Study of Civakacintamani

Author(s): Vijaylaxmi
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001579/1

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A STUDY OF CIVAKACINTAMANI PARTICULARLY FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF INTERACTION OF SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE WITH TAMIL BY R. VIJAYALAKSHMY L. D. SERIES 82 GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH to (3) L. D. INSTIT L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9 For Private & Personal use only jainglibatyurg

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A STUDY OF CIVAKACINTAMANI PARTICULARLY FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF INTERACTION OF SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE WITH TAMIL L. D. SERIES 82 GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH BY R. VIJAYALAKSHMY D 1 D. STIUTE Or MBOLOCY AUDAD be L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9 THE TONERA

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Printed by K. Bbikbalal Bhavsar Shri Swaminarayan Mudran Mandir 21, Purushottam Nagar, Nava Vadaj Abmedabad-380013 and Published by Nagin J. Shah Director L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad-380009 FIRST EDITION May 1981 PRIMEKS Revised $64 Price Rs. L. D. dobry 1 R 1 05 I

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PREFACE It is a matter of great pleasure to place before lovers of literature the study of Civakacintamani (Co) (c. 750-825 A.D.), the Tamil poem composed by Tiruttakkatevar. It deals with the story of Jivaka or Jivandbara, popular among the Jainas. This study by Dr. Mrs. R. Vijayalakshmy reveals the interaction of Sanskrit language and literature with Tamil language and literature. Chapter I discusses the date and the source of Cc. As the exact date at which Cc was composed is not known, she has tried to fix the date with the help of a comparative analysis of the texts which parrate the story of Jivaka, viz. the Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra (897 A.D), the Mahapurana of Puspadanta (965 A.D.), the Jivandharacampu of Haricandra, the Ksatracudamani and the Gad yacintamani of Vadibhasimha. Chapter II examines the social and religious conditions which existed in the Tamil land when the Cc was composed. Chapter III compares the Jivandhara story of the Uttara purana with that of Cc and expounds the interaction of the pre-Cc Sanskrit works on Cc from the literary, religious and linguistic viewpoints. Chapter IV briefly discusses Tamil literary tradition as found in the early literature and shows that though the author of Cc follows the Mahakavya form of the Sanskrit tradition he has not ignored the Tamil poetical tradition. Chapter V demonstrates how the author has used the story of Jivaka to expound the Jaina conception of spiritual progress of soul caught up in the cycle of birth and death. The last chapter enlists Sanskrit loan-words in the Cc and examines the phonetic and semantic changes of these words. Thus the present study is thorough and systematic, and embodies results of strenuous research by Dr. R. Vijayalakshmy who rightly deserves our congratulations. I am grateful to Prof. T. Burrow for writing a foreword to this work. And I am most thankful to Dr. R. Vijayalakshmy for agreeing to the publication of her thesis which earned her the Ph.D. Degree of the University of Oxford: am sure this publication will prove useful to all interested in comparative studies in the field of classical Indian literature in general and the Jaina literature in particular. L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad-380 009. 15th April, 1981 Nagin J. Shah Director

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FOREWORD This study, by R. Vijayalakshmy, of the Tamil poem Civakacintamani is concern. ed with the relationship of the work to the various Sanskrit and Prakrit works which treat the same story, and more generally with the fusion of Sanskrit and Tamil literary tradition and culture as exemplified by this Tamil poem. It is not known when the story of Jivandhara originated, but it became very popular among the Jains of South India from the ninth century onwards. A large number of works in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada can be enumerated which deal with this story, but it is only the earliest works of this kind which are relevant to the study of the Civakacintamani and these are subjected in the present work to a detailed analysis in comparison with the Civakacintamani. The works in question are, the Uttarapurana of Gumabhadra (897 A.D.), the Apabhramsa Maha purana of Puspadanta (965 A.D), the Ksatracuda - mani and Gadyacintamani, verse and prose versions of the story by Vadibhasimha, and the Jivandhara campu of Haricandra. Dr. Vijayalaksbmy's detailed analysis of these texts in comparison with the Civakacintamani produces some interesting conclusions which are convincingly argued on the basis of abundant evidence, and which can be regarded as definitely established. Briefly it is shown that the two works of Vadibhasimha show a knowledge of Civakacintamani, and are therefore later than it. Likewise the Jivandhara cam pu of Haricandra is shown to be later than the works of Vadibhasimha and therefore later than the Civakacintamani. A comparison of the story as it appears in the Civakacintamani on the one hand and in Apabh ramsa and Sanskrit Purapas on the other, shows that though there is general correspondence, differences in detail: are sufficiently numerous to make it clear that these are not the direct source of Tiruttakkatevar's work. Dr. Vijayalakshmy suggests the possibility of a lost Prakrit original, and in support of this points to the fact that some of the proper names in the Tamil poem appear in Prakrit form. The theory is very likely, since one would expect that the Jains would have had a version of this popular story in Prakrit, and also in a fuller form than in the sunmaries contained in the Puranas. As regards the date of the Civakacintamani no absolutely certain conclucion can be reached in the absence of decisive evidence but the probable date suggested, between the later part of the eighth century and the early part of the ninth ceatury, can be regarded as the most likely. All the material that can contribute to this problem has been carefully collected and the problem has been brought as near a solution as is at present possible The Civakacintamani has its literary roots both in the native Tamil tradition going back to the Cankam literature, and in the Sanskrit Kavya traditioa with

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which the author was well acquainted, and the book contains a most interesting section showing how these two strands have been combined. The influence of the poet Kalidasa has been demonstrated by examples, and there is an analysis of the alam. karas in the work which show the influence of the tradition of Sanskrit poetics. Being a Jaina work the Civakacintamani contains a good deal of Jaina doctrine in one form or another, and an excellent account is provided of this material. Although Jainism had been under attack for some centuries from Saivaites and Vaishnavaites, it was still a force to be reckoned with in the Tamil land. The poem provides an excellent picture of contemporary Jainism, particularly as it affected the lay community, and all this is clearly brought out in the present work. The wider influence of Aryan cultural traditions, as reflected in the poem is also given its due. Finally there is a chapter on the loanwords from the Sanskrit and Prakrit which are found in the poem. There are other studies in this subject in respect of earlier literature, but this is the first time that loanwords in this poem have received detailed treatment. It excellently supplements what has been done elsewhere. University of Oxford England T. Burrow Emeritus Boden Professor of Sanskrit

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PREFATORY NOTE Considering the large number of articles and books which have already been the Civakacintamani, the question arises whether there is a need for writing yet another book on the same work. It should therefore be pointed out that most of these works deal with the literary merits of the Civakacintamani purely as a classic in Tamil literature. What little has been written in the form of a critical study of the work bas not been based on a detailed comparison of the contents of the Civakacintamani, with that of the extensive Sanskrit and Prakrit works dealing with the same theme. On the other hand, scholars who have been who have been engaged in the study of Jaina texts in Sanskrit and Prakrit have not so far taken serious note of works like the Civakacintamani which are in Tamil. The present work embodies the results of the investigations of the author during 1969-1972 which were submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Oxford, under the able guidance of Professor T. Burrow, the then Boden Professor of Sanskrit. Its main aim has been to study the interaction between Sanskrit and Tamil with special reference to the Civakacintamani. In addition, it examines the linguistic impact of what may be considered as the first serious attempt to pattern a Tamil classic after the Sanskrit Mahakavya traditions. In the process many of the obscure verses in the Muttiyilampakam have also been explained from the point of view of Jaina metaphysical and religious thought. I am grateful to Professor Burrow who suggested this line of investigation to me and steered my course through it and to Professor K. Kailasanatha Kurukkal of the University of Srilanka who shaped my career right from my student days. The completion of this work would have been impossible but for the active involvement of my husband, Dr. G. Rangarajan. For its inclusion in the L, D. Series of the L. D. Institute, I am indebted to the late Prof. A. N. Upadhye of the University of Mysore. I would be failing in my duty if I have not thanked Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, the former Director of the L. D. Institute of Indology and Dr. Nagin J. Shab, the present Director for bringing out this work in print. If scholars notice any defects which have been overlooked by me in this first attempt to study a Tamil classic in comparison with other related works in Indian literature, I would be grateful if the same were brought to my attention. International Institute of Tamil Studies Adyar May, 1980 R. Vijayalakshmy

