with a well at the centre (uttāna-mallakākāra), (2) a the land rings (undiyão) were cast on different places circular village with a temple or tree at the centre fit for different constituents of the building. Then the (avanmukha), (3) a village having the shape of a half ground was dug, the foundation laid, a well pressed and circle (khanda), (4) a variant of the first being called a platform of brick-masonry raised (J.C. Jain, Life in uttanaka-khanda-malla saṁsthita, (5) a variant of the Ancient India as Depicted in Jaina Canons, Bombay, second being called avanmukha samputaka, (6) a village 1947, pp. 187-88).
planned along the boundary wall with parallel rows of The Jaina canons have information about both the trees planted in the east and the sides, (7) avenue type secular and religious buildings. If we set aside the of village (patalika), (8) a village with trees planted at architectural materials of the Indus Valley Civilization the four corners (rucaka), (9) a village having uneven which are undoubtedly secular in nature, almost all the ground ringed with trees (valabhi), and (10) a village known structural and rock-cut buildings of ancient India having triangular shape (kāsyapa). The text also gives are religious edifices built as abodes of gods, exalted other criterion for the classification of villages. Thus, persons like the Jina and the Buddha or seers and saints, a village with distant surroundings was known as or erected to fulfil some religious need. They consist madamba, a cow-herds' village was called ghoșa, a of stūpa (caitya), vihara (monastery) and Jinālaya (Jina mining village was named akara, and a village where shrine). Of these the stūpa has been described in detail the farmers or traders having their business elsewhere in the Jaina texts, but the other two find very sporadical kept their earnings for safety was called saṁvāha. Each reference in them, although they were built in large village had its own boundaries, but the limit of a village number throughout the country. This is, however, not was also decided by the distance the cattle went for the case with the secular architecture. The Jaina canons grazing or a wood-cutter went to fetch his wood. The indeed describe many varieties of secular buildings, but plough-lands (kheta) of the village were enclosed with the information about their shape, size and mode of a mud-wall (dhuli-präkära). Every fair-sized village had construction is very scanty and the technical terms by its own bhanda-śālā and panita-śālā where the potters which they are referred to are not always self-explanatory. made and sold their earthen works; a kamma-śālā where SECULAR ARCHITECTURE
the village-smith did his work; and ägamana-grha where The secular buildings were mostly built for guests were provided with food and shelter. Every residential purposes in the towns and villages. They village also had a sabhāgrha (assembly hall) of devakula range from a cottage house to a palatial building provided (shrine) in the centre of the village. The villages had
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various types of granaries catuḥśālā, avaparaka, kosthaka, kosthapalla etc. The most common type was made by piling straw rings on the floor and by plastering the outer and inner surfaces with mud and cowdung. Another type was made of bamboo and straw, but it was raised on a platform (mañca) supported on bamboo posts (see, A. Ray, Villages, Towns and Secular Buildings in Ancient India, Calcutta, 1957, pp. 28-29).
Town Planning (Nagara-sanniveśa) - The Rayapaseniyasutta gives an elaborate description of the town-planning in the account of the city of Amalakappa where Tirthankara Mahavira had once stayed. It describes that the town was surrounded by a high, wide and deep moat (khata and phaliha). The khata was wider above and narrower below, while the phaliha had perpendicular sides throughout. Probably, the khata was filled up with slippery materials like linseed etc. and the phaliha simply with water. The town was enclosed on the inner side of the moat by a curved rampart (pāgāra) resembling a bow. The rampart had a pronounced batter the proportion of which at the base, middle and top was 1:24. It was thus of the tapering type resembling a cow-tail (gopuccha). The rampart's top was embellished with circular battlements (kavisīsaya), each measuring in proportion of one in length, half in thickness and a little more than one in height. The battlements were painted in black, blue, red, yellow and white colours. The rampart was provided with high gateways (daragopura) on all sides and had bastions (attalaya) for watchmen. The gateways had double heavy door-leaves (jamalakavāḍa) provided with such appliances as discs (cakka), clubs (gaya), maces (bhasumdi), barriers (oroha) and war-machines (sayagghi), and strongly fitted with traverse bars (phaliha) and bolts (imdakila). Expert carpenters were employed to make the doorways almost impregnable. The royal road (rayamagga) connecting the town with the fort (durga) was made in such a way that one could not easily approach the fort. The roads of the town crossed one another forming junctions of

three, four and more roads, resembling thus the thorny fruit of trapanataus (simghadaga-tiya-caukka-caccara). The town was adorned with beautiful caityas (ayaravamta-ceiya), attractive brothels (juaivisitthasanniviṭṭhabahula), pleasure gardens (ārāmaujjāṇa), wells (agada), tanks (talaga), lakes (dīhiya), ponds (väppi) and beautiful shops (panyapaṇa......suramma) (see H. Singh, Architectural Data in the Rayapasenya', Bharati, No. 17, pp. 173-80).
Palace (Prasada-vinyasa) The Rayapaseniya bequeaths us a fine description of palace architecture in the account of the Vimana of the heavenly god Suryabhadeva. The Vimana-palace is said to have been erected on hundreds of well-planted pillars embellished with graceful figures of Salabhañjikäs (women standing with distended boughs). The pillars were surmounted by capitals bearing hovering figures of Vidyadharas in pairs. The walls of the palace were adorned with figures of fabulous animals (ihamiya), bull (usabha), horse (turaga), man (nara), crocodile (magara), deer (ruru), lion (sarabha), yak (camara) and elephant (kumjara), motifs of wild creepers (vaṇalaya) and lotus creepers (paumalaya), and similar numerous decorative figures (ruvagasahassakaliya). The palace was approached from three sides by three stairways (tisovaṇa), each consisting of landing (pirma), pedestal (paithana), upright posts (khambha), planks (phalaga), cross-bars (sui), bonds (samdhi), base (avalambana) and coping (avalambaṇabaha). In front of each stairway was a beautiful toraṇagateway decorated with eight auspicious Jaina symbols (sotthiya, sirivaccha, pandiyavatta, vaddhamaṇaga, bhaddāsaṇa, kalasa, maccha and dappana), fly-whisk (camarajjhaya), and pendants of umbrella, flag, bell and varieties of lotuses. The floor of the palace was quite smooth and was paved with jewels and precious stones.
In the centre of the palace was a Theatre Hall (picchagharamamḍava) supported on pillars and bearing decorative motifs recounted above. Its roof (sihara) was adorned with bells and flags and had finials (thubhiya)

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on the top, while the ceiling (ulloya) was adorned with the spaces on either side of the doors were filled with lotus creepers. In the central part of the hall was a stage rows of sandalwood pitchers, festoons of pearls, (akkhädaga) with a throne (simhāsaņa). Around the throne, necklaces, gavākṣa motif and small tinklers, and incensein different quarters, were placed chairs for courtiers, pots (dhūvaghada) suspended from hooked ivory nails queens, members of the three Assembly Halls - inner (nāgadamta or gajadamta) socketed into the 'walls. assembly (abhimtaraparisā), middle assembly The torana of the gateways was decorated with (majjhimaparisā) and outer assembly (bahiraparisā), pendants of red lotus (pauma-hatthaga); graceful figures seven commanders-in-chief and personal body-guards. of usual Sālabhañjikā; ivory nails with usual festoons;
The doors (dāra) of the palace consisted of pairs of horses (hayasaṁghāda), elephants (gaya), landing (ạimma), pedestal (paitthāņa), pillars (Khambha), kimnara (a mongrel with the body of a human being floor (kottimatala), threshold (eluya), bolt (imdakila), and the head of a horse), kimpurisa (a mongrel with doorjambs (pedhyā), lintel (uttararga), doorplanks (sui), the body of a horse and the head of a human being), joints (samdhi), sockets (samuggayā), wooden traverse tritons (mahoraga), heavenly musicians (g bar behind door-leaves (aggala), sockets for doorpins and pairs of bulls (usabhasamghāda), arranged in a row (aggalapāsāya) and hinges (avattanapedhyā). The closely having their faces in one direction (parkti), placed face fitted heavy doors were provided with shutting stile to face (vihi) or displayed embracing each other (uttarapāsaga) and had on their leaves 256 bosses (mihuna); varieties of rhizomes pertaining to nägalayā, (bhittiguliyā) placed on bed-steads (gomaņasiyātattiya). asogalaya, campagalaya, cūyalayā, vaņalaya, The doors were embellished with figures of fabulous väsartiyalayā, aimuttayalayā, kurdalayā and sāmalayā; animals (vālarūvaga) and graceful figures of motifs of sovatthiya, cardanakalasa, spouted water vessel Sālabhanjikās in playful attitudes. "The Sālabhañjikäs (bhimgāra) and mirror (ayarsa); large circular dishes were standing in various graceful poses and were well- (nābhithāla) full of rice, circular tubs (päia) full of water supported (on couchant figures) and beautifully and green fruits, caskets full of unguents (supaittha ornamented, wearing garments of various colours, bhamda), nāgadartas with hanging vāyakaragas (fragrant garlands of various designs and double coiled head- pots) covered with cloths of variegated colours, and dress, having slim waist, round prominent breasts, eyes boxes full of jewels (rayanakaraga): faces of horse, with red corners and black curly hair, standing under elephant, nara, kimnara, kimpurisa, mahoraga, Asoka trees and holding their distended boughs, stealing gandhavva, and bull; baskets full of flowers (puppha), the heart of gods as it were with their rolling glances, garlands (malla), fragrant powders (cunna), scents and teasing as it were with the play of their eyes." (V.S. (gamdha), garments (vattha), ornaments (ābharaṇa), Agrawala, Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965, p. 224). In the mustard seeds (siddhattha) and brooms (lomahattha); description of doors the Rāyapaseniya gives some more things like throne (simhasana), umbrella (chatta) and architectural terms such as elevation (usseha), lattices flywhisk (câmara); and ten kinds of cosmetic caskets (jālapamjara), large posts (vaṁsaga), traverse beams full of oil (tella), leaf (patta), bark (coyaga), tagara (padivasaga), upright smaller posts fixed in the ground (tabernaemountana coronaria), cardamom (elā), yellow (bhomā), side walls (pakkha), bamboos for side walls orpiment (hariyāla), sulphate of mercury (himgulaya), (pakkhaväha), cross-beams (vamsa), ribbings red arsenic (maņosilā) and collyrium (amjana). (varsakavelluya), panels (pattiya), screen walls The palace was provided with gardens (vana), (ohādaņi), thatched layers above the ribbings lawns (bhūmibhāga), ponds (vāvī), tanks (sara) and (uvaripumchani), ceiling (chayaņa) and peaks (kūda). wells (bila). The gardens consisted of asoga, sattavanna,
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campaga and cuya (mango) trees. The lawns were of nimma, paitthāņa, khambha, phalaya, studed with numerous precious stones and grasses. The kalevarasamghada (pair of figures), rūva (motif), ponds were of various shapes and sizes. There were rüvasaṁghāda (pair of motifs), pakkha, pakkhabaha, four types of ponds - (1) vavi (square), (2) pukkhariņi varsa, varsakavelluya, pattiyä, ohädani, uvaripumchana (circular), (3) dihi (rectangular) and (4) gumjāliyā (a and acchāyana. It was decorated with garlands of golden pond having irregular sides). The tanks and wells were necklaces (hemajāla), gaväksa motif (gavākkhajāla), made in rows (saraparkti and bilaparnkti). The water small bells (khimkhiņijala), bells (ghamtājāla), pearls pools had four corners; their banks were made of stones (muttājāla), jewels (manijāla), golden ornaments (pāsāna) and had even surface (samatīra); their floor (kanagajala) and red lotus (paumajāla), punctuated with (tala) was covered with sand (valuya); they were deep golden pendants, and embellished with pairs of figures and were filled up with cold water (gambhirasiyajala); of horse, bull etc. This handsome railing was known their bathing places were well-furnished (titthayasu- as paumavaraveiya (padmavaravedikā) since "on its baddha); there was a fine arrangement of landing and several parts (dese dese), in several places (tahim tahim), ascending (suhoyārasuuttara); they were provided with on the rails (veiyā), on the stairway balustrades a high coping on the top (padalapaccoyada); their terrace (veiyābāha), on rail planks (veiyāphalaya), in between was handsome and pleasant (acchãosanhão rayayamaya- two rails on the uprights (veiyāpudartara), on the kūlāo); and they were surrounded by a railing decorated uprights (Khambha), on their copings (kharbhasisa), in with lotus rhizome (paumavaraveiyā). They were between two pillars (Khambhapudamtara), on crossbars approached by three stairways (tisovāņa). In between (süi), in between crossbar sockets (suimukha), on the the water pools were different types of water pavilions sides of crossbar (sūiphalaya), on the spaces of the side known as dagamamdava, dagamamcaga, dagamālaya pillars (pakkhapudamtara) were carved such kinds of and dagapāsāya.
lotuses as blue lotus (uppala), red lotus (pauma), lily The palace had different types of houses called (kumuya), nalina, subhaga, sogamdhiya (perfumed lotus), reception house (acchanaghara), theatre house white lotus (pumdariya), sayavatta and sahassavatta" (picchanaghara), bathing house (majjanaghara), dressing (Singh, H., op. cit., pp. 175-79; V.S. Agrawala, Indian house (pasāhanaghara), inner house (gabbhaghara), Art, pp. 221-22). sleeping house (mohaņaghara), sālaghara (open house), Other Buildings - From the Rayapaseniya we latticed house jalaghara), house decorated with paintings know the names of several other buildings known as (cittaghara), music house (gamdhavvaghara), mirror house küdāgārasālā (building with peaked top having finials), (ayamsaghara) and some such houses as āliyaghara, mulapāsāya (main palace surrounded by other palaces), maliyaghara, kayalighara, layāghara and kusumaghara, suhammāsabhā (assembly hall of Indra) confronted by named after different plants. Similarly, there were different a muhamamdava, a pecchāghara and a thūbha (stūpa), types of thatched cottages known as jāimamdava, paharanakosa (armoury), Siddhāyatana (an eternal juhiyāmamdava, malliyāmamdava, navamāliyāmarndava, shrine), abhisegasabhā (hall of religious ceremonies), vásamtiyāmamdava, dahivāsuyamamdava, sūralliya- alamkārasabhā (hall of dress and ornaments) and mamdava, tambolimamdava, muddiyāmamdava, vavasāyasabhã (office or library) (Singh, op. cit., pp. nāgalayāmamdava, aimuttayalayāmamdava, apphoyā- 179-80). mamdava and maulayāmamdava.
The Nāyādhammakahā (1.7) gives an account of The palace was provided with a secretarial building the sleeping chamber (varagharaya) of a queen which (uvagāriyālaya) surrounded by a railing which consisted consisted of an outer courtyard (caukattha), an assembly
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hall polished (ghattha-mattha) and well-set with pillars adorned with Sālabhanjikä figures, latticed windows (jala), moonstone at the foot of the stairway (addhacaída), projecting ledges (nijjüha), and a room on the roof (caídasăliyā). Its exterior was white-washed (dhūmiya), the interior was decorated with paintings (cittakamma), the floor was studed with semi-precious stones (mani), and the ceiling had a painted canopy (ulloyacittiya) decorated with lotus flowers and creepers (paumalayā). Its doorways were beautifully adorned with auspicious golden pitchers, lotus flowers and necklaces of pearls and jewels.
The Jaina canons also make mention of siyahara (cold-house) which was used in summer, bhumihara (subterranean house), and of such halls as vāgharanasālā (wedding hall), attaņasälä (hall for gymnastic exercises), nhānamamdava (bath-room), uvatthānasālā (attendance hall) and posahasäla (fasting hall) (see, J.C. Jain, Life in Ancient India as Depicted in Jaina Canons, pp. 189-90)
RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
There are three types of religious buildings, viz. stūpa (caitya), layaņa (cave) and Jinalaya (Jina shrine). Of these the stupa has been copiously dealt with in the Jaina canons, but the other two are rarely mentioned therein, probably because the early Jaina caves were excavated just for the stay of Jaina monks, while the later ones as well as the Jaina shrines, a place where the Jaina monks used to stay and do worship, being posterior to the time of the redaction of the Jaina canons find no mention of them.
Stūpa - The stūpa, Prakrit thūbha and Hindi thūhā, was a mound of earth raised on the cremation ground after collecting the bone relics of a deceased person to commemorate his nirvana or death. It was also known as caitya because it was piled up on the site of the funeral pyre (citā). There was a practice also to mark the spot of cremation by planting a tree there. The association of caitya with tree (vrksa) was termed caitya- vrkșa. But the caitya-vrkșa was not confined to the
cremation ground only. Tree-worship was, and still is, in vogue in India and the tree like Pipala was considered sacred for worship. All the Jaina Tirthankaras are, in fact, known to have attained their omniscience under a certain tree, and hence the trees of their association are worshipful. This is exemplified in the relief carvings of the rock-cut Jaina caves at Udayagiri-Khandagiri (Orissa). Similarly, an edifice housing a caitya (stūpa) is called caityagrha, a type of shrine which the Buddhists embraced the most. The original tumulus (anda) of earth served as a core for later encasing, first by baked bricks and then by stone with or without a ground railing (vedika) and gateways (toranadvāra), replacing probably the original wooden ones.
The literary reference to stupa goes back to the time of the Rgveda (7.2.1) where the flaming pile of Agni's light is spoken of as a stūpa, but the actual monument of Brahmanical affiliation is still wanting, probably it was abandoned long back and the evidences were eroded away by the lapse of time.
On having been asked by his chief disciple Ananda, the Tathāgata Buddha enjoined to raise stūpa on the remains of the Tathāgata as was being done in case of the Cakravartin King. The stūpas, according to the Buddhist tradition, were of three kinds (1) Säririka (bodily relic), (2) Uddesika (stūpas erected for the sake of the Buddha) and (3) Päribhogika (stūpas erected over the articles of Buddha's personal use, e.g. Bodhimanda, begging bowl etc.). Apart from these, there were made votive stūpas just as an object of worship. The Buddhist texts like Mahāvamsa also contains a vivid account about the construction of a stupa. Thus, it seems almost mandatory for the Buddhists to erect stūpa and worship it.
As regards the Jaina tradition, the Acaranga (12.1.3.3.) which is taken to be the earliest Jaina canonical text by the Svetāmbaras speaks of caityakstavrkșa and caityakrta-stūpa, meaning a tree planted on the spot of the funeral pyre and a stūpa raised on the
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cremation ground respectively. At another place (2.2.3.116) it enjoins on a Jaina monk not to ease himself or pass urine on the sites of funeral caityas or funeral stūpas (mrtakacaityesu or mstakastupikäsu), simply because it was a relic sanctuary demarcating a sacred spot. The Jaina canons also make reference to different daivatacaityas which were generally located on the outskirts of a village or town, and Tirthankara Mahavira is often reported to have stayed in them during his wanderings. The daivatacaityas were actually a shrine of the Vyantara class of deities like Yakşa etc. In the Vipākasutra (34) we indeed find the term Yakşayatana for this type of shrine. The Purnabhadra- caitya of the Aupapātikasutra (2) named after the Yaksa Pūrņabhadra was one such shrine to the north-east of the city of Campā where Mahāvīra had stayed
The Jaina canons like Bhagavatīsūtra (20.9.684) also make mention of an Arihanta (Tīrthankara) caitya to be worshipped at Nandiśvaradvīpa. The Arihanta- caityas were probably the Jina-ayatanas or Siddhayatanas a detailed description of which comes down to us from the Sthānanga (4.2.307), a text compiled during the first few centuries of the Christian era. There we are told that in the central part of the Nandiśvaradvipa (a land of delight for the gods paying homage to the Tirthankaras there are four Añjana mountains in the four directions. On the top of each of these mountains is a Jina shrine having four doors. In front of each door is a mukhamandapa and in front of each mukhamandapa is a preksāgrha (theatre). In front of each preksāgrha is a caitya-stūpa on manipithikā (jewelled platform). In front of each caitya-stupa is a manipīthikā with four Jina images seated in padmāsana and then follow a caityavskșa, a staff with flags, a lotus lake and a garden respectively. This is obviously an account of a heavenly shrine whose counterpart cannot be traced on the earth.
The Jaina stūpa, like the Buddhist, was erected on the cremation site after collecting the bone relics of a Tirthankara (Jambudvipaprajñapti, 2.33). The Jaina texts also make reference to stūpa-worship. Thus,
according to the Avasyakacūrni (Ratlam, 1919, p. 567), a stupa of Tirthankara Munisuvrata was being worshipped at Vaishali. But no archaeological evidence of this stūpa has so far come down to us. Jinaprabhasūri, a Svetāmbara Jaina monk, describes in his Vividhatirthakalpa (Mathurāpurikalpa), a text of the 14" century A.D., that there was a stupa of Supārsvanātha at Mathura, made of gold and jewels and erected by a goddess in one night when a controversy arose with the Buddhists and others about its ownership. Once Tirthankara Pārsvanātha came to Mathura and preached Jaina tenets to the people there. After his departure the local goddess asked the inhabitants of Mathura to protect the priceless stūpa by encasing it with bricks and install in its front a stone image of Pārsvanātha to establish its Jaina claim. And it was done. The Digambara texts also give an account of this stūpa. In the Brhatkathākosa of Harişeņa (A.D. 932), Story No. 12, it is said that there were built five Jaina stupas by the gods during a controversy with the Buddhists. The Yaśastilakacampū (6.17-18) of Somadevasūri gives a similar account but speaks of only one Devanirmita-stūpa of Mathura (see, U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 62-63). This stūpa has been identified with the ruined Jaina stūpa at Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura (U.P.). An inscription of the 2nd century A.D. engraved on the pedestal of a Jina image found at Kankäli Țilā also makes mention of the Devanirmitastūpa (Epigraphia Indica, Vol. II, No. 20). This stupa was called Devanirmita-stupa because it was so old that people would not have known its age during the historical period and hence attributed its erection to gods (Devanirmita). This is a solitary Jaina stūpa so far known to us. Its architectural details will be discussed in the Chapter entitled Jaina Stupa Architecture.
Layaņa - There are two types of religious buildings in ancient India. One of these is structural and the other, rock-cut. The layaņa belongs to the rock-cut architecture. If we leave aside over 50 Jaina caves excavated in the fort-hill of Gwalior in the 15th century A.D., there are still nearly 90 Jaina excavations located throughout the
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country and ranging in date from the 3rd century B.C. to the 12th century A.D.
The rock-cut caves are of two types-monastery and shrine. These two were called vihara (monastery) and caityagrha (an apsidal building housing a stūpa) in the Buddhist tradition and were made side by side at almost all the Buddhist sites possessing rock-cut caves. The Jainas, however, excavated only the monasteries from the 3rd century B.C. to the 4th century A.D. and shrines or both afterwards but no caityagrha during the entire period of time.
It is very surprising that the Jaina canons, which speak so high of stūpa, are quite silent about these excavations. Their non-representation was due probably to the fact that the Jaina caves, particularly the early ones, were mostly dwelling caves and hence unworthy of being mentioned because the Jaina recluses are not allowed to stay in such houses which are specially made for their residence. As regards the later Jaina caves. they are like the shrines and were built later than the time of the redaction of Jaina canons. In the Anuyogadara (sutta 99) also the layana is mentioned as a resort of ascetics. This is evident from this that Dharasena, who was the last Acārya to have partial knowledge of the original Jaina canons, lived in the Candraguphā at Girinagara (Junagadh, Gujarat) which has been presently identified with the semi-circular cave at Girnar.
Jinālaya - In the Jaina tradition the temples, which stand latest among the religious buildings of ancient India, are called Jinalaya, Jinabhavana, Basadi, Basti, Vihara etc. It is a building housing an image of Jina for worship. In the beginning it was both rock- cut and structural, but subsequently it fully remained structural. Its exigency was particularly felt in the plains where the bulk of population lived, but due to the absence of rocky hills the rock-cut shrines could not be made there. Secondly, from the time of the Imperial Guptas when the structural temples in durable materials
like stone made their appearance in the 5th century A.D., the Jaina monks used to live in the temples (Caityavasin). Thirdly, there was no scope for alteration in the rockcut buildings. As a result, structural temples were preferred to rock-cut from the 7th century A.D. The change over from rock-cut to structural buildings proved to be so useful that almost all the temples, big and small, of this as well as later period were made structural.
The lineaments of Jaina temples are the same as we notice in case of Brahmanical shrines, consisting thus of a sanctum enshrining a Jina image and a mandapa or mandapas to be used for other religious purposes. In ornamentation the temples of the two sects hardly make any difference.
We have a stock description of Jaina shrine in the context of Siddhayatana (an eternal shrine) in the Jivājīvābhigama (3.2.137) and Rayapaseniya (177-79). According to these texts, it consisted of a shrine provided with three entrance doors, cach topped by vedikā motif, torana and Sālabhañjikā figures. It had beautiful pillars adorned with varieties of figures and ornaments. In front of each entrance was a mukhamandapa (portico) decorated with astamangalaka symbols. In front of each mukhamandapa was a preksägsha (assembly hall) followed in its turn by a caitya-stupa perched on a jewelled platform. On four sides of each stupa were Jina figures seated in padmāsana on a jewelled seat. In front of each stupa was a flag of god Indra and then a water reservoir. Inside the shrine was a jewelled platform carrying a Devacchandaka with 108 figures of Jinas. It seems that a Jaina temple consisted of a sanctum, an entrance porch and an assembly hall. This arrangement of plan of the Jaina temple tallies well with that of the Gupta temples, but the account of decorative elements belongs to the Kuşāņa age and sometimes to the age of the Bharhut and Sanchi stūpas (U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 57-58).
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CHAPTER III
JAINA STUPA ARCHITECTURE
The stupa is a sepulchral monument raised as a mark of respect to the deceased person. In India the disposal of the dead body of a deceased person is performed by cremation, immersion or burial. The stupabuilding is connected with the rite of cremation as there was a practice of raising a mound of earth called stupa over the bone relics collected at the site of cremation. Being piled up on the funeral pyre (cita) it is also known as caitya. This earthly mound formed the core for later encasing, first by baked bricks and then by stone with or without a ground railing having gateways in the four cardinal directions.
The literary account with regard to stupa architecture has been discussed at length in Chapter II of this Volume and hence it is useless to recount it again, but such portions as are necessary will certainly be alluded to for elucidation.
The stupa-building was an old practice adopted by all the three principal sects (Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jaina) of India, but later it remained associated mainly with the Buddhists. This is clearly reflected from the fact that all the known examples of stupa, barring the one reported from Kankali Ţilā, are Buddhist. The information about an old tradition for building a stūpa comes from the Buddhist text itself. Indeed, the Mahaparinibbanasutta says that the Tathāgata Buddha asked his chief disciple Anand to raise a stupa for Him in the same way as was being done for the remains of a Cakravartin King. This evidently shows that there was an ancient practice to build a stupa even prior to the time of the Buddha who died at the age of 80 years in c. B.C. 486. Fortunately, we have a literary reference in Jaina tradition to show the erection of a Jaina stupa at Mathura during the time of the 23 Tirthankara Pārsvanatha who is said to have flourished in the 8th century B.C. This Jaina stupa is presently identified

with that located at Kankali Ṭila, Mathura district (U.P.). This is the lone Jaina stupa known so far. The Jaina Stupa of Mathura
and
According to the Bṛhatkathakosa of Harisena, there were five Jaina stupas at Mathura. These stupas are known to have been repaired some time later. It is also known that there was a Jaina sect called Pañcastūpanvaya at Mathura and Jinasena, the author of the Jayadhavalā, claims to have belonged to this lineage. The Paharapura Copper Plate of A.D. 478 makes mention of Pañcastūpanikaya as well. But Jinaprabhasūri in his Vividhatirthakalpa Somadeva in his Yasastilakacampu refer to only one Devanirmita stupa at Mathura. This Jaina stupa, according to Jinaprabha, was originally built in honour of the 7th Tirthankara Supärsvanatha and was repaired during the time of the 23rd Tirthankara Parsvanatha. At the time of repair an image of Parsvanatha was also installed in front of the stupa since there arose a controversy with the Buddhists regarding the ownership of the stupa (see, U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, pp. 62-63).
The antiquity of the Jaina stupa of Mathura, according to the literary account, thus goes at least to the time of Parsvanatha, but the archaeological materials recovered from Kankali Tila and now preserved in Mathura, Lucknow and other museums hardly go beyond the 2nd century B.C. The reason behind this is that the stūpa had been renovated more than once and consequently the materials available belong to different strata of time. It appears that the original stupa at Kankali Ṭila was made of earth; later it was converted into a brick stupa; and in the third stage it was transformed into a stone stupa together with the addition of a large stone railing and four gateways in the four directions with a good deal of carvings. The archaeological excavations carried out at Kankali Ṭila have indeed revealed a large number

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Fig. 3. Ayāgapata of Sivayaśā showing a Jaina Stūpa, Kankāli Tilā, Mathura.
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Fig. 1. Obverse of Torana-beam representing the worship of Jaina Stupa, Kankāli Tila, Mathura.
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Fig. 5. Cross-section of Jaina Stūpa, Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura.
Fig. 4. Plan of Jaina Stūpa, Kankāli Tilā, Mathura.
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of sculptures and architectural pieces which positively belonged to two stūpas, one built in the 2nd century B.C. and the other in the 1" century A.D. The stupas can also be classified by the form and design of their railings. While the railing pillars (Fig. 6) of the early stūpa (2 century B.C.) are octagonal in section and carry decoration of several varieties of lotus flowers, those of the later stūpa (1" century A.D.) are square in section and bear divine and human figures on the front face and two full and two half lotus medallions on the back (Fig. 8). The purpose of erecting a new stūpa or repairing the old one was to establish the Jaina claim on the site which had been challenged by the Buddhists for the simple reason that the old Jaina stupa, which was intact at that time, had no image of Jina to prove its Jaina affiliation. This exigency of Jina statuary was completely removed in the new stūpa of the 19 century A.D.
The anda (dome) of the stūpa probably dates from the 2nd century B.C. and is made of baked bricks. On plan it measures 62 ft. in diameter and thus it was only slightly smaller than the contemporary Buddhist stūpa located at Bharhut (M.P.). In its construction different sizes of bricks have been used. Some were about 15 inches square and 6 inches thick, while others were long and comparatively narrow. The smallest bricks were about 7 inches broad and 2 inches thick. It is difficult to make out the exact shape of the dome from its plan and section (Figs. 4 and 5) published by V.A. Smith in his monograph entitled The Jaina Stupa and Other Antiquities of Mathurā. However, from the carving of a miniature stūpa (Fig. 1) appearing on the architrave of a gateway it seems that the dome of early stūpa belonging to the 2nd century B.C. was hemispherical in shape and decreased in diameter towards the elongated top. The body of the anda was adorned with two railings and the diameter of anda was reduced at the level of each of these railings. The top of the anda was levelled to make a harmikā (mansion of god) enclosed by a railing. The harmika is the most sacred spot of the stūpa as it was here that the casket containing relics was
preserved. In the centre of the harmikā was inserted an upright post with umbrella from the rim of which suspended streamers and garlands. The stupa also had a ground railing to fence the pradaksināpatha. The stūpa was being worshipped not only by human beings but also by semi-divine beings who have actually been represented in the above panel.
It is hard to say if the two railings appearing on the anda had any architectural purpose or they were just carved as decorative motif, because there was no arrangement of stairway to reach the berm of each railing. But since the stairway is found present in the contemporary Buddhist stūpas of Sanchi, Raisen district (M.P.), it may have been constructed in the Jaina stupa as well. In the Loņaśobhikā slab (Smith, Pl. CIII) of the 1st century A.D. the stairway is indeed present to reach the terrace of the stūpa.
The internal structure of the Jaina stupa was not entirely made up of bricks or clay but it was a mixed one, a device commonly used in the Kuşāņa age in North India and in the Sātavähana and Iksvaku periods in the South. Here it consists of two concentric circular walls and eight cross-walls emanating as radii from a central circular wall, while the spaces between the cross-walls were filled up with clay (Fig. 4). The cross-walls were elevated to such heights as required to maintain the circulatory of the dome. The advantage of this device was that it minimised the use of brick-masonry.
The archaeological excavation at Kankālī Tīlā has unearthed numerous carved āyāgapatas the actual purpose of which has not yet been known. Probably, they were installed as votive slabs around the anda of the stūpa so that people might pay their homage to them. This is evident from the fact that they bear figure of Jina, auspicious Jaina symbols, and the relief of stūpa.
On the ground the early stūpa was surrounded by a stone railing (vedikā) with four gateways (torana) pierced into it in the four cardinal directions. Enclosing an open space for circumambulation the railing consists of upright posts (stambha), three crossbars (suci) between
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Fig. 6. Details of Railing Pillars of Jaina Stupa, Kankali Ţilā, Mathura.

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each pair of posts, and coping stone (usnisa). The different members of the railing are bonded together by the tenon-and-socket method, a device adopted from the woodcraft. The lower part of the posts was fixed into the ground, their visible portion has been made octagonal by bevelling the corners, and their top has been treated as a tenon inserted into the socket made on the flat underside surface of the coping stones. The three crossbars resemble the bulbous pillows and are separated from one another by narrow spaces. The two ends of the cross-bars are inserted into the lenticular sockets made on the narrow lateral sides of the posts. The coping stones are square and flat below and circular above. The underside of the coping stones has sockets at regular intervals for receiving the tops of the posts. About the distribution of pillars we have an important piece of information in the Rayapaseņiyasutta (126) which says that there were sixteen pillars on each side of the gateways, making thus a total of sixty-four pillars for the entire railing, a number which has exactly been found in the railing of the Buddhist stūpa at Bharhut.
The ground railing of the early stūpa is elaborately carved with numerous ornaments in low relief. The upright posts, at the outer and inner faces, carry three lotus medallions in the middle and one half each below and above (Fig. 6). The crossbars also depict lotus medallions on both the faces (Fig. 7). All these medallions show several varieties of lotus flowers and other decorative designs. The most instructive of these is a high-tailed fabulous animal the body of which is of fish and the head is made of an animal. The fish- tailed animals are elephant, crocodile, winged lion, wolf, eagle etc. Another decoration worth noticing is of winged animal representing lion, antelope, wolf, goat or crocodile. A good number of medallions evince auspicious symbols like stūpa, srivatsa, tree in railing (caitya-vřkşa), wish-fulfilling creeper (kalpalatā), triratna, cakra (wheel), winged conch-shell (sarkha) and begging bowl placed on a raised pedestal, living animals such as wolf, deer, bull, elephant, lion and goat, birds,
mythical animals having head of a boar or human being and body of a lion and reversely the head of a lion and the body of a bird, and such decorative designs as honey-suckle, flower bouquet, etc. But above all these decorations there are several varieties of six-, eight-, ten-, twelve- and sixteen-petalled in rare case in odd numbers) lotus flowers consisting of one or two rows of petals and a central pistil. In some cases the lotus is stylized; in some other cases the inner row of petals is differently treated. The coping stones bear a number of floral and animal decorations. At one place it shows bells and buds tied to a beaded band above and honey-suckle with tiger and boar (or some other animals like rhinoceros, goat, bull, deer etc.) below (Fig. 9). At another place fine lotus rhizome makes its appearance below and usual bells and buds above. Since the entire railing shows an enrichment of lotus flowers and creepers, it has been rightly called Padmavaravedikā, a term applied for this type of railing in the Rayapaseniyasutta (see, supra, p. 10).
Of the torana-gateway of the early stūpa, only some pillars and a lintel have survived. The pillars have octagonal plain shaft; their capital consists of an inverted carved pitcher surmounted by winged figures of seated lions. The lintel, which formed the lowest architrave of the gateway, represents carvings on the central part of its obverse, reverse and soffit (Figs. 1 and 2). The obverse shows a three-tiered hemispherical stūpa worked out in decreasing diameter towards the elongated top. Each tier is ornamented with a railing design which consists of the usual members of posts, crossbars and copings. The semi-circular dome has a harmikā on its top. The harmikā is denoted by a square railing and a pillar surmounted by an umbrella carrying suspended streamers and garlands. The stūpa is being worshipped by two Suparnas (man-headed birds) and five Kinnaras (man-headed horses). One of the former offers a garland and the other as well as three Kinnaras brings a basket of flowers, the remaining two Kinnaras hold broom of fly-whisk. The stūpa is flanked on each side by a tree
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Fig. 7. Details of Railing Cross-bars of Jaina Stūpa, Kańkāli Tīlā, Mathura.
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Fig. 9. Details of Railing Coping-stone of Jaina Stupa, Kankali Tilä, Mathura.
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Fig. 8. Details of Railing Pillars of Jaina Stupa, Kankali Tilā, Mathura.
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with the Suparna seated on or hovering above its bending branches nearest to the stūpa. Behind the scene are some more trees. The reverse depicts a procession of three horsemen, an elephant with two riders, two pedestrians, and a covered bullock-cart filled with males and females; possibly they are going to worship the stupa represented on the obverse. In the centre of the soffit is carved a full-blown lotus flower.
The later stupa, which was probably built in the 1" century A.D. when the region around Mathura came under the aegis of the Kuşāņa rulers, shows some change and advancement. This is evident from the āyāgapata (tablet of homage) of Lonaśobhikā datable to this time. From the carving of this tablet it appears that the stūpa was built on a high terrace surrounded by a railing with high gateway approachable from the ground by a stairway, also provided with railing. The hemispherical dome (anda) was comparatively short and was perched on an elongated lofty drum provided with two railings. The anda had a harmikā with railing and umbrella on its top.
The railing of the later stūpa is very similar to the early one, but it is lower in height and the front face of its upright posts is differently treated. Here the front face is square in section and is boldly relieved with a male or female figure standing under a tree. Of the five pillars displayed by Smith (Pls. LX-LXIV) four are occupied by women and one by man. The women stand on crouching grotesque dwarfs or on a carved pedestal and wear anklet, loin-girdle, necklace, earring, armlet and a series of bangles. They are shown holding sword, braiding hair with garlands, standing at ease with the right hand resting on the waist, or showing shyness for nudity. All these female figures have been wrought with utmost care, stand in handsome poses, and look perfect on aesthetic plane. Except for the loin-girdle they are quite naked, probably to emphasize their femininity. The male (Fig. 8) seems to be a royal person wearing a dhoti, shawl, beaded garland, heavy kundala
and crown. The trees under which these figures stand are in each case of a distinct type. The back face of the posts is three-faceted and depicts two lotus medallions in the middle and one half each below and above. These medallions are beautifully carved and show different varieties of lotuses.
The torana-gateway of the later stupa as evident from the Lonaśobhikā āyāgapata as well as from the āyagapata of Sivayaśā (Fig. 3) consists of three architraves put across two tall pillars and separated from one another by square blocks of stones placed right above the pillars. The gateway was probably reinforced by a series of small balusters inserted between the architraves and by two bracket figures of Salabhanjikās emerging from the upper section of the pillars and tenoned into the underside of the lower architrave. In the Sivayaśā āyāgapata the ends of the three architraves are incurved like the tail of a crocodile. The upper architrave has a honey-suckle pattern carrying Dharmacakra, now broken off, in the middle and a triratna symbol representing right perception (samyak-darśana), right knowledge (samyak-jñāna) and right conduct (samyak-cāritra), which are considered to be the true path of liberation in Jainism, on each side of it, while the lower carries a heavy wreath suspending from it. The various parts of the gateway have been put together, without any cementing material and iron clamp, on the principle of weight and balance as is found in the contemporary Buddhist stūpas of Bharhut and Sanchi. The entire gateway bears a wealth of carvings. REFERENCES
V.A. Smith, The Jaina Stūpa and Other Antiquities of Mathură, reprint, Varanasi, 1969; V.S. Agrawala, Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965; U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Benaras, 1955; H. Singh, 'A Comparative Study of the Jaina and Buddhist Stupas', Bhārati, Vol. 23 (1996-97), Varanasi, pp. 125-32; Sagarmal Jain, 'Jaināgama Sāhitya meṁ Stūpa', Pt. Bechardas Doshi Commemorative Volume, Varanasi, 1987, pp. 132-40.
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CHAPTER IV
ROCK-CUT JAINA ARCHITECTURE
Jainism, like Buddhism, being a monastic religion enjoins on its followers to lead a life of mendicants for the attainment of liberation from the transmigration of rebirth. These mendicants lived on alms and used to stay in the natural caverns or in such abodes which lay far from the residential areas. Such abodes as these suited them well for meditation and other religious practices. In the beginning these caverns and some such hermitages as Yakṣāyatanas sufficed their needs, but when the mendicants increased in number, the caves were excavated as well in the rocky hills for their retreats. Subsequently, the caves were also adorned with figure sculptures and decorative patterns.
We know at present of about 150 Jaina caves that were hewn from time to time in different parts of the country. Architecturally, they may be divided into two groups - monastery and shrine, the former being the dwelling caves made for the Jaina recluses to live in and do the penance, and the latter the religious sanctuaries containing the Jina images for worship. All the early Jaina caves that are so far known to us are monastic resorts since they do not possess Jina images, and if they have them at all, e.g. the Khandagiri caves in Orissa, the images of such caves were carved later than the excavation of the caves, while all the later caves the excavation of which began from the early 5th century A.D. have been worked out like temples, fulfilling both the residential and religious needs.
The history of the rock-cut Jaina caves, if we leave aside the natural caverns, begins from the age of the Mauryas who united nearly the whole of India into one great kingdom and extended their support to all the religious sects including also the Jaina. This is evidently known from two Jaina caves at Rajgir (Bihar) which are contemporaneous with the Ajivaka caves at
Barabar and Nagarjuni excavated by emperor Asoka and his grandson Dasaratha in the 3rd century B.C. It was perhaps Samprati, another grandson of Asoka, who inspired the Jaina excavation at Rajgir because the Jaina texts speak as high of him as the Buddhist do of Asoka. From the end of the Mauryan rule to the rise of the Imperial Guptas (c. 200 B.C.-300 A.D.) the northern part of India was chiefly governed by the Sungas and the Kuşāņas, while the southern part was ruled by the Sätavāhanas and the Ikşväkus. This period envisages a political turmoil caused by the external and internal inroads, but the building activity went on unabated during the entire period of time. Another point worthy of note at this time is that Jainism spread from its epicenter in Bihar to other parts of the country. This is apparently known from the provenance of Jaina caves hewn during this period. Thus a cave small in size was excavated at Pabhosa (U.P.) for the residence of Jaina monks. In the twin hills of Udayagiri-Khandagiri (Orissa) the Cedi king Khăravela and his royalty excavated as many as 33 dwelling caves for the Jaina monks. Such a long series of Jaina caves was excavated neither earlier nor later. In a hill at Junagadh, a group of fifteen Jaina caves was excavated during the times of the Ksatrapas.
During the Gupta-Väkäțaka age (c. 300-600 A.D.) the country emerged as a strong political and economic power; there was peace and tranquility in the kingdom; and the kings had very liberal outlook towards all the religious sects of the period. Under the impact of such a healthy atmosphere therefore we naturally find an upsurge in all the branches of knowledge. In the field of art and architecture this is visualized in the form of structural temples. The image-worship, which had since been prohibited inside the rock-cut caves, was
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allowed at this time by all the sects. This is clearly caves known as Son Bhandar or Golden Treasury (Figs. evident from the excavation of a Jaina cave at Udayagiri 10-11; Pl. 1). These caves are very similar to the (M.P.) housing an image of Tirthankara Pārsvanatha. Mauryan caves at Barabar and Nagarjuni and, like the
After the decline and extinction of the Imperial latter, are laid out parallel to the rock. Guptas the country disintegrated into a number of big The larger of these two caves is very similar on and small principalities the rulers of which often fought plan to the Karna Chopar cave at Barabar, measuring for the supremacy and expansion of their power, but 34 ft. by 17 ft. Its walls are plain but polished to the none of them succeeded and ultimately they were defeated height of 6 ft. 9 inches and thence rise to 11 ft. 6 inches and their kingdoms assimilated by the Muslim conquerors in the centre of a slightly pointed arch. The cave has in the 124-13h century A.D. During this long period a doorway with sloping jambs towards the right end of Indian history, only the temples, whether rock-cut and a window about three feet square at the left. This or structural, of various shapes and sizes were produced. is the earliest example of window in the excavated caves The period was actually dominated by the Brahmanical in India. Outside the cave is a verandah 8 ft. deep and caves and temples, but at the same time it also witnessed extending at right end beyond the cave, so that the a fervent state of Jainism as the latter enjoyed the royal window would remain opened. The varandah has gone patronage of some of the Rāştrakūta kings of the Deccan, as it was made of wood, but its existence is well detected early Calukya kings of Vātāpi, and the Pallavas of Kañci. from the mortises in the rock which once received the This is apparently known from the presence of some ends of the wooden rafters of the verandah. beautiful Jaina caves at Ellora, Ankai-Tankai etc. in
The other Son Bhandar cave, which lies just 30 ft. Maharashtra, Badami and Aihole in Karnataka, and from the larger cave, is similar in all respects to the larger Sittannavasal etc. in Tamil Nadu. The rock-cut sculptures one, but it measures only 22 ft. by 17 ft. Its roof has almost at Dhank in Gujarat and the famous colossal of Bahubali fallen in and a mortise exists to show that it had a wooden at Sravanabelagola also belong to this period. While verandah similar to that in the larger cave. the followers of other sects almost abandoned the On the facade of the larger cave is an inscription excavation work after the 10th century A.D., the Jainas of the 4th century A.D., saying that Acārya Vairadeva continued it up to the 12h-13th century A.D. and excavated consecrated Arhat images in these caves, but the images some ornate Jaina caves at Ankai-Tankai in the fashion do not exist now. This apparently shows that these of the contemporary structural temples. The Jainas appear caves were in possession of the Jainas at least up to to have great liking for rock-cut caves and sculptures this date. as they resumed the excavation work after a gap of Probably, the Son Bhadar caves were excavated nearly 250 years and got many Jaina caves and colossuses as abodes for Jaina monks by the Maurya king Samprati made on all sides of the hilly fort of Gwalior in the in the 3rd century B.C. as Asoka and his grandson 15th century A.D.
Dasaratha did for Ajivakas at Barabar and Nagarjuni, With this short background we now proceed to give and the wooden verandah was added when the Arhat an account of the Jaina caves located in various States. images were installed in the 4th century A.D. BIHAR
UTTAR PRADESH RAJGIR
PABHOSA Rajgir or Rajagrih in Nalanda district of Bihar is Pabhosa is a hilly village 32 miles south-west of an old city. It was the capital of Magadha Janapada. Allahabad city in Uttar Pradesh. In the quartzite rock Rajgir is also the name of a hill there with two Jaina of the hill is executed a small Jaina cave measuring
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9 ft. deep by 7% ft. wide and 3/4 ft. high. It has a very low doorway (24/4 ft. by 134 ft.), so much so that one kneels into it. On one side of the door are two small windows. Inside, to the left, is a rock-cut bench (9 ft. by 134 ft. by 114 ft.) for the sitting of Jaina monks. The ceiling of the cave is semi-circular in the middle and flat on the two sides. There are two inscriptions according to which this cave was excavated by Asādhasena of Ahicchatra for the Arhats of the Kāśyapagotra to which scion the 24th Tirthankara Mahāvīra also belonged. On the basis of the palaeography of these inscriptions this cave is datable to the 1' century A.D.
ORISSA UDAYAGIRI AND KHANDAGIRI
Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Puri district of Orissa are twin hills rising abruptly amidst a wide expanse of arid laterite soil and separated from each other by a narrow gorge through which passes a modern road leading to Bhubaneswar. They lie just four miles north- west of Bhubaneswar and six miles from the ancient capital of Śiśupālagadha.
There are eighteen caves in the Udayagiri hill and fifteen in the higher Khandagiri, all belonging to the Jaina sect and excavated in the coarse-grained sandstone of varied texture and colour. The stone here being of soft variety, the caves have fallen an easy prey not only to the inclemencies of weather but also to human beings who have quarried them for building material without heeding for their cultural importance. Almost all the caves have local names suffixed by gumphā (local word for cave), but here the caves of each hill have been described in regular numbers retaining of course their current local names.
These caves have been excavated by the Cedi king Khāravela and his queen and relatives in the 1" century B.C. for the abodes of Jaina monks, so that they could go on begging rounds and do penance in these hermitages. Surprisingly, none of these caves may be designated as shrine, though in the contemporary
Buddhist caves of western India, both the shrine and monastery (caityagrha and vihāra) are found side by side. Probably, the shrine was structural; fortunately, the remains of an apsidal shrine have actually been found above the natural cavern of Hathigumpha. In the 11th 12th century A.D., however, some caves of the Khandagiri hill were converted into shrines by carving Jina images therein, by removing the partition walls between the inner cells and the front verandah, and by deepening the floor level, so that they might be more accommodative. Since there is no river flowing by the side of the caves, a few water reservoirs were also cut into the rock of both the hills to hold rain-water.
These monastic retreats are not laid out on a preconceived plan but at different heights following the configuration of rock and connected, wherever necessary, by rock-cut steps. To lessen the load over the caves the excavation is usually done near the top of the ledge, because the rock is of the brittle variety. The caves of Udayagiri are large and better preserved, those of Khandagiri are small and sustain alterations.
Ordinarily, the caves consist of one to four rectangular cells preceded by a common verandah. The cells in some caves are also wrought on the lateral sides. In rare case the cell has no verandah. Some of the larger caves, i.e. Rānīgumphā, are two-storeyed. The upper storey has not been made right above the lower one, but it recedes back leaving an open space on the fore part either to relieve the lower storey of the load of the upper one or to provide space for a common gathering. The Ränīgumphā and a few others have a quadrangular court as well.
The cells are quite plain and their partition walls thin. The number of doors varies from one to four, according to the size of the cells. The jambs of the doors sometimes incline inwards. The doorframes have holes for hinges at the threshold and lintel for receiving wooden doors. Their ceilings are often arched and convex. They do not have niches for keeping necessary articles.
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0 50 5 26 25
的FT.
Fig. 12. Plan of Anantagumphā, Khandagiri.
CELL
Fig. 15. Section of Rānigumphā, Udayagiri.
25 10 5 20 25
50 FT
Fig. 11. Section of Son Bhandar Cave, Rajgir.
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m 20
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50
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Fig. 14. Plan of Upper Storey, Rānīgumphă, Udayagiri.
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5
10
5
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log FT.
Fig. 10. Plan of Son Bhandar Caves, Rajgir.
Fig. 13. Plan of Lower Storey, Ränīgumphā, Udayagiri.
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The Jaina recluses being known for their rigorous UDAYAGIRI CAVES asceticism and extreme mortification, these caves provide The Caves on the Udayagiri hill are approached little amenities to them. The height of most of the caves, by flights of steps and an ancient ramp rising gradually including even the larger ones, does not allow a man from the foot of the hill and reaching the high terrace to stand erect. Some of the caves are so narrow that in front of Cave 14 (Hāthīgumpha). On reaching the one cannot even stretch oneself. The floor of the cells lowest terrace one comes across the Cave 1. has a sloping rise at the rear end, serving of course Cave 1 (Rānigumphā) - This is the largest and the purpose of a pillow. The doors of the cells are most interesting cave on the Udayagiri-Khandagiri hills. invariably small; some doors being so small that one It is a two-storeyed excavation (Figs. 13-15; Pl. 2) with crawls into them. These cells were actually meant for a courtyard enclosed on three sides by dwelling cells, Jaina monks to sit or lie and do penance.
the fourth side providing the entrance. The upper storey The verandah, which is laid out on a floor lower does not exactly rest over the lower one but recedes than the cells, has a row of pillars and pilasters on the back to form an open terrace in the front. The cave front and a plain or ornate wall at the back. Its roof is known not as for its architecture as for sculptures projects outwardly in the form of incurved eave-cornice which are badly damaged due to the collapse of the to ward off rain-water. It has rock benches to sit on pillared verandah of the lower storey of the main wing. and shelves to keep articles of bare necessity. The The right wing of the lower storey consists of a columns are generally square below and above and single cell with three entrance doors and a pillared octagonal in the middle, and are surmounted by cut- verandah with a bench at the rear end. The terminal out brackets, often ornamented with animal figures. The pilasters carry two sentries holding spear in the right square facets of the columns touching the narrow hand and a sheathed sword hanging from the left octagonal section are rounded off and their small corners shoulder. The capitals of the pilasters are adorned with so formed are bevelled. On the front facets of the wall elephant and horse figures. The pillars have disappeared pilasters stand the figures of boldly relieved sentries except for the stepped bases and ornate capitals bearing holding spears.
figures of bulls and lions. The verandah has a shelf The back walls of the verandah have plain and on each side. The pilasters flanking the entrance doors square pilasters flanking the doorways. The capitals of show figures of bull, winged lion etc. on their corbels. the pilasters are very ornamental. From the capitals From the corbels emerge torana-arches which are adorned emerge semi-circular torana-arch forming an ornament with honey-suckle design or creepers. The flat walls over the door. The arches are relieved with varied above the railing pattern are relieved with four scenes creepers issuing from the mouth of animals and crowned representing an adoring human couple with two in the centre by a srivatsa or triratna symbol, or made attendants, a royal person with his two queens (with pointed. The circular space formed by the arch is often folded hands) and two female attendants, a female filled with various sculptures and decorative motifs, dancer with musicians, and a man (with folded hands) while the outside spaces between the arches are covered accompanied by a boy and two females carrying a tray with various scenes selected from popular folk lore and of offerings respectively. contemporary life. Below the scenes is a decoration of The left wing of the lower storey has three cells railing (vedikā) consisting of two or three crossbars on three sides of the verandah with usual doors (three supported below by the bracket figures of diminutive in the rear cell and one in each side cell) and pilasters. ganas, Yakşas and Yaksis.
The pillars have completely gone and the figures of
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sentries are weather-worn.
The rear or main wing of the lower storey has four cells, three on the back side of the verandah and the fourth on the right side. The roof of the 50 ft. long verandah and its six pillars have gone. The central rear cell has three doors and the side ones have two each, while the remainder has only one doorway. The doors, pilasters and arches are ornate like those in the right wing. The railings connecting the arches are supported by the bracket figures of Yaksas and Yaksis and the spaces above them are filled with nine scenes representing probably the victorious campaign of king Kharavela.
At the two corners formed by the sides of the three wings of the lower storey are two small rooms; on the outer walls of both of these is a scene of the capture of elephants by monkeys and the turning of a monkey into an ascetic.
The upper storey consists of a 63 ft. long verandah and six cells of which four are excavated in the rear wing and one each in the left and right wings. Though the upper storey is better preserved, the front portion of the verandah together with seven of the nine pillars has disappeared.
All the four cells in the rear wing of the upper storey have two doors each, flanked by two pilasters with a torana-arch. The capitals of the pilasters are formed by a set of two winged addorsed animals like horse, bull, lion, elephant etc. The arches are relieved with flowers, lotus, creepers, and animals chased by boys, and are crowned by śrīvatsa, nandipada, snake and lotus symbols. The spaces between the arches above the railing pattern depict nine scenes of hovering Vidyadhara, three mad elephants attacking a panicky crowd, the rape of a woman, the first meeting of Duşyanta with Sakuntala (Pl. 3), dance and music, a scene having obliterated, three amorous couples enjoying drinks, a scene having damaged, and a hovering Vidyadhara respectively. The guard on the terminal
pilaster on the right is pot-bellied and stands on a lion, and that on the left mounting a bull is damaged.
The cell in the right wing of the upper storey has benched verandah with one pillar and two pilasters. The guard on the left pilaster is clad in schythian dress and carries a sheathed sword, and that on the corresponding right side is in Indian garb, also carrying a sheathed sword.
The cell in the left wing of the upper storey is not in front of the benched verandah but lies to its left; it is lighted by a small window. Its own verandah is narrow and has two pilasters only.
Cave 2 (Bājāgharagumphā) - It consists of two independent cells with their own verandahs, each having one pillar and two pilasters. The front wall of the left cell, the bench and the left pilaster of its verandah are gone. The capital of the extant pilaster is adorned with a pair of bird-headed animals. The capital of the pillar has two pairs of animals of which one is winged.
The front wall of the right cell and the pillar of its verandah are also gone. The intact pilasters have elephant brackets.
Cave 3 (Chotā Hāthigumphā) - It is a small cave without verandah. It has a single door and a low ceiling. The facade is very rich in sculptures. It shows six vigorous elephants heading towards the pointed arch executed over the door; the arch is decorated with lotus flowers and plants. On the extreme right is a mango tree. Below the elephants, on each side, is a three-barred railing with uprights carved with half medallions. The pilasters flanking the doorway are surmounted by winged animal capitals. There is a short inscription, now worn out.
Cave 4 (Alkāpurigumphā) - It consists of two caves one over the other, each having a spacious cell and a verandah. The ceiling of each cell is convex. The partition wall between the cell and verandah of the lower cave being removed and the floors having dug down for stone, it presents a very bare appearance. The
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extant pilaster of the verandah carries on its top a pair of winged galloping horses.
The upper cave is approached by a flight of rock- cut steps. Of the two restored pillars of the benched verandah the capitals are intact. The inner bracket in one capital is what looks like a royal elephant with attending ones, that in the other has a lion holding a prey in its mouth; the side brackets are relieved with pairs of winged animals with the head of a bird or human being. The pilaster on left shows on its top a man carrying a woman and that on right has an elephant entwined by a serpent. The cell has three entrance doors.
Cave 5 (Jayāvijayāgumphā) - It consists of two cells with a common verandah supported on two pilasters and a modern pillar. The front face of the left pilaster shows a standing male figure, now damaged, on the shaft and a lion on the capital, and that of the right depicts a female fondling a parrot perched on her flingers and a Sālabhañjika respectively: Each cell has a single door with pilasters surmounted by winged animals. The arches over the doors are decorated with lotuses or creepers. The space between the arches depicts, above the three-barred railing, a sacred tree in square railing which is being worshipped on either side by a human couple.
Cave 6 (Panasagumphā) - The cave is so named because there is a panasa (Artocarpus integrifolia) tree in the front. Owing to large scale quarrying it is now open on the front.
Cave 7 (Thākurāņigumphā) - It has two storeys one above the other, each comprising of a cell and a benched verandah. The lower cell is comparatively spacious and high and has convex ceiling. The verandah has an usual pillar with a pair of winged animals on the inner bracket of the capital. The tops of the pillar and pilasters are adorned with addorsed crocodiles and winged animals, some being bird-headed.
The upper cell is a smaller one; its verandah has no pillar.
Cave 8 (Pātālapurigumpha) - It consists of four cells, two at the back and one on each side of the benched verandah. The roof of the verandah is supported by two pillars (originally three) and two pilasters. The tops of the pillars are adorned with crude figures of winged animals standing back to back. One extant bracket of the capital depicts an armed man fighting a lion. The cells are high enough to stand erect. Their ceiling is arched and the facade is left plain.
Cave 9 (Mañcapuri and Svargapuri) - It consists of two storeys, the lower called Mañcapuri and the upper, Svargapuri. The Mañcapuri has four cells in two wings, three in the main wing at the back and one on the right side of the benched verandah. The ceilings of the back cells are slightly arched. The four guards occupying the front face of the pilasters in two wings are carved in high relief and carry a long sheathed sword. The four pillars have been restored. Their outer brackets are all gone; the inner ones are relieved with a pair of cavaliers or a figure of woman. All the doorways are flanked by pilasters having ghata-base and animal capitals. The arches over the doors are adorned with floral pattern; in one case it shows animals and chasing boys in alternate folds of creepers. The arches are crowned by śrīvatsa or triratna. The space above the two-barred railing connecting the arches of the second and third doorways is relieved with an unidentified Jaina symbol being worshipped by a group of six votaries of which one with turreted crown looks like a king. The scene is witnessed by the Sun god and Vidyadharas as well. The spaces between the other arches depict three-barred railing only. There is an inscription recording the dedication of the cave by king Kūdepasīrī or Vakradeva whose relation with Khāravela is not known. The right wing of the cave has a single cell preceded by a verandah with two pilasters and a pillar, all devoid of carvings.
The Svargapuri does not rest immediately above the Mañcapuri but is recessed back to form an open
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terrace on the front, reached by a ramp. It consists of a long cell with three doorways at the back, a smaller one with single door on the side and a common benched verandah in the front, the last one having collapsed. The pilasters flanking the doors carry winged animals (horse and deer being identified) on their tops and the arches surmounting them are decorated with creepers issuing from the mouths of makaras. The arches are connected by the representation of roof supported on bracket figures and crowned by finials. There is an inscription recording the dedication of the cave by the chief queen of king Khäravela. The terrace is fenced on the front by a three-barred ornate railing.
Cave 10 (Gaņeśagumphā) - The cave is named after Ganesa whose image is carved on the back wall of the right cell. It consists of two cells with low ceiling and a benched verandah. There were five pillars in the verandah of which two on right side were probably knocked off to provide more space in front of the right cell. At the time of alteration two detached elephants, each holding the branches of a mango tree over a lotus, were probably added on two sides of the approach to this cell. The pilaster carries a figure of guard holding spear on the front face and a recumbent bull on the bracket. The pillar brackets are relieved with male or female figures holding flowers, spouted vessel, tray etc. The lower portion of the back wall of the verandah is carved with railing pattern.
Each cell has two doorways with sloping jambs. The pilasters flanking the doors have a stepped base and carry addorsed figures of deer, bull, horse and lion on the capitals. The arches over the doors are carved with lotuses or creepers emerging from the mouths of makaras and crowned by śrivatsa or triratna. The lower ends of the arches are connected by three-barred railing borne by pot-bellied squatting male and female figures. The spaces at two places above the railing are filled with a rape scene of a woman (similar to that in cave 1) and a scene depicting the storey of Udayana and Väsavadattā.
The remaining spaces have the representation of barrelvaulted roof crowned by finials against the background of railing supported by squatting figures. The floors of the cells are raised in the rear end. The left cell has a crude late representation of Jina figure. The right cell has an inscription of the 8th 9th century A.D. recording the name of physician Bhimața and engraved in the reign of the Bhauma king Santikara.
Cave 11 (Jambeśvaragumphā) - It consists of a low cell with two plain doorways preceded by a benched verandah with two pilasters and a pillar. There is a an inscription saying that it was the cave of Nākiya, wife of Mahämada.
Cave 12 (Bāghagumphā) - The cave is so called because its front resembles the head of a tiger (bagha). The expanded upper jaw with a row of formidable teeth forms the roof of the verandah, while the gullet has the entrance door to the inner cell. The door with sloping jambs is flanked by two pilasters having a ghata-base on stepped pedestal and a pair of crouching elephants on the capital. The arch over the door is pointed at the top and has a railing decoration on each side. At one place in the ceiling of the verandah is a representation of lizard. An inscription in the cave says that it was the cave of the town-judge Sabhūti.
Cave 13 (Sarpagumphā) - The cave was called Sarpagumphä on account of the three-hooded serpent carved on the facade of the narrow verandah excavated in front of a small cell with a doorway with jambs sloping inwards at a considerable angle. It has an inscription stating that the cave was a gift of Kamma and Halakhiņā.
Cave 14 (Häthigumphā) - This is a natural cavern. The cave is not known for its architecture but for the famous inscription of king Kharavela carved on the rock above the cavern.
Cave 15 (Dhanagharagumphā) - It consists of a long cell with low ceiling and three doorways, and a benched verandah with two pillars and two pilasters.
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The left pilaster depicts a guard standing with a long staff on the front face and an elephant on the corbel. The other corbels of the pillars and pilasters, including also those flanking the doorways, are relieved with floral patterns or animal figures. The arches surmounting the doors are plain and the spaces between them are filled with barrel-shaped roofs supported by bracket figures and crowned by two-barred railing.
Cave 16 (Haridāsagumphā) - The cave is called after the name of sadhu (saint) Haridāsa who lived there some time in the 19h century. It consists of a spacious high cell with a slightly curved ceiling and three doorways, and a benched verandah with two pilasters and a pillar, all devoid of carvings. An inscription carved on the facade of the cave says that it was a gift of Cūlakama and Kothāji.
Cave 17 (Jagannāthagumphā) - The cave is so called because it had a late drawing, now non-existent, of that god on the inner wall. It has a spacious cell, longest in the Udayagiri hill, with four doorways and a benched verandah with three pillars and two pilasters, the central pillar being multi-faceted. The tops of the pillars and pilasters are adorned with seated addorsed deer, hybrid winged figure with the tail of a makara and the head of a single-horned animal, another with the body of an animal and the forepart of a bird, pūrņaghata, fish, bird and flowers. Their inner brackets are lost; the four outer intact brackets carry a seated gana supporting the roof, a Vidyādhara holding a tray of flowers, winged Kinnara holding a garland, and a standing gana supporting the roof.
Cave 18 (Rasuigumphā) - The present name was given due to its conversion into a kitchen room when the painted figure of Jagannatha in Cave 17 was in worship. It consists of a small cell and a narrow verandah, the latter being quite plain, devoid even of a pillar. KHANDAGIRI CAVES
From Cave 17 of the Udayagiri hill one comes down to the main road by a flight of steps and thence
goes up to Cave 1 of the Khandagiri hill by a rocky track. The first two caves at Khandagiri are called Tatovāgumphā as they have the figures of parrots (tatovā) on the arches of their doorways.
Cave 1 (Tatovāgumphā No. 1) – It consists of a low cell with two doorways and a benched verandah with a pillar and two pilasters. The front face of the pilasters carries two sentries armed with sword. The inner bracket of the pillar is carved with lotus etc. The verandah has a shelf on each side wall.
Each doorway is flanked by two pilasters, each having a pair of addorsed bull or lion on the capital. From the capitals spring the semi-circular arches adorned with creepers or lotuses alternating with honey-suckles, both issuing from the mouth of makaras. On two sides of the arches are carved the figures of parrots. The spaces between the arches and the end walls are filled with barrel-vaulted roofs supported on bracket figures and crowned by a row of finials carved against the background of the railing pattern. There is a short inscription saying that it was the cave of Kusuma of Padamulika.
Cave 2 (Tatovāgumphā No. 2) - This cave is similar on plan to the preceding one, but it is larger in size and more elaborate in decoration. The cell has a high and curved ceiling and is entered by three doorways, each ornamented with two pilasters and a torana-arch. The pilasters have a ghata-base on stepped pedestal; their shaft is square below and octagonal above; and the capital consists of an inverted lotus, square abacus and a pair of spirited lions, elephants or bulls. The three arches are decorated with honey-suckles, lotuses and vines respectively, have doves and parrots on either side of the two arches and a pair of deer in the remaining one; they are crowned by nandipada. The arches have the carving of rafter ends on their underside. The semi-circular spaces inside the arches are filled with a honey-suckle in the middle arch and a garland with lotus and lotus-buds in the side ones. The arches are connected by a railing motif followed above by a
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device of barrel-vaulted roof with finials flanked by a lion on one end and by an elephant on the other.
The roof of the verandah is supported by two pilasters and two lately restored pillars. The columns have cut-out brackets adorned with lotus-and-honey- suckle, figures of dancers and musicians, and a female holding a tray of flowers and a lotus stalk.
The back wall of the cell retains some letters of the Brāhmi script of the 1" century B.C.
Cave 3 (Anantagumphā) - The cave is named after the figures of twin serpents (ananta) carved on the door-arches. It consists of a long cell (24/2 ft. by 7 ft.) with four doorways, a benched verandah (27 ft. by 7 ft.) with three pillars and two pilasters, and an open court (Fig. 12; PI. 4). The cell has a convex ceiling and is high enough for a man to stand erect. On the back wall of the cell is represented a nandipada on a stepped pedestal flanked on each side by triratna, śrīvatsa and svastika symbols, the first two being also placed on stepped pedestal. Subsequently, an unfinished Jina image was carved on the right side below the symbols.
The pilasters flanking the four doorways are very ornamental. They have ghata-base on stepped pedestal; their shaft depicts bead-and-reel, lozenge, spiral flutings with bead-and-reel or flowers in vertical rows between half lotus medallions below and above; and the capital consists of an inverted lotus, square abacus and animal figures like bull, lion etc. The four arches over the doorways are decorated with rosettes in garland loops, frieze with boys chasing animals, again a frieze of boys and animals, and a row of geese holding lotus stalk in their beaks respectively. The arches are crowned by a srivatsa or nandipada. The underside of the arches are relieved with rafter ends.
The semi-circular spaces inside the arches above the lintel are filled with four different representations- a royal elephant attended by two smaller ones, a turbaned personage with two female cauri-bearers in a chariot drawn by four spirited horses (probably Sun god with
his two wives), Gajalaksmī, and a sacred tree in square railing (Pl. 5) being worshipped by man and woman. in the spaces between the arches are hovering Vidyādharas coming out of pillared halls to shower flowers on the objects of worship in the arches. Above these is the representation of railing interrupted at places by battlements and lotuses.
The two pilasters of the verandah carry elephant figures on the inner brackets and cavaliers on the outer ones, but the front facets of their shaft are left uncarved. The inner brackets of three pillars have each two women with folded hands and their outer brackets show potbellied demonic gaņas.
The cave has an inscription saying that it was the cave of the monks of Dohada.
Cave 4 (Tentuligumphā) - The cave is named after a tamarind (tentuli) tree which once stood near it. It consists of a small cell with two doorways, and a benched verandah with a pillar and two unfinished pilasters. The pilasters flanking the doorways have ghatabase on stepped pedestal; their square shaft is ribbed in the middle; and the capital consists of an inverted lotus, square abacus and couchant elephant or lion. The arches over the doors are plain but pointed at the top. the inner bracket of the pillar shows a woman holding lotus buds in both hands and the outer one depicts a walking elephant.
Cave 5 (Khandagirigumphā) - It is from the cracks (khanda) that the cave is called Khandagirigumphā. From the cave a modern stairway descends to the main road. It has two plain cells one above the other, both sadly damaged.
Cave 6 (Dhyānagumphā) - This cave of meditation (dhyāna) originally consisted of a cell and a verandah with two pillars, but it has now turned into a spacious room with the deliberate removal of the partition wall and also due to the fall of two pillars. The sloping eaves above the architrave have four handlelike perforations.
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Cave 7 (Navamunigumphā) - The cave is so called because it has a group of nine (nava) Tirthankara (muni) figures. Originally, it consisted of two cells and a common verandah with two pillars, but subsequently it was converted into a spacious sanctuary by removing the front and interior partition walls, deepening the floor level, and carving the Tirthankara figures. It has four handle-like perforations in the eave-cornice. The cave has five inscriptions one of which, carved on the inner side of the architrave of the verandah, mentions that it was the work (alteration work) of Subhacandra, disciple of Kulacandra of Deśīgana, carried out in the 18th regnal year of Udyotakeśari of the Somavamsi dynasty ruling in Orissa in the 11" century A.D.
On the back wall of the right cell are carved in high relief seven images of seated Tirthankaras(Rşabha, Ajita, Sambhava, Abhinandana, Vāsupujya, Pārsva and Nemi) with their respective cognizances. Below them are the lalitasana figures of their Śāsanadevis (Cakreśvarī, Rohiņi, Prajñapti, Vajraśnkhalā, Gāndhari, Padmavati and Ambika) carved in medium relief with their respective mounts. On the left end of the goddesses is also represented an image of Ganesa. On the right wall are two figures of Rşabha and Parsva, both seated cross- legged on a lotus flanked by cauri-bearers; their bull and snake mounts are also represented. On the left wall is depicted a small seated figure of Candraprabha; below the seat is his moon cognizance. .
Cave 8 (Bārabhujigumphā) - The cave is called Bārabhuji (twelve-armed) from the presence of two such images on the side walls of the verandah. Originally. it consisted of a cell with convex ceiling and three doorways, and a benched verandah with two pillars and two pilasters, but later on it was converted into a long sanctuary by removing the partition wall and by deepening the floor level. Two pillars are also the restored ones, but the brackets of their capitals carved with lotus-and-honeysuckle are original. The verandah has a shelf in the left wall and an eave projecting over
the architrave.
On the three walls of the cell are carved altogether twenty-five figures of Tirthankaras (Pārsvanātha appearing twice) with their respective cognizances and Sāsanadevis - (1) Rşabha (bull, Cakreśvarī), (2) Ajita (elephant, Rohiņi), (3) Sambhava (horse, Prajñapti), (4) Abhinandana (monkey, Vajraśộnkhalā), (5) Sumati (curlew, Puruşadattā), (6) Padmaprabha (lotus, Manovegā), (7) Supārsva (svastika, Kāli), (8) Candraprabha (moon, Jvālāmālini), (9) Suvidhi (alligator, Mahākālī), (10) Sitala (śrīvatsa, Mānavī), (11) Śreyāṁsa (rhinoceros, Gauri), (12) Vāsupujya (buffalo, Gāndhārī), (13) Vimala (boar, Vairoțyā), (14) Ananta (falcon, Anantamati), (15) Dharma (thunderbolt, Mänasi), (16) Santi (deer, Mahāmānasī)(17) Kunthu (goat, Jayā), (18) Ara (nandyävarta, Tara). (19) Malli (pitcher, Aparājita), (20) Munisuvrata (tortoise, Bahurūpiņi), (21) Nami (blue lotus, Cāmunda), (22) Nemi (conch-shell, Ambikä), (23) Pārsva (snake, Padmāvati) and (24) Mahävira (lion, Siddhāyikä). All the Tirthankara figures are seated cross-legged under the trees, have triple umbrella over the heads, and are flanked on either side by a cauri-bearer. Except for Pärsvanātha, each of these figures has a halo round the head. Below them, in separate compartments, are their Śāsanadevis seated in lalitäsna with their respective mounts, but Mahāmānasi is seated cross-legged and Bahurūpiņi is shown lying. The central or 25th figure on the back wall is of Pārsvanātha (the chief lord in the series) represented in kāyotsarga posture with a seven-hooded cobra-canopy. This image is larger in size and is flanked on either side by a seated nāga and a caurī-bearer.
The left wall of the verandah depicts a twelvearmed image of Cakreśvarī seated in lalitāsana on double-petalled lotus with her Garuda mount, and the corresponding right wall has a figure of Rohiņi, also twelve-armed and seated in the same pose, with her bull mount.
Cave 9 (Triśūlagumphā) - It originally consisted

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Fig. 16. Plan of Jaina Caves, Junagadh.
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of a dwelling cell with three doorways and a verandah having two pillars and two pilasters, with two shelves on either end, but later on it was converted into a sanctuary by removing the walls between the doorways and by lowering the floor-level. On the three walls of the cell are carved 24 robeless figures of Tirthankaras of crude workmanship dating not earlier than the 15th century A.D. Eight of these, viz. Rşabha, Ajita, Sitala, Pārsva, Vāsupujya, Vimala, Śreyāmsa and Mahavira, appear to be more important as they are standing in käyotsarga pose and are larger than the seated ones. All of them are attended upon by two cauri-bearers.
At the rear end of the cell are three chlorite images of Rşabhanätha installed on a masonry alter. These images did not originally belong to this cave but were transferred there from elsewhere. Stylistically, they seem to belong to the 11th 12th century A.D.
Cave 10 - This cave has been completely destroyed by large-scale quarrying. Only three relief figures, two of Rsabha and one of Ambikā, are now intact on the back wall of the cell. Both the figures of Rsabha stand robeless in käyotsarga pose on a lotus and have a triple umbrella over the head. The figure of Ambikā is a fine piece of work. It stands in three-flexured posture under a mango-tree with a boy near her right palm and her lion mount below the seat.
Cave 11 (Lalātendukeśarigumphā) - Like the preceding cave it has also been destroyed by quarrying. Originally, it consisted of two cells with a common pillared verandah. On the back and left walls of the left cell are carved two figures of Rşabhanātha and three of Pärsvanatha, all standing in kayotsarga posture with usual paraphernalia. The right cell has two figures of Pārsvanatha and one of Rşabhanātha in the same posture. In addition, it has an inscription of the Somavamsi king Udyotakeśari recording the restoration of a decayed step-well (probably the Ākāśagangā near the cave) and decayed temples on the Kumāra hill (Khandagiri), and also setting up of twenty-four Tirthankaras there.
Caves 12-15 - The Cave 12 consists of two cells with the floor having raised at the rear end. The Cave 13 consists of two long cells and a benched pillared verandah, all in ruins. The Cave 14 is a long dwelling cell open in front. Its roof is supported by a modern masonry pillar. The Cave 15, also open in front, consists of a small cell with raised floor at the rear end.
GUJARAT JUNAGADH
Four miles east of the district town of Junagadh (Gujarat) is the famous Girnar hill where three of the five kalyāṇakas (auspicious events), viz. dikṣā (initiation), kevalajñāna (attainment of omniscience), and mokṣa (liberation), of the 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha are known to have taken place. It has a group of 15 Jaina caves located within the walls of Bāvā Pyarā Matha or Monastery. The caves (Fig. 16) are arranged in three rows; the upper and lower rows of caves lay nearly parallel in east-west line and face south, and the third row of caves, at the eastern ends of the other two, faces mostly the east. They were excavated for the residence of Jaina monks. This is evident from this that Dharasenācārya, who taught Jaina tenets to Puspadanta and Bhūtabali, the authors of the famous Digambara Jaina text entitled Satkhandāgam, lived in one of these caves.
The upper or north row of four caves runs eastwest and consists of a large cave at the west end and three smaller ones in a line at the east. The larger cave has a hall measuring 28 ft. by 16 ft. with two (originally three) plain square pillars in a line supporting the roof. At the west end of the hall is a chamber (17 ft. by 6 ft.) screened off by two plain square pillars and two pilasters, while at the back or north side are three cells, each about 11 ft. square. The front portion of the hall is partly destroyed, but it still has three square pillars with chamfered necks. On the facade is a fragment of caitya-gavākṣa ornament carved in low relief. The three smaller caves consist each of a verandah (13 to 16 ft.
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Fig. 17. Doorway of a Jaina Cave (K), Junagadh.
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long by 4 12 to 52 ft. wide) with two pillars in the front and a cell at the back.
The lower or south row of five caves runs westnorth-west. Each of these caves consists of a verandah with two pillars and two windows in the front and one or two square cells at the back. The second cell from the east end is larger in size and contains an octagonal pillar in the centre of the floor supporting the roof.
The third or east row of six caves runs almost in north-south direction. In the central part is a 50 ft. long open court with a verandah (39 ft. long by nearly 8 ft. wide) on the west. The verandah has a row of six square pillars, each with a strut of śārdūla supporting the projecting eaves. At each end wall of the verandah is also carved a śärdūla in low relief. The facade of the verandah is adorned with crude caitya-gavākṣas. In its back wall are three doors, the central one leading into a large apsidal room measuring 20 ft. wide and 26 ft. deep to the extremity of the apse at the back. It has a flat roof supported by four square pillars. It is probably this apsidal cave (Candraguphā) where Dharasena resided. This we know from Vīrasenācārya who wrote a Dhavalä сommentary on the Satkhandāgama in the 8th 9th century A.D. The other two doors in the back wall of the verandah lead into small rooms excavated on two sides of the apsidal chamber.
At the north end of the court, at a higher level, is another cave approached by a stair of five steps. It consists of a verandah (19 ft. 7 inches by 6 ft. 10 inches) with two square pillars and two windows in the front and two rooms (each about 9 34 ft. square) at the back. On the east side of the court are two cells, each with a small verandah supported by two square pillars in the front, and the commencement of the third one. In the court just in front of these caves was found a loose inscription of Jayadāmana's grandson, Rudrasimha I (A.D. 103-118), which makes mention of men who attained perfect knowledge (kevalajñāna) and were free from old age and death (jarāmaraņa).
These are purely Jaina technical terms and show the association of Jainas with these caves.
Outside the court to the south is a cave with a small sunk area in the front, verandah with two square pillars in the middle, and two cells (K) at the back. On the door (Fig. 18) of one cell are executed two circular pillarettes inserted into a vase and surmounted by a cogged abacus and lion capital; the lintel is decorated with floral patterns and carries two śārdūlas at the ends. The door (Fig. 17) of the other cell has full vase on both sides at the base and two horse-riders as bracket figures supporting the lintel above. On the lintel are carved eleven auspicious Jaina symbols of which svastika, sthāpanā, pair of fish, śrīvatsa, fullvase, nandyavarta, lotus, and mirror could be identified.
To the south of the last cave is another small cave with a bench round the small outer court and a cell inside. The door of the cell has an arch over it.
The rock in which these caves are executed slopes down considerably to the south so that the roofs of the south row are beneath the level of the floors of the upper row of caves. All of these caves are plain and without any architectural pretension. They seem to have been excavated just for the residence of Jaina recluses.
These caves appear to have been excavated in the 1st-2nd century A.D.
MADHYA PRADESH UDAYAGIRI
Udayagiri is the name of a hill on the other side of the river Betwa, lying nearly three miles north-west of the district town of Vidisha (M.P.). It has a group of twenty caves of which Cave 20 on the eastern end is Jaina (Pl. 6) excavated in sandstone. This is the largest cave at Udayagiri measuring 50 ft. by 16 ft. it has five niches with Jina figures seated in dhyānamudra, but they are very much mutilated now. One of these is a graceful figure of Tirthankara Pārsvanātha sitting on a lion-throne with wheel symbol carved in its centre. He has a cobra canopy and triple
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Fig. 19. Plan of Cave 2, Dharashiv.
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umbrella over the head and is accompanied by two attendants and other accessory figures. According to an inscription engraved upon the image and dated in the Gupta era 106 (A.D. 426), this image of Pārsvanātha was consecrated by Jaina Ācārya Gośarma of Kurudesa.
MAHARASHTRA DHARASHIV
Dharashiv is a small town lying about twelve miles north-east of Usmanabad district headquarters in Maharashtra. About two miles north-east of the town are seven Jaina caves divided into two groups by a natural ravine. Four of these are excavated in the north side of the ravine and the other three on the opposite side. They are excavated in a soft conglomerate rock and consequently are greatly dilapidated through its decay. The literary account preserved in the Karakandacariu, written in Apabhramsa by Kanakāmara in the 11th century A.D., reveals that they were handsome caves.
Cave 1 from the west end is a small unfinished cave.
Cave 2 is a large handsome cave (Fig. 19) consisting of a verandah in the front, a hall surrounded by twenty-two cells in the middle, and a shrine in the central part at the back. The verandah, now damaged, measures 76 ft. long by 10 ft. 4 inches wide and is supported by six massive square pillars and two pilasters with richly carved bracket capitals. Above the columns is a frieze sculptured with Jina figures and caitya- gavākṣa ornament.
The hall inside measures 82 ft. deep, from 79 ft. to 85 ft. wide and 12 ft. high and is entered from the verandah by five doors. Its roof is supported by thirty- two pillars arranged in a square of twenty and an inner square of twelve pillars. The pillars are square in section and carry bracket capitals bearing floriated ornaments. Four pillars in front of the shrine, however, have round shafts and cushion type capitals. Of the twenty-two cells round the hall, eight are excavated on left, eight on right and six at the back. Each cell is almost 9 ft square
and has its door almost in the middle. Similar arrangement of cells for the residence of monks is also found in the Buddhist monasteries of western India, and it were perhaps the latter that inspired the Jainas for such an undertaking.
The shrine measures 19 ft. 3 inches by 15 ft. by 13 ft. and contains an image of Pärsvanätha seated on an ornate throne in dhyānamudra and canopied overhead by a seven-hooded cobra, each with a small crown. The image is carved in the round, providing thus an ambulatory around it.
Like the Indra Sabha at Ellora, the cave has an open court in the front, which has collapsed now. On the left of the entrance is a water-cistern.
Cave 3, also a monastery for the residence of Jaina monks, follows the general plan of the preceding cave consisting thus of a verandah, hall and shrine. The verandah is supported by six plain octagonal pillars and has an unfinished cell in the right end, with a large block of rock in the middle of it. The hall measures 59 ft. square by 11 ft. 3 inches high and has five entrance doors. Its flat roof is supported by twenty square pillars (two on each lateral side being round) arranged in a square with six on each side. The cells round the hall are twelve in number. The shrine at the back is just a copy of that in Cave 2.
Cave 4 consists of a hall and a shrine and is in a very miserable condition. The hall is 28 ft. deep by 26 12 ft. wide and has four pillars in the middle and four cells in the wall, but all the pillars are broken, only the capitals are hanging from the roof. The shrine has been broken through into the cell on the right of it.
Cave 5, which belongs to the second group of Jaina caves at Dharashiv, consists of three compartments, each of no interest.
Cave 6 in this group consists of a verandah supported by plain square pillars with wavy-bracket capitals, a hall with two cells and five entrance doors, and a shrine.
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Cave 7 has a verandah and a hall, the latter having worked out (Pl. 7). Here the prastara-hāra of the lower eleven entrance doors with figures of animals etc. on storey is made up of kapota, a rectangular fillet underlined their lintel.
with joist-ends, recess, projecting band, recess and kapota All these caves at Dharashiv seem to have been with triangular blocks, and is left plain; so also is the excavated in the 7th century A.D.
central pañjara-kostha (instead of bhadrasala) except ELLORA
that it is topped by a bold kirttimukha spewing festoons. It is situated about twelve miles east of the district The second storey is somewhat ornate. The prastaratown of Aurangabad in Maharashtra. It has the largest wall of its karņa offset shows a well-shaped pitcher at and most varied group of cave temples belonging to the corner and seated Vidyādhara couples in niches on the Buddhist, Hindu and Jaina sects. The caves are the sides, the kapota of the prastara is decorated with excavated in the scarp of a large plateau running north- nāsi-gavākşas (caitya-window), the mouldings above south for over a mile. It were the Buddhists who first the kapota are plain, and the kūtas of the hāra are arrived here and excavated twelve caves in the southern ornamented with nāsi-gavākşas. The bhadra offset end. The Hindus followed next and excavated seventeen displays a large pañjara-kosta borne by Vidyadharas caves in the middle part of the hill. The Jainas were appearing at the lower ends. The facade of the kostha the last occupants at Ellora; they excavated five caves is bordered by pearl festoons and is flanked by uprising (Nos. 30-34) in the northern end of the hill during the creepers. Inside the kostha is a series of struts. The wall Răstrakūta period. In the Jaina tradition the northern of the third storey shows vyāla figures at the corners spur of Jaina caves is called Cāraṇādri, i.e. the hills and Yakașais and divine couples on the sides, while of sages. To the east of the main Jaina group is an its hāra has karnaküțas with nāsi-kosthas. On the front unfinished monolithic Jaina shrine called Chotā Kailāśa, side of the superstructure is a sukanāsa with large nāsiand to the north-west is a rectangular hall shrine, also kostha flanked by Nidhi figures and bordered by pearl incomplete.
festoons. Inside the kostha is a framed figure of Jina Chotā Kailāśa (Cave 30) - It is an imitation of seated in meditative posture on a lion-throne. the Great Kailāšanātha Temple (Cave 16) at Ellora, but the interior of the vimāna-garbhagrha the floor on a much smaller scale. The whole temple has been of which is higher than that of the güdhamandapa is wrought on a mass of rock left in a pit (130 ft. by approached from the latter by a flight of four steps. 80 ft.) hewn out of the rock. This west-facing temple The stairway is stepped up by a moonstone and is consists of a tritala vamāna (three-storeyed sanctum), flanked on each side by a crouchant elephant. Its antarala, and gūdhamandapa with entrance porches on pañcaśākhā (five jambs) doorway consists of ratna the front and lateral sides. It is entered from the west (diamond), Gandharava (heavenly musicians), stambha through an unfinished small pratoli (gateway) attached (pillar), valli (creepers) and depressed outer khalvawith an enclosing wall having battlements.
sakha. The door-lintel shows a string of kūtas. Inside The basement and wall of the dvi-anga vimāna the sanctum is a fine rock-cut image of Jina sitting in (for lineaments of south Indian temples see Chapter VI) meditation on a lion-throne and accompanied by male comprising bhadra and karna are not worked out, the cauri-bearers. On the north wall is carved an eightupper storeys with their appliqued hāra are short, and armed seated figure of Cakreśvari, suggesting that the the grīvā (neck) and sikhara (spire) are missing. The temple was dedicated to Adinātha. southern portion of the superstructure, however, is The antarāla shows two ornate pilasters and a
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two-fold toraņa-arch emerging from the mouth of a crocodile treated as corbel and supported by a female bracket figure. In the centre of the meeting point of the folds is a figure of seated Jina. The pilasters have plain base and capital. The lower part of their shaft is square and plain, while the upper part successively shows a standing Jina on the inner face and males on the sides with corners bearing flutes, a band of pearl festoons punctuated with figures of Gandharvas, diamond-and-bead band, and nāsis with lotuses on the fluted lasuna. The double padma (cyma recta) of the capital is also fluted, but the cushion-shaped bulbous kumbha is plain.
The gūdhamandapa (about 36 ft. square) is also dvi-anga on plan with shallow salilantaras (recesses) containing panjara-kosthas in between. The lower part of the wall is largely incomplete, but that of the upper portion on the south side is almost finished. Here the karņas show flying Vidyadhara couples having one of their two hands raised up in adoration, while the panjara- kosthas contain seated Yaksa or Yakşi in the cavity and Vidyādharas on the upper flanks. The tetragonal wall pilasters are plain, but the roll-brackets of their capital depict vine creepers. The prastara consists of plain beam, a frieze of bhūtas, a kapota with floral, animal or Gandharva head in corner nāsis and creepers in between them, and a plain prati-kantha. The hāra, wherever available, shows bhadraśālās, karnakūtas and pañjara-kosthas, all uncarved. The roof shows a raised circular platform but is not carved with lotus umbrella, though present in the great Kailāśa temple.
In the interior, the gūdhamandapa shows sixteen pillars in four lines of four each with corresponding pilasters. The pillars are of three different orders. The four central pillars are of the square variety with corners chamfered into three angles. Their base consists of a narrow plinth course, inverted cyma recta, torus and inverted cyma. Below, the shaft is plain and above, it shows an ornamental vertical band suspending from
pearl-festoons on each face. Above this occurs a diamond-and-bead band and then comes sloping plain shoulder course (vase-shaped lasuna) of the shaft. The capital has double padma (cyma recta) and a bulbous abacus surmounted by roll-brackets. The four corner pillars are of the mixed circular order. The remaining eight pillars standing on the main axis are of the mixed octagonal order. Their base is like that of the central pillars. The lower section of the shaft is square with stereotyped ghatapallava on the upper part, while the upper section is octagonal bearing decorative bands of festoons, carved diamonds and beads, and small nāsis at the basal part of a kalasa. The capital, also octagonal, is of the usual type, but the cushion is adorned with a diamond-and-bead band. The corbels above the capital are either wavy (taranga-potikā) or have carved central band (citra-potikā). The cross-beams and ceilings are flat and uncarved. The wall of the gūdhamandapa bears images of the seated Jinas and standing Pārsvanātha, totalling fourteen in all.
Each of the three entrance porches of the gūdhamandapa consists of two dwarf pillars and two pilasters and is roofed by an uncarved flat ceiling. Their adhisthāna and the kakşāsana above are only blocked out, but the pillars, pilasters and doorway are finished. The pillars are very similar to those of the antarāla. The triśākhā doorway consists of ratna, Vidyādhara (in couple) and stambha, and is surmounted on the lintel by a hāra of three śālās with two panjaras in between. The doorway in the west as well as south porch is flanked on either side by a dvārapäla (door guardian) placed sideway. The dvārapālas are absent in the north porch. The front porch is flanked in the west wall of the gūdhamandapa by eight-armed images of dancing Indras (Saudharmendra and Iśānendra).
The pratoli (or small gopura) has a plain doorframe and is roofed over by a curved eave-cornice and salaśikhara carrying a figure of lion on either end at the top and ornate nāsis in the central and side faces.
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There is a small cave, opposite the southern entrance porch, in the south wall of the courtyard. It shows two dwarf pillars in the front, carrying kapota form of eave and a long sālā-śikhara borne by Vidyadharas. The pillars are plain and square below; then they turn octagonal bearing a stripe of garland loops and a band of diamonds and beads; and lastly comes a circular kalasa or lasuna with vertical flutes. Their capital, circular in section, consists of double padma with carvings of petals, bulbous kumbha with diamond-and-bead band, padma, phalaka (square abacus) and flattened curved brackets. Inside are two similar pillars with two-fold crude toraņa-arch. In the flat ceiling is relieved a large lotus flower with two rows of petals and a central bud.
Since this cave-temple is an imitation of the Great Kailāśa Temple (A.D. 756-773) at Ellora, it may have been executed a generation later after the Kailāśa, probably in the early 9th century A.D. This date is applicable to the main temple only, the southern cave seems to have been excavated a little later.
Cave 30 A - Near the Chotā Kailasa, to the north- west, is an unfinished rectangular excavation consisting of garbhagyha, mandapa enclosed on the front by a parapet wall, and an entrance porch, also enclosed by a parapet wall (Pl. 8). The porch, so also the mandapa, stands on a very low plinth of plain upāna and jagati mouldings. The parapet wall consists of vedikā, asanapatta and kaksasana, all elaborately carved. The vedikā shows elongated stupa motifs between pilasters. From the vedika and plinth project out eight elephants bearing the eave of the asanapatta on their back. The asanapatta resembles a plain kapota underlined with a band of half lotus flowers. The kaksāsana of the porch shows purņaghaļas between pairs of segmented pilasters and is topped by a band of scrolls; the same in the mandapa is constricted like a coping depicting four- petalled flowers in sunk niches of stepped diamonds. The parapet wall of the porch support four dwarf pillars
carrying a large curved eave-cornice on architraves spanned across them and an unfinished prastara-hara with varied sculptures and aedicules. The eave-cornice carries flying figures of Gandharvas and Vidyadharas and decoration of creepers on the upper side and of rafters on the underside. The dwarf pillars are carved and fluted and show ghatapallava, constricted kalasa or Taśuna, double padma, bulbous abacus with a decorative band, and citra-potikā borne be atlantes. The inner wall of the porch has been reinforced by uncarved square pilasters.
The mandapa is incomplete. Some of its pillars, however, are worked out. One of these is thin, plain and square with recessed corners; the other is massive and carefully chiselled. The latter pillar has a square moulded base; the shaft shows a square plain section below, fine ghatapallava in the middle and fluted kalasa above; and the capital, also fluted, displays double padma, kumbha and flattened curved corbel. The central ceiling of the mandapa shows in high relief a full-blown lotus flower with two rows of petals and a central pistil. This lotus ceiling is superior to that found in the Great Kailasa Temple there. On a wall of the mandapa is a standing image of Jina. Stylistically, this cave is datable to the late gth or early 9th century A.D.
Cave 31 - This is a small rectangular cave facing south. It consists of a sanctum and a hall with a row of four pillars dividing it into a front and a rear mandapa. The front mandapa is enclosed on its fore part by an ornate parapet wall with entrance opening at the centre. On the parapet wall stand carved dwarf pillars of circular and square order, supporting the outer ledge of the cave. The inner wall of the parapet shows an amorous couple and a shrine model of the Drāvida style. At the east wall of the front mandapa is a panel containing a standing image of Pärsvanatha with a seven-hooded cobra canopy. On his left is another panel showing Mahāvīra in padmasana and dhyanamudra. On the corresponding west wall stands Bāhubali entwined
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with creepers. Inside the sanctum, on the back wall, is carved an image of Mahāvīra sitting in dhyānamudrā.
Cave 32 (Indra Sabhā) - It is not a single cave but a group of Jaina caves excavated in two storeys (Figs. 20-21). It has a rectangular courtyard (56 ft. by 48 ft.) in the front, which is entered from the south through a small gopura made at the centre of a low prākāra-wall bearing plain battlements (Pl. 9). In the centre of the court and facing the gopura is a monolithic Sarvatobhadra-vimāna (four-faced shrine) approached from the front as well as rear side by a flight of about nine steps. In the fore court, to the right of the vimāna, is a free-standing pillar or Manastambha (27 feet 4 inches high) and in the corresponding left side is a large elephant carved in the round.
The pillar with corners chamfered into three angles stands on a moulded pedestal made up of jagati, inverted padma, tripatta kumuda, usual padma and prati. The shaft is square below with a sculptured niche on each face; then it turns into an octagonal and sixteen-sided sections with a recessed padma between and a scroll band on the top; and lastly comes a circular fluted kalasa. The fluted capital consists of triple padma, bulbous ghata with a scroll band, pāli and circular abacus supporting a quadruple of Yaksa.
The Sarvatobhadra-vimāna (Pl. 10) is dvi-anga on plan consisting of bhadra and karņa. Its adhisthāna consists of tall jagati, inverted padma, tripatta kumuda, kantha with floral diamonds, and kapota decorated with näsis. The wall has openings in all the four directions with a short pillared porch in front of each. The pillars have a square moulded base; their shaft shows square, octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular sections, and the capital consists of double padma, bulbous kumbha and curved corbel. All these pillars are plain. The kumbha supports brackets of vyāla and lion figures. The wall cantoned at corners by square plain pilasters is shaded by a large kapota bearing enrichment of creepers on the upper side and of rafters on the soffit. Above the
kapota comes a band of makaras and square-shaped flowers. Each corner above the decorative band is occupied by a small kūta with näsīs and stupi, while the cardinal space on each face is occupied by a large, fine panjara-nāsi sheltering a käyotsarga Jina. Each panjara-nāsi is borne by two Vidyādharas appearing at corners. Above this comes the second storey (tala) carrying panjara-nasis (not the kutsas) with seated Jinas, a band of vyālas and elephants above the kapota, and bhūtas (goblins) blowing conch-shell at the corners. The vedi, grīvā and śikhara are octagonal and perfectly worked out. The vedi is plain, the grivă has small kosthas, and the sikhara carries tiny vimana models. The stūpi has disappeared. Behind each door is an antechamber with a flat ceiling. The ceiling in the south chamber is carved with a beautiful lotus flower having two rows of petals and a central pistil. In the centre of the shrine is a Samavasarana panel with Jina on each of the four faces.
On the west side of the court, opposite the Sarvatobhadra-vimāna, is a cave with two pillars in front and four inside. In the central compartment of its south wall is a large standing image of Pārsvanātha and in the corresponding north wall is that of Bahubali. At the back is a shrine containing a seated image of Mahāvīra with attendant figures. Outside the shrine, but flanking the door, are Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā mounting elephant and lion respectively. Adjoining this cave, at the end of the court, is a small cave with two attractive images of Sarvänubhüti and Ambikä. On the corresponding east side also are two caves, but they do not have pillars. The one opposite the Sarvatobhadravimāna is quite plain, while the other towards the northern end has a shrine with hall containing four Jina images.
Outside the court, on the east, is a cave or hall with two pillars in front and two more at the back. On the north wall of the hall is depicted the temptation scene of Pārsvanātha and on that of south the asceticism
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foot
Fig. 20. Plan of Lower Storey, Indra Sabhä, Ellora.
Fig. 21. Plan of Upper Storey, Indra Sabhā, Ellora.

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Fig. 23
Fig. 22
Fig. 24
Fig. 25
Figs. 22-24. Pillars in Central Hall, Upper Storey, Indra Sabhā, Ellora.
Fig. 25. Pillar in Verandah, Upper
Storey, Indra Sabhä, Ellora.

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(tapas) of Bāhubali. At the back wall of the hall is a shows twelve beautiful pillars in a rectangular framework, shrine having a seated image of Mahāvīra; Sarvanubhuti dividing the entire area into a central nave and and Ambika flank the door.
surrounding aisle. The wall enclosing the aisle has Behind the court are two verandahs (each screened carved pilasters in alignment with the pillars, and the by two pillars and two pilasters), a twelve-pillared bays formed by them are occupied by Jina figures. In incomplete hall, a vestibule with two pillars, and a the central bay on each side is a seated image of shrine with an image of Mahāvīra seated in dhyanamudră. Mahāvīra with attendants, while the other bays contain At the west end of the front verandah, which is each a pair of seated Jinas. The two extreme bays of approached from the court by a staircase, is a cave with the back wall and the two pilasters flanking the shrine hall and shrine. The hall has usual figures of Pārsvanātha carry each a standing Jina; the two intermediary bays and Bāhubali but has no pillars, while the shrine contains have images of Pārsvanātha and Bāhubali respectively. an image of Mahāvīra seated in dhyanamudra, with The image of Bahubali is the best at Ellora. Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā flanking the door. The two The twelve pillars of the hall are of three different pilasters at the west end of the front verandah carry orders. The four corner pillars are square in section; two colossuses of śāntinātha with an inscription of the their base consists of jagati, inverted padma, tripatta 8th-9th century A.D. saying that they were made by kumuda and usual padma; the shaft has plain cube, a Sohila. A cave with similar set of sculptures has also belt with standing Jina on each face, a belt with two been excavated at the east end of the front verandah. decorative bands of garlands and scrolls, and fluted Near the east cave is a stone stair which leads to the kalasa; and the fluted capital shows double padma, verandah of the upper storey.
bulbous ghata and flattened round corbel (Fig. 23). The The upper storey consists of a verandah, a hall, four central pillars in front and back rows are identical a shrine and two caves flanking the court. The verandah to the corner ones, but their fluted kalaša and capital (54 ft. by 10 ft.) shows two square dwarf pillars (with are round in shape and the two middle belts are replaced recessed corners and ornate shaft) and two pilasters on by a large cube bearing decoration of excellent fluted a parapet wall on the front, and two mixed varieties ghatapallava on each face (Fig. 22; Pl. 11). The four of pillars (with square base, sixteen-sided ornate shaft central pillars on the lateral sides are similar to the and plain capital, Fig. 25) and two pilasters with a low preceding ones, but the three-fourth square section of partition wall between on the back. At either end of the shaft is left plain and one-fourth top section is the verandah is a 14 12 ft. high image, Sarvānubhūti decorated with stylised ghatapallava with a seated Jina in the west and Ambikā in the east, sitting with their on each face (Fig. 24). In the central part of the nave attendants under the banyan and mango trees respectively. is a quadruple of Jina, now sadly damaged, and in the The parapet consists of vedikā, āsana-patta and ceiling above it is carved a large lotus. The ceilings kaksäsana. The vedikā is decorated with fore parts of of the hall retain a good deal of paintings. elephants and pilasters, the asanapatta is treated as a The catuśśākhā door of the shrine, which is stepped plain ürdhvapadma, and the kaksāsana is adorned with up from a moonstone, consists of ratna, stambha, Jina pürnaghatas between pairs of segmented pillarettes. The and Vidyādharī respectively. The two outer śākhās and verandah is shaded above by a rocky ledge bearing ratnasakhă are also extended over the door-lintel, but carvings on their facade.
the space between the tops of the stambhasākhās is The great hall (78 ft. by 55 ft.) behind the verandah filled with a sculptural panel representing seated and
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Fig. 26. Shrine Doorway, Upper Storey, Indra Sabha, Ellora.
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standing Jinas (Fig. 26). On the lower part of the sakhās This cave seems to have been excavated in the stand dvarapālas. Inside the shrine is an image of first quarter of the 9th century A.D. Mahāvīra seated in dhyānamudrā.
Cave 33 (Jagannātha Sabhā) - It lies to the west Behind the colossuses of the verandah, but entered of the Indra Sabha and has been excavated so close from the side aisles of the hall, is a small cell which to the latter that the west wall of its upper storey has provides access to the caves on each side of the court. been broken through into a cell on the east side of the From each cell a few steps lead down to a smaller cell upper storey of the Jagannatha Sabha. It is also a twocarved all round with Jina figures. The smaller cell opens storeyed cave (Figs. 27-28) with a square open court up in a verandah which has two pillars in front and (38 ft. by 38 ft.) in the front, but the screen wall and two on the behind with corresponding pilasters, standing monolithic shrine, if present, have now disappeared. On on a low parapet wall. At the south end of the verandah the west side of the court is a cave with verandah, hall of the east cave is an image of Ambikä facing the and a central shrine with one more on either end. The entrance and at the right or north side of the entrance verandah, opened on the front and screened by two is that of Sarvānubhūti. Behind the verandah is a four- heavy square pillars and two pilasters on the back, has pillared hall (25 ft. by 23 Y2 ft.) with a standing image an image of Sarvānubhūti at the south end and of of Pārsvanātha in the central panel on the left and of Ambikā at the north. The hall (27 ft. square and 12 Bahubali in that of right, while the smaller panels ft. high) shows four massive pillars supporting a flat between the pilasters contain seated images of Mahāvīra. ceiling carved with an eight-petalled fine lotus flower On the back wall of the shrine is an image of Mahāvīra (Pl. 13). The pillars have a square moulded base of seated in dhyānamudrā, and on the pilasters flanking jagati, inverted padma and pattikā, the last two being the shrine door stand nude dvārapālas.
clasped on each face by a plain triangular boss. The The cave on the west side of the court is almost shaft is square below, sixteen-sided in the middle and identical in plan, design and sculptural setup to that on octagonal above, with a sixteen-faceted constricted lasuna the east, but its entrance door has a four-armed image (vase). The square section is plain below and has a of female divinity on one side and of an eight-armed stylised ghatapallava above. The sixteen-sided section Sarasvati on the other. Besides, its facade is very is unadorned. The octagonal section bears a band of ornamental. Its lower storey in the centre shows a garland loops with gana figures, a band of diamonds vertical panel representing fighting scene, religious and beads, and a pattikā with eight ornate nāsis occupying discourse and seated Parsvanātha. The parapet wall alternate facets of the lasuna. The capital, also faceted, enclosing the verandah of the upper storey shows consists of double padma, phalaka with diamond-band alternate elephants and vyālas on the vedikā, pürnaghatas and flattened round corbel. The two central panels of on the kaksāsana and an amorous couple in the central the hall shelter a standing image of Pārsvanatha in the part. The entablature above the pillars of the upper left wall and that of Bahubali in the right, while other storey, shows a heavy curved eave-cornice with panels and pilasters carry some other Jinas. In the back Vidyadharas and other figures on the facade, and a wall of the hall is a shrine (9ft. by 8 12 ft. and sculptural panel showing Jinas in projecting niches and about 9 ft. high) with an image of Mahāvira seated in goddesses in alternate recesses. In the centre of the dhyanamudra. Opposite to this cave, on the other side panel is a large śālā-śikhara representing Jina in kantha of the court, is a small cave with usual figures but and Pärśvanātha in the lalatanāsi.
without pillars.

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ENE
Fig. 28. Plan of Upper Storey, Jagannatha Sabha, Ellora.
Fig. 27. Plan of Lower Storey, Jagannātha Sabhä, Ellora.
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Fig. 29. Kakṣāsana Pillar, Lower Storey,
Jagannātha Sabhā, Ellora.
Fig. 30. Pillar in Hall of main Cave, Lower Storey, Jagannātha Sabhä, Ellora.
Fig. 31. Pillar in main Hall, Upper Storey,
Jagannātha Sabhā, Ellora.

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The cave at the back of the court and facing south facing south. It has a seated figure of Mahavira in the consists of a verandah, hall (24 ft. square and about shrine and two usual standing figures of Pārsvanatha 14 ft. high), vestibule and shrine (9 ft. by 7 ft. and and Bāhubali in the astylar hall. On the east side of about 11 ft. high). The verandah shows two square this cave is a stairway which leads to the upper storey pillars on the parapet wall in front and two more on of the Jagannātha Sabhā. a low partition wall separating the verandah from the The upper storey consists of a large twelve-pillared hall at the back. The parapet wall, which has been oblong hall (57 ft. by 44 ft. and about 14 ft. high) with finished only on the left of the entrance, carries elephant corresponding pilasters and a shrine carved in the back heads on the vedikä and purnaghatas on the kaksāsana. wall. The hall, divided into a central nave and In the west and east ends of the verandah are the images surrounding aisle by a score of twelve pillars, is enclosed of Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā sitting under trees with on the front by a low parapet wall with two pillars and attendants, all very sharply cut. The parapet pillars are two pilasters. The four corner pillars of the hall have square in section and consist of only shaft and capital. a square moulded base of jagati, inverted padma, fluted The shaft is plain below and fluted above, the latter kumuda and inverted padma; the two-third lower shaft showing a figure in niche on each face of the fluted is square and plain below and the one-third upper part square section, a band of jewelled and floral festoons is treated as circular fluted lasuna above, the latter with gaņa figures, carved diamond-band and short lasuna. carrying four cones adorned with floriated creepers and The capital shows double padma, bulbous ghata with extended up from the square shaft. The circular fluted a scroll band, and round corbel (Fig. 29). The other capital consists of triple padma, flattened bulbous ghata two pillars of the verandah are similar to those seen decorated with scroll-band, and a round corbel with in the west cave of the court, but the base is absent median scroll-band. The base and capital of the central here and the capital takes the shape of bulbous ghata pillars are similar to the corner ones but the shaft is with jewelled band.
circular here and shows a narrow faceted section, a The hall of this cave shows four square massive large fluted section, four very attractive and elaborate pillars in the slightly raised nave and ornate pilasters foliages, and constricted lasuna decorated with pearl at the peripheral wall. The nave pillars have a plain and floral festoons (Fig. 31; Pl. 12). The walls of the moulded base of jagati, inverted padma, kumuda and hall carry a large number of sculptures of Mahāvira padma, all clasped by a flat triangular boss. The shaft and Pārsvanātha, and its ceiling has remains of paintings. is square and plain below; above, it shows a beautiful On either side of the shrine is a pair of standing Jinas ghatapallava and a short fluted lasuna. The fluted round followed in their turn by Sarvānubhuti on left flank and capital has double padma, bulbous ghata with a scroll Ambikā on right. The door of the shrine shows fine band and round corbel (Fig. 30). The wall has the usual padma-, Vidyādhari-, and Jina-sakhās. On the lower standing figures of Pārsvanātha and Bahubali with part of the sākhās stand the river goddesses Gangā and attendant figures in the two central niches and seated Yamuna with their makara and kacchapa (tortoise) Jinas in the other six between the pilasters.
mounts on proper right and left respectively. Inside the The vestibule is entered through a fine torana- shrine is a Jina seated in meditation on a lion throne arch. The shrine contains a figure of Mahavira seated with triple umbrella. in dhyānamudrā on the throne.
The two parapet pillars are similar to the corner To the east of this cave is another cave, also pillars of the hall with this difference that the base is
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absent here. The outer face of the parapet consists of ornate vedika and kakṣāsana. The vedikā shows a large elephant head at either end and in front of each pillar, and smaller figures of human beings in the central division and of animals in the two side divisions. The kakṣāsana carries pūrṇaghatas between pairs of small colonnettes; the body of the ghatas is carved with human or other figures. The facade of the rock drip above has been carved with ganas and other sculptures that are now much weather-worn, while its soffit bears decorations of ribs and circular bosses and is supported by bracket figures emerging from the pillar capitals. The front aisle of the hall of the upper storey has a cell on each end. The cell on east end leads through a hole into the west wing of the Indra Sabha.
This cave was excavated in the 9th century A.D. Cave 34 It lies close to the Jagannatha Sabha and has been excavated to the west side of the court of the latter. It consists of a verandah, a hall (201⁄2 ft. wide by 22 ft. deep and about 10 ft. high), an antarāla and a shrine. The right side wall of the hall has been cut into a cell of the west wing of the Jagannatha Sabha. The verandah, which had two pillars and two pilasters, is gone. At the back it has two pilasters, a central door leading to the hall, and two side windows. The hall has four square short pillars and corresponding pilasters. The pillars have a square moulded base with triangular flat boss on each face. Below, their shaft is square with a plain section and a pair of foliated creeper on each face, and above, it is sixteen-sided with jewelled and floral festoons, a band of carved diamonds, and eight nāsīs. The faceted round capital consists of double padma, flattened bulbous ghata with a band of diamonds, and round corbel. The hall has usual standing images of Parsvanatha and Bahubali in the central niches, pairs of seated Jinas in other niches, and Sarvanubhuti and Ambika, also seated, flanking the entrance to shrine containing an image of Mahāvīra seated in dhyanamudra. This cave is datable in the 9th century A.D.

PATNA
Patna is an old village, now deserted, near the Buddhist site of Pitalkhora in Khandesh district of Maharashtra. On the east side of the village is a hill with two Jaina excavations known as Sītā Nahani and Nagarjuna Kotharī.
Sitā Nahani It is a very irregular unfinished cave consisting of a verandah and a hall. The verandah is 28 ft. long and has two rudely blocked out pillars. The hall measures about 24 ft. by 13 ft. and has two rough pillars near the middle of it.
Nagarjuna Kothari - It is also an irregular cave (Fig. 38) following the general plan of the Sītā Nahini, but it has a good number of sculptures. Its verandah is 18 ft. long by 6 ft. to 4 ft. wide and is supported in front by two pillars, one square and the other rhomboidal. At the left or south end of the verandah is a small cell with a bench along the back wall.
The hall is about 20 ft. long by 14 ft. deep with two irregular pillars in the middle. At the base of the left pillar is Sarvanubhūtī sitting on an uncarved mass of rock, and at that of the right is Ambika seated with a child under a tree laden with birds, fruits and foliage. On the back wall of the hall is an image of Jina seated cross-legged on a lotus seat. The back of the seat is carved with two elephants' heads, two standing Jinas, two cauri-bearers, makaras, Vidyadharas etc. Over the central figure of the Jina is a triple umbrella with foliage hanging down. The south wall near the back bears a life-size standing Jina with nimbus, triple umbrella and small attendant figures. There are three empty niches in the north wall, one such niche in the south and a small irregular cell in the back wall near the south end.
Stylistically, these caves at Patna were probably excavated in the 9th or 10th century A.D. ANKAI-TANKAI
Lying four or five miles south of Manmad Railway Station in Maharashtra, Ankai and Tankai are the names of two hills connected by a short ridge. The western

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hill is called Ankai and has three Brahmanical caves. To its north-east is the Tankai hill which has a group of seven Jaina caves with rich sculptures, now much defaced. These Jaina caves had been excavated in the 11th-12th century A.D.
Cave 1 - This is a two-storeyed Jaina cave (Figs. 32-34). The lower storey (ground floor) consists of a rectangular verandah with two pillars and two pilasters in front, a four-pillared square hall with a cell excavated deep into the left wall, and a shrine, also square, at the back. The pillars of the verandah are very ornamental and bear a dvärapāla like figure at the base of each, facing each other. Between the pillar and pilaster, on either side, is low a parapet wall having decorative designs on the outer face. A navaśākha door (Fig. 42) leads from the verandah to the hall and is adorned with diamonds alternating with beads, floral scrolls, Mäladharas, apsarases, three lalităsana divinities with two attendants each (stambhasākha). vyälas, foliated creepers, floral scrolls, and diamond-and-bead band bordered by bakula flowers respectively. Similar strings of bakula flowers also flank the second sākhă counted from inner side. The lower part of doorframe, on each side, is occupied by a dvärapāla with eight female attendants. The door-lintel, which continues the decorative designs of the three inner jambs, depicts a seated Jina on the crest and divine figures, in lieu of Mälädharas, above them. The door is canopied by three full and two quarter-sized kapota cornices with deep recesses in between them and pairs of geese on their facade. Above the cornice is a sculptural panel representing five seated Jinas in projecting niches and śārdūlas in alternate recesses. This type of ornamental doorframe may also be seen in the contemporary structural temples of the region.
The four pillars of the hall are also richly carved; the brackets of the pillar capitals are carried by fourarmed bhāraputrakas. The central ceiling enclosed by thin flat architraves shows a large lotus flower with
three concentric rows of petals and a pistil.
The doorway of the shrine is but an imitation of that of the entrance door. There is nothing inside the shrine.
The upper storey (upper floor) consists of only verandah and hall. The verandah has two pillars with low parapet at both ends which are similar to those found in the lower storey; but they are not so richly carved. The hall inside is quite plain.
Cave 2 - This is also a two-storeyed cave (Figs. 35-37; Pl. 15) similar to cave 1, but here the verandahs are shut by perforated screen wall with an entrance, and a vestibule has been added in front of the shrine. The verandah of the lower storey measures 26 ft. wide, 12 ft. deep and 972 ft. high and has a large figure of Sarvänubhuti seated on couchant elephant at the west or left wall and of Ambikā mounting a lion at the east, both carved out of separate blocks of stone and set into a niche cut out to receive them. The doorway of the hall is of the pañcaśākā variety and is elaborately carved with floral scrolls, Gandharvas, ornate stambha, foliated scrolls and vyālas respectively. On the lower part of the door, on each side, is a dvärapäla with four attendants; the lintel depicts a seated Jina on the dedicatory block and miniatures of five Nägara śikharas above it. The hall, about 25 ft. square, has four ornate pillars supporting a flat ceiling carved with a large lotus. The vestibule is small and plain and has two carved pilasters at the entrance. The shrine doorway is also plain; it only has a pair of pilasters on each side and a Jina figure on the crest of the lintel. The interior of the shrine is about 13 ft. square and contains only a seat for the image with a high back rounded at the top.
A rocky stair from the right end of the lower verandah leads to the verandah of the upper storey, which has a screen wall with a plain door in the front. The screen wall is pierced with small square holes to admit light. At either end of the facade of the screen wall is a figure of full-sized lion carved in high relief.
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Fig. 34.
Fig. 33.
Fig. 32.
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SECTION.
UPPER FLOOR.
GROUND FLOOR.
Figs. 32-34. Plans and Section of Jaina Cave 1, Ankai-Tankai.

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The door leads to a narrow balcony which is damaged now. The hall and its entrance door are incomplete, but the excavation of some parts shows that it was intended to be about 20 ft. square with four pillars.
The shrine is about 9 ft. by 6 ft. and has only a seat against the back wall for the receipt of the image.
Cave 3 - It is (Fig. 40) like the lower storey of Cave 1 but has a perforated screen wall in the front, now much weather-worn, and a vestibule preceding the shrine. Its verandah measures 25 ft. by 9 ft. and has a life-sized image of Sarvānubhūti at the left wall and of Ambikă at the right, both seated on their respective mounts with attendant figures and set up between two pilasters crowned by makara-torana arch. The mango- tree associated with Ambikā is represented here by six conventionalized sprays hanging at equal distance under the arch.
The hall, which is entered from the verandah by a doorway with only a moderate amount of carvings, measures 25 ft. long by 21 ft. deep and has usual arrangement of four square pillars with a fine ceiling (Pl. 16). The pillars have a square moulded base with an uncarved triangular boss on each face. Their shaft is plain and square below; then it turns into faceted circular and square sections respectively, the last one decorated with scrolls and kirttimukhas; and lastly comes an uncarved kalasa. The capital consists of a karņaka like ghata, round abacus and corbels of bhäraputrakas. The architraves across the pillars are thin and flat. The flat ceiling is boldly relieved with four concentric rows of lotus petals and a central pistil. The first and fourth (innermost) rows consist of twenty-four and sixteen plain petals respectively. The second row consists of twenty- four petals, each occupied by some divine figure, singly or with a companion, and mounted on animal or bird. The third row contains sixteen petals, each carved with a figure of dancer or musician. The whole lotus is enclosed by an octagonal border carved with diamonds and beads; outside this, in one corner, is a single male
figure standing on one foot, and the other three have each a larger figure dancing or making music, with two smaller ones (Fig. 41).
The back wall of the hall, on each side of the vestibule, has about a life-sized, standing, robeless figure of Säntinātha on left and of Pārsvanātha on right, both set into an ornamental niche with their accompaniments. The shrine door is incomplete as its two jambs alone have been worked out. The shrine inside measures 12 ft. square and has a seat for the image in the middle of it. Behind the seat to the right is a hole into a small room containing a Jina figure transferred there during the time of Muslim iconoclasm.
Cave 4 - It has a verandah in front, hall in the middle and shrine at the back (Fig. 39). The verandah measuring 30 ft. by 8 ft. has two massive plain square pillars and two pilasters in front and a low bench on either end. The entrance door of the hall is similar to that of Cave 1, but here it is more ornate. The hall is 24 ft. long and 18 ft. deep; its roof is supported by two pillars across the middle, one pilaster in alignment with them on each side wall, two corresponding pilasters on the front as well as the back, and a quarter one at each corner. The corbels of the columns are adorned with scrolls instead of bhäraputrakas. A low bench has been wrought along the back wall, which serves as a step to the shrine door. The shrine has only a seat with an incomplete arched recess at the back. On a pillar of the verandah is an inscription of the 11th 12th century A.D., which is also the date of these excavations at Tankai.
Caves 5-7 – These caves are smaller and much damaged and have doors similar to those found in Caves 1 and 2. In the shrine of one of these is a figure of Jina seated in dhyānamudrā on lion-throne with triple umbrella above. CHAMAR
The Chamar hill lies a few miles north of Nasik town in Maharashtra. The hill contains two Jaina caves
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PLAN OF UPPER STOREY OF CAVE II
Fig. 36.
PLAN OF GROUND FLOOR OF CAVE II.
Scale to Sga 18.
Fig. 37.
Fig. 35.
Figs. 35-37. Plans and Section of Jaina Cave 2,
Ankai-Tankai.
هساره

701
Fig. 40. Plan of JainaCave 3, Ankai-Tankai.
Fig. 39. Plan of Jaina Cave 4, Ankai-Tankai.
QF
Fig. 38. Plan of Nagarjuna Kothari, Patna.

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PANAMAHER
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Fig. 42. Hall Doorway, Lower Storey, Jaina Cave 1, Ankai-Tankai.
2000
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Fig. 41. Hall Ceiling of Jaina Cave 3, Ankai-Tankai.

10 feet.
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facing the roadside which passes not far from the foot small cave supported upon rough square pillars. Inside of the hill. They are excavated in a coarse porous rock the cave is an image of Jina Candraprabha. The cave and probably belong to the 11th or 12th century A.D. was probably excavated in the 13th century A.D. They have a good deal of crude figures of seated or
KARNATAKA standing Jinas with usual images of Sarvānubhüti and BADAMI Ambika. The wall of one of these caves also carries a There are four caves at Badami, the capital town small image of Jina seated on a lion-throne with attendant of Early Calukyas. Three of these are Brahmanical and figures, two other small Jinas on either side of his head, one, Cave 4, is Jaina. The Jaina cave (Fig. 44) is the and nineteen more in the sculptural border around, smallest in the series and has been excavated at the making 24 in all. Beside the caves is a large open east end of the scarp. After an ascent of seven steps excavation with a colossal bust shaded by snake-hood. one finds himself in a long rectangular open portico The image was no doubt intended for Pärśvanātha but with an overhanging rocky roof having curved profile was left unfinished.
in the front. The soffit of the roof is carved with ribs, BHAMER
a pattern copied from the wooden rafters, while in its Bhamer is a village lying thirty miles west of central part is an image of Kubera. Dhulia in Maharashtra. Beside the village are two hills Behind the portico is a verandah measuring 31 with a plain dwelling cave in one of them, and two ft. by 6 ft. and confronted by four square pillars and cellars and a large cave in the other. The larger cave two pilasters. The pillars, the intercolumniation between consists of a 74 ft. long verandah with an unfinished the central pillars of which is greater than that in the cell at the left end and three juxtaposed halls, each side ones, stand on a plain base; their shaft shows entered from the verandah by its own door. Each hall enrichments of lotus, amorous couple, scroll, makara measures about 24 ft. by 20 ft. and has four square etc. in circular medallions on the four faces, jewelled pillars and corresponding pilasters supporting the roof. and floral festoons, a band of diamonds, and a fluted On the walls are many crude sculptures of Pārsvanātha lasuna; and the capital consists of double padma, bulbous and other Jinas, but they are much defaced due to the ghata and round corbel. The lasuna supports bracket decay of the coarse rock.
figures of śārdūlas. The beams spanned across the These caves seem to be contemporaneous with columns are plain, but the ceilings at some places are those at Chamar.
relieved with figures of Vidyadharas. The walls carry ANJANERI
7 ft. 6 inches high standing image of Pärsvanatha on At Anjaneri, 14 miles from Nasik district left and of Bāhubali on right. headquarters in Maharashtra, is a hill with an ornate At the back of the verandah is a hall (25/2 ft. long Jaina cave excavated in A.D. 1288. It consists of a hall, by 16 ft. deep) with two pillars and two pilasters that vestibule and shrine. The hall is enclosed on the front shut it off from the verandah. The pillars are similar to by a low parapet wall with pillars supporting the eave. those of the verandah, but the lower part of the shaft It has grille-windows, ornate ceilings, and carved pillars bears standing figures of the Jinas. On each lateral side and doorways. Inside the shrine is a mutilated figure of the hall is a rectangular cell screened off by two of Jina.
pillars and two pilasters. The walls of the hall have a CHANDOR
large number of sculptures of the Tirthankaras (Pl. 17). Chandor is a village lying 30 miles north-east of From the hall an ascent of four steps leads into the district town of Nasik (Maharashtra). There is a the shrine carved deep into the rear rock. The stair is
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Scale of to
Fig. 44. Plan of Jaina Cave, Badami.
Wow
SCALE OF 203_6212_1518 FEET
Fig. 43. Plan of Jaina Cave 4, Aihole.
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stepped up from a moonstone. The pañcaśākhá doorway two pillars. The wall on either flank of the entrance of the shrine is ornate. Besides other ornaments it shows carries a figure of dvärapala with a male or female dvārapālas on the lower section of the doorjambs and dwarf. The pillars stand on a square plain base; their miniature shrines sheltering Jinas on the lintel. Inside shaft shows a short octagonal section, a long fluted one, the shrine is an image of Mahāvīra sitting on lion- usual octagonal section and faceted kalasa or lasuna; throne against the back wall, with cauri-bearer, śārdūla and the faceted capital is composed of padma, ghata and makara's head on either side.
and bevelled corbel. Inside the shrine, at the back wall, This cave seems to have been excavated in the is an image Mahāvīra sitting on a lion-throne with 7th century A.D.
cauri-bearers and worshippers. AIHOLE
This cave was probably excavated in the early part There are only two caves at Aihole. One of these of the 8th century A.D. is Jaina and the other Brahmanical. The Jaina cave (Fig. MELKOTE 43) at Aihole, which is larger than that at Badami and Melkote is situated near Mysore in Karnataka. It faces south-south-west, has a verandah in the front, hall has two Jaina caves excavated one above the other in in the middle and shrine at the back. The verandah, the scarp overlooking a valley between two hills of about 32 ft. long and 7/2 ft. deep, is supported in front granite rock. They do not present any outstanding by four square plain pillars and has decorations of architectural feature and are devoid of sculptures. They makaras, frets and flowers in the roof. The wall on left were probably excavated in the 80-90h century A.D. depicts an alto-relievo figure of Pārsvanätha standing
TAMIL NADU under the five-hooded cobra-canopy with Padmāvati VILAPPAKKAM standing with umbrella on his right and Dharanendra Vilappakkam is situated in the North Arcot district sitting with folded hands on the left, and that on right of Tamil Nadu. There is a large unfinished Jaina cave shows a standing image of Bahubali with Brāhmi and going by the name of Pañcapāņdava and excavated in Sundarī, his two sisters.
granite rock in the time of the Pallava king The entrance to the hall from the verandah is Mahendravarman (c. A.D. 580-630). This is a nine feet 8 ft. wide divided up into three apertures by two pillars. high rectangular cave of mandapa-type with two rows The hall measures 15 ft. by 17 ft. 8 inches and has of six pillars and two pilasters each, dividing the entire a chapel (14 ft. by 5 ft.) on each side screened off interior into a front mukhamandapa and a narrow rear by two pillars in front of each. The central ceiling (Pl. ardhamandapa (half the size of mandapa). All the pillars 14) of the hall depicts a large lotus flower at the centre, are square throughout and do not possess an octagonal four smaller ones at the corners, and decorations of section between the square sections, though this is an makaras, fishes, flowers and caitya-windows with human essential feature of the Pallava pillars of this period. heads in the intervening spaces. The chapel to the left The corbels of the pillars are incomplete and a few of of the hall carries at its back wall an image of Mahāvīra them that have been worked out are round in shape. sitting on a lion-throne with cauri-bearers and devotees, The cave is shaded by a rocky ledge of plane cornice while that on the right is empty.
having one foot width. On six feet height from the The shrine at the back, about 8 ft. 3 inches square, cornice is a water chute and on four feet height from is approached by a flight of three steps and its entrance, the latter is a shallow niche carved in the central part like that to the hall, is divided into three apertures by of the facade. The niche contains an image of Tirthankara
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in low relief. The floor of the cave, which has a slope front. The shrine is 10 ft. square and 7 ft. high and of three inches from the back to the front, is four feet is entered through a doorway (5 12 ft. by 2 12 ft.) high from the ground and had no approach of stairway, approachable from the ardhamandapa by a stairway due of course to its being incomplete, but two stairs having vyāla banister. On the inner walls of the shrine are now built on two ends. The inner roof of the cave are carved three images in high relief, Mahavira is flat and uncarved. In the back wall are seven rectangular appearing on the west or back side, Adinatha on the niches between the columns. Each niche, now vacant, north and an Acārya or Arhat on the south. This is measures 5 12 ft. by 2 12 ft. and 1 ft. deep, is slightly apparent from the carving of triple umbrella over the projected into the ardhamandapa, and is carved three head of the Tirthankara images and a single parasol feet above the floor. According to K.R. Srinivasan (see, over the Arhat. The flat ceiling of the shrine is carved Cave Temples of the Pallavas), the cave primarily with a Dharmacakra. belonged to Saiva sect and was excavated in the closing The ardhamandapa measures 22 12 ft. by 7 1/2 ft. years of Mahendravarman I, but later it was occupied by 8 12 ft. and has two massive square pillars and two by the Jainas. But the presence of a Jina figure atop pilasters on the front. The columns are square below the cave and the complete absence of Saiva evidence and above and octagonal in the middle, have horizontally hardly leave any doubt for its being a Jaina cave. fluted roll-corbels, and bear adornment of lotus PECCIPARAI
medallions on the square faces of their shaft. Across Pecciparai is situated near Kadayanallur village in the columns are plain beams with flexed cornice. The Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu. It has a Jaina cave lateral walls of the ardhamandapa have sculptured niches. on the higher slope of the hill, consisting of two The niche on south contains a figure of Pārsvanātha unfinished shrines facing each other across the two ends with a five-hooded cobra canopy and that on the north of a common hall. The shrines have doorframe and has a figure of Jaina teacher seated in dhyānamudra well-formed cornices. Inside the shrines are some with an umbrella over the head. That the figure on north incomplete figures, but the carving of cobrahood (for is of a Jaina teacher is clearly evident from an inscription Pärsvanātha) definitely shows the Jaina affiliation of the on a nearby pillar mentioning him as tiruväsiriyan, i.e. cave. The back wall of the hall has been left plain, the venerable teacher. The entire surface of the walls, probably for a niche-figure. The facade of the cave has ceiling, pillars etc. are richly painted in the tradition a cornice carved with nail-heads.
of wall paintings of Ajanta. Unfortunately, they are SITTANNAVASAL
badly damaged, but what remains shows the grandeur The Arivar Kovil cave-temple at Sittannavasal in of Jaina paintings in the whole of South India. The the Tiruchirapalli district of Tamil Nadu is excavated notable among these are the Samavasaraṇa scene, the on the eastern face of the rock. There also is a natural Puskara-lake with lotus, geese, fish etc., the royal couple cavern with beds and an old Tamil-Barāhmi inscription and some figures of dancers (for details see Chapter Sittannavasal is especially famous for its wall paintings on Paintings of this Volume). some of which are still preserved in the cave. These The mukhamandapa is an open pillared hall added are the earliest known remains of Jaina paintings in India. to preserve the main cave during the reign of the Pandya
The cave at Sittannavasal consists of a square king Avanipasekhara Sri Vallabha (c. A.D. 815-862). shrine at the back, a transverse rectangular ardhamandapa The main cave, however, was excavated in the grh in the middle and a structural mukhamandapa in the century A.D.
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ARMAMALAI
Armamalai is situated in the North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu. It has a large natural cavern converted later by brick masonry walls into three shrines standing in a line and containing fragments of paintings belonging to the Gangas of Talkád (c. A.D. 900-100). From the debris of the cave have been recovered two stone sculptures of the dvārapālas carved in low relief, two slabs with lotus carving, and broken pieces of stone pilasters. The two dvärapālas possibly guarded the larger central shrine dedicated to Tirthankara, while the smaller lateral shrines housed his Yaksa and Yaksi.
The paintings are represented in the ceiling of the cavern and on the plastered surface of the partition walls. In one scene, as in Sittannvasal cave paintings, are shown lotus flowers, elephants, fish etc. in the waters of a pond. In another scene only the portrait figure of a royal personage has survived. Other fragments depict riding couples, geese etc. One such couple is identifiable with Dikpala Agni riding a ram with his consort and another with Dikpāla Yama mounting a buffalo with his consort. VALLIMALAI
At Vallimalai in North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu are some natural caverns with sculptures of Jinas and attendant figures relieved on the rock faces. The Jinas mostly represent Mahāvīra, Pārsvanātha and Bahubali, while the attendant figures are identifiable with Sarvānubhüti and Ambikā. Besides, there are Vidyā- dharas and cauri-bearers shown on either side above the shoulders of the Jinas. But the most exquisite sculpture is a portrait of some lady standing in graceful posture. These sculptures seem to have been carved in the 10th century A.D., when this area came under the sway of the Gangas of Talkād.
KERALA TIRUCCARANATTUMALAI
It is situated near Chitaral in the Kanyakumari district of Kerala. There is a natural cavern formed by
overhanging rock with relief carvings on one side. Of the reliefs the most important are the images of Parsvanatha and Padmavati, both standing with cobracanopy over the head. To the left of these are six small seated Jinas in two lines of three each. To the left of this panel is the central niche which contains an image of Mahāvīra seated in dhyānamudrā with two attendants and two Vidyādharas. To his left is a small niche with a beautiful figure of Ambikā standing in three-flexured posture with two children and her lion mount. Above these panels are nine small seated Jinas in a single row. These are inscribed votive images carved by the visitors hailing from distant places.
The cavern has an inscription of Ay king Vikramaditya Varaguna (c. A.D. 885 - 925), recording a gift of some gold ornaments to the Bhatariyār of Tiruccaranattumalai. The sculptures of the cavern also appear to have belonged to the 9th century A.D.
The cavern has now been converted into a Bhagavati shrine. KALLIL
It is situated near Perumbavur in the Ernakulam district of Kerala. It has a rock-shrine, now converted into a Bhagavati shrine. On the facade of the cavern is carved an unfinished seated figure of Mahāvīra. The back wall, now obscured by the walls of the Bhagavati shrine, also carries a figure of Mahavira with two cauribearers and a triple umbrella over the head. The cavern looks contemporaneous with that at Tiruccaranattumalai. REFERENCES
J. Fergusson and J. Burgess, The Cave Temples of India, reprint, Delhi, 1969; H. Singh, Bhārata Ki Jaina Guphayer (in Hindi), Varanasi, 1997; J. Burgess, Report on Ellora Cave Temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina Caves in Western India, reprint, Varanasi, 1970; U.P. Shah and M.A. Dhaky (Eds.), Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Ahmedabad, 1975; H.L. Jaina, Bhāratiya Saṁskrti mem Jainadharma Kā Yogadāna (in Hindi), Bhopal, 1975; A. Fuhrer, 'Pabhosa
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inscriptions', Epigraphia Indica, Vol. II; A. Ghosh (Ed.), Jaina Art and Architecture, New Delhi, 1964; c. Sivaramamurti, Indian Paintings, Delhi, 1970; K.R. Srinivasan, Temples of South India, New Delhi, 1964; K.R. Srinivasan, Cave Temples of the Pallavas, New Delhi, 1964; V.S. Agrawala, Indian Art, Varanasi, 1965; P. Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu
Periods), Bombay, 1976; Debala Mitra, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, New Delhi, 1975; M.W. Meister (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. I, Pt. 2, Delhi, 1986; R.S. Gupte and B.D. Mahajan, Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves, Bombay, 1962; S.G. Dawne, Ellora and Environs, Aurangabad, 1966; M.H. Kuraishi, Rajgir, New Delhi, 1987.
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CHAPTER V
JAINA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE : NORTH INDIA
The Jaina temple is generally called Jinälaya or vihara in North India and basadi or basti in South. The Jainas had not evolved their own style of temple architecture but followed what was prevalent in the Brahmanical tradition. The temple in Brahmanical tradition is a symbol of the universe conceived in terms of human body. The names of various limbs of human body from its foot to the crown of the head, viz. feet, legs, thighs, chest, shoulder, neck and head, are actually applied to different parts of the temple. As the body becomes lifeless without the inhabitant soul, so the temple is useless for worship if the life-ceremony (prāṇapratistha) of the principal image (Tirthankara in case of Jaina temple and a deity in that of Brahmanical temple) is not performed in the sanctum. To perform the rituals and other ceremonial works the sanctum is provided with other compartments.
The sanctum is always a dark chamber enclosed by solid walls and its interior is dimly lit by flickering flames of a lamp. This suggests that the divine spirit or immortal soul installed in the sanctum is illumining the enveloped universe. If the sanctum is a microcosm, the whole temple is a macrocosm of the universe inhabited by gods, demi-gods, human beings, and birds and animals represented on the facade of the temple. Hence the temple is meritorious not only to the visitor but also to its builder.
The construction of temples, mostly structural, began from the age of the Imperial Guptas. Before that, the religious needs of the people were generally fulfilled by the stupas and caityagṛhas, both structural and rockcut. During the Gupta period we notice different types of temples which took their forms from the already existent buildings. But as we pass on the next period when, after the death of Harṣa of Kannauj in about A.D. 647, the Gurjara Pratihāras of Kannauj, the Palas of

Bengal and the Raṣṭrakūtas of the Deccan were fighting among themselves for the paramountancy of their power, we find new architectural trends in the contemporary Jaina temples of central and western India located at Osian, Pithaora, Deogadh, Gyaraspur etc., and earlier in the Meguti temple at Aihole. After these three powers went off the scene, a large number of strong dynasties came to power and carved out their independent principalities. In spite of wars among themselves and the Muslim onslaughts from outside, the architectural activities continued to flourish in full swing and a large number of both big and small temples were produced in every nook and cranny of the country, bearing of course local trends and mannerism. This was the period when regional idioms became fully established and we can even trace their evolution in a particular region itself. After the downfall of the indigenous rule at the end of the 12th century A.D. in North India and 13th century A.D. in South India, the country passed in the hands of the Muslim rulers, but the architectural activities went on unabated with usual fervour following purely the indigenous traits.
The Jaina temples of India may be divided into two broad groups of North and South, with the Vindhya mountain as the dividing line. Each group has a large number of Jaina temples bearing their own traits. Before the description of temples it is worthwhile to give a brief outline of the politico-cultural background of the contemporary period and the general architectural features of temples, so that one can gain an insight into the subject.
The actual examples of Jaina temples of the period under review hail from Bihar, Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajsthan and Gujarat, probably these regions were the main concentration of Jaina population during this period. The Jaina temples

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are built of various shades of locally available sandstone Nagabhata was succeeded by his son Rämabhadra or marble or schist and bear testimony of repairs and and the latter by his son Bhoja (c. A.D. 836-892). After alterations, particularly those in the private possession. consolidating his position at home, which has been Compared to those of the South, the temples of North disturbed during the short reign of Ramabhadra, Bhoja India have suffered more in the hands of the Muslim measured his strength with the Pala king Devapäla of iconoclasts, but enough remains to show the rich heritage Bengal, Rāstrakūta Dhruva of the Lata branch and of the Jainas,
Kalacuri Kokkalla of Dāhala, but sustained defeats at Historical Background
the hands of each. Later, however, he defeated the Pala The Gurjara Pratihāras of Kanyakubja (c.A.D. king Nārāyanapāla and Rāştrakūta Krsna II, brought 730-1000) - The Pratīhāras were an important power Gujarat and Saurashtra under the sphere of his influence, of North India after the Imperial Guptas. They founded and annexed east Punjab. Thus he became a paramount a kingdom near Jodhpur in Rajasthan in about the mid- ruler of North India and stood as a bulwark against sixth century A.D. Haricandra, the founder of the dynasty, the Muslim aggression. Bhoja himself was a devotee was a Brahmana, well-versed in the Sāstras. The of Bhagavatī, but Jainism flourished well in his kingdom. Pratīhāras came into prominence when Nāgabhata I This is evident from two Jaina temples at Phithaora and (c. A.D. 730-756) defeated the Arabs of Sindh. The Rajorgadh built about this time. next important ruler was Vatsarāja (c. A.D. 772-794) Bhoja was succeeded by his son Mahendrapala as he defeated the lord of Gauda (probably Dharmapäla) (c. A.D. 892-908) who extended his empire in the east and made Indrāyudha of Kannauj accept his vassalage, by annexing Magadh and North Bengal. After but he was badly routed and forced to retreat into the Mahendrapāla there was perhaps a war for succession desert of Rajasthan by the Rästrakūta king Dhruva of between Bhoja II and Mahīpāla, the sons of Mānyakheta. When Dhruva returned to the Deccan, Mahendrapala, and Mahīpāla (c. A.D. 912-930) Dharmapāla took advantage of the situation and installed ultimately succeeded in occupying the throne. The poet Cakräyudha in place of Indräyudha on the throne of Rājasekhara, who graced the courts of both Mahendrapala Kannauj. Vatsarāja prominently figures in the Jaina and Mahipāla, credits the latter with the conquest of literature. His name also occurs in an inscription found "Muralas, Mekalas, Kalingas, Keralas, Kulūtas, Kuntalas in the Mahāvīra temple at Osian built at this time. The and Ramathas", covering almost the whole of India. Mälādevi temple at Gyaraspur and the Mahāvīra temple This obviously is a poetic stunt, but there is no doubt at Varman were also built about this time.
that he retained the vast North Indian empire he inherited. Vatsarāja was succeeded by his son Nägabhata II The Pratihāra rulers after Mahīpala were too weak to (c. A.D. 794-833) who retrieved the situation by routing withstand the mounting pressure of the Rāstrakūtas, the both Dharmapāla and Cakräyudha and shifted his capital Candellas and the Muslims and, at last, in the first to Kanyakubja (Kannauj district, U.P.). But his imperial quarter of the 11th century A.D. the Pratihāra empire ambition was curved by Rästrakūta Govinda III. vanished. Jainism continued to flourish during this period Nāgāvaloka (Nāgabhata II), according to the Jaina texts, as is evident from a Jaina temple at Banpur and another became a Jaina, went on pilgrimage to holy Jaina sites at Rajorgadh. A doorway added to Temple No. 12 at and built temples to the Jinas. This shows high position Deogadh, dated in A.D. 994, was also built at this time. of Jainism in the kingdom. That Jainism was well The Kacchapaghātas of Dubkund - There are received in the State is also substantiated by two extant three branches of the Kacchapaghātas ruling from Jaina temples (Nos. 12 and 15) at Deogadh.
Gwalior, Dubkund and Narwar respectively. The first
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known king of the Kacchapaghața branch of Dubkund, a town 76 miles north-west of Gwalior, was Arjuna who slew the Pratihāra king Rajyapala of Kannauj as a feudatory of Candella Vidyadhara. His son and successor Abhimanyu was an ally of Paramara Bhoja (c. A.D. 1010-1055) of Dhārā. Abhimanyu was succeeded by his son Vijayapala, and the latter by his son Vikramasimha whose known date is A.D. 1088. It was perhaps in the reign of Abhimanyu that the Santinātha temple at Jhalrāpāṭaṇa (Jhalawar district, M.P.) was built.
The Kalacuris of Ratanpur - Of many branches of the Kalacuris the one ruling at Ratanpur, sixteen miles north of Bilaspur (Chhattisgarh), was an offshoot of the renowned Kalacuri dynasty of Tripuri (Jabalpur, M.P.). The house of Ratanpur was founded by Kalingaraja in the early 11th century A.D. He was succeeded by his son Kamalaraja, and the latter by his son Ratanaraja who founded the city of Ratanpur. Ratanaraja was followed by his son Pṛthvideva who is known to have been ruling in A.D. 1079. All these rulers acknowledged the sovereignty of the Kalacuris of Tripuri. But the next ruler, Jajalladeva I, became independent about A.D. 1114. His reign was eventful, and he established the power and prestige of the kingdom by scoring a number of victories. After him seven more kings ruled at Ratanpur. The last of these was Pratapamalla whose reign ended in A.D. 1218.
We know little of Jainism in the Kalacuri kingdom of Ratanpur, but the presence of a Jaina temple at Aranga (Raipur district, Chhattisgarh) indicates that people certainly adhered to Jainism there.
The Candellas of Khajuraho - The Candellas were an aboriginal tribe of Bhars and Gonds that came to power at Khajuraho (Chhatarpur district, M.P.) in the beginning of the 9th century A.D. Nannuka, the first ruling king at Khajuraho, and five others following him in order of succession were vassal chiefs of the Pratihāras of Kannauj. The seventh Candella king was Yasovarman (c. A.D. 925-950) who defied the authority of the Pratihāras to become independent. He built a magnificent

temple of Visņu at Khajuraho, identifiable with the famous Laksamana temple.
Yasovarman was succeeded by his son Dhanga (c. A.D. 950-1002) who threw off the yoke of the Pratihāras and consolidated his empire by extensive conquests. His kingdom extended from Gwalior in the west to Vidisha in the east and Kāśī (Varanasi) in the north to the Narmada in the south. From the time of Dhanga Śaivism became a dominant religion in the Candella kingdom. Side by side, Jainism also flourished, particularly among the merchant class. This is clearly reflected from the construction of two fine Jaina temples, the Parsvanatha and the Ghantai, at Khajuraho at this time.
Dhanga was succeeded by his son Ganda (c. A.D. 1003-1017), and the latter by his son Vidyadhara (c. A.D. 1018-1029) who raised the Candella power to its zenith. Vidyadhara was followed in succession by Vijayapala (c. A.D. 1030-1050), Devavarman (c. A.D. 1050-1060) and Kirttivarman (c. A.D. 1060-1100), during whose reigns the Candella power gradually declined, but the building activity at Khajuraho was continued as is attested to by the extant Adinatha temple and a few Brahmanical temples.
The Cahamānas of Sakambhari - The Cahamanas were a ruling class of Rajasthan with Śākambharī, modern Sambhar in Jaipur, as the capital city. Their territory was also known as Sapädalakṣa. They started their political career as feudatories of the Imperial Pratihāras of Kannauj. The dynasty was founded by Vasudeva. The thirteenth king from him was Vākpatiraja who ruled in the first quarter of the 10th century A.D. He had four sons - Simharaja, Vindhyaraja, Vatsaraja and Lakṣamaṇarāja. Simharaja began his independent rule at Śakambhari in the middle of the 10th century A.D. and assumed the title of Mahārājādhirāja, while his brother Lakṣamaṇarāja founded a kingdom at Nadḍula, modern Nadol in Jodhpur. Simharaja was succeeded by his son Vigraharaja II who was a very powerful king and

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defeated Caulukya Mülarāja I of Anahillapätaka and at loss and sometime at gain in the contemporary Bārappa of Lāța. His son and successor, Durlabharāja II, political scenario. invaded the territory of Laksamanaraja's grandson Vaisnavism as well as Saivism was prevalent in Mahendra of Naddula. In the end of the 10th century the Cāhamāna kingdom of Nadol. Jainism, particularly A.D. the Cähamāna territory of Sākambhari extended Svetāmbara, has also been in a flourishing condition. at least from Sikar in the north to Ajmer in the south This is gleaned from the remains of several Jaina and Jaipur in the east to Jodhpur in the west. After temples built or rebuilt at Nadol, Nadlai, Sadri and Durlabharaja II seventeen more kings ruled at Sewadi between the 10h and 12th centuries A.D. or even Sākambhari. The twelfth in order of succession was beyond that. Armorāja (c. A.D. 1130-1150) who paved the path that The Guhils of Medapāța - The Guhils or Guhilots got its maximum length in the time of Vigraharāja IV of Medapata (Mewar) founded a kingdom at Udaipur (c. A.D. 1150-1164) and Prthvīrāja III (c. A.D. (Rajasthan) in the 10th century A.D. with Āghāța as their 1178-1192).
capital city. They trace their progeny to Guhadatta, who The Cahamānas were the worshippers of Siva; was probably a Nāgara Brāhmaṇa of Anandapura goddess Āsāpuri was their tutelary deity. They also (Vadnagar, Gujarat) and migrated to Medapāța sometime have liberal attitude towards Jainism. This is evident in the latter half of the 6th century A.D. A long line from the fact that Arņorāja granted land for the of Guhil kings is known to have ruled after him, construction of a Jaina temple at Ajmer. That Jainism possibly as vassal chiefs of the Imperial Pratihäras or flourished in the kingdom is attested to not only by Rāstrakūtas. Bhartspatta II was the first king to assume two extant Jaina temples at Lodravā and Phalodhi but the title of Mahārājādhirāja which signifies his also by the stray finds of numerous Jina images belonging independent position. This he claims in his own to both the Svetāmbara and Digambara sects.
inscription of A.D. 943. He was succeeded by his son The Cāhamānas of Naddula - Laksamanarāja, Allata who was a powerful king as he killed Pratīhāra the founder of the Naddula branch of the Cāhamānas, Devapāla in A.D. 954. During his reign Aghata became ruled a territory which touched the boundaries of the an important centre of trade frequented by the merchants Cahamänas of Sākambhari in the north and north-east, of Karnata, Lāta and Madhyadeśa. Allata was followed, the Rāstrakūtas of Hastikundi in the south, the country one after the other, by Naravāhana, Salivähana and of Vasantagadh in the south-west, and the Guhils of Saktikumāra. In the time of Saktikumära, Paramāra Medapāța in the south-east. His son and successor Muñja sacked Aghata. As a result, the Guhil king Sobhita won a victory over Paramāra Dharanivarāha of temporarily sought refuge in the court of the Rāstrakūtas Candravati, but his son and successor Balirāja suffered of Hastikundi. He, However, ruled upto the close of a defeat at the hands of Paramāra Muñja. Baliraja was the 10 century A.D. succeeded by his uncle Vigrahapala and the latter by During the reigns of the Guhil kings both the his son Mahendra sometime before A.D. 997. During Svetämbara and Digambara sects flourished, in spite of Mahendra's reign the Cāhamănas of Säkambhari overran their religious rivalry. This is well demonstrated by the the kingdom of Naddula, and Mahendra had to take presence of a Digambara Jaina temple built to shelter in the court of Rastrakūta Dhavala of Hastikundi. Pārsvanātha at Nagada and two Svetāmbara Jaina temples He, however, regained his kingdom within a short time. dedicated to Mahāvīra at Aghāța and Ghanerāva. After Mahendra fifteen more kings ruled at Nadol up The Căpotkațas of Anahillapāțaka and to the end of the 12th century A.D.; they were sometime Vardhamānapura (c. A.D. 750-950) - There are two
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branches of the Cäpotkatas, one ruling at Anahillapätaka Durlabharāja was succeeded by Bhima I (c. A.D. (modern Patan) and the other at Vardhamānapura 1023-1065) who had to face a disastrous inroad of (modern Wadhwan), both in Gujarat. We know of eight Mahmud of Ghazni. He ousted his feudatory Paramāra Cāpotkața rulers of Anahillapātaka of whom Vanarāja Dhandhuka of Abu and appointed Vimala as the governor was the first and Bhübhata the last. Not much is known of that province. He joined hands with Kalacuri about their political career, but this is known for certain Lakşmikarna and attacked Paramāra Bhoja of Dhārā; that Bhübhata was killed and his kingdom occupied by in the battle that ensued Paramāra Bhoja died. During the Caulukya king Mülarāja I in A.D. 941. The main the reign of Bhīma the Caulukyas grew in power and religion of the kingdom was saivism. Jainism also prosperity, and Jainism enjoyed the patronage of the flourished as Vanarāja himself built the Pañcāsara nobility as well. This is evident from the famous Adinātha Pārsvanātha temple in his newly founded capital of temple built by Vimala at Abu. Another beautiful temple, Anahillapāțaka. The main portion of the Adinātha temple dedicated to Mahāvīra, was built at Kumbharia. Probably, at Vadnagar also belongs to this period.
the Sambhavanātha temple at Taranga was also built The Căpotkata family of Vardhamanapura has during his reign. seven rulers in order of succession. The first of these Bhima I was followed by his son Karna (c. A.D. was Mahāvarāha and the last, Dharanīvarāha. Mūlarāja 1065-1093) who ably maintained the kingdom. He also occupied Vardhamānapura in A.D. 951 by ousting married Mayanallādevī, the daughter of the Kadamba Dharanivaräha. During the reigns of these rulers Jainism king of Goa. Jainism continued to flourish at this time. seems to have flourished in the kingdom. This is evident This is evident from a beautiful temple of Sāntinātha from the Harivarśapuräna which makes mention of two built at Kumbharia. Jaina temples at Vardhamānapura which do not exist Karna was succeeded by his son Jayasimha (c. A.D. now.
1093-1143). He was the most powerful king of the The Caulukyas of Anahillapāțaka (c. A.D. dynasty. He led successful campaigns in all the directions 950-1300) - The Caulukyas, popularly known as and had friendly relations with the Cāhamānas of Solankis, were a powerful dynasty of Gujarat with Sākambhari, the Kalacuris of Dāhala and the Anahillapätaka as their capital city. Mūlarāja I (c. A.D. Gāhadavälas of Kannauj. During his time the Caulukya 941-996) founded the Caulukya rule at Anahillapätaka power reached its climax and the state of Jainism was by killing Cāpotkata Bhūbhata in A.D. 941. He extended very high. This is clearly demonstrated by the presence his empire in the west and south by defeating of four magnificent Jaina temples, viz. the Pärsvanātha Dharanivarāha of Vardhamānapura, Lākhā of Kutch, and the Neminātha temples at Kumbharia, the Neminātha and Bärappa of Lāta. He was succeeded by his son temple at Girnar and the Jaina temple at Sejakpur. Cāmundarāja (c. A.D. 996-1009) and the latter by his Jayasimha was succeeded by Kumārapäla (c. A.D. sons Vallabharāja and Durlabharāja (c. A.D. 1009-1023), 1143-1172). He fought a successful battle against who kept the empire intact left by Mūlarāja. Saivism Cāhamāna Armorāja of Sākambharī, annexed Mālavā by continued to hold its grounds at Anahillapāțaka during killing its ruler Paramāra Ballāla, defeated Kalacuri this period as well, but Jainism (Svetāmbara) also enjoyed Gayakarņa of Dāhala, and included Konkan by killing the royal patronage as Mūlarāja founded a Jaina temple its ruler Mallikarjuna. His empire stretched from Chitor in the capital and Durlabharaja built a monastery there. in the north to the Tapti in the south and Bhilsa in But they do not survive today. The only extant Jaina the east to Saurashtra and Kutch in the west. He was temple of this period stands at Than.
a Saiva in the early days of his life, but later he turned

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a Jaina by the influence of Acarya Hemacandra. Kumarapala was the greatest supporter of Svetambara Jainism in Gujarat and took all measures for its spread and development. His zeal for Jainism is clearly evident from his founding of the Ajitanatha temple at Taranga which is a grand royal erection. His ministers also patronised Jainism by erecting temples. Thus, Pṛthvipāla added mandapa to the Adinatha temple at Abu and Vägbhața replaced the old shrine of Adinatha at Śatrunjaya by a grand new one. The Jaina temple at Bhadreshwar and the Bavanadhvaja Jinalaya at Sarotra were also built at this time.
Kumarapala was succeeded by his son Ajayapala (c. A.D. 1172-1175) and the latter by his son Mularāja II (c. A.D. 1175-1178). Ajayapala was a bigoted Śaiva and hence no Jaina temple could be erected at this time.
Mūlaraja II was succeeded by his minor younger brother Bhima II (c. A.D. 1178-1241). Taking advantage of his teenage the vassal chiefs tried to become independent. At this predicament the Vaghelas came to the rescue of the throne and, with the assistance of the two brother ministers, Vastupala and Tejapala, ably maintained the kingdom left by Kumarapala. Bhima also protected the kingdom from the attacks of Hoysala Ballala II of Dorasamudra, Yadava Bhillama of Devagiri, Cahamāna Pṛthvīrāja III of Sakambhari, Paramāra Subhatavarman of Malwa, and Iltutmish. During the early part of Bhima's reign the political condition of the country was not conducive to building activity, but when peace and tranquility returned, active support was rendered to Jainism by erecting such magnificent temples as the Lunavasahi at Abu and the Vastupälavihāra at Girnar. The Sambhavanatha temple at Kumbharia was also built at this time.
Bhima II was succeeded by Tribhuvanapala who ruled for a very short term. After Tribhuvanapala the rein of power passed into the hands of the Vaghelas who ruled at Anahillapaṭaka till the end of the 13th century A.D. During the time of the Vaghelas the power and prestige of Aṇahillapataka gradually declined and,

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at last, in the time of Karna, it passed into the hands of the Muslims, but Jainism continued to enjoy the favour of the people. This is well reflected from two extant Jaina temples located at Kanthkot and Miani.
The Paramāras of Candravati - They were a branch of the Paramaras of Dhārā (Mālavā) and ruled from Candravati which lay at the foot of Mt. Abu in Rajasthan. The first king of this lineage was Sindhurāja, possibly the brother of Siyaka I of the main Malava line; he ruled as vassal of the Pratihāras in the latter half of the 9th century A.D. Sindhuraja was followed in succession by Utpalarāja, Araṇyarāja and Kṛṣṇarāja, the last one having ruled in A.D. 997. Kṛṣṇaraja was succeeded by Dharaṇīvaraha who suffered a defeat at the hands of Caulukya Mülaräja I of Aṇahillapataka between A.D. 987 and 995. Sometime before A.D. 1031 Dhandhuka, grandson of Dharaṇīvaraha, threw off the overlordship of Caulukya Bhima I and became independent, but he was suppressed to the tutelage position by Vimala, the founder of the Vimalavasahi at Abu. From that time till the end of the 13th century A.D. Abu remained a part of the Caulukya dominion.
Though the dominant religion in the area surrounding Candravati was Śaivism, the Śvetambara Jainism too was effective there. This is apparent not only from a number of Jaina texts written by Svetämbara friars but also by the foundation of Jaina temples at Candravati, Bhillamäla, Jabalipura and Satyapura. The extant Jaina temples at Ghanerav, Nandia, Nana, Pali, Mungthala and Jhadoli also are indicative of the same.
The Paramāras of Mālavā They are an important ruling class of central India. Their capital was Dhärä, modern Dhar in Madhya Pradesh. The first king of the dynasty was Upendra who started his political career as a vassal of the Raṣṭraküța king Govinda III in the 9th century A.D. The next four kings also avowed to the Rastrakutas. But the sixth ruler, Siyaka II (c. A.D. 945-972), became independent and ruled a kingdom extending from Jhalawar in the north to the Tapti in the south and Bhilsa in the east to the Sabarmati in

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the west. Muñja (c. A.D. 973-996) and Sindhurāja (c. A.D. 996-1010) further strengthened the Paramāra power, and Bhoja (c. A.D. 1010-1055) rose it to imperial status. After Bhoja the Paramära power gradually declined and shortly after A.D. 1143 the whole of Mālavā was included in the Caulukya kingdom of Kumārapāla (c. A.D. 1143-1172). But in the seventh decade of the 12th century A.D. Vindhyavarman, the 7th ruler after Bhoja, recovered Mälavā from Caulukya Mularāja II. Shortly after A.D. 1193 Vindhyavarman's son Subhatavarman penetrated deep into the Caulukya kingdom and plundered a large number of Jaina temples at Dabhoi and Cambay. He ruled nearly up to A.D. 1210 and was followed one after the other by eight kings, the last of whom, Mahlakadeva, was killed by a general of Allauddin in A.D. 1305 and Mälavā was included in the Muslim empire.
Saivism was very dominant in the Paramāra kingdom. Jainism also flourished as the Jaina writers like Dhanapala etc. graced the Paramāra court, but no Jaina foundation prior to Bhoja has come down to us from the main land. But when Mälavā was assimilated in the Caulukya dominion by Kumärapäla, Jainism was well received in the kingdom. This is apparent from two Jaina temples at Un, which lie in the heart of the Paramāra empire, following the Solanki style of Gujarat. Architectural Features
The Jaina temples of North India, like their Brahmanical counterparts, primarily consist on plan of a square sanctum and an entrance porch, both covered by a flat roof (Jaina temples at Kundalpur, Damoh district, M.P.). Subsequently, an ambulatory was built round the sanctum, and an antarāla, gūdhamandapa and mukhamaņdapa were added before the sanctum (e.g. Ajitanātha temple at Taranga). In the Maladevi temple at Gyaraspur, the Pārsvanātha temple at Khajuraho and the Adinātha temple at Nadlai, the sanctum and gudhamandapa are built in one enclosing wall. In the larger conception a rangamandapa has been added before the mukhamandapa and a series of 24, 52 or 72
devakulikās with one or two rows of pillars surround the whole temple complex. Externally, the devakulikās provide an outer enclosing wall to the temple-complex and, internally, their pillared corridor gives a covered path for circumambulation (e.g. Vimalavasahi at Abu). Where there is an arrangement of devakulikās, the temple is generally entered from the front through a porch or balanaka. The sanctum has only one doorway, but in the Jaina temple at Banpur (Lalitpur district, U.P.) it has four doorways on the four sides, making it a Sarvatobhadra-prāsāda (four-faced shrine), a type of temple which became more popular in the medieval period (e.g. at Ranakpur and Satruñjaya).
The sanctum and its various mandapas (Figs. 4546) are laid out in one axial line directly on the ground or stand on a jagati-platform from the rear end (e.g. Jaina temples at Khajuraho, M.P., and Kumbharia, Gujarat). The jagati at Khajuraho provides an open perambulation round the temple, but where it is surrounded by devakulikäs we find a covered ambulatory. The sanctum as well as güdhamandapa is square internally, but its exterior walls on each side are either straight (Jaina temples at Kundalpur and Than) or broken into offsets from two to five (from dvi-anga to pañcānga, in other words, from triratha to navaratha) which have been carried upwards from the base to the top of the spire, which is curvilinear on the sanctum and pyramidal on the gūdhamandapa. It is the curvilinear spire, i.e. śikhara, which forms the main cognizance of North Indian temples.
In dvi-anga plan (having two offsets) it shows bhadra (cardinal) and karna (corner) offsets. It is triratha if counted diagonally. The bhadra is always larger in size and has only small projection, while the karņa is equilateral and has prominent projection. In tri-anga (or pañcaratha) plan a pratiratha of the size of karna is inserted between the bhadra and karņa; in caturanga (saptaratha) plan a pratibhadra, smaller than the pratiratha, is inserted between the bhadra and pratiratha; and in pañcănga (navaratha) plan a pratikarņa of the
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size of pratibhadra is inserted between the karma and pratiratha. Between the offsets are salilāntara-recesses and the salilāntaras in developed temples are generally reinforced by minor koņikäs (corners).
Like the plan, the elevation of Jaina temples also has distinctive features. The jagati, wherever present, has been made solid with straight and plain sides. The temple stands on a pitha (socle) which is made up of a series of splayed out moulded courses bearing varied ornaments or left plain. The pitha supports the mandovara-wall (Fig. 49) which is divided into three sections - the lower is vedibandha (podium), the middle is janghā (wall-proper), and the upper is varandikā (entablature). The vedībandha is composed of a set of five mouldings of khura, kumbha, kalasa, antarapatta and kapota, which are either plain or decorated with figure-sculptures and other decorative patterns. The jangha, which is the main attraction of the wall, is generally studded with fine figures of Dikpālas on the karnas and of Jaina divinities and apsarases on the rest. The varandikā consists of a few moulded courses and an eave-cornice. The jangha-wall on each bhadra has a sunken niche for an image of Jina.
Where the temple has an inner ambulatory, the bhadra offset above the pitha is treated differently. Here it shows a short wall made up of rājasenaka, vedika, āsanapatta and kakşasana, all very richly carved. The asanapatta supports pillars that carry architraves with projecting eaves. Between the pillars are fitted perforated stone grilles to admit light to the inner ambulatory.
Above the perpendicular walls comes the curvilinear śikhara of which three varieties at least are known - ekāndaka, anekāndaka (Fig. 50) and bhūmija. The ekāņdaka is mono-spired śikhara with vertical bands bearing lattice of caitya-gavākṣas. It may be seen in the Adinātha temple at Khajuraho and in a few other temples. The anekāndaka is a multi-turreted śikhara appearing in the Pārsvanātha temple at Khajuraho and at many other places. The bhūmija śikhara is composed of four spines with a mesh of caitya-gavākşas on the
central offsets, and vertical bands of pillarettes with horizontal rows of shrine-models in the quadrants. The bhūmija mode of sikhara has been very popular in the temples of the upper Deccan, but it is rarely found in the Jaina temples of North India. So far only two examples, one at Arang (Raipur district, M.P.) and the other at Sewadi (Pali district, Rajasthan), are known. The various offsets of the sikhara terminate at the flat skandha part surmounted by grīvā, āmalaka, candrikā, kalaśa and bijapūraka. A flag-staff is also installed. A sukanāsa, lodged over the antarāla, leans upon the front facade of the sikhara, with niched figure on the front face and a figure of lion at the top. The whole of the sikhara is enmeshed with caitya-gavākşas.
A water-chute in the form of crocodile (makarapranala) is inserted on one side of the sanctum płtha to drain out oblation water.
The sanctum is entered through an ornate doorway from the antarala. Inside is worshipped an image of the Jina. The doorframe of the sanctum as well as the mandapas and devakulikās is ornate displaying one sākha (jamb) to seven śãkhās. The doorsill often shows a square or semi-circular carved block in the centre, a kirttimukha on each side of it and a sculptured niche on either extremity. The door-lintel continues the decorative bands of the jambs and depicts Jina as Talātabimba (crest image). On the lower section of the jambs stand images of door guardians, Jaina goddesses or river goddesses (Ganga and Yamunā), with attendant figures. The doorway is stepped up from a candrašila moonstone).
The antarala is a buffer wall formed by the front offset of the sanctum and the rear offset of the gudhamandapa. It is roofed by a sukanāsa, has its own ceiling, and carries two niches in the inner walls. But the antarāla in the Jaina temples at Khajuraho, Gyaraspur, Osian etc. is in the form of a porch built in front of the sanctum.
The gūdhamandapa, which is a closed hall somewhat larger than the sanctum, is similar on plan
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śikhara
mandovara
Picha
mülaprāsada
antarala
sukanása
WAWA
güdhamandapa
Fig. 45. Elevation of Jaina Temple.
25
mukhamandapa
TETET
OSDOONOT
rangamandapa
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garbhagha
antarala
güdhamandapa
ਪ
114
mukhamandapa
rangamandapa
Fig. 46. Plan of Jaina Temple.
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and elevation to the sanctum, but it is generally entered by three doorways and has a bell or pyramidal roof. In the interior it usually shows an octagonal arrangement of eight columns carrying a domical ceiling on massive architraves put across them. The dome is formed by a set of diminishing circular courses and a pendant hanging down in the centre. The dome is strengthened by some bracket figures stretched across the courses. The four basal corners are generally filled with bold kirttimukhas. The doorframes of the gudhamandapa are comparatively more ornate. In some temples the interior walls have sculptured niches. The güdhamandapa in some early temples of Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, e.g. Pārsvanātha temple at Khajuraho, Maladevi temple at Gyaraspur, Mahävira temple at Osian etc., however, shows a square bay of four pillars in the interior, with a carved flat or shallow ceiling.
The mukhamandapa is a pillared portico built in front of the gudhamandapa of the Jaina temples of Gujarat and Rajasthan only. It rests on a pītha which is but an extension of that of the gūdhamandapa, and is sometimes enclosed on the two lateral sides by a short wall of vedika-kaksāsana to sit on (e.g. Lūņavasahi at Abu). The mukhamandapa has one or three stairways to land up from the front and is divided into three, six or nine bays by beautifully carved pillars. Each bay has a fine ceiling. There are two ornamental khattakas (niches) flanking the door of the gūdhamandapa
The rangamandapa, built on a lower floor level, is an open pillared hall covered by a large domical ceiling with beautiful bracket figures and a fine central pendant. Where there is an arrangement of devakulikas, the rangamandapa is attached to them by pillared porticoes. The rangamandapa is the chief attraction of Jaina temples of Gujarat and Rajasthan.
The devakulikas are small shrines with one or two arcade of pillars for circumambulation round the temple. They are laid out almost on the same floor level as that of the main temple-complex, and are approached from the courtyard and the rangamandapa by a flight
of three or four steps executed all around. They have their own doors and are dedicated to one or the other of the twenty-four Jinas. In front of each devakulikā is one or two bays with ceilings. Sometimes, the partition walls are not built between them (e.g. Neminatha temple at Kumbharia) and hence the pedestal supporting Jina images runs throughout. On the exterior they have offsetted walls and carry flat roof or Sikhara of their own.
The balanaka is an entrance mandapa either open or closed on the front, while the nālamandapa is an open hall built over a stairway that leads from the ground and opens up in the rangamandapa. The nalamandapa is enclosed by a vedika-kakşasana wall on the front and the rear. It is through nālamandapa that light admits to the interior of the rangamandapa. The nalamandapa is also a resting hall for the visitors.
The Jaina temples, particularly those of Gujarat and Rajasthan, are justly famous for their varieties of pillars and ceilings. The ceilings are available in so many shapes and sizes as to be hardly met with elsewhere in India. Therefore, a brief outline of pillars and ceilings is given here to comprehend them.
The pillars are square or octagonal in form and consist of pedestal, base, shaft and capital. The pedestal is not an essential member; its presence depends upon the need and choice of the architect. It is made of some
oulded courses. The shaft of the square pillars in early Jaina temples has ghatapallava base and top, with other ornate bands between, while that of the octagonal pillars is plain or decorated with varied ornaments. In either case the capital has plain or ribbed round abacus surmounted by atlantes of bhāraputrakas or roll-brackets. The octagonal pillars in later temples have an octagonal base of moulded courses, their shaft is octagonal below, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular above, the last one generally clasped by a band of grāsamukhas spewing festoons. The square pillars generally have their corners cut off; their base is square and moulded; the shaft is square, octagonal, sixteen-sided and circular
m
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chădya
BORTTITOLD
kapota antarapatta kalasa
antarapatta kapota
LAS
vedībandha
śirāvați
kumbha
THAKALHO
bharani
udgama
khura grāsapatti antarapatta karnika
cippika
TI
uparajangha
90
pitha
jädyakumbha
mancikā
bhitta
2001 ALLTID INTELIGENT
bharani
Fig. 48. Pītha and vedibandha of Adinātha Temple, Ahad.
udgama
narathara
talajangha
gajathara
mañcikä
antarapata gräsapatti chädyaki
-- antarapatta cippika karnikā
kapota
antarapatta kalasa
jädyakumbha
kumbha
dola
bhitta
T
khura
Fig. 47. Pītha of Neminātha Temple, Kumbharia.
Fig. 49. Mandovara of Jaina Temple.
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dhvajapatākā
bijapüraka
kalasa
AWW
amalaka T candrika I ämalaka
skandhacgrivat
mülaśmnga
CEED
urahśråga
rathika
śrnga
śrnga
WH
Fig. 50. Sikhara of Jaina Temple.
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in upward sequence, the last one and the capital are like those of the octagonal order. The various sections of the shaft in square order are carved with figural sculptures. The pilasters follow the pattern of the pillars. The architraves spanned across the columns are plain or decorated with two or three ornamental bands of scrolls, diamonds and figure sculptures. Attic pillars are also used to raise the height of the roof.
The ceilings are of various shapes and sizes. The simplest form is samatala (flat) with plain or ornate surface. In the second type they are made by cutting off the corners. Here also the triangular surfaces so formed in each course and the square central stone are plain or decorated with various ornaments. In the third variety the ceilings are formed by foiling the cusps, both in the receding and projecting order. In the receding order it is hollowed out and in the projecting order it looks like a pendant. By the combination and permutation of these many new types are formed. There is yet another variety which covers a larger space. The ceiling of this variety is like a dome formed by an octagonal, a sixteen-sided and many circular courses. The courses recede in as they go up and the small hole so formed on the top has been finally closed up by a stone having the shape of a pendant or scooped out with a foil. To reinforce the dome many bracket figures are employed across the courses. The bracket figures emerge from square blocks of carved stones inserted into one of the lower courses and tenoned into the upper course. The courses are generally decorated with figural, floral and geometrical patterns, but the most commonly used devices are gajatālu (coffer) and kola (cusp). It is with the combination of kola and gajatālu that all the big and small ceilings have been worked out. Each of the four basal corners of the dome contains a bold kirttimukha, elephant, Jaina divinity etc.
In the construction of stone temples the courses are laid dry one upon the other and kept in position by their weight and balance. The roof is worked out

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not by vertical arch of radiating voussoirs but by horizontal arch of diminishing courses. In the stone temples well-dressed and finely jointed ashlars have been used for the facing and rough-dressed stones for the hearting.
The Jaina temples have some individual features. The mukhamandapa, balāṇaka, nālamaṇḍapa and devakulikās are exclusively Jaina features and are found in the Jaina temples of Gujarat and Rajasthan only. The construction of a hastiśala with portrait figures of the donor and his family is a characteristic of the Vimalavasahi and Lūṇavasahi at Abu. Apart from the Jina images, the Jainas worship the Samavasaraṇa, Mt. Meru, Mt. Aṣṭāpada and Nandiśvaradvipa. No temple or a group of temples has so many varieties of ceilings as we find in Jaina temples of Abu.
The above enumerated features are more or less present throughout in the Jaina temples of North India with regional variations conditioned by local idioms and requirements. The history of Jaina temple architecture in North India begins with Jaina temples at Kundalpur built not earlier than the 8th century A.D. Stylistically, they follow the Gupta temples in having a square sanctum and an entrance porch covered with flat roof. In the next two centuries the regional features become fully established. This is exemplified, for instance, in the Jaina temples at Deogadh in U.P., Khajuraho (Pārsvanatha temple) and Gyaraspur in M.P., Osian and Ghanerav in Rajasthan, and Vadnagar in Gujarat. The style reaches its full maturity in the 11th century at Khajuraho, but in Gujarat and Rajasthan the consummation is noticed in the 12th-13th century A.D. when the Ajitanatha temple at Taranga (Gujarat) and the Lūnavasahi at Abu (Rajasthan), for example, were built. After this, decline starts in the temple style. This is clearly seen in the Mahavira temple at Kanthkot (Gujarat).
Now we proceed to describe the temples of different States.