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ABBREVIATIONS Akan Akananuru Ap. Adipurana Cc. Civakacintamani Cey. Ceyyuliyal Cut. Cuttiram Ge. Gadyacintamani Jc. Jivandharacampu Kc. Ksatracudamani Mey. Meyppastiyal Mp. Mahapurana Por. Porulatikaram Rk. Ratnakaranda-Sravakacara Tevar Tiruttakkatevar Ts. Tatfvartha Sutram Up. Uttara purana The following abbreviations have been used only in Chapter VI: Aink. Ainkurunaru Patt. Pattinappalai Cirupanc. Cirupancamulam Pkt. Prakrit Cirupan. Cirupanartuppatai Pur. Purananutu Kor. Kuruntokai Skt. Sanskrit Narr. Narrinai Tirikat. Tirikatukam Net. Netunalvatai Tiru. Tirumurukartup patai Pari. Pari patal

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lo eoio A. DIOSI E wa H I Vowels Consonants TRANSLITERATION : TAMIL g. 13. 3. 45. . &. 5. E. 5. 6. 77.29. g. F. 69. Ho sto $

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TRANSLITERATION : SANSKRIT Vowels Consonants a khu dh n p # vy 84 MY au da dh A m (Anusvara) h (Visarga) MY

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CONTENTS pages An Attempt to trace the Source of the Civakacintamani and the Period in which it has been written I II the Social, Religious and Literary background III A Comparative Study of the Jivandhara Story in the Uttara purana and the Story of the Civakacintamani and a discussion of the Sanskrit Motifs found in the Civakacintamani 51 IV The Sanskrit Interaction in the Literary Style of the Civakacint. amani 78 V The Interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 123 Vi Sanskrit Loan words in the Civakacintamani 163 Conclusion 198 Select Bibliography 201 Subject Index 209 Author Index 229 Errata 231

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CHAPIER I AN ATTEMPT TO TRACE THE SOURCE OF THE CIVAKACINTAMANI AND THE PERIOD IN WHICH IT HAS BEEN WRITTEN The first step in evaluating the influence of Sanskrit on th: Civakacintamani (CC) involves tracing the source of the Cc. and the period in which it was written. Unfortunately there is no internal evidence in the Ce, which would help one in doing this. In this chapter we attempt to do this by (i) a comparative study of the books which deal with the Jiyaka story and (ii) an analysis of external evidence which contains references to the Cc. or to the author of the Cc., Tiruttakkatevar (Tevar). The Jivaka story has been used as the main theme in many Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kappada works. These texts have been written in different periods and some of Prakrit and Kannada works belong to a much later period. Such works are not considered here. Thus the books we have taken for our study are, (i the story of Jivan. dhara narrated in the Uttatopuruna (Up.) of Gunabhadra (i) the story of Jivandhara narrated in the Mahapurana of Puspadanta, (iii) the Ksatraci danioni (Kc) and (iv) the Gadyacintamani (Gc.) of Vadibhasimba, Erd (v) the Jivar dhara campu (Jc.) of Haricandra. We have also consulted the Jivardhara story narrated in the Srisuranom which is written in Manipravala style, a style in which Tamil and Sanskrit words are mixed. This is more or less like a translation of the Jivar dhara story in the Up. of Gupabhadra, except for the very few minor changes found in its Gnanamurthya thinks, this can be of a very late period, probably composed somewhere about the 16th century A.D. Out of the five books mentioned above which ceal with be Jivaka story, the Up. of Gunabhadra is considered to be the tarliest The Up. fcing the later hall of a work called Mahapulana (Mp.). The first half of this text is called Adipurana (Ap.) and is written by Jinasena, the teacher of Gunabhadra. Gunab dra opleted the work which was started by his teacher and this work was conse rat d by Unabhadra's student, Lokapala. The date of this work is known frm the pr sasti at th: end of this 1 Jivandhara-caritra of Suthacardia (Sanvar 13 (tali); check itc of Raichu (Apabhramsa) (before A.D. 1439); Jivandhara-carite of Bhiska ( Cannada (..D. 1424), Jivandhara-Samgatya of Terakanambi Bommarasa (Kannada) e. 1135); Jiyanthar:-satpadi of Kotisvara (Kannada) (about A.D. 1500); Jivandhara-caritre of Brahmavi (Kannada) The dates of these works are taken from the General Editorial written !o Jivandhara-camp! by A. N. Upadhye and H. L. Jain, edited by Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, July 1958, pp. 3-11. . 2 T. E. Gnanamurthy, A Critical Stuly of Civakasintanai, Coimbatora, Noven': 1 , p. 33. SC-1

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Study of Civakacintamani wojk. In this prasasti it is stated that this text was completed on the 820 Saka year (A.D. 897) called Lir gala, during the reign of the Rastrakuta king Akala arsa (Krsna II)1 (A.D. 850-915) The whole book of the Mp. deals with the story of sixty three Jain divine personages. 8 Asart from these sixty three divine personages there are also nine Naradas, eleven Rudras and twenty four Kama devas. 3 Jivandhaia is one of these Kamadevas and his story is narrated in the seventy fifth chapter of the Sanskrit Mahapurana in verses 183-691, The Jivandhara story narrated in the ninety ninth samdhi of the Apabhramsa Mabapurana of Puspadanta which was completed in A.D). 965 during the reign Kisna III (A.D. 939-966) of the Rastrakuta dynasty, + follows the Jivandhara story narrated in the Up. to a great extent. The story in Puspadanta's Mabapujana (Mp.) is very brief compared to the story in the Up., and it just follows the story of the Up. From the following verse of the introductory stanzas of the Gc. it is known that the Gc was written by Vadibhasimha : sripuspasenomuniraiha iti pratito divyo manur mama sada hpdi samnidadhyat / yacchaktitah prurimudhamatir jano'pi vadibhasimhamunipungavatam upaiti // [Let the ascetic known as Puspasena, the divine manu, be in my heart always, by whose greatress even the dull headed one becomes the ascetic Vadibhasimha (the lion to the opponent elephants).] In the Kc. there is no mention of its author But, from the strong similarities in style and story, it is obvious that both books, the Cc. and the Kc. are written by the same man. It is most conspicuous in the phraseology, the manner of narration, the names of the characters, diction and the scquence of events. The fact that these two works are written hy Vadibbasimha is also supported by the colophons found at the end of each chapter in both the Gc. and the Kc. Each colophon states that akala varsabhupale palayaty akhilamilam/ tasminvidh vastanissesad vini vidhrayaso jusi// 31 sakanpakalibhyantaravimsaty adhikastasatamitabdantel mangalamaharthakarini pingalanamani samasta janasukhade// 35 sripancamyam budhardrayuji divasamaje mantrivare budhamse purvayam simhalagne dhanusi dharanije saimhikeye tulayam/ surye sukre kuli'e cavi ca suragurau nistitam bhavyavaryaih pripte jyam sarvasaram jagati vijay ate punyam etat puranam // 36 edited by Pt. Pannala) Jain, Uttarapuranam. 2nd edition, Varanasi, 1968, Prasasti, vv. 31-36, p. 577. 2 Twenty four Tirth ankaras, twelve Cakravartins, nine Narayanas, nine l'rati-Narayanas and nine Balabhadras are the sixty three divine personages. 3 Ref. Jign in lorlal Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, 2nd edition, Cambridge, 1940, pp. 125-126. 4 P. L. Vaidya, Introduction to Mahapurana, Mahapurana of Puspadanta, Man.kchand Digambare Jajna Granthamala, Bombay, 1937, p. xxxi. 5 Gadyacintamani, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, 1968, 1:6, p. 4.

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An attempt to trace the Source Vadibhasimha had composed the chapters. The Jivandhara story is narrated in verses in the Kc. and in prose in the Gc. In most of the stanzas in the Kc. the story is stated in the first line and in the socond line a moral explanation is given through the Arthantaranyasa alamkara, There is no variation in the sequence of events or in the story. The difference is that in the Gc. the story is described in detail and in the Kc. it is short and simple. Thyugh the core of the Jivandhara story is the same, these two works and the Cc. differ in many places from the stories narrated in the Up. of Gunabhadra and in the Mp. of Puspadanta. The Jc. of Haricandra shows the knowledge of the Up. as well as of the Kc., the Gc. and the Cc. The story of this work which is written in prose and verse (campu) follows the story of the Kc, and the Gc. to a great extent with modifications here and there. The Jo. in so ne places follows incidents which are only narrated in the Up. and not in the Kc., the Gc., or the Cc. For example, in the Up. Jivaadhara who meets the ascetic Aryavarmi while he was playing, takes him home to give him food on his request. At home while he is eating with the ascetic he cries and bothers his mother saying that he cannot eat the food as it is all hot.1 The ascetic who watches this incident, asks him why he does so. He explains the advantages of crying like that as follows : "Crying makes the collected phlegm flow out, the eyes get clear and the food cools down.''3 The same incident is described in the Jc. The following passage sh)ws that the answer given by Jivandhara to the ascetic is also the same as in the Up. srutva vanim tasya mandasmitena tanvannir yatksiradhareti sankam / ittham vacam acacakse bhavanvai mocamadhvimadhurimadadhanam // slesmacchedo nayana yugalinirmalatyam ca nasa singhananam bhuvi nipatanan kosnata bhojyavarge 1 sirsabaddhabhramgkara payodosabadhanivyttir anye pyasmin paricitaguna rodane sambhavanti 1/ (Hearing his speech you, with a smile that created the doubt that a stream of nuilk was flowing down, replied as follows in words sweet as the liquor made of bananas. The breaking of the phleg n, the clearing of the two eyes, falling down of the dirt in the nose, the cooling down of the food, the curing of the cold which produces dizziness in the head, etc. are the advantages of crying.) In some places the Jc. also follows the Up. with exactitude in the descriptions. For example the description of the cemetery in which Vijaya gave birth to her son Jivandhara is the same in the Up. and the Jc. whereas the way it is described in th: Gc. and the Cc., 4 while being similar between themselves, is different from the way 1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 271-272. 2 Up. loc. cit, v, 275. 3 Jo, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, July, 1953, 201 Lanha, p. 43-47, 4 G. 1 ; para 135, pp. 71-74; Cc. vy. 306-310,

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Study of Civakacintamani it is described in the Up, and the Sc. In the portrayal of the cemetery the description of the tridents (sula) on which thieves who were pierced by them lay with oozing blood streaming from their bodies, and the description of the witches who were uragging the haif ourat dead bodies from the funeral pyre and cutting them with sharp knives-ale simar in tue Up. and the Je. These descriptions are not found either in the Co. or in the Geur in the Kc. Like this the Jc. also follows descriptions which are found only in the Cc. and not in any other abovu said works. For example, in the Cc. while describing the flags hoisted on toe palaces found in the city of Iracamapuram, Tevar describes them as follows: tiruva ninakarc cem poni nitiya uruvav on kotiy uli nutankuva purului ven katirc celvana pan mayirp puravi ponk alal arruva ponrave. 3 (The long beautiful golden flags which are swaying on the top of the large wealthy mansions, look as if they are allaying the heat of the hairy horses of the hot rayed sun.) Here he says that the tlags waver as if they were allaying the heat of the horses : of the sun. The height of the mansions is indiretly expressed by the author. The same idea is expressed in the Jc. in the following description of the palaces in Rajapuri. ambhomukcunbi-saudhudhvaj. patupavunoddhuta saptasvarathyabranteh saudaminisriiulitatanulata-maninimanitayah. [(The city Rajapuri) contained mansions which kiss the clouds. The breeze which comes from the wafung flags (hoisted on these mansions) alleviated the fatigue of the horses of the seven-horsed one (the sun) (1 he mansions) were adorned by beautiful girls who equalled the lightning with their shining bodies. The Jc. also follows some of the incidents which are only narrated in the Cc. For example, after the marriage with Curamancari, Civakan returns to his home where he meets his parents and then he meets his first wife, Kantaruvatattai. On her request he goes to see his second wife, Kunamalai. When she saw Civakan she weeps and asks bin not to touch her as she is a sinful woman (It is to be remembered here that Civak.in was imprisoned by Kattiyankaran's servants when he was with Kunamalai). Having heard what she said Civakan consoles her saying that he was able to survive only because of the good deeds she had done. 1 Up. loc. cit. vv, 225-226; Jc. Ist lambha, p. 31. 2 Up. loc. cit. vv. 226-227; Jc. 1st lambha, p. 31. 3 Cc. V. 126. 4 Jc. Ist lambha p. 6.

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An attempt to trace the Source tivinai y utaiyav ennait tintanmin atikal venta paviyar enru noniu parint alut uruki naiyak kaviyank kanniy onrunk kavalal yan uyntat ellam naviya naru meni nankai nin ravattin enran. 1 (Oh my lord, do not touch me, the one who is full of demerits. Saying thus she wept. (Civakan coosoled her by saying] "Do not worry; I could survive only by the merits done by you, the one whose body smells of musk.) This same incident is narrated in the Jc, in the following lines : aryaputra mannimittam khalv etavad duhkham anubhutavan asyato mandabhagyam mam ma samspeseti savisadam ukto jivandharah, taruni tarunarunakiranavikasadambu javadane bhavadiyapurvakstasuk staprabhavenaivaitadusah samvpito'nyatha punarbahutaraduhkhum anubhave yam iti tom samasvasya....2 (She said with great grief "Lord, do not touch me, the unfortunate one because of whom you had to undergo all these troubles." (Hearing this) Jivandhara consoled her saying, "Oh, the one whose face is like a lotus which has bloomed by the rays of the sun, I could survive like this, because of the good deeds done by you before. Otherwise I might have undergone many more difficulties.) This incident is not narrated in this way either in the Up. or in the Kc. or the Gc. The names of the kings who came to participate in the contest to win Ilakkapai and in the war between Civakao and Kattiyankaran listed in the Cc. and the Jc. are very similar, while the names in the Kc. and the Gc. are different from these. From these we deduce that Haricandra was also aware of the Co, among other books on the Jivaka story. Though Haricandra was aware of the Up. and the Cc., he follows the Kc, and the Gc. more closely than these books. The story in the Jc. is narrated in eleven lambh is as in Valibhasimha's work. In the Cc. the story of the Jc. is narrated in thirteen Ilampakams. It may be safely said that the story of the Jc. is a brief version of the story narrated in the Kc. and the Gc. The same phrases found in the Gc and the Kc. are freely employed by Haricandra in his work, the Jc. For example, the following phrase which is a part of the advice given by the ministers to the king Satyandhara when he wanted to entrust his kingdom in the hands of his minister Kastangara, is the same in all these books. hydayam ca na visvasyam rajabhih kim paro narah / the (Even their hearts should not be trusled by kings; how much more of other man.) 1 Cc. v. 2099. 2 Jc. 10th lambha, pp. 170. 171. . . 3 Kc, 1:15.