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BIHAR
Jaina temples from about the 7th century A.D. to the 130 Bihar, which consisted of three old Janapadas of century A.D. have come down to us, probably they were Vrji, Anga and Magadha, was perhaps the most fertile destroyed during the course of Muslim inroads. land for Jainism since it had the grace of being the RAJGIR birth-place of three Tirthankaras, viz. Väsupujya Rajgir, ancient Rājagsha, lies to the south-east of (Campāpuri), Munisuvrata (Rājagļha) and Mahāvīra the capital town of Patna in Bihar. It is a holy Jaina (Kundagrāma), and the nirvāna-place of 22 Tīrthankaras, place since Munisuvrata, the 20th Tīrthankara, was born the exception being that of Adinatha (Astāpada) and here and Mahāvīra, the 24th Tīrthankara, spent many Neminātha (Girnar). Mahāvīra spent most of his time rainy seasons at Rajgir. It is also the name of a hill in Bihar and preached Jaina tenets to the people there. which consists of seven ranges of Vaibhāra, Vipula, During the age of the Nandas and Mauryas (4h-3rd Ratna, Chathā, Saila, Udaya and Sonā, each being century B.C.) Bihar became an important centre of adorned with a modern Jaina shrine. On the Vaibhāra Jainism as one of the Nanda kings took away a Jina we also encounter with an ancient Jaina temple which image from Kalinga, Candragupta Maurya turned a has been fully exposed and repaired. Jaina during the last days of his reign and migrated Jaina Temple - This old Jaina temple at Vaibhāra to South India alongwith Jainācārya Bhadrabāhu when consists of an east-facing central cylindrical chamber a dreadful famine occurred in Magadha, Asoka had and a surrounding court with a row of cells all around. liberal outlook towards Nirgranthas, and Samprati, the The central chamber and the cells have wall-niches to grandson of Asoka, was a devout Jaina. This is also contain images. Most of these images have gone now, supported by two Jaina caves excavated during this and of those that exist only the following are worth period at Rajgir and by two Jina images recovered from mentioning. Lohanipur, Dist. Patna. Colour to this is also lent by The niche in the central chamber contains a figure the fact that the First Jaina Council to compile Jaina of Jina seated in dhyanamudra. To the left of this image canons was convened at Pāțaliputra (Patna) after the is a figure of Rşabhanātha, also seated in dhyanamudra. end of the famine.
The image bears an inscription which belongs to the The history of Jainism in Bihar after the fall of the 8th century A.D. and records the pious gift of Mauryas to the rise of the Imperial Guptas is shrouded Vasantanandin. There is also a mutilated figure of in darkness. But soon afterwards we come across a Rşabhanātha with an inscription recording the pious gift hoard of 18 Jaina bronze images recovered from Chausa, of Thiroka. The cells round the central chamber contain Bhojpur district, and a Jaina temple at Rajgir. All these some loose images of Pārsvanātha, Mahāvīra and range in date from the 3rd century A.D. to the close of Sambhavanātha. Adjoining the east wall of the central the 6th century A.D. and bespeak of the prevalence of chamber, on a lower level, is a room containing images Jainism in Bihar. Hiuen Tsang also noted the presence of Neminātha and Mahāvīra, the latter also having an of Nirgranthas at Rajgir in the 7th century A.D. Jainism inscription of about the 5th century A.D. seems to be in a flourishing condition in Bihar down to The old Jaina temple at Vaibhāra hill is datable the close of the 13th century A.D. This is evident from to the 54-6h century A.D. This is corroborated not only a hoard of 29 Jaina bronzes (124h-13th century A.D.) by the inscriptions on the images but also by the recovered in A.D. 1974 from Aluara, Dhanbad district, statement of the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang (7th and many Jaina images now preserved in different century A.D.) that in his time naked ascetics museums and private collections. But it is a pity that no (Nirgranthas) frequented the place in great numbers.
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WEST BENGAL West Bengal came into contact with Jainism as early as the time of Mahāvīra as we learn from the Acārānga that when he travelled in Ladha (West Bengal), many natives attacked and abused him and made dogs run at him. This apparently shows that he was not favourably received there. In the 3rd century B.C. Godāsa, a disciple of Bhadrabāhu who was a contemporary of Candragupta Maurya, founded Godāsagana school which later on split into four branches three of which, viz. Tāmraliptika, Koțivarsiya and Pundravardhaniya, belonged to Bengal, the first associated with southern Bengal and the last two with northern Bengal. The presence of Jainism during the age of the Imperial Guptas is attested to by a copper plate inscription of A.D. 478-79 which was recovered during excavations at Pahärapura, Rajshahi district, Bangladesh. It records the endowment of lands for the maintenance of the Jaina monastery of Vata-Gohāli founded by Guhanandin of the Pancastūpa section of Kasi (Varanasi). Jainism was in a flourishing state in northern, southern and eastern Bengal in the 7h century A.D. This is explicitly known from the account of Hiuen Tsang that the Nirgranthas were very numerous in Pundravardhana and Samatata (south-east Bengal). From about the 8th century A.D. to the end of the 12th century A.D. Jainism seems to be in a waning condition in Bengal since we do not have reference to the Jainas and Jainism in the Pala and Sena inscriptions. But, surprisingly enough, most of the Jaina images and temples found at Harmashra, Bahulara, Kendua, Barkola, Paresanath, Ambikanagar, Chitgiri, Chiyada, Deulbhira, Gaukul, Dharapat etc. in Bankura district, Pakbira, Budhapur, Suisa, Palma, Balarampur, Chara, Sanka, Para, Senera, Jhalda, Deoli etc. in Purulia district, and Deuliya, Puchra etc. in Burdwan district belong to this period, although they are in a very mutilated condition and many Jaina temples have been converted even into Brahmanical shrines. During the latter part of the aforesaid period the naked Nirgranthas were probably assimilated in the Avadhūta
sect of Bengal and it was only after a few centuries that Jainism was revived in Bengal by the Jaina immigrants of western India, particularly Mewar and Bikaner, who came here to do business in the 17h-18th century A.D. and built Jaina temples, chiefly in white marble, at Berhampur, Azimganj and Kolkata. This is clearly evident from the temple style itself. While the early temples of Bengal are built in the Orissan style, those of the later period are executed in the western Indian style.
Architectural Features - The Jaina temples of Bengal do not have their independent style but follow the architectural traits of the Orissan temples. Therefore, in the description of Jaina temples of this region we have used the architectural terms that are currently prevalent in Orissa.
On plan the Jaina temples of Bengal consist of a sanctum (rekhädeul), an antarala and a mandapa (assembly hall) with or without a porch. Unfortunately, all the known Jaina temples of the region are survived only by their sanctum which is laid out on a triratha or pañcaratha plan. When triratha, the ratio of cardinal (rāhā) and corner (kanika or karna) offsets is usually 1.5 : 1, while the ratio of cardinal, corner and intermediary (anuratha) offsets in the pañcaratha sanctum is 3: 2:1. In elevation the sanctum is divided into four parts, viz. pista (plinth), bāda (vertical wall), gandi (curvilinear tower or sikhara) and mastaka (crowning members of the sikhara). While the mastaka is circular in section, the bāda and gandi are square. Further, the bāda is divided into three (pābhäga, jangha and varanda) or five (pābhāga, talajanghā, bāndhanā, uparajanghā and varanda) sections. The pābhāga consists of such mouldings as khura, kumbha and patā. The janghā is always plain, but each cardinal offset (rähāpaga) usually contains a sculptured niche resembling a miniature shrine. The corner offsets of the jangha occasionally carry tall and slender pilasters on their two planes. The bandhanä, a medial band between two janghās, consists of some thin mouldings. The varanda
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is of two types. In one variety it consists of two khurāsa kāņti. The śikhara is curvilinear and is crowned above with känti (recess) between, and in the other it has its beki by an amalaka and kalasa. The sanctum has khurā, pațā and känti. The sikhara in both the triratha a corbelled doorway and two ceilings, the garbhamuda and pañcaratha form is curvilinear with or without its put up immediately above the garbhagrha (sanctum) division into bhūmi-āmalakas. The curvature of the and the ratnamuda acting as a lid on the sikhara to śikhara, in some instances, is not emphatic in the lower support the crowning members. The enshrined image part, it rather rises almost perpendicularly with a in each shrine is missing. From the presence of many pronounced curve at the top. The mastaka above the pillars at the site it seems that there was a pillared flattened vedi (platform) shows beki (neck), a large mandapa in front of the sanctum. āmalaka and kalasa, the last one as well as the emblem The third stone temple faces east and is identical of the enshrined image in each shrine having disappeared on plan and elevation to the preceding stone temples, The sanctum is entered through a corbelled triangular but it is comparatively more dilapidated. passageway, occasionally lodged over by a sukanäsa The sanctum of the brick temple is pañcaratha on crowned by a lion figure.
plan and has a tryanga-bada surmounted by curvilinear The interior of the sanctum contains two ceilings - śikhara. The bāda has a moulded pābhāga, plain jarghā garbhamuda and ratnamuda. The garbhamuda is the and a two-coursed varanda with a recess between. The lowermost ceiling of the sanctuary, while the ratnamuda śikhara rises almost in a straight line and has a pronounced is the topmost ceiling supporting the crowning members curve towards the top. The crowning members of the of the Sikhara. Inside the sanctum is installed a Jina śikhara have gone. The temple is entered through a image which in most cases is missing.
corbelled doorway and faces east. There is no object of With this preliminary note we now proceed to worship inside. The bricks are all set in mud; the exterior describe the Jaina temples merely of the following sites and interior are plastered and plain. since they have some remains of the Jaina temples The stone temples were probably built in the 10h intact at the site.
century A.D., while the brick temple was built somewhat PAKBIRA
later, probably in the 11th century A.D. Pakbira, a small village in the Purulia district, has DEULIYA many Jaina temples and sculptures, but they are all very At Deuliya in Burdwan district is a deserted Jaina mutilated, some being merely a heap of mound. They temple made of bricks and plastered with stucco. Its were already in ruinous condition when Beglar saw sanctum, which alone has survived, is pañcaratha on them in 1872-73. At present, three stone temples and plan and shows a pancanga-bāda (five-divisioned wall) a large brick temple alone have survived
of pābhāga (now embedded in the earth), talajanghā, Of the three stone temples the two facing north narrow båndhana, uparajangha and varanda, all having are triratha on plan and elevation. Their pābhāga consists been left plain. The varanda is of special interest here of khurā, kumbha, two khurās clasped face to face, and as it consists of a series of oversailing square courses khurā (see J.D. Beglar, Archaeological Survey of India instead of the usual moulded courses, making thus a Report, vol. VIII, pl. xv). The janghā with faceted deep wide recess between the wall and the sikhara. The rathas is plain, but each of the central rathas has an ponderous sikhara is divided into several stages of emptied niche treated like miniature shrine. There is bhūmi-amalakas and bears an enrichment of scroll and a faceted and segmented pilaster between the central caitya-gavākṣa pattern. The crowning members of the and corner rathas. The varanda consists of a khurā and śikhara have tumbled down. The temple has a triangular
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door-opening on the front. On stylistic grounds the temple may be placed in the 10th century A.D.
From Deuliya has also been procured a miniature shrine which is now housed in the Asutosh Museum of Indian Art. It is a square block of stone with four Jina images on its four faces and a tiered śikhara crowned by a heavy amalaka. PARESANATH
At Paresanath in Bankura district is a temple of Pārsvanātha built of sandstone. Of the temple, only the plinth has survived. The enshrined image of Pārsvanātha, which was found intact on its plinth, is mutilated. The temple is assignable to the 10th 11th century A.D. AMBIKANAGAR
Ambikanagar, a village in the Bankura district, is situated on the confluence of the Kamisävati and the Kumari. The village seems to have been named after Ambikā (Jaina goddess) whose image is still being worshipped in the village temple as a Brahmanical goddess. In the village is a stone Jaina temple (Figs. 51- 52) of which the sanctum alone has survived. The sanctum is triratha on plan and has a tryanga-bāda (three-divisioned wall) consisting of pābhāga, janghā and varanda. The pābhāga, standing on a narrow flat course of kharaśilā, consists of khurā, kumbha, kānti and pațā, the last one adorned with heart-shaped foliages. The jangha is quite plain, but the basal and apical parts of its offsets are made up of khurā and patā, the latter being adorned with usual foliages. Besides, the jangha has a projecting sunken niche on each of its central offsets for harbouring images that do not exist now. The varanda, which separates the wall from the sikhara, consists of two khurās with a recess between. Of the śikhara, only five courses are intact. The sanctum is entered from the east through a corbelled doorway, Inside the sanctum at present is a Sivalinga which was installed during the later occupation of the temple by the Saivas. This is evident from an image of Rşabhanātha which was originally installed therein, but it now lies by the side of the Linga.
A water-chute to drain out oblation water of the enshrined image has been inserted in the third moulding of the plinth on the north side.
The above image of Rşabhanatha is robeless and stands in the kāyotsarga posture on a double-petalled lotus placed on a pedestal which carries his bull cognizance in the centre and a devotee and a crouching lion on either side. He wears a jatajuta locks of hair above the head) with curls falling down on the sides of the head and over the shoulders. He is accompanied on each side by an attendant and has a multi-tiered umbrella over his head, flanked by a hovering couple of Vidyadharas bearing garlands. Over the umbrella are two pairs of hands playing on cymbals. On the two edges of the slab are small figures of 24 kāyotsarga Jinas arranged one above the other in two rows of six pairs each. The rectangular slab is slightly rounded on the top. Behind the head of the principal image is a small plain halo with a branch of tree projecting from its either side. The back of the throne consists of two beaded posts supporting a cross-bar adorned with circular plaques. The image is of fine workmanship and its drooping eyelids and serene countenance show a perfect expression of spirituality.
The temple was probably built in the 11th century A.D. DEOLI
At Deoli, a village in the Purulia district, stands a ruined Jaina temple (Fig. 54) of the pañcāyatana variety. The temple was already in the ruinous condition when Beglar reported it in 1872-73 (Archaelogical Survey of India Report, edited by A. Cunningham, Vol. VIII, pp. 189-90) and the condition has further deteriorated since that time. The temple is built of coarse-grained sandstone and faces north. It was once a fine and large temple and had four subsidiary shrines at the four corners and a principal one in the centre, but at present only two subshrines located in the south-west and north-east corners and the central shrine stand there in dilapidated condition. The central shrine, according to Beglar, consisted of a
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O 2 + 6 8 10 12 14 26FEFT BADALA
Fig. 52. South-east view of Rsabhanātha Temple,
Ambikanagar.
Fig. 54. Plan of Santinātha Temple, Deoli.
Fig. 51. Plan of Rşabhanatha Temple, Ambikanagar.
Fig. 53. View of garbhagyha of Jaina Temple, Charra.
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sanctum, an antarala, a jagamohana (hall), an ardhamandapa and probably a portico, but the last three are now reduced to a heap of debris. What is discernible of the central shrine shows that its sanctum is pañcaratha on plan and has three-divisioned wall comprising of pābhāga, jangha and varanda. The pābhāga consists of a square plain moulding; the janghā is severely plain except for an emptied niche on the central offset; and the varanda consists of a khurā, patā and kāņti. The sikhara is convex in profile and is shorn of its crowning members. The garbhamuda of the sanctum is intact but the ratnamuda is missing. The antarāla connecting the sanctum on the one side and the jagamohana on the other is covered by a corbelled vault. The temple was dedicated to Sāntinātha whose image with his deer cognizance had actually been noticed by Beglar.
The two corner shrines are each pañcaratha on plan and has a three-divisioned plain wall. The sikhara is tall and curvilinear and is crowned by an amalaka, now damaged.
Stylistically, the temple is datable to the 11th century A.D. CHARA
At Chara in Purulia district stood, according to the local tradition, many Jaina temples the sanctum (Fig. 53) of one of which may still be seen there. About 21 ft. high and facing east the sanctum in stone is triratha on plan and has a tryanga-bada of pabhäga, janghā and varanda. The päbhāga consists of three mouldings of khurā, kumbha and khurā, the janghā is plain, and the varanda consists of two khuras with a recess between. The sikhara is tall and curvilinear and is divided into six stages of bhūmi-āmalakas. Of the crowning members of the Sikhara, only the grīvā and āmalaka are intact. Stylistically, the temple bears close resemblance to the Sāntinātha temple at Deoli and hence datable to the 11th century A.D. HARMASHRA
Harmashra, a village in the Bankura district, has a Jaina temple built of laterite and facing east. It
consists of a sanctum and a porch, the latter having gone but for its foundation. The sanctum rising to a height of 21 ft. 6 inches is identical on plan and elevation to that at Chara, but its varanda consists of khurā, pață and känti, the sikhara is not marked by bhūmi-āmalakas, and it has a corbelled passageway. Besides, the sanctum has been rendered a pañcaratha appearance by producing sub-rathas on two sides of the central offset. The temple was probably built in the 11th century A.D. DEULBHIRA
Deulbhira, a village in the Bankura district, has a sanctum of mutilated Jaina temple, built of laterite and facing east. On plan it is triratha, but a pañcaratha effect has been produced by introducing sub-rathas on two sides of the central offset. The edges of the cardinal and corner offsets are indented. The bada is tri-anga showing a square dado in the pābhāga, a plain jangha with an emptied niche on the central offset, and a threecoursed varanda of khură, pată and känti. The Sikhara is curvilinear and is not marked by bhūmi-amalakas. The crowning members of the sikhara above the grivä have disappeared. On the front side of the sanctum is a corbelled passageway below and a two-tiered gablesukanāsa surmounted by a lion above. The temple was probably built in the 11th century A.D.
UTTAR PRADESH After Bihar it is Uttar Pradesh which seems to be most sacred for the Jainas as 18 of the 24 Tirthankaras such as Rşabhanātha, Neminātha, Pärśvanātha etc. were born in this State at the following 11 places - Ayodhyā, Srāvasti, Kausämbi, Vārāṇasī, Candrapura, Bhadrapura, Simhapura, Kāmpilya, Ratnapura, Hastinapura and Saurīpura. Tirthankara Mahāvīra had also stayed at some of these places during his preaching tour. Historically, however, the antiquity of Jainism in U.P. goes to the time of Pārsvanātha (8th century B.C.) when an old Jaina stupa was repaired at Mathura. In Vīra era 840 (A.D. 313) a Jaina Council to compile Jaina canons was convened at Mathura as well. But the
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archaeological materials available at the Jaina stūpa-site of Kankāli Țīlā, Mathura, are assignable not earlier than the 2nd century B.C. From this time onward Mathura became an important centre of Jainism and it enjoyed that position down to the time of Akbar (A.D. 1556- 1605) since Rājamalla writes in his Jambūsvāmicarita that there were 515 stūpas at Mathura. Jainism also grew in other parts of the State from about the 5th century A.D. to the 12th century A.D. as evident from a large number of Jaina images recovered from many places and now preserved in the museums of Allahabad, Lucknow, Sarnath and Bharata Kala Bhawan (B.H.U.). That Jainism was in flourishing state is also demonstrated by a Jaina temple at Banpur and by a group of Jaina temples at Deogadh. But, except for these, no other site in the State has Jaina temples of the period under reference, probably they were ruthlessly plundered and destroyed by the Muslim iconoclasts, for the plains of North India were worst-hit by the Muslim attacks. DEOGADH
Deogadh, a small village on the right bank of the Betwa, is situated in the Lalitpur district of Uttar Pradesh. It is only seven miles south-west of Jakhlaun on the Bhopal Jhansi Railway line. To the east of the village is a hilly fort with a group of thirty-one Jaina temples that have undergone repairs from time to time. In the restoration work the old materials have been reused, and consequently one may come across both the old and new materials in a temple. They are built of locally available reddish sandstone and mostly date from the 8th century A.D. to the 12th century A.D. All these Jaina temples belong to the Digambara Jaina sect. Below is given a brief account of these temples.
Temple 1 - Originally, it probably was an open mandapa with twenty pillars bearing the flat roof, but now it has only eight ghatapallava pillars in two rows of four each. The mandapa rests on a high platform of well-dressed stones and houses some carved slabs.
Temple 2 - It originally seems to have consisted of a small sanctum and an open mandapa with sixteen
pillars arranged in four lines of four each, but now the mandapa has been closed on the outer sides by dressed stones, and a screen wall with aperture is built in the second row of pillars from the rear side, dividing thus the entire space into a front verandah and a rear mandapa. The pillars of the front row have gone. The doorway of the sanctum is plain. There is a four-pillared pavilion of the medieval period on the roof.
Temple 3 - This north-facing temple is a double shrine with two rectangular sancta, two closed halls and a common verandah. The temple stands on a low platform and has thirty-five pillars arranged in five rows of seven each. The different chambers are formed by solid walls put up between the pillars. The doorways are plain. The temple consisted of two storeys, but its upper storeys have disappeared.
Temple 4 - This south-facing temple stands on a low pitha and consists of a square closed hall and a porch, with a pavilion above. The hall has four pillars in the nave and twelve pilasters on the periphery. The doorway is ornate but damaged. The porch is restored and its two pillars bear inscriptions of A.D. 1150 and A.D. 1167 respectively.
Temple 5 - This is a four-faced shrine housing a Sahasrakūta panel under a restored curvilinear tower. The temple is laid out in the centre of a low platform, leaving an open space for circumambulation. It has a moulded pitha of bhitta, jādyakumbha, karņikā, kumuda and a plain pattikā. The catuśśākhā doorframe on east and west is very ornamental, the eastern one also bearing an inscription of A.D. 1063. The other two are sham doorways.
Temple 6 - This is a small temple with no architectural merit. It consists of a square sanctum roofed by a sikhara, and a porch with two pillars and two pilasters carrying a flat roof. The doorway is plain.
Temple 7 - This is a four-pillared open pavilion built on a platform and housing slabs of caraṇapādukās, two of which are dated in A.D. 1636 and 1638. In the ceiling is shown a full-blown lotus with four rows of
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petals. The pavilion is a modern erection from old materials.
Temple 8 - This oblong structure facing east consists of three rooms with a common verandah supported by four pillars. Each room has a plain doorway. In the interior are housed many sculptures.
Temple 9 - It consists of a small sanctum and a mandapa and faces east. The sanctum has an ornate doorway with fine figures of Gangā and Yamunā. Inside are now kept twelve stone slabs carved with various sculptures. The mandapa, the front portion of which has disappeared, has now been converted into a verandah with two pillars keeping intact the two side walls.
Temple 10 - This is a four-pillared open pavilion built on a low platform and housing three four-faced pillars, each bearing figures of Jinas, monks, nuns and lay-followers.
Temple 11 - Like Temple 3, this temple is also a two-storeyed structure with the upper storey being fully intact. The lower storey consists of a small cella, a pillared mandapa and a verandah. It stands on a moulded pitha made up of bhitta, jādyakumbha, kumuda, antarapatta and grâsapatti. The walls are flat and carry vertical decorative bands on the two-third upper part. Inside, the verandah shows a row of four ghatapallava pillars, the mandapa displays four pillars in the nave and twelve pilasters on the periphery, and the cella with plain doorway now houses three Jina images, one of which bears a date of A.D. 1048. The doorframe of the mandapa is richly carved. The temple faces north.
The upper storey, which is landed up from the lower one by a flight of steps built in the north-east corner of the mandapa, is identical in plan and disposition to the lower storey, but its verandah on the two lateral sides is enclosed by a short wall of vedikā, āsanapatta and kaksāsana with crude decorations on the outer faces. The roof is flat. The cella has five Jina images one of which is made of white marble.
Temple 12 - This west-facing temple (Fig. 55; Pl. 18) is the largest Jaina structure at Deogadh. It is
rectangular on plan and consists of a sanctum and a walled vestibule, the whole enclosed by a covered ambulatory and screen wall with entrance doorways on all the four sides. Outside this, on the front, is a pillared assembly hall built during recent years from the old materials. In the east corner of this hall are two old pillars which originally formed part of the entrance porch.
The adhisthāna of the outer enclosing walls, the lower portion of which has been concealed by subsequent flooring, is composed of kumbha, minor kapota, pattikā decorated with scrolls, broad antarapatta adorned with grooved half diamonds, and kapota decorated with caityagavākṣa pattern. Above the kapota is a course of alternate plain blocks and roughly moulded kumbhakas (vases) supporting latticed windows and square pillars of the jangha-wall respectively. Each window rests on a blind balustrade decorated with diamonds in niches and canopied by kapota, is inset with a sculptured niche, surmounted by tall udgama-pediment, between vertical trellis of perforated squares of wavy line, and is capped by a kapota underlined with two rows of small rafter ends in alternate set-up. The trellis are surmounted by beaded garland loops and buds. The niches contain inscribed images of Jaina Yakşas, often with their respective Jinas. The wall pillars have ghatapallava base and capital, ornamented shaft depicting gräsamukhas or half lotuses with suspended bells and ribbons, and palmette brackets. Above the kapota-and-bracket course of the janghā may be seen a string of big rafter ends adorned with various ornaments, a kapota, a recessed course with smaller rafter ends, and a corrugated eavecornice bearing saw-tooth pattern on the front face. Above the cornice is a broad recess decorated with a stripe of grooved half diamonds between two rows of floral half diamonds, and then follow a ribbed awning and a plain parapet.
The sanctum is tri-anga with solid walls and has simple moulded basement and plain wall. The enclosing screen wall has triśākhã doorframes opposite the cardinal offsets of the sanctum. The ceilings of the sanctum and
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the ambulatory are flat and uncarved. The pañcaratha śikhara of the sanctum, as it looks from outside, rises above the terrace from a moulded base consisting of a pattikā decorated with garland loops and buds, a string of ornate rafter ends between two kapotas, and a recessed course with a string of smaller rafter ends. The central and flanking offsets of the sikhara are enmeshed with caitya-gavāksa pattern, while the corner offsets are marked by nine bhūmi-āmalakas, each consisting of two-tiered kapota with addorsed caitya-gavākşa, spirelet and kapota. The crowning members of the sikhara above the amalaka are modern restoration. The sikhara shows elegant proportion and pleasing curvature
The sukanāsa, which rises to the fifth bhūmi of the sikhara, is very massive and elaborate. It consists of two storeys and a gable of three diminishing stages, crowned by a circular gaväksa containing a figure of seated Jina. The two storeys are each marked on the sides by a stage of bhūmi-āmalaka. In the central part of the lower storey is an open window flanked on each side by a pair of standing Jinas. The window is surmounted on the upper storey by a tall udgama- pediment, while the Jinas are canopied by niched pediments containing diamonds.
The garbhagrha doorway (Pls. 19-20) is very ornate. It consists of seven jambs decorated with diamonds, flowers (bakula), apsarases, mithunas, apsarases, rampant vyālas and creepers respectively. On the lower part of the jambs stand some beautiful female figures, now sadly damaged. The lintel continues the decoration of two inner jambs, but above that it has four friezes of which the lowermost displays Vidyādharas, the second Navagrahas, the third alternate standing and seated Jinas (the prominent among these being Adinātha and Ajitanatha, who appear on the upper and lower lalātas), and the uppermost the sixteen objects seen in dream by the Jina mother at the time of conception. At the terminal ends of the lintel are four seated goddesses one of which is identified with Cakreśvari and another with Sarasvati. The doorsill has
a mandāraka flanked on each side by a group of dancers and musicians, lion attacking an elephant and a seated goddess. As apparent from an inscription, the doorway has been added in A.D. 994, replacing of course the original old one.
T he temple is dedicated to Santinātha whose standing colossal image (17 ft. 3 inches high) is installed in the sanctum.
On stylistic grounds and on the basis of the palaeography of the short labels on the images, the temple is placed in the end of the gth century A.D.
Temple 13 - This is a small structure adjacent to the north wall of the mandapa of Temple 12. It consists of an east-west oblong hall with an entrance on the north and a sanctum on the shorter west side, both containing sculptures of seated and standing Jinas.
Temple 14 - This west-facing temple consists of an oblong north-south sanctum with two doorways and a verandah with a row of six pillars. Inside the sanctum are some Jina images. Its south-east portion is attached to the back wall of Temple 13 and the western end to the north wall of the mandapa of Temple 12.
Temple 15 - This west-facing temple is perhaps the oldest structure at the site. It is dvi-anga on plan consisting of bhadra and karna (Fig. 56), and has three shrines on three sides of a common square assembly hall entered through a rectangular porch from the west. The three shrines, of which the central shrine (eastern) is slightly smaller than those on the north and south, are walled at the back with shallow niches on the bhadras of their outside faces. The roof of each shrine is lost and the wall rebuilt, but it almost still retains its original form.
The temple does not stand on a moulded pitha but on a vedibandha which consists above the bhitta of a khura, kumbha, kalaša, kapota decorated with caitya-gavākṣas, and a plain pattika. The jangha-wall is plain but for shallow sculptured niches surmounted by tall udgama-pediments on two faces of the karņas and on the lateral sides of the entrance porch. The janghā is topped by a decorative band which has survived
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Fig. 55. Plan of Jaina Temple No. 12, Deogadh.
Fig. 56. Plan of Jaina Temple No. 15, Deogadh.

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at some places only. The whole of the upper part, including the overhanging cornice, short parapet and the chatri-pavilion on the roof, is modern. The three largesized outside shallow niches, which at once remind us of similar ones found in the Daśavatāra temple there, have each a triśākhā doorframe with Ganga-Yamunā figures at the base. Each niche contains images of a seated Jina between two standing ones.
The entrance porch shows two widely-spaced pillars and two pilasters in the front and four pilasters aligned with them at the back. They are all of the square order and are well-carved. Their moulded base is composed of khura, kumbha, kalasa and patřikā, and carries sculptured niches on the four faces; the fluted shaft, with suspended bells in alternate flutes, rests on gorgeous ghatapallava and is also surmounted by a fine ghatapallava capital bearing palmette-brackets.
The doorway of the assembly hall consists of four jambs of patra, nāga, rupa and padma adorned with scrolls, snakes in thin band, Jinas and lotus petals in bevelled surround respectively. The door-lintel continues the decorative bands of all the four jambs and has a seated Jina on the lalāța. The lower part of the doorjambs is occupied by standing images of Ganga and Yamunā with attendant figures. The doorsill shows a semicircular projection carved with lotus scrolls in the centre, a grasamukha or mithuna on each side of it, and a gladiator fighting a lion on either extremity.
The interior of the assembly hall shows four pillars in the square central nave and twelve pilasters on the periphery, all of the square variety. The base of the pillars is similar to that of the porch but shows a caitya- gavāksa ornament instead of the sculptured niche; the shaft is plain below and carries decorations of grāsamukha or half lotus, ghatapallava, fluted vase and a square block with foliate swirls above; and the capital has two cushion-shaped square āmalakas surmounted by roll-brackets. The pilasters are similar to the pillars, but the shaft shows lotus medallions with a short octagonal section.
The doorframes of the three inner shrines are plain and simple. In the east shrine is installed an excellent image of Jina seated on a lion throne; he is canopied overhead by a three-tiered parasol and caitya-tree flanked on each side by a couple of Mālädharas and a lustrating elephant. The image is framed between two ornate square pilasters with a cauri-bearer on each side and a makara-torana joining them above.
On stylistic grounds the temple is placed in the third quarter of the gih century A.D.
Temple 16 - This west-facing temple consists of an oblong mandapa and an entrance porch with a pavilion above. The mandapa shows a row of four pillars in the middle and fourteen pilasters on the periphery. The doorway is ornate. Inside the mandapa are eight seated and sixteen standing images of Jinas and a sculpture of goddess Ambikā.
Temple 17 - This temple with westerly orientation consists of a square mandapa and a verandah with four pillars. The mandapa has four pillars in the nave and twelve pilasters on the periphery. The doorframe is plain. It contains twenty-two standing and seated Jina figures.
Temple 18 – This south-facing temple consists of a small sanctum, mandapa, verandah, and later built low terrace with two free-standing carved pillars. The temple stands on a moulded pītha; its walls are flat and plain; and there is a sikhara over the sanctum and a flat roof on the mandapa.
The verandah has a row of four ghatapallava pillars and seven Jina images. The door of the mandapa is very ornate. The mandapa has four pillars in the nave and twelve pilasters on the periphery; there are eleven seated and eight standing Jina sculptures. The doorway of the sanctum is low but ornate and bears fine figures of Ganga and Yamunā. Inside the sanctum is installed a large image of standing Jina.
Temple 19 - It consists of an oblong mandapa and a verandah and faces south, both standing on a very low pitha. The flat roof of the verandah rests on
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four pillars and four pilasters. The mandapa has undecorated flat wall and a pavilion on its flat roof. The doorway of the mandapa is ornate and bears figures of Gangā, Yamunā, Jinas, Bahubali and Bharata. Inside, it shows four pillars in the nave and twelve pilasters on the periphery. At the rear wall of the mandapa is a long carved pedestal supporting a seated Jina in the middle and double-Jina images on either side.
Temple 20 - This south-facing temple originally consisted of a sanctum and a square mandapa, both having a plain wall and flat roof. The mandapa is entered through an ornate doorway bearing figures of Jinas, Ganga-Yamunā etc. In the interior it shows four pillars in the nave and twelve pilasters on the periphery; there are fourteen standing and thirteen seated images of Jinas. The doorframe of the sanctum is sparsely decorated. Inside the sanctum are three seated and two standing Jina figures.
Temple 21 - It consists of a central mandapa and two rooms facing each other on its two sides. There is a mutilated, standing Jina figure in the mandapa, one seated and seven standing Jinas in the west room and eight images in the east one.
Temple 22 - This south-facing temple consists of a sanctum and a porch with two pillars and two pilasters. The wall has carved pilasters. There is a modern cupola over the sanctum. The doorway is sparsely carved. Inside are three seated Jina figures.
Temple 23 - This south-facing temple has a sanctum with modern cupola above and a porch in the front, both standing on a raised platform. The doorway of the sanctum is decorated. Inside are three standing and one seated Jina figures, besides a sculpture of Ambikā.
Temple 24 - This flat-roofed temple consists of a sanctum and a porch and faces south. The doorway of the sanctum is ornate bearing figures of Jinas, Gangā- Yamunā and other decorations. Inside are three images of seated Jinas, one of standing Jina and a panel depicting Yakșa Dharanendra and Yaksi Padmavati.
Temple 25 - It consists of a sanctum and a porch and faces east. The sanctum is roofed by a śikhara; its doorframe is plain. Inside are two seated and three standing Jina figures.
Temple 26 - This east-facing temple has an oblong mandapa with two pillars and ten pilasters and is preceded by a verandah with two pillars and side walls. The doorway of the mandapa is sparsely decorated and carries a figure of Supārsvanātha on the lalāta. Inside the mandapa are some fine images. One of these is of Yaksa Dharanendra; another is identifiable with Yakși Padmavati.
T emple 27 - This east-facing temple consists of a sanctum with pyramidal sikhara of later date and a closed mandapa. The doorway of the mandapa is carved. on the door-lintel is a seated image of Neminätha occupying the central space, Pārsvanātha and Supärávanātha appearing on the two flanks. Inside the sanctum is a Jina-cauvisi panel.
Temple 28 - This temple consists of a pañcaratha sanctum, an antarala and an entrance porch and faces south. The sanctum being rectangular on plan the rathaoffsets are asymmetrical. The low pitha, perpendicular wall and the pañcaratha sikhara with amalaka are unadorned, but the sukanāsa lodged over the antarāla harbours on its front facade a seated Jina flanked on either side by a standing one. The pañcaśākhā entrance door is very ornate, but that of the sanctum is simple. Inside the sanctum, the floor of which is lower than that of the antarala, are five images of standing Jinas and two of sitting Jinas.
Temple 29 - This temple with westerly orientation consists of a single cella housing a slab of Jina-cauvisi dated A.D. 1144.
Temple 30 - This west-facing temple consists of a mandapa with two pillars and ten pilasters, and a verandah with four pillars the intercolumniation between the central pillars of which is greater than that in the side ones. The entrance door is carved; the lintel carries the Jina figures. Inside are twelve stone slabs without Jina
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Fig. 57. Plan of Jaina Temple, Banpur.

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figures, besides a figure of Jina mother lying on cot.
Temple 31 - This south-facing temple is a small structure with sanctum and verandah. The pañcaśäkhã doorframe of the sanctum is very ornamental and bears figures of Ganga-Yamună on the lower section of the jambs and a figure of Neminātha on the laläta. Inside is a large image of Neminátha seated in meditative posture
Mānastambha - The Mānastambhas (Pl. 21), also called Kirttistambhas (pillar of glory), are the free- standing ornamental pillars installed on a pedestal in the front or the side of the temple. There are in all nineteen Mänastambhas at Deogadh. They range in height from about 5 ft. to 16 ft. Their basal part is square bearing figures of Jaina gods and goddesses on the four faces. The shaft is square, faceted, fluted or circular, often decorated with chain-and-bells that issue from the mouth of the kirttimukhas. They are rarely clasped by decorative bands. The four faces of the square shaft of some pillars are carved with a series of small Jina figures in horizontal row. At the top of the pillar is a four-faced block of stone which generally carries Jina figures on the three faces and a figure of Jaina Ācārya on the fourth. Three of these pillars bear inscriptions of A.D. 1051, 1059 and 1072 respectively. BANPUR
Banpur is situated twenty miles east of the district headquarters of Lalitpur in Uttar Pradesh. It has a four- faced (Sarvatobhadra) Jaina temple consisting of a square sanctum and four rectangular entrance porches (Fig. 57), one on each side. The garbhagrha is dvi-anga on plan consisting of bhadra and karna, the former having the doorway and the latter the solid wall. The temple stands on a low jagati.
The sanctum rises direct from a vedibandha which is made up of a jadyakumbha decorated with lotus leaves, khura, kumbha, kalasa, antarapata, kapota adorned with caitya-gavākşas, and a pattikā. The janghā on four karnas carries handsome figures of four-armed Dikpālas, two appearing on each karņa. Each Dikpāla stands on a projected console and is canopied overhead
by a ribbed awning and a tall udgama-pediment. The varandikă above the janghă shows a patřikā decorated with interlacing garlands, a kapota, chadyaki, a stripe of rafter ends adorned with floral design, and kapota. The triratha śikhara is of the anekāndaka class, covered with a lattice of caitya-gaväksas. The sikhara is divided into twelve stages of bhūmi-amalakas of which only four are intact, the rest including even the large amalaka at the top are arbitrarily restored during later times. On the lower part of the sikhara, on each of the four faces, is a triratha Sukanāsa crowned by a series of prominent caitya-gavākṣas. On the central facet of the sukanāsa is a sunken niche containing a figure of seated Jina flanked by attendant figures, while the side ones harbour seated or standing divine-figures.
Each of the four doorways of the sanctum consists of three ornamented jambs, the first showing a serpentine body with adoring nāga bust, the second adorned with scrolls, and the third treated as square pilaster. On the lower section of the jambs stand the river-goddesses, Gangã on proper right and Yamunā on proper left. The door-lintel depicts a large seated Jina on the lalāta, flanked on each side by an elephant and a Yakşi. Above the lintel is a sculptural panel showing a smaller seated Jina flanked by either the Navagrahas or Vidyadharacouples. The doorsill has an ornate mandäraka in the centre, an Udadhikumära on each side of it and a lion attacking an elephant on either end.
Inside the sanctum is enshrined an impressive multi-storeyed Sahasrakūta bearing 1008 figures of Jinas with Rşabhanātha as mulanāyaka.
Each porch consists of two pillars and two pilasters, supporting a flat roof rebuilt in later times. The pillars have a moulded base above the padma-pedestal of inverted cyma recta carved with lotus leaves; their octagonal shaft, with a ghatapallava below and above, is adorned on each cardinal facet with a long chainand-bell issuing from the mouth of a grāsa; and the capital consists of a square abacus surmounted by fourarmed curved brackets. The pilasters are similar to the
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pillars, but their square shaft has recessed corners, bears a vertical band of creepers emerging from grāsamukha on each facet, and Indra and Upendra as door-guardians on the lower section of the front facet.
Stylistically, this temple is assignable to the early 10th century A.D.
MADHYA PRADESH Madhya Pradesh as its name itself suggests is the heart land of India, and till November 2000 it was surrounded on all sides by the bordering States of the Indian territory. Owing to its precarious situation thus it had to always bear the brunt of various alien powers, but the cultural activity went on without any hindrance in every field of art and letters. This is also true of Jaina art as we learn from the Jaina works like the Vasudevahindi (5th century A.D.), Avaśyakacürni and Niśithacūrni (7th century A.D.) that a sandalwood image of Jivantasvämî (probably a portrait-image of Mahāvīra before renunciation as it stands in meditation wearing a crown and other ornaments) was carried away by king Pradyota of Avanti (Ujjain) from Vītabhayapattana in Sindhu-Sauvīra region after depositing its exact wooden copy there and installed it at Vidisha for worship. The wooden image too, according to Hemacandra, was brought to Anahillapātaka and installed in a new shrine by king Kumārapāla in the 12th century A.D. But the archaeological testimony available at the moment only takes us to the time of the Imperial Guptas. This is evident from three Jina images of the time of Rāmagupta (c. A.D. 370) and a Jaina cave of the time of Kumāragupta (A.D. 425 ), the former found at Durjanpur and the latter excavated in the Udayagiri hill, both located in the Vidisha district of Madhya Pradesh. Although a Jaina temple of the Gupta period is still a desideratum in Madhya Pradesh, we have a group of Jaina shrines at Kundalpur which continue the architectural tradition of the early Gupta temples, but they are not datable prior to the 8th century A.D. During the 9th-10h century A.D. when the region was governed by the Pratīhäras of Kannauj, Jainism, according to the
Jaina Prabandhas, enjoyed the royal patronage of king Ama who is identified with Pratihāra Nāgabhata II (died in A.D. 883). The presence of Jainism during this period is also proved by two Jaina temples standing at Pithaora and Gyaraspur. From A.D. 1000 to 1300 Madhya Pradesh was ruled by four powerful dynasties of the Candellas in the north, Kacchapaghātas in the middle, Kalacuris in the east, and the Paramāras in the south and west. Although the rulers of these dynasties were votaries of Brahmanism, they had liberal attitude towards Jainism since an influential section of the population of their respective kingdoms consisting of merchants, bankers and officials was Jaina. This is also evident from the existence of some beautiful temples at Khajuraho and Un. KUNDALPUR
Kundalpur, Damoh district (M.P.), has been so named because there is a low hill of the form of a kundala (earring). On the hill is a group of about 50 Jaina temples, while in the valley is a shrine of Mahāvīra called Bare Bābā since it has a large image of Mahävīra. Most of these Jaina temples are modern erections, but some are built in the style of the early Gupta temples consisting thus on plan of a square sanctum and an entrance porch, both having a low moulded plinth, flat and plain wall, and flat roof. The roof of the porch rests on two heavy square pillars that have ghatapallava base, plain shaft and curved bracket-capital. Their doorframes are also plain. Stylistically, these temples are datable to a period not earlier than the 8th century A.D. PITHAORA
At Pithaora, Satna district (M.P.), is a small Jaina shrine known as Patian Dai, built of plain ashlars. The temple is in ruinous condition, its sanctum alone having survived. It stands on a very low plinth; its uncarved flat walls are having two fillet-type mouldings, one in the middle and the other at the top; and its roof is flat with short cornice. The doorframe of the sanctum, which bears carvings, is of the trisakha variety. The
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inner jamb is plain. The middle jamb is in the form of stambhaśäkha carved with stencilled scrolls and flanked on each side by a band of bakula flowers. The outer jamb is treated as padma incised with lotus petals. On the lower part of jambs is a beautiful three-flexured standing figure of river-goddess Gangā on proper right and Yamunā on proper left, each accompanied on the outer side by a dvārapāla holding club and serpent. The doorsill depicts a full-blown half-lotus in the centre and a figure of dwarf on either end. The door-lintel continues the decorative bands of the sakhās, but they are interrupted by three niched figures of seated Jinas, one in the middle and one on each side. The overdoor is ornate as it carries three decorative bands of scroll, saw- tooth pattern, and carved diamonds alternating with beads.
The temple of Patian Dai once had an elaborately carved image of the Jaina goddess Ambikā which is now housed in the Allahabad Museum. The goddess having all of her four arms broken off stands on a pañcaratha carved pedestal. She wears rich jewellry and a karanda-mukuta and has a halo of stellate lotus flower. Above her head was carved the foliages of a mango tree which are now gone. She has two youths as attendant figures. Below the feet of the attendants are two devotees flanked by four standing goddesses, two having been labelled as Prajñapti and Vajraśțnkhalā. Below these goddesses are tiny figures of Astagrahas. The accompanying pilasters and the lintel depict other Jaina goddesses, all labelled. The top of the stele represents a seated figure of Neminātha in the centre and a seated and a standing Jina on each side. The sculpture has been assigned to the 11th century A.D. (Pramod Chandra, Stone Sculptures in the Allahabad Museum, Poona, 1971, p. 162, No. 470).
The temple is datable to c. A.D. 900. GYARASPUR
Gyaraspur is situated twenty-four miles north-east of the district town of Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. It is a picturesque site with a Jaina temple standing on
the slope of a hill and going by the name of Mälädevi. The temple-site seems to have some association with a Jaina saint who possibly lived there and performed penances, and it was on account of this that a Jaina temple was erected there to make it a sanctified place. The temple is partly rock-cut and partly structural and stands on a large terrace cut out of the hill side. In fact, it has been carefully nestled against a natural crevice and its north-western rock-cut portions adjusted to the structural parts. This east-facing temple is built of sandstone and is in a dilapidated condition.
The temple (Fig. 58; Pls. 22-23) is a sāndhara rectangular structure consisting of sanctum with an inner ambulatory, antaräla and a mandapa, the whole enclosed by a common solid wall with an entrance porch on the shorter east side. Internally, the solid running wall is straight and uncarved. Externally, its sides have been indented into large projections alternating with smaller ones, separated by narrow recesses. There are thus three large and three small projections on the south face, two small ones on the east, and only a small projection on the west and two big and two small projections on the north due to the presence of natural ledge; each projection is broken into five planes. The larger projections have each a balconied window on the jangha-wall and a niche on the basement, while each of the smaller projections carries two niches, one on the wall and the other on the basement at the same level as that below the balcony. But the niches in the north-west corner of the sanctum were never built as the wall is here consisted of the rocky ledge of the hill. The balconied windows are fitted with stone grilles that admit only faint light into the interior.
The exterior wall of the sanctum is dvi-anga consisting of bhadra and karņa, each broken into five planes. The basement above the terrace consists of khura, tall kumbha, kalasa and kapota. The kalasa is replaced by tulāpītha (a string of rafter ends) on the bhadras, decorated with floriated vyālas and kirttimukhas. The kapota shows adornments of caitya-gavākṣas on the
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upper section and two minor tulāpīthas underneath, the shows a śukanāsa which has lost its crowning figure lower decorated with lotus buds. The basement niches, of lion. The roofs alongwith internal ceilings of the which are taller on the larger projections, are each antarala, mandapa and entrance porch have all badly capped by a three-tiered pediment of caitya-gavākşas damaged, but from what has survived it appears that and are mostly empty now, but from the fragmentary they were composed of a series of horizontal tiers remains of images in some niches it appears that they adorned with caitya-gavākşas alternating with recessed originally had the multi-armed figures of Jaina goddesses. courses decorated with diamonds. The front roof between The wall niches occurring on the smaller projections the two eastern balcony-projections shows on proper are each crowned by a tall pediment decorated with right a niche containing a figure of eight-armed a lattice of caitya-gaväksas. These niches and the recesses Cakreśvari with two female attendants, flanked by two carry multi-armed figures of Jaina Yakşas and Yaksis more niches harbouring seated Jina and Ambikā identifiable with Dharanendra, Padmavati etc. The respectively. The roof on the corresponding left side balconied windows of the wall, which are almost has an exact replica of what we have just noticed. decorative, consists of a blind balustrade (vedikā or The entrance porch is rectangular on plan consisting rājasenaka), projected broad band, asanapatta and of four ornate pillars supporting a ceiling decorated with kakṣāsana. The balustrade is decorated with two rows an oval-shaped quatrefoil kola with a circular one at of framed niches alternating with recesses relieved with the centre (Pl. 24). All the four pillars are alike and chequer pattern. The projected band is adorned with stand on a square moulded base with a male or female foliate scrolls and has two tiny tulāpīthas underneath, figure in a niche on each face, represented as dancing, the lower adorned with lotus buds. The asanapatta is or carrying musical instruments or umbrella. The shaft decorated with scrolls and surmounted by a frieze of is square below and above showing a pot-and-foliage lotus petals. The kaksäsana shows vertical stripes of in high relief, while its middle tall section displays lotus scrolls alternated by three shafts of beaded pattern. sixteen-sided fluting decorated on some facets with The roof of the balcony is carried by two ornate short chain-and-bells suspended from a grāsapatti. Above this pillars resting on the asanapatta. The pillars support occur a flattened circular cushion with four circular lintel and architrave, each decorated with chequer pattern projections, a square block decorated with kirttimukhas and a frieze of kirttimukhas and crowned by a below and scrolls above, a flat circular cogged disc, magnificent pediment of three-tiered large caitya- and a square block adorned with foliage. The capital gavākṣa. The wall is surmounted by an usual kapota consists of two square cushions of ribbed pattern and and a recessed course decorated with half diamonds. four-armed curved brackets with adoring nägas between
The navāndaka (nine turrets) Sikhara of the sanctum them. The pillars support lintel and architrave decorated is pañcaratha marked by seven stages of bhümi-amalakas, with four alternate bands of miniature rathikäs and and is clustered around by two rows of karmaśrngas chequer pattern. (two over each karna offset) and by eight rows of small The mandapa is entered through a large and rathikās divided into two groups of five and three by elaborate pañcaśākhā doorway consisting of patravalli an usual kapota and ribbed awning over each bhadra. (scrolls), nāgapāśa (entwined snakes), mithuna, stambha, The offsets of the Sikhara extend well above the shoulder and a jamb forming the bevelled surround of the doorway course, almost touching the large crowning amalaka. and embellished with patravalli. At the base of jambs The whole of the Sikhara is enmeshed with a lattice stand the river-goddesses Gangā on proper right and of caitya-gavākşas. The front facade of the sikhara Yamunā on proper left, with two female attendants and
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Fig. 58. Plan of Mālādevi Temple, Gyaraspur.
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a pair of dvärapälas. The inner face of the jamb is Virabhadra. carved with two Udadhikumāras (water divinities) riding The garbhagrha doorway is similar to that of the on crocodiles. The doorsill shows a large central mandapa, but it carries figures of human, bird, projection carved with lotus stalks entwining paired Vidyadhara, Suparņa-mithunas, nāga-mithunas, an Kinnaras, elephants representing Diggajas, a pair of elephant and an acrobat fighting a lion on the outer devotees and large sejant lion. The door-lintel shows jamb, Sarasvati and Vidyādevi on two ends of the lintel, a figure of Cakreśvarī on the lalāta and two registers and eight standing robeless Jinas on the architrave. of small rathikās.
Inside the sanctum are only three pillars and six The interior of the mandapa has plain walls and plain pilasters on the east and south sides as the threeshows two longitudinal rows of four pillars each, forming fourth rock-ceiling in the north-west is securely supported a square large bay at the centre and a small rectangular on the walls of the sanctum. The mulanāyaka image one on the front and the back. The pillars are similar is missing; instead, there is a medieval image of Jina to those of the entrance porch. The lintel and architrave installed on a high pedestal. are decorated with a band of chequer pattern, two rows On the grounds of style and the palaeography of of tiny rathikās, and a frieze of triangular leaves. The inscriptions engraved as labels below Jaina Yakşas and central ceiling is composed of four circular courses of Yaksis, the temple is datable to c. A.D. 850-875. kolas; the one in the front bay is identical to that of KHAJURAHO the entrance porch (Pl. 24); and the ceiling in the back Khajuraho is situated about 29 miles east of bay is flat and decorated with two rows of small square Chhatarpur district headquarters in Madhya Pradesh. It panels depicting Vidyādhara couples, while its central has now become an important tourist place linked both part is carved with kola.
by airways and roadways. It is almost midway between The wall of garbhagsha (sanctum sanctorum) is Satna and Harpalpur Railheads connected by good also dvi-anga and shows a rathikä on each bhadra and metalled road. The region around Khajuraho is well karna, and on the lateral wall enclosing the antarāla covered with trees and shrubs and watered by tanks. in front of sanctum. The south bhadra-niche contains Geologically, it forms a part of the Vindhyan range a seated figure of Jina, and one karna-niche that of which provides fine-grained sandstone of various shades, Cakreśvari. The ambulatory is entered on each side by used largely in the construction of the temples of a doorway of three jambs decorated with patravalli (an Khajuraho. abstract form of naga), patravalli and bevelled lotus. Khajuraho had never been a religious or political The basal part of jambs shows a river-goddess flanked centre before the 9th century A.D. It first came into by a pratihāra (door-keeper). The door-lintel in the importance when the Candellas (c. A.D. 850-1200) of southern doorway shows a figure of Garuda (mount of Jejākabhukti made it their religious capital by adorning Cakreśvari) on the lalata, and the architrave surmounting it with beautiful temples, tanks and gardens. According it has four registers of rathikās crowned by udgama to the local tradition, the Candellas built eighty-five pediments, the lowermost depicting eleven figures of temples at Khajuraho. Of these, twenty-five temples standing Jinas with two female devotees, the second still stand in various stages of preservation, while the having figures of four Jinas, and the upper two left remaining ones may be traced in the ruins that have vacant, but the rathikās in the northern doorway harbour now turned into mounds. Topographically, the extant Saptamätņkās (Cāmundä, Indrāņi, Vārāhi, Vaişnavī, temples are divisible into four groups, viz. Western, Kaumäri, Maheśvari and Brahmäņi) with Gaņeśa and Eastern, South-eastern and Southern. The Western Group
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shows the main concentration of Khajuraho temples like the Brahmanical Kandariā Mahādeva etc. and has on its southern flank remains of three old tanks. One of these tanks, now known as Nisioi Tāl, shows on its embankment the remains of a ruined shrine with its architectural fragments and sculptures identifiable with Pārsvanātha, Ambikā, Jaina teachers etc. The Eastern Group reveals no remains of Jaina affiliation. The Southern Group possesses a ruined Jaina shrine with a large image of Jina. The South-eastern Group exclusively consists of Jaina temples including the Ghantai and a group of Jaina temples enclosed by a modern wall. This group has four old temples and many new ones built partly with old material and enshrining mostly old images. The Parávanātha temple among these is the largest and best preserved. Immediately to its north is the old temple of Adinātha. In the north- east corner of the Parsvanātha is a small temple, which seems to have been one of the subsidiary shrines of Pārsvanatha, the other three being irretrievably lost. There is yet another temple called the Säntinātha which enshrines a colossal image of Adinātha dated A.D. 1027. The Säntinātha temple, which is the main shrine of modern worship, has been thoroughly renovated and has a rectangular enclosure of shrine-cells, a typical feature of the early medieval Jaina temples. The Ghantai temple is located in the nearby village of Khajuraho and is in a very ruinous condition. Below is given a brief account of the Pārsvanatha, Adinātha and Ghantai temples as they alone retain old structures.
Pārsvanātha Temple - It is oblong on plan (Figs. 59-60; PL. 25) with an axial projection on each of the two shorter sides. The projection on the east is occupied by the entrance porch, while that on the west contains a shrine attached to the back wall of the sanctum which is a very unique feature. The temple consists of a sanctum, antarāla and mahāmandapa provided with a doorway from the ardhamandapa (porch). All the three compartments have a common ambulatory enclosed by a solid wall which is relived internally by
pilasters and externally by three sculptural bands and twelve perforated windows admitting diffused light into the ambulatory. It is very surprising that this temple does not possess balconied windows which are a characteristic feature of the temples of Khajuraho.
Though the temple is oblong up to the wall, its sides are indented to produce a navaratha (nine offsets) sanctum and a pañcaratha (five offsets) mahāmandapa. This is wrought by a series of projections separated by recesses. The projections being continuous in disposition one larger central offset (bhadra) is formed on the longer side of each compartment and one smaller offset on either side of the central projection of the shorter side.
The temple stands on a four feet high jagati, the original mouldings of which are all lost. On the jagati rests the pitha which consists of a plain bhitta, jādyakumbha decorated with caitya-gavāksas, karņikä bearing a band of gagärakas (frill like ornament) below, pattikā decorated with heart-shaped flowers and a band of gagārakas below, antarapata adorned with diamonds, and kapota decorated with caitya-gavākşas above and gagärakas below. The vedibandha above the pitha shows khura, kumbha, kalasa, antarapatta decorated with caityagavākşas above and rafter ends below, and a projecting pattikā decorated with stencilled scrolls. The janghawall shows three rows of fine sculptures, each being smaller than the one below; they are separated from one another by two ornamental bands. The lower row carries standing figures of gods, goddesses and apsarases on the projections and vyālas in the recesses. The middle shows divine couples on the projections as well as the recesses. The third or top row shows Vidyadhara couples, ascetic couples and single Vidyadhara, both on projections and recesses. The divine figures of Brahmanical affinity are identifiable with Siva, SivaPārvati, Vişnu, Lakşmi-Nārāyaṇa, Krsna, Balarama, SitāRāma, Parasurama, Kāma-Rati, Brahmä, Kubera, Sankhapurusa and eight Dikpalas. Besides these there are figures of seated Jina, standing Padmaprabha and four-armed standing Jaina goddesses, each with two
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Jina figures, all confined to the niches. Of all the figures, only the eight Dikpālas are correctly represented in their respective positions, the others do not have any order. The Saiva and Vaisnava deities are shown almost in an equal preponderance. The top row of jangha sculptures is crowned by a square bharaṇi of arris and cyma recta, and two usual kapotas.
The śikhara of the sanctum starts with a series of miniature sikharas (turrets) with pyramidal roof over the projections, but the central projection on the north and south shows a series of three udgama-pediments of caitya-gavākṣa ornament in ascending order; the same in the mahāmandapa which continues the vertical lineaments of the sanctum up to the bottom row of karnaśmigas (turrets on corner offsets), however, carries only one pediment. The lower pediment shows on its each flank a miniature pyramidal tower and two minor tiers of pediments, all occupying the spaces formed by the recesses; the middle pediment is flanked on either side by two karnaśrngas; and the upper pediment carries three karnaśmigas on each flank, of which the central śmga is taller than the side ones. Below the level of the upper karnaśmigas we notice a series of niches encircling the roof and containing figures of bearded teachers and disciples. Above the top pediment occurs the central row of niches surmounted by a prominent awning, and beyond this rises the saptaratha central tower marked by eleven bhümi-āmalakas and carrying two urah-śrrigas (turrets leaning upon central offset) on each facade. The lower urah-smiga is smaller than the upper one and starts from the same level as the higher one: The upper urah-śrriga also carries a karnassiga on each flank. All the offsets of the spire are enmeshed with caitya-gaväksas. The central offsets go beyond the shoulder course which is surmounted above the grīvā by a large amalaka, three candrikās, smaller amalaka, kalasa, candrikä with two rims and bijapūraka.
On the front facade of the spire is a restored śukanāsa with a figure of spirited lion. Of the roof of the mahāmandapa only three ascending series of
miniature sikharas have survived, the remaining portions are all restored. Originally, it had a bell-roof,
The entrance porch, which is approached from the front by a modern staircase, stands on a pītha which is but a continuum of the sanctum up to the kapota, but above that it has a frieze of elephants flanked by mahāvats (driver) and couples. The porch consists of two pillars and two pilasters and is covered by a pyramidal roof of which a continuous series of niches containing divine couples and six lions are original, the rest is a modern restoration. The pillars stand on an octagonal base of four moulded courses. The base rests on an octagonal pedestal carved with lotus petals. The plain shaft is octagonal below, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular above. The capital has a circular abacus of plain torus and cyma recta surmounted by four-armed bhüta-brackets with a snake figure in between on each corner. The pilasters are like the pillars but carry a figure of dvärapala below and a band of stencilled or interlacing scrolls throughout above. The brackets of the capital support lintel decorated with stencilled scrolls, grāsapatti and triangular frills. On the lintel rests architrave adorned with projecting kirttimukhas which carry sockets on their underside for receiving Salabhanjika brackets supported on snake figures. The architrave is surmounted by a frieze of makara-torana consisting of five loops in the centre and male and female attendants on the sides. The torana-arch rests on projecting kirttimukhas and is preserved only on the east side. The frieze is surmounted by a cornice adorned with stencilled scrolls. The cornice supports a square ceiling decorated with a large circular flower of threetiered kola in the centre and four smaller ones of twotiered kola in the four corners. Each flower carries a pendant of pinecone. The pendant in the central flower is also provided with a large stamenal tube adorned with kirttimukhas, snakes, and chains issuing from the mouth of kirttimukhas and terminating in a pair of flying Vidyādharas.
The doorway of the mahämandapa, which is

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Figs. 59-60. Plan and section of Pārsvanatha Temple, Khajuraho.
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stepped in from a moonstone flanked by conch-shell, consists of seven jambs (saptaśākhā) of ratna (diamondand-bead), gana (musicians), vyāla, stambha, vyāla, gana and a śākhā forming the bevelled surround of the doorway. The last śākhā is decorated with wavy scrolls and is flanked by a frieze of mithunas. The decorations of the first two jambs are also carried up on the lintel, but above that it depicts a bold figure of Cakreśvarī as lalatabimba in the centre and a figure of seated Yakşi on each end, while the spaces in between them are filled with standing figures of Navagrahas. The overdoor over the bevelled surround of the doorway shows a frieze of seated Jinas with devotees. The frieze is surmounted by a cornice decorated with heart-shaped stencilled scrolls and a band of divine couples.
The interior of the mahāmaṇḍapa is ventilated by the entrance door and twelve perforated windows set upon the bhadras. Its solid wall is reinforced by sixteen almost plain pilasters. The pilasters support carved beams surmounted by three successive courses of ornate cornices. The top cornice supports the rectangular ceilings of the three bays enclosing the mahamandapa. The two lateral ceilings are similar and flat and shows a large lotus flower in the middle and an oval-shaped cusped flower on the two sides. The running wall of the mahamandapa enclosing the ambulatory passage of the sanctum, however, carries two more architraves at the top. These architraves and the interior wall of the sanctum support flat ceilings relieved with lotus flowers.
The square central bay of the mahamandapa is laid out on a floor which is slightly raised from the lateral sides and runs from the entrance doorway to the doorway of the sanctum. It consists of four pillars and a ceiling carried by them on a square frame of carved architraves and cornice. The pillars are exactly similar to those of the entrance porch. The ceiling is square but converted into a circle by cutting off the corners. The inner face of the circle is decorated with stencilled scrolls, while each of its four corners has a socket for receiving the usual Śalabhanjikā bracket resting on the snake figure

between the bhūta-brackets of the pillar capital. The ceiling proper shows a flower made up of four courses of sixteen-foil larger, sixteen-foil smaller, eight-foil and circular kolas. The antarala pilasters flanking the sanctum doorway are similar to those flanking the mahamandapa doorway, but the inner bhūta-brackets here show the image of Sarasvati on one side and Lakṣmi on the other. The bhūta-brackets carry a lintel decorated with half diamonds and triangular frills. The lintel is surmounted by a cornice adorned with stencilled scrolls and grasapaṭṭikā. The cornice supports a kola course and a flat rectangular ceiling relieved with three lotus flowers.
The pañcaśakha doorway of the sanctum consists of patra (scroll), gana, stambha decorated with frieze of mithunas, gana, and a śākhā forming the bevelled surround of the doorway and decorated with wavy scrolls in bold relief. The door-lintel, which continues the decorations of the two inner jambs, shows three projecting niches with Navagrahas in between them. The central niche contains a figure of seated Jina and each of the end niches shelters a standing Jina. The lintel is surmounted by a frieze of seated Jinas with attendant figures. At the base of the doorway surround stands a four-armed dvarapala seen by the Diggaja (an elephant to guard four or eight cardinal points). The doorsill shows a lotus stalk with two pairs of ascetics and two pairs of Vidyadevis on the central projection and four water divinities on two sides, each carrying a water jar and seated on kari-makara (mythical animal with trunk of an elephant and body of a crocodile).
The garbhagṛha is pañcaratha on plan and elevation. Its adhiṣṭhāna has two series of mouldings, the lower comprising a plain paṭṭikā, karnikā, jāḍyakumbha decorated with caitya-gavākṣas, karṇikā and grāsapaṭṭī, and the upper consisting of khura, kumbha, kalaśa, and antarapatta decorated with caitya-gavākṣas above and gagārakas below. The adhisthāna coincides with the top of the khura rather than the grasapaṭṭī. The janghawall repeats the three rows of sculptures of the outer facade and then shows two karnakas, kapota, broad fillet

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decorated with stencilled scrolls, deep fillet, and a grāsapatti for the discharge of oblation water from the projecting fillet adorned with caitya-gavākşas. It is above sanctum. Above the pitha is vedībandha which consists this that one end of the ceilings of the ambulatory rests. of khura, kumbha adorned with diamonds in niches,
The inner wall of the garbhagrha is reinforced by kalasa, kapota decorated with caitya-gaväkşas above four pilasters which have a plain plinth, ornate base, and gagārakas below, and a projecting fillet decorated plain shaft with pot-and-foliage member below and with alternate diamonds and rosettes and a stripe of above, and a plain capital with bhūta-brackets. The gagărakas below. brackets support a lintel carved with half diamonds The jangha-wall shows three rows of sculptures fringed by perforated squares and triangular frills. The of which the upper row is smaller in size. The two lintel is surmounted by a cornice decorated with scrolls, lower rows carry standing figures of four-armed gods two friezes of lotus petals and a band of diamonds and goddesses alternating with apsarases on projections and-rosettes. The cornice supports a ceiling made up and vyālas in recesses, while the top row has figures of two intersecting squares, with a depiction of of Vidyādharas on projections and Vidyādhara couples kirttimukha at each corner.
in recesses as carrying garlands or playing on musical Inside the sanctum is installed an image of instruments or brandishing weapons. The north and Pārsvanatha made of polished black stone and dated south facades of the antarala and three bhadras of the in A.D. 1860, but the pedestal and ornate parikara sanctum show each four niches of which the lowest (frame) made of buff stone are old. The pedestal shows occurs on the kumbha of the vedībandha and the upper a figure of bull, the cognizance of Rşabhanatha, to three on the level of the three sculptural bands of the whom the temple must have been originally dedicated. janghā. The uppermost niches are each a replica of the The temple was probably built about A.D. 950. balconied window and the three lower niches contain
Adinātha Temple - It originally consisted of a images of Jaina deities. The images of the lower row sanctum, antarāla, mandapa and ardhamandapa, the last represent eight Dikpālas in their respective positions on two being replaced now by an ugly modern entrance the corner offsets, and the middle row depicts bull-faced chamber. The temple (Figs. 61-62; Pl. 26) is saptaratha Aştavasus surmounting the Dikpalas. The kumbha niches on plan and elevation with an additional projection on on the bhadras contain images of Bhairava. Ambika and each central offset (bhadra). Between the offsets (rathas) Cakreśvarī, while the janghā niches pertain to those are recesses which are not carried down in the pitha. of Jaina Yakşīs Padmăvati, Cāmunda, Kali, Cakreśvarī, The temple faces east.
Anantamati, Mahämānasi, Gauri, Purusadattā, Mānasi, The temple stands on a high terrace the original Manovegã and the like. The sculptural bands of the mouldings of which are all lost. The pitha consists of janghā are separated from one another by a grāsapatti a series of eight mouldings which slope out and grip surmounted by a band of circular rosettes. Above the the terrace firmly. The mouldings include a plain bhitta, top row of sculptures is a pillar-capital like member another bhitta decorated with diamonds, plain of bharani which consists of gagārakas, āmalaka and jadyakumbha, a projecting course adorned with rosettes, ribbed padma (cyma recta). Above this come two a course with circular top decorated with beaded band kapotas, each decorated with caitya-gavākşas and then and lotus petals, again jädyakumbha embellished with follows a prominent recess which separates the wall minor caitya-gavākṣas, karņikā decorated with gagärakas from the sikhara. below, and gräsapatti bearing a frieze of rosettes below. The ekāndaka śikhara is saptaratha on plan and On the north is a makara-pranāla inserted into the is divided into sixteen stages by fifteen bhūmi-āmalakas,
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each being capped by a kapota adorned with caitya- gaväksas. The offsets of the sikhara terminate at the shoulder course, but the central offsets are extended to the neck surmounted by a large amalaka, two candrikas, smaller amalaka, candrika and kalasa. All the offsets are covered with a lattice of minute caitya-gavākşas.
The roof of the antarāla, which leans in the form of śukanāsa upon the front facade of the sikhara, shows a superposed series of three niches crowned by a three- tiered udgama-pediment flanked on each side by a miniature pyramidal roof. Above this rises the gabled roof (Salā-śikhara) made up of three diminishing rows of caitya-arches, the two lower ones of which are damaged while the trefoil intact upper arch contains a kirttimukha emitting three chains, the central one terminating into a bell and the side ones going into the mouth of crocodiles. The central foil of the upper arch is also flanked on each side by a figure of rearing vyāla and is crowned above by a figure of lion pouncing on elephant. The central niche of the sukanāsa on the front side contains a four-armed standing image of Yakşi Ambikā and the six flanking niches shelter figures of attendant gods and goddesses, while its lateral sides carry each five niches with divine figures.
The doorway of the sanctum consists of seven jambs of patra (scrolls), gana (musicians and dancers) stambha, gana, śrivatsa alternating with rosettes, a jamb forming the bevelled surround of the doorway and decorated with scrolls issuing from the mouth of a vyäla below, and puspa decorated with circular rosettes. Each of the two stambhasakhas depicts four figures of Jaina Yakşīs. The base of the doorway shows Gangā on proper right and Yamunā on proper left, both accompanied by female attendants, besides dvārapālas occurring on the doorway surround and the pilasters flanking the doorway. The door-lintel, which continues the decoration of the innermost jamb, shows in niches a seated figure of Cakreśvarī in the centre, a standing goddess on each side of her, and a seated figure of Ambikä on her right end and of Padmāvati on her left
end. The doorsill shows fine lotus scrolls on square central projection flanked by female attendants, four water-gods carrying water pot and riding on karimakara on their two sides, and sculptured niches on either end. The pilasters flanking the sanctum doorway are profusely ornamented and support a lintel adorned with sixteen objects of dream seen by the Jina mother at the time of conception, circular rosettes alternating with diamonds, grāsapattik, and a beaded band. The superstructure above the lintel is lost.
The interior of the sanctum shows a square compartment at the back and a rectangular short one on the front demarcated by two bhadraka pilasters, besides quarter ones of similar variety at the four corners. The corner pilasters are almost plain but the two central pilasters carry pot-and-foliage ornament on the lower and upper sections of the shaft and are surmounted by bhūta-brackets. On the pilasters rest plain lintel and cornice supporting flat ceilings. The ceiling in the rectangular compartment is plain and that in the square one is carved with a large lotus flower comprising four rows of petals. That the temple was dedicated to Adinātha is well attested to by the image of his Yakşi Cakreśvarī carved on the dedicatory block of the lintel of the sanctum doorway.
The temple was probably built in the latter half of the 11th century A.D.
Ghantai Temple - It lies on the southern extremity of the Khajuraho village and about two furlongs northeast of the Jaina group (Figs. 63-64; Pl. 27). It is on account of the chain-and-bell (ghanta) motif occurring prominently on its tall pillars that the temple is locally called Ghantai. The temple faces east and is a fragmentary structure resembling the Pārsvanātha temple in general plan and design, but it is grander in conception and larger in dimension. The sanctum and the antarala, the two important constituents of the temple plan, together with the enclosing walls, have all gone, and all that has survived are the remains of an ardhamandapa and a mahämandapa. Of the enclosing wall a few supporting
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- Figs. 63-64. Plan and section of Ghantai Temple, Khajuraho.

Figs. 61-62. Plan and section of Adinātha Temple, Khajuraho.

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pilasters have survived which are severely plain in comparison to the ornate pillars of the mandapas. Like all other Jaina temples at Khajuraho, the Ghantai also belongs to the Digambara sect as it has sixteen auspicious Jaina symbols, as against the fourteen in the Svetambara tradition, represented on the door-lintel. Besides, numerous robeless Jina images were found in and around the temple. One of these is a fragmentary image of Adinātha bearing an inscription dated A.D. 1085, which is now preserved in the Museum of Khajuraho.
Of the jagati-terrace nothing is known, probably it is hidden in the debris. The pitha shows above the ground two plain bhittas, a jādyakumbha decorated with minor caitya-gavākṣas, karņikā, deep fillet decorated with diamonds, and projected fillet adorned with heart- shaped stencilled flowers.
The ardhamandapa consists of an almost square bay of four pillars supporting a flat but ornate ceiling. The pillars stand on an octagonal pedestal and base, the former decorated with rosettes, scrolls and lotus petals, and the latter carrying mouldings of khura and kumbha, the latter decorated with caitya-gavākṣas. The shaft is octagonal below, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular above. The sixteen-sided section is surmounted by an octagonal stripe decorated with kirttimukhas spewing interlocking garland loops enclosing Vidyadharas and surmounted by a string of pendants. It also has a lampstand projection with a bhuta-figure on its soffit. The circular section shows at intervals four decorative bands. The lowest of these is circular and most elaborate; it is ornamented with large garland loops and long chain-and-bells flanked by garlands or streamers and suspended from the mouth of kirttimukhas, and alternating with lotus stalks or chain-and-bells flanked by garlands. The loops of garlands enclose Vidyadharas, ascetics, mithunas, and vyālas. The second is octagonal and carries smaller loops of garlands emerging from the mouth of kirttimukhas with a pair of vyālas in each loop. The third is circular and is decorated with rosettes or minute
triangles. From this band also project out four smaller bhūta-brackets which support the struts of the apsarases. The fourth consists of two octagonal belts, the lower showing garland loops enclosing half lotus flowers and the upper, the circular rosettes. The capital has a ribbed round abacus of arris and cyma recta, surmounted by bhūta-brackets with adoring snakes in between. All the bhūtas carry sockets in their bellies for the reception of apsara-struts. The brackets carry architraves with three fasciae, the lower two decorated with lotus scrolls and the upper left plain. The architraves are surmounted by a frieze of processional scenes. Above the frieze rests the ornate flat ceiling divided into two concentric rectangular rows of panels and one square central panel. The outer row of rectangular panels carry figures of dancers and musicians flanked by couples, and the inner the stencilled scrolls. The square central panel depicts three courses of twelve-foil, eight-foil and quatrefoil mutilated kolas.
The ardhamandapa leads to the mahamandapa which, unlike the Parśvanātha temple, has on its front a vestibule of three bays with plain ceilings. The central bay, which is larger than the side ones, is formed by two rear pillars of the ardhamandapa and two pilasters flanking the mahāmandapa doorway. The pilasters have carved pedestal and base and show on the lower part of their shaft two-armed dvärapälas facing each other and a conventional pot-and-foliage above. The shaft carries an attic pillar surmounted by a plain abacus of arris and cyma recta and a curved bracket with volute pattern. The brackets support a lintel embellished with stencilled scrolls and grāsapattikā. The pilasters in the side bays are quite plain.
The doorway of the mahamandapa consists of seven jambs of puspa (rosettes), vyāla, gana (musicians and dancers), stambha decorated mithunas, gana, vyāla, and a jamb (forming the bevelled surround of the doorway) decorated with scrolls and a frieze of musicians and dancers. The lintel, which continues the decorative bands of the first-three jambs, is divided into two
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registers. The lower register depicts in niches a seated image of eight-armed Cakreśvari in the centre and a seated Jina figure on either end, while the intervening space on her right is filled with figures of Navagrahas and that on her left with bull-faced Astavasus. The upper register shows sixteen auspicious symbols - 1. Airāvata elephant, 2. bull, 3. rampant lion, 4. Sridevi, 5. garland enclosing a kirttimukha, 6. full moon with an hare in the centre, 7. Sun-god, 8. a pair of fish, 9. a pair of jar, 10. celestial lake, 11. agitated sea, 12. lion throne, 13. Vimäna, 14. nāga couple, 15. heap of jewels, and 16. seated Agni with flames issuing from his shoulder - seen in dream by Jina's mother at the time of conception. The lower part of the door jambs shows Gangā on proper right and Yamunā on proper left, both accompanied by female cauri-bearers. The river goddesses appear on the inner jambs, while the central and outer ones on each side are occupied by two dvārapālas. The doorsill shows lotus scrolls on the central projection, a two-armed figure of Sarasvati on each side of it, and three water divinities, riding on karimakara and holding water pot, on either end. Below the river goddesses occur gajaśārdūlas and below the dvärapālas are scenes of dance and music.
The central square bay of the mahamandapa consists of four ornate pillars and a ceiling supported by them on a square frame of architraves. The pillars are very similar to those of the ardhamandapa. The architraves here also are divided into three fasciae, the lower decorated with intersecting garland loops, the middle adorned with triangles, and the upper left plain. The ceiling is flat and shows a large lotus flower with four rows of petals in the centre. The flower is displayed in a square compartment bordered by three decorative bands of scrolls, rosettes and scrolls.
On sculptural and architectural grounds the temple is datable to the end of the 10th century A.D. UN
Un is a holy Jaina place in the Khargon district of Madhya Pradesh. In the northern extremity of Un
is a Jaina temple which is called Caubārā Derā II by the local people. The temple is located in the heart of the Mālavā region.
Caubārā Derä II - Built of sandstone and facing north the temple is laid out on a high natural ground. It consists of a sanctum, antarala, gudhamandapa with lateral entrance porches, mukhamandapa and an entrance porch. The entire temple is in a very ruinous condition.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan comprising bhadra, pratiratha and karņa, the bhadra having five planes and the other two, three planes each. Between the angas are recesses reinforced by konikäs, each chamfered into three corners. The pitha of the sanctum consists of a plain bhitta, short khura-kumbha decorated with carved half diamonds, minor torus, ratnapatta, jädyakumbha carrying two decorative bands of lotus petals and diamonds on the lower section, karņikā, grāsapatti, gajathara and narathara. The vedibandha of the janghawall consists of five usual courses of khura, tall kumbha, kalaša, antarapata and kapota. The kumbha is very ornate as it shows seated figures of Yaksis and Vidyādevis in niches on the central facets, diamondand bead on the lower section, a narrow plain band on the upper section and stencilled foliage on the shoulder. The kapota is also ornate as it depicts caitya-gavāksas above and gagārakas below. The jangha, borne by mañcika with circular pendants underneath, is adorned with a row of standing framed figures of Dikpālas on the karmas, Jaina divinities (now missing) in sunk niches on the bhadras, and Jaina divinities and apsarases on the pratirathas. The jangha figures are crowned by udgama-pediments. Above the pediment occur the round bharani with foliage clasps, kapota and ribbed awning. The superstructure of the sanctum as well as other compartments has disappeared.
The doorway of the sanctum is similar to that of the gūdhamandapa to be described below. The interior of the sanctum measuring eight feet square shows four plain octagonal pilasters supporting a plain corbelled ceiling. The enshrined image of śāntinātha dated in
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A.D. 1185, which is also the date of the temple, has now been preserved in the Indore Museum, but its pedestal may still be seen there.
The gudhamandapa follows the horizontal lineaments of the sanctum; it is entered from the front through the mukhamandapa and from each of the lateral sides by a porch made up of two ornate octagonal pillars and two pilasters supporting a ceiling of kola courses. Each of the three doorways consists of five jambs represented by foliate scrolls, abraded and unidentified, stambha, diamond-and-rosettes, and lotus scrolls respectively. The door-lintel shows Jina figure on the lalata and the overdoor fine figures of Jaina Yaksis (Pl. 28).
The mukhamandapa consists of four pillars and four pilasters forming three bays in all. In front of the central bay is the entrance porch formed by two pillars. All the pillars are ornate and belong to octagonal order. Each bay contains an ornate ceiling.
The temple is datable to the 12 century A.D.
Gvāleśvara Temple - There is another Jaina temple at Un called Gvaleśvara which is similar on plan to the Caubārā Dera II. Though the temple is much restored, its sikhara of the Nāgara variety can still be seen.
Both the temples at Un represent a mixed variety of the Paramāra and Solanki styles.
CHHATTISGARH Chhattisgarh comprises almost of the same region which was known as Daksina Košala or Mahäkošala in ancient times. After the Imperial Guptas this region was ruled between the 6th and 8th centuries A.D. by three dynasties of Sarabhapurīyas, Panduvamśīs (Somavamśīs) and Nalas. During this period there were erected many Saiva, Vaisnava and Buddhist temples. The most notable of these is the Laksmana temple at Sirpur (Raipur district), but no evidence of Jaina affiliation from this period has come down to us. The region probably continued to enjoy the sway of the Somavasis until the latter were ousted from there by Kalingaraja, a remote descendant of Kokalla I, the founder of the Kalacuri dynasty of Tripuri, in the early 11th century
A.D. From Kalingarāja began the Ratanpur (Bilaspur district) branch of the Kalacuris which ruled in this part of the country at least up to A.D. 1218. During the Kalacuri period Jainism was certainly embraced by the people since a Jaina temple of this period stands to this day at Arang (Raipur district). ARANG
The Jaina temple at Arang known as Bhända Devala (Pl. 29) is built of sandstone and faces west. It is a Bhūmija temple located in the farthest east. The temple is in a very dilapidated condition preserving only the sanctum and the constricted vestibule, with no remains of mandapa and entrance porch. Though the sikhara of the sanctum is visible up to the finial, its west face with sukanäsa and doorway and much of its north-east and south-east faces are lost and restored in plain plaster.
The sanctum is stellate on plan with six offsets on the bhadras and six sets of two kuta-stambhas each on the karnas, all displayed from bottom to top with recesses in between them. The pitha of the sanctum, which rests on a kharasila, is high and elaborate, consisting of a tall bhitta decorated with scrolls, gajathara, aśvathara, narathara, ornate jādyakumbha, broad karnikā and gräsapatti. The vedibandha of the wall is composed of ornate mouldings of khura, kumbha, kalasa decorated with diamond-and-bead band, a pattikä adorned with diamonds alternating with rosettes, and a pattikā embellished with scrolls. The kumbha carries figures of Jaina gods and goddesses in niches on the central part, and is divided into two halves by a plain median band, the lower depicting chequer pattern and the upper left plain. The janghā, supported by a mañcikā underlined with a frieze of gagārakas, is enriched with two rows of sculptures separated by a torus on the kūtastambhas and by the cornice of the lower sculptured niche on the bhadras. The main faces of all the six bhadras show niches containing seated Jaina divinities, Yakṣīs and Vidyadevis in the lower row and Yaksas in the upper, all flanked by figures of apsarases. The kūta-stambhas carry in both the rows the figures of
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gods, goddesses and apsarases. The figures of the lower row are surmounted by a figural band and those of the upper row by a series of three successive mouldings and a vyālapatřikā. While the bhadra-niches in the lower row are capped by a simple cornice, those in the upper row are surmounted by udgama-pediments. All the recesses are adorned with erotic couples, vyālas, apsarases and miscellaneous scenes. The jarghā is shaded by a heavy ribbed eave-cornice.
The sikhara of the sanctum begins with a series of three mouldings of which the upper and lower are plain, while the middle is adorned with a row of geese. Each of the six bhadras carries mainly the latà (latticed spine of the caitya-gavākşas) with a niche sheltering a Yaksi or Vidyadevi on the lower part and two or three rows of figure sculptures on the upper. The küța- stambhas carry five storeys of two miniature sikharas each.
The interior of the sanctum, which has a lower floor level and is reached by a flight of three steps, enshrines standing, robeless, triple Jinas (Pl. 30) of polished black basalt, identified as sāntinātha, Kunthunatha and Aranatha by their cognizances. Compared to the fine wall sculptures of the Kalacuri style of the 11th century A.D., the enshrined Jina images are stiff and hence later by a century or two. This Bhūmija Jaina temple has been produced indeed in the regional Kalacuri style of the late 11th century A.D.
RAJASTHAN According to an inscription of A.D. 1277 found in the Mahāvīra temple at Bhinmal and another one of A.D. 1369 in a Jaina temple at Mungthala, Mahavira had visited these places in Rajasthan. But these being very late records, we cannot give much credence to them as Mahāvīra is not known to have gone beyond Kausāmbi, Allahabad district (U.P.), during his preaching tour. Of the period ranging from about B.C. 300 to A.D, 600 we have no specimen of Jaina vestiges in Rajasthan, although Mathura to its north and Valabhi (Gujarat) to the south were flourishing centres of Jainism
at this time. This is well demonstrated from the fact that three Jaina councils to compile Jaina canons were convened during this period at Mathura (Second Council) and Valabhi (Third and Fourth Councils). Support to this is also lent by a large number of Jaina bronze images recovered from Valabhi and Akota near Baroda. While the Fourth Council gave the present shape to the Svetämbara Jaina canons, the Jaina bronzes exhibited for the first time the Svetāmbara form of Jina images. These evidences clearly show the strong position of Svetāmbara Jainism in this part of the country.
As we trea' n'he 7th century A.D., we come across some bror. images of the Jina (one precisely dated in A.D. 687) from Vasantgadh, Sirohi district, which are shown wearing a dhoti as lower garment. This obviously shows the popularity of Svetāmbara Jainism in Rajasthan. During the 8-10 century A.D. Rajasthan was under the sway of the Gurjara Pratihäras of Kannauj who had great respects for the Jainas and Jainism. Nāgabhata II even turned a Jaina and patronised Jainism by going on Jaina pilgrimage and by erecting temples to the Jinas. The presence of Jainism is also evident from three extant Jaina temples located at Osian, Varman and Rajorgadh.
from about the 10h century A.D. to the close of the 13th century A.D. Rajasthan was ruled by the Chamānas of Sākambhari (Jaipur) and Nādola (Jodhpur), the Guhils of Medapāța (Udaipur), the Paramāras of Candrāvati (Abu) and the Caulukyas of Anahillapāțaka (Patan, Gujarat). These powers often fought against one and another for their supremacy and territorial gains and they also had to resist the Muslim inroads from time to time, but the building activity went on unabated as evident from a large number of Jaina as well as Brahmanical temples raised during this period. This could have been possible because the ruling chiefs of these dynasties had very liberal attitude towards Jainism, the kings like Caulukya Kumarapala and Cāhamāna Aśvarāja (of Nädola) accepted Jaina religion, a large section of the population was Jaina, the Jainas
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were rich merchants and had philanthropic outlook, and many Jainas occupied key positions in the court of the ruling chiefs. Of the two sects, Digambara and Svetāmbara, the latter predominated the scene and, except for a Digambara Jaina temple at Nagda, all the known extant Jaina temples of this period located at Lodrava, Phalodhi, Nadol, Nadlai, Sadri, Sewadi, Ahar, Abu, Nandia, Nana, Pali, Mungthala, Jhalrapatan and Jhalodi indeed belong to the Svetämbara sect. OSIAN
Osian, ancient Ukeśa, is situated in north-northwest of the district town of Jodhpur in Rajasthan. It is an old town owning a group of thirteen temples of the Pratīhāra age. This is thus the largest group of temples of that age at one place in western India. The place is well-known for the Jainas and Jainism since it is the native place of Ukeśavāla (Osavāla) Jaina community and Ukeśaválagaccha of the Svetambara Jaina Church. Of all the Jaina temples at Osian the Mahävīra temple is the oldest one. Built of sandstone and facing north this Jaina temple as it now stands is not a work of one period but of several periods retaining of course old remains alongwith later renovations and additions.
Mahāvira Temple - The temple complex, standing on a large jagati and entered through a two-storeyed nālamandapa from the north, consists of a sanctum enclosed by an ambulatory, an antarala, a gudhamandapa, and a mukhamandapa provided with a porch (Fig. 65). At some distance in front of the porch is a gateway and in the open spaces between them on each lateral side is a pair of devakulikās, while on either side and the back side of the sanctum runs a cloistered corridor. Another devakulikā is attached to the east wall of the nālamhandapa. The temple is surrounded by a compound wall which has entrances on the east and west as well, the eastern one having a double porch. The outer wall of the jagati on the east has been reset and carries some decorative bands and mouldings.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan and shows three
divisions in the elevation, viz. pītha, wall and sikhara (Pls. 31 and 33). The pitha consists of four bold mouldings of kumbha like bhitta, wide recessed fillet decorated with heavy swirls of scrolls, kapota adorned with caitya-gavāksas interspersed with half lotuses, and a broad pattikā embellished with acanthus like scrolls. The vedībandha of the wall shows khura, kumbha, kalaśa and kapota, the last decorated with caitya-gavākşas above and a frieze of lotus buds in suspension below. The kumbha on the karmas is inset with sculptured niches. The jangha-wall carries standing figures of twoarmed Dikpālas (Indra, Agni, Yama and Nirsti) on bifacial two karnas in framed niches, each topped by three-tiered udgama-pediment. Above the pitha the janghä prominently projects out on the three bhadras and shows screen wall fitted between the square vaseand-foliage pillars. The screen wall is composed of rājasanaka decorated with perforated stepped diamonds and grooves, vedikā enriched with vine creepers alternating with vase-and-foliage pillarettes, asanapatta with rooflets, and stone grilles cut out with squares, stepped diamonds, floral and figural ornaments. The screen wall is shaded by an overhanging corrugated eave-cornice. The wall above this shows a band of half lotuses alternated by grooved half diamonds. The varandikä atop the jangha consists of two usual kapotas with an intervening antarapatta decorated with palmettes.
The pañcaratha śikhara of the sanctum is of the anekāndaka class with its central tower marked by six bhūmi-amalakas. The Sikhara shows three urah-śmigas and a projected balcony over each bhadra, two śmigas over each karna, two quarter śrngas flanking the uppermost urah-śmiga, one śmga over each pratiratha, and two small śmigas flanking the balcony. The crowning members comprising two āmalakas with an intervening candrika, kalaśa and bijapūraka are all modern. The front facade of the Sikhara carries a sukanäsa with crowning lion. The whole of the sikhara is covered with a lattice of minute caitya-gavākşas. The sikhara is heavily repaired from old and new materials, and its

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Below asanapattaka
Above ásanapattaka
KD
520
100
cm
Fig. 65. Plan of Mahāvīra Temple, Osian.
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projected balconies and many śľngas are datable even to the 15th century A.D.
The inner cella of the sanctum is also tri-anga with an emptied niche on each bhadra. The doorframe, the two flanking pilasters and the antarala ceiling have recently been concealed by painting and glass inlay.
The exterior wall of the antarāla following the vertical sequence of the sanctum shows a figure of Dikpala Isäna on the east wall and that of Varuņa on the west. Above its varandikā is a large figure of Prāsādaputra, an early appearance of that feature which gained much popularity after the 14th century A.D. The interior wall of the antarala contains two niches that are vacant now.
The gūdhamandapa is dvi-anga on plan and shares its pitha and wall with the sanctum, but the jangha images on the north-west karna are identifiable with Apraticakra and Vidyadevi Acchupta, and those on the north-east with Dharanendra Yaksa and Vidyādevi Nirvani. The rear karnas of the jangha, which formerly had sunk niches on the south faces, have now door openings. The güdhamandapa is covered by a fine variety of three-tiered pyramidal roof. Above the varandikā it begins with a recessed fillet adorned with figures of heavenly dancers and musicians, apsarases, warriors etc., and shaded by a ribbed awning. Above this comes another fillet decorated with chequer patter. Then follows the first tier of the roof showing a graceful śrriga immediately above the varandikā on four karnas and a gable like rathikā, topped by three-coursed pediment of bold caitya-gavākṣas, sheltering rșis (ascetics), on two bhadras. The rathikā is flanked on each side by a small śrga on the front level and by half pediment at the level of the corner śrrigas. The second tier, which is separated from the lower one by a chequer band, shows pharsakütas (miniature square shrine with pyramidal roof) sheltering apsarases on the four corners and usual pediments with seated Jinas in between them. The third tier is separated from the second by ratnapatta (diamond-band) and carries single pediment with Jina
figure in each cardinal direction. On the top of the roof is a plain recessed fillet and a flat shoulder course surmounted by a large bell, amalaka and kalasa.
The doorway of the güdhamandapa is of the trisākha variety consisting of patravalli (scroll), nāga (square flowers clasping thin bands of nāga), and padma (lotus petals). At the base of the door stands a female carrying water pot. She is sheltered by a lotus leave with an adoring någa above. The door-lintel depicts a figure of Garuda holding näga tails on the dedicatory block. The overdoor shows two decorative bands below and a frieze of figure sculptures with seated Pārsvanātha in projected central niche above. The two ornate flanking pilasters carry standing figures of Gangā and Yamuna above their brackets.
The interior of the square gūdhamandapa shows two longitudinal row of three pillars each and two ornate pilasters on two corners of each bhadra. Four of these pillars stand in the central nave and two demarcate the antarala. The pillars and pilasters are adorned with ghatapallava, nägapāśa (entwined snakes) and grasamukhas. A figural belt runs along the upper end of the enclosing wall. The central ceiling is made up of archaic kolas. The inner wall of the gūdhamandapa contains ten sunk niches. Eight of these are vacant, while two in the south wall shelter Dikpālas Kubera and Vāyu, thus completing the sequence of eight if they are counted with six of the outer wall.
The mukhamandapa is confronted by a row of four pillars with two more forming the porch in the front. All the pillars are of the square order, standing on a square but plain moulded base. Their shaft shows fine ghatapallava below and above with intervening sixteensided fluted shaft. Below the upper ghatapallava in some pillars is a broad figural belt surmounted by a gräsapatti. The upper ghatapallava is followed by a torus carved with creepers, octagonal belt clasped by foliage, and volute pattern. The capital has a ribbed square abacus of torus and cyma recta, surmounted by roll-brackets. The space between the mukhamandapa
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pillars and the wall of the gūdhamandapa is covered the janghä occur bharaṇi with foliage clasps, antarapatta by a series of large, curved circular rafters with central decorated with stepped diamonds, kapota decorated with gagarakas and terminal näga busts. The mukhamandapa caitya-gavākşas, and ribbed eave-cornice. The Sikhara has a two-tiered pyramidal roof with karņa-śrrigas and of the sanctum in each case is pañcaratha and ekāndaka basal sculptural panels, topped by fine udgama pediments crowned by amalaka, candrika, kalasa and bijapüraka and sheltering figures of Jaina goddesses. The and bearing lattice ornament of caitya-gavākşas, while mukhamandapa is shaded by a corrugated eave-cornice. the porch has a bell-roof with three rathikäs containing
The square porch also has a two-tiered roof but Jina figures. Each porch consists of two ghatapallava is surmounted by a bell. Above the eave-cornice it pillars and two pilasters, supporting a kola-form of shows a śråga at each corner and a sculptured niche ceiling on a square frame of architraves overshadowed topped by triple udgama on each face. The ceiling by corrugated awning. The doorframe consists of three (Pl. 32) consists of one octagonal and two circular jambs (trišakha) or five jambs (pañcaśākha). In the tricourses. The octagonal course shows figure sculptures sākha variety it shows patra (scrolls), stambha decorated on the inner face and a kirttimukha at each corner on with figures of Jaina goddesses, and a jamb adorned the underside. The second depicts an eight-foil kola with lotus leaves. The lintel depicts a figure of Jina fringed by a band of creepers. The third is a large in the centre as well as in either end and Vidyādevis circular kola with sixteen radial rafters set up in two in between. In the pañcaśākhā doorframe it shows patra, rings and terminating at each level in nāga busts. rūpa, rüpastambha, rūpa and patra. The rüpastambha
The gorgeous gateway consists of two enriched carries figures of Vidyadevis, each accompanied by two square pillars supporting a graceful triangular torana on attendant figures occupying the rūpasākhās. a carved architrave. The torana accommodates within The cloistered corridor behind the main temple its triangular frame addorsed figures of Jinas flanked shows about eight pillars of the ghatapallava order on on each side by a peacock turning its head to the back. the southern side and a devakulikā with sikhara on east A remarkable feature of the gateway is this that it as well as west. carries standing images of Jivantasvāmi on the lower The nalamandapa is a large rectangular hall built square section of the pillar shaft. The gateway is securely over the stairway and two flanking subterranean dated in A.D. 1018 by an inscription carved on the chambers. It is semi-open on the interior south side architrave.
fenced by sloping seat-back. It shows twenty-six pillars The four devakulikās are exactly alike, differing in four rows. Eight of these form an octagon in the only in matter of details. Each devakulikā consists of centre and support a large domical ceiling on an octagonal a tri-anga sanctum, antarala and porch. Their pitha frame of architraves decorated with diamond and double shows a complete set of mouldings, viz. kharasila volute pattern. The dome is composed of ten diminishing (foundation cap), jādyakumbha, karņikā, gräsapatti, courses and an apical stone with staminal tube. The first chädyaki (hood), gajathara and narathara, all very neatly course is sixteen-sided. The second is circular treated worked out. The vedībandha of the wall shows usual as karņadardarikā The third is decorated with figure five mouldings of khura, kumbha inset with sculptured sculptures. The next three consist of gajatālus and the niches, kalaša, antarapatta and kapota. The jangha-wall last four show kolas. There are sixteen bracket figures carries standing figures of Dikpālas on the karņas, of apsarases thrown against the three gajatālus. In the apsarases on the pratirathas and recesses, Jivantasvāmi north wall of the hall is a niche having an inscription on the antarala and seated Jinas on the bhadras. Above recording the renovation of this hall by one Jindaka

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in A.D. 959. There are other niches also but of no consequence.
The devakulikā attached to the east wall of the nālamandapa and opening into it stands on a pitha showing above the kharaśila a bhitta, chadyaki, jādyakumbha, karņikā, and a pattikā adorned with scrolls. The vedibandha of its wall consists of five usual members but the kumbha is adorned with half lotuses and half diamonds. The jangha-wall carries images of Dikpalas on the karnas, seated Jinas on the bhadras, apsarases on the pratirathas and vyalas in the recesses. The exterior wall of the antarala shows a standing figure of Sarasvati on both the east and west sides. Above the janghā occur an antarapatta adorned with stepped diamonds and a kapota. The pañcaratha ekāņdaka sikhara bearing a lattice of caitya-gaväkşas has a triple udgama-pediment at its base on each side.
The bifacial porch located in the eastern extremity of the nālamandapa opens up with a pair of carved pillars both in the inner and outer side. Each porch also has a ceiling carved with full-blown lotus flower
The date of the temple has been controversial for quite a long time. This is simply because the temple has been incessantly repaired. However, what looks tangible is that the jagati, bifacial porch, nalamandapa, the main temple complex (barring the sanctum sikhara) and the southern cloistered corridor were built at one time, i.e. when the Pratïhara king Vatsarāja (A.D.783- 792) ruled the country according to Jindaka's inscription. Jindaka repaired the nālamandapa. The devakulikä attached to the nalamandapa was built a little later. The torana-gateway was set up in A.D. 1018. About this time the sikhara of the main sanctum was also built At last, the six devakulikās (two pairs of them on the front and two at the back of the compound) were added by the end of the 11th century A.D. VARMAN
Varman, ancient Brahmāna, lies to the western extremity of Mt. Abu in Sirohi district of Rajasthan. The village of Varmana was an important seat of
Svetämbara monks of Brahmanagaccha. It has a small temple of Mahävira which belongs to this sect. The temple has heavily suffered from repeated renovations as well as damages.
Mahāvira Temple - The temple originally consisted of a sanctum, gudhamandapa, possibly mukhamandapa, and some devakulikās with colonnaded corridor. The devakulikās have disappeared and the basement of the corridor, which could be seen on the north and east sides some time back, has now been destroyed by recent renovations. The eastern corridor is reported to have possessed two flat ceilings, one carved with an image of Ambikä and the other with that of Gajalaksmi. Probably, it was a Caturvimšatijinalaya, a shrine with twenty-four devakulikäs, and if so it would be the earliest temple to have this feature. The gūdhamandapa is of no consequence as it is a product of later addition and restoration. At present, it has only fragmentary remains of the original temple which may be seen particularly in the basement, pillars and lintel.
The pitha of the sanctum is short and plain consisting of bhitta, jadyakumba and pattika. The vedibandha of the wall shows khura, kumbha, kalasa, antarapatta and kapota, but that of the gūdhamandapa has no kalaša and a medial kapota occurs on the wall. the pillars of the corridor are of the square order, with corners chamfered into three angles. Their shaft is elegantly carved with scrolls in medallions, patravalli, ghatapallava and volute pattern, and they are surmounted by atlantes brackets. In another variety the ghatapallva is absent. These pillars have close resemblance with those of the Hindu Brahmānasvāmi temple there. A lintel fragment depicting Jina figures may have belonged to the original doorway of the sanctum, as the present doorframe is datable to the late 10th or early 11" century A.D.
Stylistically, the older parts of the temple are datable to c. A.D. 750-775 and the devakulikā pillars, a century later.
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Rajorgadh (Paranagara), medieval Rajyapura, is situated in the Alwar district of Rajasthan. It was the seat of a feudatory branch of the Gurjara Pratīhāras ruling in the 10th century A.D. There are in all fourteen temples in various stages of preservation. Of these the temple No. 9 in stone is Jaina with westerly orientation.
Temple 9 It consists of a tri-anga sanctum and a hall. The shrine is surrounded by four corner shrines and the hall by two lateral shrines. The temple stands on an undecorated low pitha. The vedībandha of the wall is tall but plain. The wall above and the sikhara have gone. The shrine is dedicated to Jina Santinatha whose colossal image, some 16 ft. 9 inches high, still stands in the ruined sanctum. It was built by Sarvadeva, a disciple of Acarya Surasena of the Dharkata community, at the instance of prince Pulīndra.
In the ruined hall the bases of the nave columns stand on a slightly raised platform.
Compared to that of the main shrine, the pitha of the subsidiary shrines is richly ornamented. The pitha of the four corner shrines shows a tall plain bhitta, jadyakumbha beautifully adorned with lotus petals, kumuda, antarapatta decorated with chequer pattern, gräsapatti, gajathara and narathara.
The two lateral shrines have four pillars each for supporting the roof, now gone. On the top of the pitha of each shrine is a platform which was probably intended to support Nandiśvaradvipa, Sahasrakūta, Aṣtāpada or Samavasaraṇa. A fragment of fine ceiling recovered from near the site shows four robeless Jaina monks bearing gocchaka-broom instead of peacock-feather broom, suggesting that the temple did not belong to the Digambara sect but to the Botika or Acela-Kṣapanaka
sect.
Ghanerav is a Jaina pilgrimage centre located in the Pali district of Rajasthan. To the east-south-east of

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the town, at a distance of four miles, is an old temple of Mahāvīra built of sandstone and facing the north.
In elevation the sanctum shows three traditional divisions of pitha, wall and sikhara. The pitha of the sanctum as well as the gudhamandapa consists of two bhittas, jādḍyakumbha, kumuda, antarapaṭṭa and a paṭṭikā, all being well-shaped but undecorated, barring the jäḍyakumbha which is decorated with caitya-gavakṣa pattern. The bhadra projections of the pitha carry sculptured niches which, commencing from the east face of the gudhamandapa and running clockwise, contain images of Padmavati, Cakreśvarī, Brahmaśānti, Nirvāṇī and Gomukha. The vedībandha of the wall consists of five bold mouldings of khura, kumbha, kalasa, antarapatta and kapota, the last being adorned with caitya-gavākṣa pattern. The jangha-wall above carries boldly carved images of two-armed Dikpälas on the karnas (four on
Stylistically, the temple may be placed in the first the bifacial karnas of the sanctum, two on the antarala quarter of the 10th century A.D.
GHANERAV
walls and two on the front karnas of the gudhamandapa), each standing in a framed niche borne by a bharaputrakaatlantes, and powerful vyālas on gajamunda brackets in the saliläntaras. Above each vyala is a Gandharva,
Mahavira Temple It (Fig. 66; Pl. 34) consists of a sanctum enclosed by an ambulatory, antarāla, gudhamandapa, mukhamandapa preceded by a porch and rangamandapa, the last one surrounded by twentyfour devakulikās. The whole of the temple-complex stands on a low platform supporting on its top a prākarawall starting from the point where the devakulikās end.
The sanctum is dvi-anga on plan consisting of karna and prominent bhadra; between the angas are saliläntara-recesses. The three bhadras of the sanctum are equilateral and have balconied projections above the vedībandha, while the karnas are broken into three planes each. The balconies support screen walls which are made up of fine stone grilles that admit faint light to the interior. The gudhamandapa, though square, is of the size of the sanctum (28 ft. 6 inches wide) and corresponds to the latter in having bhadra projections and elevational lineaments.

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Vidyadhara or Apsarā. The temple also carries the ninth and tenth Dikpālas (Brahmā and Ananta), a rare representation, on the two mukhamandapa pilasters adjoining the two karnas of the gudhamandapa.
The bhadra-balconies above the vedībandha in both the sanctum and gūdhamandapa (Fig. 67) are composed of a rājasenaka depicting figure sculptures in panels, vedika adorned with alternate vase-and-foliage pilasters and vertical scroll bands, a complex course of āsanapatta embellished with two decorative bands of gagárakas and lotus petals below and caitya-gavākṣas above, and kaksāsana carved with flamboyant, beautiful figural motifs and vegetal creepers. Above this comes the screen wall formed by dwarf pillars and stone grilles, beautifully carved with rampant vyālas and geometrical patterns and carrying at the top an elaborate composition of dance and music under a festooned arch. The varandikā consists of deep fillet, corrugated eave and kapota. The curvilinear tower of the sanctum and the bell-roof of the gūdhamandapa are modern erection.
The gūdhamandapa is entered through an ornate doorway from the mukhamandapa. The doorway consists of six jambs of patra, rūpa, rūpastambha, rūpa, padma and ratna decorated with undulating creepers, vyālas and apsarases, two-armed Jaina Yakṣis and Vidyādevīs, vyālas and apsarases, lotus leaves, and diamonds respectively. The lintel continues the three inner decorative bands of the jambs and has a seated figure of Pārsvanātha on the lalāta and Navagrahas above. The pilasters flanking the door carry standing figures of Gangā and Yamunā on the lower section of the shaft.
The interior of the gūdhamandapa shows an octagonal arrangement of eight mixed variety of pillars supporting a large but ornate domical ceiling (Pl. 35) on an octagonal frame of carved architraves. The ceiling is composed of ten circular courses. The first is karmadardarikā embellished with lotus petals. The second shows grāsamukhas alternating with beaded tassels issuing from their mouth. The third is rūpakantha bearing a row of dwarf figures. The fourth, fifth and sixth are
gajatalus, each having a series of bold, curved, circular rafters terminating in nāga busts. The seventh is an eight-foil kola. The eighth is karņadardarikā similar to the first course. The ninth is a quatrefoil kola. The tenth is circular kola with a staminal tube clasped by one row of petals. From the third course project out eight elephant brackets supporting struts of charming figures of apsarases or Nāyikās tenoned into the lowermost course of kola. The inner walls of the gudhamandapa are reinforced by bhadraka pilasters, and between the pilasters are small niches crowned by udgama-pediments.
The inner cella of the sanctum is also dvi-anga on plan and has a vedībandha base and three emptied niches on the cardinal offsets. Its doorway is very similar to that of the gūdhamandapa. However, here the lintel shows seated Jinas in panels and standing Jinas in countersunk recesses; above the lintel is a makaratorana with Sankhapāla (a hovering male blowing conch) below the loops and Vidyadharas flanking him. The doorsill, which is intact here, shows a flat mandāraka with floral motif in the centre, a kīrttimukha on each side of it, and Vidyadevi in panel on either extremity.
The mukhamandapa shares its pitha with the gūdhamandapa, but above that it has a broad recessed fillet adorned with figures of Vidyādevis and Gandharvas, besides a large figure of Kumbhapuruṣa on the north and south sides. The mukhamandapa is divided into three bays by a row of transversely placed four pillars and four pilasters. The square porch in front of the central bay is formed by two additional pillars. The porch also accommodates the staircase which is guarded by two Indras placed in two projecting niches built on two sides. All these columns are of the square order with corners chamfered into three angles. They have a moulded base; their shaft is plain below and ornamental above; and they have a two-tiered abacus crowned by roll-brackets. Each bay contains a very ornate ceiling. The ceiling in the front porch is lenticular in shape comprising six receding tiers of eight-foil larger kola, sixteen-foil small and medium kola, twelve-foil big and
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Below āsanapatta
Above āsanapatta
Fig. 66. Plan of Mahāvīra Temple, Ghanerav.
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kaksāsana
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rājasenaka
patřikā
kapota
antarapatta
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Fig. 67. Wall of gūdhamandapa, Mahāvira Temple, Ghanerav.

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small kola, eight-foil kola, large circular kola and a smaller circular kola. In the centre of the last one is inserted a small pendant of flower. A somewhat similar ceiling may be seen in the Mālädevī temple at Gyaraspur.
The ceiling in the central bay of the mukhamandapa is square and flat and displays three concentric circular bands in a square frame bordered by rectangular panels. The outer circular band depicts vyālas with riders, the middle shows the figures of dancers, and the central is damaged. The square frame is decorated with creepers; a kirttimukha appears at each of the four corners. The rectangular panels are decorated with lotus scrolls of big and small sizes, bearing figures of dancers, musicians and acrobats.
The two ceilings in the flanking bays of the mukhamandapa are rectangular and alike, each having a grid of three lenticular flowers in diagonal framework. Each of the two lateral flowers consists of three receding tiers of eight-foil, quatrefoil and circular kolas with flower bud in the centre. The central flower is similar to the lateral ones but has an additional tier comprising twelve-foil kola. What is remarkable here is that the first tier on the soffit forms a continuous chain of cusps.
Inside the mukhamandapa, on either side of the gūdhamandapa doorway, is an ornamental khattaka- niche supported by bhāraputrakas and crowned by deeply cut udgama-pediment
The rangamandapa is of no interest. The devakulikäs are featureless, except for those in northeastern wing as they carry figures of Vidyadevis, Dikpālas and vyālas on the walls.
On stylistic grounds the temple is datable to the mid-10h century A.D. PALI
Pali, a district town in Rajasthan, was the native place of the Pallivāla-gaccha of the Svetāmbara sect. It has four extant temples in the town of which the Navalakhā Pārsvanātha is a Jaina shrine originally dedicated to Mahāvīra since it has been referred to as "Viranätha Mahacaitya" and "Mahāvīra-caitya" in
the inscriptions of A.D. 1122 and 1145. The originality of the temple has been heavily marred by stucco coating and gaudy paints during recent years.
Navalakhā Pārsvanātha Temple - The temple (Fig. 68) consists of a sanctum, gūdhamandapa, and a rangamaņdapa surrounded by a series of devakulikās. The rangamaņdapa, the sikhara of the sanctum and the surrounding devakulikās were added or replaced in A.D. 1629 when the originally enshrined image of Mahāvīra was replaced by that of Pārsvanātha.
The sanctum (Fig. 69) is tri-anga with a broad bhadra, thin pratiratha, and a karna half the size of bhadra. Between the angas are saliläntaras. The pitha consists of a bhitta, jādyakumbha, kumuda, antarapatta and pattikā, all plain and recently replaced by a modern version of old mouldings. The vedibandha of the wall has only four members, viz. khura, kumbha, kalasa and kapota. The kumbha bears interesting decorations of half lotus on the karņas, pair of geese or Kinnaras on the pratirathas and two-tiered plain sūrasenaka on the bhadras. The kapota has enrichment of caitya-gavākşa and half diamond on the karņas and bhadras and of only caitya-gavākṣa on the pratirathas. The janghā of the wall carries emptied niches on the bhadras, standing Jina with a pair of Mālādharas above and Surasundari on the outer flank of the pratirathas, and Dikpālas on the karmas. The salilāntaras contain figures of simhavyālas and gajavyālas, above each vyāla is a large grasamukha. Above the janghā is a simple varandikā with two usual kapotas and a curved awning. The bhadra-niche is crowned by a pediment with seated Jina.
The doorframe of the sanctum, though painted, is old. It is of the saptaśäkhā variety consisting of patra, vyāla, Gandharva, stambha with Jina-mothers in panels, Gandharva, vyāla and Mālādhara respectively.
The güdhamandapa has a straight and featureless exterior. Inside, it shows an octagonal arrangement of eight large, fluted ghatapallava pillars supporting a later built large domical ceiling. The rangamandapa is
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Fig. 68. Plan of Navalakhā Pārsvanātha Temple, Pali.
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Fig. 69. Wall of sanctum, Navalakhā Pārsvanātha Temple, Pali.
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uninteresting.
retouched possibly in the Mughal period. The jangha As regards the date, the temple was probably built is divided into two plain registers by a floral median in the mid-10th century A.D.
band and is topped by a band of saw-tooth pattern. The LODRAVA
udgama, square bharani with foliage clasps, two kapotas Lodravā, the capital of the Bhattis in the medieval with intervening ratna-pattikā and eave, though period, lies a few miles north-west of Jaisalmer in retouched, seem to be original. The sikhara is a late Rajasthan. It had an old Jaina temple which was medieval erection. The doorframe of the garbhagrha abandoned by the Jainas after its spoliation by the consists of seven jambs represented by patra, rūpa, Muslim invaders. In the 15th century and subsequently rūpastambha, rupa, malā, khalvasākha adorned with in the 17th century the temple was restored and since lotus petals, and a thin vyālašākhā respectively. The then it is in worship.
doorsill has a circular mandāraka in the centre and a This east-facing temple (Fig. 70) consists of a projecting grăsa on its each side. The lintel carrying sanctum enclosed by an ambulatory, a gūdhamandapa Jina figures is of late medieval period. and a porch, and measures 73 ft. by 40 ft. in all. The The porch in front of the garbhagrha consists of sanctum and the güdhamandapa have an equal width; two ornate pillars and two bhadraka pilasters, supporting they also are tri-anga on plan consisting of bhadra, a carved ceiling. The pillars have a moulded base of pratiratha and karņa; the angas are broken into three khura, kumbha adorned with half lotuses, kalasa, or five planes; and the bhadras have balconied windows. antarapatta and kapota; their shaft successively shows
The restored exterior pitha of the sanctum is built a plain cubical section, a narrow octagonal part decorated up in two series. The lower pitha is higher and consists with half lotuses, a circular fluted section adorned with of a bhitta, khura, kumbha decorated with caitya- chain-and-bells and serpents, fine ghatapallava, a square gavākşas, kalasa, narrow antarapatta, thin kapota bearing belt decorated with creepers, and an octagonal section decoration of half diamond-and-gavāksa and a pattikā embellished with a jewelled band and grăsapatti; and adorned with floral scrolls. The shorter upper pitha is the capital has a circular ribbed bharani surmounted made up of such mouldings as jādyakumbha ornamented by four-armed double-roll brackets and square blocks with caitya-gavākşas, kumuda, antarapatta carved with carved with diamonds. The pilasters have simplified kuñjarāksas and usual kapota, the last three being thin. decoration. The vedikā, asanapatta and the sloping grilles applied. The interior of the güdhamandapa shows an throughout the building seem to belong to the Mughal octagonal arrangement of eight pillars in the central period. The original wall enclosing the ambulatory nave and twelve pilasters of late date in the surrounding passage was rather thick and had figure sculptures. aisle. The nave pillars support a large carved domical
The inner garbhagyha, also tri-ariga on plan, stands ceiling of the 15th century A.D. The pillars correspond with a porch on a moulded pitha consisting of a small to those of the porch but here they are taller, the bhitta, jadyakumbha adorned with lotus leaves, kumuda, kumbha bears flamboyant pattern in semi-circles and antarapatta embellished with kuñjaräksas, thin kapota the brackets of the capitals are borne by bhāraputrakas. and grāsapatti. The vedibandha above the pitha has the The architraves spanned across the pillars show a fullusual five mouldings of khura, kumbha, kalasa, blown lotus with two rows of petals in the centre of antarapatta and kapota having plain surface, sculptured their underside, while their side face depicts a figure niches, uncarved surface, kunjarākṣas and gavākşas of grāsa spewing creepers in the lower fascia and palmrespectively. The mañcika and the jangha have been leaves in the upper. The aisle ceilings also belong to
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Fig. 71. Plan of sanctum of Aloka Pārsvanātha Temple, Nagada.
Below āsanapatta
Above āsanapatta
Fig. 70. Plan of Jaina Temple, Lodrava.
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the 15th century.
seated Jina figures with worshippers. The four corner shrines whereby it has become The sikhara of the sanctum is of the anekändaka a pancāyatana temple are a later addition. Similarly, the class showing three śmigas along the bhadra offset and gateway in front of the temple has 15th century torana- one, two and three śľngas over the following offsets arch over the 11th century pillars (Pl. 37).
respectively. The central tower of the sikhara is crowned On stylistic grounds this temple is placed in the by a large āmalaka, candrika, kalasa and bijapüraka. third quarter of the 10th century A.D.
At the base of the sikhara, on each bhadra, is a framed NAGADA
panel harbouring a standing, robeless figure of Nagada, medieval Nāgadraha (snake-lake), is Pārsvanātha with attendants. This again shows that the situated in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan. To the temple was dedicated to Pärśvanātha and that it was north-east of the Nägadraha lake is a hillock with a of Digambara affiliation, a fact also confirmed by the Jaina temple of Aloka Pārsvanātha built of sandstone literary tradition. The whole of the sikhara is covered and facing south. Owing to the interference of the by a fine lattice of caitya-gavākşas. hillock the north-east portion of the sanctum could not According to the Sāsanacatustrimsikā, a Sanskrit be worked out as was also the case with the Mālādevi text written by Madanakirtti in the 13th century A.D., temple at Gyaraspur.
the temple was dedicated to Pārśva who was worshipped Aloka Pārsvanātha Temple - It consists of a as Hari (Visnu) by the Vaisnavas, Buddha by the sanctum (Fig. 71; Pl. 38), an antarala and a Buddhists, and Sūli (Siva) by the Māheśvarīs in order rangamandapa, the last one being a 16th century to cure leprosy. At present, the sanctuary does not replacement of whatever the structure may or may not possess the enshrined image nor the pedestal on which have been. The sanctum is caturanga on plan comprising it was installed, but there is little doubt that it originally a narrow bhadra, thin pratibhadra and equilateral had an amorphous or rock-cut image or symbol of pratiratha and karna, each being broken into three planes. Pārsvanatha. Between the angas are saliläntaras.
Stylistically, the temple is placed in the last quarter The pitha of the sanctum consists of a bhitta, of the 10th century A.D. jadyakumbha bearing a single caitya-gavākṣa motif at NADLAI all the angas except the bhadras where a pair of half Nadlai, old Nadduladāgikā, was a twin of Nadol, caitya-gavākşas flank the central half carved diamond, the capital city of the Cāhamānas who branched off an incipient karnikā, antarapatta and a plain pattikā. The from the main line of the Cāhamānas of Sākambhari vedībandha has the usual five mouldings of khura, (Jaipur), some time in the middle of the 10th century kumbha, kalasa, antarapatta and kapota, all being plain A.D. It is situated in the Pali district of Rajasthan. but for the kapota which has caitya-gavākṣa ornament. Nadlai is a picturesque town with craggy hills and The janghā, divided into two halves by a grāsapatti, valleys and is adorned with six Jaina temples nestled is plain excepting the bhadras where a shallow niche beside the main hill. The earliest and largest of these with an udgama-pediment contains a seated figure of is the Adinātha temple which was originally dedicated Pärávanātha, proclaiming that the temple was dedicated to Mahāvīra as evident from inscriptions found in the to him. Above the janghā is a square fluted bharaṇi temple. The temple seems to have been built in great followed in its turn by a kapota adorned with caitya- haste as attested to by its featureless walls, slipshod gavākşas and a curved ribbed eave-cornice. The bharaṇi chiselling, stunted pillars and awkward articulation of at the bhadras is replaced by a figural belt bearing its different parts.
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Fig. 72. Plan of Adinātha Temple, Nadlai.
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Adinātha Temple - On plan the Adinātha temple (Fig. 72) consists of a sanctum enclosed by an ambulatory, gūdhamandapa, mukhamandapa, rangamandapa and the surrounding devakulikās, the last two being erected possibly in A.D. 1541 when the temple was extensively repaired. Its elevation directly starts with the vedībandha of the wall as the pitha in the present temple and in the majority of other contemporary temples of this region is conspicuous by its absence. The vedibandha, which appears to be least disturbed, consists of the usual five courses of khura, kumbha, kalasa, anatarapatta and kapota of which the kumbha is decorated with half diamonds and lotuses. The wall is plain but topped by a band of bold lotuses; the entire wall is heavily repaired. The doorframe of the sanctum shows figures of Yaksa Sarvānubhūti and Yakși Ambikā on the sill portion, while its upper part has been restored. The sikhara of the sanctum is later built
The gūdhamandapa continues the lineaments of the sanctum but does not show the balconied windows on its central offsets. The interior shows double row of columns of which the four in the central bay are of the ghatapallava order. There is a niche with a small black image of the Jina which seems be an original one.
The mukhamandapa shows one row of four ghatapallava pillars which are now concealed by thick coat of extravagant colours. These pillars as well as those in the gūdhamandapa are short and slender.
On the basis of the style coupled with epigraphical and literary references the older portions of this temple may be dated in the end of the 10 century A.D.
Other Jaina Temples - The temples next to Ādinātha at Nadlai and built possibly a generation later are those of Neminātha atop the southern hill and of Pārsvanātha on the opposite hill. The Neminātha temple with its sanctum and gūdhamandapa is plain and simple and has an ekāņdaka śikhara over the sanctum. To its gudhamandapa is attached a devakulika, also surmounted
by an ekāņdaka śikhara. The Pārsvanātha temple seems stylistically to be contemporaneous with the Sun temple at Modhera (A.D. 1027), but it has no figural decorations on the walls. At short distance to the south of the last is a temple of Sāntinātha built in the late 11th century A.D. I" pītha is a developed one but the wall does not carry the images except on the kumbha. The temple has been extensively repaired. The remaining two Jaina temples are built later and are of no interest. NADOL
Nadol, medieval Naddula, situated in the Pali district of Rajasthan, was the capital of a branch line of the Cähamānas of Sākambhari (Jaipur) from the middle of the 10th century A.D. From this period onward Jainism considerably prospered in this area. This is evident not only by the patronage rendered to Jainism by the Cāhamāna rulers of Nadol but also by erecting temples to Neminātha, śāntinātha and Padmaprabha that stand to this day in various stages of preservation. the earliest of these is the Neminätha temple followed by the other two.
Neminātha Temple - Built of sandstone and facing north this temple consists of a sanctum, gūdhamandapa, mukhamandapa, twenty-four surrounding devakulikās and a balāņaka (entrance hall), the whole standing on a platform which is old and original, but the temple proper is a replacement of the 11th century as evident from the plain pitha and wall mouldings (Pl. 39) and the minute lattice ornament of the multiturreted pañcaratha sikhara. In the later construction, however, the old fragments bearing the figures of Dikpalas and vyälas have been reused. The basal rathikäs of the Sikhara also contain original images of Cakreśvari on south and Nirvāṇi on west. The gūdhamandapa also carries undecorated mouldings and plain walls as noticed in case of the sanctum; its interior is of no interest. The mukhamandapa too is of no consequence. The devakulikās have completely disappeared. The balāņaka is old but uncarved.
Sāntinātha Temple - This Jaina temple with
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easterly orientation seems to have been constructed in the the sanctum, repeats the wall lineaments of the sanctum, middle of the 11" century A.D. The temple has been but the karņas carry deep sunk niches, a feature very rebuilt in the haphazard manner, possibly in the 17th unusual in the temples of this period. These karņacentury A.D. The bhadra-niches of the tri-anga sanctum niches shelter figures of Vidyādevis of whom Vajränkusi, are vacant, but the karmas carry, surprisingly enough, Vajraśnkhala and Rohiņi may still be seen. If we look female forms of Dikpālas. On the pratirathas may be seen at the size and embellishment of the temple, we shall the figures of Vidyādevīs. The gūdhamandapa is plain. find that some royal personage may have been
Padmaprabha Temple - This Jaina temple is instrumental in its creation. built of white sandstone and faces north. It is the largest Judging from the style of the temple it appears Jaina temple of that age in the whole of Rajasthan. The that this temple was probably built in the third quarter Padmaprabha temple consists of a sanctum, of the 11th century A.D. güdhamandapa with lateral entrance porches, NANA mukhamandapa, surrounding devakulikās and a balanaka, Nana is situated in the Pali district of Rajasthan. the last three being of little interest. Similarly, the It has an old Jaina temple of Mahāvīra in sandstone Sikhara of the sanctum is a 17h century erection, and of the time of the Paramāras of Candravati. the roof of the gūdhamandapa is lost beyond recognition. Mahāvira Temple - This cast-facing temple is
The sanctum of the Padmaprabha temple is tri-anga rectangular on plan (Fig. 73) with a sāndhāra sanctum on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karņa, the and a four-pillared gūdhamandapa, both enclosed by a bhadra being broken into seven planes and the other two common solid wall having entrance from the later built into five planes cach. Between the three offsets are mukhamandapa. It seems that originally the temple was recessed salilantaras which have been reinforced by minor surrounded by a präkära-wall with simple gateway on projecting koņikäs, each broken into three planes. The the east as well as west. Subsequently, some devakulikās pítha of the sanctum is composed of a broad bhitta, a were also added. small bhita, jadyakumbha, karņikā, antarapatta, cippikā, The pitha of the temple is plain and short and grāsapatti, gajathara and narathara. The vedibandha of consists of bhitta, jadyakumbha and pattikā. The the wall consists of khura, kumbha carrying figures of vedibandha of the wall is also plain but tall with five lalitāsana goddesses in niches, kalasa, antarapatta, and traditional mouldings of khura, kumbha, kalaša, kapota embellished with udgama pattern. The jangha- antarapatta and kapota. The janghā-wall is solid and wall, supported by a mañcikā with circular pendants plain; the three bhadras, however, have screen openings. underneath, shows Jina figures in sunk niches on the The pañcaratha ekāņdaka sikhara (Pl. 36) with its bhadras, Dikpälas on the karnas and apsarases on the crowning members like āmalaka etc. is divided into pratirathas. The figures of the janghā stand between two eight stages of bhūmi-āmalakas and bears a lattice of segmented circular pilasters on a console carved with minute caitya-gaväksas. The sikhara seems to have been lotus stalks and are surmounted by udgama-pediments replaced in the 12th or 13th century A.D., but the staggered with squatted monkeys on the corners. The bifacial koņikās series of gavākṣa-pediments over the gūdhamandapa are adorned with elongated half diamonds engraved with look original, although they are thoroughly plastered flamboyant pattern. Above the janghā occurs a circular and white-washed. bharaṇi with foliage clasps, and then it is followed by The interior of the garbhagrha is square and plain kapota, antarapatta and ribbed eave-cornice.
but has three small niches, now vacant, on the outer The gūdhamandapa, which is slightly wider than faces. The doorframe is so thoroughly painted that it
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is very hard to make out any thing.
The four pillars of the gudhamandapa are of the mixed variety. The mukhamandapa has been added in the 12th or 13th century A.D. and is of no interest, but the moonstone in front of the gūdhamandapa doorway is old. The devakulikās preceded by a cloistered corridor also retain some old pieces in the form of some pillars. pilasters, wall decoration and vedikā wallings.
The original parts of the temple are datable to the last quarter of the 10th century A.D. NANDIA
Nandia is an old village of the name of Nandigrāma to the south-east of the district headquarters of Sirohi in Rajasthan. It has an old Jaina temple of Mahāvīra built of sandstone and facing east. The entire temple is savagely stucco-coated and white-washed and sustains many alternations and additions.
Mahāvira Temple - It (Fig. 74) consists of a sanctum, güdhamandapa, mukhamandapa and rangamandapa, the whole being surrounded by a series of 52 devakulikās with a cloistered corridor. The rangamandapa is plain and was added about A.D. 1145. The devakulikäs are even later and were added in the 15th century A.D.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan with bhadra, thin pratiratha and karna, separated from one another by wide and deep salilāntaras. The pitha is plain and low and consists of two bhittas and a short jādyakumbha. The vedibandha of the wall, also plain, is made up of five usual mouldings of khura, kumbha, kalasa, antarapatta and kapota. The janghā is quite plain. The west bhadra-niche of the jangha is empty; those of north and south were opened up during recent renovations for admitting light to the interior of the sanctum. The sanctum. is covered by an ekandaka sikhara with a sculptured niche at the base on each bhadra. The niche is surmounted by a pediment of fine sürasenas. The doorway of the garbhagyha is of the dviśākhā variety decorated with creepers and lotus petals respectively and bearing Ganga-Yamunā figures at the bottom.
The gūdhamandapa is rectangular on plan and is not attached to the sanctum by an antarala which is very unusual feature. It follows the lineaments of its pītha and wall with the sanctum but is roofed by a bellroof made up of receding tiers, each studed with amalakas, but those in the cardinal directions have bells. Its doorframe is of the triśäkha variety with decorations of creeper, lotus petals and creepers, and carrying figures of door-keepers, nāga and Gangā-Yamunā at the lower end. In the interior it shows four pillars of the mixed variety at the nave and six faceted pilasters at the periphery. The ceiling is of no interest, but the architraves supporting it are finely carved.
The mukhamandapa consists of three bays formed by two pillars and six pilasters arranged in two rows of four each. In front of the central bay is a porch formed by two additional pillars and accommodating the staircase. The pillars are of the mixed order and the pilasters are of the faceted class. The mukhamandapa is walled up on lateral sides, with a broad niche on the outer face. Like the güdhamandapa, the mukhamandapa is also plain but for the architraves depicting undulating scrolls and grāsapatti.
Stylistically, the temple is datable to the third quarter of the 10th century A.D. AHAD
Ahad, ancient Āghata, is an old but now deserted town in the Udaipur district of Rajasthan. There are five Jaina temples of which only the Kesariyāji (Adinātha) temple is of some importance, though it has been heavily renovated in the 11th and 15th-16h centuries A.D. This north-facing Jaina temple is situated on the eastern outskirts of the town.
Adinātha Temple - It stands on a high jagati with a lately transported small Brahmanical shrine near the north-west corner. Two other subsidiary devakulikās (also Brahmanical) belonging to the 11th century A.D. are transplanted on the left and right sides of the late medieval storeyed balanaka of the Adinatha temple. The doorframe of the temple also is a later replacement of
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Fig. 74. Plan of Mahāvīra Temple, Nandia.
N
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Fig. 73. Plan of Mahāvīra Temple, Nana.
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Fig. 75. Plan of Adinātha Temple, Ahad.
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the original one.
The temple (Fig. 75) consists of a sanctum, antarala, gūdhamandapa, mukhamandapa and a lately added rangamandapa. The sanctum is tri-anga on plan with bhadra, pratiratha and karņa, each broken into three planes. The pitha (Fig. 48) consists of a bhitta, cippikā, jādyakumbha, karņikā and grāsapatti. The vedibandha includes khura, kumbha bearing indented half diamonds on the karņas and pratirathas and small niches containing figures of Jaina goddesses on the bhadras. The janghā carries graceful figures of Dikpālas (Pl. 40) on the two faces of the karmas and of apsarases on the pratirathas, all standing within tall and narrow frame topped udgama- pediments, while the salilāntaras formed between the angas have vyāla figures. The janghā on each bhadra has a beautiful sunken niche with an elegant grille- pattern on each side. The Jina images of the bhadra- niches are missing. Above the janghā is a unique and very handsome panel with seated Jinas flanked by standing ones, and then follows a square bharaṇi replaced at the bhadra by a band of flying Vidyadharas. The varandikā consists of two successive kapotas. The sikhara (Pl. 41) with some old remains is of the late 15th or even later period. Inside the sanctum is an image of Adinatha of the late medieval period (the temple originally dedicated to Mahavira), but the frame is original belonging to the 10th century A.D.
The gūdhamandapa, which is attached to the sanctum by the antarāla walls, is square on plan with bhadra, thin pratiratha and karma and shares its pītha and vedībandha with those of the sanctum, but here the kumbha at karnas also bears sculptured niches. The janghā is studed with beautiful sculptures but is rebuilt at some late date.
The mukhamandapa is rectangular on plan with six mixed order of pillars disposed in two lines of four each. The pillars and the flat ceilings are all undecorated
The rangamandapa, which has been added in the 15h century, is simple and uninteresting.
Stylistically, this temple is placed in c. A.D. 1000.
SEWADI
Mahāvira Temple - Sewadi, ancient Samipāti, is situated in the Pali district of Rajasthan. Perhaps, it became known after the erection of the present Jaina temple there. The temple (Fig. 76) is built of sandstone and bricks and faces east. This is a Bhūmija temple which is rare in this part of the country but very popular in the Deccan.
The temple consists of a sanctum, antarāla, güdhamandapa, mukhamandapa and rangamandapa, the whole surrounded by a row of devakulikās. The sanctum is tri-anga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, each broken into three planes. The karma and pratiratha are equilateral and of the same proportions. Between the angas are salilāntaras. The gūdhamandapa is articulated at the frontal karna of the sanctum.
In elevation it shows three usual components, viz. pītha, wall (Pl. 43) and sikhara. The pitha shows four mouldings of bhitta, jādyakumbha decorated with caityagavākşas, karņikă and pattikā. The vedibandha of the wall has five bold courses of khura, kumbha adorned with alternate half lotuses and half diamonds, kalasa, antarapatta, and kapota decorated with caitya-gavākṣa device. The jangha-wall is quite plain and is surmounted by a plain band, kapota similar to that seen in the pitha, antarapatta and an eave. The bhadra projections of the jangha have emptied sculptured niches surmounted by two-tiered udgama-pediment. The sikhara of the sanctum, made of bricks and plastered up, is pañcaratha and belongs to the Bhūmija class. It shows four latās (spines) with large caitya-gavāksa at the base on each side and six storeys of three turrets each in each quadrant. On the front spine is lodged a three-storeyed plain sukanāsa. The sikhara (Pl. 42) is crowned above the neck by an amalaka, kalaśa and bījapūraka. Like the wall the Sikhara is also very plain. This Bhūmija śikhara is remarkable in that it has no carvings and displays only six storeys in elevation. Actually, it has been produced as a typical Rajasthani temple under the local influence.
The gūdhamandapa, though nearly square and larger
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GARBHA GRHA
GUDHA MANDAPA
MUKHA MANDAPA
The' 185 22.CMS
Fig. 76. Plan of Mahavira Temple, Sewadi.
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in size, is also tri-anga and shares its pitha and wall lineaments with the sanctum, but the jangha carries exquisitely carved two-armed standing figures of Jivantasvämi on the bhadra and Vidyādevi Vairotyā and Pārsva Yakṣa on the two karņas of the south face, and Jina Mahāvīra and Yakşi Cakreśvari and Brahma Yakşa on the corresponding offsets of the north face. The bhadra wall above the pitha is also treated differently. Here it shows rājasenaka decorated with seated figure sculptures, vedikā carrying standing figure sculptures in niches, asanapatta projecting over the niched sculptures, and screen wall of perforated stone grilles fitted between the two square pilasters and accommodating the janghā images of Jivantasvāmi and Mahāvīra. The superstructure of the gūdhamandapa has disappeared.
The gūdhamandapa is entered from the mukhamandapa by a triśākhā doorway of patra (creepers), rūpastambha decorated with elegant figures of Yaksis and Vidyadevis, and patra (lotus leaves). At the base of the doorjambs stand dvärapālas. The door-lintel shows a figure of Jina Mahāvīra in the centre and goat-faced Naigameșa and two goddesses on either side. In front of the door is a moonstone. The inner wall of the gūdhamandapa is quite plain, but the four square central pillars and the architraves running across them are ornate. The ceilings are flat and uncarved.
The antarala is constricted and of no consequence.
The sanctum is entered through a trišakha doorway which is very similar to that of the gūdhamandapa. The inner wall of the sanctum is plain, with a projecting angle at each corner.
The mukhamandapa, which is laid out on a lower floor level, is landed up from the front as well as lateral sides by a flight of three steps and shows two rows of four pillars each and a row of four pilasters, forming thus six bays in all. All the columns are of the octagonal order. They have a moulded base; their shaft is octagonal below and polygonal and circular above; and the capital has a two-coursed round abacus surmounted by
roll-brackets. Though the pillars carry very little ornamentation, the presence of geese in pairs on the base is noteworthy as it also occurs in many 10h century temples of Rajasthan. All the mukhamandapa ceilings are plain, but the two khattakas (niches) flanking the doorway of the gūdhamandapa are elegantly carved.
The rangamandapa is a 15th century addition. The devakulikās were built into two phases. The front and the lateral rows of devakulikās up to the mukhamandapa seem to have been contemporaneous with the main temple, and the back row of devakulikās and those of the remaining lateral sides were probably added in the late 11" century A.D. It thus appears that originally the temple was a Caturviṁsatijinālaya (24 shrine-cells) and later it was converted, as it now stands, into a Bāvanajinalaya (52 shrine-cells).
On stylistic grounds the temple is assigned a date in c. A.D. 1000-25. ABU (DILWARA)
This is a sacred hill of the Jainas lying eighteen miles north-west of Abu Road Railway Station in the Sirohi district of Rajasthan. It forms a part of the Aravalli rising 5650 ft. above the sea level and is the highest point between the Himalayas and the Nilgiris. On the top of the hill is a long plateau adorned with mountain peaks and hamlets. One such hamlet is called Dilwara which, lying one and a half miles from Mt. Abu, has a group of five Jaina temples of white marble called Vimalavasahi, Lunavasahi, Pittalahara Kharataravasahi and Mahāvīra temples. Of these only the first two come under the purview of this Volume.
Vimalavasahi - The temple of Adinatha (Fig. 77), popularly known as Vimalavasahī, consists of a sanctum, gūdhamandapa, mukhamandapa and rangamandapa, the whole standing in an oblong courtyard (128 ft. by 75 ft. inside) surrounded by fifty-two devakulikās with a colonnaded corridor. Outside this and in the same axis as the sanctum and its three compartments are an entrance hall and a portrait gallery called hastiśālā. The temple is laid out in the east-west direction with its
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face on the east.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan, the bhadra offset being the longest and the pratiratha the shortest. An offset flanked by recesses separates the sanctum from the gūdhamandapa. In elevation it shows five usual divisions. The pitha consists of four courses of bhitta, jādyakumbha, karnikā, and pattikā and is plain. The vedibandha consists of five usual courses of khura, kumbha inset with half diamonds, kalaša, antarapatta, and kapota adorned with caitya-gavākşas. The janghā- wall, divided into two halves by a plain median band, is also plain but each cardinal offset carries a projecting niche with an image of Jina seated in meditation. The varandikā consists of two usual kapotas. The pyramidal roof, instead of curvilinear sikhara, of the sanctum is composed of nine horizontal tiers and has a fluted bell with kalaśa and bījapūraka on the top. At the base of the roof are sculptured niches containing images of standing Jinas. The whole of the exterior is now plastered up with white lime. The dvi-sakhā door of the sanctum consists of patra (scroll) and stambha (pillar). The door- still shows a semi-circular projection with stemmed lotus in the centre, a kirttimukha on each side of it, and diamonds on either end. The door-lintel continues the scroll-band of the jamb and has a Jina figure on the crest. In front of the door is a fine moonstone. Inside the sanctum is a pañcatirthi (an image with five Jina images) image of Adinatha installed in A.D. 1322 when the temple had been repaired. In the sanctum is also placed a statue of Hiravijayasūri dated in A.D. 1604. The narrow wall between the sanctum and the gūdhamandapa contains two niches with images of Jina.
The exterior of the gūdhamandapa is similar to that of the sanctum, but it is dvi-anga on plan and is entered through an ornate porch from the lateral sides as well. Each of the lateral porches is square on plan and rests on a pitha which is but the continuum of the mukhamandapa. It is reached from the courtyard by a flight of four steps cut across the pītha. It consists of two ornate pillars and two five-faceted pilasters and has
a domical ceiling made up of one octagonal and six circular courses, all having been carved. Each of the three entrance doors, of which the front door is well preserved, consists of six jambs of patra, rūpa, again rūpa, rūpastambha, rūpa and again rūpa. The lower part of jambs is occupied by a four-armed standing goddess with two cauri-bearers and a female carrying water pot, while the part above successively shows five images of lalitäsana goddesses, each accompanied by four female attendants. The doorsill shows four moulded courses on the lower section, while its upper section displays a semi-circular projection with stemmed lotus in the centre, a kirttimukha on each side of it and a niche containing an image of Sarvānubhūti on extreme right and that of Ambikä on extreme left. The lintel is divided into two registers. The lower register shows ghatapallava atop the jambs, while the space in between them is filled with the scroll-band of the inner jamb and a row of hovering figures of Mālädharas facing the crest image which represents a goddess mounting a lion. The upper register carries four images of goddesses and one image of Pārsvanātha (central), each accompanied by the attendant figures.
The interior of the square güdhamandapa shows an arrangement of eight ornate pilasters supporting a simple dome on an octagonal frame of carved architraves. There are two standing images of Pārsvanātha dated in A.D. 1351 and five images of lay-worshippers dated in A.D. 1341.
The mukhamandapa in front of the gūdhamandapa is divided into nine bays by ten pillars and two pilasters of its own and four rear pillars of the rangamandapa, all arranged in four lines of four each. It is landed up from the rangamandapa by three stairways, each flanked by walking elephants and having been stepped up by a moonstone. Its pītha on the lateral sides is moulded with five courses of bhitta decorated with diamonds, deep fillet adorned with diamonds, projected narrow band, gräsapatti and narathara. The pitha below each pillar has been turned into a pañcaratha projection,
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Fig. 77. Plan of Vimalavasahi, Abu.
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gradually splayed out below. Of the ten pillars eight which is slightly raised from the floor level of the are of the square order and two are octagonal. The courtyard. It shows an arrangement of twelve square square pillars with cut off corners have a square moulded pillars along the four sides of a square nave with a base. Their shaft is square below carrying standing large but shallow domical ceiling (Pl. 45) supported on figures of gods and goddesses, and then it turns into an octagonal frame of architraves running across the an octagonal section adorned with eight lalitāsana figures attic pillars placed over the ground pillars. The pillars of goddesses, sixteen-sided section decorated with sixteen and architraves are similar to those seen in the figures of lay-worshippers, and circular section adorned mukhamandapa but the lower band of architraves is with two or three decorative bands of acanthus leaves, replaced here by a sculptural band. To bring the vertical chain-and-bells, and kirttimukhas spewing festoons that pressure of the dome over the pillars there are thrown are held in position below by a band of diamonds and cusped torana-arches between the pillars. Each arch beads. Their capital consists of a double-round abacus emerges from the side brackets of the ground pillar of arris and cyma recta and a four-armed double-roll capitals and meets in the centre of the soffit of the bracket. The two octagonal pillars have similar moulded architraves. The ornate dome, 25ft. in diameter and 30 base and capital as we notice in case of the square ft. in height from floor to the apex, is composed of pillars, but the shaft is octagonal below, sixteen-sided eleven circular courses and a long circular pendant. The in the middle and circular on the top, the last two first course is carved with figures of elephants. The sections bearing eight and sixteen figures of lalitāsana second is karņadardarikā. The third is adorned with goddesses respectively. The five-faceted pilasters figures of lalitasana goddesses. The fourth is gajatālu. correspond in ornamentation to the square pillars but the fifth is decorated with figures of dancers, musicians carry a ghatapallava below the capital. The architraves and warriors. The sixth is gajatālu. The seventh depicts depict two decorative bands of lotus scrolls and diamonds figures of horse-riders. The eighth consists of thirtyon the inner face and a lotus medallion in the centre two-foil kola. The ninth pertains to twenty-eight-foil of their underside. Each bay of the mukhamandapa kola. The tenth is embellished with a series of twocontains a very ornamental ceiling. One of these ceilings armed images of Cakreśvari and Vajraśnkhala with displays in diagonal framework four projecting lūmās female cauri-bearers. The eleventh is carved with a row (pendants) in the four corners, one projecting lūmā in of twelve lūmās and a figural band of male pitcherthe centre, and some half and smaller ones on the sides, bearers. From the third course project out sixteen square all having the shape of serrated diamond. Another brackets of Vidyādharas carrying sixteen long bracket ceiling shows in diagonal setting four depressed lūmās figures of Vidyādevīs tenoned into the eighth kola in the four corners, one projecting lūmā in the centre course. The pendant consists of two courses of eightand four quarter ones at the four ends of the corners, foil and six-foil kolas and a long staminal tube clasped all resembling a serrated diamond. Six ceilings are by a figural band and one row of petals. The four basal domical in shape, each consisting of a series of corners of the dome accommodate images of Ambikā ornamental courses and a fine pendant. The remaining (south-west), Brahmaśānti (north-west), Kaparddi (southone ceiling is flat (samatala) having been relieved with east) and Sarvānubhūti (north-east) with attendant figures. an elegant creeper. There are two ornamental khattakas The rangamandapa is attached to the devakulikās flanking the gūdhamandapa door containing an image by three bays on the front and by six bays on each of Adinātha sitting in meditation.
lateral side. The six bays on the lateral sides are formed The rangamandapa (Pl. 44) is laid out on a platform by a row of four octagonal pillars standing on the floor
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of the courtyard. Each bay contains an ornate ceiling. Most of the ceilings in the lateral bays are domical in shape, but in two instances it is almost flat having been boldly relieved with a graceful image of Gajalakşmi or Sarasvati. The figure of Sarasvati is also attended upon by Sutradhāras Kelā and Loyana, probably the chief architects of the temple. The central ceiling on the front side shows relief carvings of the fight between Bharata and Bāhubali, the two sons of Ādinātha, while each of the two ceilings flanking it displays eight projecting stellate lūmās encircling a larger one of the same variety (Pl. 46). This is one of the best ceilings of this temple.
The devakulikās are landed up from the courtyard by a flight of three steps cut across the wide platform on which they are perched. They are screened by a single row of pillars on the back side and by a double row of pillars on the other three sides. The pillars alongwith pilasters flanking the doors of the devakulikās form thus one or two bays before each devakulikā. All the pillars and five-faceted pilasters are of the usual octagonal order. Their doors consist of a single jamb or four jambs and are very ornamental. Each bay possesses an ornate ceiling. Except for those displayed from Cell Nos. 18 to 22, all the bays have old ceilings of various forms and designs so much so that no two ceilings are of alike nature. Each devakulikā has a Jina worshipped as central image, generally installed during repairs of the temple. The devakulikās are shaded towards the courtyard by a corrugated eave-cornice.
The entrance hall with domed roof is a 19th century erection. It has no architectural pretension.
The hastiśālā is a rectangular walled structure with its flat roof supported by six pillars. It is entered from all the four sides through a small porch. Inside the hastiśālā is an equestrian effigy of Minister Vimalašāha, the donor of the temple. Behind him is a Samavasarana panel of A.D. 1155. Besides, there are ten large elephants adorned with howdah, chains and bells, and trappings. Seven of these were installed by Prthvīpāla in A.D.
1151 and three by his son Dhanapāla in A.D. 1180.
The temple is said to have been constructed in A.D. 1031 by Vimalaśäha after spending eighteen crore and fifty three lakhs. This may be true in so far as the main complex of the temple is concerned, but its rangamandapa and devakulikās are definitely known from the Prabandhas to have been added by Prthvīpāla in the latter half of the 12th century A.D.
Lūņavasahi - The temple of Neminātha (Fig. 78), popularly known as Lūņavasahi, follows the general plan and elevation of the Vimalavasahi, but the entrance hall is absent here and the hastiśālā has been built on the back replacing all the devakulikäs of the rear side.
The tri-anga sanctum is separated from the gūdhamandapa simply by a recess. Its pitha consists of two kharaśilās, an inverted cyma recta, bhitta, jädyakumbha, karnika, cippikä and pattikā. The vedibandha and wall are similar to those of the Vimalavasahi. The varandikä consists of kapota and ribbed awning. The pyramidal roof consists of eight receding courses and is crowned by an amalaka, candrika, kalaśa and bijapuraka. The four ridges of the roof carry bells with figures of rampant lions and a sculptured niche at each basal end. Its single-śäkhä door depicts foliate scrolls and a female carrying water pot at the base. The doorsill shows some moulded courses on the lower part and usual lotus stem, kirttimukhas and diamonds on the upper. The door-lintel continues the scroll-band of the jamb and depicts a Jina figure on the dedicatory block. In front of the door is also noticed a moonstone. Inside the sanctum is a black-stone image of Neminātha on a pedestal of white marble. The inner wall between the sanctum and gudhamandapa has two niches with images of Mahāvīra and Santinātha. The whole of the exterior here also is coated with white lime.
The dvi-anga gūdhamandapa follows the horizontal lineaments of the sanctum but has a fluted bell on the apex. The exterior wall here also is coated with white lime but the two lateral porches retain their original form. Each porch (Pl. 47) is square on plan and is
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reached from the courtyard by a flight of five steps for sculptured niches. The front door of the cut across the moulded pitha. It consists of two pillars gūdhamandapa is more ornate. It consists of three jambs and two pilasters standing on a low parapet wall of rūpa, rūpastambha and rūpa, all having been rounded enclosing it and is roofed by a dome carried by them off by vertical flutings and diapers. The doorsill is on a square frame of architraves. The pitha consists similar to that of the lateral porches, but the lintel of nine courses of plain bhitta, a bhitta decorated with depicts five miniature shrines, the central having a Jina half diamonds, karņikā, khura, kumbha bearing figure and the others, the images of goddesses. decorations of half diamonds on the body and foliage The interior of the gūdhamandapa displays an on the shoulder, kalasa adorned with beaded garlands octagonal arrangement of eight pilasters carrying a and rosettes, antarapatta inset with stepped diamonds, domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves. grāsapatti and kapota. The parapet wall consists of a The pilasters have a moulded base; their shaft is octagonal mañcikā decorated with caitya-gavākşas, a short vedikā below, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the in the form of half opened lotus, āsanapatta treated as top, the last being clasped below by a band of geese; mancikā, and kaksāsana adorned with flamboyant pattern and the capital has a short abacus of cyma recta crowned and lotus petal-and-bud ornament. The pillars consist by roll or atlantes brackets. The architraves are similar of only shaft and capital. The shaft in the south porch to those seen in the lateral porches. The dome is is heptagonal, divided into six horizontal belts, each composed of ten courses, the first being sixteen-sided decorated with miniature shrines, while that in the north and the rest circular. The first is decorated with diamonds, is octagonal below, sixteen-sided in the middle and the second with half lotuses, and the rest are plain but circular above, bearing decorations of rooflets, lotus for the fourth course which is adorned with lotus petalpetal-and-bud and kirttimukhas spewing festoons and-bud device. The gudhamandapa contains many respectively. The five-faceted pilasters are heavily images of Jinas and an image of Räjimati, the wife decorated with floral patterns. The capital consists of of Neminātha to whom the temple is dedicated. a two-coursed round abacus of arris and cyma recta The mukhamandapa stands on a pitha and is and a four-armed double-roll bracket with foliage. The enclosed on the lateral sides by a low wall, both being architraves are adorned with two decorative bands of a continuum of the lateral porches. It is landed up from lotus scrolls and diamonds. The dome in the south porch the rangamandapa by three staircases of six steps each. consists of an octagonal and six circular courses. The Each stairway is stepped up from a moonstone. On octagonal course depicts diamonds on the inner face either side of the central staircase is a sunken niche and a kirttimukha at each corner on the underside. The with a figure of doorkeeper. Like that of the second is decorated with a band of kīrttimukhas. Each Vimalavasahi it is also divided into nine bays by twelve of the remaining courses is adorned with lotus petal- columns of its own and four of the rangamandapa. The and-bud device. The apical stone depicts a full-blown four central pillars are of the octagonal order with lotus flower. The domical ceiling in the north porch moulded base, elaborate shaft and double-roll bracket is like that of its southern counterpart, but here the capital. Below, the shaft is octagonal carrying sculptures second course is treated like an arris and the seventh of eight female dancers on the lower part and eight pertains to eight whorls of four-fold (trefoil + one-foil) lalitāsana goddesses on the upper, while above, it is kola. The doorframe is similar to that seen in the clasped by four decorative bands of acanthus, half lotus, sanctum, but here the female pitcher-bearers are replaced Mälädharas and kirttimukhas. The other six pillars stand by door-keepers, and diamonds on sill are substituted on the parapet wall and consist of only shaft and capital,
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the latter being similar to that just described, but the ornamentation of the shaft differs. The shaft of two pillars is circular with vertical flutings; the same in other two is octagonal below, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the top, the last being surmounted by a band of kīrttimukhas emitting beaded strands; and that of the remaining two pillars is square below, octagonal in the middle and circular above, each carrying some moulded courses and decorative ornaments. Each bay of the mukhamandapa contains a highly ornamental ceiling. The ceiling in the central bay depicts thirty, twenty-two and fourteen lūmās on three successive courses and a pendant with four oversailing courses of twenty-four-, sixteen-, eight- and quatre-foil kolas. This ceiling is marvellous for the disposition of lūmās. Six bays contain domical ceilings with varieties of ornaments. The ceiling in one bay displays in diagonal framework four depressed lūmās in the four corners, one in the centre, four half lümās in the four cardinal points and four quarter ones at the end of the four corners, all resembling a serrated diamond. This is one of the best ceilings of the diagonal variety. The remaining ceiling depicts eighty-four small lūmās in twelve lines of seven each, each consisting of a quatrefoil and a circular kola with a flower on tip. The two gorgeous khattakas (Pl. 48) with their base, wall and spire have been wrought almost in a diagonal setting with diaper work. The khattaka on right contains an image of Sāntinātha, and that on left that of Sambhavanātha, both sitting in meditation. The khattakas are a marvellous piece of art.
The rangamandapa (PL. 49) displays twelve very ornate pillars along the four sides of a slightly raised square platform adorned on the sides with a band of diamonds. Eight of these pillars support a highly ornate domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves. Two of the twelve pillars are of the square order with cut off corners. Their base consists of five moulded courses. The shaft is square below, octagonal in the middle and circular above. The square section carries framed figures of four-armed standing goddesses; the
octagonal section bears eight figures of lalitasana goddesses below and an eight-petalled lotus flower above; and the circular section shows saw-tooth band below and a band of kīrttimukhas emitting festoons above. The capital consists of round abacus of arris and cyma recta and a four-armed double-roll bracket. Six pillars are hexagonal in section with their angles deeply cut from base to the abacus. Their base and capital are similar to the preceding ones, but the shaft is elaborately carved. The remaining four pillars are almost round in section and carry deep vertical flutings and angular surfaces, which have been carried up to the top of the shaft. Their base and capital are similar to those just described. All the twelve pillars are provided with ornate attic pillars supporting architraves that are adorned with two bands of lotus scrolls and diamonds respectively. From the side brackets of the capitals of the ground pillars emerge various forms of toranaarches which meet in the underside of the architraves, while other brackets support struts of Salabhanjikās tenoned into the brackets of attic pillars.
The dome (Pl. 50) of the rangamandapa, 19 ft. in diameter, is composed of ten circular courses and a very attractive circular pendant. The inner face of the first course displays kapota, deep fillet carved with diamonds and a figural band, while its four underside corners depict an image of god or lūmā. The second is carved with figures of ascetics. The third is karnadardarikā. the fourth is inset with seventy-two Jina figures. The next three are fine gajatalus. The eighth is made up of sixteen whorls of nine-fold (five-foil + trefoil + onefoil) kola. The ninth depicts twenty-four lūmās. The tenth consists of twenty-four-foil kola. From the fourth course project out sixteen square bracket figures of sixarmed Vidyadharas supporting sixteen bracket figures of handsome Vidyādevis tenoned into the eighth kola course. The pendant is made up of seven oversailing but diminishing courses of thirty-two-foil kola each and a staminal tube clasped by two rows of petals and a band of dancers and musicians. The dome is so splendid
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that it is very hard to render a graphic picture of it. This is one of the best ceilings of the domical order.
On the front and lateral sides the rangamandapa is attached to the devekulikās by a pillared portico of six bays formed by a row of four pillars. Two of these pillars are of the square order and the rest belong to octagonal order, all provided with attic system and having been well wrought. Of the six ceilings in the west or front portico three are relieved with jasmine flowers, one consists of an ornate dome and two depict a big lotus flower or bud. Three of the six ceilings in the north portico are domical in shape and consist of ornate circular and octagonal courses, while the other three depict a mono-form kola, lotus petal-and-bud ornament in reverse order, and a series of twenty-six lumäs respectively. Two of the six ceilings in the south portico are domical consisting of four or six ornamental courses and a circular pendant. One ceiling is flat and depicts on its flat surface twelve-foil larger, twelve-foil smaller and six-foil pointed kolas in three concentric circles. This is one of the best ceilings of this temple. Another flat ceiling shows in five concentric squares sixteen lūmās in bold relief on the outer square and birth-rites of Lord Krsna on the inner ones. This is one of the finest ceilings in so far as the lūmās are concerned. In one ceiling nine lūmās are shown in three lines of three each, each consisting of a quatrefoil kola. The remaining ceiling is also flat and displays in four concentric squares varied forms of kola.
The devakulikās, forty-eight in number, are screened by two rows of pillars forming thus two bays in front of each cell, but those near the gūdhamandapa being recessed back are confronted with one row of pillars only. All the pillars are of simple octagonal order with moulded base, three-sectioned shaft and roll-bracket capital. The five-faceted pilasters are like the pillars, The architraves carried by the columns are similar to those of the rangamandapa. Their doors consist of one or two jambs, both decorated with lotus scrolls, but in one instance (devakulikā No. 12) the outer jamb is
treated like an ornate column. The sill and lintel of doors are similar to those of the sanctum. All the bays contain ornate ceilings representing varieties of lūmās, figural, floral, and geometrical patterns, auspicious events of the life of Neminātha, and large-sized images of Jaina goddesses. The cells are dedicated to Jinas whose images were generally installed during subsequent repairs of the temple. The devekulikās are shaded towards the courtyard by a corrugated eave-cornice. Above the cornice are inserted many foliated gargoyles.
The hastiśālā is a rectangular hall occupying the entire space of the back side. Its flat roof is borne by two rows of eleven pillars each. All the pillars are of the octagonal order, resembling those of the devakulikās. Between the front row of pillars are fitted perforated grilles cut up with geometrical and floral designs. The hastiśālā has three entrance doors, one in the centre and one on each end. In the centre of the hall is a magnificent image of Adinātha seated on a navaratha pedestal. In front of him is a triratha Meru tower completed in three storeys, each accommodating a Jina image on each of its four faces. On two sides of the tower are ten gigantic elephants with driver and its lord, each being carved in the round with metallic finish. The back wall of the hastišala carries ten sculptural panels containing portrait sculptures of Jaina teachers, Tejapāla and other members of his family.
The temple is known to have been constructed by Minister Tejapāla in A.D. 1231 for the spiritual merits of his wife Anupamādevi and son Lāvanyasimha, spending twelve crore fifty lakhs. The architect of the temple was Sobhanadeva who was a great artist of his time. JHALRAPATAN
Jhalrapatan is an old town situated in the Jhalawar district of Rajasthan. In the town is a Jaina temple dedicated to Sāntinātha. It is built of sandstone and faces east. The temple consists of a sanctum, antarāla, gūdhamandapa and an entrance porch. Of these the sanctum and antarāla are original, but the other two
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have been rebuilt during subsequent period.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karņa, the bhadra and karna carry three facets each, while the pratiratha is unfaceted and smaller to karna. Between the angas are recesses which end at the lowermost course of the vedibandha.
The pītha of the sanctum as well as antarāla consists above the bhitta of jādyakumbha decorated with minor caitya-gavākşas, karnika and grāsapatti. The vedibandha of the wall shows ornate khura, tall kumbha decorated with niches containing images of Jaina divinities or large carved diamonds with median band of diamonds, kalaša, and kapota adorned with caitya- gavākṣas and gagārakas. The jangha-wall shows two rows of standing figures separated by a median band of grasamukhas. The lower row, which is larger than the upper one, carries in niches the figures of kāyotsarga Jinas with flanking apsarases on the bhadras, Dikpālas on the karmas, and Jaina Yakşas, Yaksis and Vidyādevis on the pratirathas, while the recesses shelter figures of vyālas. The upper row shows seated Jinas in niches flanked by apsarases on the bhadras and Jaina divinities and apsarases on the other offsets, while the recesses display human couples. Above the janghā is a square bharaṇi with foliage clasps. The varandika consists of a deep fillet decorated with triangular leaves, kapota, deep fillet adorned with chequer pattern, kapota and deep fillet carved with stepped diamonds.
The sikhara of the sanctum shows a pañcaratha central tower marked by eleven bhūmi-amalakas, and urah-śrga surmounting a sculptured rathikä at its base on each side, a big śrga over each karna and a small śịriga over each pratiratha. The rathas terminate at the skandha but the bhadra goes beyond this course. The śikhara is crowned by a large amalaka, candrikā, small āmalaka and a series of later kalaśas. All the śrgas are surmounted by amalaka, candrikā, kalaśa and bijapüraka. The entire sikhara is enmeshed with caitya- gavākṣas. The sikhara is excellent in proportion and fine in finish. The roof of the antarala shows three śrgas
in a row over two rows of sculptured niches.
The temple was built by Pipä säha in A.D. 1046 and its consecration was performed by Bhāvadevasūri. JHADOLI
Jhadoli, ancient Jhādavali, is a village in the Sirohi district of Rajasthan. In the village is a temple of Jina sāntinātha consisting of a sanctum, güdhamandapa, mukhamandapa of six bays, rangamandapa, entrance porch with a mandapa above and a row of forty-six niches (now empty), instead of devakulikās, surrounding the temple. The walls of the sanctum and gūdhamandapa are made of black stone. The sanctum is surmounted by a śikhara. Inside the sanctum is an image of Adinātha which was installed in A.D. 1576. This is known from an inscription engraved upon the pedestal of the enshrined image, but originally the temple was built in honour of Jina sāntinātha whose dedication is well affirmed by the Tīrthamālā of poet Meha written in A.D. 1443. The doorframe of the gūdhamandapa is ornate. In the mukhamandapa are two ornamental niches, each containing a standing image of Jina. The rangamandapa shows twelve massive pillars in the nave with fine toraņa-arches in between them, which remind us of those seen in the Jaina temples at Dilwara (Mt. Abu). From an inscription carved in the left niche of the mukhamandapa it is known that in A.D. 1196 the mandapa of the temple was repaired and the mukhamandapa added. The temple, however, would have been constructed about a century earlier than this date. SADRI
Sadri is a small town enroute to Ranakpur in Pali district of Rajasthan. In the town is a small temple of Pārsvanātha built of white sandstone and facing the north. The temple (Pl. 51) consists of a sanctum, gūdhamandapa, mukhamandapa, rangamandapa and surrounding devakulikās. The mukhamandapa reveals nothing special, the rangamandapa is of the 15th century style, and the devakulikās have been recently replaced by the new ones. This temple is almost a smaller replica
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of the Padmaprabha temple at Nadol and was built in Padmaprabha temple at Nadol, its jangha-wall, at all the late 11th century A.D.
the karnas, carries sunk niches containing figures of The sanctum is tri-ariga on plan with usual bhadra, Yaksis and Vidyādevīs. The Vidyādevīs also appear on pratiratha and karņa, the bhadra broken into seven the pratirathas, while the apsarases and Dikpälas occupy planes and the other two into five planes each. Between the secondary positions. The bhadra niches are empty the angas are recesses which are not carried down to now. the pitha but end in the lowermost course of the wall PHALODHI itself. The pitha consists of two bhittas with an Pārsvanātha Temple - Phalodhi, ancient intervening kumuda, jadyakumbha with udgama Phalavardhikā, is a holy Jaina site in Marwar (Rajasthan). containing diamond on each bhadra, karnikā, narrow There is a Jaina temple dedicated to Pārsvanätha and deep fillet adorned with stepped diamonds, cippikā, built in c. A.D. 1147. The temple was destroyed by minor projected fillet and a grāsapatti. In the last course the Muslim invaders and later repaired by the Jainas. a makara-pranāla has been inserted on the east to However, one may still notice old remains in its sanctum, discharge oblation water of the enshrined image. The antarāla and gudhamandapa. Of these the sanctum is vedibandha of the wall consists of khura, kumbha, of particular interest. It is tri-anga on plan and elevation. kalasa, antarapatta embellished with diamonds, and it has a moulded pitha and vedibandha, plain jangha kapota decorated with udgama pattern. The kumbha with median band and bhadra-niches, ribbed eavecarries sculptured niches on the central planes and half cornice, and anekāndaka sikhara with a lattice of caityadiamonds, carved with flamboyant device, on the other gavākṣas. The central tower of the sikhara is divided ones. The jangha-wall shows framed figures of Dikpalas into seven stages of bhumi-ämalakas and has two on the karņas and apsarases on the others. Above this āmalakas, kalasa and bījapūraka as crowning members. the wall shows a round bharaṇi clasped by drooping At the base of the sikhara, in each cardinal direction, foliage, kapota, antarapatta, and ribbed eave-cornice. is a framed niche. A rangamaņdapa with domed roof The Sikhara of the sanctum, which starts with a bharani is also built. course, is of the anekāndaka class. Its composition MUNGTHALA shows a pañcaratha central tower marked by seven Mungthala, ancient Mundasthala, is a small village stages of bhūmi-āmalakas, three successive urah-śrīgas in the Sirohi district of Rajasthan. There is a large and a rathikā with an image of Vidyādevi along each ruined Jaina temple consisting of a sanctum, bhadra, a śmga and a miniature shrine-model over each güdhamandapa, mukhamandapa of six bays, pratiratha, two śmigas over each karņa, and a quarter rangamandapa, entrance porch, and twenty-four śțriga leaning upon either side of the uppermost urah- devakulikäs with a colonnaded corridor. The sanctum śmiga. The sikhara is crowned above the neck member has a sikhara and ornate doorway. The mukhamandapa by a large amalaka, candrikä, a smaller amalaka, kalaśa and rangamandapa are made of white marble and have and bijapuraka, and is covered with a lattice of caitya- ornamental pillars, torana-arches and ceilings. The gavaksas. The sikhara is an excellent piece of work mukhamandapa also contains two ornate niches. The revealing perfect proportion and fine decoration. temple was built in A.D. 1160. The gūdhamandapa, which exactly follows the
GUJARAT vertical and horizontal lineaments of the sanctum, is The antiquity of Jainism in Gujarat is traceable also perfectly wrought, but unfortunately its to the time of the first Tirthankara Rşabhanātha since superstructure has disappeared. Like that of the he is known to have delivered a sermon at Satruñjaya.
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Three of the five Kalyāņakas of the 22nd Tirthankara Neminátha, viz. renunciation, omniscience and liberation, had taken place at Girnar. During the historical period the first wave of Jainism probably passed over Gujarat in the 4th century B.C. when Bhadrabāhu visited Girnar during his migration from Magadha to the south. The Mauryan king Samprati was a great patron of Jainism. He tried to spread Jainism in Gujarat by every means at his disposal. Jainism was in flourishing state from about the 1" century B.C. to the beginning of the rule of the Imperial Guptas in A.D. 319. This is clearly demonstrated by the facts that Jainācārya Kālaka taught Jaina tenets to the people of Broach, a group of monastic caves were excavated at Junagadh, and the Third Jaina Council to compile Jaina canons was convened at Valabhi, Bhavnagar district, by Nägärjuna. During the Gupta period (A.D. 319 to A.D. 600) Valabhi became an important centre of Jainism since the Fourth Jaina Council under the chairmanship of Devardhigani Kşamäśramana was held there in A.D. 453 and the Jaina canons (Ācārārga etc.) acceptable to the Svetāmbaras were reduced to writing. The existence of Jainism at this time is also proved by a group of Jaina bronzes discovered at Akota, Baroda district, which are all of Svetāmbara affiliation. Jainism continued to flourish under the Maitrakas of Valabhi in the 7th-8th century A.D. This is known not only by a group of Svetämbara Jaina bronzes recovered from Valabhi but also by the fact that Mallavādin, a great Jaina dialectician, and the author of the Nayacakra, induced the Buddhists to leave the country after their defeat in a religious debate at Valabhi. The Gurjara Pratīhāras had a liberal attitude towards Jainism. The Pratīhāra king Nāgabhatta II, according to the Prabhāvakacarita, even accepted the Jaina religion and as a token of his love for Jainism built Jaina temples at Modhera and Anahillapātaka and went on pilgrimage to Satruñjaya and Girnar. But unfortunately these Jaina temples do not exist now.
During the time of the Capas or Capotkatas, who ruled in Gujarat in the 9th-10th century A.D., Jainism
received great encouragement and established its firm foothold in Gujarat. The Cäpa ruler Vanarāja accepted Devacandrasüri as his religious preceptor and built the temple of Pancāsara Pārsvanātha in his newly founded capital at Anahillapātaka. His zeal for Jainism may also be seen in that he entitled the Caityavāsins (monks residing in temples) to prevent the non-Caityavāsins from residing in the capital.
Jainism (Svetāmbara) sees its heyday in Gujarat during the Caulukya-Vāghela period (c. A.D. 950-1300). Though the rulers of these dynasties were saiva, they had great respect for the Jainas and extended their full cooperation and patronage for the upliftment of Jainism. This was due largely to the influence of Devacandrasuri and his disciple Hemacandrasuri. While Devacandrasuri got the Digambaras ousted from Gujarat after defeating them in a debate, Hemacandrasuri got certain basic principles of Jaina doctrines promulgated after converting king Kumärapāla to Jainism. The popularity of Jainism is also indicated by the fact that a large section of the population was Jaina and Vimalaśāha, Prthvīpāla, Sajjana, Vastupala, Tejapāla etc. were ministers in the Caulukya court. Under these favourable conditions thus there were erected a large number of Jaina temples of which those built at Vadnagar, Than, Kumbharia, Girnar, Satruñjaya, Taranga, Bhadreśvara, Miani and Kanthkot stand to this day and evince the grandeur of the Jainas and Jainism. VADNAGAR
It is an old town beside the Vadnagar Railway Station in the Mehsana district of Gujarat. In the 7th century A.D. it had been visited by the Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang. During the Caulukya period it became an important centre of the Nāgara Brāhmaṇas. Kumārapāla built a rampart for their protection, the remains of which may still be seen there. In the centre of the town are two Jaina temples going by the name of Adinatha and Mahavira. They are made of reddish sandstone and face the east.
Adinātha Temple - It consists of a sanctum,
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gudhamandapa with lateral entrance porches and mukhamandapa, the whole standing on a terrace reached by a flight of steps from the front. At present, a gateway has been built at the entry point. The terrace beside the gateway supports two shrine-cells facing the temple which once probably had the images of Yaksa and Yakși of Adinātha. Its pītha and vedibandha and the two shrine-cells are original, the rest including even the whole of mukhamandapa are either rebuilt or added later.
The sanctum (Pl. 52) is tri-anga on plan, consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karņa, the first being the longest and the last the shortest. Between the karnas and pratirathas are recesses which have not been carried down to the pitha. In elevation it shows five traditional divisions. The pitha consists of three moulded courses of a short jādyakumbha, an antarapatta and a grāsapatti, the first showing the ornament of caitya-gavākşas and the last, the kirttimukhas spewing pearl festoons tied in loops. The vedibandha consists of five usual courses of khura bearing a stripe of diamond-shaped rosettes on the lower section, kumbha, kalaša, antarapatta decorated with stepped diamonds, and kapota carrying ornaments of lotus petals on the lower part and of caitya-gavākşas on the upper. Supported by a mañcikā the janghă-wall is marked at regular intervals by a fillet decorated with half diamonds, narrow projected band, a band of kürttimukhas, narrow projected band and a band of geese. The last in its turn is successively followed by a kapota, plain stepped pediment, square bharaṇi clasped by foliage and a decorative band of stencilled leaves. The varandika, separated from the wall by a deep fillet, consists of a kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice. The jangha on each bhadra carries a sunken niche containing an image of four-armed standing male divinity. The spire, if counted from the rear side, shows a pañcaratha central tower divided into nine stages of bhūmi-amalakas, twenty-four smaller turrets and twelve shrine models clustering around it, and a framed figure of four-armed lalitsana goddess at the
base of each cardinal offset, identifiable with Cakreśvarī (south), Vairotyā (west) and Acchuptă (north). The various offsets of the spire terminate at the skandha decorated with diamonds, but the cardinal offsets have been extended to the grivä in the form of human head crowned by amalaka with fillet, fluted candrika, smaller amalaka, kalaśa and bijapūraka. The whole of the spire is plain and does not bear lattice of caitya-gavākşas. The doorframe of the sanctum is modern and the enshrined image of Adinātha seems to be a late one, but its original door is now preserved in the subterranean cella beneath the sanctum, containing an image of Pārsvanätha. This door consists of four jambs of patra, rūpa, rūpastambha and rüpa. The patrašakhā is adorned with scrolls and has a female figure carrying water pot at the base. Each rūpastambha displays a female standing with water vessel below and four two-armed lalitāsana goddesses above, and is topped by two-coursed ribbed, round abacus of lotus and cyma recta. The rūpasākhās carry figures of female dancers and musicians, two accompanying each goddess of the rüpastambha. The door-lintel continues the decorative elements of the two inner jambs, but above them it shows a sculptural panel representing five images of padmåsana Jinas in projecting niches and four of käyotsarga Jinas in alternate recesses. The door has been painted recently, vanishing thus its original form.
Articulated at the frontal karna of the sanctum the gūdhamandapa is intact with only two rear buttresses with their pitha, wall and two miniatures śikharas which are but the continuum of the sanctum, while the remaining portions including the domed roof and lateral entrance porches and the entire pillared portico of six bays have been so inadvertently repaired and painted that it is very hard to differentiate between the old and new structures. Inside the gudhamandapa are now preserved two standing images in white marble of Jinas unearthed from the nearby debris during recent years. Both are alike in form and dated in A.D. 1255.
The two shrine-cells facing the temple are each
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tri-anga on plan and have three horizontal divisions across the elevation. The pitha consists of a bhitta, a short jäḍyakumbha decorated with caitya-gaväkṣa pattern and a plain fillet. The vedībandha has five courses of khura, kumbha bearing caitya-gavākṣa pattern on the central offsets, kalasa, antarapatta adorned with stepped diamonds, and kapota decorated with caitya-gavakṣa device. The jangha-wall is plain but for sculptured niches on the central offsets and a grasapaṭṭī on the top. The two niches in the southern cell contain fourarmed images of Cakreśvari (south) and Ambika (east), and those in the northern cell accommodate Brahmaśanti (east) and a mutilated unidentified figure (north).
As regards the date of the temple as it now stands, it is not a work of one period but has gone under repairs more than once. The pitha, vedībandha and catuśśākhā doorframe of the sanctum and the two shrine-cells were probably built in the 10th century A.D. and the other parts in the 15th century or even later.
Mahavira Temple It consists of a sanctum, güdhamandapa, mukhamandapa and rangamandapa, the whole surrounded by a series of fifty-one devakulikās. Like the Adinatha temple it also has heavily suffered from restoration work; and its floor having been raised during restoration, the pitha has almost embedded in the ground.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan, the karna being broken into five planes, and the bhadra and the pratiratha into three planes each with minor projected corners between. Of the pitha only jadyakumbha and fillet are exposed. The vedībandha of the wall shows khura, kumbha decorated with stylised half diamonds, kalasa, antarapatta adorned with diamonds and dentils, and kapota decorated with caitya-gavākṣa pattern. The jangha wall, supported by a mañcikā, is divided into two halves by a band of garland loops and surmounted by a band of kirttimukhas alternating with stylised tassels. The jangha of each bhadra carries a sunk niche that is vacant now. The varandika consists of a kapota and a ribbed awning. The sanctum is crowned by an anekaṇḍaka

sikhara. At present, the garbhagṛha is enclosed by an inner ambulatory, but originally it would not have contained it because there is no provision for ventilation in the outer wall. Inside the sanctum is worshipped an image of Mahāvīra sitting in meditation.
The gudhamandapa is a square pillared hall with front and lateral entrances. It continues the pitha and wall lineaments of the sanctum and is covered by nine ornate ceilings. Three of these ceilings are domical, while the other six are made by cutting off the corners, comprising three tiers of nine stones each, depicting kirttimukha on each triangular stone and a lotus flower on the central stone. The domical ceilings are composed of five or six courses, the first being octagonal and the rest circular. The octagonal course shows decorations of half lotuses on the inner face and a kirttimukha at each corner on the underside. The second is karṇadardarikā. The third is decorated with a band of geese or diamonds. The fourth consists of gajatālu. The fifth has an eight-foil kola. Where there are six courses, one more course of gajatālu has been added immediately after the fourth course. From the centre of each domical ceiling hangs down a pendant made up of quatrefoil or eight-foil kola.
The mukhamandapa is divided into six bays and is approached from the rangamandapa by one step only. The rangamandapa is entered through an entrance porch from the front and is covered by a domed roof. Internally, both these chambers have been fully painted, concealing thus their original form.
It is very difficult to assign a perfect date to this temple, because it is a conglomeration of different periods. Its walls appear to belong to 12th-13th century A.D., whereas the spire and some other parts belong to the 15th century A.D.
THAN
Than is situated about one and a half miles north of Than Railway Station in the Surendranagar district of Gujarat. It is a Hindu site sacred to Trinetreśvara Mahadeva whose temple has been built and is still in

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worship there. But except for two small Jaina temples located very close to each other on an independent hillock, nothing Jaina is available there. Of these two Jaina temples one has completely gone and the other is in a very ruinous condition. Its sanctum (Pl. 53) alone has survived. The temple is built of sandstone and faces north.
From the remains of a few foundation layers it appears that originally it had a porch in the front. About seven feet high the sanctum is square on plan and is made up of hewn blocks of rectangular ashlars. Its cubical wall has no ratha-projections. In elevation it shows five divisions. The pitha consists of two bhitta courses. The vedībandha has four courses of khura, kumbha decorated with crude half diamonds, kalasa, and kapota adorned with caitya-gavākṣa pattern. The jangha is plain; the small cornice is ribbed. The sikhara is pyramidal made up of three receding tiers of inverted cyma recta like mouldings bearing an ornament consisting of rosette-marked half diamond between two half caitya-gavaksas. At present, the upper tier and the crowning members have gone. The single-sakha door is sharply relieved with foliate scrolls. Its sill shows a square projection carved with an inverted crescent in the centre and a kirttimukha spewing creepers on its either side. At the base of the jamb stands a female carrying water pot. The door-lintel continues the decoration of the Sakha but is interrupted in the centre by the tutelary image of Jina sitting in meditative
posture.
The interior shows four pilasters at the four corners and a ceiling carried by them on a square frame of plain architraves. Each of the four pilasters has a square moulded base of khura, kumbha and kalasa; their shaft is plain; and the capital consists of cushion-shaped abacus and roll-brackets. The ceiling is made by cutting off the corners comprising three tiers of nine stones, the central stone being carved with a full-blown crude lotus flower with two rows of petals. In the south wall is a small emptied niche. The temple seems to have

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been built in honour of Jaina goddess Ambika whose mutilated image may still be seen outside the sanctum there.
The temple has been bewildering scholars for its date simply because it bears certain features such as pyramidal roof etc. which suggest it a date some where in the 7th-8th century A.D., but from the presence of such features as crude half diamond on the kumbha of the pitha, a heavy ribbed eave-cornice between the walls and sikhara, and the projecting kirttimukhas on the doorsill it appears that it was built around A.D. 1000. TARANGA
Taranga is a sacred hill of the Jainas lying three miles away from Taranga Railway Station in Mehsana district of Gujarat. Its holy character is evident from the fact that a large number of Jaina monks are known to have performed penance there. During the historical period the site first came into possession of the Buddhists who under the patronage of Pratihāra Vatsarāja built a shrine to goddess Tara there. Subsequently, the site was occupied by the Digambaras who still hold possession of the Sambhavanatha temple standing behind the famous Ajitanätha temple built by the Caulukya king Kumarapala (c. A.D. 1143-72).
Sambhavanatha Temple This Digambara Jaina temple (Pl. 54) at Taranga is situated in another compound behind the famous Ajitanatha temple of the Śvetämbara sect and is older than the latter. It consists of a sanctum, güdhamandapa and mukhamandapa and faces east.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, the bhadra being the widest, the karna half the size of the bhadra and the pratiratha half that of the karna. The frontal pratiratha has been turned into a buffer wall to separate the sanctum from the gudhamandapa. In elevation it shows pitha, vedībandha, jangha, varaṇḍikä and sikhara. The pitha, of which the bhitta is now imbedded in the floor, consists of a jaḍyakumbha decorated with lotus leaves, karnikā, antarapatta adorned with kuñjarākṣas, chadyaki

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like kapota decorated with gagärakas, and a gräsapatti. The vedibandha shows khura, kumbha having decorations of half diamonds on the karna and pratiratha and of udgama on the bhadra, kalasa, antarapatta and kapota, the last two being similar but wider to those of the pitha. The jangha, divided into two halves by a grāsapatti and also surmounted by a similar band, is plain, but each of the bhadra offsets carries a framed niche containing an image of seated Jina with attendant figures. Above the jangha is an usual kapota followed in its turn by an antarapatta and a ribbed eave-cornice. The pañaratha sikhara rises above the eaves from a deep fillet carved with stepped diamonds and belongs to the ekāndaka class. The curvature of the sikhara along the four karnas is divided into nine stages of bhūmi-āmalakas and is pleasant, while the lattice of caitya-gavākşas on the bhadras and pratirathas is very delicately worked out. The various offsets of the Sikhara terminate at the skandha which has been restored during recent years, but the bhadra offsets go beyond that and then it is crowned above the grivä by an amalaka, candrika, smaller amalaka, kalasa and bijapüraka, the last three as well as the dhvajapatäkä are modern. On the front facade of the Sikhara is a two-tiered sukanāsa lodged over the buffer wall. The lateral sides of the sukanāsa have framed niches that contain figures of goddesses or Surasundaris.
The gūdhamandapa, slightly larger than the sanctum, is also tri-anga on plan and elevation but is roofed by a fine saṁvaranā which is an ensemble of the apexial mūlaghantă with kalaśa and bijapūraka, a row of three descending urahghantās in each cardinal direction, and five rows of ghantās and ghantikās on the five tiers of its diagonally executed four quadrants. All the ghantäs are fluted, and those of the cardinal directions and of the basal karnas are also crowned by kalaśa and bijapūraka. The ghantās and ghantikās are wrought like kakşakūtas, each made up of a wall of vedika and kaksäsana and a rooflet of small bells with udgamas between and a big bell placed on its top. At
the base of each bhadra is a framed rathikā containing a divine figure with attendants. The interior of the güdhamandapa is featureless, but its domical ceiling is a carved one displaying two courses of gajatālus and three courses of eight-foil, quatrefoil and circular kolas. The edges between the courses are adorned with thin bands of lotus petals and diamonds.
The mukhamandapa consists of six bays and is so thoroughly repaired that its originality is completely vanished. The same is the condition of the doorframes of the gūdhamandapa and the sanctum.
This is a small but beautiful Jaina temple erected probably in the first quarter of the 11th century A.D.
Ajitanātha Temple - Made of whitish sandstone and facing east, this temple (Fig. 79) is the loftiest Jaina temple of Gujarat measuring 150 ft. long, 100 ft. wide and 117 ft. high. It consists of a sanctum with an inner ambulatory for perambulation, a gudhamandapa with lateral entrance porches and a mukhamandapa, the whole standing in the centre of an oblong courtyard approachable from the front by a gateway with wide staircase. The temple (Pls. 55-56) is a double storeyed structure, the lower seen but from within and the upper pertaining to a secret storey landed up from the interior of the gūdhamandapa by a wooden ladder. The temple has been thoroughly repaired and retouched during recent years.
The sanctum is caturanga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratibhadra, pratiratha and karna, each broken into several planes. The bhadra is the widest offset; the karna and pratiratha are equilateral and have the same proportion; and the pratibhadra is half the size of the karna. Between the offsets are saliläntaras and the saliläntaras between the karmas and pratirathas contain minor projecting konikäs. The frontal karna and pratiratha of the sanctum and the rear karna of the gudhamandapa are transmuted into a wide buffer wall between the two compartments.
In elevation it shows pitha, vedibandha, janghā, varandikā (Fig. 80) and Sikhara. The pitha is low and
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Fig. 79. Plan of Ajitanātha Temple, Taranga.
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consists of nine courses (some being minor) of two bhittas (the lower showing flamboyant pattern and the upper half lotuses), a kumuda, pattikä, jadyakumbha, karņikā, antarapatta decorated with stepped diamonds, chadyaki adorned with caitya-gavākşas, and a grāsapatti. The vedībandha is comparatively high and consists of seven courses of khura decorated with lotus scrolls or caitya-gavākṣa pattern, kumbha bearing decorations of half diamonds or figures of Jaina goddesses on the body and bead-and-diamond band on the shoulder, kalasa, antarapatta decorated with stepped diamonds, kapota embellished with udgama pattern, mañcikā decorated with caitya-gaväksas, and a pattikä adorned with floral diamonds. Pierced into the upper three mouldings of the pitha on the north is a large, beautiful makara- praņāla.
The janghā is divided into two registers, the lower being wider than the upper. Supported by a figural band of dancers and musicians, warriors and fighters, teacher and disciples, mithuna scenes etc., the lower wall carries standing images of four-armed Dikpalas on the corner offsets and eight-armed dancing Yakṣīs and Vidyādevīs on the pratirathas and pratibhadras. Each deity is attended upon by two gayful apsarases and is surmounted by a fine udgama pediment. The apsarases also appear on the koņikās. Above each apsarā is represented an amorous couple. The upper wall, supported by a mañcikä with circular pendants underneath, carries four-armed standing images of Dikpālas and Yaksas on the corner offsets and Yakṣīs and Vidyādevis on the pratirathas. Each image is flanked on either side by a large elongated half diamond incised with flamboyant pattern. Similar diamonds also appear on the koņikās and pratibhadras, but here they are full and hollowed out. Above the upper janghā comes a square bharaṇi clasped by drooping foliage. The varandikā is divided into two sections, each consisting of a kapota, a fillet decorated with lotus scrolls and a ribbed awning carrying on the corners of the offsets the figures of Vidyādharas carved in the round and holding knife.
Each bhadra above the pitha is differently treated in the sanctum. Here it shows two balconied windows one above the other, the lower being wider than the upper. The lower balcony is triratha on plan and shows recesses between the offsets. In elevation it displays a broad pattikā decorated with floral diamonds, rajasenaka adorned with diamond-and-double volute pattern, vedikā carrying figures of gods and goddesses on the offsets and various decorative patterns in the counter sunk recesses, an asanapatta with projecting bell-rooflets and udgama-pediments over the offsets and kirttimukhas over the recesses, and a kakşāsana with three decorative bands of flamboyant pattern, figures of varied nature in roundels, and foliate scrolls. The asanapatta supports eight octagonal ornate pillars with carved architraves put across them in the interior. Between the pillars are set up perforated stone grilles of geometrical pattern through which diffused light enters the inner ambulatory. The balcony window is shaded by an overhanging corrugated eave-cornice followed above by a kapota. The eave-cornice at corners supports elephants carved in the round and emerging from the kapota. The balcony in the interior has a rectangular flat ceiling divided up into three panels, the side ones depicting lotus medallions and the central panel, a stylised lotus. The upper balcony is very similar to the lower one but is covered by a bell-roof. It is through this balcony window that the interior of the upper storey is lighted.
The huge anekāndaka sikhara over the sanctum rises from a base made up of recessed fillet, arris and mañcikā, and is composed of a saptaratha central śikhara marked by eleven bhūmi-āmalakas and carrying 148 big and small śrngas of various form and design, if it is to be counted from the rear side. The offsets of the central tower terminate at the skandha indicated by a diamond-band, but the cardinal offsets extend to the grīvā which is crowned by a large āmalaka, candrikā, a smaller amalaka, kalaśa and bijapūraka. A figure carrying banner may also be seen on the west facade. On the skandha are stationed sculptures of Jaina monks
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carved in the round and seated in ease. At the base of the Sikhara, in each cardinal point, is a framed figure of eight-armed dancing goddess (one identifiable with Sarasvati). The whole of the Sikhara shows a lattice of fine but minute and complicated caitya-gavākṣa pattern. The front facade of the sikhara shows only one central śrriga, the others being replaced by a sukanāsa lodged over the buffer wall. The sukanāsa is made up of three graded balconied windows, each having a bell- roof with rampant lion. Two of these are blind, while the lower is open admitting diffused light to the interior of the upper storey. These windows carry dancing images of eight-armed Jaina goddesses on their side and front walls.
The interior of the sanctum shows a dvi-anga garbhagrha with an ambulatory around it. The ambulatory passage has been narrowed by reinforcing piers and arches during restorations. The exterior solid walls of the garbhagrha have a recessed bench on each face, while the front wall provides the entrance door concealed from view by piers and arches. Inside the garbhagsha is a colossal seated figure of Ajitanātha of late date of A.D. 1422. Besides, there are two small images of Ajitanātha of A.D. 1247-48, two standing images of Jinas of A.D. 1297 and several others of late date.
The gūdhamandapa attached diagonally to the sanctum is also caturanga on plan and follows the vertical lineaments of the latter including even the bottom row of śmigas, but above that it is covered by a bell roof of nineteen tiers studed with alternate small and big bells and topped at the apex by a large bell which consists of a cogged bell, amalaka, kalaśa and bijapuraka. The bells in the cardinal directions gradually become larger at their ascent and are crowned by rampant lions. This type of gradation of bells is singular in the temples of Gujarat. Two lateral entrance porches of the gūdhamandapa are alike. Each porch is approached from the courtyard by a flight of eleven steps cut across the pitha and consists of two tall, massive, octagonal pillars with architraves put across them and a flat
ceiling relieved with sixteen full-flown lotus flowers disposed in four lines of four each. The base of the pillars consists of six ornate courses of khura, kumbha, kalaša, antarapatta, kapota and gräsapatti. Their shaft is octagonal at the base, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular on the top, the last one clasped by three decorative bands of garland loops and foliage, diamonds and beads, and kīrttimukhas alternated by tassels. The capital consists of a double-coursed round abacus of arris and cyma recta, and a four-armed double-roll bracket. The architraves are divided into three fasciae, the lower carrying ornament of foliate scrolls, the middle intersecting garlands and the upper floral diamonds. In the centre of their underside is a lotus medallion. The saptaśākhā door consists of patra, ratna, again ratna, stambha, ratna, again ratna, and padma decorated with lotus petals respectively. The lower part of the stambhaśākhā is occupied by a figure of door-keeper, while the upper part shows some decorative bands and moulded courses. The doorsill, the central part of which has been concealed by marble encasing, shows a sculptured niche on either end. The door-lintel continues the decorations of three inner jambs but is interrupted in the centre by the tutelary image of Jina and surmounted by a projecting eave-cornice the intrados of which is incised with lotus petals. The overdoor shows nine projecting niches containing images of standing goddesses. The front door of the closed hall is very similar to the one just described but is partly concealed by two later built piers and an arch of Muslim style.
The interior of the güdhamandapa shows an octagonal arrangement of eight pillars in the nave and twelve attached pillars and two independent pillars in the surrounding diagonal aisle. Behind the last two pillars, which are standing towards the sanctum, are four others symmetrically arranged. Close behind the last four pillars stand other four connecting the screen that shuts off the sanctum. All these pillars are similar to those noticed in the porch, but here the side brackets of the capital are treated as crocodile heads. The nave
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pillars are provided with attic pillars having bracket figures of apsarases thrown between the two capitals. The apsarases are making dance and music or are busy in some other pursuits. The nave is covered by a large domical ceiling (Pl. 57) supported on an octagonal frame of usual architraves. The dome is composed of one sixteen-sided and nine circular courses and has a circular pendant. The sixteen-sided first course is decorated with half lotuses. The second is karņadardarikā. The third is adorned with chequer pattern. The next three are gajatālus. Three other successive courses consist each of sixteen-foil receding kolas. The last course carries sixteen small pendants of quatre-foil kola each. The pendant consists of two courses of sixteen-foil kola each and a modern chandelier. From the third course project out sixteen square brackets of Vidyādharas, each supporting a fine bracket figure of apsara tenoned into the lowermost kola. The wall spaces between the attached pillars are filled up with sculptured niches. Most of these niches are empty now; some contain images of Jinas and Acäryas. In one niche there is probably an equestrian image of king Kumārapāla, the donor of the temple. The surrounding aisle is also covered with six ornate ceiling courses. The dome in the upper storey, now plastered up with white lime, is strengthened by wooden cross-bars.
The mukhamandapa, which is approached from the front by three stairways, is divided into six bays by ten pillars and two stambhaskhas arranged in three lines of four each. The pillars and their architraves are similar to those found in the porch of the gūdhamandapa. Of the six ceilings three in the front row are samatala depicting nine or twelve full-flown lotus flowers. Two ceilings in the two rear corners are domical, each consisting of an octagonal and four circular courses. The octagonal course depicts lotus scrolls, while the circular courses consist of karnadardarika, gajatālu, rūpapatřikā showing teacher and disciples, and sixteenfoil kola respectively. From the centre of the dome hangs down a pendant made up of an eight-foil larger, eight-
foil smaller and quatre-foil kolas with a staminal tube clasped by two rows of petals. The ceiling near the gūdhamandapa door is also domical, but it consists of only four courses, the first showing human figures carrying water pot and the others comprising karņadardarikā decorated with lotus petals and buds, gajatālu and again gajatalu respectively. The central pendant is composed of sixteen-foil, eight-foil larger, eight-foil smaller and quatre-foil kolas and a staminal tube clasped by two rows of petals. On either side of the entrance door is an ornamental emptied niche of white marble added by Vastupāla in A.D. 1227. The mukhamandapa is shaded by corrugated eave-cornice. Above the eaves is a roll moulding pierced with four water spouts.
This magnificent temple is a royal erection built by the Caulukya king Kumärapåla in c. A.D. 1168. KUMBHARIA
It is situated about fourteen miles south-east of Abu Railway Station and one and a half miles from the famous Hindu site of Ambaji in the Banaskantha district of Gujarat. In old days it was known as Ārāsana, i.e. the place known for white marble, but it is not actually known when the present name of Kumbhāriā came in vogue. Probably, it was named after some Rajaputa king named Kumbha in the late medieval period. There is a group of five Jaina temples, all built of white marble and laid out on the gentle slope of a peak of the Aräsura hills with their face on the north. They were constructed from the 11th to the 13th century A.D. when the region was under the aegis of the Caulukyas of Anahillapātaka. The temple of Mahāvira at Kumbharia is the earliest one followed by Sāntinātha, Pärsvanātha, Neminātha and Sambhavanātha.
Mahāvira Temple - It (Fig. 81) consists of a sanctum, gūdhamandapa, mukhamandapa, rangamandapa surrounded on three sides by a series of twenty-two devakulikäs and a balāņaka (entrance hall), the whole standing on a high plain jagati. The temple is entered through a small porch from the front (Pl. 58) and the
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lateral sides. The front porch opens up in the balāņaka, circular projection carved with lotus stem in the centre, while the lateral ones are aligned with their counterparts a kirttimukha on each side of it, and floral diamonds in the gūdhamandapa. The exterior walls of the on either end. The door-lintel depicts a figure of Jina devakulikās up to their termination at the lateral entrances in the centre as well as on either end, while the spaces serve as an outer enclosing wall for the temple, while the in between them are filled up with hovering figures of remaining part of the jagati is surrounded by a simple Maladharas and six images of two-armed Sarasvati, wall ensuring thus an outer ambulatory to the temple. Cakreśvari, Vajrānkusi, Vairoțyà, Ambika and
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan consisting of Vajraśțnkhalā. In front of the door is a fine moonstone. bhadra, pratiratha and karna, the last one broken into Inside the sanctum is installed a framed figure of three planes. Between the angas are slilāntaras, and the Mahāvīra sitting in meditative posture. The image is salilantaras between the karmas and pratirathas contain a late one dated in A.D. 1618 but the pedestal on which koņikās. In elevation it shows five usual divisions. The it stands is original as it bears an inscription of A.D. pitha consists of four courses of bhitta, jadyakumbha, 1061 the date when the temple was actually built. karnikā and pattikā and is plain, but for the jādyakumbha Against the east and west walls of the garbhagsha are which carries on each bhadra a half diamond flanked by placed seated images of Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā which half caitya-gavākşas. The vedibandha carries five courses appear contemporary to the temple. of khura, kumbha adorned with half diamonds, kalasa, The gudhamandapa closely follows the horizontal antarapatta, and kapota decorated with caitya-gavākşas. and vertical lineaments of the sanctum, but its offsets The janghā, divided into two registers by a grāsapatti, isare broader and it is roofed by a pyramidal superstructure plain but for the projecting sculptured niches (now studed with seven rows of fluted bells alternating with empty) on the bhadras. A grāsapatti also surmounts the smaller ones (Figs. 82-83). At the top is a large bell upper register of the jangha. The varandikā is composed with a partly preserved kalaša, and in the cardinal of a narrow plain band, an arris, urdhva-padma, kapota directions are somewhat smaller bells with rampant of the type of the pitha and ribbed eave-cornice. Pierced lions. At the base of the roof, in each cardinal point, into the khura on the west is a makara-pranala. The is a sculptured niche with fine pediment decorated with śikhara (Pl. 60) is of the anekāndaka variety clustered caitya-gavākṣa pattern. with twenty-one śmigas. The central tower is marked by The gūdhamandapa is entered through a small five bhūmi-āmalakas and crowned above the narrow porch from each of the lateral sides by a flight of three grīvā by a large amalaka, candrika, a smaller āmalaka, or four steps. The porch, connected with the outer candrikā, kalaśa and bijapūraka. Between the śmigas are entrance by a colonnaded corridor, consists of two shown elephant trunks and square shrine models of the octagonal pillars and two five-faceted pilasters, has an hall variety. The whole of the spire is covered with a uncarved flat ceiling and is shaded by a corrugated lattice of fine caitya-gavāksas. At the base of the sikhara cave-cornice. The single-sakhā door is provided with in each cardinal point is a framed figure of seated Jina moonstone and is plain. The front door of the flanked by a pair of standing ones. The figures on east. gūdhamandapa on the other hand is very ornate. It is however, are missing. The sikhara is squat and heavy. of the pañcaśakha variety consisting of patra (scroll),
The triśākhā doorframe of the sanctum consists rūpa (figure sculptures), rūpastambha (pillar with figure of patra, stambha and padma, and has on its basal part sculptures), again rūpa and bāhyaśākhā (outer jamb) a standing Jina with two female attendants, the one on decorated with two narrow bands of creepers and inner side carrying a water pot. The doorsill has a semi- diamond-and-beads. The lower part of jambs is occupied
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Fig. 81. Plan of Mahāvira Temple, Kumbharia.
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WANITA
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Figs. 82-83. Plan and elevation of bell-roof, güdhamandapa, Mahāvīra Temple, Kumbharia.