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..deva, svahrdayam api rajna na vikrambhanlyam, kim utapare.1 (Lord, a king should not trust even his own heart. Then what of others ?) ...yan ni juhrdayam api sarvatha na visvasaniyam kim uta Jusantaram.. (..that even one's own heart should not by all means be trusted, what of other people ?) The similarities between the Kc., the Ge. and the Jc. have been pointed out by T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri in the introduction to his edition of the Ge., and in the Ke. The indebtedness of Haricandra to Vadibhasimha's works is great and as Handique says, it can be said that "without the latter (Kc. and Gc.) it would not be very easy to follow the story in all its details.."5 Therefore, from the above shown evidence it is clear that the Jc. is later than the Up., the Ke., the G., and the Cc. Study of Civakacintamani Out of the remaining books, the Up., the Apabhramia Mp of Puspadanta, and Vadibhasimha's works, the Cc. has a greater affinity to Vadibbasimha's works than to the Up and the Mp. of Puspadanta. Just as we are unable to say anything about the source of the Cc. we also do not find any reference in Vadibhasim 11's works for their source book. Vadibhasimha, in the introductory stanzas of his two works, says that he is narrating the story which was told by Sudharma on the request of the king Srenika. Srenikapraina uddiya sudharmo gananayakah yathovac mayapy etad ucyate moksalipsaya//G (Out of the desire for eternal bliss, I am narrating this, just as it was told by the chief of the ganas, Sudharma, on being asked by Srenika.) The above verse is from the Kc. and the same fact is also mentioned in the Gc. In the Up. the entire Jivandhara story is aarrated through the mouth of Sudharma on the question asked by king Srenika. The story starts as follows: anyada asau maharajah krenikakhyah paribhraman/ priya gandhakujibah yabhasvadvanacatustaye || sthitam pindidrumasyadho jivamdharaunivaram dhyanarudham vilokyaitadrapadisu visaktadhih 1 sakautukah samabhyet ya sudharmagananayakam / bhaktik o'bhyarcya vanditva yathasthanam nivliya tam 1 Gc. 1: Para 9, p. 38. 2 Jc. 1st lambha, p. 15. 3 Gc, edited by T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri, Srirangam, 1916. 4 Kc. edited by T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri, Sarasvativilasa Series, No. III, Tanjore, 1903. 5 K. K. Handiqui, Forward to Jivandhara campu, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, 1958, p. 21. 6 Kc. 1:3

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An attempt to trace the Source pranjalir bhagavan esa yatindrah survakarmanal mukto vadyaiva ko veti papraccha prakrayasrayah||1 (Once, while the famous Maharaja Srenika was joyfully wandering about in the four splendid woods outside the perfumed chamber, he perceived the great ascetic Jivandhara, who was standing under a Pindi-tree, absorbed in meditation. As (the king's) fancy was attracted by his figure, etc., he went up to the chief disciple S dharma, full of curiosity, worshipped him devoutly, saluted him, assigned to him a seat that was suitable to his rank, and asked him respectfully, with outstretched hands: 'Is this venerable one a great ascetic who has just been freed of all (consequences of former) deeds, or who is he?? 7 From this one would think that Vadibhasimha could have had the knowledge of the Up. The date of Vadibh. simha which will be discussed later in this chapter shows that Vaibhasimha is later than Gunabhadra. It is very likely that he had the knowledge of the Up Further, the following point also supports this idea. Though most of the stories in the Kc., the Ge., ard the Cc. are similar, the story of Ksemary in the Gc, and the Kc. shows that Vadibhasimha in this particular story follows the Ksemasundart story in the Up. According to the Up.. the Kc., and the Ge. the story of Ksemai (Ksemasundars in the Up.) is as folk ws: Jivandhara enters the city of Ksema and there be goes to a Jaina temple and praises the lord Jina. Suddenly the doors of the Jina temple open by themselves. Seeing this, the servant of merchant Subhadra comes and greets Jivandhara. When Jivandhara asks who he is, he replies that he is the servant of the merchant Subhadra. Subhadra has a daughter named Ksemasundari (Ksemir in the c. and the Ge.). predicted by astrologers that the doors of the Jina temple would cpen to receive the one who would be her husband. When Subhadra comes to know from his servant that the Jina temple doors opened by themselves on the arrival of Jivandhara, he gives his daughter in marriage to him.8 This story is narrated in a different way in the Cc., as follows : Kemacari was born as the daughter of the; merchant Cupattiran and his wife. Nipputi. Astrologers had predicted at the time of her birth that sh: would marry the one who would cause her to blush in shame on seeing him. Hence Cupattiran used to bring young men to his house every day and feed them. When one day he took Civakan home, Kemacari blushed on seeing him and Cupattiran gave her in marriage to him. Though Vadibhasimha would have had the knowledge of the Up. the story in the Kc. and the Gc. differs in many aspects from that of the story of the Up. 1 here 1 Up. loc. cit., vv. 183-186. 2 Translated by Hultzch, Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, XXII, 4, p. 320. 3 Up. loc. cit. vv. 401-414; Kc. 6 vv. 32-51; Gc. 6 para 168-177, pp. 254-269. 4 Cc. vv, 1450-1490.

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Study of Civakacintamani are mai y new episc des which are rot fourd in the Up. and there are several insta1.Ces v hoe slight variations from the story of the Up. are four.d. There ariations and the new episodes found in Vadithasimha's work have a striking similarity to the story narrated in the Cc. Asart from these there are also places where the same incident is described in the same prar ner in the Kc., The Cc. ard the Cc. 1 here similarities which would be discussed below make (re feel sticngly that ore of these Tuthors follows the other. First we will discuss the similarities between these two uthis and then ficmite study of these similaritie: ve vill uy to ciclo who is following wlcm. Tlese similarities can te classif ed into two sect 'ons : (i) The hew (piscdes ard ircidu is which are rat fourd in ite l'r ard are fcurd in the Kc , the Gc. and thc (c. Most of these (piscdes pie rarated in the same way in the works of both these authors. (ii) Similarity in manner and style of descriptions found in the Kc., the Gc. and the Cc. First we shall list out the episodes and incidents which are rot found in the other three texts : 1. When Gardbotkata finds Jivardhara in the cen etay, he celebrates that he py occasion in his House and the lirg Kasikargala sends h'm piesents thinking that Gandhotkata is celebrating his victory over king Satyandhara. 1 2. Aiyanandi, the teacher, tells the story of Jivandl ara's parents after imparting education to Jivandhara.a 3. Jivandhara becomes angry on hearing the treacherous murder of his father, and gets ready to kill Kastbangara, His teacher asks him to wait for one year.8 4. After the victory over the hunters who tock the cows of the cowherds, Jivan. dhara returns home and an hearing this news, the ladies in the city come running to see him. The description of this occurs in the Gc. and the Cc. though the manner of the description is different. 5. The episode of Sridatta and his journey to acquire wealth. The shipwreck and his encounter with the celestial king Garudavega, the father of Gandharvadatta. 5 6. After seeing Gunamala, Jivandhara is love-stricken and waits in the park drawing the portrait of Gunamala. Gunamaja is also in love with him and sends him a love message through her pet parrot ? 7, Jivandhara before reaching the city Candrabha where he marries Padma, allays the heat of the sun from which a herd of elephants suffer, by causing a shower of rain.8 1 Kc. 1 : 105; Gc. 1 : para 40, p. 80; Cc. v. 330. 2 Kc. 2 3 : 6-37; Gc. 2 : para 53, p. 104; Ce. vv. 384-387. 3 Kc. 2 : 37; Gc. 2 : para 53, p. 104; Cc. vv. 390-393. 4 Gc. 2: para 84. pp. 138-139; Cc, vv. 457-470. 5 Kc. 3: 11 ff.; Gc, 3 : para. 90 ff.; Cc. v. 493 ff. 6 Gc. 4 : para. 133, p. 206; Cc. vv. 1003-1005. 7 Kc. 4 : 38; Gc. 4 : para 132, p. 205; Cc. v. 1423-1437. 8. Kc. 5: 34, Gc. 5 : para 150-151' pp. 130-231, Cc. v. 1237.