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by a framed figure of four-armed standing goddess Acchuptă on proper right and Vairotyä on proper left, attended upon by two female figures carrying water pot or fly-whisk. Similarly, the portion above this is occupied by three lalitäsana goddesses, each with two female attendants. The doorsill is divided into two horizontal belts, the lower having moulded courses and the upper conforming to that seen in the sanctum, but the diamond on either end is replaced by a sculptured niche sheltering Sarvānubhuti on proper right and Ambikā on proper left. The door-lintel is also divided into two belts, the lower showing scroll-band of the patra-sakha and a row of hovering figures of Mālādharas, both being interrupted in the centre by the tutelary image of an unidentified male divinity, and the upper depicting child Vardhamāna in the lap of her mother Trisalā in the centre, Naigameșa and two seated goddesses on her right and a Yaksa and two seated goddesses on her left.
The interior of the gudhamandapa shows an octagonal arrangement of eight simple and plain pilasters supporting a domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of plain architraves. The dome is composed of seven circular courses pertaining to karnadardarikā, grāsapatti, padma, gajatälu, again gajatālu, eight-foil kola and quatrefoil kola scooped out with a circular kola. From the lower course of the dome project out eight square blocks of stone carved with figures of hovering Vidyadharas which originally supported eight bracket figures tenoned into the sixth course. The south wall shelters two images of kāyotsarga Jinas dated in A.D. 1061.
The mukhamandapa consists of four bays; three bays are formed across the axial line by six octagonal pillars and two five-faceted pilasters (flanking the gūdhamandapa doorway) arranged in two lines of four each and one, projecting into the rangamandapa, is formed by two very ornate square pillars. It is landed up from the rangamandapa by a flight of four steps cut into the pitha of the projecting bay. The pītha of the mukhamandapa consists of seven ornamental
mouldings of two bhittas, jadyakumbha, karņikā, antarapatta, chádyaki decorated with caitya-gavākşa pattern and gräsapatti, all polished. But the same of the projecting bay is treated like an ornate balustrade consisting of a bhitta, rūjasenaka decorated with diamondand double volute pattern, vedikā inset with richly carved upright posts alternating with recessed slabs, and an asanapatta adorned with alternate rooflets and kirttimukhas. The vedikä on each side also carries two sculptured niches sheltering Cakeśvari and Nirvani on the east and Ambikā and Sarasvati on the west. All the columns and ceilings supported by them on carved frame of architraves are highly ornamental. The ceiling in the projecting bay displays five projecting square Tūmas (pendants) in diagonal framework. Similarly, the ceiling near the gūdhamandapa door shows five depressed square lumas. These two are counted among the finest ceilings of India. The other two ceilings depict each a depressed circular lümä of eight-foil, quatrefoil and circular kolas. Two rangamandapa ceilings located on two lateral sides of the projecting bay are just the reverse of the preceding ones consisting each of eightfoil and quatrefoil kolas and a staminal tube with two rows of petals. There are two ornate but empty niches (khattakas) on two sides of the gudhamandapa door. Between the pillars in each lateral bay is a handsome cusped torana-arch.
The rangamandapa is laid out on the floor of the jagati and shows ten tall ornate pillars which, together with two pillars of the projecting bay of the mukhamandapa, are so arranged as to form a square central nave and two side aisles. Two of these pillars belong to the square order and are very ornate, while the remaining ones are octagonal and less ornate. Eight pillars, two central pillars on each side which originally carried an undulant torana-arch, form an octagon with architraves spanned across them and support a shallow but beautiful domical ceiling with a fine central pendant. The architraves are divided into two fasciae, the lower depicting lotus creepers and the upper lozenges; in the
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centre of their soffit is a fine lotus. The dome (Pl. 59) On the lower part of the jamb stands a female carrying consists of eight circular courses representing water pot. The doorsill shows an inverted crescent with kirttimukhas, karņadardarikā, seated goddesses (two on foliage in the centre and a small lotus medallion on the north and south sides being Gajalaksmi), gajatālu, either side. The door-lintel continues the decoration of thirty-two, twenty-eight, twenty-four and twenty-foil the jamb and depicts Jina as crest image. The devakulikäs kolas respectively, the first being single-lobed and the are dedicated to various Tīrthankaras the images of other three seven-lobed (3+3+1). The padmašila-pendant whom have mostly gone. is composed of twenty-, twelve-, eight- and quatre-foil The balāņaka is a square pillared hall jutting out oversailing kolas and a staminal tube clasped by two from the outer enclosing wall of the devakulikās. It is laid rows of petals. From the third course of the dome out on the same floor level as do the devakulikās and is project out sixteen bracket figures of four-armed hovering enclosed on the outer side by a screen wall of perforated Vidyadharas and Naigamesa (at two places only) stone grilles fitted between the pillars. The screens are supporting a square block of stone carved with diamonds. cut up with various geometrical patterns and auspicious The four basal corners of the nave left out by the symbols. It is roofed by a plain and simple dome consisting formation of the dome are each filled with a large of ten circular courses carried by twelve octagonal plain kirttimukha, while the narrow soffits on north and south pillars. The balāņaka contains a stone plaque representing are filled with nicely executed creepers. As we enter the story of Aśvāvabodhasamalikā-vihāratīrtha which the rangamandapa from the front, there is a symbolical originally was kept in the Neminātha temple. representation, possibly of Padmasarovara, on its floor. Immediately to the south of the outer eastern Each of the side-aisles is divided into seven rectangular entrance is a four-faced devakulikā housing a bays, each having a fine samatala ceiling. Fourteen in Samavasarana plaque made of yellow marble. number these ceilings show Pancakalyānaka scenes śāntinātha Temple - It lies at a little distance (descent from heaven, birth, initiation, enlightenment in the north-west of the Mahavira temple. On plan it and death) of Sāntinātha, Mahāvīra and Rşabhanātha, closely follows the Mahāvīra temple but the balāņaka parents of twenty-four past, present and future is absent here, and the niches on the front of the Tīrthankaras, Caturvidhasangha (laymen, laywomen, rangamandapa are eight in number and are screened by monks and nuns), figures in boxes, etc.
double arcade of pillars (Fig. 84). From the presence The devakulikās, of which eight each flank on east of eight niches and sixteen shrine-cells this temple has and west and six align on the front in the form of become a Caturvimsatijinālaya, i.e. a Jaina temple with niches, are laid out on a floor higher than the twenty-four subsidiary shrines. rangamaņdapa and are approachable from the latter by The tri-anga sanctum displays constricted offsets a flight of three steps made along the entire length of and stands on a low yet plain pītha consisting of two their platform. They are confronted by a cloistered bhittas, jādyakumbha, karņikā and pattika. The corridor of one row of octagonal pillars carrying plain vedībandha is also plain consisting of five usual courses, lantern ceilings. The corridor is shaded towards the The janghā, divided into two registers by a plain median rangamandapa by an overhanging corrugated eave- band, is plain but for projecting sculptured niches on cornice. Provided with moonstone the doorframe of the cardinal offsets. The niches are not empty here but each devakulikā consists of one jamb decorated with contain images of Jinas sitting in meditative posture. alternate beads and diamonds, but two devakulikās have The varandika consists of two kapotas and a ribbed double jambs, the additional being decorated with scrolls. eave-cornice. The anekāņdaka pañcaratha śikhara (Pl. 62)
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Fig. 84. Plan of Santinatha Temple, Kumbharia.

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is tall, shows twenty one śṛngas in all, and is marked on the central tower by seven bhūmi-amalakas. The entire sikhara is covered with a fretwork of complicated caitya-gaväkṣas. The different offsets of the sikhara terminate at the skandha, but the central offsets extend to the grīva crowned by a large amalaka clasped by plain band, a candrikā, smaller amalaka, kalaśa and bījapüraka. Between the śrngas here also are placed forepart of elephants (gajamunda). The three niches at the base of the sikhara contain images of four-armed seated Jaina goddesses of which two are identifiable with Cakreśvari (E) and Ambika (W). The dvisākhā door of the sanctum consists of fine patra and thin ratna. The doorsill shows a square projection bearing stemmed lotus in an inverted crescent in the centre, a female with water pot and a kirttimukha on each side of it, and two females with one of their hands raised in adoration on either extremity. At the base of the inner doorjamb stand graceful figures of river goddesses, Ganga on proper right and Yamuna on proper left, both carrying water pot. This is a rare representation of river goddesses in the Jaina temples of Gujarat. The doorlintel continues the decorative bands of the jambs and has a Jina as crest figure. Inside the sanctum is installed an image of Santinatha sitting in meditative posture. The image does not appear to be contemporaneous with the temple.
Articulated at the frontal karna of the sanctum the gudhamandapa shows only bhadra and karna. It shares its pitha and wall with the sanctum and has a pyramidal roof studed with unfluted bells of very poor workmanship. On the top of the roof is a large bell with kalasa and bijapūraka. The two lateral porches consist each of two octagonal pillars and two fivefaceted pilasters and have a ceiling made by cutting off the corners. Their single-sakha door is decorated with foliate scrolls. The front or northern door of the güdhamandapa is of the triśakha variety consisting of patra, padma and broader patra. At the base of the jambs stands a female carrying water pot. The door-lintel

continues the decorations of the jambs and shows a Jina as crest image. The overdoor depicts eight auspicious Jaina symbols which are rarely found at this place in the Jaina temples of Gujarat. The interior of the güdhamandapa shows an octagonal arrangement of eight pilasters supporting a domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of plain architraves. The dome is composed of six circular courses, the first four being padma (cyma recta) and the last two consisting of an eight-foil and a quatrefoil kolas. The dome is closed up by a circular kola.
The mukhamandapa (Pl. 61) is rectangular on plan and consists of six bays formed by ten pillars and two pilasters arranged in three lines of four each. It is approached from the rangamandapa by a flight of five steps cut into the central bay. Its pitha on two lateral sides here also is polished; it consists of eight courses of two bhittas, karṇikā, paṭṭikā, jāḍyakumbha, broad karnika, antarapaṭṭa decorated with diamonds, projecting band and gräsapatti, while the whole of the same on the front side is treated like an ornamental balustrade which is similar to that seen in the Mahāvīra temple, but the two vedika-niches on proper right shelter Sarvanubhuti and Acchupta and the same on proper left Nirvāņi and Yakṣa Brahmasanti. All the four pillars in the front row are of square order and very rich in decoration. Similarly, the two five-faceted pilasters flanking the gudhamandapa door are highly ornamental. The remaining six pillars belong to octagonal variety and are less ornate. The architraves running across them bear two decorative bands of lotus scrolls and diamonds. Each bay contains an ornate ceiling. Two of these ceilings (south-east and south-west) are square on plan and consists each of four circular courses and a short circular pendant of eight-foil pointed kola with staminal tube clasped by three rows of petals. The first course shows a kirttimukha-band on the inner face and a Kinnara couple at each corner on the underside, while the other three are made up of karṇadardarikā, eightfoil larger and eight-foil smaller kolas respectively. Two

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ceilings in the north-west and north-east corners are slightly rectangular on plan, but their space is reduced to a square by a framework of stone slabs decorated with human couple, dancers and musicians, Kinnara, goose, elephant, crocodile etc. Each ceiling consists of three circular courses and a circular pendant made up of eight-foil kola and a staminal tube clasped by two rows of petals. The first course depicts garland loops on the inner face and a pair of confronting elephants on each corner, the second is karṇadardarika and the third is gajatālu. Square on plan the ceiling just above the staircase consists of three circular courses and a large pendant of padmašila. The inner face of the first course shows a band of jasmin flowers, while its underside on four corners bears images of Rohiņi, Sarasvati, Cakreśvarī and Vairoṭya, all four-armed and seated in lalitasana. The second is karṇadardarikā and the third is decorated with geese. The pendant is composed of twelve-, eight-, six- and quatre-foil pointed kolas with a flower bud on the tip. The ceiling near the gudhamandapa door is similar to the preceding one, but it is shorter in size and shows images of Dikpālas (Agni, Kubera, Yama and Nirṛti) on the four corners. The two ornamental niches flanking the gudhamandapa front door here also are empty.
The rangamaṇḍapa shows eight ornate pillars which, together with four pillars of the mukhamandapa, form a slightly rectangular central nave and two side aisles. Six of these pillars are of the octagonal order and two central pillars on the front belong to square variety. To give an additional height to the roof they are provided with attic pillars. Eight of these pillars, i.e. two central pillars on each side, form an octagon and support a big domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves decorated with two ornamental bands of lotus scrolls and creepers, and a lotus medallion in the centre of their underside. In order to strengthen the dome a beautiful cusped arch has been inserted between the central pair of pillars on each side. The dome (Pl. 63) consists of eight circular courses and a circular

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pendant. The first course is decorated with figures of Jaina goddesses alternating with rosettes. The second is karṇadardarika. The third is adorned with lozengeshaped flowers. The fourth is gajatālu. The remaining four courses consist of twenty-eight-foil, twenty-fourfoil, twenty four-lobed-foil and sixteen four-lobed-foil of kolas respectively. The pendant consists of twelve-, eight- and quatre-foil kolas with a long staminal tube clasped by a band of dancers and musicians. From the third course project out sixteen bracket figures of Vidyadharas. At each of the basal corners is shown a large kirttimukha in high relief. The broader soffits left out at the north and south ends depict very fine and large creepers.
Each of the side aisles of the rangamandapa is divided into seven bays, six of which on each side have fine samatala ceilings. The carvings of these ceilings include Pañcakalyaṇaka scenes of Adinatha, Śantinātha, Neminatha, Parsvanatha and Mahāvīra, Samavasaraṇa scene, a complete set of sixteen four-armed lalitasana Vidyadevis with Parsvanatha as central figure, figures of dancers, musicians, animals, horse-riders, elephants with drivers etc. One of the ceilings on the west also depicts Gomukha and Cakreśvari, the Yakṣa and Yakṣi of Ṛṣabhanatha to whom this temple originally was dedicated. Here the rangamaṇḍapa floor on the north end bears a rotating svastika symbol.
The devakulikäs with single or double arcade of pillars have each a single-sakha door adorned with scrolls or diamonds and beads. The doorsill shows an inverted crescent with foliage in the centre and a lotus medallion on each side of it. At the base of the jamb is a female carrying water vessel. The door-lintel depicts a Jina as crest image. All the pillars are of simple octagonal order and the pilasters flanking the doors are five-faceted. Each bay carries a ceiling formed by cutting off the corners. The central stone in each ceiling depicts a full-blown lotus flower. The devakulikās towards the rangamandapa are shaded by an overhanging eave-cornice. They are dedicated to Tirthankaras whose

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images have mostly been taken away.
The three entrance porches, the eastern one of which has gone, consist each of two octagonal plain pillars and two pilasters and carry a flat or domical plain ceiling. The single-śākhā door is adorned with foliate scrolls. At the base of the jamb stands a female carrying water pot, but the same in the northern porch has images of Gangā and Yamunā as we notice in the sanctum door of this temple.
There is a four-faced chapel in the south-east corner of the court which shelters Mt. Astăpada dated in A.D. 1209.
The temple of Sāntinātha has a close kinship to the Mahāvīra temple both in form and decoration, but it also shows some change and advancement and hence posterior in date to the latter. Since the Mahavira temple was built in about A.D. 1061, this temple may have been built about two decades later in about A.D. 1081. Colour to this is also lent by some inscriptions of this date found in the temple.
Pārsvanātha Temple - It closely lies to the east of the Mahavira temple. It is larger than the temples of Mahāvīra and Santinātha and is laid out on a taller jagati. On plan (Fig. 85) it closely corresponds to the Mahāvīra temple, but in place of entrance hall it has a nālamandapa built over the entrance porch (PL. 64) and a stairway leading up from the latter to the rangamandapa. Besides, it has nine devakulikās on either side, six niches on the front have been worked out as devakulikās, and the lateral entrance is to be found only on the west.
The pitha of the tri-anga sanctum consists of four plain courses. The vedībandha of the wall has the usual five courses. The wall divided into two belts by a plain band is plain except for the projecting sculptured niches (now empty) on the central offsets. The varandikä over the wall is made up of a kapota and a ribbed awning. The featureless śikhara with 93 turrets and crowning members is a later erection. The door of the sanctum consists of two jambs, one bearing scroll pattern and
the other, diamonds and beads. On the door-lintel is a Jina as lalatabimba. Inside the sanctum is installed an image of Parsvanātha sitting in meditative posture on a moulded pedestal. The image is a late one belonging to the 16th century A.D.
The gūdhamandapa, which is wider than the sanctum, shares its pītha and wall with the sanctum and is covered by a roof now plastered up. It has entrances on the north and west only. The western entrance is led through a small porch with single-sākhä door adorned with foliate scrolls. The northern door is, however, very ornate and consists of five jambs showing scrolls, female attendants, four-armed Jaina goddesses, female attendants and diamonds-and-beads respectively. The lower part of door carries Vidyadevis with female attendants. The door-lintel depicts on its lalāta an image of Padmāvati, the Yakși of Pārsvanātha, flanked on each side by Mälädharas, above this are shown Vidyādevis in panels and apsarases and Gandharvas in counter sunk panels; and then occur fourteen objects of dream seen by the Jina mother during her conception. The doorsill shows delicately carved semi-circular mandāraka flanked by a pair of kirttimukhas. There is a fine moonstone in front of the doorsill. The interior of the gūdhamandapa shows the usual arrangement of eight pilasters carrying a dome of seven circular courses of karnadardarikā, ratna, three successive gajatālus, eight-foil kola and quatrefoil kola. A circular kola closed up the dome. Its seven intact Vidyadhara brackets once probably supported Nāyikā figures. There are two big images of Ajitanätha and Sāntinätha dated in A.D. 1119.
The mukhamandapa is similar to that seen in the Mahāvīra temple, displaying ornamental pitha, same set of pillars and pilasters, and two fine sculptured niches, but, surprisingly enough, the ceilings are flat and uncarved, probably the original ceilings, having been damaged, were replaced during renovations.
The disposition of rangamandapa is also similar to that of the Mahāvīra temple, but it is spacious and well proportioned, and its pillars are stout and tall and

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Fig. 85. Plan of Pārsvanātha Temple, Kumbharia.
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are provided with attic system. The architraves across the pillars depict only a kirttimukha in the centre of the lower fascia and flat diamonds in the upper. Similarly, the domical ceiling (Pl. 65) is not shallow as it consists of ten circular courses, the first six displaying kirttimukhas, karņadardarikā, ratnapatta, gajatalu, rūpapatta showing a figure of Jina mother with laymen and laywomen and gajatālu, each of the next three being four-lobed kola and the last, a mono-kola. The pendant hanging down in the centre of the dome consists of three kola courses and has a longer staminal tube with two rows of petals. The dome has been reinforced by sixteen brackets figures (now gone) emerging from the square blocks of Vidyadhara brackets inserted in the third course and once tenoned into the seventh course. Each of the basal corners of the dome shows usual kirttimukha carved in bold relief. On the floor of the rangamandapa on the northern end here also is represented a rotating svastika symbol. Each of the side aisles is divided into seven bays, six having uncarved flat ceilings and one carrying a domical ceiling of seven circular courses. The space between the dome and nālamandapa is covered by three plain samatala ceilings.
The devakulikās, twenty four in number, are all symmetrical but for the central cell on each of the lateral sides. Their cloistered corridor displays one row of octagonal pillars. The pillars are tall and ornate and are overshadowed by a ribbed eave-cornice, unlike the corrugated one employed in the earlier temples. The pilasters flanking the doors of the cells, the architraves spanned across the columns and the ceilings supported by them are all ornate. The ceiling in front of each cell is domical consisting of four courses, the first being octagonal and the rest, circular. All the twelve ceilings in the east wing show incision of lotus petals on the four courses and a full-blown lotus flower on the key- stone. The same in the west wing displays figural and floral patterns and a small pendant hanging down from their centre. Each devakulika has a single-sakhā door decorated with foliate scrolls. At the base of the jamb
stands a door-guardian with female attendants. On the door-lintel appears a four-armed goddess rather than the usual Jina figure. The central devakulikā in either wing, i.e. the fifth from the southern end, is larger than the others and displays very ornate exterior and interior. Their tri-anga exterior walls depict images of the Dikpālas in their correct positions on the corner offsets and those of Jaina goddesses on the remaining ones. They are also roofed by a sikhara enmeshed with fine caitya-gavaksas. In the interior the two central devakulikās show very ornate square pillars and fivefaceted pilasters and have a fine ceiling of the domical order. Their doors are also richly carved. All the devakulikās are dedicated to Tirthankaras the enshrined images of whom are mostly gone. As is found in the earlier temples, the passage between the lateral doors of the gūdhamandapa and the outer entrances is covered by a pillared corridor with flat or domical ceilings.
The northern entrance porch shows an arrangement of six pillars and four pilasters to form four bays, three running east-west across the axial line and one jutting out from the central bay. It rests on a low terrace which is approached from the ground by a flight of seven steps. The pillars are of the octagonal order and the ceilings carried by them are flat and plain. The entrance door whence a stairway leads to the floor of the rangamandapa is of the single-sakhā variety adorned with foliate scrolls. To ward off rainwater the porch is overshadowed by an overhanging corrugated eavecornice.
The western entrance porch is square on plan and is landed up by a double flight of steps. It shows two pillars and two pilasters and is roofed by a plain flat ceiling.
The nālamandapa, built right above the northern porch and the stairway of seven steps, is a square pillared hall with an additional square bay towards the north end. It is laid out on a floor higher than the corridor and is approachable from the latter by two small steps. On the exterior as well as on the southern
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end in the interior it is enclosed by a low parapet wall with sloping seat-back. On the outer face of the seat- back are represented figures of amorous couples, Maladharas, geese, monkey, elephant etc. in roundels. This low opening wall not only provides sufficient light and air to the interior but also seats for resting the visitors. In the interior the nälamandapa shows eight dwarf pillars on the seat of the sloping seat-back, four octagonal massive pillars along the southern side and two pilasters flanking the devakulikās. Eight of these columns are so arranged as to form an octagon and support a domical ceiling with a short pendant. The dome consists of nine circular courses, all incised with lotus petals. As against a bold kirttimukha on each of the four basal corners, it shows two elephants lustrating a lotus plant.
Stylistically, this temple shows some change and advancement on the Mahavira and Santinātha temples and has close resemblance with a little later built temple of Neminätha at this site. Since the Neminātha temple is known to have been completed about A.D. 1136, this temple may have been built somewhat earlier, probably about A.D. 1100. This date also fits in well with the dates of the inscriptions found in the temple. The earliest of these inscriptions is dated in A.D. 1104, but the temple may have been built a little earlier than this date.
Neminātha Temple - It lies at a little distance to the south-west of the Mahāvīra temple. The general arrangement of its plan (Fig. 86) is similar to the Pārsvanātha temple consisting thus of a sanctum, gūdhamandapa, mukhamandapa, rangamandapa enclosed by ten devakulikās on the front and eight on each lateral side, and a nålamandapa, but it is larger in size and by virtue of its central situation it is most sacred temple of Kumbharia. The temple is entered only from the north through a partly rebuilt square porch approached from the ground by double flight of steps. From the porch a stairway of eleven steps leads up to the floor of the rangamandapa. The temple complex stands on a fairly lofty but unadorned jagati.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, each indented into five or seven planes. Between the offsets are salilāntaras, each of which accommodates a minor projecting konikā. The frontal karna and pratiratha form a buffer wall between the gūdhamandapa and the sanctum.
In elevation the sanctum (Pl. 66) shows all the five divisions, viz. pītha, vedibandha, janghā, varandikā and sikhara. The pitha (Fig. 47) is high and very elaborate and consists of bhitta (now imbedded), jadyakumbha, karnika, antarapatta, chadyaki decorated with caityagavākṣa device, gräsapatti, gajathara and narathara. The narathara displays figures of dancers and musicians, warriors and fighters, amorous couples, teacher and disciples, etc. The vedibandha shows five usual members of khura, kumbha, kalaša, antarapatta and kapota, but ornamentally they are very rich carrying figures of Jaina goddesses on kumbha and diamonds on antarapatta. There is a fine makara-pranāla on the east. The wall, supported by a mañcikä (kapota like moulding with circular pendants underneath), carries four-armed images of Dikpālas in their correct position on the karmas and of Vidyādevis and Yaksis on the pratirathas. Framed between two circular pillarettes and topped by a two-coursed stepped pediment of caitya-gavākṣa motif, each figure stands in an elegant posture on a console decorated with lotus leaves. On two faces of the konkäs appear charming figures of apsarases making dance or music, securing her lower garment which is being carried down by a dwarf rode on her thigh, or striping her lower garment to show nudity. Above each apsara is also seen an amorous couple. The wall on each bhadra shows a projecting sculptured niche crowned by a ribbed eave-cornice and an ornamental pediment, but the harbouring image in each is missing. Above the statutory band comes a round bharaṇi of arris-cum-cyma recta clasped by drooping foliage. The cornice above the wall consists of a kapota and a ribbed awning. The whole of the multi-turreted sikhara, built of bricks and coated with plaster, seems to be a very late erection. The sanctum door is modern.
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Inside the sanctum is a colossus of Neminatha of A.D. 1618 seated in meditation on a high pedestal. Behind the sanctum and supported by the southern compound wall is a large toraṇa-frame which once may have been with the original cult image in the sanctuary.
The gudhamandapa with its plain wall, roof and interior pilasters carrying painted domical ceiling is a restored and later one but for a few basal mouldings of the pitha. It has an entrance only on the north; its doorframe is very large and was redone recently. Inside are some interesting images. Two of these are colossuses of standing Pārsvanatha and Suparśvanatha dated in A.D. 1157. Another pair of standing Jinas dated in A.D. 1257 flank the sanctum doorframe. There is also a stone panel representing 170 images of seated Jinas and dated in A.D. 1253.
The mukhamandapa, landed up from the rangamandapa by three staircases, each provided with a moonstone, has plain and unmoulded pitha and is divided into ten bays by eight pillars and four pilasters of its own and six pillars (three on each side) of the rangamaṇḍapa arranged in three lines of six each. All the pillars and pilasters are of the square order and are heavily enriched with figure sculptures. The architraves running across them are decorated with two bands of lotus scrolls and diamonds respectively. Four of the ten ceilings on two sides are made by cutting off the corners and are plain but for the central stone which is adorned with lotus flower. The remaining six ceilings are ornate and circular, but they cannot compete those seen in the mukhamnḍapa of the Mahāvīra and Santinātha temples. Each of these consists of an octagonal and three circular courses and a short pendant. The octagonal course is decorated with kirttimukhas, diamonds, geese, lotus scrolls or half lotuses, and the rest are treated as stencilled ardhvapadimas or karpadardarika, gajatālu and four-lobed kola. The two khattakas flanking the door of the gudhamandapa are empty now. There are two additional khattakas. The one in the south-east corner shelters a stone plaque of Nandiśvaradvipa dated in

A.D. 1266 and the corresponding one on the southwest an image of Ambika, the Yakṣi of Neminatha, datable to late 13th century A.D. The lateral sides on the east and west are walled up by blind screens carved with geometrical, floral and faunal patterns.
The rangamandapa is a two-storeyed structure of twenty pillars. Eight of these, together with four pillars of the mukhamandapa, form a square central nave, and six are colonnaded in a row on its each lateral side. The upper storey is demarcated by a kakṣāsana wall supported on the nave and mukhamandapa pillars and extended as far as the door of gudhamandapa on the one end and nalamandapa on the other. The spaces between the roof and the kakṣäsana being open, the interior of the rangamandapa has become highly ventilated. The nave pillars are of square order with corners chamfered into five angles and correspond to the ornate mukhamandapa pillars with this difference that they are taller and massive and have a moulded pedestal below the base. Six lateral pillars also belong to square order, but they carry very little ornamentation. The remaining six pillars standing on two sides of the mukhamandapa are octagonal and less ornamental. The architraves over the pillars are similar to those found in the mukhamandapa, but the diamond-band on those surrounding the nave is replaced by a frieze of figure sculptures. The kakṣāsana wall consists of an asanapaṭṭa and a kakṣasana, the former decorated with flamboyant pattern and the latter with three decorative bands of kirttimukhas, figures in roundels and foliate scrolls respectively. The nave is covered by a large but impressive domical ceiling raised up by attic pillars with ornate architraves put across them. The domical ceiling (Pl. 67) consists of nine circular courses and a circular padmašila. The courses show ardhapadma, karnadardarika, rūpakantha, gajatālu, rupapattika depicting Pañcakalyāṇakas, gajatālu and three successive kolas of four-lobed each respectively. From the third course project out sixteen square brackets of Vidyadharas and Naigameṣa (at two places only). The padmašila,

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pratiranhas
Shudru khattaka
Lapili
kama
Nandisvara palla
Kalyana-traya
extension
Abure
khattaka
mitaprasada.
UNA
ardhacdra
T
EL
Supana tray+
extension
Ambika
blind screens
FC
Fig. 86. Plan of Neminatha Temple, Kumbharia.

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built on the principle of co-radial regression, consists right and of Ambikā on extreme left. The door-lintel of six courses of sixteen-foil kola each and one course depicts a Jina as crest image. The devakulikās have no of eight-foil kola. Each of the basal corners depicts a partition walls and the enshrined images have all gone, kirttimukha in alto-relievo. The entire ceiling was painted but the moulded pedestal, which is saptaratha in each during restoration in the 17th century A.D. Except for devakulikā and runs without break from one end to the four, all other ceilings of the rangamandapa are flat and other, is well preserved. The exterior wall of each uncarved. One flat ceiling in the west wing, however, devakulikā is also tri-anga and shows three horizontal is carved with an oval-shaped lotus flower. Two ceilings divisions on the wall, but the portion above that is in in front of the central devakulikā (15th from south) are the form of parapet provided with battlements, all modern domical, each now plastered up with lime. The one over and plastered up. The southern-most cell in the west the opening on north is also domical, but it is rectangular wing also carries an anekāndaka śikhara with its central on plan and its space is reduced to a square by a frame tower divided into five stages of bhūmi-amalakas and of four rectangular slabs bearing decorations of crowned by two āmalakas, a kalasa and bijapüraka. The intersecting garlands on the inner face and four lotus sikhara is wholly covered with a lattice of delicately medallions on each of the two shorter undersides. The carved caitya-gavāksa pattern. The two central dome consists of four courses and a circular padmašilā devakulikās are relatively more ornate as they have a of eight-foil kola. The first course of the dome is door of four ornate jambs, their ceilings are domical octagonal showing a band of geese on the inner face with incisions of lotus petals, and they carry an uncarved and two elephants lustrating a lotus plant on the soffit śikhara. The exterior wall of the central devakulikā on on its each corner. The other three show karņadardarikā, the west also shows images of Dikpālas on the corner gajatālu and four-lobed kola.
offsets and Jaina goddesses on the other. Inside the The devakulikās are laid out on a platform built central devakulikā on the east is a colossal seated image all around the temple and provided with three or four of Adinatha dated in A.D. 1618 and that in the west steps for landing. Each devakulikā is approached from is of Pārsvanātha, also perhaps of late date. the platform by two small steps. The central devakulikā The entrance porch consists of two pillars and two on each side (the fifth from south) is larger in size and pilasters and carries a lantern ceiling made by cutting is approached from the rangamandapa by two steps off the corners. It is enclosed on two sides by a short only. The devakulikās are screened by one arcade of balustraded wall and approached from the ground by pillars on the front and by a double colonnade on the a double flight of steps. lateral sides. Except for two terminal pillars near The nālamandapa built over the entrance porch nalamandapa which are square and ornate, all the pillars and a stair of five steps leading up from the porch to are of the octagonal order and less ornate. The five- the floor of the rangamandapa is a square pillared hall, faceted pilasters flanking their doors, however, are more if the bay right above the porch is excluded. It is laid ornate. Each bay contains an uncarved flat ceiling out on a floor higher than that of the devakulikās and Barring those of the two central devakulikās, the door is approachable from the latter by a lone step. On the of each cell consists of two jambs decorated with foliate exterior it is enclosed by a short balustraded wall scrolls and broad creepers respectively. At the basal part consisting of a rājasenaka decorated with diamonds, a of jambs on either side stands a female divinity with vedikā inset with alternate upright posts and recessed female attendants, one carrying a pitcher. The usually slabs, all richly carved, an āsanapatta and a kaksāsana, wrought sill carries an image of Sarvānubhūti on extreme the last two carrying similar decorations as are found
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on those of the rangamandapa. The kaksāsana is also built along the southern side of its interior. The nālamandapa is divided into seven bays by eight pillars and four pilasters and is shaded by an overhanging eave-cornice. The pillars, pilasters and architraves closely conform to those seen in the mukhamandapa and devakulikäs. Of the seven ceilings four are flat and uncarved and the other three are domical with very little carving. Between the dwarf pillars at extreme north bay of the nalamandapa is a fine wavy torana-arch
The main temple, according to the Prabandhas, was constructed about A.D. 1134 and its consecration was performed by Devasuri in S. 1193 (A.D. 1136), while most of the devakulikās, as known from the inscriptions, were added somewhat later.
Sambhavanātha Temple - It lies farthest west of the Mahāvīra temple. It consists of a sanctum, a gūdhamandapa with lateral entrance porches and a rangamandapa, the whole perched on a jagati supporting a boundary wall having projections against the lateral porches of the gūdhamandapa (Fig. 87; Pl. 68). The temple is entered only from the north through a porch approachable from the ground by a flight of ten steps.
The sanctum is tri-ariga on plan, the central offset broken into five and the others into three planes each. Between the offsets are set up salilāntaras. The frontal karma and pratiratha are transmuted into a buffer wall which separates the sanctum from the gūdhamandapa.
In elevation the sanctum shows pītha, vedibandha, janghā, varandikā and sikhara. The pitha consists of four courses of bhitta, jādyakumbha, karņikā and pattikă and is plain. The vedibandha comprising five usual mouldings of khura, kumbha, kalaša, antarapatta and kapota is also plain but for the kumbha which carries images of Jaina goddesses or decoration of half diamonds. The janghä, supported by a mañcikä, is divided into two registers by a plain medial band and is plain too, but each cardinal offset shows a projecting sculptured niche (now empty) surmounted by a two- coursed pediment of caitya-gaväksa pattern. The
varandikā consists of a deep fillet, mañcikā, kapota and a ribbed awning. There is a makara-praņāla pierced into khura on the east.
The pañcaratha anekāndaka sikhara of forty-one śļgas is marked on its central tower by seven bhumiāmalakas. The different offsets of the sikhara terminate at the skandha but the central offsets extend to the grīvā crowned above by a large amalaka clasped by diamondand-bead band, a candrikā, a smaller āmalaka, kalasa and bijapuraka. The spaces between the turrets are occupied by elephant trunks. At the base of the Sikhara in the cardinal points are framed figures of Vajrāňkusi (E), Cakreśvari (S) and Sarasvati (W). The whole of the sikhara is adorned with minute caitya-gavākşas. The front facade of the Sikhara carries a blind balconied window lodged over the buffer wall. The window has a pyramidal roof with lion springing from the sikhara. The doorframe of the sanctum consists of two jambs, the inner decorated with scrolls and the outer treated as pilaster. The sill shows a semi-circular projection carved with lotus stem in the centre, a kirttimukha on each side of it, and a sculptured niche sheltering Sarvänubhūti on extreme right and Ambikā on extreme left. The door-lintel continues the decorative bands of the jambs but is interrupted in the centre by the tutelary image of Jina. In front of the door is a moonstone also. Inside the sanctum is installed an image of Sambhavanātha seated in meditative posture on a moulded pedestal showing a figure of Lakşmi in the middle on the front. The enshrined image appears to be a late one but the pedestal is old. The buffer wall in the interior contains two sunk niches on two sides. The one on east is empty but that on the west shelters a human couple standing with folded hands against a fine parikara. Probably they were the donors of the temple.
The gūdhamandapa is dvi-anga on plan consisting thus of bhadra and karna offsets, each broken into three planes. It shares its pitha and wall with the sanctum but the portion above that is now plastered up with lime.
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Fig. 87. Plan of Sambhavanātha Temple, Kumbharia.
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Each of the lateral porches, landed up from the courtyard ceiling slab shows a lotus flower with bud. by a flight of three steps, consists of two simple octagonal The temple has close kinship with the Lūņavasahi pillars and two five-faceted pilasters and is roofed by at Abu in having projections in the enclosing wall, a a domical ceiling supported on a square frame of carved row of miniature shrine models on the overdoor, portrait architraves. The ceiling is composed of one octagonal sculptures of the donors, diapered doorjambs and and four circular courses, the first depicting a goose- pilasters, and slender form and angular modelling of band and the other three, lotus petals. The ceiling slab the sculptures. Since the Lūņavasahi is securely dated shows a lotus medallion. The door is similar to that in A.D. 1231, the present temple may also have been seen in the sanctum. But the dvi-Sakhä door on the north built about the same time and a date somewhere in the consists of patra and stambha, the latter carrying mid 13th century A.D. is quite justifiable. vertical flutings and divided at intervals into many GIRNAR horizontal ornate bands. The lower part of jambs is Girnar is a hill lying four miles east of the district occupied by a figure of door-keeper with female headquarters of Junagadh in Gujarat. It has been regarded attendants holding fly-whisk, and the overdoor is as a sacred place by both the Hindus and the Jainas represented with nine miniature shrines sheltering Jaina from very ancient times. To the Jainas, however, it had goddesses, but the central shrine has a Jina figure. The greater significance as three of the five Kalyāņakas (five interior of the gūdhamandapa shows an arrangement of auspicious events in the life of a Tirthankara), i.e. eight pilasters supporting a domical ceiling on an initiation (dikşă), enlightenment (kevalajñāna) and octagonal frame of architraves. The pilasters and liberation (mokşa), of Neminātha occurred here. During architraves are similar to those found in the porches. the historical period it came into importance when the The dome is composed of seven circular courses, the Mauryan king Candragupta built a dam there and Aśoka first showing the decoration of diamonds and the others, made canals to it. This water reservoir had so much the incision of lotus petals. The wall between the importance that many subsequent rulers paid due pilasters contains twelve sunk niches, each surmounted attention for its maintenance. From the Caulukya period by a pediment, but the images installed therein have it started developing into a temple city. All credit for mostly gone. In two niches a seven-hooded cobra canopy this goes to the Jainas who constructed some beautiful is preserved, indicating that originally they possessed Jaina temples (Pl. 69) on one of its hill-tops, which is images of Pärsvanatha. In another niche is an image reached after an ascent of nearly 2000 steps and covering of Jina Vāsupūjya of late 13th century A.D.
a distance of about a mile. At present, there are about The rarigamandapa is a square, opened, pillared sixteen Jaina temples of which only the Neminātha hall laid out on a pītha which is but a continuum of shrine and the Vastupālavihāra come under the purview the sanctum. It shows an arrangement of ten pillars of this Volume. along the three sides and two pilasters flanking the door Neminātha Temple - Built of black basalt and of the gūdhamandapa. The pillars are octagonal and facing west, this temple (Fig. 88) consists of a sāndhāra simple and the architraves supported by them are plain. sanctum, a gūdhamandapa with lateral entrance porches The five-faceted pilasters are, however, very ornate. and a rectangular hall terminating at the west end in They have a moulded base, ornate shaft bearing figures a balcony window which almost overhangs the nearly of goddesses, and ghatapallava capital. The dome is perpendicular scarp of the hill. The temple stands in composed of eleven circular courses; the first is decorated an oblong courtyard (190 ft. by 130 ft.) surrounded by with half diamonds and the others are left plain. The seventy one devakulikās confronted with a colonnaded
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corridor. The temple is entered from all except the west sides; the side entrances are co-axially arranged with the lateral doors of the gudhamandapa. The temple has been extensively renovated subsequently.
The sanctumn (Pl. 70) is tri-anga on plan with bhadra, pratiratha and karna, each broken into three planes. Between the angas are saliläntaras and the saliläntaras between the karnas and pratirathas contain minor projected corners which are not carried down to the pitha. In elevation it shows five usual divisions. The pitha consists of six courses of two plain bhittas, jadyakumbha, karṇikā, cippikā adorned with caityagaväkṣa ornament, and a plain pattikä. The vedībandha displays khura, kumbha bearing half diamonds incised with flamboyant pattern, kalasa, antarapatta, and kapota decorated with udgama pattern. The jangha, supported by a mañcikā, is divided into two halves by a plain median band and is short and featureless. It is crowned by two-coursed stepped pediments carrying squatted monkeys at corners of the offsets. The jangha is followed above by a pattikä decorated with floral diamonds. The varaṇḍikā is made up of kapota and ribbed eave-cornice. Each bhadra above the pitha is treated like a balcony window. Its short wall shows a rajasenaka, vedikā, asanapatta and kakṣasana, all being plain but for the asanapaṭṭa which projects with rooflets over the offsets and recedes with kirttimukhas over the alternate recesses of the vedika. The asanapatta in the interior carries two plain squat pillars supporting a corrugated eave-cornice overhanging the plain architraves placed across the pillars. The space between the pillars is filled with perforated stone grilles through which diffused light enters the inner ambulatory. Pierced into the rajasenaka of the balcony on the north is a crude makara-praṇāla.
The pañcaratha squat sikhara of the sanctum shows a central tower marked by nine bhūmi-amalakas and forty-eight śmigas with elephant trunks and vanished Śrigas in between them. The various offsets of the central tower terminate at the skandha, but the cardinal ones extend to the grīva crowned by a large amalaka, female cauri-bearers and two male attendants. Each of
The gudhamandapa, articulated diagonally at the frontal pratiratha of the sanctum, is similar on plan and elevation to the sanctum, but it is larger in size and is covered by a bell-roof studed with twelve rows of bells alternating with twelve rows of kūtas (square shrine-models). On the top is a large bell made up of an inverted flat bowl, amalaka, kalasa and bijapuraka. At the base of the roof, in each cardinal point, is a niche containing an image of seated goddess with four
candrika, a smaller amalaka, kalaśa and bījapūraka. On the east facade of the sikhara is a male figure holding the flag-staff. There are three sculptured niches at the base of the Sikhara, each crowned by three-tiered, stepped, plain pediment. The niches contain four-armed sitting images of Vairotya (S), Cakreśvarī (E) and Manasi (N) accompanied by female cauri-bearers. On the front facade of the sikhara is a blind window with triple stepped pediment crowned by figures of elephants and lions.
The pñcaśākhä doorframe of the sanctum consists of patra, rupa, rūpastambha, rūpa and padma decorated by lotus scrolls, female attendants, Jaina goddesses, female attendants and lotus petals respectively. On the lower part of jambs stands a door-keeper with female cauri-bearers. The sill shows a semi-circular projection in the centre and a sculptured niche sheltering Sarvanubhuti on proper right and Ambika on proper left. The door-lintel shows a ghaṭapallava capital over the jambs on either end, while the intervening space is filled with the scroll-band brought from the inner jamb and a row of hovering Mälädharas facing the Jina figure of the lalata. The overdoor depicts five images of goddesses with female attendants. A similar door may be seen at the outer northern entrance. The ambulatory around the sanctum is roofed by three gajatālu courses. The inner wall of the sanctum carries an emptied niche crowned by a ribbed awning and an elegant udgama-pediment. Inside the sanctum is a large seated image of Neminatha carved out of black stone.

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Fig. 88. Plan of Neminātha Temple, Girnar.

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the lateral entrance porches consists of two square sixteen-, twelve-, eight- and quatre-foil kolas. The dome pillars and two pilasters and has a flat roof with is closed up by a circular kola. From the second course corrugated awning. Between the pillars is a seven- project out sixteen square brackets of Vidyadharas cusped fine torana-arch. The single-sākhā door is supporting struts of apsarases tenoned into the lowermost decorated with lotus scrolls. At the base of the jamb kola course. The surrounding aisle is roofed by two stands a female carrying water pot. The gūdhamandapa gajatālu courses. is also entered from the front (west side) through the The rectangular hall (38 ft. by 21 ft.) houses two rectangular hall. Here also a similar toraņa - arch is raised platforms depicting feet in pair, probably of stretched between the rear pair of pillars of the hall. Ganadharas. The hall seems to be a later creation,
The interior of the gūdhamandapa, measuring 41.7 probably removing the mukhamandapa. ft. by 44.7 ft. from door to door, is cruciform in plan The devakulikās stand on a wide platform which having sixteen pillars in four groups of four each in the is approached from the courtyard by a flight of three four cardinal directions, one pillar at each of the four steps made all around. They are screened in the front corners, and two pillars towards a screen wall that shuts by a single or double row of square pillars and have off the sanctum. Besides, there are sixteen pilasters pilasters flanking the doors. The floor of the colonnaded attached at the corners of the wall. Eight central pillars on corridor is paved now with tesselated marble and the four sides are arranged in an octagon dividing thus the ceilings are made by cutting off the corners. The cells entire area into a central nave and surrounding aisle. The are overshadowed by a corrugated eave-cornice. Each nave pillars have attic pillars to support a domical ceiling cell contains a marble image of Jina seated in meditation. on an octagonal frame of architraves. The pillars have a The literary texts like the Raivatagirikalpa etc. square base; their shaft is square at the base, sixteen- reveal that the main temple was built by Sajjana, the sided in the middle and circular on the top; and their Caulukya governor of Saurashtra, in A.D. 1128, while capital consists of a double-coursed round abacus of arris the devakulikās were added by Thākura Sävadeva and and cyma recta and a four- or five-armed roll- andJasahada in A.D. 1159. makara-brackets. The architraves bear three ornamental Vastupālavihāra - It lies to the east of the bands of creepers, lotus petals with circular pendants, and Neminätha temple on a little higher scarp of the hill. diamonds in volutes. In the centre of their underside is a It is a triple temple (Fig. 89) with its three shrines lotus medallion. The attic pillars have a square base, opening into a closed hall entered from the front, i.e. circular shaft and an usual capital with this difference that west. The shrine on the east has an additional hall on the makara-brackets are replaced here by roll-brackets. its front. The temple is built of yellowish sandstone From the side makara-brackets of the lower pillar capitals which is not locally available but had been brought emerge cusped torana-arch meeting in the centre of the from some distance place. It has been so inadvertently underside of the architraves, while the other brackets repaired that all its original character has vanished. support struts of charming figures of apsarases and When I visited the shrine in 1970, its exterior had śardūlas. The domical ceiling (Pl. 72), which commences been coated with white lime or broken China wares, from a carved square block of stone placed over each while its interior parts had been covered with limecolumn of the octagon, is composed of nine circular coating, marble-encasing or paintings. courses of karņadarkarikä, a rūpapatta decorated with The eastern shrine (Pl. 71), which appears to be figures of dancers, horse-riders and elephants with drivers, the main shrine, consists of a sanctum and a pillared three successive gajatālus, and four successive courses of hall. The sanctum is tri-anga on plan with bhadra,
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Fig. 89. Plan of Vastupālavihāra, Girnar.
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pratiratha and karna, each broken into five planes up to the pitha and into three planes above that. Between the angas are salilantaras and the salilantaras between the karņas and pratirathas are reinforced with minor projecting corners. In elevation it shows five traditional divisions. The pitha consists of two bhittas, jädyakumbha, cippikā, gräsapatti and a pattikā decorated with diamonds. The vedibandha consists of khura, kumbha carrying figure sculptures on the body and foliage on the shoulder, kalasa adorned with beaded garlands and rosettes, antarapatta, and kapota bearing ornament of caitya- gavākṣas. The janghä, supported by a mañcikā with circular pendants underneath, carries standing figure sculptures. The jangha sculptures are surmounted by udgama-pediments which oversect a kirttimukha-band. Above the jangha is a round bharani clasped by drooping foliage. The varandikä consists of two kapotas and a ribbed eave-cornice. The bhadra above the pitha is differently treated. Here it shows a sunken niche enclosed by balustrade. Each niche, now empty, is triratha on plan and is surmounted by corrugated awning and sculptured pediment. Horizontally, the balustraded wall shows a fillet decorated with half lotuses, rajasenaka adorned with diamond-and-double volute pattern, vedika inset with alternate posts and recesses carrying decorations of figure sculptures and scrolls or creepers respectively, āsanapatta having rooflets projected over each figure and kirttimukhas receded over each recess, and kaksāsana carrying three ornamental bands of flamboyant pattern, medallions framed by segmented pilasters, and foliate scrolls.
The anekāndaka sikhara of the east shrine shows a pañcaratha central tower marked by nine bhūmi- amalakas, forty-four subsidiary srngas clustering around it and a sculptured niche at its base on each cardinal offset. The various offsets of the sikhara terminate at the skandha, but the central offsets go to the griva crowned by a large amalaka, candrikā, a smaller āmalaka, kalasa and bijapuraka. The niches contain images of lalitäsana goddesses with attendant figures.
The catuśśakhă doorframe of the sanctum consists of patra (scrolls), harsa, stambha bearing figures of geese in pair at regular intervals and hansa, separated from one another by strings of bakula (mimusops elengi) flowers. On the lower part of the stambhaśākhā stands a four-armed goddess. The sill is divided into two registers. The lower has four moulded courses and the upper shows a semi-circular projection carved with lotus in the centre, a kirttimukha on each side of it, and a niche containing a figure of Yakşa on extreme right and of Yakşi on extreme left. The door-lintel is also divided into two registers. The lower shows a ghatapallava capital atop the jambs and two decorative bands of scrolls and geese in between them, while the Talāta is occupied by a Jina figure. The upper register depicts images of five goddesses in projecting niches and diamonds in alternate recesses.
Originally, the shrine was dedicated to Ādinätha, but at present an image in black stone of Pārsvanātha is worshipped in the sanctum.
Articulated at the frontal karņa of the east shrine is a square pillared hall having projections on two sides. It shares its pitha with the sanctum but is enclosed above by a short balustraded wall made up of ornate rājasenaka, vedikā and āsanapatta. On the asanapata stand pillars that support two eave-cornices with intervening decorative bands. The lower eave is of the corrugated variety, while the upper one is wrought in double curves. The hall is covered by a bell-roof which, in the interior, is supported by ten pillars, eight arranged in an octagon. All the ten pillars are of the octagonal order, but those resting on the asanapatta have a square base, octagonal and circular shaft, and round abacus with four-armed, double-roll bracket-capital
The central hall in front of the above hall is also square with its roof supported by two square and ten octagonal pillars. The pillars are so arranged as to form a square nave in the centre and an aisle on each side. There is no partition wall between the two halls. On the front or west side it is enclosed by a balutraded wall
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which is similar to that seen in the east shrine. The nave is covered by a domed roof, while the four corners are covered by bell-roof having a fine ceiling in the interior (Pl. 73). The hall is entered from the west through a porch which is landed up by a flight of four steps cut across its moulded pitha. The porch consists of two pillars and two pilasters and is covered by a bell-roof of the hall with gable end. The gable represents an image of goddess Cakreśvari in a five-cusped arch issuing from the mouth of a crocodile shown on either end.
Each of the two lateral shrines is in the form of a pillared hall the central area of which is almost filled with a monument of solid masonry. The monument in the north shrine has a square base and is called Astāpada, the fabled Mt. Meru or Sumeru, while that in the south shrine is circular on plan and is named Sammeta Sikhara, Mt. Pārsvanātha in Bihar. Measuring 386 ft. from door to door each shrine is dvi-anga on plan consisting of bhadra and karna, each broken into seven planes. Its pitha and wall are similar to those seen in the east shrine but is entered from all except the inner side through a porch of two pillars and two pilasters supporting a bell-roof. Rectangular on plan each porch is enclosed by a short balustraded wall and has an ornate ceiling completed in four courses. The first course is square inside depicting diamonds on the inner face and full-blown lotus flowers on the underside of its two shorter rectangular sides. The second is octagonal representing a row of geese on the inner face and a kirttimukha at each corner on the underside. The third is circular consisting of karņadardarikā. The fourth is a large circular slab with its flat surface relieved with a full-blown lotus flower having three rows of petals and a central pistil. The doorframe of the porch is very similar to that of the east shrine, but here the stambhasākhā carries a figure of door-keeper on its lower part. On the overdoor of the porches are six inscriptions, all bearing a common date of A.D. 1231.
Internally, the domed roof of the north shrine is supported on sixteen octagonal pillars, while that of the
south shrine rests on twelve pillars, all arranged in a circle. The mountain in each shrine rises in four tiers of diminishing width, almost to the roof, and crowned by a quadruple of Jina with a canopy over the head. There is a stairway to reach the upper tiers for worshipping the Jina. The mountain and pillars in the north shrine are wholly covered with white lime, but the same in the south is exposed and well preserved. Here, each tier shows some moulded courses on the lower section and decorative bands on the upper. Its pillars have a moulded base; their shaft is octagonal below, sixteen-sided in the middle and circular above, the last being crowned by a band of kīrttimukhas spewing chains that are held in position by a band of diamonds and beads; and the capital consists of doublecoursed, round abacus of arris and cyma recta and two successive courses of four-armed square or double-roll brackets.
The temple is securely dated in A.D. 1231 by inscriptions engraved on its doors. The inscriptions also inform us that the temple was built by Vastupāla for the increase of merits of his own and his wives Lalitādevī and Sokhu. SEJAKPUR
This is an old village situated about fourteen miles south-west of Sayla Railway Station in Surendranagar district of Gujarat. There are three temples, one Jaina and two Hindu. One of the Hindu temples is called Navalakha (nine lakhs), the name justly given to this beautiful temple, and it is because of this very temple that the village is widely known. The Jaina temple, though small yet equally beautiful, is a neglected one so much so that during recent years the temple was wholly destroyed and its stones carried away by the villagers. At present, only its photographic record is available.
Jaina Temple - This Jaina temple (Fig. 90) consists of a sanctum, antarala, güdhamandapa and rangamandapa. The sanctum is tri-anga on plan, the bhadra being broken into seven planes and the karma
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Fig. 90. Plan of Jaina Temple, Sejakpur.
Fig. 91. Plan of Bāvanadhvaja Jinalaya, Sarotra.

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and pratiratha into five planes each. Between the angas are salilāntaras and the salilāntaras between the offsets contain minor projected corners. The karma and pratiratha are equilateral and of the same proportion, while the bhadras are comparatively wider. Two offsets on each side on the front are transmuted in a buffer wall to form antarāla that separates the gūdhamandapa from the sanctum.
In elevation the sanctum shows pītha, vedibandha, jarighā, varandikā and Sikhara. The pitha consists of five courses of two bhittas (the lower being plain and the upper decorated with half-diamonds), jādyakumbha incised with lotus leaves, karnikā and grāsapatti. The vedībandha is made up of five usual courses of khura, kumbha bearing figure sculptures on the body and foliage on the shoulder, kalasa embellished with beaded garland and rosette design, antarapatta, and kapota decorated with caitya-gavākṣa pattern. The janghā, supported by a mañcikā, carries standing figure sculptures, each topped by a pediment of caitya-gavākṣa. Above the wall comes a recessed fillet and a round bharaṇi clasped by drooping foliage. The varandikā consists of two kapotas and a ribbed awning. The śikhara is of the anekandaka class and shows a lattice of caitya-gavāksas. At the base of the sikhara, in cardinal directions, are framed figure sculptures. The enshrined image inside the sanctum was not found when the temple was first surveyed.
The gūdhamandapa is caturanga on plan with their corners indented into several planes. It shares its pītha and wall with the sanctum but the portion above that has collapsed. The interior shows an octagonal arrangement of eight octagonal pillars attached at eight angles of the wall. These form a square nave with projecting angle at each of the four corners; to this a long aisle is added on each side. By this device the intercolumniation between the corner pillars is less than that on the sides. The pillars and architraves are elaborately carved.
The mukhamandapa is rectangular on plan,
probably divided into six bays by ten square pillars and two pilasters arranged in three lines of four each. The columns and architraves here also are richly carved. On each side of the entrance to the gūdhamandapa is a large niche facing front.
On plan and elevation its sanctum has close resemblance with the Neminātha temple at Kumbharia, but in architectural and ornamental details it shows some advancement on the latter and seems to be a contemporary of the Rudramahālaya at Siddhapur built by Caulukya king Siddharāja in c. A.D. 1140. The general form and design of this temple also establish its contemporaneity with the Navalakha at the same site which was also built about the same time. Therefore, this Jaina temple may have been erected some time in the second quarter of the 12th century A.D. SATRUNJAYA
Satruñjaya, near Palitana in Gujarat, is one of the holiest hills of the Jainas. From the foot of the hill a pathway set up with steps leads to the top of the hill which consists of two ridges with a shallow valley between. The ridges (nearly 1140 ft. east-west in length) and the valley are adorned with numerous Jaina temples (Pl. 74) of the Svetāmbara sect. They are built at different periods of time and surrounded by battlemented walls fitted for defence. The temples again are divided into separate enclosures called turkas, each containing one principal shrine with varying number of smaller ones. Each of these turkas is protected by strong gates and walls. There are in all seven turkas (Narasi Keśavaji, Caumukha or Kharataravasahi, Chīpāvasahi, Sākaravasahi, Ujamabäivasahi, Hemābhāivasahi and Premabhāīvasahi) on the northern summit, two (Motiśāha and Bālābhāivasahī) in the valley, and two (Vimalavasahi and Adiśvara) on the southern summit. Of all the shrines standing in the various turkas at Satruñjaya, only the Adinātha shrine in the Adinātha tunka comes under our reference.
Adinātha Temple - The enclosure of Adinatha is the most sacred spot on this hill. The principal shrine
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Fig. 92. Plan of Jaina Temple, Bhadreshwar.
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in this tunka is of Adinatha facing the Pundarika gateway on the east. It is said to have been built and rebuilt sixteen times. According to Jaina tradition, it was founded by Bharata, the son of Adinatha, and repaired for the 16th time by Karma Saha of Chitor in A.D. 1530. The present temple, however, was built in A.D. 1154 by Vagbhața, the minister of Caulukya Kumarapala of Gujarat, and retains good remains of the time of Karma Śäha. During recent years the whole temple has been repaired once again giving it an entirely new look.
The central shrine, the largest in this tunka, consists of a sanctum and a gudhamandapa (Pl. 75). The sanctum is tri-anga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, with projecting corners between them. The pitha, vedībandha, jangha and varaṇḍikä are all ornate and belong to the time of Kumarapala, but the lofty anekāṇḍaka śikhara is of the time of Karma Śäha. Inside the sanctum is a colossus of Adinatha sitting in dhyanamudra and installed by Karma Saha at the time of restoration. The gudhamandapa follows the sanctum in general plan and decoration, but it has three entrance porches, each having a saptaśākha doorframe, and is covered by an ornate bell-roof, also of the 16th century
A.D.
BHADRESHWAR
It is a small village on the sea-coast lying thirty two miles south-west of Gandhidham and twenty one miles from Anjar Railway Station in the Kutch district of Gujarat. It is Bhadravati of the Mahabharata where the Aśvamedha horse of the Pandavas is said to have been caught. During the historical period it came into prominence when the Caulukyas made it a military base and developed it into a seaport. This drew much attention of the people and ultimately grew in a prosperous city. This is clearly demonstrated by a fine Jaina temple of stone built there.
Jaina Temple - It consists of a sanctum, a constricted antarāla, gūḍhamandapa, mukhamandapa, rangamandapa and malamandapa, the whole standing in an oblong courtyard (85 ft. by 48 ft.) surrounded by a

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series of 44 (originally 48) devakulikäs with a colonnaded corridor (Fig. 92). The temple complex is reared upon a jagati which is reached from the north to which direction the temple also faces. The temple has been restored and altered so often that all its original character has vanished. During recent years the entire temple has been painted with variegated colours making it very hard to differentiate between the old and new structures.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan showing five planes on bhadra and three each on karna and pratiratha. Between the offsets are saliläntaras and the saliläntaras between the karnas and pratirathas contain koņikās which are not carried down to the pitha. The frontal karna and pratiratha of the sanctum are transmuted to make an antarala between the gudhamandapa and the sanctum.
In elevation the sanctum displays the usual five components. The pitha consists of nine courses of three bhittas - the lower is now encased with marble stones, while the other two are decorated with indented leaves and diamonds respectively, jadyakumbha, karṇikä, a projected band underlined with leaves, gräsapaṭṭī, gajathara and narathara. The vedībandha is made up of khura adorned with udgama pattern, kumbha carrying sculptures of Jaina goddesses on the body and stencilled foliage on the shoulder, kalasa embellished with beaded garlands and rosettes, antarapaṭṭa decorated with stepped diamonds, and a kapota adorned with caitya-gavakṣa pattern. Supported by a mañcikā having circular pendants underneath the jangha carries standing figures of gods and goddesses, all now plastered up. Above the wall comes a square bharani clasped by drooping foliage. The varandika consists of an usual kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice. The sikhara of the sanctum is of the anekāṇḍaka class. It rises from a moulded base of usual kapota, antarapatta and square bharani and shows a pañcaratha central tower of seven bhūmi-amalakas and forty-four big and small śrigas clustering around it at different heights if it is viewed from the back side. At the base of the sikhara, in each cardinal point, is a niche

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containing an image of goddess accompanied by female an image of Jina seated in meditation. cauri-bearers. The various offsets of the central tower The rangamandapa is connected on each of its four end at the skandha which is marked by diamonds and sides by a domed roof supported on an octagonal then it is crowned above the grīvā by a large amalaka, framework of eight pillars. All the pillars are of the candrikā, a smaller āmalaka, kalasa and bījapūraka. The octagonal order. They have a moulded pedestal and entire tower is covered with a lattice of minute caitya- base. Their shaft is octagonal below, sixteen-sided in gavākṣas. Inside the sanctum are three Jina images, all the middle and circular above. The circular section is made of white marble and seated in meditative posture. divided into two halves by a band of diamonds. The The central image is of Mahāvira dated in A.D. 1565. lower section is clasped by a thin stripe of kirttimukhas The images on his right and left are of Pārsvanātha spewing chains which are secured below by a diamondand Santinātha, both dated in A.D. 1173.
and-bead band, while the upper is fastened by a band The gūdhamandapa is also tri-anga on plan and of kīrttimukhas alternating with tassels. The capital has follows the vertical lineaments of the sanctum up to a double-coursed, round abacus topped by convoluted the varandikā, but above that it is covered by a bell- brackets. The domes are now plastered up. roof studed with seven rows of bells. The bell atop the The devakulikäs are landed up from the courtyard roof is larger in size, consisting of an inverted flat bowl, by a flight of four steps cut across the platform on candrika, amalaka, kalasa and bijapūraka, while the which they are perched, but those on the rear side are others consist each of flat bowl and amalaka. The reached by three independent stairways, a feature hardly interior of the güdhamandapa shows an octagonal met with elsewhere. They are screened by double arcade arrangement of eight pilasters with a carved domical of pillars on the back side and by one arcade of pillars ceiling, now covered with iron grilles.
on the other three sides. Their doors are simple. One The mukhamandpa is landed up from the of these, which may be regarded as a fair type, consists rangamandapa by three staircases of four steps each. of two jambs of patra (scrolls) and ratna respectively. It is divided into three bays by eight pillars and four On the lower part of the inner jamb stands a female pilasters arranged in two lines of six each. The four carrying water pot. The door-sill shows a square pillars and four pilasters in the central bay are arranged projection carved with foliage in the centre, a diamond in pairs. All the columns are ornate and belong to on each side of it, and foliage and diamond on either octagonal order. Each bay is covered by a domical end. The door-lintel continues the ornament of the inner ceiling. One of the three domical ceilings, which is jamb and depicts a diamond instead of Jina on the crest. somewhat exposed, is composed of an octagonal and Inside the devakulikās are installed images of Jinas four circular courses. The inner face of the octagonal mostly dated in the 14th-15th century A.D. Their exterior course is decorated with two bands of leaves and walls show usual offsets and plain mouldings and are diamonds respectively, while its underside at each corner surmounted by anekāņdaka sikharas. depicts a bold kirttimukha. The second is embellished The nālamandapa, which is partly projected out, with lotus petals. The third is karnadardarikā. The is built over a stairway which is landed up from the fourth is gajatālu. The fifth is like the second. The ground through a porch and opens up in the circular central stone depicts in four concentric circles rangamandapa. It is a square pillared hall laid out on the carvings of flamboyant, lotus buds, lotus petals and the same floor level as that of the devakulikas. It is lotus flower respectively. On either side of the entrance roofed by a dome now plastered up. to the gūdhamandapa is an ornamental niche sheltering On stylistic grounds the temple is assigned a date
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in the third quarter of the 12th century A.D. This also an udgama-pediment. The janghä on each bhadra shows fits in well with dates of numerous inscriptions found a sunk niche. Above the jarghã comes a round bharani in the temple which range from A.D. 1166 to 1178. with dropping foliage. The varandikā consists of a SAROTRA
kapota and a ribbed eave-cornice. The sikhara, built of It is a small village lying one and a half miles bricks and plastered up with lime, is of the anekaņdaka west of Sarotra Railway Station in the Banaskantha mode and seems to have been rebuilt. The interior of district of Gujarat. It is just six miles from Candrāvati, the sanctum is square with a projecting angle at each the capital of the Paramāras of Abu. Candravati was corner. The enshrined image has gone but an inscription a prosperous city as it lay on an ancient trade-route. of A.D. 1632 definitely makes its dedication to Mahāvīra. Its material prosperity is also attested to by numerous The gūdhamandapa is also tri-anga and follows temples found in and around the city. One of these is the vertical lineaments of the sanctum, but its roof has a magnificent Jaina temple at Sarotra built of white collapsed beyond recognition. There is a moonstone in marble and going by the name of Bavanadhvaja Jinālaya, front of its entrance door. The interior shows an octagonal but it is very unfortunate that nothing of the temple arrangement of eight pillars attached at eight angles of remains at the site, only its photographic record is its wall. The pillars (Fig. 95) are of the square order. available to us.
They have a moulded base; their shaft is square below, Bāvanadhvaja Jinālaya - It consists of a sanctum, octagonal in the middle and circular above, all very antarāla, gūdhamandapa, mukhamandapa and richly carved. The capital consists of a double-coursed rangamandapa, the whole standing in an oblong courtyard round bharaṇi topped by roll-brackets. surrounded by fifty-two devakulikās with a colonnaded The mukhamandapa is reached from the corridor (Fig. 91). The temple-complex stands on a high rangamandapa by three stairways of four steps each and platform which is reached from north through a porch is divided into nine bays by fourteen pillars and two landed up from the ground by a flight of nine steps. pilasters arranged in four lines of four each. The midThe temple was already in ruinous condition when it staircase is wider and has a moonstone below. All the was first reported, and subsequently it was ruthlessly pillars (Fig. 94) are ornate and octagonal but not as rich plundered for building material. It has derived its present as those of the gūdhamandapa. The architraves put name from the number of flag-staves (dhvaja) installed across the pillars show two ornamental bands of lotus on the spires of fifty-two (bavana) devakulikās. Scrolls and diamonds respectively There is a niche on
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan displaying five either side of the entrance door of the gūdhamandapa. planes on bhadra and three each on karna and pratiratha. The rangamandpa is laid out on a square platform Its frontal karna and pratiratha form the antarala to which is slightly raised from the level of the courtyard. demarcate the gudhamandapa.
It shows an arrangement of eight pillars on three sides, In elevation it shows five usual parts. The pitha while the fourth side is shared by the front row of four is embedded in debris. The vedībandha consists of mukhamandapa pillars. On the front it is connected with khura, kumbha carrying figure sculptures on the body the corridor of the devakulikās by three bays. The and foliage on the shoulder, kalasa decorated with rangamandapa is roofed by a dome supported on an beaded garlands and rosettes, antarapatta adorned with octagonal frame of architraves placed over the pillars. diamond-and-double volute pattern, and a kapota. The All the pillars (Fig. 93) of the rangamandapa are of the janghā, supported by a mañcikä, carries framed figures octagonal order and are provided with attic pillars. They of standing gods and goddesses, each surmounted by have a moulded base; their shaft is octagonal below,
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Figs. 93-96. Pillars, Bāvanadhvaja Jinālaya, Sarotra.
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sixteen-sided in the middle and circular above, the last section being topped by a band of kirttimukhas; and their capital shows a double-coursed round bharani surmounted by atlantes brackets.
The devakulikās are landed up from the courtyard by a flight of three steps cut across the platform running all around and screened in the front by one row of octagonal pillars. Their walls towards the corridor are built of plain baked bricks, while on the outside moulded bricks have been used for the lines of horizontal mouldings. The pillars, roofs, doorframes and pedestal of images are all made of white marble. Except for two devakulikäs near the main entrance which have been shut off from the others by walls, all the devakulikās have no partition walls as we notice in those of the Neminatha temple at Kumbharia. On the doors of many devakulikäs were short inscriptions which range in date from A.D. 1599 to 1633. This clearly indicates that the temple was extensively repaired during this period.
The entrance porch is square on plan and is enclosed on the lateral sides by a balustraded wall of rājasenaka, vedikā, āsanapaṭṭa and kakṣāsana, all having been profusely carved. On the asanapaṭṭa stand two pillars and two pilasters that support the roof with an overhanging corrugated eave-cornice. The pillars (Fig. 96) consist of shaft and capital only. Below, the shaft is square bearing decorations of creepers and potand-foliage member, while above, it displays seven decorative bands of lotus petals, leaves, scrolls, sawteeth, diamonds and beads, kirttimukhas alternating with tassels, and stylised pot-and-foliage. The capital consists of round abacus and roll-brackets. In front of the entrance is a moonstone.
Probably, this temple was erected in the latter half of the 12th or the beginning of the 13th century A.D. MIANI
An old village on the sea-coast it lies about twenty five miles north-west of Porbander in the Junagadh district of Gujarat. Before the advent of the Muslims in this part of the country Miani appears to have been an active sea-port, and the export and import of goods

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from this port must have been a great source of income to the people there. This is well demonstrated by many small and big temples standing there. One of these is a Jaina temple, now deserted and weather-worn.
Jaina Temple - It consists of a sanctum, antarāla, gudhamandapa, mukhamandapa and rangamandapa, the last one is gone but for a few pillars and architraves (Pl. 76). The temple is made of sandstone and faces north.
On plan the sanctum is caturanga consisting of bhadra, pratibhadra, pratiratha and karṇa, with projecting corners in between the last two. The frontal karna and pratiratha of the sanctum and the rear karna of the gūḍhamandapa have been transmuted into a wide buffer wall to form the antarala for separating the sanctum from the gudhamandapa.
In elevation the sanctum shows five usual divisions. The pitha consists of nine moulded courses of two bhittas (the lower carrying flamboyant ornament and the upper, half lotuses), a minor kumuda, plain pattikä, jäḍyakumbha, karnika, antarapaṭṭa decorated with stepped diamonds, a projecting pattika embellished with caityagavakṣa pattern, and gräsapaṭṭī. The vedībandha consists of seven mouldings of khura adorned with lotus scrolls or udgama pattern, kumbha bearing figures of fourarmed goddess or ornament of half diamonds, kalasa, antarapatta decorated with stepped diamonds, kapota adorned with udgama pattern, and a paṭṭikā ornamented with floral diamonds. The jangha, supported by a mañcikā, is divided into two belts by a plain median band and is tantalisingly plain except for emptied bhadra niches. Above, the jangha is followed by a square bharani with drooping foliage, and a varandika of kapota and ribbed cave-cornice. The sikhara, rising abruptly above the eaves, shows a tri-ratha central tower marked by six bhümi-amalakas and twenty four smaller sṛngas leaning upon it. At the base of the sikhara in each cardinal point is a shallow niche containing diamond instead of figure of some divinity. The narrow spaces between the smaller śrnigas are occupied by elephant trunks. The entire sikhara is enmeshed with minute

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caitya-gaväksa pattern. The triśākhā door of the sanctum pillars but the brackets of bhāraputrakas are replaced shows foliate scrolls, pillar jamb and lotus petals by roll-brackets. The architraves are similar to those respectively, and has a female figure carrying water pot found in the gūdhamandapa but the upper decorative at the base. The door-sill shows a circular projection band of saw-tooth pattern is absent here, instead it is carved with stemmed lotus in the centre, a projecting plain. Each bay contains a ceiling made by cutting off kirttimukha on its each side and a sculptured niche the corners. Each ceiling consists of three tiers of nine sheltering a figure of four-armed goddess on either stones, the central stone being carved with an open extremity. The door-lintel continues the scroll-band of lotus. the jamb but depicts a figure of Jina on the lalata. The The rangamandapa is nothing but a rubble of overdoor is treated like a cornice. The enshrined image stones. However, from what now remains it appears that has gone now.
originally it consisted of eight pillars disposed along The gudhamandapa is tri-anga on plan and shares the three sides of a square nave, while its fourth side its pitha and wall with the sanctum, but its pyramidal was shared by the front row of mukhamandapa pillars. roof has disappeared. It is entered from the Its six central pillars alongwith two mukhamandapa mukhamandapa by a door which is similar to that of pillars formed an octagon and supported the dome on the sanctum, but the sill has Ambikä and Sarvānubhūtian octagonal frame of architraves. The pillars and on two ends, the pillar-jamb carries a figure of door- architraves are similar to those seen in the keeper on the lower part and figures of musicians and mukhamandapa, but the kürttimukha-band on the circular dancers above, and the lintel depicts a row of hovering section of the shaft is absent here and the pillar-brackets Mälädharas facing the lalátabimba. The interior of the carry kirttimukha figures as well. güdhamandapa is square having its wall reinforced by On architectural and sculptural grounds this temple eight somewhat ornate pilasters supporting a domical is assigned a date somewhere in the third quarter of ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves decorated the 13th century A.D. with a band of foliate scrolls emerging from the mouth KANTHKOT of a kirttimukha carved in the centre and a band of It lies about thirty one miles from Bhachau Railway saw-tooth pattern. The dome (Pl. 77) is composed of Station in the Kutch district of Gujarat. Kanthkot is six circular courses of karnadardarikā, a course decorated neither a religious place nor a business centre but a with alternate goddesses and Kinnaras, three successive protected stronghold where the kings like Mülarāja I gajatālus and an eight-foil kola. The apical stone of the and Bhima I, both of the Caulukya dynasty, took shelter dome has disappeared.
at the time of their distress. Indeed, there is an old fort The mukhamandapa, landed up from the on the top of a rocky hill with walls built of massive rangamandapa by a flight of three steps, stands on a stone blocks. On the hill stand two temples, one of Sun pītha which is but the continuum of the gūdhamandapa. God and another of Mahāvīra, the latter being a Jaina It is divided into three bays by six pilasters and two shrine going by the name of Solathambā, a name derived square pillars arranged in two rows of four each. The from the number of pillars in the rangamandapa pillars have a moulded base; their shaft is square below comprising sixteen in all. and then it gradually turns into an octagonal, sixteen- Mahāvira Temple - It consists of a sanctum, sided and circular sections, the last one being clasped gūdhamandapa and rangamandapa. Originally, the by a kirttimukha-band; and the capital consists of two rangamandapa had three porches two of which on the circular courses of arris and cyma recta and four-armed lateral sides have collapsed. The temple is weatherbrackets of bhāraputrakas. The pilasters are like the worn and its eastern wall fallen down. The temple faces
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north.
The sanctum is tri-anga on plan, the bhadra broken into seven planes and the karma and pratiratha into five planes each. Between the offsets are recesses and the recesses between the karmas and pratirathas contain konikās.
In elevation the sanctum has five usual divisions. The pitha consists of two bhittas – the lower being plain and the upper decorated with diamonds -, jadyakumbha, karņika, antarapatta adorned with stepped diamonds, grāsapatti, gajathara and narathara. The vedibandha consists of khura, kumbha carrying sculptures of Jaina goddesses on the body and ornamental foliage on the shoulder, kalasa decorated with beaded garlands and rosettes, antarapatta adorned with diamond-and-double volute pattern, and kapota ornamented with udgama pattern. Supported by an ornate mañcikä the janghā carries framed figures of gods and goddesses, now sadly damaged. The janghä on each bhadra, however, bears a projecting sculptured niche containing an image of Jina seated in meditation. The janghā images are crowned by udgama-pediments followed above by a deep fillet carved with kirttimukhas and a round bharaṇi with foliage clasps. The varandikā consists of a kapota and a ribbed cave-cornice. The sikhara of the sanctum has gone, but from the fragments strewn there it appears that it was of the anekāndaka class enmeshed with caitya-gaväksas. The niche at the base of the Sikhara shelters a Jaina goddess with two female cauri-bearers. The doorframe of the sanctum, which is similar to that of the gūdhamandapa to be described below, is sadly damaged and its carvings are very much abraded. Though the enshrined image of Mahāvīra is missing, the inscriptions available in the temple definitely attribute its dedication to him.
The güdhamandapa is also tri-anga on plan and shares its pitha and wall with the sanctum, but here the bharani is substituted for narathara, the bhadra- niches contain the images of Jaina goddesses and the roof, now gone, is made up of horizontal tiers studed with bells. Its saptaśākhä doorframe consists of patra
(scroll), rūpa (figures of female attendants), again rupa, rūpastambha (pillar jamb with images of goddesses). rüpa, again rupa and padma (cyma moulding carved with louts petals), and carries a figure of pratihāra with female attendants on the basal part. The door-sill shows moulded courses on the lower section, while its upper section shows semi-circular projection with stemmed lotus in the centre, two kirttimukhas on its flanks and two sculptured niches sheltering Sarvänubhūti and Ambikā on its two extremities. The door-lintel depicts scroll-band brought from the jamb and a row a hovering figures of Mālādharas facing the Jina carved as crest image. The overdoor shows five sculptured niches with seated figures of goddesses. The interior of the gūdhamandapa shows an octagonal arrangement of eight pilasters supporting a domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves. The pilasters with chamfered corners have a square moulded base; their shaft is square below, octagonal in the middle and circular on the top. On the lower section of two pilasters stands a male figure with folded hands; possibly they were the donors of the temple. The capital of the pilasters consists of a double-coursed abacus of arris and cyma recta and a roll-bracket. The architraves depict two ornamental bands of foliated scrolls and saw-tooth pattern on the side faces and a lotus medallion in the centre of their underside. The domical ceiling is composed of seven circular courses of karnadardarikā, a course with figural band, three successive gajatālus, eight-foil kola and quatre-foil kola. From the second course project out eight square brackets adorned with figures of Vidyādharas, each originally supported a bracket figure tenoned into the lower kola course. The ceiling slab has disappeared.
The rangamandapa also shares its pitha with the sanctum but is laid out on a lower floor level by discontinuing the gajathara. When entire, it had nine bays with three additional porches, but now only four bays and one porch on north side are intact. The pillars are similar in form and ornamentation to the pilasters of the gūdhamandapa. The architraves also correspond
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to those of the latter. The four bays and the north porch Periods), Bombay, 1976; U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina have each a carved domical ceiling. Two of these Art, Banaras, 1955; Klaus Bruhn, The Jina-Images of ceilings are alike, each consisting of six courses, the Deogarh, Leiden, 1969; Bhagchandra Jaina, Devagadha first being octagonal and the others, circular. The first Ki Jainakalā (in Hindi), New Delhi, 1974; M.A. Dhaky, course depicts flamboyant device in semi-circles on the 'Some Early Jaina Temples in Western India', Shri inner face and a kīrttimukha at each corner on the Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, underside. The second is karņadardarikā. The third and Bombay, 1968; M.A. Dhaky, 'The Chronology of the fourth are gajatālus. The fifth and sixth consist of eight- Solanki Temples of Gujarat', Journal of the Madhya foil and quatre-foil kolas respectively. The ceiling slab Pradesh Itihasa Parishad, No. 3, Bhopal, 1961; James has disappeared. Two other ceilings are similar to the Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, preceding one but here is found only one course of kola. 2 vols., reprint, Delhi, 1967; M.W. Meister and M.A. The remainder consists of an octagonal and three circular Dhaky (Eds.) Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple courses. The octagonal course is similar to that seen Architecture, Vol. II, Pt. 2, New Delhi, 1991; M.A. in the ceiling described above. The other three are made Dhaky (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple of cyma recta, each adorned with lotus petals. The Architecture, Vol. II, Pt. 3, New Delhi, 1998; H.B. Pal, ceiling slab depicts a full-blown lotus flower set up in The Temples of Rajasthan, Jaipur, 1969; A.P. Shah, a border of scrolls.
Jaina Tirtha Sarvasangraha (in Gujarati), 3 pts., Stylistically, this temple shows a marked decline Ahmedabad, 1953; H. Cousens, Somanath and Other on the Caulukyan temples and appears to have been Medieval Temples in Kathiawad, Calcutta, 1931; Krishna constructed during the closing years of the 13th century Deva, Temples of Khajuraho, New Delhi, 1990; Harihar A.D. This is also corroborated by the inscriptions found Singh, Jaina Temples of Western India, Varanasi, 1982; in this temple and containing dates in and around Krishna Deva, Temples of North India, New Delhi, A.D. 1280.
1969; J. Burgess, 'Satrunjaya', reprinted in Jain Journal, REFERENCES
Vol. XI, No. 2, Calcutta, 1977; R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), Muni Shri Jayantavijayaji, Holy Abu, Bhavnagar, The History and Culture of Indian People, Vols. III1954; M.A. Dhaky, 'Renaissance and the Late Mru- V, Bombay; Hiralala Jain, Bhāratiya Sanskrti mem Gurjara Temple Architecture', Journal of the Indian Jainadharma ka Yogadāna (in Hindi), Bhopal, 1962; H. Society of Oriental Art, Special Number, Calcutta, 1966; Cousens, The Architectural Antiquities of Western India, U.P. Shah and M.A. Dhaky (Eds.), Aspects of Jaina London, 1926; M. Dhaky, 'Täramgă Arhat Ajitanāthanā Art and Architecture, Ahmedabad, 1975; Amar Singh, Mahāprāsādano Kārāpaka Kauna?', Nirgrantha, Vol. 2, Sarvatobhadrikā images and Sarvatobhadra Temples', Ahmedabad, 1996, pp 88-97; M. Dhaky, “Tārangā kā Prāgdharā, No. 9, Lucknow, 1998-99; James Burgess, Prācīnatara Jinālaya', Nirgrantha, Vol. 2, pp. 49-50; Antiquities of Kathiawad and Kachh, reprint, Varanasi, M.A. Dhaky and U.S. Moorti, The temples in 1971; James Burgess, The Architectural Antiquities of Kumbhāriyā, New Delhi, 2001; Devendra Handa, Osian Northern Gujarat, London, 1903; A. Ghosh (Ed.), Jaina : History, Archaeology, Art & Architecture, Delhi, 1984; Art and Architecture, 3 vols., New Delhi, 1974-75; D.R. Das, 'Jaina Temples of West Bengal,' Nirgrantha, Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Vol. 3, Ahmedabad, 1997-2002, pp. 107-124.
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CHAPTER VI
JAINA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE: SOUTH INDIA
All the Jaina temples of South India are located to the south of the Vindhya mountain. The entire transVindhya area is a peninsular land. It consists of a triangular plateau and extends from the Ajanta ranges in the north to the Nilgiris in the south and the Western Ghats in the west to the Eastern Ghats in the east. The long coastal line of the peninsula abuts Arabian sea on the west, Indian ocean on the south and Bay of Bengal on the east. Geologically, the northern parts of Western Ghats are made of Deccan trap, a rock in which the Jaina caves of Ellora etc. have been excavated. The south-west part of the Deccan plateau from Badami to Bijapur consists of fine-grained red sandstone hills which provide cliff-faces for the Early Calukya caves and quarries for the structural temples. The western part of Mysore plateau provides large quarries of fine-grained tale or soapstone to the Western Calukya and Hoysala temples. The building material in lower Krishna valley is marble like Palnad limestone which has been used by the early dynasties of Andhradeśa. The south-eastern portions of the Deccan plateau and the extreme southern part of the peninsula are made of such hard rocks as granite and gneiss which have been exploited by the Pallavas in their caves and structural temples, and by the Colas and the Vijayanagara rulers in their structural buildings. Historical Background
From about A.D. 550 to the end of A.D. 1300 the peninsular India, which roughly includes the five modern states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, was divided into a number of big and small principalities that always fought for the supremacy of their power in the region. Their administrative boundaries no doubt changed from time to time but at no point of time any of the ruling dynasties could bring the entire region into one political

unit. The political rivalries, however, did not much hamper the building activity and it went on unabated throughout the span of time. But owing to the religious insurgency of the Saivas and Vaisnavas and coming up of the Muslims in South India many Jaina temples were destroyed or converted, but not as much as we find in North India. Enough, however, remains to show the glory of Jaina edifices. In order to have a better understanding of Jaina buildings it is worthwhile to give a brief outline of the political and cultural condition of the period under review.
The Calukyas of Vätäpi (c. A.D. 550-750) - The Calukyas, Early Calukyas as they are called, ruled from their capital at Vatapī (modern Badami in Bijapur district of Karnataka) which was founded by Pulakesin I (A.D. 543-566). He was succeeded by his son Kirttivarman I (A.D. 566-598) who led successful expeditions against the Kadambas, Mauryas and Nalas. From his reign Jainism seems to hold grounds in the Calukya realm as is evident from a Jaina cave at Badami. After Kirttivarman his younger brother Mangalesa (A.D. 598-609) ascended to the throne as his own son Pulakesin II was a minor. He conquered Revatidvipa and defeated Kalacuri Budharaja. During his time Jainism continued to flourish as is demonstrated by the excavation of a Jaina cave at Aihole.
Pulakesin II (A.D. 609-642) was the most powerful king of the dynasty and defeated many kings, the noteworthy amongst whom was Harșa of Kannauj. But at the close of his reign he had to sustain a defeat at the hands of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman and as a result disorder prevailed in the Calukya kingdom. Normalcy, however, returned when his son Vikramaditya I (A.D. 654-681) ascended to the throne. Pulakesin seems to have patronised Jainism as the Meguti Jaina temple at Aihole was built during his reign

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and his famous inscription preserved in this temple was kings (c. A.D. 929-973) during whose reigns the composed by a Jaina poet named Ravikīrtti. Rāstrakuța power gradually declined and at last it passed
After Vikramaditya I the Cālukya kingdom was into the hands of the Western Calukya king Taila II. ruled by four kings of whom Kīrttivarman II (A.D. 745. During the long reigns of these rulers Jainism flourished 757) was the last one. With him the Calukya rule came well in the state. This is apparent from a number of to an end and the territory passed into the hands of Jaina temples founded during the period. Two of these the Rāstrakūtas. The reigns of these rulers were no still exist at Hallur and Pattadakal. doubt eventful and some Jaina temples were also erected, The Cālukyas of Kalyāņa (c. A.D. 973-1189) - but they do not exist now.
After overthrowing Rästrakūta Karkka II in A.D. 973 The Rāştrakūtas of Malkhed (c. A.D. 750-973) - Taila II (A.D. 973-997) of the Cālukya dynasty of They were the greatest power of the Deccan and Kalyāņa ruled at Malkhed. As a result of this the vassals Karnataka and ruled from their capital at Mänyakheta of the Rästrakūtas transferred their allegiance to him (Malkhed). Dantidurga laid the foundation of the and those who refused were forced to do so. He Rāstrakūta power in the Deccan in the mid-8th century subjugated Lāța and defeated Uttama Cola. He also by vanquishing Cālukya Kirttivarman II. He was came into clash with Paramāra Muñja of Malwa and succeeded by his uncle Krsna I (c. A.D. 756-773) who killed him. In the time of Taila the Calukyas were busy completely wiped out the Cālukyas from Karnataka, in consolidating their empire and had little time for annexed the Ganga territory and defeated Vişnuvardhana cultural activities. However, Jainism flourished well in IV of Vengi. He is credited for the excavation of the the state as Taila himself patronised Jaina poet Ranna, famous Kailasa Temple at Ellora which inspired the and Vimalacandradeva was appointed preceptor of prince Jainas to produce a smaller copy of the same there. Satyāśraya. The Jaina temple at Annigere and three
After Krsna I the rein of power passed into the others at Aihole (Jaina shrine near Caranti-matha, the hands of Govinda II (c. A.D. 773-780), Dhruva (c. A.D. triple shrine near Virūpākṣa and Candraprabha temple) 780-793), Govinda III (c. A.D. 793 - 814) and were also built at this time. Amoghavarsa I (c. A.D. 814-880) respectively. Dhruva Taila II was succeeded by his son Satyāśraya and Govinda II were very powerful kings and led (A.D. 998-1008). During his reign the Cola prince successful campaigns not only in the south but also Rājendra, son of Rājarāja, attacked Malkhed when he against the Pratīhāras (Vatsarāja and Nagabhata II) of had gone on an expedition to Vengī, and captured the Kannauj and Dharmapāla of Bengal. Amoghavarşa I southern portion of the Cālukya territory. Jainism seems was a peace-loving king and inclined towards Jainism to have been in a flourishing state at this time as the in the latter part of his life. During the reigns of these famous Jaina temple at Lakkundi was built during his rulers Jainism was well received in the kingdom. This reign. is explicitly known from the excavation of Jaina caves Satyäśraya was followed by his nephew at Ellora.
Vikramaditya V (A.D. 1008-1014) and the latter by his 'Amoghavarșa was succeeded by his son Krsna II younger brother Ayyaņa II. After the eventless reigns (c. A.D. 880-914) and the latter by his son Indra III of these rulers Jayasimha II (A.D. 1015-1042), the (c. A.D. 914-929). Indra was a powerful ruler as he younger brother of Ayyaņa II, ascended the throne. He repulsed an attack of Paramāra Upendra and captured ruled from the newly founded capital of Kalyāņa (modern Kannauj for some time by defeating Pratīhāra Mahīpāla. Kalyani in Bidar). He had to face a confederate army After Indra the Rästraküța kingdom was ruled by six of Paramāra Bhoja and Kalacuri Karņa from the north
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and a formidable army of Cola Rajendra I from the south. Although he succeeded in defeating the confederate army, he could not check the Colas from sacking Malkhed. During the reigns of these rulers Jainism flourished well in Karnataka. This is clearly evident from the royal patronage rendered to Jainācārya Vadiraja by Jayasimha and by the foundation of the Pārsvanatha temple at Śravanabelagola and the Jaina temple No. 1 at Mulgund.
After Jayasimha II his son Someśvara I (A.D. 1042-1067) ascended the throne. He fought three battles with Cola Rajadhiraja and each time sustained a defeat. In A.D. 1054-55 Someśvara alongwith Cedi Karna and Caulukya Bhima I attacked the Malava capital of Dhārā and in the battle that ensued the Malava king Bhoja lost his life. Jainism continued to flourish during this period. This is demonstrated not only by a number of grants made to Jaina temples but also by the extant Jaina temples located at Ron, Nagai and Lakkundi.
Someśvara I was succeeded by his son Someśvara II (A.D. 1068-1076) and the latter by his brother Vikramaditya VI (c. A.D. 1076-1127). Soon after his accession Someśvara had to deal with his brother who had turned hostile to him. He was successful to hold the rein of power for some time but at last lost it to him. Vikramaditya VI was a powerful king. He suppressed the hostility of his younger brother Jayasimha III and put down the revolts of his vassal chiefHoysala Visnuvardhana of Dorasamudra, Kadamba Vijayaditya of Goa, Yadava Iramadeva of Seunadeśa and Silahāra Bhoja of Karahaṭaka. During the long reigns of these rulers Jainism received full support from the generals and traders and had many flourishing centres in Karnataka with Jaina temples - Virabhadra temple at Lakkundi, the ruined Jaina temple at Annigere, Trikūta-basadi at Harasur, the Pañcalingeśvara at Huli, the Caranti-matha at Aihole, and Sankha-basadi and Anantanatha-basadi at Lakṣmeśvara.
Vikramaditya VI was succeeded by his son Someśvara III (A.D. 1127-1139) from whose reign the

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Calukya power began to crack. During the reigns of the next two rulers, viz. Jagadekamalla (A.D. 11391149) and Taila III (A.D. 1149-1162), the Calukya power further declined. In A.D. 1189 the whole of Calukya kingdom was occupied by Bhillama, the vassal chief under Someśvara IV, son of Taila III, and Someśvara had to take refuge in the Kadamba capital of Goa. During this period Jainism considerably suffered from the upsurgency of the Saiva fundamentalists who persecuted the Jainas, destroyed their temples, mutilated the Jina images and converted Jaina temples into Śaiva. Under these circumstances one cannot expect a Jaina foundation, a fact substantiated by the non-availability of a Jaina shrine.
The Gangas of Talkad (c. A.D. 900-1000) - The Gangas ruled from their capital at Talkad in southern Karnataka. They came into prominence when Racamalla II (A.D. 870-907) fought a battle with the Calukyas of Vengi. Racamalla was succeeded by Nitimärga II (A.D. 907-935), son of his brother Butuga I, who consolidated his empire. Nītimärga was followed by his three sons Narasimha, Racamalla III and Būtuga II respectively. The first of these ruled for a short period and the second was ousted by Būtuga (A.D. 937-960). Bütuga II was an important ruler of the dynasty as he married a Rāṣṭrakūta princess, daughter of Amoghavarṣa III, and assisted Räṣṭrakuța Kṛṣṇa III against the Colas. Būtuga II was succeeded by his son Murula (A.D. 961963) and the latter by his younger brother Märasimha II (A.D. 963-974). Marasimha II defeated the Nolambas and captured their Ucchangi fort. He was succeeded by his son Racamalla IV (A.D. 974 1000) during whose reign the Colas of Tanjaur overran Talkad and annexed the Ganga territory in the Cola empire.
On account of the active support of the Gangas Jainism flourished well in their kingdom. Bütuga II was proficient in Jaina doctrine. Mārasimha II turned a Jaina and founded Jaina temples at Purigere and Annigere which do not exist now. Camuṇḍaraya, the minister of Marasimha II, made the colossus of Bahubali at

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Śravanabelagola and a Jaina temple also at the same site. The extant Jaina temples at Kambadahalli and Vijayamangalam also bespeak of the flourishing condition of Jainism in the kingdom.
The śāntaras of Humca (c. A.D. 775-1150) - The Sāntaras ruled from their capital at Humca in western Karnataka. They were peace-loving people. Consequently, they did not play any major role in the contemporary politics.
Their early history is shrouded in the darkness. It was probably Jinadatta who laid the foundation of the family in the early 9th century A.D. Not much is known about the next three rulers (Jayakesi, Raņakesi and an unnamed king) but the fourth ruler, Vikrama whose definite date of A.D. 897 is known from the inscriptions, was powerful as he consolidated his position at Humca. He was succeeded by his son Cāgi, who is known to have built a water reservoir. After Cägi the Säntaras continued their rule at Humca but nothing is known about their political career.
Like the Gangas of Talkad the Säntaras were devout Jainas and built many Jaina temples of which six (Süle-basti, Bogāra-basti, Guddada-basti, Pārsvanātha- basti, Padmavati temple and Pancaküța-basti) stand to this day at Humca in various stages of preservation.
The Kadambas of Banavāsi and Hangal (c. A.D. 973-1250) - The Kadambas of Banavāsi (Sorab district, Karnataka) and Hangal started their political career as vassal chiefs of the Cālukyas of Kalyana from the 10th century A.D. The first dynast of the Kadambas was Cattiga (c. A.D. 972-1015) who assisted his overlord Jayasimha II against the Colas. He also helped Jayasimha in repulsing the confederate army of Malwa. After the lapse of some time the province was governed by Kirttivarman, grandson of Cattiga. Owing to distrustfulness of his overlord Vikramāditya VI, Kirttivarman was removed from governorship and his uncle Santivarman was appointed the new governor of the province. Sāntivarman administered the province till A.D. 1089 followed by a long rule of his son Taila II
ending in A.D. 1125. Taila II thwarted an attack of Hoysala Vişnuvardhana who had revolted against the imperial Cālukyas. After Taila the province was ruled by a number of Kadamba chiefs and at last the Kadamba rule came to an end in mid-12th century A.D.
The Kadambas were devout Saiva, but Jainism flourished in the state. This is evident from three extant Jaina temples located at Konnūr, Hangal and Kupattur.
The Rattas of Kuhandimandala (c. A.D. 9751229) - The Ratta kingdom of Kuhandimandala was located in the north-west quarter of Karnataka. The Rattas were probably subordinate to the Imperial Rāstrakūtas at the beginning of their career, but later they transferred their allegiance to Taila II of Kalyāņa and were loyal to them till the end of the Imperial dynasty. Not much is known about the political achievements of the Rattas, but in the field of art and architecture they have remarkable contributions.
Like the Gangas and Santaras, the Rattas patronised Jainism by building temples to Jinas and by issuing land-grants for their maintenance. At present, however, only the Ratta Jinālaya at Belgaum has survived.
The Hoysalas of Dorasamudra (c. A.D. 10471346) - The Hoysalas ruled as early as 10th century A.D. at Sosevūr (modern Angadi) in Kudur district of Karnataka, but later they transferred their capital at Dorasamudra (modern Halebid). The first four kings of the dynasty, viz. Nrpakāma (c. A.D. 1006-1047), Vinayāditya (A.D. 1047-1098), Ereyanga (A.D. 10981102) and Ballāla I (A.D. 1102-1108) were father and son in order of succession and ruled as vassals of the Cālukyas of Kalyäņa. During the reigns of these rulers Jainism was patronised in the kingdom. This is apparent from the fact that the preceptor of Nrpakāma and Vinayāditya was a Jaina and Ereyanga granted two villages for the upkeep of Jaina temples. Two extant Jaina temples (Väsantikā and Sosevür-basti) also speak of the same story.
Ballāla I was succeeded by his brother Vişnuvardhana (A.D. 1108-1142). He tried to build an
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independent kingdom but was suppressed to the vassalage position by his overlord Calukya Vikramadiya VI. During this period Jainism flourished well in Karnataka. Though Visnuvardhana himself was a Vaisnava, his chief queen Śāntaladevi, as also his prime minister Gangaraja and some other generals, embraced Jainism. The Parsvanatha and the Adinatha temples at Halebid and the Jaina temple at Angadi are also indicative of the bright position of Jainism in his kingdom.
Viṣṇuvardhana was succeeded by his son Narasimha I (A.D. 1142-1173). He was a weak ruler and was at last dethroned by Ballala II (A.D. 11731220). The age of Ballala sees the climax of Hoysala power. At the beginning of his career he forced the Cangalavas, Kongälavas and Pandyas (of Ucchangi) to acknowledge his suzerainty. He next defeated Yadava Bhillama V of Devagiri and assumed imperial titles. He also subjugated the Sindas of Belagutti. He, however, could not stand the might of Singhaṇa II, successor of Bhillama V, and lost the territories of Banavāsi and Belvola to him. He had matrimonial alliance with the Colas. When his son-in-law Cola Kullotunga III was overthrown by Sundara Pandya, he helped him to recapture the throne. During the reigns of these rulers Jainism received active support from the royalty as well as nobility. This is clearly evident from a large number of land-grants issued to maintain Jaina temples. This period also produced a large number of Jaina temples of which seven, viz. the Parsvanatha temples at Nittur and Heggere, Akkana-basadi at Śravanabelagola, Śantinātha temples at Halebid and Jinanathapuram, Mallikarjuna temple at Puspagiri, and the Jaina temple at Udri, are still existent.
Ballala II was succeeded by his son Narasimha II (A.D. 1220-1235) and the latter by his son Someśvara (A.D. 1235-1265). Someśvara divided the Hoysala kingdom into two parts; the northern or main Hoysala land of Dorasamudra he allotted to his crown prince Narasimha III (A.D. 1254-1291) and the southern one to his another son Ramanatha (A.D. 1254-1295). The

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partition, however, only led to the fights between the two brothers. Taking advantage of the situation the Yadavas attacked the northern kingdom and Sundara Pandya the southern one. In A.D. 1291 Ballāla III ascended the throne of Dorasamudra during whose 'time Malik Kafur, the general of Allauddin Khalji, invaded Dorasamudra and looted it. At last in A.D. 1346 it was included in the Vijayanagara empire.
In the long reign of these rulers the atmosphere was not congenial for the building activity. There also was an utter decline in the supporters of Jainism. As a result, no Jaina temple was produced at this time.
The Pallavas of Kañci (c. A.D. 650-900) - The Pallava dynasty of Kañcī in Toṇḍaināḍu (Tamil Nadu) was founded by Simhavarman and his son Simhaviṣṇu. The mother of Simhaviṣṇu consecrated a Jaina temple. A temple of Mahāvīra also existed in the time of Simhavarman.
Simhaviṣṇu was succeeded by his son Mahendravarman I (c. A.D. 580-630) who fought with the Calukyas of Vätäpi. His reign was also eventful in the religious and literary activities. In the beginning he was a Jaina but later turned a staunch Śaiva as he is alleged to have persecuted the Jainas and destroyed their monasteries. But the excavation of a Jaina cave at Vilappakkam during his reign disapproves of his bigotry position.
Mahendravarman I was succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman I Mamalla (c. A.D. 630-668) who waged successful wars with the Calukyas and captured the capital of Vātāpī. He also sent a naval contingent to Ceylone. He continued the cut-in method of excavating the caves. He also devised the cut-out method whereby the monolithic Rathas of Mahabalipuram could come to light. But none of these is Jaina, in spite of the fact that the famous Jaina scholar, Samantabhadra, lived at this time.
Mamalla was followed by his son Mahendravarman II (A.D. 668-672) and the latter by his son Parameśvaravarman I (A.D. 672-700). These

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rulers also were at war with the Calukyas. Parameśvara- varman suffered even a defeat at the hands of the Ganga king Bhūvikrama. These two rulers were staunch Saiva and hence no scope for Jaina activity.
Parameśvaravarman I was succeeded by his son Narasimhavarman II Rājasimha (A.D. 700-728) whose reign being comparatively peaceful sees brisk building activity in the field of structural temples. This is also attested to by a Jaina temple to Candraprabha at Tirupparuttikunram, Jinakañci, built during his reign.
After Rājasimha the Pallavas continued their rule in Tondainādu up to the end of the 9th century A.D. but, owing to the prominent position of Saivism and Vaisnavism, no Jaina temple was built. Similar is the position of Jainism in the time of the Colas and the Pandyas who ruled from Tanjaur and Madura after the Pallavas. Architectural Features
The Jaina temples south of the Vindhya mountain are characterised by a storeyed sanctum with cupola top, a mode of temple-style called Dravida in architectural treatise. In the simplest form of their ground plan they show a square vimāna-sanctum with or without a covered ambulatory (pradaksiņăpatha) around it, and an ardhamandapa approached from the ground by a stairway having elephant banister. In the larger conception the vimāna is confronted by an antarāla-vestibule followed in its turn by a gudhamandapa or mahāmaņdapa (closed hall), larger than the vimāna, and a rangamandapa or mukhamandapa (open pillared hall). The presence of gūdhamandapa and rangamandapa solely depends upon the need of the temple or the choice of the architect as some temples have both the halls and some others possess either of the two. Where there is a rangamandapa it is landed up from the ground by an usual staircase, and where there is a predilection for gūdhamandapa it is entered through an entrance porch, preferably from the front side, but there are temples which have entrances on the front as well as lateral sides. The Jaina temple at Hangal, which has only the rangamandapa, not the
gudhamandapa, in front of vimana's antarala, has entrances on all the three sides of the rangamandapa. In some Jaina temples the antarala is conspicuous by its absence.
Apart from having single vimāna in their layout the Jaina temples of South India possess double, triple and five-sancta vimāna with a common gūdhamandapa. in the juxtaposed double shrine of the Caranti-matha at Aihole each vimāna has its own gūdhamandapa, though the mukhamandapa in these shrines is commonly disposed. In the triple shrine the three vimānas stand juxtaposed at the back (Candragupta-basadi at Sravanabelagola) or on the three sides of the gūdhamandapa (the triple shrine near Virupaksa at Aihole and Harasur), the fourth side providing access to it. In the five-sancta temple three vimănas are placed juxtaposed behind the rear side of the gudhamandpa and two vimänas are placed on its lateral sides (Pañcalingesvara temple at Huli and Sankha-basadi at Lakşmeśvara). In another temple the lateral shrines are detached from the güdhamandapa (Pancaküța temple at Kambadahalli); in the third one the five vimänas are put up juxtaposed on the rear side of an oblong gūdhamandapa (Pancakūta-bastiat Humca); in the fourth one the three vimānas are disposed along the three sides of the gūdhamandapa and two on the lateral sides of a large pillared mandapa built in the front (Anantanāthabasadi at Lakşmeśvara).
Some Jaina temples have individual features of the plan. The Jaina temple at Ron is rectangular on plan as the vimāna and gūdhamandapa are laid out in a common enclosing wall. The Pārsvanātha temple at Halebid has a detached asthānamandapa (sitting hall) in front of the gudhamandapa. The Santinätha temple at Jinanāthapuram stands on a jagati-platform. The Mallikarjuna temple at Puspagiri and the monolithic Chotā Kailāśa at Ellora are entered through a pratoligateway. The Jaina temple near Caranti-matha at Aihole, the Jaina temple (No. 1) at Mulgund, the great Jaina temple at Lakkundi, the Candraprabha temple at
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Vijayamangalam and the Pancakūta-basadi at Kambadahalli are surrounded by a prākāra-wall entered through a simple gateway, dvāramandapa (hall-formed gateway), gopura (gatehouse) and pratoli respectively. In the Sankha-basadi at Lakşmeśvara the rangamandapa, instead of being open, is enclosed by a screen wall.
On plan the square vimana has either straight sides or is indented into alternate projected and recessed bays (Meguti temple at Aihole). In the developed temples it has two (bhadra and karna) or three (bhadra, pratiratha and karna) offsets with or without salilāntaras between. The offsets are usually further broken into a number of planes and are carried up to the shoulder part of the grivä-sikhara (neck and cupola).
In elevation (see Fig. 110) the vimāna shows one or more talas (storeys), the aditala (ground storey) consisting of adhisthana (plinth), pāda or bhitti (wall), prastara-hāra, grīvā, śikhara and stūpi, while the upper talas follow on smaller scale the morphology of the ground storey, excluding the adhisthana. The plinth (see Fig. 102) consists of a series of plain or ornamental mouldings showing generally an upāna, jagati, round or three-faceted kumuda, kantha, kapota, pratikantha and pattikā, with some minor mouldings. The jagati in the Jaina temple at Hallur, however, is replaced by khura-kumbha which, though rare in Karnataka Jaina temples, is an essential element of the plinth of the north Indian temples. The kumuda in a number of later temples takes the shape of karnaka. The plinth of the Sankha-basadi at Lakşmeśvara and the Jaina temple at Annigeri stands on a sub-plinth (upapītha) made up of some moulded courses. Generally, the kantha is decorated with sculptural panels, the kapota with nāsi-bosses containing figure sculptures, and the pratikantha with figures of makara, vyäla etc. The plinth may carry kapota, pratikantha and pattika in this very sequence as upper mouldings; or it may display two or one of these as terminal mouldings.
The wall of the vimāna is flat or is relieved with a series of slender pilasters cantoning the projecting
offsets or bays accommodating sculptured niches surmounted by varieties of shrine models and decorative motifs, particularly in the Western Calukyan and Hoysala temples, while the recesses in some temples contain perforated stone grilles. The wall-pilasters are always plain below and show ornate mouldings and capitals above. The wall is surmounted by prastara and hāra. The prastara consists of uttara (beam), vajana (projecting band), valabhi (rafter ends), kapota and pratikantha, while the hāra shows a string of ornate shrine models of kūta, śālā and pañjara with ornate nāsis and hārāntaras. The sequence of wall-prastara-hāra is also found in diminutive form in the succeeding talas (storeys) of the storeyed vimāna, but the talas in the superstructure of the developed temples of the Western Calukya and Hoysala periods are so much compressed that they resemble the tower of the north Indian temples. The superstructure terminates in a flat vedi followed by grīvā (neck), śikhara of square, octagonal or circular shape, and stūpi (finial) made up of pitcher and citron, the last one having disappeared in the majority of Jaina temples.
The vimāna-garbhagsha is generally entered from the antarala through a plain or carved doorway. The garbhagrha doorframe, as also of the other compartments, generally shows three to five sākhas jambs) with Jina as lalațabimba (tutelary image). The first jamb from inner side is carved with ratna (diamond); the second shows Gandharvas, bhūtas, scrolls or Vidyadharis; the third is stambha (pillar); the fourth is adorned with garlands, vyālas or scrolls; and the fifth is bāhyaśâkha (outermost jamb) decorated with lotus petals. In the triśākhã doorway the stambha occurs in the central position and in that of catuśśakhã doorframe it comes in the third position. The garbhagrha is enclosed by a plain wall reinforced by pilasters. Inside is a seated or standing image of Jina with attendant figures.
the antarāla, which is just an extension of the vimăna, is a rectangular or square compartment in case of the latter it is almost the size of the vimăna) enclosed on two lateral sides by the plain or indented walls
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having sculptured niches or kūṭastambhas or left plain. At times it is lodged over by sukanäsa (antefix) leaning upon the superstructure of the vimāna. The śukanāsa, wherever present, contains an image of Jina in its facade niche. In the interior of some temples it is confronted by a pair of pillars and has a sculptured niche on its side walls. In the Chota Kailasa at Ellora the columns also support a fine toraṇa-arch.
The gudhamandapa is a closed pillared hall following the scheme of plan and elevation of the vimāna and having a flat roof with hāra parapet of the vimana's first tala. It is entered from one or all the three sides through a porch of two pillars and two pilasters with a flat roof. Its interior usually shows four pillars in the slightly raised central nave and twelve pilasters in the periphery forming thus one central bay and eight surrounding bays. Such an arrangement of columns and bays in the south Indian temples is called navaranga (nine bays). The bays carry flat or lantern ceilings bearing sculptural and floral enrichment or left plain. In the larger conception the godhamandapa has a greater number of pillars arranged in crisscross pattern.
The pillars of the gudhamandapa are both plain and ornate and show several varieties of square, octagonal, circular, fluted, faceted, stellate and latheturned pillars. The pillar, most commonly used, has a square moulded base; the shaft is square below and circular above, the latter carrying a series of faceted belts or rings, large or small bell, belt and lasuna; the capital consists of tadi, ghata, pali and phalaka; and the corbel has four-armed roll, wavy or bevelled bracket. These constituents of the shaft also appear in the fluted and faceted pillars. The pilasters are like the pillars. In some temples the interior wall of the gudhamandapa also contains sculptured niches.
The rangamandapa is a semi-open hall laid out on a square, rectangular or dvi-anga plan in front of the gudhamandapa or antarala (sometimes detached in the form of asthänamaṇḍapa). Where the rangamandapa is attached to the antarala, the rear portion of the

rangamandapa is treated like the gudhamandapa wall as found in the Jaina temple at Hangal. Its adhisthāna has usually been kept low, and above the kapota here is found kantha, instead of kumuda, often carved with diamonds in panels. Above this comes a parapet wall comprising rajasenaka, vedikā, āsanapaṭṭa and kakṣāsana, one or two members among these being absent in some temples. On the parapet wall stand dwarf pillars and in the inner part full pillars. These pillars also are of varied forms and correspond largely to those of the gūḍhamandapa. The bays formed by these pillars contain plain or carved flat ceilings, but the Jaina temple at Belguam possesses an ornate domical ceiling with a fine pendant. The rangamandapa is usually approached from the front by a stairway; the same in the Belgaum Jaina temple, however, is entered from the front as well as lateral sides through a porch containing an ornate ceiling. The open hall is shaded by a large double-curved or sloped out eave-cornice.
The pratoli is a gate-house with central passage and walled sides. Its flat roof in the interior is supported by the pillars put up on both sides of the passage.
The dvaramaṇḍapa is a hall-formed gate attached to the surrounding walls of the temple. It also has a flat roof supported on pillars.
The gopura, which is a characteristic of the south Indian temples, is a storeyed structure over the entrance through the enclosing walls to the temple. Rectangular on plan it is composed of several storeys diminishing as they ascend and is covered on top by a semi-circular roof with a series of stupis.
We now proceed to describe the temples of South India, but before that it is worthwhile to note that no Jaina Tirthankara was born in the peninsular India, nor had any of the 24 Tirthankaras ever visited it during his preaching tour, yet Jainism flourished well in this part of the country. Probably, the people of the region were greatly influenced by the Jaina principles of Anekanta and Ahimsa and therefore they extended their ample support for its spread and development in the

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region. The pivotal role in this regard was played by the Digambara sect of Jainism as all the structural Jaina temples of the period under reference belong to this sect. But it is a pity that at present the Jaina temples of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu alone have survived.
KARNATAKA Karnataka first came into contact with Jainism when a severe drought broke out in Magadha and Bhadrabāhu, the head of the Jainasangha, alongwith the Mauryan emperor Candragupta migrated to the south and settled at Śravanabelagola about B.C. 298. In the beginning of the Christian era Śravanabelagola was developed into an important centre of Jainism by Kundakunda and his lineage. Subsequently, Arhadbali, according to an inscription found in the Siddara-basti at Śravanabelagola, earned great fame through his two disciples, Puspadanta and Bhūtabali, and divided the Mūlasangha into four sub-sects, viz. Sena, Nandi, Deva and Simha, each being further divided into Gaņas and Gacchas. In A.D. 470 Vajranandi founded the Drāvidasangha in Tamil Nadu which was affiliated to the Mülasangha of Śravanabelagola.
Jainism was well received in Karnataka during the times of the Calukyas of Badami. This is evident not only by two Jaina caves excavated at Aihole and Badami but also by the Meguti Jaina temple founded at Aihole in A.D. 634 by the Jaina poet Ravikirtti who wrote the famous eulogy of the Cālukya king Pulakesin II engraved in this very temple.
During the age of the Rästrakütas of Manyakheta (c. A.D. 750-973) Jainism became very popular in Karnataka. This was due to the fact that many Rästrakuta kings had leanings towards Jainism. The Rästrakuta king Amoghavarşa even turned a Jaina and accepted Jinasena, the author of the Adipuräņa, as his religious preceptor. Many inscriptions found at Sravanabelagola also speak of the flourishing condition of Jainism in the State. The capital city of Mänyakheta became an important centre of Jainism at this time since Puspadanta, the author of many Jaina works in Apabhramsa, made
his abode there. The prevalence of Jainism is also known from a group of five rock-cut Jaina caves hewn at Ellora and from two structural Jaina temples raised at Hallur and Pattadakal.
After the Rastrakūtas the main land of Karnataka was ruled by two major dynasties of the Cälukyas of Kalyāna (c. A.D. 973-1189) and the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra (c. A.D. 1047-1346), while the peripheral parts in the north-west, west and south were governed by some minor dynasties of the Gangas of Talkad, the śāntaras of Humca, the Kadambas of Banaväsi and Hangal, and the Rattas of Kuhandimandala. During this long period of Karnataka history Jainism received great patronage from both the royalty and the general public and spread without any hindrance in the State. There were many factors responsible for its spread and development. Firstly, it were the Jaina preceptors who helped in laying the foundation of the Ganga and Hoysala dynasties. Secondly, many kings and queens were so much influenced by Jaina tenets preached by Jaina teachers that they embraced Jaina religion. Thirdly, a good number of people were Jaina, some holding even important posts in the royal court. Under these favourable conditions thus there were raised numerous temples throughout the State. Many land-grants were also issued for their upkeep. The richness of Jainism is also evident from a large number of Jaina temples standing now in various stages of preservation at Aihole, Hurica, Kambadahalli, Annigeri, Angadi, Sravanabelagola, Konnur. Lakkundi, Mulgund, Nagai, Ron, Kuppatur, Lakşmeśvara, Halebid, Huli, Hangal, Heragu, Nittur, Heggeri, Harasur, Udri, Puspagiri, Jinanāthapuram and Belgaum. AIHOLE
Meguti Temple - This is a Jaina temple (Figs. 97-99; Pl. 78) standing on the top of a hillock in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. It is built of sandstone and faces north. The temple is well-known to the historians for the simple reason that it possesses on the east wall of its ardhamandapa the famous inscription
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innri
BITTE HO
IGNA DETTA
DIT
+→ N
Ő SM Figs. 97-99 Plan, section and elevation of Meguti Temple, Aihole.
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of the Calukya king Pulakesin II, which has been composed by the Jaina monk Ravikirtti and records the foundation of the temple in A.D. 634-635 by him.
Originally, the temple had a square vimana with an ambulatory and a short ardhamandapa. Subsequently, the ardhamandapa was extended and a mukhamandapa (entrance hall) added, probably at the end of the 7th century A.D. Contrary to the plane and uncarved interior, the exterior wall of the sanctum is projected and recessed alternately in straight line, forming thus four projecting bays and three recesses on each side, but the two central bays on the front side are replaced by a plain solid wall and the intervening recess provides access to the sanctum from the ardhamandapa. The central recess on cach lateral side has a small stone grille. The two front recesses flanking the ardhamaṇḍapa also have similar grilles.
The adhiṣṭhāna (Fig. 102) of the sanctum rests on a basal course of kharaśila and consists above that of a jagati, three-faceted kumuda, kantha and kapota, the last two being carved. The kantha shows figures of Yaksas and elephants in panels formed by plain pilasters, and of crocodiles, geese and creepers in the recesses. The kapota is decorated with caitya-gavākṣas (nāsī) with jewelled bands in between them and creepers at corners. The nāsī slits contain figures of Kinnari-heads (celestial female minstrel); they are bordered by a band of rosettes and topped by lotus.
Each bay of the sanctum wall is framed between two square plain pilasters surmounted by roll brackets. The two corner bays contain uncarved plane slabs, while the two other bays on each face have emptied sunk niches. The wall is shaded by a kapota cornice marked by uncarved nāsī bosses. Above the kapota is a plank-type moulding (prati) followed above by kantha decorated with female figures and Yakṣis, now weatherworn. The parapet moulding has disappeared. The upper storey built right above the garbhagrṛha is plain and damaged. The sanctum is entered through a pañcaśākhā

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plain doorway from the ardhamandapa. The ambulatory has now been converted into nine cells for storage etc. The garbhagṛha doorframe is also plain and the Jina image on its crest is damaged. The enshrined image of the Jina is missing.
The ardhamandapa, which shares its adhisthana and wall with the sanctum, is a four-pillared rectangular chamber entered from the mukhamandapa by a stairway provided with elephant banister. Its pañcaśākhā doorframe is uncarved but shows a string of karṇakūtas and sālā above the door-lintel. The pillars are of square order; they are topped by roll brackets and are plain. The beams and ceilings borne by them are also plain.
The mukhamandapa is a square pillared hall resting on an adhisthana which is almost an exact imitation and continuum of the sanctum. It is landed up from the front by a laterally built stairway. It has four pillars in the centre and twelve pillars on the periphery, all plain and square. Between the periphery pillars is a short balustraded wall relieved with figure sculptures at intervals.
The dedication of the temple is not definitely known as the enshrined image has disappeared; the inscription also does not give any clue in this regard. However, from the presence of an image of Kuṣmaṇḍi (now in the Bijapur Museum) in the ardhamandapa it may be surmised that the temple was dedicated to Neminatha. Since the temple is a dated one, it gives a definite landmark for the study of early temples of the Dravida style.
Jaina Temple near Caranti-matha - This northfacing temple (Fig. 100; Pl. 80) consists of a twostoreyed vimana, an antarāla and a gūḍhamaṇḍapa, larger than the vimana, the whole originally surrounded by a low prakara with entrance on the north. The gudhamandapa is entered from all sides except the south which is attached with the antarala. Facing the west as well as east door of the gudhamandapa is a plain square shrine with vestibule. A separate porch is placed between the east door of the gudhamaṇḍapa and the

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/
Fig. 100. Plan of Jaina Temple near Caranti-matha, Aihole.
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eastern shrine. The main vimana has now bay projections. The portion above the kapota of the second storey is lost.
The main shrine alone is of some interest. It is laid out on a plain and simple adhisthana comprising jagati, padma (inverted cyma recta), antarita, three faceted kumuda, antarita, urdhvapadma (cyma recta) and kapota with uncarved nāsi-bosses. The wall shows karna and bhadra with two and four pilasters respectively. Between the karna pilasters and the central pair of bhadra pilasters is a kūta-topped false niche. All the pilasters are of the square order. Their lower half is plain and the upper half carries large bell, belt, tādi, ghata, pāli, phalaka and citra- potikā, all left plain. The aditala (lower storey), prastara with uttara, kapota and pratikantha, and the hāra with karpakūtas and bhadraśālās are of little interest, but the śālās have seated Jinas in their nāsis and standing ones on ends. The second storey is short. The walls of the antarala are also relieved by kuta-topped false niche and the hāra has a figure of seated Jina in a large nāsi.
The exterior of the güdhamandapa is plain. The interior shows four lathe-turned pillars in the slightly raised central nave and twelve plain square pilasters on the periphery. The well-wrought four nave pillars have plain square base; their circular upper portion shows three successive rings with recesses in between them, large bell, narrow belt, short lasuna, tadi, carinated ghata, pāli, square phalaka and roll corbel. The ceilings are flat and uncarved.
The vimāna-garbhagrha is entered through a pañcaśākhā doorway from the antarāla and enshrines an image of Jina seated on lion throne. The doorframe consists of ratna, bhūta inhabiting vine creepers, segmented stambha with flutings and ghatapallava, mālā with buckles topped by floral sprouts, and a wide outer jamb. On the lalāļa of the door-lintel is a seated Jina with two cauri-bearers.
The temple was probably built in the late 10th century A.D.
Triple Jaina Shrine near Virüpākṣa Temple -
It has a group of three shrines laid out on three sides of a common square gūdhamandapa and opening into it by the connecting antaralas, the fourth or east side being provided with the main entrance (Fig. 101). The structural style of these shrines indicates that originally it was a double shrine consisting of the main shrine on the west and the subsidiary one on the north; the third or southern shrine was added a little later. The central and the southern shrines are square on plan and the northern shrine is slightly rectangular. Each shrine shows bhadra and karna with salilāntara between both in plan and elevation, but the saliläntara is absent in the northern shrine.
The adhisthāna of the two older shrines, Wn (Pl. 79) and Nn, are alike consisting of upāna, jagati, padma (inverted cyma recta), kampa, kantha, kampa, urdhvapadma (cyma recta), three-faceted kumuda, padma, kampa, kantha, kampa, ürdhvapadma, kapota with uncarved triangular blocks and kampa, while that of the Southern shrine, though similar in composition, has a pratikantha above the kapota. The bhadra and karna bays of the walls of the two older shrines are provided with cantoning pilasters and niche-ornaments, the same (with upabhadra) in the southern shrine are conspicuous by their absence, although the pilasters make their appearance on the walls of the second storey. The square pilasters are plain below and carry bell decorated at places with leaf, belt, lasuna, tādi, ghata, pāli, phalaka and bevelled corbel above. The lasuna is remarkable in that it is decorated at some places with trifoliate leaf in the western shrine and with bold tongue-like water-leaf in the northern. The superstructure of the southern shrine is tall and three-storeyed, that of the other two being short and two-storeyed. The prastara of each storey consisting of uttara, kapota and pratikantha is plain, while the hāra is studed with bhadraśālās and karnakütas with intervening härantaras. The nāsis of the sälā, like those in the Jaina temple near Caranti-matha, contain seated Jina figures flanked on either end by a standing one. The sikhara with stūpi in each shrine is lost.
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Fig. 101. Plan of Triple Jaina Shrine near Virūpāksa Temple, Aihole.
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The gudhamandapa is but the continuum of the ground storey of the vimana, depicting even trilobed water-leaf on the bell. The interior shows four massive, unattractive, square pillars in the slightly raised central nave and two slightly attached pillars at each of the three antarālas' entrant points, one quarter pilaster at each corner and two pilasters flanking the main entrance. The southern shrine also carries four half and four quarter plain pilasters in the garbhagṛha. The nave pillars have a square roughly moulded base; the shaft shows from below a plain cubical section, a narrow belt decorated with caitya-gaväkṣa device, bell adorned with trilobed pattern, a plain narrow belt, and lasuna adorned with caitya-gavākṣa device; and the capital consists of pāli, three-faceted square phalaka and bevelled corbel with central projection.
The garbhagṛha doorframe of the western shrine is of the pañcasakha variety representing ratna, patra (scrolls) with bhūta figures, stambha with superposed pots, thin mālā (garland), and bahyaśākha decorated with lotus leaves. On the lalața appears Gajalakṣmi instead of the customary Jina figure. The basal part of the doorjambs is left plain. Inside the garbhagṛha is an image of Pārsvanatha seated on lion-throne. The northern shrine has similar doorframe. The enshrined images in the lateral shrines are missing.
As regards the date of the temple, the two older shrines are placed in the last quarter of the 10th century A.D., and the southern shrine one or two decade later.
Candraprabha Temple - It lies in front of and now attached to the eastern wall of the gudhamandapa of the Triple Shrine at Aihole. It consists of a twostoreyed square vimana, a slightly rectangular antarala and a mukhamandapa, and faces the western shrine of the Triple Shrine. Like the latter its vimana also has bhadra (with upabhadra) and karna with saliläntara.
The adhisthāna is interesting as it is composed of broad upana, jagati, padma, kantha with kampas, urdhavapadma, tripatta kumuda, padma, kantha with kampas, ūrdhvapadma, kapota decorated with nāsīs and

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creepers at intervals, and pratikantha adorned with figures of vyālas and makaras with standing Jinas at intervals on karnas and bhadras of the vimana and seated Jina or Yakṣa on the antarala. The wall has the usual array of pilasters, but the sham-niches on the karnas and bhadras of the vimana as well as of the antarala contain standing Jina figures, now mostly damaged. The prastara and hara follow the arrangement and decor of those of the Jaina temple near Caranti-matha, but the wall of the second storey is comparatively taller. The portion above the prastara of the upper storey is lost.
The pañcaśākha doorframe of the garbhagṛha consists of ratna, bhūtas inhabiting vine creepers, fluted and segmented stambhaśākha, mālā, and padma decorated with lotus leaves. The lower portion of the śäkhās, like that in the Triple Shrine, is uncarved. The lalata of the door-lintel is occupied by a Jina figure. The enshrined image of Jina is missing, but the stele with fine figures of male cauri-bearers is intact. The figures of Syama Yakşa (now preserved in a local museum) and Jvälāmālinī Yakṣi (now in the antarala of the Virupakṣa temple) seem to have originally belonged to this temple and if it is so, the temple was dedicated to Candraprabha upon whom they attended.
The semi-open mukhamandapa shows four plain square pillars in the nave and three or four pillars on each side; two pilasters flank the entrance door. It seems to have been added some time in the 11th century A.D. The temple is datable to late 10th or early 11th century A.D.
Caranti-matha This is a double Jaina shrine consisting of two sancta, two gūḍhamaṇḍapas with juxtaposed four-pillared naves and doorways, and a common mukhamaṇḍapa reached from the ground by two stairways with plain banister (Fig. 103; Pl. 81). The adhiṣṭhāna consists of upana, jagati, padma, kantha decorated with lozenges, plain pattikā, antarita and kapota. The plain wall is surmounted by kapota and pratikantha mouldings. The open mukhamandapa is shaded on the front by an eave the intrados of which

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SEL
Fig. 103. Plan of Caranti-matha, Aihole.
prati
kapota
vājana urdhvakampa
kantha
adhahakampa
tripatta / kumuda
jagati
upána
Fig. 102. Adhisthāna of Meguti Temple, Aihole.
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is carved with fine figures of Vidyādharas, goose etc. in boxes. The mukhamandapa's flat roof is supported by five ornate square pillars arranged in a row on the front and ten pilasters on the surround.
The two doorframes of the gūdhamandapa are of the pañcaśākha variety. Each doorframe consists of ratna, patra, segmented stambha, vyāla and padma. The lower portion of the sākhās is left unadorned. The door- lintel shows Jina figure on the lalāta and a vyāla figure on either side in the lower register and three Drāvida vimānas with two intervening Nägara präsādas in the upper. The overdoor depicts twelve standing Jinas in a row with seated Sarvānubhūti on proper right and Ambika on proper left.
The temple is datable to the first quarter of the 12th century A.D. HALLUR
Melgudi Temple - This is a structural Jaina temple of the Rästrakata period. It is situated to the north of Hallur village in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. The temple (Pl. 82) stands on a gently rising ground and faces south, an orientation to be hardly met with. The temple is incomplete but well-preserved, except for the upper shrine which is almost gone. The work on temple had to be abandoned for some unknown reasons before it was finished. Had it been complete it would have been one of the fine temples of the period.
The temple, measuring 69 ft. by 41 ft., consists of a vimāna enclosed by ambulatory, an antarala and a gūdhamandapa entered only from the south without a frontal porch. The square vimāna as well as gūdhamandapa consists of bhadra, pratibhadra and karņa with salilantara-recesses between. Each wall thus has five offsets and four recesses.
The adhisthana of the vimāna is composed of upāna, khura, kumbha, antarita, three-faceted kumuda, kantha, kapota and prati-kantha. Of these the kapota carries nāsi bosses, four on the broader bhadras and two each on the karma and pratibhadra. The nāsis on the west side and at the north-west corner are ornamented
with Gandharva- and Kinnara-heads, while all the other nāsīs are marked by plain blocks. The prati-kantha on the west is also ornate as it carries vyäla-busts and makara-heads.
The walls of the vimāna are made of plain ashlars and show thin pilasters carved on the ashlars themselves. Hence the pilasters here are not structural in the functional sense; rather, they just emphasize the projections and recesses of the basement and entablature on the one hand and demarcate the bays on the other. Their main purpose is to connect the plinth with the entablature. All the pilasters are tall, tetragonal and slender and are surmounted by a narrow and a broad square cyma and bevelled corbel with rosette on front. The entire wall is relieved with pilasters and has some perforated stone grilles in bays. Each bay is framed by two pilasters and has no image. The wall is surmounted by kapota-cornice carrying a row of geese on the soffit. Below the cornice on the wall of the recesses are figures of Jinas enthroned or being bathed, Vidyadharas and Gandharvas, and above the cornice is a pattikā decorated with vyāla-busts, crocodiles and vigorous human figures. The pattika is pierced at intervals by water spouts, plain or carved in the form of crocodiles, to drain off rain water. The hāra-parapet above the pattikā is adorned with karnakutas, bhadraśālās and pañjara-kosthas. Two of the pañjara-kosthas contain figures of seated Jinas, and a few of the salās are crowned by large kirttimukhas. The spaces between the aedicules are filled with empty nāsi-kosthas.
A narrow staircase built in a confined chamber in the east corner of the gūdhamandapa leads to the upper sanctuary (16.6 ft. by 16.6 ft.) the walls of which are but the continuum of the ground floor of the inner garbhagsha. Its walls and doorframe are plain and simple. The hära and roof are lost. The enshrined image is missing.
The interior of the ground garbhagsha is quite plain but for the four corner pilasters. Its pañcaśākhā doorframe too is uncarved, but the two pilasters flanking it carry figures of door-guardians. The ambulatory round the
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garbhagrha is narrow and has a polished black-stone sculpture of Nandi facing the enshrined Linga placed at the time of the conversion of the temple to Saiva sect.
The gūdhamandapa, which is larger than the vimāna, is very similar in form and design to the latter but the bhadra on both the east and west walls is framed by four pilasters crowned by makara-arches, the bays at the karna and bhadra offsets have standing robeless figures of Pärsvanātha and Bahubali, and the recesses between the karmas and pratibhadras contain large latticed windows adorned with geometrical patterns. In one variety the lattice shows four-spoked interlocked squares, while in the other it consists of vertical and horizontal bars with rosetted bosses at the joints. The gūdhamandapa is approached from the ground by a flight of six steps cut across the adhisthāna mouldings; the upper three steps are flanked by elephant banisters. Its pañcaśākha doorframe is uncarved. The roof is flat with gentle slope to drain off rain water.
The interior of the gūdhamandapa shows four rows of five pillars each, dividing the entire area into a wide central nave and two constricted side aisles and making thus twelve bays in all of unequal sizes. The central part of the nave is slightly raised from its environ, but it is not symmetrical in disposition. All the pillars are square and massive and bear no ornamentation, though above the base and about the midway height they have cubical blocks surmounted by plain roundels. The pillars have no abacus and their corbels carry double-volute mouldings and a tenon. The cross-beams and the ceilings are uncarved, but the underside of each beam is relieved with three lotuses. The wall is also plain but is reinforced by pilasters placed in alignment with the pillars.
The temple has no inscription for dating. On the basis of its architectural features, decorative motifs and sculptural forms the temple may be placed in the latter half of the gth century A.D. HUMCA
Humca, the capital city of the Sāntaras, is situated
in the Shimoga district of Karnataka. In ancient period it was known as Patti (Patti-Pombulccapura), i.e. the city of gold. This hilly country (Malanād) of Hurica was ruled by the śāntaras from about the end of the 7h century A.D. to as late as early part of the 16th century A.D. Though the śāntaras did not play a major role in the political scenario of Karnataka, they were a great patron of art and architecture. The Säntaras were Jaina by faith and patronised the Jaina goddess Padmavati who was also the presiding deity of Pombulcca. At present, there are six extant Jaina temples, all built of sandstone. They form a group by themselves and are mostly royal creations.
Süle-basti - This is the oldest, albeit the largest, Jaina temple at Humca (Pl. 85). It consists of a square vimāna and a güdhamandapa, the latter being larger than the vimāna. The plan of the vimāna does not bear projections.
In elevation the temple shows only the adhisthana and wall, the superstructure does not seem to have been built. The adhisthana is composed on an upăna, jagati, three-faceted kumuda, kampa, kantha marked at intervals by vertical pilasters, kampa, ürdhvapadma, kapota and kampa. The flat wall shows panjara-kosthas with shallow slit-niches on the two faces of the karmas and only long slit-niches on the bhadras. The nāsi-bosses of the pañjarakosthas are left unfinished. The pilasters framing the slit-niches and also those appearing at the corners of the wall are all of the square order. They are plain below and have vase-shaped two laśunas (the lower one being inverted) with an intervening broad belt. The capital consists of padma, ghata, pāli and rectangular phalaka and is topped by bevelled corbel. The wall is surmounted by a kapota with uncarved triangular bosses. The gūdhamandapa has disappeared.
Probably, the temple was built in the last quarter of the 9th century A.D.
Bogāra-basti - This is the finest structure at Hurca. This is also one of the most beautiful temples of this period in the whole of Karnataka. On plan it
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consists of a two-storeyed vimāna, antarala and güdhamandapa, and like the Sule-basti it has no projections.
The adhisthāna of the vimāna is of the very unusual type consisting of a three-faceted kumuda, antarita-ālinga (recess and projecting band), again antarita-ālinga, kantha between kampas and three receding kampas. The wall (Pl. 83) is flat but relieved by pilasters which correspond to those seen in the Süle- basti. The prastara above the wall consists of eight courses. The first is a two-tiered plain uttara (beam). The second is a figural band representing hamsa, bhūta and vyālamālās. The third is kapota decorated with nāsī-bosses which are coaxial with the wall pilasters and shelter seated Jinas. The face of the nāsis is adorned with elegant vine creepers which issue from the mouth of a grāsa carved at the top. The fourth is ālinga carved with dentil pattern. The fifth is antarita adorned at intervals with makara heads placed sideways. The sixth is a plain alinga. The seventh is kantha carved at regular intervals by pilasters. The eighth course is made up of a broad kantha between kampas and bears sculptured niches at some places. The hāra above the prastara shows fine kütas at the corners, śālā in the middle part and kapota in the häräntaras. The faces of the kūtas, śālās and kapota are each enriched with fine creepers that emerge from the mouth of a grāsa carved on the top. This is a rare representation in the south Indian temples. The nāsis of the śālā, kūta and hārāntara shelter Jina-head, Kinnarī-head and vyāla figure respectively.
The cubical wall of the upper storey is formed by karņas and projected bhadras. The bhadra bears a śālā-koştha (niche with śālā-top) and the karna a storeyed kapota-pañjara (apsidal pañjara pattern on kapota). The kapota-pañjara is a rare feature during this period, but it is found in the subsequent period of the Cālukyas of Kalyāņa.
The grivā and śikhara (Pl. 84) are of the square type and resemble the kūtas of the lower storey with
this difference that the näsi on each face is an elongated one and contains a figure of seated Jina.
Inside the vimāna-garbhagrha the lion-throne is intact but the enshrined image of Jina seems to be modern.
The antarāla connecting the vimāna to the gūdhamandapa is short and of little interest.
The gūdhamandapa, which is larger than the vimāna, is a simple structure. Its adhisthāna consists of jagati, three-faceted kumuda, kantha between kampas, and a pattikā. The wall is relieved by usual pilasters and is surmounted by an eave. The roof is flat. The entrance door the height of which is disproportionate to its width consists of two jambs, the inner being plain and the outer decorated with deeply cut scrolls. The lintel of the door carries figures of Sankhanidhi and Padmanidhi on its two ends, although they are usually represented below the jambs.
The interior of the gūdhamandapa shows four square pillars in the central nave and eight pilasters on the periphery. The wall, cross-beams and flat ceilings are uncarved, but the pillars, square in section, are very richly carved. The base of the pillars is short and uncarved. The shaft is divided into four almost equal sections. The first from below is plain. The second shows a vertical scroll-band on each of the four faces. The third is divided into two broad belts, the lower showing kīrttimukhas spewing jewelled ropes and foliate scrolls, and the upper the meandering creepers. The fourth is a vase-shaped lasuna bearing fine floral pattern or nāsi with seated Jina-figure. The capital consists of cyma and bulbous ghata and is topped by plain corbel. The pilasters conform to the pillars, but the kirttimukhas and the meandering creepers are here replaced by standing robeless Jinas (in one case Pārsvanātha and Bāhubali) and a band of exquisitely carved diamonds.
Stylistically, the temple is datable to the late 9ch century A.D.
Guddada-basti - This Jaina temple atop the hill of Humca is known to have been built in A.D. 898
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by Vikrama śāntara for Jaina pontiff Mauni-Siddhānta ālinga-antaritas with a torus below the upper stratum. Bhattāraka of the Southern Digambara Church and was The hāra is adorned with ornate kütas, sālās and sacred to Bāhubali. The temple has recently been hārāntaras, which contain in their cavities full-blown demolished to give place to a cement structure. From lotus flowers rather than the figure sculptures of the what now remains it appears that originally it contained Bogāra-basti. The cubical wall of the upper storey and a vimāna, antarala, mandapa and a frontal entrance the sikhara also resemble those of the Bogāra-basti. porch. Its adhisthāna consists of a jagati, three-faceted The exterior of the gudhamandapa is of no interest, kumuda, kampa, kantha divided at regular intervals by but the interior shows four unadorned square pillars in plain pilasters, broad kampa, väjana, round kapota and the central nave and a ceiling depicting Astadikpalas a pattika. The exterior wall of the mandapa is devoid with a Yakşa figure in the central quadrant, a type of of pilasters and is plain, while the pillars in the interior ceiling which became very popular a little later in are richly carved. The pillars have a square plain base. Karnataka. Their shaft, circular in section, shows from below According to an inscription found on its wall, the elongated lotus petals with frilled edges, two necking temple seems to have been founded by lady Päliyakkan courses of jewelled band and cable moulding, bell- in the mid-10th century A.D. shaped member with bold kīrttimukhas emitting beaded In the precincts of the Pārsvanātha temple are garlands and alternating with chain-and-bell pattern, some beautiful pieces of makara-toranas which were carved diamond-and-bead band or scroll band, adhaḥ- originally put up in the temples described above. and ürdhva-padma clasped by jewelled band, and lasuna Padmāvati Temple - This is a small temple embellished with a series of creeper like petals. This situated in the north-west corner of the Pancakūta-basti. is a rare type of decorated pillars in Karnataka. The It houses a very small image of Yakși Padmavati which capital is round, plain and of the usual type. The does not seem to be very old. The temple was rebuilt doorframe of the mandapa is of the pañcaśākhā variety by Vira Śäntara before A.D. 1062 and a toraṇa was comprising patra, ratna, plain, again plain and outer added by his consort Cāgaladevi in A.D. 1062, which jamb.
has now disappeared. On stylistic grounds this temple is datable to the This east-facing temple is an oblong structure early 11th century A.D.
comprising a vimāna, two güdhamandapas and a Pārsvanātha-basti - This south-facing small mukhamandapa. Its adhisthāna is short and plain but temple is located in the north-east corner of the later the kantha moulding is broad. The wall is also plain. built Pancaküta-basti complex at Hurca. On plan it The vimāna has no superstructure. The roof of the corresponds to the Bogara-basti in having a two-storeyed mandapas is flat. Inside the vimana are the images of vimāna and a gūdhamandapa, the vimāna being 8 ft. Tīrthankara Pārsvanätha, Yaksa Sarvănubhuti and Yakşi wide and the mandapa 15 ft. wide. Its adhisthāna is Padmāvati. The gūdhamandapa in front of the vimāna composed of jagati, three-faceted kumuda, kampa, kantha houses a pair of standing figures of Pärsvanātha. The relieved by plain pilasters, kampa, vājana and a broad gūdhamandapa preceding the last contains lathe-turned pattikä, all left plain. The flat wall is relieved by pillars of the Calukyan style. The pillars have a plain tetragonal pilasters which are quite plain below and cubical base with a narrow octagonal belt above. Their show bell with pipala leaf, ghata, pāli, phalaka, and shaft is circular and shows from below a series of four roll corbel above. The prastara above the wall shows circular belts (plain fillet, scroll-band, arris and torus) uttara, kapota with näsi blocks, and three strata of with deep recesses in between them, a broad bell
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decorated at intervals with circular bands, pearl-festoon, beads and ridged band, a pitcher having a series of narrow projecting bands with a jewelled band on the lower part, and pearl-festoon in the neck as well as on the projected rim. The square abacus of the capital and the roll corbel are plain. Judging from the style of the pillars this second güdhamandapa seems to have been added in early 12th century A.D. The mukhamaņdapa is in the Vijayanagara style and was probably added in the 15th century A.D.
Pancakūta-basti - This is also an oblong structure with its orientation on the north (Pl. 86). It has five cells in juxtaposition on the rear side and a rectangular hall (güdhamandapa ) in the front. Outside this, on the east front side, is a mukhamandapa which is approached from the ground by a stairway with elephant banister Each of the five cells is entered through an ornate pañcaśākhă doorway and enshrines a large image of Jina, the one in the central cell being that of Pārsvanatha. The pillars of the rectangular hall are plain and simple; the nave ceiling depicts Astadikpālas with a figure of some dancing Yakṣa in the central quadrant. The hall has some images of Śasanadevatās on its east wall, dating from the 12 century A.D. It is entered from the mukhamandapa by an ornate doorway flanked by a pair of dvarapālas.
The mukhamandapa has slender and elegant pillars (Pl. 87), both faceted and lathe-turned, and is entered from three sides by an ornate doorway. It is covered by a tiled roof of the modern period. The front door is also provided with a torana-arch which emerges from the mouth of a makara placed on either side, proceeds upward forming two-folds, and meets at the top with a bold kirttimukha spewing jewelled festoon. The makara is driven by an Udadhikumära and is flanked on the outer side by a vyāla. In the centre of the torana-arch is a figure of Gajalakṣmi. Here Lakşmi is seated cross- legged and is lustrated by two elephants.
In front of the mukhamandapa stands a Mānastambha (Pl. 88) which is carved with bhutas,
vyālas, and human and divine figures.
The temple is said to have been built by Cattaladevi in A.D. 1077. PATTADAKAL
Pattadakal is situated in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. It has some beautiful Hindu temples of the Calukya period, the Virūpäksa among which is most notable. On the outskirts of the town is a ruined structural Jaina temple of the Rāstrakūta period.
Jaina Temple - This Jaina temple (Fig. 104; Pl. 89) at Pattadakal is built of sandstone and faces east. It consists of a sanctum enclosed by an ambulatory, antarāla, gūdhamandapa and mukhamandapa. The sanctum is square on plan from its base to the top of the sikhara and consists of three storeys, the two lower storeys being functional. Like the Jaina temple at Hallur it also has bhadra, pratibhadra and karna divisions with salilāntaras between, but the first two offsets are slightly projected from the straight line of the square sanctum. Each offset has a bay framed by two pilasters connecting the basement to the entablature. There are thus five bays on each wall.
The basement of the sanctum consists of jagati, three-faceted kumuda, narrow kantha, kapota with plain triangular bosses, and prati-kantha with uncarved rectangular blocks. The wall of the ground storey, like that at Hallur, is made of hewn blocks of plain ashlars and shows a range of tall slender pilasters having no base and capital. The wall is surmounted only by a kapota with uncarved triangular blocks.
The second storey has a sanctum enclosed by an upward extension of the inner wall of the ground storey. Although it reflects the arrangement of the lower storey on a diminished scale, it is complete in having a basal flat moulding, wall pilasters with capital and corbel, and entablature with prastara and hāra. The prastara consists of a kapota decorated with nāsi-kosthas, valabhi (rafter ends), antarita, vājana and kantha, while the hära is adorned with karna-kūtas, bhadra-śālās and pañjarakoşthas.