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An attempt to trace the Source 8. Before reaching Ksemapury where he marries Ksemajri, Jivandhara preaches Jaina doctrine to the ascetics who are performing penance standing in the midst of five fires.1 9. After Jivandhara leaves Kemairi, she is distressed and her mother consoles her. This incident is not narrated in the Kc. 10. Jivandhara offers his ornaments to a wayfarer and preaches to him the right knowledge. 11. The episode of Anangatilaka (Anangamavinai in the Cc.) who tried to seduce Jivandhara. In this episode Anangatilaka tries to attract the attention of Jivandhara towards her. She tells him a lie that she is the daughter of a celestial king and her cousin kidnapped her and left her alone in that forest. She asks Jivandhara to give her protection. Jivandhara advises her about the unreal nature of the body. At that moment they hear a cry and that turns out to be the cry of Bhavadatta, the husband of Anatgatilaka. According to the Cc. Civakan asks Anankamavinai to wait and he goes to find out who he is. Then Civakan preaches to him the fickleness of women. In spite of the preachings Pavatattan still wants to see his wife. So Civakan teaches him a mantra which would help him to see his wife. This is slightly different in the Gc. In the Ge., Anangatilaka vanishes from the place where she stands, as soon as she hears her husband cry out for her. Though there are slight differences in the story, this episode which is found in these three books are new to the Up. 12. Suramaajari (Gunamala in the Up.) goes to the temple of the god of love in order to secure Jivandhara as her husband by offering worship as per the advice given by an old man (who was none other than Jivandhara himself). In the temple, Buddhisena who is hiding there already on the instruction of Jivandhara, tells her that she will obtain Jivandhara. She comes back and finds Jivandhara who has already come out of his disguise and falls in love with him.6. 13. When Jivandhara enters the city of Videha, the ladies of that city come. running to see him. Though this is described in a different way in the Gc. and the Cc., the idea is the same." 14. The king Kasthangara sends a message to king Govinda iuforming him that Satyandhara has been killed by the state elephant and asking Govinda to come to his country and remove the rumour that he had killed king Satyandhara.8 These incidents and episodes which are not found in the Up. are similar in the Kc., the Ge. and the Ce. We will now see the similar descriptions which are found in these books. 1 Kc. 67 ff; Gc. 6: 167, pp. 253-254; Cc. vv. 1423-1437. 2 Gc. 7 para 184, p. 277; Cc. 1533-1537. 3 Kc. 7 4 Kc. 7 5 Gc. 7: 6 Kc. 9 32 ff; Gc. 9: para 225-226; Cc. vv. 2055-2065. 7 Gc. 9 8 Kc. 10 SC-2 8-21; Gc. 7: para 185, pp. 278-279; Cc. vv. 1542-1556. 33 ff.; Gc. 7: para 186 ff, p. 279 ff; Cc. 1167 ff. para 186-190, pp. 279-285; Kc. 7: 34-62; Cc. vv. 1567-1601. para 234, pp. 342-343; Cc. vv. 2114-2128. 11-14; Gc. 9: para 237, p. 349; Cc. vv. 2143-2148,

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10 Study of Civakacintamani 1. The advice given by the ministers to king Satyandhara who wanted to entrust the kingdom in hands of his minister Kashangara in the Gc., is similar in the following places to the advice given by the minister Nimittikan to the king Caccantan in the Cc. Cc. perum peyarp piraman ennum pitinar periya niran arum piya mulaiyinalukk ani mukam nanku tosra virumply ank avalaly eytan vingakam ilantat aprit tiruntinark tarukarun ciru collay ninrat apra.1 (The renowned Brahma, who achieved greatness by his penance, and obtained four faces in order to obtain the lady with the bud-like breasts (Tilottamai) lost heaven, but did not gain her Even though he reformed himself, it remains as a blemish upon him.) kamami kapri ninra kajutai kant arulinale vamanara cenru kuti varuntinir enru valyatt iman car malai pilav idittilappaltatanre nama var rajakkai vinte namitu teriyin egran.8 (Oh, king of the fearsome spear, are you troubled by this love which made Buddha to transform himself into a female ass to gratify the lust of a jackass ? To analyse love, it is base just like a garland fallen in a cemetery.) Gc. api ca tapai carann atiduicaram aravindasadma sankitavalamathana presitavarayositviracita vilasavilokana-vigalitadhrtir anubhavann aimabhuvas capalam abha jad apahasyatam." (Lord Brahma who dwells in the lotus while performing severe penance lost his concentration because of the spirited movements of a courtesan sent by the slayer of Vala (Indra) who was afraid, experienced the disturbance caused by the God of love and became an object of ridicule.) tatha tathagato'pi kadacit kamalarapatanaparavasa-karabhaparisadahamahamikaya parigrahaparyakulam kam api baleyim alokayan karunarasataralitamatir avairbhavad anekalatabhaga-babalitakarabhivejah kyanam asthad iti nastilkacudamaner mahiyan nanu kalankas tasya.5 (Even Buddha who once felt sorry for a she-camel who had been troubled by a group of male camels which were overcome by the arrows of Cupid, turned himself into a she-camel with many yonis for a moment and this was indeed the greatest blemish to the reputation of the gem of Nastikas [Buddha]). 1 Cc. v. 207. Refer, Swaminatha Iyer, op. cit. pp. 109, 110. 2 Ibid, v. 210. Refer, notes given by Swaminatha Iyer, op. cit, p. 112. 3 Ibid, v. 210. 4 Gc. 1 para 9, p. 40. 5 Gc. 1 para 9, p. 40.

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An attempt to trace the Source 2. The reason given by the minister Kasthangara for his intention of fighting with the king Satyandhara. Cc. mannavan pakaiy ayator ma teyvam. ennai vant itan kontat irap pakal tunni ninr u cekuttitu niy enum ennai yan ceyva kurumin nnave. 1 (A deity which is inimical to the king took abode in me. Day and night he stays close to me and urges me to kill the king. Tell me what I can do.) Gc. svapne kenapi parthivapar i panthina daivatena 'nihatya rajanam atmanam raksa iti niranuktosena samaved yate. ka atra pratikriya ? kim vatra prayujyate? yad iha asma bhir vidhiyatje tad abhidhiyatam. 9 (A deity which is inimical to the king tells me always in my dream to kill the king and save him. Is there any remedy for this ? What is to be done ? Tell me what should be done by us in this matter ?) 3. The description of the death of king Satyandhara. Cc. vaman8 atit tamarai malar cutit .. ventan poy vinnorkku viruntayina ne. (...adorned himself with the lotus of the feet of Arhat... the king went as the guest of the celestials.) Gc. svahtdayamani pitha-pratisthapita jinacaranasaro jah. kasthangaraya kasyapim atissjya tridasasaukhyam anubhavitum amaralokam aruroha. (He having placed the lotus of the feet of the Jipa, on the jewelled seat of his heart, leaving the kingdom for Kasthangara, ascended to the world of celestials to enjoy the pleasure of heaven.) 4. The lamentation of Vijaya on seeing her son being born in the cemetery. Cc. karai pannir ant utan vitumin kamar calai tali nirumin cirai cey cinkam pon matankic cera mannar cinam alunkav ur aiyun kotlam utan cimin on por kunran talai tirantit iraivan ciruvan pirantan enr @rparkk urtor uyttimin. 1 Cc. v. 241. 2 Gc. 1: para 24, p. 58. 3 Here the word 'Vaman' is used to call the lord Arhat. 4 Cc. v. 291. 5 Gc. 1 : para 31, p. 69. 6 Cc. v. 306.