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(UDUDIOTI
-
N
Fig. 104. Plan of Jaina Temple, Pattadakal.
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The third storey is like the second, but it is lesser in width and without hāra. The bays of the third storey contain udgama pattern as in north Indian temples. The storey terminates on top in a flat vedi and is followed above by a subdued griva and a square sikhara with bhadra and karņa offsets simulating thus a twelve- faceted member. The corners of the sikhara are adorned with creepers, while the bhadras show nāsi-koşthas containing shrine-models and bordered by creepers. The stūpi has disappeared.
The walls of both the ambulatory and garbhagrha follow the offsetting scheme of the exterior wall, but the garbhagțha wall is also studed with pilasters.
The pañcaśäkhá doorframe (Pl. 90) of the garbhagrha consists of a plain inner jamb chamfered by three angles, stambha-sakha in the shape of handsome compound pilasters, depressed plain sākhā, uncarved square stambhasakha, and an outer sakha decorated with lotus petals. The lower part of the jambs and the entire lintel are uncarved. Each of the two compound pilasters supports a fine relief sculpture of makara with a lot of floriated tail. The door is surmounted by a plain kapota and a hära of kūtas, sālā and pañjaras with nāsi- koşthas in between them. The enshrined image in the garbhagrha is missing.
The antarala shares its basement and wall with the sanctum and is masked by śukanāsa replacing the bhadraśālā of the front side. Inside, it shows two square plain pillars at the rear side and two square ornate pillars on the front. Its walls have each a niche which originally probably sheltered a Jina image.
The gūdhamandapa is larger than the sanctum and has seven bays, unlike the five in the sanctum, on the north and south walls, the additional bays accompanying the bhadra. The recesses between the bays contain panjara-kosthas with figures of seated Jinas, Yakşas etc. The walls and the prastara-hāra are similar to those of the second storey of the sanctum. Water-spouts to drain off rain water from the flat roof have been set up in the saliläntaras. The güdhamandapa
is entered through a doorway of six jambs comprising plain sākhā, three-feceted minor stambha, padmaśākha decorated with lotus petals, three-faceted larger stambhaśākha bearing half carved diamonds at some places, a säkhă decorated with creepers, and an outer sākhā embellished with lotus petals and flanked on the inner side by a circular garland. The lower part of the jambs is occupied by Nidhi figures and purnaghata. The door is surmounted by a kapota and a hāra of kūtas, śālās and pañjaras. Inside, the gūdhamandapa shows four dwarfish, massive, compound pillars in the central nave and ten pilasters on the periphery. The pillars show short cube, faceted section, long cube and circular lasuna, all uncarved. The capital shows double cyma and bulbous ghata and in topped by taranga potikā. There are two thinner square pillars to give support to the rear pillars. The cross-beams and flat ceilings are all plain.
The mukhamandapa shares its basement with the rest of the temple and shows four massive pillars in the central bay and ten pillars on the peripheral asanapatta, all, except the two innermost pillars of the peripheral series abutting on the gūdhamandapa, corresponding to the two ornate pillars of the antarāla, but they are thinner to them. They are square at the base turning into an octagonal and sixteen-sided sections, each decorated with lotus petals. Above the sixteensided belt occurs the circular section of the pillar adorned successively with bell carved with pearl festoons, an ornate or plain belt, and lasuna carved with a band of lotus petals. The capital shows ridged cyma recta, bulbous ghata and plain cyma recta. The corbel consists of fourarmed plain brackets with a tenon on each arm. The dwarfish asanapata pillars have a shorter square base, and the cyma recta above the ghata is conspicuous by its absence. The eight peripheral pillars as well as the four central pillars are partially lathe-turned and herald the well-accomplished lathe-turned pillars of the Later Cālukyas and Hoysalas. The kakṣāsana of the asanapatta is carved with figures of Nidhi, vyālas, dancing bhūtas
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etc. The cross-beams and ceilings are flat and uncarved. In the mukhamandapa are two large elephant figures with riders flanking the gudhamandapa doorway. Each elephant projects out from the gūdhamandapa wall and is represented with its fore part only.
This is one of the finest temples of the late Rāştrakūta period and was probably built in the late 9th or early 10th century A.D. KAMBADAHALLI
It is situated in the Mandya district of Karnataka. From about the beginning of the 100 century A.D. the area around Kambadahalli was in possession of the Gangas of Talkad, or the Western Ganges as they are alternatively called. Like the sāntaras of Humca the Gangas also patronised Jainism. As a result, Gangavādi, the territory of the Gangas, became an important centre of Jainism. This is demonstrated not only by a large number of land-grants issued in favour of the Jaina Church but also by many Jaina temples located at Kambadahalli, Sravanabelagola etc. At Kambadahalli two Jaina temples stand to this day; one is called Pancaküta-basti and the other the Säntinātha-basti. Both these temples are made of granite.
Pañcakūta-basti - It consists of five Jaina temples (pañcakūta) laid out axially in two separate groups within a compound enclosed by a wall having pratoli- gateway on the north (Pl. 92). One of these is a Triple Shrine (trikūtācala) and the other is Double Shrine. The Triple Shrine consists of three equal sized vimānas with their own antarälas opening into a common gūdhamandapa from east, west and south sides, the fourth or northern side being extended further to form a pillared porch. In front of the pillared porch, but detached from it, is a balipītha (sacrificial altar). Thus the principal shrine of the trikūtācala is the southern one facing north, while the other two are subsidiary shrines on the transverse axis of the square gūdhamandapa. The two vimānas of the Double Shrine have each their own antarala and gūdhamandapa with a common pillared porch. They face each other, east
and west, and are transversely laid out immediately before the Triple Shrine complex. The three vimānas of the Triple Shrine are two-storeyed and show uniformity in the adhisthāna and wall, but their grīvāSikhara differs from one another and represents Nägara, Drāvida and Vesara forms of sikhara. The two vimānas of the Double Shrine are almost of the same dimensions and mode and are crowned by Nāgara sikhara only.
The adhisthāna of the Triple Shrine is plain and simple and consists of jagati, three-faceted kumuda, kantha, and pattikā with prati. Their plain and flat wall on each face of the lower storey shows six square pilasters. Below, the pilasters are plain; above, they show a belt of pearl and foliage festoon, lasuna, tādi of cyma and cyma reverse carved with lotus petals and bud, bulbous ghata, pāli and phalaka. The corbels with wavy configuration are adorned with median scroll band. The ghata in the western vimāna is also incised with lotus petals. The central pair of pilasters on each face of the vimāna and antarala contains a sunk niche flanked by two dwarf pilasters and surmounted by a graceful arch of makara-torana, patra-torana (festoon of foliage and flower), citra-toraņa (a frieze of bird and animal figures), or Vidyadhara-torana (a frieze of flying Vidyadharas). The niches are mostly empty now; some contain robeless figures of kāyotsarga Jinas.
The prastara above the wall consists of uttara, haṁsamālā, and kapota decorated on each face with three pairs of small näsi-gavākṣas and a vyālamālā below. Above the prastara comes a prati-kantha with a string of vyāla busts. The hāra above the prastara is adorned with four square karna-kütas and four oblong bhadra-śālās, all interconnected by hárāntaras of lesser height. The kūtas and śālās have small nāsis with trefoil finials and carries superb decorations of creepers on the body and a band of rosettes below and of rosettes and lotus petals above, while the hārāntaras have a single näsikä in the central shrine and double näsika in the lateral shrines.
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wall carries paired niches at the centre and panjara- kosthas at each end. The hara is not represented here. The vedi above the vyālamālā of the prastara supports four couchant lions on the four corners which have remained at some places only.
The square grīvā-śikhara (Nāgara) of the north- facing main vimāna has bigger projected násikās on the four faces; the octagonal grīva-śikhara (Dravida) of the western vimāna carries eight similar näsikäs on the eight faces; and circular grīvā-śikhara (Vesara) of the eastern vimāna has usual nāsikās only in the four cardinal points. They all are elegantly carved and bear fine decorations of creepers. The stūpi in each case is lost, but when intact it follows the morphology of the śikhara.
The three sancta of the trikütäcala enshrine Tirthankara images seated on lion-throne with male caurī-bearers. Except for the Tirthankara images which are made of soft stone like steatite, they are wrought in granite, indicating thereby that they are later replacement of the original ones. The three antarālas contain handsome images of Jina Pārśva and Supārsva, Yakşi Cakreśvari, Ambikā and Kāli, and two images of Yakşa Sarvānubhūti.
The güdhamandapa is square on plan and shares its adhisthana and wall with the vimana, but it has pilasters (similar to those on the vimāna) one at each corner, the kütas and śālā are absent and the roof is flat. Two similar pilasters also flank the main entrance on the north. In the interior it shows four pillars in the central nave and two square pilasters in the eastern and western antaralas and two octagonal pilasters in the southern. The pilasters are massive and stunted and correspond to those on the outer wall. The four nave pillars have a square base resting on lotus pedestal; their shaft is octagonal; and the capital consists of lasuna, tādi and ghata and is topped by wavy corbels. The nave has a finely carved flat ceiling depicting eight Dikpālas in their respective directions and a figure of Dharanendra Yaksa in the centre. Eight other bays in the
gūdhamandapa have flat and uncarved ceilings.
The mukhamandapa on the north side of the gūdhamandapa has a large platform landed up from the side by a flight of four steps. Each stairway is guarded by a balustrade represented with crocodile and lion. The mukhamandapa's flat roof is supported on four undecorated pillars of the octagonal mixed variety.
The balipītha in front of the mukhamandapa rises over a basal upāna in three diminishing tiers of square, octagonal (decorated with figures of eight Dikpälas) and circular blocks recalling the Nāgara, Drāvida and Vesara grivā-śikharas of the respective vimānas.
The Double Shrine, laid out immediately behind the pratoli, consists each of a two-storeyed square vimāna, a rectangular antarala and a four-pillared square gūdhamandapa, and is entered from the centrally placed porch landed up from the front and rear side by a flight of three steps. Almost equal in dimensions and dedicated to Mahāvīra they closely resemble to the Triple Shrine, but in matter of details they show a number of variations. For instance, the adhisthana and the ground storey (āditala) of the western vimāna are relieved into bhadra and karna offsets with recessed saliläntaras between, although the same in the mandapas are rendered in straight line. Here the adhisthāna consists of upăna, jagati, semi-circular kumuda, kantha, and a vyalapattika with bold and much spaced out rampant vyālas. The bhadra with four pilasters and central niche is wider and topped on the hāra by ornate sala, while the karna with kūta aedicule has only two pilasters. These pilasters are similar to those found in the Triple Shrine, but the corbels have a straight bevel with median band. The second storey has two nāsikās in the middle part of the kapota and four usual lions around the base of the square grivä-sikhara.
The eastern vimāna of the Double Shrine shows another type of adhisthana made up of upana, jagati, three-faceted kumuda, kantha and kapota having caityagavākşas in alignment with wall pilasters. The adhisthāna and wall are rendered straight and have no bhadra and
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karma offsets. The pilasters, six on each face, are widely spaced in the centre than on the sides and are placed in accordance with the basal plans of the four karna- kūtas and four bhadraśālās above the prastara. The second storey has plain walls and carries four usual lions at the four basal corners of the square grivaśikhara.
Some interesting variations are also noticed in the pillars inside the gūdhamandapa. The four nave pillars in the western shrine have each a plinth adorned with lotus petals, an octagonal shaft decorated on the upper section with pearl-and-foliage festoon, a band of finely carved diamonds and beads and squat petalled lasuna with incised creepers, a capital made up of ghata, pāli, and square phalaka with necking, and a plain bevelled corbel without median band. The nave ceiling here also depicts Astadikpālas with Dharanendra. Contrary to this the four nave pillars in the eastern shrine are made of soft steatite and are lathe-turned. They have a square pedestal with kapota moulding on the top, circular shaft and capital, and square phalaka.
The pratolí has a plain, simple, moulded adhisthana and a flat wall with devakosthas flanking the central passage. The devakosthas contain robeless images of standing Jinas that are mostly lost, and are surmounted by a pediment arch of floriated creepers issuing from the gape of the centrally placed vyāla. Inside the arch is a seated figure of Jina. The pratoli has a flat roof with haṁsamālā under the kapota cornice. The doorways are plain and simple and lack the elaborate outer frame of multiple jambs and lintel of the Cālukyan temples.
The whole complex of the pañcaküta-basti was probably built in the latter half of the 10th century A.D.
In front of the pratoli and at a little distance away stands a tall and well wrought Mānastambha of granite carrying a figure of Yaksa on top. The pillar is coeval with the temple. Perhaps the present name of the village Kambadahalli has derived from this very prominent kamba or column.
śāntinātha-basti - The Santinātha temple (Pl. 93)
at Kambadahalli is situated a little north-east of the Pancaküta-basti. It consists of two Jaina temples; one faces east and is of some interest, in spite of the fact that the superstructure of its vimāna is lost, while the other is completely ruined.
The east-facing shrine consists of a vimana and two mandapas, each linked with the other forming a common long rectangular hall. The vimana has bhadra projection on each face and stands with its two mandapas over an upapītha which is made up of upāna, broad recess relieved at intervals by plain pilasters, kampa, padma, kapota and padma. The adhisthana above the upapītha consists of a jagati, kantha with kampas below and above, round kumuda, kantha with padmas and kampas, kapota with uncarved blocks, pratikantha decorated with very spirited figures of horse-riders, elephant-riders, makara heads at corners, etc., and a plain pattikā. The wall, resting on a khura-kumbha course and topped by a kapota cornice, is plain but for the pilasters at corners of the bhadras and karnas. Inside the vimāna is installed a tall and impressive image of Tirthankara Santinātha.
The mandapa in front of the vimäna has four pillars in the nave. The pillars stand on a square moulded base; their shaft is quare below and circular above, the latter showing from below a narrow band of lotus petals, broad recess, bell, plain belt and lasuna. The capital, also circular, consists of tādi, bulbous ghata, pāli decorated with lotus petals, and square phalaka; and the corbel has bevelled arms with median band. The mandapa contains two beautiful images, one of a seated Jina with male cauri-bearers and the other of Yaksa Sarvānubhūti, also seated. Besides, there is a large image of Jina sitting with attendant figures. The second mandapa also has four pillars in the nave, resembling those noticed in the aforesaid mandapa. The nave here has a notable flat ceiling representing eight Dikpalas with an image of Jina Pārsva seated in the centre.
The temple seems to be built in the end of the 10h century A.D.
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ŚRAVAŅABELAGOLA
It is situated in the Hassan district of Karnataka. Its antiquity as a Jaina site goes to the 3rd century B.C. when a severe drought broke out in northern India and the Jainasangha under the leadership of Bhadrabāhu migrated to the south and settled at Sravanabelagola. The Mauryan emperor Candragupta, who according to the Jaina tradition had become a Jaina monk, also accompanied him and breathed his last at the Candragiri hill of Sravanabelagola, which is named after him. There is a group of four Jaina temples, viz. Candragupta- basadi, Cāmundarāya-basadi, Parsvanatha-basadi and Akkana-basadi. The first two of these are made of hard stone and belong to the Ganga (Wn) period and the last two, built of soft stone, to the Cālukya-Hoysala period.
Candragupta-basadi - It is a small temple facing south towards the famous Bāhubali image on the Vindhyagiri hill of Śravanabelagola. It consists of three juxtaposed oblong shrines, a common rectangular antarala and a large pillared hall (Figs.105 and 108). The larger central shrine has no Sikhara, while the adjacent side ones are roofed by low towers. On the east side of the pillared hall a new wall and a plain pillared corridor were added in the Vijayanagara period; on its west side a large temple was added by Gangarāja, minister of the Hoysala king Vişnuvardhana, in c. A.D. 1118; and the south side was blocked by the north wall of the temple of Pārsvanātha built in the 11th century A.D.
The three shrines are laid out in a straight line and have no projections on their wall. Their adhisthāna consists of an upana, jagati, three-faceted kumuda, kantha with kampas below and above, and a pattikā with prati, all unadorned. The flat and plain wall is punctuated at intervals with a series of square pilasters which are plain below and carry double-pot with intervening plain belt, tädi, bulbous ghata, pāli, square phalaka and bevelled corbel above. The prastara carries beam, hamsamalā, kapota with small nasis, and
pratikantha decorated with vyala figures, now sadly damaged. Above the prastara is a moulding covered with thick coat of plaster; it is followed in its turn by a kapota with haṁsamālā underneath. The square superstructure of the lateral shrines consists of a short grīvā and a śikhara decorated with large emptied näsis. The śikhara in each shrine is capped by a padmacchatra, but the stupi is lost. The antaräla follows the lineaments of the shrine and has a flat roof.
In the interior the sanctum of the central shrine enshrines a standing image of Pärśvanátha, and the side ones those of Padmăvati and Kuşumāndi. The antarāla contains images of Yaksa Sarvänubhuti and Dharanendra.
The pillared hall, in spite of some alterations, is a part of the original temple. Its twenty-five pillars out of possibly thirty-six stand to this day in five lines of five each. The four central pillars are very handsome and belong to the square order. They have a moulded base. Their shaft is divided into four almost equal sections, the lowermost being plain and the upper three alongwith the whole of capital are chamfered into three angles and bear various decorations. The second section of the shaft shows small näsis on each face; the third section is decorated with pearl festoons issuing from the mouth of kirttimukha, and a band of half diamonds between double-petalled lotuses; and the fourth is occupied by a lasuna with simple or flamboyant nāsīs below and double-petalled lotuses above. The bulbous ghata of the abacus and the bevelled corbels are plain. In another variety the pillars are made circular with unadorned double-pot below the ghata and above the plain lower section. In the third variety the pillars are like the last type, but the lower section of the shaft is octagonal and the double-pot is sixteen-sided. The bay formed by four central pillars has a flat ceiling relieved boldly by a large lotus flower.
Stylistically, this temple may be placed in the last quarter of the 10th century A.D.
Cāmundarāya-basadi - This east-facing shrine is one of the largest and finest temples of Gangavādi.
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Fig. 105. Plan of Candragupta-basadi, Sravanabelagola.
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malo los
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Fig. 108. Elevation of Candragupta-basadi, Sravanabelagola.
PATOGXOUYO
Ello
Fig. 107. Adhisthana of Jaina Temple, Hangal.
Fig. 106. Adhisthana of Cämundaraya-basadi,
Śravanabelagola.
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-- vimāna --
garbhagrha
antarala
güdhamandapa
5
mukhacatuski
porch
Fig. 109. Plan of Camundarāya-basadi, Sravanabelagola.
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It is a large rectangle divided into a three-storeyed (tritala) square vimāna, an antarāla, a gūdhamandapa of almost the size of vimana and a later built entrance porch (Figs. 109-111; Pl. 94). The vimāna shows bhadra, pratibhadra and karna both in plan and elevation, while the gūdhamandapa is laid out in a straight line. The unadorned adhisthana (Fig. 106), common in both the structures, consists above the straight-sided upăna of jagati, antarita, three-faceted kumuda, kantha with kampas below and above, and a pattikā with prati.
The walls of the ground storey (āditala) of the vimāna on north, south and west are punctuated by ten pilasters, two flanking each offset, with two additional ones intended for a sculptured niche in the bhadra. The north and south faces of the gudhamandapa also have the same set of pilasters and bhadra niches, but since the walls have no offsets and recesses, they are just relieved on the flat walls. All the bhadra niches, which must have once contained standing figures of Jinas, are empty now. The pilasters are all of the square order. The three-fourth lower section of their shaft is plain; the one-fourth upper section shows an inverted pot, a belt marked by four straight lines, and a lasuna-shaped kalasa (pitcher). The capital consists of tādi, ghata, pāli, phalaka and kantha; the corbel atop the last has bevelled arms. The prastara consists of uttara, vājana, valabhi with close-set hassas, overhanging flexed kapota with ornate paired nāsis at intervals, vyalamala with fine figures of gajavyālas, simhavyālas and other leonine figures, and antarita with square blocks carved with creepers; the prastara is exceptionally good. In the vyālamālā many water-chutes have been inserted to drain out rain water. The hāra is composed of all the three units of kūta, sala and panjara with intervening recessed hāräntaras. The aedicules are rendered full in shape (anarpita) since there is an open passage behind them, and have ornate nāsi-kosthas on their exposed faces. The nāsi-kosthas are generally vacant, but those on the pañjaras contain minutely carved temple- models. Below nāsi-kosthas are found finely wrought
figure sculptures-seated Jinas with two rampant vyālas on each śālā, seated Jina on the kūta, Yaksa on the pañjara, and Yaksa, Yakşi and male and female devotees on the hārāntaras. In the north-east as well as southeast karnakuta of the ground storey of the vimana is a figure of Kubera. The royal emblem of the Gangas, elephant, is also shown in its recumbent form below the hăräntara nāsi of the south antarāla. The interior doorway of the sanctum is very simple. Inside the sanctum is a steatite image of Neminātha, a later replacement of the original one.
The second tala with passage around its walls acts as an upper sanctuary entered from the east. It has one bhadra and two karnas on north, south and west faces, with an additional bay towards the antarala extension. Thus, there are four pairs of pilasters on the lateral sides and three pairs of pilasters on the rear or west side, all corresponding to those of the ground storey. The wider bhadras have each a shallow niche with a stucco image of standing Jina. The prastara consists as usual of uttara, harsamälä (the haṁsas are interrupted at the corners by lion-figures), kapota with ornate nāsis and vyālamālā, while the hara shows four ornamental karņakūtas and four bhadraśālās interconnected by härāntaras decorated with small násikās in pairs. The frieze below the nāsikās of the kutas and śālās depict seated Jinas, while that below the hārāntara-nāsikās shows male and female devotees. The prastara over the antarala walls on south and north has a panjara-kostha enshrining a seated Jina. The hāra on the east face of the antarala carries a gopura like śālā. The doorframe, like the one in the sanctum of the aditala, is simple. The sanctum of this tala contains a later image of Pārsvanātha.
The walls of the third tala, closed on all sides, carry four pilasters on each face, forming thus one central bay and two side ones. The wider central bay contains an image of seated Jina and the side ones have pañjara-kosthas with figures of devotees. The prastara here also carries the hamsamālä.
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The crowning members atop the third tala consist of octagonal, short vedi and grīvā, octagonal sikhara, and circular padmacchatra and stūpi. The mahanasis of the griva-śikhara contain figures of seated Jinas in the cardinal points and adoring devotees in the corner ones. Though the sikhara is handsome, it is not that elegant in proportion as we find in the Pancaküta-basadi at Kambadahalli.
The gūdhamandapa continues the wall decorations of the aditala of the vimāna, but the śālā over the entrance is longer than those over the side bhadras and shelters a temple-model. It is entered from the porch through a catuśśākhā doorway of which the two inner jambs depict scrolls and rosettes and the other two are left plain. In the interior it shows sixteen pillars, four in the slightly raised central nave and twelve in the surrounding aisle. Besides, there are two pillars in the antarāla and eighteen pilasters in the periphery. The four nave pillars and two antaräla pillars are plain and belong to the circular order. They have a moulded base, plain shaft with double pot, cyma recta type tadi, bulbous ghata and bevelled corbel (the antarala pillars also having square phalaka and neck over ghata). The remaining pillars have a square moulded base; their shaft is square below and above and octagonal in the middle; and the corbel is of the bevelled type. The ceilings, so also the roof, are flat and uncarved. Compared to the ornate exterior, the interior is plain and uninteresting.
The entrance porch is landed up from the front by a staircase with elephant banister. It consists of four pillars supported by a short balustraded wall on the sides. The pillars have a square base; their shaft is square at the base and octagonal above with circular necking; the capital consists of ghata and square phalaka; and the corbel has bevelled type of arms. The ceiling carried by these columns is flat and uncarved.
The temple seems to have been founded by Cämundarāya between c. A.D. 982-985 and its upper portion may have been completed by Cāmundarāya's
son Jinadevaņa between c. A.D. 995-999.
Pārsvanātha-basadi - This east-facing Western Cālukyan temple (Pl. 95) consists of a vimāna, an antarāla and a gūdhamandapa. The exterior wall of the gūdhamandapa is plain, but that of the vimāna shows bhadra, pratibhadra and karna both in plan and elevation. The adhisthana consists of an upana, jagati, padma, antarita, karnaka decorated with lozenges appearing at intervals on bhadra and pratibhadra, antarita, kapota with uncarved triangular bosses, and pratikantha with plain square blocks. Supported by a pattikā (made up of karnaka, kampa, kantha and kampa) with lozenge in niche on bhadra and karna, the wall has alternate projected offsets and recessed saliläntaras and is punctuated by slender pilasters, two appearing on each karna and pratibhadra and four on the bhadra. Each pratibhadra contains moderate küta-kostha (a niche with kūta tower), while the central pair of pilasters on each bhadra carries a tall küta-kostha. Two-third lower portion of the pilasters is plain and one-third upper section shows decorations of inverted kalasa marked by pīpala leaves, a belt with a series of straight lines and a flower, tādi, ghata, pāli and phalaka; the corbel is bevelled.
Inside the antarāla are some tall, plain, latheturned pillars. The garbhagrha has a slit-opening rather than a doorframe and enshrines a tall, impressive, dark image of Pārsvanātha standing with seven-hooded cobra canopy.
The temple is datable to the second quarter of the 11th century A.D.
Akkana-basadi - This east-facing Hoysala temple (Pl. 96) consists of a three-storeyed vimāna, antarla, gūdhamandapa and mukhamandapa. The vimāna is dvianga on plan and elevation consisting thus of bhadra and karna with salilāntara between. The karņa is equilateral with cantoning wall pilasters, while the bhadra is broken into five planes, each flanked on the outer side by a wall pilaster.
The adhisthāna is composed of upăna, padma, kumuda decorated with lozenges at intervals, antarita,
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stupi
sikhara
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Fig. 110. Front elevation of Cāmundarāya-basadi, Śravanabelagola.
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LITHE
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Fig. 111. Side elevation of Cāmundaraya-basadi, Śravanabelagola.
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kapota adorned with uncarved bosses, pratikantha with circular showing from below a diamond band between plain blocks, and a plain pattikā. But for the square two knife-edged mouldings, large bell (inverted kalasa) pilasters topped by küțas the wall is plain. The wall with ring below and broad tasselled jewel-band above, is shaded by an overhanging plain eave-cornice topped and kalasa decorated with rings and decorative bands by a kapota. Each storey of the superstructure consists of scrolls, minute diamonds and jewelled festoons; the of a prati-kantha with uncarved rectangular blocks and capital shows a short and a large flat disc (instead of a hāra with kūta at karna and sala with nāsi-kostha bulbous ghata) decorated with tasselled jewel-band, at bhadra. The nāsi-kosthas have each an image of short plain pali below larger disc and square plain seated Jina with cauri-bearers surrounded by jewel-and- phalaka; and the corbel has faceted arms. The nine bays scroll band emerging from the mouth of a kirttimukha contain ornate ceilings, some having Jina figures. depicted on the top. The square grīvā-śikhara on each The temple is known to have been founded in face carries a seated Jina figure at the central face and A.D. 1181 by Acaladevi, wife of the Brähmanist general scroll pattern on the sides. The stupi over the Sikhara Candramauli. is lost.
Candraprabha Temple - This brick temple at The exterior wall of the antaräla has the usual Sravanabelagola is located behind the Camundarāyasquare pilasters with küța tops. Above, the antarala is basadi. It was founded in c. A.D. 800. Its stone adhisthāna lodged over by a sukanāsa with an elaborate and is original, but the brick structure is a later replacement exquisitely carved nāsi-front. The nāsi contains an image of the original one. of seated Jina with two cauri-bearers in the projected Mānastambhas - There are two Mānastambhas central facet and two standing Jinas with attendant (pillar of respect) at Sravanabelagola. One of these was figures on the two lower side facets, the whole edged set up by Cāmundarāya on the Vindhyagiri (Gommata by jewel-and-scroll band issuing from a gorgeous hill). This pillar stands on a well-formed lion pedestal. kirttimukha on top. Inside the antarāla are two ornate Below, the shaft shows Nemicandra (author of images of Yaksa Dharanendra and Yaksi Padmāvati Gommațasāra) and Camundarāya among other figures with ornamental frame. From the antarāla the vimāna- and above, a rare example of fine vine-creepers covering
garbhagsha is entered through a pañcaśākha doorframe most of the surface of the shaft (Fig. 112). minutely carved with diamonds, lotus scrolls, pillar, The other column is located inside the south lotus scroll and creepers. The tutelary block of the entrance of the enclosure round the Candragiri complex. door-lintel shows a seated Jina with cauri-bearers, and It stands on a pedestal carried by eight elephants. the overdoor carries five miniature kutas with lotus bud Below, the shaft is square having figure sculptures, and hanging down from the two intermediary kutas. Inside above it is octagonal with six ornamental bands clasping the sanctum is a tall, dark image of Pārsvanātha. at regular intervals. The capital is circular carrying a
The exterior wall of the gūdhamandapa corresponds figure of Brahmadeva. An inscription on the pillar says to that of the vimana with additional pilasters at the that it was installed to commemorate the death of the pratibhadra. The roof is flat. It is entered through a Ganga king Mārasimha II, who died in A.D. 974. This porch having two dwarf stellate pillars with thirty-two indicates that the column was set up not long after that points. The interior is divided into nine bays by four date. lathe-turned, polished, well-finished and exquisitely The Hypaethral Temple and the Colossus of carved nave pillars and twelve peripheral pilasters. The Gommateśvara - The colossal sculpture of nave pillars have plain cubical base; their shaft is Gommateśvara or Bahubali has been carved out in the
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Fig. 112. Mānastambha, Sravanabelagola.
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round from a fine-grained granite rock on the top of the Indragiri hill at Śravanabelagola. This north-facing, robeless, polished image is 58 ft. high. It stands on the rounded top of the hill measuring 470 ft. high from the surrounding plains and is visible all around for miles. It is represented in a contemplative standing posture (kayotsargamudra) with ant-hills, snakes and ascending creepers, and bearing all traits of the Great Man (mahāpurușa-lakṣaṇa). Indeed, it is a marvellous production of any age and "nothing grander or more imposing exists anywhere out of Egypt, and even there no known statue surpasses it in height." The image was got made by Camuṇḍaraya, the minister and general under the Ganga king Racamalla (A.D. 972-984), though the traditional date of its consecration is the fifth day of the bright fortnight of the Caitra month in A.D. 1028. The huge image of Gommatesvara is surrounded by a structural pillared corridor with shrines for twentyfour Tirthankaras. The corridor pillars are of the faceted class and have plain corbels. On the roof are scores of miniature shrines containing divine figures. These shrines are built on a square or rectangular base covered by pyramidal or barrel-vaulted roof. The corridor was erected by Gangaraja, the general of Hoysala king Viṣṇuvardhana (A.D. 1110-1152). ANNIGERI
It is located in the Dharwad district of Karnataka. There are two Jaina temples at Annigeri, one is called Jaina Basadi and the other may be referred to as ruined Jaina temple.
Jaina Basadi - This old Jaina temple had originally been founded by Ganga Perumaṇḍi in the middle of the 10th century A.D., but it was burnt down by the imperial Colas in A.D. 1071. Not much is known about this temple; some fragments of the upapitha and adhiṣṭhāna, however, may still be seen in the totally renovated east facade. Another piece of this temple is a pair of elephant banisters preserved at the eastern stairway of the guḍhamaṇḍapa. This excellent banister shows in profile a powerful lion attacking and subduing

an elephant. From the mouth of the lion issues the modular coping stone with fine heavenly figures in stemmed loops (Pl. 91).
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Ruined Jaina Temple - This temple is situated near the aforesaid Jaina Basadi. Originally, it had a vimāna with two halls, all now ruined. The outer hall has stellate type of pillars in the nave and square ones towards the periphery. This temple was probably built in the end of the 11th or the beginning of the 12th century A.D.
ANGADI
Angadi (ancient Sosevur, i.e. Śaśakapura) is located about fifty miles south-west of Belur in the Hassan district of Karnataka. It was the capital of the Hoysalas prior to Dorasamudra or Darasuram. Angadi seems to have been an important Jaina centre during the Hoysala rule as it has three Jaina temples of this period. Two of these are called Väsantikā or Padmavati-devi temple and Sosevur-basti and the third is anonymous.
Vasantikā or Padmavati-devi Temple - This temple at the capital town seems to have been erected as a mark of devotion to the Jaina Yakṣi Padmavati who was the patron goddess of the Hoysalas. The temple has been renovated recently, but the images of Jaina Yakṣa and Yakṣi inside the sanctum are old datable to the latter half of the 10th century A.D. Sosevür-basti This north-facing temple, which still preserves the sanctuary up to the cornice, consists of a vimana and a gudhamandapa and is entered without a porch from the north.
The straight-sided square vimana (Pl. 97), about 17 ft. side, stands on an unadorned adhiṣṭhāna which consists of an upana, jagatī, broad tripatta kumuda, kampa, kantha, urdhvapadma and kapota, and resembles to that of the Sule-basti at Humca. The wall is punctuated with tetragonal pilasters displayed almost at regular intervals. Below, the pilasters are plain and above they carry mouldings of an inverted lasuna, belt, lasuna, tāḍī, bulbous ghața, pali, square phalaka and bevelled corbel. The corner pilasters are thicker than those on the sides.

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Fig. 113. Plan of Triple Shrine, Harasur.
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The central bay of the wall-pilasters contains a sham- niche topped by a low square superstructure. The cornice is short and semi-circular; it hardly protects the wall from rain-water.
The gūdhamandapa has considerably suffered from renovation as the portion above the base has been rebuilt. It is entered from the north by a stairway of elephant banister bearing elephant figures in relief.
Stylistically, the temple may be placed in the second half of the 10th century A.D.
Jaina Temple (Anonymous) - This Jaina temple has also been renovated during recent years, but the enshrined image of Säntinatha and the two male cauri- bearers attending upon him are intact. The attendant figures are well-polished, wear profuse jewellery, and have graceful appearance. They are reckoned among the best examples of the Hoysala sculptures assignable to the early 12h century A.D. HARASUR
Harasur, lying cast of the district headquarters of Dharwad, has a group of three Jaina temples. The main complex is a Triple Shrine (trikūtācala) with easterly orientation and the other two, standing very close to it on the front, are independent structures facing each other, one oriented to the north and the other to the south (Fig. 113). In the centre of the court formed by these three structures is a Mānastambha of which only the base has survived.
The three vimānas of the Triple Shrine have an antarāla-mandapa in their front and are laid out on three sides of a common gudhamandapa with entrance doorway on the east. The central vimäna on the west shows bhadra with two pairs of upabhadras, pratiratha and karņa, separated from one another by salilantaras, while the lateral vimānas carry karna and bhadra with paired upabhadras. Their adhisthana consists of an upana, two jagatis, padma, kantha, ürdhvapadma and kapota. Their plain walls are heavily rebuilt at some later date and hence of little interest. Inside the garbhagrhas are installed the images of Jinas. The image in the central shrine
is of Parsvanātha. This indicates that the temple was dedicated to him.
The exterior walls of the gūdhamandapa also show karna and bhadra with two pairs of upabhadras. The gūdhamandapa is entered from the east through a wellproportioned doorframe of five jambs of ratna, Vidyadhari, stambha, vyāla and bāhyaśākhā (outermost) carved with lotus leaves, but there is no uniformity in ornamental details of carving. While the ratnasakha and bāhyaśākhā show flat and shallow relief, the Vidyadhari -sakha and vyālašākhā are carved in high relief. Similarly, the stambhaśākha is moulded but has no ornamental enrichment. The lower portion of the doorframe on each side shows a graceful, three-flextured figure of Nagendra standing as door-guard in a wellformed shallow niche crowned by makara-torana. Nāgendra is flanked on each side by a handsome figure of female attendant. The door-sill is plain but carries seated figures of Sankhanidhi and Padmanidhi at the extremities and of grasamukha in the centre of the upper moulded part. The door-lintel shows a seated niched figure of Pārsvanātha on the lalāța; but the oversailing mouldings (vājana, kantha and cornice) above that are left plain.
The interior of the gudhamandapa shows four square plain pillars in the nave and two slender, segmented pillars as distyle-in-antis towards each antarāla. There are several images of Jinas, Yaksas and Yakṣis inside the closed hall. These bear different dates indicating thereby that they were placed there from time to time.
The independent northern and southern shrines are exactly similar to each other in plan and design. Each shrine consists of a vimana with gūdhamandapa in one enclosing wall and a portico (Pl. 98) built almost along the entire width of the gudhamandapa. The exterior walls have only slight projections in the cardinal directions. Their adhisthana consists of three jagatis, kantha inset with floral diamonds between pilasters and a large plain väjana. The four pillars in each portico
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resemble those noticed in the antarala of the Triple Shrine. They stand on a square moulded base. Their capital consists of a sharp-edged flat ghata, ūdhvapadma like pāli, square phalaka and four-armed bevelled corbel. Their shaft is divided into four sections. The first is square and plain. The second is circular with ratnapattikā in the middle or at the top. The third is treated like a plain cube or a circular section topped by a band of beaded garlands. The fourth consists of a kalasa clasped by triangular plain blocks. The pillars support a heavy projected eave-cornice.
The portico is approached from the ground by a flight of three steps cut across the adhisthāna mouldings. From the portico a triśākhā doorway leads to the interior of the gudhamandapa. The doorway, which is better preserved in the southern shrine, is made up of ratnaśākhā, moulded stambhaśākha, and bähyaśākhā adorned with lotus leaves. The lower section of the Sākhās here also carries Nägendra with two female attendants. On the outer flank of the bāhyaśākha is a band of full-blown quadrangular lotus flowers. Below the lotus bands are seated figures of Sankhanidhi and Padmanidhi. The interior of the gūdhamandapa here also shows four square plain pillars. The garbhagrha in both the shrines is nothing but a rubble of stones.
The base of the Mānastambha consists of two diminishing circular courses, each decorated with lotus flowers. The shaft, now gone, is perhaps lying close to the portico of the southern shrine; it is polygonal in shape.
The Triple Shrine has an inscription of A.D. 1096- 97 mentioning the names of a Jaina Lady Kalikabbe and her son Kälisetti. The inscription is a donative one; the temple however may date to about A.D. 1090. KONNUR
Jaina Temple - Konnur, ancient Kondanúra, lies to the north of Belgaum town in Karnataka. In the Konnur village is a ruined Jaina temple (Pl. 99) of the times of the later Kadambas of Banavāsi and Hangal. The adhisthana and wall of the vimāna are still intact
there; the hall however has been thoroughly renovated.
The vimāna is tri-anga on plan comprising bhadra with two pairs of upabhadras, pratiratha and karņa, the first being the longest and the second the shortest. Between the angas are also made salilāntaras.
The adhisthāna, resembling that of the Candraprabha temple at Aihole, consists of jagati, padma (inverted cyma recta), antarita, tripatta kumuda, antarita, kapota having nasis adorned with creepers, and pratikantha decorated with figures of vyālas and makaras. The walls with slender pilasters have sham niches at the karmas and subhadras. The niches contain kūta-type Dravida-vimāna at the top and small standing Jina figures and seated figures of Sarvānubhūti at the bottom. The wall at the pratiratha shows a kutastambha topped by a mono-spired sikhara of the Nāgara style. The portions above the wall are all gone.
Stylistically, this temple is datable to the last quarter of the 10th century A.D. LAKKUNDI
Lakkundi, ancient Lokkigundi, is situated in the Dharwad district of Karnataka. It was an important town during the early period of the Cālukyas of Kalyāņa. This is well demonstrated by the construction of seven Saiva shrines, four Jaina temples and a large stepped water reservoir.
The temples of the age of the Cālukyas of Kalyāņa, prior to Lakkundi temples, are ordinarily built of various shades of locally available sandstone, but the building material employed in the construction of temples at Lakkundi and later temples at other sites is fine-grained soapstone which is easily tractable for delicate carving and smooth polish. Being soft in nature it also reduced the size of the masonry courses and increased the volume of the carvings.
of the four Jaina temples at Lakkundi the earliest one is termed "Brahma Jinālaya" in the inscription, an appellation given by the Brāhmaṇas of Lokkigundi town. The temple at present, however, is differentiated by calling it the Great Jaina Temple as it is the largest
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Fig. 114. Plan of Great Jaina Temple, Lakkundi.
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temple at the site.
The Great Jaina Temple - This east-facing Jaina temple (Fig. 114; Pl. 100) on the western outskirts of the town is an imposing shrine at Lakkundi. It was founded in A.D. 1007 by Lady Attiyabbe alias Dānacintamani, wife of Dandanāyaka Nāgadeva. In the same year the Cālukya king Satyāśraya presented golden kalasa-finial for the temple.
On plan it consists of a four-storeyed nirandhāra vimāna, an antarāla, a gudhamandapa and a large mukhamandapa, the whole complex being surrounded by a präkära-wall having dvāramandapa (hall-formed gate) at the centre on the east.
The vimāna is dvi-anga on plan showing karna and bhadra with salilantara between. The bhadra is wider and has a pair of upabhadras on each side. The adhisthana consists of upăna, vapra (sub-plinth), jagati (plinth course), padma, antarita, three-faceted kumuda, antarita, ürdhvapadma, kapota marked with plain triangular blocks, and pratikantha decorated with figures of vyāla and makara as noticed in the Candraprabha temple at Aihole. The walls of the aditala with cantoning pilasters show kūta-topped decorative niches at the karņas as well as in the central offset of the bhadras. The saliläntaras carry kutastambha (wall decoration showing küta-topped pilaster) with fine cusped toraņa- arch emerging from grasamukha depicted on the top. The wall pilasters are slender and the capital thin and small. The prastara, made up of kapota and pratikantha, is decorated with makaras and vyālas and has panels containing figures of Yaksa, Yaksi, animals and birds in the central positions. The hāra is adorned with kūtas and śālās, each showing foliage ornament in curved back-ends and a prominent central nāsi. The nāsis of the śālās contain seated figures of the Jina, and those of the kütas, the figures of Sarvānubhūti.
The aditala wall is made thick and massive to carry the functional tala of the second storey which possesses a high shrine with its own wall and superstructure followed above by two other talas. This
type of set up of a high shrine is also noticed in the Jaina temples at Hallur and Pattadakal. The high walls of the second storey carry the same set of pilasters (six on bhadra and two on each face of the karna) as we encounter with the aditala, but the bays formed by them are neither differentiated by salilantaras nor displayed in the same axis. The prastara and hāra of three upper talas are less in height and gradually diminish in width. The prastara in each of these talas is plain and the hāra a little bit ornate. The grivä-śikhara is short, square and indented and has a well splayed out brim. The kalasa above is original but tempered during recent years. The second tala also has an ardhamandapa with Sukanāsa top.
The vimana-garbhagrha is entered from the antarala by a pañcaśākhā doorframe decorated with ratna, bhūta in loops, stambha, vyāla and lotus garland (outermost jamb). On the lower part of the sakhās appear figures of dvārapalas with female attendants. The lalāta of the door-lintel is occupied by a seated Jina. Above the lintel, which continues the decoration of the two inner śākhās, may be seen a stripe of beaded garlands, a kapota cornice decorated with figures of elephants and grāsamukhas, a sculptural panel showing dancing ganas and a cornice of urdhvapadma. Inside the garbhagyha the simhasana (lion-throne) with throne back, triple umbrella, torana and the cauri-bearers are intact, but the mutilated original Jina image is lying outside the temple. The interior wall of the garbhagrha is reinforced by pilasters at the four-corners.
The gudhamandapa is similar on plan to the vimāna but with the addition of a pratibhadra between the bhadra and karņa, also separated by a salilāntara, it has become wider in dimension. Its elevation also is nothing but an extension of the aditala of the vimāna. In the central offset of the south wall of the bhadra there once was a stone-grille, but at present a large aperture comes to view. The interior of the gūdhamandapa shows four pillars in the central nave and ten pilasters and two attached pillars on the sides, all being square and plain.

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The doorframe attached to the east wall is of the pañcaśäkhã variety representing carved ratnas, bhūtas in loops, round stambha entwined with creepers and a pūrnaghata, vyālas in vine-loops, and lotus garland. The lower part of the sākhās carries among dvārapālas and female attendants the figures of Rati and Kamadeva. The door-lintel continues the decoration of the two inner sakhas but is interrupted in the centre by the lalātabimba which represents Gajalaksmi. Above this is a band of bell-and-chains issuing from the mouth of grāsas and then follows a cornice underlined with a band of geese. Over and above this, in the centre, is a figure of seated Jina. The doorframe is fine and deeply cut.
The mukhamandapa is an open hall resting on an adhisthana which is somewhat distinct from that of the vimana as it shows kantha instead kumuda. It is landed up from the front by a stairway having plain elephant banister. Its square plan shows recessed corners and projecting sides with eighteen pillars on the parapet wall and twelve free-standing pillars in the interior. Of the twelve interior pillars the four in the nave are lathe- turned. The pillars (Pl. 101) of the mukhamandapa are of several varieties. They have a plain moulded base, ornate and faceted shaft, and a short capital in the parapet pillars and a prominent one in the others. Though the pillars are charming, they have not yet reached their perfectness. The mukhamandapa is shaded by a large sloped out eave-cornice. The prastara and hāra here also top the wall and are the same as the rest of the building, but instead of makara figures the panels here contain flowers.
A mutilated image of Pärśvanātha is lying outside the temple which may have once graced the upper shrine.
Nāganātha Temple - The temple is today called Nāganatha because the enshrined image of Pārsvanātha has been replaced by a Siva-linga beneath the cobra- canopy of Nāgarāja Dharaṇendra, probably during the upsurgence of the Virasaivism. This is apparent from
the cobra-canopy of Dharanendra (the Yakşa of Pārsvanatha), the two caurī-bearers of the Jina and the triple umbrella overhead.
This east-facing temple (Fig. 115) consists of a vimāna, an antarala, a gudhamandapa and an entrance porch. The arrangement of the plan and elevation of the vimana and gūdhamandapa closely corresponds to those of the Great Jaina Temple at Lakkundi, but the various offsets are prominently shown and the temple bears less ornament than its predecessor.
The adhisthana of the temple consists of an upana, jagati, padma, antarita, kumuda, antarita, urdhvapadma and kapota and is quite plain. The wall pilasters have their upper section faceted and well carved with bell, belt, kalaša, tādi, ghata, oversailing phalaka and bevelled corbel. The uttara-beam above is well wrought. The wall surface here also shows kuta-niches at the karnas and kūtastambhas in the salilantaras. The prastara and hăra are in good taste as they are not overburdened with figures of vyāla, makara, birds etc. in the prastara and foliage and sculptural panels in the küțas and salās of the hāra. The superstructure of the vimana has disappeared. The doorframe of the garbhagrha is of the pañcasākhā variety decorated with ratnas, bhūtas in loops, stambha with entwined scrolls, vyälas and thin Lotuses respectively.
The gudhamandapa is spacious and is entered through an unadorned doorframe of four jambs of ratna, rainceau with rounded corner, faceted stambha and khalva (depressed). The four lathe-turned nave pillars are perfectly worked out with metallic finish. The pillars support a flat ceiling carved with thousand petalled lotus of unsurpassed formation and lustre, the best among the known Karņāțan examples of the period."
The entrance porch consists of two pillars and two pilasters supporting a flat ceiling. The two pillars are of the square order with corners chamfered into three angles. Their moulded base and capital are of the usual Calukyan order but the shaft shows on their upper section two decorative belts, the lower showing lotus
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Fig. 115. Plan of Nāganātha Temple, Lakkundi.
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and the broader upper one elegant bell-and-chains issuing from the mouth of grāsas.
This temple was probably built between c. A.D. 1060 and 1070.
Jaina Temple No. 2 - To the north of the Great Jaina Temple at Lakkundi stands another temple of Pārsvanātha. It consists of a vimāna, an antarala and a gūdhamandapa. The chief attraction of this temple is the stellate configuration of the adhisthāna of the vimāna as its bhadra, pratiratha and karna have each half diamond-shaped point both in plan and elevation. The adhisthāna of the antarala is peculiar in that it has a circular offset between the angular ones.
Stylistically, this temple is datable to c. A.D. 1060.
Virabhadra Temple - To the south-east of the Great Jaina Temple at Lakkundi is another Jaina temple, now worshipped by the Brāhmaṇas, but the doorframe carries Jina figure on the lalāta. Of this east-facing temple only the adhisthana and wall of the vimāna are preserved. The vimāna is tri-anga on plan consisting of bhadra, pratiratha and karna, the bhadra with an upabhadra being the widest offset and the pratiratha the shortest. Between the angas are also set up salilāntaras.
The adhisthāna is composed of an upāna, jagati, antarita, three-faceted kumuda, antarita, kapota and pratikantha, the last being adorned with makara figures which are damaged at many places. Each anga of the wall is cantoned by two slender pilasters possessing usual members in the upper section. The karna, pratiratha and the central offset of the bhadra show each a küta- topped niche containing kütastambha surmounted by Dravida, Bhūmija or Vesara form of superstructure. The salilāntaras contain küta-topped stambhas. Of the cavecornice only the kapota is intact.
Stylistically, this temple is placed in the latter half of the 11th century A.D. MULGUND
Mulgund is situated in the Dharwad district of Karnataka. It was a religious as well as political centre
in the time of the Kadambas. There are two Jaina temples of the Western Cālukyan period on the low hillock of the southern outskirts of the village. They are described here as Temple Nos. 1 and 2. .
Temple No. 1 - This north-facing temple consists of a vimāna, gudhamandapa, rangamandapa and dvaramandapa (hall-formed gate) attached with the compound wall of the temple. Except for the doorframe the vimāna is completely destroyed. The doorframe is of the pañcaśakha variety, and barring the outermost sakhā which is decorated with lotus petals, it is quite plain.
The gūdhamandapa, larger than the vimāna, shows lathe-turned pillars in the slightly raised nave and square pillars in the surround (Pl. 102). The lathe-turned pillars have a square plain moulded base; their shaft shows from below a plain square cube, broad recess, octagonal bell and belt, and circular kalasa; the capital consists of a circular minor tādi, ghata, påli and square phalaka; and the corbel is four-armed with a median band on each arm. The base and corbel of square pillars are similar to those of the lathe-turned pillars, but the shaft is differently treated as it shows from below a square plain cube, a broad belt with stylised pipala leaves, plain cube, narrow belt and a belt with usual pipala leaves. The doorframe of the gūdhamandapa is also of the pañcaśākhā type, but it is very ornate representing ratna, bhūta, stambha with central floral buckle and a panel with Jina figure below the kalasa, mālā (garland), and padma (outermost sakhā) adorned with lotus petals. On the lower section of the jambs stand figure sculptures. The lalāta block of the door-lintel is large and depicts a seated Jina figure with two cauri-bearers in a niche. Two stone grilles cut up with floral designs flank the doorway.
The rangamandapa shows four square pillars at the upraised nave, octagonal pillars on the surround and dwarf square pillars on the front. The nave pillars have a square moulded base, their shaft shows from below a plain cube, two narrow fluted belts with a median band
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of scrolls, a plain cube, and a short kalasa; the circular capital consists of a narrow tādi, big ghata with square body, pali and square phalaka; and the corbel is wavy in shape and has chamfered arms with a median band. The pillars surrounding the nave are similar to those of the nave, but the shaft between the lower cube and kalasa shows a faceted belt, a large plain bell and a belt. The dwarf pillars also resemble the nave pillars.
The dvāramandapa, standing at some distance from the main building, is a somewhat ruined but graceful cross-shaped structure with varieties of pillars over the dado (Pl. 103). In all there are five bays formed by twelve pillars, four standing in the central nave and two standing on each side in alignment with the nave pillars. The four nave pillars are massive and of the square order and show on their shaft two plain cubes with an intervening belt marked with pīpala leaves and a short kalasa. The outer bays' pillars are square but slender in form; sometimes their corners are chamfered into three angles. The two pillars in the front bay are lathe- turned.
The temple is landed up by a partly buried stairway with a fine banister carved with a figure of vyāla emitting trunk-shaped coping and mounted by a Vidyadhara. The space between the coping and vyāla is filled with wishfulfilling creepers.
The main temple is datable to early 11th century A.D., while the dvāramandapa is placed in the mid- 11th century A.D.
Temple NO. 2 - The temple consists of a vimāna, an antarāla and an oblong gūdhamandapa and faces east. The exterior is plain with simple wall pilasters. The gūdhamandapa is entered through a stairway flanked by elephant banister of fine workmanship. The banister is very similar to that seen in the preceding temple, but here an elephant figure is carved between the coping stone and the vyāla figure. The gūdhamandapa shows four lathe-turned pillars in the central nave and square pilasters in the periphery. In addition, there are two square pillars in the antarala. The pañcasakhä doorframe
of the vimāna bears shallow carvings.
The nave pillars of the gūdhamandapa have a square base made of plinth, padma, kantha and kapota with triangular block on each face. Their shaft is plain and square below and circular above, the latter showing two successive faceted urdhapadmas, two recesses with a median band, bell with a stripe of pīpala leaves, narrow plain belt and kalasa. The capital consists of a tāļi-based ghata, fillet type pāli, square phalaka and bevelled corbel with median band. The pilasters of the gūdhamandapa have similar base and capital, but the square shaft between the cube and kalasa shows four decorative belts of caitya-gaväksa pattern interspersed with plain belts. The antarāla pillars have their corners chamfered into three angles and are analogous to the pilasters, but the caitya-gavākṣa is minutely carved.
T he temple was probably built in the 7th decade of the 11th century A.D. RON
Ron is situtated in the Bijapur district of Karnataka. It has a Western Cālukyan Jaina temple (Pl. 104) facing east. Rectangular on plan the temple consists of a vimana and güdhamandapa, both enclosed by a common wall punctuated with thin pilasters bearing looped stencilled decoration on the inverted lasuna of the shaft. The wall as well as adhisthāna does not carry projecting bays and recesses. The much weathered adhisthana is very simple as it consists of upāna, vapra (sub-plinth), jagati, padma (inverted cyma recta), three-faceted kumuda, kantha and kapota with plain triangular bosses. An ornate niche topped by an arched torana and a perforated stone grille appear on both the longer sides of the wall. The arch of the torana is supported on both sides by a peacock with an elaborate tail. The grille is beautifully carved with scrolls having gaņa figures. Both these decorative elements have been adopted from the Răstrakuța structures. The roof of the vimāna is flat, perhaps it was never completed. The front portion of the gudhamandapa has been modified by modern additions.
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The interior pillars of the gūdhamandapa are lathe- turned and almost circular, while the peripheral pilasters are hand-made and square throughout. Both are plain but well wrought. The pillars have a cubical base; their shaft shows an octagonal and a faceted narrow section below, and then it turns into a circular recess followed by a large bell member adorned with a band of circular foliage, a circular belt and kalaša, and the capital consists of päli and bulbous circular abacus topped by bevelled brackets.
The temple is datable to the middle of the 11th century A.D. NAGAI
Nagai is situated in the Gulbarga district of Karnataka. There is a Jaina shrine of Pārsvanātha. It is a plain structure with two chambers. In the vimāna of the temple is enshrined an image of Jina Pārsvanātha. It was probably built in the mid-11th century A.D. KUPPATUR
Kuppatur is situated to the north of the Sorab town in Karnataka. It has a ruined shrine of Pärsvanatha founded by Malaladevi, consort of the Kadamba king Kirtideva, in A.D. 1075 for Padmanandi of Konda- kundānvaya. In the foundation inscription it has been called "Brahma-jinälaya."
Pārsvanatha Temple - This north-facing temple is like a rectangular hall with plain exterior. In the interior it shows unpolished lathe-turned pillars which have a square moulded base, square and circular shaft, circular capital and four-armed plain brackets. The circular shaft shows from below an octagonal and a sixteen-sided narrow belt, broad circular section with a median band decorated with beaded garlands and quadrangular rosettes at intervals, bell, belt and kalasa. The capital consists of tādi, ring, faceted ghata, pāli and square phalaka. The collapsed ceiling slab is relieved with a beautiful full-blown lotus flower comprising two rows of petals and a central pistil. The principal Jina image of the sanctuary, which has been recently recovered from the temple debris, is sitting cross-legged
and shows serene expression. LAKSMESVARA
Lakşmeśvara, ancient Purrigere, lies to the southeast of the district headquarters of Dharwad in Karnataka. It was a religious centre of considerable importance for both the Jainas and the Brāhmaṇas from the times of the early Calukyas and the Rästrakūtas. This is evident from references made to several temples in the available inscriptions, but owing to their destruction by the Colas in the time of the Western Cālukya king Someśvara I (A.D. 1042-1067) and also due to later repairing and restructuring, their original form has very much obliterated. At present, there are four temples at Laksmeśvara of which two are Jaina and belong to the Western Calukya period. One of these is called Sankhabasadi and the other Anantanātha-basadi.
Sankha-basadi - This east-facing temple (Fig. 116; PL. 105) consists of five vimānas (pañcakūta) with a common rectangular gūdhamandapa and a square screened rangamandapa. The rectangular space of the east-west oriented güdhamandapa is divided into two square bays, each possessing four pillars in the nave. The front bay is attached to the rangamandapa, while the rear bay provides ingress to three vimānas at the back and two at the lateral sides. The back chamber has been made rectangular in order to accommodate three vimānas in the interior. This has also affected the configuration of the exterior walls as they carry seven offsets on the longer back side and five each on the two shorter sides. The central offset in each vimāna is broader and faceted, while all the other offsets are plane with cut-off corners. The offsets are separated from one another by salilāntaras.
The adhisthāna of the five vimānas, standing on a sub-socle of upāna, jagati and plain padma, consists of two successive jagatis, padma, antarita, karnaka, antarita, ürdhvapadma, kapota with plain bosses, and a pattikā decorated at some places with incised foliage, at other places with bosses having lozenges or left plain. The portion above the adhisthana has been so extensively
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JAN
VAN
top
S
Above
Below Avanapatraka
asanapacaka Fig. 116. Plan of Sankha-basadi, Lakşmeśvara.
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Fig. 117. Plan of Pancalingeśvara Temple, Huli.
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repaired during the later period, probably due to damages caused by the Muslims, that it is very difficult to make out anything definite. However, it appears that at least the walls were not very ornate. The interior of the three rear vimanas shows two free-standing square pillars and ten peripheral attached pillars, while each bay of the güdhamandapa shows four pillars in the nave and twelve attached pillars in the periphery.
The adhisthana of the rangamandapa is made up of an upana, jagati, padma, antarita, karṇaka, antarita, ūrdhvapadma, makarapaṭṭikā and urdhvapadma. The wall consists of an asanapaṭṭa, kakṣāsana and a perforated screen, all very neatly carved. The asanapaṭṭa is adorned with diamonds framed by pilasters. The kakṣāsana is divided into three decorative horizontal belts, the lower showing foliage, the middle the musicians, dancers, mithuna couples etc. between circular paired pillarettes, and the upper the scrolls. The screen wall is made up of upright square posts and horizontal cross-bars bearing decoration of four-petalled flowers at the joints and in the spaces formed by them. It is in these enclosed spaces that perforations are made to admit light to the interior. The rangamandapa is shaded by a double curved, large, projecting eave-cornice.
The interior of the rangamandapa shows sixteen pillars in four lines of four each and twenty peripheral pilasters. Of the sixteen pillars two rows of central pillars form the nave. The pillars are of the square, fluted and plain lathe-turned types and bear little carving. In the central space of the rangamandapa is housed a Sahasrakūta sculpture which is a rare representation.
On the stylistic grounds this temple is assigned a date in the end of the 11th century A.D.
Anantanatha-basadi This is also a pañcakūta temple with five vimanas. Three of the five vimanas, each preceded by an antarala of almost the same size as the vimana, are laid out on the three sides of a fourpillared closed mandapa, while the fourth side is attached to a large pillared mandapa having two shrines on its lateral sides and an entrance door on the front. The

two lateral shrines as well as the large mandapa are square with straight sides, while each of the three conjoint shrines consists of a karna and a bhadra with two pairs of upabhadras and a subhadra. The sides of the closed mandapa also are indented.
The adhisthana of the temple consists of jagati, padma, antarita, karnaka, antarita, urdhvapadma, kapota, and a pattika with plain rectangular bosses. The plain walls of the triple shrine show usual slender pilasters at the corners of the subhadra, pratibhadra and karna. The subhadra also contains an emptied niche surmounted by a miniature sikhara. The wall terminates in an cavecornice of the double-curved variety. The superstructure of each of these shrines is composed of a series of horizontal tiers diminishing as they ascend and topped by a faceted square sikhara adorned with creepers. The kalaśa over the sikhara is lost. In the cardinal points of the superstructure is a series of five small niches, each crowned by a kirttimukha spewing creepers that adorn the mukhapatta. The antarala is lodged over by a sukanäsa.
The large square fore-mandapa shows thirty-six pillars and pilasters in six lines of six each. The crisscross central space is wider than the side ones. The pillars are of several different orders. Some of these are of the crude lathe-turned variety, some belong to the square order and a few others are of the faceted type. Many of these pillars seem to be older than the actual temple, perhaps they were rebuilt.
Stylistically, this temple was probably built in the beginning of the 12th century A.D.
HULI
Huli is a small town to the north of the district headquarters of Dharwad in Karnataka. It has as many as eight temples of which the Pañcalingeśvara is Jaina built by Prince Bijjala, son of a local Ganga chief Pitta, in early 12 century A.D. for the Yapaniya Jainasangha. Called "Manikaya-tirtha-basadi" in the foundation inscription the temple originally was a Pañcakūta-basadi, and subsequently it was converted into a Śaiva temple

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by founding Sivalingas in the five sancta. In doing so the enshrined images of Jinas were removed and the tutelary Jina figures on the sanctum doors effaced. After this conversion the temple came to be known as Pancalingeśvara.
Pañcalingeśvara Temple - This east-facing temple is the largest and best-preserved at Huli (Fig. 117; Pl. 106). It is an ensemble of five vimānas with a common oblong gūdhamandapa and a rangamandapa. Three of these vimănas are laid out at the longer rear side of the gudhamandapa and face the east, while the other two are built on its two shorter lateral sides, one facing to the north and the other to the south. Each of the rear vimānas shows a bhadra and a karna with salilāntara in between. The bhadra is accompanied by two pairs of upabhadras. The lateral vimanas are similar in plan to the rear ones but carry pratibhadra with wall pilaster between the karna and bhadra. Besides, only one pair of upabhadras flank the bhadra in the northern lateral vimāna.
The adhisthana of the five vimānas is composed of two successive jagatis, padma, antarita, three-faceted kumuda, antarita, ürdhvapadma, kapota with plain bosses, and pratikantha with plain vertical blocks. The walls with their cantoning slender pilasters are quite plain. The superstructure of each of the three rear (west) vimānas consists of three storeys (tritala) linked by extending the hära at each storey of the three vimänas. Each storey consists of kapota, pratikantha and a hara of kutas and salas and is plain. At the top is a faceted square sikhara with kalasa. A sukanäsa, now vacant, appears on the front face of the superstructure of each vimāna. The superstructure of each lateral vimana consists of four storeys, but the hāra does not appear in the fourth storey. The southern vimāna also has a fully carved pañcaśākhā doorframe.
The gudhamandapa with wall offsets and flat roof shows four pillars in the square nave and two pillars on each lateral side. In the nave is now an image of bull Nandi, the mount of Siva which seems to have
been placed there when the temple was converted into a Saiva shrine. Four nave pillars and two others are of the lathe-turned class. They have a square moulded base; their shaft shows a square plain cube, ornate belt between double urdhvapadmas, a large bell and plain kalaśa; and the capital shows tādi, carinated ghata, pāli, and square phalaka topped by bevelled corbel with plain median band. The two remaining pillars are of the square variety; they are comparatively more ornate and their corners chamfered into three angles.
The rangamandapa is dvi-anga on plan consisting of bhadra and karna. Its adhisthana consists of two successive jagatis, padma, antarita, vājana, vedika and asanapatta, the last two forming the parapet wall. It is entered by a flight of four steps from the front as well as the lateral sides. In the interior the rangamandapa shows four pillars in the square central nave, twelve in the square surrounding aisle and two each on the front and lateral sides, and twenty-four on the parapet, totalling forty-six in all. The parapet pillars are of the fluted class; the others are either lathe-turned, square with recessed angles, or square with a square block below the kalasa and carrying a series of ornamental bands. The roof is flat and has a long sloped out eavecornice.
This Jaina temple at Huli is notable for its architecture. HANGAL
Hangal, a district town in Karnataka, was an important town during the times of the later Kadamabas of Banavāsi and Hangal. It has an old fort with many ruined buildings. One of these is a Jaina temple in a better state of preservation.
Jaina Temple - This east-facing temple (Fig. 118; Pl. 107) consists of a vimäna, antarala and rangamandapa, the last being entered by a stairway of four steps from the east, north and south. The vimäna is dvi-anga on plan comprising bhadra and karņa, the bhadra having a pair of upabhadras and a subhadra and the karņa being unilateral. The adhisthāna and the wall of the vimāna
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JU
Above asana pastaka
Below asana pataka
UL
Fig. 118. Plan of Jaina Temple, Hangal.
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are intact, but the superstructure is lost.
The high and somewhat ornate adhisthāna (Fig. 107) of the vimāna consists of an upāna, jagati, padma, antarita, pattikā decorated with scroll pattern, antarita, tripatta kumuda, antarita, pattikā adorned with scrolls, antarita, urdhvapadma, and kapota embellished with ornamental nasis. The lower portion of the wall is quite plain, but the upper portion, capitals of the cantoning pilasters and the exterior wall of the antarala are richly carved. In the subhadra is a large, elaborately carved model of rangamandapa with pyramidal roof surrounded by a cusped torana-arch emerging from the mouth of a makara at either end and going up into a grāsamukha. This is a rare feature on the wall surface. The antarāla on its each lateral wall also carries similar rangamaņdapa model, but here it is supported on a faceted pilaster. The upper portion of the wall shows three ornamental bands of scrolls, full-blown lotus flowers, and toraņa-arches containing Nidhi figures. These three decorative bands not only run all over the wall of the vimāna and antarāla but also on the rear wall of the rangamandapa. The wall is shaded by a three-tiered eave-cornice bearing a gagāraka-band on the lower tier.
The rangamandapa is also dvi-anga on plan but its rear portion shows three minor offsets between the bhadra and karna. The adhisthana and wall of the rear side of the rangamandapa are exactly similar to those of the vimāna, but the same in the remaining part are differently treated. The adhisthana here shows a ratnapattika in place of kumuda and a parapet wall above it. The parapet consists of a rājasenaka made up of pratikantha, a vedikā decorated with pilasters, an āsanapatta with kūta rooflets crowning the pilasters, and a kakşāsana bearing figure sculptures between paired pillarettes and an ornamental band below and above. The kakṣāsana has almost gone. The parapet supports twelve dwarf lathe-turned pillars with ornamental bands of beaded garlands, leaf-motif, creeper and louts petal on the circular ring, bell, belt, and kalasa members
respectively. Two interior pillars attached at the rear corners are of the bhadraka class and carry similar decorative bands as noticed in case of the dwarf pillars, but the creeper band is replaced here by an ornate diamond-and-bead band. In the square rangamandapa, if we exclude the bay forming a short of porch at the front and lateral sides, stand four massive, well-polished, beautifully carved, lathe-turned pillars bearing decorations as we find on the bhadraka pillars. The garbhagrha doorway has Jina as tutelary image.
Stylistically, the temple may be placed in the first half of the 12th century A.D. HALEBID
Halebid, located in the Hassan district of Karnataka, being the capital city of the Hoysalas of Dorasamudra, is graced with several Brahamanical and Jaina temples built during the Hoysala period. Three of the Jaina temples with their northerly orientation stand juxtaposed even today. Of these the western shrine is called the Pārsvanātha-basadi, the central the Ādinātha-basadi, and the eastern the śāntinātha-basadi. They stand in a common prākāra-wall with a pillared dvāramandapa (entrance hall) facing the Pārsvanātha temple. The präkära and the dvāramandapa had been built in A.D. 1254 by Padmideva, brother-in-law of the Hoysala king Narasimha II (A.D. 1220-1235).
Pārsvanātha Temple - This is the largest and most important Jaina temple (Fig. 119; Pl. 108) at Halebid. It consists of a vimāna, an antarala, a gūdhamandapa and a detached asthānamandapa in front of the gūdhamandapa. The square vimāna with 36.5 ft. side is tri-anga on plan consisting of unilateral karna, pratiratha with a subsidiary facet on one side only, and bhadra with a pair of upabhadras and a subhadra. Between the angas are saliläntaras. The clearly cut adhisthäna of the vimāna is made up of jagati, padma, antarita, vājana, antarita, karnaka, antarita, vājana embellished with diminutive ganas in scrolls, antarita, kapota, pratikantha bearing makara-heads in the frontal and profile form, antarita and urdhvapadma. The
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Below
Above āvanapaṭpaka
äsanapaṭṭaka
Fig. 119. Plan of Pārsvanatha Temple, Halebid.

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pratikantha below the subhadra has a sculptural panel below rings and a medial belt adorned with carved as well. The wall is plain and its cantoning pilasters lozenges, a large bell with interlaced garlands of beads, are very thin. The wall is shaded by a double-flexured a belt with figures and scrolls, and kalaša bearing a eave-cornice. The prastara above the eave consists of band of lotus petals below and a band of beaded garlands an ornamental kapota and pratikantha, and the hara on the rim above. The capital shows a ratna-band shows finely carved kütas, panjaras and salas with half underlined with gagārakas on tadi, pearl-and-ratna angle-nasis. The aedicules generally contain figures of garlands on flat ghata, a band of lotus scrolls above seated Jinas, Yakşīs and Vidyādevīs. Possibly, the the plain pali and faceted square phalaka. The corbel vimāna had not been intended to have a superstructure. has square or roll brackets. These magnificent pillars The doorframe of the vimăna-garbhagrha is plain. Inside have no parallels in the whole of Karnataka in so far the garbhagrha are two free-standing pillars behind the as the lathe-turned pillars are concerned. The eight threshold and ten pilasters at the wall surround. At the central pillars in the nave support a beautifully carved back end, on a low lotus pedestal, stands some fifteen ceiling on an octagonal frame of plain architraves. The feet high nude but impressive image of Jina Pärsvanatha ceiling (Pl. 110) consists of three octagonal courses with a seven-hooded cobra-canopy.
made by cutting off the corners and a square ceilingThe antarala has a faceted pilaster on either side stone representing within floral and figural borders a of its exterior wall. Inside, it has on its front two lathe- figure of Nāgarāja Dharanendra. While the inner face turned pillars with wooden screen on each flank. The of each octagonal course is adorned with figure sculptures, screen is made up of upright posts and cross-bars and the soffits at corners show scroll pattern or grasamukha is a later addition.
spewing creepers. The gūdhamandapa (about 52 ft. wide) shares its The ästhānamandapa (36 ft. by 34 ft. 9 inches) adhisthāna with the vimāna and has a straight side with stands on an adhisthāna which, though similar to that wall pilasters, but its rear wall carries the karna and of the vimana, has an ornate kantha below the kapota pratiratha of the vimāna type. Its double-curved eave and an āsanapatta above that. It has similar set of twelve is intact; the prastara and hāra however are restored pillars in the square nave as we notice in the beyond recognition. The gudhamandapa is entered güdhamandapa and twenty thinner pillars at the periphery. through a pañcaśākhä doorway having three unadorned All these pillars are also lathe-turned, but they have jambs interspersed with two finely cut stambhaśākhas. no polish and are inferior to those of the gūdhamandapa. On the lalāta is a seated Jina with two attendants. On It has a carved lantern ceiling on an octagonal plan. proper right of the doorway is the carved slab of the In the ceiling slab is represented a figure of Yakşa. foundation inscription. The interior of the spacious The Parsvanātha temple at Halebid is regarded as gūdhamandapa shows three well-embellished niches on the finest of the surviving Jaina basadis in all each lateral side and one on each flank of the entrance Karnataka." It was founded in A.D. 1133 by door. In the well-formulated square nave stand four thick Dandanāyaka Boppadeva in the memory of his deceased pillars at the four corners and two thinner ones between father Gangarāja, the prime minister of the Hoysala them on each side. All the pillars (Pl. 109) are black, king Vişnuvardhana (A.D. 1108-1142). beautifully wrought, polished and lathe-turned. Their Ādinātha Temple - This small Jaina temple to square moulded base carries a sculptured niche on each the east of the Parsvanatha temple consists of a square face. The shaft is plain and square below and circular vimana, an antarala, a square but larger güdhamandapa above. The circular section of the shaft shows from and an entrance porch with she-elephants at the stair
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platform on the north. The temple has straight sides without anga projections. The plain and low adhisthāna consists of an upana, jagati, padma, antarita, karņaka, antarita and kapota. The walls of both the compartments with their cantoning slender pilasters are also plain, but the pilasters occurring on the exterior walls of the antarāla are massive and faceted. The eave-cornice and the parapet are unimpressive. Probably, the vimana had not been intended to carry superstructure.
The entrance porch rests on a low adhisthāna of jagati, antarita, pattika and kapota and then it has an āsanapatta bearing decoration of lozenges in panels. The porch has two unadorned lathe-turned pillars and two fine pilasters with a ceiling.
Inside the gudhamandapa are four plain citrakhanda pillars and a niche on either flank of the antarala. One of the two niches contains a figure of Sarasvati. Inside the garbhagsha the pedestal is intact, but the enshrined image is missing. From the inscription engraved on the doorway it is apparent that the temple originally was dedicated to Jina Mallinātha and not to Adinātha and its consecration was performed in A.D. 1138. The present appellation is a misnomer to Adinātha-basadi. The headless image of Mallinātha has now been kept in the adjoining temple of śāntinātha.
Sāntinātha Temple - This temple is almost of the same size as the great Pārsvanātha temple, but in disposition of the plan it follows the Adinātha temple in having a vimāna, an antarala, a gūdhamandapa and an entrance porch, the last belonging to the Vijayanagara period though. The exterior of the temple is also like that of the Adinatha temple, but the tall, highly polished, lathe-turned nave pillars (Pl. 111) of the gūdhamandapa are similar to those of the Pārsvanātha temple, although they lack the decorative carvings. The pillars here too support a lantern ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves but is left unadorned. The image of śāntinātha in the garbhagsha is almost as tall as the Pārsvanatha image in the Pärsvanätha-basadi. The temple was founded in or before A.D. 1196 by two tradesmen, Kavadamayya
and Devi Setti. HERAGU
Heragu, situated in the Hassan district of Karnataka, has a ruined Jaina temple of Pārsvanātha founded in A.D. 1155 by Jakkabe, wife of Cāvimayya, a Mahāpradhāna of the Hoysala king Narasimha I (A.D. 1142-73). The vimäna of the temple is completely gone except for the doorframe bearing Jina figure on the lalața. The front walls of the hall are also gone but the pillars, lathe-turned or square with recessed corners, are intact and carry nine carved ceilings of the lantern class. The doorframe of the hall now adorns the hall of the local Kamatheśvara temple. PUSPAGIRI
Mallikārjuna Temple - Puspagiri is located near Halebid in the Hassan district of Karnataka. Originally a Jaina temple but converted at some later date into a Saiva temple, it consists of a vimana, a featureless gūdhamandapa and a pillared rangamandapa and is entered through an elaborate pratoli-gateway. Of these only the pratoli is of some reference.
The pratoli stands on a moulded adhisthāna made up of an upana, two jagatis, padma, antarita, karnaka, antarita, kapota with uncarved bosses, and pratikantha decorated with figures of makara-heads. Its flat north and south walls with serried pilasters carry sham-turreted niches at the middle and extremities. Inside are two pillar-bearing platforms with a central passage. The platform pillars are fluted and 32-pointed star-shaped on the east front, lathe-turned in the middle and square with recessed corners at the west end.
Stylistically, the temple is datable to the latter half of the 12th century A.D. NITTUR
śāntinātha Temple - This east-facing Jaina temple at Nittur lying east of Tiptura town in Karnataka consists of a small vimāna (Pl. 112), a long antarala and a large gūdhamandapa. The flat-roofed dvi-anga vimana has a well-articulated bhadra and karna with deep salilantara between. The bhadra is also marked by subhadras, while
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the karna has its corners broken off into three recessed angles. The indentations are clearly delineated in the elevation by wall pilasters.
The adhisthāna of the vimana is plain and simple and consists of an upāna, jagatī, padma, antarita, karnaka, antarita, kapota with plain bosses, pratikantha with plain blocks and urdhvapadma. The wall has very fine enrichment of vesara-topped niches at the karnas and subhadras save for the subhadra on the south side which carries a kūta-topped niche. The niches contain standing images of Jinas, now sadly damaged. The perfectly rendered wall pilasters have indentations from bottom to top. The saliläntaras contain fine kūta-topped stambhas with ornate toranas. The wall is surmounted by a twotiered eave-cornice and a kapota with plain bosses. The exterior wall of the antarala has a five-faceted wider pilaster befitting well with the wall scheme. The antarala has been further extended to accommodate a bhadralike buttress which is quite an unknown feature.
The gudhamandapa is tri-anga on plan having a wider yet shallow bhadra with two pairs of upabhadras, a narrow pratiratha marked only by a pilaster (similar to that of the antarala) on the wall, and a karna with intervening saliläntaras. The adhisthāna carries the same set of mouldings as does the vimana but lacks in the rhythmic details of the auxiliary mouldings. The wall with serried pilasters is plain but for a small carved lozenge in the centre of each facet of the karnas, saliläntaras and the outer upabhadras. The inner pair of upabhadras has each a fine figure of female cauribearer flanking a large emptied niche in the subhadra. The niche is made up of three pairs of elaborately cut up pillarettes and a broad but stunted Bhūmija sikhara. Inside the gudhamandapa, at the nave, stand, instead of the customary lathe-turned pillars, four pillars with 32-flutings, while at the periphery are stationed shaftbundle type clumsy pillars. The nave pillars possess all the conventional members in the circular shaft above the cube, but with regard to ornamental details they bear a vertical lozenge in the lowermost section and a band

of darpaṇa motif on the bell. The guḍhamandapa does not have an entrance porch. From the above description it appears that the gudhamandapa is not the work of the same guild which worked on the vimana.
The temple is known to have been founded by one Parśva in or before A.D. 1158. HEGGERE
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Pärsvanatha Temple This north-facing Jaina temple (Fig. 120; Pl. 114) at Heggere, which lies north of Tiptur town in Karnataka, consists of a small vimāna, an antarala, a large gudhamandapa and an entrance porch. The dvi-anga vimāna shows bhadra and karna without saliläntara between. The bhadra has a pair of upabhadras and a subhadra as well. Its adhisthāna is made up of a jagati, padma, antarita, karṇaka with square plain bosses in the middle and triangular ones at the ends, kapota with plain square bosses, pratikantha with plain rectangular bosses, and a paṭṭika with unadorned gagarakas underneath. The flat surface of the wall has plain pilasters demarcating the different facets of the angas. In the spaces between the angas and upabhadras appear full-blown lotus flowers with two rows of petals and a central pistil, while the subhadra and karna facets carry neatly carved lozenges. The wall is surmounted by two-tiered eave and a kapota. The superstructure, if present, has disappeared.
The exterior wall of the antarala has a wider faceted pilaster.
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The gudhamandapa is similar on plan, elevation and decoration to the vimana but the bhadra has three pairs of upabhadras with usual lotuses, and a pilaster of the antarala type occurs between the bhadra and karna. On either side of the pilaster, in the centre of the wall surface, is a lotus having three rows of petals and kept in a square panel. Inside the gudhamandapa are four lathe-turned pillars at the nave and twelve faceted pilasters at the periphery. The nave pillars support a beautifully carved samatala ceiling (Pl. 113) on a rectangular plan. The ceiling shows, one within the other, four rectangular frames of panels having

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La
SEE
Fig. 121. Plan of Jaina Temple, Belguam.
-
z
222
va
Fig. 120. Plan of Pārsvanātha Temple, Heggere.
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enrichment of lotus petals and buds, floral diamonds alternating with lotuses, lotus petals-and-buds, and a full-blown large lotus with three rows of petals and a bulbous pistil in the centre; there is a border of floral diamonds and lotuses on the two shorter sides. This is a notable example of the samatala ceiling.
The temple had been founded by Mahāsāmanta Govindarāja in the memory of his wife Mahadevi Nayakiti in or before A.D. 1160. UDRI
Jaina Temple - Udri, referred to as Uddura, Uddhare and Uddharāpura in the inscriptions, is an old town lying south of the Hassan district headquarters in Karnataka. It has several ruined temples of which one seems to be Jaina converted later into a Saiva temple. An inscription of A.D. 1197 recovered from the nearby place of the temple-site indeed makes mention of the construction of a Jaina shrine which is none but this temple.
The temple consists of a vimana, an antarala and a gūdhamandapa. The tri-anga vimāna shows bhadra, pratiratha and karna without wall pilasters and salilāntaras. The vimana has a pyramidal roof of receding tiers, a structure rarely found in the temples of Karnataka. The different angas are displayed from the base to the top of the roof.
The gūdhamandapa follows the scheme of plan and elevation of the vimāna but has an additional anga, pratikarna, making it thus caturanga on plan. The monotony of the plain walls of both the chambers is broken by a median band of diamonds. Inside the gūdhamandapa, at the nave, are four lathe-turned pillars supporting a flat ceiling relieved with a large and many- petalled lotus flower. At the rear side are two niches flanking the antarāla doorway. On the lalāta of the doorframe is a figure of Jina accompanied by two cauri- bearers. JINANĀTHAPURA
Jinanāthapura is an old village founded in A.D. 1117 by Gangarāja, the prime minister of the Hoysala
monarch Vişnuvardhana. It lies to the north of the Candragiri hill at Sravanabelagola (Hassan district, Karnataka). In the heart of the village is a temple of Jina śāntinātha founded by Recimayya, the dandanāyaka of the Hoysala king Ballāla II (A.D. 1173-1220).
Säntinātha Temple - This east-facing temple consists of a vimāna (Pl. 115), antarala and güdhamandapa, the whole complex standing on a jagatiplatform. The temple does not possess an entrance porch, perhaps it was removed during the restructuring of the front facade of the gūdhamandapa. The flatroofed vimāna is dvi-anga on plan comprising bhadra and karma with deep salilāntara between. The bhadra is further divided into a central subhadra and two pairs of accompanying upabhadras. Its adhisthāna consists of an upana, jagati, padma, antarita, karnaka, antarita, kapota, pratikantha and ürdhvapadma. Of these plinth mouldings the kapota and the pratikantha on the west face are richly carved. The kapota shows a fringe of beaded garlands below and creepers on the nāsi-bosses above, while the pratikantha has fine enrichment of makara-heads. The walls carry neatly-cut plain pilasters at the flanks of the various offsets and fine niched figures in the spaces formed by them. The large niches at the subhadras bear standing images of Jina Pārsva (S), Supārsva (N) and Neminātha (W), each accompanied by two attendant figures. The somewhat smaller niches at the karņas and salilāntaras and the plain ones at the upabhadras as well as the antaralas' kūta-stambha carry divine and semi-divine figures of Yakşīs like Ambika, Cakreśvari and Padmāvatī, Vidyādevī Vajraśrókhalā, Śrutadevi Sarasvati, Yaksa Dharanendra and Sarvänubhūti, Rati-Manmatha, and Gandharvas and Vidyadharas. The niches at the subhadra, karna and salilāntara have a variety of vesara-kūta tops, but the figures of the upabhadras stand under the shadow of minutely carved upsurging creepers. The enshrined image of Santinatha in the vimāna-garbhagyha is missing.
The gūdhamandapa is similar on plan and elevation to the vimāna, but the bhadra has one more pair of
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upabhadras and the subhadra is like a devakulikā (shrinecell) formed of storeyed pavilion with kūta top. The interior with four lathe-turned carved pillars (Pl. 116) at the nave resembles the Akkana-basadi at ravanabelagola. Stylistically, the temple is datable to c. A.D. 1200.
BELGAUM
Belgaum or Belagavi, a district town in the northeastern quarter of Karnataka, was the capital city of the Rattas of Kuhandimandala. The Rattas, like the Gangas and Śantaras, were staunch Jaina and patronised Yapaniya sect of Jainism. In the town is an old fort with a Jaina temple, called "Ratta Jinalaya in the inscription," founded in A.D. 1204 by minister Bicana.
Jaina Temple - This north-facing temple (Fig. 121; Pl. 117) consists of a square sanctum, an antarāla, a gūḍhamandapa and a rangamandapa, each covered by a pyramidal roof. The sanctum as well as the gudhamandapa is dvi-anga on plan with the bhadra having only slight projection. The exterior of both the compartments shows a series of plain mouldings in the adhisthāna and wall, and their pyramidal roof consists of receding tiers of kapota. The tiers of the rangamandapa are made taller by placing ratnapaṭṭikā in the recesses between them; this is a rare feature in the buildings of Karnataka. The gudhamandapa is entered from the rangamaṇḍapa by a highly ornamental saptaśākhā doorframe representing ratna, vallī, bifacial vyala, stambha, bifacial Kinnarī, vyāla and Vidyadhari. In the nave of the gudhamandapa are four richly carved square pillars of the citrakhanda class. The doorframe of the antarala consists of a śākhā incised with ratna-and-bead and a simple stambhaśākhā and is flanked on the outer side by a screen wall adorned with rosettes and cut up with stepped diamonds; its lintel shows a fine makaratorana with a dancing figure of Indra in the centre. The sanctum doorframe consists of four jambs of ratna, valli, stambha and vyala, each having minute carvings. The well-wrought lion-throne of the Jina is intact but the enshrined image is missing.

The gudhamandapa is slightly rectangular on plan, the additional space on each side of the entrance door being occupied by a small chamber opening into the hall. The rangamaṇḍapa is also rectangular on plan and has a pair of free-standing pillars towards the güdhamandapa doorway. The rangamandapa, according to Cousens, is a later addition and the two pillars at the rear were the constituent part of an entrance porch of the gudhamanṇḍapa (The Chalukyan Architecture of the Kanarese Districts, Calcutta, 1897, p. 121).
Dvi-anga on plan the rangamandapa is entered from the front and lateral sides through a porch accommodated in the bhadra bay. Its adhisthāna is composed of two jagatis, a padma, and a kapota. The parapet wall above it, which has survived in the northwest corner only, is composed of a rajasenaka depicting diamonds in panels, an asanapaṭṭa, and a kakṣāsana bearing figure sculptures between paired pilasters. Besides two free-standing pillars at the rear, there are fourteen pillars on the periphery joined by the parapet wall. The peripheral pillars are all lathe-turned and highly polished. Six of these together with two rear pillars form an octagon and support a large, carved domical ceiling on an octagonal frame of architraves spanned across them. The dome consists of seven diminishing circular courses and has a large, impressive, circular pendant hanging down in the centre. The first course is rūpakantha showing figures of seated Jinas in projecting niches and of standing Jinas in alternate recesses. The second is karṇadardarikā. The third is a gajatālu. The fourth consists of twenty-four-foil kola. From this course also project out eight makara-brackets that once supported strut-figures inserted into the uppermost course. The fifth, sixth and seventh consist each of thirty-two-foil kola arranged in diminutive order. The pendant is made up of four oversailing courses of pointed kola and a short staminal tube. The corbel of each pillar supports a beautiful framed figure of sitting goddess. The domical type of ceiling is rarely found in Karnataka; probably the Karnataka artists derived

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inspiration from Western India where it is most commonly represented.
Each porch of the rangamandapa contains a beautiful ceiling of the cusped design. It shows sixteen, again sixteen- and eight-foils of kolas in three concentric circles. The last one of these is also made pointed.
TAMIL NADU Jainism probably entered the land of Tamil Nadu through Karnataka shortly after Bhadrabahu, the head of the Jainasangha, migrated from north to the south when a terrible famine occurred in Magadha (Bihar) in the 3rd century B.C., and settled at Śravanabelagola (Karnataka). This may be surmised from some stone beds carved in the rock shelters bearing polish that resembles the one appearing on the Mauryan pillars. Even the major part of Sangam literature (c. B.C. 500 - A.D. 500 ) has been written by the Jainas. The author of the Silappadikäram, the famous epic in Tamil, was also a Jaina. Kundakundäcarya has been revered immediately after Mahavira and Gautam and is the first among the southern Jaina genealogies to have been mentioned in the Tamil literature.
During the times of the Pallavas of Kāñci Jainism was in a very flourishing state. The Jaina Acarya Vajranandin even enjoyed the patronage of the Pallava king Simhavarman (c. A.D. 535-580). It was this Vajranandin who founded the Jaina Drāvidasargha in Tamil Nadu. Mahendravarman I (C. A.D. 580-630) was a Jaina during the greater part of his life. The presence of Jainism at this time is also evident from a Jaina cave at Vilappakkam. Very little is known of Jainism after Mahendra, but as we come to the time of Rājasimha (A.D. 700-728), we find a concrete example of Jaina temple built in honour of Candraprabha at Tirupparuttikunram.
It is hard to say what happened to Jainism in Tamil Nadu after the Pallavas as no example of Jaina temple is known from the Cola period. The main reason is that the Cola rulers, who succeeded the Pallavas, were staunch Saiva and hence there was little scope
for Jainism in the Cola empire. From this one should not, however, conclude that Jainism was completely wiped out since a Jaina temple to Candraprabha was founded at Vijayamangalam at this time. TIRUPPARUTTIKUNRAM
Candraprabha Temple - This is the earliest structural Jaina temple of the Pallava period. It is located at Tirupparuttikunram called Jina Kāñci in the Chingleput district of Tamil Nadu. The temple is much weather-worn and is plastered and whitewashed, but enough remains to adduce it to the time of the Pallavas of Kāñci.
It consists of a two-storeyed (dvitala) square sanctum (vimana) and an ardhamandapa (porch), and is laid out in a straight-edged line. The whole of the lower storey is built of stone. The temple rests on a moulded adhisthana of which only the three-faceted kumuda and a projecting fillet are visible. The wall of the lower storey (äditala), on each side, is divided into five bays by plain pilasters carrying rampant vyalas at the base of the corner pilasters. The central bay has two pilasters and the end bays have three pilasters each, while the spaces in between them are filled with shallow niches. The lower storey has been completely filled up and concealed, probably when the temple crumbled down and its restoration had to be carried out. It is therefore not impossible if the temple originally had an ambulatory around the sanctum, making it a sāndhāravimāna, because the functioning structure now is in the upper storey which was added during the Vijayanagara period.
The upper storey with its square sikhara and circular stupi is built of bricks and lime mortar. Its walls on each side carry three plain recesses, each formed by a pair of pilasters, and are surmounted by a hära of karna-kutas and śālā-Sikharas sheltering stucco figures of Jinas etc. The grīvā of the sikhara carries lion figures on the corners and sculptured niches in the cardinal points. On the front side of the upper storey is a pillared pavilion covered by a stone ceiling.
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The wall of the ardhamandapa is like that of the vimāna but shows on each side only one niche flanked by one pilaster in the rear and three pilasters in the front.
On stylistic grounds the temple may be placed in the first half of the gth century A.D. VIJAYAMANGALAM
Candraprabha Temple - Vijayamangalam is situated in the Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu. It was an important centre of Jainism. It is also the birth- place of the famous Jaina Tamil grammarian Nāladiyār. There is an interesting Jaina temple dedicated to Tīrthankara Candraprabha.
The oldest inscription at the site refers to a “nişidika" (memorial column) of Puliyappai, sister of Cāmundarāya, the minister under the Ganga king Rācamalla (A.D. 974-984). It is not therefore impossible if this temple was founded by Cāmundaraya. In an inscription of A.D. 1163 belonging to the reign of the Cola king Kullotunga II the temple was called Virasanghāța-perumpalli. Vīrasanghata is considered to be the military title of the chief who would have endowed some grant to this temple. A record dated A.D. 1412 in the time of Harihara II of the Vijayanagara dynasty is also found, referring to land-grants.
On plan the temple consists of a square two- storeyed vimāna, ardhamandapa, mahămandapa and mukhamandapa, the whole enclosed by a prākāra with gopuradvāra on the south to which direction the temple also faces. Outside the gopura is a lofty Mānastambha of granite. The vimana and ardhamandapa are made of bricks and the rest are built of stone. The original features of the brick temple are much altered by lime and brick powder applied during the later repairs of the temple.
The vimāna is laid out in straight line, having no bhadra and karņa projections in the elevation. The adhisthana consists of jagati, kumuda, pratikantha adorned with vyāla figures, and a plain pattikā. The wall of the lower storey is relieved with tetragonal
pilasters but has no devakoşthas; the prastara with nåsibosses is simple; and the hara is represented by karņakūtas and bhadraśālās. The second storey is plain and has no hära. The octagonal grivā-śikhara has Jina figures in nāsi-kosthas in the cardinal points and lion figures at the corners. The stūpi is lost. The ardhamandapa sharing its adhisthana with the vimana is plain. Inside the vimāna the image of Candraprabha is still in worship.
The interior of the superstructure is made hollow by diminishing square courses from base-upward and ending in a false ceiling below the octagonal grivā. The faces of the square courses bear old paintings now much spoilt, but one can still see outlines of lotuses, women in dancing poses, garland loops, scenes from Jaina mythology, etc.
The mahāmaņdapa is a large, closed, pillared hall with straight sides. It stands on a moulded adhisthāna similar to that of the vimana and has niched walls and flat roof. It gives an exit towards the north and has a sub-shrine for Kuşmändini on the south. The mukhamandapa is an open pillared hall larger than the mahāmandapa and has a flat roof. The four-storeyed gopura with barrel-vaulted roof is very high.
On the south face of the memorial column are two sculptured niches. The lower niche contains a portrait of lady Puliyappai and that of the upper a seated figure of Tīrthankara.
As regards the date of the temple, it is a conglomeration of different periods. The vimāna and the ardhamandapa were originally built in the Ganga period but plastered up later, the mahāmandapa belonged to the Cola period, and the open pillared hall alongwith gopura and Mānastambha were added during the rules of the Vijayanagara kings. REFERENCES
M.W. Meister (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. I, Pt. 1, New Delhi, 1983; M.W. Meister (Ed.), Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. I, Pt. 2, New Delhi, 1986; M.A.
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Dhaky, Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture, Vol. I, Pt. 3, New Delhi, 1996; H. Cousens, The Calukyan Architecture of the Kanarese Districts, Calcutta, 1897; J. Fergusson and J. Burgess, The Cave Temples of India, reprint, Delhi, 1969; J. Burgess, Report on the Elura Cave Temples and the Brahmanical and Jaina Caves in Western India, reprint, Varanasi, 1970; S.G. Dawne, Ellora and Environs, Aurangabad, 1966; R.S. Gupte and B.D. Mahajan, Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves, Bombay, 1962; U.P. Shah and M.A. Dhaky (Eds.), Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture,
Ahmedabad, 1975; M.A. Dhaky, śāntara Sculpture,' Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art, New Series, Calcutta, 1971-72; K.R. Srinivasan, Temples of South India, New Delhi, 1971; P. Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods), Bombay, 1976; A. Ghosh (Ed.), Jaina Art and Architecture, 3 vols., New Delhi, 1964; R.C. Majumdar (Ed.), History and Culture of the Indian People, Vols. III-V, Bombay, 1954, 1955 and 1957; J. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 2 vols., reprint, Delhi, 1967; U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955.
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JAINA SCULPTURE
AND ICONOGRAPHY
By Prof. Maruti Nandan Pd. Tiwari
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CHAPTER VII
INTRODUCTION
The religion and art in Indian context go hand in hand, and virtually the religious thought and concept find visual expressions in different forms of art like architecture, sculpture, icon, painting and also fine arts and performing arts. All These elements in Jaina context are the vehicles of the principal ideas of spirituality, non-violence, absolute renunciation and austerity. It may be pointed out at the outset that it was only with the Jainas that they did never compromise with their basic tenets which find best expressions in the images of the Jinas or Tīrthankaras and Gommateśvara Bāhubali. Before taking up the evolution of Jaina sculptures and their iconography in North and South India, it is essential to have a background of patronage and Jaina pantheon also. PATRONAGE
The political and economic conditions always influence the development of religion and art. As regards Jainism, it received patronage and support from the rulers of North as well as South India. The main rulers of North India who either embraced or at least supported Jainism were Candragupta Maurya (c. 4th - 3rd century B.C. - at least towards the last years of his life he became Jaina), Samprati (3rd century B.C. - Mauryan ruler), Khāravela of Kalinga (Orissa - known through Häthigumpha inscription of about 1st century B.C. The Hāthīgumphā inscription says that Khāravela professed Jainism and got excavated Jaina caves and set up Jaina images and memorials to monks.), Nāgabhata II of the Pratīhāra dynasty (9th century A.D.) and Kumārapāla Caulukya (12th century A.D. – he patronized great Svetāmbara Jainācārya Hemacandra who composed the work like Trişaştiśalākāpuruşacaritra. Numerous Jaina temples were built by Kumārapāla, the most exquisitely carved of all such temples are at Jalore and Taranga).
As compared to North India, in South India more
vigorous support was accorded to Jainism by the rulers of the Ganga, Kadamba, Călukya, Rästrakūta, Hoysala and Vijayanagar dynasties. Amoghavarşa of the Rāştrakūta dynasty (9th century A.D.) and Cāmundarāya, the General of Ganga King Mārasimha (10th century A.D.), made outstanding contributions to Jainism including Jaina art. The Jaina caves of Ellora and vestiges at Sravanabelagola bear testimony to their support. Further, Jinasena and Gunabhadra composed the great Epic Mahapurana (comprising Adipurana and Uttarapurāna) at the time of Amoghavarşa. The Hoysala king Vişnuvardhana, originally a disciple of Jainācārya Prabhācandra, only subsequently embraced Vaisnavism, though his queen Santala Devi continued to be a Jaina. The Vijayanagara rulers and their queens in several cases either accepted or supported Jainism.
Jainism remained a popular religion throughout not only amongst the ruling dynasties but also the masses, specially the business class. There are inscriptional evidences from Mathura (Kankāli Țila), Osian, Delvada, Khajuraho, Jalore and several other places which frequently refer to the sresthin, sārthavāha, gandhika, suvarnakāra, vardhakin, lauhakarmak, nāvika, nartaka, vesyas and different gosthis of traders who were making significant contributions towards the development of Jainism and thereby Jaina art. PANTHEON
Historically speaking, the evolution of the Jaina pantheon (devakula) was a gradual process. By the end of 4th-5th century A.D. the Jaina pantheon mainly consisted of the 24 Jinas, Yakşas and Yakṣis (or Sāsanadevatās), Vidyādevis, Lakşmi, Balarāma, Krsna, Rāma, Naigameșa, Bāhubali, Bharata and other Salākāpurusas (or Mahāpurusas). The Salākāpurusas, 63 in number, are Great Souls and their lives are invariably referred to in the Svetāmbara Carita texts and the
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Digambara Puranas. Their list includes the 24 Jinas, 12 Pārsvanātha and Mahavira in detail, whereas the lifeCakravartins, nine Baladevas, nine Väsudevas and nine events of the remaining 20 Jinas are given in brief. Prativasudevas. It may be noted here that only the According to the scholars, this portion (Jinacaritra - names and some of the general features of the deities Lives of Jinas) of the above text seems to have been were finalised by the 5th century A.D., while their added and edited in about 4th century A.D. detailed iconographic features were finalised between The gods in Jainism are classified into four main the 8th and 13th centuries A.D. The development of groups, bhavanavāsis (gods who live in the houses), Jaina pantheon was more or less identical in both the vyantaras (intermediaries), jyotişkas (luminaries - sects and the differences are to be noticed mainly with Navagrahas etc.) and vaimānikas (gods who live in regard to their names and, at times, their forms and vimāna). Each of these is subdivided into several groups iconographic features. The story of the transfer of embryo with Indras (chiefs) as the head and including also the of Mahāvīra, the image of Jivantasvämin Mahāvīra and Lokapālas (guardians of the cardinal points of the reference to Mallinätha as female Tirthankara do not universe). The vyantara gods, for example, are divided find mention in the Digambara works.
into Yakşas (vegetation spirits), bhūtas (ghosts), pisacas The terms Jina (invincible or liberator), Buddha (fiends), rākşasas (demonical beings), Kinnaras (half(enlightened one), Arhat (deserving worship) and horse, half human), Gandharvas (celestial musicians), Nirgrantha (free from bondage) were commonly used and others. Such deities have played an important role by both the early Buddhists and Jainas to refer to those in ancient Indian folk worship. who had achieved spiritual liberation. The founders of Besides these, certain other gods and goddesses Jainism were Jinas, also known as Tirthankara (maker are mentioned in various Jaina texts, including four of a tirtha, or forder between the material and spiritual gatekeepers of the rampart of the Jambüdvipa and four worlds).
goddesses - Jaya, Vijaya, Jayanta and Aparajitä. The The Jainas have divided unending time cycle into list of 64 Dikkumāris (maidens of the directions) who two aeons - avasarpini (descending order of all virtues) act as nurses when the Jina is born, includes several and utsarpiņi (ascending order of virtues) with 24 Jinas goddesses that suggest Brahmanical influence or in each of the two aeons. The present age is an avasarpiņi borrowing from some common ancient Indian heritage. age, of which Pārsvanātha and Mahävīra are the last These deities are, however, assigned a position two Jinas who are accepted as historical ones. Thus in subordinate to the Jinas and other liberated souls the Jaina conception of time, Jaina doctrine has no (Siddhas) who are called devādhidevas (Lords of Gods) beginning or end.
by Hemacandra in 12th century A.D. Next in order to The Jainas believe in the 24 Jinas - Rşabhanātha the Jinas (Arhats) and Siddhas are the Jaina ascetics (or Adinātha), Ajitanätha, Sambhavanātha, Abhinandana, called Ācāryas (leaders of groups of monks), Upadhyāyas Sumatinātha, Padmaprabha, Supārsvanātha, (readers who teach sacred texts and hence shown with Candraprabha, Puşpadanta (or Suvidhinātha), Sitalanātha, manuscript) and Sadhus (monks in general shown with Śreyāmšanātha, Väsupujya, Vimalanātha, Anantanātha, ogho or rajoharaṇa or mukha-pattikā and tarpaņi - Dharmanātha, Santinātha, Kunthunatha, Aranātha, wooden water vessel). These five constitute the PancaMallinātha Munisuvrata, Naminātha, Neminātha (or paramesthins (five chief divinities). The 24 Jinas along Aristanemi), Pärsvanātha and Mahāvīra (or Vardhamāna). with certain other souls including 12 Cakravartins (world The Kalpasūtra, a Jaina canonical text, describes the conquerors - Bharata, Sagara, Maghvä, Sanatkumāra, lives of Rşabhanātha (first Jina), Aristanemi (22nd Jina), Santi, Kunthu, Ara - last three being Jinas, Subhūma,
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Padma, Harișena, Jayasena, Brahmadatta), nine Vasudevas (Triprstha, Dviprstha, Svayambhu, Purusottama, Purusasimha, Puruşa Pundarika, Datta, Nārāyaṇa or Laksmana Krsna), and nine Baladevas (Acala, Vijaya, Bhadra, Suprabha, Sudarśana, Ananda, Nandan, Padma or Räma, Balarāma) constitute the list of 54 Salākāpurusas (Great Souls) to which nine Prati- Vāsudevas (enemies of Vāsudevas - Ašvagrīva, Taraka, Meraka, Nisumbha, Madhukaitabha, Bali, Prahalada, Rāvana, Jarāsandha) are added subsequently making the total of 63. The other figures such as nine Näradas, 11 Rudras and 24 Kamadevas (gods of love), Ganesa, Saptamātkās, 64 Yoginis show Brahmanical influence. Bāhubali, the son of the first Jina Rşabhanātha, is said to be the first of the Kāmadevas.
We would now discuss briefly the development of Jaina iconography and sculpture in North and South India. NORTH INDIA
The contribution of North India (north of the Vindhyan Mountain) in the development of Jaina art and iconography is of much more significance than what has been brought out. According to the Jaina tradition, all the 24 Jinas of present avasarpiņi aeon were born in this region and it was here that they spent their active lives. Perhaps this was the reason that most of the Jaina deities gained sculptural representations first in the region. The earliest Jina images with their characteristic iconographic features such as the flowing hair-locks of Rşabhanātha, seven-hooded snake canopy of Pārsvanatha, the śrīvatsa, the astapratihāryas, the cognizances and the Yakşa-Yakşi pairs also make their first appearance in this region. However, the characteristic uşnişa and the śrīvatsa are generally absent in the Jina images of South India. The figures of the Jaina Mahāvidyās, the complete sets of 24 Yaksis, Jivantasvāmin Mahāvīra and Jaina tutelary couples (or parents of Jinas) etc. are also conspicuous by their absence in South India. This absence requires proper investigation
The Indus Valley civilization (c. B.C. 2300-1750) is the earliest civilization of India. The figures on some of the seals from Mohen-Jo-Daro and also a male torso from Harappa remind us of the Jina images on account of their nudity and posture, similar to kayotsarga-mudrā, which is exhibited more emphatically in Lohānipura (Bihar) torso (Pl. 118). But nothing can be said with certainty until the Indus Valley script is deciphered finally.
Apart from the above instance we do not have any literary and archaeological evidence regarding the Jina image prior to Mahāvīra. In early canonical texts Mahavira is never said to have visited any Jina temple or worshipped any Jina image. Instead Mahavīra in the Āgamic texts is said to have stayed in yakṣāyatanas (Yakşa temples). In this connection it would be relevant to make reference to the Jivantasvāmin Mahāvīra image which is said to have been carved in the life-time of Mahāvīra (c. late 6th century B.C.), hence called Jivantasvāmin or Jivitasvāmin. According to the Jaina tradition, a sandalwood image of Mahavira, wearing mukuta and other ornaments befitting royalty, was carved in his life time during the period of his tapas in palace, about a year prior to his renunciation. Like the Bodhisattva before reaching Buddhahood, Jivantasvāmin also represented a conception which may be called Jinasattva. The problem of antiquity of Jivantasvämin concept and image has been discussed separately.
The earliest-known Jina image, preserved in the Patna Museum, comes from Lohānipura (Patna, Bihar) and is datable to c. 3rd century B.C. (Pl. 118). The nudity and the kāyotsarga-mudrā, suggesting rigorous austerity, of the image were confined only to the Jinas. Another Jina image from Lohānīpura is assignable to the Sunga period or slightly later. A terracotta Jina figure of c. 3rd century B.C. is also reported from Ayodhya. The reference to the Kalinga Jina (image), once taken away by Nandarāja and brought back by Khāravela (c. 25 B.C.), in the Hāthīgumphā inscription of Khāravela is of special interest in this connection. Thus the Jina
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images from Lohānīpura and Ayodhya and also the evidence of Hāthīgumphã inscription distinctly suggest that the antiquity of the Jina image may well be pushed back at least to c. 4th-3rd century B.C.
The two early bronze images of Parsvanātha, differently dated by scholars from 2nd century B.C. to 1st century A.D. are in the collections of the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai and Patna Museum, Patna. These figures, provided respectively with the five and seven-hooded snake canopy, are rendered as sky-clad and as standing in the käyotsarga-mudra.
Mathura in U. P. was a stronghold of Jainism from c. B.C. 100 to A.D. 1177. The early (c. B.C. 100 to the Kuşāņa Period) Jaina sculptures from Mathura are of special iconographic significance, because they exhibit certain formative stages in the development of Jaina iconography. The vast amount of veritable vestiges include the āyāgapatas, independent Jina images, Pratimā- sarvatobhadrika (Jina Caumukhi), Sarasvatī, Naigameși and also the narrative scenes from the lives of Rsabhanātha and Mahavīra (Pls. 140, 168). Of all these the āyāgapatas (tablets of homage) of 2nd - 1st century B.C. merit special attention, since they represent the transitional phase of Jaina iconography in which the worship of auspicious symbols together with the Jinas in human form was in vogue. One such example of c. 19 century B.C., bearing the figure of Pārsvanātha seated in dhyana-mudra in the centre is in the collection of the State Museum, Lucknow (J. 253). The rendering of the Jinas in dhyana-mudrā (padmāsana-seated cross- legged) and the representation of srivatsa in the centre of their chest appear for the first time in the Sunga- Kuşāņa sculptures of Mathura.
The problem of exact sect affiliation of the Kuşāņa Jina images from Mathura is a problem which to most of the scholars are the products of the Digambara sect in view of the nudity of the Jina images. On the basis of the acelaka (sky-clad) and sacelaka (draped) ways of living for Jaina friars and Jinas being conceived in the Agama texts it has been observed that the Kuşăņa
Jaina images from Mathura, showing full concurrence with the Agamic tradition, can suggest no sectarian affiliation with the Digambaras, these rather, and up to at least the mid-2nd century A.D., represent the undifferentiated proto-Svetambara and Digambara sect. The earliest examples showing the difference of the Svetāmbara and Digambara sects in visual representations are known only from late 5th century A.D. onwards after the Valabhi council. The Kuşāņa figures with volume and stiffness underwent stylistic change in respect of plasticity, serenity, elegance and animation during the Gupta period. The Kuşāņa Jina images are heavy and static in form and posture.
The Gupta period (4th century to A.D. 600) was a milestone in the development of Jaina iconography, and some of the most significant iconographic features, as for example the distinguishing cognizances (lañchana) and the Yakşa-Yakşi figures, were introduced during the period. The Gupta Jaina sculptures are reported from several sites, like Mathura, Rajgir, Kahaum, Nachna, Durjanpur (Vidisha), Varanasi, Chausa and Akota (Pls. 122,132). The images of Rşabhanātha, Ajitanātha, Candraprabha, Puspadanta, Neminātha, Pärsvanatha and Mahāvīra Jinas were carved during this period. The first Svetāmbara Jaina image, known from Akota (Gujarat), was also carved in the Gupta period. The muscular shape of Kuşāņa image is melted in slenderness and the Gupta figures are always shown beautiful. The ornaments and garments are minimized and the body treatment is smooth. The outer strength and vigour are replaced by inner vision and spiritual force. The joy, earlier expressed through the body and lips, is now experienced within. The perfection, refinement, sophistication and brilliance were hallmarks of all the visual arts of the Gupta period. The Gupta sculptures show a wonderful synthesis between the external form and the inner meaning with the result that the figures touch the height of spirituality. Indianness became an important character and images are well proportionate, animated, serene and youthful in

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appearance. The number of Jaina sculptures, as compared to Kusana period, sharply declined in Gupta period but the area of Jaina artistic activity widened extensively covering almost the entire country.
The history of Jainism continued uninterrupted after Gupta period. The Jaina art and literature thrived most vigorously between the 8th and the 15th century A.D. The period saw the building of a very large number of Jaina temples with exquisite sculptural carvings. During the period the new forms and iconographic features (excepting that of the Jinas) of various deities were formulated and gradually the number of arms and thereby the attributes increased to make most of the manifestations more as the specimens of codified texts. The parikara (surrounding) of Jina images also developed with the figural depictions of Navagrahas, Sarasvati, Lakşmi and diminutive Jina figures. Besides, the usual astaprātiharyās and the Yakşa-Yakşi figures were also carved. The angularity and flexions along with heavy embellishments and ornamentations were other distinctive features of early medieval and medieval Jaina images (other than Jinas). The sculptures were mostly carved on the walls and other parts of temples.
Gujarat and Rajasthan were the strongholds of the Svetāmbara sect, while the vestiges yielded by other regions are affiliated mainly to the Digambara and the Yāpaniya sects. The tradition of carving 24 devakulikās with the figures of 24 Jinas therein was popular mainly at the Svetāmbara Jaina sites. The Digambara Jina images show much more variety in iconographic details than the Svetāmbara images, wherein the figures of Navagrahas, Bāhubali, Balarama and Krsna (with Neminātha), Yakşa-Yakşi, and few other goddesses, like Lakşmi and Sarasvati, are carved in the parikara. At the Svetāmbara sites the mention of the names of the Jinas in the pedestal inscription was preferred to providing them with their respective cognizances which are usually found in the examples of Digambara Jina images. The rendering of the narratives from the lives of the Jinas was popular mainly at the Svetāmbara sites
of western India. The sixteen Mahavidyas were accorded the most favoured position after the Jinas in Western India, while in other parts of the country the Yakşa and Yaksi occupied that position. Of the sixteen Mahāvidyās- Rohiņi, Vajrānkuśā, Vajraśrnkhalā, Apraticakrā, Acchupta and Vairotyä were the most popular ones. The representation of Sāntidevī, Brahmaśānti Yakşa, Jivantasvāmin Mahävira, Ganesa, the parents of the 24 Jinas, and some unidentified goddesses (not known in Jaina tradition) was confined mainly to the Western Indian sites. The figures of Sarasvati, Astadikpalas, Navagrahas and Kșetrapāla were popular in both the sects. On the other hand the figures of Rohiņi, Manovegā, Gauri and Gāndhāri Yakṣīs, Garuda Yakşa, Jaina tutelary couples, and Rāma and Sītā occur only at the Digambara Jaina sites. There are also some icon types and images from the Digambara Jaina sites like Deogadh and Khajuraho, which are not known in the textual tradition. The rendering of the dvitirthi and tritirthi Jina images and the representation of Sarasvati and Bahubali in tritërthi Jina images, and also the rendering of Yakşa-Yakși figures with Bahubali and Ambikā are only some of such rare examples.
The Jainas developed their pantheon by assimilating and transforming different Brahmanical legendary characters and deities in Jaina creed which could distinctly be gleaned through their vast literature as well as surviving visual imagery. Vimalavasahi and Lūņavasahi (c. A.D. 1150-1230) exhibit some of very interesting renderings of Krsnalilä and other Vaisnava themes which include Kāliya-damana, Krsna playing Holi with kanaka-sựngakośa (as mentioned in Harșacarita) with gopas and gopikäs, the episode of Bali and Vamana, samudramanthana and vivid carvings pertaining to Krsna janma and bālalīlās. The figures of Saptamātņkās, finding no mention in Jaina works, were also carved in some of the examples known from Mathura, Gyaraspur, Vimalavasahi and Khandagiri. We also encounter with figures of several such deities, mainly the female ones, at the prolific Jaina temples at Vimalavasahi, Lunavasahi
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and Kumbharia which could not be identified on the testimony of the available textual prescriptions. Most of the deities in such cases show the influence of the Brahmanical goddesses. Vimalavasahi alone has 16 such goddesses, some of which with bull as mount and holding either trisula and sarpa or trisula in both the hands have distinct Saivite stamp
The figures of male deities in these sculptures are meagre in number as compared to the female ones, which probably owes to the Tantric influences and Sakti worship. The Pārsvanātha Jaina temple (A.D. 950-70) at Khajuraho contains all along its facade the divine figures with their Śaktis in alingana-pose, which include Śiva, Vişnu, Brahma, Rāma, Balarāma, Agni, Kāma and Kubera (P1. 236). Such figures are against the accepted norms of Jaina tradition and were actually carved under the influence of Brahmanical temples at the site. Many of these divine figures, excepting Ambikā and a few Jinas, are related with the Brahmanical pantheon. On the south and north facade of the śikhara and also on the facade of the garbhagha of the Parsvanātha temple, there are four sculptures showing amorous couples. The instances of erotic figures in Jaina context, datable between 10th and 12 centuries A.D., are also known from Deogadh (doorway, Temple No. 18), Santinātha temple at Nadlai (Pali, Rajasthan), Ajitanātha temple at Taranga (Mahesana, Gujarat) and Neminātha temple at Kumbharia (Gujarat). The presence of erotic figures at Jaina sites is a gross violation of the Jaina tradition which does not even conceive of any Jaina god along with his Sakti in alingana pose. Such figures hence were carved due to the Tantric influence in Jainism during the medieval times (c. 9th to 12th centuries A.D.). The Jaina Harivamsa Purāņa (A.D. 783, 29.1-10) makes the point more clear by referring to the construction of a Jina temple by a Sreşthi Kāmadatta, who for the general attraction of people also caused installation of the figures of Kamadeva and Rati in the temple. It also alludes to the worship of Rati and Kamadeva alongwith the Jina images. It may also be noted here that the Tantric
influence was accepted in Jainism with certain restraints. Overt eroticism was never so pronounced in Jaina literature and sculptural manifestations as was the case with Brahmanical art, which is evident from the examples carved on the temples of Khajuraho, Modhera, Konark, Bhubanesvara and many other places. The erotic figures from Jaina temples as compared to Brahmanical ones are not so large in number.
During the Pāla period the Jainas visualised some innovatory forms as well which were apparently inspired by the tradition of syncretic images. A few Jina images of 9th 10th century from Son-Bhandar cave and Vaibhāra hill at Rajgir are endowed with five or seven-hooded snake canopy but the cognizances on the pedestals are conch, elephant and lion which thus show the composite features. Hence the Jinas are identifiable as PārsvanathaAjitanätha, Supärsvanatha-Neminātha and PārsvanathaMahavira.
Deogadh was singularly important for innovatory icon types which, although not referred to in literary injunctions, are well in tune with the Jaina tradition. These include particularly the figures of Bharata Muni (earlier Cakravartin) and Bahubali, the two sons of Rsabhanātha, who owing to their rigorous austerity were elevated in status to equal the Jinas, highest in Jaina worship. The features like the astaprātihāryas and the figures of Yaksa and Yaksi (Gomukha and Cakreśvarī of Rşabhanātha), invariably shown with the Jinas, have also been associated with Bahubali to suggest his elevation.
in about the 16th century Lonkāsāha started a sub-sect of Svetämbaras known as Sthanakavāsis in western India and claimed that image worship is not sanctioned by the Āgamas. In the 16th century a Digambara named Taranasvamin organized the Tāraṇapantha sect, which too repudiated image worship. in the 18th century Acārya Bhikṣu organized Teräpantha, a sub-sect of Sthänakaväsis which also opposed image worship.
The most prolific Jaina sites of north India were
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Mathura, Deogadh, Chandpur, Chanderi, Khajuraho, Bilhari, Gwalior, Khandagiri (Bārabhuji and Navamuni caves- Puri, Orissa), Akota, Delvada (Vimalavasahi, Lūṇavasahi, Kharataravasahi), Kumbharia, Taranga, Jalore, Ranakpur, Girnar and Satruñjaya.
SOUTH INDIA
South India (south of Vindhyan mountain) has been an important seat of Digambara and also of the Yapaniya Jaina sects. The tradition says that the Mauryan ruler Candragupta journeyed to the south towards the end of his life in the company of his teacher Bhadrabahu, some time before B.C. 297. The Digambara monk Visakhācārya with a number of followers went to South India in the areas of the Cholas and the Pandyas. Kundakundacārya also spread Jainism in the area. It was mainly during the period of the Pallavas of Kañcīpuram, Rāṣṭrakūtas of Manyakheta and the Pandyas of Madurai that Jainism had its heydays. The whole of the south, particularly Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and great dynasties of these regions were often dedicated to Jainism. We know of the rulers (5th to 12th-13th cent. A.D.) of the Pallava, Pandya, Western Calukya, Ganga, Raṣṭrakūta, Kalacuri and Hoysala royal families who were devoted to Jainism and for its spread.
Many Jaina poets of great repute flourished under the patronage of Raṣṭrakūta rulers of Manyakheța (Malkhed). Under their patronage developed the Jaina caves of Ellora (Cave nos. 30-34) which yielded some of the masterpieces of Jaina sculptures of Bahubali, Pārsvanatha and Ambikā. Vīrasena wrote his monumental commentaries on Satkhandagama under Jagattunga and his successors. Jinasena and Gunabhadra Acāryas, composed the great epic Mahāpurāṇa (consisting of Adipurana and Uttarapuraṇa, 9th century A.D.) at the time of King Amoghavarsa, a follower of Jainism. Māhāvīrācārya wrote a work on mathematics. King Amoghavarṣa was himself the author of Ratnamalika, a work that became popular with all the sects. Puspadanta composed his famous Mahapuraṇa in Apabhramsa under

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the patronage of the minister of the Rastrakūta ruler Kṛṣṇa III.
The earliest vestiges of Jaina art in South India are of about 2nd cent. B.C. These are mostly natural caverns and caves in the extreme South. These caves are at Anamalat, Arachallevi, Aykudi Kalugumalai. Kurungalakkudi, Kiḍaripatti, Kilavalavu, Kongapulayankulam, Kunnakudi, Mamandür, Margalavalai, Mettupatti. Pugalur, Sittannavasal, Tiruchirapalli, Vävidhaiyur and Vikkiramangalam. There are several improvised rockcut beds carved for the monks with slightly raised pillows for supporting the head of slumbering monk. The short references to donations magnanimously made by lay followers are mentioned in early Brahmi inscriptions.
The most prolific sites of sculptural and architectural embellishments in South India (including Maharashtra) from c. 600 A.D. to 16th cent. A.D. are Badami, Aihole, Arsikeri, Lakkundi, Halebid, Mūdabidrī, Humca, Śravanabelagola (Calukya 8th-9th century to Nayaka period), Karur (Shimoga) and Venur and Karkal in Karnataka, Ellora (five caves - Nos. 30-34, 9th cent. A.D.) in Maharashtra, Tiruparuttikunaram (c. 8th to 16th-17th cent. A.D. - both sculpture and painting), Sittannavasal, Tirakkol, Anamalai (all three Pallava), Melsittämur and Deviagram (South Arcot), Kalugumalai, Karaikoyil, Tirumalai (Vellore, 9th-10th century A.D.), Vallimalai and Danavulapadu (Cuddapah) in Tamil Nadu, Bapaṭala (Guntur - 8th century A.D.), Chandragiri (Chitoor 9th to 12th century A.D.) and Penukonda (Anantapur 11th century A.D.) in Andhra Pradesh and Kallil (c. 8th 9th century A.D.) in Kerala.
The Western Gangas, who made Jainism almost the religion of their state, were great patrons of Jaina teachers. Camuṇḍaraya, the general of Marasimha, the Ganga king, was the architect of the great colossus of Śravanabelagola, the unique sculpture of Bahubali (A.D. 983) that is probably the one great example of Garga art if one were to choose a single example to represent that phase of art itself.

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Among the Hoysala kings, Vişnuvardhana, originally a disciple of Jaina Prabhācandra, subsequently embraced Vaisnavism though his queen Säntalā Devī, a remarkable scholar with a high aesthetic taste, continued to be a Jaina. Queen Santalā like her husband Visnuvardhana had deep faith in temple-building and making endowments to Jaina monuments. Vişnuvardhana continued a favourable attitude towards Jainism and freely endowed several Jaina temples. The Jaina temples and enormous sculptures thereon at Halebid, Arsikeri and Lakkundi bear testimony to this.
The Vijayanagara rulers had the largest empire in the south and some rulers, specially Bukkā I, created an amicable atmosphere by bringing together the friendship of the devotees of Jaina and Vaişnava faiths. The queen Bīmadevi of Deva Raya I was the disciple of a Jaina Acārya Abhinava Cārukirti. Panditācārya, the general of Bukka II, was a Jaina by faith and Krsna Deva Raya himself, the greatest emperor of the Vijayanagara royal family, endowed for Vardhamāna temple at Tirupparuttikunram in A.D. 1517. ART AND AESTHETICS
The extension of the Gupta style can distinctly be noticed in the early Calukyan sculptures from Badami and Aihole, datable to c. A.D. 600. The style and subjects are almost identical at both the places where- from the images of only Pärśvanātha and Mahāvīra Jinas and Bahubali and Ambikā are found. The Jaina caves at Badami (No. 4) and Aihole have seated figures of Mahāvīra in the sanctum, while the mukhamandapa contains the figures of Bāhubali and Parsvanātha facing each other. The Pārsvanätha images from Badami and Aihole are significant as these are the earliest examples showing the onslaught of the demon Sambara (or Kamatha) during the course of Pārsvanātha's trance and meditation. Bāhubali, also known as Gommațeśvara, is represented as standing in deep trance. The austerities of Bāhubali are aptly shown for the first time at Badami and Aihole. The rendering of entwining creepers around the hands and legs of Bāhubali, and also the presence
of snakes coming out of anthills, carved close to his legs, are peculiar features of both the Bahubali images, suggesting thereby the long passage of time of his penance. In concurrence with the Digambara Jaina tradition, there also appear the figures of two Vidyādharīs, embellished in beautiful decorated mukutas and other ornaments. Aesthetically, the Bāhubali and Ambikā images at Aihole are among the finest works of the early Calukyan artist showing superb grace, plasticity and suppleness.
Thus Jainism in South has contributed in no small measure. The great monuments speak eloquently of the aesthetic taste of the patrons and the architects who constructed the embellished abodes for their deities and also carved or painted their figures in the spirit and glory of divine forms.
The most frequent representation of the Jinas found in South India are Rşabhanātha, Pārsvanātha, Supärśvanatha, Mahāvīra, Säntinätha and Neminātha. The attack by Kamatha with his dreadful hordes to dissuade Pārsvanātha from his tapas as an ascetic, corresponding to the beguilement of Māra (Māradharşana) to wean away Buddha from his firm resolve to attain enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, has been a very popular theme. One of the finest representations from South India of this theme is at Tirakkol (North Arcot, Tamil Nadu). It is an impressive carving of Pallava period carved on a large boulder.
It is usually believed that the Jaina art has been monotonous, repetitive and mainly spiritual in content. But after making detailed study of the Jaina literary works one finds that they are full of life and references to material world including aesthetic appreciation of physical beauty, ornaments and performing arts like dance and music. The Jaina temples of Khajuraho, Delvada, Kumbharia and all other places are profusely embellished with the figures of apsarases or Nayikās (damsels) which have bewitching beauty. The Parsvanātha temple of Khajuraho and Delvada temples are brilliant examples of exquisitely carved Jaina figures.
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The Jaina works endorse for householders (Śrāvaka - (dhyāna-mudrā and käyotsarga-mudrā) of austerity. They Śrāvikas) a balanced life which includes virtuous and introduced several figures and elements to suggest spiritual life alongwith aspirations for worldly pleasures difference from one Jina image to the other by way and possessions. As a result, we find that the figures of cognizances, Yakşa-Yakși figures, astaprātihāryas, of the Yakşas and Yaksis were associated with each small Jina figures in the parikara and the figures of of 24 Vitaragi Jinas to fulfil the worldly aspirations Navagrahas, Lakşmi and Sarasvati etc. Through the of the worshippers. The incorporation of 24 Yaksas and changes in the order of figural representations, their Yakṣīs (or Sasanadevatās) were intended to cater to the placements, compositions and decorative features the needs of common worshippers aspiring for worldly and monotony of Jina images was broken. The Jinas no material possessions. These deities bestow on their doubt were highest object of worship denoting spirituality worshippers desired material boons. The Harivamsa but at the same time their proportionate beautiful body, Purāņa (783 A.D., 66.43 - 45) speaks of the relevance benign face and youthful appearance radiant with of the adoration of the Sasanadevatās, who are capable spirituality had aesthetic appeal. The BỊhatsaṁhita and of conferring boons and pacifying the malefic Mānasära also conceive of Jina images as beautiful power of the grahas, rogas, bhūtas, piśācas and (rüpavāna and surūpa). rākşasas.
The present study is divided into following The examples of Jaina sculptures, architecture and chapters : (VIII) Jinas or Tīrthankaras; (IX) Yakșa and paintings distinctly reveal enormous variety of forms Yakşi (sasanadevatās); (X) Mahavidyās; (XI) Other and innovations in reference to time and space and also Jaina Gods and Goddesses; (XII) Bāhubali, Bharata aesthetic appeal which bear testimony to the fact that Muni and Jivantasvāmi images; (XIII) Some Important like Vedic-Puranic and Buddhist art, Jaina art had also Aspects of Jaina Art. all the plastic and aesthetic qualities which could invite REFERENCES and engross any art lover as well as the adherent of U.P. Shah, Jaina-Rupa-Mandana (Jaina Jainism. If we look carefully at the Jina images of any Iconography), New Delhi, 1987; C. Sivaramamurti, prolific site, namely Mathura, Deogadh, Khajuraho, Panorama of Jain Art - South India, New Delhi, 1983; Ellora, Delvada, Kumbharia etc., we find that artists Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, Elements of Jaina were always concerned about getting rid of monotony, iconography, Varanasi, 1983; Pratapaditya Pal (Editor), irrespective of the fact that the Jinas were to be shown The Peaceful Liberators - Jain Art from India, Los only with two hands and in two customary postures Angeles, 1994.
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CHAPTER VIII
JINAS OR TIRTHANKARAS
The nucleus of Jaina pantheon, and so also the visual manifestation, centred around the 24 Jinas or the Tirthankaras who were venerated as the devadhideva, the Supreme Deity. As a consequence, the Jina images outnumber the images of all other Jaina deities. The Jina images denote bhava worship and not the dravya worship (physical or idol worship). Jina worship is regarded mainly a worship not of the God or a deity but of a human being who has attained perfection and freedom from all bondage. The passionless Jinas or arhats are vitarägas and therefore neither they favour nor frown upon anybody. Because of this only Jinas were represented always in the postures of meditation while Buddha, in due course of time, was represented with such gestures as the abhaya-mudra, the varadamudră etc. Moreover, none of the Jinas was ever credited with performance of miracles even at the time of their upasargas (hindrances caused by evil spirits during their penance) while the case was reverse with Buddha. Thus it is apparent that the Jainas by strictly adhering to the dhyāna (seated cross-legged) and the kayotsarga (standing erect in attitude of dismissing body) mudras in respect of the Jinas have shown their unceasing respect for yogic postures of transcendental meditation and bodily abandonment. However, to cater to the needs and aspirations of the worshippers for material world the Yakṣas and Yakṣis were associated with each of the 24 Jinas as Śāsanadevatās.
Historically, the list of all the 24 Jinas as per available texts was finalized by the beginning of the Christian era. The earliest list occurs in the Samavāyānga Sūtra (Sūtra 157), Bhagavati Sūtra, Kalpasūtra (2.184 203) and Paumacariyam (1.1-7). The representation of the Jinas in art started in c. 3rd century B.C. The Kalpasūtra describes at length only the lives of Rṣabhanatha, Neminatha, Pärsvanatha and Mahāvīra

who were the most popular of all the Jinas in literature and art. As a natural corollary, the Yakṣas and Yakṣis of these Jinas enjoyed a very favoured position. Ajitanatha, Sambhavanatha, Supārsvanatha. Candraprabha, Śantinatha and Munisuvrata happened to be the next favoured Jinas. The figures of the remaining Jinas are comparatively fewer in number.
Of all the Jinas, the iconographic features of Parsvanatha were finalised first. The seven-hooded snake canopy was associated with Parsvanatha in c. first century B.C. Thereafter in c. first century A.D., Rṣabhanatha was endowed with flowing hair-locks, as is evident from the sculptures procured from Mathura and Chausa (Pl. 122). Balarama and Krsna joined Neminatha as his cousins in Kuṣaṇa period as is borne out by the Neminatha sculptures from Kankali-Tilä, Mathura. During the Kuṣaṇa period (1st-2nd century A.D.) the images of Sambhavanatha, Munisuvrata and Mahavira were also carved but they are identified on the basis of the pedestal inscriptions, bearing their respective names (Pl. 120). The Kuṣaṇa Jina figures signify the early stage of representation. They exhibit stiffness and muscular treatment of the body. The rendering of the distinguishing cognizances, YakṣaYakṣi pairs and the aṣṭapratiharyas (eight chief accompanying attributes- aśoka tree, devadundubhi, scattering of flowers by gods, triple umbrella, fly-whisk, lion-throne, divine music and halo: Paimacariya, 2.3536 and Pratisthäsäroddhara, 1.76-77) with the Jinas which marks a significant development in Jina iconography, started as early as in the Gupta period. Thus Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) was a milestone in the development of Jina images. The Neminatha and Mahāvīra images respectively from Rajgir (Vaibhara hill, Bihar) and Varanasi (now in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, Acc. No. 161) are the earliest

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instances of Gupta period which show the distinguishing of the Jinas occur mainly at the Svetāmbara Jaina sites cognizances of Jinas. The Rşabhanātha image from in western India, namely, Kumbharia, Delvada Akota is the earliest Jina image with Yakșa and Yaksi (Vimalavasahi and Lūņavasahi) and Osian. These figures. The Brhatsamhita (58.45) of Varāhamihira is instances, datable between 11th and 13th century A.D. the earliest text which envisages the iconographic features deal chiefly with the pañcakalyāṇakas (five chief events of the sky-clad Jina images which have long-hanging in the life of a Jina - cyavana, janma, dikṣā, kevalajñāna arms, the śrivatsa mark, the serene and youthful and nirvāṇa) and some other important events in the appearance and beautiful form.
lives of Rsabhanātha, Santinātha, Munisuvrata, (Ajánulambabāhuḥ śrīvatsankaḥ praśāntamūrtiśca Neminātha, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra. Of all these, the digvāsästaruņo rūpavāśca kāryorhatām devaḥ//) scenes of fight between Bharata and Bahubali, the story
The Mānasära (c. 6ih century A.D., 55.46 and of the previous life of śāntinātha in which he generously 71.95) of southern tradition also visualizes Jinas as sky- offered the flesh of his entire body to save the life of clad and beautiful in forms (surūpa) but without ornament a pigeon, the trial of strength between Krsna and and drapery
Neminātha and also the marriage procession of Niräbharaṇasarvängam nirvastrāngam manoharam Neminātha and his renunciation, the story of sarva vakşasthale hemavarnam śrīvatsalāñchanam/ Asvavabodha and Sakunikāvihāra in the life of
The Pratisthäsärasaṁgraha (4.1-4) also gives Munisuvrata and the previous births of Pārsvanātha and identical features. The Jinas are always to be shown Mahāvīra alongwith their tapas and different upasargas in human form with two hands and two eyes. (inflictions) created by the demons are of special
The lists of the distinguishing cognizances of the iconographic importance. 24 Jinas were finalised in c. 8-9ch century A.D., as The images and iconography of each of the 24 referred to in the Kahāvali and the Tiloyapannatti Jinas will now be discussed alongwith other forms of (4.604-05) (PI. 238). As far as the cognizances of the Jina images like Dvitirthi, Tritirthi, Caumukhi and Jina Jinas are concerned, the Svetämbara and Digambara Cauvisí. traditions are in agreement with each other, with a few RSABHANATHA OR ADINATHA (I" Jina) exceptions as in cases of Supärsvanātha, Sītalanātha. The first Jina Rşabhanātha or Adinātha is also Anantanätha and Aranätha. The Jina images reached the worshipped as Adiśvara and Jinanätha. His cognizance final stage of iconographic development in c. 9h-10h is bull and he is shown with hanging hair-locks for century A.D. which invariably contained distinguishing which we find story in the Svetämbara texts that while emblems, Yakşa-Yakşi figures, aştaprātiharyas, all other 23 subsequent Jinas plucked out their hair in dharmacakra with worshippers, diminutive Jina figures five handfuls at the time of renunciation, Rşabhanātha, and, at times, figures of Navagrahas, Vidyādevis, at the request of Indra, plucked out his hair only in elephants lustrating the Jinas and some other figures. four handfuls and left the remaining hair (Kalpasūtra, The rendering of Säntidevi carrying lotuses and two 195 and Trişastiśalākāpuruşacaritra, 3.60-70). It is deer flanking the dharmacakra in the centre of the because of this tradition that Rşabhanatha right from throne (suggesting peace), bull-faced figures and some the Kuşāna period is shown with the hanging hair locks other figures playing on flute and vina in the parikara which was his distinguishing feature, besides bull of Jina images was confined mainly to the Svetāmbara cognizance. Surprisingly, the lateral strands are some Jaina sites of western India.
times shown like big jată or even jatä-mukuta in early The carvings of the narrative scenes from the lives medieval sculptures from M.P. and Orissa. The bull
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cognizance, lateral strands and Gomukha Yaksa (bearing parasu) suggest the semblance between Siva and Rşabhanatha which is indicative of the commonality of Indian tradition. The Yakşa-Yakși associated with Rsabhanātha are Gomukha and Cakreśvari (or Apraticakrā), apparently representing the two principal deities respectively of Saiva and Vaisnava cults to suggest perhaps the superiority of Rşabhanātha.
The earliest known images of Rşabhanātha, procured from Mathura and Chausa are datable to 14 2nd century A.D. which are identified mainly on the basis of hanging hair-locks (Pl. 122). However, in three instances from Mathura (State Museum, Lucknow, J. 26, J. 69 and Government Museum, Mathura, B. 36), the name of Rsabhanatha is also inscribed.
The images of Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries A.D.) are mainly found from Mathura, Chusa and Akota. The figures from Mathura show beautifully delineated long curly jatäs and typical ornate halo. However, in one instance from Government Museum, Mathura (12.268), the name of Rşabhanātha is also inscribed (Pl. 131). During the Gupta period the rendering of small Jina figures somewhere on the simhāsana or in the parikara was also introduced. The earliest Svetāmbara images coming from Akota also represent Rşabhanātha as standing and clad in dhoti (Pl. 132). The Svetāmbara metal image of Rsabhanatha (standing) from Akota also shows for the first time the figures of Yaksa and Yakși with the Jina. Rsabhanātha is joined by two-armed Sarvānubhūti (or Kubera) Yaksa and Ambika Yakṣī, the earliest Yakşa-Yakşi figures to be associated with the Jinas. It may be remembered that it was only from 7th-8th century A.D. that the traditional Yakşa-Yakși Gomukha and Cakreśvarī were shown with Rşabhanātha.
The Gupta. figures reveal all the plastic qualities of Gupta period in terms of expression and spirituality.
During the early medieval period all the above features were crystalized and the parikara was more elaborate having small Jina figures, sometimes their number being 23 and thus making the images as Jina
Cauvisi of Rşabhanātha. Of the numerous western Indian Svetambara sites special mention may be made of Vasantagarh, Osian (Mahāvīra temple and Devakulikasg19-11th centuries A.D.), Akota, Kumbharia, Delvada, Satrunjaya and Ranakpur. At Svetämbara Jaina sites mostly the Yakşa-Yakşi shown with Rşabhanātha are Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā with few exceptions where Gomukha and Cakreśvari are carved.
A beautiful metal image of Sarvat 1186 (A.D. 1129) is preserved in the Rayland House Gallery Private Collection, London. In concurrence with the Svetāmbara Jaina tradition of western Indian bronze images, the present Jina image along with lateral strands and the bull cognizance gives the name of the Jina as Adinātha. The Yakṣa and Yakşi carved at the throne extremities are Kubera (with fruit and purse) and Ambikä (with a bunch of mangoes and a child). The beautiful bronze sculpture with the small figures of 23 Jinas is exquisitely done. The symbolic renderings of the Navagrahas (shown as small human heads) and two deer flanking and facing the dharmacakra (a motif borrowed from the Buddhist art of Sarnath) are also remarkable. Another beautiful example in metal from Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) is now in the Berlin Museum (Pl. 137). This image (A.D. 1144) also contains the figures of 23 other Jinas in parikara.
It is somewhat surprising that at the Digambara Jaina sites of north India, Rsabhanatha was accorded the most exalted position but in south India his popularity comes only next to Pārsvanātha and Mahavira. Of the most prolific north Indian sites, mention may be made of Mathura, Deogadh (more than 60 images), Khajuraho (more than 50 figures), Dudahi, Chanderi, Rajgir, Pottasingidi, Manbhum, Khandagiri, Charampa, Surohar (Dinajpur, Bangla Desh) and Purulia (Pls. 134, 135, 136). What is specially important is the beautiful jatājūta or jață-mukuta shown with Rşabhanatha at Deogadh, Khajuraho, Surohara and at a number of places in Orissa (Pl. 134). An image of Rsabhanātha seated in dhyāna-mudra with jață-mukuta and hanging hair-locks is preserved in a Jaina temple at Vaibhāra hill (Rajgir,
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Nalanda, 8ih century A.D.). The figure of bull cognizance is carved here in a pair on two sides of the dharmacakra which is a unique feature (Pl. 133). The medieval figures are characterised by elaborate parikara and excessive ornamentation and flexions in respect of Yaksa- Yakși and other figures. Thus Jina images became wonderful combination of spiritual (Jina) and worldly beauty (parikara figures).
In north Indian examples the Yakşa-Yakși are always Gomukha and Cakreśvarī, while the other features like lateral strands and bull cognizance are the same. However, the rendering of 23 Jinas in the parikara, sometimes with respective cognizances (Surohara, now in Varendra Research Museum, Bangla Desh, No. 1472) was very popular in north Indian examples. Sometimes, as found at Khajuraho, Deogadh and other places, the figures of Navagrahas are also carved on the pedestal (Pl. 134). At least in three examples of 10h-12h centuries A.D. from Deogadh (Temple No. 2), Khajuraho (Jardin Museum, Khajuraho, Acc. No. 1651) and Jalaun (State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. 16.0.178), the figures of Lakşmi, Sarasvati, Ambikā and few other goddesses are also carved to hint at the paramount importance of Jinanātha (as called in the inscription of the Pārsvanātha - actually Adinātha Jaina temple of Khajuraho.)
One bronze figure (c. 104 century A.D.) from Orissa, now in Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (Acc. No. BL 43), represents Rşabhanātha with beautiful tall jațā- mukuta in Orissan style. The slender body with slightly exaggerated elongation gives an impact of weightlessness which reminds us of the other Orissan sculptures, one of which (representing two Jinas in Dvitirthi image) could be seen in the British Museum, London (Acc. No. 1872.7-1.99).
In south India the Rşabhanātha images were carved from about 9h century A.D., the examples of which are found at Ellora. A Jina Cauvisi of Rsabhanātha seated with hair-locks and two-armed Yaksa-Yaksi is found from Pudukkottai (Tamil Nadu, 11th 12th century
A.D., now in Department of Archaeology, Mysore) (PI. 139). However, the Yakşa-Yakși apparently are not Gomukha and Cakreśvari. A seated image with flywhisk bearing attendant is also found from Gulbarga. The Pudukkottai museum, Tamil Nadu, preserves a small bronze of Caturvimsati-Patta (c. 1000 A.D.) which contains in the centre a standing figure of Rşabhanātha with hair-locks and Gomukha Yakşa and Cakreśvarī Yakși. The bronze was dug out from the site of the Maharaja's College at Pudukkottai. Another beautiful sculpture of Rşabhanātha (c. 10th 11th century A.D.) from Warangal (A.P.) is now preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi. The Nagpur Museum also preserves a hoard of beautiful Jaina bronzes from Rajnapur Khinkhini (Akola, Maharashtra) which has Caturvimśati-patta of Rşabhanātha (10th century A.D.). The Yakşa is Kubera while the Yakṣi with discs is undoubtedly Cakreśvarī.
A graceful stone image of Rşabhanatha with hanging hair-locks and standing as he is in the käyotsarga-mudra is preserved in the Neminātha temple (11th century A.D.) at Amminabhavi (Dharwar, Karnataka) (Pl. 138). Rsabhanātha is here joined by the figures of Yakşa (which is not Gomukha) and Yakşi (Cakreśvari) along with the standing figures of Pārsvanātha and Supärsvanātha shown respectively with seven and fivehooded snake canopy on right and left flanks. The image is beautiful in terms of framing ornate pilasters topped by makara and trichatra along- with 21 other diminutive figures of seated Jinas elegantly arranged in parikara composition. The present Cauviši of Rşabhanātha is, indeed, vibrant with life and spirituality.
The group of 24 Jinas from Venur (14th century A.D.), Sravanabelagola and other places also exhibits Rşabhanatha. At Venur Rşabhanatha with bull cognizance is joined by four-armed human-faced Yaksa (not Gomukha) bearing rosary, axe, goad and fruit, while twelve-armed Yakṣi with disc, thunderbolt, lotus and varada-mudra is Cakreśvari.
Another very significant aspect was the rendering
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of the narratives from the life of Rşabhanātha which are found as early as the Kuşāņa period. The subsequent instances showing mainly the pañca-kalyāņakas and some other events are found from Osian (devakulikā) and Kumbharia (ceilings of Säntinātha and Mahāvīra temples). The earliest example from Mathura (now in State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. J. 354) represents the dance of Nilāñjanā being watched by Rşabhanātha (as a king) (Pl. 140). It was the death of Nīlāñjanā during the time of dance which brought about aversion towards worldly things in the mind of Rsabhanatha which led to his renunciation. Likewise in the narathara panel of the eastern devakulika at Osian (near Mahāvīra temple), the dance of Nīläñjanā could be identified alongwith the janma-kalyanaka.
In the ceilings of Kumbharia temples, the figures of Marudevi and Nabhi are followed by the 14 auspicious dreams seen by Marudevi and figure of Rşabhanātha (as a ruler) imparting the knowledge of different arts (war, writing, pottery making) to his people and his panca-kalyanakas (Pl. 141). The scenes of fight between Bharata and Bahubali and the latter's subsequent renunciation and deep trance with entwining creepers are also significant. The presence of two sisters - Brāhmi and Sundari (inscribed) in concurrence with the Svetāmbara tradition in the Sāntinātha temple is also important. These minutely carved beautiful narratives fully concur with the details available in Trisastiśalākāpuruşacaritra. The narratives have label inscriptions also.
AJITANATHA (2nd Jina) The cognizance of Ajitanātha is an elephant while the Yaksa-Yaksi associated with him are Mahāyaksa and Ajitā (or Rohiņi). The independent figures of Ajitanātha are found from 6th-7th century A.D. wherein the elephant cognizance is carved. However, the Yakşa- Yaksi were carved from about gth century A.D. It appears that the traditional Yakșa and Yakṣi were not shown with Ajitanātha and instead two-armed Yaksa- Yakṣi with common features like abhaya or varada-
mudra and fruit (or water vessel) were carved. It may be noted that with most of the Jinas, excepting for Rşabhanātha, Neminātha, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra, Yakşa-Yakşi figures were carved without distinguishing features as against the iconographic texts which invariably envisage distinguishing features for all the Yaksas and Yaksis.
The earliest figure of c. 6th-7th century A.D., found from Varanasi is presently preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc.No. 49-199). The figure shows Ajitanātha standing as sky-clad in the kāyotsarga-mudra with halo. The elephant cognizance in present instance is carved in pair on the pedestal, which was a recurring convention during the Gupta period particularly at Varanasi and Rajgir.
The independent figures of Ajitanātha are meagre, barring the examples where 24 Jina images are installed in 24 Devakulikās (found mainly at Svetämbara Jaina sites at Delvada and Kumbharia) or even the figures of 24 Jinas being carved on the Jina Cauvisi-Pattas. The independent figures of Ajitanätha are found mainly from Akota (8th century A.D. with Yakșa-Yakṣī figures), Ajitanātha temple, Ahmedabad (A.D. 1053), Pārsvanātha temple at Kumbharia, Deogadh (10th-12h centuries-five figures), Khajuraho (11-12th century A.D. - four figures), Rajgir (Son Bhandar cave), Aluara (Manbhum, Bengal, c. 10-11 century A.D., now in Patna Museum), Charampa (Orissa - 11th century A.D., now in Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar) and in the Navamuni, Bārabhuji and Triśūla caves of Orissa. The YakşaYakşi figures in most of the cases are two-armed and without the distinguishing attributes (Usually with most of the Jinas barring Rsabhanätha, Neminātha Pärsvanatha and Mahāvīra, the two-armed Yaksa-Yakṣī do not possess distinctive attributes or iconographic features). The metal figures, particularly from western India belonging to medieval period, also represent Ajitanātha. One of such figures of 14th century A.D. with elephant cognizance and belonging to Digambara tradition is now preserved in Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
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However, in few examples from Deogadh, Khajuraho, Rajgir and some other places in North India, Ajitanatha (with cognizance) is shown in Dvitīrthi, Tritirthi and even Caumukhi (Rajgir) Jina images.
SAMBHAVANATHA (3rd Jina)
Sambhavanātha is endowed with horse as cognizance and Trimukha and Duritāri (or Prajñapti) as Śāsanadevatās. The earliest-known image of Sambhavanātha, belonging to Kuşāņa period, is found from Mathura (presently in State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. J. 19). The image with inscription, dated in Samvat 48 (A.D. 126), refers to Sambhavanatha. Sambhavanātha sits in dhyāna-mudrā on a pedestal containing dharmacakra placed on triratna flanked by worshippers. The present image is an evidence to show that Sambhavanātha finds representation from the Kuşāņa period.
After the Kuşāņa period the next known image, datable to c. 7th-8th century A.D., is found from Son Bhandar cave at Rajgir (now in Nalanda Museum). It is a Jina Caumukhi image which represents Sambhavanātha with Rsabhanātha, Ajitanātha and Abhinandana Jinas. In another independent example known from Banpur Khas (Jhansi, U.P.), Sambhavanātha standing with small Jina figures in the parikara is shown with horse cognizance. Besides the Sambhavanatha figures found from Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and Navamuni and Bārabhuji caves in collective renderings), a sufficient number of figures are procured also from Mathura, Khajuraho, Bijnaur (Pārasanātha Kila, A.D. 1010), Narwar (Sivapuri, M.P.), Padhavali (M.P.), Rani Durgawati Museum, Jabalpur; Kumbharia, Delvada, Satruñjaya and Radhanpur (Gujarat). The figures of Sambhavanatha in south India are rarely encountered. In the set of 24 Jina figures found in Jaina temple at Venur (Karnataka), Sambhavanātha standing with trichatra is found with Trimukha Yakşa and Prajñapti Yakşi and horse lāñchana. Two other examples, belonging to Hoysala period, are found at Sravanabelagola. A few temples dedicated to Sambhavanātha are also to be seen at Kumbharia and Radhanpur (sanctum image is of A.D.
1625). At Satruñjaya both the stone and metal images were carved. All the images usually show the horse cognizance and the astaprātihāryas. The YakşaYakşi figures however, do not show distinguishing features.
In one of the figures in the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 855, 10-11th century A.D.), the horse is carved in pair which indeed was a Gupta tradition. Deogadh has yielded 11 figures, belonging to 10h-12h centuries A.D. Jina in all the examples is shown as standing with horse cognizance. However, the twoarmed Yaksa-Yakşi figures are carved only in six examples. The images in Temple Nos. 15 and 30 exhibit either the Yaksa or both the Yakşa and Yaksi which are four-armed. The image in temple No. 30 also exhibits in the parikara the figure of acarya. Of the four images found from Khajuraho (11"-12th century A.D.), one in Temple No. 27 is dated to A.D. 1158. Most of the examples from Khajuraho represent Jina as seated with two-armed Yaksa-Yakşi figures. However, in one example (Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho - Acc. No.1715, 11th century A.D.), Sambhavanatha surprisingly is flanked by two standing figures of Supārsvanātha having five-hooded snake canopy.
ABHINANDANA (4th Jina) The cognizance of Abhinandana is monkey while the Sāsanadevatās are Yakşeśvara (or Isvara) and Kalikā (or Kāli). Although independent figure of the Jina is found only from 10h century A.D. yet in a Jina Caumukhi image from Vaibharagiri (Rajgir-now in Archaeological Museum, Nalanda), datable to 8th century A.D., Abhinandana (with monkey cognizance) is represented as standing sky-clad alongwith the figures of first three Jinas - Rşabhanātha, Ajitanātha, and Sambhavanātha-on three other sides.
The separate figures of Abhinandana are found mainly from Deogadh, Khajuraho, Navamuni and Bārabhuji caves, Kumbharia (Mahavira - A.D. 1085 and Pārsvanātha - A.D. 1202 temples), Radhanpur (Gujarat), National Museum, New Delhi (metal image
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- A.D. 1448, Acc. No. 48.4/88), Venur, Moodbidri and Śravanabelagola. In cases of Bärabhuji. Venur, Moodbidri and Śravanabelagola, Abhinandana is represented in sets of the figures of 24 Jinas, usually shown with Yakṣa-Yakṣi figures (in Barabhuji cave only Yakṣi is shown). Usually, the Yakṣa-Yakşi figures have common features as discussed with Sambhavanatha.
The earliest image of 10th century A.D. is procured from Deogadh (Temple No. 9) showing monkey cognizance and two-armed Yakṣa-Yakṣi with abhayamudra and kalasa. Abhinandana stands in the kayotsargamudra. In both the instances from Khajuraho (Parsvanatha temple and Temple No. 29) the Jina sits in dhyana-mudra with two-armed Yakṣa-Yakși figures. The Santinatha temple of Radhanpur preserves a metal Pañca-tirthi image (A.D. 1448) of Abhinandana (in worship). All the figures as usual have expression of spirituality.
SUMATINATHA (5 Jina)
The cognizance of Sumatinatha is red goose (kraunca) but T. N. Ramachandran on the basis of some south Indian tradition has referred to the wheel or circle. The Yakṣa and Yakṣi associated with him are Tumbaru and Mahākāli (or Naradatta or Puruṣadatta, Digambara texts). The rendering of Sumatinatha was not popular and the earliest example is datable to the 10th century A.D. A defaced Cauvisi image of Sumatinatha is procured from Sahet-Mahet (Gonda, U.P.). Two examples of 12th century A.D. are found from Vimalavasahi (cell No. 27) and Kumbharia (Pārśvanatha temple), but the figures of mulanayaka are lost in both the cases and only the pedestal inscriptions contain the name of Sumatinatha. The Yakṣa-Yakṣi figures, like other Śvetambara Jina images, are of Sarvanubhuti (or Kubera) and Ambikă. The Kumbharia image (without Yakṣa-Yakşi figures) has ornate torana containing the figures of some Mahavidyas (Apraticakra, Vajränkuśi, Vairotyä, Rohini, Mahāmānasi) and Sarasvati.
Two examples are found from Khajuraho (10th 11th century A.D., one on the facade of the garbhagṛha

of Pārsvanatha temple) while one figure (A.D. 1158) comes from Mahoba (U.P.). In all the examples the cognizance and two-armed Yakṣa-Yakși figures are carved.
In the instances from Barabhuji cave, Gingee (south Arcot, Tamil Nadu) and Śravanabelagola, Venur and Moodbidri, Sumatinatha is represented in the set of 24 Jinas. A few Pañca-tirthi images of 15th-17th centuries A.D. are found from Satruñjaya (A.D. 1497 and A.D. 1663). However, in one instance from Śatruñjaya (A.D. 1473, cell No. 613/9/10, inscription No. 273) the image in inscription is called Jivat-svāmīŚrī-Sumatinatha-bimbam. (Jivantasvāmī image of
Sumatinatha).
PADMAPRABHA (6th Jina)
The cognizance of Padmaprabha is lotus while the Yakṣa and Yakşi associated with him are Kusuma and Acyutā (or Śyāmā or Mānasī or Manovega as per Digambara texts). However, the independent figures of Padmaprabha are found from about 10th century A.D. The Yakṣa-Yakṣi figures with Padmaprabha do not show the traditional features. The Yakṣa-Yakṣi in case of north Indian Digambara images are shown without distinguishing features while in case of Śvetämbara images of western India, as usual, Sarvanubhuti and Ambika are shown.
In north India the figures of Padmaprabha are found mainly from Khajuraho (in the mandapa of Pārsvanatha temple), Deogadh, Chhatarpur (A.D. 1149 - now in the State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. 0.122), Narwar (Shivapuri, M.P.), Gwalior and Khandagiri (Bārabhuji and Triśūla caves). The huge seated image in the Parsvanatha temple at Khajuraho (10th century A.D.) depicts the Jina as seated with lotus cognizance and four-armed figures of Yakṣa and Yakṣi. The presence of two small figures of Sarasvati playing on vīņā in the parikara is noteworthy.
In cell No. 20 of Parsvanatha temple at Kumbharia is preserved the pedestal of a sculpture of Padmaprabha which shows that the image was installed by merchant

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Sajjana in Sarivat 1259 (A.D. 1202). Similarly, in the devakulikā No. 7 of the Sāntinātha temple at Kumbharia was installed a sculpture of Padmaprabha dated in Saṁvat 1146 (A.D. 1089). On one of the two big metal images in the gudhamandapa of the Vimalavasahi, the inscription shows that this image of Padmaprabha was installed in Saṁvat 1550 (A.D. 1493) by Mantris Alhana and Molhana of Prägväta caste. The figure is a big single Jina image without any parikara. In cell No. 24 of Vimalavasahi there is also a sculpture of Padmaprabha with full parikara. In the temple of Adiśvara at Radhanpur (Gujarat) a metal Pañca-tīrthi image of Padmaprabha (A.D. 1513) is in worship.
In the set of 24 Jinas from Śravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur in Karnataka also we find sculptures of Padmaprabha with Yakşa-Yākşi figures and cognizance. A rock-cut sculpture is found at Kuppalanatham (Madurai, Tamil Nadu).
SUPĀRŚVANĀTHA (7th Jina)
Supārsvanätha like Pārsvanātha is also associated with snake (Varanasi is his birth place) and as per texts he is provided with one, five or nine-hooded snake canopy overhead. In addition, the Jina is provided with svastika cognizance to be shown on the throne. In sculptures Supārsvanātha is mostly shown with five- hooded snake canopy but rarely with svastika cognizance (at Deogadh, Kumbharia). The Yakșa and Yakși of Supăr vanātha are Mātanga and Säntā (or Kali or Kalikā in Digambara tradition). It may be remembered that Mātanga is also visualized as the Yaksa of Mahavira.
The images of Supārsvanātha are found from 10th century A.D. In few examples of 11th century A.D., the Yakşa-Yakși are also carved with the Jina but they do not show the traditional features. It is interesting to note that Jinaprabhasūri in his Vividhatirthakalpa (14th century A.D.) refers to a Stupa of Supārsvanatha at Mathura erected by the gods (devanirmita) but surprisingly not a single image of Supārsvanatha is found from the Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura.
The figures of Supārsvanātha from north India are
found mainly from Osian (devakulikā), Kumbharia (devakulikās of Mahāvīra and Pārsvanātha temples and gūdhamandapa of Neminātha temple), Vimalavasahī, Sahadol, Bajramath (Gyaraspur), Deogadh (5 figures of 11th century), Khajuraho (two figure of 12th century A.D., Temple Nos. 5 and 28), Khandagiri (Bārabhuji and Triśūla caves) and from the museums like Government Museum, Mathura (B. 26). State Museum, Lucknow (J. 935), Baroda Museum, Rajputana Museum, Ajmer (56) and Nagpur Museum (B. 62 and B. 23). The image in the Mahāvīra temple at Kumbharia (devakulikä No. 78 A.D. 1085) has figures of Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā as Yaksa and Yaksi. The image in the gūdhamandapa of Neminātha temple at Kumbharia (A.D. 1157) represents Supārsvanātha as standing in the kāyotsarga with five-hooded snake canopy and svastika cognizance. The Yaksa and Yaksi here also are Sarvänubhūti and Ambikā and the pedestal and parikara contain the figures of Mahāvidyās like Rohiņi, Vairotyä, Prajñapti, Vajrankuśā, Sarvästramahājvālā, Vajraśśikhala and also Sarasvati. In case of the seated figure of devakulikā 19 of Vimala- vasahi (12h century A.D.), the Yakṣa is Sarvānubhūti while Yakşi is Padmāvati. Two figures of 12th century A.D. are in the National Museum, Delhi, also. One standing figure (No. 59.153/176) with five-hooded snake canopy is a fine specimen of Chola art of 11th century A.D.
In case of the 11th century seated figure of State Museum, Lucknow (J. 935), the Yakşa-Yakși are provided with three-hooded snake canopy to associate them with Supārsvanātha. At Deogadh, five-hooded snake canopy is invariably carved but svastika on the pedestal is shown only in one example, fixed on the enclosure wall of Temple No. 12.. In one instance of Temple No. 4, the two-armed Yaksa-Yakṣi with flower and kalasa in hands are provided with snake canopy. in case of Khajuraho, apart from five-hooded snake canopy and svastika cognizance, the figure of Sāntidevi with lotuses is also shown.
A metal Pañca-tirthi image of Supārsvanātha, in
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worship in the Cintāmaņi Pārsvanātha temple at Radhanpur (Gujarat), was installed in Saṁvat 1528 (A.D. 1471). In Samvat 1245 (A.D. 1188), Śrīmāladevī, the wife of Thakkura Jagadeva, the son of Mahāmātya Prthvīpāla, installed a sculpture of Supārsvanātha in cell No. 29 of Vimalavasahi.
At Paladi (Sirohi, Rajasthan), in the Jaina temple, there is a standing Supārsvanātha figure (A.D. 1291). The inscription expressly says that this is an image of Supārsvanātha. The beautiful marble sculpture (without svastika) belongs to the Svetāmbara tradition and shows five snake hoods over the head of the Jina. There is a black stone sculpture of standing Supārsvanātha from Patancheru (Medak, A.P., 12th century A.D.). The sculpture with five-hooded snake canopy is now preserved in the Government Museum, Hyderabad.
The rock-cut sculpture on the southern wall of the facade of the Sittannavasal cave (Tamil Nadu) shows a Jina sitting with a canopy of five snake hoods. A very late but well-preserved image of Supārsvanatha was obtained from Tonk along with several marble images of other Jinas, all carved in the same style and without any parikara. Supārsvanātha is here identified with the help of the svastika carved on his seat. The Jina here has seven snake hoods overhead in place of usual five hoods.
CANDRAPRABHA (8th Jina) Candraprabha (known is south India as Candranatha) has candra (crescent moon) as his cognizance while the Yakşa-Yakși associated with him are Vijaya (or Syāma or Ajita-according to Tiloyapannatti) and Bhrkuti (or Jvālā or Manovegā – according to Tiloyapannatti). A temple dedicated to Candraprabha exists at Somanāthapāțana in Saurashtra. Jinaprabhasūri states that the image of Candraprabha was brought to Devapattana (same as Somanatha-pātana or Prabhāsa-pāțaņa) from Valabhi alongwith images of Amba and Kşetrapāla.
The earliest-known sculpture of Candraprabha of 4th century A.D. was installed by Mahārājādhirāja
Rāmagupta (elder brother of Chandragupta II), according to an inscription carved on the siṁhāsana with dharmacakra. The image procured from Durjanpur (Vidisha, M.P.) is on exhibit in the Vidisha Museum (Pl. 123). The cognizance of the Jina seated in dhyānamudrā is, however, not shown but the inscription gives the name of the Jina as Candraprabha. On each side of the Jina there stands flywhisk-bearer. The head of the attendant on the right is mutilated alongwith the upper half of the halo and the head of the Jina. The image shows the transitional features of Kuşāņa-Gupta period. The śrīvatsa mark on the chest of the Jina and the conical crowns of flywhisk-bearers are still of the early type met with in the Kuşāņa art of Mathura.
A stone sculpture of Candraprabha (8h century A.D.) sitting in padmasana on a big Viśvapadma placed on a simhāsana was found in the Jaina temple at Vaibhargiri (Rajgir). Above dharmacakra is the crescent moon cognizance. Besides camaradharas, there are, on each side of the Jina, three small figures of Jinas in dhyāna-mudra. Thus this image is a Sapta-tīrthi image of Candraprabha. Two Mālādharas, two drums and a triple umbrella are carved at top of parikara.
Patna Museum (Acc. No. 10695) has a standing bronze figure of Candraprabha (c. 11th-12" century A.D.), known from Aluara (Bihar), with the crescent moon shown on the pedestal. A more beautiful bronze of standing Candraprabha from Achyutarajapura (Orissa, c. 104-11th century A.D.) is preserved in the State Museum, Bhubaneswara. A metal image of standing Candraprabha from Kakatpur (Orissa) is preserved in the Ashutosh Museum, Kolkata. The same museum has a stone Caturmukha shrine from Dewalia (Burdwan, West Bengal), on one side of which could be seen a standing figure of Candraprabha with the crescent cognizance. The figures of other three Jinas are of Rşabhanātha, Mahāvīra and Parsvanātha. The figures of Candraprabha from about 9th century A.D. onwards show Yakşa-Yakși figures but they are usually twoarmed and without any distinguishing attributes. Of the
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numerous examples, some beautiful figures are procured from Kausambi (U.P., Allahabad Museum, Acc. No. 295, 9th century A.D., Pl. 142), Siron-Khurd, (Lalitpur, U.P. 10th century A.D), Khajuraho (two examples, one on the facade of the garbhagṛha of Parsvanatha temple), Deogadh (nine-figures, 10th 11th century A.D.), Kumbharia (Pärsvanatha- A.D. 1202 and NeminathaA.D. 1281 temples) and Vimalavasahi. All these figures are provided with crescent as cognizance or the name of the Jina is inscribed in the pedestal inscriptions.
In the temple of Dharmanatha at Radhanpur there is a metal image of Candraprabha installed in Samvat 1306 (A.D. 1249). In the Cintamani Pārsvanatha temple of Radhanpur there is in worship a metal Pañca-tirthi image of Candraprabha, installed in Samvat 1439 (A.D. 1382).
A beautiful seated sculpture of Candraprabha (15th-16th century A.D.) of white marble and with full parikara and every detail minutely carved, is preserved in the sanctum of a Svetambara shrine of Candraprabha at Patan, North Gujarat. In the centre of the simhasana (with crescent) is the four-armed Śantidevī, while at the right and left extremities are carved the figures of four-armed Vijaya Yakṣa and Bhṛkuți Yakṣi.
The south India has also yielded a few images of Candraprabha, some of which are found from Śravanabelagola (Bhandara Basti, A.D. 1159 with fourarmed Yakṣa-Yakṣi), Humca and Venur (with YakṣaYakşi) in Karnataka.
The Battersea Reserve Collection of Victoria and Albert Museum, London, has a rare example (Acc. No. 451) (IS), which is dated in Vira (Mahāvīra) Samvat 1928 (A.D. 1401) (Pl. 239). The seated Jina (without any prätiharya) has a crescent carved on the pedestal and hence identification with Candraprabha is certain. Perhaps the name of the Jina is also given in the inscription. The enigmatic point is that the Jina with śrīvatsa is provided with seven faces which obviously is suggestive of some composite form of Jina image wherein Candraprabha is the principal Jina. However, the faces should have been eight

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in number to correspond with the traditional order, according to which Candraprabha is the 8th Jina. May be that like the figures of Brahma, Kārttikeya, Mahesa and even Vaikuntha Visņu where one or more faces on the back are usually not shown here in the present instance of the Candraprabha image also one face on back is not carved. The provenance of the figure should be Western India.
SUVIDHINATHA OR PUSPADANTA (9th Jina)
The cognizance of Suvidhinatha or Puspadanta is makara and the Yakṣa-Yakṣi associated with him are Ajita (or Jaya) and Sutärä (or Mahakali in Digambara tradition). Very few images of Suvidhinatha have been found. They hail mainly from Vidisha, Vimalavasahi (cell Nos. 31 and 38 12th century A.D.), Kumbharia (Pārsvanatha and Śantinatha temples), Chhatarpur, Khandagiri (Bārabhuji and Triśūla caves) and Radhanpur. In South India he is represented mainly in the group of 24 Jinas found from Śravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur. The Yakşṣa and Yakşi carved with the Jina are shown mostly without any distinguishing feature and in case of Western Indian examples they are Sarvanubhuti and Ambikā.
The earliest example of 4th century A.D. referring to Mahārājadhiraja Rāmagupta is found from Vidisha (now in the Vidisha Museum). The image seated in dhyana-mudra is identified merely on the basis of the pedestal inscription giving the name of Jina as Puspadanta. In case of Barabhuji and Trisula caves the seated Jina is endowed with makara cognizance and in one case the Yakṣi also. The image (A.D. 1202) in the devakulikā of Pārsvanatha temple at Kumbharia gives the name of the Jina Suvidhinatha in the inscription. In case of Śantinatha temple at Kumbharia also the image (A.D. 1081) is identifiable on the basis of the pedestal inscription.
In the Kalyana-Parsvanatha temple at Radhanpur (Gujarat) there is in worship a metal Pañca-tīrthī image of Suvidhinatha installed in Samvat 1464 (A.D. 1407).

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Another Pañca-tirthi image installed in Samvat 1485 (A.D. 1328) is also in worship in the Neminātha temple, Radhanpur. All these figures have the name of the Jina in pedestal inscription.
SĪTALANATHA (10th Jina) The cognizance of Sitalanätha is érīvatsa while the Yakşa-Yakși associated with him are Brahma or Brahmā and Asokā (or Mānavi in Digambara tradition). The independent figures of Sitalanātha are very few and are found from 10h century A.D. only. The Yaksa and Yakşi are rarely carved with the Jina, which in case of western Indian Svetāmbara images are Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā. The images of Sitalanātha are found mainly from Aranga (M.P.), Tripuri (now in Indian Museum, Kolkata), Gwalior, National Museum, Delhi (Acc. No. 48.4/46) Kumbharia (śāntinātha and Pārsvanātha temples), Vimalavasahi, Candravati, Satruñjaya, and Bārabhuji cave. The image in Bärabhuji cave (12h century A.D.) has both the śrīvatsa lāñchana and the figure of Yakṣī. In case of the figures from Kumbharia, the name of the Jina is given in the inscription. These figures are datable lu 12th century AD. A Panca-tīrthi image of Śītalanātha (A.D. 1460) is preserved in cell No. 593/4 at Satrunjaya. The figure in the National Museum is a metal image (A.D. 1485) showing srivatsa cognizance on simhāsana alongwith the figures of YakşaYakși and Navagrahas.
In south India Śītalanātha is mostly represented in the group of 24 Jinas known from Sravanabelagola (standing figure with Brahma Yaksa and Mānavi Yakşi), Moodbidri and Venur. According to Jinaprabhasūri (14th century A.D.), Sītalanātha was worshipped in a shrine in the Prayāgatirtha (Allahabad). The Jainas of Vidisha today regard Vidisha as the old Bhadilapur, the birth place of Sītalanātha where they have a shrine dedicated. to this Jina.
ŚREYĀNSANĀTHA (11th Jina)
The cognizance of Sreyāmsanātha is rhinoceros (Khadgi) but T. N. Ramchandran has noted three different traditions about the cognizance of the Jina,
according to which, besides rhinoceros, deer and garuda are also prescribed. The Yakşa-Yakși of þreyāmsanātha are Isvara (or Yaksarāja) and Manavi (or Gauri - according to Digambara texts). Isvara Yaksa and Gaurī Yakşi at once remind us of the transformation of two principal Brahmanical deities Siva and Gaurī. Besides the image in Bārabhuji cave where the Yakşi is carved underneath, the figures of Yaksa and Yakși are usually conspicuous by their absence.
The figures of Sreyamsanātha are carved from about 10th century A.D., the examples of which from north India are found mainly from Khandagiri (Bārabhuji and Triśūla caves), Pakbira (Purulia, West Bengal), Indore Museum, Narwar (M.P.), Kumbharia (devakulikā No. 11, of Pārsvanātha temple, A.D. 1202 and sāntinātha temple – A.D. 1081) and Sahet-Mahet (Gonda, U.P., now in State Museum, Lucknow - J. 856) and Satrunjaya (Kharataravasahi - A.D. 1512). Excepting the figures from Svetāmbara sites of western India where the name of the Jina is inscribed, all other figures show the rhinoceros cognizance. It is surprising that at the prolific sites like Deogadh and Khajuraho, the image of Sreyamsanātha was not carved.
Sreyāmsanātha could be seen in the set of 24 Jina images at Sravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur.
VĀSUPUJYA (12th Jina) The cognizance of Vāsupujya is buffalo and the Yaksa and Yakși are Kumāra (or Şanmukha, apparently Kärttikeya of Brahmanical tradition, according to Tiloyapannatti) and Candrā (or Candā or Gāndhārī, according to Digambara texts). The earliest figures of Vasupujya are found from 10h century A.D. which show both the cognizance as well as the Yakșa and Yakṣi which are either Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā (in case of western India) or without any distinguishing features. The independent images are procured mainly from Shahdol (M.P., with cognizance and Yaksa-Yakși and 23 small Jina figures in the parikara), Khandagiri (Bārabhuji and Triśūla caves), Patan (Pārsvanātha temple, Gujarat, A.D. 1299, giving the name of the Jina in
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inscription), Porbandara (Gujarat, A.D. 1247), Vimalavasahi (devakulika No. 41, A.D. 1188) and Kumbharia (devakulikā No. 14 of Parsvanatha temple, A.D. 1202).
A big brass image of Vasupujya with cognizance is in worship in the Jaina temple of the Marfatia Mehta's pāḍā at Patan (Gujarat). The image with fully evolved parikara has an inscription of A.D. 1525 on its back. There is a miniature figure of four-armed Śantidevī in the centre of the simhasana. The figures of the Yakṣa and Yakşi are also shown on two ends of the simhasana. Two metal images of Väsupujya (A.D. 1622 and A.D. 1560) are in worship in the Digambara Jaina Gujarāti Mandir at Navapura (Surat, Gujarat). In cell No. 612/811 at Śatruñjaya there is in worship a Pañca-tirthi image of Väsupujya installed in A.D. 1460.
In south India the sculptures of Vasupujya with Yakṣa and Yakṣi could be seen in the set of 24 Jinas found at Śravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur. VIMALANATHA (13th Jina)
The cognizance of Vimalanatha is boar while the Yakṣa and Yakşi are Şanmukha and Viditä (or Vairotya, according to Digambara texts). The earliest visual representation of Vimalanatha, belonging to 9th century A.D., is found from Varanasi (now in Archaeological Museum, Sarnath, Acc. No. 236). The sky-clad figure of Jina stands on the simple pedestal with the cognizance. No pratiharya excepting flywhisk bearing attendants is carved. The other important figures are found from Bateswar (Agra, U.P. State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. J. 791, A.D. 1009, showing two-armed YakṣaYakși figures with abhaya-mudra and kalasa), Aluwara (Bihar, 11th century A.D., bronze image now in Patna Museum, Acc. No. 10674), Khandagiri (Barabhuji and Triśūla caves), Narwar (M.P. Raipur Museum, Acc. No. 20, 12th century A.D.), Vimalavasahi (devakulikā No. 15, A.D. 1188, showing the name of the Jina and the figure of Yakṣi Ambikā) and Kumbharia (Śantinatha temple, A.D. 1081).

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A brass Pañca-tirthi of Vimalanatha is preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai. It was installed in A.D. 1629. A full parikara is shown here. A Pañcatirthi metal image of Vimalanatha inscribed in A.D. 1429 is in worship in the Jaina temple at Chani near Vadodara (Gujarat). A few metal images of medieval period are preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, also. These inscribed images of Śvetambara tradition have Sarvanubhuti and Ambika as YakṣaYakṣi. The name of the Jina is also given in the pedestal inscriptions.
As usual Vimalanatha has also been represented in the collective renderings of 24 Jinas of Śravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur. ANANTANATHA (14 Jina)
The cognizance of Anantanatha, according to Śvetambara texts, is falcon (syena), while the Digambara texts prescribe bear. The Yakṣa and Yakși associated with the Jina are Pätäla and Ankuśā (or Anantamati, according to Digambara texts). The images of Anantanatha are found from about 11th century A.D. and are meagre in number. Rarely the Yakşa and Yakşi were carved which in case of Vimalavasahi (devakulikā No. 33, A.D. 1188) are Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. An image (A.D. 1088) of Anantanatha was also installed in the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia. A metal Pañcatirthi image of Anantanatha (A.D. 1418) is in worship in the Ajitanätha temple at Radhanpur. A metal Caturvimsatipata of Anantanatha (A.D. 1420) is in worship in the Jaina shrine at Chani (Vadodara). A metal sculpture showing also the figures of Yakṣa and Yakṣi (A.D. 1450) is preserved in the National Museum, New Delhi (Acc. No. 48.4/52).
As usual in three sets of 24 Jinas, known from Sravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur, also the figures of Anantanatha could be seen.
DHARMANATHA (15th Jina)
The cognizance of Dharmanatha is vajra (thunderbolt) while the Yakṣa and Yakṣi associated with him are Kinnara and Kandarpa (or Manasi,

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according to Digambara works). The Yakşa-Yakși figures motif to be represented on the pedestals of all the Jinas. are not usually shown with the Jina excepting the Such examples are found at Delvada, Kumbharia and examples from Bārabhuji cave (only Yakşi) and elsewhere. This motif of two deer carried a message Vimalavasahi (devakulikā No. 1, A.D. 1145). In case that all the Jinas similarly stand for peace and tranquillity. of Vimalavasahi, as usual the Yaksa and Yakşi are Another 7th century seated image with deer Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā. The images of Dharmanātha cognizance and trichatra could be seen in the Dhank are also found from 11th century A.D. Two seated cave, Gujarat. Barring a few examples from Kumbharia images with vajra lañchana, belonging to 12th century and Dhank, the cognizance of Sāntinātha in western A.D., are in the Bārabhuji and Trisula caves at Indian examples is not shown and the Jina is identified Khandagiri. A metal image of A.D. 1124, originally only on the basis of the pedestal inscriptions. The installed in the śāntinātha temple at Anahillapuri (Patan, Yakşa-Yakși (with very few exceptions) are always Gujarat), is now preserved in a Jaina shrine at Nadol Sarvānubhūti and Ambika. In an image from devakulikā (Rajasthan). There is also a Caturmukha shrine of No. 1 of the Santinātha temple of Kumbharia, besides Dharmanātha at Radhanpur (Gujarat). The Shivapuri the name of Santinātha in the inscription and the figures museum also preserves a 12th century image of of Sarvänubhuti and Ambikā, the figures of Dharmanatha (Acc. No. 10) found from Narwar. In Supārsvanātha and Pārsvanātha standing in kāyotsarga Karnataka the figures of Dharmanatha with cognizance with 24 small Jina figures in the parikara are also and Yaksa-Yaksi are obtained from Sravanabelagola, carved. However, another standing image (A.D. 1119Moodbidri and Venur.
20) in the gūdhamandapa of Pärsvanātha temple at ŚĀNTINĀTHA (16th Jina)
Kumbharia has the deer cognizance in addition to name The deer cognizance of Säntinātha appears to have of the Jina in pedestal inscription. The parikara also some connection with the name of the Jina because deer exhibits the figures of four-armed śāntidevi and always stands for peace. The Yakşa-Yakși of the Jina Mahavidyās like Vajrāňkuśī, Mānavi, are Garuda (or Vārāha) and Nirvani (or Mahāmānasi, Sarvästramahājvālā, Acchuptā and Mahāmānasi. Two according to Digambara texts). The rendering of the seated figures of Santinātha are in the Rajputana Jina with the lañchana and Yaksa-Yaksi is known from Museum, Ajmer (Acc. No. 468, A.D. 1138) and Victoria 7th century A.D. The earliest image of Säntinätha (7th and Albert Museum, London (A.D. 1157). Three 12 century A.D.) seated in dhyāna-mudrā with the figures century images are in the devakulikās (Nos. 12, 24 and of two deers flanking the dharmacakra is found from 30) of Vimalavasahi, while one figure of A.D. 1236 Khedabrahma (Sabarkantha, Gujarat). The Yakşa-Yakşi is in devakulikā No. 14 of Lūņavasahi. A Cauvisi of are the common Yakşa-Yaksi pair found in Svetämbara Santinātha (A.D. 1510) is also preserved in Bharat Kala images of western India, namely Sarvānubhuti and Bhavan, Varanasi (Acc. No. 21733). The expression of Ambikā. It may be remarked here that at least upto spirituality on faces of all the images is apparent. 10th century A.D. the tradition of carving the cognizance In north India a good number of Sāntinātha images of the Jina in pair was in vogue in whole of the north are procured from Mathura, Kausambi, Gyaraspur India. On the basis of this fact all such figures showing (Mālādevi temple, 10th century A.D., with cognizance two deer on two sides of the dharmacakra are identifiable and the figures of four armed Yaksa and Yakşi), Dudhai with Santinātha. This concept was perhaps taken from (Lalitpur, U.P., with a pair of deer on two sides of the Buddha images of Gupta period from Sarnath. This dharmacakra, 10h century A.D.), Deogadh (six figures, feature from 11h century A.D. onwards was to be seen 9th-12h century A.D.), Khajuraho (four figures, 11th 12th in the western Indian Svetāmbara images as a common century A.D.), Pabhosa (Allahabad Museum, Acc. No.

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533, 11th century A.D., with cognizance and the figures 1192 a fine Jinālaya of god Abhinava Sāntināthadeva, of Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā), Padhavali, Ahar (A.D. called Nagarajinālaya, was erected by some business 1180), Dhubela Museum (A.D. 1146), Bajarangagarh magnates of Dvārasamudra, the capital of Hoysala kings (Guna, A.D. 1179) and Madanpur (two images of A.D. in Karnataka. We also come across the figures of 1053 and 1147). It may be noted here that in north India Săntinātha at Sravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur. at Deogadh, Khajuraho and Dudhai the colossal images The narratives from the life of śāntinātha were (12 feet high) of śāntinātha, mostly as standing sky-clad also carved in the ceilings of Sāntinātha and Mahāvīra in kayotsarga-mudrā, were carved which indicate that temples at Kumbharia (11th century A.D.) and VimalaŠāntinātha enjoyed venerated position in the region (Pl. vasahi (cell No. 12) at Delvada (12th century A.D. 143). The installation of huge images of Sāntinātha in a (Pl. 144 and 169). These examples show, besides the particular region might have some other suggestions as Pancakalyäņakas, some remarkable incidents from the well. It may be remembered that he was also a cakravartin previous existence of Santinātha in which as king and he quit everything before his renunciation. The deer Megharatha he saved the life of a dove by offering his cognizance and huge images may suggest the emphasis flesh to a falcon. Virtually he was put to test by god on peace required specially in the region for political Surūpa who entered the body of dove. We also find reasons. The images from north India at least upto 10th parallel of this story in Brahmanical tradition (story of century A.D. show the deer cognizance in pair also. The King Sibi). In all the instances from Kumbharia and Yaksa-Yakṣi with Santinātha are also either Sarvānubhūti Delvada we find Megharatha weighing his body in the and Ambikā or they do not show distinguishing features. balance. Sāntinātha was a cakravartin before becoming In some of the examples where Sāntinātha temples a monk and hence in the narratives we also find different (Deogadh, Khajuraho) were erected, the figures of ratnas or insignias like sword, parasol, cakra and Navagrahas were also carved. A beautiful 9th century Navanidhis which were abandoned by Sāntinātha at the seated image from Kausambi (Allahabad Museum, Acc. time of his renunciation. The detailed narratives are No. 535) also exhibits the deer cognizance in pair. The vibrant and communicative and correspond with the faces and body contours are soothing.
descriptions found in the Trisastisalākāpurusacaritra. The images from Bihar, Orissa and Bengal, datable
KUNTHUNATHA (17th Jina) from 9th to 12th-13th centuries A.D. and showing both Kunthunatha has been endowed with goat (chäga) the cognizance and Yakşa-Yakși figures, are found cognizance and Gandharva and Balā (or Vijayā or Jaya mainly from Khandagiri (Bārabhuji and Trisula caves, or Mahämänasī, according to Digambara tradition) are with Yakşi in Bārabhuji cave), Rajpara (Midnapur, W. his Yaksa and Yaksi. The images of Kunthunātha (with Bengal), Manbhum (Patna Museum), Mandoil (Rajshahi cognizance) are found from 11th century A.D. The Museum, Bangaladesh), Burdawan, Aluara, Yakṣa and Yakṣī figures in Kunthunātha images appear Ambikanagar, Charampa (State Museum, Bhubaneshwar) only from the 12 century A.D., which are Sarvānubhūti and Pakbira (Purulia, West Bengal, 11th century A.D.). and Ambikā in place of the traditional ones. It is interesting to note that in the käyotsarga image Surprisingly six bronze images of 11h century from Pakbira, besides deer cognizance and the figure A.D. are found from Aluara (Bihar, now in Patna of Naigamesi and Navagrahas, the simhāsana also Museum, Nos. 10675, 10689 to 10693) which depict exhibits the Siva-linga which is a rare example of the Jina as standing sky-clad in the kāyotsarga-mudra composite character inherent in Indian art and culture. with goat cognizance, and in three examples with the
As compared to north India, the images of figures of the Grahas also. The number of independent Säntinātha are meagre in south India. Around A.D. images of Jina is suggestive of the popularity of
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Kunthunātha in the region. The subsequent examples are known from Khandagiri (Bārabhuji and Trisula caves, 12th century A.D.), Bajrangagarh (Guna, 120h century A.D.), Rajputana Museum, Ajmer (A.D. 1144, standing as sky-clad with the name of the Jina in pedestal inscription and also with the figures of Sarvänubhūti and Ambikā), Vimalavasahi (devakulikā No. 35, A.D. 1188, with the name of the Jina mentioned in pedestal inscription and the figures of Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā), and Narwar (in Shivapuri Museum No. 12, 12th century A.D.). A few sculptures are found also from Tamil Nadu. The images of Kunthunatha are found at places like Sravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur where images of all the 24 Jinas are set up in shrines. Two metal images of Svetāmbara tradition datable to A.D. 1468 and A.D. 1495 are also preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. As usual the name of the Jina is inscribed in pedestal inscription and the Yaksa and Yaksi are also Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā.
ARANATHA (18th Jina) The cognizance of Aranātha is nandyavarta (a symbol) according to Svetāmbara texts, while the Digambara texts envisage fish emblem. The Yakṣa and Yakşi are Yakşendra (or Yakşeśa or Khendra in Digambara tradition) and Dhariņi or Kāli (or Tärāvati or Jayā or Vijay, according to Digambara tradition) who do not find representation with the Jina in visual examples. Instead, the Yakşa-Yakşi carved with Aranātha from about 10 century A.D. show common features like abhaya or varada-mudra and water-vessel or fruit.
The earliest image of Jina, obtained from Sahet Mahet (Gonda, U.P.), is now in the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. 861). The image, datable to 10th century A.D., has both the fish cognizance and the figures of Yakṣa or Yaksi. Two seated figures of 12h century A.D. with fish cognizance are carved in the Barabhuji and Trisula caves, the former has also the figure of Yakşi underneath. The huge standing image (A.D. 1145) from Navagarh (Tikamgarh, M.P.) exhibits both the fish and the figures of Yakșa and
Yaksi.
The colossal images of Aranātha standing as skyclad in the kāyotsarga (with fish cognizance) are found from Madanpur (Temple No. 1, A.D. 1053 and Temple No. 2, A.D. 1147), Ahar (A.D. 1180) and Bajarangagarh (A.D. 1179), all in M.P. An epigraph from Gudar (Shivapuri, M.P., A.D. 1149) refers to the installation of the images of Sāntinātha, Kunthunātha and Aranātha who were all Cakravartins. The images of these three Jinas are also found in the sanctum of the Jaina temple at Arang (M.P.). At Deoli (Purulia, W.B.) there was a Pañcāyatana group of temples wherefrom a life size image of Aranatha was procured.
As usual in the sets of 24 Jinas from Sravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur also the images of Aranātha are carved.
MALLINĀTHA (19th Jina) There are two different traditions about Mallinātha. According to the Svetämbara tradition, Mallinātha was a female Jina known as Mallikumāri. However, the Digambara texts like all other Jinas describe Mallinätha as a male because there is a belief in Digambara tradition that women cannot attain omniscience and emancipation. The concept of Mallinātha in Svetämbara tradition thus has a social relevance which provides opportunity of omniscience and emancipation to women also. The earliest reference to Mallinātha is in the Nāyadhammakahão (4th century A.D.), according to which Malli was one of the most beautiful princesses of her age.
The cognizance of Mallinātha in both the traditions is pitcher while the Yakşa and Yakşi are Kubera and Vairotyā (or Aparājitā). The figures of Mallinātha are very few which are found mostly in the collective renderings of the 24 Jinas at Deogadh (Temple No. 12), Kumbharia, Vimalavasahỉ, Lūņavasahi and Bārabhuji cave. The figures of Mallinātha in both the traditions from about 10th century A.D. onwards are provided with pitcher as cognizance while at the Svetāmbara Jaina sites of western India the name Mallinātha is also found on the pedestal inscriptions. In Mallinātha images

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the figures of only the Yakşi are being carved at 10h century A.D.) and Vaibhara hill (Rajgir), is the Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and at Bārabhuji cave rendering of two-armed Bahurūpiņi Yakși below the and that too do not correspond with the textual seat of the Jina in reclining posture. In western Indian injunctions.
Svetämbara images and also in some of the examples A rare example of female form of Mallinātha is from central India, the Yaksa and Yakşi carved on preserved is State Museum, Lucknow (J. 885) (Pl. 145). throne ends are Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā. This image (with broken head) found from Unnao The earliest intact image of Munisuvrata, datable (U.P.) is datable to c. 10-11" century A.D. The pedestal to c. 9h-10h century A.D., is found from Vaibharagir contains the pitcher cognizance and Jina, seated in which represents the Jina as seated with tortoise dhyāna-mudrā, is shown with female breasts and long cognizance and Bahurupini Yakṣī, reclining on a cot braid (veņi), However, simhāsana, flywhisk bearers or below the seat (Pl. 146). any other prätihārya are not shown. Still another stone One interesting and beautiful Svetämbara image figure of Mallinātha with braid on the back is preserved of A.D. 1006 is procured from Agra (U.P., now in State in the Reserve collection of the Victoria and Albert Museum, Lucknow, J. 776). The image hewn out in Museum, London (IM 346, 1924). The figure, inscribed black sandstone reminds us as to the black colour of in Samvat 1682 (A.D. 1625) is in dhyāna-mudrā and Munisuvrata. The face is radiant with spirituality. The wears a dhoti. The inscription also gives the name simhasana has both the kurma lāñchana and the name 'Malli'. It is surprising to note that all other figures of Munisuvrata inscribed in pedestal inscription. The of Mallinātha from Svetāmbara sites do not show any Jina seated in dhyāna-mudra is joined by Sarvānubhūti female feature. The images of Digambara tradition are Yakṣa and Ambikā Yakşi carved on throne ends. What found mainly from Barabhuji and Trisula caves in is specially important is the rendering of Balarama and Orissa, Nagpur Museum (B. 18), Tulsi Museum, Ramvan Krsna and also the two figures of Jivantasvami (standing (Satna, M.P.), Narvar, Karitalai (M.P.), Karkal in kāyotsarga with mukuta, hāra and other ornaments) (Karnataka), North Arcot (Tamil Nadu) and Moodbidri in the image. It appears that the artist has intended to (Karnataka).
carve the composite image of two Jinas - Munisuvrata MUNISUVRATA (20th Jina)
and Neminātha, because we know that Balarama (with The cognizance of Munisuvrata is tortoise (kūrma) three-hooded snake canopy overhead and plough and while the Yaksa and Yakși associated with him are pestle in hands) and Krsna (with kirītamukuta and Varuna and Naradattă (or Bahurupini, according to vanamäla; and mace and conch in hands) were associated Digambara texts). It may be recalled that in Jaina with Neminātha as his cousin brothers. Thus the image tradition Munisuvrata is said to have been contemporary becomes a unique one. It may also be remembered that of Rāma (Padma) and Laksmana (Väsudeva). Although such attempts were made even earlier in 6h - 7th century an early example of A.D. 157 from Mathura (State A.D. at Son Bhandar cave (Rajgir) and subsequently Museum, Lucknow, J.20) showing only the pedestal at Mathura. Two figures of Jivantasvāmi suggest that with inscription (giving the name of the Jina) is found, besides Mahavira, Munisuvrata was also conceived in yet regular images of Munisuvrata are found from 9th Jivantasvāmi form. century A.D. onwards. However, the figures of Yaksa An image of 11" century A.D. with kürma lanchana and Yakşi in the images of Munisuvrata are carved only could also be seen in the Temple No. 20 at Khajuraho. from 10 - 11" century A.D. The remarkable feature of Another image (A.D. 1142) in dhyana-mudra and with Munisuvrata images, particularly from the Digambara the name of Munisuvrata mentioned in pedestal Jaina sites like Bārabhuji cave, Bajramath (Gyaraspur, inscription is preserved in Dhubela Museum, M.P. (Acc.
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No. 42). Two seated images of Munisuvrata are also carved in Barabhuji and Triśula caves. A few other images are found from Mau and Nowgong( M.P.) and Jaisinghapura Jaina Archaeological Museum, Ujjain (two examples, Acc. Nos. 49 and 56), Government Central Museum, Jaipur (Śvetambara, 11th century A.D., standing with kurma lañchana, Pl. 147) and National Museum, Delhi (No. 48. 427, Pañcatirthi of Munisuvrata).
The images of Munisuvrata are found also from Kumbharia (devakulika No. 20 of Parsvanatha temple, A.D. 1179, name of the Jina is mentioned in inscription) and Vimalavasahi (devakulika No. 11, A.D. 1143 and devakulikā No. 31) (Pl. 148). In both the examples of Vimalavasahi the name of Munisuvrata is given in inscription alongwith the figures of Sarvanubhuti and Ambikā.
A very few images are found from south India. The Jina is carved also in the sets of 24 Jinas known from Śravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur.
A particular type of stone slabs depicting two incidents from the life of Munisuvrata were carved from about 12th century A.D. These incidents are known as Aśvāvabodha and Samalika or Sakunikā-vihāra-tīrtha. Munisuvrata gave sermon to a horse (Asvavabodha) in case of the former while the latter story pertains to the Śakuni, who as Sudarsana was reminded of her previous birth as Śakuni and the chanting of navakara mantra to her. Sudarsana offered her worship to Munisuvrata in Asvävabodha Tirtha and also caused the construction of 24 Jinalayas there. The Asvavabodha Tirtha for the above reason came to be known also as SakunikaVihara-Tirtha.
In the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia, there is at present a stone slab representing the AsvavabodhaSamalika-Vihara-Tirtha. The panel originally belonged to the Neminatha temple of Kumbharia, where half of this slab (A.D. 1281) is still preserved. A similar pata is also preserved in cell No. 19 of the Lüṇavasahi. The Lūṇavasahi pata was installed in A.D. 1278 by Asapala of Pragvata caste, according to an inscription in cell

No. 18. The pata in the Neminatha temple of Kumbharia also has an inscription on it showing that the Munisuvrata bimba with the Asvavabodha-Samalika-ViharaTīrthoddhāra was installed in A.D. 1281. Such stone slabs (pata) also exist in the Parsvanatha temple at Jalor and the temple in Cambay. NAMINATHA (21" Jina)
The cognizance of Naminatha is blue lotus (nilotpala) while the Sasanadevatäs attending upon the Jina are Bhrkuți and Gandhari (or Camunda or Camundi, according to Digambara works.). The images of Naminatha, found from 11th-12th century A.D., are very few. The Yakṣa and Yakși are rarely carved and in case of figure from Lūnavasahi (cell No. 19, A.D. 1233) they are Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. The seated image in the Barabhuji cave has only the figure of Yakṣi underneath. The other examples are known from Kumbharia (devakulika No. 21 of Parsvanatha temple, A.D. 1179), Vimalavasahi (devakulika No. 45, A.D. 1188, name of Jina in the inscription), Mathurapur (Raidighi, W.B.), Gwalior (Urwahi group, 15th century A.D.), Patna Museum (11th century A.D. with the diminutive figures of 24 Jinas in the parikara), Achalagarh (Mt. Abu) and Śatruñjaya. The image from Achalagarh is being worshipped in a cell in the sabhamandapa of Caumukha temple.
The figures of Naminatha are also depicted in three sets of 24 Jinas from Śravanabelagola, Moodbidri and Venur.
NEMINATHA OR ARISTANEMI (22nd Jina)
Neminatha or Aristanemi, provided with conch as cognizance and Gomedha and Ambika (or Kuşmandi) as Yakṣa-Yakşi, is associated with Balarama and Vasudeva Kṛṣṇa who were his cousin brothers. This relationship is suggestive of mutuality of Brahmanical and Jaina traditions. It may also be underlined here that in sculptures the Yakṣi with Neminatha is always Ambika (shown with lion mount and two sons and a bunch of mangoes), while Yakṣa is never Gomedha (three-faced, six-armed and with man-nara as mount). Instead in

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sculptural renderings, the Yaksa is Kubera (or Sarvānubhuti) with elephant as his mount and mongooseskin purse in hand. The conch cognizance with Neminātha was introduced in early 5th century A.D. (Rajgir image) while the Yakşa-Yakşi figures were carved from about 7th-8th century A.D.
The earliest figures of Neminātha (also called Aristanemi in one example from Mathura, now in State Museum, Lucknow J. 8) are found from Kankāli Tilā, Mathura and are datable to 1" - 2nd century A.D. These figures in the absence of cognizance are identifiable mainly on the basis of the pedestal inscriptions giving the name of the Jina and also the flanking figures of Balarāma and Krsna (State Museum, Lucknow, J. 47, J. 60, J. 117). The Jaina works like Uttarādhyayana- sūtra, Antagadadasão, Nāyādhammakahäo and Harivaría Purāņa (35.35, 41.36-37) frequently speak of this association. The prominence of the Bhāgavata cult in Mathura was indeed an inspiring force for this association and also for the conch cognizance of Neminātha. In one instance of c. 1 century A.D. (State Museum, Lucknow, J. 37), the seated figure of Neminātha is joined by the figures of four-armed Balarāma (with seven-hooded snake canopy) and Väsudeva Krsna respectively on right and left flanks. Balarāma holds a pestle (?), plough and cașaka (wine cup) in three of his surviving hands while Krsna, wearing vanamalā, shows the abhaya-mudrā, a mace and a water vessel. However, in another example of late Kuşāņa period (Government Museum, Mathura, Acc. No. 2502) Krsna carries both the mace and disc.
A standing Neminātha image assignable to the 4th century A.D. (State Museum, Lucknow, J. 121) (Pl. 124) is a blend of both the Kuşāņa and Gupta features. With the Jina are carved the standing figures of his cousin-brothers Balarama and Krsna. A peculiar feature of the image is the rendering of diminutive Jina figures on either side of the dharmacakra which started in Mathura in the early 4th century A.D. and subsequently became popular at all the sites and with all the Jinas.
It appears that the tradition of showing the figures
of Balarāma and Krsna on two sides of Neminātha was almost abandoned after Gupta period. Hence, we come across very few such subsequent examples which are known mainly from Deogadh (Temple No. 2, c. 10 century A.D.), Bateshwar (Agra U.P., now in State Museum, Lucknow, J. 793 - c. 10h century A.D.) and Mathura (Government Museum, Mathura, Acc. No. 37.2738 and State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. 66.53, c. 11" century A.D., Pl. 150) wherein Neminātha either seated or standing (in one case of standing figure from Mathura Jina is wearing dhoti - Svetāmbara) is joined by Balarāma (with snake canopy and plough, pestle and wine-cup in hands) and Krsna (four-armed, wearing kirīta-mukuta and vanamāla and bearing dise, conch and mace).
The Vaibhara hill at Rajgir has yielded most important image of Neminātha with inscription. It is a seated image of Neminātha with plastic qualities of Gupta period (Pl. 125). The mutilated inscription refers to Mahārājādhirāja Sri Chandra, i.e. Chandragupta II (A.D. 380-414). The stylistic features also support the date. The head, originally damaged, had unfortunately been added subsequently. This is the earliest image of Neminātha with conch cognizance which is carved in pair on two sides of dharmacakra (carved here as personified dharmacakra-puruṣa, standing in abhayamudrā).
Another image (c. 7th century A.D.) from Rajaghāt, now in the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi (Acc. No. 212), is unique in the sense that it shows all the prätihäryas including the triple parasol, drum-beater and celestial musicians alongwith the figures of Yaksa and Yakși carved prominently (PL. 149). The Yakṣa and Yaksi usually carved in miniature form are here portrayed equal in size to the Jina and occupy the entire lower register of the image. The Yaksa remains unidentified, while the Yakși supporting a child is identifiable with Ambikā, the earliest Yakşi to be represented with Jinas. The Yakșa and Yakși stand on either side of a palm tree. The association of the palm tree with Balarāma (the cousin of Neminātha) is also well-known Artistically
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also the image is impressive.
In western India the images of Neminatha are found mainly from Katra (Bharatpur, Rajasthan, c. 10th century A.D., now in Government Museum, Bharatpur, Acc. No. 293), Kumbharia (Pärśvanatha and Neminatha temples), Lūnavasahi (in sanctum) and Girnar. These figures, datable between 10th and 15th centuries A.D., have the conch cognizance and the figures of Sarvanubhuti Yakṣa and Ambika Yakṣi.
In north India, besides Mathura (Pl. 171, composite figure of Neminatha with Rṣabhanatha) sufficient number of Neminatha images are procured from Bateshwar, Maihar (M.P.), Deogadh (30 figures of 10th - 12th centuries A.D., Pl. 151), Gurgi (Rewa, now in Allahabad Museum, Acc. No. A.M. 498), Gyaraspur (Maladevi temple, Vidisha, M.P., 10th century A.D.), Khajuraho (2 figures of 11th-12th century A.D.), Aluara (Patna Museum, Acc. No. 10688), and Navamuni, Bārabhuji and Trisula caves (11th 12th century A.D.). These figures as usual are endowed with conch cognizance and the figures of Sarvanubhuti and Ambika. In a solitary instance from Deogadh (temple 16, 10th century A.D.) the YakṣaYakşi are Gomukha and Cakreśvarī associated with Rṣabhanatha. May be that this image with conch cognizance represents composite image of Rṣabhanatha and Neminatha.
A unique tritirthi Jina image from Deogadh (on enclosure wall of Temple No. 12, 11th century A.D.) represents the last three Jinas - Neminatha (with conch cognizance), Pärśvanatha (with seven-hooded snake canopy) and Mahavīra (with lion cognizance) -as standing sky-clad in the kayotsarga-mudra with usual prätihāryas.
A unique bronze image of Neminatha from Karnataka (10th 11th century A.D.), standing as skyclad in the kayotsarga-mudra (without any pratihärya), is preserved in Stan Czuma Cleveland Museum (U.S.). This unusual image depicts Neminatha as standing at the top of big size conch shell. The textual and epigraphical evidences demonstrate that such images were housed in shrines known as Sankha Jinalaya as

referred to by Jinaprabhasuri in the context of Sauryapura (Mathura), Dvaraka and Stambhatirtha (Cambay in Gujarat). Surprisingly, an identical figure of Neminatha (here with Yakṣa-Yakṣi figures and trichatra) in käyotsarga is found from a temple at Moodbidri also (Karnataka, c. 15th century A.D.).
At Venur and Śravanabelagola in Karnataka and at Poyagaimalai at Kuppalanatham and Karupannasami rock at Uttampalaiyam in Tamil Nadu and at some other places the figures of Neminatha are found mainly in the midst of 24 Jinas or group of Jinas of less than 24. A large monolithic image of Neminatha is found from a temple complex dedicated to Nemīśvara at Tirumalai (north Arcot, Tamil Nadu). Several important temples dedicated to Neminatha were erected mainly at Śvetambara Jaina sites of western India (Kumbharia, Delvada, Luṇavasahi and Girnar).
The scenes from the life of Neminatha are found mainly in the ceilings at Kumbharia (Śantinatha and Mahavira temples, Pls. 152, 169) and Delvada (Vimalavasahi and Lūṇavasahi), datable between 11th and 13th centuries A.D. These narratives, besides the usual 14 auspicious dreams and pañcakalyaṇakas, also depict some exclusive scenes like the story of trial of strength between Neminatha and Kṛṣṇa and former's victory over Kṛṣṇa to suggest the superiority of Jainism. The episode of the marriage of Neminatha, which subsequently became the cause of renunciation of Neminatha according to Svetämbara texts, is prominently carved. The texts mention that the marriage of Neminatha was arranged with princes Rājīmati, the daughter of Ugrasena. While marriage procession was moving towards the bridal pavilion, Neminatha sitting in a chariot happened to notice a number of animals being kept in a cage which were to be slaughtered for his marriage feast. This point of violence pricked so much to Neminatha that he at once decided to renounce the world without going even to the place of marriage. He immediately returned back and consequently went to mount Raivataka (Girnar) to take dikṣā. The scene in the Santinatha temple (Kumbharia) shows animals like

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deer, goat, boar in a cage but surprisingly it also shows the figures of Neminātha and Rājīmati standing in the bridal pavilion. An identical example is found in the Lūņavasahi. However, in the instance from Mahavira temple (Kumbharia) Neminātha returns from the way without going to the place of marriage pavilion.
PĀRŚVANĀTHA (23rd Jina) Pārsvanātha, the 23rd and the historical Jina (c. 8th century B.C.), is provided with snake cognizance and three, seven or eleven-hooded snake canopy overhead. It may be noted that mostly the seven-hooded snake canopy is shown with Parsvanātha while upto c. 6th century A.D. he was shown both with five (bronze image in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai and the figures at Badami and Aihole) and seven-hooded snake canopy (Mathura, since 1st century B.C., Jaina ayāgapata in the State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. No. J. 253). The rendering of the snake cognizance on the pedestal was not popular in the sculptures mainly because of the seven-hooded snake canopy to be shown invariably over the head of the Jina. The Yakşa and Yaksi associated with Pārsvanätha are Pārsva or Dharana (or Dharaṇendra, Digambara tradition) and Padmāvati, both related to nāga cult. Thus the iconographic features of Pārsvanātha are distinctly suggestive of his intimate relationship with nāga cult. Perhaps due to this fact Pārsvanātha was accorded the most exalted position both in north and south Indian literature and art.
The earliest figure of Pārsvanatha seated in dhyāna- mudrā with seven-hooded snake canopy is carved on the Jaina āyāgapata from Mathura belonging to 19 century B.C., while the other early examples of about 1" century B.C. - 1" century A.D. are found from Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, Chausa and Mathura (both as independent figures and also in Jina Caumukhi images, always with seven-hooded snake canopy, Pl. 121). In most of these early examples, Pārsvanātha stands as sky-clad in the kāyotsarga-mudrā. In some of the cases the snake canopy of Parsvanātha are decorated with auspicious symbols like śrīvatsa, trichatra, kalasa, pair
of fish and lotus (State Museum, Lucknow, Acc. Nos. J. 39, J. 113 and Government Museum, Mathura, Acc. No. B. 62).
Pärsvanatha was accorded a specially favoured position in visual representations at Digambara (and possibly Yäpaniya) Jaina sites, both in the south and north India. The Digambara Jaina sites of north India reveal that in popularity Jina Pārsvanatha was next only to Rşabhanātha while in the images from south India both Parsvanātha and Mahāvira enjoyed the venerated position to the same degree. The Pārsvanātha images of Svetämbara Jaina sites usually show the astamahāprātiharyas in the parikara as well as the figures of the Sāsanadevatās at the two extremities of the throne. Barring a few examples from Kumbharia, Osian and Delvada (Mt. Abu), the Pärsvanätha images at Svetāmbara Jaina sites invariably contain the figures of Sarvānubhūti (or Kubera) and Ambikā as Sāsanadevatäs in place of conventional Dharanendra Yaksa and Padmāvati Yaksi. Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā, the most popular Yakşa-Yaksi pair in Svetāmbara examples, were otherwise traditionally associated with 22nd Jina Neminātha. However, in a few instances the snake canopy has been provided over the heads of Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā also for emphasizing their association with Pārsvanātha. The Pārsvanätha images from the Digambara Jaina sites of north India usually contain the figures of Dharanendra and Padmavati, either standing respectively at right and left flanks with snake canopy or seated near Jina's throne ends. Padmāvati invariably holds a long parasol kept above the head of Jina, while Dharanendra is shown either with folded hands or as bearing a fly-whisk. The images from north India in some examples (Khajuraho, Deogadh) show the figures of Dharanendra and Padmavati both at the throne ends as well as on two sides of the mūlanāyaka. Thus two sets of DharanendraPadmavati figures are carved in some Pārsvanātha images.
The images belonging to Gupta and post-Gupta
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period reveal serenity and elegance and are mainly found from Mathura, Nachna (Panna, M.P., now in Tulasi Museum Ramavana, Satna, Pl. 126), Udaigiri (cave 20), Akota, Badami and Aihole (Pl. 153). It appears that from 6th-7th century A.D. onwards Parsvanatha alongwith seven-hooded snake canopy was also provided with figures of Yakṣa and Yakṣi. North India
The early medieval images in north India are found mainly from Osian, Vimalavasahi, Lūņavasahi, Kumbharia, Śatruñjaya, Girnar and Ranakpur of Śvetämbara affiliation and Mathura, Deogadh (about 30 figures, 9th 11th centuries A.D.), Khajuraho (11 figures, 10th-12th centuries A.D.), Khandagiri, Gwalior and many other places of Digambara affiliation (Pls. 155-156). In some of the examples from Osian and Vimalavasahi (devakulikā No. 4, A.D. 1188) the Yakṣa and Yakşi are traditional ones. In case of Vimalavasahi the four-armed Yakṣa with the canopy of snake-hoods and tortoise mount is elephant-headed in concurrence with Svetambara text Nirvāṇakalikā (18.23). The Yakṣa bears snake, snake, purse and a pot filled with sweet balls (modaka patra), suggestive of the impact of Gaṇeśa. The four-armed Yakṣi Padmavati with three-hooded snake canopy rides on kukkuța-sarpa and carries lotus, noose, goad and fruit in her hands as envisaged by Trisastisalakapuruşacaritra (9.3.364-65).
A unique circular stone plaque facing the southern mandapa of Dharana Vihara (Sarvatobhadra Adinatha Jinalaya, A.D. 1439) at Ranakapur (Pali, Rajasthan) depicts Sahasraphaṇā Pārsvanatha in the kayotsargamudra with dhoti (Pl. 163). What is remarkable is the artistic rendering of thousand-hooded snake canopy forming a beautiful umbrella. The tail of the beautifully delineated flanking fly-whisk bearing nägis alongwith numerous nägi figures with garlands (for worshipping Jina) all around forms a marvellous interlocking circular pattern of rare artistic excellence and dexterity. The presence of two flanking female figures with ornaments by the side of Parsvanatha in kayotsarga is enigmatic and also inexplicable at the moment.

At Digambara Jaina sites like Khajuraho and Deogadh, Parsvanatha with seven-hooded snake canopy is mostly standing with the figures of Dharanendra and Padmavati with snake canopy. Dharanendra is shown with folded hands while Padmavatī is having a long parasol, the top of which is shown above the snake hoods of Pārsvanatha. In such cases Dharanendra is present both as a snake with seven hoods shown over the head of Jina and also as a devotee Yakṣa with folded hands. Surprisingly in few instances at Deogadh, Khajuraho and some other Digambara Jaina sites, in addition to above figures we also come across the figures of two-armed Dharanendra and Padmavati at throne ends. South India
A standing figure of Parsvanatha with seven-headed snake canopy is carved on a boulder at Tirakkol (North Arcot, Tamil Nadu, Pallava, 8th 9th century A.D.) (Pl. 157). The animated rendering of bowing Dharanendra with folded hands and Padmavati with long parasol and also the figure of hovering Kamatha at right top with big rock to dissuade Pārsvanatha from penance are highly impressive. The rock-cut carvings at Karaikoyil and Melsittamur (Tamil Nadu, c. 8th-9th century A.D.) include a group of two majestic panels side by side, one represents Pārsvanatha (with seven-hooded snake canopy and the figures of Dharaṇendra - Padmavati and Kamatha) while the other shows Bahubali (with entwining creepers and Vidyadharis). Such juxtaposed composition of Parsvanatha and Bahubali was much favoured in south India, apparently because of the rigorous tapas of the two. Jaina caves at Badami, Aihole and Ellora have yielded such examples.
Close to the Śiva temple at Kalugumalai (Pandya period, Tamil Nadu, c. 8th 9th century A.D.) is a large rock carved with figure of Parsvanatha (in kayotsarga) engrossed in tapas. The sublimity of spirituality is expressed through the face, proportionate body and innovative composition. Parsvanatha is joined by Dharanendra and Padmavati, who stand in devotional mood. The flexions of these figures are indeed so charming that they add to the rhythmic arrangement of

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the whole composition. The panel of standing Pärsvanātha with snake-hoods over his head is a gem of early Pandya art. The artist even in a constrained scope of figure like that of a sky-clad Jina has succeeded in presenting it in exquisite proportions and grace, even in the rigid posture of käyotsarga. Instead of merely arranging the snake coils behind Pārsvanātha and the hoods over his head, it is shown in theri-anthropomorphic form as Nāgarāja, a princely figure with his own hoods over the head canopying the Jina, a magnificent conception indeed. To the right above is Kamatha with a large boulder lifted over his head to disturb the Jina. Dharanendra bows and Padmāvatī gracefully holds up the parasol.
Another image from Godapuram (Kerala, 10th century, in Trichur Museum) is a rare sculpture illustrating Pārsvanātha standing in stately elegance. The figure is characterised by a rare simplicity and grace. A few places in Kerala like Chitaral and Kanyakumari have yielded prominent rock-cut carvings of 9th century A.D. which exhibit Pārsvanātha with Dharanendra and Padmāvati.
Two graceful stone images of Pārsvanātha (with seven-hooded snake canopy) standing as sky-clad in kāyotsarga-mudrā, belonging to 11th - 12" century A.D., are found from Penukonda and Pattankudi (both in Karnataka), the latter one is provided with the figures of four-armed Yaksa and Yakși also (Pls. 160, 161). The aştaprātihäryas (including trichatra) are however not carved.
A good number of Pārsvanātha images (more than 25) both in stone and metal, are preserved in the Victoria and Albert and British Museums of London. A stone image of seated Pārsvanātha in the British Museum from Karnataka (11 - 12th century A.D.) is a rare example showing the figures of Dharanendra Yakșa and Padmavati Yakşi riding respectively on an elephant and kukkuța-sarpa and holding lotus and fruit. In another example of 11th century, hailing again from Karnataka, Pārsvanātha is provided with Yakși riding a crocodile which is suggestive of the varying regional traditions.
One of the most exquisitely carved Svetämbara metal figures of Parśvanätha from Western India is in the British Museum (Acc. No. 1974.4-11.1). It is datable to A.D. 1050 (Pl. 162). Pārsvanātha sitting under sevenhooded snake canopy is flanked by two standing Jina figures wearing dhoti. Besides the aştaprätihāryas, two deers flanking the dharmacakra and eight planets (in place of nine), the figures of Kubera and Ambikā as Yakșa and Yakși are also carved. Another beautiful example is in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. The metal figure in addition has the standing figures of Apraticakra and Vairotyä Vidyādevis on two flanks. The representation of these two Vidyādevis with Pārsvanätha is found also at Osian. It may be remembered that in later texts Pārsvanātha is said to have the command over all the Tantric goddesses (Vidyās).
Of the two important stone sculptures (12" century A.D.) in the Victoria and Albert Museum [Acc. Nos. 31 (IS), 937 (IS)], coming as they do from Gulbargā (Karnataka), one is particularly interesting because of the pedestal inscription as well as the figures of fourarmed Dharanendra and Padmāvati bearing goad and noose in two hands. The pedestal inscription of this graceful figure of Pārsvanatha in käyotsarga-mudra records the carving of this image for the Pārsvanātha temple.
Ellora : In Ellora (caves 30-34, c. 9th century A.D.), Pārsvanātha is represented by over 31 figures, this being the highest figure of Pārsvanātha at any single Jaina site (Pl. 154). Of the 31 rock-cut figures with beautiful composition and body, nine show Pārsvanātha in dhyāna-mudra, while the remaining ones are in the kāyotsarga-mudrā. They show almost identical features with certain peculiarities. The placement of the figures of Pārsvanātha mostly facing Bahubali (in the corresponding position on the opposite wall) may have some underlying meaning. Such a placement may have been actuated by the commonality of the fact of rigorous austerities in both the cases.
Pārsvanātha at Ellora, when seated, is usually accompanied by a triple parasol, fly-whisk bearing

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attendants, lion-throne, the hovering Mālädhra angels and the drum-beater suggestive of some of the aştamahāprätihäryas, invariate features of the arhat images. On the contrary, the images in the kāyotsarga- mudră show no prātihärya with Parsvanätba. This may be suggestive of the fact that Pärsvanatha had yet not attained Jinahood. The seated figure of Pārsvanātha in one case is surprisingly joined by the figures of Sarvāhņa Yakṣa and Ambika Yakși. The rendering of Sarvāhņa and Ambikā in the present instance reminds us of their invariable renderings with Pārsvanätha at the Svetāmbara Jaina sites of western India.
Parsvanatha figures at Ellora, seated or standing, have invariably been provided with seven-hooded snake canopy. The largest number of figures (12 figures) are carved in cave 32. In caves 30, 31, 33 and 34 there are five, two, ten and two figures respectively.
The Parśvanātha images from Ellora are specially significant for elaborate rendering in the parikara), of the upsargas or tirade of tormentations inflicted on Pārsvanātha by the evil spirit Sambara (or Meghamāli). The earliest example showing the upsargas of Pārsvanātha are found at Badami and Aihole (c.A.D. 600) wherein the figures of Sambara is shown attacking Pārsvanatha with a boulder or with some weapon. However, Padmavati, in both the instances, holds a long obliquely held parasol and is joined by the figure of Dharanendra, both standing on the right flank of Pārsvanātha. Close to the figure of Pārsvanātha with five-hooded snake canopy sits on the left a figure of Sambara bowing in humility with folded hands. The most elaborate representations of such scenes of onslaught of Sambara to dissuade Pārsvanātha from his tapas are met with at Ellora. Barring a few examples known from Mālādevi temple at Gyaraspur (Vidisha, M.P., 8th century A.D.), Indian Museum, Kolkata (provenance probably Bihar, c. 7th century A.D.) and Hurca (Parsvanātha Basti, Shimoga, Karnataka - two examples, 11th-12h century, Pl. 158), such elaborate representations are rarely encountered. In the rendering
of the upsarga at Ellora we find three, four, five, six, seven or eight figures of Sambara, each one engaged in the act of causing different inflictions to Pärsvanatha. In about twenty images, all standing in the käyotsargamudrā, the upasarga scenes are carved; this is the highest number for such images at a site. Surprisingly, the Pārsvanātha images belonging to the Svetāmbara tradition do not show any of the upasargas. Instead, in the ceilings of the Sāntinātha and Mahāvīra temples at Kumbharia (11h century A.D.), we come across the detailed renderings pertaining to the enmities of Kamatha (Meghamāli or Sambara) and Marubhūti (Pärsvanātha in previous existence). The ceilings of these temples also contain the detailed renderings of the five principal events from the life of Pärsvanatha.
The earliest literary reference to the upsargas of Pārsvanātha is found in the Pärsväbhyudayakavya (4.4548) of Jinasena (before A.D. 784) wherein only two upsargas posed by the devil Kamatha are described; they are the apsarases or the beautiful damsels and the hurling of huge boulders at Pärsvanātha. Another work, the Uttarapurāņa (73.136.40) of Gunabhadra (c. mid 9th century A.D.) deals with the life of Pärávanātha in detail; but that pertains mainly to the enmity of Marubhuti and Kamatha in their previous existences. As to the upsargas of Sambara during the course of tapas of Pärsvanātha, it merely mentions that the devil Sambara had caused different upsargas continuously for seven days.
The detailed account of the different upasargas of Sambara (or Meghamăli) to Pärsvanätha is found perhaps for the first time in the Pāsaņāhacariu (A.D. 1077, 14.430) of Padmakirtti and Trişastiśalākāpuruşacaritra which furnish how Sambara himself took different forms and used fatal weapons such as thunderbolt, arrow, spear, mudgara, axe, etc. to shake Pārsvanātha from his tapas. He also made abortive attempts through ferocious animals, namely Särdala-tiger, lion, monkey, dog, bear, snake, boar, buffalo, elephant, ox etc. to dissuade Pārsvanātha. He also caused upsargas by the horrendous
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goblins such as vaitala-monster, pisaca-demon, dākīni and by grahas (obscuring planets), snakes, eagles, Kumbhanda monster with their terrifying cries to frighten Pārsvanatha. An upsarga by bewitching apsarases was also created to lure away Pārsvanatha from his trance. After failing in his efforts to shake Pärśvanatha, Śambara next caused non-stop rains. When the rain water crossed the shoulder of Parsvanatha, Dharanendra came to his rescue along with naga ladies. Dharanendra next raised his seven hoods over the head of Parsvanatha for providing full cover and rested Jina's feet in the lap. As usual, Padmavati raised a parasol over the snakehoods of Dharanendra. Śambara, annoyed to find his efforts going futile, consequently attacked even nagaraja Dharanendra with the weapon such as thunderbolt, vajradanda, and mountain boulders, in which too he failed. Filled, then, with remorse Sambara bowed to Parsvanatha asking for forgiveness. (This story at once reminds us of the identical story of the attack of Māra on Buddha).
The details of upsargas in the figures of Parsvanatha from Ellora almost fully correspond with the details in the Pasanahacariu. The compositional scheme in Pārsvanatha images from Ellora is superb. The slender and motionless figures of Parsvanatha at Ellora show tranquillity and weightlessness. The face of the mūlanayaka is always calm and benign with a smile to suggest that unshaken by the upsargas, he remained in deep trance and meditation. The body of Padmavati, though slim and tenderly flexioned, is slightly fleshy with bewitching feminine beauty. The figures of Sambara in its different emanations show different modellings, sometimes fleshy and bulky and sometimes dwarfish and ugly looking. The physical and facial features of the figures of hostile Śambara are always terrifying. MAHAVIRA OR VARDHAMANA (24 Jina)
Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana (c. 599-527 B.C.) was a senior contemporary of Gautam Buddha. The cognizance of Mahavira is lion while the Yakşa

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and Yakşi associated with him are Matanga and Siddhāyikä or Siddhayinī. Both the Svetämbara and Digambara texts refer to various upsargas which were caused by the Sangam Deva and evil spirits like Śūlapāṇi Yakṣa during the course of the tapas of Mahāvīra.
The earliest-known figures of Mahavira, found from Kankali Tila, Mathura, are datable to Kusana period. About seven figures of Kuṣaṇa period (1st to 2nd century A.D.), mostly seated, are preserved in State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. Nos. J.2, J.14, J.16, J.22, J.31, J.53, J.66) (PI. 120). These figures are identified only on the basis of the pedestal inscriptions which in six examples refer to 'Vardhamana' while in one case (J. 2) the name in the inscription is 'Arhat Mahavira'. The inscription dated in A.D. 242 indicates that the image of Arhat Mahavira was set up in the temple of Arhats. It was only during the Gupta period towards the close of sixth century A.D. that the lion cognizance was carved with Mahavira, the example of which is procured from Varanasi. The above image is now in Bharat Kala Bhavana, Varanasi (Acc. No. 161). The image in its plasticity exhibits serenity, elegance and animation of Gupta art. The body contours reveal vegetative rhythm. The image exemplifies an admirable synthesis between the external form and the inner strength with the result that the figure exudes spirituality. Mahāvīra absorbed in deep meditation is seated without trichatra on a throne decorated with Viśvapadma. Mahāvīra absorbed in deep meditation has weightless slim body and plane but graceful halo. The two lions flanking the dharmacakra are suggestive of the cognizance of Mahāvīra. The extremities of the throne are occupied by diminutive figures of two seated Jinas in place of usual lions supporting the throne (simhasana). It may be noted that the image bears testimony to the prevalence of the convention of showing the cognizances of the Jinas in pairs on two sides of the wheel, the earliest instance of which is found at Rajgir. During the 5th-6th century A.D., another interesting form of Mahāvīra image as

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Jīvantas vāmī began to appear, the earliest examples of which are known from Akota (Gujarat).
Two 7th century examples of Mahāvīra images standing as sky-clad in the kâyotsarga-mudră are found from Dhank. The Yakşa-Yakṣi with Mahāvīra were carved only in 9th 10th century A.D., the examples of which are found mainly from Deogadh, Gyaraspur, Khajuraho, Kumbharia and Ellora. Usually the Yaksa- Yakși do not correspond with textual prescriptions. They are carved on the basis of some regional traditions.
A relief sculpture of Mahāvīra, flanked by camaradharas, could be seen in the sanctum of Jaina cave of Aihole. The pedestal shows three lion figures, two at the throne ends which suggest simhasana while the central lion figure represents the cognizance. In western India several figures (c. 10-15th centuries A.D) are found from Katra, Akota, Osian, Bharatpur (Rajasthan), Kumbharia (Neminātha and Pārsvanātha temples), Delvada, and Satruñjaya. These figures with lion cognizance and sometimes with the name inscribed in the inscription show Sarvānubhüti and Ambika as Yaksa and Yaksi.
An interesting, rather rare, stone image of A.D. 1166 from Ashavakhera shows Mahāvīra seated on a simple pedestal with lion cognizance. In the centre of the pedestal a two-armed goddess showing abhayamudra and kalasa is carved. At right extremity is a nude standing figure of Kșetrapāla holding a mace and a chain to which his dog mount is fastened. The presence of the two-armed Gomukha Yakşa, Padmavati Yakşi, having three-hooded snake canopy and Cakreśvarī Yakşi riding a garuda is indeed interesting. It is surprising to find with Mahāvira the figures of the Yakşa and Yaksis associated with Rşabhanātha and Pārsvanātha Jinas. The image probably represents the composite image of Mahāvīra wherein the figures of Yaksa and Yaksis suggest the presence of Rşabhanātha and Pärsvanātha.
Deogadh has yielded about nine images (10h-12h centuries A.D.) which all show lion cognizance and
Yaksa-Yakşi figures. In one example of temple No. 11 (1048 A.D.), the four-armed Yaksa and two-armed Yakşi are carved. The Yakṣi with a child is provided also with snake canopy which suggests the features of both Ambika and Padmăvati. Khajuraho also has yielded nine images (10h-12th centuries A.D.) (Pl. 165). In eight examples Mahāvīra is seated in dhyāna-mudrā with lion cognizance. The Yaksa and Yaksi in all the cases are either two or four-armed and they at times are also Provided with lion mount. In one case the Yaksi holds manuscript which is in accordance with the textual prescription. The images from Deogadh and Khajuraho exhibit the medieval features with complicated parikara.
Two examples of 8ch century A.D. are preserved in Son Bhandar cave (Rajgir) while the other examples are obtained from Aluara, Charampa and Khandagiri. In case of Bārabhuji cave the Yakṣi with Mahāvīra is twenty-armed.
Mahävīra on the basis of the sculptures appears to have been popular both in north and south India. In north his popularity comes next to Rşabhanātha and Pārsvanātha while in south India he was next to Pārsvanātha only. A good number of temples of Mahāvīra were also erected.
In south India several sculptures and rock-cut figures of Mahāvīra with lion cognizance (carved in the centre of simhasana) have been found. These figures datable from about 8th to 15th century A.D. are found mainly from Badami (Pl. 166). Vallimalai (Chittoor, A.P., 9th - 10th century A.D.), Kalugumalai (Tamil Nadu), Kilakuyilkudi (Madurai), Tirumalai (North Arcot, Tamil Nadu, 11th century A.D.), Ellora (caves 30 to 34 with Sarvānubhūti Yaksa and Ambika Yakşi) and Sravanabelagola (c. 12h century A.D., Pl. 167).
The Kilakuyilkudi figure is a magnificent rockcut Mahāvīra image seated with a flaming halo, charming fly-whisk bearers and Vidyadharas fluttering in great devotion (almost touching the triple umbrella). The carving is aesthetically of a high order and it should
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be assigned to the 9th century A.D.
manner. The figures even in groups retain their In a ceiling of the Pancakūta Basti at Kambadahalli individuality both in action and expression. Through (Mandya, Karnataka) there is an elaborately carved these panels the Jaina values of austerity, detachment sculpture of Mahavira sitting in dhyana-mudrā with the and non-violence are reflected figures of two-armed Sarvänubhūti Yakşa and Ambika DVITĪRTHI AND TRITIRTHI JINA Yaksi on the right and left sides of the simhasana. The
IMAGES whole relief is in the centre of the ceiling and on all The images which represent two or three different the sides of this relief are carved figures of the eight Jinas together are known respectively as Dvitīrthi and Dikpalas in separate compartments. The whole ceiling Tritirthi Jina image. However, reference to Dvitirthi or panel dates from c. 10th century A.D.
likewise Tritirthi Jina images are not found in the Jaina An image of 12th century A.D. from Karnataka texts. Therefore it appears that these were innovations is preserved in the Manjusha Museum, Dharmasthala on the part of the artists and the Acāryas. It was perhaps which shows Mahāvīra as standing sky-clad in the intended to introduce the concept of composite images kāyotsarga-mudrā with the figures of four-armed Yaksa in Jainism since these figures represent two or three and Yaksi holding lotus, fruit, goad and noose different Jinas together and with usual astaprātihäryas
During the Kuşāņa period (Kankāli Țīlā, Mathura, and Yakşa-Yakși figures to put them at par. It may be 1 century A.D.) an episode from the life of Mahāvīra mentioned here in passing that the Hariharapitāmaha showing the transfer of embryo of Mahāvīra from the images (8th to 12h century A.D.) from Ellora, Khajuraho, womb of Devananda to the womb of Trisalā Abaneri and Thanjavur (Brhadīśvara temple) likewise (garbhāpaharana) by Harinaigamesi Deva, commander depict the Brahmanical trinity (Brahmä, Vişnu and Siva) of the divine infantry, was also depicted on a relief together with traditional attributes and mounts on one panel (Pl. 168). This particular episode is found in single pedestal. The Dvitirthi and Tritirthi Jina images Svetāmbara texts only. The Digambara Jainas do not which were carved from about 9th century A.D. are accept its veracity. This narrative panel, now preserved found mostly in north India. However, another type of in the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 626), composite images in Jaina art were carved at Son represents an important development in respect of the Bhandar and Vaibhargir (Ragjir, Bihar, 6th-11h centuries rendering of life episode (Pl. 168). The Mahävīra and A.D.) wherein Supārsvanātha or Parsvanātha Jinas Sāntinātha temples (11h century A.D.) of Kumbharia having respectively five or seven-hooded snake canopy show detailed representations from the life of Mahāvīra overhead are provided with elephant, conch and lion which mainly include his previous existences, the five cognizances on the pedestals to depict the composite auspicious events of his life and the episode of images of Pärsvanātha-Ajitanätha, Supärsvanātha - Candanabālā (PL. 170). There are detailed renderings Neminätha and Pärsvanätha-Mahävira. One image of of the suffering inflicted on Mahāvīra by Sulapāņi Rşabhanātha (8th century A.D.) from Kankāli Țīlā, Yaksa, Sangamadeva, and the snake Chanda-Kausika. Mathura (now in State Museum, Lucknow, J. 78), Labelled as Mahāvīra upasarga these panels depict the depicts the Jina with bull cognizance but with the physical pain and mental anguish caused to Mahāvīra figures of Kubera and Ambikā as Yakşa-Yakși and the during the course of his penance, and his steadfastness figures of Balarāma and Krsna carved in the parikara in the face of extreme provocation (Pl. 170). The to suggest the presence of Neminātha also. Hence it deeply-cut and skillfully modelled figures capture the is the composite image of Rşabhanātha and Neminātha. movements of the figures in a realistic and animated The Dvitirthi Jina images are found mainly from
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Digambara Jaina sites at Deogadh, Khajuraho, Chandpur, Siron Khurd and Khandagiri. The maximum number of Dvitirthi Jina images are procured from Deogadh and Khajuraho which are mostly shown as standing in the käyotsarga-mudrā. Surprisingly, sometimes two figures of the selfsame Jinas like Rşabhanātha, Supārsvanatha, Pärsvanatha are also carved. The purpose of such images is however not known. In most of the cases two different Jinas are represented along with usual fly-whisk bearing attendants, hovering Mālādharas, lion-throne, trichatra, nimbus, drumbeater and other prātihāryas. The dharmacakra on the pedestal with the worshippers and the respective cognizances are also shown from about 11 century A.D. The Yaksa- Yakṣī figures are also carved. One of the most exquisitely carved Dvitirthi Jina image from Khandagiri is now preserved in the British Museum, London (Acc. No. 1872.7-1.99), which depicts the elegantly standing figures of Rşabhanätha and Mahavira Jinas with bull and lion cognizances carved on the pedestal (Pl. 215). The beautiful jatamukuta of Rşabhanātha (shown in the manner of Siva images) is artistic. The example from Aluara (Manbhum, now in Patna Museum, Acc. No. 10682, 11th century A.D.) also represents Rşabhanātha and Mahāvira with usual cognizances.
Khajuraho has yielded nine images (10th - 12h centuries A.D.) which usually do not show the cognizance. However, Deogadh surpasses all other sites where about fifty Dvitirthi images are found (9th to 12th century A.D.). The Deogadh Dvitirthi images represent Ajitanātha - Sambhavanātha (Temple No. 3), Abhinandana - Sumatinātha (Temple No. 4), sātinātha- Supārsvanatha (Temple No. 12, enclosure wall), Rsabhanātha - Mahāvīra (Temple No. 12, enclosure wall) and Supärśvanātha - Pārsvanätha (Temple No. 8) with the respective cognizances. Sometimes the Yakşa- Yakşi figures are also carved which in cases of Rşabhanātha and Pärśvanātha are traditional ones.
The Tritirthi images were carved only at the Digambara Jaina sites at Deogadh and Khajuraho.
These images, belonging to 10 and 12" century A.D., represent three Jinas standing as sky-clad in the kāyotsarga-mudră along with usual astaprātiharyas. Khajuraho has yielded only one Tritīrthi image (temple 84-114 centuries A.D.) which represents last three Jinas Neminátha, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra. Deogadh has produced about 20 images, of which three examples show the standing figures also of Sarasvati, Bahubali and Bharata Muni (Temple Nos. 1 and 2) along with three Jina figures which indeed was an innovation to present Sarasvati, Bahubali and Bharata Muni with the same honourable position as enjoyed by the Jinas. Of all other examples, one important example carved on the enclosure wall of Temple No. 12 (10h century A.D.) represents Neminātha, Pārsvanātha (with seven-headed snake canopy) and Mahavira with conch, snake and lion cognizances respectively. However, the names of Neminātha and Mahāvīra are also given in the pedestal inscriptions. One other example depicts Ajitanātha, Sambhavanātha and Abhinandana (Temple No. 1) JINA-CAUMUKHI OR PRATIMA
SARVATOBHADRIKĀ The four-fold Jina image, known as Jina Caumukha (or Caumukhi) or Pratimā-Saravatobhadrikā, is one of the earliest and most favourite manifestations of Jina images. The term Pratima-Sarvatobhadrikā signifies that the image is auspicious on all the sides. The carving of Jina Caumukhi, showing four Jina figures either seated or standing, started as early as the first century A.D. and its earliest examples are procured from the Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura (Pl. 121). These images remained popular in all the regions in subsequent centuries also. Scholars generally believe that the conception of Jina Caumukhi was based on the early conception of Jina Samavasarana and shows an advancement upon it. But this view is not acceptable for the following reasons. The Samavasarana is the congregation hall erected by the gods wherein every Jina delivers his first sermon after attaining kevalajñāna (omniscience). It consists of
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three tiered circular walls topped by the figure of a seated Jina, facing east. The three images of the selfsame Jina on the remaining sides were installed by the Vyantara gods to facilitate the worshippers to see their Master from all the sides. However, none of the early Jaina works refers to the installation of Jina images on the remaining three sides. Its first mention occurs only in the 8th-9th century A.D. Moreover, in the Kuşāņa Caumukha sculptures four different Jinas, always standing, are carved on four sides, as against the original conception of Samavasarana showing a seated Jina on the top (east) along with the three other images of selfsame Jina on the remaining sides.
Under the circumstance, it would not be appropriate to conclude that the Jina Caumukhi of the Kuşāņa period, showing four different Jinas on four sides, bears any influence of the conception of the Samavasarana. It is rather difficult to find any traditional basis of the conception of the Jina Caumukhi from the Jaina works. On the other hand, we come across a number of such sculptures in Kuşāņa and even early Indian art which might have inspired the Jainas to carve Jina Caumukhi. It is not impossible that multi-faced Siva-lingas and Yakșa figures had some bearing upon the conception of Jina Caumukhi. The conception of Svastika and the Sarnath and Sanchi Asokan lion-capitals could be another possible source of inspiration in this regard.
We may divide the Jina Caumukhi images into two groups. The first group consists of the images in which the figures of the same Jina are carved on the four sides. In the second group, the figures refer to four different Jinas. The earliest Jina Caumukhi figures are of the second group which hail from Mathura and belong to Kuşāņa period, whereas the figures of the first group were carved in seventh-eighth century A.D. onwards. The figures of the first group are comparatively meagre in number and generally do not show the cognizances of the Jinas. The Caumukhi figures of the second group in most of the cases show the cognizances of only two, generally those of Rşabhanātha and Pārsvanatha, of the four Jinas (Pl. 216). It is indeed
surprising that even at a later stage when the cognizances of all the Jinas were evolved, the rendering of the cognizances remained confined only to the figures of Rsabhanātha and Pārsvanātha. This might be explained as the continuation of the earlier tradition of the Kuşāna Jina Caumukhi images from Mathura wherein only these two Jinas are identifiable on account of falling hair-locks and seven-hooded snake canopy. In some instances from the Digambara sites, spread over in Uttar Pradesh, M.P., Bihar and Bengal, the cognizances of some other Jinas are also represented; they are Ajitanätha, Sambhavanātha, Supärśvanātha, Neminātha, Säntinātha and Mahāvīra. One of such examples, datable to c. eighth century A.D., shows the standing figures of Rşabhanātha, Ajitanātha, Sambhavanātha and Abhinandana, the first four Jinas of the present avasarpiņi, on the four sides. The Jinas are provided with their respective cognizances, namely bull, elephant, horse and monkey. The beautiful Jina Caumukhi now preserved in the Archaeological Museum, Nalanda, was originally procured from the Vaibharagiri (Rajgir, Bihar). In some of the examples (104 - 12th centuries A.D.) from Deogadh and Vimalavasahi, we also find the representation of the Yakşa-Yakși figures.
A few examples are found from south India also. An example from Lakşmeśvara temple, Dharwar (12th century A.D.), depicts four standing Jinas on four sides alongwith a number of seated and standing (sky-clad) Jinas on all the sides (Pl. 217). However, another example with Yaksa-Yakși figures is found from Stavanidhi (Belgaum, Karnataka, 12th century A.D.).
From about 9th century A.D., the concept of Pratimä-Sarvatobhadrikā or Caumukhi Jina image developed further into the concept of Sarvatobhadra or Caturmukha Jinalaya (Jina temple) showing four-seated or standing figures of the selfsame Jina or four different Jinas on four sides. The earliest example of Caturmukha Jinālaya is known from Paharpur (Bangladesh, 9th century A.D.). A number of examples of Jina Caumukhi in the form of Devakulikā (small shrine) are found from
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Deogadh, Khajuraho, Pakbira (Purulia, Bangla Desh, 11th century A.D.) and Ahar (Tikamgarh, M.P. 11th century A.D., Dhubela Museum, Acc. No. 32, Pl. 216). The example from Pakbira depicts Rṣabhanatha, Śantinatha, Kunthunatha and Mahāvīra standing in kayotsarga with respective cognizances. Subsequent and more developed example of Caturmukha Jinalaya from Guna (Indore, M.P., 11th century A.D.) has highly ornate doorways on four sides (Pl. 218). It enshrines four seated figures of the selfsame Jina (unidentified) with usual prätiharyas and Yakṣa-Yakşi figures. A number of small figures of Jinas, Acaryas and Parents of Jinas are also carved. Ashutosh Museum, Kolkata, also has a stone Caturmukha shrine procured from Dewalia (Burdwan, W.B.) which contains the standing figures of four different Jinas (Rṣabhanatha, Candraprabha, Parsvanatha and Mahavira) with their cognizances on four sides. The huge Caturmukha Jina temples were also built at Delvada (Khartara-vasahi) and Ranakpur (Caturamukha Jinalaya of Adinatha) in Rajasthan during 14th-15th century A.D.
JINA CATURVIMŠATIKA OR CATURVIMŠATI JINA-PATTA
Jina Caturvimsatikā or Jina Cauvīsī represents an image with 24 Jinas carved together. Of the 24 Jinas, the principal Jina is the Mulanayaka who may be Rṣabhanatha, Pärsvanatha, Neminatha, Mahavira or any other Jina, carved at the centre either in dhyana or kayotsarga-posture, while the figures of all other 23 Jinas are depicted in the parikara in diminutive forms. The rendering of such Jina Cauvīsī images is found from about 8th-9th century A.D. almost at all the important Jaina sites of north and south India, the most important of such sites being Deogadh, Khajuraho, Delvada and

Kumbharia. One example showing Ṛṣabhanatha as Mulanayaka is found from Rayadurg (Anantapur, A.P.)
The second type is found as Jina-paṭṭas whereon all the 24 Jinas in identical dimension are carved and hence such slabs are known as Caturviṁśati-Jina-patta. Such pattas, not so common, were carved from about c. 10th century A.D. Two of such pattas are known from Kausambi (now in Allahabad Museum, Acc. No. 506) and Deogadh (in Sahu Jaina Museum, Deogadh). The example from Deogadh (11th century A.D.) depicts all the 24 Jinas either as seated or as standing with respective cognizances and the usual pratihāryas and the YakṣaYakṣi figures showing abhaya or varada-mudra and fruit (or lotus or kalasa) in two hands (Pl. 219). Although the Jina figures are not in traditional order, most of them are easily identifiable on account of cognizances.
Another type is the collective rendering of 24 Jinas on the temple facade (Deogadh, Temple No. 12) or in the caves (Barabhuji cave). Such instances are found also from south India, the important places being Gingee (South Arcot, Tamil Nadu, 7th-8th century A.D. on boulder), Venur, Śravanabelagola and Moodbidri, all in Karnataka). REFERENCES
U.P. Shah, Beginnings of Jaina Iconography,' Bulletin of Museums and Archaeology in U.P. (Lucknow), No. 9, June 1972, pp. 1-14; JainaRūpamaṇḍana, New Delhi, 1987; B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, Delhi, 1974; M.N.P. Tiwari, Jaina Pratimävijñāna, Varanasi, 1981; Elements of Jaina Iconography, Varanasi, 1983; P.B. Desai, Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs, Sholapur, 1963; Klaus Bruhn, The Jina Images of Deogarh, Leiden 1969; C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art (South India), New Delhi, 1983.
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CHAPTER IX
YAKŞA-YAKŞİ OR SASANADEVATĀ
The Yakṣas and Yakṣis constituting a class of semi-divine beings of Jaina pantheon are technically known as Śāsanadevatās, guardian deities, of the order who always live close to the Jinas. Praśāsanāḥ śāsanadevatāśca yā Jināmscaturvitsatimäśritāḥ sadā Hitāḥ satāmpraticakrayānvitāḥ prayācitāḥ sannihita bhavantu tāḥ -Harivamsa Puraṇa, 66.43-44.
They figure in Jaina pantheon as the subsidiary deities. According to the Jaina belief, Indra appoints a Yakṣa and a Yakṣī to serve as attendants upon every Jina. Thus they are mainly the attendant spirits regarded as devotees of the Jinas (upāsaka-devas). In Jaina representations they possess varying attributes and mounts. While images of vitaragi Jinas exhibit spiritual grace and beauty, the figures of Yakṣas and Yakṣis (either with Jinas or in independent examples) exhibit physical and decorative charm and beauty, besides divine grace and powers.
The early Jaina works like Bhagavati Sūtra, Tattvärtha Sutra, Antagadadasão and Paumacariyam make frequent references to the Yakṣa worship. Of all the Yakṣas, Māṇibhadra and Pūrṇabhadra Yakṣas and Bahuputrikā Yakṣī appear to have been the favourite ones. It may be noted that the earliest Yakṣa-Yaksi pair (Sarvānubhūti or Kubera and Ambikā) associated with the Jina was evolved from the ancient concept of Manibhadra-Pūrṇabhadra Yakṣas and Bahuputrika Yaksi. The Yakṣa-Yaksi pair conceived as the Śāsanadevatā makes its first appearance in art in c. 6th century A.D. The earliest instances in which the yakṣa-yakși are sometimes represented with the Jinas and sometimes separately, are known from Akota in Gujarat.
The Jaina works from c. 6th to the 9th century A.D. mention only some of the iconographic features of Yakṣarāja (Sarvanubhūti) and Dharanendra Yakṣas and

Cakreśvarī, Ambika and Padmavati Yakṣis. The list of the twenty-four Yakṣas and Yakṣis was finalized in about 8th-9th century A.D. as found in the Kahavali, Tiloyapannatti (4.934-39) and Pravacanasāroddhāra (37578), while their independent iconographic forms were conceived in c. 10th-12th centuries A.D. as mentioned in the Nirvaṇakalikā, Trisaṣṭiśalākāpuruṣacaritra, Pratisthāsärasaṁgraha, Pratisthäsäroddhāra, and many more works (15th-16th century A.D.) like the Pratisthätilakam and Acaradinakara. However, we find much differences between the Svetambara and the Digambara traditions as to the names and other iconographic features of the Yaksas and Yaksis.
The names of Matanga, Yakṣeśvara and Iśvara Yakṣas and Naradattā, Mānavi, Acyutā and some other Yakṣis occur with more than one Jina in both the traditions. Bhrkuti has been invoked both as Yaksa and Yakṣi. The names and the iconographic features of the majority of the Yakṣas and Yakṣis bear the influence of the Brahmanical gods and goddesses. The Jainas seem to have adopted either the names or the distinct iconographic features, sometimes both, in such cases.
The gods and goddesses borrowed from Brāhmaṇa pantheon may be put into three groups. The first group consists of the Yakṣa-Yakṣī pairs made up of minor divinities who are not known to have been related with each other before their adoption in Jainism. The second group comprises the pairs who are related with each other, such as Isvara and Gauri, respectively the Yakşa and Yakṣi of Śreyamsanatha, who are none else but Śiva and his Sakti. The third group includes Gomukha and Cakreśvari, respectively the Yakṣa and Yakṣi of Rṣabhanatha, who are Jaina transformation of Śiva and Vaisnavi, the two principal deities of Śaiva and Vaisnava
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The earliest Yakşa-Yakşi carved in Jaina sculpture associated with all other Jinas generally show identical was Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā. Next come the figures features with very few exceptions exhibiting iconographic of Dharanendra and Padmāvati, the Yakşa-Yakși of peculiarities. Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā, the most Pārsvanātha. The other Yaksas and Yaksīs were carved favoured Yaksa-Yaksi pair at the Svetāmbara Jaina in c. 10th century A.D. onwards. In the sculptures from sites, were carved almost with all the Jinas. c. 6th to the 9th century A.D. Rşabhanätha, Säntinātha, The rendering of the Yakşa-Yakși figures with the Neminātha, Pārsvanātha, Mahävira and some other Jinas Jinas became a regular feature after 9th century A.D. are accompanied by the single Yakşa-Yaksi pair. It may be noted here that in independent sculptures the Sarvānubhūti and Ambikā. It was only in c. 10th century depiction of the Yaksis was more popular than their A.D. onwards that separate Yakşa-Yaksi pairs were male counterparts. We have come across three instances carved with the above Jinas. In such sculptures, of collective renderings of the 24 Yaksis but the Rşabhanātha, Neminātha and Pärsvanātha are representation of the 24 Yakşas has not been reported accompanied respectively by the traditional Yaksa-Yaksi from anywhere so far. The fact is suggestive of pairs, Gomukha - Cakreśvari, Sarvänubhüti-Ambikā, and comparatively favoured position enjoyed by the Yaksis Dharanendra-Padmāvatī, while the Yakşas and Yakşīs taken as embodiment of Sakti or power. The instances accompanying śāntinātha and Mahāvīra usually do not of collective renderings of 24 Yakṣis are known from have traditional features.
Deogadh (Temple 12), Patiandai temple (Ambikā image) One of the earliest instances of the collective and Bārabhuji cave (Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa, 11th-12h representations of 24 Yakṣīs is known from the temple century A.D.; Pl. 200, 201, 202). The Ambikā image No. 12 at Deogadh (A.D. 862). At Deogadh the idea procured from Patiandai temple, about six miles from of associating a Yaksi with each of the 24 Jinas with Satna in M.P., is a nonpareil image of Ambikā inasmuch different appellations could only be manifested, but as it contains the tiny figures of other 23 Yakṣis in their independent iconography was not yet settled, except the parikara alongwith their appellations inscribed below for Ambikā, the Yakși of longer tradition. Several of (Pl. 185). It is quite interesting to find their iconographic the Yaksis in Deogadh series bear direct influence of details as well as the appellations mostly concurring the Svetambara Mahavidyās whose tradition was certainly with the dhyāna-mantras available in the Digambara older than the Sāsanadevatäs. It is important to note texts. The image, fashioned in buff-coloured sandstone, that the Yaksis are carved in association with Jinas and is now on display in the Allahabad Museum (Acc. No. the names of both are inscribed to facilitate their AM 293). The beautiful image is datable to c. 11th identification.
century A.D. both on account of style and iconography. It may be underlined here that despite the fact that Of the 23 Yaksis carved in the parikara, the all the iconographic texts from c. 11th century A.D. figures of 18 Yakşīs, in vertical rows, are carved on onwards treat of the iconographic forms of the 24 two flanks of Ambika while the remaining five are Yakşas and Yaksis, the independent forms of only portrayed in a horizontal row at the top of the parikara. Gomukha-Cakreśvari (of Rşabhanātha), Sarvānubhūti The Yakşīs atop the parikara are labelled as Vahurūpiņi, or Kubera-Ambikā (of Neminātha) and Dharanendra- Cāmundā, Sarasati, Padumăvati and Vijayā, while those Padmavati (of Parsvanatha) could be manifested in art. on the two flanks (from top to bottom) are Jaya, Sometimes Sāsanadevatās of Supārsvanātha, Anantamati, Vairotā, Gauri, Mahākāli, Kāli, Puşadadhi Candraprabha, śāntinātha and Mahāvīra also exhibit and Prajāpati (on right), and Aparājitā, Mahāmānusi, independent iconographic forms. The Yakşa-Yakşi Anantamati, Gāndhāri, Manusi, Jalămălini, Manujā and
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Vajrasamkalā (Vajraśkhala) (on left).
figures and also the iconographic details of the Yakşis All the 23 Yaksis in the parikara, possessing four carved in the parikara distinctly reveal that the image arms, are carved arbitrarily, instead of being in traditional belongs to the Digambara sect. order. They are all standing in tribhanga with their (1) Gomukha Yakşa and Cakreśvari Yakşi respective vāhanas. Except for Manujā and Sarasvati, of Rşabhanātha. (1st Jina) their names correspond with the list supplied by the (i) Gomukha Yaksa - Both the Svetāmbara and Digambara works, namely the Tiloyapannatti of Yati- Digambara traditions conceive Gomukha Yakşa as fourvrsabha, (c. 8th century A.D.), the Pratisthāsārasargraha armed and with bull face. The Svetāmbara text and the Pratisthāsāroddhāra. However, the name of Nirvāņakalikā (18.1) prescribes elephant as mount and Anantamati has been carved twice because of the varada-mudrā, rosary (in right hands), fruit and noose engraver's mistake. The inscription, however, does not in left hands) as attributes, while the Digambara texts, mention the names of Cakreśvarī, Rohini, Manovegā, Pratisthāsārasamgraha (5.13-14) and Pratisthāsároddhāra Mānavi, Ambikā and Siddhāyini Yakşīs. But the figures (3.129) envisage dharmacakra mark on the forehead of of Cakreśvarī, Manovegā (labelled as Manujā), Ambikā the Yakṣa who rides on a bull. The attributes are the and Siddhayini (labelled as Sarasvati) could distinctly same as prescribed in the Svetämbara texts, excepting be identified on account of their iconographic features. parasu in place of noose. The south Indian tradition
The beautiful figure of four-armed Ambikā, gives almost identical details wherein the mount is bejewelled in graiveyaka, necklaces, girdle (with always a bull. suspended loops), anklets, bracelets, armlets, and The rendering of the figures of Gomukha Yakşa karanda-mukuta, stands as she is in tribhanga. The is found both with Rşabhanātha images as well as in jewelleries of Ambikā are minutely done with fine independent examples from about 10th century A.D. workmanship, appearing more like a metallic work. The However, it is surprising to note that Bihar, Orissa, and plasticity in body and posture, and its linear movement Bengal have not yielded independent sculptures of and proportional body-limbs are magnificent which all Gomukha Yakşa, while Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, make this image a wonderful piece of Indian art. The Gujarat and Rajasthan have produced maximum number goddess is provided with stellate cut halo. The small of independent figures wherein bull-faced Gomukha face of the goddess shows benign appearance while the Yakṣa is usually four-armed. In case of Svetämbara contours and other bodily features give somewhat figures the vāhana is an elephant, while at Digambara sensuous flavour. Although all the hands are damaged, sites (Khajuraho) the vāhana, though rarely shown, is yet remnant of the foliage of a mango tree overhead a bull. The figures from Digambara sites like Khajuraho and the rendering of two sons (nude), Priyankara and and Deogadh, as against the available textual Subhankara, along with lion mount, make the prescriptions, show manuscript, mace, lotus and purse identification of the goddess with Ambikā doubtless. which may be taken to be based on some local tradition of the two sons, Subhankara on right rides on lion, which is now lost to us. However, in case of parasu the vāhana of Ambikā, while the other son (Priyankara) these figures correspond to the Digambara tradition. stands to her left. The tiny figure of Jina Neminātha A marble relief of A.D. 1299 from Ladel (Gujaratwith conch länchana is carved over the head of Ambikā. now in Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai) shows fourBesides, the figures of 12 other Jinas, both seated in armed Gomukha Yakṣa as sitting on an elephant and dhyāna-mudrā and standing in kāyotsarga-mudrā, are bearing varada-mudrā, goad, noose and fruit. What is also shown in the parikara. The nudity of the Jina important is the rendering of the worshipper couple
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Ratna and his wife, the parents of the donor Mäņikya one hand. The Svetämbara texts conceive Cakreśvari as per pedestal inscription.
as eight- and twelve-armed while the Digambara texts At Svetämbara sites like Delvada, Kumbharia and provide her four and twelve arms. However, in twelveTaranga, the figures correspond with the texts in respectarmed form the attributes are identical in both the of elephant mount and noose. The other hands show traditions. The Nirvänakalika provides varada-mudra, goad and purse which were the principal attributes of arrow, disc, noose (in right hands) and bow, thunderbolt, Sarvänubhuti Yakşa. In south India very few figures disc and goad (in left hands) for eight-armed Apraticakrā of Gomukha Yakşa are found, they are from the later (Nirvanakalikā - 18.1 and TrişaştisalakapuruşacaritraJaina temple at Aihole and Kannada Research Institute 1.3. 682-83). The Pratisthāsārasargraha (5.15-16) refers Museum, Dharwar (Karnataka), wherein the four-armed to four-armed Yakşi as carrying discs in two hands and Yakṣa with Rşabhanātha is never shown as bull-faced a fruit and the varada-mudră in the remaining ones. In and the bull mount is also shown rarely. The parasu case of twelve arms the Yakşi holds discs in eight hands is the main attribute in all such examples. The other and thunderbolt in two hands, while the remaining two attributes in south Indian examples are lotus, noose and hands show fruit and varada-mudra. fruit.
The terrific form of Yakşi is enunciated in tantrika It may be observed that the iconography of text Cakreśvari Astakam which speaks of almost the Gomukha Yakşa reveals some distinct bearings of same set of attributes, but the Yakşi here is three-eyed Brahmanical deity Siva, specially in reference to bull- with dreadful appearance. She is worshipped for face, bull mount and parašu like attribute. In one of removing the obstacles caused by däkinis and other evil the examples in Rajputana Museum, Ajmer (Acc. No. spirits, and also for bestowing the prosperity. The south 270 - 10h century A.D.), found from Hathma (Bаdmer, Indian texts visualize Cakreśvari with garuda-vāhana Rajasthan), the four-armed Gomukha Yaksa, seated in and with twelve and sixteen arms. The attributes are lalitäsana, has dharmacakra on the forehead (Pl. 172). more or less the same. In addition to abhaya-mudra, parašu and fruit the Yaksa The rendering of Cakreśvarī in art is known from carries a snake also.
9th century A.D., the earliest example of which is found (ii) Cakreśvari or Apraticakrā Yakşi-Cakreśvari on the facade of temple No. 12 (A.D. 862) at Deogadh. was one of the four popular most Yaksis of Jaina All other examples, both independent and with pantheon and her worship was both ancient and Rsabhanātha, are datable from 10th century A.D. The widespread. Separate temples dedicated to Cakreśvari maximum number of figures of Cakreśvarī both at were also built. According to Jinaprabhasūri Svetāmbara and Digambara Jaina sites were carved (Vividhatirthakalpa) a temple of Cakreśvari was at during 10th and 12th century A.D. These figures show Ayodhya. The Yakṣi was also invoked in various tantrika a number of varieties in the forms of Cakreśvarī. The rites and she has close affinity with the 5th Jaina fully-developed parikara of the images of Cakreśvari Mahāvidyā Apraticakra (or Cakreśvarī), earlier in Jaina suggests that Cakreśvarī was elevated to the point of tradition.
a cult goddess, specially in north India. The Digambara In both the traditions, the mount of Cakreśvari is Jaina sites, particularly Deogadh and Khajuraho, are garuda (eagle-represented in art mostly in human form very rich whereat Cakreśvari has been represented as with pointed nose and snake around the neck and having two to twenty arms with garuda mount shown sometimes also with wings) and her main attribute is in human form. Some of the sculptures from Deogadh disc (Cakra) which is prescribed even for more than two examples in Sahu Jaina Museum, Deogadh) not
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only show the fly-whisk bearing attendants and hovering thunderbolt, bell (with chain), shield, staff, conch, bow, Mālädharas with Cakreśvarī but the figures of Padmavati disc, snake, spear and disc. Iconographically, this is one Yakși and Sarasvati are also carved in the parikara. of the most complicated images of Cakreśvari. Aesthetically also the figures are bejewelled, well In south India the garuda-vāhana is shown rarely proportionate and beautiful revealing grace and dignity. but the disc is the main attribute, besides conch and This is true of the figures of all other Yaksis. mace. The main figures are found from Pudukottai (10th
In case of Svetāmabara examples, sometimes it century A.D.), Jinanāthapura (Karnataka), becomes difficult to make difference between the Yakşi Sravanabelagola and Ellora. In case of Ellora (cave 30 - and the Vidyādevi except for the context. Such figures 9th century A.D.), the twelve-armed Cakreśvari rides are found mainly at Kumbharia, Delvada and Taranga. on garuda (in human form) and holds in her six surviving Interestingly in the ceiling of Mahāvīra temple at hands lotus, disc, conch, disc, mace and sword. Kumbharia, the Yakṣi with varada-mudrā, mace, lotus (2) Mahāyakşa and Ajitā (or Rohiņi) Yaksi and conch is labelled as Vaişnavi (the consort of of Ajitanātha (2nd Jina) Brahmanical god Vişnu).
(i) Mahāyakşa- Both the traditions visualize the The earliest figure of Cakreśvarī from Deogadh four-faced and eight-armed Mahāyakșa as riding on an carved with Rşabhanātha in the group of twenty-four elephant. The difference however is noticed only in Yaksis has the label inscription which gives the name respect of attributes. The Nirvānakalikā (18.2) prescribes Cakreśvari. The Yakṣi with garuda mount (in human varada-mudrā, mudgara (club), rosary, noose (in right form) bears discs in all her four hands which was the hands), and fruit, abhaya-mudrā, goad and spear (in left feature of the Mahavidyā Apraticakrā. At Deogadh, hands), while the Digambara texts (Pratisthāsāroddhāra Khajuraho, Bajrangagarh, Mathura, Khandagiri - 3.130) envisage sword, staff, axe, varada-mudrā (in (Navamuni, and Bārabhuji caves) and Gyaraspur, some right hands), disc, trident, lotus and goad (in left hands). very peculiar figures were carved. In one of the figures The south Indian texts give almost the identical details from Mathura (now in Archaeological Museum, Mathura, as found in north Indian Digambara texts. However, Acc. No. D. 6, 10h century A.D.), the ten-armed Yaksi on the basis of goad, axe and trident the impact of Indra standing in samabhanga with garuda mount, carved on and Siva could be suggested while the four faces of the pedestal as a bird, shows discs in all her nine Yakşa remind us of Brahma. surviving hands (PL. 173). But mostly, besides the disc It may be noted that the independent figure of (in one or two hands), the Yakși carries mace and conch Mahayakṣa is not known to us and in the images of like attributes also to remind us of the impact of Ajitanātha from Deogadh and Khajuraho also the Vaişnavi on Jaina Yakşi Cakreśvari. Deogadh has two-armed Yaksa showing abhaya-mudra and fruit (or produced three 114 century images of twenty-armed water-vessel) is not the traditional one. Cakreśvarī. The most important and complete figure, (ii) Ajitā or Rohiņi Yakși- The Nirvāņakalikā now preserved in Sāhū Jaina Museum, Deogadh, depicts (18.2) and the Trişastiśalākāpuruşacaritra (2.3.845-46) the goddess as riding on garuda shown in human form visualize the four-armed Ajitā as sitting on lohäsana with four arms (Pl. 174). The Yakşi holds a bigger disc (iron seat) and as showing varada-mudrā and noose in in two upper most hands while the other hands bear right hands and goad and fruit in the left ones. The disc, sword, quiver, mudgara, disc, mace, rosary, axe, Pratisthāsārasargraha (5.18) on the other hand prescribes

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varada-mudrā, abhaya-mudrā, conch and disc in the noose, bow, plough, shield and long stalked lotus, hands. The South Indian tradition, however, speaks of besides showing the varada-mudra. makara-vāhana and discs in two upper hands. The lower (3) Trimukha Yakşa and Duritāri (or hands are in abhaya-mudră and kataka-mudrā. Prajñapti) Yakși of Sambhavanātha (3rd Jina)
The independent figures of Yakși are found both (i) Trimukha Yakşa- According to both the at the Svetämbara and Digambara Jaina sites. At Delvada, traditions Trimukha (three-faced) Yakşa has three eyes, Kumbharia, Taranga and Ghanerav we find the six arms and peacock mount. The Nirvāņakalikā (18.3) representation of four-armed Yakṣi with goad and noose provides nakula (mongoose), mace, abhaya-mudrā (in in upper hands and varada-mudră (or abhaya-mudra right hands), fruit, snake and rosary (in left hands) while and fruit (or water-vessel) in the lower ones. The Yakşi the Pratisthāsāroddhāra (3.131) gives staff, trident and riding either on an elephant or sometimes even on a small dagger in right and disc, sword and goad in left lion is identifiable with Ajitā.
hands. The south Indian tradition almost follows the On the other hand we come across five independent Pratisthāsāroddhāra. However, the independent figure images (10h - 12h centuries A.D.) of Rohiņi at Gyaraspur of Yaksa is not found and even in the images of (Mālādevi temple), Deogadh (the mānastambhas in front Sambhavanātha from Deogadh and Khajuraho the Yaksa of temple Nos. 11 and 12) and Khandagiri (Navamuni is not the Trimukha Yaksa. Instead, either two-or fourand Bārabhuji caves). In the beautiful figure carved on armed and one-faced Yaksa shows mace, manuscript, the northern basement of Mālādevī temple (10h century lotus, fruit (or water-vessel or purse), besides the varada A.D.), the twelve-armed Yaksi sits in lalitäsana on (or abhaya)-mudrā which reveal that his form was never lohäsana with the head of some animal (probably standardized. elephant) underneath. Rohiņi here carries lotus, (ii) Duritāri (or Prajñapti) Yakşi, Duritāri of thunderbolt, disc, conch, flower and lotus in six of her Svetämbara tradition (Nirvanakalika, 18.3) is four-armed surviving hands. The eight-armed figure carved on the and she rides a meşa (ram) or even a peacock (or a mānastambha (A.D. 1059, in front of temple No. 11) buffalo). She shows in her hands varada-mudrā, rosary, at Deogadh, shows Rohini as seated in lalitasana with fruit (or snake) and abhaya-mudrā. Prajñapti in cow-mount (Acāradinakara, 34, p. 176, prescribes cow- Digambara texts is conceived as six-armed with mount) and with the attributes- varada-mudrā, goad, unspecified bird mount and as showing ardhendu arrow, disc, noose, bow, spear and fruit (Pl. 175). The (crescent), axe, fruit, sword, idhi (or pīndi) and varadaexquisitely carved figure is in high flexion. However, mudrā (Pratisthāsāroddhara -3.158 and Pratisthātilakam in case of four-armed figure from Navamuni cave the 7.3, p. 341). In south Indian tradition she rides a goose mount is an elephant and the distinguishing attributes and holds axe, sword, noose and disc. Her two hands in hands are thunderbolt, goad and three-pronged object are in abhaya-mudra and kataka-mudrā. (small trisula like), besides abhaya-mudra. It is interesting In the images of Sambhavanātha (11th 12th century to find goddess as having third eye on the forehead A.D.) the Yakşi, in case of western Indian Svetāmbara which alongwith small triśūla like object is suggestive examples, is Ambikā, while in case of north Indian of the impact of Siva. In case of Bārabhuji cave the examples, particularly from Khajuraho and Deogadh, twelve-armed Rohiņi is provided with bull mount and the Yakṣi without any distinguishing feature is usually she carries the attributes, namely spear, arrow, sword, two-armed. However, two figures of Yakşi in association
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with Sambhavanatha is also found from Navamuni and none of the examples corresponds with the textual Barabhuji caves wherein the two-and four-armed Yaksi prescriptions. In case of Deogadh the inscription calls shows lotus, rosary and varada-or abhaya-mudra. Thus the Yakşi as Sarasvati while in case of Navamuni cave it appears that like the Yakşa, the traditional form of the four-armed Yaksi with monkey mount holds disc, Yakși also was never represented.
conch and also a baby which to some extent corresponds (4) Isvara (or Yakseśvara) Yaksa and Kālikā
with south Indian tradition. In case of Bārabhuji cave (or Vajraśộnkhalā) Yakși of Abhinandana the eight-armed Yakși sits on lotus and holds in her (4th Jina)
surviving hands a lute (harp), varada-mudra and (i) Isvara (or Yakşeśvara) Yakşa- In both the
thunderbolt. traditions the four-armed Yaksa is endowed with elephant
(5) Tumbaru (or Tumbara) Yaksa and
(3) vāhana. The Svetämbara texts (Nirvänakalika - 18.4 Manakali (or Puruşadatta) Yakşi of and Mantrādhirājakalpa - 3.29) prescribe fruit, rosary,
Sumatinātha (5th Jina) mongoose (nakula) and goad, while the Digambara text
(i) Tumbaru (or Tumbara) Yakşa-In both the Pratisthäsäroddhära- 3.132) gives sanka-patra (arrow?) traditions the four-armed Tumbaru is provided with and sword in right and bow and shield in the left hands.
garuda mount. The Śvetämbara texts (Nirväņakalikä The Aparajitaprccha however, furnishes the name 18.5) prescribe varada-mudra, spear, snake (or mace) Caturanana along with hamsa mount and snake, noose,
and noose while the Digambara texts speak of snakes thunderbolt and goad in hands (221.46). The south in two hands and varada-mudrā and fruit for the Indian tradition concurs with the north Indian Digambara
remaining two hands (Pratisthāsārasaṁgraha-5.23-24). tradition. The Yaksa reveals the impact of both Indra The south Indian texts sometimes speak of lion mount (elephant mount and goad) and Brahmā (appellation and sword, shield and thunderbolt as attributes. However, Caturānan and haṁsa vāhana). The independent image
the independent image of the Yaksa is not found and of Yakşa is not found from anywhere and even in the in the images of Sumatinātha also the two-armed form images of Abhinandana the Yaksa with abhava-mudra (with abhaya-mudra and fruit and without mount) is not and water-vessel (or fruit) does not show any the traditional one. distinguishing feature.
(ii) Mahākāli (or Puruşadattā) Yaksi- Mahäkäli (ii) Kälikä (or Vajrasrnkhala) Yaksi- The four- of Svetämbara tradition sits on lotus and shows varadaarmed Yaksi, according to Svetämbara texts mudră and noose in right and fruit and goad in left (Nirvänakalikā - 18.4 and Trişastišalakāpuruşacaritra - hands (Nirväņakalika-18.5; Manträdhirājakalpa-3.54). 3.2.161-62) sits on lotus and shows varada-mudrä, noose,
Puruşadattā in Digambara tradition is visualized as snake and goad in her hands. The Digambara text riding an elephant and as carrying disc, thunderbolt and (Pratisthäsārasarngraha - 5.22-23) provides harsa as fruit in three hands while one hand is in varada-mudra vāhana for Vajraśrókhala who carries varada-mudrā, (Pratisthasarasamngraha-5.25). The south Indian texts nägapāśa, rosary and fruit in her hands. The south almost give the identical details and one text also refers Indian texts more or less give the same details but with to dog as her conveyance. some variation in respect of mount which is sometimes We come across only two such figures from a monkey and possessing the attributes like disc and Gyaraspur (Mālādevi temple - 10th century A.D.) and snake. We are encountered with only three independent Barabhuji cave which show some distinct features. figures of Vajraśnkhalā at Deogadh (on wall of temple although not fully corresponding with the injunctions No. 12) and Navamuni and Bārabhuji caves. Surprisingly of the available Digambara texts. The four-armed Yaksi
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on Mālādevi temple sits on lotus seat in lalita-pose with the figure of elephant mount underneath. The Yaksi holds sword, disc, shield and conch. The other figure, carved as the Yakși of Sumatinātha from Bārabhuji cave, shows ten-armed goddess with makara vāhana and as showing varada-mudrā, disc, spear and sword in right and noose, shield, plough, mudgara and lotus in left hands. In case of Sumatinätha image from Vimala- vasahi the Yakşi as usual is Ambikā. (6) Kusuma Yakṣa and Acyutā (or Manovegā) Yakși of Padmaprabha (6th Jina)
(i) Kusuma Yakşa — The four-armed Yakşa, according to both the traditions, rides a deer. The Svetāmbara texts (Nirvăņakalikā-18.6 and Acāradinakara-34, p. 174), sometimes also speaking of peacock and horse mount, prescribe fruit and abhaya- mudră in right and nakula and rosary in left hands. The Digambara texts conceive the Yakşa both as two-and four-armed with spear, shield, mace and rosary being his chief attributes (Pratisthāsároddhāra-3.134 and Aparājitaprccha-221.47). In south Indian texts sometime vāhana is bull also but the attributes are more or less the same. No figure of Yakşa is known to us.
(ii) Acyutā (or Manovegā) Yakși- The four- armed Acyuta in Svetambara texts is naraváhanā who exhibits varada-mudra and viņā (or noose or arrow) in right and bow and abhaya-mudră in left hands (Nirvanakalikā 18.6 and Trişastiśalākāpuruşacaritra 3.4.182-83). The Digambara texts (Pratisthāsārasamgraha- 5.28 and Pratisthāsāroddhāra 3.161) visualize Manovega as riding a horse and carrying shield, sword, fruit, besides one hand being in varada- mudrā. The south Indian texts also give somewhat identical details, barring deer mount as envisaged by one text..
Four independent sculptures of Manovega, datable between 9th and 12th century A.D., are procured from Deogadh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862), Khajuraho, Gyaraspur (Mālādevi temple) and Bārabhuji cave. The earliest instance from Deogadh carved with the figure
of Padmaprabha overhead labels the Yakși as Sulocanā who has horse mount. The four-armed Yakşi standing in tribhanga holds bow, arrow and lotus in three hands while the fourth one rests on waist. The rendering of Yaksi has the bearing of the iconography of 14th Mahavidyā Acyutā. In case of 10th century figure from Mālādevi temple (south facade), the eight-armed Yakşi in lalitāsana has horse mount. The attributes in her surviving hands are sword, lotus, pitcher, bell, shield, a bunch of mangoes (?) and fruit. The four-armed standing image from Khajuraho (11th century A.D.) is presently in the Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho (Acc. No. 940). The horse is carved on the pedestal and the Yakși bears only lotus in her extant hand. It is interesting to find two small figures of Sarasvati with vīņā in the parikara to suggest the venerated position of Manovegā. The Yakşi carved under the image of Padmaprabha in the Bärabhuji cave surprisingly is provided with swan mount and thunderbolt and conch like attributes. Thus the above figures of the Yakşi suggest that besides horse mount and sword and shield in hands, the iconographic form of the Yakṣi was never crystalized like Cakreśvari and Ambikā. (7) Mātanga Yakşa and Sāntā (or Kāli) Yakși of Supārsvanātha (7th Jina)
(i) Mātanga Yakşa- The four-armed Yaksa with elephant mount in Svetāmbara texts is conceived as carrying bilvaphala (fruit) and noose in right and nakula (mongoose-skin purse or vajra) and goad in left hands (Nirvāņakalikā 18.7 and Mantrādhirājakalpa 3.32). The Digambara text (Pratisthāsāroddhāra-3.135) prescribes lion mount for Mātanga who is always twoarmed and carries thunderbolt (or spear) and staff in hands. The Aparajitaprochā (221.47), however, shows a departure by prescribing ram mount and mace and noose attributes for Mätanga. The south Indian texts agree with the above details of Digambara tradition except for furnishing trident in place of spear (or thunderbolt). The independent figure of Mātanga is not known. In the images of Supärsvanätha known from
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different places (11th-12th century A.D.), the Yakṣa is usually provided with snake canopy to suggest his association with the Jina. In case of Supärśvanatha image from Deogadh (Temple No. 4-11th century) the two-armed Yakṣa with flower and pitcher has threehooded snake canopy. The Supärśvanatha images from Kumbharia (Neminatha temple, gudhamandapa, A.D. 1157) and Vimalavasahi (devakulika 19) depict the Yakṣa as four-armed and riding an elephant. The attributes (varada-mudra, goad, noose, purse or fruit) and mount correspond with the injunctions of the Nirvāṇakalikā.
(ii) Śantā (or Kāli) Yakṣi- The four-armed Santa in Śvetambara texts is said to ride on an elephant and show the varada-mudra and rosary in right and spear (or trident) and abhaya-mudra in left hands (Nirvaṇakalikā - 18.7 and Devatamurtiprakaraṇa-7.31). The four-armed Kali in Digambara tradition rides a bull and bears bell, trident (or spear) and fruit, besides one hand being in varada-mudrā (Pratisthāsarasamgraha 5.30). The south Indian texts furnish almost identical details with one text providing also peacock mount.
We come across only two independent figures of Digambara affiliation from Deogadh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862) and Bārabhuji cave, carved in the group of 24 Yakṣis. Both these figures with peacock mount however, do not show agreement with the available texts. The peacock mount and the name Mayūravähi in case of Deogadh figure suggest the impact of south Indian tradition. The four-armed standing figure of Mayūravähi Yakṣi at Deogadh shows vyakhyana-mudra, flywhisk-lotus, manuscript and conch in her hands to suggest the bearing of Sarasvati. The eight-armed Yakşi in Bārabhuji cave shows the varada-mudra, pot filled with fruits, spear (?), and sword in right and shield, conch, mudgara and spear in left hands.
The figures of Yakşi could be seen even on the throne of the Suparśvanatha images who in the examples from Kumbharia (Mahāvīra and Neminatha temples) and Vimalavasahi (devakulikā 19) are either Ambika

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or Padmavati. However, at Deogadh and some other places, the Yakṣi with snake canopy is usually twoarmed and bears flower (or lotus) and pitcher. (8) Vijaya (or Śyama) Yakṣa and Bhṛkuți (or Jvālāmālini) Yakṣi of Candraprabha (8th Jina)
(i) Vijaya (or Syama) Yaksa- The two-armed Vijaya Yakṣa in Śvetämbara tradition is conceived as three-eyed (trinetra) with hamsa vāhana (Nirvāṇakalika18.8 and Manträdhirajakalpa - 3.33). The Yakṣa holds disc in right and mudgara (club) in left hands. Threeeyed Syama Yakṣa in Digambara tradition is fourarmed and his mount is pigeon (Pratisthäsärasaṁgraha5.31 and Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra-3.136). The Yaksa is conceived as showing fruit, rosary, axe and varadamudra. The south Indian texts of both the traditions envisage almost the same details for four-armed Yakṣa having both goose and pigeon mount. We do not find any independent sculpture of the Yakṣa and even in the Candraprabha images, the Yakṣa does not exhibit any distinguishing feature. However, in an example from Deogadh (Temple No. 21 11th century A.D.) the four-armed Yakṣa with Candraprabha is endowed with abhaya-mudra, mace, lotus and fruit.
(ii) Bhrkuti (or Jvālāmālini) Yakşi- The fourarmed Bhṛkuti in Śvetambara texts is conceived as riding on varaha (or varala or even goose) and carrying sword and mudgara in right and shield and axe in left hands (Nirvāṇakalikā 18.8 and Triṣaṣṭiśalākāpuruşacaritra-3.6.109-10 and Acaradinakara - 34, p. 176). The Digambara texts on the other hand visualize eight-armed Jvālāmālinī as riding a buffalo and holding disc, bow, noose, carma (or shield), trident (or sula), arrow, fish and sword (Pratiṣṭhāsarasamgraha - 5.32 and Pratiṣṭhāsäroddhara 3.162). The south Indian. tradition speaks of bull mount for eight-armed Yakṣi who bears almost the identical attributes as mentioned above. It may be remarked here that in south India after Padmavati and Ambika only Jvälāmālinī enjoyed the highest veneration.

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In north India only two examples from Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and Barabhuji cave are found which are carved in association with Candraprabha. In case of four-armed figure from Deogadh, the name of the Yakşi given in the inscription is Sumalini who is accompanied by lion mount (Pl. 176). The Yakşi in tribhanga exhibits sword, abhaya-mudrā, shield and kati- hasta. The figure appears to have the bearing of the iconographic form of 16h Mahavidya Mahämanasi. The other example in the Bārabhuji cave also shows simhavāhana but here Yakşi has twelve arms. The Yakşi shows varada-mudrā, krpāņa (small dagger), disc, arrow, mace and sword in right and varada-mudrā, shield, bow, conch, noose and ghanță in left hands. The figure of Yakşi is carved also with Candraprabha images from Kausambi, Deogadh and Khajuraho but the Yakşi is usually represented without any distinguishing feature. Only in some examples from Deogadh (Temple Nos. 20 and 21) and Khajuraho (Temple No. 32), the four- armed Yakṣi with lotus, manuscript, abhaya-mudrā and pitcher (or fruit) suggests the prevalence of some independent form.
Out of a number of figures from south India, some very interesting figures of Jvälämälini depicts the Yakşi with eight arms and with the attributes like trident, disc, sword, arrow, bow, conch and noose. One such image of about 11th - 12th century A.D. is presently kept in the Siva temple at Aihole (Pl. 177). It may be noted here that Jvālāmālini in southern tradition was one of the four most popular Yakşis. (9) Ajita Yaksa and Sutārā (or Mahākāli) Yakși of Suvidhinātha (or Puspadanta) (9th Jina)
(i) Ajita Yakşa- According to both the traditions, the vāhana of the four-armed Yakṣa is tortoise but we find some difference in respect of the attributes. The Svetāmbara texts prescribe fruit and rosary in right and nakula and spear in left hands (Nirvāņakalika - 18.9) while the Digambara texts provide varada-mudră in place of nakula (Pratisthāsārasamgraha - 5.33). The south
Indian texts almost fully correspond with north Indian texts prescribing trident in place of süla or sakti. However, so far independent figure of the Yakşa is not known to us.
(ii) Sutārā (or Mahākāli) Yakşi-The four-armed Sutārā, according to Svetämbara texts, rides a bull and shows varada-mudrā and rosary in right and pitcher and goad in left hands (Nirvāņakalikā - 18.9) while the four-armed Mahäkäli of Digambara tradition is provided with tortoise vähana and thunderbolt, mudgara, fruit and varada-mudră in hands (Pratisthāsároddhāra - 3.163). The south Indian tradition mostly concurs with the north Indian Digambara tradition wherein sometimes the vahana is lion also.
We come across only two figures of Mahākāli Yakşi from Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and Barabhuji cave. However, in both the instances the traditional features are not shown. In case of Deogadh the Yakşi with Puspadanta has been labelled as Bahurūpi. The two-armed Yakși bears flywhisk-lotus in one hand. In case of Bärabhuji cave the Yakṣi with bull mount is ten-armed and holds disc, some bird, pot filled with fruits, ardhacandra (half crescent), snake and twig, besides varada-and tarjani-mudra. Thus apparently the iconographic form of Yakṣi was not standardized in sculptural renderings. (10) Brahma Yaksa and Asokā (or Mānavi) Yaksi of Sitalanātha (10th Jina)
(i) Brahma Yakşa- In both the traditions fourfaced Brahma Yakṣa with lotus mount is provided with eight arms but in respect of attributes we find some difference. The Svetāmabara texts prescribe for trinetra Brahma fruit, mudgara, noose and abhaya-mudra in right and nakula, mace, goad and rosary in left hands (Nirvāņakalikā - 18.10 and Trişaştisalākāpuruşacaritra - 3.8.111-12). The Yakşa, according to Digambara texts, bears arrow, sword, varada-mudrā, thunderbolt, axe, bow, staff and shield like attributes (Pratisthāsároddhāra - 3.138 and Pratisthätilakam – 7.10, p. 334). The Aparajitaprccha (221.49) however conceives Brahma
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Yakṣa with four arms and hamsa vahana which alongwith four faces remind of Brahma of Brahmanical sect. In south Indian tradition the Yakṣa, known as Brahmeśvara or Brahma, with four faces, three eyes and lotus or lion mount is eight-armed. The attributes mostly correspond with the details of north Indian Digambara texts. We do not find any example of the rendering of Yaksa in sculptural art from anywhere. The textual references, barring name, four faces and in one case hamsa mount do not correspond with the iconographic form of Brahmä of Brahmanical cult.
(ii) Aśokā or Manavi Yakṣi- The four-armed Aśoka in Śvetambara tradition has lotus and Manavi in Digambara tradition has boar (or black cobra) as vāhana. The Nirvāṇakalikā (18.10) prescribes varadamudra and noose in right and fruit and goad in left hands. The Acaradinakara (34, p. 176) in addition mentions that the Yakṣi should be surrounded by the figures of dancing nymphs. The Digambara texts however provide fruit, varada-mudra, fish and noose in hands (Pratisthasärasaṁgraha - 5.36 and Pratisthäsäroddhāra - 3.164). The south Indian texts envisage both boar and makara as vāhana and fish as main object in hand.
We know of only two figures of the Yakşi, coming as they do from Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and Bärabhuji cave. None of these exhibits the traditional features. In case of Deogadh the four-armed Yakşi carved with Śitalanatha is labelled as 'Śrīya Devi' who holds fruit, lotus and pitcher in three hands while the fourth one rests on waist. The rendering of tree trunk on two sides are important. The Yakṣi appears to have the bearing of Laksmi. The four-armed Yakṣi with some animal mount in Bārabhuji cave bears different attributes varada-mudrā, staff, disc and conch. These features remind us of Vaiṣṇavi. (11) Isvara Yakṣa and Manavi (or Gauri) Yaksi of Sreyamsanätha (11" Jina)
(i) Isvara Yakṣa- In both the traditions the Yakṣa is provided with three eyes, four arms and bull mount, which suggests the bearing of Śiva. The Nirvāṇakalikā

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(18.11) and other Śvetambara works (some texts also give the name Manuja and Yakṣaraja) envisage fruit and mace for right and nakula and rosary for left hands. The Digambara texts further strengthen the impact of Śiva by providing trident and staff in two hands while the other two hands bear fruit and rosary (Pratisthāsārasamgraha - 5.37 and Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.139). The south Indian texts are in full agreement with the north Indian Digambara texts and adds also crescent with the Yaksa to further bring him closer to Śiva. Somehow we are not aware of any sculpture of Isvara Yakṣa from anywhere.
(ii) Manavi (or Gauri) Yakṣi- Mānavi Yakṣi of 10th Jina Śītalanatha in Digambara tradition becomes the Yakşi of 11th Jina Śreyamsanatha in Svetambara tradition who is also called Śrīvatsă or Vidyunnadā. According to Svetambara texts, the four-armed Yakşi rides a lion and shows varada-mudra and mudgara (or noose) in right and pitcher (or nakula or thunderbolt) and goad (or rosary) in left hands (Nirvanakalikā -- 18.11 and Trişaştiśalakäpuruṣacaritra - 4.1.786-87). The Digambara texts, on the other hand, visualize fourarmed Gauri with deer mount and with mudgara, lotus, pitcher and varada-mudra in hands (Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.165). The south Indian texts bring Gauri even closer to Śiva by providing bull mount and crescent.
We come across mainly three figures of the Yakṣi which like most of the previous instances are affiliated to Digambara sect. These figures are known from Deogadh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862), Gyaraspur (Maladevi temple) and Barabhuji cave. However, the figure from Mālādevi temple (south facade) only concurs with the available textual injunctions. The four-armed Yaksi seated in lalitasana with deer mount shows varadamudra, abhaya-mudra, lotus and fruit. The earliest figure is from Deogadh wherein the two-armed Yakși carved with Sreyamśanatha is labelled in the inscription as 'Vahani'. She does not exhibit any distinct attribute. She merely shows lotus in right hand. The four-armed Yakṣi in Bārabhuji cave shows varada-mudrā, rosary,

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manuscript and water-vessel in hands. However, the right) and flower (or noose) and mace (in left) mount is damaged.
(Nirväņakalikā - 18.12 and Trişastiśaläkāpuruşacaritra -- (12) Kumāra Yaksa and Candā (or Gāndhāri) 4.2.288-89). On the other hand, the four-armed Gandhari Yakși of Vāsupūjya (12th Jina)
in Digambara texts is provided with lotus and makara(i) Kumāra Yakşa- Both the traditions provide vāhana and she bears pestle, lotus (in two hands) and swan mount for Kumāra Yakşa but the Digambara texts varada-mudrā (Pratisthāsārasamgraha - 5.40 and conceive of him as three- or six-faced. The Nirvāņakalika Pratisthāsāroddhăra - 3.166). In south Indian traditions, (18.12) speaks of four-armed Yakṣa as bearing fruit and the four-armed Yakși has snake, swan or even makara arrow in right and nakula and goad in left hands. The vāhana with mirror (in two hands) and staff in hands. Pravacanasāroddhāra (12.373), however, prescribes viņā We come across only four independent examples in place of an arrow. The Pratisthāsāroddhāra (3.140) of Yakşi (9th to 12th century A.D.), coming as they do visualizes four-armed Kumāra with varada-mudra and from Deogadh (Temple No. 12), Gyaraspur (Mālādevi mace in right and bow and fruit in left hands. In the temple) and Navamuni and Bārabhuji caves. The twoPratisthātilakam (7.12) the Yakşa is six-armed and holds armed Yakșa carved with Väsupujya, in case of Deogadh, arrow and nakula in additional two hands. Interestingly is labelled as 'Abhaugаratiņa'. The Yakṣi with snake the Aparajitaprccha (221.50) keeping in view the name and long garland does not correspond with the textual Kumāra provides peacock as mount, but, besides the injunctions. In case of Mālādevi temple (10th century name and the six faces of the Yakșa and also the A.D. - western facade) the Yakşi sits on lotus in lalitapeacock mount, the Yakșa does not reveal the attributes mudrā with the face of makara carved below the seat. of Kumära or Kärttikeya of Brahmanical pantheon. In It is interesting to find in a row the nine vases suggesting any case this is an example of the partial borrowing Navanidhis (nine jewels) on the pedestal. The Yakşi of Brahmanical deity. In south India the six-armed in concurrence with the south Indian tradition holds Yaksa with peacock mount is three-faced and holds mirror alongwith lotus. The four-armed figure in the noose, spear, abhaya-mudră in right and thunderbolt, Navamuni cave with peacock mount and jață-mukuta bow and varada-mudra in left hands. Sometimes the shows abhaya-mudrā, fruit, sakti and a baby. Apparently mount is swan also. We are not aware of any independent the Yakşi may be identified with Kaumārī, the sakti figure of Yakșa but an image (15th century A.D.) of of Kärttikeya. In Bārabhuji cave the eight-armed Yaksi five-headed (sixth head on the back is invisible) and with some bird mount shows in her right hands the twelve-armed Yaksa seated with peacock mount in varada-mudra, fruit, rosary and nilotpala (blue lotus) lalitāsana from Girnar may be taken to represent Kumāra while the corresponding left hands carry water-vessel, Yaksa (Pl. 178). The Yaksa in his hands bear varadaksa, conch, flower and long stalked lotus. The Yaksi sword, shield, arrow and bow like attributes. It is apparently does not correspond with any of the known important to note that the Şaņmukha (six-faced) Yaksa traditions. Thus we find two different traditions for the (in Svetambara tradition) of the 13th Jina Vimalanātha rendering of the same Yakşi in Navamuni and Bārabhuji with peacock mount also suggests the impact of caves. Kārttikeya.
(13) Şanmukha (or Caturmukha) Yakşa and (ii) Candā (or Gāndhāri) Yakși- The four-armed Viditā (or Vairoți) Yakși of Vimalanātha Yaksi in Svetämbara tradition is also known as Pracanda (13 Jina) and Ajitä. Yakşi Pracanda in Svetāmbara tradition has (i) Şaņmukha (or Caturmukha) Yakşa : The horse as mount. She shows varada-mudra and sakti (in twelve-armed Yaksa in both the traditions is said to
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have peacock mount but the number of faces as is (14) Pātāla Yaksa and Ankuśā (or evident from the names varies. The six-faced Yaksa, Anantamati) Yakși of Anantanātha (14th Jina) according to Svetāmbara texts, carries in his right hands (i) Pātāla Yakşa- Both the traditions visualize fruit, disc, arrow, sword, noose and rosary while the three-faced, six-armed Pātāla Yaksa as riding on makara. corresponding left ones show nakula, disc, bow, shield, The Nirvāņakalikā (18.14) prescribes lotus, sword and goad and abhaya-mudrā (Nirvaņakalikā - 18.13 and noose in right and nakulā, shield and rosary in left Trişastiśalākāpuruşacaritra -- 4.3.178-79). The four- hands. The Mantrādhirājakalpa (3.38) makes him threefaced Yakșa as per Digambara texts carries parašu in eyed also. The Digambara texts also speak of threeright upper hands while the remaining four hands show hooded snake canopy while the attributes in hands are sword, rosary, shield and danda-mudrā goad, spear, lotus, kasă, plough and fruit (Pratisthāsāroddhára - 3.141). The south Indian texts (Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.142). These features reveal the prescribe almost the same attributes for twelve-armed bearing of Balarāma who was an incarnation of Ādiśeşa. Şanmukha as found in north Indian Digambara texts. The south Indian texts envisaging the same features as The Yakșa rides on cock or monkey or even peacock. found in Digambara texts of north India speak of axe The figure of Yakşa is not found from anywhere. and trident also to suggest Saiva impact. The figure of
(ii)Viditā (or Vairoți) Yakşi, The four-armed Pātāla Yakşa, however, is not known to us. Vidita in Svetāmbara tradition has lotus mount while (ii) Ankuśā (or Anantamati) Yaksi- The fourfour-armed Vairoţi in Digambara texts like 13th armed Ankuśā, according to Svetāmbara texts, is Mahavidyā Vairotyā (earlier in tradition) is provided conceived with lotus mount and sword and noose in with snake mount and also as having snakes in two right and shield and goad in left hands (Nirvanakalika - hands. The Nirvāņakalikā (18.13) envisages arrow and 18.14). On the other hand, the four armed Anantamati noose in right and bow and snake in left hands. The in Digambara texts rides a swan and shows in hands Digambara texts (Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.167) also bow, arrow, fruit and varada-mudra (Pratisthäsāraprovide bow and arrow in two hands in addition to samgraha - 5.49). The south Indian texts provide snakes in two hands. The south Indian tradition, apart identical details and the mount sometimes is peacock from snake mount, also gives deer as mount. The also. attributes are almost the same as found in north Indian We come across only two figures of Yakși from Digambara texts.
Digambara Jaina sites - Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and We come across only two sculptures of Bārabhuji cave. In case of Deogadh the name of Yaksi Vairoti from Deogadh (Temple No. 12, 862 A.D.) and is inscribed as Anantavirya (closer to Anantamati). The Bārabhuji cave. However, in both the cases the features two-armed Yaksī (with flywhisk and kati-hasta) does do not correspond with texts. The two-armed figure not show any distinct features. Surprisingly the example from Deogadh is carved with Vimalanātha and is from Bärabhuji cave has donkey mount. The eightlabelled as 'Sulaksana'. The Yakṣi without any distinctarmed Yakşi shows varada-mudrā, dagger, spear and attribute stands with flywhisk in left hand while right sword in right and staff, thunderbolt, long stalked lotus is akimbo. The eight-armed figure from Bārabhuji cave and shield in corresponding left hands. has särasa (crane) mount. The Yakşi shows varada- (15) Kinnara Yaksa and Kandarpā (or mudrā, arrow, sword and axe in right hands while the Mānasi) Yaksi of Dharmanātha (15th Jina) corresponding left ones carry thunderbolt, bow, spear (i) Kinnara Yakşa- According to both the and shield.
traditions, the six-armed Kinnara Yakşa is three-faced.
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The Nirvanakalikā (18.15) visualizes Yaksa as riding a tortoise and as bearing fruit, mace and abhaya-mudrā in right and nakula, lotus and rosary in corresponding left hands. The Digambara texts (Pratisthāsāroddhāra 3.143) on the other hand prescribe fish as mount and mudgara, rosary and varada-mudra (in right hands) and disc, thunderbolt and goad (in left hands) as attributes. The south Indian texts almost concur with the injunctions of north Indian Digambara texts. The independent image of the Yaksa is hitherto not known.
(ii) Kandarpā (or Mānasi) Yakşi- In both the traditions Yakşi is provided with goad and noose in her two hands but the vahana is different. The Svetāmbara texts speak of fish mount for four-armed Kandarpā who exhibits in her right hands lotus and goad while the left ones show lotus and abhaya-mudrā (Nirvāņakalikā –
18.15). The six-armed Mänasī in Digambara texts rides a tiger and bears lotuses in two hands while the remaining four hands show bow, varada-mudrā, goad and arrow (Pratisthasarasamgraha -5.51 and Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.169). The south Indian texts vary in respect of mainly the vähana which is either a lion or a deer or even a tiger.
We are encountered with two figures of Yakși at the Digambara Jaina sites of Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and Bärabhuji cave. In case of Deogadh the name of the two-armed Yakşi in the label inscription is 'Surakṣitā' who holds lotus in right hand while left one is akimbo. The other figure from Bārabhuji cave with camel mount is six-armed which suggests another tradition. She shows varada-mudră, fruit (?), three-pronged object in right and bell, patakā (flag) and conch in left hands. The features indeed are unconventional here. Another figure on the northern facade of the Maladevi temple of Gyaraspur may also be identified as Mānasi on account of her fish mount. The four-armed Yakşi shows varada- mudrā, abhaya-mudrā, lotus and fruit. (16) Garuda Yaksa and Nirvāni (or Mahāmānasi) Yaksi of Sāntinātha (16th Jina)
(i) Garuda Yakşa- The Svetāmbara texts conceive four-armed Garuda Yaksa as possessing boar face and
boar mount and as carrying fruit, lotus, nakula and rosary (Nirvāņakalikā – 18.16). The four-armed Garuda Yaksa in Digambara texts is said to have boar or parrot mount and bearing thunderbolt and disc in upper and lotus and fruit in lower hands (Pratisthäsārasaṁgraha 5.52 and Pratisthāsäroddhara - 3.144). The four-armed Yaksa in south Indian Digambara tradition is addressed to as Kimpuruşa Yakṣa who rides either a bull or an eagle but the main attributes (disc, thunderbolt and lotus) are like north Indian Digambara tradition. Thus the impact of features of Visnu images is discernible in respect of boar and eagle mount, boar face and disc in hand.
The solitary example of independent figure of Garuda Yaksa referred to by B.C. Bhattacharya is known from Deogadh (on a western gateway pillar of Deogadh fort). The four-armed Yaksa with boar mount holds mace, rosary, fruit and snake. All other figures datable from 8th century A.D. are carved only with the images of Jina śāntinātha. In such examples from western India, the Yakşa is usually Sarvänubhuti with purse, goad and noose in hands and elephant as mount. In other instances the two-or four-armed Yakşa (without conveyance) holds two or three of these attributes - lotus, fruit, axe, mace, staff, purse and abhaya-mudra.
(ii) Nirvāņi (or Mahāmānasi) Yakşi, The fourarmed Nirvāṇi in Svetämbara texts has lotus mount while four-armed Mahāmānasi in Digambara texts has peacock or eagle mount. The Nirvänakalikā (18.16) prescribes manuscript and lotus in right and watervessel and lotus in left hands. According to Pratisthāsārasamngraha (5.53) Mahämänasi holds fruit, snake and disc in three hands while the remaining one is in varada-mudra. The lotus and peacock vāhana and lotus, manuscript and water-vessel like attributes are suggestive of the bearing of Sarasvati. The vähana in South Indian texts is peacock but the attributes are quite different from north Indian tradition. The attributes in southern tradition are sword, shield, noose, spear and disc.
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holds conch, sword, disc and varada-mudrā (Pratisthāsārasamgraha-5.55). The south Indian texts speak of varying mounts; it is either peacock or goose or even boar. The main attributes of Yaksi like north Indian Digambara texts are disc, conch, sword and lotus. The Vaiṣṇava impact is apparent.
We have come across only two independent figures texts prescribe boar vahana for four-armed Jaya who carved in the collective renderings of the 24 Yakṣis at the Digambara Jaina sites, namely Deogadh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862) and Bärabhuji cave. In case of Deogadh the four-armed Yakṣi (in tribhanga) with Śantinatha has been labelled as 'Śrīyadevi'. The Yakṣi with buffalo mount holds sword, disc, shield and axe which are the features enunciated for 6th Mahavidya Naradattä. The example in Bärabhuji cave is Jaina version of Brahmanical Gaja- or Abhiṣeka-Lakṣmi. The Yakṣi here sits in dhyana-mudra on lotus and holds in both of her hands long stalked lotuses with figures of two elephants above to lustrate the goddess. Thus the traditional features are not shown in known examples. In the Santinatha images from western India the Yakşi as usual is Ambika while in some of the examples from central India (Deogadh and Khajuraho) the four-armed Yakṣi sometimes is shown with lotus (in one or two hands), manuscript and water vessel to reveal some concurrence with Digambara tradition and thereby the impact of goddess Sarasvati.
Two examples of the rendering of Yakşi are known from Digambara Jaina sites. The first figure from Deogadh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862), represents the four-armed Yakşi with nara (man) vahana and as holding disc (ring), lotus and skull in three hands while the fourth hand rests on thigh. The other figure from Barabhuji cave depicts the ten-armed Yakşi with the figure of Kunthunatha above. The Yakṣi with buffalo mount shows varada-mudra, staff, goad (?) disc and rosary in right hands while the corresponding left ones carry three-pronged object (small trident like), disc, conch, lotus and pitcher. The figures in both the instances apparently do no conform with the known textual injunctions.
(17) Gandharva Yakşa and Bala (or Jaya) (18) Yakşendra (or Khendra) Yakṣa and Yaksi of Kunthunätha (17th Jina)
Dharani (or Tārāvati) Yakşi of Aranatha (18th Jina)
(i) Gandharva Yakṣa- According to Śvetämbara texts the mount of four-armed Yakṣa is swan and he shows varada-mudra and noose in right and fruit and goad in left hands (Nirvaṇakalika - 18.17). The Digambara texts conceive four-armed Yakṣa as riding on pakṣiyāna (chariot drawn by bird) or parrot and as carrying arrow, bow and noose in hands (Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.145). The attributes in south Indian tradition are the same as prescribed by north Indian Digambara texts but the vahana is either deer or chariot or even the pakṣiyana. The independent figure of Yakṣa is not found.
(ii) Bala or Jaya Yakṣi- The four-armed Bala in Śvetambara texts is provided with peacock mount and fruit, spear (or trident), muşundhi (made of wood with iron nails) and lotus in hands (Nirvaṇakalika18.17) and Acaradinakara - 34, p. 177). The Digambara

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(i) Yakşendra or Khendra Yakṣa- Both the traditions are unanimous in conceiving Yakşendra as twelve-armed, six-faced and three-eyed with conch mount. The attributes are also more or less the same in both the traditions. The Yakṣa bears fruit, arrow, sword, shield, spear (or vajra), goad, noose, mudgara, nakula, bow, rosary and abhaya-mudra (Nirvanakalika18.18 and Pratisthäsäroddhara - 3.146). The Manträdhirajakalpa (3.42) and Devatamurtiprakaraṇa (7.50-51), however, speak of bull and seșa (snake) vahana respectively. The south Indian texts are greatly in agreement with the north Indian Digambara tradition with the mount being peacock. The Yakṣa sometimes also holds snake and trident. The iconographic form of Yakṣendra apparently has the fusion of a number of Brahmanical deities, namely Kärttikeya, Indra and Śiva.

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We, however, do not find any sculptural example of the Yakṣa.
(ii) Dharani (or Tārāvati) Yakṣi- According to Śvetämbara texts the four-armed Dharaṇī (or Kāli) with lotus mount carries fruit and lotus in right and noose and rosary in left hands (Nirvāṇakalikā – 18.18). Tārāvatī with swan mount in Digambara texts is conceived as bearing snake, thunderbolt, deer and varada-mudra in her four hands (Pratisthāsārasamgraha - 5.57). The Aparajitapṛccha (221.32), however, prescribes lion mount and disc weapon (in place of deer). The south Indian texts envisage both snake and deer in hands alongwith other features of north Indian Digambara texts. However in one of the Śvetambara texts the Yaksi with bull mount, six faces and twelve arms has the same set of attributes as noticed in case of her Yakṣa Yakṣendra.
We are encountered with only two figures of Yakşi found from the Digambara Jaina sites at Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and Khandagiri (Bārabhuji cave). In case of Deogadh the Yakṣi with Aranatha is labelled as Tārāvatī but the traditional features are not shown. The two-armed Yakşi holds lotus in left hand while the right hand rests on waist. The Yakṣi from Bärabhuji cave is also two-armed. Her mount is elephant and she shows varada-mudra and long stalked lotus in hands. (19) Kubera Yakṣa (or Yakṣeśa) and Vairotyā (or Aparajita) Yakṣi of Mallinätha (19th Jina)
(i) Kubera Yakṣa or Yakṣeśa - In both the traditions the four-faced, eight-armed Yakṣa is provided with elephant mount. The Nirvaṇakalika (18.19) enjoins varada-mudra, axe, spear and abhaya-mudra in right and fruit, Sakti, mudgara and rosary in left hands. In Digambara texts Yakṣeśa or Kubera is said to carry shield, bow, staff, lotus, sword, arrow, noose and varadamudra (Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.147). The south Indian texts almost fully concur with north Indian Digambara tradition. Kubera Yakṣa, in respect of name, mount and attribute-mudgara, reveals some impact of Brahmanical god of wealth (Kubera) who is also known as Yakṣeśa and is provided with Nidhi (jewel pot) as vahana and

mongoose-skin purse (nakulaka) like object in hand. The figure of Kubera Yakṣa with elephant mount and goad, noose and purse like attributes is found with Neminatha instead of Mallinatha.
(ii) Vairotya (or Aparajitā) Yakṣi- The fourarmed Vairotya in Svetambara texts is conceived with lotus mount and varada-mudra and rosary in right and fruit and sakti in left hands (Nirvāṇakalikā - 18.19). On the other hand the four-armed Aparajita in Digambara texts is provided with eight-legged animal (sarabha) as mount and fruit, sword, shield and varada-mudrā like attributes (Pratisthäsärasaṁgraha - 5.59 and Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.173). The name Vairotya and some of the adjectives like beloved of snake king and Dharanapriya as referred to in the Acaradinakara (34, p.175) and Devatāmurtiprakaraṇa (7.55-56) remind us of 13th Vidyadevi Vairotya also who has different set of attributes.
The south Indian tradition provides goose and fox mounts (along with Sarabha) for Aparajita but the attributes are the same as enunciated in the north Indian Digambara texts.
We are aware of only two examples of the rendering of the Yaksi which are carved in the group of 24 Yakṣis at Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and Bārabhuji cave. In case of Deogadh, the Yakṣi with Mallinatha is labelled as 'Himädevi', a name not known from any text. The two-armed Yakṣi in tribhanga holds pitcher in right hand while left is akimbo. The eight-armed figure in Bārabhuji cave has some indistinct animal (possibly horse) as mount. The Yakṣi shows in her right hands varada-mudra, arrow, śakti and sword while the corresponding left ones carry conch (?), bow, shield and patākā. The rendering of Yakși in both the examples does not correspond with the known textual prescriptions. (20) Varuna Yakṣa and Naradatta (or Bahurupiņi) Yakşi of Munisuvrata (20th Jina)
(i) Varuna Yakṣa- In both the traditions Varuna Yakṣa with bull mount and jata-mukuta (matted hair tied up as a crown) has three eyes and parasu in hand to

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suggest the bearing of Siva. Both the traditions, however, surprisingly labelled as 'Sidhai'. It may be mentioned differ in respect of number of arms and heads and also that Siddhāyikā or Siddhayini is the name of the Yakşi the attributes. The Nirvanakalikā (18.20) conceives the of Mahāvīra. The Yakşi in tribhanga with lotus mount eight-armed Yaksa as four-faced and as carrying fruit, holds in her three hands a chain, abhaya-mudra-cummace, arrow and sakti in right and nakulaka, lotus, bow lotus (or noose) and lotus (looking like a trident) while and axe in left hands. In Digambara texts the Yakşa on the fourth hand is resting on thigh. Apparently the the contrary is four-armed and eight-faced and he holds present figure does not correspond with available textual shield, sword, fruit and varada-mudrā injunctions. It rather has the bearing of Mahavidyā (Pratisthāsārasamgraha -5.60-61 and Pratisthäsäroddhāra Vajraśộnkhalā. - 3.148). In south Indian texts sometimes the four- The figure in the Barabhuji cave is very interesting armed Yaksa is surprisingly seven-faced while in some because here the two-armed Yakşi, carved below the other the eight-armed Yaksa is visualized as five-faced figure of Munisuvrata, is shown in reclining posture and as having makara-vāhana. The main attributes in all with attendants and pitcher under the cot (P1.201). the texts are however sword and shield.
However the Yakşi does not carry any attribute. It is The two-armed figure of the Yaksa carved on the further interesting to take note of the tradition which cornice of ardhamandapa (porch) of Mahāvīra temple was prevalent at least at north Indian Digambara Jaina at Osian (Svetāmbara; 8h century A.D.) may be identified sites, specially in M.P., Bihar, Orissa and Bengal and as Varuna Yaksa on account of bull mount and sword which indeed is not supported by any known text. At in hand. The Yakṣa carved in the Munisuvrata images least in four images of Munisuvrata (with tortoise is Sarvänubhuti, instead of conventional Varuna Yaksa. cognizance), datable between 9th and 12th century A.D.,
(ii) Naradattă (or Bahurūpiņi) Yakși- According the figure of two-armed Yakşi Bahurūpiņi is carved in to Svetămbara texts, the four-armed Naradattă sits on reclining posture without any attribute under the seat bhadrasana (auspicious seat) and shows varada-mudrā of the Jina, instead of being at the throne end. These and rosary in right and fruit and pitcher (or spear) in figures are procured from Bajramath (Gyaraspur, M.P.), left hands (Nirvänakalikā - 18.20: Mantrādhirajakalpa - Vaibhara hill (Rajgir, Bihar), (Pl. 146)), Ashutosh 3.63). The four-armed Bahurupiņi in Digambara texts Museum, Kolkata and P.C. Nahar Collection, Kolkata is provided with black cobra as mount and shield, In all these examples the figure of the Yakşa is not sword, fruit and varada-mudrā as attributes shown. Therefore it is apparent that tradition of the (Pratisthāsāroddhāra - 3.74). In south Indian tradition, rendering of Bahurūpiņi in reclining posture was in like the north Indian Digambara texts, the four-armed vogue at Digambara Jaina sites of north India. These Yakṣi with cobra mount holds sword, shield fruit and reclining female figures should not be identified as the varada-mudrā which reveals the impact of the 13th Jaina mother of the Jina because the place of the mother could Mahavidya Vairotyä. However in one text from south never be under the feet or the asana of the son who India, the two-armed Yakṣi with sword and shield in happens to be Jina Munisuvrata in present case. hands is provided with peacock vähana.
(21) Bhộkuti Yaksa and Gāndhāri (or The independent figures of the Yakși are found Cāmundā) Yakși of Naminātha (21 Jina) only from Deogadh (Temple No.12, facade) and (i) Bhộkuţi Yakşa-In both the traditions Bhrkuți Bārabhuji cave, both belonging to Digambara tradition. with bull mount is four-faced and eight-armed. The In case of Deogadh, the four-armed Yakṣi with the Nirvāņakalikā (18.21) conceives Yakṣa with three eyes figure of Jina Munisuvrata carved overhead is and fruit, sakti, club and abhaya-mudra in right hands

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while the left ones carry nakula, axe, thunderbolt and rosary. The Pratisthāsāroddhāra (3.149) and other Digambara texts prescribe sword, shield, bow, arrow, goad, lotus, disc and varada-mudrā for the Yakşa. In south Indian tradition also the Yaksa has been endowed with the identical features as found in north Indian Digambara texts. The features of the Yakşa alongwith third eye are suggestive of the bearing of Siva on the Yaksa. We however do not find any independent figure of the Yakşa. Even in the Naminātha images from western Indian Svetāmbara sites the Yakşa is Sarvānubhuti.
(ii) Gāndhāri (or Cāmundā) Yakși- The four- armed Gāndhāri in Svetämbara tradition rides a goose and holds varada-mudra and sword in right and fruit and pitcher (or spear or shield) in left hands (Nirvāņakalikā - 18.21 and Mantradhirajakalpa - 3.63). The four-armed Cämundã in Digambara texts is visualized as riding on a crocodile (or monkey) and bearing staff, shield, rosary and sword in her hands (Pratisthasāroddhara - 3.175; Aparajitaprecha - 221.35). The south Indian tradition almost agrees with the north Indian Digambara tradition.
We come across only two figures of the Yakşi which come from Digambara Jaina sites, namely Deogadh (Temple No. 12) and Bārabhuji cave. The figure from Deogadh represents the two-armed Yaksi without any distinguishing attribute and even vāhana. The Yakși holds pitcher in right hand while the left hand rests on thigh. In case of Barabhuji cave the four- armed Yakṣi with three faces and swan mount shows varada-mudra, rosary, three-pronged object and pitcher in her hands. The Yakşi apparently is not the traditional one and instead she has the features of Brahmāni, the consort of Brahmā. In the Naminātha images from Svetāmbara Jaina sites the Yakși as usual is Ambikā. (22) Gomedha Yaksa and Ambikā (or Kuşmāņdi) Yakși of Neminātha. (22nd Jina)
(i) Gomedha Yakşa-Both the traditions conceive six-armed Gomedha Yakşa as three-faced and with man
(nara) or flower vahana and the difference is noticed only in respect of attributes. The Nirvāņakalikā (18.22) prescribes fruit, axe and disc in right and nakula (shown in art as mongoose-skin-money-bag), spear and sakti in left hands. The Ācāradinakara (34, p. 175) refers to the presence of Ambika also near Gomedha. The Digambara texts envisage mudgara, axe, staff, fruit, thunderbolt and varada-mudră (Pratisthāsaroddhāra3.150). The Pratisthātilakam (7.22) provides wealth (dhana) in place of mudgara which we invariably find in sculptural examples in the form of money-bag (made of mongoose skin) or jewel pots (nidhi pătra). The south Indian Digambara tradition gives another name Sarvāṇha and provides a small temple as his vahana. The attributes of three-faced and six-armed Yaksa are more or less the same as noticed in north Indian Digambara texts. It is relevant to note here that in sculptural examples the Yakşa carved with Neminātha is never shown as riding on a man and possessing three faces and six arms. Rather in visual renderings, the Yakşa, either twoor four-armed, rides an elephant (in some cases even accompanied by jewel pots, nidhi-pätra). In all the examples the Yaksa invariably holds a money-bag to suggest that he is the transformation of Kubera (the Brahmanical god of wealth). In addition to money-bag (nakula) at Svetāmbara Jaina sites of western India (Akota, Osian, Kumbharia, Delvada, Taranga), he also carries goad and noose. Although nakula (possibly to suggest mongoose-skin-purse) is provided by Nirvanakalikā but the other attributes like goad and noose and also elephant mount are prescribed by the solitary text of south India-Yakşa-Yaksi Laksana (c. 14h-15th century A.D.). Thus it is apparent that instead of Gomedha Yakşa, Kubera (also known as Sarvānubhūti or Sarvāṇha) Yakșa was carved with Neminātha.
Sarvānubhūti Yakșa at Svetämbara Jaina sites is four-armed, while at Digambara Jaina sites like Dhank, Deogadh, Khajuraho, Ellora (cave 32, 9th century A.D.; Pl. 179), Sahet-Mahet and Gwalior he is shown with
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two arms. This we find in the independent figures as well as in the examples where the Yakşa is carved with Neminātha images at its right extremity. The figure of Yakși Ambikā is carved on the other extremity. The rendering of elephant mount and goad and noose in hands was popular mainly at Svetāmbara Jaina sites which have yielded the highest number of figures of the Yakşa including independent examples.
The earliest example of the rendering of the Yakṣa is found from Akota (Gujarat, c. 6th-7th century A.D.). The elephant mount and money bag were shown up to at least 8th 9th century A.D. and goad and noose were added only from 10h century A.D. when the Yaksa became four-armed. In some of the examples from Kumbharia and Delvada mace, manuscript and fruit like attributes are also shown in addition to one hand being in varada or abhaya-mudra. In the 11-13th centuries examples from Kumbharia (Säntinātha, Mahāvīra and Neminātha temples), Taranga and Delvada (Vimala- vasahi and Lunavasahi), the four-armed Yaksa with elephant mount, usually sitting in lalitāsana, shows abhaya or varada-mudrā, goad, noose and money-bag.
A beautiful independent image of the Yakşa (from Chittor, Rajasthan) with the small figure of the Jina carved overhead is preserved in Government Museum, Udaipur (Acc. No. 117). The two-armed pot-bellied Yaksa (10h century A.D.) riding on elephant holds a fruit and money bag (PL. 180). The modelling is full of animation and plasticity while decorated mukuta, necklaces and other ornaments show dexterity. In other examples from Digambara Jaina sites, the Yaksa with two jewel pots (nidhi pătra) is usually two-armed and exhibits fruit (or abhaya or varada-mudrā) and money bag. However, in some cases where the Yakşa is four- armed, lotus and pitcher are also shown in two additional hands.
The popularity of Kubera or Sarvānubhuti Yaksa and Ambika Yakși both in independent examples and in Neminātha images reminds us of the ancient Jaina tradition of the worship of Manibhadra-Purnabhadra
Yaksa and Bahuputrikā Yaksi.
(ii) Ambikā Yakși–The popular worship of female principle as 'Mother', representing fertility cult, was adopted by the Jainas in the form of an early Yaksi Bahuputrikā (one having many children). Towards the close of 6h century A.D., she was transformed into Yakşi Ambikā, the Sasanadevi of 22nd Jina Neminātha. Thus Ambikā in Jaina context is a clear cut example of the assimilation of popular belief of the Mother goddess in Jaina worship to formulate the form of one of the most favoured Yakşis, who is shown with two sons. Her popularity doubtlessly was mainly due to her symbols of fertility such as a pair of sons and the amralumbi (bunch of mango fruits) and Mango tree. As a consequence, people propitiated her for begetting children.
The general assumption is that Ambikā, also called as Amba, Kuşmändini, Baladevi in Jainism, is borrowed from the Brahmanical pantheon. But the Jainas have a mythology of their own. Ambikä in Jaina iconographic art rides a lion and holds in her four hands āmralumbi, noose, child and ankuśa, and she is thus the Jaina opposite of Durgā, one of whose early appellations is Ambikā. Sometimes she is shown accompanied by seven dancing female figures, who may be the Jaina adaptations of the Sapta-matrkās. The Jaina conception of this goddess is thus an amalgam of different ideas.
in one of the Jaina Tantrika passages (Ambika tādarka, c. 134h century A.D.), it is clearly stated that, by the worship of Ambikā, the devotees are blessed with children (putram labhate). At a later stage between the 10th and 13th century A.D. some features of Sakti were also induced in Jaina Yakşi Ambikā, as is evidenced by the details available in different iconographic texts wherein she is conceived with some such attributes as goad, noose, thunderbolt, ghantă (bell), sword and disc to manifest her Sakti or power aspect. The terrific forms of Ambikā, propitiated in a number of Tantrika rites such as Santika, paustika, stambhana, mārana etc. are also enunciated in some of the stutis and the stotras
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given in the appendices of the Bhairava-Padmavati- Kalpa. Apart from the propitiatory rites, the gruesome rites were also accepted in the Tántrika mode of her worship. The Ambikā-devi-stuti of Jineśvara Suri (c. 12th century A.D.) rightly invokes her as Jagajjanani and Jagatsvāmini.
The earliest reference to Ambika is obtained in the vrtti of Jinabhadragani Kșamäśramana on his Višeşāvaśyaka-bhāsya. The earliest archaeological evidence shows that Ambikā does not appear in Jaina worship prior to c. 550 A.D. The earliest known representation of Ambikā, both with the Jina (Rsabhanātha) and in independent image is datable to late 6th century A.D. These figures are procured from Akota. One of her early images was obtained from the Meguti temple (c. 634 A.D.) at Aihole, now preserved in Aihole Site Museum. The image, though mutilated, is exquisitely carved with beautiful and slender body revealing plasticity. Bappabhatti Suri (8th century A.D.) invokes Ambikā both with Neminatha and Mahāvīra (22.88; 24.96). A number of independent figures of Ambika were carved during the 8th - 9th century A.D., the examples of which are known mainly from Mathura, Dhank (Saurashtra, Gujarat), Osian (Mahāvira temple), Akota, Mathura, Deogadh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862) and Ellora (Jaina Caves 30-34, c. 9th century A.D.), (Pls. 181-182).
After the 9th century A.D. Ambikā enjoyed still greater popularity as is evidenced by the innumerable instances of her renderings in sculpture and painting. Deogadh, Khajuraho (Pl. 184), Delvada (Pl. 186) Kumbharia (Pl. 187), Hingalajgarh (Mandasaur, M.P.), Hagargundagi (Gulbarga, Karnataka- c. 10th century A.D.), Kalugumalai (Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu - c. geh. 9th century A.D., PI. 183), Venkunrum (North Arcot, Tamil Nadu - 14th-15th century A.D.), Ammanagi (Belgaum, Karnataka - 13th century), Hubli (Dharwar, Karnataka - 13th century A.D.), Sedam (Gulbarga,
Karnataka, c. 12th century A.D.), Moodbidri (South Kannara, Karnataka, 13th century A.D.), Nallur (South Kannara, Karnataka - 16th century A.D.), Sravanabelagola (Hassan, Karnataka-10th century A.D.), Terdal (Bijapur - Karnataka - 11h century A.D., PI. 188), Saligrama (Mysore- Karnataka - 12th century A.D., Pl. 189) and Khandagiri are the sites which have yielded large number of Ambikā sculptures datable between the 10th and 15h-16h centuries A.D. It was during the 10th and the 13th centuries A.D. that the iconographic form of Ambikā witnessed several such additions which hint at the elevation of her status, sometimes equalling even to the Jinas, highest in Jaina worship. In one of the instances from Khajuraho, datable to c. 11th century A.D. (Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho, Acc. No. 1608) Ambikā, like the Jinas, is joined by the figures of Yakșa and Yakși. A nonpareil image of Ambikā from Patiandai (Satna, M.P.), assignable to c. 11" century A.D. (Allahabad Museum, Acc. No. 293), contains the figures of the remaining twenty three Yakşīs alongwith their names inscribed below their figures in the parikara which perhaps suggest that she is represented here as the head of the group of the 24 Yaksis (Pl. 185). Aesthetically also the figure is beautiful with supple and flexioned body and rich ornaments.
In addition to the usual ämralumbi and son, the attributes like goad, noose, mirror, manuscript-cumlotus, vajra-ghantā, sword and disc were also incorporated in the iconography of Ambika. The rendering of goad and noose, however, finds textual support right from early 10th century A.D. onwards in north India (Nirvāņakalikā – 18.22) while reference to sword and disc are found only in south Indian works. The inclusion of goad, noose, sword and disc was intended probably to suggest the power of Yakși Ambika who has constant vigil and control over evil spirits such as the grahas, bhutas, rogas, räkșasas and piśācas. According to the Harivarnía-Purāņa, as a Sāsanadevatā she was supposed

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to protect the Sargha (religious organisation) and the 23. Pārsva (or Dharanendra) Yaksa and interests of her worshippers (Harivamsa-Purāņa- 66.45) Padmāvati Yakși of Pārsvanātha (23rd Jina)
The Ambikā-tātanka_conceives her with such (i) Pārsva or Dharanendra Yakşa- Pärśva or destructive weapons as bow, arrow, staff, sword, disc Dharanendra Yakṣa is a snake-god who came to be etc. The Ambikā-tatarka and the Ambika-devi-stuti associated with Pārsvanātha along with his queen (sakti) (appendices 18, 19, 21 of the Bhairava-Padmăvati- Padmāvati as Yakṣa and Yakși. The references to both Kalpa) also give her such appellations as Sivā, Sankari, Parsva (or Dharanendra) and Padmāvati who came from Mantrarūpā, Gauri, Gāndhāri, Yakşeśvari, Kali, heaven to protect Pārsvanatha from the upasargas Mahākāli, Aghoră, Bhimanādā, Candikā, Candarūpā, (hindrances) caused by the demon Kamatha (or Sambara) Jayantā-kumäri, Yogeśvari, Tripurangi, Mahādevi, during the course of his austerities (tapas), are found Amogha-Vāgīśvari, Mohini, Dipānī, Sosani, Träsini, from about 7th-8th century A.D. in the Jaina texts. Both etc., which distinctly suggest strong influence of the traditions are in agreement to provide the fourBrahmanic Ambikā (or Durga) who is endowed with armed Yakşa with snake canopy and tortoise mount. alike appellations in her manifestations as twelve Gauris, The Svetämbara texts sometimes visualise Pārsva Yakşa twenty-four Parvatis, nine-Durgās and several other as elephant-headed and in one example from forms. In two examples reported from Darhat (Hamirpur, Vimalavasahi (devakulikā 4 - 1188 A.D.), the fourU.P.) and datable to c. 13th century A.D., Jaina Ambikā armed Yaksa with tortoise mount and three-hooded is surprisingly depicted either with noose, vajra-ghanță, snake canopy is not only shown as elephant-headed but or with manuscript-cum-lotus and mirror in two upper he has also been provided with a pot filled with sweethands. The forms of these images (State Museum, balls (modaka-patra) in hand, apparently to suggest the Lucknow, Acc. No. G 312 and 66/225), bear close impact of the Brahmanical god Ganesa. The Yakşa affinity with Brahmanic Sivā who likewise rides a lion holds in three other hands snakes in two hands) and and holds a mirror in one of her hands (Pl. 190). The a money-bag. noose and the vajra-ghantä are suggestive of the power The Nirvaņakalikā (18.23) conceives elephantaspect of Ambikā, while the manuscript represents her headed Pärśva Yaksa as holding fruit and snake in right as amogha-vägīśvari and Sarasvati as mentioned in and nakula (for mongoose skin purse) and snake in left Jaina stutis.
hands. The Pratisthāsāroddhāra (3.151) provides snakes In one rare image of Ambikā from Mathura (c. in two upper hands while the lower hands show noose 9th century A.D.., Government Museum, Mathura, Acc. made of snake (nāgapāśa) and varada-mudrā. The south No. D7), the two-armed Yaksi is joined by Ganesa and Indian text mentions almost the same features wherein Vaiśravana respectively on right and left flanks (Pl. the Yakşa with five-hooded snake canopy and tortoise 182). The rendering of eight female figures on the mount holds snake in two hands. Sometimes he is said pedestal perhaps suggests the presence of Astamatykās. to carry pitcher, noose, goad and fruit also which are The presence of Ganeša and Mātņkās (?) with Ambikā found in most of the sculptural examples from Karnataka. may well be linked with the Brahmanic Ambika. The The name of the Yakșa reminds of seșanāga or beautifully carved image has the small figure of Nagaraja of Brahmanical tradition while the tortoise Neminātha overhead flanked by the figures of Balarama (Kurma) mount perhaps suggests the control of the and Krsna.
Yakṣa over demon Kamatha (tortoise) who was the
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enemy of Pārsvanātha for several existences and who caused upasargas during his penance.
The independent figures of the Yakşa, belonging to both the traditions and datable between 8th and 13th century A.D., are found mainly from Osian (Mahāvīra temple - gth century A.D.), Gyaraspur (Māladevī temple), Delvada (Lūņa-vasahi - 13h century A.D.) and Humcha (Pārsvanātha Basti, Shimoga, Karnataka - 12th century A.D.). The renderings of Yakșa with Pārsvanātha images are also found from about goh century A.D. at almost all the sites of importance. In all the examples the figures follow the textual injunctions mainly in respect of snake canopy (one, three or five hoods) and snake shown in one or two hands. However, in the instances from south India, specially Karnataka, the rendering of goad, noose and fruit with Dharanendra are based on textual injunctions, although the same set of attributes could also be seen with the Yaksi Padmăvati in Karnataka. One hand of the Yaksa as usual shows varada- or abhaya-mudra.
In the figures from Osian (two examples), the two- armed Pārsva Yaksa with three (or seven)-hooded snake canopy holds flower and snake. In the example from Lūņavasahi (southern entrance of gudhamandapa) the four-armed Yaksa shows snakes in his three hands and varada-cum-rosary in the fourth one.
In an image (10h-11h century A.D.) of the Kannara Research Institute, Dharwar (S.C. 53), the four-armed Yaksa with snake canopy holds Jotus, noose, axe and fruit. In two independent sculptures of 12th century from Karnataka, preserved in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, the four-armed seated Yaksa has three-hooded snake canopy. In one instance the Yaksa riding a tortoise shows varada-mudrā, snake (in two hands) and noose. The other figure without mount shows lotus, mace, noose and varada-mudra.
The two figures from Humca (12th century) with three-hooded snake canopy depict the Yakșa as seated
on lotus (Pl. 191). In one case two-armed Yaksa holds lotus and fruit while the other figure shows four-armed Yaksa with varada-mudrā, goad, noose and fruit. Apparently the above two images are witness to the prevalence of south Indian textual tradition which conceives the Yakşa both with two and four arms. In two beautifully carved 12th century stone images of Parsvanātha from Gulbarga (Karnataka), Dharanendra and Padmăvati with single-hooded snake canopy exhibit identical features. Both, seated in lalitäsana, are fourarmed and carry goad and noose in upper hands while lower hands show lotus (or varada-mudrā) and fruit. These images, preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London (Acc. Nos. 931 (IS) and 937 (IS)) are superb in smoothness, modelling and also the dexterity so far as the ornamentation of Yakşa-Yakşi figures are concerned.
On north Indian Digambara Jaina sites, the images of Pārsvanātha, besides the figures of Yakşa-Yaksi on throne extremities, sometimes also contain the twoarmed figures of Dharana and Padmavati standing on two sides of the Jina to suggest the episode of the upasarga of Pārsvanātha. In such instances, known from Mathura, Deogadh, Khajuraho, Ellora and other places, Dharana with snake canopy stands with folded hands while Padmavati with snake canopy holds long parasol, the top of which is shown above the head of Jina. The parasol also covers the hoods of Dharana Yaksa which is shown to protect Pärsvanätha from torrential rain caused by Kamatha. Sometimes Yaksa is present only in theriomorphic form as a snake (seven-hooded) covering the entire body of Pārsvanatha. While at throne extremity Dharana Yakṣa is shown with snake canopy. When two-armed, Yaksa shows varada (or abhaya) - mudrā or lotus and fruit and when four-armed, shows varada (or abhaya)-mudrā, snake, noose (or lotus) and water-vessel (or fruit). Thus we find different traditions of the rendering of Pārsva (or Dharaṇendra)
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Yaksa to suggest that the Jainas were accepting changes and innovations within the parameter of tradition.
(ii) Padmavati Yakṣi- Padmavati, the snake goddess, is one of the four most popular Yakṣis of Jaina tradition, who along with Dharanendra Yakṣa has been associated with Parsvanatha. Both the traditions provide kukkuta-sarpa (cock-snake) or merely kukkuta as the vahana and lotus, noose and goad as the main attributes of Padmavati.
The Nirvaṇakalikä (18.23) conceives four-armed Padmavati with kukkuța (cock) vahana and lotus and noose in right and fruit and goad in left hands. All other Śvetämbara texts speak of the kukkuta-sarpa as her vahana (Triṣaṣṭiśalakāpuruṣacaritra - 9.3.364-65, Pārsvanathacaritra -7.829-30). The Manträdhirajakalpa also envisages three-hooded snake-canopy over the head of the Yakṣi. The Digambara texts as compared to Śvetambara ones make elaborate dhyānas of Padmavati wherein she is said to have four, six and twenty-four arms (Pratisthāsārasamgraha-5.67-71). The four-armed Padmavati holds goad, lotus and rosary in three hands while the six-armed Yakşi carries noose, sword, spear, crescent (välendu), mace and pestle. According to both the Pratisthāsārasamgraha and the Pratisthāsāroddhāra (3.174), the twenty-four-armed Yakṣi with three-hooded snake canopy and one hand being in the varada-mudra, bears conch, sword, disc, crescent, lotus, lotus, bow, spear, noose, goad, bell, arrow, pestle, shield, trident, axe, kunta, bhinda, mälä (rosary), fruit, mace, patra and pallava.
Padmavati was also accorded an exalted position in tantrika_worship, the best example of which could be seen in the Bhairava-Padmavati-Kalpa wherein Yakşi is worshipped in various tantrik rites. She has three eyes and has also been addressed to as Tripura and Tripura Bhairavi. However, the attributes are almost the same. The south Indian tradition sometimes prescribing five

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hooded snake canopy speaks of hamsa-vahana.
The earliest figures of Padmavati are datable between 8th and 10th century A.D. The earliest instance carved on Mahāvīra temple at Osian (8th century A.D.) depicts Yakṣi as two-armed with kukkuṭa-sarpa as vahana and snake and fruit as attributes. In subsequent examples mostly the Yakşî is shown either with kukkuta-sarpa or kukkuta vahana and as carrying snake, noose, goad and lotus in her hands. She is shown with four or six
or even ten arms.
In western India the figures of Padmavati are mainly known from Osian (both from Mahāvīra temple and devakulikās), Nagda (Udaipur, Rajasthan), Jhalarapatan (Jhalawar, Rajasthan), Kumbharia (Neminatha temple Pl. 196), Delvada (Vimalavasahi and Lūnavasahi) and Śatruñjaya. The image of fourarmed Padmavati from Nagda (10th-11th century A.D., now in Udaipur Government Museum, Acc. No. 56), seated in lalita-mudra on lotus seat, has the figure of Parsvanatha overhead (Pl. 194). The Yakşi holds sword, snake, snake and fruit. Six small figures of goddesses are also carved in the parikara. What is most important in the present instance is the rendering of the figures of two-armed Yakṣa and Yakṣi in the fashion they are carved with the Jinas. This suggests the elevation of Padmavati as a cult goddess. Aesthetically also the image reveals grace, beauty and dignity.
The eight-armed figure from Jhalarapatan (Jaina temple 1043 A.D.) is seated in lalitasana under sevenhooded snake canopy. Padmavati here shows varada-mudra, thunderbolt, lotus bud, dagger, shield, lotus bud, bell and fruit. In case of figure from Kumbharia (Neminatha temple), the four-handed Yakşi with kukkuta-sarpa has five-hooded snake canopy (Pl. 196). She shows varada-mudra, goad, noose and fruit.
The earliest known figure of Digambara affiliation is from Deogadh (Temple No. 12, A.D. 862). The four

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armed Yakṣi with the name Padmāvati given in inscription with her representation with the Pārsvanātha images. stands with the figure of Pārsvanātha carved overhead. In all the examples (mostly datable to 10h and 13th The Yakşi shows varada-mudrā, noose, lotus and shield century A.D.), the Yakṣi with one or five or even more (?). The other important figures of Yakși are found from hooded snake-canopy is seated on lotus with kukkuța Gyaraspur (Mālādevī temple), Deogadh, Khajuraho, vāhana and small figure of Jina Pārsvanātha overhead. Shahdol and Khandagiri (Navamuni and Barabhuji caves). Padmavati, mostly four-armed, invariably holds goad The figures from Deogadh and Khajuraho depict the and noose in her two upper hands while the remaining Yakși mainly with snake canopy and the attributes like two hands exhibit varada-mudrā and fruit (Terdal) or lotus, pitcher, goad, noose and manuscript. The vahana varada and snake or lotus and fruit (Humcha) (Pls. 197in most of the examples is kukkuta. The maximum 198). Some of her exquisitely carved figures are found variety in the forms of Padmavati is noticed at Deogadh from Humcha, Badami and Terdal in Karnataka and where two, four and twelve-armed figures were carved Kalugumalai in Tamil Nadu. A number of figures are during 9th and 12th century A.D. The figures are mostly preserved also in the museums like Prince of Wales carved on the Mānastambha. In one of such examples Museum, Mumbai (three figures), Kannara Research (Mānastambha before Temple No. 11- A.D. 1059), the Institute Museum, Dharwar (two figures) and Manjusha twelve-armed Padmāvati is seated in lalita-mudră with Museum, Dharmasthal (two figures). The south Indian kukkuta-sarpa (Pl. 193). The Yakşi with five-hooded figures as compared to north Indian figures do not show snake canopy shows varada-mudrā, arrow, goad, long variety of forms. stalked lotus, chain, staff, umbrella, thunderbolt, snake. Of the two sculptures in the Manjusha Museum noose, bow and fruit. Another 11th century figure from Dharmasthal (South Kannara, Karnataka), one (15th - Shahdol (M.P.) is now in the Thakur Saheb collection at 16h century A.D.) is particularly interesting since it Shahdol. Surprisingly the mount here is tortoise and the exhibits the primitive form with folkish character to figure of Parsvanātha with seven-hooded snake canopy suggest that Padmavati as a snake-goddess enjoyed is also carved over the head. The Yakși joined by the similar popularity in local-tribal community. The fourfigures of nāga and nägi is shown with varada-mudra, armed Yakși rides directly on a kukkuta of big size, sword, axe, arrow, thunderbolt, disc, shield, mace, goad, (even bigger than the figure of Yakşi) with eightbow, snake and lotus. In Navamuni cave the two-armed hooded snake-canopy (number is also unusual) and the Yakşi sits on lotus with jațămukuta. She has third eye figure of Pārsvanātha overhead. The modelling and on the forehead which reminds us of the tradition of stiffness of the figure remind us of the Indus Valley Bhairava-Padmavati-Kalpa. The kukkuta-sarpa as vāhana terracotta and metal figures. The Yakşi here is endowed and abhaya-mudra and lotus in hands are also to be seen. with trident, snake and lotus, thus the conventional goad In Bārabhuji cave the eight-armed Padmāvati with five- and noose are also not shown here. The other figure hooded snake canopy and the figure of Pārsvanatha (No. 1731) of 15th century stands in samabhanga with above shows varada-mudra, arrow, sword and disc in kukkuta vāhana carved on pedestal. The four-armed right and bow, shield and long stalked lotus (in two) in Padmāvati with three-hooded snake-canopy and left hands (Pl. 202).
figure of Pārsvanātha above, as usual, holds goad, noose In south India, particularly in Karnataka, numerous and fruit in three hands while one hand is in abhayaindependent sculptures of Padmāvati were carved along mudra.
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(24) Mātanga Yakșa and Siddhāyikā (or Siddhāyini) Yaksi of Mahāvira (24th Jina)
(i) Mātanga Yakşa-Mātanga in both the traditions is conceived as two-armed and riding on an elephant. The Svetāmbara texts provide nakula and fruit (Nirvāņakalikā - 18.24). The Digambara texts refer to varada-mudrā and fruit in hands and dharmacakra mark on head (Pratisthäsärasargraha - 5.72-73). On the contrary, the south Indian texts visualize the Yaksa as two, four and even six-armed. The two-armed Yaksa carry the same attributes as found in the north Indian Digambara texts. The four-armed Yakṣa with elephant mount shows abhaya and some other mudrā with two hands while two other hands are in the attitude of adoration. The six-armed Yaksa holds dharmacakra, kaśā, noose, thunderbolt, staff and varada-mudra. As against the south Indian texts, the Yakṣa with Mahävīra images is mostly two-armed and holds purse which speaks of the bearing of Kubera or Sarvānubhūti Yaksa. However in one example of 11th century A.D., carved in Badami cave No. 4, the four-armed Yaksa riding on elephant shows abhaya-mudrā, mace, noose and sword.
It is surprising that we do not find any independent image of the Yaksa and even in Mahāvīra images the two-armed Yaksa shows abhaya-mudra (or mace) and money-bag (or fruit or pitcher). The Yaksa in very few instances from north India (Deogadh, Khajuraho and Kumbharia) is four-armed. In all such cases the Yaksa is carved on the pedestal of Mahāvīra images. In the ceiling of śāntinātha temple (11th century A.D.) at Kumbharia, the four-armed Yaksa is carved in the midst of narratives from the life of Mahāvīra. The Yaksa riding on elephant shows varada-mudrā, manuscript, lotus (shown like umbrella) and water-vessel. Virtually the Yaksa here exhibits the features of Brahmaśānti Yakşa. In one instance from Khajuraho (Temple No. 2 - A.D. 1092) the mount with four-armed Yaksa is lion which is borrowed from the cognizance of Mahāvīra.
The Yakṣa here holds money-bag, spear, lotus, and staff. Thus it is apparent that in sculptural examples the form of Yaksa was never standardized and further the four-armed variety was based on some such tradition which is now lost to us.
(ii) Siddhāyikā Yakși-The figures of Siddhāyikā, available from different parts of India, are generally noticed as part of the image of Mahävira. In all such examples her prominent symbols are lion mount and a book just as a citron. Her separate images are rather rarer in northern India but in south India, especially in the Tamil country, she enjoyed much popularity. After Ambikā, Siddhāyikā was the only Jaina goddess to have received great reverence in Tamil Nadu. There is a bulk of iconographical and also epigraphical evidence to show that in the Tamil country, the Yakṣi was accorded an independent status. Most examples of Siddhāyikā images evince a departure from canonical injunctions in regard to her attributes and number of arms.
Siddhāyikā on the basis of the textual descriptions seems to have been worshipped mainly in two varieties of forms, namely the two-armed and the four-armed, though her six-armed and twelve-armed varieties are also known. The two-armed variety of goddess seems to be favoured only by the Digambaras. The Pratisthāsăroddhāra (3.178) describes the two-armed Yakşi as having gold colour and sitting on bhadrāsana, and showing book and the varada-mudră. Her mount is lion.T.N. Ramachandran gives a two-armed Digambara variety of the Yakṣi which is from the laudatory verses recited in Kanerese by the temple priest at Jina Kāñci. In verse, she is represented as seated in lalita-pose with hamsa as vähana and showing abhaya-mudra in right hand. Her left hand is hanging down. The Aparajitaprccha (221.38) prescribes abhayamudră instead of varada-mudra.
Both the Nirvänakalikä (18.24) and the
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Trişastišalakäpuruşacaritra (10.5.12-13) of Svetāmbara tradition describe four-armed goddess as having green complexion and riding on a lion. In the Nirvāņakalikā, she is said to hold fruit and arrow in her two left hands and book in the third right hand while the fourth is in abhaya-mudrā. But according to Trişastiśaläkāpuruşacaritra, she bears a viņa in one of her left hands.
A solitary dhyāna of the six-armed Siddhāyikā is prescribed in the Mantradhirājakalpa (3.66). She is here visualized as bearing pustaka, the abhaya-mudrā, the varada-mudrā, sharp-edged weapon (kharāyudha), vīņā and fruit.
A two-armed image of Siddhāyika standing in tribhanga is carved on the wall of the Temple No. 12 (A.D. 862) at Deogadh. The Yakşi represented with Vardhamana is called 'Aparajitā' and shows a bud-like object in her left hand, while the right hand is resting on thigh. Her vahana is not shown. A solitary instance of independent rendering of the four-armed Siddhāyikā is found at Khajuraho. The figure is carved on the right extremity of a door-lintel, incorporated in the modern Jaina Temple No. 24 (11th century A.D.). Here Siddhāyikā sits in lalitäsana with a lion carved below her feet, and bears sword and shield respectively in her right and left upper hands, while the lower right and left ones show the varada-mudra and water-vessel (hanging). An exact replica of the above figure was noticed at Deogadh also.
In the sculptures hailing from south India, the Yakşi is invariably shown with two arms and as standing to the proper right of the Jina instead of the left. At a small distance from Anandamangalam, sculptures carved on the rock of a hillock near the village of Kāñcī, is another example where two-armed Siddhāyikā is portrayed standing by the right side of Jina. Her right hand rests on the waist and the left one holds an object which seems a fruit.
A bronze image of Mahavira, assignable to the 9th century A.D., comes from Karanja (Akola, Maharashtra) and represents Siddhāyikā standing as she is on a separate pedestal. The four-armed deity carries axe, lotus-flower, citron and flower (?). In an image of Mahāvīra harboured in a niche on the southern facade of the sanctum of the Mālādevi Temple (9th century A.D.) at Gyaraspur (Vidisha, M.P.), the twoarmed Yakṣī, seated in lalităsana, is rendered at the left corner of throne. She holds viņa in her both arms. Another image of Mahāvīra, deposited in the Reserve Collection of the Rajputana Museum, Ajmer (Acc. No. 279, inscribed in samvat 1061 = 1004 A.D.), contains the figure of two-armed Siddhāyikā at the left extremity of throne. Here she rides on a lion and bears sword in right hand, while the left one is broken off. Two 12h century figures of Mahāvīra, housed in the reserve collection of the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. Nos. J.808, J.782), contain the figures of two-armed Siddhāyikā at their throne ends. In both the figures showing identical details, Siddhāyikā bears the abhayamudră in right hand and kalaśa in the left.
In the images of Mahāvīra coming from Khajuraho Siddhāyikā is carved both as possessing two and four arms. In three instances, the two-armed Siddhāyikā is shown with the abhaya-mudra in right hand and fruit or blossom in the left. In three other examples Siddhāyikä, seated in lalitāsana with a lion below her feet, possesses four hands. First image, installed in the Modern Jaina Temple No. 2 inscribed in sarvat 1149 = 1092 A.D.), exhibits Siddhāyikä as bearing a disc and a fruit in her upper and lower right hands, while the corresponding left ones carry respectively lotus and conch. Second example, lying in the Open Air Museum (No. K. 17), adjacent to the Adinātha Temple shows the same set of symbols. Third figure, incorporated on the rear wall of the modern Jaina Temple No. 11 (No. K. 28/1; 11h century A.D.), represents her as carrying
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sword and disc in her upper right and left hands. The lower right and left hands show respectively the varada- mudră and fruit. The rendering of disc and conch with Siddhāyikā suggests the bearing of iconography of Jaina Yakşi Cakreśvari upon Siddhāyikā which was a peculiar feature of Khajuraho.
In majority of the sculptures of Mahāvīra hailing from Deogadh, two-armed Siddhāyikā, seated in lalitäsana, is portrayed as bearing the abhaya-mudra in right hand and fruit in the left. A Cauvisi of Jinas, all seated with the distinguishing cognizances, astaprātihāryas and Yaksa- Yakşi pairs, is preserved in the Sahu Jaina Museum at Deogadh. The two-armed Yakṣi with Mahāvīra sits in lalitāsana and shows the abhaya-mudra in right hand and a pustaka in the left.
A unique example of twenty-armed Siddhāyikā (c. 12th century A.D.) is depicted on the verandah wall of Barabhuji cave on the Khandagiri hill (Pl. 202). The goddess here shows the varada-mudrā, spear, rosary, arrow, small staff (?), hammer, hala (plough), vajra, disc and sword in her right hands while with her left she carries water-pot, book, citron (?), lotus, bell (?), bow, nāga, vajra and shield. Beneath the figure of Siddhāyikā is sculptured an elephant as conveyance and above her head is carved the figure of Mahāvīra with lion cognizance.
Yaksi Siddhāyikä or Siddhayini (as some sources call her) resembles Sarasvati in some aspects and Jina Mahāvīra himself in the other. Her mount, lion, connects her with the Jina whose cognizance is lion. On the other hand, the manuscript and the Vinā make her analogous to Sarasvati. REFERENCES
B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, Delhi, 1974 (Reprint); U.P. Shah, Jaina-Rupa-Mandana, New Delhi, 1987, pp. 205-300; Maruti Nandan Pd. Tiwari, Jaina Pratimăvijñāna, Varanasi, 1981, pp. 154-247, Elements of Jaina Iconography, Varanasi, 1983, pp. 5878 and Ambika in Jaina Art and Literature, New Delhi, 1989; P.B. Desai, Jainism in South India and Some Jaina Epigraphs, Sholapur, 1963; T.N. Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikuņram and its Temples, Bull. Madras Govt. Museum, New Series, Vol. I, Pt. 3, Madras, 1934; H.D. Sankalia, 'Jaina Iconography, New Indian Antiquary, Vol. II, 1939-40, pp. 497-520; Klaus Bruhn, The Jina Images of Deogarh, Leiden, 1969; Debala Mitra, "Sāsanadevis in the Khandagiri Caves', Jour. Asiatic Society, Vol. I, No. 2, 1959, pp. 127-133; C. Sivaramamurti, Panorama of Jaina Art (South India), New Delhi, 1983; Pratapaditya Pal (Ed.), The Peaceful Liberators - Jain Art from India, Los Angles, 1994.
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CHAPTER X
VIDYADEVIS
The Vidyadevis forming a group of Tantric goddesses had enjoyed a venerated position among both the Śvetambara and Digambara Jaina sects. The early Jaina Āgamas like the Sthānanga, Aupapātika, Jñātādharmakathanga and other works like the Paumacariya of Vimalasūri (A.D. 473), the Vasudevahindi of Sanghadasagani (c. mid 6th century A.D.) and the Harivamsapuraṇa make frequent references to various Vidyas who are endowed with supernatural powers. The list of the sixteen Mahavidyas was prepared from a number of different Vidyadevis. The earliest lists are enumerated in the Tijayapahutta (c. 9th century A.D.), the Samhitäsära of Indranandi (Digambara, A.D. 939) and the Stuticaturviṁśatikā or Sobhana-stuti of Sobhana Muni (c. A.D. 1000). But their individual iconographic features for the first time are enunciated in Bappabhatti's Caturviṁśatikā and the Sobhana-stuti. A number of later texts of the Śvetambara as well as the Digambara sects also deal with the iconography of the sixteen Mahavidyas. The final list of the sixteen Mahavidyas among both the sects was prepared between the 8th and 10th century A.D. The final list supplied by the later traditions of both the sects includes the following names: (1) Rohini, (2) Prajñapti, (3) Vijraśṛnkhala, (4) Vajrankusa, (5) Cakresvart or Apraticakra (Svet.) and Jambūnada (Dig.), (6) Naradatta or Puruşadattā, (7) Kāli or Kālikā, (8) Mahakali, (9) Gauri, (10) Gāndhārī, (11) Sarvāstra-mahājvālā or Jvālā (Śvet.) and Jvālāmālinī (Dig.), (12) Manavī, (13) Vairotya (Śvet.) and Vairoți (Dig.), (14) Acchuptā (Śvet.) and Acyuta (Dig.), (15) Mānasī and (16) Mahāmānasī.
Unlike the Śvetämbara occurrence of the Mahavidyas in western India, no corresponding sculpture or painting of the Digambara sect has so far been known, excepting on the facade of the Adinatha temple (c. late 11th century A.D.) at Khajuraho where a series

of the sixteen Mahavidyas are encountered (Pl. 207). The goddesses on Adinatha temple, crowned by tiny Jina figures and possessing four to eight arms, are either seated in lalitasana or standing in tribhanga. They bear various attributes and are provided with their vahanas. On the basis of the iconographical characteristics, we are tempted to suggest possible identification of some of the figures with Acchupta, Vairotyä, Gāndhārī, Mahāmānasī, Gauri, Apraticakra and Puruṣadatta Mahavidyās. So far as the collective rendering of the sixteen Mahavidyās is concerned, only a few examples are so far known at the Svetambara Jaina sites, namely the Santinatha temple at Kumbharia (aisle ceilings, A.D. 1077), Vimalavasahi (two sets, one in the rangamandapa ceiling, A.D. 1150, Pl. 204 and the other in the corridor ceiling of cell No. 41, A.D. 1185), Lūnavasahi (rangamaṇḍapa ceiling, A.D. 1230) and the Kharataravasahi (two sets, A.D. 1459). The Śvetambara temples at Osian, Kumbharia, Taranga, Ghanerav, Sadri, Nadol, Delvada and many more, datable from 8th to 15th century A.D., invariably depict Jaina Mahavidyas with distinguishing attributes and mounts as prescribed by the Svetambara texts. The rendering of the Mahavidyās was also very popular in Jaina miniature paintings.
The earliest known representations of Śvetambara Jaina Mahavidyas in architectural context are found at the Mahavira temple at Osian (8th century A.D.) (Pl. 203). The figures of the Mahavidyas at the Mahāvīra temple, Osian, are either two- or four-armed, the twoarmed figuring more frequently. However, the figures on the devakulikās (11th century A.D.) also show the six-armed examples. With few exceptions of standing figures, the rest are shown as seated in lalitasana. The Mahavidyas, with their specific mounts and attributes, are carved above the eaves of the mukhacatuṣki, mukhamandapa, and the gudhamandapa of the main

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temple on one hand, and the pitha, jangha, and doorways of the devakulikäs on the other. Of the sixteen Mahavidyas, the figures of only Rohini, Vajraśnikhalä. Vajränkuśā, Apraticakra, Kāli, Mahākāli, Gauri, Vairotyä, Acchuptă and Mahāmānasī are represented on the main temple, while the devakulika figures include Prajñapti, Naradattā, Gāndhārī and Manasī in addition to the aforementioned. However, the figures of Sarvästramahājvālā and Manavī are conspicuous by their absence. The beautiful independent figures of Apraticakra, Vairotya, Acchuptă and Mahämänasī like Mahavidyas are found in the ceilings of Vimalavasahi (Pls. 205-206) and Kumbharia temples.
The individual iconographic features of each of the sixteen Mahavidyas, according to Svetambara and Digambara Jaina texts, are enunciated hereunder which were more or less followed in visual renderings at different Śvetambara Jaina sites.
(1) Rohini
(A) Śvetämbara
Vidyadevis
four-armed, Mount-Cow, holds arrow, rosary, bow, conch. (B) Digambara four-armed, Mount - Lotus, carries kalasa, conch, lotus, fruit (or mätulinga)
(2) Prajñapti
(A) Śvetambara - four-armed, Mount - Peacock, shows varada, spear, fruit, spear. (B) Digambara four-armed, Mount - Horse, bears disc, sword, conch, varada. (3) Vajraśṛnkhalā
(A) Śvetambara four-armed, Mount - Lotus, bears chain in one or two hands, varada, lotus.
(B) Digambara four-armed, Mount - Lotus or Elephant, bears chain in one or two hands, conch, lotus, fruit (or even thunderbolt).
(4) Vajränkuśā
(A) Śvetämbara - four-armed, Mount-Elephant, bears thunderbolt, goad, varada, fruit.