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Study of Civakacintamani (On your birth the King will ask these things to be done : Exempt the people from tax for twelve years; erect beautiful charitable institutions and temples; destroy at once the prison, where the enemies, whose wrath was suppressed like captured lions, dwell; open wide the dazzling treasure of gold and go to villages and distribute it to all those who are in want, announcing the birth of a son to the king.) matam onkum vala nakarul varampil pantan talai tir antit atai cem pon aaikalankal yavum jarun kavgrnt elu na! vital inrik kolap per uvar vilakkal vanta vilntirkkuk koti munrot araic cem pon koma nalkum enav araimin.' (In the mansion with high terrace, things in bountiful measure will be left unguarded, and for seven days any one can acquire clothes, gold and jewels without any obstruction; do not prevent them. Proclaim that the king will offer three and a half million gold pieces to those who are in want.) arum por punum aramum imaippak kasikal akan koyil orunku kutic catakan ceyt okai aracarkk utan pokkik karunkaik kalirun kampalamun kacun kavikal ko la vici virumpap pirappay vinai ceyten kanav ihtoo pirakkuma. 2 (Your birth would have been happy news for all; the astrologers with dazzling golden ornaments and garlands, would gather together to tabulate the horoscope, the happy news of your birth would be told to all the kings; and the poets would be offered elephants with black trunks, carpets and money; but it is my misfortune to see you born like this.) vey vay ori mulavakav ilintar imam vilakkaka ovvac cutukatt uyar arankinilal po nutankip peyata evvay marunkum irunt irankik kukai kularip paratta ivviarakip pirappatov ituvo mannarkk iyal vente.3 (For drums, the howling of cruel-mouthed jackals; for lamps, the fire of the pyre; for dancing, the dancing of vampires like shadows on the stage of the cemetery: for songs of praise, the pitiful cry of owls everywhere; must you be born like this? Is this fit destiny for a king ?) parra mannan nakarp puramal payal pinan ca! cutu katal urrar illat tamiyenal otunkal akat tunk irulal marrin nalam utaiyay ni valarumarum arisenal errey itu kantakatey iruttiyai enn inn uyira. 4 (Ob, king of the world, the place you are, is the city of the enemy king : your bed is the cemetery surrounded by corpses; I am alone without any relatives; it is pitch dark and I cannot move about; I do not find a way to rear you; Oh my sweet soul. even after seeing this, you are here and not leaving me; Oh it is wicked.) 1 Ibid, v. 307. 3 Ibid, v. 309. 2 Cc. v. 308. 4 Ibid, v. 310.

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An attempt to trace the Source Gc. yasya janmavartanivedanamukhara harisyanti purnapatram dhatri jana jananathebhyah, yasmin ca kstavatare karadhyaksakaratrotitassnkhala vispakhalagatayascirakalakstadharanisayanamalinitavopuso vandipurusah palayamana iva kalisainyah samantato dhaveyuh, yasmin ca jatavati jatapistatakamustivarsapin jaritaharinmukham unmukhakub javam inahathakssyamana-narendrabharanam pranayabharapranttta-varayuvativarga-valgnnaraaitamanibhusananinadabharita-haridavak asam nirmaryadamada-paravasapanyayosid-aslesalajjamanara javallabham vardhamana-manasaparitosa-parasparaparirabdha-parthivabhu jantara-samghattavighatita-harapatitamauktika-sihaputitasthanamanikuttimatatam kudmalita-sauvidallanirodhasamlapa-nirankusapravistasesa janapada janitasambadham sadaradiyamana-kanakamanimauktikotpidam udghatitakavatarat nakosapravisad acakitalokalupyamana-vastusartham arthiganagavesanadesanirgat anekasatapratiharanitavanipakalokumullokaharsavihitamaharha jinamahamaham ahamahamikapravistavisista jana-prastuyamanasvastivadam sauvastikavidhiyamanamangalacaram-acuracaturapuranapuramdharipurisadabhyarcy amanagihadaivatam daiva jnaganaglhyamana-lagnagunavisesam asesajana-harsatumularavasamkulam ra jakulam avalokyeta, sa tvam arasad-usivasivavaktra-kuharavisphurad analakana jar jaritatamasi samirapurita-vivaravacata-nlkarotikarpara-kalitabhuvi damuradakinigama-sampatacakitapurusaparihstaparisare pacyamanasuva-pisitavisragandhakatuke kalyanetaracitabhasmasamkate pretavate jata, katham api jatah kathamanupalaksitaraksaprakare pranayi janasunye pratibhaganagaraparisara-paretavase vasan vardhisyase va. 1 (at your birth the nurses, loquacious in conveying the news of your birth, would carry away "Purna patra" from the kings; at your birth, the prisoners, their bodies dirtied with sleeping on the floor for a long time and shackles unfettered by their jailor's hand, would run about like Kalikala soldiers; at your birth, in the royal palace, all spots would be yellow with the showers of handfuls of powder; the king's ornaments would be forcibly seized by hunch-backed dwarfs with uplifted faces; the regions would be filled with the noise of jewels made by mincing steps of the courtesans dancing with over. whelming joy; the king's friends would be embarrassed by the embraces of intoxicated courtesans, the paved floor would be made uneven with the pearls fallen through the friction of necklaces worn on the chest of the kings who embrace each other with evergrowing joy; crowds of citizens would have entered unobstructed by the preventive words of the chamberlains (Kancukins'), heaps of gold, jewels and pearls would be given away lavishly; things in bountiful measures would be taken away by the people without fear from the wide open treasury full of gems: mendicants would be brought in by thousands of doorkeepers who would have gone out by the king's) order : special worship would be offered to the venerable Jina with endless joy; words of blessing would be uttered by eminent people who would have arrived eagerly; ausp cious ceremonies would be performed by priests; the household deity would be offered puja by a group of old ladies, skilled in household ritcs; astrologers would tabulate the horoscope; and everywhere there would be noises of happiness made by people. But now) you have been 1 Gc. : 1 para 35, p. 71-74.

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Study of Civakacintamasi born on a heap of inauspicious ashes; in a place where the darkness has been dispelled by the fire emitted from the open mouths of howling inauspicious jackals; a place filled with human skulls, giving forth the speech of the wind through the holes in them; a place avoided with all its surroundings by people frightened by ghosts which cause tumult and stinking with the stench of burning flesh, Oh, son, when there is no way to rear you here in the cemetery near the enemy's city and in the absence of any relatives, how are you going to grow to manhood) ?) 5. The condition of Vijaya who was in the cemetery. Ce. unt enav uraiyir keppar uyir uru pavam ellam kant init telikav enru katluva! polavaki vin tota nivanta koyil vinnavar makalir cenra! ven talai payinra kattul vilankilai tamiyalana!. 1 (The lady bedecked with radiant ornaments who dwelt in a mansion which touched the sky, like a divine lady, is now alone in the cemetery full of white skulls, as if to show the evil results of the sin the soul undergoes, about which people have read in books.) Kc. jivanam papavaicittrim srutavantah srutau pura / pasye yur adhunetiva srikalpabhud akimcana 1/2 (The lady who is like goddess Laksmi became helpless, as if she meant to show 2 the world, the manifold outcomes of sins, as they have learnt from books.) 6. The description of the army which went to retrieve the cows of the cowherds which were stolen by the hunters. Cc. .. .. ..van ulap pontata pol nir visai curi cank arp pa nila neli parantav anya 3 (The army with the sound of conches which were born in the sea, spread all over like the clouds which go on a procession causing the earth to bend.) Gc. namayanti bhuvam unnamayanti divam vistarayanti ca disam pratasthe. (Having caused the earth to bend and the sky to rise and the quarter to be broadened the army went for war).) 7. The description of the beauty of Govinda, the daughter of Govinda, the chief of the cowherds. Cc. venney ponr uk iniyal mem pal por rin colla! unnav urukkiyav aney pon meniya! 1 Gc. v. 303. 2 Kc. 1 : 85. 3 Cc. v. 433. 4 Gc. 2 : para 72, p. 124. 5 Cc. v. 480.

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An attempt to trace the Source (She is nice. to touch like butter, her words are sweet like milk and her body [has the brightness of] the ghee which has been melted to eat.) Gc. ..Ksiramadhurasvaram apanitanavanitamardavadambaram tadatvadrutas arpihsamkasakaya kantim...1 (She has a voice which is sweet like milk, tenderness which is like butter and the splendour of her body is like the ghee which has just been melted.) 8. The description of the manner in which the chief of the cowherds Govinda asks Jivandhara to accept his daughter. Cc. kula ninaiya ampi kojun kayar kan valli nala pukarnian apra naruntar murukan 2 (Nampi, do not consider the (difference in] family. For, Murukan, the one who wears the sweet smelling garlands enjoyed Valli, the beautiful eyed one.) Gc. ..kumaram abhivandya nandagopah ca.... puratanajanukhamukravisistanam avilista Jati jatanganasangamisamkatham ca kathayan 'bhavadvihitanirhetuko pakarasya pratyapakaram apasyata maya disyamanam parinayatu me kanyam.3 (Nandagopa, having worshipped Jivaka, told him..about those who like Sapmukha had married girls who were from the lower caste and said that he did not know how to repay him [Jivandhara] for the help he had done and asked him to accept his daughter.) 9. The description of the state of Sridatta who was sitting on the sea shore after his shipwreck. Cc. tun tiraikal utaippav urunt urunt atum alavoraiy annam arul ceya nitiya neytalan kana petuntakai vatiy Iruntan varun kala nokka. 15 (Expecting to see a ship, Critattan, waited at the seashore watching the swan being gracious to the wobbling crabs which were pushed by the running tides.), Gc. calataranga-taranginipathi-tarangaparamparavilu had akathorakarkatakavalokana-sakautukam kadambakadambakam apy alokayan kam cana kalakalam gamayambabhiva.5 (He spent some time there watching the group of swans which were engaged in watching the beautiful crabs which were tossed by the tides which rise from the sea full of moving tides.) 1 Gc. 2 para 87, p. 143. 2 Cc. v. 482 3 Gc. 2 para 86, p. 141.. 4 Cc. v. 516. 5 Gc. 3 para 91, p. 150.

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16 Study of Civakocintaman i 10. The description of the hall which was erected for the conducting the lute competition of Gandharvadatta. Cc. otu mukil kiriy olir tinkal cikai vaitta matam atu var cataiya vallalaiyum okkum nati muka nankutani nanmukanaiy okkum nati nimir tanmaiyini nemiyaiyum okkum. 1 (That hall looked like lord Siva by hearing the moon crescent which shines through the clouds, on its top; it looked like Brahma (who has four faces) by reaching every. where with its four faces; and it looked like Visnu by standing up to reach the upper limit.) Gc. ...candrasekharam iva sekharikstasitamsumandalam, visnum iva visnu padavyapinam, Satanandam iva sadalokasampadinam ...2 (It looked like Siva by bearing the moon on its top; like Visou by pervading the sky and like brahma by being bright (sad + aloka + sampadinam] (applied to Brahma the phrase sadalokasampadicam should be interpreted as the one who al. ways created the world (sada + loka + sampudinam) 11. The reason given by the author to explain the capability of a dog to change into a yaksa. Cc. colliya nanmaiy illac cunankan iv utampu ninki ell olit tavanakip pirakkum ov enna venta kol ulaiy akattitt utik kur irump iratan kutta ellaiyil cem pon akiy eri niram perratanre.3 (Do not wonder whether a dog which did not have any of the said virtues, could leave its body and be born as a luminous celestial. Even the iron melted in the forge turns into gold with a bright colour when mercury is poured on it at the end.) Kc. yaksendro'jani yakso'yam aho mantrasya saktitah kalayasam hi kalyanam kalpate rasayog atah 1/4 (Oh, by the power of mantra, the dog turned into a yaksa. Even the iron can be turned into gold by the effect of alchemy.) 12. The cry from Gunamala's friend when she saw the state elephant coming to attack Gupamala. Cc. karuntatan kanni tan mer kamukar ullam pola irun kalit eytav otac civikai vittilaiyar eka arumperal avatkkut toliy atavar illai yov enr 1 Cc. v. 598. 3 Cc. v. 960. 7 Gc. 3 para 101, pp. 167, 168. 4 Kc. 4: 9.

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An attempt to trace the Source orunku kaiy uccik kuppik kalirr etir irainci ninral ennaik kont ivalkanotum ellaiyil oruvan ronri innuyirivalaik kakkum anrenil enkan mayntar pinnaittan avatak av enrennippinai ko nokki minnup po nutanki ninra! vitatai por komp oppali (When the mighty black elephant, like the minds of the lusty people, ran towards Kunamalai, the broad and black-eyed one, the palanquin-carriers ran away. Kunamalai, like a golden branch full of flowers, stood there like a scintillation of lightning. Seeing that, her friend, Vitatai, the fawn-eyed one, thought to herself, " Having killed me, it will run to kill her, and in the meantime someone might appear and save her life. Otherwise, let anything happen after my death." Thinking thus, with her hands crossed on her head, shouting "Are there no men [to help]?" she stood in front of the elephant leaving Kunamalai behind her.) Gc "pranasamam imam matpranatranaja vihaya katham apatrapa prayami. prayantu mama asavak prag etanmstipreksanat" iti prsthikstya tam bimbosthim baddhanjalih kunjarasya purastad asthat.3 (How can I abandon the one who is equivalent to my life and go without shame. Let my soul leave me before I see her death." Saying thus she came in front of the red-lipped one and stood before the elephant, with a salutation with anjali.) 13. The description of the incident in which Gunamala asks her pet parrot to carry a message to Jivandhara with whom she was in love. Cc. uyyumar urai unnaiy allalilen ceyya vayk kiliye cirantay ena naiya nankaiy in nallakatt untenir raiyalay camalat urai enrate 3 ("Oh, the red-beaked parrot, glory to you! There is no resort other than you." Thus she said; and the parrot replied, "Oh lady, if he is in this country tell me without any worry.") Gc. ...kridasukam sokaprahanaye panau kurvati sarvam asmai samihitam i avedyate vidyate kim atropaya iti sapranayam saky panam sanunayam savridam canvayunkta. sa ca kirah, "kim amba kataryena. karyam idam avanau cet paryata eva maya sadhayitum" iti sadhiram samabhyadatta. ( To cast away her worries, she took her parrot in her hands, and told him all her desires and with love, kindness, courtesy and shyness she asked whether there was 1 Cc. vv. 975, 976. 3 Gc, v. 1000. 2 Gc. 4 : para. 130, pp. 201, 202, 4 Gc, 4 : para 132, p. 205 SC-3