(B) Digambara four-armed. It merely refers to ankuśa symbol. Mount-Puspayana, holds goad, thunderbolt, lotus, fruit.
(5) Apraticakra or Jāmbūnadā
(A) Śvetämbara - four-armed Mount - Eagle, holds disc in each of her hands. (B) Digambara-four-armed, Mount - Peacock, carries sword, spear, lotus, fruit.
(6) Naradatta or Puruṣadattā
(A) Śvetambara - four-armed, Mount - Buffalo, holds swords, shield, varada, fruit. (B) Digambara-four-armed, Mount - Cakravaka (ruddy goose), holds thunderbolt, lotus, conch, fruit
(7) Kāli or Kālikā
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(A) Śvetambara four-armed, Mount - Lotus, shows club, rosary, thunderbolt (or trident), abhaya
(B) Digambara four-armed, Mount - Deer, holds pestle, sword, lotus, fruit.
(8) Mahākāli
(A) Śvetambara four-armed, Mount - Man, holds thunderbolt, fruit, bell, rosary. (B) Digambara four-armed, Mount - Sarabha (fabulous animal), holds bow, sword, fruit, arrow,
(9) Gauri
(A) Śvetambara - four-armed, Mount - Goḍhā (Alligator) or Bull, shows varada, pestle (or staff), rosary, lotus.
(B) Digambara-All texts unanimously envisage lotus in hands and alligator as vahana. (10) Gāndhāri
(A) Śvetambara four-armed, Mount - Lotus, holds thunderbolt (or trident), pestle (or staff), varada, abhaya.
(B) Digambara - four-armed, Mount - Tortoise, holds sword, disc.
(11) Sarvästra-Mahājvālā or Jvālāmālini According to Hemacandra, she is so called

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because large flames of fire issue from all
the weapons held by her. (A) Svetāmbara - four-armed, Mount - Boar or
Cat or Goose, holds innumerable weapons, shows-fire-branded in both hands or even
serpent in each of four hands. (B) Digambara-eight-armed, Mount - Buffalo,
holds bow, sword, arrow, shield-(i) Pratisthas- sāroddhāra and Yantra-pujā envisage bow, sword, shield, disc; (ii) Pratisthātilakam mentions eight-armed goddess with bow, arrow and such other weapons shining with
flames. (12) Mānavi (A) Svetāmbara - four-armed, Mount - Lotus,
holds tree full of fruits and foliage or varada,
noose, rosary, tree. (B) Digambara - four-armed, Mount - Hog,
holds fish, sword, trident. (13) Vairotyā or Vairoți (A) Svetāmbara - four-armed, Mount - Cobra,
holds snake in two hands), sword, shield. (B) Digambara - four-armed, Mount - Snake
or Lion, holds snake in her hands. (14) Acchuptā or Acyutā (A) Svetāmbara -four-armed, Mount - Horse,
bears sword, shield, arrow, bow. (B) Digambara-four-armed, Mount - Horse. It
merely refers to thunderbolt and sword. (15) Mānasi (A) Svetāmbara -four-armed, Mount - Swan,
bears varada, thunderbolt, rosary,
thunderbolt or trident. (B) Digambara - All the works visualize her
as being represented with hands folded in
namaskära-mudra. (16) Mahāmānasi (A) Svetāmbara - four-armed, Mount - Lion
or Crocodile, holds sword, shield, jewel, pitcher.
(B) Digambara --four-armed, Mount - Swan,
she merely shows Praņāma-mudrā or varada,
rosary, goad, garland. Of all the collective renderings of the sixteen Mahāvidyās, the set in the ceiling of the Sāntinātha temple at Kumbharia is the earliest (11h century A.D.). The sixteen Mahavidyas are carved all around the central figure of Jina Supārsvanātha seated with five-hooded cobra overhead. Eleven of these Mahāvidyā figures correspond fully or partially with the injunctions of the Caturvimśatika and more so to those of the Nirvanakalikā, However, in representations of two other Mahāvidyās, namely Mahajvälā and Acchuptā, the prescriptions of the Acāradinakara have been followed. One other Vidyādevī, Kālī, not conforming to any known dhyānas, has been identified on the testimony of Khatvānga. A firm identification of the remaining two Mahavidyās - Mānasi and Mahämanasi - could not be possible inasmuch as they do not correspond even the least to any of the known dhyanas.
We shall now discuss in detail the iconography of the Mahavidyās associated with Mahāvīra temple complex of Osian where they seem to have occupied a special position. They are significant as the earliest examples of that category. On one side they reveal an iconographic evolution and on the other an almost complete concordance with the prescriptions of the Caturvimsatikā of Bappabhatti Suri (c. late 8th century A.D.) and the Nirvänakalika of Padalipta Sūri III (c. A.D. 950). Incidentally, the forms of the Svetämbara Mahāvidyās, in some cases, are practically repeated on the Digambara Jaina Temple No. 12 (Sāntinātha Temple : A.D. 862) at Deogadh, particularly the iconography of Vajraśşikhalā, Apraticakra, Acchuptā, Vairotyā and Mahämänasi.
The first Mahavidyā, Rohiņi, is represented in Osian by ten examples, two on the main temple and the remaining on the devakulikās. The goddess, in all examples, is shown four-armed and rides a cow. The figures on the main temple hold arrows (?), abhaya (or
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vyākhyāna-cum-rosary), bow and conch (or a kamandalu) while those on the devakulikäs show the abhaya, arrow, bow and fruit (or conch). However, in one instance, carved on the doorway of the devakulika No.1 she, holds arrow, sword, trident and bow. The Caturvimsatikā (3.12) and the Nirvanakalikā (37) concieve the four- armed Rohiņi with cow as mount, holding as she does arrow, rosary, bow and conch. It is hence apparent that the carvers have followed the prescriptions of the Svetāmbara texts more faithfully for the devakulikā figures.
The second Mahāvidyā, Prajñapti, represented by nine instances occurring only on the devakulikas), is either two- or four-armed. The figure on the devakulikā No. 3 is a solitary instance representing the goddess with two arms, riding on a peacock and holding süla, her distinguishing attribute, in her right hand. In the remaining instances, she invariably rides a peacock and holds sakti (spear) in each of her two upper hands and the varada or abhaya-mudră (or fruit) and fruit (or water-vessel) in the lower ones. The above-noted figures correspond with the available Svetämbara dhyanas wherein Prajñapti, alternatively called Saktikarā, is conceived as riding a peacock and holding varada, sakti, fruit and Sakti. The figure on the doorframe of devakulikā No. 1 perhaps shows the goddess with lotuses in two upper hands. However, the late work Acāradinakara (A. D. 1412) provides Prajñapti with lotus alongwith sakti.
The third Mahavidya Vajraśộnkhalā, shown always seated in lalitäsana on a lotus, is represented by seven instances, of which one is carved on the mukhacatuski of the main temple and the remaining on the devakulikās. She is depicted either two-or four-armed. The two- armed figures, represented by only two instances, are carved respectively on the main temple and the vedibandha of the devakulikā No. 2. The goddess in the former case holds a chain and a manuscript, while in the latter a long chain (śrrikhalā)-an invariate feature of the goddess--in both the hands. The four-armed figures show the abhaya or varada-mudra and fruit (or
water-vessel) in lower right and left hands while the upper ones carry, as usual, long chain. The four-armed figures known from Kumbharia, Delvada (Vimalavasahi) and other Śvetämbara sites likewise bear a long chain in two upper hands, while the lower ones show varada and fruit, sometimes mace. The Caturvinnsatikā (5.20). the Nirvāņakalika and the Mantrādhirājakalpa (3.5) also visualise Vajraśrókhalā with a lotus seat, and carrying long chain (in two hands), the varada-mudra and lotus. Vajraśrnkhala at Osian has a bearing on the iconography of the Yakși of Jina Munisuvrata on the Temple No. 12 at Deogadh. The four-armed Yakṣi with the appellation 'Sidhai' stands on lotus and holds chain, the abhaya-cum-blossom and lotus in three hands, while one is resting on thigh.
The fourth Mahavidyā Vajränkusa is represented by six examples, one on the mukhacatuṣki of the main temple and the remaining ones on the devakulikās. She invariably rides an elephant and possesses either two or four hands. The solitary instance of a two-armed goddess is on the main temple; she shows some mudrā with the right hand, while the left holds a water-vessel. The four-armed goddess shows the abhaya or varadamudrā, and holds thunderbolt, goad, and fruit (or watervessel). However, in one case, carved on the doorframe of devakulikā No. 4, the thunderbolt is replaced by a spear. The Svetāmbara works invariably conceive the goddess as riding on an elephant with an arm in varada, the rest holding vajra, ankuśa and fruit. The devakulikā figures, according to the Svetāmbara works, show that the form of the goddess was standardised at the site. The figures in the Säntinātha temple (Kumbharia), and in the Vimalavasahi (Delvada) also portray Vajränkuśā, accompanied by an elephant, with varadākṣa, arkuśa, vajra and fruit. The association of elephant together with a goad and a thunderbolt with the goddess at once reminds of the Brahmanical Mātrkā Aindri.
Apraticakrā, also called Cakreśvari, the fifth Mahāvidyā, is represented by as many as thirteen
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examples at the site, two on the mukhamandapa and sword, fruit and shield. However, the Mantrādhirājakalpa the gudhamandapa walls of the main temple and the (3.8) visualises her as seated on a red lotus. remaining ones on the devakulikäs. The goddess is Kāli, the seventh Mahavidya, is represented by six always shown four-armed and rides a garuda represented examples, one on the mukhacatuṣki of the main temple in human form. Barring two examples, where she stands and the remaining ones on the devakulikās. The goddess in tribhanga, she is always seated in lalitāsana. The is invariably represented two-armed and is shown seated goddess, in conformity with the Svetämbara tradition, on a lotus. The figure on the main temple holds mace usually holds discs (sometimes shown as ring) in all in the left hand while the right is resting on thigh. The of her four hands. However, Apraticakrā in the set of devakulikā figures, however, carry mace in the right sixteen Mahavidyas at the sāntinātha temple, Kumbharia, and abhayākṣa (or abhaya-mudrā or fruit) in the left, bears the varada, two discs (in two upper hands) and sometimes the attributes being juxtaposed. The conch. In two instances at Osian also, carved on the Caturvinnsatikā (16.64) conceives Kali with two arms, devakulika Nos. 2 and 4, the disc in lower left hand sitting on a lotus and holding mace and rosary. The is replaced by a conch. In a solitary instance, on the later Svetämbara texts, however, see her as having four devakulikā No. 4, the goddess shows the varadākṣa and arms, seated on lotus and bearing mace, rosary, vajra water-vessel in the lower right and left hands, while and the abhaya-mudrā. The sculptural representations the upper ones carry discs. Still in one other instance, of Kāli at different Svetämbara sites reveal that her on the doorway of devakulikā No. 4, the goddess holds attributes could never be standardised. Kāli at the the varada-mudra, mace, indistinct object and conch. Śäntinātha temple, Kumbharia, is provided with The inclusion of mace and conch in addition to the varadakşa, noose, khatvänga, and fruit, while at the usual disc and the garuda as vāhana, not envisaged by Vimalavasahi she is given mace, long spiral lotus, the texts, is reminiscent of Brahmanical Vaisnavī manuscript and the abhaya-mudra. The devakulika figures (Cakreśvari, carved on the Temple No. 12 at Deogadh at Osian, when compared to the figure of Kāli in the as the Yakși of Rşabhanātha, accompanied by garuda, main temple, show that there was no advancement in shows discs in all her four hands which suggests the her iconography at the site. However, the influence of the Mahāvidyā Apraticakra at Osian). Mantrādhirajakalpa (3.7) mentions trident and the varada
The sixth Mahavidyā Puruşadatta or Naradattā, is mudra in place of vajra and the abhaya, which remind represented by seven figures on the devakulikäs. She us of her association with Brahmanical Kāli or Sivā. is always shown two-armed with a sole exception, The trident undoubtedly is reminiscent of her Saiva carved on the vedibandha of the south wall of devakulikā character. No. 4, showing her with four arms. The two-armed Mahäkäli, the eighth Mahāvidyä, is represented by goddess, invariably riding a buffalo - her traditional nine figures, one on the mukhamandapa of the main mount - holds sword and shield in right and left hands. temple and the remaining on the devakulikās. Mahākāli, Sometimes, sword has been replaced by śüla or cup. always four-armed, rides a man and holds the attributes The four-armed goddess, however, bears the varada- as prescribed by the Svetāmbara works, which invariably mudrā, shield, and water-vessel in her surviving hands. see the goddess with nara as vähana and holding a It is rather surprising to find the figures of four armed rosary, vajra, ghantā and fruit. The figure on the main goddess playing truant, regardless of the textual temple holds vajra, small sword and ghantă in three prescriptions which invariably conceive Puruşadatta with surviving hands, whereas those on the devakulikās bear four arms and holding the varada or abhaya-mudră, the abhaya or varada-mudrā, vajra (or ghantā), ghantā
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and fruit (or water-vessel). Sometimes vajra is shown Svetāmbara tradition, holds vajra and musala respectively in the lower right hand, while the upper right hand bears in the right and left hands, which however, in one fruit. It is apparent from the above-noted details that example, are juxtaposed. The later works visualise her iconographic form was settled at the site in the Gāndhāri as four-armed and carrying the varada and eighth century A.D. which continued in the later centuries the abhaya-mudră in addition to the usual vajra and without further advancement. Mahākāli in the collective musala. renderings of the Säntinātha temple, Kumbharia, and Vairotyā, the 13th Mahāvidyā, appears to have of the Vimalavasahi is likewise depicted with varadākṣa enjoyed a favoured position in Jainism, who also is vajra, ghanta and fruit.
conceived as the Yakși of Vimalanātha. The goddess, Gaurī, the ninth among the Mahāvidyās, is always shown four-armed, is represented by eight represented by five instances, two on the mukhamandapa examples at the site, of which two are carved on the of the main temple and the remaining ones on the mukhamandapa and the gūdhamandapa of the main devakulikās. The four-armed figure on the main temple temple, whereas the remaining ones are on the rides bull and bears fruit, lotus, lotus and kamandalu. devakulikās. She invariably rides a snake. The figure The two-armed figure on the main temple shows her on the mukhamandpa of the main temple bears sword, with traditional mount godhā (iguana) and carrying two snakes in two hands) and shield, while the figure long-stalked lotus and fruit in right and left hands. on the gūdhamandapa shows shield and snake in the However, in the devakulikā examples the goddess is upper and lower left arms, with lower right resting on both two-and four-armed and always rides an iguana. thigh. The devakulikā figures are identical with the The two-armed goddess bears long-stalked lotuses in figures on the main temple. However, in one solitary both hands, whereas the four-armed goddess, carved on instance, carved on the doorway of the devakulikā the devakulikā No. 3, carries lotus, manuscript and fruit No. 1, the goddess holds snake in all of her four arms, in three surviving hands. The figures correspond to the which is not supported by any of the available dhyānas. Svetāmbara texts only in respect of the vāhana-iguana It appears that the iconographic form of the goddess and lotus. The figures on the devakulikās, however, was standardised at the site in c. eighth century A.D., follow the earlier Svetāmbara tradition enjoined by the which corresponds with the available dhyānas. It is Caturvimšatikä and the Nirvāņakalikā,which depict the interesting to find Vairotyä in the group of the sixteen goddess with iguana and bearing the varada-mudrā, Mahāvidyas at the Santinātha temple, Kumbharia, who musala (or danda), lotus and rosary. One of the figures holds the same set of attributes which are noticed in on the main temple, however, appears to have followed case of the figures of the gūdhamandapa of main temple. the Mantrādhirājakalpa (3.11), wherein she is described the example from the rangamandapa ceiling of the as riding on a bull. The association of bull with Gauri Vimalavasahi also shows similar attributes except for is reminiscent of Brahmanical Śiva. This is further the fruit substituting a snake. reinforced by the instance carved in the rangamandapa The 14th Mahāvidyā Acchupta, in eleven examples, ceiling of the Vimalavasahi, where the four-armed Gauri one on the north facade of the gūdhamandapa and the is provided with bull and varadāksa, lotus (twice) and remaining on the devakulikās, happens to be one of the fruit as attributes.
most favoured Mahāvidyās at the site. Her iconographic The tenth Mahāvidyā Gāndhārī, represented here form, fully corresponding with the Svetāmbara tradition, by four figures, invariably sits on a lotus and possesses was standardised at the site in eighth century A.D., as two hands. The goddess, in conformity with the is evident from the figure of the goddess on the main
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temple, where the four-armed goddess stands with arrow (?), sword, shield and bow in hands and the horse carved as her mount alongside. The devakulikā figures exhibit identical details as noticed in case of the main temple, excepting a solitary instance, carved on the doorway of the devakulika No. 2, where she is depicted as six-armed. Sometimes, the attributes are juxtaposed. In three examples, the lower two arms show abhaya and fruit (or water-vessel). However, in one case, carved on the doorway of the devakulikā No. 3, she surprisingly holds rein, which together with the horse is reminiscent of Brahmanical demigod Revanta, son of Surya. The six-armed figure carries the varada, sword, arrow, shield, bow and fruit. The four-armed Acchuptā, in the group of sixteen Mahāvidyās in the sāntinātha temple, Kumbharia, shows identical attributes as in the figure on main temple. However, the sword and shield are replaced by the varadaksa and water-vessel in the instance of the rangamandapa ceiling of Vimalavasahi. (The figure of Mahavidya Acchupta at Osian has influenced the form of Yakși of Padmaprabha on Temple No. 12 at Deogadh, where she is called Sulocanā. Here the four-armed Yakṣī, accompanied by horse, holds arrow and bow in her two hands).
Mānasi, the 15th Mahāvidyā, is represented by a solitary instance at the site, carved on the northern vedībandha of the devakulikā No. 4. The two-armed goddess here rides a harsa and holds a thunderbolt in the right hand, while the corresponding left one is resting on thigh. The figure agrees with the tradition in respect of vāhana and vajra. The Svetāmbara works notice her either with two or four arms and invariably riding a harsa. The goddess, when two-armed, holds varada and thunderbolt, while the goddess with four- arms carries two vajras in two upper hands and the varada and rosary in the lower ones. It may be recalled that Mānasi does not find representation on the main temple, simply because the earliest tradition, referring to Mānasi, conceives her as riding a hamsa and holding flames, thus combining the features of the two
Mahāvidyās, Mānasi and Mahājvālā, in one.
The 164 Mahāvidyā Mahāmānasi is represented by twelve examples, two over the mukhacatuṣki and the gūdhamandapa of the main temple, while the remaining ones are on the devakulikās. The goddess thus claims the highest popularity at the site and her form shows greater variety with two, four or six arms. Like Rohiņi, Apraticakrā, and Acchupta, the iconography of Mahāmānasi was settled at the site in c. eighth century A.D., which is revealed by her figures on the main temple. The figures follow the Svetāmbara tradition which conceives the four-armed goddess with a lion as vāhana and holding sword, shield, water-vessel and the abhaya or varada-mudrā (or maņi). The figures on the main temple are four-armed and show the goddess as riding a lion and bearing the abhaya-mudrā, sword, shield and fruit. Barring two figures, carved on the eastern and southern vedībandha of the devakulikā Nos. 1 and 2 where the vāhana is conspicuous by its absence, all other figures are invariably accompanied by a lion. The two-armed Mahāmānasi, bearing sword and shield, is represented by two examples. The four-armed goddess, represented as she is by five instances, always rides a lion, excepting a solitary instance, carved on the eastern vedībandha of the devakulikā No. 1, where she sits on a bhadrāsana. In conformity with the Svetämbara texts, the goddess shows the abhaya-mudrā (or sword), sword (or lotus), shield and fruit (or water-vassel). Mahämänasi in the collective representation at Vimalavasahī also shows the identical features, excepting for fruit replaced by rosary.
The six-armed figures, represented by three instances, show her as riding a lion and carrying the varada (or abhaya-mudrā, sword, arrow, shield, bow and fruit (or water-vessel). The rendering of the goddess with six arms, not known from any texts, further suggests the exalted position enjoyed by the goddess. (The form of Mahāmānasi at Osian has influenced the rendering of the Yakși of Jina Candraprabha, called Sumālini, at the Temple No. 12 at Deogadh. The four-armed Yaksi,
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joined by a lion as vähana, holds sword, abhaya-mudra, shield in her three hands, while the lower left is resting on thigh.)
The Jaina Mahavidyās may also be compared with the deities of the Brahmanical and Buddhist pantheons so far as their names and iconography are concerned. Mahākālī, Kālī, and Gauri claim affinity with the Brahmanical goddesses in respect of their names, sometimes attributes also, whereas Prajñapti, Vajränkuśā and Apraticakra with Brahmanical Mātṛkās like Kaumārī, Aindri and Vaiṣṇavi in respect of iconography. The Mahavidya Gauri, in point of fact, is identical with the Brahmanical Gauri in respect of iconography, who likewise holds lotus and rosary and rides an iguana. Besides, Naradatta (or Puruṣadatta) has close resemblance with Brahmanical Durga, who bears sword and shield and rides buffalo. Mahavidyā Vijraśṛnkhala, on the other hand, offers comparison with the Buddhist
Vajraśṛnkhala who is conceived as an emanation of Amoghasiddhi. However, the Sadhanamālā visualises Vajraśṛnkhala with three faces and eight arms and holding, besides vajra and vajraśṛnkhalā, abhaya, arrow, kapāla, tarjanī-mudră, noose and bow. The forms of Sarvästramahājvālā, Mānavī and Vairotyä perhaps bear some influence of Agni, and tree and snake worship respectively. REFERENCES
U.P., Shah, 'Iconography of Jaina Mahavidyas', Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol. XV, 1947, pp. 114-177; Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, 'Iconographic Features of the Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyas as enunciated in the Iconographic Texts', Sambodhi, Vol. 5, Nos. 2-3, pp. 69-73 And also 'A Note on the figures of Sixteen Jaina Goddesses on the Adinatha temple at Khajuraho', East and West (New Series), Vol. 34, Nos. 1-3, (Sep. 1984), pp. 139-151.
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CHAPTER XI
OTHER JAINA GODS AND GODDESSES
This chapter deals with the art and iconography of some such gods and goddesses who occupy important position in Jaina tradition and art and who reveal distinct bearing of Vedic-Puranic tradition to suggest mutuality and commonality of Indian heritage. The chapter includes besides Sarasvati, Lakṣmi, Gaṇeśa, Brahmasanti and Kaparddi Yakṣas, Kṣetrapāla, Naigamesī, Aṣṭadikpälas, Navagrahas and some Jaina upadevatās (Minor deities)
SARASVATI
Sarasvati (also called Śārada, Bhāratī, Vāk, Vāṇī, Vagiśvari), the ancient most goddess of learning and music, enjoyed unquestionable popularity among both the sects of the Jainas from at least Kuṣaṇa period. The earliest known image of Sarasvati, procured from the Kankali Ṭīlā, Mathura (now in State Museum, Lucknow, J. 24, A.D. 132), was also prepared by the Jainas. As Śrutadevata she represents the personified knowledge embodied in the sacred Jaina scriptures preached by the Jinas and the Kevalins (Vyakhyā- Prajñapti 11.11.430 and Paumacariya - 3.59). The dvadaśānga- the twelve angas texts are described as the different limbs of the Śrutadevata, while the fourteen purva-texts are said
to be her ornaments.
Sarasvati was fashioned in three varieties of forms, namely the two-armed, the four-armed and the multiarmed. In sculptures, as against the iconographic texts, sometimes she is also carved with six, eight and sixteen hands. The symbols invariably held by Sarasvati are vīņā, pustaka (manuscript), lotus, rosary and the varada or abhaya-mudra, the former three being of more frequent occurrence. She rides a swan occasionally replaced by a peacock. She mostly appears as sudarśana (beautiful) and seated on a lotus in lalitäsana.
The popularity of worship of Sarasvati in Jainism is also established on the testimony of literary references

in the Vyakhya-Prajñapti (c. 2nd-3rd century A.D.), the Dvādasaranayacakravṛtti of Simha Sūri Kṣamāśramaṇa (c. A.D. 675), and the Sarada-stotra of Bappabhaṭṭi Sūri (c. 3rd quarter of the 8th century A.D.). The popularity of her worship can also be understood from the large number of Sarasvati images found on different Jaina temples of both the Svetambara and Digambara sects. A special festival held in the honour of Sarasvati is called Jñana-Pañcami in the Śvetambara tradition and Śruta-Pañcami in the Digambara tradition. Besides this festival, special penance like the Śrutadevată-tapas and Śruta-skandha and Śrutajñāna-vratas are also observed by the Jainas.
Sarasvati at some stage in pre-medieval period began to be invoked by the Śvetämbaras as goddess of Power (Vidyadevi). The pursuit of supernatural powers and the development of rites to attain them had acquired strong Tantrika colours by medieval period and as a natural corollary, the hymns addressed to a number of Jaina goddesses, including Sarasvati, were composed after the Tantrika mode.
The earliest representation of Sarasvati from Mathura (A.D. 132) is two-armed (Pl. 211). The goddess, seated squatted on a rectangular pedestal, holds a manuscript in her left hand, while her mutilated right hand was showing abhayakṣa. The swan mount is not carved in the present instance. Deogadh has yielded a number of independent figures of Sarasvati, datable between c. 9th to 12th century A.D. Sarasvati in Deogadh, riding either a swan or a peacock, is represented with two or four arms. The rendering of Sarasvati twice in the group of 24 Yakṣis is particularly interesting. These figures, carved on the facade of the temple No. 12 (A.D. 862) at Deogadh, represent her as the Yakși respectively of Jina Abhinandana and Jina Supārsvanatha with the labelling Bhagavati Sarasvati and Mayüravahini.

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A non-pareil figure of Sarasvati from Deogadh, carved on the exterior wall of temple No. 1 (late 11th century A.D.) shows the goddess in the tritirthi Jina image. Sarasvati, occupying the left extremity of the tritirthi, is shown equal in size to the Jina figures, which may, however, be interpreted that as Srutadevatā, personifying Jina Vāņi, she is given a status as honourable as that of the Jinas. The four-armed goddess, standing in tribhanga with peacock mount, shows the varada-mudrā, rosary, lotus and manuscript.
Khajuraho has yielded eight figures of Sarasvati wherein except for one instance, she is always four- armed. The figures, datable between c. 950-1100 A.D. depict her in lalita-mudra and as holding manuscript, vīna (either in one or two hands), lotus (usually in two hands) and also the varada-mudra (or water-vessel or rosary). However, the vāhana, swan, is carved only in one instance (northern adhisthāna of the Pārsvanātha temple). The six-armed Sarasvati carved on the southern adhisthana of the Pārsvanātha temple shows her with lotus and manuscript in upper pair of hands, while the middle pair of hands are engaged in playing on vīņā. The remaining two hands, however, show the varadamudrā and water-vessel. The presence of female câmara- bearers, adorers, hovering Mālādharas and, above all small Jina figure overhead, signify that she was accorded an important position at the site.
A few sculptures from different places in Karnataka have some indications as to the power aspect of Sarasvati. Three such examples, datable to 11th - 12th century A.D. are known from the Pancakūta-bastī, Humcha (Shimoga district- Pl. 212), Santinātha-basti, Jinanāthapura and Adinātha temple, Halebid (Hassan). Sarasvatī, seated in dhyāna-mudră without vāhana, in all the instances shows abhayāksa, goad, noose and manuscript.
The Svetāmbara Jaina temples in Western India have also yielded sufficient number of figures of Sarasvati coming as they do mainly from Osian, Kumbharia, Mt. Abu and Taranga. The figures on the
Mahāvīra temple at Osian (close of eighth century A.D.) show the goddess both with two and four arms and riding either a peacock or a swan. The two-armed goddess holds lotus and manuscript, while the fourarmed goddess (mukhamandapa on west) shows sruk, lotus and manuscript. The figures from the Vimalavasahi_(latter half of 12th century A.D.) and the Lūņavasahi (13th century A.D.) and the Ajitanatha temple at Taranga are particularly interesting since they exhibit the goddess with two, four, six, eight and even sixteen arms, thus distinctly suggesting her power aspect by way of increase in number of hands.
Besides the usual four-armed figures of Sarasvati with swan as mount and the varada (or the abhayamudra), lotus, manuscript (sometime sruk or viņa replacing lotus or manuscript) and fruit (or a watervessel) in hands, Vimala-vasahi has one such manohari figure which deserves special attention. This figure, carved in the southern bay ceiling, depicts Sarasvati as seated in lalitāsana on a bhadrapītha and holding varadakşa, spiral lotus, manuscript and water-vessel. She is accompanied by two male figures, standing close to her with folded hands. These figures bear inscriptions, according to which the bearded figure to her right is Sütradhāra Loyana while the figure to left with a measuring rod is Sūtradhāra Kelā. The first seems to be the chief architect of the rangamandapa while the other was possibly the chief sculptor. The present figure apparently suggests that Sarasvati here has been visualized as the presiding goddess of fine-arts also.
The figures in Lūņa-vasahi show the goddess with four and six hands and riding a swan. An interesting point in this regard is the collective rendering of eight Sarasvati figures on each of the four pillars of the navacauki. The four-armed Sarasvati in these instances shows the varada-mudră (or varadākṣa), long-stalked lotus (or manuscript), manuscript (or vīņa) and watervessel.
The most exquisite of all the known figures of Sarasvati is the two marble images of Svetāmbara
Pl.
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tradition from Pallu (Bikaner, Rajasthan). Of the two identical figures, one is in the National Museum, Delhi (Acc. No. 1/6/278 Pl. 213) while the other is in the Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner (Acc. No. 203). These figures, belonging to c. mid 11th century A.D., show the four-armed goddess as standing in tribhanga on a lotus pedestal with a small figure of swan. The goddess benign in appearance is decked with beautifully and minutely carved ornaments and karandamukuta. The whole composition is endowed with divine radiance. The small face with slim and flexioned body reveals divine beauty and grace. She shows the varadakṣa, full-blown lotus, manuscript and water-vessel. The goddess is accompanied by two female figures playing on vīņā, topped by another two figures playing on flute, thus revealing the musical power of Sarasvati. What is particularly interesting about the image in the Ganga Golden Jubilee Museum, Bikaner, is the beautiful prabha torana, containing the two-armed figures of sixteen Maha-vidyas. The figures on the prabha-toraṇa possibly suggest that Sarasvati here has been conceived as the superintending goddess of all the Great Powers (Mahavidyās). Another figure of identical grace, composition and iconography is preserved in a Jaina temple at Ladnun (Nagaur, Rajasthan). The pedestal inscription of samvat 1219 (A.D. 1162) mentions that this image of Sarasvati was got prepared by Asa Devi, the wife of some śreṣthi.
Of the three Sarasvati figures preserved in the British Museum, London, one is exquisitely carved figure in marble (Acc. No. 1880-349). The figure is in Paramāra style and is datable to 11th century A.D. The four-armed goddess with goose-mount carries rosary and manuscript in two of her surviving hands. The composition of the parikara with Jina and attendant figures and also the diminutive figures of some unidentified goddesses suggest the importance attached to Sarasvati. The remaining two figures are obtained from Karnataka, one of which belongs to the 10th century A.D. The figure is in metal and the inscription

provides the name Sarasvati. The two armed goddess stands in tribhanga and carries lotus and manuscript. The other figure, in stone, is in Hoysala style of 12th century A.D. The highly ornate four-armed figure of Sarasvati is identical with the figures found at Humcha. LAKŞMİ OR SRI-DEVI
Laksmi or Śrī-Devi in both the sects of Jainism was accorded a venerated position as a goddess of wealth and prosperity from the very beginning. She was borrowed from the Brahmanical pantheon and hence she was shown with the identical iconographic features. Early Jaina texts like the Bhagavatī Sūtra (11.11.430) and the Kalpasūtra (Sūtra 37) refer to the goddess as Lakṣmi or Śrī-Lakṣmi but the visual renderings of the goddess are found only in about 9th century A.D. The earliest renderings of Laksmi are found in the midst of the 14 or 16 auspicious dreams carved invariably on the door-lintels of Jaina temples, namely Osian, Kumbharia, Delvada of Svetambara tradition and Deogadh, Khajuraho and Bilhari of Digambara tradition. The goddess is worshipped on the occasion of Dhanaterasa (before Diwali) when the women of Śvetambara tradition polish their jewellery and ornaments in honour of Lakṣmi.
All the Svetambara and Digambara Jaina texts including Kalpasūtra make reference to Abhiseka-Lakṣmi (or Gaja-Lakṣmi) as one of the 14 or 16 auspicious dreams seen by the respective mothers of all the 24 Jinas before their birth. The Kalpasūtra refers to twoarmed Śr-Lakṣmi, seated on lotus and holding lotuses in both the hands. She is being lustrated by the two elephants to be shown above the shoulders. In Jaina tradition like that of Brahmanical one, Lakṣmi is visualized in two main forms, namely Lakṣmi and Abhişeka-Lakṣmi. The Śvetambara texts invariably envisage two-armed Mahālakṣmi as bearing lotuses and riding on an elephant. The Digambara texts providing elephant for four-armed Śrī-Devi also prescribe flowers and lotus in two hands.
In Jaina art the forms of both Lakṣmi and AbhisekaLakṣmi are represented, the latter form was shown

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mainly in case of the figures carved on the door-lintels of the image (Pratistha-vidhana) of Ganesa. The in the midst of the 14 or 16 auspicious dreams. Lakşmi popularity of Gaṇeśa was mainly confined to the being synonym of beauty is always represented in art Svetāmbara sect and hence no literary reference to with elegance and beauty and bedecked in tastefully Ganesa is found in the Digambara works. Except for carved ornaments.
the two medieval figures of Ganesa, carved in the Khajuraho has yielded eight figures of Laksmi, Digambara Jaina caves at Udaigiri and Khandagiri in of which three independent figures are carved on the Orissa, his representations are found only at the northern and southern facade of the Pārsvanātha Jaina Svetāmbara Jaina sites. temple while the remaining ones are carved on the door- The concept and iconographic features of lintels of the Pārsvanātha and Adinātha Jaina temples. Brahmanical Gaņeśa are fully retained into the Jaina The independent figures depict Lakşmi as possessing pantheon. His worship in Jainism had started seemingly four arms and holding lotuses in upper hands. The lower in the 9th-10th century A.D. as evidenced by the examples right and left hands, however, show the varada-mudrā hailing from Mathura (shown with the Ambikā image, and conch (or water-vessel). The importance of these 9th century A.D.) and the Mahāvīra temple at Ghanerav Lakşmi figures is to be noticed in the rendering of the (Pali district, Rajasthan - 10th century A.D.). The Jaina figures of flanking attendants, devotees and diminutive devakulikās at Osian (11th century A.D.) also contain Jina figures in the parikara. The figures both of Lakşmi the figures of Ganesa. Contrary to the earlier sculptural and Abhișeka-Lakşmi carved on the door-lintels show examples, the earliest literary reference to Ganesa is the four-armed goddess with varada or abhaya-mudrā, found in the Abhidhānacintamani of Hemacandra, while long stalked lotuses (in two hands) and water-vessel. his detailed iconography is enunciated still later in the
An exquisitely carved figure of Abhiseka-Lakşmi Acaradinakara. is depicted in the ceiling of Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu, The Abhidhānacintāmaņi in its Devakānda (verse 1150 A.D.- Pl. 214). The beautiful figure of four-armed 207) refers to several appellations of Ganesa, such as Lakşmi, sitting cross-legged, holds spiral lotuses in two Heramba, Ganavighnesa, Vinayaka, and visualizes him hands, while two lower hands placed one above other as elephant-headed (having one tusk), pot-bellied, bearing are in dhyāna-mudrā. The two elephants are shown axe and riding on a mouse. The Acāradinakara (Ganapati artistically in spiral lotuses. The lotus seat and Navanidhis Pratistha, 1-2) conceives the elephant-headed, uni-tusked (nine vases) are also drawn beautifully. The two female and pot-bellied Ganapati as possessing two, four, eighteen fly-whisk bearers and Maladharas add to the beauty and even 108 arms. But the attributes of only fourGANESA
armed variety are given in the text. Also, according to Ganesa in Jainism has always been worshipped this work, Ganapati rides on a mouse and shows the as the remover of obstacles and bestower of success varada-mudrā and axe in his right hands while the (siddhi). According to the late Svetāmbara Jaina work, corresponding left ones show the abhaya-mudra and the Acāradinakara of Vardhamanasüri (A.D. 1412), Ganapati modaka (sweet-ball). is propitiated even by the gods for obtaining desirable About twelve figures of Ganesa ranging in date things (Acaradinakara- Ganapati Pratisthā : 3). It is between the 9th and 15th century A.D., are reported from further mentioned that he is worshipped at the beginning different Jaina sites. Of these, in the Svetämbara fold of every auspicious ceremony or of a new project. This alone some seven independent figures are found within tradition is still very common in the Svetāmbara Western India, as at Ghanerav, Osian, Nadlai and community. The text also gives the rites of the installation Kumbharia. These figures are carved mainly as tutelary
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deities at the doorframes and the basement (pitha) of the Jaina temples. Their absence on the main facade suggests that in Jaina temples Ganesa has never been given a prominent position. One independent brass figure of Ganesa (c. 15th century A.D.) from western India (exact provenance unknown) is also in the collection of metal images in the museum of Indian Historical Research Institute, St. Xavier's College, Mumbai. Apart from the independent renderings Gaņeśa is also carved in the parikara-frame of the image of Jaina Mahāvidya Gauri in the Vimalavasahi (Delvada, Mt. Abu, Rajasthan).
Outside Western India, we find only three examples of Jaina Ganesa. Of these two are carved in the Ganesa and Navamuni caves at Udaigiri-Khandagiri in Puri district of Orissa, while the remaining one, which is also the earliest, is within the pedestal of an image of Ambikā from Mathura. The Jainas had not ignored the original fact of Ganeša being 'borrowed' from the Brahmanical pantheon and that he is the son of Ambikā (or Parvati), which is why he has been shown with Ambikä and Gauri in two instances from Mathura and Vimalavasahi.
The Jaina site at Osian has yielded three figures of Ganesa. All these figures carved in the Jaina devakulikäs, standing in the foreground of the Mahāvīra temple, belong to the earlier half of the 11th century A.D. Ganesa, in all the instances, is four-armed and seated in lalita pose on a bhadrāsana. Kumbharia has yielded only one sculpture, carved on the west side of the pitha of the Neminätha temple (A.D. 1135). The four-armed, elephant-headed, and pot-bellied Ganeśa is seated in lalita pose on bhadrâsana. As usual the mouse is his mount and the god carries an elephant tusk (svadanta), axe, lotus bud and the pot filled with sweet meats (modaka-patra). The trunk, somewhat mutilated, is applied to the modaka-pātra. Aesthetically the figure of Ganesa decked with karanda-mukuta, udarabandha and the nāgopavīta is elegant.
The icon type of Pārsva Yakşa of the 23rd
Tirthankara Pärsvanātha in the Svetāmbara tradition also has some similarity to Ganesa like having an elephant head (with one tusk) and sometimes holding as he does his own plucked out tusk and modaka (sweet ball). In visual representations from Vimalavasahi, Kharataravasahi (Delvada, Mt. Abu) and Rohtak (Punjab), the Yakşa is shown with elephant-head and snake canopy. The Yakşa, in four instances from the Kharataravasahi (A.D. 1459), rides either on a kūrma or a peacock and carries lotus, snake, tusk (or a stick like object) and fruit. Sometimes, the elephant head has only one tusk (ekadanta).
Ganesa in Jaina tradition thus has close similarity to Brahmanical Ganesa. Except for the rendering of elephant-head and an axe, the modaka-pătra in hands and mouse (as mount), the Jaina figures do not conform to the details of the Acāradinakara. On the other hand, the rendering of the attributes like lotus, goad, spear and tusk in the hands of Jaina Ganesa, is guided by the prescriptions of the Brahmanical works, which invariably conceive the four-armed Ganesa as holding tusk, axe, lotus and the modaka (or modaka-pătra).
BRAHMASĀNTI YAKSA Besides twenty-four Yakşas and Yaksīs, the Jaina tradition has a number of other Yakşas enjoying independent worship. Of these, Brahmaśanti and Kaparddi Yaksas are the foremost. The earliest references to Brahmaśānti Yakşa are found mainly in the Svetämbara texts belonging to 9h - 10th century A.D. The Digambara texts, however, do not mention Brahmasanti and therefore the figure of Brahmaśänti Yaksa is not found at Digambara Jaina sites. However, the Digambara tradition has Brahma or Brahmä as the Yakṣa of the 10th Jina Sitalanātha. There is yet another interesting Digambara tradition confined to south India. A special pillar known as Brahmadeva pillar surmounted by the figure of the deity called Brahmadeva was often erected in front of Jaina temples in the south.
Jinaprabhasūri in his Satyapura-tirthakalpa of Kalpapradipa (pp. 28-30, 14th century A.D.) gives a

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story of the previous existence of Brahmaśānti Yakṣa who was formerly known as the Sulapāņi Yakṣa who created hindrances in the meditation of Mahāvīra. Subsequently he became the devotee of Mahāvīra and thereafter he was known as Brahmaśānti Yakṣa. The earliest iconographic reference to Brahmaśānti Yakṣa is enunciated in the Nirvaṇakalika (of Padalipta Sūri III-c. 900 A.D.) and Stuti-Caturviṁśatika (of Sobhanamuni- A.D. 973). According to Jinaprabhasüri, the Brahmasanti Yakṣa was in existence at Satyapura (Saccaura or Sacor, Rajasthana) in Vikram samvat 1081 (A.D. 1024).
A number of independent figures of Brahmasanti Yakṣa are encountered at different Śvetambara sites in Western India. These figures, belonging from 10th to 13th century A.D., come from Ghanerav (Mahavira temple, 10th century A.D.), Kumbharia (Mahavira and Śantinātha temples, 11th century A.D.), Sevadi (Mahāvīra temple, 11th century A.D., Rajasthan), Osian (eastern Jaina devakulikā, 11th century A.D.) and Vimalavasahi (devakulikā 54 - ceiling and navacauki - 12th century A.D.) and Luna-vasahi (close to rangamandapa ceiling - 1231 A.D.) in Delvada (Mount Abu - Rajasthan). He is also shown in paintings of Kalpasūtra at Patana (Chāṇī palm-leaf miniature and Vardhamana - Vidyapata of Vikram samvat 1470 = A.D. 1413). The Chānī palm-leaf miniature represents him fierce in appearance and yellow in complexion. He carries umbrella in right upper, the book in right lower and wooden laddle (sruk) in left upper hands while left lower hand shows the varada-mudra. He sits in lalitasana on a big cushion with swan as vehicle. In the painting of Vardhamana Vidyapata the vahana is bull and the Yakṣa also carries a trident which are the features of Śiva images. The figure however is distinctly labelled as Brahmasanti.
The Nirvaṇakalika conceives the four-armed Brahmasanti Yakṣa with frightful appearance and jaṭāmukuta and wooden sandal. He sits on bhadrasana and holds rosary and staff (danda) in right hands while the left hands carry chatra (umbrella) and water-vessel

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(21.1). The Stuticaturviṁśatikā also envisages the same attributes for four-armed Yakṣa.
The earliest known figures of Brahmaśānti Yakṣa are procured from the Mahavira temple at Ghanerav which depicts four-armed pot-bellied Yakṣa with beard and jaṭāmukuta. The Yakṣa sitting on lotus in lalitasana shows varadākṣa (boon conferring gesture-cum-rosary), lotus, chatra and water-vessel. The four-armed figure on the eastern devakulika (southern vedībandha) at Osian shows swan as mount and varada-mudra, sruk (sacrificial laddle), manuscript and water-vessel as attributes. Kumbharia and Delvada have yielded the highest number of Brahmaśānti figures whereat he is provided with either swan or an elephant as mount. In all the five figures of Kumbharia, the pot-bellied, fourarmed and bearded Yakṣa sits in lalitasana and bears varada-mudra, lotus, manuscript and water-vessel. Sometimes he wears karanda mukuta and carries varada (or varadākṣa), umbrella, manuscript and fruit (or watervessel). The figures from Vimalavasahi and Lūṇa-vasahi show identical details except for the fact that sometimes the Yakṣa is six-armed and is flanked by the figures of two fly-whisk bearing attendants. The six-armed figure in the Vimalavasahi is carved in the ceiling close to rangamandapa, wherein the Yakṣa stands in tribhanga and is accompanied by swan as vāhana (Pl. 210). The Yaksa here carries umbrella, lotus, manuscript and watervessel in four hands whereas two hands are in varada and abhaya-mudras. The identical six-armed figure in the Luna-vasahi shows even sruk and thunderbolt in place of manuscript and umbrella.
Apparently, the iconographic features of Brahmaśānti Yakṣa reveal the impact of Brahmanical deity Brahma in respect of swan mount, sruk, lotus and manuscript. However, the presence of umbrella as found both in literature and art is suggestive also of the bearing of Vamana form of Viṣṇu. KAPARDDI YAKŞA
Like Brahmaśānti Yakṣa, Kaparddi Yakṣa was also popular mainly in the Svetambara tradition. The

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story related to Kaparddi Yakṣa and his previous existence is found in the Kaparddi-Yakşa-Kalpa of Vividhatirtha- kalpa (pp. 3-4) and Satrunjayamahātmya of Dhaneśvara Suri. Kaparddi is addressed as the Yakşarāja by Sobhanamuni wherein he is said to ride on an elephant (Stuti-Caturvimsatikā, 5.76). Bappabhatti also invokes Yakşaraja without giving the name Kaparddi. According to Jinaprabhasūri, Kaparddi holds noose, goad, wealth - increasing plant (dravya-prasevikā, possibly moneybag) and fruit (bijapuraka). The other texts also prescribe the same attributes for Kaparddi.
Compared to Brahmaśānti Yakşa, the figures of Kaparddi Yaksa are very few. Two sculptures of Yaksa are found on Satruñjaya hill in Gujarat. These are carved respectively in a separate cell and in the temple built by Vimala Shah. These figures depict the Yakşa in lalita-mudra on bhadrâsana with elephant mount. In concurrence with the texts, the Yaksa bears noose and goad in right and left upper hands while the lower hands show rosary and fruit. An earlier representation is found in Chāņi palm leaf miniatures which shows similar features, except for the lower hands being in varadamudrā. Kaparddi, as the lord of Yakşa, was also worshipped along with Ambā Devī. According to Jinaprabhasūri, Vāstupāla, a famous minister of Solanki king, built a temple of Kaparddi Yaksa at mount Girnar in the 13th century A.D. Thus, though not very popular, the tradition of the worship of Kaparddi Yaksa in the Svetāmbara tradition appears to have been old enough (at least 10th century A.D.) since Sobhanamuni refers to Kaparddi. Kaparddi being the epithet of Siva has the suggestion of some semblance with Siva, but on the basis of the iconographic features (elephant mount, goad and purse) he is closer to Indra or even Kubera who is also called Yakşarāja.
KSETRAPĀLA Kșetrapala, the protector of the Kșetra or the area, was inducted in Jaina pantheon in c. 11th century A.D., as evidenced by his mention in the Svetāmbara text Nirvāņakalika. The Svetämbara text Acāradinakara (A.D.
1412) refers to sixty-four Yoginis and eight Bhairavas (including Ananda Bhairava) which surround the kşetrapāla, who has been accorded an honourable position in Svetāmbara Jaina worship.
The Nirvāņakalikā visualizes Kșetrapāla as having different names based on their respective Kșetras. According to the text, he has six arms and dreadful appearance, long teeth and dishevelled hair (barbara keśa). The naked Ksetrapala sits on päduka and holds mudgara (club), noose and damarü in his right hands while the corresponding left ones carry chain (to which the dog mount is fastened), goad and staff (gedikā). It is surprising to find the Svetāmbara text Nirvāņakalika as referring to kşetrapala as nude. However, the other Svetämbara text Acăradinakara is silent on this point. The Ācāradinakara conceives the twenty-armed Kşetrapäla with long-matted hair and as wearing the sacred thread (yajñopavita) made of Vasuki-nāga and lion-skin. The Kşetrapäla holding different weapons has corpse (pretāsana) and dog as vāhana. (Acāradinakara, part II; Pratisthādhikāra, pp. 180).
The rendering of Kșetrapala was more popular at the Digambara Jaina sites at Deogadh and Khajuraho. The figures of Kșetrapāla from the Svetambara sites are meagre and are found mainly at Sevadi (Mahavīra temple, Pali - 9th century A.D.), Kumbharia (Santinätha temple - 11th century A.D.), Vimalavasahi (cell No. 22) and Taranga (Ajitanātha temple - 12th century A.D.). The figures carved on Mahāvīra temple at Sevadi and Ajitanātha temple at Taranga show the two-armed kşetrapala with dog vāhana and as holding club and snake in his two hands. In case of Sevadi temple, he is nude as well. The figure of four-armed Kşetrapāla from Vimalavasahi (cell No. 22) has close semblance with the prescription of the Nirvānakalika. Kşetrapāla with frightful appearance and three-headed snake canopy has a snake entwining the neck. The deity wearing a wooden sandal is accompanied by a dog and carries staff, damarü, shield and skull-cup in his four hands.
It may be noted that although the iconographic
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features of Kṣetrapala are enunciated mainly in the Śvetambara texts, yet his representations are found more at the Digambara Jaina sites, namely Deogadh, Khajuraho, Gandhavala, Gwalior (rock-cut Jaina caves of 14th 15th century A.D. It is interesting to find the rendering of the figures of Sarasvati and Kṣetrapala outside the Gwalior caves in majority of the caves.) and Ujjain, Jaina Archaeological Museum Jaisinghpur, (Acc. No. 36). In all the examples, Kṣetrapala, accompanied by dog mount, holds a chain to which the dog is fastened. In one example of Mahavira image from Ashavakhera (Etawa, U.P.), the figure of twoarmed naked Kṣetrapala is carved on the pedestal wherein he holds club and chain and is accompanied as usual by dog. The present figure of A.D. 1166 is now in the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. 782). At Deogadh (six figures) and Khajuraho (four figures) Kṣetrapala is either four-armed or eight-armed. In one example of Sahu Shanti Prasad Jain Museum, Khajuraho he is ten armed. These figures, datable between 11th 12th century A.D., represent him both naked and drapped. The figure carved on the adhiṣṭhāna of the Adinatha temple of Khajuraho (11th century A.D.) depicts Kṣetrapala in lalitäsana with dog mount and as holding club, mongoose-skin purse (nakulaka), snake and fruit. In some examples from Khajuraho, the mount is a lion and Kṣetrapala, in place of frightful appearance, has a benign appearance. One figure carved in the Santinatha temple represents Kṣetrapāla as dancing and the inscription on the pedestal gives the name 'Candakama'.
The examples from Deogadh (Temple nos. 4 and 1) show the four-armed Kṣetrapala with dog as mount and chain, club, staff (or snake) and water-vessel (or damarü) as attributes (Pl. 231). An image of fourarmed Kṣetrapala standing nude is also carved in the Gwalior cave of c. 14th century A.D. The figure here shows mace, damaru, shield and chain. The mount dog as usual is fastened to the chain. The iconographic features both on the basis of the texts and the actual representations distinctly suggest the bearing of

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Harinegameși or Naigameșa is represented in Jaina religious art as a male deity either with the head of a ram or a goat or even an antelope. In Jaina tradition Naigameșa is described as the divine Commander of the infantry of the army of Indra. He was called by Indra (Sakra) to make the transfer of the embryo of Mahāvīra from the womb of the Brahmani Devanandā to that of Kṣatriyani Trisala. Interestingly, a carved relief of Kuṣaṇa period has been procured from the Kankali Tīlā, Mathura, which has the inscription Bhagavā Nemeso (the worshipful Nemesa). It depicts on its obverse a goat-faced deity seated on a pedestal. On the left of the deity there are three female figures along with a nude boy (taken to would be Mahāvīra). Bühler has rightly suggested that the goat-faced figure was the deity called Harinegameși in the Kalpasutra, Naigameşin in the Neminathacaritra and Naigameya in other works (Epigraphia Indica, Vol. II, p. 134). The Kalpasūtra, Neminathacaritra and Antagadadasão entrust Harinegameşi with the power of granting the boon of child-birth. He is known to have two aspects, one benevolent and the other malevolent. It has been suggested that the conception of Naigameși was also related with the mythology of Dakṣa-Prajapati having goat-face and his association with the work of creation and procreation.
Besides narrative relief, the Kankali Tīlā has also yielded a number of other independent Kuṣāna sculptures which depict goat-faced male or female deity with the child on their shoulders or even in the arms. Surprisingly we do not find any sculpture of Naigameși datable to post-Kuṣaṇa period, which suggests that the popularity of Naigameși after the Kuṣaṇa period went into oblivion. AŞTADIKPALAS
The Dikpalas or Lokapālas, the guardian deities of the quarters, were held in veneration in Brahmanical as well as Jaina cults since remote past. In Puranic literature and other works their usual number is eight, hence they are called Aṣṭadikpälas. They, with their

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respective jurisdictions, are as follows: Indra as Lord of east and likewise Agni, Yama Nirrti, Varuna, Vayu, Kubera and Ïśāna respectively the Lords of south-east, south, south-west, west, north-west, north and northeast. Sometimes their number becomes ten, including the names of Vasuki and Brahma, respectively the guardian deities of pätäla (nether) and ākāśa (upper) regions.
The names and the iconographic features of the Dikpälas in Jaina tradition were apparently borrowed from the Brahmanical sect in c. 8th 9th century A.D., although some of them were known as independent deities or as the Yakṣas even prior to that. The early Jaina works, Kalpasūtra and Paumacariyam, refer to Indra as the chief attendant of all the Jinas. The
Kalpasūtra visualises Indra (Śakra) as carrying a thunderbolt and riding on an elephant. Kubera and Brahma, respectively known as Sarvanubhuti and Brahmasanti, were also worshipped as Yakṣas.
The iconographic features of the Dikpälas in Jaina context are enunciated mainly in the Nirvanakalikā (19.1-10, p. 37), Manträdhirajakalpa (3.108-120), Acaradinakara (pt. II, pp. 178-79), Pratisthäsārasamgraha (6.1-9) Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhara (3.187-94, 4.61-62) and Pratisthätilakam (5.1-10), the last three texts being affiliated to Digambara sect. It may be remarked that the Jaina works of both the sects invariably speak of the ten Dikpälas in place of eight; they are Indra (east), Agni (south-east), Yama (south), Nirrti or Naiṛta (southwest), Varuna (west), Vayu (north-west), Kubera (north), Iśāna (north-east), Brahma or Soma (upper-region) and Nāgadeva or Ananta or Dharanendra (nether-region). However the Jaina temples of both the sects contain the figures of only eight Dikpälas, except for a solitary instance known from the Mahavira temple at Ghanerava (c. 10th century A.D.) where all the ten Dikpälas find depiction. Brahma with four faces (only three frontal faces are shown) has beard while Ananta has fivehooded snake canopy. In Svetämbara tradition fourfaced Brahma is conceived with swan mount and as

holding manuscript and lotus (water-vesselNirvaṇakalika). The Digambara texts, however, prescribe lion mount for Soma, the Dikapala of the upper region, who carries lance, flower, rosary and thunderbolt (Pratisthāsāroddhara, 3.62). The iconography of Soma is thus quite different from that of Brahma of Svetämbara tradition. The Dharanendra or Nagadeva, according to Śvetämbara tradition, is visualised with lotus mount and as bearing snake in hand. The Digambara text Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra (3.61) enjoins tortoise as mount and goad as attribute for Dharanendra, who is endowed also with snake canopy. The Śantinatha temple at Nadol (c. 11th century A.D.) has the figures of Dikpälis in place of Dikpälas.
Another interesting feature is the depiction of four-armed Dikpälas along with their respective Saktis and that, too in alingana-pose. These examples (two sets) are carved on the facade of the Parsvanatha temple at Kharatara vasahi ( Mt. Abu-A.D. 1459). In Brahmanical context the figures of Dikpälas with Sakti are found from Bhubanesvara and Halebid Temples (12th 13th century). This indeed is an unusual feature because in Jaina tradition and art, the deities are never conceived with their Śaktis in alingana-pose. The respective Śaktis of Dikpālas are always two-armed and their right hand is in alingana-pose while the left one holds either a lotus or a fruit or even a mirror. The lower panel has the figures of Dikpālas in tribhanga while the upper panel depicts them as seated in lalitäsana with their Śaktis seated on the lap.
The Dikpäla figures both on the Digambara and Śvetambara Jaina temples are carved at their respective points and with almost identical attributes and vahanas to be found in the Brahmanical texts. The Jaina temples of both the sects from about 8th century A.D. onwards, like the Brahmanical temples, invariably contain the figures of the Dikpälas. The Aṣṭadikpäla figures at Mahāvīra temple at Osian (c. 8th century A.D.) has two arms while from 10th century A.D. they are shown with four arms. The respective mounts of the Dikpālas are

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shown from 8th century A.D. The Svetāmbara temples Thus apparently the vāhanas vary only in respect of at Sadri (Pārsvanatha temple - 12th century A.D.), Kubera and Nirrti. Kumbharia (Pārsvanātha and Neminātha temples - 12th Indra : The four-armed Indra in Svetämbara and century A.D.), Taranga (Ajitanātha temple - 12th century Digambara traditions is shown with goad and thunderbolt A.D., - three sets of the Dikpāla figures), Vimalavasahi as his main attributes. In addition to above, he is also (12th century A.D. -5 sets - one example in the provided with lotus or mace. bhramaņikā ceiling of devakulika - 43, shows six-armed Agni : Agni with jatāmukuta, long beard, Dikpāla figures), Adinātha Temple at Satruñjaya, moustaches and emanating flames (forming halo) is Vāstupāla Vihāra at Girnar, Lūņavasahi and provided with sruk and manuscript as chief attributes. Kharataravasahi (Caumukha or Pärsvanatha temple-two At some places, he also exhibits the varada-cum-rosary, sets) and the Digambara temples at Khajuraho lotus and even trident and pot with flames (jvālä-pätra (Pārsvanātha and Adinātha temples - 10h-11h century - Kharataravasahī). A.D., three sets) are the main temples whereat the Yama : Yama with short beard, moustaches and figures of the Dikpalas are carved. Compared to the terrific appearance holds khatvānga, lotus and manuscript north India, their representation in south Indian Jaina (or even snake at Digambara Jaina sites). In case of temples is known mainly from the Hoysala temples at six-armed figure of Vimalavasahi, he bears pen (lekhani), Arsikeri and Lakkundi. One interesting set of Astadikpālas noose, staff, kukkuta (cock) and manuscript in his are carved in the ceiling of Panchakūta Jaina temple surviving hands. However, the figure from of Kambada- halli (Karnataka - Pl. 235). The 10th century Kharataravasahi shows sword, khatvānga (with snake) figures are carved in the ceiling with figure of Neminātha and kukkuta in three hands while the fourth hand as carved in the centre. The Dikpālas are sitting with their usual is in alingana-pose. Saktis on their respective vähanas.
Nirrti : Nirrti as against the textual injunctions A brief study of the Dikpāla figures at Vimalavasahi, is mostly represented both at the Svetāmbara and Kharataravasahi and Khajuraho would help us in Digambara Jaina sites as nude (nirvastra). (However, understanding their iconography on the basis of their in some examples from Svetāmbara Jaina sites he is actual representations.
also shown clad in dhoti). Nirrti with snake ornaments The four-armed Dikpālas in case of Kharataravasahi in hands and neck (sarpa-mukuta at Neminātha temple, have their one hand in the ālingana-pose (embracing Kumbharia) is dreadful in appearance and is mostly their respective Saktis) while in other instances, the accompanied by a dog as conveyance in figural four-armed Dikpālas usually show in their lower right depictions. In Digambara examples, he carries a sword, and left hands the varada (or abhaya)-mudra and fruit lotus, snake and siras (human head), while the (or water-vessel). The respective vahanas of the ten śvetāmbara examples depict him with mace, sword, Dikpālas as prescribed by the Jaina texts and also as damarü and shield. However, the Svetämbara texts found in the sculptures are as follows : an elephant conceive Nirrti as wearing tiger-skin and riding a preta for Indra, ram for Agni, buffalo for Yama, dog (or (corpse) and holding sword and mudgara (Nirvanakalika corpse or goblin or bear) for Nirrti, makara (or fish- and Acăradinakara). Acäradinakara) for Varuna, deer for Väyu, man (nara Varuņa : Varuņa in both the traditions is shown or Puspaka chariot-mentioned in Rāmāyaṇa or Navanidhi- with noose (or a manuscript), spiral-lotus and waterpitha or ghata or jewell pot or elephant) for Kubera, vessel (or jewels-pot). bull for Iśāna, swan for Brahma and lotus for Ananta. Vāyu : Vāyu at both the Svetāmbara and
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Digambara sites is depicted with dhvaja or flag (either in one or two hands), goad and mace (or thunderbolt).
Kubera : The pot-bellied Kubera wearing karanda- mukuta is usually accompanied by ghata (nidhi pătra) and he bears jewels (ratna) shown as mongoose-skin- purse and lotus and mace (or a manuscript-Khajuraho). In the figures from Ghanerava and Gyaraspur (Mālā Devi temple, M.P.) the ratna emanates from the purse of Kubera.
İśāna : Being the name of Siva, Iśāna with jatā- mukuta and bull mount carries the attributes of Siva. Both at the Svetāmbara and Digambara Jaina temples iśāna carries trident and snake and also sometimes lotus. The Svetāmbara texts visualise Isäna with three eyes and bull mount and as carrying sula and bow- pinaka (Acaradinakara and Nirvaņakalika). The Digambara texts, however, conceive Isäna with Umā and as holding a skull along with trident (or spear) (Pratisthāsārasamgraha-6.9; Pratisthäsāroddhāra-3.194)
It may be observed that the Jaina works envisage only the vahanas and one or two distinguishing attributes for different Dikpālas. But the figures at Vimalavasahi, Khajuraho and also at other Jaina sites, show varying attributes which are comparable to their counterparts represented in Brahmanical art.
NAVAGRAHAS The Jainas following the earlier Brahmanical tradition have also assimilated the Navagrahas (nine- planets) into their pantheon but under a planetary system constituting an important class of gods known as Jyotişka devas. Their worship both individually and collectively was in vogue among the Jainas and their figures like the Navagraha panels of Brahmanical art were carved in a group of nine. Sürya is the supreme among all the nine planets (grahapati), the other planets being Candra, Mangala, Budha, Brhaspati, Sukra, Sani, Rāhu and Ketu. The Jaina iconographic texts from 11th century A.D. onwards invariably enunciate the iconography of the Navagrahas but their visual representations in the form of Navagraha pattas, carved mainly on the door-
lintels of the ardhamandapa and sometime also on the garbhagrha of the Jaina temples, are found from the 8th century A.D.
Although the independent representations of all the Navagrahas like that of the figures from Konark are not found in Jaina art yet they are invariably represented collectively on the door-lintels of Khajuraho, Deogadh, Bilhari Jaina temples in Digambara context and of Ghanerav (Mahāvīra temple) and Kumbharia Jaina temples in Svetambara context. It is interesting to find their representation in the parikara or even on the pedestal of the Jina images of both the Digambara and Svetāmbara traditions.
The Jaina texts conceive Sürya as having two arms and as carrying lotuses in both the hands and riding on the chariot drawn by seven horses. Most of the texts give identical features for other six grahas from Candra to Sani and provide the two-armed grahas with rosary and water-vessel (Nirvāņakalika-20.2-7). However, in some of the texts distinctive attributes are also envisaged for these grahas which include amtaghata or spear for Mangala, manuscript (with swan or lotus mount) for Budha and Brhaspati, trident, snake, noose and rosary (with horse mount) for Sukra and parašu (with tortoise mount) for Sani. The eighth planet Rāhu has been visualized in two forms, of which one shows him with parasu and lion mount while the other conceives him as ürdhvakaya (bust only) and with both his hands being in tarpaņa-mudrā (offering) (Nirvanakalika-20.8; Acāradinakara - part II, pp. 180). The ninth planet Ketu is a snake deity who rides on a cobra and bears rosary and water-vessel (or snake) in hands (Nirvāņakalikā - 20.9; Ācāradinakara-part II, pp. 180).
Thus it is apparent that the varying iconographic forms of Navagrahas were envisaged in Jaina texts but somehow their visual renderings do not show the variations of forms, excepting Sürya, Rāhu and Ketu (Pl. 208). The grahas from Soma to Sani usually show abhaya-mudra and water-vessel (or fruit). Sürya, seated or standing, carries long stalked lotuses in two hands

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while urdhvakāya Rāhu with dishevelled hair and dreadful appearance is shown in tarpana-mudra. Ketu, however, is always shown with the portion below the waist as being that of a snake and both of his hands being in anjali-mudrā (attitude of adoration). The Jaina temples of Khajuraho have yielded more than fifteen examples of such door-lintels which show the features discussed above. In some examples Surya stands in samabhanga and in some he sits in utkutkāsana while the other six grahas are mostly seated in lalitāsana. Sürya with long boot and a chariot drawn by seven horses, is sometimes joined by Chāyā. However, in one of the examples lying near the entrance of the Jaina Dharmasāla at Khajuraho, the figures of respective mounts are also carved with Navagrahas. JAINA UPADEVATĀS (Minor Jaina Deities)
Of the numerous Jaina Upadevatās (Minor Jaina Deities) only a few are discussed here.
LAUKĀNTIKA GODS Jainism assigns a special duty to the Laukantika gods, who are referred to in the Ācāranga-sutra. The Laukāntika gods residing at the end of heavens (Brahmaloka) approach all the Jinas at the time of their renunciation. They also request the Jinas to establish the 'Dharmatirtha'. The Laukāntikas, invoked for the removal of the obstacles, are the best of the wise, since they had studied the entire Śruta literature in their previous existence. The Bhagavati-sütra gives the following eight classes of the Laukāntika group of deities residing in eight Vimanas (heavens)--
(1) Särasvatas (2) Adityas (3) Vahnis (4) Varunas (5) Gardatoyas (6) Tușitas (7) Avyābädhas (8) Agneyas. According to the same text, there is a Vimāna in the centre of these eight with the god Ristadeva residing in it. Hemacandra, following the Avaśyaka Niryukti, gives the nine classes of Laukāntikas, with the Ristas added to the above list and Maruts replacing the Āgneyas. The Digambara tradition, however, furnishes only eight classes of these group deities replacing Agneyas with Aristas.
Besides the above eight classes, there are sixteen more group-deities known as Devarșis who reside in the regions intervening the above mentioned eight Vimänas and who are being respected even by the gods. They, too, are free from passions and have knowledge of the fourteen 'Purvas'. They are also said to accompany the Laukāntikas at the time of their meeting with the Jinas (Trilokasāra, 539-40). It is interesting to note that the lists of Devarșis given by the Trilokasāra and the Acāradinakara include some well-known Vedic deities like the Maruts, Vasus and Viśve-devas. These, entrusted with the work of praising the Jinas, were assimilated in Jaina pantheon at a time when Vedic deities were very much popular in the society. Iconography of Devarsis According to
Acāradinakara Name Complexion Vāhana Symbol 1. Sarasvatas white swan playing on viņā
Adityas like Sun horse lotuses in hands 3. Vahnis tawny goat Sakata (cart) 4. Varunas dark fish noose 5. Gardatoyas blue peacock corn 6. Tusitas white swan lotus 7. Avyābādhas dark man viņā in hand 8. Aristas dark deer axe 9. Agnyabhas red boar noose and goad 10. Süryabhas like Sun chariot thunderbolt 11. Candrabhas white pitcher lotus 12. Satyabhas white bull rosary 13. Śreyaskaras white elephant varada
and abhaya 14. Kșemankaras white lotus lotus 15. Vrṣabhas red bull 16. Kamacäras Variegated eagle disc.
In the frieze (obtained from Kankäli Țila, Mathura, now in the State Museum, Lucknow, J. 354) showing the dance of Nilāñjanā and consequent renunciation of Rşabhanātha from worldly life, four standing male figures are identified as Laukāntika gods.
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The Acaranga-sūtra (2.1.2) alludes also to a Santigṛha wherein a Jaina monk cannot enter. Thus the conception of Santi seems to be old, and it was in vogue in the form of rite or practice which was believed to remove the troubles and was conducive to the establishment of household peace. The Manusmrti refers to a Santihoma. Śantikarma is also performed for various other purposes such as the removal of diseases, evils, droughts and poverty and for pacifying the evil spirits like the bhūtas, pretas, pisacas, rākṣasas, vetālas and dakinis (Acaradinakara, II, p. 224).
For obtaining Santi, the Jainas worshipped the 16th Jina Santinatha, who is said to have brought peace and prosperity to the country of his birth. The AjitaSantistava of Nandiṣena also calls him Santikara (one who brings peace).
The Acāradinakara gives a dhyāna of Śāntidevī wherein Śantinatha and a goddess called Vijayā are invoked. The Laghu-santi of Mänadeva also invokes goddesses like the Jaya, Vijaya, Jayanta and Aparajita. According to the Acaradinakara, Vijayā and Śantidevī seem to be identical.
The form of Śantidevi enunciated in the Nirvāṇakalikā (21.2, p. 37) is, however, different from the known forms of Vijaya. According to the text, Śantidevi, white in colour, sits on a lotus and carries pitcher and kamandalu in two left hands while the corresponding right ones show the varada and rosary. The same text visualises Vijaya as showing goad, noose, mudgara and varada-mudra. Still earlier reference to Santidevī is supplied by Sobhanamuni's
The Jaina account of Dik-kumaris is important because, their names include most of the ancient Indian goddesses, namely Sitä, Pṛthvi, Ekanamsā, Ila and others. In the samatala ceiling of Vimalavasahi (cell No. 47) showing kalyanakas of the Jina, we find a number of female figures carved in two circular rows. These figures carrying pitchers, fly-whisks etc. seem to re resent the Dik-kumārīs. SANTI DEVI
Stuticaturviṁśatika which conceives her as white in complexion and as carrying rosary and water-vessel in hands (12.4, p. 137). The goddess is said to destroy the räkṣasas, evil spirits and many other obstacles. Another form of the goddess found in the Nirvāṇakalikā The Santikarma or the propitiatory rite is common shows her with many arms. Of the symbols held by to all the three principal religious systems of India. The her only the water-vessel, the varada-mudra, book and Śantikarma is referred to in the Jaina Jñātā-sūtra, lotus are specified. Her special power of bringing peace Praśnavyākaraṇa-sūtra and the Bhagavati-sutra (11.11). to all beings is emphasised in the dhyana. However,
DIK-KUMARIS
According to both the sects of Jainism, the Dikkumāris (quarter-maidens), fifty-six in number, are associated with the birth-ceremonies of the Jinas. These fifty-six Dik-kumārīs like Bhogankarā, Bhogavati, Subhoga, Bhogamālinī, Toyadhārā, Vicitra, Puspamālā and Anindita came from different worlds and mountains and prepared the place for Janma-kalyaṇaka of newly born baby (would be Jina). They were holding mirrors, pitchers and fly-whisks and were singing and dancing. They carried the Jina in their folded hands and supported the mother also. They anointed them with fragrant oil, and then put on them (mother and child) garments and
ornaments.
The Dik-kumaris are sometimes represented in the Kalpasutra miniature paintings in the scenes connected with Janma-Kalyāṇaka of a Jina. W. Norman Brown has published one such miniature with the label devagama (arrival of gods) where only eight goddesses are shown. These goddesses stand for the fifty-six Dikkumārīs, arranged in three rows. The first on the right upper corner carries a lotus. Of the rest, one carries a mirror, another has a pitcher while the third one seems to have a vīņā (lute). The fourth one holds the lamp whereas the symbols of the remaining two are indistinct. In this example each of the Dik-kumaris stands for her group.

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the Vāstuvidyā of 11th-12th century A.D. speaks of the PRATIHĀRAS OR GATE-KEEPERS rendering of the figures of the goddess Ādisakti (showing The Jaina texts invariably describe the Pratihäras varada-mudra and lotus) in the centre of the simhasana (the door-keepers and attendants) of the Jinas. The of the Jina images (22.10). The concept and form of Digambara Pratistha-works refer to four such pratihäras śāntidevi in Jainism seems to have crystalized in about who guard the four doors of the mandapa. Kumuda 10th 11th century A.D.
pratihära standing with a golden staff guards the eastern The Digambaras, however, have no such goddess, door while Añjana, Vāmana and Puspadanta likewise but Sánti is certainly included in Digambara worship holding staff guard respectively the southern, western along with Sri Hri and other devis (Pratisthāsāroddhara and northern gates. All of them have their eyes fixed -5.3.118).
on the mangala-kalaśa (Pratisthäsäroddhära-2.139-142). On the pedestals of Jina images, belonging to c. But it is not certain whether these figures were 10th and 14th century A.D. and coming mainly from ever carved on the entrance doors of Jaina temples. The Svetāmbara Jaina sites like Kumbharia, Delvada, Digambara texts invoke these gods in the mandapaTaranga, Cambay and Satruñjaya, a devi is usually pratisthā-vidhi which sufficiently warrants their presence represented in the centre, generally below the as door-keepers in the Jaina temples. dharmacakra, flanked by two deers, which are also The Digambara texts, however, worship four more suggestive of peace. She sits in the lalita-pose and deities as dvārapālas in the yāga-mandala. Soma, the carries lotus in each of her two upper hands while the first, stands at the eastern gate and carries the bow in lower ones bear rosary and the water vessel. Sometimes his hand while Yama guards the southern quarter with the lotus (in one hand) and water-vessel are replaced a big staff in hand. Varuna stands at the western gate respectively by a manuscript and a fruit. A few Jina with the nāgapāśa in hand and Kubera carrying the club images from Digambara Jaina sites like Khajuraho also guards the northern gate (Pratisthasaroddhāra - 3.180reveal the representation of Santidevi in the centre of 85). It may be recalled that these are also included in the lion-throne. Occasionally, the elephant and more the Jaina lists of the Dikpälas. frequently the lotus are shown as her vähana. The At Patan, Kumbharia, Delvada and other places we Pārsvanātha Hriņkāra-pata (15th century A.D.) conceives come across a dvärapäla figure holding the trident with Jaya and Vijayā, each four-armed, as showing the lotus other attributes. He may be identified as Išānendra in each of the two upper hands and the fruit in one officiating as the pratihāra. It must be noted that the lower hand. The fourth hand seems to be in vitarka- staff is invariably held in one of the hands of the mudra (with two fingers raised) or vyākhyāna-mudrā. dvārapālas while the elephant generally is provided as
It may be observed that the form of Sāntidevi is the vähana. identical with the form of Nirvăņi Yakși of Santinātha At Delvada Jaina temples we find figures of showing almost identical details. But as Yakşi she can- dvārapālas on some of the doorframes of the minor cells not be represented on the pedestal of any other Jina around the main shrines. These door-keepers usually than Sāntinātha. Moreover, the place of a Yakşi is on show noose (or thunderbolt) and goad in two upper the left end of the pedestal but as sāntidevī, she hands while the lower hands hold fruit and staff. As invariably appears in the centre of the pedestals of all usual the vāhana is elephant. Such instances can easily the Jina images to suggest that the peace and prosperity be multiplied and they distinctly show that Indra as are bestowed by her on all the members of the Jaina attendant par excellence of the Jinas has invariably been faith.
represented in art. Even in Buddhism Indra is regarded
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as an attendant of the Buddha. It is the Indra who celebrates all the kalyāṇakas or principal events in the life of each of the twenty-four Jinas. We also find references to different categories of dvarapalas with varying appellations and as holding attributes like bow, staff, noose, mace and goad in the context of the samavasarana of the Jinas. The Nirvaṇakalikā describes Tumbaru as a great pratihara of the Jina, who is different from Tumbaru Yakṣa. According to the text, Tumbaru as pratihāra wears a jata-mukuta and a garland of human skulls and carries khatvänga in hand.
VIJAYA-VALJAYANTA-JAYANTAAPARAJITA
The Pratiṣṭhāsāroddhāra invokes the superintending deities of four gates on the Padmavaravedika of Jambudvipa but does not refer to their iconography. Their names are Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta and Aparajita who preside over the four gates in the four directions, and who are regarded as powerful Yakṣa devas or Dik-Yakṣas or Yakṣas of the four chief quarters. It is worthwhile to note that according to Kautilya's Arthasästra, Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta and Aparajita are installed (as figures) and worshipped in the centre of the city in a Durga (fortification). NINE NARADAS
The Naradas, nine in number, figure only in Jaina mythology and were never worshipped in Jaina temples. They however correspond with prominent figures of the Brahmanical Purāņas. According to Jaina mythology, the nine Naradas are contemporaries of different Vasudevas. Jinasena provides the list of Naradas in the Harivamsa Purāṇa, which includes Bhima, Mahābhima, Rudra, Mahārudra, Kāla, Mahākāla, Caturmukha (or Durmukha - according to some texts), Naravaktra (Narakamukha - according to the Tiloyapannatti) and Unmukha or Adhomukha (60.55). The Naradas are fond of inciting quarrels and violence and hence they go to hell. Sometimes, they also follow the Dharma and obtain honour and respect from the people. According to Jinasena, Nāradas, white in colour, are graceful and

saintly in appearance and they wear yogapatta, sacred thread and a kaupina (short cloth to cover private organs which is usually worn by Hindu saints). They have moustaches, beard and the jațä. ELEVEN RUDRAS
The Rudras are another group of semi-divine beings borrowed from the Brahmanical pantheon. They are assigned comparatively an inferior position in order to demonstrate the superiority of the Jaina faith. The Rudras, eleven in all, lived in different ages and the last one (Satyaki) was a contemporary of Mahāvīra. As pious and followers of the Jaina faith, they are said to have practised penance for obtaining mokṣa. They are also destined to become siddhas in future births.
The first Rudra was Bhimabali who lived during the time of Ṛsabhanatha, the second was Jitaśatru in the age of Ajitanatha, the third called Rudra was a contemporary of Suvidhinatha and the fourth Visalanayana (or Vaiśvānara) lived in the time of Śitalanatha. Next in order were Supratistha, Acala, Pundarika, Ajitandhara, Ajitanābhi, Pitha and Satyakiputra, who were contemporaries respectively of Sreyamsa, Vasupujya, Vimala, Ananta, Dharma, Śantinātha and Mahāvīra. However, the Svetambara tradition furnishes different list.
KAMADEVAS
Both the sects mention twenty-four Kamadevas who were Great Souls. But they were not included in the list of the sixty-three Šalākāpuruṣas. However the three Kamadevas are also the Jinas and hence they appear in the list of the Salakāpuruṣas. The 24 Kamadevas are Bahubali, Prajapati, Śrīdhara, Darśanabhadra, Prasenacandra, Candravarṇa, Agniyukta, Sanatkumāra, Vatsarāja, Kanakaprabha, Meghaprabha, Śantinatha, Kunthunatha, Aranatha, Vijayaraja, Śricandra, Nalaraja, Hanumāna, Balirāja, Vasudeva, Pradyumna, Nagakumara, Jivandhara and Jambūsvāmi. (Tiloyapanṇatti 4.14-72).
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and Aranatha are well known as the Jinas. The Kamadevas like Pradyumna and Jīvandhara are very popular in Jaina literature and separate works dealing with their lives were also composed. Lives of Nalarāja, Hanumana and Pradyumna in the above list may be compared with alike names in the Brahmanical mythology. Hanumana, the celebrated brahmacarin is here married to a thousand princesses.
Kamadevas are beautiful in appearance, but they are to be distinguished from the god of love who is also known as Kamadeva in Brahmanical context. Kāmadevas are usually not worshipped in modern Jaina temples but their representations are known from some of the ancient Jaina temples, one being on the Parsvanatha Jaina temple at Khajuraho. The Jaina Harivaṁśa-Purāņa (783 A.D.), however, interestingly refers to a construction of a Jina temple by a Śresthi Kāmadatta, who for the general attraction of the people also caused the installation of the figures of Kamadeva and Rati in the temple (29.2). It also alludes to the worship of Rati and Kamadeva along with the Jina images (HarivamsaPurāṇa-29.1-10).
GANIPITAKA-YAKṢARĀJA
The Ganipitaka Yakṣaraja is worshipped in the fourth pitha of the Surimantra diagram. Ganipitaka is the Dvādaśāngi or the Jaina Śruta expounded by the Jina and edited by the Gaṇadhara. As the Lord of sixteen thousand Yakṣas Ganipinda is conceived as twenty-armed and strong. He is the presiding deity of the Dvādaśāngī or the Ganipiḍaga (Ganipitaka). He is said to be a devotee of Gautama, the first Ganadhara of Mahāvīra. In the Santikara-stavana of Munisundarasūri, he is invoked along with Vaṇī, Tribhuvanasvāminī and Śrī-devi for the protection of devotees of the Jina.
TRIBHUVANA SVĀMINĪ DEVI
The Tribhuvanasvāminīdevī is invoked in the Tantric mandala of the Sūrimantra, one of the oldest sadhanas of the Jainas. She is to be invoked in the second pitha of the mandala of which she is the presiding deity. The

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thousand-armed goddess is said to reside on the Manuṣottara mountain of Jaina cosmography. The Acaradinakara prescribes a mandala of the Bhagavati or Devi wherein (in the first hexagonal cakra) the thousand-armed Bhagavati is to be invoked who rides a lion. She carries numerous weapons. The Bhagavati appears to be none other than the Tribhuvanasvāminī Devi. She is supposed to be the presiding deity of the whole devimandala which includes eight goddesses beginning with Jaya, eight Matṛkās, the Vidyādevīs, Yoginis, Bhairavas, Dikpālas, planets, Ganapati, Kārttikeya, Yamunā, Kṣetrapāla, Mahabhairava, the Gurus (elders or teachers) and the Ganga. The whole list is interesting as it includes some of the well-known Brahmanical deities. The devi-mandala prescribed by Vardhamanasūri unmistakably shows the growing influence of Brahmanical Tantra in medieval Jaina rites. REFERENCES
B.C. Bhattacharya, The Jaina Iconography, New Delhi, 1974 (Rep.); U.P. Shah, 'Iconography of Jaina Goddess Sarasvati', Journal of University of Bombay, Vol. X (New Series), Pt. II, Sept. 1941, pp. 195-217; 'Harinegameşi', Journal of Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol. XIX, 1952-53, pp. 19-41; 'Brahmaśānti and Kaparddi Yakṣas', Journal of the M.S. University of Baroda, Vol. VII, No. 1, March 1958, pp 59-72; Minor Jaina Deities', Journal of Oriental Institute (Baroda), Vol. XXXI, Nos. 3-4, March-June 1982, pp. 274-90 and 371-78; V.S. Agrawala, A Note on the God Naigamesha', Journal of U.P. Historical Society, Vol. XX, July-Dec. 1947, pp. 68-73; Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, Khajuraho Kā Jaina Purātattva, Khajuraho, 1987; 'Brahmasanti Yakṣa', Pt. Bechardas Doshi Commemoration Volume, (Eds.) M.A. Dhaky and others, Varanasi, 1987, pp. 126-131; Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari and Kamal Giri, 'Images of Gaṇeśa in Jainism'; Ganesh-Studies of an Asian God, (Ed.) Robert L. Brown, New York, 1991, pp. 101-103.

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CHAPTER XII
BAHUBALI, BHARATA MUNI AND JĪVANTASVĀMĪ IMAGES
The present chapter discusses about three different forms of images, namely Bahubali, Bharata Muni and Jivantasvami Mahavira which were very popular in Jaina art and tradition.
austerities of Bahubali inspired both the Svetambara and the Digambara Jainas to worship him, specifically the Digambaras. Bahubali, as a result, became a powerful symbol as well as a material image evocative of the ethos of tyaga (self-sacrifice), sadhana (austerity) and ahimsa (non-violence) preached by the Jinas. It is further believed that Bahubali perhaps was the first to have propounded no-war policy by preferring duel to battle between the armies to avert violence and killing in war. The entwining creepers and the figures of scorpions, lizards and snakes on the body of Bahubali perhaps also symbolise the intimate relationship between man and nature and their coexistence.
BAHUBALI
Bahubali, also known as Gommatesvara in the southern Jaina tradition, was the second son of Jina Rṣabhanatha, born of his junior queen Sunanda. His step-brother Bharata, who became Cakravarti succeeding his father, ruled from Vinītā (Saketa or Ayodhya), while Bahubali was ruling from Takṣasila (or Podanasa or Podanapura according to the Digambara Jaina tradition). Soon after the renunciation of Ṛsabhanatha, Bharata began to subdue the various kingdoms and principalities (of Bharatavarṣa) and according to the Law of the Discweapon (cakra) had the need even to subdue Bahubali and his other 98 brothers. Except Bahubali, all his brothers surrendered their domains and became recluse. Consequently a fierce duel took place between Bharata and Bahubali for trial of strength in which Bahubali emerged almost as victor. At the final moment of his triumph, the reality of the futility of worldly possessions dawned in Bahubali's mind and he consequently renounced the world for attaining omniscience and hence salvation. As an ascetic he performed very rigorous austerities by standing in the kayotsarga posture for a whole year and attained kevalajñāna.
To suggest his rigorous tapas, Bahubali in visual representations is shown not only in the kayotsargamudra but also with creepers entwining his limbs, and snakes, lizards and scorpions shown either nearby or even creeping over his body. These representational characteristics suggest the long passage of time in which he was absorbed in tapas and deep trance. The posture of Bahubali is symbolic of perfect self-control while his nudity implies total renunciation. The profound

The earliest reference to the fight between Bharata and Bahubali is noticed in the Paūmacariya of Vimala Sūri (A.D. 473), the Vasudevahindi and the Avasyakaniryukti (c. early sixth cent. A.D.). The Paumacariya (4.43-55), although alluding to the renunciation of Bahubali and his attainment of kevala-jñāna, does not mention the details concerning creepers, reptiles etc. that crept on his body. The detailed account of the tapas of Bahubali is narrated in the literary works of the southern Jainism, from seventh century A.D. onwards, namely the Padmapuraṇa of Raviṣena (A.D. 676Vol. I, 4.74-77), the Harivamsa Purana of Jinasena of Punnata-samgha (A.D. 783-11.98-102), the Adipurāṇa (Mahāpurāṇa) of Jinasena of Pañcastūpanvaya (after A.D. 837-36.104-186), and also the northern works such as the Trisastiśalākāpuruṣacaritra of Hemacandra (c. mid 12th century A.D.) and the Caturviṁśatika-JinaCaritra of Amara Candra Suri (13th century A.D. - 70.367-396) which invariably refer to the meandering and entwining vines and serpents (Padmapurāṇa- 4.76; Harivamsa Purana-11.99-100). The association of deer and elephants, hawks and sparrows, lizards and scorpions with Bahubali is also envisaged by these texts.

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According to the Svetāmbara tradition, Bahubali, despite his rigorous austerities, could not attain omniscience as he still harboured a shade of pride. Hence Rşabhadeva inspired his daughters, Brahmi and Sundari, to persuade Bāhubali to shake off the remnants of pride. Only after that the ascetic Bāhubali could attain omniscience. The Digambara works, on the contrary, and to be consistent with the dogma and doctrine of their creed, envisage the presence of two Vidyadharis (female angels) in place of Brāhmi and Sundari. These Vidyadharis used to clear the entwining creepers off the body of Bāhubali (Harivaṁsa Purāņa -11.101). The Digambara works further mention that Bāhubali attained omniscience only after he received the homage by Bharata (Adipurāņa - 36.185-86).
Somehow, Bahubali's worship could not be so popular with the Svetämbara creed. The few figures known of Bāhubali from the Svetämbara sites are in the Mahavira (c. A.D. 1062) and the Säntinātha (c. A.D., 1084) temples at Kumbharia in Gujarat, the Vimalavasahi (Delvada, Mt. Abu - A.D. 1150) in Rajasthan (where they mainly occur as part of the narratives) and the Adinatha temple at Mt. Satrunjaya in Gujarat (where his image of A.D. 1334 is in evidence). In all these Svetāmbara instances, Bāhubali, wearing a dhoti, is joined by the figures of Brähmi and Sundari at his two flanks; the climbing plants are also shown. It may be underscored, in passing, that the rendering of the snakes, lizards and scorpions was a convention restricted only to the Digambara images. Another point of interest, concurring alone with the Digambara tradition, is the depiction of the two beautiful Vidyadhari figures flanking and facing Bahubali and holding the creepers. The two female figures in case of Digambara images have wrongly been identified by scholars as Brähmi and Sundari while they actually represent Vidyadhari figures with supple body and as wearing beautiful mukutas and other ornaments.
Gradually, popularity of Bahubali worship reached such a proportion in the Digambara sect that almost
a cult developed around him. This is attested by the large number of independent sculptures at least at two Digambara sites, namely Ellora (17 figures, Pl. 225) and Deogadh, U.P. (6 figures, Pl. 227) on the one hand, and the variety in the iconographic details revealing distinctly the process of his elevation equalling the Jinas, highest in Jaina worship, on the other. The special status of Bahubali in the Digambara pantheon is further established by some of his most important and famous colossi carved at places such as Sravanabelagola (nearly 57 feet high- A.D. 983), Karkal (A.D. 1432) and Venur (A.D. 1604), all in Karnataka. Of all the three colossi, the imposing Śravanabelagola figure outvies all the known figures of Bahubali in scale and grandeur (Pl. 226). The image prepared by Camundaraya, the minister of the Ganga king Rācamalla IV (A.D. 97484), shows Bāhubali as standing sky-clad in the kāyotsarga-mudra with climbing plant fastened round his thighs and hands, and ant-hills carved nearby with snakes emerging out of them.
It is generally believed that the occurrence of Bahubali images are more frequent in South India than in North. But a detailed study of some Digambara sites in the north, at Prabhasa-Patana (Gujarat - now in the Junagarh Museum), Deogadh, Khajuraho (Pārsvanātha temple, c. A.D. 950-70), Bilhari (Jabalapur, M.P. -c. 11th century A.D.), Mathura (State Museum, Lucknow - Acc. No. 940 - c. 10th century A.D.), Siron Khurd (In dvitithi Jina image - 11th century, Lalitpur), Chanderi (Lalitpur, U.P. - 16th century A.D.) and Gwalior Jaina caves (14th - 15 century A.D.) etc. does reveal some cult images of Bahubali, ranging in date as they do between the 9th and the 16th centuries A.D. This bears testimony at least to one fact that in the Digambara community of northern India, Bahubali was accorded the same favoured position as he enjoyed in south. We have noticed that, from the 9th century A.D. onwards, there was a tendency in the Digambara Jainas to raise Bahubali's status to equal to that of the Jinas. This process was even more distinctly seen in north India. The northern Indian
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Digambara images show some such features which Bahubali (two in metal) are in foreign museums. One usually are not met with in the south Indian images. The bronze figure (7th century A.D.-Karnataka) is in the rendering of the astaprātihāryas (simhāsana, trichatra, Metropolitan Museum, U.S.A. while the other stone prabhamandala, drumbeater, camaradhara attendants, figure of 16th century A.D. (Rajasthan - Digambara) aśoka tree, garland bearing celestial beings), dharmacakra, is in the British Museum, London (Acc. No. 1880.241). śrīvatsa (on chest), small Jina figures (in parikara) and The remaining three examples are in the Victoria and above all, the Yakşa-Yakși figures with Bahubali, these Albert Museum, London. Of the three, one in metal, being the invariable features of Jina images, are confined datable to c. 15th century A.D. has the name of Bāhubali mainly to the north Indian images. The antiquity of also in the inscription. The other two figures in stone Bāhubali figures dates back to late c. 6th or early 7th belong to 18th–19th century A.D. century A.D. Then on Bahubali was a popular subject of The Bāhubali images from Aihole and Badami, depiction as well as adoration throughout the subsequent however, do not show any feature of the Jina images, centuries.
This process is first noticed in the figures of Ellora in The earliest visual representations of Bahubali are the 9th century A.D. It is evident that the popularity known from Digambara Jaina caves at Aihole (Pl. 223) of Bahubali and the process of elevating him to the and Badami (c. A.D. 600). These figures, identical in level of Jina started first in Maharashtra, which details, show Bāhubali as standing sky-clad in the subsequently was followed by northern India, specially kayotsarga-mudrā on simple pedestal with hair combed at Deogadh and Khajuraho, during the 10th and 12th back in jatā fashion and lateral strands hanging over century A.D. when the Yaksa-Yakşi figures were also the shoulders. It may be mentioned here, in passing, associated with him. that almost all the later examples, mainly from south The Bahubali images of Ellora and Deogadh reveal India, the lateral strands are shown with Bahubali, some common features, specially in respect of the which remind us of his association with Rsabhanātha rendering of Vidyadharis and Bharata Cakravarti (Pls. on the one hand and long passage of time of his tapas 225, 227). It is surprising that the elements of Jina on the other. The entwining creepers, beautifully spread iconography were dropped in south Indian images after over his body and cobras close to his feet, also suggest the 9th century A.D. The snakes and scorpions at Ellora the prolonged and deep meditation of Bahubali. The are always carved at the sides while in case of north depression on his abdomen, half-shut eyes and the erect Indian images from Deogadh, Khajuraho and Bilhari, posture also indicate deep meditation and spiritual beauty. they are shown clinging to the body of Bāhubali. The Bāhubali in both the instances is joined by the two rendering of deer, camel and rats are also the features Vidyādharis, wearing decorated mukutas and other confined only to the Ellora figures, carved in the Jaina ornaments and holding the ends of the creepers. A few caves (Nos. 30 to 34) and belonging to the 9th century other Bāhubali images from south India are known from A.D. (Pl. 225). Kāraikoyil (Tamil Nadu - 9th century A.D.), Melsittamur Besides the sculptural art Bahubali was also (South Arcot - 9th century A.D.), Prince of Wales represented in miniature paintings, belonging mainly to Museum, Mumbai (Exact provenance not known - 9th the Svetambara tradition and datable between 15th and century A.D., Bronze, Pl. 224) and Tirumalai (Tamil 17th century A.D. Two examples are found from Nadu - 11th century A.D.). All these images show Kalpasutra manuscript painting. One is painted at Jaunpur entwining creepers and flanking figures of two in samvat 1522 (1465 A.D.) and is preserved in the Vidyadharis. About five independent sculptures of Muni Hamsa Vijaya collection, Jñana Mandir, Vadodara.
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The other painting from Devasanapada Bhandara (A.D. 1475) is preserved in National Museum, New Delhi (Acc. No. 70.64). These paintings represent Bāhubali as usual in kāyotsarga-posture with lower garment along with the flanking figures of two sisters-Brāhmi and Sundari. These figures are preceded by the scene of fight between Bharata and Bahubali. In case of National Museum painting Bahubali is shown with bracelets and armlets like ornaments which is something unusual and which can be explained, as says U.P. Shah, that these are shown because Bahubali stood in meditation on the battlefield itself. Moti Chandra in his Book entitled Jaina Miniature Paintings from Western India has also published a wooden painted book cover from a palmleaf manuscript depicting the fight between Bharata and Bāhubali and the tapas of Bahubali.
BHARATA MUNI Bharata occupies an exalted position among both the sects of the Jainas. His name was included in the list of the 63 Salākāpuruṣas, Great Men, of the Jaina pantheon as early as in the early centuries of the Christian era, or even earlier. Bharata, first of the twelve Cakravartins, was the elder son of the first Jina Rşabhanātha. He was born of Sumangalā. He became Cakravartin succeeding his father and ruled from Vinita. The story of the life of Bharata and his fight with Bahubali and his renunciation is dealt with at length in a number of Svetämbara and Digambara Jaina works of the early medieval times.
The Jaina tradition has always attached a special significance to the act of austerity. It is for this reason that Bharata was invoked and held in veneration only when he renounced all the material possessions and took the path of austerity and performed rigorous penance, consequently obtaining omniscience (kevala- jñāna). As all the Tirthankaras and other Great Men performed tapas in the käyotsarga-mudrā, so also did Bharata. He too stood in the kāyotsarga-mudrā with both his hands reaching up to the knees. Bharata possessed Navanidhis (nine treasures) and fourteen Ratnas (Jewels).
The nine treasures have the following appellations - Kāla, Mahākāla, Naissarpya, Panduka, Padma, Māņava, Pinga, Sankha and Sarvaratna. On the other hand, the fourteen jewels comprised the Cakra, the Chatra (Umbrella), the Asi (sword), the Danda (staff), the Maņi (gem), the Carma (skin), the Käkini (cowrie), the Senāpati (general), the Grhapati (steward), the Elephant, the Horse, the Stri (woman), the Purohita (priest) and the Engineer (or Carpenter) (Mahāpurāņa - Vol. I, Pt. II, 37.73-74, 83-84). The Jaina works explicitly mention that Bharata attained Lordship over mankind and always shone with these fourteen jewels and nine treasures.
After his digvijaya, Bharata asked his 98 brothers to treat him as Cakravartin, who on the advice of Rsabhanātha renounced the world and turned ascetics. Similar request was advanced to Bahubali, the second son of Rşabhanātha, who, however, refused to accept the supremacy of Bharata. Consequently a fierce struggle broke out between Bharata and Bahubali. This battle culminated in duel in which Bāhubali emerged as the victor but he at the moment of his success decided to renounce the world.
One day when Bharata Cakravartin was looking in the mirror, the idea of futility of worldly possessions and lust for sensuous pleasure came to his mind and he at once decided to quit the world in quest of kevalajñāna. When Indra (Sakra) came to know of this, he paid homage to Bharata who, like the Tīrthankaras and other Great ones, plucked out all his hair in five handfuls and performed tapas and attained omniscience. It is clearly stated in the Mahapuräņa that Bharata prior to renunciation was worshipped only by the kings of his country but after renunciation he attained Lordship over three worlds and was worshipped even by Indras.
Bharata in sculptural renderings was shown only in the 10th century A.D. However, the concrete representation of Bharata was more popular with the Digambara sect. At Svetāmbara Jaina sites, Bharata is represented only in the narrative panels, exhibiting the scene of fierce fight between Bharata and Bāhubali.
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Such instances are known from the Svetāmbara Jaina The figure (10th century A.D.), preserved in the sites at Kumbharia (Sāntinātha Temple - 11th century neighbouring Sahu Jaina Museum, was originally A.D.) in Gujarat and Mt. Abu (Vimalavasahi - 12th enshrined in the Temple No. 12. Bharata in this example century A.D.) in Rajasthan. In one example from as usual stands in the kāyotsarga-mudrā on a triratha Satruñjaya, Bharata muni is represented as standing. pedestal. An aureole decorated with lotus petals is The pedestal of Bharata shows a disc weapon (insignia carved behind his head. Over the shoulders of Bharata of Cakravarti).
are shown dangling locks, which at once remind us of In sculptures, Bharata is always portrayed as his father Rşabhanātha, who, according to the Jaina standing in the kāyotsarga-mudra and absorbed in tapas tradition, is the only Jina to have falling hair locks. and meditation like a muni. As he renounced all material Above the head of Bharata is carved a single parasol, possessions before retiring to the forest for tapas, he since he is merely a kevalin. At right of Bharata are is shown in sculptures without any royal insignia and carved nine vases, arranged in three rows, which are ornaments. The figures of nine treasures and fourteen symbolic of Navanidhis. The vases are topped by seated jewels, possessed by Bharata as Cakravartin but later figure of two-armed Kubera, lord of Nidhis, holding renounced are depicted on the pedestal and in the a fruit and a purse. Further up are carved the sword, parikara. The image of Bharata can be distinguished the staff, the umbrella, the cakra and the cowrie. On from that of the Tirthankara only by the rendering of the left flank there appear three male figures sitting in Navanidhis and fourteen Ratnas. All the images radiantlalitasana and holding a plough, a vajra and the abhayawith spiritual grace stress the point of absolute mudrā. These figures may be identified with the Grhapati, renunciation and austerity.
the Senāpati and the priest (or the carpenter ?). Deogadh has yielded five images of Bharata which The figures of horse (with a man holding its rein), are maximum number of independent images of Bharata elephant and the woman (sitting with her hands kept at single site. The sculptures of Bharata at Deogadh near the face) are also depicted on the left side. Thus are datable between the 10th and the 11th century A.D. eleven of the fourteen jewels have been shown here. (Pl. 228). The figures, fashioned in the buff-coloured The other figures of Bharata are almost identical in sandstone, exhibit Bharata as sky-clad and standing in details. the käyotsarga-mudră with his arms reaching down to
JĪVANTASVĀMI IMAGES the knees. Of the five figures, two are enshrined in Jivantasvāmī, in the first instance, is Mahāvīra Temple No. 2, while one is fixed on the eastern wall (the 24th Jina) meditating in his palace prior to of Temple No. 1. One figure (A.D. 1032) is also renunciation. According to the Svetāmbara Jaina preserved on the modern enclosure wall of Temple No. tradition, a sandalwood image of Mahāvīra, wearing a 12 on north. The last figure is housed in the neighbouring mukuta and other ornaments befitting royalty, was carved Sahu_Jaina Museum. All the figures are marked with in his life time (c. late 6th cent. B.C.) during the course the srivatsa in the centre of the chest. The hair of of his tapas in the palace about a year prior to Bharata, in all the cases, is arranged in curls with a renunciation. Such images of Mahāvīra are hence called protuberance (uşnişa) at the top. The modelling of the Jivantasvāmi or Jivitasvāmi (truly a portrait statue). sculptures is good and they have hardly any sign of Like the Bodhisattva, who is yet to reach Buddhahood, stiffness. The limbs of these figures are in fine proportion. Jivantasvāmi also represents a concept which may be The faces are small and half-shut eyes suggest deep called Jinasattva. The Jivantasvāmi concept is also meditation and inward look.
suggestive of the fact that a person in his life time even
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without relinquishing worldly possessions can attain the status of a god worthy of oblation by way of inner austerity and non-attachment as exemplified by Mahāvīra.
U.P. Shah, the first scholar to identify Jivantasvämi images, has accepted the literary tradition and concluded that the Jivantasvami image was carved as well as worshipped in the life time of Mahāvīra. He has tried to reinforce his view on the strength of the two Jivantasvämi images of the early Maitraka period found at Akota near Vadodara in Gujarat.
The Jaina texts such as the Kalpasūtra and early literary works like the Paumacariya of Vimalasuri, however, do not refer to Jivantasvāmi images. The earliest references to these images are found in the later commentaries on the Agamas (c. mid-6th century A.D. onwards) and other works, namely the Vasudevahindi of Samghadāsagaņi (c. mid-6th century A.D.), the Avasyakacūrni (c. A.D. 625), the Avasyakavrtti of Haribhadrasūri (c. A.D. 750) and the
Trişastiśalākāpuruşacaritra (10.11.379-80) of Hemacandra. These works allude to the existence of Jivantasvāmi images at Ujjain, Dashapura (Mandsor), Vidisa, Vītabhayapattana, Puri and Koshala. The Trisastiśalākāpuruşacaritra, while dealing with the legend and the iconographic features of the Jivantasvāmi images at length, mentions that the Chaulukya emperor Kumārapāla (c. A.D. 1135-1176) had excavations carried out at Vitabhayapattana (in the Sindhu-Sauvira region) which unearthed a Jivantasvāmī image. According to Hemacandra, the first and orginal sandal wood image made by god Vidyunmali, was installed at Vidisa. However, there is no literary or archaeological reference to the Jivantasvāmī image prior to the 5th-6th century A.D. Hence the tradition of the contemporaneity of the Jivantasvami image with Mahāvīra seems only to show the existence of such a belief in the late Gupta period. It may be noted that there is no mention of the Jivantasvāmi image in the Digambara iso-canonical or literary works and as a
consequence no Jivantasvāmi image is known from any of the Digambara Jaina (or even Yapaniya) sites, even from prolific sites like Khajuraho, Deogadh and Ellora.
Jivantasvāmi images are always carved standing erect in the käyotsarga-mudrā, a posture suggestive of perfect self-control and meditation. The two earliest images of Jīvantasvāmī Mahāvīra hail from Akota and are now on display in the Vadodara Museum (Pl. 164). The first figure, datable to c. early 6th century A.D., shows Jivantasvāmi standing in käyotsarga with an embellished mukuta and other customary royal ornaments along with a tastefully worn long dhoti. The beautiful circular tilaka on the forehead, the integrated limbs and benign and smiling face, suggestive of contemplative look and serenity, are superb. The second image, datable to c. mid-6th century A.D., exhibits almost identical details. This image is particularly important, since it has an inscription labelling the figure as Jivantasāmi (Jivantasvāmī).
There is a gap of over three centuries between these and the next Jivantasvămî images. Another striking point is that the places traditionally associated with Jivantasvāmi images have so far yielded no such images. All the subsequent Jivantasvāmi images are reported mainly from places in Rajasthan and Gujarat which suggest that the tradition of Jivantasvāmi gained special favour in Rajasthan and Gujarat during medieval times. These images, found mainly in the Jodhpur, Nagaur and Sirohi regions (Osian, Khimvasar) in Rajasthan (Pls. 229-230) and a few places in Gujarat (Dabhoi, Satruñjaya) are datable from c. 9th to 15th century A.D. The earliest image from the Jodhpur region is a bronze assignable to c. 9th century A.D. It is preserved in a small Jaina shrine in Jodhpur. Jivantasvāmī Mahāvīra, as he usually does, stands in the kāyotsarga-mudrā wearing a dhoti and the usual ornaments.
Jivantasvämi, held in high esteem in the Svetāmbara tradition, appears to have enjoyed an especially favoured position at Osian (Pl. 229) which is evidenced both by the number of Jivantasvāmī images
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at the site and also by their peculiar iconography which imbibed host of features associated exclusively with Jina images. This was done deliberately to reveal the process of Jivantasvāmi's elevation to equal the Jina, highest in Jaina worship. However, similar efforts were made in respect of Bahubali images.
Some of the Jivantasvami figures from Osian and elsewhere also show lateral strands of hair, an invariable feature of Jina Rşabhanatha. The concept of Jivantasvāmi Mahavira was further broadened between the 10th and 15th centuries A.D. to depict other Jinas too in the form of Jivantasvåmi. This notion is supported by an inscribed image of Jina Munisuvrata (A.D. 1006), preserved in the State Museum, Lucknow (J. 776) in which two tiny figures of Jivantasvāmi are carved in the parikara with the usual customary features. The rendering of Jivantasvämi in pair makes it certain that other Jinas (apparently Munisuvrata in the present case) were also visualized as Jivantasvāmi. The view is further supported by later literary references found in the Prabandhakośa of Rajasekhara (A.D. 1348) and the Kalpapradipa of Jinaprabhasüri (A.D. 1335). The former text refers to a Jivantasvämi Pārsvanātha image taken out on a golden chariot while the latter refers to a Jivantasvāmi sāntinātha image. We also find several other inscribed Jivantasvāmi images of Sitalanatha (A.D. 1449), Candraprabha (A.D. 1465) and Sumatinātha (A.D. 1444) from western India. Thus on the strength of the available evidence we may conclude that besides Mahāvīra, the Jinas like Rşabhanātha (1 5Jina), Sumatinātha (5th Jina), Candraprabha (8th Jina). Sitalanātha (10th Jina), Sāntinātha (16th Jina), Munisuvrata (20th Jina) and
Pārsvanätha (23rd Jina) were also visualized in the form of Jivantasvami to cater to the needs and aspirations of lay devotees by transmitting a message of the observance of austerity and non-passionate life along with worldly obligations.
Osian has yielded three free-standing images of Jivantasvāmi. These figures, datable to c. 10th century A.D., reveal some such features which are unknown in any of the other Jivantasvämi images. The images contain the astaprätihäryas (except for the lion-throne), the attendant Yaksas and Yaksis, Mahāvidyās and tiny Jina figures in the parikara which all formed the invariable features of the elaborate Jina images. While the accompaniment of the astaprätihāryas (except for the lion-throne) is noticed in the Jīvantasvāmī images from some other sites also, the association of Yakşas and Yaksis, Mahavidyās and Jina figures is conspicuous by its absence in all other subsequent examples. (on strict theological grounds these associations are 'Unvalid' amounting to the transgression of tradition, for a soul who has still not attained Jinahood), REFERENCES
U.P. Shah, 'Bahubali : A Unique Bronze in the Museum', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum Bombay, No. 4, 1953-54, pp 32-39; Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, 'A Note on Some Bahubali images from North India', East and West (Rome), New series, Vol. 23, Nos 3-4, Sept.-Dec. 1973, pp. 347-53; 'Jivantasvāmi Images, Study in Concept and Iconography, Prof. Klaus Bruhn, Felicitation Volume, (Ed.) Nalini Balbir, Reinbek, 1994, pp. 585-592; Elements of Jaina Iconography, Varanasi, 1983.
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CHAPTER XIII SOME OTHER ASPECTS OF JAINA ART
The present chapter deals with some other important aspects of Jaina art, namely Ayāgapata, Samavasarana, Astamangala, Nandiśvara-Dvipa, Sammeta-Sikhara and Panca-Meru, Manastambha and Parents of Jinas.
JAINA ĀYAGAPATA An important votive object abundantly procured from the Kankāli Tila, Mathura, is the āyāgapata or the tablet of homage. Curiously, the āyāgapatas were used by the Jainas only in Pre-Kuşāņa and Kuşāņa period at Mathura and it has not been encountered subsequently in Jaina art. A fragment of a tympanum from Mathura (now in the National Museum, Delhi), belonging to Kuşāņa period, interestingly shows a group of devotees approaching towards stūpa, and in front of the stupa there could be seen four oblong solid platforms (Pīthikä or Vedi) crowned by the āyāgapatas which throw significant light on the manner the żyägapatas were worshipped.
The earliest āyagapațas in the State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. Nos. J. 248, J. 253), belong to c. 1st century B.C. and these were set up by the inhabitants of Mathura, in one case by the wife of Sivaghosaka. of the two, one shows sixteen-spoked wheel (Dharmacakra) enclosed by another circle with a band of tilaka-ratnas. The circle is further followed by bigger circle. The other āyāgapata is important because it shows in the centre the figure of a seated Jina with flanking sky-clad monks. The Jina with seven-hooded snake canopy is to be identified with Pārsvanātha. Thus this example becomes the singular instance showing the worship of Jina in the midst of the symbols (triratna, śrīvatsa).
Most of the available ayāgapatas form a class by themselves. The carvings on most of these äyägapatas are exuberant and reflect the zeal and skill of the artists (State Museum, Lucknow, J. 250). The religious character
of these āyāgapatas is evident not only by the available inscriptions, referring to the setting up of the āyāgapatas for the worship of the Arhats, i.e. Jinas, but also by the depiction of the stūpas (Archaeological Museum Mathura. Q. 2; State Museum, Lucknow, J. 255), figures of Tirthankaras (State Museum, Lucknow, J. 250, J. 253; Government Museum, Mathura, Acc. Nos. 47-49), Caitya-Vļkşa, Dharmacakra (State Museum Lucknow, J. 248) and auspicious symbols, including Astamangalas particularly sacred to Jainism (State Museum, Lucknow, J. 249 - Pl. 119).
As suggested by U.P. Shah, the precursor of the ayāgapatas might have been the Pudhavi-Silā-patta (Prthvi-Silā-patta) placed on a small platform at the foot or Vrksa-Caityas, sacred to the sylvan folk-divinities, Yakşas and Nāga. In early reliefs we find devotees worshipping such vedis or altars below the trees. Such vedis were conceived as of high sanctity, being the sacred seat and symbolizing the physical presence of the invisible divinities. These were worshipped by the local people who used to put various offerings, including floral on such vedis. The worship of folk divinities is of hoary antiquity and has survived in many parts of India even now in the forms of Grāma-devatas.
The representations of Jinas and stūpas on the ayāgapatas tend to prove that these slabs perched on the vedis or pithas did not serve merely as arghya-pattas or bali-pattas, where flowers and other offerings were deposited for worshipping the Jinas and stūpas. On the contrary, these representations would suggest that these ayāgapatas were themselves like the image of the Arhat at the deva-nirmita stūpa.
SAMAVASARANA The samavasaraņa literally means assemblage which refers to the congregation hall constructed by gods, where gods, men and animals assemble and take
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their apportioned seats to listen to the first sermon of Kumbharia (Santinätha and Mahāvīra temples) and the Jinas. Each of the 24 Jinas delivered his first sermon Delvada (Vimalavasahi and Lüņavasahi) Jaina temples, in the samavasarana after attaining omniscience. The the rendering of the circular samavasarana with three belief is common to both the sects. The Svetāmbaras ramparts and a figure of the seated Jina at the top is describe samavasarana as the work of Vyantara gods invariably found in the midst of the narratives (Pañcaat the command of Indra, while the Digambara texts kalyāņakas) from the lives of Rsabhanātha, Sāntinātha, (Adipurana) mention that Indra himself was the architect. Neminātha and Mahavira. Some independent sculptures It is special structure usually with an elaborate circular are also found from Vimalavasahi (cell No. 20), hall with three fortifications. Detailed descriptions of Kumbharia (śāntinātha and Mahāvīra temples), Cambay samavasaraņas are found in the Jaina Purāṇas of both and Marwar (now in a Jaina shrine at Surat) (Pl. 220). the sects, most elaborate of all such references being the samvasarana is important not only from the available in the Trișaștiśalākāpuruşacaritra (parva ), viewpoint of Jaina iconography but it does also provide 1.3.421-77) and the Adipurāņa (22.76-312)
some important socio-religious concepts of basic The textual descriptions of both the sects agree harmony among all the worldly creatures - men and in broad outline, viz. a central pavilion for the Jina animals. It is the place where the Jinas give their first placed on a big platform, and surrounded by three sermons where not only the gods and goddesses and different fortifications, each having four archways on human beings are present but also the animal world. four directions. Originally the conception of the The Adipurāņa says that the Vyantara-devas instal the samavasarana seems to be circular in plan and the figures of the selfsame Jina on three other sides to square plan seems to be a later conception. It is likely facilitate the devotees and audience sitting all around that the samavasarana has for its prototype the big stūpa the circular congregation hall. The impact of the sermon (the harmikä of stupa may be compared with Gandhakuți of the Jinas is also suggested symbolically by way of or Devacchanda-pitha of the Jina) surrounded by a showing different animals of natural enmity as sitting circumambulatory path with a small railing reached by together at one place. The texts as well as visual a flight of steps. At a lower level or on the ground representations show the animals like lion-deer, lionlevel running around this central structure and at some elephant, snake-mongoose and peacock-snake, sitting distance from it is the bigger railing (a sort of rampart) face to face. What else could be the better impact of with ornamental torana-gateways. If we add to this a the sermons of the Jinas than to give a message of third similar rampart, we get the plan of the mutual understanding and harmony for all the creatures. samavasarana.
ASTAMANGALA In the Kalpasūtra miniature samavasarana is The astamangalas or eight auspicious objects are generally represented as circular and occasionally as familiar to Jaina worship from ancient times. They are square in plan. The wall and ceiling paintings at Svastika, Srivatsa, Nandyāvarta, Varddhamānaka, SarāvaTirumalai (North Arcot district - c. 11th century A.D.) sampuța (or Powder flask), Bhadrāsana (throne, a also contain a representation of the samavasarana in the particular type of seat), Kalasa (the full-vase), Darpaņa usual form of a wheel. The representation of (mirror) and Matsya (or Matsya Yugma - pair of fish). samavasaraṇa was more popular at Svetāmbara sites as These are often referred to in Jaina texts, including well as in Svetāmbara paintings from about c. 11th canonical works, as decorating tops of architraves or century A.D. onwards. In the ceilings of both the ramparts, or placed on Caitya-trees, or platforms or
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even painted on walls. Hemacandra mentions that the eight auspicious symbols were represented on Balipattas or offering stands. The offering-stand is a platter with low legs, made of wood or metal and is used to hold offering in temple worships. It has eight auspicious signs carved in high relief.
The earliest renderings of auspicious symbols are seen on some of the Jaina ayagapatas (square tablets) of the Pre-Kusana and Kuṣaṇa period, obtained from Kankali Ṭīlā, Mathura. The Tablet set up by Acala, for example, shows a line of four symbols in the upper most panel and others at base. In this lower panel, the first symbol from right end, partly mutilated, was probably the Śrīvatsa. The second is Svastika, third a lotus-bud half open, fourth a pair of fish, fifth a waterjar (with a handle) and sixth is either an offering of sweets or a crude representation of Ratna-rasi. The seventh is possibly the Sthapana (a cross stand with a manuscript on it) and the eighth is an inverted Triratna. The uppermost central rectangular panel, which contains four symbols, shows the Śrivatsa, another type of Svastika, and two more symbols which cannot be properly identified. Some of these symbols also occur on other ayagapatas. A much better preserved set of eight symbols is however obtained on the ayagapata set up by Sihanadikā (State Museum, Lucknow, J. 249), with the Kuṣaṇa inscription (Pl. 119). Here in the lower panel are shown the Triratna, the full-blown flower, the Sthapana (or the Bhadrasana) and the Mangala-kalasa (full vase), while the top panel shows a pair of fish, an unidentified symbol, the Śrīvatsa and the powderflask (Vardhamānaka).
It appears that in the Kuṣaṇa period, the set of the aştamangalas was not finally settled and that the earlier tradition as obtained on the ayagapatas, especially the ayagapata of Sihanädikā, shows a slightly different set from the one known to us. In this older tradition represented on the ayagapatas, the Nandyavarta and the Darpana are omitted and the full-blown lotus and another

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unidentified symbol are used. The Mathura ayagapatas represent a stage anterior to the tradition recorded in the available Jaina canons. The astamangalas are also represented in miniature manuscript paintings, or in paintings on canvas of different patas, and in scroll paintings of the Vijñaptipatras NANDISVARA-DVĪPA
Nandisvara-Dvipa, known to both the sects, is the last of the numerous concentric island-continents of Jaina Cosmography, the first or the central one being the Jambu-dvipa. The Nandiśvara is a land of delight of the gods with gardens of manifold designs, which are visited by the gods devoted to the worship of the Jinas.
The plaques or patas representing the 52 shrines on the Nandiśvara are very popular amongst both the sects. The Digambaras represent 52 small figures of the Jinas (suggesting 52 shrines) on a four-tiered platform or in a miniature shrine, both the types being four-faced, as illustrated by T.N. Ramachandran in his "Tiruparuttikugram and its Temples". (Pl. XXI, Figs. 3-4, p. 181). The Svetambaras represent 52 miniature shrines in four groups of thirteen each, carved in relief on a stone plaque and arranged in different artistic ways. A beautiful Svetambara plaque (c. 15th century A.D.) worshipped in the famous Caumukha shrine at Ranakpur (Pali, Rajasthan) is noteworthy. Here the Jinalayas are grouped in a beautiful geometric pattern while the intervening spaces at four ends are filled with representations of caitya-trees with worshippers nearby. Another pata of this dvipa, installed by one Dhandhala in V.S. 1287 (A.D. 1230) is preserved in a cell in the main shrine on Mt. Girnar, but the number of shrines on the plaque exceeds the usual figures of 52. Both the plaques however are not the correct representation of the Nandisvara-dvipa as such, but are rather patas of the Sasvata-Caityalayas only on the dvipa, and hence omit representations of lakes, palaces etc. on the island.

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The Nandīśvara-dvipa has been held very sacred in both the sects and hence stone and metal sculptures or plaques of it were installed in Jaina shrines. The subject has sufficient scope for showing compositional varieties.
T.N. Ramachandran has published a metal sculpture of the Nandiśvara-dvipa from south India which is pyramidal in shape. Thirteen Jinas are shown as sitting in padmāsana on each side. He has also published a bigger stone sculpture of the Nandiśvara-dvipa, shaped like a vimāna, superimposed on a square base, the sides of which reveal Jinas (Siddhas) seated in meditation. SAMMETA-SIKHARA AND
PAÑCA-MERU The representations of Sammeta-Sikhara are worshipped in Jaina shrines, a famous example of which is available in the triple-Jaina shrine built by Vastupāla-Tejapāla on Mount Girnar. Such representations are known as avatāra' or 'uddhära' of a particular tirtha in Svetāmbara Jaina terminology. A small plaque, representing avatāra' of the two tirthas at Satrunjaya and Girnar are now in worship in a shrine at Varkana in Rajasthan.
Representations of Panca-Meru mountains of different dvipas showing a Siddhayatana (suggested by a four-fold Jina image) on each tier, one above the other (in five tiers) and surmounted by a finial, are more common amongst the Digambaras. One such Panca- Meru is also obtained in a Svetämbara shrine, in the Hastiśālā of the Lūņa-vasahi (Mt. Abu). The five Merus are Sudarśana in the midst of Jambūdvīpa, Vijaya in eastern Dhatakikhanda-dvipa, Acala in western Dhätakikhanda-dvipa, Mandara in eastern Puskarärdha- dvipa and Vidyunmāli in the western Puskarardha- dvipa. According to the Digambara belief, in all there are 80 Siddhayatanas (eternal shrines or shrines of Siddhas) on the five Merus. A Digambara Panca-Meru bronze, installed in V.S. 1514 (1457 A.D.) is now in worship in a shrine in Surat.
MANASTAMBHA The Mänastambhas or Mänavakastambhas were erected as free standing pillars or votive columns in front of the Jaina temples. The Adipurāņa of Jinasena speaks of the Mānastambhas to be carved in the first rampart of a samavasaraņa. At the base of these pillars four golden images of the Jinas were placed on four sides (22.92.109). Being erected by Indra they are also called Indra-dhvaja. These are also described in the Tiloyapannatti which says that the Jina images were carved on top of the pillars (4.779).
The Mānastambhas are also referred to as Kirtistambha as known from the inscriptions of Chittorgarh (Rajasthan), belonging to a period from 13th to 15th century A.D. (Pl. 130). The Jaina Kirtistambha (c. 1300 A.D.) of Chittor, though a Caturasra (square) stone structure of seven storeys with an inner spiralling stairway, has been denoted as Kirtistambha and Mānastambha both in the inscriptions.
The erection of Mānastambha or Indradhvaja or Kirtistambha has been very popular at the Digambara Jaina sites and as such free standing columns erected near a Jaina temple, mainly in front of the temple, are profusely found in south Indian Jaina temples. An early example of such pillar (A.D. 461) with four different Jinas on four sides at the top and one at the base is known from Kahaum (Deoria, U.P.). The prolific site of Deogadh was very rich in respect of the Mānastambhas and about 19 Mānastambhas (c. 9th-13th centuries A.D.) are found at the site. These Mānastambhas usually show the figures of the Yaksīņis like Cakreśvari, Ambikā Padmavati, Rohini, and sometimes even kşetrapala on four sides at the base while the top usually depicts the figures of the four Jinas seated or standing on four sides. Sometimes three Jinas are carved on three sides and the fourth side is occupied by the figures of Jaina Upādhāyayas and Sadhus.
PARENTS OF JINAS The parents of the Jinas have been paid due
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Some Other Aspects of Jaina Art
353
respect by the followers of both the Jaina sects. The worship of the parents of the Jinas appears to be of ancient origin. They are invoked in various rites especially in Pratisthāvidhi, and it is interesting to note that even here the mothers are more frequently invoked than the fathers. In painting as well as sculpture, the mother is more often represented. Aryavati in the Amohini votive tablet from Mathura, dated in the 42nd year of Sodāsa, is one of the earliest such specimens. It belongs to the early Kuşāņa period and depicts a standing lady (Aryavati) adored by attendant figures one of whom holds a parasol over her. The lady most probably represents the mother of a Jina (probably Mahāvira by U.P. Shah). Several stone plaques representing in relief all the twenty-four mothers, each in a separate compartment and carrying the son in her lap, are known to have been installed in Jaina temples from the early medieval period. The earliest example is preserved in a Svetāmbara Jaina temple at Osian (A.D. 1018). Similar patas from Patan, Delvada, Mt. Girnar and many more places are found
Jaina temples.
The mothers of the Jaina saviours were widely worshipped both in group of twenty-four and singly. When single, the mother is normally shown reclining on a cot with the child lying beside her, both attended by maids or the Dikkumaris. Such representations form part of the numerous scenes depicting the entire life of a Jina as we find in the ceilings of Vimalavasahi, and Kumbharia Jaina temples (11th-13th centuries A.D.) (Pl. 222). On a pillar of the famous Dharana-vihāra shrine of Ranakpur is found a figure of a mother lying on a cot which represents the nativity of a Jina. An identical sculpture (A.D. 1020) is preserved in Temple No. 4 at Deogadh. The sculpture includes representations of the 24 Jinas on all the three sides of the mother.
It may be recalled that the nativity figures are known to other sects also. The nativity scenes of Buddha are found from Lumbini and Nalanda. Likewise the nativity of Krsna is represented on the wall of one of the pañcāyatana temple at Osian (8th century A.D.)
in
and also at Khajuraho.
The collective representation of the parents of the 24 Jinas along with their names are carved in the aisle ceilings of the Santinātha and Mahavīra temples (11th century A.D.) at Kumbharia. In these instances only the mother of each of the 24 Jinas is provided with a baby (would be Jina) in the lap. It is further interesting to note that the Mahavira temple at Kumbharia also preserves two independent slabs near the western and northern entrance which represent the mothers of 24 Jinas with a baby in the left lap supported by left hand while the right hand carries a fruit.
Another type of representation, most popular at the Digambara Jaina sites (Deogadh, Khajuraho, Rajgir. Gurgi, Chandapur etc., and also in Indian and Foreign museums) shows a male and a female figures carved mostly as sitting in lalitäsana (sometimes also as standing) under some tree (probably caitya tree related to the Jina) on a common seat suggesting that they are object of worship (Pl. 221). Sometimes, though rarely (at Khajuraho), such couples are also provided with the figures of Yakșa and Yaksi to suggest their position of high reverence. Such figures are provided mostly with fruit (sometimes lotus) in one hand while with the left they support the baby sitting in the lap. It is interesting to find that in most of the cases both male and female carry one baby each. These couples, so common at the Digambara Jaina sites, are usually identified as tutelary couples but it is befitting to identify them as parents of the Jinas, whose references and representations were found both in literature and art from about c. 7th-8th century A.D. In one example (now in Jardin Museum, Khajuraho, Acc. No. 1595) a bull is distinctly carved on the pedestal to suggest that the image represents the parent of Rşabhanātha. However, one could easily notice different types of trees with such couples at Digambara Jaina sites which may be the representation of different caitya-vrkņas associated with the Jinas, on the basis of which some efforts to identify the parents could be made in future.
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354
2-23 vi
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6 7 8 9 81234
6.
8.
9.
10.
11.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
Tirthankara
Rṣabhanatha
Ajitanatha
Sambhavanatha
Abhinandana
Sumatinatha

Padmaprabha
Supärśvanätha Candraprabha
Puspadanta
Šitalanatha Sreyamhsanatha
Väsupūjya Vimalanatha
Anantanatha
Dharmanatha
Śāntinātha
Kunthünätha
Aranātha
Mallinatha
Munisuvrata
Naminatha
Neminatha
Pārsvanatha
Mahāvīra
Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Table-1
PARENTS OF JINAS
Father
Nabhi
Jitaśatru
Jitāri
Samvara
Megha (Sve.)
Meghaprabha (Dig.)
Dhara or Dharana (Dig.)
Pratistha or Supratistha (Dig.) Mahasena
Sugrīva
Drdharatha
Vişnu
Vasupujya
Kṛtavarmā
Simhasena
Bhānu
Viśvasena
Süra or Suryasena (Dig.)
Sudarsana
Kumbha
Sumitra
Vijaya
Samudravijaya
Aśvasena
Siddhartha
Abbreviation Śve. - Śvetämbara, Dig.- Digambara.
REFERENCES
Vincent Smith, The Jaina Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura, Varanasi, 1968 (reprint); U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Banaras, 1955; U.P. Shah, Jaina-Rupa-Mandana; A. Ghosh (Ed.): Jaina Art and Architecture (3 Vols.), New Delhi, 1974; T.N.
Mother
Marudevi
Vijayā
Sena (Śve.); Suṣena (Dig.)

Siddhartha
Mangala
Susimā
Prthvi
Lakṣmaṇa or Laksmi (Dig.)
Rāmā
Nanda
Visnudevi or Venudev (Dig.)
Jaya or Vijaya (Dig.)
Syama or Jayasyama (Dig.)
Suyasa or Sarvayaśā (Dig.) Suvrata
Acira or Aira (Dig.) Śrī
Devi or Mitra (Dig.) Prabhavati
Padmä
Vapra or Viprītā (Dig.) Śivädevī
Vämä or Varmilā
Trisala or Priyakāriņi (Dig.)
Ramachandran, Tiruparuttikunram and its Temples; Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, Jaina Pratimävijñāna, Varanasi, 1981; Maruti Nandan Prasad Tiwari, Khajuraho Ka Jaina Puratattva, Khajuraho; R. Nath, Jaina Kirttistambha of Chittorgarh, Jaipur, 1994.

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Appendix-I
TEXTS-AFFILIATION AND THEIR DATES
1. 2.
5. 6.
8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
Acaradinakara of Vardhamāna Sūri (Svetämbara), A.D. 1412. Adipurāņa of Jinasena (Digambara) c. early 9th century A.D. Aparajitaprochā of Bhuvanadeva (non-Jain), 1150-1250 A.D. Agam Texts-Agamas_(12), c. 3rd - 2nd century B.C. - 3rd century A.D. Bhairava-Padmavati-kalpa of Mallisena Sūri, A.D. 1047. Brhatsarhitā of Varahamihira (non-Jain), c. 6th century A.D. Caturvimśatikā of Bappabhatti Sūri, c. latter half of the gth century A.D. Caturvimśati-Jina Caritra of Amarachandra Süri, A.D. 1241. Caturvimśati Stotra or Sobhana Stuti of Sobhana Muni, 973 A.D. Dipärņava-architectural treatise of the 12th - 13th century A.D. Harivarśa Purăņa of Jinasena of Punnātagana, A.D. 783-84. Kahävali, c. 8th century A.D. Kalpa Pradīpa or Vividha Tirtha Kalpa of Jinaprabhasūri, 1335 A.D. Mahapurāņa of Puşpadanta (Digambara), 10th century A.D. Mānasāra (non-Jaina), c. 5th - 7th century A.D. - South Indian Text. Mantrādhirāja Kalpa of Sāgaracandra Sūri, c. 12th - 13th century A.D. Nirväņakalikā of Pādalipta Sūri III, 900 A.D. Padma Purāņa_of Ravişeņa, A.D. 676. Pratisthāsārasargraha of Vasunandi, c. 12th century A.D. Pratisthāsāroddhāra of Āsādhara, first half of 13th century A.D. Pratisthātilakam of Nemicandra, A.D. 1543. Pravacanasāroddhāra of Nemicandra Süri, 12th century A.D. Paumacariya of Vimala Süri, c. 3rd century A.D. Pārsvanātha Caritra of Bhavadeva Suri (Svetāmbara), 14th century A.D. Pärśvābhyudaya of Jinasena, 12th century A.D. Rūpamandana and Devatāmurti Prakarana of Sūtradhära Mandana, 15th century A.D. (Non-Jaina) śāntinātha Mahäkävya, A.D. 1353 Tiloyapannatti of Yativrsabha, c. gth century A.D. Trişastiśalākāpuruşacaritra of Hemacandra Sūri, latter half of the 12th century A.D. Uttara Purāņa (of Mahāpurāņa) of Gunabhadra, c. 897 A.D. Vasudevahindi of Sanghadāsagani (Svetambara), c. 6th century A.D.
22. 23. 24.
27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

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Appendix-II IMPORTANT JAINA SITES, THEIR DATES AND AFFILIATION
1. 2. 3.
Akota Aihole Amminabhavi
4. Anatur 5. Badami
Bāpatlā Chitaral
Chandragiri 9. Chittorgarh
Deogadh 11. Dānavulāpādu 12. Ellora
13.
Girnar
(Vadodara - Gujarat), Svetāmbara, Bronze images, 6th - 11th century A.D. (Bijapur, Karnataka), Calukya, c. 7th century A.D. (Dharwar, Karnataka), Western Chalukya, Neminātha temple, 11th - 12th century A.D. (Chikmagalur, Karnataka), Hoyasala, 12th century A.D. (Bijapur, Karnataka), Chalukya, c. 7th century A.D. (Guntur, Andhra Pradesh), Metal images, gth - 9th century A.D. (Kanyakumari, Tamilnadu), Chera, rock-cut figures, gth - 9th century A.D. (Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh), Western Chalukya, 12th century A.D. (Udaipur, Rajasthan), 13th - 15th century A.D. (Lalitpur, Uttar Pradesh), Digambara, A.D. 862 to 16th century A.D. (Cuddapah, Andhra Pradesh), Rāştraküța, 9th - 10th century A.D. (Aurangabad, Maharashtra), Rāştrakūța, Rock-cut Jaina caves (nos. 30-34), 9th - 10th century A.D. (Junagarh, Gujarat), Svetāmbara, Neminātha and other temples, 12th - 13th to 15th century A.D. (Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh), Digambara, 9th - 10th century A.D. (Pali, Rajasthan), Svetambara, Mahāvīra temple, c. 10th - 11th century A.D. (Shimoga, Karnataka), Rāstrakūța, uth. 12th century A.D. (Hassan, Karnataka), Digambara, Hoyasala, Jaina temple, 12th century A.D. (Gulbarga, Karnataka), 11th century A.D. (Rajasthan), Svetämbara, Solanki, Mahavira and Pārsvanātha temples, 12th century A.D. and Adinātha temple (Caumukhi), 13th century A.D. (Rock-cut caves, Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu), Pandya, gth - 9th century A.D. (Rock-cut, Tamilnadu), Pandya, gth - 9th century A.D. (Kerala), Chera, gth - 9th century A.D. (Māndya, Karnataka) Rāstrakūta, Pañcakūta Jinālaya, 10th century A.D. (Chatārpur, Madhya Pradesh), Chandella, Digambara, Parsvanātha, Ghantai, Śäntinātha and Adinātha temples, 950 A.D. to 12th century A.D. (Banaskantha, Gujarat), Svetāmbara, Solanki-Śāntinātha, Mahāvīra, Pārsvanātha, Neminātha and Sambhavanātha temples, 1050 A.D. to 13th century A.D.
14. Gyaraspur
Ghanerav Humca
Halebid 18. Harsur 19. Jalor
20. 21. 22. 23. 24.
Kalugumalai Karaikoyil Kallil Kambadahalli Khajuraho
25.
Kumbharia
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26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
Karur
Karkal
Kharataravasahi
Lakkundi
Lūnavasahi
Mathura Melsittamar
Malkhed
Moodbidri
48.
49.
50.
51.
Nagada
Navamuni and
Bārabhuji Caves
Nadol
38. Nadlai
39.
Osian
40. Penukonda
41. Pattanakudi
42. Ranakpur
43. Śatrunjaya
44.
Sevadi Sittannavasal
45.
46. Samanarmalai
47.
Śravanabelagola
Sadri
Sedam
Stavanidhi
Śrigeri

Appendix
357
(Shimoga, Karnataka), 12th century A.D.
(Karnataka), Vijayanagar, 14th century A.D.
(Mt. Abu, Delväḍā, Sirohi, Rajasthan), Śvetämbara, Caumukha Pārsvanatha temple, A.D. 1459.
(Dharwar, Karnataka), Hoyasala, 12th century A.D.
(Mt. Abu, Delväḍā, Sirohi, Rajasthan), Śvetämbara, Neminatha temple, 13th century A.D. (1231 A.D.)
(Uttar Pradesh), Earliest Jaina site, c. 150 B.C. to 11th century A.D. (South Arcot, Tamilnadu), Pallava-Chola transition, 8th 9th century A.D. (Gulbarga, Karnataka), Late Chalukya, 12th 13th century A.D.
(South Kannara, Karnataka), Vijayanagar, 14th 15th century A.D. (Udaipur, Rajasthan), Padmavati temple, 10th century A.D.
(Khandagiri, Puri, Orissa), Rock cut Digambara caves, 11th 12th century A.D.
(Pali, Rajasthan), Śvetämbara, Śantinātha, Neminatha and Padmaprabha temples, 12th century A.D.
(Pali, Rajasthan), Śvetämbara, Adinatha temple, 12th century A.D.
(Jodhpur, Rajasthan), Śvetambara, Pratihara, Mahāvīra temple of c. 8th century A.D.; Torana and Devakulikās (miniature shrines) of 10th 11th century A.D. (Anantapur, Andhra Pradesh), Western Chalukya, 11th century A.D. (Belgaum, Karnataka), Western Chalukya, 11th 12th century A.D. (Pali, Rajasthan), Śvetämbara, Sarvatobhadra Jinälaya of Adinatha, A.D. 1439, Dharaṇa-Vihara shrine.
(Bhavanagar, Gujarat), Śvetämbara, Adinatha and other temples, c. 12th to 16th century A.D.
(Pali, Rajasthan), Śvetambara Mahāvīra temple, c. 9th century A.D. (Rock-cut, Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu), Pallava, 7th century A.D. (Karaḍipatti, Tamilnadu), Pandya, 8th 9th century A.D.
(Hassan, Karnataka), Ganga and Hoysala, 8th 14th century A.D., Colossal Gommatesvara Bahubali image.
(Pali, Rajasthan), Śvetambara, Pārsvanatha temple, 11th century A.D. (Gulbarga, Karnataka), 11th century A.D.
(Belgaum, Karnataka), Chalukya, c. 11th 12th century A.D.
(Karnataka), Vijayanagar, Vidya Sankara temple, 14th century A.D. (Jaina Carvings freely used as themes in Brahamanical temple)

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Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Tirakkol
52. 53.
Terdal Taranga Tiruparuttikuņram
55.
57.
Tirumalai Uttamapālayam Vallimalai Vimalavashi
(Rock-cut, North Arcot, Tamilnadu), Pallava, gth century A.D. (Bijapur, Karnataka), Western Chalukya, 11th century A.D. (Mahesana-Gujarat), Svetāmbara, Solanki, Ajitanātha temple, 12th century A.D. (Chingleput, Tamilnadu), Pallava-Pandya and Vijayanagar, 8th to 16th - 17th century A.D., (17th century Painting of Nāyaka period), Chandraprabha temple. (Rock-cut, Vellore, Tamilnadu), 9th - 10th century A.D. (Rock-cut, Madurai, Tamilnadu), Pāndya, 9th century A.D. (Rock-cut, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh), Chola, 9h - 11th century A.D. (Mt. Abū, Delvādā, Sirohi, Rajasthan), Svetāmbara, A.D. 1032 to 12th century A.D., Adinātha temple-main temple of A.D. 1032 and devakulikās, Corridor and rangamandapa, of 1150 A.D. (Karnataka), Vijayanagar, 17th century A.D., huge Bāhubali image. (South Arcot, Tamilnadu), Vijayanagar, Adinātha temple, 16th century A.D.
58. 59.
60. 61.
Venura Villukkam
EX
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Appendix-III TABLE-1 - JINA ICONOGRAPHY
Cognizance
Bull
No. Jina 1. Rşabhanātha
or (Ādinātha) 2. Ajitanātha 3. Sambhavanatha 4. Abhinandana 5. Sumatinātha
Elephant Horse Monkey Krauñca (Bird)
Yaksa
Yakși Gomukha
Cakreśvari (S.D.),
Apraticakră (S) Mahayakşa
Ajitá (S), Rohiņi (D) Trimukha
Duritāri (S), Prajñapti (D) Yakşeśvara (S.D.), Isvara (S) Kālikā (s), Prajñapti (D) Tumbaru (S.D.), Tumbara (D) Mahākali (S), Puruşadatta,
Naradattā (D), Sammohini (S). Kusuma (S), Puşpa (D) Acyutā, Mānasi (S) Manovegā (D) Matanga
śāntā (S), Kāli (D)
6. Padmaprabha
Lotus
7. Supārsvanātha
Svastika (S.D.), Nandyāvarta (D) Śaśi (Crescent)
8. Candraprabha
Vijaya (S), Syāma (D)
Bhrkuti, Jvālā (S), Jvālāmālini Jvälini (D) Sutārā (S), Mahākāli (D)
Ajita (S.D.), Jaya (D)
Brahma
Asokā (S), Mānavi (D)
9. Suvidhinātha (S), Crocodile
Puşpadanta (S.D.) 10. Śitalanātha Srivatsa (S.D.)
Svastika (D) 11. Sreyāṁšanātha Khadgi
(Rhinoceros) Vasupujya
Buffalo
Mänavi, Srivatsā (S) Gauri (D)
Iśvara (S.D.), Yakşarāja, Manuja (S) Kumāra
Candā, Pracandā, Ajitā, Candrā (S), Gāndhāri (D) Vidită (S), Vairoți (D)
13. Vimalanātha
14. Anantanātha
Boar
Sanmukha (S.D.)
Caturmukha (D) Syena Paksi- Pātāla Falcon (S), Bear (D) Thunderbolt (Vajra) Kinnara
Ankuśā (S), Anantamatī (D)
15. Dharmanātha
16. Sāntinātha 17. Kunthunatha
Dear Chaga (Goat)
Garuda Gandharva
Kandarpā, Pannagā (S) Mānasi (D) Nirvāņi (S), Mahāmānasi (D) Balā, Acyutā, Gāndhāriņi (S), Jayā (D)
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18. Aranatha
Dhāriņi (S), Tārāvati (D)
Nandyāvarta (S) Fish (D) Kalasa (Pitcher)
Yakşendra, Yakşeśvara (S), Khendra (D)
19. Mallinātha
Kubera
20. Munisuvrata
Tortoise
Varuna
Vairoțyā, Dharanapriya (S) Aparājitā (D) Naradattā, Varadattā (S), Bahurūpi (D) Gandhāri (S), Cāmundā (D) Ambika (S.D.), Kuşmāndi (S), Kuşmāndini (D) Padmavati
21. Naminātha Blue Lotus Bhrkuti 22. Neminatha (or Conch
Gomedha Aristanemi) 23. Pārsvanātha Snake
Pārsva, Vāmana (S)
Dharana (D) 24. Mahāvīra (or
Lion
Mātanga Vardhamāna) Abbreviation, S = Svetāmbara; D = Digambara
Siddhāyikā (S.D.), Siddhāyini (D)
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Appendix-IV Table-II - YAKŞA-YAKȘI ICONOGRAPHY
(A) 24 Yaksas
No. Yaksa
Vāhana
Ayudha (Attributes)
Other Features
No. of Arms 4
1. Gomukha
(i) Elephant or Bull-S
(ii) Bull-D
2. Mahāyaksa
(i) Elephant-S
8
(ii) Elephant-D
8
3. Trimukha
(i) Peacock or Snake-S
6
(ii) Peacock-D
varada-mudrā, rosary,
Bull-faced and joined fruit, noose
by elephant and bull axe, fruit, rosary,
marked with dharmavarada-mudra
cakra on head varada-mudra, hammer Four-faced (mudgara), rosary, noose (R); fruit, abhaya-mudrā, goad, spear (L) sword (? Nistrinsa), staff, Four-faced axe, varada-mudră (R); disc, trident, lotus, goad (L) mongoose (nakula), mace, Three-faced, three or abhaya-mudrā (R); fruit, nine-eyed. snake, rosary (L); staff, trident, dagger (R); Three-faced, threedisc, sword, goad (L) eyed fruit, rosary, mongoose, four-faced goad (i) Sarkapatra (or arrow), sword, bow, shield; (ii) snake, noose, thunderbolt, goad (Aparājitaprocha) varada-mudra, spear, snake (or mace), noose snake, snake, varada-mudra Näga-Yajñopavita fruit
(sacred-thread made
of snake) fruit, abhaya-mudrā, mongoose, rosary (i) mace, rosary (ii) spear, mudră (some hand gesture), shield, abhaya-mudra
4. (1) Isvara-S
Elephant
(ii) Yakşeśvara-D Elephant or Swan
4
5. Tumbaru
(1) Eagle (Garuda)-S
4
(ii) Eagle-D
6. Kusuma or (i) Deer or Peacock Puspa
or Horse-S (ii) Deer-D
2 or 4
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7. Mätanga
(i) Elephant-S
(ii) Lion or Ram-D
8. (i) Vijaya-S
(ii) śyāma-D
Swan Pigeon
9.
Ajita
(i) Tortoise-S
(ii) Tortoise-D (i) Lotus-S
10. Brahma
(ii) Lotus (Saroja)-D
fruit, noose (or nägapaśa- noose made of snake), mongoose (or thunderbolt), goad (i) thunderbolt (or spear), staff; (ii) mace, noose (Aparājitaprocha) disc (or sword), hammer Three-eyed fruit, rosary, axe,
Three-eyed varada-mudra fruit, rosary (or abhaya-mudrā) mongoose, spear (or heap of jems-atula ratnarasi)
fruit, rosary, spear, varada-mudrā 8 or 10 (i) fruit, hammer, noose,
abhaya-mudră (or varada-mudrā) (R) mongoose, mace, goad, rosary (L);
Three-eyed (ii) fruit, mudgara, noose abhaya-mudra, mongoose, mace, goad, rosary, noose,
lotus (Acaradinakara) 8 arrow, sword, varada-mudrä Four-faced
bow, staff, shield, axe, thunderbolt fruit, disc, mongoose, rosary Three-eyed fruit, rosary, trident, staff Three-eyed (or varada-mudra) fruit, arrow (or lute-musical instrument called vina),
mongoose, bow. 4 or 6 (i) varada-mudra, mace, bow, Three or six-faced
fruit (Pratisthāsäroddhära); (ii) arrow, mace, varada-mudrā, bow, mongoose, fruit
(Pratisthātilakam) 12 fruit, disc, arrow (or spear),
sword, noose, rosary, mongoose, disc, bow, shield, goad, abhaya-mudrā axe in upper eight hands and sword, rosary, shield, staff and danda-mudra in the remaining four hands.
11. Isvara
(i) Bull-s (ii) Bull-D
12. Kumāra
(i) Swans
(ii) Swan or Peacock-D
13. (1) Şanmukha-S
Peacock
(ii) Caturmukha-D Peacock
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Appendix
363
14. Pātāla
(i) Crocodile-s
eyed
(ii) Crocodile-D
15. Kinnara
(i) Tortoise-S
(ii)
Fish-D
16. Garuda
(i) Boar or Elephant-S
(ii) Boar or Parrot-D
lotus, sword, noose
Three-faced, three mongoose, shield, rosary (i) goad, spear, lotus, whip (kaşā), plough, fruit (ii) thunderbolt, goad, bow, Three-faced and arrow, fruit, varada-mudrā shaded by three(Aparājitaprccha)
hooded snake canopy 6 fruit, mace, abhaya-mudrā Three-faced
mongoose, lotus, rosary (i) hammer, rosary,
Three-faced varada-mudrā, disc, thunderbolt, goad. (ii) noose, goad, bow, arrow, fruit, varada-mudrā
(Aparājitaprocha) 4 fruit, lotus, mongoose Boar-faced
(or noose), rosary 4 (i) thunderbolt, disc, lotus, fruit.
(ii) noose, goad, fruit, varada-mudra
(Aparajitaprocha) 4 varada-mudrā, noose; fruit, goad 4 (i) snake, noose, arrow, bow;
(ii) lotus, abhaya-mudrā, fruit,
varada-mudrā (Aparajitaprocha). 12 fruit, arrow (or skull?), Six-faced, three-eyed
sword, hammer, noose (or spear), abhaya-mudra, mongoose, bow, shield, spear, goad,
rosary 12 or 6 (i) arrow, lotus, fruit, Six-faced, three-eyed
garland, rosary, līlā-mudrā (hand gesture), bow, thunderbolt, noose, mudgara, goad, varada-mudrā. (ii) thunderbolt, disc, bow, arrow,
fruit, varada-mudrā (Aparăjitaprccha) 8 varada-mudra, axe, spear, Four-faced
abhaya-mudrā, fruit, spear, hammer, rosary
17. Gandharva
(i) Swan (or Lion ?)-S (ii) Bird (unspecified)
or Parrot-D
18. (i) Yakşendra-S Conch or Bull or
Snake (Sesa)
(ii) Khendra or Conch or Donkey
Yakşeśa-D
(i) Elephant-S
19. Kubera
or Yakseśa
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20. Varuna
21. Bhrkuti
22. Gomedha
23. (i) Pārsva-S
(ii) Dharana-D
24. Mätanga

(ii) Elephant or Lion -D
(i) Bull-S
(ii) Bull-S
(i) Bull-S
(ii) Bull-D
(i) Man (Nara)-S
Tortoise
Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
8 or 4 (i) shield, bow, staff, lotus, Four-faced sword, arrow, noose,
Tortoise
(i) Elephant S (ii) Elephant-D
8
8
(ii) Flower or man-D 6
4 or 6 (i) shield, sword, fruit, varada-mudrā
8
6
4
varada-mudrā
(ii) noose, goad, fruit, varada-mudrā (Aparajitaprecha)
fruit, mace, arrow, shield, mongoose, lotus (or rosary), bow, axe
2
2
(ii) noose goad, bow, arrow; Jata-mukuta, threesnake, thunderbolt eyed, eight-faced. (Aparajitapṛccha)
fruit, spear, hammer, abhaya-mudra, mongoose, axe, thunderbolt, rosary shield, sword, bow, arrow, goad, lotus, disc, varada-mudra
fruit, axe, disc, mongoose, spear, spear (Sakti)
4 or 6 (i) noose made of snake,
(nāga-pāśa), snake, snake, varada-mudrā.
(ii) bow, arrow, bhrndi (?), hammer, fruit, varada-mudrā (Aparajitaprecha)
Matted hair (jatāmukuta), three-eyed, four-faced, twelveeyed (Acaradinakara)
mongoose, fruit varada-mudra, fruit
hammer (or drughaṇa), axe, staff, fruit, thunderbolt, varada-mudra, (Pratisthätilakam envisages the rendering
of wealth in place of drughana) fruit, snake (or mace), mongoose, snake
Four-faced, threeeyed (twelve-eyed in Acaradinakara) Four-faced

Three-faced, nearby figure of Ambikā, (Acaradinakara) Three-faced
Head marked with dharmacakra.
Abbreviation R- Right hand L- Left hand
S- Śvetambara Text
D- Digambara Text
* In visual renderings mongoose is always shown as mongoose-skin purse meant for wealth and thereby with Kubera.
Elephant-faced and shaded by snake
canopy
Shaded by snake
canopy

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Appendix-IV Table-II - YAKŞA-YAKȘI ICONOGRAPHY
(B) 24 Yakṣis
No.
Yakşi
Váhana
Ayudha (Attributes)
No. of Arms
1.
Cakreśvari or Apraticakrā
(i) Garuda (Eagle)-S
8 or 12 (1) varada-mudrā, arrow, disc, noose (R),
bow, thunderbolt, disc, goad (L) (ii) discs in eight hands and thunderbolt
in two hands, fruit and abhaya-mudra
in the remaining two hands. 4 or 12 (i) dises in two and fruit and varada
mudra in the remaining two hands. discs in eight hands and thunderbolt in two and fruit and varada (or abhaya) mudră in the remaining two hands.
(ii) Eagle-D
varada-mudrā, noose, goad, fruit
2. (i) Ajitā or
Ajitabalā-s (ii) Rohiņi-D
Iron Seat (Lohāsana) or Cow Lohasana
3.
(i) Duritäri-S
4
Ram or Peacock or Buffalo Bird (unspecified)
(ii) Prajñapti-D
6
varada-mudra, abhaya-mudra, conch, disc. varada-mudrā, rosary, fruit (or snake), abhaya-mudra crescent (ardhendu), axe, fruit varadamudrā, sword, Idhi (or Pindi-lump or rice?) varada-mudrā, noose, snake, goad varada-mudră, noose (made of snake), rosary, fruit. varada-mudrā, noose (or noose made of snake), fruit, goad. varada-mudrā, disc, thunderbolt, fruit
4. (i) Kālikā or Kāli-S
(ii) Vajraśrnkhalā-D
Lotus Swan
5. (i) Mahäkāli-s
Lotus
(ii) Puruşadattā or Elephant
Naradatta-D 6. (i) Acyutā or
Man (Nara) Syamā or Mānasi-S
varada-mudra, lute(or noose or arrow), bow (or fruit), abhaya-mudra (or goad).
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(ii) Manovega-D 7. (i) Śäntä-S
(ii) Kali-D
(ii) Jvälämälini-D
9. (i) Sutārā
8. (i) Bhṛkuti or Jvala-S Boar (Varaha or
or Candalika-S
(ii) Mahakali-D
10. (i) Aśokā or
Gomedhika-S (ii) Mānavi-D
11. (i) Manavi
or Śrīvatsā-S
(ii) Gauri-D
12. (i) Canda or
Pracanda or Ajita-S (ii) Gāndhäri-D
13. (i) Viditä-S
(ii) Vairotyā or Vairoți-D
14. (i) Ankusǎ-S
(ii) Anantamati-D
Horse
Elephant

Bull
Varala or Marāla) or
Swan
Buffalo
Bull
Tortoise
Lotus
Boar or Snake
Lion
Deer
Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Horse
Lotus or Crocodile
Lotus
Snake or Air Chariot (Vyomayana)
Lotus
Swan
4
4
8
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4 or 6
varada-mudra, spear, flower (or noose), mace.
4 or 2 (i) pestle, lotus, varada-mudra, lotus. lotus, fruit (Aparajitaprocha).
4
varada-mudra, shield, sword, fruit. varada-mudră, rosary (or garland made of pearls), spear (or trident), abhaya-mudra, varada-mudrā, rosary, noose, goad (Manträdhirajakalpa). bell, trident (or spear), fruit, varadamudrā.
sword, hammer, shield (or fruit), axe
4 or 2 (i) (ii)
disc, bow, noose (or noose made of snake), shield (or carma), trident (or spear), arrow, fish, sword. varada-mudra, rosary, pitcher, goad
thunderbolt, hammer (or mace), fruit (or abhaya-mudra), varada-mudrā varada-mudra, noose (or noose made of snake), fruit, goad.
fruit, varada-mudrā, fish, noose. varada-mudra, hammer (or noose), pitcher (or thunderbolt or mongoose), goad (or rosary).
hammer (or noose), lotus, pitcher (or goad), varada-mudră .
arrow, noose, bow, snake
(i) snake, snake, bow, arrow,

(ii) varada-mudra in two hands, and
sword, shield, bow and arrow in the remaining four hands
(Aparajitapṛccha)
sword, noose, shield, goad.
shield, goad (Padmanandamahäkävya). bow, arrow, fruit, varada-mudră.

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367
Fish
lotus, goad, lotus, abhaya-mudrā
15. (i) Kandarpā or
Pannaga-S (ii) Mānasi-D
Tiger
16. (i) Nirvāni-S
Lotus
(ii) Mahāmānasi-D
Peacock or Eagle
(i) lotus in two hands and bow, varada
mudrā, goad, arrow in the remaining four hands. trident, noose, disc, kettledrum (damarü), fruit, varada-mudra (Aparājitaprccha). manuscript, lotus, water-vescel, lotus (or varada-mudra) fruit, snake (or Idhi or sword ?), disc, varada-mudra. arrow, bow, thunderbolt, disc (Aparājitaprccha). fruit, spear (or trident), muşundhi (or
lotus), lotus. (i) conch, sword, disc, varada-mudrā, (ii) thunderbolt, disc, noose, goad, fruit,
varada-mudră (Aparajitaprocha) fruit, lotus, noose (or lotus), rosary.
17.
(1) Balā-s
Peacock
(ii) Jayā-D
Boar
4 or 6
Lotus
Swan or Lion
18. (i) Dhārani
or Kāli-s (ii) Taravati
or Vijaya-D 19. (i) Vairotyā-s
(ii) Aparājitā-D
snake, thunderbolt, deer (or disc), varada-mudră (or fruit). varada-mudrā, rosary, fruit, spear fruit, sword, shield, varada-mudrā
Lotus Sarabha (Fabulous animal with 8 legs) Splendid Throne (Bhadrāsana) or Lion Cobra (Kālānāga)
20. (i) Naradattā-S
(ii) Bahurūpiņi-D
4 or 2
Swan
4 or 8
21. (i) Gāndhāri
or Malini-S
varada-mudrā, rosary, fruit, pitcher
(or spear or trident). (i) shield, sword, fruit, varada-mudra (ii) sword, shield (Aparajitaprocha) (i) varada-mudra, sword, fruit, pitcher
(or spear or shield). rosary, thunderbolt, axe, mongoose, varada-mudra, sword, shield, fruit,
(Devatamurtiprakarana). (i) staff, shield, rosary, sword. (ii) spear, sword, hammer, noose,
thunderbolt, disc, kettle-drum (damarü), rosary (Aparajitaprccha)
4 or 8
(ii) Cāmundā
Crocodile or or Kusumamālini-D Monkey
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22. Ambikā or (i) Lion-S
fruit (or bunch or Second Kuşmāndi
mangoes), noose, son, son nearby or Amrādevi
goad. (ii) Lion-D
(i) bunch of mangoes Second son nearby (amralumbī), son.
under mango-tree. (ii) fruit, varada-mudra
(Aparajitaprccha) 23. Padmavati (i) Composite
lotus noose, fruit, goad three-hooded snake Cock-Snake
canopy overhead (Kukkuta-sarpa) or
Cock-S (ii) Lotus or Kukkuța-sarpa (i) goad, rosary (or noose) Three-hooded snake or Cock-D
4,6 or 24 lotus, varada-mudra canopy overhead
(ii) noose, sword, spear,
crescent, mace, pestle (musala) (iii) conch, sword, disc, crescent,
lotus, lotus, bow, spear, noose, goad, arrow, bell, pestle, shield, trident, axe, lance (kunta), sword (bhinda), garland, fruit, mace,
patra (leaf), twig (pallava), varada-mudră 24. (i) Siddhāyikā-S Lion or Elephant 4 or 6 (1) manuscript, abhaya-mudrā, fruit (or noose),
arrow (or lute or lotus) (ii) manuscript, abhaya-mudrā, varada-mudrā, sharp
weapon (Kharayudha), lute, fruit
(Mantrādhirājakalpa). (ii) Siddhāyini-D Splendid Throne 2
varada-mudra (or abhaya-mudra) and (Bhadrâsana) or Lion
manuscript.
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No. Mahavidya
1. Rohini
2. Prajñapti
3. Vajraśṛnkhalā
4. Vajränkuśā
5. (i) Apraticakra or Cakreśvari-S
(ii) Jambūnada-D
6.
Naradatta
(or Puruṣadatta
7.
Table-III
Kāli or Kālikā
8. Mahākāli
9. Gauri

-
Vähana
(i) Cow-S
(ii) Lotus-D
(i) Peacock-S
(ii) Horse-D
(i) Lotus-S
Appendix-V
MAHAVIDYA ICONOGRAPHY
(ii) Lotus (or Elephant)-D
(i) Elephant-S
(ii) Puspayana
(or Elephant)-D
Garuda
Peacock
(i) Buffalo (or Lotus)-S
(ii) Deer-D
(i) Man-S
No. of Arms
(ii) Sarabha (animal with 8 legs)-D
(i) Iguana (or Bull)-S
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
(ii) Cakraväka (Kalahamsa)-D 4
(i) Lotus-S
4
4
4
4
4

Ayudhas
arrow, bow, conch, rosary.
conch (or sula), lotus, fruit, kalasa (or varada-mudra) varada-mudra, spear, fruit, spear (Nirvaṇakalika); triśūla, danda, abhayamudra, fruit (Manträdhirajakalpa) disc, sword, conch varada-mudra varada-mudra, chain (in two hands), lotus (or mace)
chain, conch, lotus, fruit
varada-mudra. thunderbolt, fruit, goad (Nirvaṇakalika); fruit, rosary, goad, trisüla (Mantradhirajakalpa) goad, lotus, fruit, thunderbolt
discs in all the four hands.
sword, spear, lotus, fruit.
varada-mudra (or abhaya-mudra), sword, shield, fruit.
thunderbolt, lotus, conch, fruit
rosary, mace, thunderbolt, abhaya-mudrā (Nirvāṇakalikā); trisula, rosary, varadamudra, mace (Manträdhirajakalpa)
pestle, sword, lotus, fruit.
thunderbolt (or lotus), fruit (or abhayamudra), bell, rosary.
arrow, bow, sword, fruit
varada-mudra, pestle (or danda), rosary, lotus.

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(ii) Iguana--D
No. of hands not specified
10. Gāndhārī
(i) Lotus-S
(ii)
Tortoise-D
11.
(i) Sarvāstramahājvālā Sūkara or Jvālā-S
(or Kalahamsa or Cat) (ii) Jvālāmālini-D Buffalo
only lotuses in the hands are prescribed. thunderbolt (or triśūla), pestle (or danda), abhaya-mudrā, varada-mudra. only disc and sword in hands are mentioned. jvālā (flames) in two hands or snakes in all the four hands. bow, sword, arrow (or cakra), shield etc. Goddess-endowed with flames. varada-mudra, noose, rosary, tree. fish, triśüla, sword (attribute of one hand is not mentioned). snake, sword, shield, snake (or varadamudra),
12. Mānavi
(1) Lotus-S (ii) Sūkara (Hog or Boar)-D
13.
(i) Vairotyä-S
Snake (or Garuda or Lion) Lion Horse Horse
(ii) Vairoţi-D (i) Acchupta-S (ii) Acyuta-D
14.
only snakes in the hands are mentioned. arrow, bow, sword, shield texts refer only to sword and thunderbolt in hands. varada-mudrā, thunderbolt, rosary, thunderbolt (or trisula) two hands being folded in adoration.
15. Mānasi
(i) Swan (or Lion-S
(ii) Snake-D
No. of hands
not mentioned (i) Lion (or Crocodile )-S 4
16. Mahāmānasi
(ii) Swan-D
sword, shield, water-vessel, jewel (or varada or abhaya-mudrā) namaskara-mudră (Pratisthasārasaṁgraha); varada-mudrā, rosary, goad, flower garland (Pratisthāsāroddhāra and Pratisthātilkam).
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AFGHANISTAN
PAKISTAN

Jaisalmer
Osian RAJASTHAN
Jodhpur
Mount
Girnar
Bikaner.
Ranakpur SIROHI
KATHIAWAR
Kumbharia Patan
Ahmedabad
MARWAR
GUJARAT SAURASHTRA
Paliatanal
Mount
Shatrunjaya
Jaina Sites
Arabian Sea
JUMMU & KASHMIR
MEWAR Mount Abu (Delvada)
0
PUNJAB
HARYANA
Broach Surat
Ajmer
HIMACHAL PRADESH
Mumbai
Delhi O
Mathurac
• Jaipur
Gwalior
SUNDI
Ujjain
© Ellora
MAHARASHTRA
Ganga River
KARNATAKA
UTTAR PRADESH
Yamuna River
Deogarh Khajuraho
INDIA
⚫Gulbarga
Lucknow
• Bijapur (Badami-Aihole)
DECCAN
• Golconda
MADHYA PRADESH
AND HRA PRADESH
Tiruparuttikunramo Chennai
Helebid Singanikuppam
©
Sravanabelgol
NEPAL
TAMILNADU
Maria
Jaunpur

TIBET
Sonbhandar Caves
SRI LANKA
Patna
Easter States Like Assam, Nagaland,
Meghalaya without significant Jaina
Remains
BENGAL
Udaigiri & Khandagiri ORISSA
Bengal Bay of Ben
BHUTAN
BANGLADESH
INDIAN OCEAN
MAP SHOWING SOME IMPORTANT JAINA SITES OF INDIA

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Jain Education Intemational

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JAINA PAINTING
By
Prof. Kamal Giri

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Jain Education Intemational

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CHAPTER XIV
INTRODUCTION
The Jaina's contribution in the field of Indian miniature painting is very significant. Scholars have used several names for the Jaina painting, such as Jaina Painting, Gujarati Painting, Western Indian Painting and Apabhramśa Painting. But the simple geographical name Jaina Painting is the most convenient one. For the early history of Jaina Painting we have to depend on the wall paintings from Ellora where the earliest Jaina paintings may be seen on the walls of the caves. The Răstrakūta rulers embellished the Jaina cave of Indra Sabhā at Ellora with painted murals. The scenes in the Indra Sabha illustrate the Jaina texts and patterns including floral, animal and bird designs of 9th and 10th century A.D.
The miniature paintings appear to have been practised among the Jainas before the 10 century A.D., although no traces of it have been found prior to the early 11th century A.D. Its existence in the 8th and 9th century A.D. can be inferred from descriptive passages in contemporary literature which furnish valuable insights into the style of painting as well as themes portrayed during that period.
The professional storytellers (mamkhäs), who used to narrate the tales with the help of a pictureboard, may be considered as the earliest reference to paintings. They were popular in Eastern India in the sixth century B.C., the period of Mahāvīra and Buddha.
In the 10th century A.D., the tradition of miniature painting makes its appearance in manuscript illustrations. According to Dr. Saryu Doshi (Masterpieces of Jaina Painting, Marg Publications, 1985), probably the tradition was derived from pata paintings and was not too different from it. This art form manifests itself in the wooden book-covers and palm-leaf manuscripts of the Jainas as well as Buddhists.
The examples of illustrated manuscripts are
encountered from the 11"century A.D. These manuscripts were stored in the precincts of the temples or Jaina Bhandāras (libraries of manuscripts) and protected with care. As a result, a large number of them survived. The credit for preserving the Jaina manuscripts in a large measure, however, goes to Jaina Sarngha, individual Jaina monks, bankers and merchants at various places in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka etc.
The Jaina tradition of manuscript painting widely spread in Western India. It had numerous religious establishments in Gujarat and Rajasthan where manuscripts could be copied and illustrated, Gujarat was perhaps the most important centre for illustrated manuscripts with the centres like Patan, Ahmedabad, Vadnagar, Champanera etc. So far as Jaina manuscripts are concerned, Mändu in Malwa was another big Jaina centre in the medieval period. The Jainas produced some remarkable documents in the 11th and 124 century A.D. They have an unbroken tradition of painting from A.D. 1050 to A.D. 1750. It continued thereafter but its expression, emptied of content, lacks vivacity.
The distinguishing features of the Jaina painting are its linear energy and taut angular outlines of the face. In the earlier paintings, reflections in line and washes of colour along with outlines suggested plasticity. Gradually, these became mere conventions, used without understanding, and then they disappear altogether. The quite insistence on a cursive line and a limited palette of a few basic colours imparts a flat two-dimensional quality to the latter paintings.
The Jaina painting could be roughly divided into three periods – palm-leaf period, paper period and late period. In the first two periods Jaina painting retains its distinguishing characteristics such as angularity in drawing, protuberance of the farther eyes etc., but in the third period, which begins in the 17th century A.D.,
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these characteristics are lost under the Mughal influence and Western Indian School merges in the general trend of Indian art.
Before the advent of paper in India, palm-leaf and birch bark (bhurjapatra) were extensively used as writing materials. In the palm-leaf Jaina manuscripts, the leaves were divided into two or three panels for writing, the division depending on the size of the leaves (Pl. 242). On both the sides of the panels, generally one and half inch margins were left and in the central margin a button was strung on a string, which was passed through all manuscripts and kept the leaves in position. In some manuscripts, either of these two systems of pagination was adopted. Sometimes the palm-leaf manuscript was tied with thread passing through three holes (one in the centre and two in two margins on the sides) and a wooden board cut to size was placed on top and underneath; the thread passed through holes bored also into these wooden boards (Pls. 243-44). In several instances, the place of pagination and the central marginal hole for string was stopped with cinnabar, the leaves were divided into two or three panels with margins separating each panel. The margins in order to break monotony of blankness were framed with decorative designs such as friezes of elephants or swans and various floral motifs. In some manuscripts, the end of the chapters was decorated with rosettes, lotus kalaśas and other symbols and motifs. If the manuscripts were to be illustrated, after the work of scriber was over, the panels were left on different leaves, and were handed over to the artists to complete their work. The rich and costly effect was enhanced by a lavish use of gold and ultramarine, and by writing the text in silver ink on a black or red background, or even in gold on a red ground.
The illustrated palm-leaf Jaina manuscripts may be divided into two groups on stylistic grounds. The first group comprises of the manuscripts executed between A.D. 1060 to roughly A.D. 1350, while the second group comprises of the manuscripts illustrated
between A.D. 1350 to A.D. 1400 or A.D. 1450 when paper practically displaced the palm-leaf. The texts of these manuscripts were written in a variant of the nägarī script (This writing diverges from the regular script in its appearance as well as in the special forms employed for certain letters).
The beginning of the Jaina miniature painting survives in the form of illustrated palm-leaf manuscripts and wooden book-covers belonging to the 11th-12h century A.D. These early documents represent a widespread tradition of Jaina painting of coherent and cogent expression and register various phases of its development.
Of the palm-leaf manuscripts executed during A.D. 1050 to A.D. 1350, only a few are illustrated. These illustrated manuscripts are the copies of canonical texts and contain only a few miniatures. The illustrations occur in the introductory or the concluding folios of the manuscripts. The miniatures in the shape of squarish panels are usually placed in the centre of the main column, and occasionally in case of long folios they appear in the side columns as well (Pl. 242).
The compositions in the illustrated manuscripts are simple, set on a brick or purplish red or blue background. Yellow, white and green complete the palette. The line is strong, even coarse, and energy and movement are conveyed by the stance of the figures and the disposition of the draperies. By the end of the 13th century A.D. the general stylistic conventions were more or less settled which continued in the subsequent centuries. The line becomes thin and wiry, absolutely certain within the range of expressiveness it sets for itself. The figures are seen either full-face or in almost full profile, the farther eye being allowed to project right beyond the cheek. Architectural and rudimentary landscape backgrounds make their appearance. The introduction of paper allowed a larger field for painting and more ambitious compositions, and the miniatures began to be framed in rich illumination.
The earliest dated illustrated manuscript of the
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Jaina style is of Ogha Niryukti, on the rules of conduct for Jaina monks, from Jaisalmer and Daśavaikälikaṭīkā dated V.S. 1117 (A.D. 1060). One of the palm-leaf examples of the Ogha Niryukti carries beautiful drawings of an auspicious vase (kalasa), Lakṣmi, the goddess of riches, and Kamadeva, the god of love. According to Saryu Doshi (Masterpieces of Jaina Painting) throughout this early period, the stylistic expression in manuscript illustration oscillates between the Ajanta (5th-6th century A.D.) and Ellora (8th century A.D.) wall painting styles. But gradually, the linear expression derived from Ellora eclipses the older Ajanta tradition; all traces of modelling disappear and there is an increasing emphasis on abstract form.
The subject of the palm-leaf manuscripts, executed between A.D. 1050 to roughly A.D. 1350, was confined to the representation of the Tirthankaras, gods and goddesses, monks, nuns, male and female patrons etc. The appeal of these figures is more or less iconographic. In full accordance with the simplicity of the subjects, the attitudes and poses are also limited and strictly conventional. The Jinas are seated with their legs crossed and shown in full view. In the standing pose the face is generally represented in a modified version of threequarter profile and the tribhanga pose sometimes adds graceful curves to a standing figure. The miniatures in the introductory folios serve as invocations and usually feature Tirthankaras, the goddess Sarasvati or another divinity. Sometimes they portray religious preceptor, at whose suggestion perhaps the manuscript was commissioned. The miniatures, however, bear no relationship to the text; they neither illustrate it nor elucidate it. Their presence had a purely magical value which served to augment the mystical truths expounded in the text as well as to protect it. These miniatures played an esoteric rather than aesthetic role in the manuscript. The Digambara Satkhaṇḍāgama (scripture of six works) of A.D. 1112 is the earliest illustrated manuscript to show a preaching scene, a Jina, the goddess Cakreśvari and some decorative motifs.

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Mahavīracarita dated A.D. 1183, and the tenth canto of Triṣaṣṭiśalakāpuruşacarita dated A.D. 1237 also depict the figure of Jina, monks and lay people. The Neminathacarita of A.D. 1241 depicts the Jina Neminatha, the goddess Ambika and lay woman. Similarly the Kalpasūtra and Kalakācāryakatha, dated A.D. 1278, also bears paintings of iconic interest only. Most of these illustrations are not related to the text.
The Jaina miniature painting continues to progress along established lines until the end of 13th century A.D. At this time a new development occurs when the narrative content of the texts begins to receive attention. The pictorial narration of legends such as battle of Bharata and Bahubali (Pl. 245) or disputation between the two monks Kumudacandra, a Digambara monk, and the Śvetämbara monk Vadideva took place at Patan in the time of Jayasimha Siddharaja (A.D. 1094-1144) of Gujarat existed on book-covers. Similarly, Jinanathasūri (A.D. 1122-54) is also represented on book covers. The ancient Indian narrative tradition is used in these paintings. However, the palm-leaf manuscripts seldom show such representations. The illustrations of narrative nature, moreover, construct a progressive narrative by compressing two or three episodes in the same miniature and showing the person involved in those episodes at many times. Perspective of these innovations and the format of the paintings remained the same. The scheme of illustrations continued to be conservative. In the treatment of human figures stylistic changes are discernible. The angular rendering is exaggerated further and the protrusion of the farther eye becomes pronounced. The washes of colour along outlines have lost their meaning and become more cliches.
Towards the end of 13th century A.D. a new approach becomes visible in the manuscripts such as Subahukatha, the story of Tirthankara Pärśva and other tales. The Subahukatha is the earliest manuscript to establish a relationship between illustration and text. The Subahukatha and the manuscript depicting the story of Parsvanatha have a number of illustrations which

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were very rare in the earlier manuscripts. The compositions also became more complex. They are no longer confined to iconic representations of divinities. They include descriptive details of landscape or architecture to indicate the locale of the scene that is being depicted. In outdoor scenes the landscape is indicated by hills and trees and in indoors, pavilion is shown with furnishings and objects of everyday use. By the end of the 13th century A.D. the drawing takes a pure linear form and is carefully executed. The paintings show lively figures in small size and minimum use of pigments. The men are idealized, with a large chest and narrow waist, and the women have well rounded breasts, small waists and well curved hips. The figures are seen either in full face or profile, the farther eye projecting beyond the cheek, with pointed noses and small chins. Architecture is very much simplified and landscape finds little space. The art reveals no interest in anatomy but a deep understanding of emotion, and especially the language of gesture movements of the hand, the fingers and stances of the body. There is an extensive use of foliage decoration. Plants are generally treated in a conventional manner, especially the mango and the palm. A number of animals and birds are also represented. The men wear a waist cloth or dhoti reaching down to the ankles, with a short scarf thrown across the shoulders, leaving upper half of the body uncovered; and their headgear shows a kind of cap or mukuta. The women wear long gaily coloured printed scarves over skirts consisting of a wrapped piece of cloth of a different colour. Full blossom and narrow waisted, they wear closely fitting colīs, reaching to just above the navel, and their sleeves cover the arms to the elbow. They are profusely bejewelled with ear- rings, necklaces and bangles, and their long hair is braided and tied with black tassels adorned with jewellery and flowers. Water with wavy lines, clouds with bold curves, richly coloured textiles, furniture like swings, stools and bedsteads with ornate lathe-turned legs are some of the features of these miniatures. The colours
applied in these miniatures are simple like brick red, yellow, blue, green and black.
At the end of 14th century A.D., with the political disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate into smaller Muslim and Hindu kingdoms, the art received great impetus. With the formation of smaller kingdoms-Muslim as well as Hindu- new centres of art were established. Scholars, musicians, artists and architects were extended encouragement by the rulers of these smaller kingdoms. As a result, 15th century A.D. witnessed the efflorescence of regional idioms of artistic expression, new style emerged and existing forms received fresh vitality. In the Hindu kingdom of Gwalior, the Digambara Jainas commissioned copies of their religious texts as well as in states like Gujarat and Delhi, governed by Muslim rulers, the Jaina merchants and bankers considered it expedient to be less overt in their religious expression. They choose to pour their piety and wealth into unobtrusive works or art, commissioning copies of canonical literature. The Svetāmbara Jaina community in Gujarat patronised this art form extensively. Their religious texts, transcribed during the 15th century A.D. in Gujarat, were kept carefully and protected and hence survived.
In A.D. 1350 and 1550, the style of Jaina painting split into two stylistic idioms one of which was localised in Gujarat and Rajasthan and the other in Delhi and Gwalior. In Gujarat and Rajasthan there had been no significant transformations in line, form or colour. Around the middle of the 14th century A.D. the region projected a new awareness of stylistic form in paintings within the framework style of Jaina painting. The line now becomes smooth and flowing, it includes a wide spectrum of colours accentuated by touches of gold and silver. However, no example of painting tradition survives from Delhi before and during the 15th century. A.D. except a Svetāmbara Jaina text of Kālakācāryakatha painted on paper at Delhi in A.D. 1366 and the Adipurāna executed in A.D. 1404 for the Digambara Jainas. The western variant is refined in the execution and the broad
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spectrum of its palette is enriched with costly colours like gold and silver, lapis-lazuli and carmine. An unprecedented richness was provided to the manuscripts. Decorative patterns drawn from architecture, textiles, carpets, figures of dancers and musicians, devotees and monks, wrestlers, birds and animals, flower creepers etc. fill the border decoration of the manuscripts. Under the impetus of new movement the painters of Gujarat were evolving a new style in which Persian classics played an important part. The Persian classics were painted. In such illustrations Indian artists had simplified the Persian elements and tried to synthesise the Indian and Persian elements. During this period the stories such as Lauracanda and Mrgāvati etc. were being illustrated in the Jaina style. The illustrator shows a greater understanding of the landscape and of the social environment in such examples.
In the second half of the 15th century Vaisnavas too adopted the Western Indian technique for illustrating some of their books such as the Gitagovinda and Bālagopālastuti. However, these manuscripts show liveliness, a sense of movement and an emotional understanding which is different from the matter of fact of Jaina painting, so hardbound by the stereotyped tradition. The convention of the farther protruding eye never appears; the uttariya, instead of being draped softly over the head and around the body, is painted to stand out stiffly behind the figure. In the Gitagovinda manuscript of A.D. 1610, the female dancers are in pajāmās and wearing a coat with pointed ends showing the Jaina style gradually breaking away from its conventions and absorbing new methods and ideas. The Bālagopālastuti of 17th century A.D. shows further changes. This new movement in art was not confined to Gujarat, Malwa and Rajasthan only. The movement had spread as far as Uttar Pradesh and has affected the progress of painting in that part as is evidenced by the illustrations of the Kalpasūtra painted at Jaunpur in A.D. 1465. Besides texts like the Kalpasūtra, Kālakācāryakathā which was transcribed together in one
manuscript, the Jainas had already started illustrating several kathās (stories, legends, myths). The illustrated versions of Kalpasūtra and the Kälakācāryakathā were executed for lay votaries of the Svetämbara sect in areas distinct from Gujarat and Rajasthan.
In the 15th century A.D. the intrinsic beauty of the Jaina miniatures begins to fade. There is a perceptible decline in execution - the line loses its verve, the rendering becomes markedly angular and the protruding farther eye becomes very much pronounced. The miniatures strike as being reduced to formulae, repeated over and over again with little variation. The polychromatic palette is now narrowed down to two basic colours of red and gold. For gold the gold-leaf was used instead of gold paint. The painter began to work covering the entire area of miniature with a thin sheet of golden-leaf, then proceeded to outline the human figures and other motifs in black ink. After the completion of drawing the ground area is painted in red and the figures and the motifs were treated as negative spaces in the compositions. The whole painting was enlivened with a few accently in other colours. Occasionally, the folios of the manuscript were adorned with decorative designs such as floral and geometrical motifs in the margins and the panels above and below the text.
Around the middle of the 15th century A.D., blueultramarine as well as lapis-lazuli superseded red as the favoured colour in Jaina miniatures. The folios of the manuscripts were embellished with intricate scroll-work. In the 15th century there was progressively increasing activity to enrich the manuscripts with border decorations. The border decorations became more complex, depicting flowering creepers, birds and animals, geometrical designs, and other interesting subjects like dancers, musicians, wrestlers, foreign soldiers, and animal trainers (Pl. 246). Most of these scenes may be seen in the manuscripts of the Devasānopādo, Kalpasūtra and Kalakācāryakathā. In the closing years of the 15th century the art of Jainas began to take new directions. The
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farther eye had gradually lost its organic hold and it had become merely a decorative feature. The style of painting in Western India deteriorated in terms of line and compositional values and became dull and fatigued, although it maintained blue and gold palette.
Between A.D. 1350 and 1550 Indian miniature painting also found articulation in another pictorial mode – the Caurapancaśikā style which presents a sharp contrast to the exoteric and iconographic preoccupations that characterise the style of Jaina painting. The Jaina tradition employed both the styles of Jaina painting as well as the Caurapancasikā style for illustrating its religious texts (The Caurapañcaśikā, containing fifty verses, is a Sanskrit lyric written in the 11" century A.D. by a poet named Bilhana). Many verses of the lyric were illustrated by the painters in a peculiar style related to Jaina painting with local peculiarities as well as influenced by the current idiom of the Mughal ateliers. The Caurapañcāsikā style of painting evolved during the latter part of the 16th century.
One of the important developments during the period was the extensive use of the paper as a carrier of illustrated manuscripts. The introduction of paper for writing and painting allowed more room for painting and more elaborate composition than the palm-leaf. The paper manuscripts adhered to the system followed in palm-leaf manuscripts in aspects such as the division of the folio into two columns with narrow vertical margins, the writing of the text in lines across the folio, and the placement of page numbers. Similarly, the practice of marking stringholes was threaded together. Later, during the 15th century A.D. when the potential of the new material was realised and fully grasped, the conventional forms of manuscript presentation changed. During the 15h century A.D. the folios of the manuscript became shorter and broader without abandoning the pothi format. The stringhole performed a decorative function and page numbers now indicated in the lower right hand corner of the folio. The paper manuscripts were protected between two wooden boards in the
beginning with string but afterwards without string. The practice of using wooden pätalis has been replaced by the use of hard cardboards, often decorated with painted or printed cloth pasted on them. In some of these cardboards, paithanas are decorated with fine satin cloth or silken cover and have embroidered representations of asta-māngalika (eight auspicious marks), or the fourteen dreams. During the latter half of the 15th century A.D., a good number of Jaina manuscripts was illustrated, the text being written in gold and silver ink on a red or black background. Such works were ordered by wealthy bankers and merchants.
In the 16th century A.D. Jaina painting took further strides. In this period Malwa and places in Uttar Pradesh became important centres of painting. There were two phases going on in art – one classical and the other folk. Māndu became an important centre of the classical phase. It may be further noted that even though the traditional Jaina features continue, the general tendency is towards the elimination of the farther eye.
In the 16th century, however, the Digambaras, had also developed their individual mode of expression. First, they patronised the prevailing Jaina painting style, though their emphasis on movement and was quite different from the static poses of the figures in the Svetambara manuscripts. The area near about Delhi became a centre for illustrating Digambara Jaina manuscripts. The Mahāpurāņa, dated A.D. 1540 painted at Palam shows a different approach to painting where the farther eye is eliminated but in composition, in colours scheme and in the representation of human figures the legacy of the old tradition is present. The illustrations have been ambitiously extended though the lines are weak. The figures are not confined to covering the entire folio. Regional elements can be seen in the costumes and other decorative details. The legacy of the old tradition was not only shown in Jaina paintings of the Hindu illustrated manuscripts like Gitagovinda and Balagopālastuti. The Aranyaka Parva of the Mahābhārata displays the same characteristic. The
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painting in Uttar Pradesh was not confined to religious texts alone. The works of the poets in Avadhī such as Lauracandā, Mrgāvata etc. became favourite subjects of the Jaina painting.
The Jaina patrons invited such artists from Mughal capital cities to execute the Jaina manuscripts. The manuscript Yasodharacarita is one of the examples which mentions in its colophon that the scribe was hailed from the neighbouring town of Ajmer. Similarly, the painters were also engaged. Such artists transported their style wherever they worked with little bearing of the place of execution.
Among the documents which exemplify the various sub-styles of the Gujarat style is a manuscript of poet Haidhu's composition of the Yasodharacarita. It was painted at Ahmedabad in A.D. 1712 and the artists of this manuscript based their paintings on prototype. They copied the compositional formulae from the prototype but were free to use their own style as well as to select colours. The Upadeśamala, dated A.D. 1709, is another manuscript from Gujarat school. The style of its miniatures is quite charming, specially its landscape.
Among Digambara Jaina texts there is a manuscript of the Yasodharacarita painted in A.D. 1590 at Amer. It shows the prolongation of the style found in the Nayamandira Mahapuräna but without the farther eye and the angular exaggerations and distortions. The style of the painting with its simplified static compositions and archaism betrays a loss of vitality.
In A.D. 1606, near Amer, a copy of the Adipurāņa was painted but could not be completed. The illustrations of the manuscript show folkish expression which can be traced in the Caurapañcāśikā style. In the manuscript the methodology in illustrating the scenes differs from the practice followed in the foregoing periods when the painter after completing one miniature proceeded to next. In completion of the painting there were stages — the master artist first wrote the captions on the folios, thereafter the artist-draughtsman drew the figures and at the third stage the colours were applied to the composition.
Towards the last stage only the finishing touches were added. In this way in the completion of any illustration a group of artists was required. This change in workmethods may have been caused by the atelier system established at the Mughal court. However, the artists moved from place to place for their work.
In Gujarat towards the closing decades of the 16th century A.D. the developments and departures from the earlier style are most noticeable in the delineation of the human figures which have shed the farther eye and are now shown without the characteristic of angular body distortions. A wide range of colours was used including some unusual and novel hues such as lilac and dull green. Costly gold and silver were not employed. Certain stylistic devices, such as the red ground and the ornamental designs which serve to fill in vacant areas of the composition, linger on from the preceding period though in different form, and can be identified as stylistic components of the school of Gujarat.
in the 17" century A.D. the popular religious Jaina and other themes in Western India were well known. Different Jaina stories became popular with the illustrations, which are generally of folk variety. There was a large demand for illustrating manuscripts from the Jainas of Gujarat and therefore painters started working at many centres to satisfy the ever growing demands. There were several centres in Gujarat such as Patana, Cambay, Swat, Vadnagar, Idar, Jamnagar, Bhuj, Matar, Ahmedabad etc. indicating a flourishing state of painting in Gujarat. Painters of Gujarat played an important part in the Mughal atelier of Akbar. In the courts of Akbar and Jahangir a number of artists worked for the art of books.
The pupils of these painters spread out in search of their livelihood to Gujarat and Rajasthan. Several of them worked outside the courts for the patrons and nobles blending the style of Mughal court with indigenous traits which laid the foundation of Popular Mughal (combination of indigenous and Mughal traditions) style which became very popular. In this
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style, however, the older traditions both in colour and landscape indebted to the Mughal style through the figure — drawing, costumes and to some extent the landscape. The paintings and manuscripts were painted in the Popular Mughal style. One of the artists Ustād Sālivāhana, claimed in writing the distinction of having worked for the Mughal Emperor. He executed two documents for the Svetambara Jainas in early 17h century A.D. These are Vijñaptipatra (letter of invitation) and Salibhadra-Mahamunicaritra. In the 17th century A.D., the Jainas began to commission illustrated copies of Bhaktamarastotra. Only the Digambara Jainas ordered paintings of this theme even though it occurs in the literary traditions of both the sects.
Towards the end of the 17h century A.D. miniature painting in Gujarat loses its integrated character. It fragments into various sub-styles which are held together by certain general characteristics, such as animated puppet - like figures, flower – strewn backgrounds, dull colours and monotonous compositions.
In early 18th century A.D. Jaina paintings reflect two types of pictorial expression - one is a Rajasthani idiom (crude and folkish) and the other appears to be a local regional style.
In Rajasthan Jaina painting followed a similar course to that of Gujarat. In Amer and its vicinity during A.D. 1590 - 1610, two idioms were at work- one rooted in the style of Jaina painting (the northern
version of it) and the other direct extension of the Caurapancāśikā style. Both these styles are represented in the illustrated texts of the Digambara Jainas. REFERENCES
Saryu Doshi, Masterpieces of Jaina Painting, Marg Publications, 1985; Moti Chandra, Jain Miniature paintings from Western India, Ahmedabad, 1949; Moti Chandra and Karl Khandalavala, New Documents of Indian Painting - a Reappraisal, Bombay, 1969; S.V. Doshi, 'Islamic Elements in Jain Manuscript Illustrations', The Age of Splendour, Marg Publications, Bombay, 1983; Moti Chandra, 'An Illustrated Manuscript of the Kalpasutra and the Kalakacharya Katha,' Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum (Bombay), No. 4, pp 40-48; Moti Chandra and U.P. Shah, New Documents of Jaina Painting, Bombay, 1975; W. N. Brown, A Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpasutra, Washington, 1934; T. N. Ramchandran, Tiruparuttikuņram and its Temples' Bulletin of Madras Govt. Museum, New series, Vol. I, Pt. 3, Madras, 1934; UP. Shah and M.A. Dhaky (eds.), Aspects of Jaina Art and Architecture, Ahmedabad, 1975; G. Gupta and B.D. Mahajan, Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves, Bombay, 1962; Adris Banerjee, 'Jain Art Through the Ages', Acharya Bhikshu Commemoration Volume, Calcutta, 1961, pp. 167-90; Ghosh (Ed.), Jaina Art and Architecture (eds.), New Delhi, 1975.
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CHAPTER XV ĀDIPURĀNA
The sacred writings of the Digambara Jainas are classified into four sections: the Prathamānuyoga, Karanānuyoga, Caraṇānuyoga and Dravyānuyoga. The Prathamānuyoga discusses the lives of Tirthankaras and other great men, the Karaṇānuyoga gives the description of the geography of the universe, Caraṇānuyoga gives rules of conduct for monks and laymen, and the Dravyānuyoga discusses philosophy.
The Jaina Purāņas which consist of myths and legends from ancient times come under the first section of the sacred writings of the Prathamānuyoga. The term Purāņa pertains to an old tale which narrates the life of a single individual, while the term Mahapurāna refers to the text which describes the lives of the 63 prominent persons of the Jaina faith. These 63 persons include 24 Tirtharkaras, of 12 Cakravartins, 9 Vāsudevas, 9 Baladevas and 9 Prativasudevas. The text describing the lives of 63 great men occur in the sacred literature of the Svetāmbara sect. The most famous among these texts is the Trişastiśalākāpuruşa-carita.
The Mahapuräna is composed of two parts — the Adipurāņa and the Uttarapurāņa. The Adipurāņa describes the cosmic cycle, the life of the first Tirthankara Rşabhanätha, his ten former births and the life of Bharata, the first Cakravartin and son of Rsabha. The former births of Rşabha have been described in Adipurāna through numerous tales and episodes. The Adipurāņa includes the various rites and consecrations in their proper order, which an individual must undergo before attaining omniscience and enlightenment. The text of the Purana also has descriptions to form a government and defines the procedure of a legal system in the institution. The part narrating the lives of the remaining great men forms the Uttarapuräņa.
According to the Mahāpuräņa, Mahāvīra communicated the Purāņa to his chief disciple, Gautama
Gañadhara (Pl. 247). The narrative of the Mahāpurāņa runs in answer to the questions of king Śreņika, who approaches Gautama Ganadhara to recite the story of the Mahāpurāņa.
According to Jaina belief, the Jaina religion is timeless which has been revealed to humanity by Tīrthankaras in an infinite series of cosmic cycles. In every cosmic cycle 48 Tīrthankaras are born to lead humanity to salvation – 24 in the Avasarpiņi era and 24 in the Utsarpiņi era. In both eras one Tirthankara is born in the suşama-duşama (happiness with some happiness) phase and the remaining 23 are born in the duşama-suşama phase (utmost happiness).
According to Jaina myths, in the present cosmic cycle Rşabha was destined to be the first Tirthankara. The present cosmic cycle is passing through its Avasarpiņi era in which at suitable intervals, fourteen Kulakaras, patriarchs, were born. These Kulakaras played a significant role in assisting people to cope with the declining conditions in the world. Among these the fourteenth Kulakara is known as Nabhi or Näbhirāja. Nābhi and his wife Marudevi were the parents of the first Tirthankara Rşabha.
The birth story of Rşabha explains the sixteen auspicious dreams of Marudevi, its narration to Nābhi and consequently about the conception of Tirthankara Rşabha. It also describes the Indra's arrival on earth to congratulate Marudevi and Näbhi, the parents of Rsabha and about 56 Dikkumāris to look after Marudevi after conception. On the ninth day of the dark half of the month of caitra (March-April) Marudevi gave birth to Rşabha (Pl. 248). Indra descended on earth with Indrasenā and proceeded to Mt. Meru to conduct lustration ceremony with other five Indras. After the ceremony Rşabha was placed with his mother Marudevi. He grew up into a handsome young man. Rşabha married two princesses
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Yaśasvī and Sunandā. From Yaśasvi Rşabha has hundred sons, the oldest one was Bharata and a daughter named Brāhmi, while Sunandā gave birth to only one son Bahubali and a daughter named Sundari
Rşabha with Indra and other gods created geographical features such as rivers and forests; he taught the people types of subsistence activities and categorised the society into three sections — the Ksatriyas, the Vaisyas and the Sūdras. Rşabha also created a code of conduct to ensure social order. The people crowned him as their king.
Rşabha was fulfilling his royal duties but his prime duty was to propagate the Jaina faith on earth. To remind his mission Indra came on earth with celestial dancer, Nīlāñjanã in the court of Rşabha. Nīlāñjanā collapsed and vanished as she danced in the court of Rşabha. This deeply perturbed Rşabha and he decided to renounce the world and assume the life of an ascetic. He handed over the responsibility of kingdom to his son Bharata and appointed Bahubali as the next in command.
The gods prepared Rsabha for dīksā lustrating him with holy water. Rşabha stepped into a palanquin called Sudarsana for renunciation which was carried by the gods outside the city. Rşabha divested himself from royal dress and ornaments and plucked out his hair in five handfuls and seated under a banyan tree. The gods celebrated dikşākalyanaka of Rşabha. After six months of continuous fasting Rsabha went place to place in search of food and at Hastinapura he was offered the sugarcane juice and his fast came to an end.
Rşabha continued to practice meditation and penance and attained Kevalajñāna. Indra prepared Samavasaraṇa with the help of other gods (see detail Samavasarana, (pp. 414-417, Pls. 291-293) where Rsabha gave a discourse on the Jaina philosophy.
On the day Rşabha attained Kevalajñana, a cakra- ratna appeared in the armoury of Bharata which meant that Bharata was destined to become a Cakravartin. Bharata offered prayer to cakra-ratna; he visited his father to hear his preach and started his campaign and
established his supremacy over various regions and rulers. He also sent messages to his brothers to accept his supremacy. Except Bāhubali, all of his brothers renounced their kingdom and accepted Bharata's supremacy. Bāhubali challenged Bharata to war and defeated him in the first two duels, but lastly realising that to kill Bharata is to commit a sin he begged his brothers and fled to the forest. In the forest he remained in meditation for so long that creepers wound themselves around his body and bird nested in his beard. After a long meditation Bahubali could not attain Kevalajñana. Bharata along with his two sisters visited Bahubali on the advice of a Tirthankara and realised his pride; Bāhubali then attained Kevalajñāna and mokşa.
The painted manuscripts of Adipurāņa, on paper, belong to 15th-16h century A.D. These manuscripts are painted in Western Indian style, Caurapañcāśikā style and Rajasthani school. The illustrated manuscripts of Adipurāna were painted at Delhi, Delhi-Gwalior, Mozamabad (near Jaipur) and Palam (near Delhi). The colours that dominate in the manuscripts are red, green and golden yellow. However, the red colour is used for the background. The illustrations show the different episodes from the Adipurāņa like Gautama Ganadhara and king Śreņika, Nābhi and Marudevi, city of Ayodhya, dream of Marudevi, Nabhi informing Marudevī the conception of Tirthankara Rsabha, birth of Tīrthankara Rşabha (Pl. 248), Indra's procession to Mt. Meru with child Rsabha and others. The manuscripts of Adipurāņa are known from different collections such as Digambara Jain Atiśaya Kșetra (Sri Mahāvīrajī), Jaipur, Sri Digambar Jain Nayā Mandir, Delhi as well as private collections. REFERENCES
S.V. Doshi, 'An Illustrated Adi-Purana of A.D. 1404 from Yoginipur, Chhavi, Banaras, 1972; Saryu Doshi, Masterpieces of Jain Painting, Marg Publications, 1985; Moti Chandra, Jaina Miniature Paintings from Western India, Ahmedabad, 1948.
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CHAPTER XVI
KALPASŪTRA
The Kalpasutra is the most ancient as well as the and the Sadhu-Samacari (rules for monks at the Paryusaņa most revered book of the Svetāmbara Jainas. The book season). The Jina-carita contains the details of the lives is attributed to Ācārya Bhadrabähu (4h century B.C.). of 24 Jinas. The lives of the Jinas begin with the 24th Its text represents eighth chapter (a section) of the Jaina Jina Mahavira. The text moves backward narrating canon known as Dasāsrutskanda which is a mounmental briefly the lives of the 23rd Jina Pārsvanātha and 22nd canonical work known by titles Pajjosavana-kalpa or Jina Neminātha respectively. Thereafter only the names Pajjosamana-kalpa. The term Pajjosavana can be equated of Jinas are mentioned except the first Jina Rsabhanätha. with Paryūṣaṇa which, according to Jaina literature. The life of Rşabhanātha is again described in some signifies the spending of four months of rainy season details. The second part Sthavirävali consists of the at one place. The word Pajjosamana can be equated names of the leaders, who founded the numerous subwith Paryūṣaṇa-samana, which implies forgiveness. The sects of the Jainas. The third and last part, the Sadhuterm kalpa denotes conduct right behaviour' or Sāmācārī, prescribes the code of conduct for monks and prescribed rules. The Kalpasutra, when referred to nuns, in detail, during the rainy season. Pajjosavana-kalpa indicates "conduct by forgiveness'. According to Jaina tradition all monks recited the Both the titles are closely related and when designated Kalpasūtra on the fifteenth night after the commencement as the Kalpasūtra indicate a treatise concerned with the of their rest for the rainy season. Sometime around the foregoing conduct that is followed by the ordained fifth century A.D. the custom of reciting the Kalpasutra during the rainy season from the day of the full moon to large congregations became popular which has in the month of Așadha (June-July) and Karttika continued till today. This practice necessitated the ready (October-November).
availability of copies of the Kalpasūtra, and, as a result, For Jaina monks, nuns and acolytes, the rainy it became the most reprocured text. season is a period of rest during which they settle down The Kalpasūtra begins with the namokära-mantra in one place. They utilise this time for spiritual cleansing of the five-fold obeisance to the Panca-Paramesthin, i.e. which includes fasting, meditation, the reading of the Arhats, the Siddhas, the Acäryas, the Upadhyāyas, scriptures and preaching. The eight-day festival of and the Sädhus. Paryūṣaṇa takes place during this period. The Jaina In the Kalpasūtra the lives of Jinas follow the community celebrates the festival with great religious same pattern. The Jina descends on earth after having fervour. They, under the guidance of holy teachers, spent a long period of time in one of the celestial aspire to spiritual upliftment through fasting, attending spheres. His life is marked by Pancakalyanaka-Cyavana religious discourses and visiting places of worship. The conception), Janma (birth), Dikså (renunciation), spiritual activities include the recitations of the Kalpasūtra Kaivalya (omniscience) and Nirvana (liberation). At the which attests to the special importance of Kalpasūtra time of his birth, the gods shower the earth with riches, among the religious texts.
and Indra takes the infant (Jina) for his lustration on The Kalpasutra written in prose is the sutra of top of the Mt. Meru. At the time of renunciation, the 1200 ślokas. It consists of three parts-the Jina-carita Laukāntika gods hail the Jina for his decision to enter (lives of Jinas), the Sthavirāvali (succession of pontiffs) the life of a homeless monk. When he attains Kaivalya
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(omniscience), the gods built a great Samavasarana wherein men and animals can hear the Jina preaching (see pp. 414-417, Pls. 291-293). In the life of the last Jina, Mahävīra, there occurred a sixth auspicious event - the transfer of the embryo from the womb of Brāhmani Devänandä to that of Kșatriyāņi Trišalā. Life of Mahāvira
On the sixth day of the bright half of the month of Āsādha (June-July), after completing his life in the celestial abode Puspottara, Mahavira (24th Jina) descended on the earth. He was conceived in the womb of Brähmaṇa woman Devānandā, who lived in the town of Kundagrama in Magadha. When Mahāvira descended in the womb of Devananda she dreamt fourteen auspicious dreams. In dreams she saw an elephant, a bull, a lion, the lustration of goddess Śrī, a garland, the moon, the sun, a flag, an urn, a lotus pond, the sea, a celestial chariot a heap of jewels and a burning fire (Pl. 249). Devänandā described her dream to her husband Rşabhadatta and asked him what they indicated. Rsabhadatta informed Devänandä that these noble dreams foretell a happy enjoyable future and also indicate the birth of an intelligent child who will be a Cakravartin or Arhat.
Indra who kept watch over earth noted that Mahāvira had entered the womb of Devānandā. He reflected that it had never been that a Cakravartin is born in a minor clan or in a family of humble origin. They are always born in powerful and princely clans belonging to the warrior Ksatriya caste. If it occurs, the established practice for Indra was to have the embryo of the Arhat transferred to the womb of a Ksatriya woman. Accordingly, Indra transferred the embryo of Mahāvīra from the womb of Devānandā to that of Ksatriya woman Trišala, who lived in the same town, and the embryo in the womb of Trišalā was inserted into that of Devänanda. Indra instructed Harinaigameşi, the commander of his infantry, to carry out the exchange of embryos (Pl. 250).
Harinaigameşi, on his mission, went directly to
the house of Rşabhadatta. He gently carried the embryo of Mahāvīra to Trisala in her palace. He exchanged the embryos and carried the embryo from Trisalā's womb to that of Devānandā (Pl. 251). On the same night, Trisalā saw the same fourteen auspicious dreams that Devānandā had at the time of Mahāvīra's conception. Contemplating her dreams she narrated it to her husband king Siddhārtha (Pl. 252). The king Siddhartha overjoyed and next day wanted to know the meaning of dreams from the soothsayers. Soothsayers explaining auspicious dreams seen by queen Trisalā informed the king about the birth of a son who will become a Cakravartin (Pl. 253). But it may also happen that he may become a Jina
Ever since Mahävira entered Trišala's womb the family's honour, wealth, happiness increased. As a result Mahāvīra's parents decided to name their son as Vardhamāna. However, others call him śramaņa and the gods referred to him as Mahāvīra. While in the womb of his mother Mahāvīra decided to renounce the world of a householder for that of a monk.
Mahavira was born on the thirteenth day of the bright half of the month of Caitra (March-April). On the same night Indra, along with other gods and goddesses, came down to earth and took away the newly born child, replacing him with a false figure of Mahāvīra. Alongwith other heavenly beings he proceeded to Mt. Meru for the lustration rites. After the nativity celebrations Indra returned the holy infant to his mother (Pl. 254).
The king Siddhartha, his royal household and others celebrated the birth of Mahavira for eleven days with great splendour. Mahavira spent thirty years of his life in the region of Videha and after his parents passed away he decided to take the vows of an itinerant monk. for his renunciation Mahavira gave away all the worldly things such as gold, ornaments, carriages, warehouses, treasure houses etc. At that time Laukantika gods came and said to future Jina to progagate the religion. Indra came from the heaven, bathed and decorated Mahāvīra.
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On the tenth day of the dark half of the month of Both the brothers were reborn nine times, and in four Margaśirsa (November-December) Mahāvira left home of these births the wicked soul killed the noble one. in a palanquin presented by Indra for the purpose. Gods In the tenth birth, the good soul was embodied in Pārsva and men accompanied him playing musical instruments, while the wicked one was born as Kamatha, an ascetic. blowing conches, chanting auspicious verses and ringing While Kamatha was in Pañcāgni tapas, Pārsvanātha bells.
freed a family of snakes burning in fire near Kamatha. The procession passing through the streets of the same head of the snake family was reborn as Kundagrāma reached a park known as Jñati-sanda- Dharana, the lord of the nāgas. Kamatha got enraged vana. In the park, under an asoka tree, Mahāvira shed and humiliated by the action of Pärsvanätha. his ornaments, garlands etc. and plucked out his hair After his death Kamatha was reborn as asura in five handfuls which was received by Indra in a Meghamalin. In revenge he caused a mighty storm on diamond cup (Pl. 255). Indra provided the divine robe Pārsvanātha when he was meditating and performing to Mahävira half of which was gifted by him to a austerities. The head of the snake family who was saved Brāhmana Soma and half of cloth was lost by Mahavira by Pārsvanätha came down to protect him. He spread in a thorny bush, while wandering as a monk, not his seven hoods over Pārsvanatha to protect him from caring for his body. Mahavira faced adversities caused torrential rain caused by Meghamālin (Pl. 256). by gods, men and beasts but he patiently endured all Ultimately Meghamālin repented of his evil actions and such treatments.
took the right path. In the thirteenth year of his wanderings, Mahavira Pārsvanātha with a modest and self-restrained attained ultimate knowledge while meditating under a character spent thirty years of his life as a householder. śāla tree and became omniscient. The gods prepared On the eleventh day of the dark half of the month of Samavasarana as they did when any Jina obtained Pausa (December-January) he renounced the world and perfect knowlge (see Samavasarana (pp. 414-417, Pls. passed through the town in a procession to the 291-293).
Aśramapada park. In the park under an asoka tree Mahāvīra spent last days of his life in the town Pārsvanātha after sheding all his finery and plucking of Pāvā and died on the fifteenth night of the dark half out his hair (Pl. 257) in five handfuls became a monk of month Karttika (October-November).
and wandered with other mendicants. Life of Pārsvanātha
For eighty-three days Pärśvanātha practised The 23rd Jina Pärsvanatha was the son of queen austerities and on the eighty-fourth day, the fourth day Vāmă and king Aśvasena who ruled in Banaras. At the of the month of Caitra, he attained omniscience. At the time of his conception his mother Vāmā saw the fourteen age of hundred years, on Mt. Sammeta on the eighth auspicious dreams like the mothers of other Jinas. She day of the bright fortnight of the month of Srāvana gave birth to Parsvanätha at mid-night on the tenth day (July-August) Pārsvanātha attained moksa. of the dark half of the month Pausa (December-January). Life of Ariştanemi At the time of his conception his mother saw a snake Aristanemi (22 Jina), also known as Neminätha, crawling by her side, because of which the child received descended to earth after spending thirty-three the name Pārsvanātha.
sägaropamasa in a celestial abode called Aparajita. His The Jaina mythology states that in one of his parents were queen Sivā, and king Samudravijaya, the previous births, Parsvanātha had a brother who was chieftain of the city of Sauripur in Gujarat. His mother wicked and resentful while Pärśvanātha was virtuous. saw the same fourteen dreams that came to all the

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mothers of Jinas. He was given the name Aristanemi calls etc. because his mother had seen a Nemi made of rista After dividing his kingdom among his hundred Jewels at the time of his conception.
sons, at the time of his renunciation Rsabhanātha arrived Aristanemi is described as the cousin of Krsna. at the park known as Siddhārthavana. Under an aśoka He was having tremendous strength and was only one tree he shed his cloths and ornaments and plucked out to bend Krşņa's bow and blow his conch. Aristanemi his hair like other Jinas in four handfuls instead of five was challenged by Krsna to a test of physical strength and became a monk. He practised austerities for years in which Krsna could not get success. To weaken his and attained omniscience. He attained liberation under strength Krsna and his wife urged Aristanemi to marry a banyan tree, on Mt. Astāpada. but Aristanemi was disinclined to worldly things and Sthavirāvali in place devoted himself to the pursuits of spiritual The second part of the Kalpasutra-Sthaviravali perfection. But on Krsna's persuation his marriage was gives the genealogy of important teachers of the Jaina fixed with Rajamati, the daughter of king Ugrasena. faith. It starts with Ganadharas, the eleven disciples of While on his way with the marriage procession Māhāvīra who were versed in twelve angas, fourteen Aristanemi hearing the cries of animals, to be slain for purva treatises and the doctrine of the gains and closes the wedding banquet was filled with revulsion for the with a passage venerating many teachers. world and decided to abandon the world and became Sädhu-Samācāri a monk (Pl. 258).
The third and the last part of the Kalpasütra states Aristanemi relinquishing all his possessions stepped the rules of conduct for ordained during the four months into the renunciation palanquin and came to the park of the rain-rest. It includes issues of food, shelter, called Revataka. Similar to other Jinas, under an aśoka deportment and travel etc. tree he shed his finery and ornaments, and plucking The popularity of the custom to recite the Kalpahis hair in five handfuls, became a mendicant. At the sūtra to large congregations necessitated the ready end of fifty-four days of practising austerities he attained availability of copies of Kalpasūtra. As a result a great omniscience. After passing thousand years on earth he number of Kalpasūtra manuscripts were prepared between passed away on the summit of Mt. Girnar in Gujarat. the 12th and 20th centuries and kept in Jñana-bhandāras) Life of Rşabhanātha
of Idar (Gujarat), Pāțana (North Gujarat), Dayävimalaji The life of the first Jina Rsabhanatha like the lives Šāstra Sangraha, Devasano Pado, Ahmedabad, Limbdi of other Jinas was marked by five auspicious events. (Saurastra), Chhenai, Surat, Kaccha and several other After three sägaropamas, Rşabhanātha descended on places. The Kalpasutra was the most frequently and earth from a celestial sphere called Sarvārthasiddha. His profusely illustrated text of the Svetämbara Jainas. The mother was Marudevī and father was Nābhi of Iksavāku Kalpasūtra with a few miniatures is the earliest extant land. When he was conceived, his mother saw fourteen example of the first illustrated version of the holy book. lucky dreams. Among the fourteen dreams, in place of It depicts a Jina, a preaching scene, the birth of a Jina, second, the bull appeared first and for this reason the a perfected being (Siddha) and the symbol of child was named Rşabhanātha. He was born in Caitra omniscience. Some manuscripts were embellished (March).
specially with the lives of Tirthankaras, and adorned Rşabhanatha ruled as a king for millions of years with border decoration (Pl. 246). The life scenes of and during this period he taught his subjects seventy Tirthankaras include Brahmani Devananda and Trisalā's two arts, which included mathematics, writing, bird- fourteen lucky dreams (Pl. 249), the interpreters of the
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dreams (Pl. 253), Harinaigameșī taking the embryo to queen Trisala (Pl. 251), Śakra's command to Harinaigameśī (Pl. 250), birth of Tirthankaras, Pārsva's and Aristanemi's descent from heaven, Parsvanatha and Ariṣṭanemi in the initiation palanquin, Mahāvīra renouncing his possessions, Mahāvīra and Pārsvanatha plucking out their hairs (Pl. 255), Mahāvīra preaching (Pl. 259), Mahāvīra in the Puspottara heaven, Samavasarana (Pls. 91-93), Jaina monk preaching, and fight between Bharata and Bahubali etc.
The scene pertaining to the birth of Mahāvīra represents Sakra paying homage to Mahavira's embryo, Harinaigameși bringing the embryo to the queen Trisala (Pl. 251), the appearance of gods at the time of birth of Mahāvīra and Trisala lying on her bed holding Mahavira. Sometimes Dikkumārīs are shown waving camara (flywhisk) as well as attendants with camara and pitcher, Indra, with divine figures, offering prayer to Mahāvīra after his birth, and king Siddhartha celebrating the birth of Mahavira. In the scene the male trumpeter, drummer, singer and female dancer are enjoying the festival. Similarly, the birth of other Jinas are represented in the paintings.
The paintings also show the narration of the dreams by Trisala to her husband king Siddhartha (Pl. 252). In the paintings the fourteen dreams appear above the figure of Devananda in two panels (Pl. 249). Sometimes Rṣabhadeva is also present with Devanandā. A few paintings represent the figures of interpreters of the dreams also (Pl. 253).
In the renunciation scene Mahāvīra is presented giving away his possessions to leave the world and adopt the religious life. He is giving all his belongings to poor men. The scene also shows Mahavīra in initiation palanquin, Mahāvīra plucks out his hair and Sakra catches it.
The scene representing Mahavira's austerities shows Mahāvīra in meditation while Sangamaka made attacks on him. The scene also illustrates the previous births of Candrakausika. In the scene the serpent is attacking

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Mahavira. The same scene represents Kamatha's performance of the five fire penances. The Parsva's austerities represent Parsvanatha seated in padmasana, while Dharanendra and Padmavati are present on left and right of Pārsva.
Some of the Kalpasūtra manuscripts show the fight between Bharata and Bahubali (Pl. 245). The whole episode is represented in panels showing dryti yuddha, vak-yuddha (harsh words), muşti-yuddha (fighting with fists and staves) and duel with fists. Bahubali is standing in kayotsarga in between two trees. The hardship of penance is indicated by the insects creeping over his body and birds perched on his shoulders. Bahubali's sisters Brahmi and Sundari are also present in the scene.
The scene pertaining to Kośa's dance represents Kośã and her sister Upkośã dancing near Muni Sthulabhadra to awake his passions during rainy season. Kosa fails in her intention and became śravikā adopting the Jaina faith. Kośã and her sister are shown standing in posture of reverence.
Besides these the Kalpasūtra paper manuscripts represent a few other important scenes, the various dancing girls in panels in different dancing poses with drummers and trumpeters, flute players and some other figures in the margins (Pl. 246). In one such example thirty-four dancing figures are shown dancing in different poses.
The border decoration of Kalpasūtra manuscripts includes geese hangs among the lotus flowers and leaves, rosettes, row of fish, deer, elephant and antelope, panels decorated with the figures of lions, doves, peacocks, horses, birds holding twigs or jewels in their beaks etc.
Most of the illustrations of the Kalpasūtra manuscripts corresponded to verses in the text while a few of them did not find mention in the text. Such illustrations generally occurred in the sections referring to the lives of the Jinas Pārsvanatha, Neminatha and Rṣabhanatha and other legends familiar to the laity. Certain manuscripts were written with gold and silver

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inks. The later manuscripts painted after A.D. 1450 were as a rule more profusely and elaborately illustrated.
The colours used for the paintings and borders are simple such as red, green, white, black, carmine, yellow and indigo-blue. Generally, the Jinas are painted in green colour. REFERENCES
Karl Khandalavala and Moti Chandra, 'An Illustrated Kalpasutra Painting at Jaunpur in A.D. 1465', Lalitkala, No. 12, New Delhi, 1962; Saryu Doshi, Masterpieces of Jain Painting, Marg Publications, 1985;
Saryu Doshi , Illustrated Kalpasutra Painted at Jaunpur in A.D. 1465, Lalit Kala, No. 12 pp. 8-15; W.N. Brown, Stylistic varieties of Early Western Indian Miniature Painting about 1400 A.D.' Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, No. 5, pp. 2-12; W.N. Brown, A Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of Miniature Paintings of the Jaina Kalpasutra, Washington, 1934; Moti Chandra, Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India, Ahmedabad, 1949; Moti Chandra, 'An Illustrated Manuscript of the Kalpasutra and the Kalakacharya Katha', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, No. 4, pp. 40-48.
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CHAPTER XVII KĀLAKĀCĀRYAKATHA
Kālakācāryakatha is a Svetāmbara legend of monk Kālaka or pontiff, a great Jaina teacher who sought the help of the Sāhis who ruled across Sind in north-west frontier) to punish the wicked ruler of Ujjain. According to the events narrated in the Kälakācāryakathā, under monk Kālaka's authority the date of the paryūṣana festival was preponed for a day. Thus the Kālakācāryakathā is closely associated with the paryüsaņa festival and with the Kalpasutra text which is virtually read during the period. The Kalakäcäryakatha is generally treated as an integral part of Kalpasūtra. It is considered to be the ninth lecture of the Kalpasūtra.
The Kālakācāryakatha is a non-canonical Jaina text. There are numerous versions of the legend in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsa, old Gujarati and old Marwari. The legend runs in four stages. The first stage describes Kālaka's initiation under monk Gunakara, the fall of the wicked king Gardabhilla of Ujjaini and the arrival of Sāhi chieftains. The second stage comes with the events at the court of king Balamitra and prince Bhānumitra and the preponement of the end of the date of paryūṣaṇa festival. The third part portrays monk Kālaka reproving his arrogant spiritual grandson, Sagaracandra, and the fourth expounds the Nigoda doctrine to Sakra, the king of the gods.
The transcriptions of Kālakācāryakathā are available from A.D. 1250 onwards; however, the story was conceived earlier. The tale of Kälakācāryakathā has miscellancous anecdotes pertaining to Kālaka, who were three distinct personages known by the same name Kālaka. Over centuries of narration, some of these different Kalakas appear to have merged into one mythical figure.
The first of the three distinct personages was the disciple and successor of monk Gunasundara, possibly the monk Gunakara of Kälaka cycle. The scholars
believe that this Kālaka was the expounder of the Nigoda doctrine to Sakra. Some of the scholars are of the opinion that the second Kālaka was the brother of nun Sarasvati, who with the help of Sahi king vanquished the wicked king Gardabhilla. The third Kālaka was the person responsible for the change in the date of Paryūṣaṇa festival. In this way these three Kālakas may be associated with the three different episodes of the legend.
During the 13th century, Kalpasutra and the Kālakācāryakathā were transcribed as a hyphenated text. From A.D. 1250-1555 a large number of Kalpasūtra and Kālakācāryakathā were embellished with illustrations and preserved in Jñana-bhandāras of the Svetämbara Jainas. According to the text Kalaka was the son of king Vajrasimha and queen Surasundari in the land of Bhāratavarşa. Once prince Kalaka riding his horse reached at the place where monk Gunakara was preaching Jaina philosophy. The prince joined the audience and was inspired by a deep longing for spiritual peace by the monks sermon. On his return to the palace, prince Kālaka expressed his desire to his parents to be initiated into the Jaina monastic order (Pl. 260). With the permission of his parents monk Kālaka acquired spiritual perfection and in course of time succeeded his master monk Gunakara, the head of the group of monks.
Some of the episodes illustrated from the palmleaf and paper manuscripts of Kälakācāryakatha are as follows-Guņākarasuri preaches śrāvakas, śrávikäs and sãdhvis, Aryakālaka preaches to the king Sātavāhana (Pl. 261) and defeat of the king Gardabhilla by the Sakas. This particular painting shows Āryakälaka blaming Gardabhilla for his evil doings. A Saka soldier is standing for the instruction from Aryakälaka, while Aryakālaka is preaching the Jaina sädhus. The painting showing the preaching of Kälakasüri to the Jaina samgha shows the seated figure of Kälakācārya on the throne
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with flowers in both the hands. Behind the Acārya stands pupil with palm-leaf manuscripts in both the hands. One of the paintings represents Āryakālaka preaching his disciple who is seated with hands in reverence. Other illustrations represent preaching of Sri Gunakarasūri to Kālaka, Samavasarana, in the centre of which the Jina is seated in padmasana, king Vajrasimha and queen Surasundari in conversation, Aryakālaka and king Vikrama conversing with each-other, Saka soldier being also present in the scene, Aryakālaka and Śāhi, subjugation of king Gardabhilla, Saka court (Pl. 261) and saka soldiers, Āryakālaka and Sakrendra in disguise as Brāhmana, Ācārya Jinabhadrasūri preaching his pupil, holding palm-leaf manuscripts, and śrāvakas, sravikās and sadhvīs, abduction of nun Sarasvati, Gunakarasüri preaching Kalakakumära with hands in reverence, Āryakālaka converting mud bricks to gold and the Saka soldiers on the horse and elephant backs, she -ass magic before king Gardabhilla, Aryakālaka recovering the ball of Saka princess from the well, the defeat of she-ass magic and siege of Ujjain and so on and so forth.
The colours used for the illustrations are generally red, yellow or golden, blue and black. The figures of Ācāryas are generally painted in golden colour with white coloured robes, while the Sāhi kings are in blue dresses. The apparels of the śrāvakas, śrāvikās and sādhvis represent beautiful designs. Some of the Acārya figures are also ornamented with beautiful designs. REFERENCES
Moti Chandra, 'An Illustrated Manuscripts of the Kalpasutra and the Kalakacharya Katha', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay, 1953-54, No. 4, pp 40-48; Moti Chandra, Jain Miniature Painting from Western India, Ahmedabad, 1949; S. Doshi, Masterpieces of Jain Painting, Bombay, 1985, Marg Publications; W. N. Brown, A Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of Miniature Paintings of the Jain Kalpasūtra, Washington, 1934; W. N. Brown, The Story of Kalaka, Washington, 1933; S.V. Gorakshkar, 'A dated Manuscript of the Kalakacharya Katha in the Prince of Wales Museum', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, No. 9, Bombay, 1964-66.
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CHAPTER XVIII
UTTARĀDHYAYANASŪTRA
The Uttaradhyayanasutra is a part of the Svetambara manuscripts are elaborately ornamented with marginal Jaina canon. It is considered to have been preached by decorations, sometimes showing Kinnaras (heavenly Mahāvīra. It consists of 36 chapters and it is to instruct musicians) with musical instruments alongwith paintings. the monks about their principal duties, to commend an The text is written in gold ink on a red background. ascetic life by precepts and examples, to warn him
in the first chapter "The Discipline of Monks', the against the dangers in his spiritual career, and to give manuscript discusses that the monks should be him some theoretical informations. The 36 chapters of subordinate, meek, open to correction when deserved, the manuscript include the disciplines of monks, anticipate a superior's wishes, keep silent until addressed, hardships, the four requisites, the past cannot be be truthful, practise asceticism so on and so forth. Many reassembled, death against one's will, the false ascetic, specific rules of conduct are cited dealing with begging, the parable of ram, Kapila, Nami's entry into monkhood, eating, studying and other duties. A monk who observes the leaf of the tree, the very learned Harikeșa, Citra all faithfully is being honoured by gods, Gandharvas and Sambhūta, Işukara, the true monk, the condition and men. of perfect chastity, the bad monk, Sanjaya, Mrgaputra, The illustrations for the chapter seem to be the great duty of Jaina monks, the story of Samudrapala, introductory to the whole work which show Jina the story of Rathanemi, Kesi and Gautam, Mahāvīra seated (Pl. 262) or preaching in Samavasaraņa. Pravacanamätäs the true sacrifice, correct behaviour, the The significance of the Samavasarana scenes in the balky bullocks, the road to salvation, exertion in paintings seems to be that the Uttaradhyayanasutra righteousness, the road of penance, rules of conduct, itself, is considered to have been preached by Mahāvīra. the causes of carelessness, the nature of karma, the It may be assumed that the subject of the first chapter leśyās, the houseless monk, living creatures and things is the discourse of Mahāvīra where he is seated on without life.
throne, crowned and bejewelled with a royal parasol There are several copies of Uttarādhyayanasūtra, over his head. The attendant with fly-whisk and musical belonging to 15th-16th century A.D., in different instrument flanks him. Above him are elephants with collections like Dayā Vimalji Jñāna Bhandāra, upraised trunks (Pl. 262). Ahmedabad, Hamsa Vijaya Jñana Mandira, Baroda, The second chapter is devoted to 'Hardships' like Jainānand Pustakalaya, Sri Mukti Kamala Jaina, Mohana hunger, thirst, cold, heat, insect bites, discontent, women, Jñäna Mandira, Baroda etc. These manuscripts belong the discomforts of wandering, the discomforts of resting to 15th and 16th century A.D. As is the case with places, bad lodging, abuse, refusal of alms etc. which illustrations of the Kalpasūtra and the Kālakācāryakathā, a monk must endure. The illustrations pertaining to this the scenes illustrated in the Uttaradhyayanasutra are chapter show a monk (perhaps Mahavira) meditating clinch, being repeated with only minor variations in the and standing in kāyotsarga. The birds and animals like different manuscripts. Like other works the illustrations dogs, deer, bull, lions, attack him but fail to shake his of the present manuscript are not always explicitly concentration. Probably, the painting represents various indicated in the text, but rather it is to be found in hardships experienced by Mahavira. Mahāvīra wears commentaries. Some of the Uttaradhyayanasutra crown and other ornaments which should not be
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represented with him while he is a monk (Pl. 263). He is accompanied with two human figures in attacking postures, probably to animals.
The first verse of the third chapter 'The Four Requisites' says that a living being must obtain the four things to lead to salvation. These four things are birth as a human being, an opportunity to hear the law preached, capacity to believe in it, and strenuous application in self control. However, the commentaries contain stories explaining how difficult it is to obtain human birth and to make best possible use of such birth. These stories are illustrated in the chapter. One such story deals with Brahmadatta who was a cakravartin and his ascetic friend who came to Brahmadatta's capital and asked him the privilege of begging at every house, with the assurance of receiving food and two dināras at each. The king was disappointed at the ascetic's request but, nevertheless, agreed to it. Through the story the case of the greedy ascetic is illustrated. In the illustrations generally the ascetic is represented in front of king who is seated on the throne (Pl. 264).
Similarly, in the present chapter the commentaries tell the stories of the schisms of the Jaina's faith. In one such story the death of monk Aşadha is described, who was born as a god. It also describes the means to distinguish a genuine monk and a god in a monk's appearance in the court of king Balabhadra. The illustration pertaining to the story shows monk Āsādha seated and addressing his disciples in the upper register, while the lower register shows king Balabhadra seated with the monks (Pl. 265).
Another scenes and related to the pontiff Aryarakṣita and his three rival claimants to the succession. When pontiff Aryarakṣita was about to die, he called the claimants and told a parable of three pots filled respectively with gram, oil and butter. All three were broken on the ground and all the grain fell out as well as the oil except few drops but much of the butter remained. All three claimants were compared with these
three and the preference was given to one named Gosthāmāhila who became the founder of the sixth schism. The illustrations pertaining to the story show Aryarakṣita addressing his three disciples (Pl. 266).
The fourth chapter 'The Past cannot be Reassembled' teaches that a step once taken can never be retraced, a fault once committed must be followed by its effect, therefore a monk must ever practise the law diligently. The illustrations related to the chapter state the story of the wrestler Attana referred to in the commentary. Attana was invincible in his youth but later on conquered by a fisherman. The fisherman and a farmer fought for two days without any dicision and the fisherman smashed the head of the farmer. Attana in his old age was mistreated by his relatives. With this treatment he left for Kausāmbi and established himself there. His family hearing of his renewed life came to share his wealth. Considering the weaknesses of old age Attana decided to enter in religious life. The illustrations pertaining to the story show Astana sitting and watching duel of the fisherman and the farmer fighting with weapons (Pl. 267). However, two men were fighting with sword. The duel of two men is identified with the story of Agadadatta (or Agaladatta) referred to in one of the commentaries, who caught the thief, as he was terrorizing the city, and killed him cleverly. The illustration shows Agadadatta fighting with the thief.
Another story explains that those men who collect wealth by evil deeds and through adherence to false principles will be caught by their own snares, bound by their own hatred, and will go to hell. The theme is explained through a story of the robber who concealed his plunder in a deep well. The robber used to marry the girls and when they conceived, he used to kill them and throw their bodies down the well. But once he allowed a beautiful and dear wife to live, who bore him a son. After few years the robber's mind changed and he killed them both, the mother and the child, and threw them down the well. The child's cry was heard by the
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folk who informed the king. The king discovered the truth on investigation and the robber was slain. The illustration pertaining to the story represents mother and child in a cave on the hill while the robber is sitting outside.
In the fifth chapter of Uttaradhyayanasūtra Death Against One's will’- Mahāvīra preaches that people should follow the pious law and should avoid the worldly life that ends in life and death cycle. The illustrations show the death bed scenes of a layman and a monk.
The sixth chapter "The False Ascetic' concerns with a tale of a villager who worked hard but got no reward. One night he saw a man in a temple with wish fulfilling a beautiful jar. The villager gained favour of the person with his services and asked for the pot from the person as a boon. Getting wish- fulfilling jar he enjoyed with his friends, but one day keeping the pot on his shoulder the intoxicated villager danced, as a result the pot fell and broke, and he returned again to his life of poverty. The present story says that the ignorance of truth is the subject to pains. The illustrations show the villager having received the pot in front of the seated figure of the magician (Pl. 268). The lower part of the painting shows the wish-fulfilling jar festooned with garland and scarf, while foliage comes out of its mouth, and the eyes of a anthropomorphic face gaze out from beside the neck. The full jar is one of the mångalika-cinhas (auspicious symbol) among Jainas.
The seventh chapter 'The Parable of the Ram' tells the story of a ram who enjoyed good treatment for the sake of a guest. When a guest arrives ram's head is cut off and it is eaten. The commentary has a story of a calf who complained to his mother that he was fed only the dry grass while the ram, which was of no use to any one, got all sorts of delicacies. His mother asked him to be content and when the calf saw the ram slaughtered, he became satisfied with his own diet. The Uttarādhyayana manuscripts show the picture of the ram's death, its throat being cut by a
man with a long sword, while a cow and calf stand watching the scene.
The lower scene in the above painting shows a king who lost his life through eating mango, which was strictly forbidden for him. The king was very fond of mangoes but getting the warning by the physician he ordered to uproot every mango tree in his kingdom. One day, the king was riding with his minister and he stopped under a mango tree which was full of fruits. The king could not restrain himself and tasted the mangoes, as a result he died.
The illustrations show the king with mangoes in hand to eat and the minister is kneeling in front of him warning the king not to do so (Pl. 269).
The eighth chapter "Kapila' relates to the story of sage Kapila who was sent, in his boyhood, for education by her poor mother to one of his father's friends Indradatta. There he fell in love with a servant girl. To fulfil the desire of his lover he goes for money to a rich merchant and was arrested by his people and brought to king Prasenajita, the king of Kausāmbi, as a thief. Knowing that Kapila was no thief the king offered him a boon. Kapila fulfils his desire with this but recognising that desires are limitless he renounced all the things and became a monk. He preached the king and set out on austerities. Once in the forest, near Rajgrih he was caught by the robbers and asked to dance. During dance Kapila sang verses of the present chapter and a number of robbers ultimately became his followers.
The illustrations from the story present Kapila is being brought before the king; he is putting on the garments of monk, dancing before robbers and plucking out his hair to renounce the world.
The ninth chapter 'Nami's Entry into Monkhood' discusses the illness of Nami as a king of Mithila and his retirement from the world remembering the former birth as well as the arrival of Sakra in disguise as an elderly Brahmana and his long conversation with Nami who ultimately became a monk.
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In the illustrations sometimes Nami is shown fevered on his bed, sometimes in conversation with Śakra as a king and sometimes as a monk (Pl. 270).
In the tenth chapter 'The Leaf of the Tree', Mahāvīra's sermon to Gautam, his eldest disciple, is discussed through various episodes.
The painting shows Mahavira enthroned as a Siddha preaching a monk, probably Gautam, or other disciples (Pl. 271).
The eleventh chapter 'The very Learned' deals with the duties of a monk and the excellence of him who has mastered them all. The chapter discusses the characteristic features of a learned monk comparing the animal world and nature etc. The illustrations show Mahavira preaching the monk or monks, objects of comparison from animal world and nature etc.
The twelth chapter 'Harikeśa' is the story of Harikeśa which is discussed partly in the Uttaradhyayanasutra. However, the details are supplied by the commentaries. The story tells that Harikeśa in his previous birth, was born in good family and had great pride. He was reborn, with the name Bäla, in a cāndāla (untouchable) family as an ugly boy. The other cāndāla boys refused their friendship with Harikeśa. One day when the boys were playing, a poisonous snake came there and was killed by them, while a harmless snake was spared. This incident made Harikeśa feel that good and evil fortune come to living beings according to their virtues and faults. As a result he took initiation as a Jaina monk and engaged in austerities. The story runs that there was a sacrifice conducted by the king where many Brāhmaṇas were present but they refused to welcome Harikeśa. Knowing his power and spirituality from the Yakṣa, the Brahmanas realised their mistake and honoured the monk and offered him food. Harikesa preached a sermon on true Brāhmaṇahood and sacrifice.
The paintings illustrate a number of scenes from Harikesa's story beginning with his conversion like snake rearing its head and a boy raising his arm to strike, harmless snake spared by the boys, Harikeśa in kayotsarga

posture, Harikeśa preaching the disciples, Harikesa standing in meditation so on and so forth (Pl. 272).
The thirteenth chapter 'Citra and Sambhuta' is a conversation between king Brahmadatta and a Jaina monk. Citra and Sambhuta were the herd boys who were converted by a monk to asceticism. They were associated through many existences sometimes slave boys, twin fawns, twin swans, twin candāla boys, named Citra and Sambhūta, in Banaras. These boys are taught the traditional art by a minister whose life was saved by their father. These boys used to delight the city people by their singing and dancing but were not allowed by the Brāhmaṇas to enter in the city. They themselves entered the city but were driven out by the people. The boys were determined to die but at the same moment they met a Jaina monk, who led them to religion. In due time they obtained supernatural powers. Sambhūta entered the city and used his powers. Sambhuta was born as a king Brahmadatta and Citra as a monk in one of their rebirths. Citra preached Brahmadatta but of no avail, Brahmadatta tempted him to enjoy the delights of life. Brahmadatta accumulated so much bad karma that he was born in the hell.
The painting shows Citra preaching to Brahmadatta while Brahmadatta endeavours to seduce Citra to the pleasures, or Citra and Brahmadatta are conversing in the upper register while a female dancer and male musicians are shown in the lower register. The painting also illustrates Citra and Brahmadatta's various existences (Pl. 273).
The fourteenth chapter 'Iṣukara' deals with the six souls, who had been herd boys and were reborn as king Işukara, his wife Kamalavati, their two sons, and the royal nobleman Bhrgu and his wife Yasa. They all entered the ascetic life and reached omniscience and were released from rebirth. The paintings show all these six persons.
Chapter fifteenth 'The True Monk' describes the characteristic of a true monk. In the painting, Mahavira is shown preaching the monks (Pl. 274) or monk absorbed

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in meditation sometimes struck by a layman and sometimes honoured by layman or receiving alms from a layman (Pl. 274).
Chapter sixteenth "The Conditions of Perfect Chastity' is represented as being preached by the chief disciple of Mahāvīra, Sudharman, who stated that he heard it from Mahāvīra. The preaching includes ten conditions of perfect chastity for a monk.
The illustrations of this chapter show Mahavira in Puspottara heaven before descent to earth and Sudharman preaching the sermon (Pl. 275).
In the seventeenth chapter “The Bad Monk' the subject is breaches of the monk's disciplines. The paintings show monks in different activities like giving instruction, in the attitude of preaching, engaged in argument, etc. (Pl. 276).
The chapter eighteenth 'Sanjaya' is a story of king Sanjaya who killed a monk in place of a deer during hunting. Being aware of his fault he begged forgiveness and the monk preached him the sermons of non-cruelity, as a result the king was converted. Sanjaya preached the sermon to ksatriya.
The paintings show meditating monk, preaching monk, figures of deer and the king with bow (Pl. 277).
The nineteenth chapter 'Mrgaputra' is the subject of this chapter who was enjoying the worldly life. One day, looking a Jaina monk he recalled that in one of his previous births he was a monk and with the consent of his parents he entered the order of monk.
The paintings show Mrgaputra seated at a balcony looking at the monk, the seated king and queen, Mrgaputra under a tree pulling out his hair as a Jaina monk, Mrgaputra's sufferings in previous existences etc.
Chapter twentieth 'The Great Duty of Jaina Monks' illustrated the story of king Śreņika of Magadha and a monk. The monk told his own story as to how he suffered with fever and pain and nobody could help him. Thinking the endless round of existences and its
pain he decided to become a monk. Through the story monk told that no one was the protector of any one including king. The king Sreņika acknowledges the truth and with wives, servants and relatives are converted to the Jaina faith.
The paintings attached to this chapter show the preaching monk under a canopy and the king is in front with joined hands, sometimes kneeling before him.
Chapter twenty-one 'The Story of Samudrapāla' illustrates the story of Samudrapāla who was the son of a merchant Palita, a pious Jaina layman. Samudrapāla was born on the ocean when his parents were sailing for their home Champā. Samudrapala grew up in Champā. One day looking a dead body and realising it a bad event of evil actions he left the world to be a monk. The chapter also discusses the duties of a Jaina monk.
The paintings show the birth of Samudrapāla on the ocean, king seated on throne giving judgement and a person for punishment with tied hands standing in front. The illustrations also show a monk standing before a layman, who is pulling out his hair. It is evidently Samudrapāla who is renouncing the world and taking initiation in the traditional manner of Jainas.
Chapter twenty-two 'The Story of Rathanemi' deals with the story of Aristanemi (Neminātha), the twenty-second Jina and his elder brother Rathanemi. Aristanemi during his marriage procession, to marry Rājīmati, saw a number of animals to be slaughtered for wedding feast. He was filled with pity towards the animals and at once decided to become a Jaina monk. He went to mount Raivataka to practise austerities. Rājīmati also became a nun and set out for Raivataka. On her way due to heavy rain, she took shelter in a cave. Aristanemi's elder brother Rathanemi asked her to accept him as her lover. Rājīmati converted him to monkhood through her sermon and both of them obtained enlightenment.
The illustrations present pictures such as Aristanemi in the chariot in procession, animals to be slaughtered,
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Rājīmati plucking out her hairs under a tree (Pl. 278), Räjimati seated in marriage pavilion, Aristanemi on the chariot with Krsņa as the charioteer, Aristanemi in meditation, Rājīmati with female figures, preaching monk, plucking out hair by a monk etc.
Chapter twenty-third 'Kesi and Gautama' tells about the union between the followers of Pärśva, the twenty-third Jina and Mahāvīra's order. The story narrates the discussion of Kesi, the follower of Parsva and Gautama, the disciple of Mahāvīra, to prove the superior law either preached by Pārsva or Mahävira in presence of sorts of beings including gods. The discussion resulted in their union.
The paintings show two monks engaged in discussion either alone or in presence of several figures (Pl. 279).
The subject of the twenty regulations for fourth chapter deals with the Pravacanamātās, i.e. monks concerning walking, speaking, receiving alms, getting and receiving paraphernalia, and the manner of disposing of refuse and the award that must be kept over mind, speech and body.
Paintings show two monks seated in discussion, monk keeping watch over his mind, monk has hand raised with manuscript, monk exercising proper watch while speaking, monk brushing the floor to remove small creatures from his path etc.
The chapter twenty-five titled 'The True Sacrifice' includes the story of Jayaghoșa, a Jaina monk, who came for alms in Banaras in the sacrifice performed by Vijayaghoșa, a learned Brāhmaṇa. He was refused by Vijayaghosa on the ground that only those deserve alms who were versed in Vedas, observed chastity at the time of Vedic sacrifice and so on and so forth. Jayaghoşa told that Vijayaghosa did not know true sacrifice and told him that real Brāhmaṇahood lay in living the good life of detachment from the world of desires and in practising the Jaina law. Ultimately Vijayaghosa was converted.
The illustrations show two Brāhmaṇas with the
sacrificial fire between them, possibly Vijayaghoșa and his assistant, and Jayaghoṣa is seen as addressing Vijayaghosa, Vijayaghoşa giving alms etc.
The chapter twenty six "Correct Behaviour' outlines the proper behaviour (samācāri) of a monk in various circumstances like confessing his sins, serving with respect, when and how to beg food etc.
Paintings show monk (Mahavira) giving instruction, monks in different activities like going for alms, receiving alms etc. (Pl. 280).
The chapter twenty-seven 'The Balky Bullocks' illustrates the learned monk Garga's saying who compares a bad disciple with a balky bullock. The monk says one who yokes balky bullocks in the cart, is worn out with beating them and gets no peace of mind. The bad disciples break the law through their lack of mental discipline.
The illustrations show preaching monk, twowheeled cart with a pair of bullocks, cart with rider with a whip, men trying to control the unmanageable bullock (Pl. 281), monk trying to pursuade disciples and disciples are walking away without listening etc.
The chapter twenty-eight 'The Road to Salvation' (mokşa) deals with the way of moksa taught by the Jinas, depends on four causes (right knowledge, doctrine, conduct and austerity), and has right knowledge and doctrine as its characteristics. However, the illustrations in the manuscript show five Siddhas (perfected beings) and monks engaged in conversation etc.
Twenty-ninth chapter 'Exertion in Righteousness' enumerates 73 topics of Jaina teaching and practice, and the benefits they produce. The illustrations present monk preaching the monks, happy death of a monk, monk preaching the lay women (Pl. 282). However, some of the illustrations are misplaced in the manuscript with other chapters.
The thirtieth chapter 'The Road of Penance' states that bad karma is destroyed by austerities. Austerities are external and internal, and the text gives the six divisions of the two. In the text the karma is compared

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with a waterlake. However, the illustrations show the monk preaching and at the lower register is water lake showing lotus flowers and hamsas swimming around it.
Chapter thirty-one 'Rules of Conduct' lists rules for monks. The illustrations representing the subject show monks seated and eating food from the bowls, monks receiving alms, a monk preaching another monk, monk in meditation or practising self control etc.
The chapter thirty-two 'The Causes of Carelessness' deals with Mahavira preaching on the fault of carelessness (pramada), which leads monks to pious observances. The paintings show monks preaching, sleeping, attacking to each-other etc. Possibly, these are meant to illustrate the carelessness (pramāda). The paintings also show a lake, animals and birds.
Uttaradhyayanasütra
The thirty-third chapter "The Nature of Karma' explains the eight divisions of karma :
Jñanavaraṇīya- acts leading to obstruction of right knowledge,
right faith,
Vedaniya- acts leading to experience of pain or
pleasure,
The illustrations show Mahāvīra preaching to a monk, kinds of beings namely hell denizens, animals Darsanavaraṇīya- acts leading to obstruction of and gods, human being and animal kingdom.
REFERENCES
Mohaniya- acts leading to delusion, Ayuşka acts determining the length of life, Nama- determining name or individuality, Gotra- acts determining the family of gotra, Antaraya- acts preventing entry upon path of salvation with their sub-divisions. The illustrations show Jina preaching the monks or delivering the sermon that constitutes the discussion of karma.
W.N. Brown, Manuscript Illustrations of the Uttaradhyayana Sutra Reproduced and Described, New Haven, 1941; Moti Chandra, Jain Miniature Paintings from Western India, Ahmedabad, 1949; A. Krishna, 'A Stylistic Study of an Uttaradhyayana Sutra Ms. Dated 1591 A.D. in the Museum and Picture Gallery, Baroda, Bulletin of the Museum and Picture Gallery, Baroda, 1962, No. 15, Pl. 1-12; U.P. Shah, More Documents of Jain Paintings and Gujarati Paintings of the Sixteenth and Later Centuries, Ahmedabad, 1976, L.D. Series, No. 51.
The chapter thirty-four "The Lesyas' deals with
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six lesyas. These are external appearances cast upon the soul by the individual karma. The soul is not itself affected, but the lesyas are like a shadow or a reflection. They have names, colours, tastes, smells etc. and could be distinguished by colour, and are named black, blue, grey, red, yellow and white. The first three of these are bad and the remaining three are good. The chapter characterises the various qualities of lesyas. The paintings show these lesyas through figures in different colours.
The chapter thirty-five 'The Houseless Monk' contains remarks on the necessity for complete freedom from desire to obtain absolute knowledge. In the painting Mahāvīra is shown preaching the monks, or monks engaged in conversation.
In the chapter thirty-six 'Living Creatures and Things Without Life' Mahavira deals with living beings and those without life, classifying them for the edification of the Jaina community.

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CHAPTER XIX YAŚODHARA-CARITA
In Jaina religious tradition there are innumerable legends and tales known as dharma-kathās. These legends and tales, compiled by monks and poets to elucidate sacred beliefs and religious injunctions, belong to the non-canonical strata of Jaina teachings. These dharma- kathās, composed in plain prose, simple verse or a combination of both served to instruct and edify the common man and reinforce Jaina moral values.
Among such dharma-kathäs, the story of king Yasodhara has gained great popularity with both the Jaina sects. It has great emphasis on ahimsă in terms of action and thought both. A number of Jaina writers from Svetambara and Digambara sects, like Haribhadra Süri (8th cent. A.D.), Vādirāja (10th cent. A.D.), Puşpadanta (10h cent. A.D.), Raidhu (15th cent. A.D.) etc. paid attention on the theme of Yasodhara-carita. The story has been re-created in several languages such as Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsa, Hindi, Gujarati and others. The earliest one is that of Haribhadra Sūri, appearing under the title Samarāicca-kahā. In the Yaśastilaka Somadeva Sūri also refers to this story. In Sanskrit the story is known under the title Yaśodhara- carita while in Apabhramsa it is known as Jasahara- cariyu. However, the various textual reproductions differ from one another in detail as well as in length.
The narration of Yasodhara-carita contains story within a story, commonly prevalent device in Indian literature. The present dharma-kathă contains religious instructions throughout the plot. The story traces the experiences of the central figure as he whirls indefinitely through the cycle of rebirth, moving from one existence to the next. The poet Puspadanta describes king Yasodhara first rebirth as peacock, then as a snake and next as a fish. The fish is caught and brought to the palace of king Yasomatī, who happens to be Yasodhara's son from a previous birth. Yašomati orders the fish to
be taken to the royal kitchen and served in a feast to the Brāhmaṇas at the śrāddha ceremony of his father, Yasodhara. Later, Yaśodhara is reborn as Abhayaruci, son of Yaśomati, and eventually becomes his own grandson.
The story of Yaśodhara is common to both traditions, Svetāmbara and Digambara; however, the illustrated manuscripts of the legend occur only among the Digambara Jainas. The most favoured theme, chosen by the Digambara Jainas, for illustration was the particular sermon on ahiṁsā (non-violence) which predominated all other themes. Most of these illustrated texts of Yaśodhara-carita were produced in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
The story runs like this. In the land of Bhāratavarşa there lived a king named Haridatta who ruled over the region of Yaudeha, The capital of his kingdom was the city of Rajapura. One day a kāpālika priest Bhairavanand arrived in this city and wandered about seeking alms and gathering followers. The priest claimed to possess superhuman powers such as seeing events in the past, present and future, checking the movements of the stars as well as knowing the secret of perpetual youth.
The news of Bhairavanand prowess reached the king Haridatta. He sent the message to the priest requesting him to grace the palace with his presence. Bhairvanand accepted the invitation and was received by the king with due respect (Pl. 283). The king requested the priest to confer upon him the power to move in the sky. The priest asked the king to propitiate goddess Candamārī with sacrificial offerings of a male and female of every living species. The king ordered to make necessary arrangements for the performance of such a sacrifice. On the day of ritual among the living beings, assembled in goddess Candamäri's temple, the kāpālika found absent of a human pair. The king
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forthwith asked his men to search a human pair.
At the same time, the Jaina monk Sudatta arrived in the city of Rajapura with his samgha . In the samgha there were two kşullakas- Abhayaruci and his twin sister Abhayamatí who went for alms in the city. Abhayaruci and Abhayamats were captured by the soldiers of king Haridatta and were brought to the goddess Candamārī's temple as the human pair for sacrifice. In the temple the kşullakas blessed the king and impressed the king with their speech. The king asked them the reason for accepting ascetic vows. Abhayaruci recounted the story of king Yasodhara who ruled the land of Avanti with its capital Ujjaini. He married to princess Candramati and has a son named Yasodhara. Kşullaka Abhayamati told that he was the prince Yasodhara in one of his previous births. The king, appointing prince Yaśodhara as his successor, decided to renounce the world spending rest of his life in search of spiritual peace.
Prince Yasodhara preferred to pass his time with his queens in place of taking interest in state affairs. Yasodhara's favourite queen Amstamati fell in love with a singer and began to visit him at night. One night king Yasodhara saw her with her lover and in despair wished to die telling her mother the reason of a bad dream. His mother suggested him for a sacrifice of a cock in the temple of gooddess Candamāri to counteract the effects of the evil dream. Yaíodhara refused to associate him with violence giving the sacrifice of a cock but agreed to his mother's proposal that in place of a live bird a cock made of flour may serve the purpose. Accordingly, king Yaśodhara and queen Candramati went to the temple and offered the sacrifice of a cock made of flour.
King Yasodhara could not rid himself of a sense of revulsion and decided to renounce the world for spiritual peace giving the responsibility of state to his son, Yasomati. Queen Amrtamati urged her husband and his mother for a feast in her pavilion and wished to accompany her husband to the forest. In the feast
Amritmati served the poisoned food to her husband and his mother. As a result both of them died and underwent several rebirths.
In his first rebirth Yasodhara was born as a peacock. One day, while he was out for food with his mother a hunter killed his mother and took him home. Yasodhara grew into a beautiful bird and was presented by the hunter to the king. The king was Yasodhara's son Yasomati. Meanwhile, Yasodhara's mother, Candramati was born as a dog in Yasomati's palace. One day the dog spied the queen Candramati with her lover and recalling his past birth attacked them in anger.
In the next rebirth, Yasodhara appeared as a snake and Candramatī as a porcupine. Both met death in the forest. In their third rebirth, Ysodhara was born as a large fish and his mother as a crocodile (Pl. 284). Once the crocodile caught the leg of a maid from the palace who came to bathe in the river Siprā. As a result Yasomati ordered to kill the crocodile, and the fish was caught and cooked in the royal kitchen and served to the king.
In the fourth rebirth, Candramati was born as a wild goat and Yasodhara as her male offspring (Pl. 285). Yasodhara was killed by a hunter and his soul took the forms of embryo in the womb of Candramati. Candramatī was brought to the palace of Yaśomati to be slaughtered in the śrāddha ceremony. Candramati's soul reincarnated as a buffalo. Once the buffalo wallowed in the water of a pond where came down a horse to quench his thirst. The buffalo killed the horse in fight and on the complaint of the horse owner the king ordered to roast the buffalo alive.
In the next rebirth Yasodhara and Candramati were born as a cock and hen and were presented by a Bhila woman to king Yasomatī. One day, when the birds' incharge was attending the birds in the royal garden a Jaina monk came to give a discourse. The teachings of the monk caused the birds to recall their past lives and they began to cry. The king Yašomati was celebrating the spring festival in the garden with
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his beloved Kusumavalli. The king was disturbed with the cries of birds and shot them with his arrow. The souls of these birds passed into the womb of queen Kusumavalli to be born as twins - Abhayaruci and Abhayamati.
One day the king Yaśomati, on his way to forest for hunting expedition, passed through a Jaina monk Sudatta (Pl. 286). Failing to find any game that day the king was returning to his palace when he again encountered the monk Sudatta. Concluding that the monk is an ill-omener, the king set his dogs on the monk, but the dogs stood still close to the monk. The king tried to kill the monk himself. But he was informed that the monk is none else than king of Kalinga who renounced his kingdom. King Yasomati bowed in reverance to monk and in repentance considered to cut off his own head. The monk advised him not to do so. Influenced by the monk, the king desired to know the whereabout of his parents and grandmother. He was informed by the monk that his father and grand mother were born as his own children, Abhayaruci and Abhayamatī, while his mother was suffering in the hell. Upon hearing this the king Yasomati decided to renounce the world.
The illustrated manuscripts of Yaśodhara-carita, on paper, are known from different collections. The important ones are Śrī Digambara Jain Atiśaya Kśetra (Sri Mahāvīraji), Jaipur, Sena Gana Mandira, Karanja, Śri Ailak Pannalal Digambara Jaina Sarasvati Bhavan, Beawar as well as private collections from different places. The manuscripts show the different episodes from the narrative such as the capital of kingdom, the city of Rajapura with a number of buildings, the seated figure of king Haridatta with male and female attendants. Another painting represents the figure of the kāpalika Bhairavanand sitting in front of a king, while a Jaina monk is standing behind him. The lower register of the painting shows a horse and warriors. The scene pertaining to the episode of queen Amritmati and her lover represents king Yasodhara pulling and beating his queen
Amritmati. One of the illustrations represents the sacrifice of a cock in front of the Candamāri's temple. However, the attendants of the king are also present in the scene. Another example represents the death of Yaśodhara due to poisonous food served by Amritmati. Amritmati is lying at Yaśodhara's body as if she is in grief.
The painting illustrating the Jaina monk Sudatta and his disciples' arrival in the city of Rajapura represents the apprehention of the two kşullakas Abhayaruci and his sister Abhayamati from the samgha of Sudatta. Both of these kşullakas were brought to the Candamārī's temple as the human pair for the sacrifice. They are shown standing in front of the goddess with the soldiers. The painting also shows the presence of the king to whom the kşullakas are blessing.
There are paintings from the manuscript which represent some of the rebirths of the king Yaśodhara and his wife Candramati. In one scene Yasodhara as a peacock mother, with her child peacock, is shown on the hill in search of food while a hunter is aiming to shoot them. Other part of the scene represents the hunter carrying the dead body of the peacock mother while the child peacock is alive. Another scene pertains to hunter's wife who is looking after the young peacock. In one illustration the king Yaśodhara as peacock is attacking Amritmati's lover while he himself was attacked by Candramatī, the dog. In another rebirth king Yasodhara as a snake and Candramati as porcupine were born. Porcupine is killing the snake while a big figured animal is killing the porcupine in the painting.
in their other rebirths they were born as a fish and a crocodile. In the painting the crocodile (Candramati) chased the fish to kill but caught the leg of maid in place of the fish. The other illustrations from the manuscript show the hunter killing the goats, fight between horse and buffalo, the order of king to roast the buffalo alive, cock and hen in a cage, birds in the cage, king in the way for hunting, his meeting with a Jaina monk, the king setting his dogs on the monk thinking him an ill-omen, dogs are standing close to
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monk calm and quite, etc.
A few scenes are painted with a simple background of mountains, clouds and trees. Mostly, they lack landscape. The figures are shown with a red-coloured background. The prominent colours used in them are red, indigo blue, golden or yellow, white etc. The illustrated manuscripts are painted in Western Indian style as well as in other styles such as Rajasthani, particularly Bundi and belong from 15th century A.D.
to 18th century A.D. The manuscripts from Rajasthan are known from Amer, Jobner (near Ajmer), Bundi and Sirohi. REFERENCES
Saryu Doshi, Masterpieces of Jain Painting, Bombay, 1985, Marg Publications; U.P Shah, More Documents of Jain Paintings and Gujarati Paintings of the Sixteenth and Later Centuries, Ahmedabad, 1976, L.D. Series, No. 51
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WALL PAINTING
The wall paintings of India play a significant role for the early history of Western Indian painting. The earliest examples of Jaina wall paintings are found at Sittannavasal and Ellora. ELLORA
The Rāştraküţa rulers embellished the Jaina cave Indra Sabhā (Cave 30) at Ellora with charming paintings. The surface of the ceiling and the walls of Indra Sabha and Jagannātha Sabha (Cave 33, c. 10h century A.D.) at Ellora are covered with murals giving a wealth of details. The subject of these murals is Jaina, which also shows the patterns including floral, animal and bird designs of 9th and 10th century A.D. It is surprising that the Hindus, who gave rise to vigorous sculpture and glorious architecture as is seen at Ellora did not pick up the ancient Indian painting tradition.
In the Indra Sabha we can see the maximum number of paintings. There are hundreds of male and female painted figures in the rectangular panels of Indra-Sabhā. In the Indra Sabha we can see the maximum number of paintings on the ceiling. The females are adorned with beautiful ornaments like earrings, crowns, bangles, anklets, coli, short dhotis etc. while the male figures are shown with high crowns, garlands, armlets and short dhotis.
The pavilion of the upper storey of the Indra Sabhā shows a pictorial fluidity, teeming with life and form, swaying with the variegately coloured rhythm. A slow movement of voluminous bodies of clouds shadows the weightless figures that bubble the life in each of painted frames. Like the painted panels of Kailāšanātha and Ganesa Lena, the Indra Sabhā murals are replete with clouds. Figures are shown emerging from clouds. They soar in front of clouds and fly, float and spread across the clouds. Figures of beautiful damsels are shown free and assertive along with their
partners. The painting of Bahubali in the Cave is interesting for comparison with sculptural versions.
Among the paintings the painting which arrests the attention is the Dikpāla group showing Yama with his consort as a retinue and others on the same pattern peeping out of a band from the ceiling. The flying Vidyadharas with consorts amidst clouds, hovering along in the sky, in close embrace and affectionate fondling on the neck, as other godlings move in the air with offerings of flowers in their hands in pușpapata, the hands gather together to hold flowers, dwarf ganas with their hands raised and brought together in añjali-mudra (adoration), while others blow the conch and yet others clasp their hands in tune with the celestial music that fills the air, are the delightful creations of the painter. K. R. Srinivasana has referred to a circular panel of painting depicting Samavasaraṇa scene in the ceiling of the central mandapa of Jagannatha Sabha at Ellora of which only a fragment now remains.
Angular draughtsmanship of these painted panels present effective and convincing outline of the human body. The workmanship of Jaina painters of Ellora also gave some thought to the idea of modelling by making use of deep ochre colour wash and by keeping the trace of contour line. The painted flying figures of Indra Sabhā has plastic affinity with painted figures of Ajanta and with the sculptural representations of similar figures at Ellora itself. In the words of Yazdani, "The figures of apsarases with dark brown or swarthy complexions floating in the midst of the scarlet clouds of the evening appear with considerable perspective effect, and the grace of their limbs and the charm of their jewellery and dress, however scanty, are also admirably represented. The Jaina artists were good copyists, and as the spirit of their religion has much in common with that of the Buddhist faith, the figures of the Apsarās
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in the ceilings of the Indra Sabhā suggest almost the The colours used for the paintings are red, yellow, same beauty of pose, grace of movement, and love of blue, green, black and white. The colour scheme is decorative details as one notices in the figures of the harmonious and simple. The colours being well-soaked Apsarās painted in the monasteries of Ajanta. The art into the surface are given a final polish. The backgrounds of Ellora is, however, purely imitative and does not are mostly red or green and the paintings are linear. show any creative power."
The chief decorative motif in the whole cave is However, the Ellora paintings lost the richness, the lotus with its stalk, leaf and flower. The pillars are the variety and the fertility of Ajanta school. The grace adorned with the figures of dancing girls in the clouds. and charm, the finish and the polish of Ajanta are It also has the traces of human figures. The ceiling of missing at Ellora. That fertility of imagination, that the inner cell reveals a geometrical design, most of deftness of execution, that sureness of the brush, which which has been unfortunately obliterated. The lotus distinguishes Ajanta paintings, are absent at Ellora ponds in blossom with fishes, geese and other birds, SITTANNAVASALA
animals such as buffaloes, bulls and elephants and The fresco paintings of the earliest Digambara persons gathering lotus flowers, are the subjects treated. Jaina cave temple at Sittannavasal also represent The sporting elephants are deep russet or yellowish examples of wall paintings, though much decayed. brown and the bulls appear buff coloured. These lotus Among such examples Samavasarana scene is of great ponds with fishes, makara, geese, elephants, bulls and elegance revealing the craftsmanship of the painter. human figures have been identified as khatikābhūmi These paintings, belonging to 9th-10th century A.D., (region of Samavasarana) in which the bhavyas (faithful) contain in the ceiling a big lotus pond as the delightful gather lotus flowers. The same subject is depicted in abode of animals such as elephants and bulls, birds and the Kailasanātha temple at Ellora. It seems that the fishes frolicking about and men gathering lotus flowers, motif was common to both Hindu and Jaina paintings. which has been identified by Ramchandran as Its Jaina representation correctly refers it to a special Khatikābhūmi or the tank region, with the bhavyas region of the Samavasarana. Such decorations are known (faithful) gathering lotus flowers.
from Jaina literature. The water ponds are treated in The Sittannavasal fresco paintings on the ceiling a conventional manner. The rest is done in a most of Jaina cave temple, dating from 7th century A.D., natural, elegant and simple manner. The fishes and are assigned to the Pallava king Mahendravarman I. It geese play about in the tank here and there. seems that the cave was intended, even when it was SRI KUNDAVİ JINĀLAYA actually carved, to be painted over inside. The painting In wall paintings, the Digambara Jaina temple, must have originally covered the whole of the interior known as Sri Kundavi Jinālaya at Tirumalai (North as there are traces of colours today on the ceiling, the Arcot District) also shows paintings on the walls and pillars and their capitals. The Sittannavasal frescoes are the ceilings. It contains a representation of Samavasarana Jaina and are related to the Ajanta and Bagh frescoes of Neminātha. The structure is in a usual form of a in technique but they have no relationship to the miniature wheel. However, the painting is of less artistic merit. paintings of Jaina manuscripts. Most of the paintings On the stylistic grounds it belongs to the 11th-12th are darkened by smoke from fires lit in the cave by century A.D. The present condition of the painting is resting people and some other reasons. The entire cave poor. It represents two layers of the painting which are must have been covered with paintings from which only visible in the clouds representing the devas in the clouds a few have survived.
marching in a line towards the Samavasarana, the
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Gandharavas and heavenly nymphs, a deva standing amidst flowers, and a row of nuns clad in white cloth. It is the scene of Laksmīśvara mandapa with its 12 kostas, geometrical patterns, inter-twinning creepers, lotuses, rows of geese, lotus ponds and kirttimukhas. Scenes from the life of Agnitā and Varadatta are also depicted. The paintings are on black coloured ground, while different ochres, terraverte and gray earths fill the outline of the figures. The chief interest of these wall paintings, from the point of view of history of Jaina miniature, lies in the angular treatment of the nose and chin and the protrusion of the farther eye into space.
The Colas were tolerant kings and served all the faiths alike. The famous imperial architect of Rājarājeśvara temple was a great patron of Jainism as well as Buddhism. His sister Kundavi was responsible for building and endowing some Jaina temples. The Jaina paintings of Tirumalai and Tiruparuttikunram are interesting. The group of kalpaväsidevas in Laksmīśvara- mandapa (Tirumalai) painted on the brick walls of the outer most chamber on the ground floor composing the earliest painted layer are pleasing figures with large open eyes. TIRUPARUTTIKUNRAM
The Vijayanagar rulers fostered Jainism as well as other faiths. The art of painting was encouraged during this time and there are innumerable temples all over south India with paintings representing this period. The Jaina paintings have a great place under Vijayanagar rulers, particularly at Tirupparuttikunnam, in close proximity of Kāñcīpuram, noteworthy for its Jaina temples.
The Jainas settled in Kāñcipuram from ancient times and the locality Tiruparuttikunram, situated on the right bank of river Vegavati where the Jainas lived, is popularly known as Jina-Kāñci at present. Besides Tiruparuttikunsam the Jaina vestiges are found at Arapakkam, Nagaral, Aryaperunibākkam etc. The Jaina temples at Tiruparuttikunram is of great interest, both architecturally and on account of its paintings illustrating
the lives of some of the Tirthankaras. The Jainism received support from different dynasties in Kancipuram.
There are two oldest Jaina temples at Kancipuram - one is a small shrine dedicated to Candraprabha, the eighth Jina, and another, which is a later and larger one, dedicated to Vardhamana or Mahāvīra locally known as Trailokyanātha. The Vardhamāna temple is embellished with paintings. According to local tradition they owe their existence to a Pallava king who built them at the instance of two Jaina teachers, who lived in the village. A whole series of paintings decorate the ceilings of the large gopuras and walls of the temple here. Some of these paintings belong to an earlier phase preceding the later ones by a couple of centuries. The mandapa built by Irugappa, minister of Bukkārāya II and a devoted follower of Jaina faith, has paintings belonging to the end of the 14th century. The scenes are chosen from the life of Vardhamāna.
According to custom prevailing among the Jainas the ceilings of the mukhamandapa and the sangitamandapa of the Vardhamāna temple bear a series of coloured paintings which illustrate the life stories of three Jinas. However, most of the paintings at Tiruparuttikunram are faded and disappeared.
The paintings are arranged in conventional convenient groups, two running from north to south and two from east to west on the ceiling of the sangītamandapa, and one group running from north to south on the ceiling of the mukhamandapa. They are arranged in rows of panels, one after another, with a narrow band between two rows for labels to explain the incidents. These rows, which contain the life stories of Rsabhanātha and Neminātha along with his cousin Krsna, have the explanatory labels filled in below. The remaining rows illustrate the life of Mahāvīra. The scenes containing the life stories of Rşabhanātha and Mahavira run from north to south while that of Neminātha's and Krsna's from east to west.
The stories from the life of Rşabhanātha or Trailokyanātha are related with his previous births. The
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Adipurāna refers that Rşabhanātha passed through a succession of ten previous births- 1. Jayavarman, 2. Mahābala, 3. Lalitänga, 4. Vajrajanghā 5. a king whose name is not given, 6. Sridhara, 7. Suvidhi, 8. Acyutendra, 9. Vajranäbhi, 10. an Ahamindra - deva or god. At his eleventh birth he was born as Rşabhanātha and entered in the womb of Marudevī, the wife of Mahārāja Nābhi, the fourteenth Manu in the form of a bull.
The first painting at Tiruparuttikunram illustrates the first birth of Rşabhanātha, i.e. that of Jayavarmana. Jayavarmana and Srīvarmana, the two brothers, who were sons of king Śrisena of Indrapurī. Jayavarmana was the eldest one but his younger brother Srivarmana was favoured as the heir apparent by his father. With this Jayavarmana was filled with the spirit of renunciation and entered into the order of saints at the feet of guru called Svayamprabha. Jayavarmana became a saint and stood near an ant hill in contemplation when he was bit by a snake and died of snake poison.
The painting shows king Śriseņa sitting with his wife Sundari in the court making Srivarmana the heir apparent. Jayavarmana is shown sitting naked on the left before Svayamprabha the guru, with his hands placed together in anjali. He has placed his crown and ornaments by his side. Svayamprabha seated on an elevated altar under a tree has his right hand in upadeśa or teaching position and is addressing to supplicating Jayavarmana, who is seated also under a tree on an altar, lower in level than that of his guru Svayamprabha. Jayavarmana, standing under a tree, is shown naked near an ant hill, from which a snake rises with outspread hood.
Second painting illustrates the next birth of Rşabhanātha. Jayavarmana died of snake bite and was born as the son of a Vidyadhara king Atibala, the king of Alkāpuri. In course of time he became the Vidyādhara king Mahābala. The king Mahabala had four ministers of four different creeds. Among them Svayambuddha was the follower of Jainism who tried to convert the
king's interest towards Jainism.
Svayambuddha had the opportunities to meet two sages who told about the previous existence of the king and also that after ten births the king was to be born as the first Tirthankara, Rşabhadeva. They also narrated the two dreams that the king had during the night and their significance. In the first dream the king was thrown in deep mud by his three other ministers and saved by Svayambuddha. In the second dream the king saw a burning flame (agnijvála). The next day Svayambuddha narrated the dreams to the king. The agnijvālā means that the king would be alive only for a short period while the first dream proved the superiority of Jaina faith. On hearing this the king entrusted the responsibilities of the kingdom to his son and adopted Jainism, worshipped the Jina and prepared himself for sallekhana (a process death by slow starvation whereby liberation of the body is sought for the sake of meritdharma. In his next birth the king was a god Lalitanga).
In the painting Mahabala is shown sitting with his wife by his side and listening to his minister Svayambuddha seated before him on the right. A lady attendant on the extreme left is gently fanning the party from behind. Svayambuddha's right hand is raised in an attitude of addressing or teaching,
There is a temple with the Jina seated in the centre of the caityālaya in Siddhaküta and the two men in a worshipping attitude standing on the right of it are king and his minister.
The next scene illustrates two lives, the life of Lalitănga and Vajrajanghā. In one scene Lalitanga and his wife are shown seated and in utter ease. Lalitanga has 4000 companionate wives, but his favourite was Svayamprabhā who is present in the painting. The next scene pertains to the life of Vajrajanghä. Lalitanga was born as Vajrajanghā, who became the king of the city of Utpalakhetapura, in the country of Puşkalāvati. Svayamprabhā became his wife under the name Srimati, In the scene both king and queen are sitting on a common seat.
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The story behind the scene is as follows. Vajranga, with his wife Srimati, on the way to his mother-in- law's house met two carana sages who narrated his previous birth stories on his request. He also requested the sages to narrate the previous birth stories of his wife, minister, purohita (preceptor) and others. While the previous births were being narrated the four beasts, a tiger, a boar, a monkey and a mongoose, were also listening the same. The king being desirous to know about them requested the sages to narrate about the animals. The sages narrating the previous existences of these animals concluded that these animals remembered their past births and were therefore listening to the exposition of dharma by them.
In the painting the king and queen are sitting with folded hands in worship, listening with devout attention to two sages on the right, two are narrating the previous life stories of king, queen and the animals standing and listening to them. The animals referred to are also seen in the scene.
Next painting shows Vajrajangha and his wife, who were now born as twins in bhoga-bhūmi and became husband and wife again, and the four animals also born in the bhoga-bhūmi as Aryas, listening the carana sages. Further, the next two births are illustrated The painting though much obliterated represents Sridhara as a deva, and his wife who was born as Suvidhi, a king of the city of Susimă in the territory of Vatsa. The king is shown in the painting twice, first as departing evidently to a forest followed by an attendant and secondly as sitting under a tree with hands placed together in worship in front of a naked sage, also sitting under a tree, who has got his right hand in a teaching attitude.
The next scene illustrates the next two lives, the life of Acyutendra, a deva, and the life of a monarch called Vajranābhi. The persons represented in the painting are Acyutendra and his wife. Acyutendra died and was born as a monarch under the name of Vajranābhi. After some time the king with his eight brothers and merchant
friend got disgusted with worldly life and commenced observing penance (dikṣā) and the austerities prescribed. Vajranäbhi was enabled by his penance to leave embodied existence and enjoy the condition of a class of devas, called Ahmindradeva. The next painting shows Vajranābhi sitting between two of his queens, one on either side. Two attendants waiting outside to minister to his wants. As the life of Vajranäbhi was considered important, it is done elaborately in the paintings and five more rows are devoted to it. The next two rows show the king's eight brothers and his merchant friend who helped him to rule the land.
The next scene shows a procession of men on palanquin and elephants. In one palanquin king's merchant friend is carried on an elephant driven by a mahāvata. Vajranābhi's brothers, Vaijayanta and Jayanta, are seen within the howdāh. The procession continues in the next scene which shows two persons, Subāhu and Mahābāhu, seated in a chariot. The flag and parasol are clear in front of the chariot. In the procession the brothers of Vajranābhi are represented on the elephants and horse back. The attendants are holding umbrella, festoon and flag.
The king is sitting on a chariot drawn by horses, his brothers and merchant friend precede him on horseback while some attendants go in front of him and some others follow him. Next scene is the continuation of the procession showing Vajranābhi, his brothers and merchant friend proceeding for dīksā., There are persons in the procession, one is blowing the trumpet, another holding the flag and other beating the drum etc. No doubt, the scene represents the paraphernalia of royalty.
The next scene represents Vajranābhi hearing the address of Vajrasena who is seated cross-legged on a pedestal under a tree. The naked figure of Vajrasena is in clear contrast to the dressed figure of Vajranābhi, who is still in kingly attire. Another scene is much obliterated and shows only few figures. Further, the three kalpavíkşas, namely as bhojanāngam (food giving), bhājanāngam (vessel giving) and vastrangam (cloth
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giving), are appropriately shown here as the story leads on to account the 14 Manus or sages who arose from time to time and kept on enlightening the people. The last of these Manus was Nabhi Mahārāja till whose time the kalpavrkṣas catered to the needs of mankind. It was given to Nabhi to become the father of the first Tirthankara. The seven Manus are sitting in a row on a long platform holding flowers in their hands.
The other paintings show king Nabhi sitting with his wife Marudevi-Marudevi on the swing moved by attendants, king and queen conversing with each-other, Marudevi's dream, birth of Tirthankara and the events closely preceding and following his birth, Marudevī with female figures during her pregnancy, Indra with his wife Śaci and retinue, coming to Ayodhya to pay homage to the child and carry him to the peak of mount Maha-Meru, Śacī delivering the child to Indra, white elephant carrying Devendra with the child in his lap and Isänendra holding the umbrella. The other devas are marching in the procession riding on elephant, horse or walking, and the last one is beating the drum. The bath of Tirthankara by the devas on mount Maha-Meru, Devendra returning to Ayodhya after janmābhiṣeka, Rṣabha placed on the back of elephant Airavata followed by devas, the procession returning to the city, Rṣabha seated and worshipped by the devas while Saudhamendra, with folded hands, is dancing with joy, the marriage ceremony of Nabhi, disappearance of kalpavṛkṣa, people requesting Rṣabha to find out for their livelihood, dance of Niläñjana, lokāntika-devas addressing to Rṣabha, Rṣabha carried by devas in a vimana, Ṛṣabha in kayotsarga under a tree in Siddhartha-vana, Nami and Vinami requesting Rṣabhadeva for kingdom, Dharanendra scolding them to disturb Ṛsabha in penance, coronation of Nami by Dharanendra, kings welcoming Rṣabha presenting him elephant, horse, cloths etc. while Rṣabha is returning to forest for penance, narration of dream by Sreyamsakumara, the younger brother of Somaprabha, the king of Hastinapura, Sreyämšakumāra

receiving Rṣabha, giving him food, Rṣabha's departure for forest, Samavasarana where the ganadharas, sages and saints, kalpavāsī devas, āryikās, śrāvikās, bhavanavāsi devas are sitting to listen to the Tirthankara and dance of Indra with damsels.
The scenes from the life of Vardhamana is not in so details. However, the scenes pertaining to the life of Vardhamana show birth of Vardhamana, king Siddhartha and Priyankariņi are sitting, Priyankarini is reclining on a swing moved by female attendants, Siddhartha and Priyankariņi conversing with each-other, Priyankariņi is narrating her dreams to king Siddhartha, king seeking an explanation for the dreams from a preceptor, after birth Saudhamendra and other devas are carrying Vardhamana for janmābhiṣeka (anointing ceremony) on mount Maha-Meru, return of Vardhamana with procession in the city, Vardhamana in a palanquin, Vardhamana's initiation, penance and carya, Vardhamana obtaining kevalajñana, procession to Samavasarana etc.
Scenes from the lives of Kṛṣṇa and Neminatha show Kṛṣṇa-janma, Baladeva carrying Kṛṣṇa, Pütanavadha, lifting of Govardhana, Kaliya-damana, wrestling of Balarama and Kṛṣṇa, death of Kamsa etc. From the life of Neminatha the wedding and some other scenes are depicted.
There are some other paintings in the sangitamandapa which show Ambika Yakṣi with her sons etc.
Among the late examples of wall paintings mention may be made of those in the Jaina matha at Śravanabelagola illustrating the scenes from the lives of certain Tirthankaras and Jaina kings. REFERENCES
409
Klaus Fischer, Caves and Temples of the Jainas, Aliganj, 1956; D.R. Bhandarkar, Jaina Iconography Samavasarana', Indian Antiquary, Vol. XL, May 1911, pp 125-30; T.N. Ramchandran "Tiruparuttikuṇram and Its Temples', Bulletin of Madras Government Museum, New Series, Vol. I, Pt. 3, Madras, 1934.
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CHAPTER XXI
PĀȚALI
(Wooden Book-covers) In medieval times wooden panels were used to period A.D. 1050 - A.D. 1350 exhibit a remarkable generally by the merchants to note down their daily freedom in their style as well as content. The subjects transactions, which they transferred to the account books and the factors applied in manuscript illustrations did at their convenience. The writers used the wooden not apply to the Pătalis. They were confined to portrayals panels to write the rough versions of their books before with an iconic bias. The earlier examples belonging to transferring them to the palm-leaf or paper manuscripts. 11th century A.D. show the beautiful floral creepers In the middle ages the wooden panels known as Patalis around birds, animals like elephant, lion, fishes, tortoise were used as book-covers for Jaina palm-leaf etc. and human beings. Another group of Patalis manuscripts. In such cases the Patalis (wooden panels) documents the events of historical importance. Such were often illustrated with various scenes. The linear events include the episodes as the consecration of the conception of Western Indian School is quite apparent temple of Mahāvīra at Marot in Marwar and dispute in these paintings with pointed nose and chin. Generally, between Svetāmbara and Digambara sects protogonists. the colours used in Pātalis are red, pink, indigo-blue, The Pătali (12th century A.D.) showing the scene of yellow, black on the red or brick-red background. The religious discussion between Svetāmbara monk Vādi Patalis also served as exercise books for children. Often, Devasüri, a great logician, and the Digambara monk the alphabets were painted on these Patalis for the Kumudacandra is one of the important examples of children to copy. The oldest Patali was discovered by Patali (Pls. 243-44). Possibly, the Pătali was painted late Sri Punyavijayaji from the famous Jñana-bhandāra at Patana which was a centre of Jaina learning. A of Jaisalmer. The Pătali is painted on both the sides- detailed description of this discussion is given in the obverse and reverse. On the obverse it shows the temple Prabhāvakacarita, Prabandhacintamani etc. which deals of Neminātha, and the preaching hall of Devasūri. The with the life and works of Vādi Devasūri. Another painting is done in unwashable colours. In the centre example documents the famous Jaina legend partaining of the cover is represented the inner side of a Jaina to battle between Bharata and Bahubali (Pl. 245). The temple with a Jina image in the central square and an example of Pātali is also known from Jaisalmer bhandara. attendant on each side. In the compartment on the right The painted Patali in Jaina Jñāna-bhandara, Jaisalmer, are two worshippers standing with folded hands, two showing a Jaina temple with the Jaina image, also drum-players, two female dancers and at the top a represents worshippers, drummers and dancers, flying Kinnari flying in the sky. Besides, the worshippers with Kinnara and Kinnari, Acārya, Jaina monk, persons folded hands, flying Kinnara, vyākhyānasabhā (discourse hearing discourse of Acārya with sthāpanācārya hall) of Jinadattasūri with the figures of monk, laymen (Pl. 243). The border of the manuscript has leaf design. hearing the discourse of Acārya are also treated. The There are other Patalis which represent Jina seated in borders of the panel are decorated with the leaf design. padmāsana in the centre with seated and folded hands The earliest Pāțalis known so far from Gujarat and devotees and Acāryas discoursing with each-other (12th Rajasthan are the Pătalis of Niśītha-Bhāşya (11th century century A.D.) etc. With brick-red colour background A.D.) with decorated roundels. The Pāšalis belonging there are Patalis which represent the seated figure of
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Mahāvīra in the centre with Ācāryas on right and left. A set of Patalis show in a row the 24 mothers of Jinas of this age; another shows 63 salākāpuruşas while a third one shows 16 Mahāvidyās of Jaina Tantric worship.
The Pāšalis executed in Western Indian style have linear energy, angular outlines and exaggerated body proportions and facial features, farther eyes protruding beyond the outline of the face similar to palm-leaf miniatures.
At the end of 13th century a new development occures in the Jaina miniature painting, when the narrative content of the texts begins to receive attention in the Jaina society. The legends, existed during the period, got pictorial narration on Pătalis which include scenes from the life of the Jinas (Pl. 287 a and b), incidents from the lives of the great Jaina monks etc. One such example of Patali dated V.S. 1456 (A.D. 1399) represents king conversing with queen Trisalā, astrologer interpreting the dream of the queen, birth of Mahāvīra, Harinaigameşin carrying Mahāvīra to Mt. Meru for birth ceremony, Indra performing the lustration
ceremony, Siddhārtha and Trisalā conversing, marriage of Mahāvīra, Mahāvīra being carried on the palanquin for the initiation ceremony, Mahāvīra plucking his hair, Mahāvīra practising penance in the kāyotsarga-mudrā etc. Some of the Pātalis depict scenes from the previous as well as last existences of Jinas - Mahāvīra, Sāntinātha and Pärsvanätha.
Several of the Pătalis have survived and are now stored carefully in the Jaina Bhandāras (Jaina Jñana Bhandāra, Jaisalmer, Atmārāmaji Jñana Mandira, Baroda etc.) of Gujarat and Rajasthan, private collections and different museums in India and abroad. Quite a number of painted Patalis of Jaina palm-leaf manuscripts have come to light during the last few decades from Western India. REFERENCES
Saryu Doshi, Masterpieces of Jain Painting, Bombay, Marg Publications, 1985 ; C.M. Punyavijayaji and U.P. Shah, 'Some Painted Book covers from Western India', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art (Special No.), Calcutta, 1966, pp. 34-44.
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CHAPTER XXII

PATA-CITRA (Cloth Painting)
Cloth was used very extensively in ancient India for painting. Even entire books were written on cloth at times. A general term used for painting on cotton or linen is citra-pata (picture cloth) or pata-citra (cloth picture). The term is used by the Jainas, Buddhists and Hindus alike. However, no example of pața-citra prior to the 14th century has survived due to the perishable nature of the material. The use of pața-citras on religious and secular subjects appears to be a common feature in the medieval period. Several textual references can be cited from the early Jaina and Buddhist literature testifying to the use and popularity of pata-citra. The Samyukta Nikaya mentions dussa-pata (a special kind of cloth) alongwith wooden panel (suparinmattha-phalaka) for painting. The Visuddhimagga mentions canvas as the ground or support for painting. The Mahavaṁśa refers to the representation of a palace drawn with cinnabar on cloth while in the Dutavakya of Bhāṣa, Duryodhana describes a canvas picture, depicting Draupadi being dragged by hair. The Kamasutra also mentions the painting on cloth. Madhvacārya in his Pañcadasi compares the four modes of higher self with the four stages of preparing a canvas painting. These four stages are dhauta (washing of the canvas), ghattita (burnishing of the canvas), lañchita (drawn upon the canvas) and ranjita (colouring of the canvas). For the painting, the cloth is first primed with wheat or rice flour paste to fill up the pores of the textile. Use of tamarind-seed paste is also recommended in certain cases. After the priming is completely dry, the surface is burnished with an agate burnisher to get it ready for painting. The outline is drawn first, generally in red, and then the colours are applied. Additional decoration in gold or silver and the inscription of mantrakṣara (mystic syllables) and identification labels in black or
red are completed at the end. Religious paintings may have suspicious symbols in red on the reverse.
Among Jainas a substantial portion of this type of paintings belongs to the category of monumental paintings which include painted scrolls, banners and ritualistic artefacts of socio-religious nature for the use of Jaina monks and the laity.
The Jaina pața-citras can be divided mainly into two groups tantric and non tantric. The tantric patacitras include the diagrams known as yantra, incorporating the mantras, symbols, syllables and images of deities used in tantric practices. Such patas are usually made in rectangular formats in which the central ground is invariably occupied by circular, rectangular or geometrical design with a figure of Tirthankara, Jina or a Devi. Each pata is identified by the pictures or syllables. The non-tantric examples consist of the pictures with religious contents and do not confirm to any tantric vidhi. However, these pata-citras have no concern with tantric rites. They are contemporary paintings in regional styles and include a wide variety of subjects, including narratives and teachings (Pl. 288). They are catographic representations of religious sites or tīrthas (pilgrimage centres). A large number of pata-citras fall under this category. In pata-citra (pilgrimage picture) the nontantric pata-citras include paintings depicting Jaina cosmology and cosmography. These include the maps of Jambudvipa, Aḍhaidvīpa (two and half islandcontinent), the lokapuruşa (the cosmic man) etc. Lokapuruşa is the personification of the Jaina theory of the universe. It consists of a figure of a huge man with his hands hanging on his sides. The torso denotes the upper world, the central portion represents the Madhya-loka (the middle world), while the lower portion denotes the lower world represented by as many as nine

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levels of hell where the demons live. The Madhya-loka is represented by a circular disk where human beings live. This is illustrated in the form of Jambūdvipa, the Adhāidvípa (i.e. the two and a half island continent) where in a complex ideology of the Jain geography is symbolically represented with oceans, mountains, rivers, trees etc. The document of social life and culture in the period such as the vijñaptipatra (letter of invitation), kşamāpaņa-patrikā (letter of pardon) and citra-kavya (pictorial poetry), were also executed
In early tantric literature there are references of yantras on cloth; however, very few of them have survived. These pata-citras are of different formats. such as square, rectangular and circular, containing geometrical designs, seated Jina figures, Yakșa and Yakşīs, devi and Samavasarana scene. Some of them are simple diagrams, symbolic and stylized in expression. The symbols are generally interpersed with mystic syllables or hymns written in red colour Devanāgari script. Dates, attributions of gifts, or presentation details are sometimes written on the body of the pata-citras.
There are three main types of Jaina tantric pata- citras : the Vardhamana vidyā-pata, the sūrimantra-pata and hrmkära mantra-pata. Some of these pata-citras have specific purposes. For example sūrimantra-pata is presented to a monk when he becomes an Acārya (teacher). For successful worship of mantra-pata the practitioner has to observe utmost purity of mind of his sādhana (effort). In tantric pata-citra the aesthetic corners are less important than the contents. The yantra pata-citras were executed by Jaina ascetics known as yati or by professional painter known as mathen.
The early pata-citras were rendered in a style similar to contemporary manuscript illustration showing two dimensional and figurative characteristics with primary colours and gold. The composition of these yantra-pațas is dominated by the squares and circles Apart from distinctive composition and colouring, the Jaina yantra pata-citras are distinguished for the use of mantras. In the yantra pata-citras a liberal use of
syllables may be seen. The mantras became the integral ingrients. The Jaina yantra-patas are not as eleborate as Buddhist mandalas from Nepal and Tibet. However, the basic principles of the configuration as well as the symbology are same in both religious traditions. Despite the basic similarities, the physical appearance of the Jaina yantra pata-citras is distinctly different from Buddhist mandalas. In such Jaina pata-citras the symmetry and order in the arrangement of the figures are essential as their principal purpose is to calm the devotee's mind and detach him from the chaos and disorder of the phenomenal world.
The pata-citras, much popular with the Jainas, are known as tirtha-patas (pilgrimage banner, Pl. 289). The Jainas gave great importance to pilgrimage. The tirthapatas are very popular among Svetämbara Jainas. When the tradition of tirtha-patas started in the 15th century A.D., they became very pupular. Most of the early examples of tirtha-patas are small in size and depict five pilgrimages in a succinct and symbolic manner. These are known as pañca-tirtha-patas among the Jainas. During the 18th and 19th centuries the tirtha-patas assume monumental proportions, as it became customary to devote an entire painting to a single pilgrimage site. For those who were unable to make the pilgrimage, a surrogate in the form of a topographical painting of the site serves the same purpose. At times more than one tirthas are represented on a single cloth executed in a rather symbolic and cartographic manner in the Jaina style of painting. It displays prominent land-marks like temples, lakes, kundas and havelis. Every year on the full moon day of the bright half of the month of karttika (October-November) such paintings are hung in the vicinity of a temple, or at prepared location, for the devotees to worship. From the day onwards the tirtha of Satruñjaya is thrown open to public. The paintings are usually of colossal size. The Satruñjaya, Girnar and Sammet Sikhara centres are considered most sacred by the Jainas for these patas. Realising the religious and spiritual significance of the pious act, wealthy Jaina
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families commissioned paintings of such banners, mainly on cloth but sometimes on wooden planks, or in plaster work on temple walls and also carved in stone for displaying in and around the Jaina temples. The earlier such patas are small and square and are portable while the larger ones appear to be late. Subsequently, the size became large as it was meant to displaying in public places where large number of people could view it from a distance.
The vijñaptipatra (letter of invitation) is basically a letter of pardon known as kşamādānapatrikā (Pl. 290) by the Jainas. It is a letter of forgiveness or misdeeds committed during the past year. It is sent by a community to a monk, inviting him to spend the four months (caumāsa) of the rainy season with them. Rather being a simple letter, the vijñaptipatra takes the form of a long narrow scroll measuring about 25 to 30 feet in length and a foot wide. Being in great length the cloth scroll did not require cutting and joining. It was folded breadth-wise in two or more folds as required and the long stripes obtained by cutting served the purpose of scrolls. In earlier time when transport and communication facilities were not available, such invitations were dispatched by horse rider messengers and it took nearly six months to get a reply.
Inviting the Jaina monks to spend caumäsa at a place was considered an act of spiritual wisdom. This activity grew in western India, Gujarat and Rajasthan and therefore there was a great demand for this artefact. Scribers and painters possessed such blank scrolls having floral borders. The upper portion of the scroll was pre- painted with astamangalas (eight auspicious symbols), fourteen dreams, streets, market places, temples and some familiar Jaina mythological themes. The necessary information was written when required and the paper was signed by the respectable citizens of the town
One of the vijñaptipatras, painted on paper by Ustād Sālivāhana is a unique example of vijñaptipatra from the point of view of history of painting and socio- historic and religious importance. This pictorial chronicle
was painted at Agra in A.D. 1610 in popular Mughal style. Ustad Sālivāhana was a pataśāhi citrakāra (a painter from the imperial ateliar). It is mentioned in the vijñaptipatra "on the 26th Farwardin in the fifth year of his accession (14th April 1610), the Emperor Jahangir issued a firamāna honouring the request of pupils of Vijayasena Sūri Vivekahars, Paramānand, Mahānanda and Udayaharsa and others ordering that during the twelve days of Paryūsana there be no killing of animals of any kind in the slaughter houses of the empire. It was an event of much importance for the Jaina community. This vijñaptipatra was sent by the Jaina community of Agra to Vijayasena Sūri and residents of Devakapattana (Pātana) requesting him to grace the town of Agra with his presence during the installation of an image to be enshrined in a temple. The present farmāna and the events depicted in the vijñaptipatra point to the tolerance practices of Mughal Emperors and the relationship which existed between them and the Jaina religious community.
There are examples of patas with line drawings and writings on the figures of men, animals, weapons, flowers, snakes, circular yantras, flags etc. These are represented in a sequence against white background. These writings are poems or hymns written, drawn and composed in a sequence called bandhas (compositions) like padma bandha, khadga bandha, śarkha bandha and so on. These are read by literary men and some Jaina monks who specialize in the art of interpretation. It was difficult to understand by layman. To guide the readers in understanding the compositions they are depicted in pictorial form known as bandhas. Such patas are called citrakavya-patas.
Another type of pata is known as jñana-bāzi or jñāna-caupada (a game similar to the snakes and ladders of the modern times) has been an indoor game, among Jainas, Vaişnavas, Hindu and Muslims. The common pata is an architectural type but the other is based on the cosmological diagram of Lokapurusa. The central chequered board represents one's life divided into 84
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squares, each having words and numbers pointing to which depict the futility of human existence, the the rule of conduct and good and bad effects thereof. miserable condition of other forms of life, the torments
The architectural type of patas has five pavilions of hell, and the delights of heaven. Such patas were on five levels indicating panca anuttara vimäna kşetra made for narrating events to the masses in public places, above the chequered board. They indicate highest where the picture showmen (citra-kathis) performed heavens. In the lokapurusa patas, the head represents with the help of cloth paintings. five highest levels located on the mouth, eyes, nose and There is a number of Samavasarana (the celestial forehead. The highest of the heavens lies above these assembly hall) scenes where the Jina delivers his final on a crescent shaped siddhasila where the liberated ones sermon for all sentient beings, following his dwell. The Jainas are supposed to strive hard to reach enlightenment. Besides these the cosmographical charts, the top by avoiding misconduct and attaining knowledge. Jambūdvipa, Navadvipa, Hrnkāra, Ghantakarņa, various The Jaina śrävikäs who remain indoors during rainy mantras and tantras, Samgrahaņisutra, Kșetrasamāsa, season play the game as a pass-time.
Prāyaścitta, the six sthānas of the samyamsreņi, sixty The vijñaptipatras begin with a picture and end two mārjanas, pañcatirthi etc. are also painted on cloth, with the text. These pictures were to demonstrate to dating from the 14th to 16th century A.D. the monks. The attractiveness and prosperity of the In the 15th century, as indicated by certain patatown were extended through the invitation. However, citras, both secular and religious, the painters were the pictures became stereotyped and were repeatedly struggling to free themselves from the rigidity of the copied. The majority of the vijñaptipatras were prepared earlier school and trying to enlarge their compositions in Jodhpur or Nagore in Rajasthan by professional which now become more convincing. mathen painters. Besides the vijñaptipatras these scrolls REFERENCE served the purpose of illustrating the pañcatîrthis for Saryu Doshi, 'The Panch-Kalyanaka Pata, School writing documents and the religious orders of the Jaina of Aurangabad', Homage to Kalamkari, Marg teachers during the rainy season, horoscope etc. They Publications, Bombay, 1979; Masterpieces of Jain were occasionally used for writing and illustrating large Painting, Bombay, Marg Publications, 1985; poems such as Vasanta-vilasa.
S. Andhare, 'A Note on the Mahavira Samavasarana The Jaina Jñāna-bhandaras possess the cloth Pata', Chhavi : Golden Jubilee Volume, Banaras, 1971, manuscripts containing the Dharmavidhiprakaraņa- pp 343-45; 'Vividha Tirtha Pata of Ahmedabad', Marg, Vịttisaṁhitä, chapters of the Trişastiśalākāpuruşacaritra Vol. 32, No. 4, pp 40-44; W.N. Brown, A Painting of (Saṁvat 1408 or 1410 = A.D. 1351 or 1353). a Jaina Pilgrimage', India and Indology : Selected
The Kuvalayamālākahă, an important Prakrit Articles, (Part 3, No. 28), Delhi, 1978; Pratapaditya Svetāmbara Jaina text of the eight century A.D. describes Pal, Jain Art from India, Los Angeles County Museum a pata-citra with a religious theme. The subject is the of Art, California, 1994. samsára-cakra featuring a windex variety of scenes

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CHAPTER XXIII
SAMAVASARANA
The Samavasaraṇa literarlly means assemblage or congregation, is a celestial assembly hall constructed by the gods, wherein Jinas deliver their first sermon for all sentient beings, immediately after attaining omniscience (kevala-jñana): Samavasara-nam surakṛtam tirthakṛtam dharmadesanasthanam (Stuticaturvimsatikā, 94). In the Samavasarana gods, men, animals assemble, giving an idea of immensity of the universe in relation to oneself which is the spirit of Jainism. Through the concept of Samavasarana a moral and ethical appeal at improving oneself by eradicating one's raga and dveşa (attachment and aversion) have been imparted. The Samavasarana, primarily described as constructed for the first discourse of each of the 24 Jinas, is sometimes understood to have been prepared for some other sermons also or even for a powerful god who pays his visit to the Jina. The Padmacarita (2.102 ff) mentions that a Samavasarana was erected when Mahāvīra visited Vipulgiri at Rajgrih.
According to the Śvetämbaras, the Samavasarana is a work of Vyantara gods under the orders of Indra of Saudharma heaven, while the Digambaras say that Indra himself was the architect and erected Samavasarana with the help of his attendant gods. According to Jaina mythology, it was a circular structure with three walls, four gates, adorned with flags and umbrellas above; however, the examples in square shapes are also available which seem to be a later conception. The detailed narration of Samavasarana in literature and its visual examples are found at least from 9th-10th century A.D., although its conception could go even earlier.
The Jaina Puranas of both the sects give a detailed description of Samavasarana. the elaborate examples of which are available in the Mahapurana (Adipurāṇa) of Jinasena (c. 9th century A.D.) in the Digambara tradition and the Triṣastiśalakāpuruṣacaritra of

Hemacandra (12th century A.D.) in the Śvetambara tradition. According to these texts, there are several regions of Samavasaraṇa like dhulisala, caityapräsädabhūmi, khațikä-bhūmi, valli-bhūmi, bhavanabhumi etc., some being flanked by natyaśālās. In the centre of these regions, the place of Śrimandapa or Lakṣmisvaramandapa, the heart of Samavasaraṇa, divided into seven compartments for audience like Gandharvas, Kalpavasins, Āryikās (nuns). Bhavanavāsins, kings, chieftains and animals exhist. The figure of Jina, facing each side, is an essential part of the Samavasarana. With the above description it appears that Samavasarana has the symbolic representation of the universe and the suggestion of the impact of discourse of the vitaragi Jinas by way of the presence of all the creatures including those who have inborn enmity. The Samavasaraṇa representing one of the auspicious events of the lives of the Jinas, i.e. kevalakalyaṇaka (attainment of omniscience) which testifies the event in its rendering, shows three fortification walls with a figure of the Jina seated in dhyanamudra in the centre (Pl. 291).
The Trisastisalakapuruşacaritra describes Samavasarana as under. On the instruction of Indra the Vyantara gods made Samavasaraṇa, Väyukumāra cleaned the ground, Meghakumāras sprinkled the fragrant water and Vyantara gods showered flowers on it. The Vyantara gods covered the earth with gold and jewels; on four directions they made the toranas of jewels, rubies and gold with the figures of Salabhañjikās on the top. The arches of the torana were adorned with flags, umbrellas above the aṣṭamangalas (eight auspicious symbols) on top and below the balipattas (offering slabs). The Vimanavāsī gods made the uppermost parts with jewels; in the middle part the Jyotişka gods made a rampart of gold with jewels; the third fortification wall, constructed by Bhavanavāsī gods, was made of silver

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decorated with gold on the top. Each of these walls had four ornamental gopuras (gateways). Besides each gateway vāpi (tank) with golden lotuses were made.
To the north-east, inside the second wall, a dias (devacchanda) was made for Jina. The east gate was occupied by golden-coloured two Vaimānika gods, the south gate by two white coloured Vyāntara gods, the west gate by two red-coloured Jyotiska gods and the north gate by two black-coloured Bhavanādhipatis as door keepers. At the four gates of second wall in the same order stood, beginning with east, the goddess Jaya, Vijayā, Ajitā and Aparājitā. On the last rampart at each gate stood a Tumbura as door-keeper with a skull-crowned club and a garland of human skulls.
In the centre of Samavasaraņa the Vyantara gods made a caitya-tree and beneath it a pītha (platform) with manifold jewels and on it a dias (candaka) of gems. In the centre of it a jewelled lion-throne was placed On both sides of the throne the fly-whisk bearing Yakşas were standing. Entering the Samavasarana by the east-gate Jina makes pradaksina of the caitya-tree and bowing to the congregation takes his seat on the lion-throne. The Vyantara gods make three life like images of Jina and place them in the other three directions so that every one in the assembly finds himself facing the Jina.
The place in the first rampart was for sädhus and sādhvis. The Vaimänika women take their seat between these two groups entering from the east gate. The women of Bhavanavāsi gods, Jyotiska and Vyantaras entering from west gate stood in the west. The Kalpavāsi gods, men and women entering from the north gate stand in north-east. The animals stand inside the second wall and the animals used as conveyances in the third wall.
An interesting account of the Samavasarana provided by Jinasena is as follows - Indra himself made a Indra-nila (blue) gem Samavasarana circular in plan. It was surrounded by dhūliśālā (mud wall) of the
dust particles of various gems producing rainbow effect. On four sides were torana-dvāras (arched gateways) of golden pillars with makara faces having jewel garlands,
Inside the dhulisala in the middle of roads were măna-stambhas made of gold. At the bases of manastambhas were kept the golden images of Jinendra worshipped by Indras. Music and dancing continued before the Jina. The Samavasarana area was encircled by a moat filled with water and creeper groves. A little away from it was the first rampart made of gold. Its top was studded with pearls. The fortification was adorned with the figures of animals like elephants, horses and tigers and birds like swans, parrots and peacocks. On four directions there were gateways of silver with padmarāga gem tops. Near the gateways there were nine Nidhis (treasures) as well as the nātyaśālās (theatres) which were engaged by dancing heavenly damsels. The Samavasarana was endowed with kridamandapas (pavilion used as pleasure resorts), artificial hillocks, mansions (harmya), prekşāgrhas, citraśālās (picture galleries), ekaśālās or dviśālās (single or double-room buildings) and mahä-präsåda (big palaces). In the centre encircled by three walls there was a caitya-tree nearby having mangala-dravyas. At its root were four images of Jinendra worshipped by Indra and other gods, men and other beings. Jinasena also gives the details of forests, adorned gateways in the forests, nātyaśālās, images of Siddhas, beautiful buildings, kütägäras, sabhāgrhas, prekśägrhas, stupas made of padmaräga gems, adorned with the images of Siddhas and Arhats. Vyantara gods, Bhavanvāsi and Kalpavāsī gods were placed on the gateways as door keepers. The gods, men and animals all have their fixed places in the srimandapa and the place for Jina was in the gandhakuti, erected by Kubera. In the gandhakuti Jina sits on a lion throne with bhämandala.
The elaborate description of Samavasaraņa given by Jinasena includes the various constituents of a big city with fortification, a surrounding moat, pleasure resorts, stepwells, theatres, lawns, lakes, palaces etc.
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alongwith Jina's seat in the centre. The description provides architectural data of considerable value.
The Avasyakaniryukti also gives the description of Samavasarana. Both the sects, Svetāmbara and Digambara, agree in broad outline of Samavasarana for example, a central pavilion for the Jina, places on the big platform surrounded by three fortifications, each having four gateways on four directions.
The representation of Samavasaraña is not available in early Indian art. In the sculptural representations, the Samavasarana scenes are carved with the narratives showing the lives of Jinas at Svetāmbara Jaina sites of 11th-12th century A.D. These narratives are carved in the ceilings and represent mainly the Pancakalyānakas of the Jinas which pertain to the lives fo Rşabhanātha, Šāntinātha, Neminātha, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra. Such ceilings are mainly found in the temples of Santinātha and Mahāvīra Jinas at Kumbharia (11th cent. A.D.) and Vimalavasahi and Lunavasahi at Mt. Abu. The enormous examples of Samavasarana, in Jaina paintings, are also known from different collections from India and abroad. Of all the examples of Samavasaraņa in narrative sculptures, paintings and independent examples, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra Jinas outnumber all other Jinas, obviously for the reason that they were the historical and most popular ones.
The sculptural representations, based on literary details, mostly show a circular structure with three ramparts, one above the other, surmounted by a square pavilion with the seated figure of Jina. However, the details like water-ponds, animals, divine figures etc. are absent in such representations. As contrary to the concept of Samavasaraņa the sculptural examples as well as paintings only show one seated figure at the top, while the texts envisage that the Jina was sitting facing east, and for the sake of the convenience of the audience three images of the self-same Jina were installed on three sides to make him visible from all the sides However, the four figures of Jinas are carved mostly in the independent sculptural examples of the
Samavasarana known mainly from Svetāmbara Jaina sites of India, and datable between 11th-15th centuries A.D. The Mahāvīra and sāntinātha temples at Kumbharia show some such examples.
In wall paintings, the Digambara Jaina temple known as Sri Kundavi Jinālaya at Tirumalai (north Arcot district) and the Vardhamana temple at JinaKāñchi contain the representation of Samavasarana. On stylistic grounds the Sri Kundavi Jinālaya example may be placed in 11th-12th century A.D. and the Vardhamana temple example in 10th century A.D. In bronze, one example of 11th century A.D., showing Samavasaraņa, is known from a Jaina shrine in Marwar, at present in a Jaina shrine at Surat. Another belonging to 12th century A.D. is known from Cambay. A number of loose examples in stone and metal are scattered in Jaina shrines all over India.
There is a large number of Jaina miniature paintings in palm-leaf and paper manuscripts (13th-20th centuries A.D.) showing Samavasaraṇa scene (Pl. 291). The examples on cloth were also rendered in large scale and a few are found even in wood. In miniatures the scene is represented in details and very close to textual descriptions as found in stone sculptures. The number of Jinas increased in miniatures. The vitarāgi Jinas in miniatures in most of the examples are surprisingly adorned with ornaments. This adornment goes against the tradition. In miniatures Jinas are always shown in dhyānamudră usually with an unidentified object in their hands (Pls. 292-293). Their lāñchanas and astaprātihāryas are mostly absent in miniatures.
In the manuscript paintings the Samavasarana scenes are related to different Jinas mainly on the basis of inscriptions or texts. However, in case of Samavasarana of Pārsvanātha as found in the Kalpasūtra paintings the seven-hooded snake canopy is provided for the idendification of the Jina. Most of the examples of Samavasarana in manuscript paintings are from Kalpasūtra. Besides Kalpasūtra, Adipurāņa, Satapadikāgranthapaddhati (13th cent. A.D.), Sri
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Uttarādhyayana Laghuvitti (1295 A.D.), Santicaritra Gujaranwala (Punjab), Sarabhai Nawab collection, (15th cent. A.D.), Laghusangrahanisutra (c. 1575 A.D.) Ahmedabad, Atmanand Jain Gyan Mandir, Jira (Punjab), etc. also contain the renderings of Samavasaraņa. Hemacandracarya Gyan Mandir, Patan, Bharat Kala However, Pañcatirthipata (A.D. 1370) as well as cloth Bhavan, Varanasi (Pls. 292-293) and other collections. pața (15th cent. A.D.) and wooden examples of 18th These manuscripts show the Samavasarana of century with Samavasaraņa representations are also Pārsvanātha, Neminātha, Muni Suvrata and Mahavira known.
belonging from 12th century A.D. to 15th century A.D. The Kalpasūtra paintings, circular in plan, show Other manuscripts showing Samavasaraṇa represent the Jina sitting in the dhyānamudra in the centre of similar details. Samavasarana with a fly-whisk bearer standing nearby. REFERENCES The ornamental concentric bands around the Jina S. Andhare, 'A Note on the Mahavira represent the usual fortifications. The whole Samavasarana Pata', Chhavi : Golden Jubilee Volume, representation in enclosed in a rectangular panel, at four Banaras, 1971; Klaus Fischer, Caves and Temples of corners of which water ponds and pairs of animals, the Jainas, Aliganj, 1956; Saryu Doshi, Masterpieces which have natural animosities, are represented. Such of Jain Painting, Bombay, Marg Publications, 1985; A. details may be seen in the palm-leaf Kalpasūtra Ghosh (ed.), Jaina Art and Architecture, 3 vols., New manuscripts from Upadhyay Sohanvijayaji collection, Delhi, 1975; U.P. Shah, Studies in Jaina Art, Varanasi,
1955.
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Appendix 1 CITTA-SABHĀ (Picture Gallery)
and CITTA-KAMMA (Art of Painting) The Jaina texts give a number of references of classes of men engaged in different professions according picture galleries and some of them are quite interesting to their respective castes. These portraits were in different The picture galleries were the places of royal amusement status of moods anger and appeasement). If persons places of judging the technical efficiency of painter as came to engage their services the courtesan asked them well as the place to judge the character and taste in
first to visit the citta-sabhā so that he could judge their arts of a person. The Jñätādharmakatha gives interesting
caste, taste in arts, character etc. details of the construction of a picture gallery. The
The Jñātadharmakathā refers to a jeweller Nanda crown prince of Mithila, Malladinna ordered the erection who ordered the construction of a citta-sabha with of a citta-sabhā (picture gallery) at the royal amusement hundred columns, which was decorated with kathapark. He entrusted the work of painting to cittagăra
kamma (wood work), pusta-kamma (stucco), citta-kamma senim (painters guild) asking them to paint the citta- (painting) and lepya-kamma (terracotta figures). The sabhā full of sensuous forms (rurehi). On the order of textual reference of citta-sabha or citra-Salā, is provided prince the painters proceeded to the proposed citta- in the Mahapuräna of Jinasena which confirms its sabha with their tulião (brushes) and vannas (colours). containing citra-bala, The painters before starting to paint prepared the ground
The Jaina monks were prohibited to live in the for painting (bhūmi-sajjei) and divided the wall surface
houses decorated with the paintings. Possibly, the reason for the purpose of painting. Among the group of painters was the sensuous appeal of the paintings which detached there were such master painters who could paint the the minds of the monks from meditation. The complete figure of man or animal even if he had only Uttaradhyayanasütra also states that the monks should his partial view. A painter painted the full portrait of keep themselves away from the houses decorated or princess Malli only having a glimpse of her toe while painted, fumigated or perfumed with incense and flower the princess was standing behind the curtain. The crown garlands. The Daśavaikälikasūtra prohibits the look of prince doubting the chastity of his sister banished the
a woman, either in a painting or in actual life, for a painter from his kingdom. One of the instance referred monk. to in the Avasyakatikā shows the technical efficiency
Citta-kamma (Art of painting) of a painter. A painter painted a peacock feather in such
In the Jaina texts the citta-kamma or the art of a realistic manner that the king who has engaged the painting is referred to as one of the noble professions. services of the painter to paint the picture gallery The cittara (painter) was counted among the silpäryas. touched the painted feather under the impression that The Jaina literary references attribute the origin of the it was real.
citta-kamma to the first Jaina Tirthankara Rsabhanätha. Brhatkalpasūtrabhäsva describing a citta-sabhā of Not only the art of painting but the symbology and a courtesan gives a story. The story runs that there was
sciences of mathematics are also said to have originated a courtesan well-versed in all traditional sixty-four arts. from Rşabhanātha. The Brhatkalpasūtrabhāsya prohibits He has a citta-sabhã portraying the portraits of all the Jaina monks and nuns indulging in the sacitta
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Appendix I
kamma or painting.
The subject of painting is divided under two heads 1. nirdoṣa-citrakarma (pure painting) and 2. the sadoṣa-citrakarma (impure painting). The nirdoșacitrakarma consists of the painting of trees, mountains and rivers, seas, buildings and creepers, while the sadoṣa

citrakarma consists of paintings of flying figures, goddesses and women. The practice of both kinds of paintings was forbidden for the monks. However, this injunction seems to have been relaxed in the medieval period when the Jaina Jñana-Bhaṇḍāras became the repositories of many painted manuscripts and patas.
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Appendix II LIFE OF TĪRTHANKARAS IN PAINTING
namely Mahavira, Santinātha and Pārsvanātha. Two long woo wooden book covers of a palm-leaf manuscript painted with a series of scenes from the previous existence and the last existence of Säntinātha are preserved in Dehlanä Upāśrayano Bhandāra, Ahmedabad. The paintings covering all the four sides of these two long pattikäs were done in Jalor (south-western Rajasthan) in the 13th century A.D. The scenes include the incident of Megharatha offering his whole body to save the life
The Tirthankaras known as Jinas or Arhats, occupy the supreme place of veneration in Jainism. The Abhidhana-Cintamani of Hemacandra refers to the Tirthankaras under the category of devadhideva (god of gods). Different texts discuss the iconography of Tirthankaras. The Brhatsaṁhita of Varahamihira says that the Tirthankaras should be represented with the arms reaching the knees and frivatsa mark on the chest. They should be young and beautiful and should have a peaceful countenance. The Tirthankaras wear no garment. The Digambara text Pratisthāsāroddhāra of Asädhara (A.D. 1228) refers to that the eyes of the Tirthankara should be centred on the tip of his nose and he should be accompanied by the eight prātihäryas. In both the sects - Svetämbara and Digambara the Tirthankaras are described in both poses - standing (kayotsarga) and sitting in the dhyāna-mudra with hands resting one upon the other on the lap, with palm upwards (Pls. 259, 288). They sit either in the padmāsana posture or in the ardha-padmasana (mostly popular in south India).
The images of Tirthankaras were made of gems, metals, wood, clay, stone etc. However, in paintings the lives of Tirthankaras are painted in scrolls, manuscript illustrations, murals or frescoes and wooden book-covers of Jaina manuscripts. It is believed among the Jainas that such paintings should not be worshipped in houses. Tirthankaras are given a prominent place on cloth paintings, representing various Jaina Tantric diagrams and in citra-patas. In scroll paintings their lives are painted in details and in narrative manner. They are also shown on the vijñaptipatras. One such example from the Digambara collection of Karanja shows the narrative from the life of Neminätha.
Some of the wood-covers depict scenes from the previous as well as last existences of Tirthankaras,
In one such scene Sāntinātha in one of his previous births as king Megharatha offers his whole flesh to a falcon in order to save the life of a dove who sought refuge with Megharatha. This is a famous ancient theme popular in the Brahmanical as well as the Buddhist and the Jaina literatures. In Brahmanical legend king Sivi protects the dove by offering his whole body to be weighed in balance against the body of the dove. In Kumbharia and Vimalavasahi we do find this scene in the life scenes of Santinatha.
The life scenes of Neminātha, Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra have also been a favourite subject on wooden book-covers (see for detail Chapter xxi pp. 408-409 Patali. Pl. 287). A set of such wooden book-covers show in a row the 24 mothers of Tirthankaras of this age. another shows 16 Mahävidyās of Jaina Tantric worship.
In the palm-leaf manuscripts, executed between A.D. 1060 to roughly A.D. 1350, the Tirthankaras are represented with gods and goddesses, monks, nuns etc. The appeal of the Jina figures is more or less iconographic. In full accordance with the simplicity of the subiects. the attitudes and poses are also limited and strictly conventional. The Tīrthankaras seated with their legs crossed are shown in full view. Sometimes both the legs are lowered and rest on a foot-stool and
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sometimes the left leg is crossed on the seat and the A great number of Kalpasūtra manuscripts represent right one is allowed to dangle. In the standing pose various scenes from the life of Mahāvīra while other the face is generally represented in a modified version Tirthankaras are represented here and there. of three-quarter profile, while the tribhanga pose Representation of some of the upasargas suffered by sometimes adds graceful curves to a standing figure. Mahāvīra is also available in miniature paintings of the The miniatures in the introductory folios serve as Kalpasūtra. However, the upsargas suffered by Mahāvīra invocations and usually feature Jinas.
did not become popular in Svetambara and Digambara The Kalpasūtra, the most ancient as well as the shrines. In such scenes Mahāvīra is always represented most revered book of the Svetāmbara Jainas, describes standing in meditation with half closed eyes and arms the Jina-carita (lives of Jinas) in one of its parts. The hanging down. There are many stories pertaining to the Jina-carita contains the details of the lives of 24 upasargas of Mahavira. In the paintings showing Tirthankaras. The lives of the Tirthankaras begin with upasargas he is assaulted by a cowherd and village dogs, the 24th Tirthankara Mahavira. The text moves backward endured the attacks of grass, cold, fire, flies etc. He narrating briefly the lives of the 23rd Tirthankara is attacked by the serpent Candakausika. The serpent Pārsvanātha and 22nd Tirthankara Neminātha is shown in the painting just in the act of biting respectively. Thereafter only the names of Tirthankara Mahāvīra's feet. Mahāvīra is also attacked by god are mentioned except the first Tirthankara Rşabhanätha. Sangamaka. God Sangamaka's attacks are represented The life of Rşabhanātha is again described in some in the paintings with a dust of storm, ants, scorpions, detail.
mongoose, snakes, mice, elephant, demon, tiger, a burning A great number of Kalpasutra manuscripts were wind and dance of heavenly woman etc. He is also prepared between the 12th and 20th centuries and kept offered improper food by Sangamaka. in the Jñāna-bhandäras. The Kalpasūtra was the most In the palm-leaf manuscripts the figure of frequently and profusely illustrated text of the Svetämbara Pārsvanātha is commonly painted. Similarly, scenes Jainas. Some manuscripts were embellished with the from the life of Neminātha have been very popular in lives of Tīrthankara which include scenes of the main the Jaina art. Paper board covers, to hold manuscripts events of the lives of Rşabhanātha, Neminätha, for reading, sometimes have on them the painting scene Pārsvanātha and Mahavira. The life scenes of Jinas of marriage procession of Neminātha. include Brāhmani Devānandā and Trisala's fourteen The other palm-leaf manuscripts such as Jñātāsūtra auspicious dreams, the interpreters of the dreams, (A.D. 112), Upadeśamālāvítti (A.D. 1234), Subāhukatha Harinaigameși bringing the embryo to queen Trišalā, (A.D. 1288), Pāndavacaritra, Padmānanda Mahākāvya Sakra's command to Harinaigamesi, birth of Jinas, and Uttaradhyayanasūtra (13th century) in Santinātha Pārsva's and Aristanemi's descent from heaven, Iñāna Bhandāra, Cambay, Kathāratnasāgara (A.D. 1262), Parśvanātha and Aristanemi in the initiation palanquin, in Sanghavīnā Pādāno Bhandara, Patan also represent Sakra's homage to Mahāvīra's embryo, birth of the figures of Rşabhanātha, śāntinātha, Pārsvanātha, Mahāvīra, Mahāvīra giving away his possessions, Neminātha and Mahāvīra seated in dhyāna-mudrā. Mahāvīra and Pärsvanātha plucking out their hair, However, colours and cognizances of the Mahavira preaching, Mahāvīra in the Puspottara heaven, Tīrthankaras referred to with Svetāmbara and Digambara Samavasarana etc.
traditions have some differences. These differences are as follows:
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Svetāmbara
Digambara
Tirthankara
Colour
Cognizance
Rşabha
gold
bull
Ajita
gold
elephant
Colour yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow
gold
Sambhava Abhinandana Sumati
Cognizance bull elephant horse monkey curlew red lotus svastika
horse monkey curlew red lotus
gold gold
Padmaprabha
red
red
gold
svastika
white
crescent moon
Supārsva Candraprabha Puşpadanta Śitala
crescent moon makara
green or Blue white or black white yellow
white
makara (or cra
gold
śrivatsa
śrivatsa
b)
or pipala tree rhinoceros
Śreyāmsa
gold
rhinoceros
yellow
red
buffalo
red
gold
boar
Väsup ya Vimala Ananta Dharma Śänti
or garuda buffalo boar ram or bear thunderbolt
gold
falcon
gold gold
thunderbolt (or mace) antelope goat
antelope
Kunthu
goat
yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow yellow black or blue yellow
goat
gold
nandyāvarta
fish
Ara Malli Munisuvrata Nami
blue (or green) black gold
water jar tortoise blue lotus
water jar tortoise blue or red
lotus
or aśoka tree conch
conch
Aristanemi Pārsva Mahāvira
black green (or blue)
serpent
black or blue green or blue yellow
serpent lion
gold
lion
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THE CAITYA VRKŠAS ASSOCIATED WITH 24 JINAS
Tirthankara
Śvetämbara
Rşabhanātha Ajitanātha Sambhavanātha
Digambara Nyagrodha Saptaparna Sala
Abhinandana
Sarala
Sumatinātha
Nyagrodha Saptaparna Sāla (Shorea Robusta) Piyaka or Priyaka Priyangu (Panicum Italicum) Caturābha (Anethum sowa) Sirisa (Acacin sirīşa) Nāga Mali
Priyangu
Padmaprabha
Priyangu
Nāga Akşa
Supārsvanatha Candraprabha Puspadanta (Suvidhi) Śītalanātha Sreyamsanātha Vásupujya
Dhūli
Palasa
Tendua
Vimalanātha
Pātāla-jambu
Anantanātha Dharmanātha Śāntinātha
Asvattha Dadhiparna Nandi
Pilankhu Tinduga Pātāla (Bignomia Suaveolens) Jambu (Engenia Jambolana) Asvattha Dadhiparna Nandi (Cedrela Toong) Tilaka Amra Asoka Campaka (Michelia Champaka) Bakula (Mimusops elengi) Vetasa Dhātaki (Grislea to tomentosa) Sala
Kunthunātha Aranatha Mallinātha Munisuvrata
Tilaka Amra Asoka Campaka
Naminātha
Bakula
Neminātha Pärsvanatha
Meşaśrriga Dhava
Mahāvīra
Sala
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Appendix II PAINTING AND JAINA CANONICAL LITERATURE
The Jaina canonical literature casts ample light on the state of art of painting in ancient India. It provides not only the earliest references to the art of painting but also furnishes some of the missing links in the understanding of the subject.
According to one of the legends mentioned in Avaśyaka-cūrņi (A.D. 600-650) I, Ratlam, 1929, p. 156), Rşabhadeva was the originator of the art of painting. Běhatkalpasūtrabhasya refers that the art of painting was forbidden to monks and nuns. The Ācārārgasūtra (II, 12.1), the earliest Agama, says that monks were refrained from looking at the painting for pleasure sake. Similar injunctions were laid down in Daśavaikalikasūtra (VIII.4). The monks and nuns were also prohibited dwelling in the houses decorated with paintings. The BỊhatkalpabhāsya (III, gātha 2426-2431) has categorised painting as sadosa and nirdosa. The nirdosa or pure painting includes pictures of trees, rivers, mountains, oceans, various kinds of creepers, pürna-kalasa and svastika, while the sadosa or impure painting depicts man, women, animals and scenes on śrngära-rasa. The sadoņa paintings are likely to divert the mind and create obstacles in the path of meditation and spiritual pursuits.
The learning of this art was considered necessary for a full development of the personality and hence it was designated the third place in the frequently mentioned lists of seventy-two arts in the Agamas Jñätādharmakathā (c. late 3rd century A.D.), Samavāyāngasūtra (Ahmedabad, 1938, p. 77) and Aupapātikasūtra (Rajkot, 1959, II sutra 46, pp. 604-612) and also sixty-four arts of the females as mentioned in the Jambūdvipaprajñapti (c. 3rd century A.D., Bombay, 1920, 2, 136f ). The Kāmasūtra of Vätsyāyana has suggested that a Nagarika (better citizen) should have a painting board (citraphalaka) and a casket full of
brushes (vartikā-samudgaka) in his bed chamber (Kamasutra, Bombay, 1891, 4, 10).
The Bhagavatisūtra, the Jñatadharmakathā and the Aupapātikasūtra refer to a class of people called markhas. Abhayadeva (c. 11th century A.D.) in his commentary on Bhagavatisutra has explained markha as a special type of mendicant whose hands were engaged with picture-board. It appears that the markhas have been professional entertainers like many others who were called on to perform at the time of royal celebrations (Jñātadharmakathā, 1.90). The tradition of markhas existed as early as sixth century B.C. Ghośāla, an ascetic and contemporary of Mahavira, was the son of a markha. However, it is not certain whether the painting was done directly on the picture board or on a canvas (pața). Abhayadeva has rightly interpreted the word 'citra-phalaka' as picture board. The Nalacarita Nāțaka making distinction between phalaka and pata says - 'here is the board, this is the canvas, this is the brush and here are the colours' (idam phalakam. esa citrapatah, iyam ca tulikh, ime ca varnasambharaha) (quoted by C. Sivaramamurti, South Indian Painting, New Delhi, 1968, p. 34).
The story told by the markhas was shown on citra-phalaka which confirms that the form of art was narrative. There are references to panel painting. A Jain Prakrit text Tarangalolā by Acārya Padalipta refers to a romantic tale which mentions that a merchant's daughter Tarangavati displayed her canvas representing her past life in public in the Kaumudi-Mahotsava (JainaCitrakalpadruma, Ahmedabad, 1936, pp. 21-22). Such examples are also found in later Jaina and non-Jaina stories, for examples the story of Lalitānga as mentioned in Avaśyakacūrņi and the story of Nilayasa Lamba in Vasudevahindi.
The art of portraiture was well, developed in
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ancient India. The Jñātādharmakathā refers to a portrait the other was still occupied with the preparation of the of Malli, a princess of highest perfection in beauty, ground on the facing wall apparently blank. But it was painted on the wall by an accomplished artist who was a pleasant surprise when the artist drew the curtain banished from the kingdom after it. By the same artist aside, the mural got reflected on the mirror like blank another portrait of princess Malli was prepared on surface of the wall. It is well known that after the canvas or cloth. The artist first prepared citra-phalaka application of plaster (vajralepa) on the wall, it was (citra-phalam sajjei). The preparation perhaps included burnished (Vişnudharmottara III, 40.8). But the amount fixing of canvas on the board and the preparation of of burnishing required in the preparation of the ground ground. The Avasyakacūrni (I, p. 88) also refers to a is very well indicated in this story. portrait of Mrgāvati painted by another accomplished There are some more references to wall painting. artist.
Silänkācārya Caupanamahāpurusacariya (A.M. Bhojak, There are references of painting from nature also. 1961, p. 263) mentions the depiction of the lives of The Āvasyakacūrņi (II, p. 57) refers to an aged artist Neminātha and Rajīmati in a palace which Parsvanātha Citrangada whose daughter Kanakamañjari painted a happened to see. The scenes influenced him so much lively picture of a peacock on the floor. The quality that he decided to renounce the world. There is also of the painting was such that the king, who employed a reference to some decorative motifs painted on the the old artist, passing that way mistook the painted walls in the Rajapraśniyasūtra (I, sūtra 11,13). feather as the real one.
The Āgamic literature is silent about scroll painting The paintings were done on other mediums also. but the non-Agamic Jaina religious texts speak about The Anuyogadvārasūtra (Bombay, 1968, sūtra 11) refers it. The Prakrit text Kuvalayamālā (8th century A.D.) to painting on palm-leaf and cloth both. The art of refers to a scroll painted by an artist named Bhānu. painting was also practised on wall. The Jñatadharmakathā The scroll depicts the cycle of births and deaths ( samsåra(1.17) refers to that the interior walls of Dhārini Devi's cakra). There are other examples of similar nature. The palace were painted with beautiful paintings text Kuvalayamala also gives the knowledge of tonality (sulloyacittakamme), the ceilings with lotus rhizomes of colours, mixing of colours and purity of lines which and flowering creepers. Similarly, the text describes the should be fine and distinct. These scrolls may be palace of Megha Kumāra which was painted with ihă- compared with the traditions of early yama-patas mrga (deer), bull, horse and number of other paintings. mentioned in Viśākhadatta's Mudrārākşasa and Bāņa's
The references of Jñātādharmakathā (8.96) to wall Harşacarita. One of the earliest references to scroll paintings in the picture gallery of the crown prince paintings is found in the Dutavākya of Bhāşa. It mentions Malladinna provide clues to the technique of mural a scroll painting depicting the molestation of Draupadi painting. It mentions that the wall space required to be by Dussāsana. The Vaddaradhane (10th century A.D.), painted was first divided into panels of different sizes a Jaina religious text in Kannada depicts an interesting (bhūmibhāge). Then the ground was prepared (bhumi tale of picture showmen who used to steal paddy-rice sajjei). After this the painter proceeded with colours and from the paddy merchants. brushes.
The citra-sabhā (picture-gallery) was an insignia Āvasyakacūrņi (II. 194) refers to the story of of opulence and prosperity in ancient India. There were Vimala and Prabhāsa who were called to make mural three types of picture galleries-private gallery, public paintings in the harem of a king. One of them engaged gallery and galleries in palaces. The Jñātadharmakatha himself in preparing splendid murals on one wall whereas (8.95) gives an example of a private picture gallery of
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crown prince Malladinna who had constructed it in his house-garden (pramadah-vana). It had scenes of sṛngararasa (erotics). We have another example of private picture gallery in the Bṛhatkalpabhāṣya (II, 5.262). It was maintained by a clever courtesan who was wellversed in sixty four arts. She had in her gallery portraits of all classes of men occupied in the professions of their respective castes and in varying moods. This assisted her in the treatment of her clients whom she would first send to the gallery and judging from their reactions their caste, character and taste for arts, would deal with them accordingly. The Parasistaparva of Hemacandrasuri gives another example of a picture gallery maintained by a courtesan called Kośã, which had paintings on erotics.

etc. It was built in the garden of a rich merchant named Nanda Muniyara. It is evident that the gardens were mostly preferred for building picture galleries.
The Tiloyapanṇatti (3.57-61-c. 5th century A.D.) refers to various kinds of palaces of Bhavanväsi-devas, one of them being citra-gṛha. The Vişnudharmottara (iii, 43.12-14) mentions that paintings in palaces should exhibit scenes of erotics, humorous or peaceful sentiments while citraśālās should represent any of the nine rasas.
The accounts of picture galleries makes it clear that the painters had their guilds (cittagara-senim). They were mostly patronized by the kings and rich people. However, literature never refers to the court painters. Painters were asked to paint for which they were honoured and paid lavishly (pritidāna). However, there are evidences that the artists were also in the service of the kings throughout the year. The painters had their family tradition for learning the art of painting. In literature the meaning of the terms related with the work of a painter is explained, for example, thus: Bhasathe figure drawn in right proportion; Vibhāṣa - when the various limbs of the figure are defined, and Värttä when the eyes are painted.
The Jñātādharmakatha (13.14-15) gives an example of a public picture gallery which functioned in a manner of present day museum, where people assembled for recreation and discussion. There were arrangements of sitting for various groups of professionals like dancers, actors, picture-story tellers etc. who were permanent employer of the gallery. The gallery, along with paintings, had various other artefacts in stone, wood, metal, clay
*

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Appendix IV
JÑĀNA-BHAŅDĀRA
The Jñāna-bhandāras or sastra-bhandāras, treasures or store houses of knowledge, is a Jaina institution and is generally regarded as the property of the Jaina samgha or community. These Jñana-bhaņdāras are also referred to as Cita-kosa, in some Jaina texts and manuscript colophons. The Bhārati-bhandāras and Sarasvati bhandāras are collections which are very much in their contents and some of them preserve most ancient copies of manuscripts on palm-leaves, paper and cloth on secular and religious subjects. Not only this, the bhandäras have illustrated manuscripts, patas and vijñaptipatras also. The history of the Jñana-bhandāras is closely associated with the progress and conservation of learning. Their foundation is attributed to a big famine of fifth century A.D., when most of the Jaina monks died and the sacred lore of the Jainas suffered considerably. The Jainas decided to take some steps in order to save the Jaina lore from complete extinction. As a result, a council under the presidentship of Devardhigani was summoned in c. 453 A.D. at Valabhi and with the consent of monks assembled there, the Jaina canons were committed to writing. Not much is known about the progress of book writing in the following centuries, but there is every possibility that the Jñāna-bhandāras were founded. These Jñana-bhandaras, attached to the temples, became the custodians of the sacred literature.
By the 10th century A.D. the educational value of the Jñana-bhandāras was realised by the Jaina monks. The founders took great pains to explain the society the importance of the religious and secular texts. The Bhattārakas, the person having responsibility to look after the management of properties and religious establishments, encouraged the people to enrich the temples with donations of manuscripts for spiritual enlightenment. It encouraged the Jaina bankers and laymen to order copies of the sacred texts and present
them to monks who deposited them in the Jñanabhandāras for the benefit of the posterity. Sometimes a devotee would order numerous copies of a particular text for purposes of dissemination to different centres. The Jaina Jñāna-bhandaras were basically sectarian in nature; however, the Jainas did not mind preserving in them books belonging to different faiths for ready reference and criticism. They also include the manuscripts of the great poets of India like Kālidāsa. This shows that the Jaina monks in middle ages were not narrowminded sectarians, but fully realised the importance of libraries preserving literature of all the faiths. The Jñana-bhandāras included the text of other subjects also such as grammar, mathematics, astrology and rhetoric.
The renowned rulers of Gujarat, Siddharaja Jayasimha and Kumārapāla, were the great patrons of the Jñāna-bhandäras. Jayasimha (A.D. 1093-1143) is said to have employed about three hundred scribers to copy out books on religious and secular matters for the imperial library. Kumärapāla (A.D. 1143-1172) is said to have established twenty-one Jñana-bhandāras. He employed seven hundred scribers and some of the manuscripts are said to have been written in gold. The example of these two Solanki rulers was followed by several great Jaina ministers such as Vastupāla and Tejapāla, Pethadasāha, Prthvidhara, Mandana Mantri and others. The two brothers Vastupala and Tejapāla became interested in learning and in Jñana-bhandaras on the advice of their teachers Vijayasenasūri and Udayaprabhasūri. They are said to have established three of the big libraries by investing a lot of money. Pethadasāha, a minister of Paramāra Jayasimha at Mandogarh in V.S. 1320 (=1263 A.D.) founded Jñānabhandāras in seven cities including Broach, Devagiri, Mandu and Abu.
The tradition of Jñana-bhandaras was common in
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both the sects of the Jainas. However, the profuse Anandaji Mangalajinä Pedhinā, Idar (Gujarat), Mukti number of manuscripts present in the Svetāmbara Vijaya, Anandji Kalyanji Pedhīnā Limbdi (Saurashtra), bhandāras makes it clear that the Svetāmbaras were Hemacandrācārya, Palanä and Narasimhajini-Palanā, more inclined towards their documents than the Baroda, some other bhandäras are at Ahmedabad, Idar, Digambaras. The Jñäna-bhandaras of Svetāmbaras appear Surat, Kaccha, Limbdi, Chani etc. These contain all over Gujarat, Rajasthan, Malwa and Delhi-Agra. The important collections of illustrated manuscripts on palmDigambara Jainas too had their Jñana-bhandāras mostly leaf and paper belonging from 11th to 14th century confined to Delhi, Agra and Rajasthan but also extending A.D. and also on cloth patas. With the joint efforts of as far as Karanja near Nagpur and Moodabidri in south. Muni Shri Punyavijayji and Sarabhai Nawab a large The most important of the Svetämbara Jñāna-bhandaras number of manuscripts were introduced to the students are Samgha Vīnā Pādāno, Patan, Sāntinātha Jñāna- of Indian art. These include painted wooden panels, bhandāra, Cambay, Jñana-bhandāras of Jaisalmer, cloth paintings, palm leaves and paper manuscripts.
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Appendix V
BHATTĀRAKA (Administrative Head of the Jaina Religious Establishment)
From the second century A.D. to the eighth century A.D. Jainism received the patronage of rulers, queens and ministers of states. The endowments from these persons enabled the Jaina community to build grand temples and monastic establishments. To look after the temple management as well as monastic establishments the services of a member was required. As a result, a person was entrusted with the responsibility to look after the management of properties and religious establishments. The person entrusted with such responsibility was known as Bhałțăraka. On the basis of geneological charts of the Bhattāraka tradition, the post of bhattaraka was created in the eighth century A.D.
The Bhatțărakas were and still are in some places the administrative heads of Jaina religious establishments. As custodians of temples they were in-charge of the maintenance of the buildings, the images enshrined with them and all the paraphernalia connected with temple rituals. Due to their involvement in the organisational aspects of temple management, the Bhattārakas were also ordained men, apart from the other ascetics of the Jaina faith. These Bhattārakas were dedicated persons. They were in close and constant contact with the lay
votaries of the order. They encouraged the Jaina community to enrich the temples with donations either for icons, or manuscripts which were for worship and spiritual enlightenment. They encouraged the people for the śāstra-dāna (donation of manuscripts) as an act of religious merit (punya). Their primary concern was to collect works connected with their faith. They tried to acquire the copies of texts which were not available in their Jñana-bhandāras or temple libraries. If for some reason, any collection was not properly cared for, the Bhattārakas would happily incorporate it into their own Jñana-bhandāras.
Among the Jainas the commissioning of manuscripts of religious texts was a pious act. An offer of the sacred texts to religious personage or gift them to Jñāna-bhandāras became a usual custom. Sometimes, a devotee would order a number of copies of a particular text for purposes of dissemination to various centres. Occasionally, these manuscripts were embellished with paintings. The manuscripts were never commissioned for the personal pleasure of the lay votaries. They were regarded as sacred objects and their rightful place was in the temples or in the Jñāna-bhandāras.
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Appendix VI
TĀDA (Palmyra Tree)
The Tāda or palmira tree, which yielded palm- leaves for writing and painting, is known Täla in Sanskrit and Tada in Hindi. It is of two varieties known as Sri- Tāda and Khar-tāda. The Khar-tāda grows in Gujarat and elsewhere. Its fronds are thick, liable to break at the slightest pressure. The Khar-tāda fibres have the tendency to rot and weaken in course of time. Palm- leaves of this variety are not used for writing or allied purposes. The second variety. Sri-tāda, grows abundantly in Madras, Ceylon, Myanmar, Bengal and other places. Its fronds are delicate and its usual size at times is more than 37" x 3". The fronds of the Sri-tāda yielded palm- leaves for writing. Fibres of Sri-tāda do not decay easily. Its elasticity prevents its breaking even under undue pressure.
Before the advent of the paper, palm-leaf was an important material for writing and painting. The reasons such as increasing cost, difficulties of transportation from south and Myanmar, the troublesome method of writing on palm-leaf as well as the political turmoil, gradually ousted the palm-leaf as a material for writing and painting.
From A.D. 1050-1350 the holy Jaina texts were written on palm-leaf. The palm-leaf manuscripts were devised either from the long leaves of tallpot palm or from the shorter leaves of the palmyra palm. For the manuscripts, either writing or painting, first the leaves were cut into desired size, then processed and burnished.
Thereafter, they were trimmed into folios of equal size. One of the methods of preparing palm-leaf folios was to first obtain fresh leaves and bury them in sand for three months to cure them. After that, the leaves were trimmed and used for writing sacred texts. The scribe dividing the folio into two or three columns, separated by narrow vertical margins, commenced the writing work (Pl. 1). The text was incised with a sharp stylus tool on the folios and then the leaves were rubbed with powdered carbon ink. The powder would become embedded in the incised letters. The palm-leaf manuscripts were written also in ink with a reed pen. In Karnataka the ink was manufactured from the oil extracted from two types of fruits. The oil was heated and combined with various powdered substances, including roasted turmeric or harde. The mixture was later heated again and used as ink. The outer sides of the first and the last palm-leaf folios were left blank. The text invariably began on the reverse side of the folio and was transcribed in lines from left to right across its full length, barring the margins. On the reverse side, in the margins, the places for pagination numbers as well as the stringholes were marked. The pagination signs on the folios were shown by letters on the left side and by numerals on the right side. After completion of the folios manuscripts were arranged and strung securely together with a cord and enclosed in a wooden covers for protection.
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GLOSSARY
anda
abhaya-mudra :hand gesture suggestive of protection or safety-bestowing. Usually the right hand in this
posture is shown with open palm towards the worshipper. Acārya
: Head of various groups of Jaina monks. adhah-padma : a lotus with downward setting of the petals (opposite of urdhvapadma). adhisthāna : moulded or plain base. äditala
: ground floor in storeyed vimana in South Indian temples. Airavata
: an elephant seen in dream by Jina's mother. alinga
: a narrow fillet. amalaka
: 'myrobolan fruit,' ribbed crowning member of sikhara of North Indian temples. anarpita
: string of miniature shrines (hāra) on the edge of each vimāna-tala with intervening space
(opposite of arpita).
: hemispherical portion of the stūpa. anekāndaka : multi-turreted śikhara in North Indian temples. anga
: buttress. Anga
: The earliest Jaina texts, numbering twelve, are supposed to contain the original preaching
of the Tirthankaras. In the Digambara sect these Anga texts are taken to be lost. anjali-mudra : hands folded in supplication or adoration. antarāla
: vestibule between sanctum and gūdhamandapa. antarapatta : recess between mouldings. antarita
: recess. anuratha
: an offset between cardinal and corner offsets; pratiratha in Western Indian temples. Apsarā
: divine nymph; apsarases. ardhamandapa : half-hall attached to sanctum in South Indian temples; an entrance Hall in North Indian
temples. ardhaparyankasana: a sitting posture known also as lalitäsana in which one leg, usually the left, rests upon
the seat, while the right one dangles down. ardhaphālaka Jaina monk. Arhat
: see Jina. arpita
appliqued hāra. äryavati-pata asana: seat or throne. asanapatta : seat-slab. Astadikpala
eight guardians of the eight directions. Astagraha : eight of the nine planets.
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asta-mahäprätiharyas : Eight chief accompanying attendants shown with the Tīrthankara images from Kuşāņa-Gupta
period. These are aśoka tree, deva-dundubhi (divine drum-beater), sura-puşpavrsti (scattering of flowers by gods), trichatra (triple umbrella), câmara (fly-whisk), simhasana (lion-throne),
divya-dhvani (divine music) and prabhamandala (halo). astamangalas : A set of eight auspicious symbols which usually include svastika, srivatsa, nandyāvarta (a
symbol with nine points), vardhamanaka (powder-flask), bhadrâsana (throne, a particular type of seat), kalasa (full-vase), darpana (mirror) and matsya (or matsya-yugma - pair of fish). Some difference is noticed in Svetämbara and Digambara texts. The Digambara texts also
include chatra (umbrella), câmara, dhvaja and vyajana (fan) (Tiloyapannatti, Vol. I, 4.738). Aştāpada
: symbolic representation of Mt. Kailāśa where Rsabhanātha attained nirvana. āsthānamandapa : hall for sitting pilgrims and visitors. aśvathara
: a moulding adorned with figures of horses. atiśaya ayaka-stambha: a term applied to pillars placed on platforms attached to stūpas and sometimes to the
alters. Avasarpiņi
era of regression in Jaina cosmic cycle and decline of virtues. It is opposite of Utsarpiņi.
āyāgapata
ayudha
bāda bāhyaśākha bakula balāņaka bali-patta balipitha bāndhana basadi Bāvana-Jinälaya beki bhadra . bhadraka bhadraśālā bhadrâsana
• Tablet of homage with carvings of Tirthankara figures, stūpa, cakra and auspicious symbols
astamangalas. : attributes including weapons held by different Jaina divinities (barring Jinas). Some important
attributes are cakra (disc), triśüla (trident-three pronged weapon), sula or kunta (spear or lance), bijapūraka or matulunga (fruit-symbolic of the fulfilment of the desires of the worshippers), khadga (sword), khețaka or phalaka (shield), danda (staff), gadā (mace or
club), vajra (thunderbolt), śarikha (conch) and musala (pestle). : vertical wall. : outermost doorjamb. : mimusops elengi: a flower. : a hall at the entrance of North Indian temples. : an offering slab.
sacrificial altar. i median band between talajangha and uparajangha. : shrine, basati or basti. : a Jaina temple surrounded by 52 shrine-cells (devakulikā). : neck or cylindrical member immediately above the gandi. : central offset in plan and elevation. : square pillar-type with cut-off corners. : central śālā in hāra. : a particular type of posture in which the heels of the legs, which cross cach-other, are
placed under the testes and the two toes of the feet are held by the hands.
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Glossary
435
bhandira
: a tree associated with Mahāvīra. bharaṇi or bharaṇa : a pillar capital made up of arris and cyma recta; also a wall moulding (often with foliage
clasps) above the udgama of North Indian temples. bharaputraka : a small atlantid figure; Yaksa figure feigning to support the above coming moulding. Bhattāraka : The person entrusted with the responsibility to look after the management of properties
and religious establishments. bhitta
: the lowermost rectangular moulding of the pitha of North Indian temples. bhitti
: wall. bhumi
: a storey. bhūmi-āmalaka : cogged disc placed at regular intervals on the corners of the sikhara of North Indian temples,
demarcating several bhūmis (storeys). Bhūmija
: a mode of Sikhara in North Indian temples, consisting of latās and kutastambhas. bhūta
: goblin. bijapūraka
: a citron. bimba
: an image or figure of principal deity (mulanäyaka). caitya
; literally something piled up, a fire altar; a mound of relics, stūpa. caitya-gavākṣa : an arched motif with cavity in the centre, resembling the front window of an apsidal caitya
hall of Western India; caitya-window ornament. caityagrha : an apsidal shrine housing a caitya, i.e. stūpa. caitya-vrksa : sacred tree associated with Jinas. caitya-window : same as caitya-gavākṣa. cakra
: wheel symbol. candrika
: an inverted flat bowl. caranapaduka : foot-prints. caturanga
: a wall surface endowed with four angas (projections), viz. bhadra, pratibhadra, pratiratha
and karņa. Caturvimsati- : a Jaina temple surrounded by 24 shrine-cells (devakulikā).
Jinālaya catuśśakha i a doorframe having four jambs. cauri
: fly-whisk. chädya
: eave. chadyaki
; a minor eave projecting over the lower course. chatra
: umbrella. chatri
: pavilion. cippikā
: a minor inverted cyma recta sticking to the lower course. citrakhanda : square pillar-type with panelled bands interspersed with cubical sections. citra-potika : corbel with carved central band.
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citra-torana cobisi or Jina-caubisi
dandapronchanaka
darpana
Deva-caturvarga
devakostha
devakulikā
devanirmita
dhanta
dharmacakra
dhätu
dhoti
dhvaja
dhvajapatākā dhvaja-stambha
dhyana-mudra
Dikpäla
Dravida
dvaramandapa
dvarapala
dvi-anga
dvi-śākhā
dvi-tala
dvitirthi
ekandaka

Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
: arciform gateway showing a frieze of birds and animal figures.
: a stela, frieze or image showing twenty-four Tirthankara figures of present Avasarpiņi age. In images one Tirthankara is shown as the central figure (mulanayaka), while the other twenty-three Tirthankaras in tiny forms are carved in the parikara surround.
sticked broom known as rajoharaṇa.
: mirror-like medallion.
: The Jaina Gods other than 63 Śalakāpuruṣas (Great Souls) are classified into the following four main groups - bhavanavāsīs (gods of the house), vyantaras (intermediaries), jyotiskas (luminaries) and vaimānikas (astral gods). Each of these is subdivided into several groups with Indras (chiefs) at the head, Lokapalas (guardians of the cardinal points of the universe), armies of gods and queens of Indras. Vyantaras, for example, are divided into Yakṣas (vegetation spirits), bhūtas (ghosts), pisacas (fiends), rakṣasas (demonical beings), Kinnaras (half bird or horse, half human), Gandharvas (celestial musicians) and others.
niche for a divinity.
: small or subsidiary shrine; peripheral shrines.
made by deities.
: a stage of canvas painting.
: wheel of law, suggesting spread of virtue and religion in the world through the moving religious wheel. It goes on moving ahead of Tirthankaras and is shown with all the Tirthankara images on the pedestal or lion-throne.
: relics.
: lower garment from waist downwards.
: a staff.
:
a staff with flag.
flag-staff; a free-standing pillar erected in front of a temple and decorated atop with a flag.
: The sitting posture of meditation showing Tirthankaras as seated cross-legged with both the hands in the lap. Open palms are placed one above the other.
: guardian of direction.
southern temple mode.
a hall built in front of door.
door-guardian.
: a wall surface pertaining to two angas (projections), viz. bhadra and karṇa.
: a doorframe containing two jambs.
: two-storeyed.
: a panel showing two Tirthankaras.
: mono-form sikhara in North Indian temples.

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Glossary
437
gagāraka gajamunda gajaśārdūla gajatālu gajathara gajavyāla gana Ganadhara Gandharva gandi
Gani
garbhagsha garbhamuda gavākşa ghanta ghantāvali ghantika ghata
: frill like ornament consisting of arrow between two contra spirals. : fore part of elephant. : śardūla confronting an elephant. : coffered ceiling-course; literally, elephant's palate. : a moulding decorated with figures of elephants. : vyāla with elephant head. : dwarfish demi-god. : chief disciple of Tirthankara. : heavenly musician. : curvilinear or pyramidal roof above the bāda and below the mastaka. : leader of Gaņas. : sanctum sanctorum. : lowest ceiling of the garbhagȚha-sanctuary. : literally cow's eye; caitya-window ornament. : bell; bell-member of the saṁvaraņā or pyramidal roof. : a string of bells used as decorative motif in the temples. : a small bell-member. : a vase or pot; cushion-shaped member of pillar-capital coming over tädi and lasuna and
bulbous in form in South Indian temples. : vase-and-foliage. : broom. : main gateway with salā roof in South Indian temples. : gopura form of gateway. : leonine figure. : leonine head. : grāsa-band. : minor grāsa-band. : neck : closed hall in front of sanctum. : goose. : goose-band.
string of miniature shrines over each storey of Southern vimāna. : hāra-section between miniature shrines. : topmost flat portion in stūpa enclosed by a railing. : portrait gallery. : mythical animal.
ghatapallava gocchaka gopura gopuradvāra grasa grasamukha grāsapatti grāsapattika grīvā gūdhamandapa hamsa hamsamala hāra hārāntara harmika hastiśālā ihamrga
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jādyakumbha : a pitha moulding consisting of inverted cyma recta. jagamohana : a hall in front of sanctum with or without a pyramidal roof in Orissan temples. jagati
terrace in North Indian temples; basal square moulding of adhisthana in South Indian temples. Jaina-bhandāra : store of Jaina manuscripts. jangha
: literally thigh; in architecture the wall proper; vertical wall between pābhāga and varanda
in Orissan temples. Jina or Tīrthankaras : Beings highest in Jaina worship, also called Devādhideva. The Jaina religion's name is or Arhat derived from the word Jina. The Tirthankara means maker of a Tirtha and 'forder' between
the material and spiritual worlds. Arhat, more ancient expression for the Jina, means deserving worship. Jina means invincible or one who has completely won over the desire
and passions to become Vītarāgi (free from desire and passion). Jina-śākhă : a doorjamb decorated with Jina figures. Jivantasvāmin : Mahāvīra prior to renunciation and standing in kāyotsarga in his palace for meditation,
and hence wearing crown and other ornaments. kaksakuta
: kuta in the form of miniature rangamandapa hall. kaksāsana : seat-back. kalasa
: vase; torus moulding in North Indian temples. kamandalu : sacred water vessel. kampa
: rectangular fillet. kanika
: corner offset; karna in Western Indian temples. kantha
: neck; recess between mouldings. kānti
: neck, recess between two mouldings; kantha. kapiśirşaka : battlement kapota
: literally, a pigeon; in architecture a roll moulding consisting of cyma recta and inverted
cyma recta, often decorated with caitya-gavāksas. kapota-panjara panjara on kapota. karanda-mukuta a conical crown with bulging, horizontal sections, resembling a basket. karimakara : mythical animal with trunk of an elephant and body of crocodile. karna
corner buttress in plan and elevation. karņadardarikā : a course of ceiling consisting of an arris and cyma reverse. karņaka : knife-edged arris moulding in a base; also with pillar capital. karna-kuta : miniature square shrine at corner of each storey in South Indian temples. karnassiga : a miniature sikhara on corner offset of the spire. karnika
: knife-edged arris moulding in base; minor karnaka. kāyotsarga-mudra : The attitude of dismissing the body, also called khadgāsana and Jina-mudra. An exclusive
posture shown with the Jaina Tirthankaras wherein the Tirthankaras stand erect with both the hands hanging and reaching up to the knees. Both the feet and hands are shown slightly apart.
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Kevalin khadgasana khalvasākha kharasila khara-tada khattaka khura khurā
Kinnara Kinnari kirttimukha Kirttistambha kola konika kostha kula kumbha kumuda kuñjarāksa kūta kutakostha kūtastambha
an omniscient person who has attained absolute knowledge. : see kāyotsarga. : recessed jamb. : cap-stone of foundation. : a type of palm. : a deep sculptured niche in mukhamandapa of Western Indian temples. : a basal horizontal moulding of vedībandha below kumbha; kumbha proper in Orissan temples. : a moulding being square below and curved above in Orissan temples; khura-kumbha in
Western Indian temples. : mythical beings of a semi-divine character, half man and half bird or horse. : celestial female minstrel. : same as grasamukha.
pillar of glory. : literally boar's tusk; cusped ceiling-course. : minor corner offsets between the argas. : niche. : a school of Jaina monks. : pot; pot-type moulding in North Indian temples. : torus. : literally elephant's eye'; a decorative motif of stepped diamond.
square aedicula in South Indian temples. : kuta-niche. : a column with kuța top in South Indian temples; corner offset in the sikhara of Bhūmija
temples. : one of the 32 superior marks (mahalaksana). : central block on door-lintel. : tutelary image on the central block of door-lintel. : large gavākṣa in front of a vaulted or apsidal structure. : see ardhaparyankasana. :cognizance or identifying mark of the Tīrthankaras. All the twenty-four Tīrthankaras have
different cognizances, on the basis of which they are identified. These are carved mainly
on the pedestal of Tirthankara images. : vase-shaped pillar part below the capital.
: spinal offset decorated with caitya-pattern in Bhūmija temple. : writer of manuscript. : writing place of manuscript. : pendant.
laksana lalata lalátabimba lalātanāsi lalitasana lañchana
lasuna lata lekhaka lekhaśālā
lūma
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mahamandapa : large hall.
makara
: crocodile.
makara-pattika : a band decorated with figures of makaras. : a water spout shaped into a figure of makara.
makara-praṇāla makara-torana
an arch issuing from the mouth of makara.
mālā
Mälädhara
Mānastambha
māṇavaka-stambha
mañca
mañcikā
mandala
mandapa
mandāraka
mandovara Mangalika svapna
mastaka Meru
mina-mithuna
mithuna
mukhamandapa
mukhapattika
mülaghanta
Mulanayaka naga
Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies

: garland.
: garland-bearing Vidyadhara.
: a tall free standing pillar crowned with Jina images and erected in front of a Jaina temple.
a pillar having hanging diamond boxes with relics of Jinas.
: platform.
: a variant of kapota supporting the jangha-wall.
: magic diagram.
: hall.
the central part of doorsill in North Indian temples.
the cubical wall of North Indian temples.
These are auspicious dreams seen by respective mothers of the twenty-four Tirthankaras on the night of conception. The Śvetämbara texts give fourteen dreams while the Digambara texts speak of sixteen dreams. The fourteen dreams of Svetambara tradition are elephant, bull, lion, Śridevi (or Mahalakṣmi-having four arms and bearing lotuses in two hands and being lustrated by two elephants), garland, moon (full moon), sun, simhadhvaja danda ( a banner fastened to a golden staff with lion at the top), pūrṇa-kumbha (full vase filled with water and lotuses indicating fortune), padmasarovara (a lake full of lotuses), kṣirasamudra (ocean of milk with aquatic animals), devavimana (celestial palace), ratnarasi (jewel heap), nirdhūma agni (smokeless fire) (Kalpasūtra, 31-46). The Digambara list gives Nagendra bhavana (a palace of the king of snakes) in place of simhadhvaja danda. There are additions of two more dreams; they are matsya-yugala (pair of fish) and simhasana (lion-throne) (Harivamsa Purana, 8.56-74).
: crowning members above the gandi in Orissan temples.
: Mythical mountain present at the centre of the Jambudvipa and encircled by four forests on the slopes, each having a Jaina temple in each direction.
pair of fish, an auspicious symbol.
amorous couple or scene.
front or entry hall.
a piece of cloth held in front of mouth by the Jaina monks. : apexial bell-member of the samvarana or pyramidal roof. the principal Jina image in the sanctum of Jaina temple. : snake.

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Nāgadeva nagamithuna nägapasa Nāgara nāgaśakha nālamandapa nandipada Nandiśvaradvipa nandyāvarta
narathara
nasi nāsi-gavākşa
nāsikā nāsi-kostha Nava Devată or
Siddha-cakra
: Mythical serpent god. : amorous snakes. : entwined snakes. : Northern temple-mode. : a door-jamb decorated with snakes.
a hall built over the stairway or access-channel.
a taurine motif. : It is the last of numerous concentric island continents of Jaina cosmography. : a variant of svastika with nine points representing nine Nidhis or treasures; cognizance
of Supārsvanātha. : a flat moulding decorated with human figures. : literally 'Nose'; a projected arched window.
a projected arched window resembling the front window of the caitya-hall of Western India;
caitya-window ornament. • diminutive of nāsi.
niche with nāsi top. : The siddha-cakra is a very popular Tantric yantra (diagram) in the Jaina cult. It consists
of Panca-parameșthins and four Essentials, necessary for salvation. The five Parameşthins are Arhat, Siddha, Ācārya, Upādhyāya and Sadhu, while the four Essentials are samyakjñāna, samyak-darśana, samyak-caritra and samyak-tapa, constituting the four-fold virtue
of right knowledge, right faith, right conduct and right penance. : nine planets. : nine turrets. : square pillared hall with one central and eight peripheral bays. : a wall surface endowed with nine offsets. : a doorframe with nine jambs. : female figure in dance or other postures, : male figure personifying wealth. : a sanctum without ambulatory. : a group of mouldings constituting the lowest part of the bāda. : wall. : lotus. : lotus umbrella. : a doorjamb decorated with lotus petals. : cross-legged sitting posture. : lotus pendant in ceiling. : offset.
Navagraha navāndaka navaranga navaratha navasākha Nāyikā Nidhi nirandhāra pabhāga pada padma padmacchatra padmaśākha padmasana padmašila
paga
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pali
: dish-shaped member of pillar-capital coming below phalaka. Pancakalyāņakas : Five auspicious events occurring in the life of each of the twenty-four Jinas. These are
cyavana (conception), janma (birth), diksā (renunciation), kaivalya (absolute knowledge) and
nirvāņa (salvation). pancakūta
five-peaked shrine. pañcârgabāda : a wall having five horizontal divisions. Panca-paramesthin: The five Supreme Ones - Arhat (Tīrthankara), Siddha (liberated soul), Acārya (leader
of a group of monks), Upādhyāya (reader who teaches sacred texts) and Sādhu. These
are invoked by navakāra-mantra. The Arhat and Siddha (formless) are free souls. pañcaratha : a wall surface endowed with five buttresses, pancaśākā : a doorway having five jambs. pañcatirthi : a sculptural panel with five Jina images. pancāyatana : a temple complex with one principal shrine and four smaller ones on the four corners. panjara
: apsidal aedicula in South Indian temples. panjara-kostha : a niche with panjara top. panjaranāsi ināsi-fronton of a panjara-kostha. parikara
: a frame of an image. pata
: a diagram on cloth etc. and hence Jina pata, mantra pata, Sangrahani lippanaka pata, Sūri
mantrapata, Pañcatīrthīpata etc. pață
: fillet-like moulding; patta or pattikā. patra
: scroll or creepers. patrašakha : a doorjamb decorated with scrolls or creepers. patra-torana : arciform gateway showing a festoon of foliage and flowers. patravalli
foliate scrolls. pattika
: rectilinear fillet. phaggu
: spring poems. phalaka
: abacus (a pillar part supporting corbel). pharsakūta : miniature square shrine with pyramidal roof. picchikā
: broom.
: a tree of this name having triangular leaves. pista
: a platform, pedestal. pitha
: plinth in North Indian temples. potikā
: corbel (bracket-capital). prabhāmandala : halo shown on the back of the head of deity. pradaksināpatha ambulatory path. prākāra
: enclosure wall. pranala
: water-chute.
pipala
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Prati
präsåda
: palace; Northern temple-mode. prastara
: entablature in South Indian temples.
: plank-moulding. pratibhadra : a subsidiary offset adjoining bhadra. pratihāra
: attendant; door-guardian. pratikantha : a recessed moulding (antarita) with prati-band above, often decorated with vyāla and makara
figures. pratikarna
subsidiary offset adjoining karņa. Pratimā-Sarvatobhadrikā : Also called Jina Caumukhi - an image auspicious from all the sides and showing
Tirthankara figures on all the four sides. pratiratha : a buttress between bhadra and karna. pratoli
: gatehouse. pūrnaghata
vase-and-foliage member. puspa
: flower; a jamb decorated with flowers. raha
: cardinal offset. rahapaga
: cardinal or central offset of the wall. rajasenaka : a recessed moulding in balustraded wall. rajoharana : broom. rangamandapa semi-open pillared hall for theatrical purposes. ratha
: a vertical wall projection. It is from the number of rathas that the temple is called tri
ratha, pañca-ratha etc. rathika
framed niche. ratna
: diamond or lozenge-shaped motif. ratnamuda : uppermost ceiling of the garbhagȚha. ratnapatta
: a flat moulding decorated with diamonds. ratnapattika : minor ratnapatta. ratnaśākhā : a door-jamb with lozenge pattern. rekhadeula
: sanctum having a curvilinear sikhara. rupa
: a figural belt. rupakantha : a recess carved with figure sculptures. rüpapatta or a figural band.
rūpapttikā rūpasākha : a doorjamb with figural decoration. rūpastambha : a pillar jamb decorated with figure sculptures. sadhu
: male ascetic sadhvi
: female ascetic. Sahasrakūta : a decorative panel with thousand Jina images.
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sakha
door-jamb. Sālā
: rectangular shrine with wagon-vault roof; also a decorative motif. Śālabhanjikā : a female leaning upon boughs of tree. Salākāpuruşas or: The Jaina tradition has the list of 63 Great Men which include twenty-four Mahāpurusas Tīrthankaras, twelve Cakravartins (world conquerors), nine Baladevas (or Nārāyaṇas), nine
Vasudevas (or Balabhadras) and nine Prativasudevas (Pratinarayanas - enemies of Vasudevas). śālā-kostha : a niched śālā. śālā-śikhara : wagon-vault aedicula. saliläntara : recess between wall-bays or offsets. samatala
: a ceiling with flat surface. Samavasarana : a circular fortified structure with figures of selfsame Jina on four sides. This is a
representation of Jina's first preaching. samvarana : pyramidal roof studded with bells. sandhara
: sanctum enclosed by an inner ambulatory. śarkha
: conch-shell. saptaratha
: a wall endowed with seven offsets. saptasakhă : doorframe with seven jambs. śardula
: leonine figure. sarvasamputa sarvasamputa or pratisthāpanā is possibly one of the Jaina auspicious symbols (bowl on
a pedestal). Sarvatobhadra a four-faced shrine or image. Śāsanadevatā or : The guardian deities attending upon the Tirthankaras. They protect the four-fold Jaina
Sangha Yakşa-Yaksi (organization of sādhu, sādhvi, śramana and śramani) and grant boons for worldly desires
and remove or pacify the evil spirits. There are twenty-four Yakşas and twenty-four Yaksis,
one pair for each Tīrthankara. Śaśvata Jinas : Four eternal Jinas - Candrānana, Vārişeņa, Rşabha and Vardhamāna. They are repeated in
the list of 24 Jinas of each age. Siddha
: see Pañcaparamesthin. Siddha-sila : the crescent-shaped dwelling place for liberated souls. Siddhāyatana : caityas or shrines worshipped by the Jainas. Sikhara
: superstructure in North Indian temples; a crowning cupola in South Indian temples. silpaśästra : canons of art and architecture. śilpin
artist. simhasana : lion-throne. simhavyāla : a vyāla with lion head.

ma

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skandha śramana
sravaka
sravikā Srivatsa
śrniga stambha stambhasākha sthāpanā stūpa stupi subhadra
sūci
śukanāsa sukanäsikā Suparna Suparņa-mithuna Sürasena Surasundari
: the flat shoulder part where offsets of the sikhara terminate. : Jaina monk. : male religious votary under Jainism. : female religious votary under Jainism. : An auspicious symbol and distinctive mark of Great Person. It is invariably shown on
the chest of the Tirthankara images as a mark of distinction. : a miniature sikhara. : pillar. : a pillar jamb. : a crossed wooden book-stand used as a symbol for the teacher. : originally a funeral mound but later as a symbol for worship.
jar-finial. : central offset of bhadra. : cross-bar in railing. : antefix in front of the superstructure. : minor sukanäsa. : man-headed bird. : winged amorous figures. : caitya-dormer with flanking half ones.
a heavenly damsel, Apsarā; generally the name for female figures in various attitudes and
postures adorning a temple. : an auspicious symbol in the form of an equal-armed cross with each arm continued at
a right angle; cognizance of Supārsvanātha. : a Jaina sect showing white clad Tirthankaras, Ācāryas, Munis. : minor dish like member of pillar-capital coming below ghata.
storey. • lower section of the bāda above the pābhāga and below the bāndhanā. : wavy corbel. : see Jina : arciform ornamental gateway supported by two upright columns. : arciform gateway or ornament. : pertaining to three wall projections in plan and elevation (bhadra, pratiratha and karna). : triple-shrine. : triple-shrine.
three-faceted torus moulding. : a wall surface endowed with three buttresses, : three-pronged symbol representing right faith, right knowledge and right conduct.
svastika
Svetāmbara tādi tala talajangha taranga-potikā Tirthankara torana torana-arch tri-anga triküța trikūtācala tripatta kumuda triratha
triratna
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trisakhā tritala tryanga-bada tula tuläpitha turka Udadhikumära udgama upabhadra Upadhyaya upana upapitha uparajangha upasarga
urahghanta urahśrniga ürdhvapadma usnișa Utsarpiņi
: a doorway having three jambs. : three-storeyed.
three-divisioned wall. : joist. : string of joist ends in North Indian temples. : enclosure. : water divinities. : a pediment decorated with full and half caitya-dormer pattern. : minor offsets of bhadra.
see Pañcaparamesthin.
sub-plinth moulding; a flat course. : socle beneath the adhisthāna. : upper section of the bāda above the bāndhanā and below the varanda. : The hindrances caused by the demons and evil spirits during the course of the meditation
or penance of the Tirthankaras (mainly of Pārsvanātha and Mahavīra) due to their enmity
of previous lives (pūrva bhava) with the Tirthankaras. : a set of bells in the cardinal directions of the samvarana. : miniature Sikhara along the cardinal offset of sikhara. : cyma recta, plain or carved with lotus petals. : literally turban; also the coping of vedikā (railing). : Jaina division of time cycle. Utsarpiņi is an aeon of progression. The present aeon is
Avasarpiņi of which Rşabhanātha was the first and Mahavira, the last Tirthankara. : beam or architrave. : a banner or flag. : a fillet above kampa or pattikā. : rafter ends. : creeper or scroll. : treasurer. : sub-plinth.
boon conferring hand gesture shown with right hand-palm open with downward fingers
towards the worshippers. : a set of mouldings atop the bada in Orissan temples. : an eave-cornice. : a kind of pot. · plank-moulding below the grīvā-śikhara; platform atop the gandi in Orissan temples.
wall-podium between pitha and janghā, consisting generally of five members of khura, kumbha, kalaša, antarapatta and kapota.
uttara
vaijayanti vājana valabhi valli
Vanika
vapra varada-mudra
varanda varandika vardhamānaka vedi vedibandha
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.
vedikā
: blind balustraded wall; railing. Vesara
: circular form of sikhara (cupola) in South Indian temples. Vidyādevi : goddess of learning in Jaina tradition. Vidyadhara : a flying male angelic figure. Vidyādhara-torana: arciform gateway with a frieze of flying Vidyādharas. Vidyādhari : a flying female angelic figure. vihara
: monastery; shrine. vimāna
: shrine in Drāvida temples. vyāla
: leograph; mythical animal with the body of lion and head of another animal. vyālamälä : a string of vyälas. vyalapattika : a stripe of vyālas. vyālašākhā : a doorjamb adorned with figures of vyälas. Yaksa
: a male divinity attending upon Tirthankara. Yakṣāyatana : a house of Yaksa. Yaksi
: a female divinity attending upon Tirthankara. yasti
: a pole. yavanika
: curtain уйра
: sacrificial post.
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452
Dhaky, M.A.
Doshi, S.
Fuhrer, A. Ganguli, K.K.
Ghosh, A. (Ed.) Giri, Kamal
Gorakshkar, S.V.
Gray, Basil
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: 'Some Early Jaina Temples of Western India', Shri Mahavira Jaina Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, 1968, pp. 290-347.
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: 'Taranga Ka Pracinatar Jinalaya', Nirgrantha, Vol. 2, Ahmedabad, 1996, pp. 49-50.
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: 'Twelth Century Illustrated Manuscript From Mudbidri', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum, No. 8, Bombay, 1968.
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: 'The Panch-Kalyanaka Pata School of Aurangabad', Homage to Kalamkari, Marg, Bombay, 1978.
: 'A Fifteen Century Illustrated Manuscript from Gwalior and Some Thoughts on the Chaurapanchasika Style', Journal of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Vol. X, Calcutta.
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: 'Illustrated Kalpasūtra Painted at Jaunpur in A.D. 1465', Lalit Kala, No. 12, pp 8-15.
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: 'Jaina Sculptures in Bharat Kala Bhavan', Aspects of Jainology Pt. Bechardas Doshi Commemoration Volume, Vol. II, Varanasi, 1987, pp. 89-95.
: 'A Dated Manuscript of the Kalakacharya Katha in the Prince of Wales Museum', Bulletin of the Prince of Wales Museum of Western India, No. 99, Bombay, pp. 56-67.
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: 'Western Indian Painting in the Sixteenth Century', Burlington Magazine, 1948.
: Palmleaf and Paper: Illustrated Manuscripts of India and Southeast Asia, Melbourne : National Gallery of Victoria, 1982.
Gupte, R.S.
: Iconography of the Hindus, Buddhists and Jainas, Bombay, 1972. Gupte, R.S. and Mahajan, B.D. Ajanta, Ellora and Aurangabad Caves, Bombay, 1962.

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Mandira', Lalit Kala, No. 5, New Delhi, 1959.
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Volume, Vol. I, Ed. Upadhye, A.N. and others, Bombay, 1975. Nawab, S.M. : Jaina Chitra Kalpadruma, Pts. I-II, Ahmedabad, 1936, 1938.
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1938, pp. 426-30. : 'Jaina Yakşas and Yaksinis', Bulletin of Deccan College Research Institute,
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Vidyalaya Golden Jubilee Volume, Bombay, 1968, pp. 143-55. Singh, A. : 'Sarvatobhadra Images and Sarvatobhadra Temples', Prāgdhārā, No. 9, Lucknow,
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Panorama of Jaina Art (South India), New Delhi, 1983. Smith, V.A. : The Jaina Stupa and Other Antiquities of Mathura, reprint, Varanasi, 1969. Srinivasan, K.R. Cave Temples of the Pallavas, New Delhi, 1964.
: Temples of South India, New Delhi, 1964. Tiwari, M.N.P. : 'A Brief Survey of Iconographic Data at Kumbharia, North Gujarat', Sambodhi, Vol. II,
No. 1, April 1973, pp. 7-14. : 'Iconographic Features of the Sixteen Jaina Mahāvidyās as Enunciated in the Iconographic
Texts', Sambodhi, Vol. V, Nos. 2-3, 1976, pp 69-73.
Jaina Pratimāvijñana, Varanasi, 1981. : Elements of Jaina Iconography, Varanasi, 1985. : 'Jivantasvāmi Images: A Study in Concept and Iconography'. Klaus Bruhn Felicitation
Volume, Humburg, 1994, pp. 580-96. : 'Jain Sculptures and Paintings in the United Kingdom', Kalā, Vol. III, 1996-97. : 'Jaina Iconography in Kushāņa Age', Jaina Vidyā, Vol. I, No. 1, Lucknow, pp. 106-116. : 'A Note on Some Bāhubali Images from North India', East and West, Vol. XXIII, Nos.
3-4, Sep.-Dec. 1973, pp. 347-53. : Khajurāho kā Jaina Puratattva, Khajuraho, 1987. : Ambikā in Jaina Art and Literature, New Delhi, 1989. : 'Jaina Art of Gupta Period', The Golden Age Gupta Art - Empire, Province and Influence,
Marg Publications, Ed. Karl Khandalavala, Bombay, 1991.
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INDEX
Abaneri, 287 Abhidhānacintamani, 329, 419 Abhinandana, 33, 267-268 Abhiseka-Lakşmi, 305, 328-329 Abu (Dilwara; see also Delvādā), 68-70, 74, 77, 107,
108, 112, 131, 140, 151, 181, 327 Acaladevi, 221 Ācāradinakara, 291, 298, 299, 301, 305, 306, 308, 320,
321, 329, 332, 334-336, 338 Acārāngasūtra, 11, 79, 337, 338, 424 Ācārya, 287, 290, 390, 411, 412, 414 Acchuptā, 110, 143, 152, 158, 320, 323 Acela-Kşapanaka, 113 Achalagarh, 278 Achyutarajapura, 270 Acyutā, 268, 291, 298, 320 Adhai-din-ka-Jhopra, 4 Adhäidvīpa, 413, 414 Adinātha (see also Rşabhanātha), 41, 61, 78, 86, 102,
104, 129, 132, 134, 135, 139, 140, 143, 166,
174, 177, 179, 242 Adinātha Temples
at Abad, 126-129
Halebid, 191, 239, 141-142 Khajuraho, 67, 71, 97, 101-102 Nadlai, 122-124 Śatruñjaya, 69, 177-179
Vadnagar, 68, 142-144 Adipurāņa, 195, 342, 343, 350, 376, 379, 381, 382, 406,
417, 419 Adiśakti, 339 Aditya, 337 Āghäța, 67, 126 Agneya, 337
Agni, 11, 62, 108, 159, 334-335 Ahad, 108, 126, 290 Ahicchatra, 25 Aihole, 2, 6, 24, 64, 187, 192, 193, 195, 228, 281, 282,
284, 294, 300, 310, 344 Jaina Cave, 60, 195 Jaina Temple near Carantimatha, 188, 192, 197-199 Triple Jaina Temple near Virupaksa Temple,
188, 192, 199-201 Aindrī, 321 Ajanta, 62, 375, 403, 404 Ajayapāla, 4, 69 Ajitā, 33, 35, 266, 271, 295, 296, 300 Ajitanātha, 86, 150, 160, 266-267, 327, 340 Ajitanātha Temple at Taranga, 3, 69, 70, 77, 145,
146-151 Ājivaka, 23, 24 Ajmer, 4, 67 Ākāśagangā, 35 Akbar, 84 Akkana-basadi at Śravanabelagola, 191, 213, 218-221,
246 Akota, 107, 142, 256, 264, 282, 286, 291, 308-310, 347 Alkāpurīgumphā at Udayagiri (Orissa), 28 Allahababad, 84, 93, 107, 271, 280, 290, 292, 310 Allata, 67 Alauddin, 70, 191 Aloka Pārsvanatha Temple at Nagda, 122 Aluara, 78, 270, 273, 275, 280, 286 Alwar, 112 Amalakappā, 8 Ambaji, 151 Ambikā, 33, 35, 43, 46, 48, 51-53, 55, 58, 62, 81, 88,
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Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
93, 96, 102, 112, 124, 132, 134, 144, 145, 152, 155, 158, 164, 166, 184, 203, 211, 245, 258, 260, 264, 265, 268, 269, 271-278, 280, 281, 283, 284, 286, 287, 291-293, 296, 298, 299,
308-311, 376, 408 Ambika-devi-stuti, 310, 311 Ambikanagar, 79
Jaina Temple, 81 Ambikā-Tadanka, 309, 311 Ammanagi, 310 Amminabhavi, 265 Amoghavarsa, 188, 189, 195, 253, 259 Anahillapāțaka, 3, 67-69, 92, 107, 142, 151 Anahillapura, 274 Ananda, 11, 14 Anandapura, 67 Ananta, 33, 113 Anantagumpha at Khandagiri, 32 Anantamati, 33, 101, 273, 303 Anantanātha, 273 Anantanātha-basadi at Lakşmeśvara, 189, 192, 233, 236 Anantavīrya, 303 Angadi, 190, 195, 223 Angadi, an anonymous Jaina Temple, 191, 225 Añjana, 12 Anjaneri Cave, 58 Anjar, 179 Ankai-Tankai, 2, 6, 24
Jaina Caves, 53-58 Annigeri, 195, 223
Jaina Temple, 188, 189, 193, 223
Ruined Jaina Temple, 223 Antagadadasão, 279, 291, 333 Antur, 356 Anupamādevī, 139 Anuyogadāra, 13 Anuyogadvārasutra, 425
Apraticakrā, 110, 319, 321, 322 Apsarā, 113, 260, 285, 403 Aranātha, 33, 107, 276 Arang, 66, 71, 106, 276
Bhända Devala Jaina Temple, 66, 106-107 Aranyarāja, 69 Arāsaņa, 151 Arāsura, 151 Aravalli, 131 Arhadbali, 195 Arihanta-caitya, 12 Ariştanemi, 385-387, 395 Arivar Kovil Cave at Sittannavasal, 61 Arjuna, 66 Armamalai Cave, 62 Arnorāja, 67, 68 Arsikeri, 335 Arthasāstra, 340 Aryavati, 353 Aryikā, 408, 415, 417 Aşādha, 391 Aşadhasena, 25 Āśäpuri, 67 Ashavakhera, 286, 333 Asoka, 23, 24, 78, 169, 272, 289 Ašokā, 301 Aśramapada park, 385 Astadikpāla, 206, 207, 212, 333-336 Astagraha, 93 Astamangala, 349-351, 415, 417 Astamangalika, 378 Astamätkä, 311 Astāpada, 77, 78, 113, 175 Astaprätiharya, 262, 263, 344, 419 Astavasu, 104 Aśvamedha, 179 Aśvaraja, 107 Aśvāvabodha, 278 Aśvāvabodhasamalikāvihäratīrtha, 156 Attiyabbe, 228
Aparajitā, 33, 276, 306, 316, 340, 385 Aparājitaprcchā, 297, 298, 300, 302, 306, 308, 315
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Index
459
Aupapātikasūtra, 12, 424 Aurangabad, 40 Auspicious symbols, 281, 329 Avadhūta, 79 Avanipasekhara Sri Vallabha, 62 Avanti, 92 Avasarpiņi, 254, 255, 381 Āvaśyakacürni, 12, 92, 424, 325 Āvaśyakaniryukti, 337, 343, 347, 419 Avaśyakatikä, 418 Ayägapata, 17, 22, 256, 281, 349, 351 Ayodhya, 83, 255, 294 Āyuska, 297 Ayyaņa II, 188 Azimaganj, 79 Badami, 2, 6, 24, 58, 187, 195, 281, 282, 284, 286,
314, 315, 344
Jaina Cave, 24 58-60, 195 Bāghagumpha at Udayagiri (Orissa), 30 Bahubali, 24, 43, 46, 48, 52, 60, 62, 79, 89, 135, 189,
205, 206, 258, 260, 263, 266, 282, 288, 340,
342-345, 348, 375, 382, 387, 411 Bahurūpini, 33, 277, 300, 307, 309 Bäjägharagumph at Udayagiri (Orissa), 28 Bajarangagarh, 275, 276, 296 Bajramath, 269, 277 Baladeva, 255 Balādevī, 309 Balagopālastuti, 377, 378 Balarāma, 97, 277-279, 287, 311 Balarampur, 79 Balipatta, 417 Balirāja, 67 Ballāla (Paramāra king), 68 Ballāla I (Hoysala king), 190, 191; II, 69, 245; III, 191 Banaskantha, 151 Banavāsi, 190, 191, 195, 226, 237 Bankura, 79, 81, 83 Banpur, 84, 91
Jaina Temple, 65, 70, 91
Bappabhattisūri, 310, 326 Bāpațlä, 356 Barabar, 23, 24 Barabhujīgumpha at Khandagiri, 33, 266-268, 271-278,
280, 286, 290, 292, 295-308, 314, 317 Barkola, 79 Bārappa, 67, 68 Baroda, 107, 142 Bateswar, 271, 273, 279, 280 Bāvanadhvaja Jinalaya at Sarotra, 69, 181-183 Bāvā Pyara Maha, 35 Belagavi, 246 Belagutti, 191 Belgaum, 190, 195, 226, 246
Jaina Temple, 194, 246-247 Belvola, 191 Berhampur, 79 Betwa, 37, 84 Bhadrabahu, 78, 79, 141, 195, 213, 247, 259, 283 Bhadrapura, 83 Bhadreshwar, Jaina Temple, 179-180 Bhadreśvara, 142, 179 Bhāgavata cult, 279 Bhagavati, 65, 179 Bhagavati Shrine, 62, 63 Bhagavatīsūtra, 12, 262, 291, 328, 338, 424 Bhairava, 332, 333 Bhairava-Padmavati-Kalpa, 310, 311, 313, 314 Bhairavi, 313 Bhaktămarastotra, 380 Bhamer Cave, 58 Bhar, 66 Bharata, 89, 135, 175, 377, 382, 387, 411 Bharata Muni, 258, 263, 266, 288, 342, 345-346 Bharatpur, 286 Bharhut, 13, 17, 22 Bhart,patta II, 67 Bhāşa, 426 Bhatariyār, 62 Bhattāraka, 3, 427, 429
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460
Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Bhauma, 30 Bhavadevasūri, 140 Bhavanavāsi, 254, 408, 415, 417, 418, 426 Bhavnagar, 142 Bhillama, 69, 189, 191 Bhillamäla, 69 Bhilsa, 68, 69 Bhima I, 68, 69, 189; II, 69 Bhimata, 30 Bhinmal, Mahāvīra Temple, 107 Bilhari, 328, 336, 343 Bodhisattva, 346 Bhoja (Paramāra), 66, 68, 70, 188 Bhoja (Pratīhāra), 65 Bhojpur, 78 Bhrkuţi Yakşa, 307-308 Bhubhata, 68 Bhūmija Temple, 106, 107, 129, 231 Bhümi-sajjei, 418 Bhurjapatra, 374 Bhūtabali, 35, 193 Bhūvikrama, 192 Bicana, 246 Bijapur, 195, 203, 207 Bijjala, 236 Bikaner, 79 Bilaspur, 66, 106 Bilhana, 378 Bogāra-basti at Humca, 190, 204-205, 206 Botika, 113 Brahmā, 97, 113, 272, 297, 330, 334, 335 Brahmadeva Pillar, 330 Brahma Jinālaya, 233 Brāhmana, 65, 67 Brahmāna, 112 Brahmāņagaccha, 112 Brahmānasvāmi Temple, 112 Brahmāņi, 96, 308 Brahmaśānti Yakşa, 113, 134, 158, 315, 330-331, 334 Brahma Yakşa, 129, 300, 301, 330
Brāhmi, 60, 266, 343, 345, 382, 386, 421 Brhaspati, 336 Brhatkalpasūtrabhāsya, 7, 418, 424 Brhatkathākośa, 12, 14 Brhatsamhita, 261, 263, 420 Broach, 142 Buddha, 11, 14, 122, 285, 340 Budhapur, 79 Budharāja, 187 Bukkā, 260 Burdwan, 79, 80, 275 Būtuga I and II, 187 Cāgaladevi, 206 Cāgi, 190 Cāhamāna, 66-69, 107, 122, 124 Caityālaya, 406 Caityaprāsādabhūmi, 415, 417 Caitya-tree, 418 Caityaväsin, 3, 13, 142 Cakraratna, 382 Cakravartin, 254, 345, 381, 384, 391 Cakrāyudha, 65 Cakreśvari, 33, 41, 86, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102, 104, 113,
124, 129, 134, 143, 144, 152, 155, 158, 159, 167, 170, 211, 245, 264, 265, 286, 291, 292,
294-295, 375 Cakreśvari Astakam, 294 Calukya of Badami, 24, 58, 187-188, 191, 195, 207 Cälukya of Kalyāna, 187, 188-189, 190, 193, 195, 205,
209, 213, 218, 226, 231-233 Cālukya of Vengi, 189, 192, 197, 233 Cambay, 3, 339, 350 Campā, 12, 78 Cāmundä, 33, 96, 101, 278, 308 Cāmundarāja, 68 Cámundarāya, 189, 218, 223, 248, 253, 259, 343 Cāmundarāya-basadi at Sravanabelagola, 221, 213-218 Candaka, 418 Candakāma, 333 Candakausika, 287, 387, 421
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461
Candāla, 394 Candanabālā, 287 Candella, 65, 66, 92, 96 Candra, 272, 336 Candragiri, 213, 221, 245 Candraguphā, 13, 37 Candragupta (Mauryan king), 7, 8, 79, 169, 195, 213,
253, 259, 279 Candragupta-basadi at Śravanabelagola, 192, 213 Candramauli, 221 Candraprabha, 33, 58, 201, 248, 270, 271, 348 Candraprabha Temples
at Aihole, 188, 201, 226, 228
Śravanabelagola, 221 Tirupparuttikunnam, 192, 247-248
Vijayamangalam, 192, 247, 248 Candrapur, 83 Candravati, 67, 69, 107, 125, 180, 272 Cāngalavas, 191 Capa or Capotkața, 3, 67, 68, 142 Caraņādri Hill, 40 Caraṇānuyoga, 381 Carantimatha at Aihole, 189, 192, 201-203 Cattaladevi, 207 Cattiga, 190 Caturānana, 297 Caturmukha Jinālaya, 274, 278, 289, 290, 351 Caturmukha Yaksa, 302, 303 Caturvidhasamgha, 156 Caturvimśatijinālaya, 112, 131, 156 Caturvimśati-Jina-Patta, 265, 273, 290 Caturvimsatikā, 318, 320-323 Caturviṁsatikā-Jina caritra, 342 Caubārā Derä II at Un, 105-106 Caulukya, 67-70, 107, 142, 145, 151, 172, 179, 186,
189, 253 Caumāsā, 415 Caumukha, 289 Caumukhi Jina, 267, 281, 288-290 Caupannamahāpuruşacariya, 425
Caurapañcāśikā, 378-380, 382 Cauvisi Image, 268, 274, 290, 317 Cavimayya, 242 Cedi, 23, 25, 189 Ceylon, 191 Chamar Cave, 58 Chandpur, 288, 353 Chandor Cave, 58 Chani, 331, 332 Chara, 79, 83 Chara, Jaina Temple, 83 Charampa, 264, 266, 275, 286 Chausa, 78, 256, 264, 281 Chhatarpur, 66 Chitaral, 62 Chitgiri, 79 Chittor, 68, 177, 309, 352 Chiyada, 79 Choțä Häthigumphã at Udayagiri (Orissa), 28 Choţä Kailasa at Ellora, 40-42, 192, 194 Citrakalpadrum, 424 Citra-kavya, 414 Citra-kavya-pata, 415 Citra-kathi, 413 Citra-kosa, 427 Citrapata, 413, 420 Citraphalaka, 424, 425 Citraśālā, 418, 426 Cittagāra-senim, 418, 426 Cittakamma, 418 Cittasabhā, 418, 425 Coimbatore, 248 Cola, 187-192, 223, 247, 248 Composite image, 277, 280, 287 Cūlakama, 31 Dabhoi, 70, 347 Dähala, 65, 68 Dakşa-Prajāpati, 333 Dakşina Kosala, 106 Damoh, 70, 92
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Dänaulāpādu, 356 Dantidurga, 188 Dārāsuram, 223 Dasaratha, 23, 24 Daśāśrutaskanda, 383 Daśavaikālikasūtra, 418, 424 Daśavaikālikațikā, 375 Daśāvatāra, 88 Deccan, 24, 64, 65, 71, 129 Delvādā, 253, 263, 264, 267, 274, 275, 280, 281, 286,
290, 294-296, 308-310, 312, 313, 315, 318,
321, 328, 330, 331, 339, 343, 350, 353 Deogadh, 64, 65, 77, 84, 85, 91, 258, 264-269, 272,
274-277, 279-282, 286, 288-290, 292-305, 307, 308, 310, 312-314, 316, 320-322, 324, 326-328,
332, 333, 336, 343, 344, 346, 352, 353 Deogadh, Jaina Temple Nos. 1-31, 84-91 Deoli, 79, 81
Jaina Temple, 81-83 Deśīgana, 33 Deulbhira, 79
Jaina Temple, 83 Deuliya, 79
Jaina Temple, 80-81 Devacandrasūri, 142 Devacchandaka, 13, 418 Devagiri, 69, 191 Devānandā, 384, 386, 387, 421 Devapāla, 65, 67 Devarddhigani Kșamāśramana, 142 Devasānopādo, 377, 386 Devasūri, 167 Devavarman, 66 Devimandala, 341 Devi Setti, 242 Dhanagharagumpha at Udayagiri (Orissa), 30-31 Dhanapāla, 70, 135 Dhanbad, 78 Dhandhuka, 68 Dhanga, 66
Dhank, 24, 274, 308, 310 Dhar, 69 Dhārä, 66, 68, 69, 189 Dharana, 385 Dharanendra, 60, 89, 94, 110, 213, 221, 229, 241, 245,
281-283, 285, 291, 292, 311, 312, 334, 387 Dharanīvarāha, 67-69 Dharapat, 79 Dharasenācārya, 13, 35, 37 Dharashiv Caves, 6, 39-40 Dharkata, 113 Dharmakathā, 398 Dharma or Dharmanātha, 33, 273, 274 Dharmapala, 65, 188 Dharmavidhi-prakarana, 416 Dharwad, 223, 225, 226, 231, 233, 236 Dhavala, 67 Dhruva, 65, 188 Dhulia, 58 Dhulisala, 415, 417, 418 Dhyānagumph) at Khandagiri, 32-33 Diggaja, 94, 100 Dikkumari, 381, 387 Dikpāla, 71, 91, 97, 101, 105, 108, 110-113, 117, 124,
125, 129, 140, 141, 287, 333, 334, 339, 341,
403
Dīkså, 383 Diksā-kalyāņaka, 382 Dināra, 391 Dorasamudra, 69, 189-191, 195, 223, 239 Drāvidasamgha, 195, 247 Dravida Style of temple, 192, 197, 210, 211, 231 Dravyānuyoga, 381 Dubkund, 65, 66 Dudhai, 264, 274, 275 Durgā, 325 Duritāri, 267, 296, 297 Durjanpur, 267, 296, 297 Durlabharaja (Caulukya king), 68 Durlabharāja II (Cāhamāna king), 67

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Index
463
Dussa-pata, 410
Gaurī, 33, 101, 272, 291, 301-302, 319, 323, 330 Dusyanta, 28
Gautama, 247 Dutavákya, 413, 425
Gautama Ganadhara, 381, 382, 394 Dviśälä, 418
Gayakarna, 68 Dvitïrthi, 287, 288
Ghanerav, 67, 69, 77, 113, 296, 318, 329, 331, 334, Early Cālukya Jaina Caves, 187
336 Ekaśālā, 418
Ghantai Temple at Khajuraho, 97, 102-105 Ellora, 2, 6, 24, 39, 40, 42, 187, 188, 192, 194, 253, Ghazni, 68
259, 265, 282,-287, 295, 310, 312, 343, 344, Girnar or Girinagar, 13, 35, 68, 69, 78, 141, 142, 169, 373, 375, 403, 404
280, 282, 302, 332, 335, 352, 353 Jaina caves, 40-52, 195
Gitagovinda, 377, 378 Ereyanga, 190
Goa, 68, 189 Ernakulam, 63
Godāsa, 79 Erotic figures, 258
Godāsagana, 79 Firmana, 415
Gomedha Yakşa, 278, 308-309 Fourteen Ratnas, 345
Gommata Hill, 221 Gāhadavāla, 68
Gommatasara, 221 Gaja-Lakşmi, 32, 112, 134, 155, 201, 207, 229, 328 Gommateśvara, 221-223, 260, 342 Ganapati, 341
Gomukha Yakşa, 159, 264, 265, 286, 291-294 Ganapati-Pratisthā, 329
Gond, 66 Ganda, 66
Gopa and Gopi, 257 Gandha-kuti, 418
Gośarma, 39 Gāndhāri, 33, 272, 278, 302, 308, 320, 323
Govardhana, 408 Gandharva Yaksa, 305
Govinda II, 188; III, 65, 69, 188 Gandhavala, 333
Govindarāja, 245 Gandhidham, 179
Grāmadevata, 349 Ganesa, 30, 33, 96, 255, 282, 311, 329-330
Greek, 4 Gaņeśagumphā at Udayagiri (Orissa), 30
Gudar, 276 Gaņeśa leņa, 403
Guddada-basti at Humca, 109, 205-206 Gangā, 51, 71, 85, 88, 89, 91, 92, 94, 102, 105, 110, Guhadatta, 67 114, 126, 158, 159, 341
Guhanandin, 79 Ganga of Talakad, 62, 188-190, 192, 195, 210, 217, Guhil, 67, 107 236, 246, 248
Gulbarga, 233, 265, 283, 312 Ganga Perumāndi, 223
Guna, 290 Gangarāja, 191, 213, 223, 241, 245
Guņākara, 389 Gangavādi, 210, 213
Gunabhadra, 253 Gardabhilla, 389
Guņasundara, 389 Garuda, 33, 96, 110, 274, 304
Gupta (Imperial), 13, 23, 24, 64, 65, 77-79, 92, 106, Gauda, 65
142, 256, 263, 264, 279 Gaukul, 79
Gupta Temples, 92
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464
Gurgi, 279, 353
Gvaleśvara Temple at Un, 106
Gwalior, 65, 66, 268, 272, 278, 282, 308, 333 Gyaraspur, 64, 71, 77, 93, 257, 274, 280, 284, 286, 295
298, 301, 302, 304, 307, 312, 314, 316, 336 Mälädevi Temple, 65, 70, 74, 93-96 Hagargundagi, 310
Halakhiņā, 30
Halebid, 190-192, 195, 239, 241, 242
Adinatha Temple, 241-242 Parsvanatha Temple, 239-241 Śantinatha Temple, 242
Hallur, 203, 207
Jaina Temple, 188, 193, 195, 203-204, 228 Hangal, 190, 195, 226, 237
Jaina Temple, 190, 194, 237-239
Hanumana, 340
Harasur, 189, 192, 225
Hari, 122
Haricandra, 65
Haridasa, 31
Haridasagumpha at Udayagiri (Orissa), 31
Hariharapitämaha, 287
Harikeśa, 394
Harinaigameșī, 287, 384, 387, 423 Harisena, 14
Harmashra, 79
Encyclopaedia of Jaina Studies
Jaina Temple, 83
Harpalpur, 96
Harṣa, 64, 187
Harṣacarita, 428
Harsur, 356
Hassan, 213, 223, 239, 242, 244
Hastikundi, 67
Hastinapura, 83
Hathi gumpha, 25, 27, 30, 255
Hathma, 294
Haveli, 414

Heggere, 191, 195, 243 Hemacandra, 69, 92, 142, 254 Heragu, 195, 242 Himādevī, 306
Himalaya, 131
Indragiri, 223
Indrānī, 96
Harivamsapuraṇa, 68, 258, 261, 279, 291, 310, 311, Indranila, 418
318, 340, 341, 343
Hingalajgarh, 310 Hiravijayasūri, 132
Hiuen Tsang, 78, 79, 142
Holi, 257
Hoysala, 187, 189, 190, 193, 195, 209, 213, 218, 223, 225, 239, 241, 242, 245, 260, 335
Hrmkära mantrapata, 413
Hubli, 310
Huli, 189, 192, 195, 236-237
Humca, 190, 192, 195, 204, 210, 223, 271, 284, 312,
314
Hūņa, 4
Ikṣvāku, 17, 23
Iltutmish, 69
Indore, 105
Indra 108, 114, 297, 333-335, 345, 382-384, 412, 415,
418
Indra III (Raṣṭrakūta king), 188
Indradhvaja, 352
Indra Sabha at Ellora, 39, 43-48, 52, 373, 403
Indrayudha, 65
Iramadeva, 189
Iśāna, 110, 334, 336
Isänendra, 42
Iśvara, 267, 291, 297, 301
Jabalipura, 69
Jabalpur, 66
Jagadekamalla, 189
Jagannathagumpha at Udayagiri (Orissa), 31 Jagannatha Sabha at Ellora, 48-52, 403
Jagatsvamini, 310
Jaina Bhandara, 373, 386, 389, 411, 412, 416, 419, 421,

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Index
465
427-429 Jaina Council, 142 Jaipur, 3, 66, 67, 107, 122, 124 Jaisalmer, 3, 117 Jājalladeva I, 66 Jakkabe, 242 Jalaun, 265 Jalore, 253, 278 Jambeśvaragumpha at Udayagiri (Orissa), 30 Jambūdvipa, 413, 414, 416 Jambūdvipaprajñapti, 12, 424 Jāmbūnanda, 319 Janmābhiseka, 408 Janma-kalyānaka, 338 Jasahada, 172 Jasaharacariyu, 398 Jayā, 33, 271, 275, 276, 305, 339, 341 Jayadāman, 37 Jayadhavalā, 14 Jayakesi, 190 Jayanta, 340 Jayasimha (Caulukya king), 68, 375 Jayasimha II (Western Calukya king), 188-190 Jayāvijayāgumpha at Udayagiri (Orissa), 29 Jhadoli, śāntinātha Temple, 69, 108, 140 Jhalawar, 66, 69, 139 Jhalda, 79 Jhalrapatana, 108, 313, 139
Sāntinātha Temple, 66, 139-140 Jinabhadragani Kşamäśramana, 310 Jinacarita, 383, 421 Jinadatta, 190 Jinadevana, 218 Jinakāñci, 192, 247 Jinanāthapuram, 191, 192, 195, 245, 295, 327 Jinanäthasūri, 375 Jinaprabhasūri, 12, 14, 331 Jinasattva, 255 Jinasena, 14, 253 Jināyatana, 12
Jindaka, 112 Jivājīvābhigama, 13 Jivantasvāmi, 92, 111, 131, 277, 286, 342, 346-348 Jivantasvāmī Mahāvīra, 254, 255, 268 Jivantasvāmi Santinātha, 348 Jivantasvāmi sitalanatha, 348 Jñāna-bāzi, 412 Jñana-caupada, 412 Jñātādharmakathā, 418, 424-426 Jñātā-sútra. 338 Jñāti-sandavana, 385 Jodhpur, 65-67, 107, 108 Junagadh, 2, 5, 13, 23, 169, 183 Junagadh, Jaina Caves, 35-37, 142 Jvālā, 270 Jvālāmālini, 33, 201, 299, 319-320 Jyotiska, 254, 418 Kacchapaghäta, 65, 66, 92 Kadamba, 68, 187, 189, 190, 226, 231, 237 Kadayanallur, 61 Kahaum, 256, 352 Kahāvali, 263, 291 Kailāšanātha, 403 Kailasanatha Temple (Cave No. 16) at Ellora, 40-42,
188 Kakatpur, 270 Kalacuri, 65, 66, 68, 106, 107, 188 Kālaka, 142, 389 Kālakācāryakathā, 375-377, 389-391 Kali, 33, 101, 211, 267, 269, 319, 322 Kālikabbe, 226 Kalinga, 65, 78 Kalingaraja, 66, 106 Kalisetti, 226 Kāliyadamana, 257, 408 Kallil Cave, 63 Kalpapradipa, 330, 348 Kalpasūtra, 262, 328, 331, 333, 334, 338, 344, 347,
350, 375, 377, 383-388, 391, 419-421 Kalpavāsi, 415, 417, 418
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Kalpavāsideva, 405
Karna (Caulukya king), 68, 69 Kalpavrkşa, 408
Karna (Kalacuri king), 188, 189 Kalugumalai, 282, 286, 310, 314
Karna Chopar Cave, 24 Kalyāna, 188, 190, 195, 205
Karnāta, 67 Kāmadeva, 229, 255, 340-341
Kārttikeya, 302, 305, 341 Kamadeva and Rati, 97, 341
Karur, 357 Kamalarāja, 66
Kāšī, 66, 79 Kāmasutra, 413, 424
Katra, 280, 286 Kamatha, 283, 284, 311, 312, 385, 387
Katthakamma, 418 Kamatheśvara Temple at Heragu, 242
Kaumāri, 96, 302 Kambadahalli, 190, 192, 193, 195, 210, 212, 218, 287, Kaumudi Mahotsava, 424 335
Kausāmbi, 83, 107, 271, 274, 275, 290, 300 Pancakūtabasti, 210-212
Kavadamayya, 242 śāntinātha-basti, 212
Kela, 134, 327 Kamisāvati, 81
Kendua, 79 Kamma, 30
Kesi, 396 Kampilya, 83
Ketu, 336 Kanakamañjari, 425
Kevala-kalyāņaka, 417 Kanakamara, 39
Khajuraho, 66, 70, 71, 77, 92, 96, 104, 253, 258, 263, Kāñci, 24, 191, 247
265, 267-269, 271, 272, 275, 280-282, 286-288, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple
290, 293-296, 298, 305, 308, 310, 312, 314at Khajuraho, 96
318, 327-329, 332, 333, 335-337, 339, 341, Kandarpa, 273, 304
343, 344, 353 Kankāli Țilā, 2, 12, 14, 17, 84, 253, 269, 279, 285, Khajuraho Temples, 96-105 287, 288
Adinātha Temple, 101-102 Kannauj, 64-66, 68, 92, 107, 187, 188
Ghantai Temple, 102-105 Kanthkot, 69, 142, 184
Parśvanātha Temple, 97-101 Kanyakubja, 65
Khandagiri, 1, 2, 5, 11, 23, 25, 257, 264, 268, 269, Kanyakumari, 62, 283
271-276, 282, 286, 288, 295, 296, 306, 310, Kāpālika, 398, 400
314, 317, 329, 330 Kaparddi, 134, 330, 331-332
Khandagirigumphā, 32 Karahāțaka, 189
Khandesh, 52 Karaikoyil, 282, 344
Kharatada, 430 Karakanducariu, 39
Kharataravasahi, 272, 290, 318, 330, 334, 335 Karanja, 36
Khāravela, 23, 25, 28-30, 253, 255 Karitalai, 277
Khargon, 105 Karkal, 277, 343
Khatika-bhūmi, 414 Karkka II, 188
Khedabrahma, 27 Karmānuyoga, 381
Khimvasar, 347 Karmă säha, 177, 179
Kilakuyilkudi, 286, 287
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Kirtideva, 233
Kirttistambha, 91, 352
Kirttivarman, 66, 187, 188, 190
Kokalla, 65, 106
Kolhapur, 3
Kolkata, 79, 270, 290, 307 Kondakundanvaya, 233
Kondanúra, 226
Kongālavas, 191
Konkan, 68
Konnur, 195, 226
Jaina Temple, 190, 226
Krsoaraja, 69
Kṣamapana, 414
Kṣamapana-patrikā, 411, 412
Kṣatrapa, 23
Kṣemankara, 337
Kṣetrapala, 270, 286, 332-333, 341, 352
Ksetrasamäsa Prayaścitta, 416.
Index
Koṣā, 387
Kothāji, 31
Kundagrāma, 78
Kotivarsiya, 79
Kundakunda, 195, 247, 259
Kṛṣṇa, 97, 139, 257, 263, 277-280, 287, 311, 386, 387, Kundalpur, 70, 77, 92 396, 408
Kuntala, 65
Kṛṣṇa I, 188; II, 65, 188; III, 189
Kṛṣṇa Deva Raya, 260
Kşullaka, 399, 400
Kubera, 58, 97, 110, 159, 217, 269, 276, 279, 281, 283, 287, 291, 306, 308, 309, 315, 334-336, 346
Kodepasiri, 29
Kuhandimandala, 190, 195, 246
Kulacandra, 33
Kulakara, 381
Kullotunga II, 348; III, 191
Kulūta, 65
Kumāra, 272, 302
Kumaragupta, 92
Kumāra Hill, 35
Kumarapala, 68, 70, 92, 107, 142, 145, 151, 177, 179,
253, 347

Kumari river, 81 Kumbhapurusa, 114
Kumbharia, 70, 142, 151-169, 258, 263, 264, 266-269,
272-276, 278, 279, 281, 282, 284, 286, 287, 290, 294-296, 299, 300, 308-310, 313, 315, 318-324, 327, 329-332, 335, 339, 343, 346, 350, 353
Mahavira Temple, 151-156 Neminatha Temple, 163-167
Pārsvanatha Temple, 160-163 Sambhavanatha Temple, 167-169 Śantinatha Temple, 156-160
Kumudacandra, 375, 411
Kunthunätha, 33, 107, 275, 275, 276
Kuppalanatham, 269
Kurudeśa, 39
Kuṣaṇa, 4, 13, 17, 22, 23, 262, 263, 266, 267, 279,
285, 287, 289
Kuṣmaṇḍī, 197, 213, 248, 278
Kusuma, 31, 268, 298
Kutch, 68, 179, 184
Kuvalayamäläkahā, 416-425
Ladel, 293
Ladnun, 328
Läḍha, 79
Laghusanigrahanisütra, 420
Läkhā, 68
467
Lakkundi, 189, 195, 226, 335
Great Jaina Temple, 192, 226, 228-229, 231
Naganatha Temple, 229-230
Jaina Temple No. 2, 231 Virabhadra Temple, 231 Lakṣamaṇarāja, 66, 67
Laksamana Temple at Khajuraho, 66 Lakṣmesvara, 189, 192, 193, 195, 233 Laksmi, 167, 207, 265, 328-329

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Lakşmikarna, 68 Lakşmi-Nārāyana, 97 Lakşmiśvaramandapa, 405, 415, 417 Lalāțendukeśarīgumpha at Khandagiri, 35 Lalitādevī, 185 Lalitpur, 70, 91 Lāța, 188 Laukantika gods, 337, 383, 384 Laurcanda, 377, 379 Lāvanyasimha, 139 Lepya-kamma, 418 Lodravā, 108
Jaina Temple, 67, 117-120 Lohanipur, 78, 255 Lokapala, 333 Lokapuruşa, 413, 416 Lokkigundi, 226 Loņaśobhikā, 17, 22 Loyaņa, 134, 327 Lucknow, 14, 84 Lūņavasahi at Abu, 69, 74, 77, 135-139, 169, 257, 276,
278, 280-282, 309, 312, 313, 318, 327, 331,
335, 352 Madanakirtti, 122 Madanpur, 275, 276 Madhyadeśa, 67 Madura, 192 Magadha, 24, 65, 78, 141, 195, 247 Mahabalipuram, 191 Mahabhairava, 341 Mahābhārata, 378 Mahadevī Nāyakiti, 245 Mahākāli, 33, 268, 271, 297, 300, 319, 322 Mahākosala, 106 Mahālakṣmi, 328 Mahāmadā, 30 Mahāmānasi, 33, 101, 274, 275, 300, 304-305, 320, 324 Mahāparinibbānasutta, 14 Mahapurāņa, 253, 259, 342, 345, 378, 379, 381, 418 Mahāvarsa, 11, 413
Mahāvarāha, 68 Mahāvata, 407 Mahāvidyā, 255, 257, 268, 274, 295, 300, 307, 318,
412, 420 Mahāvīra, 8, 12, 25, 33, 35, 43, 46, 48, 51, 60-63,
67, 78, 79, 83, 92, 107, 117, 122, 129, 131, 135, 144, 152, 180, 185, 211, 247, 256, 263, 285-288, 333, 340, 341, 346, 347, 383, 384,
387, 391, 393-395, 397, 405, 411, 412 Mahāvīracaitya, 117 Mahāvīracarita, 375 Mahāvīrācārya, 259 Mahāvīra Temples
at Āghāta, 67
Ghanerav, 67, 113-117 Kanthkot, 69, 77, 184-186 Kumbharia, 68, 151-156, 158, 160, 163, 167 Nana, 125-126 Nandia, 126 Osian, 65, 74, 77, 108-112 Sewadi, 129-131 Vadnagar, 144-145
Varman, 112 Mahayaksa, 295 Mahendra, 67 Mahendrapāla, 65 Mahendravarman I, 60, 61, 191, 247 Maheśvarī, 96 Mahīpala, 65, 188 Mahlakadeva, 70 Mahmūd, 68 Mahoba, 268 Maihar, 280 Maitraka, 142 Mālādevi Temple at Gyaraspur, 65, 74, 77, 93-96, 114,
122, 233, 280, 296, 298, 301, 302, 304, 311,
316, 336 Malanad, 204 Mālavä (see also Malwa), 68-70, 105, 189 Malik Kāfür, 191
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469
Malkhed, 188, 189
Mayanallādevī, 68 Mallavādin, 142
Medapāța, 67, 107 Mallikarjuna, 68
Meghamālī, 284, 285 Mallikarjuna Temple at Puspagiri, 191, 192, 242 Megharatha, 275 Mallinātha, 33, 242, 254, 276-277
Meguti Temple at Aihole 64, 187, 195-197, 310 Malwa (see also Mālavā), 69, 188, 190
Meha, 140 Mańkha (story teller), 373, 424
Mehsana, 142, 145 Mānasära, 261, 263
Mekala, 65 Manasi, 33, 101, 170, 268, 273, 304, 320, 324 Melgudi Temple at Hallur, 203-204 Mānastambha, 91, 212, 221, 225, 226, 248, 296, 314, Melkote Cave, 60 352, 418
Melsittamur, 282, 344 Manavi, 272, 291, 301-302, 320
Meru, 77, 139, 175 Manbhum, 264, 275
Mewar, 67, 79 Mañcapuri-Svargapurīgumphā at Udayagiri (Orissa), Miani, 69, 142, 183 29-30
Jaina Temple, 69, 183-184 Mandala, 341
Modhera, 142 Mandoil, 275
Moodbidri, 268, 269, 271-278, 280, 290, 310 Māndu, 378
Mrgāvati, 377, 379 Mandya, 210
Mudrārāksasa, 425 Mangala-dravya, 418
Mughal, 120 Mangaleśa, 187
Mūlarāja I, 67-69; II, 69, 70 Manibhadra, 291, 309
Mulgund, 195, 231 Manmatha, 245
Jaina Temple No. 1, 189, 192, 231; No. 2, 232 Manovegā, 33, 101, 268, 270, 298
Mundasthala, Jaina Temple, 141 Mantrādhirājakalpa, 297-299, 303, 305, 307, 308, 313, Mungthala, 69, 107, 108, 141 316, 321-323, 334
Munisuvrata, 33, 78, 263, 277-278, 348 Manusmrti, 338
Muñja, 67, 70, 188 Mānyakheta, 65, 188, 195
Murula, 65, 189 Mārasimha II, 187, 221
Muslim, 4, 24, 64, 65, 69, 78, 84, 107, 120, 141, 187, Marubhūti, 284
236 Marudevī, 381, 382, 386
Mysore, 60 Marwar, 141
Nābhi, 381, 382, 386 Mātanga, 269, 285, 291, 298, 299, 315
Nachana, 256, 282 Mathen, 413
Naddula, 66, 67 Mathura, 3, 5, 12, 14, 22, 83, 84, 107, 253, 256, 257, Nadduladāgikā, 122
264, 267, 269, 270, 274, 277, 279-282, 295, Nadlai, 67, 108, 122, 256, 329 310-312, 326, 333, 337, 349, 351, 353
Adinatha Temple, 70, 122-124 Jaina Stupa, 14-22
Nadol, 66, 67, 107, 108, 122, 124, 274, 318 Mauni-Siddhānta Bhattaraka, 206
Neminātha Temple, 124 Maurya, 3, 5, 23, 24, 78, 187, 195, 213
Padmaprabha Temple, 125
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śāntinātha Temple, 124 Nāgabhata, 65, 107, 142, 188, 253 Nāga-cult, 281 Nagada, 67, 107, 122, 313 Nāgadeva, 228, 334 Nägadraha (snake-lake), 122 Nagai, 195, 233 Nagai, Jaina Temple, 189 Nāganātha, 229 Näganātha Temple at Lakkundi, 229-231 Nāgara Brāhmana, 142 Nāgara Prāsāda, 203 Nāgara Sikhara, 210, 211 Nāgarika, 424 Nāgārjuna, 142 Nāgārjuna Kothari Cave, 52-53 Nagarjuni, 23, 24 Nāgāvaloka (see also Nāgabhata), 65 Nāgendra, 225, 226 Naigamesa, 131, 155, 156, 164 Naigameși, 275, 333 Nākiya, 30 Nala, 106, 187 Nalacaritanataka, 424 Nāladiyār, 248 Nalanda, 24 Nallur, 310 Nami, 33 Naminātha, 278 Namokāra-mantra, 383 Nana, 69, 108, 125 Nanda, 78 Nandarāja, 255 Nandi, 204, 237 Nandi, 195 Nandia, 69, 108, 126 Nandigrāma, 126 Nandiśvaradvīpa, 12, 77, 113, 164, 351, 352 Nandyāvarta, 276 Nannuka, 66
Nārada, 255, 340 Naradatta, 268 277, 291, 307, 319, 322 Narasimha I, 191, 242; II, 191, 239; III, 191 Narasimhavarman I Māmalla, 187, 191 Narasimhavarman II Rājasimha, 192 Naravähana, 67 Nārāyanapāla, 65 Narmada, 66 Narrative scenes, 263, 266, 275, 280 Narwar, 65, 267, 268, 273, 274, 276, 277 Nasik, 58 Natyaśālā, 417, 418 Navadvipa, 416 Navagraha, 86, 100, 104, 114 Navakāra-mantra, 278 Navalakhā Pārsvanatha Temple at Pali, 117 Navalakhā Temple at Sejakpur, 175 Navamunigumpha at Khandagiri, 33, 266, 267, 280,
295-297, 302, 314, 330 Nayacakra, 142 Näyādhammakahão, 10, 276, 279 Nemi, 33 Nemicandra, 221 Neminātha, 35, 78, 83, 89, 91, 93, 135, 136, 139, 163,
164, 169, 170, 197, 217, 245, 263, 278-281,
287, 288, 299, 309, 311, 383, 385, 387 Nemināthacarita, 333, 375 Neminātha's Kalyāņakas, 141 Neminātha Temples at Girnar, 169-172
Kumbharia, 64, 74, 156, 163-167, 177, 183 Nadlai, 124
Nadol, 124 Nidhi, 40, 209, 239, 418 Nidhi-pātra, 308, 309 Nilanjanā, 382 Nilgiri, 131, 187 Nirdosa-citrakarma, 419 Nirgrantha, 78, 79 Nirrti, 108, 159, 333-335 Nirvāņakalikā , 282, 291, 293-311, 313, 315, 316, 320,
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471
321, 323, 331, 332, 334-336, 338, 340 Nirvāṇī, 110, 113, 124, 274, 304-305, 339 Nisioi Tal, 96 Nišithabhāsya, 411 Niśīthacūrni, 92 Nītimārga II, 189 Nittur, 191, 195, 242 Nolamba, 189 North Arcot, 60, 62 Nowgong, 278 Nrpakāma, 190 Ogha-niryukti, 375 Osavāla, 108 Osian, 64, 71, 77, 107, 108, 253, 264, 269, 281-283,
307, 308, 310, 312, 313, 318, 320, 321, 324. 327, 329, 331, 334, 347, 348, 353
Mahāvīra Temple, 65, 74, 108-112 Pabhosa, Jaina cave, 23, 24, 275 Pādamulika, 31 Padhavali, 275 Padmacarita, 415 Padmananda Mahākāvya, 421 Padmanidhi, 205, 225 Padmaprabha, 33, 268-269 Padmaprabha Temple at Nadol, 125, 140 Padmapuräņa, 342 Padmaräga, 418 Padmavati, 33, 60, 62, 89, 94, 101, 113, 160, 204, 206,
213, 221, 223, 233, 245, 281-283, 285, 286,
291, 292, 295, 299, 312-314 Padmāvati Temples
at Angadi, 223
Humca, 206-207 Padmideva, 239 Paharpur, 14, 79, 289 Pahlava, 4 Pajjosaņakalpa, 383 Pakbira, 79, 272, 275, 290
Jaina Temple, 80 Pāla, 64, 65, 79
Paladi, 270 Pali, 69, 71, 108, 113, 117, 122, 125, 129, 140 Palitana, 177 Pallava, 24, 61, 187, 191-192, 247 Pallivālagaccha, 117 Pallu, 328 Palma, 79 Palm-leaf, 373, 374, 378, 389, 411, 421, 430 Panasagumpha at Udayagiri (Orissa), 29 Pañcadasi, 413 Pañcāgni-tapa, 385 Pancakalyānakas, 165, 263, 266, 275, 280, 350, 383,
419 Pancakalyānakas of Mahāvīra, 156, 159
Neminātha, 159 Parsvanatha, 159 Rşabhanātha, 156, 159
Sāntinātha, 156, 159 Pancaküța-basti at Humca, 190, 206, 207 Pancaküta-basti at Kambadahalli, 192, 193, 310-212,
218 Pancakūta Jaina Temple, 335 Pañcalingesvara Temple at Huli, 189, 192, 236-237 Pañcapāndava Cave at Vilappakkam, 60-61 Pañcaparamesthin, 254, 383 Pancäsara Pärsvanatha Temple at Anahillapätaka, 68,
142 Pañcastūpanikaya, 14 Pancastupānvaya, 79, 342 Pañcatirthi, 268-273, 278, 416 Pañcatirthi-pața, 414, 416, 420 Pāndava, 179 Pāņduvamsi, 106 Pandya, 62, 191, 192 Para, 79 Paramāra, 66-70, 92, 106, 107, 125, 180, 188 Parameśvaravarman I, 191, 192 Paranagara, 112 Parasistaparva, 426 Parasurama, 97
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Parent of Jina, 290, 352-353 Paresanath, 79
Pärsvanātha Temple, 81 Pärśva (Śrāvaka), 243 Pārsvābhyudayakāvya, 284 Pārsvanatha, 12, 14, 23, 33, 35, 39, 41, 43, 46, 48,
51, 52, 55, 58, 60-62, 67, 78, 83, 89, 96, 110, 114, 117, 122, 132, 141, 159, 160, 164, 166, 169, 174, 180, 201, 205-207, 211, 218, 221, 225, 229, 241, 242, 245, 253, 255 263, 281
285, 288, 292, 330, 349, 383, 385, 387 Pārsvanāthacarita, 313 Pärśvanātha-Hrmkāra-pața, 339 Parávanātha Temples
at Halebid, 191, 192, 239-242
Heggere, 191, 243-245 Heragu, 242 Humca, 190, 206 Khajuraho, 66, 70, 71, 74, 77, 97-101, 102,
104, 258 Kumbharia, 68, 160-163 Kuppatur, 233 Nadlai, 124 Nagai, 233 Nagda, 67 Nittur, 191 Paresanath, 81 Phalodhi, 141 Sadri, 140-141
Sravanabelagola, 189, 213, 218 Pārvati, 97 Pārśva Yakşa, 129, 281, 311-312, 330 Paryüşana, 383, 389, 415 Pāsanāhacariu, 284, 285 Pata, 419, 427 Patacitra, 373, 413-416 Pätälapurīgumphā at Udayagiri (Orissa), 29 Pātāla Yakşa, 303 Patali, 378, 411, 412, 420 Pataliputra, 3, 78
Patan, 3, 68, 107, 271, 272, 331, 339, 353 Patancheru, 270 Patian Dai Jaina Temple at Pithaora, 65, 92-93 Patna, 3, 78 Patna Caves, 52-53 Pattadakal, 207
Jaina Temple, 188, 195, 207-210, 228 Pattankudi, 283 Patti-Pombulccapura, 204 Paumacariyam, 262, 291, 318, 326, 334, 342, 347 Pecciparai Cave, 61 Penukonda, 283 Persian, 4 Perumbavur, 63 Phalavardhikā, 141 Phalodhi, 108, 141
Jaina Temple, 67 Päpä Sāha, 140 Pitalkhora, 52 Pithaora, 64, 92 Pitta, 236 Porbandar, 183, 273 Pottasingidi, 264 Poyagaimalai, 280 Prabandhacintamani, 411 Prabhāsapātana, 270 Prabhāvakacarita, 142, 411 Pradyota, 92 Pradyumna, 34 Prajñapti, 33, 93, 319, 321 Prāsädaputra, 110 Praśnavyākaranasūtra, 338 Pratäpamalla, 66 Prathamānuyoga, 381 Pratihära, 64-67, 69, 92, 107, 108, 112, 142, 188, 339,
340 Prātihärya, 420 Pratimāsarvatobhadrikā, 256, 288-290 Pratisthäsarasangraha, 263, 291, 293-295, 297-307, 313,
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473
Pratisthāsāroddhāra, 262, 271, 291, 293, 295-308, 311,
313, 315, 334, 336, 339, 340, 420 Prativāsudeva, 255 Pravacanamātā, 396 Prayāgatirtha, 272 Prthvi, 338 Prthvideva, 66 Pșthvīpāla, 69, 135, 142 Pệthvīrāja III, 67, 69 Prthvi-silā-patta, 349 Puchra, 79 Pudukkottai, 265, 295 Pulakesin I, 187; II, 187, 195, 197 Pulīndra, 133 Puliyappai, 248 Pundarika, 177 Pundravardhanīya, 79 Punnata-samgha, 342 Puri, 25 Pūrnabhadra, 12, 291, 309 Pūrnabhadra-caitya, 12 Purrigere, 233
Jaina Temple, 189 Purulia, 79-81, 83, 264 Puruşadattā, 33, 101, 268, 297, 318, 319, 322 Puskara, 62 Puşpadanta, 35, 195, 259, 271-272 Puspagiri, 191, 192, 195, 242 Puspottara, 384, 387 Pusta-kamma, 418 Putana-vadha, 408 Rācamalla, 223, 248,; II, 189; IV, 189 Radhanpur, 267-274 Rāhū, 336, 337 Raipur, 66, 71, 106, 273 Raivatakagirikalpa, 172 Rājādhirāja (Cola king), 189 Rajagrih, 24, 78 Rājamalla, 84 Rajapraśniyasūtra, 425
Räjarăjeśvara Temple, 405 Rajasekhara, 65 Rajasimha, 247 Rājendra Cola, 188 Rajghat, 279 Rajgir, 2, 5, 23, 24, 256, 258, 262, 264-267, 277, 279,
285-287, 289, 307, 353 Cave, 24
Jaina Temple, 78 Rājīmatī, 136 Rajorgadh, Jaina Temple, 65, 107, 112-113 Rājyapāla, 66 Rājyapura, 112 Rāma, 227 Rāmabhadra, 65 Rämagupta, 92, 270 Rāmanātha, 191 Ramatha, 65 Rāmāyana, 335 Raņakesi, 190 Ranakpur, 70, 140, 264, 282, 290, 351, 353 Rānīgumphå at Udayagiri (Orissa), 25, 27-28 Ranjitā, 413 Ranna, 188 Rāstrakūta, 24, 40, 64, 65, 67, 69, 188, 190, 195, 203,
207, 210, 232, 233 Rasuigumphā at Udayagiri (Orissa), 31 Ratanarāja, 66 Ratanpur, 66, 83, 106 Rati, 229, 245 Ratna, 78 Ratta, 190, 195, 246 Ratta Jinālaya at Belgaum, 190, 246-247 Ravikīrtti, 195, 197 Rayadurg, 290 Rayapaseniyasutta, 8-10, 13, 19 Recimayya, 245 Revataka, 386 Revatidvīpa, 187
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Rgveda, 11 Rohiņi, 33, 125, 159, 266, 295-296, 318, 320 Rohtak, 330 Roman, 4 Ron, Jaina Temple, 189, 192, 195, 232 Rsabhadatta, 384 Rşabhadeva, 387 Rşabha or Rşabhanātha, 33, 35, 78, 81, 83, 91, 101,
141, 159, 255, 256, 263-266, 287, 292, 337,
340, 342, 345, 348, 381-383, 386, 387 Rudra, 340, 355 Rudramahālaya at Siddhapur, 177 Rudrasimha I, 37 Sabarmati, 69 Sabhūti, 30 Sadhanamālā, 325 Sadoșacitrakarma, 419 Sadri, 318, 335
Jaina Temple, 67, 108, 140-141 Sahadol, 269, 272, 314 Sahasrakūta, 84, 91, 113 Sahasraphaņa Pārsvanätha, 282 Sahet-Mahet, 268, 272, 308 Saila, 78 Saivite impact, 258 Sajjana, 142 Saka, 4, 389, 390 sākambharī, 66-69, 107, 122, 124 Sakra, 387, 393, 421 Śakti, 292, 309 Saktikumāra, 67 Sakunikā-vihāra-tirtha, 278 Sakuntala, 28 Salabhañjikā, 8, 9, 11, 13, 22, 29, 98, 138, 417 Salākāpuruşa, 253, 257, 340, 345, 412 Salibhadra Mahanucarita, 380 Sāligrāma, 310 Salivāhana, 67 Sallekhanā, 408 Samanarmalai, 357
Samantabhadra, 191 Samarāiccakaha, 398 Samatata, 79 Samavasaraņa, 77, 113, 135, 156, 159, 288, 289, 349
350, 352, 382, 383, 385, 387, 390, 391, 403
405, 408, 414, 417-420 Samavāyāngasutra, 428 Sambara, 284, 285 Sambhar, 66 Sambhavanātha, 33, 78, 138, 167, 267 Sambhavanātha Temples at Kumbharia, 69, 167-169
Taranga, 68, 145-146 Samgrahaņi-sütra, 416 Samhitāsāra, 318 Samipāti, 129 Sammeta-Sikhara, 352 Samprati, 23, 24, 78, 142, 253 Samudramanthana, 257 Samudravijaya, 385 Samyukta Nikāya, 413 Sanchi, 13, 17, 22, 289 Sangamaka, 387, 421 Sangama Deva, 285, 287 Samgita-mandapa, 405 Sani, 336 Sanka, 79 Sankha-basadi at Lakşmeśvara, 189, 192, 193, 233-236 Sankha-Jinālaya, 280 Sankhanidhi, 205, 225 Sankhapāla, 114 Sankhapurusa, 97 Şanmukha, 272, 273, 302-303 Santaladevi, 253, 260, 263 Sāntara, 190, 195, 204, 210, 246 śānticarita, 420 śāntidevi, 269, 271, 273, 274, 338-339 śāntigrha, 338 śāntikara, 30 Santikara-stavana, 241
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Santikarma, 338 Säntinātha, 33, 46, 55, 86, 105, 107, 113, 135, 138,
158, 160, 180, 212, 225, 242, 245, 263, 274
275, 339 Sāntinātha-basti, 327 Santinātha Temples
at Halebid, 191, 242, 239
Jhadoli, 140 Jhalrapatan, 66, 139-140 Jinanāthapuram, 191, 192, 245-246 Kambadahalli, 212 Khajuraho, 97 Kumbharia, 68, 156-160, 163 Nadlai, 124 Nadol, 124
Nittur, 242-243 Santivarman, 190 Sapädalakṣa, 66 Saptamātěkā, 255, 309 Sarabhapuriya, 106 Sāradā-stotra, 326 Sarasvati, 48, 86, 96, 105, 112, 134, 152, 155, 159,
167, 242, 245, 265, 268, 288, 297, 305, 317,
326-328, 333, 375, 389, 390 Sarnath, 84, 273, 289 Sarotra, 69, 180, 181 Sarpagumphā at Udayagiri (Orissa), 30 Sarvadeva, 113 Sarvānubhūti, 43, 46, 48, 51-53, 58, 62, 124, 132, 134,
152, 155, 158, 164, 184, 203, 206, 211-213, 226, 228, 245, 264, 268, 269, 271-273, 275281, 286, 287, 291, 292, 294, 304, 307-309,
315, 334 Sarvārthasiddhi, 386 Sarvāstra Mahājvālā, 319 Sarvatobhadra Temple, 43, 70, 91 Sasakapura, 223 Šāstra-Bhandāra, 427 Šāstradāna, 428 Sasvata-Caityālaya, 351
Satapadikāgranthapaddhati, 420 Sātavāhana, 17, 23 Şarkhandāgam, 35, 37, 375 Satna, 92, 96 Satruñjaya, 3, 69, 70, 141, 142, 177, 188, 264, 267,
272, 273, 282, 286, 313, 332, 335, 339, 343,
346, 347 satrunjayamahatmya, 332 Satyapura, 69 Satyapura-Tīrthakalpa, 330-331 Satyāśraya, 228 Saudharma, 415 Saudharmendra, 42 Saurashtra, 65, 68, 172 Sauripura, 83 Sauryapura, 280 Sāvadeva, 172 Sedam, 310 Sejakpur, Jaina Temple, 68, 175-117 Sena (a ruling dynasty of Bengal), 79 Sena (Jaina Sect), 195 Senera, 79 Seunadeśa, 189 Sevadi or Sewadi, 67, 71, 108, 129, 331, 332
Jaina Temple, 67, 129 Siddara-basti at Śravanabelagola, 195 Siddha, 383, 418 Siddharāja (Caulukya king, see also Jayasimha), 177 Siddhārtha, 387 Siddharthavana, 386 Siddhasilā, 416 Siddhayatana, 10, 12, 13, 352 Siddhāyikä, 33, 385, 307, 315-317 Sikar, 67 Silāhāra Bhoja, 189 Silappadikāram, 247 Silpārya, 418 Simha (Jaina sect), 195 Simhapura, 83 Simharāja, 66
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Simhavarman, 191, 247 Simhavişnu, 191 Sinda, 191 Sindhurāja, 69, 70 Sindhu-Sauvīra, 92 Singhaņa II, 191 Sirohi, 107, 112, 126, 141 Siron-Khurd, 271, 288, 343 Sirpur, Laksamana Temple, 106 Siśupālagadha, 25 Šītalanātha, 33, 35, 272, 330 Sita Nahāni Cave, 52 Sitā-Rāma, 97 Sittannavasal, 2, 6, 24, 403, 404
Cave, 61-62, 270 Śiva, 67, 237 301, 308, 311, 336, 385 Śivalinga, 81, 275, 289 Sivayaśā, 22 Sixteen Mahāvidyās, 318-320, 322, 324, 328 Siyaka I and II, 69 Snake-goddess, 313 Sobhanadeva, 139 Sobhanamuni, 332 Sobhita, 67 Sohil, 46 Sokhu, 175 Solanki, 68, 70, 106 Soma, 334 Somadevasūri, 12, 14 Somanāthapātana, 270 Somavamsi, 33, 35, 106 Someśvara (Hoysala king), 191 Someśvara I (Wn Calukya king), 189, 233; II, 189; III,
189; IV, 189 Sonä, 78 Son Bhandar Cave, 24, 267, 277, 286, 287 Sorab, 233 Sosevūr, 190, 223 Sosevür-basti at Angadi, 190, 223-225 Sravanabelagola, 24, 189-192, 195, 210, 213, 221, 223,
245, 247, 253, 259, 265, 267-269, 271-278, 280, 286, 290, 295, 310, 334, 408
Hypaethral Jaina Temple, 221 Śrāvasti, 83 Srenika, 381, 382 Śreyāṁsanātha, 33, 35, 272 Śri-Devī, 328-329, 341 Śri-Durgā, 340 Sri-Laksmi, 328 Śrngerī, 357 Śri-tāda, 430 Sriya-Devi, 301, 305 Śrutadevatā, 326, 327 Stavanidhi, 289 Sthānānga, 12, 318 Sthapanācārya, 411 Sthaviravali, 383, 386 Sthūlabhadra, 387 Stuticaturvimśatikā, 318, 331, 328, 332 Subāhukathā, 375, 421 Subhacandra, 33 Subhatavarman, 69, 70 Sudarśană, 382 Suisa, 79 Sulaksaņā, 303 Śūlapāņi Yakşa, 285, 287, 331, 332 Sule-basti at Hurica, 190, 204, 223 Sūli (Siva), 122 Sulocană, 298 Sumālini, 300 Sumatinatha, 33, 268, 348 Sumeru (see also Meru), 175 Sunandā, 382 Sundara Pandya, 191 Sundari, 60, 266, 343, 345 Sunga, 23 Sun god, 32 Suparna, 19, 22 Supārsvanātha, 12, 14, 33, 89, 164, 211, 245, 269-270 Suraksitā, 304
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477
Sūrasena, 113 Surasundarī, 117 Surendranagar, 144, 175 Sūrimantra, 341 Sūrimantra-pata, 414 Surohar, 264, 265 Sūrya, 332, 336 Sūryābhadeva, 8 Suryabhasa, 337 Sutārā, 271, 300 Sūtradhāra Kelā, 134, 327 Sutradhāra Loyana, 134, 327 Suvidhinātha, 33, 271-272 Syāma Yakşa, 201 Syncretic images, 258 Tāda, 430 Taila II, 188, 190 ; III, 189 Takşaśilā, 342 Tāla, 430 Talakad, 62, 189, 190, 195, 210 Tāmraliptika, 79 Tanjaur, 189, 192 Tankai Hill, 53, 55 Tantric goddess, 318 Tantric mandala, 341 Tapti, 68 Tärä, 33 Taranga, 3, 69, 70, 77, 142, 145, 253, 258,294-296,
308, 309, 318, 327, 332, 335, 339 Ajitanātha Temple, 146-151
Sambhavanātha Temple, 145-146 Tatovägumphā Nos. 1 and 2
at Khandagiri, 31 Tattvārthasūtra, 291 Tejapāla, 69, 139, 142 Tentuligumpha at Khandagiri, 32 Terdal, 310, 314 Thākurānīgumpha at Udayagiri (Orissa), 29 Than, Jaina Temple, 68, 70, 142, 144 Thanjavur, 287
Thīroka, 78 Tijayapahutta, 318 Tiloyapannatti, 263, 270, 272, 291, 293, 340, 352 Tiptura, 242, 243 Tirakkol, 282 Tīrthapata, 414 Tiruccaranattumalai Cave, 62, 63 Tiruchirapalli, 61 Tirumalai, 280, 286, 344 Tirunelveli, 61 Tiruparuttikunram, 192, 247, 406-407 Tondainādu, 191 Tribhuvanapala, 69 Tribhuvanasvaminidevi, 341 Trikūtabasadi at Harasur, 189, 192, 225-226 Trimukha Yakşa, 267, 296 Trinetreśvara Mahadeva, 144 Tripuri, 66, 106, 272 Tisalā, 155, 333, 384, 386, 387, 421 Trişastiếaläkāpuruşacarita, 253, 263, 266, 275, 282, 291,
294, 295, 297, 298-303, 313, 315, 316, 342,
347, 350, 375, 381, 417, 418 Triśülagumphā at Khandagiri, 35, 266, 271-278, 280 Tritirthi, 280, 287-280 Tulião, 418 Tumbaru, 268, 297, 340 Ucchangi, 191 Ucchangi fort, 189 Udadhikumāra, 91, 94, 207 Udaipur, 67, 107, 122, 126 Udaya, 78 Udayagiri (M.P.) Cave, 2, 5, 23, 37-39, 92, 282, 329,
330 Udayagiri (Orissa) Caves, 1, 2, 5, 11, 23, 25, 27-31 Udayana, 30 Uddharapura, 245 Uddhare, 245 Uddura, 245 Udri, Jaina Temple, 191, 195, 245 Udyotakeśari, 33, 35
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Ujjain, 92, 333 Ukeśa, 108 Ukeśavāla, 108 Ukeśavalagaccha, 108 Un, 70, 92
Caubārā Dera II Jaina Temple, 105-106
Gvāleśvara Temple, 106 Unnao, 277 Upadeśamālā, 379 Upadešamālāvrtti, 421 Upadevatā, 337 Upādhyaya, 352, 383 Upasarga, 262, 284, 285, 311, 312, 421 Upendra, 69, 91, 188 Utpalarāja, 69 Utsarpiņi, 254 Uttama Cola, 188 Uttamapalayam, 358 Uttaradhyayanalaghuvịtti, 420 Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 279 Uttarapurana, 284, 381 Vādideva, 375 Vadirāja, 189 Vadnagar, 67, 77, 142
Adinatha Temple, 68, 142-144
Mahāvīra Temple, 144 Vāgbhata, 69, 177 Vāghelā, 69, 142 Vaibhargiri Hill, 264, 270, 277, 279, 287, 289, 307 Vaibhāra, Jaina Temple, 78 Vaijayanta, 340 Vaimānika, 354, 418 Vairadeva, 24 Vairoti, 303, 320 Vairotyā, 33, 129, 143, 152, 159, 170, 273, 276, 306,
307, 320, 323 Vaishali, 12 Vaisnavi, 96, 291, 322 Vaiśravana, 311 Vajralepa, 425
Vajranandin, 195, 247 Vajrānkusi, 125, 152, 167, 319, 321 Vajraśțnkhalā, 33, 93, 125, 134, 152, 245, 307, 319,
321, 325 Vākātaka, 23 Vākpatirāja, 66 Vakradeva, 29 Valabhi, 107, 142, 270 Vallibhumi, 415, 417 Vallimalai, 286
Cave, 62 Vāmā, 385 Vāmana, 331 Vanarāja, 3, 68, 142 Vāņi, 341 Vannas, 418 Varāha, 274 Vārāhī, 96 Varanasi, 66, 79, 83, 256, 262, 266, 273, 295 Vardhamāna, 155, 285-287 Vardhamānapura, 67, 68 Vardhamānasüri, 341 Vardhamāna-Vidyāpata, 331 Varman, 65, 107
Mahāvīra Temple, 112 Vartika-samudgaka, 424 Värttä, 426 Varuna, 110, 334, 335 Varuņa Yakşa, 277, 306-307 Vasantagadh, 67, 107, 264 Vasantavilāsa, 416 Vāsantikā or Padmāvati Temple at Angadi, 190, 223 Vāsavadattä, 30 Vastupāla, 69, 142, 151, 175, 332 Vastupälavihara at Girnar, 69, 169, 172-175, 335, Vāsudeva, 66, 255, 340 Vasudevahindi, 92, 318, 342, 347, 424 Vāsuki-nāga, 332, 334 Vāsupujya, 33, 35, 78, 169, 272, 273 Vata-gohāli, 79
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Index
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Vātāpi, 24, 187, 191 Vatsarāja, 65, 66, 112, 145, 188 Vāyu, 110, 334, 335 Vengi, 188, 189 Venkunrum, 310 Venūra, 265, 267-269, 271-274, 278, 280, 290, 343 Vesara, 210, 211, 231 Vibhāsa, 426 Vidisha, 37, 66, 92, 93, 271, 272, 347 Viditā, 273, 303 Vidyadevi, 96, 100, 105-107, 111, 114, 117, 124, 125,
131, 134, 140, 141, 283, 318-325, 341 Vidyadhara (Candella king), 66 Vidyāpata, 414 Vidyunmāli, 347 Vigrahapāla, 67 Vigraharāja II, 66; IV, 67 Vijayāditya, 189 Vijayamangalam, Jaina Temple, 190, 193, 247, 248 Vijayanagar, 187, 191, 207, 213, 242, 248, 260 Vijayapāla, 66 Vijñaptipatra, 351, 380, 414-416, 420, 427 Vikramaditya I, 187, 188; V, 166; VI, 189-191 Vikramāditya Varaguna, 62 Vikrama śāntara, 190, 206 Vikramasimha, 66 Vilappakkam, Jaina Cave, 6, 60-61, 191, 247 Vimala, 33, 35, 68, 69 Vimalacandradeva, 188 Vimalanātha, 273 Vimalaśāha, 135, 142, 332 Vimalavasahi at Abu, 68-70, 77, 131-135, 136, 257,
258, 268-276, 278, 282, 289, 298, 299, 309, 311, 313, 318, 321, 323, 324, 327, 329-332,
335, 336, 338, 343, 346, 353 Vinayāditya, 190 Vindhyagiri Hill at Sravanabelagola, 213, 221 Vindhyan Mountain, 64, 96, 187, 192 Vindhyaraja, 66 Vindhyavarman, 70 Vipula, 78
Virabhadra, 96 Virabhadra Temple at Lakkundi, 189, 231 Vīranātha Mahācaitya, 117 Vīrasanghāța-perumpalli, 248 Vīra śāntara, 206 Virasenācārya, 37 Virūpākṣa Temple at Aihole, 201, 207 Višeşāvasyakabhasya, 310 Visņu, 66, 97, 331 Vişnudharmottara, 425, 426 Visnuvardhana (En Calukya king), 188 Visnuvardhana (Hoysala king), 189, 191, 213, 223, 241,
245, 253, 260 Visuddhimagga, 413 Viśvapadma, 285 Vitabhayapattana, 92, 347 Vividhatirthakalpa, 12, 14, 269, 294, 332 Vrji, 78 Vrsabha, 337 Vyantara-devas, 254, 350, 415, 418 Wadhvan, 68 Yadava, 191 Yāgamandala, 339 Yakşarāja, 272, 291, 332 Yakşa-Yaksi, 255, 257, 261-263, 265, 291-317, 344,
394, 414, 418 Yakṣāyatana, 12, 23, 255 Yaksendra, 276, 305 Yakşeśa, 276, 291, 297 Yama, 62, 108, 159, 334, 335, 403, 414, 418 Yamunā, 51, 71, 85, 88, 89, 91, 93, 94, 102, 105, 110,
114, 126, 158, 159, 341 Yantra-pata, 414 Yāpaniya, 257 Yaśastilakacampū, 12, 14, 298 Yaśasvi, 382 Yasodharacarita, 379, 398-401 Yaśovarman, 66 Yati, 414 Yogapatta, 340 Yogini (64), 255, 332, 341
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Text Figures : Jaina Architecture 1. Obverse of Toraņa-beam representing the worship of Jaina Stūpa, Kankāli Țilā, Mathura. 2. Reverse of Toraņa-beam representing a procession scene. 3. Āyāgapata of Sivayaśā showing a Jaina Stūpa, Kankāli Țīlā, Mathura. 4. Plan of Jaina Stupa, Kankäli Țila, Mathura. 5. Cross-section of Jaina Stūpa, Kankäli Tīlā, Mathura. 6. Details of Railing Pillars of Jaina Stūpa, Kankāli Țilā, Mathura. 7. Details of Railing Cross-bars of Jaina Stūpa, Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura. 8. Details of Railing Pillars of Jaina Stupa, Kankäli Țilä, Mathura. 9. Details of Railing Coping-stone of Jaina Stūpa, Kankāli Tilā, Mathura. 10. Plan of Son Bhandar Caves, Rajgir. 11. Section of Son Bhandar Cave, Rajgir. 12. Plan of Anantagumphā, Khandagiri. 13. Plan of Lower Storey, Ränīgumpha, Udayagiri. 14. Plan of Upper Storey, Rānīgumphā, Udayagiri. 15. Section of Rānīgumphā, Udayagiri. 16. Plan of Jaina Caves, Junagadh. 17. Doorway of a Jaina Cav, Junagadh. 18. Doorway of a Jaina Cave , Junagadh.
19. Plan of Cave 2, Dharashiv.
20. Plan of Lower Storey, Indra Sabhā, Ellora. 21. Plan of Upper Storey, Indra Sabhā, Ellora. 22-24. Pillars in Central Hall, Upper Storey, Indra Sabhä, Ellora. 25. Pillar in Verandah, Upper Storey, Indra Sabhä, Ellora. 26. Shrine Doorway, Upper Storey, Indra Sabhā, Ellora.
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27. Plan of Lower Storey, Jagannātha Sabha, Ellora. 28. Plan of upper story, Jagannātha Sabhä, Ellora. 29. Kaksäsana Pillar, Lower Storey, Jagannātha Sabha, Ellora. 30. Pillar in Hall of main Cave, Lower Storey, Jagannātha Sabha, Ellora. 31. Pillar in main Hall, Upper Storey, Jagannatha Sabhä, Ellora. 32-34. Plans and Section of Jaina Cave 1, Ankai-Tankai. 35-37. Plans and Section of Jaina Cave 2, Ankai-Tankai. 38. Plan of Nāgārjuna Kothari, Patna. 39. Plan of Jaina Cave 4, Ankai-Tankai. 40. Plan of Jaina Cave 3, Ankai-Tankai. 41. Hall Ceiling of Jaina Cave 3, Ankai-Tankai. 42. Hall Doorway, Lower Storey, Jaina Cave 1, Ankai-Tankai. 43. Plan of Jaina Cave 4, Aihole. 44. Plan of Jaina Cave, Badami. 45. Elevation of Jaina Temple. 46. Plan of Jaina Temple. 47. Pitha of Neminātha Temple, Kumbharia. 48. Pitha and vedībandha of Adinatha Temple, Ahad.
49. Mandovara of Jaina Temple. 50. Sikhara of Jaina Temple. 51. Plan of Rşabhanātha Temple, Ambikanagar. 52. South-east view of Rşabhanātha Temple, Ambikanagar. 53. View of garbhagyha of Jaina Temple, Charra. 54. Plan of śāntinātha Temple, Deoli. 55. Plan of Jaina Temple No. 12, Deogadh. 56. Plan of Jaina Temple No. 15, Deogadh. 57. Plan of Jaina Temple, Banpur. 58. Plan of Mälādevī Temple, Gyaraspur. 59-60. Plan and section of Pārsvanātha Temple, Khajuraho. 61-62. Plan and section of Adinatha Temple, Khajuraho.
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63-64. Plan and section of Ghantai Temple, Khajuraho.
65. Plan of Mahāvīra Temple, Osian.
66. Plan of Mahāvīra Temple, Ghanerav.
67. Wall of gudhamaṇḍapa, Mahāvīra Temple, Ghanerav.
68. Plan of Navalakhā Pārsvanatha Temple, Pali.
69. Wall of sanctum, Navalakhā Pārsvanatha Temple, Pali.
70. Plan of Jaina Temple, Lodrava.
71. Plan of sanctum of Aloka Pārsvanatha Temple, Nagada.
72. Plan of Adinatha Temple, Nadlai.
73. Plan of Mahavira Temple, Nana.
74. Plan of Mahavīra Temple, Nandia.
75. Plan of Adinatha Temple, Ahad.
76. Plan of Mahavira Temple, Sewadi.
77. Plan of Vimalavasahi, Abu.
78. Plan of Lūṇavasahi, Abu.
79. Plan of Ajitanatha Temple, Taranga.
80. Wall sculptures of Ajitanatha Temple, Taranga.
81. Plan of Mahāvīra Temple, Kumbharia.
82-83. Plan and elevation of bell-roof, gudhamandapa, Mahāvīra Temple, Kumbharia.
84. Plan of Santinatha Temple, Kumbharia.
85. Plan of Parsvanatha Temple, Kumbharia.
86. Plan of Neminatha Temple, Kumbharia.
87. Plan of Sambhavanatha Temple, Kumbharia.
88. Plan of Neminatha Temple, Girnar.
89. Plan of Vastupālavihāra, Girnar.
90. Plan of Jaina Temple, Sejakpur.
91. Plan of Bavanadhvaja Jinalaya, Sarotra.
92. Plan of Jaina Temple, Bhadreshwar.
93-96. Pillars, Bāvanadhvaja Jinālaya, Sarotra.
97-99 Plan, section and elevation of Meguti Temple, Aihole.

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483
100. Plan of Jaina Temple near Caranti-matha, Aihole. 101. Plan of Triple Jaina Shrine near Virūpäkşa Temple, Aihole. 102. Adhisthāna of Meguti Temple, Aihole. 103. Plan of Caranti-matha, Aihole. 104. Plan of Jaina Temple, Pattadakal. 105. Plan of Candragupta-basadi, Sravanabelagola. 106. Adhisthāna of Cāmundarāya-basadi, Sravanabelagola. 107. Adhisthāna of Jaina Temple, Hangal. 108. Elevation of Candragupta-basadi, Sravanabelagola. 109. Plan of Cāmundarāya-basadi, Śravanabelagola. 110. Front elevation of Cāmundarāya-basadi, Śravanabelagola. 111. Side elevation of Cāmundarāya-basadi, Śravanabelagola. 112. Mānastambha, Sravanabelagola. 113. Plan of Triple Shrine, Harasur. 114. Plan of Great Jaina Temple, Lakkundi. 115. Plan of Nāganātha Temple, Lakkundi. 116. Plan of Sankha-basadi, Lakşmeśvara. 117. Plan of Pañcalingeśvara Temple, Huli. 118. Plan of Jaina Temple, Hangal. 119. Plan of Pārsvanātha Temple, Halebid. 120. Plan of Pärsvanātha Temple, Heggere.
Plates : Jaina Architecture 1. Rajgir : Son Bhandar Cave, Front view, 3rd century B.C. 2. Udayagiri (Orissa) : Rānīgumphā (Cave 1), general view, 1st century B.C. 3. Udayagiri (Orissa): Rānīgumphā (Cave 1), scene of Duşyanta-Sakuntalā on verandah wall, 1st century B.C. 4. Khandagiri : Anantagumphā (Cave 3), front view, 1st century B.C. 5. Khandagiri : Anantagumphā (Cave 3), tree in railing on verandah wall, 1st century B.C. 6. Udayagiri (M.P.): Cave 20, inner view, A.D. 426. 7. Ellora : Choțā Kailasa (Cave 30), vimāna, south-west view of superstructure, early 9th century A.D.
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8. Ellora : Cave 30A, front view, early 9th century A.D. 9. Ellora : Indra Sabhā (Cave 32), general view from south-east, early 9th century A.D. 10. Ellora : Indra Sabhā (Cave 32), Sarvatobhadra-vimāna, view from north-west, early 9th century A.D. 11. Ellora : Indra Sabha (Cave 32), Upper Storey, pillars in central hall, carly 9th century A.D. 12. Ellora : Jagannatha Sabha (Cave 33), Upper Storey, pillars in hall of main cave, 9th century A.D. 13. Ellora : Jagannatha Sabhā (Cave 33), ceiling in hall of west cave, 9th century A.D. 14. Aihole : Jaina Cave, ceiling in hall, 8th century A.D. 15. Ankai-Tankai : Jaina Cave 2, front view, 11th 12th century A.D. 16. Ankai-Tankai : Jaina Cave 3, inner view, 11th 12th century A.D. 17. Badami : Jaina Cave 4, inner view, 7th century A.D. 18. Deogadh : Temple No. 12, view from south-west, late 8th century A.D. 19-20. Deogadh : Temple No. 12, garbhagyha, doorway surround and upper section of door-lintel, A.D. 994. 21. Deogadh : Mānastambha to north-east of Temple No. 1. 22. Gyaraspur : Mälädevi Temple, view from north-east, c. A.D. 850-875. 23. Gyaraspur : Mälädevi Temple, view from east, c. A.D. 850-875. 24. Gyaraspur : Mälädevi Temple, entrance porch, ceiling, c. A.D. 850-875. 25. Khajuraho : Pārsvanätha Temple, view from south-west, c. A.D. 950. 26. Khajuraho : Adinātha Temple, view from south-west, late 11th century A.D. 27. Khajuraho : Ghanțai Temple, view from south-west, late 19th century A.D. 28. Un : Caubārā Dera II, doorway, 12th century A.D. 29. Arang : Bhanda Devala, view from south, late 11th century A.D. 30. Arang : Bhända Devala, garbhagsha, Triple Jinas, c. A.D. 1100. 31. Osian : Mahāvīra Temple, pitha and wall, A.D. 783-792. 32. Osian : Mahāvīra Temple, porch ceiling, A.D. 783-792. 33. Osian : Mahävīra Temple, view of roofs from north-west, A.D. 783-792. 34. Ghanerav : Mahāvīra Temple, view from north-east, mid-12th century A.D. 35. Ghanerav : Mahāvīra Temple, güdhamandapa ceiling, mid-12th century A.D. 36. Nana : Mahävira Temple, sanctum, sikhara from south-east, late 10th century A.D. 37. Lodrava : Jaina Temple, gateway, 11th century A.D. 38. Nagda: Aloka Pārsvanatha Temple, sanctum, view from west, late 10th century A.D.
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485
39. Nadol : Neminātha Temple, pītha and wall, view from south-east, 11th century A.D. 40. Ahad : Adinātha Temple, sanctum, Dikpāla Yama on south wall, c. A.D. 1000. 41. Ahad : Adinātha Temple, sanctum, śikhara from south, 15th century A.D. 42. Sewadi : Mahāvīra Temple, sanctum, sikhara from south-west, c. A.D. 1000-1025. 43. Sewadi : Mahāvīra Temple, wall from north-west, c. A.D. 1000-1025 44. Abu : Vimalavasahi, rangamandapa, view from north-east, late 12th century A.D. 45. Abu : Vimalavasahi, rangamandapa, central ceiling, late 12th century A.D. 46. Abu : Vimalavasahi, ceiling in front bay of rangamandapa, late 12th century A.D. 47. Abu, Lüņavasahi, wall of mukhamandapa and güdhamandapa from west, A.D. 1231. 48. Abu : Lūpavasahi, mukhamandapa, northern khattaka (niche), A.D. 1231. 49. Abu : Lūņavasahi, rangamandapa and mukhamandapa, view from west, A.D. 1231. 50. Abu : Lüņavasahi, rangamandapa, central ceiling, A.D. 1231. 51. Sadri : Parśvanātha Temple, sanctum and gūdhamandapa, view from south-west, late 11th century A.D. 52. Vadnagar : Adinātha Temple, sanctum, view from south-west, 10th century A.D. 53. Than : Jaina Temple, view from north-west, c. A.D. 1000. 54. Taranga: Sambhavanātha Temple, view from south-east, early 11th century A.D. 55. Taranga : Ajitanātha Temple, general view from north-east, c. A.D. 1168. 56. Taranga: Ajitanātha Temple, general view from south-west, c. A.D. 1168. 57. Taranga: Ajitanātha Temple, gudhamandapa ceiling, c. A.D. 1168. 58. Kumbharia : Mahāvīra Temple, view from north, A.D. 1061. 59. Kumbharia : Mahāvīra Temple, rangamandapa, central ceiling, A.D. 1061. 60. Kumbharia : Mahāvīra Temple, sanctum, śikhara from south-east, A.D. 1061. 61. Kumbharia : Sāntinātha Temple, mukhamandapa, view from north-west, c. A.D. 1081. 62. Kumbharia : Säntinātha Temple, sanctum, śikhara from south-east, c. A.D. 1081. 63. Kumbharia : Säntinātha Temple, rangamandapa, central ceiling, c. A.D. 1081. 64. Kumbharia : Pārsvanātha Temple, entrance porch and nālamandapa, view from north-west, c. A.D. 1100. 65. Kumbharia : Parsvanatha Temple, rangamandapa, central ceiling, c. A.D. 1100. 66. Kumbharia : Neminātha Temple, sanctum, view from south-east, A.D. 1136. 67. Kumbharia : Neminātha Temple, rangamandapa, central ceiling, A.D. 1136. 68. Kumbharia : Sambhavanātha Temple, general view from east, mid-13th century A.D.
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69. Girnar: general view of Jaina Temples. 70. Girnar: Neminātha Temple, sanctum, view from south-east, A.D. 1128. 71. Girnar: Vastupālavihāra, main shrine, view from south-west, A.D. 1231. 72. Girnar: Neminātha Temple, gūdhamandapa ceiling, A.D. 1128. 73. Girnar: Vastupälavihāra, rangamandapa ceiling, A.D. 1231.
74. Satruñjaya: general view of Jaina temples.
75. Satruñjaya : Ādinātha Temple, sanctum, view from north-east, A.D. 1154. 76. Miani : Jaina Temple, general view from north-west, late 13th century A.D. 77. Miani : Jaina Temple, gūdhamandapa ceiling, late 13th century A.D. 78. Aihole : Meguti Temple, view from north-west, A.D. 634-35. 79. Aihole : Triple Jaina Shrine near Virūpākṣa Temple, Western Shrine from south, late 10th century A.D. 80. Aihole : Jaina Temple near Caranti-matha, vimāna, view from south, late 10th century A.D. 81. Aihole : Caranti-matha (Jaina Temple No. 2), view from south-west, early 12th century A.D. 82. Hallur : Melgudi Temple, view from south-east, late 8th century A.D. 83. Humca : Bogára-basti, vimāna, south wall, late 9th century A.D. 84. Humca : Bogāra-basti, śikhara from east, late 9th century A.D. 85. Humca : Sule-basti, vimana, view from south-west, late 9th century A.D. 86. Hunca : Pancakūta-basti, Northern Shrine, vimāna, view from north-west, A.D. 1077. 87. Humca : Pancaküta-basti, mukhamandapa pillars, A.D. 1077. 88. Humca : Pancakūta-basti, Mānastambha, A.D. 1077. 89. Pattadakal : Jaina Temple, general view from south-west, c. A.D. 1000. 90. Pattadakal : Jaina Temple, garbhagrha doorway, c. A.D. 1000. 91. Annigere : Jaina-basadi, sopāna banister, mid-10th century A.D. 92. Kambadahalli : Pancakūta-basti, general view from north-east, late 10th century A.D. 93. Kambadahalli: śāntinātha-basti, view from north-east, late 19th century A.D. 94. Śravanabelagola : Cāmundarāya-basadi, general view from south-east, c. A.D. 982-999 95. Sravanabelagola : Pārśvanātha-basadi, general view from south-east, early 11 th century A.D. 96. Sravanabelagola : Akkana-basadi, vimāna, view from south-west, A.D. 1181. 97. Angadi : Sosevür-basti, vimäna, view from west, late 10th century A.D. 98. Harasur : Triple Jaina Shrine, Northern Shrine, portico, view from south-west, c. A.D. 1090.
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99. Konnur : Jaina Temple, vimāna, view from south-east, late 19th century A.D. 100. Lakkundi : Great Jaina Temple, general view from south-west, A.D. 1007.
101. Lakkundi : Great Jaina Temple, mukhamandapa pillars, A.D. 1007. 102. Mulgund : Temple No. 1, gūdhamandapa pillars, early 11th century A.D. 103. Mulgund: Temple No. 1, dvāramandapa, view from north-east, mid-11th century A.D. 104. Ron : Jaina Temple, view from south-east, mid-11 th century A.D. 105. Lakşmeśvara : Sankha-basadi, view from south-east, late 11th century A.D. 106. Huli : Pañcalingeśvara Temple, general view from north-east, early 11th century A.D. 107. Hangal : Jaina Temple, vimāna and mandapa, view from west, early 12th century A.D. 108. Halebid : Pārsvanātha Temple, general view from south-east, A.D. 1133. 109. Halebid : Parsvanātha Temple, gūdhamandapa pillars, A.D. 1133. 110. Halebid: Parsvanatha Temple, gūdhamandapa, nave ceiling, A.D. 1133. 111. Halebid: Säntinātha Temple, gudhamandapa pillars, c. A.D. 1196. 112. Nittur: Sāntinātha Temple, vimāna, view from south, c. A.D. 1158. 113. Heggere : Pārsvanātha Temple, gūdhamandapa, samatala ceiling in nave, c. A.D. 1160. 114. Heggere : Pārsvanātha Temple, gudhamandapa, pītha and wall from north-east, c. A.D. 1160. 115. Jinanāthapura : Santinātha Temple, vimana, view from south, c. A.D. 1200. 116. Jinanāthapura : Sāntinātha Temple, gūdhamandapa pillars, c. A.D. 1200. 117. Belgaum : Jaina Temple, view from north-west, A.D. 1204.
Plates : Sculpture and Iconography 118. Jina Torso, Lohānīpur, 3rd century B.C., Patna Museum (Acc. No. 80.38). 119. Āyāgapata with eight auspicious symbols and Jina figure, Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura, early Ist century A.D., State
Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J 249). 120. Vardhamāna (Mahāvīra), Kankāli Țīla, Mathura, (U.P.), A.D. 113, State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 16). 121. Pratimă Sarvatobhadrikā-Pārsvanātha, Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura, Government Museum, Mathura (Acc. No. B.
69). 122. Rşabhanātha, Chausä (Bhojpur, Bihar), 2nd 3rd century A.D. Patna Museum. 123. Candraprabha, Durjanpur (Vidisha, M.P.) Inscribed - c. 370-75 A.D. Vidisha Museum (Acc. No. 248). 124. Neminātha with Balarāma and Krsņa, Mathura, 4th century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 121). 125. Neminätha (with cognizance), Rajgir (Nalanda, Bihar), Inscribed, from Old Temple of Rajgir, early 5th
century A.D.
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126. Parsvanātha, Nachna (Panna, M.P.), 5th century A.D. Tulasi Museum, Ramvana, Satna (M.P.). 127. Unidentified Jina, Kankāli Tilā, Mathura, 5th century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 118). 128. Jina, Gūdhamandapa, Pārsvanātha Temple, Kumbharia (Banaskantha-Gujarat), 12th century A.D. 129. Unidentified Jina image, śukanāsa with Jina figures, Akkana Basti, Śravanabelagola (Karnataka), 1181 A.D. 130. Mānastambha with Jina figures, east face, Chittorgarh (Chittor, Rajasthan), A.D. 1485. 131. Rşabhanātha (name inscribed), Katra Keshava Deo, Mathura, c. 5th century A.D., Government Museum,
Mathura (Acc. No. 12.268). 132. Rşabhanātha (Svetāmbara), Akota (Vadodara, Gujarat), c. 5th century A.D. 133. Rşabhanātha, Rajgir (Nalanda, Bihar) Vaibhar hill, Inscribed - gth century A.D. 134. Rşabhanātha (with Gomukha-Cakreśvari and Navagraha figures) Khajuraho (Chhatarpur, M.P.), 10th century
A.D. Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho (Acc. No. 1667). 135. Rşabhanātha, Khajuraho, 10th century A.D., Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho (Acc. No. 1682). 136. Rşabhanātha (with Upādhyāya figures in disputation), Temple No. 4, Deogadh (Lalitpur, U.P.), 11th century
A.D. 137. Rşabhanātha (Brass), Jaisalmer (Rajasthan), A.D.1144, Berlin Museum für Indische Kunst, (Acc. No. I.
10162) - Courtesy Berlin Museum. 138. Rşabhanātha, Ammiņabhāvi (Dharwar, Karnataka), 11th century A.D. 139. Jina Cauvisi, Probably of Rşabhanātha, Pudukkottai, (Tamil Nadu), uth 12th century A.D., In collection of
Deptt. of Archaeology, Mysore. 140. Dance of Nīlāñjană - life of Rşabhanātha, Kankäli Tilā, Mathura, c. 1st century B.C. - 1st century A.D., State
Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 354). 141. Narratives from life of Rsabhanātha, Aisle ceiling, sāntinātha temple, Kumbharia, (Banaskantha, Gujarat),
11th century A.D. 142. Candraprabha, Kaušāmbi (U.P.), 9th century A.D., Allahabad Museum (Acc. No. A.M. 295) 143. Santinātha (12 ft.), śāntinātha temple, Khajuraho, A.D.1028. 144. Narratives from life of śāntinätha, Sāntinātha temple, Kumbharia, 11th century A.D. 145. Mallinātha, Unnao (U.P.), 11th century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 885) 146. Munisuvrata (with Yakşi under throne), Vaibhargiri, Rajgir (Bihar) c. 10th century A.D. 147. Munisuvrata, Western India, 11th century A.D., Government Central Museum, Jaipur. 148. Munisuvrata, Devakulikā No. 11, Vimalayasahī, 12th century A.D. 149. Neminātha, Rajghat (Varanasi, U.P.), c. A.D. 650, Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi (Acc. no. 212) 150. Neminātha (with Balarāma and Krsna), Mathura, c. 10th century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No.
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66.53). 151. Neminátha (with Supārsvanātha and Pārśvanātha), Temple no. 29, śikhara, Deogadh, c. 11th century A.D. 152. Narratives from life of Neminātha, Santinātha temple, Kumbharia, 11th century A.D. 153. Pārsvanatha, Jaina Cave, Aihole, (Bijapur, Karnataka), c. A.D. 600. 154. Pārsvanatha (with upasargas of Sambara), Ellora (Aurangabad, Maharashtra), 9th century A.D. 155. Pārsvanatha (with kukkuța congnizance), Enclosure wall (west), Temple no. 12, Deogadh, 10th century A.D. 156. Pārsvanātha, Rajasthan, 11th century A.D., National Museum, New Delhi (Acc. No. 39.202). 157. Pārsvanatha on Boulder, Pallava, Tirakkol (North Arcot, Tamil Nadu) 8th_9th century A.D. 158. Pärśvanātha (with Upasargas of Sambara), Pārsvanātha Basti, Humca (Shimoga, Karnataka), 11th century
A.D. 159. Cauvisi of Pārsvanatha, Andhra Pradesh, 12th century A.D., Office of Deptt. of Archaeology, Hyderabad 160. Parsvanātha, Penukonda (Anantapur, A.P.) 11th century A.D. 161. Pārsvanatha, Pattanakudi (Belgaum, Karnataka) 11th 12th century A.D. 162. Pārsvanātha (Svetāmbara), Western India, A.D. 1050, British Museum, London (Acc. No. 1974.4-11.1)
(Courtesy British Museum, London) 163. Sahasraphaņa Pärsvanätha, Dharņa Vihāra (Adinātha temple), Ranakpur (Pali, Rajasthan), A.D. 1439. 164. Jivantasvami Mahavira, Akota (Vadodara, Gujarat) 6th century A.D., Baroda Museum. 165. Mahävira, Khajuraho, 11th century A.D., Sahu Santi Museum, Khajuraho. 166. Mahavira, Jaina Cave, Badami (Bijapur, Karnataka) Later Cälukya, 10th 11th century A.D. 167. Mahāvīra, Śravanabelagola (Karnataka), 12th century A.D. 168. Narrative from Life of Mahāvīra - Transfer of embryo, Kankāli Țīlā, Mathura, Ist century A.D., State
Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 626). 169. Narratives from lives of Neminātha (left half) and śāntinātha (right half), Aisle Ceiling,
Mahāvīra temple, Kumbharia, 11th century A.D. 170. Narratives from life of Mahāvīra (with Upsargas), Aisle Ceiling, Mahāvīra Temple,
Kumbharia, 11th century A.D. 171. Composite Jina Image of Rşabhanātha and Neminātha, Mathura 8th century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow
(Acc. No. J. 78). 172. Gomukha Yakşa, Hathma (Rajasthan), c. 10th century A.D., Government Museum, Ajmer (Acc. No. 270). 173. Cakreśvari Yakși, Mathura, c. 10th century A.D., Government Museum, Mathura (Acc. No. D. 6). 174. Cakreśvari (20-armed), Deogadh, 11th century A.D., Sahu Jaina Museum, Deogadh
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175. Rohini, Mänastambha (Temple no. 11), Deogadh, 11th century A.D. 176. Sumālini Yaksi of Candraprabha, facade, Temple no. 12, Deogadh, A.D. 862. 177. Jvälāmālini Yakși of Candraprabha, Aihole, Western Cālukya, 11th 12th century A.D., now in Siva Temple at
Aihole. 178. Kumāra or Şanmukha Yakṣa of Vasupujya or Vimalanātha, Girnar (Junagarh, Gujarat), 1467 A.D. 179. Sarvānubhūti or Kubera Yakṣa of Neminātha, Cave 32, Ellora, 9th century A.D. 180. Sarvānubhūti Yakşa, Chittor, 10th century A.D. Government Museum, Udaipur (Acc. No. 117) 181. Ambika Yakṣī, Cave 32, Ellora, 9th century A.D. 182. Ambika Yakşi, Mathura, 9th century A.D., Government Museum, Mathura (Acc. No. D.7). 183. Ambika Yakşi and Jina, Kalugumalai (Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu) c. gth 9th century A.D. 184. Ambikā Yakṣī, south facade, Pārsvanātha temple, Khajuraho, 10th century A.D. 185. Ambikä (with other 23 Yakşi figures in parikara), Patiāndāi (Satna, M.P.), 11th century A.D., Allahabad
Museum (Acc. No. 253). 186. Ambikā, Rangamandapa Ceiling, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan), c. 1150 A.D. 187. Ambika, Mahavira temple, Kumbharia (Gujarat) Inscribed - c. 12th century A.D. 188. Ambikä, Terdal (Bijapur-Karnataka), 11th century A.D. 189. Ambikā, sāligräma (Mysore, Karnataka), Western Chalukya, 12th century A.D. 190. Ambika, Dharhat (Hamirpur, U.P.), 13th century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. G. 312). 191. Dharanedndra Yakşa, Pärśvanātha Basti, Humca (Shimoga-Karnataka), c. 11th 12th century A.D. 192. Dharanendra Yakşa, Anatur (Chikmagalur - Karnataka), 12th century A.D. 193. Padmāvati Yakṣī, Mānastambha (Temple no. 11), Deogadh, 11th century A.D. 194. Padmāvati (with Yakşa-Yakşi figures), Nagda (Udaipur, Rajasthan), c. 10th 11th century A.D., Government
Museum, Udaipur (Acc. No. 56). 195. Padmāvati Yakşi, Central India, 11th century A.D., British Museum, London (Acc. No. 1957, 12-211).
(Courtesy British Museum, London). 196. Padmavati, Basement, Neminatha temple, Kumbharia, 12th century A.D. 197. Padmavati, Pārsvanātha Basti, Hurca, c. 11th century A.D. 198. Padmăvati, Terdal (Bijapur, Karnataka) 11th century A.D. 199. Padmavati, Anatur (Chikamagalur, Karnataka), 12th century A.D. 200. Šāntinātha, Kunthunātha, Aranātha, Malli and Munisuvrata Jinas with their Yaksis Mahāmānasi, Jaya,
Tārāvati, Aparajitā and Bahurupiņi, Bārbhuji cave (cave no. 8), Khandagiri, (Puri, Orissa), c. 11th 12th
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491
century A.D.
201. Munisuvrata, Naminātha and Neminātha with Bahurūpini, Cāmundā and Ambika Yaksis, Barbhuji cave,
Khandagiri, c. 11th 12th century A.D. 202. Pārsvanātha and Mahāvīra with Padmāvati and Siddhāyikā Yakṣīs, Bārbhuji cave, Khandagiri, c. 11th 12th
century A.D. 203. Jaina Mahāvidyās (Gaurī, Vairotyā and Prajñapti), Mahavira temple, Osian (Jodhpur, Rajasthan), 8th_9th
century A.D. 204. Sixteen Jaina Mahavidyās, rangamandapa ceiling, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu-Rajasthan), c. A.D. 1150. 205. Mahāvidyā Vairotyā, Ceiling - Devakulikā, circumambulation, Vimalavasahi, (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan), c.
A.D. 1150.
206. Mahāvidyā Acchuptă, Ceiling-Devakulikā, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan), c. A.D. 1150. 207. Mahāvidyā-Puruşadattā and Apraticakrā, north facade, Adinātha temple, Khajuraho, 11th century A.D. 208. Door-lintel with Ambikā, Cakreśvari, Padmavati and Navagrahas, Khajuraho, c. 11th century A.D., Jardin
Museum, Khajuraho (Acc. No. 1467) 209. Sarvänubhuti Yaksa, Ambika Yaksi and Brahmaśānti Yaksa, rangamandapa ceiling, Mahavira temple,
Kumbharia, A.D. 1062. 210. Brahmaśānti Yakşa, Ceiling, close to rangamandapa, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu), c. A.D.1150. 211. Sarasvatī, Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura, Kuşāņa, A.D.132, State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. No. J. 24). 212. Sarasvati, Pañcakūta Basti, Humca (Karnataka), A.D. 1077. 213. Sarasvati, Pallu (Bikaner, Rajasthan), 12th century A.D. National Museum, Delhi (Acc. No. 1/6/278). 214. Abhișeka Lakşmī, southern bay ceiling, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu), c. A.D.1150. 215. Dvitirthi Jina Image (Rşabhanātha and Mahāvīra), Orissa, 10th century A.D., British Museum, London (Acc.
No. 1872, 7-1, 99), (Courtesy British Museum, London) 216. Jina Caumukhi, Ahar (Tikamgarh, M.P.) c. 11th century A.D. 217. Jina Caumukhi, Lakshmeśvara, Dharwar (Karnataka), 12th century A.D. 218. Caumukhi Jinālaya (Sarvatobhadrikā shrine), Guna (Indor, M.P.), 11thcentury A.D. 219. 12 Jinas of Cauvisi Patta (Half portion only), Deogadh, 11th century A.D., Sahu Jaina Museum, Deogadh. 220. Jina Samavasarana Shrine, Mahavira temple, Kumbharia, c. 11th century A.D 221. Parent of Jina, śāntinātha temple, Khajuraho, 10th century A.D. 222. Slab showing Mothers of 24 Jinas, Mahāvīra temple, Kumbharia, 12th century A.D. 223. Bāhubali, Jaina cave, Aihole (Karnataka), c. A.D.600.
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224. Bahubali (Bronze), Sravanabelagola, 9th century A.D. Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai (Acc. No. 105) 225. Bahubali, Cave 32, Ellora (Maharashtra), c. 9th century A.D. 226. Gommateśvara Bahubali (57 feet high), Śravanabelagola (Hassan, Karnataka), Inscribed-983 A.D. 227. Bāhubali, Temple no. 2, Deogadh, 11th century A.D. 228. Bharata Muni, Temple no. 2, Deogadh, 11th century A.D. 229. Jinas and Jivantasyāmī, Torana fragment, Mahāvīra temple, Osian (Rajasthan) A.D.1018. 230. Jivantasvāmi, Khimvasar (Nagaur, Rajasthan), early 11th century A.D., Government Museum, Jodhpur. 231. Kșetrapāla, pillar of Temple no. 1, Deogadh, c. 11th century A.D. 232. Jaina Bhattarakas (Upādhyāyas), Khajuraho, 12th century A.D., Sahu Santi Jaina Museum, Khajuraho (Acc.
No. 233). 233. Garbhagsha Mulanāyaka and Entrance, Pārsvanätha temple, Khajuraho, c. A.D.950-70. 234. Krsņa playing Holi with Gopa-Gopikās, Devakulikā ceiling, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu), c. A.D.1150. 235. Ceiling of Pancakūta Jaina temple with Neminātha and Astadikpāla figures, Kambadahalli, (Mandya,
Karnataka), 10th century A.D. 236. Kāma-Rati, North facade, Pärsvanātha temple, Khajuraho, c. 9A.D.50-70. 237. Dancer (in preparation) and Vyälas, north facade, Parsvanātha temple, Khajuraho, c. A.D.950-70. 238. Seven-headed Jina Image (Candraprabha?), 15th century A.D. (Vira Samvat 1928) Reserve Collection of
Victoria and Albert Museum, London. 239. Portable Jaina Shrine of Parsvanātha, c. 16th 17th century A.D., Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (U.K.). 240. Cognizances of 24 Jinas. 241. Auspicious Dreams (Mangalika Svapna), 14 in Svetāmbara and 16 in Digambara Texts.
Plates : Jaina Painting 242. Episodes from the life of Parśva, Palm - leaf manuscript, c. A.D.1295 - 1300, Western Indian style,
Collection : Jain Trust, Jaisalmer. 243. Dispute between Devasūri and Kumudacandra, Wooden book cover, c. A.D.1125 - 1150., Gujarat and
Rajasthan, Western Indian style, Collection : J.P. Goenka, Mumbai. 244. Dispute between Devasūri and Kumudacandra, Wooden book cover, c. A.D.1125 - 1150, Gujarat and
Rajasthan, Western Indian style, Collection : J.P. Goenka, Mumbai. 245. Battle between Bharata and Bahubali, Wooden book cover, c. A.D. 1100 - 1125. 246. Devasanopado Kalpasutra and Kālakācāryakatha, paper, c. A.D. 1500, Gujarat and Rajasthan, Western Indian
style, Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi.
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493
Border detail of Pl. 24. 247. Mahāvīra communicating Purāņa to Gautam Ganadhara, Mahāpurāņa, c. A.D. 1425-1450, Western Indian
style, Private collection. 248. Birth of Rsabha, Adipurāņa, c. A.D. 1450 - 1475, Caura Pañcāśikā style, Private Collection. 249. Fourteen auspicious dreams, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1400, Collection : Jaina Bhandāra, Jaisalmer. 250. Indra instructing Harinaigameşi to transfer the embryo, Harinaigameșī carrying the embryo, Kalpasūtra, c.
1425 - 1450 A.D., Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, 251. Harinaigameși transferring the embryo, Kalpasūtra, c. A.D.1400., Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi,
Acc. No. 8713/7. 252. Trīšalā narrating the dreams to Siddhartha, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1404, Collection : Royal Asiatic Society,
London. 253. Trišalā narrating the dreams to King Siddhartha, King Siddhārtha with Soothsayer, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1400,
Private Collection.
254. Nativity of Mahävira and Indra taking newly born child for birth bath, dated A.D. 1346, Western Indian Style,
Collection : Muni Punya Vijayji.
255. Mahävira plucking his hair, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1400. 256. Meghamālina protecting Pārsvanatha, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1400, Collection : Chatrapati Shivaji Mahārāja Vāstu
Sarngrahālaya, Mumbai. 257. Pārsvanātha plucking his hair, Kalpasūtra, c. 16th century A.D., Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi. 258. Marriage Procession of Neminātha, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1512, Collection : Ātmānanda Jaina Sabhā, Bhavanagar. 259. Preaching Mahāvīra, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1400, Collection : Jaina Bhandāra, Jaisalmer. 260. Prince Kalaka and his parents, Kālakācāryakathā, A.D. 1400, Collection : Premchand Jain, Mumbai. 261. Saka court and Kālaka, Kalpasūtra and Kālakācāryakathă, A.D.1400, Collection : Jaina Bhandāra, Jaisalmer 262. Mahāvīra seated on throne, Uttarādhyayanasutra, 15th century A.D. 263. Mahāvīra in Kāyotsarga, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 264. King Brahmadatta and the ascetic, Uttarădhyayanasūtra, c. 16th century A.D. 265. Aşadha and monks, Uttarādhyayanasütra, c. 15th century A.D. 266. Aryarakṣita and his disciples, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, c. 16th century A.D. 267. Atsana watching the duel of the firsherman and farmer, Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 15th century A.D. 268. The Farmer and the Magician, Uttarädhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 269. Minister in front of King and Slaughter of ram, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D.
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270. Nami and Sakra in conversation, Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 271. Mahāvīra preaching a monk, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 272. Harikeśa beaten by boys, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, c. 16th century A.D. 273. The monk Citra and the King Brahmadatta, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 15th century A.D. 274. Mahāvīra preaching the monk, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 15th century A.D. 275. Sudharmana preaching the monks, Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 276. Instruction giving monk, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 277. King shoots the deer, Uttarādhyayanasutra, 15th century A.D. 278. Marriage procession of Aristanemi, Rājimati plucking her hair, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 279. Discussion between Keśī and Gautama, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 15th century A.D. 280. Mahavira preaching the rules of conduct, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 281. Cart with bullocks and preaching monk, Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 282. Monk preaching the laywomen, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 16th century A.D. 283. King Haridatta welcoming the priest Bhairavānanda, Yasodharacarita, A.D.1636, Gujarat Collection : Shri
Digambara Jain Atishaya Kshetra (Shri Mahaviraji), Jaipur. 284. Yasodhara as fish and Candramatí as crocodile, Yasodharacarita, A.D. 1636, Idar, Gujarat Collection : Sena
Gana Mandira, Karanja. 285. Yasodhara and Candramatí as goat couple and hunter, Yasodharacarita, A.D. 1712, Gujarat Collection : Shri
Ailak Pannalal Digambara Jain Sarasvati Bhavan, Beawar. 286. King Yaśomati and monk, Yasodharacarita, A.D. 1636, Idar, Gujarat Collection : Sena Gana Mandir, Karanja. 287a. Episodes from the life of Nemi, c. A.D. 1125 - 1150, Gujarat and Rajasthan, Collection : Jain Trust, Jaisalmer. 287b. Episodes from the life of Nemi, c. A.D. 1125 -1150, Gujarat and Rajasthan, Collection : Jain Trust, Jaisalmer. 288. Scene from the life of Pārsvanātha, Gujarat, c. A.D. 1475, Patacitra. (after P. Pal, Jain Art and Architecture,
1995) 289. Pilgrimage Patacitra, Satruñjaya, Rajasthan, c. A.D. 1800, (after P. Pal, Jain Art and Architecture, 1995). 290. Vijñyaptipatra (letter of invitation), Rajasthan, c. A.D.1800 (after P. Pal, Jain Art and Architecture, 1995) 291. Samavasarana, Kalpasūtra, c. 13th 14th century A.D., Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, (Acc. No.
3824). 292. Samavasaraņa, Kalpasūtra, c. 15th century A.D., Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, (Acc. No. 3813). 293. Samavasaraņa, Kalpasūtra, c. A.D.1633, Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, (Acc. No. 3812).
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in Education Intemational

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1. Rajgir : Son Bhandar Cave, Front view, 3" century B.C.

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2. Udayagiri (Orissa): Rānīgumphā (Cave 1), general view, 1" century B.C.

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3. Udayagiri (Orissa): Rānīgumpha (Cave 1), scene of Duṣyanta-Sakuntala on verandah wall, 1" century B.C.

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5. Khandagiri : Anantagumphā (Cave 3), tree in railing on verandah wall, 1 century B.C.
4. Khandagiri : Anantagumphā (Cave 3), front view, 1" century B.C.
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6. Udayagiri (M.P.): Cave 20, inner view, A.D. 426.

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7. Ellora : Chotā Kailāśa (Cave 30), vimāna, south-west view of superstructure, early 9" century A.D.

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8. Ellora : Cave 30A, front view, early 9" century A.D.

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9. Ellora : Indra Sabhā (Cave 32), general view from south-east,
early 9" century A.D.
10. Ellora : Indra Sabhā (Cave 32), Sarvatobhadra-vimäna,
view from north-west, early 9" century A.D.
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IN
11. Ellora : Indra Sabhā (Cave 32), Upper Storey, pillars in central hall, early 9" century A.D.
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OU

12. Ellora Jagannatha Sabha (Cave 33), Upper Storey, pillars in hall of main cave, 9° century A.D.
DIVE

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14. Aihole : Jaina Cave, ceiling in hall, 8" century A.D.
13. Ellora : Jagannātha Sabhā (Cave 33), ceiling in hall of west cave, 94 century A.D.
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15. Ankai-Tankai : Jaina Cave 2, front view, 11"-12" century A.D.

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16. Ankai-Tankai: Jaina Cave 3, inner view, 11th-12th century A.D.

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17. Badami : Jaina Cave 4, inner view, 7" century A.D.

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18. Deogadh : Temple No. 12, view from south-west, late 8" century A.D.
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19-20. Deogadh : Temple No. 12, garbhagrha, doorway surround and upper section of door-lintel, A.D. 994.

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21. Deogadh : Mānastambha to north-east of Temple No. 1.
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22. Gyaraspur : Mālädevi Temple, view from north-east, c. A.D. 850-875.
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Page #537

24. Gyaraspur : Mālādevi Temple, entrance porch, ceiling, c. A.D. 850-875.
23. Gyaraspur : Mālādevi Temple, view from east, c. A.D. 850-875.
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el
25. Khajuraho : Pārsvanātha Temple, view from south-west, c. A.D. 950.
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26. Khajuraho : Adinātha Temple, view from south-west, late 11" century A.D.
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27. Khajuraho : Ghantai Temple, view from south-west, late 10" century A.D.
www.jainelibrary.one

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28. Un : Chaubārā Derā II, doorway, 12" century A.D.
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29. Arang : Bhānda Devala, view from south, late 11" century A.D.
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Turun
30. Arang : Bhānda Devala, garbhagsha, Triple Jinas, c. A.D. 1100.

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TOA
32. Osian : Mahāvīra Temple, porch ceiling, A.D. 783-792.
31. Osian : Mahāvīra Temple, pitha and wall, A.D. 783-792.
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33. Osian : Mahāvīra Temple, view of roofs from north-west, A.D. 783-792.

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34. Ghanerav : Mahāvīra Temple, view from north-east, mid-12th century A.D.

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36. Nana : Mahāvīra Temple, sanctum, śikhara from south-east, late 10" century A.D.
35. Ghanerav : Mahāvīra Temple, güdhamandapa ceiling, mid-12" century A.D.
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37. Lodrava : Jaina Temple, gateway, 11" century A.D.
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38. Nagda : Aloka Pārsvanātha Temple, sanctum, view from west, late 10 century A.D.
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39. Nadol : Neminātha Temple, pītha and wall, view from south-east, 11" century A.D.

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40. Ahad : Adinātha Temple, sanctum, Dikpāla Yama on south wall, c. A.D. 1000.
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Jain Education Intamational
MINIT
US
BEBE
Sko
41. Ahad : Adinātha Temple, sanctum, sikhara from south,
15" century A.D.
42. Sewadi : Mahāvīra Temple, sanctum, śikhara from
south-west, c. A.D. 1000-1025

Page #553

43. Sewadi: Mahāvīra Temple, wall from north-west, c. A.D. 1000-1025
Ab

Page #554

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44. Abu: Vimalavasahi, rangamandapa, view from north-east, late 12th century A.D.
WITER
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45. Abu: Vimalavasahi, rangamandapa, central ceiling, late 12" century A.D.

43
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inn

Page #555

46. Abu : Vimalavasahī, ceiling in front bay of rangamandapa, late 12" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational
For Private & Parsonal Use Only

Page #556

48. Abu : Lūņavasahi, mukhamandapa, northern khattaka (niche), A.D. 1231.
es
WV WY TV
47. Abu, Lūņavasahi, wall of
mukhamandapa and gūdhamandapa from west, A.D. 1231.
12 16
VIVRUTTI TV
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #557

Jain Education Intematonal
RSDAG
MESYS
USB
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For Privale & Personal use only

49. Abu: Lūņavasahi, rangamandapa and mukhamandapa, view from west, A.D. 1231.

Page #558

Jain Education Intemational

50. Abu : Lūņavasahi, rangamandapa, central ceiling, A.D. 1231.
www.jainelibrary

Page #559

Jain Education Intemational
VIN
For Private & Parsenal Use Only

51. Sadri : Pārsvanātha Temple, sanctum and gūdhamandapa, view from south-west, late 11" century A.D.

Page #560

53. Than : Jaina Temple, view from north-west, c. A.D. 1000.
52. Vadnagar : Adinātha Temple, sanctum, view from south-west,
10" century A.D.
280633808560
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #561

AU
ニニニニー
54. Taranga: Sambhavanātha Temple, view from south-east, early 11" century A.D.
lain Education Intematonal
For Privale & Personal Use Only
www.alibrary.org

Page #562

Jain Education Intematonal

55. Taranga : Ajitanātha Temple, general view from north-east, c. A.D. 1168.

Page #563

56. Taranga: Ajitanatha Temple, general view from south-west, c. A.D. 1168.

Page #564

HII ILI
EN
UUSILLING
LiliLLIUCIILE
INICILIUI
57. Taranga : Ajitanātha Temple, gūdhamandapa ceiling, c. A.D. 1168.
INTEL
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.one

Page #565

58. Kumbharia: Mahāvīra Temple, view from north, A.D. 1061.

Page #566

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59. Kumbharia: Mahāvīra Temple, rangamandapa, central ceiling, A.D. 1061.

Page #567

12
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61. Kumbharia : Sāntinātha Temple, mukhamandapa, view from north-west, c. A.D. 1081.
60. Kumbharia : Mahāvīra Temple, sanctum, Sikhara from south-east, A.D. 1061.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #568

63. Kumbharia : Sāntinātha Temple, rangamandapa, central ceiling,
c. A.D. 1081.
123012018
62. Kumbharia : śāntinātha Temple, sanctum, sikhara from south-east,
c. A.D. 1081.
ISTITI
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #569

Jain Education Intemational
anabe
DOR.
SU

64. Kumbharia : Pārsvanātha Temple, entrance porch and nālamandapa, view from north-west, c. A.D. 1100.

Page #570

Jain Education Intemational

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65. Kumbharia : Pärsvanātha Temple, rangamandapa, central ceiling, c. A.D. 1100.
www.jainelibrary.om

Page #571

KO
CALL
alfanaatik Sarith
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his works
66. Kumbharia : Neminātha Temple, sanctum, view from south-east, A.D. 1136.
Jain Education Intemational
www.jabaty.org

Page #572

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Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.one

Page #573

Jain Education Intemational

68. Kumbharia : Sambhavanātha Temple, general view from east, mid-13" century A.D.

Page #574

69. Girnar: general view of Jaina Temples.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.one

Page #575

..
.
70. Girnar: Neminātha Temple, sanctum, view from south-east, A.D. 1128.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #576

71. Girnar: Vastupälavihära, main shrine, view from south-west, A.D. 1231.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #577

73. Girnar : Vastupālavihāra, rangamandapa ceiling,
A.D. 1231.
72. Girnar: Neminātha Temple, gūdhamandapa ceiling,
A.D. 1128.
Jain Education Intemational
For Privale & Personal use only

Page #578

MEL
74. Satruñjaya : general view of Jaina temples.
Jain Education Intematonal

www.jainelibrary.

Page #579

00
TAPET
RE
TERE
75. Satruñjaya: Adinātha Temple, sanctum, view from north-east, A.D. 1154.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #580

77. Miani : Jaina Temple, gūdhamandapa ceiling, late 13" century A.D.
76. Miani : Jaina Temple, general view from north-west, late 13" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainalibra

Page #581

Jain Education Intemational

BEN
78. Aihole : Meguti Temple, view from north-west, A.D. 634-35.

Page #582

80. Aihole : Jaina Temple near Caranti-matha, vimāna, view from south,
late 10" century A.D.
79. Aihole : Triple Jaina Shrine near Virūpākṣa Temple, Western Shrine from south,
late 10" century A.D.
Jain Education Intematonal

www.jainelibrary

Page #583

in Education intentional

www.
j
81. Aihole : Caranti-matha (Jaina Temple No. 2), view from south-west, early 12" century A.D.
brary.org

Page #584

Jain Education Intemational

82. Hallur : Melgudi Temple, view from south-east, late 8h century A.D.
www.jainelibrary

Page #585

84. Humca : Bogära-basti, śikhara from east, late 9" century A.D.
83. Hurca : Bogāra-basti, vimāna, south wall, late 9 century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

www.ainelibrary.org

Page #586

86. Humca : Pañcakūta-basti, Northern Shrine, vimāna, view from north-west, A.D. 1077.
85. Hunca : Süle-basti, vimāna, view from south-west, late 9" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainalibra

Page #587

Jain Education Intemational

87. Humca : Pañcakūta-basti, mukhamaņdapa pillars, A.D. 1077.
88. Huíca : Pañcakūta-basti, Mānastambha, A.D. 1077.

Page #588

Jain Education Intemational

89. Pattadakal : Jaina Temple, general view from south-west, c. A.D. 1000.
www.jainelibrary

Page #589

91. Annigere: Jaina-basadi, sopäna banister, mid-10° century A.D.
90. Pattadakal: Jaina Temple, garbhagṛha doorway, c. A.D. 1000.

Page #590

www.jainelibrary
92. Kambadahalli: Pañcakūta-basti, general view from north-east, late 10" century A.D.

Page #591

Jain Education Intemational

93. Kambadahalli: Sāntinātha-basti, view from north-east, late 10" century A.D.

Page #592

Jain Education Intemational

94. Sravanabelagola : Cāmundarāya-basadi, general view from south-east, c. A.D. 982-999
www.jainelibrary

Page #593

lain Eucation Intematonal

SAMLAR
95. Sravanabelagola : Pārsvanātha-basadi, general view from south-east, early 11" century A.D.

Page #594

96. Sravanabelagola : Akkana-basadi, vimāna, view from south-west, A.D. 1181.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.

Page #595

98. Harasur : Triple Jaina Shrine, Northern Shrine, portico, view from south-west, c. A.D. 1090.
97. Angadi : Sosevūr-basti, vimāna, view from west, late 10" century A.D.
in Education
email
www.aina bary.org

Page #596

Jain Education Intematonal

E THE
99. Konnur: Jaina Temple, vimāna, view from south-east, late 10" century A.D.
www.jang

Page #597

in Education Intemational
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www.janebrary.org
100. Lakkundi : Great Jaina Temple, general view from south-west, A.D. 1007.

Page #598

101. Lakkundi : Great Jaina Temple, mukhamandapa pillars, A.D. 1007.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary

Page #599

102. Mulgund : Temple No. 1, gūdhamandapa pillars, early 11" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

www.i
brary.org

Page #600

Jain Education Intematotal

103. Mulgund : Temple No. 1, dvāramandapa, view from north-east, mid-11" century A.D.
www.jainalibrary

Page #601

104. Ron Jaina Temple, view from south-east, mid-11th century A.D.

減

Page #602

Jain Education Intematonal
2
ALE

105. Lakşmeśvara : Sankha-basadi, view from south-east, late 11" century A.D.
www.jainelibrat

Page #603

Jain Education Intemational

106. Huli: Pañcalingeśvara Temple, general view from north-east, early 11" century A.D.
www.janabrary.org

Page #604

Jain Education Intemational

Jard
107. Hangal: Jaina Temple, vimana and mandapa, view from west, early 12" century A.D.

Page #605

Jan Education Intemational

108. Halebid : Pārsvanātha Temple, general view from south-east, A.D. 1133.
www.janabaty.org

Page #606

109. Halebid : Pārsvanātha Temple, gūdhamandapa pillars, A.D. 1133.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #607

Dan
110. Halebid : Pārsvanātha Temple, gūdhamandapa, nave ceiling, A.D. 1133.
Jain Education Intematonal

www.jainebrary.org

Page #608

111. Halebid : Šāntinātha Temple, gūdhamandapa pillars, c. A.D. 1196.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #609

113. Heggere: Parsvanatha Temple, güdhamandapa, samatala ceiling in nave, c. A.D. 1160.

Parit
4+
112. Nittur: Santinatha Temle, vimana, view from south, c. A.D. 1158.

Page #610

WELL
114. Heggere : Pārsvanatha Temple, güdhamandapa, pitha and wall from north-east, c. A.D. 1160.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #611

Jain Education Intemational
JE

115. Jinanāthapura : Säntinātha Temple, vimāna, view from south, c. A.D. 1200.

Page #612

116. Jinanāthapura : Sāntinātha Temple, gūdhamandapa pillars, c. A.D. 1200.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #613

in Education Intematonal
For Private & Parsanal Use Only
www.alam
117. Belgaum : Jaina Temple, view from north-west, A.D. 1204.

Page #614

118. Jina Torso, Lohānīpur, 3" century B.C.,
Patna Museum (Acc. no. 80.38).

Jain Education Interational

Page #615

DISHE
FOGOOD
119. Ayagapaṭa with eight auspicious symbols and Jina figure, Kankali Ṭilā, Mathura, early I century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. J 249).
Jain Education Intemational
603

Page #616

EN
120. Vardhamāna (Mahāvīra), Kankāli Tilā,
Mathura, (U.P.), A.D. 113, State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. J. 16).
00.B.69
121. Pratimā Sarvatobhadrikā-Pārsvanātha,
Kankāli Tilā, Mathura, Government Museum, Mathura (Acc. no. B. 69).
122. Rsabhanātha, Chausā (Bhojpur, Bihar),
2-3 century A.D. Patna Museum.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainalibrary

Page #617

123. Candraprabha, Durjanpur (Vidisha,
M.P.), Inscribed - c. A.D. 370-75, Vidisha Museum (Acc. no. 248).
SP
SAN
124. Neminātha with Balarāma and Krsna,
Mathura, 4" century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. J. 121).
Jain Education Intemational

Page #618

125. Neminatha (with cognizance), Rajgir (Nalanda, Bihar), Inscribed, from Old Temple of Rajgir, early 5" century A.D.

Page #619

126. Pārsvanātha, Nachnā (Panna, M.P.), 5" century A.D.,
Tulasi Museum, Ramvana, Satna (M.P.).
Jain Education Intematonal

www.alibrary.org

Page #620

ESTM Oceae
veebie
127. Unidentified Jina, Kankāli Țīlā, Mathura, 5" century A.D., State Museum,
Lucknow (Acc. no. J. 118).
Jain Education Interational

www.ainelibrar

Page #621

128. Jina, güdhamandapa, Pārsvanātha Temple, Kumbharia
(Banaskantha-Gujarat), 12" century A.D.
Jan Education Intematonal

www.janebat.org

Page #622

Jain Education Intematonal
be
GACE

129. Unidentified Jina image, sukanāsa with Jina figures, Akkana Bastī, Sravanabelgola (Karnataka), A.D. 1181.
www.jainelibrary

Page #623

BEI EUCEERS
WEB:2:1
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310
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130. Mānastambha with Jina figures, east face, Chittorgarh (Chittor, Rajasthan), A.D. 1485.
Jain Education Intemational
www.jainnibrary.org

Page #624

131. Rşabhanatha (name inscribed), Katra Keshava Deo, Mathura, c. 5"
century A.D., Government Museum, Mathura (Acc. No. 12.268).
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainalibrator

Page #625

132. Rşabhanātha (Svetāmbara), Akota (Vadodara, Gujarat), c. 59 century A.D.
Jain Education Interational

www.jalnelibrary.org

Page #626

133. Rşabhanātha, Rajgir (Nālandā, Bihar) Vaibhāra hill, Inscribed - 8" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainalibrary

Page #627

134. Rşabhanätha (with Gomukha-Cakreśvarī and Navagraha figures),
Khajuraho (Chhatarpur, M.P.), 10" century A.D., Archaeological Museum, Khajuraho (Acc. no. 1667).
Jain Education Intemtional
For Private & Parsonal Use Only
www.jana

Page #628

135. Rşabhanātha, Khajuraho, 10" century A.D., Archaeological
Museum, Khajuraho (Acc. no. 1682).
Jain Education Intematonal
-

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #629

136. Rşabhanātha (with Upadhyāya figures in disputation), Temple no. 4,
Deogadh (Lalitpur, U.P.), 11" century A.D.
Inin Education Intemational

www.jainerary.org

Page #630

MAUAALMXZYWY
137. Rşabhanātha (Brass), Jaisalmer (Rajasthan), A.D. 1144 , Berlin Museum für
Indische Kunst, (Acc. no. I. 10162) - Courtesy Berlin Museum.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.

Page #631

138. Rşabhanātha, Ammiņabhāvī (Dharwar,
Karnataka), 11" century A.D.
এসএসজে ત્રી દ્વારીથી એ
139. Jina Cauvīsī, Probably of Rşabhanātha,
Pudukkottai (Tamil Nadu), 11"-12"
century A.D., In collection of Deptt. of Archaeology, Mysore.
Jain Education Intematonal

www.jainalibrary.org

Page #632

1354
140. Dance of Nilanjana - life of Rṣabhanatha, Kankali Ţila, Mathura, c. 1" century B.C. -
1 century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. J. 354).
141. Narratives from life of Rṣabhanatha, Aisle ceiling, Santinatha temple, Kumbharia (Banaskantha, Gujarat), 11th century A.D.

Page #633

142. Candraprabha, Kaušāmbī (U.P.), 9" century A.D.,
Allahabad Museum (Acc. no. A.M. 295)
Tan Education tematinal
For Privale & Personal use only
www.jainalibrary.org

Page #634

143. Säntinātha (12 ft.), śāntinātha
temple, Khajuraho, A.D. 1028.
144. Narratives from life of Säntinātha, śāntinātha
temple, Kumbharia, 11" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational
www.jainalibrary

Page #635

145. Mallinātha, Unnao (U.P.),
11" century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow
(Acc. no. J. 885)
3885
146. Munisuvrata (with Yakṣī under throne),
Vaibharagiri, Rajgir (Bihar),
c. 10h century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainalibrary.org

Page #636

147. Munisuvrata, Western India, 11" century A.D.,
Government Central Museum, Jaipur.
ALLALAAMAAWIY
AMAN
148. Munisuvrata, Devakulikā no. 11,
Vimalavasahi, 12" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary

Page #637

149. Neminātha, Rajghat (Varanasi, U.P.), c. A.D.650.,
Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi (Acc. no. 212)
in Education
tematinal
For Private & Parsenal Use Only
www.janabaty.org

Page #638

150. Neminātha (with Balarāma and Krsna), Mathura, c. 10" century A.D.,
State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. 66.53).
Jain Education Intemational

Page #639

152. Narratives from life of Neminatha, Śantinātha temple, Kumbharia, 11th century A.D.

Cate

151. Neminatha (with Suparśvanatha and Pārsvanatha), Temple no. 29, Sikhara, Deogadh,
c. 11th century A.D.

Page #640

adin es on
Jain Education Intemational
153. Parsvanatha, Jaina Cave, Aihole, (Bijapur, Karnataka), c. A.D. 600.

set

Page #641

154. Pārsvanātha (with upasargas of Sambara), Ellora
(Aurangabad, Maharashtra), 9" century A.D.

www.jane bary.org

Page #642

156. Pārsvanātha, Rajasthan, 11"century A.D.,
National Museum, New Delhi
(Acc. No. 39.202).
155. Pārsvanātha (with kukkuța congnizance), Enclosure wall (west), Temple no. 12,
Deogadh, 10century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #643

157. Pārsvanātha on Boulder, Pallava, Tirakkol
(North Arcot, Tamilnadu)
8th-9th century A.D.
158. Pārsvanātha (with Upasargas of Sambara),
Pārsvanātha Bastī, Humca (Shimoga, Karnataka), 11" century A.D.
in Education Intematonal
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www.janabaty.org

Page #644

159. Cauvīss of Pārsvanātha, Andhra Pradesh, 12" century A.D.,
Office of Deptt. of Archaeology, Hyderabad
Jain Education Intematonal

Page #645

160. Pārsvanātha, Penukonda (Anantapur, A.P.).
11" century A.D.
161. Pārsvanätha, Pattanakudi (Belgaum, Karnataka),
11"-12" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #646

162. Pārsvanātha (Svetāmbara), Western India,
A.D. 1050, British Museum, London (Acc. no. 1974.4-11.1) (Courtesy
British Museum, London).
163. Sahasraphaņa Pārsvanātha, Dharņa Vihara (Adinātha temple), Ranakapur (Pali,
Rajasthan), A.D. 1439.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #647

164. Jivantasvämī Mahāvīra, Akota (Vadodara, Gujarat),
6 century A.D., Baroda Museum.
in Education Intemational
www.janabrary.org

Page #648

165. Mahāvīra, Khajuraho, 11" century A.D., Sāhu śānti Museum, Khajuraho.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.com

Page #649

166. Mahāvīra, Jaina Cave, Badami (Bijapur, Karnataka),
Later Cālukya, 10"-11" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational
www.jainalibrary.org

Page #650

167. Mahāvīra, Śravanabelagola (Karnataka), 12" century A.D.
Jain Education Intematonal

www.jainelibrary.

Page #651

168. Narrative from Life of Mahāvīra - Transfer of embryo, Kankāli Tīlā, Mathura,
I'century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. J. 626).
at
3311
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BE12E
169. Narratives from lives of Neminätha (left half) and Sāntinātha (right half), Aisle Ceiling,
Mahāvīra temple, Kumbharia, 11" century A.D.

Page #652

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170. Narratives from life of Mahāvīra (with Upsargas), Aisle Ceiling, Mahāvīra Temple,
Kumbharia, 11" century A.D.
171. Composite Jina Image of Rsabhanātha and Neminātha, Mathura
8" century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. J. 78).
Jain Education Intematonal

Page #653

Jain Education Intemational
For Privale & Personal Use Only

172. Gomukha Yakșa, Hathmā (Rajasthan), c. 10" century A.D., Government Museum, Ajmer (Acc. no. 270).

Page #654

173. Cakreśvarī Yakṣī, Mathura, c. 10" century A.D., Government Museum, Mathura
(Acc. no. D. 6).
174. Cakreśvari (20-armed), Deogadh, 11" century
A.D., Sahu Jaina Museum, Deogadh.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #655

175. Rohini, Mānastambha (Temple no. 11),
Deogadh, 11" century A.D.
176. Sumālini Yakși of Candraprabha, facade,
Temple no. 12, Deogadh, A.D. 862.
177. Jvālāmālini Yakși of Candraprabha, Aihole,
Western Cālukya, 11"-12" century A.D.,
now in Siva Temple at Aihole.
Jain Education Intemational
For Privale & Personal use only
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Page #656

178. Kumāra or Şanmukha Yaksa of Vāsupujya or Vimalanātha, Girnar
(Junagarh, Gujarat), A.D. 1467.
Jain Education Intematonal

wwwane

Page #657

179. Sarvānubhūti or Kubera Yakṣa of Neminātha, Cave 32, Ellora, 9" century A.D.
Jain Education Interational

www.jane brary.org

Page #658

180. Sarvānubhūti Yakşa, Chittor, 10" century A.D.
Government Museum, Udaipur (Acc. no. 117).
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary.om

Page #659

181. Ambikā Yakşi, Cave 32, Ellora, 9" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #660

182. Ambikā Yaksi, Mathura, 9" century A.D., Government
Museum, Mathura (Acc. no. D.7).
183. Ambika Yakşi and Jina, Kalugumalai (Tirunelveli, Tamilnadu)
c. 8"-9" century A.D.

www.jainelibrary

Page #661

184. Ambika Yakṣī, south facade, Pārsvanātha temple,
Khajuraho, 10" century A.D.
185. Ambikā (with other 23 Yakşi figures in
parikara), Patiāndāi (Satna, M.P.), 11" century A.D., Allahabad Museum
(Acc. no. 253).
Jain Education Iniemational

Page #662

CT
186. Ambika, rangamandapa ceiling, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan), c. A.D.1150.

Shardanapa Salmaan
187. Ambika, Mahavira temple, Kumbharia (Gujarat). Inscribed - c. 12th century A.D.

A 281
HornsThing

Page #663

Jain Education Intemational

188. Ambika, Terdal (Bijapur-Karnataka), 189. Ambika, Śaligrama (Mysore, Karnataka), Western Calukya, 12" century A.D.
11" century A.D.
190. Ambika, Dharhat (Hamirpur, U.P.), 13th century A.D., State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. G. 312).

Page #664

191. Dharanedndra Yaksa, Pārsvanātha Basti,
Humca (Shimoga-Karnataka),
c. 11"-12" century A.D.
192. Dharaṇedndra Yakşa, Anatur (Chikmagalur -
Karnataka), 12" century A.D.
Jain Education Intematonal

www.jainelibrary.com

Page #665

193. Padmāvati Yakṣī, Mānastambha (Temple no. 11), Deogadh, 11" century A.D.

www.jane bary.org

Page #666

194. Padmāvati (with Yakşa-Yakṣī figures),
Nagdā (Udaipur, Rajasthan), c. 10"
11" century A.D., Government Museum, Udaipur (Acc. no. 56).
195. Padmāvati Yakṣī, Central India, 11" century A.D., British Museum, London (Acc. no. 1957, 12-211).
(Courtesy British Museum, London). -
Jain Education Intematorial

www.jainelibrary.com

Page #667

196. Padmāvati, Basement, Neminātha temple,
Kumbharia, 12" century A.D.
197. Padmāvati, Pārsvanātha Basti, Humca,
c. 11" century A.D.
Jain Education Intematonal
For Private & Parsonal use only

Page #668

198. Padmāvati, Terdal (Bijapur, Karnataka)
11" century A.D.
199. Padmāvati, Anatur (Chikamagalur,
Karnataka), 12" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainen

Page #669

200. Šāntinātha, Kunthunātha, Aranātha, Malli and Munisuvrata Jinas with their Yaksis Mahāmānasi, Jaya, Tārāvati, Aparājitā and Bahurūpiņi, Bārbhuji cave (cave no. 8),
Khandagiri (Puri, Orissa), c. 11"-12" century A.D.
201. Munisuvrata, Naminātha and Neminātha with Bahurupiņi,
Cämunda and Ambika Yakşīs, Bärbhuji cave,
Khandagiri, c. 11"-12" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #670

www.jainelibrary.c
28
202. Pārsvanatha and Mahāvīra with Padmavati and Siddhāyikā Yakṣis, Bārbhuji cave, Khandagiri, c. 11-12th century A.D.

Page #671

203. Jaina Mahāvidyās (Gaurī, Vairoțyā and Prajñapti), Mahāvīra temple,
Osiāñ (Jodhpur, Rajasthan), 8th 9th century A.D.
204. Sixteen Jaina Mahāvidyās, rangamandapa ceiling,
Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu, Rajasthan), c. A.D. 1150.
Jain Education Intemational
For Privale & Personal Use Only

Page #672

205. Mahavidya Vairotyä, Ceiling - Devakulikä, circumambulation,
Vimalavasahī, (Mt. Abü, Rajasthan), c. 1150 A.D.
206. Mahāvidyā Acchuptā, ceiling, devakulikā, Vimalavasahi
(Mt. Abu, Rajasthan), c. A.D. 1150.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainelibrary

Page #673

F
PREPARER999999999
SG
26 TE WYSOSTUS
CHQOROVO
Daca
207. Mahavidya-Puruşadattā and Apraticakrā, north facade
Ādinātha temple, Khajuraho, 11" century A.D.
Tain Eucation Intematonal

Page #674

208. Door-lintel with Ambikä, Cakreśvarī, Padmāvati and Navagrahas, Khajuraho, c. 11" century A.D., Jardin Museum,
Khajuraho (Acc. no. 1467).
hip
209. Sarvānubhūti Yakşa, Ambika Yakși and Brahmaśānti Yakşa,
rangamandapa ceiling, Mahāvīra temple,
Kumbharia, A.D. 1062.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #675

210. Brahmaśānti Yakşa, ceiling, close to rangamandapa, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu), c. A.D. 1150.
211. Sarasvati, Kaňkāli Tīlā, Mathura, Kuşāņa, A.D.132,
State Museum, Lucknow (Acc. no. J. 24).
in Education Intematonal
For Private & Parsenal Use Only

Page #676

212. Sarasvati, Pancakūta Basti, Humca
(Karnataka), A.D. 1077.
213. Sarasvatī, Pallű (Bikaner, Rajasthan), 12" century A.D.,
National Museum, Delhi (Acc. no. 1/6/278).
Jain Education Intemational

Page #677

For Private
A
Personal use only
214. Abhiseka Lakşmi, southern bay ceiling, Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu), c. A.D. 1150.

Page #678

215. Dvitirthi Jina Image (Rsabhanātha and Mahāvīra),
Orissa, 10" century A.D., British Museum,
London (Acc. no. 1872, 7-1,99). (Courtesy British Museum, London)
1)
216. Jina Caumukhi, Ahar (Tikamgarh, M.P.)
c. 11" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #679

218. Caumukhi Jinālaya (Sarvatobhadrikā shrine), Guna (Indor, M.P.), 11th century A.D.

217. Jina Caumukhi, Lakṣmeśvara, Dharwar (Karnataka), 12" century A.D.

Page #680

219. 12 Jinas of Cauvīsī Patta (Half portion only), Deogadh, 11" century A.D., Sāhū Jaina
Museum, Deogadh.
220. Jina Samavasarana Shrine, Mahāvīra temple,
Kumbharia, c. 11" century A.D
Jain Education Intemational

Page #681

Jain Education Intematonal
221. Parent of Jina, śāntinätha temple, Khajuraho,
10h century A.D.
222. Slab showing Mothers of 24 Jinas, Mahavira
temple, Kumbharia, 12" century A.D.
www.jabary.org

Page #682

223. Bāhubali, Jaina cave, Aihole
(Karnataka), c. A.D. 600.
224. Bähubali (Bronze), Śravanabelagola, 9h century A.D.
Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai (Acc. no. 105)
Jain Education Intematonal

Page #683

Jain Education Intentional
For P
E
Per
Only
225. Bāhubali, Cave 32, Ellora (Maharashtra),
c. 9 century A.D.
226. Gommateśvara Bāhubali (57 feet high), Sravanabelagola
(Hassan, Karnataka), Inscribed-A.D. 983.

Page #684

228. Bharata Muni, Temple no. 2, Deogadh, 11th century A.D.

227. Bahubali, Temple no. 2, Deogadh, 11th century A.D.

Page #685

229. Jinas and Jivantasvāmī, Torana fragment, Mahavira temple, Osian (Rajasthan)
A.D. 1018.
CAT
230. Jivantasvāmi, Khimvasar (Nagaur,
Rajasthan), early 11" century A.D., Government Museum, Jodhpur.
Jain Education Intemational

www.jainalibrary.om

Page #686

231. Kșetrapāla, pillar of Temple no. 1, Deogadh,
c. 11" century A.D.
232. Jaina Bhattārakas (Upadhyāyas), Khajuraho,
12" century A.D., Sāhū Santi Jaina Museum, Khajuraho (Acc. no. 233).
VaR porqarorer BHATTARAKA NAYANANDI
Jain Education Intemational

Page #687

233. Garbhagrha Mulanāyaka and Entrance, Pärsvanätha temple,
Khajuraho, c. 950-70 A.D.
234. Krşņa playing Holi with Gopa-Gopikäs, devakulikä сeiling,
Vimalavasahi (Mt. Abu), c. A.D. 1150.
Jain Education Intematon

Page #688

235. Ceiling of Panchakūta Jaina temple with Neminātha and Aștadikpāla figures,
Kambadahalli, (Mandya, Karnataka), 10" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #689

GLOC
236. Käma-Rati, North facade, Pārsvanatha
temple, Khajuraho, c. A.D. 950-70.
237. Dancer (in preparation) and Vyālas, north facade,
Pārsvanātha temple, Khajuraho, c. A.D. 950-70.
wayālas, north facade,
m
e
Inin Education literational

Page #690

238. Seven-headed Jina Image (Candraprabha?), 15" century A.D. (Vira Samvat 1928)
Reserve Collection of Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #691

Jain Education Intemational
SAL
239. Portable Jaina Shrine of Pārsvanātha, c. 16"-17th century A.D., Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (U.K.).

Page #692

1. Bull
2. Elephant
3. Horse
4. Kapi
5. krauñca
6. Padma
17. Svastika (S.D)
Nandyavarta 1
8. Sasi
0 M L 9. Makara
1 10. Srivatsa (S.D)
Svastika (i)
11. Khadsī
12. Mahisa
Jina
13. Varāha
14. Syenapaksī
AIWN
15. Vajra
16. Mrga
17. Chāga
18. Nandyāvarta (S)
Fish (D)
19. Kalasa
(e cu
20. Kūrma
21. Blue Lotus
22. Sankha |
23. Snake
24. Lion
!
240. Cognizances of 24 Jinas.
Jain Education Intemational
ation Intermational

Page #693

1. Bull
2. Elephant
3. Lion
4. Śrīdevī
5. Garland
TIR
6. Sun
7. Moon
8.Simhadhvajadanda 9. Purnakumbha 10. Padmasarovara
(Svet.)
11. ksīra Samudra 12. Devavimāna 13. Ratnanāli
14. Nigdhūma
Agni
15. Simhāsana
16. Matsya Yugala
18. Nāgendra bhavana (Dig)
241. Auspicious Dreams (Māngalika Svapna), 14 in Svetāmbara and 16 in Digambara Texts.

Page #694

For Private & Persona
TOTOFOTOT
MVVE
243. Dispute between Devasuri and Kumudacandra, Wooden book cover, c. A.D.1125 - 1150. Gujarat and Rajasthan, Western Indian style, Collection: J.P. Goenka, Mumbai.
MUZVIY
242. Episodes from the life of Parsva, Palm - leaf manuscript, c. A.D.1295-1300. Western Indian style, Collection: Jain Trust, Jaisalmer.

Page #695

5441
TE
2235
01753SDE
મગઅવધ
JENJERNERN
245. Battle between Bharata and Bahubali, Wooden book cover, c. A.D. 1100 - 1125.
Sens
ODES
1933
FEM
320
PHARRE
22
Sh
244. Dispute between Devasuri and Kumudacandra, Wooden book cover, c. A.D.1125 - 1150. Gujarat and Rajasthan, Western Indian style, Collection: J.P. Goenka, Mumbai.

Page #696

Border detail of pl. 246.
काण्डमांसाहा तपासशासमागायनातिसम कलगारस्मसाद मविण्यात वाशिकलगारासमा नवागारमाजातणकालण तणमायणामझामणग्रही
246. Devasānopado Kalpasūtra and Kalakācāryakathā, paper, c. A.D. 1500. Gujarat and Rajasthan,
Western Indian style, Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi.
in Education international
For Private
Personal use only

Page #697

247. Mahāvīra communicating Purāņa to Gautam
Ganadhara, Mahāpurāna, c. A.D. 1425-1450.
Western Indian style, Private collection.
रविण्याकरद्यालयमासाकोकप्रतिपालयन तिम झत्यानदियांन्यसत्यालगवजिलसेनाचार्यधपति लक्षणमटाराणसंपादनचर्यानतरगनातिना महादवाण्याला पसंख्याक विहान्यनेनबनुश्रीसंघबान सरात्रीगुरुन्यानमाष्ठाताननमासानामबायसुधुदिनटिबीदवी निरुक्तानियवान
परिवारितामापाचीवन महानोसालललाहारसुप्तावमायासित याईनवम्यामुदयरनेपरविथनामढायापालगतामनबावला साममानविनिधि भितिशयाणा विनाशकिरणोडासा बालकिसोरफरातिनालिगलोदयांदीडा दिवाविवादिनः। दिना:अमतिमीसदगमा निर्मलमबागुणातामथानमन्धमनका
मामिया
filestategदिन
- - -
248. Birth of Rşabha, Adipurāņa, c. A.D.1450 - 1475. Caura Pañcāśikā style, Private Collection.
For Private&Personal use only

Page #698

GI
is
D
249. Fourteen auspicious dreams, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1400, Collection : Jaina Bhandāra, Jaisalmer.
in Education temtional
For Privale & Personal use only
Www.jabat

Page #699

100000
RAAN
250. Indra instructing Harinaigamesi to transfer the embryo, Harinaigameși carrying the embryo, Kalpasūtra,
C. A.D. 1425 - 1450, Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi.
251. Harinaigameşi transferring the embryo, Kalpasutra, c. A.D.1400, Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan,
Varanasi, Acc. No. 8713/7.

Page #700

For Private
Personal use only
282
NOVO
PEL UO
252. Trīsalā narrating the dreams to Siddhārtha,
Kalpasūtra, A.D.1404, Collection :
Royal Asiatic Society, London.
253. Trišala narrating the dreams to King Siddhārtha, King Siddhartha with Soothsayer, Kalpasūtra,
A.D. 1400 , Private Collection.
www.ebaya

Page #701

one
254. Nativity of Mahāvīra and Indra taking newly born child for birth bath, dated A.D. 1346, Western Indian Style, Collection :
Muni Punya Vijayji.
Lain Education Interational
For Private
Personal Use Only

Page #702

COCO
HAARETS.
25.5. Mahavira plucking his hair, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1400.
wwwwwLE
256. Meghamalina protecting Parsvanatha, Kalpasútra, A.D.1400. Collection: Chatrapati Shivaji Mahārāja Vastu Samgrahalaya, Mumbai.

Page #703

22
WWWWWWUWMVVVVU
258. Marriage Procession of Neminātha, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1512.
Collection : Atmānanda Jaina Sabhā, Bhavanagar.
257. Pārsvanātha plucking his hair, Kalpasūtra,
c. 16th century A.D., Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi.
in Eloon
anal

Page #704

O
au
FISHI
NGC BU ADHE
sla
259. Preaching Mahāvīra, Kalpasūtra, A.D. 1400, Collection : Jaina Bhandāra, Jaisalmer.
261. Saka court and Kālaka, Kalpasūtra and Kālakācāryakathā, A.D. 1400, Collection:
Jaina Bhandāra, Jaisalmer
For Private
Personal Use Only
www.janebanyak

Page #705

80Q00 00
Iz

2 til he g
H
Or
47
&
028
STO
乾
40
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422
OLYTE
REFLIES

CLEAR
260. Prince Kälaka and his parents, Kalakācāryakatha, A.D. 1400. Collection: Premchand Jain, Mumbai.
DOD

Page #706

ACT
temag
262. Mahāvīra seated on throne, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 15" century A.D.
22
CEL
L
ULEECCININIS BAR
263. Mahāvīra in Kāyotsarga, Uttarādhyayanasutra, 16" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #707

Wom
METWwex
शER
264. King Brahmadatta and the ascetic, Uttarādhyayanasātra,
_c. 16" century A.D.
गाटा
आसुर
VIEBAAREERITAGRata
रखता कीडा
ਸਾਬ fafa कंमम अमाप
சாவாரைவாபாபாப்பாமன்காமம்
265. Aşādha and monks, Uttaradhyāyanasūtra, c. 15" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

aowwjainelibrary.org

Page #708

Fate no 82
मात्रा पाया १. ताया
Jain Education Intemational
तयारी विप्पमु
पजायत
मिडिले
का
FFG2859SENERATE
NWAR
a
ja
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwvi
40.65 W T
266. Aryaraksita and his disciples, Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 16th
c.
century A.D.
267. Attana watching the duel of the firsherman and farmer, Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 15th century A.D.
For Private Personal Use Only

Page #709

268. The Farmer and the Magician,
Uttaradhyayanasūtra,
16" century A.D.
DATE
UN
मि jag
269. Minister in front of King and Slaughter of ram,
Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 16" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #710

270. Nami and Sakra in conversation,
Uttarādhyayanasutra,
16h century A.D.
W
21
22
DOUDOS
271. Mahāvīra preaching a monk,
Uttaradhyayanasutra,
16" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #711

272. Harikesa beaten by boys,
Uttarādhyayanasūtra, c. 16" century A.D.
HTRA
एक नसंच
सा॥
दासा सामय यादा
273. The monk Citra and the King Brahmadatta,
Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 15" century A.D.
Jain Education Interational

Page #712

met defhfeerinar
-सरममा
दिवीएम FEJEJERGADELE Elaas
यारीय सनिवधा संदेडा सतिरक्षा यविधात किवि विध
274. Mahavira preaching the monk, Uttaradhyayanasutra,
15" century A.D.
MIN
terec
275. Sudharmana preaching the monks,
Uttaradhyayanasūtra,
16" century A.D.
Wwwa
ESTHIS
Jain Education Intemational

Page #713

276. Instruction giving monk,
Uttaradhyayanasūtra,
16" century A.D.
(गहा
ववव
6pQ
पिंडेड ववाद पवक रमप्रय परवा समन्च वन
SON
Petr
277. King shoots the deer, Uttarādhyayanasātra, 15" century A.D.
Jain Education Intemational

Page #714

lain Education Intemational
Cra
WWE
TWITT
WW

UGG CCWITOLA
WA
278. Marriage procession of Aristanemi, Räjimati plucking her hair, Uttarādhyayanasütra,
16" century A.D.
279. Discussion between Keśī and Gautama,
Uttarādhyayanasūtra, 15* century A.D.

Page #715

Jain Education Interational
WWWWWWWWWURUMU
der WWWWWWWWWW
SISTEMI
WWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWWW
WIDT
YAWA
6
280. Mahāvīra preaching the rules of conduct, Uttarādhyayanasūtra,
16" century A.D.
281. Cart with bullocks and preaching monk,
Uttaradhyayanasūtra, 16 century A.D.

Page #716

VILNIURKARARLILARIORUM
283. King Haridatta welcoming the priest Bhairavananda, Yasodharacarita, A.D.1636, Gujarat Collection : Shri Digambara Jain Atishaya
Kshetra (Shri Mahāvīrajī), Jaipur.
*
SIS
16665
282. Monk preaching the laywomen,
Uttarādhyayanasūtra,
16h century A.D.
For Private
Personal use only

Page #717

285. Yasodhara and Candramati as goat couple and hunter,
Yasodharacarita, A.D.1712 , Gujarat Collection : Shri Ailak Pannālāla Digambara Jain
Sarasvati Bhavan, Beawar.
um
284. Yasodhara as fish and Candramati as crocodile,
Yasodharacarita, A.D.1636, Idar, Gujarat Collection : Sena Gana Mandira, Karanja.
F
APEST

Page #718

287b. Episodes from the life of Nemi, c. 1125 - 1150 A.D., Gujarat and Rajasthan,
Collection : Jain Trust, Jaisalmer.
FO
287a. Episodes from the life of Nemi, c. A.D.1125 - 1150, Gujarat and Rajasthan,
Collection : Jain Trust, Jaisalmer.
DAIN
286. King Yaśomati and monk, Yasodharacarita,
A.D.1636, Idar, Gujarat Collection :
Sena Gana Mandir, Karanja.
For Pevale & Parsareal Use Only
www.jainnibrary

Page #719

So
ERI
SKE
288. Scene from the life of Pārsvanatha, Gujarat, c. A.D. 1475, Patacitra.
(after P. Pal, Jain Art and Architecture, 1995)
Tin Eddan temanal

Page #720

AUR
SO
a
LUTE
289. Pilgrimage Patacitra, Satruñjaya, Rajasthan, c. A.D.1800.
(after P. Pal, Jain Art and Architecture, 1995).
dan
tamational
For Privale & Personal Use Only
www.jainerary

Page #721

(30)
290. Vijñyaptipatra (letter of invitation), Rajasthan, c. A.D.1800 (after P. Pal, Jain Art and Architecture, 1995)

Page #722

NORDS
TOILET
ROS
OOD
TEST
29
R
For Private
LA
LL
6
Pesanal Use Only
OS
A
LISTE
291. Samavasarana, Kalpasūtra, c. 13"-14" century A.D.,
Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan,
Varanasi, (Acc. No. 3824).
292. Samavasarana, Kalpasūtra, c. 15" century A.D.,
Collection : Bharat Kala Bhavan,
Varanasi, (Acc. No. 3813).
www.janeiro

Page #723

מותרוויומיון
CLAU
TURAN
SCO
293. Samavasarana, Kalpasutra, c. A.D. 1633, Collection:
Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, (Acc. No. 3812).
For
P
EPE
e Only

Page #724

Page #725

TH VID YAPEETH
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PARSH WANATH VIDYAPEETH
PARSHWANATH
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