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Study of Civakacintamani any means by which she could accomplish her desire. The parrot in a clear voice said, "Oh mother, what is gained by worrying ? If the object of your desire is in this world I can accomplish it for you.") *** 14. The description of Jivandhara who was drawing the portrait of Guhamala sitting in the garden. Cc. fitinan kili micait tilaka va nutal vatta mal kalirritai veruvi ninrator natamu natuk kamu nankai vanname. 1 (He, with thoughts about her in mind, drew (the portrait of) the lady with the beautiful forehead adorned with tilaka in the pose he liked, the tremulous state and the eager look, when she stood in front of the elephant.) Gc. ... tatra kvacit pracchayasitale mahitale nisanno visannahrdayah svahsdayanivistam tam bimbosthim bahir aniyera pratyak sayitukamah tatkaminirupam abhiru po'yam akhilakalasu kvacid ativisankate prakatitatadavastham alikhar. 9 ( He, who was skilled in all fine arts, with a dejected mind, sat under a cool shady tree, and as if desirous of bringing out and seeing the beauty of the red-lipped one who entered his heart, drew her portrait in the state (in which] he saw her, on a broad board.) 15. The description of the anger of Kasthangara on hearing that his state elephant Asanivega was controlled by Jivandhara and as a result of that it was sick. Cc. int alar kutlam polav eriy elat tiruki nokkik kon taru kur umpar vem por kok kulam venrat ulli mantatil ceykai cuInta vanikan makanai valla antiran kalaiven otip parrupu tammin enran. 8 (Like a mass of fire and with a crooked look glowing like fire, (Kasthangara] thinking of the victory he (Civakan) had over opposing hunters and the group of kings, said "Capture that son of merchant, who is involved in base deeds and bring him to me. I will destroy his heroism.") Gc. sa ca sabaracarubhatasura-glhita-godhanapuntranayana-prakatitaparakrama-palava. hitena ni javaravamalocanavargantarangibhavad-anangamalangikaranaprarudhena gandharvadattaparinayanasamayasam jataparibhavaparinatena.. 4 (With his anger, which had been provoked by (Jivaka's) proclamation of his valour by retrieving the stolen cows from the army of clever hunters, increased by the 1 Cc v. 1003. 2 Gc, 4 : para 133, P, 206. 3 Cc. v. 1079. 4 Gc. 5 : para 144, p. 217,

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An attempt to trace the Source acceptance of Anangamala who was one of his important courtesans, matured by the insult he had during the marriage of Gandharvadatta...[ordered the men around him to bring Jivandhara to him].) Kc. sangad anangamalaya vi jayac ca vanaukasam vinavi jayatas casya kopagnih sthapito hrdi // (The union of Jivaka with Anangamala, his victory over hunters and his victory in the vina (lute) competition, made the inflamed anger in [Kasthangara's] mind.) 16. Jivandhara's thought when Kasthangara ordered his men to kill him. Cc. inn uyir avanai unnum ellainal vantatillai ennaiy ik kirumi kont en rolanai ninai ppal enrana ("The time has not come to drink the sweet life of his. What can be gained by killing these worms? 3 I shall think of my friend." Thus he said.) Gc. ...kim ebhir nis phalam nihataih. nasidati guru janadistah kasthangaravadhasamayah iti sahasaya samnahyamanam atmanam nivarya sudarsananamno devasya sa smara. ('What is gained by killing there people? The suitable hour advised by my teacher to kill Kasthangara has not come.' Saying tbus, he controlled himself who was prepared for a rash deed and thought of the celestial Sudarsana.) 17. The description of the state of mind of Jivandhara when he was rescued by Sudarsana from the hands of the servants of kasthangara who wanted to kill him. Cc. vilanki vil umilum punan viluc ciraip patrapoltum alankal an tarinan vant arun cirai vituita poltum pulampalu makilvu nencir politalum inrip pon arnt ulan kalant uyarnta tolan u! vinaiy enru vittan, (Civakan with lofty and stone-like muscular shoulders, full of golden jewels, was neither distressed when he was imprisoned by Kattiyankaran who wore jewels casting flickering rays, nor happy when released by Cutancanan who wore beautiful dangling garlands. He, with his heart unaffected, considered them as the fruits of deeds in previous births.) Kc. svamino na visado va prasado va tada' bhavat / kim tu purvakytam karma bhoktavyam iti manasam 1/6 (The lord was neither happy nor distressed, but he thought that the fruits of deeds done before should be experienced.) 1 Kc. v :4. 2 Cc. v. 1154. 3 Worms here means the insignificant people. 4 Gc. 5 : para. 147, p. 222. 5 Cc. v. 1167. 6 Kc. V: 23.

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Study of Civakacintamani 18. The description of the honours made to Jivandhara by Sudarsana in his palace. tinkalait telittittanna parkatarricai cey ten nir ven kal vitt alarnta kanni vinnavan urimai tannal mankala vakaiyin atti mani y ani kalanka! corttip pankaya netun kananaip pavittira kumaran enran! (Cutancanan, who wore the garland made of flowers which had bloomed with dripping honey, brought pure water from the milky ocean; made his wives bathe Civakan according to the auspicious rites; adorned him with jewels made of precious stones; and honoured him by the name 'Pavittira kumaran') Kc. payovaridhipayahpurair abhisicya yam abravit pavitro'si pavitram mam svanam yat kstavan iti // (He yaksal, having bathed him (Jivandhara] by the water brought from the milky ocean, and said to him 'you who had made me, the dog, into a holy one, are a pure ope'.) Gc. akarsic ca tatra harsotphullamukhah...jivakasvaminah svabhartmukhapari jnata-kumara. mahopakaritatyadarair daraih sardham payovaridhi-payobhir abhisekam 3 (Sudarsana, with a face brightened with happiness, along with his wives who had come to know about the great help rendered by Jivaka to their husband, performed Jivaka's ablution with water brought from the milky ocean.) 19. The description of the three mantras which Sudarsana taught to Jivandhara and their powers. Cc. katun totaik kavar kanaik kaman kamurap patun kura rarum itu pampum allavum kafun tira roykalun ketukkum venti ya utamp itu tarum enay unarak kurinana (This will give you a sweet voice, which will be envied even by Kama who has the quick arrow which attracts (others); this [has the power) to cure the poison of snakes, other poisonous creatures and the unfavourable effects caused by air, wind, fire, water, etc. and diseases; this will give you any desired body.) K.c kamarupavidhau gane visahane ca saktimat / yaksendrah svamine pascan mantratrayam upadisat 1/5 (The yaksa taught the lord, three mantras which had the power to give any desired appearance, (skill) in music and cure for poison.) 1 Cc. 1169. 4 Cc. v, 1218. 2 Kc. V: 26. 5 Kc. V: 27. 3 Gc. 5 : para, 148, p. 223.

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An attempt to trace the Source Ge. adac ca tasmai 'ma sma kuruthah kurukulapate tatra presyasya prarthanakadarthanenava jnam' iti yancapurvakam sarvavisapaharane ganavidyavalkaradyakarane kamaripitvakalpane'py analpalaktikam amandadaran mantratrayam.1 (He gave him, out of great respect, three mantras possessing ample powers to cure all poisons, to obtain expert knowledge in music and to assume any desired form, with the request, "Oh lord of the Kurus, do not humiliate your servant by discarding his gift.) 20. The description of the forest through which Jivandhara goes before he reaches the city of Candrabha In the Cc. this description occurs when Cutancanan describes ths path through which Civakan has to go. In the Ge. the author describes it as the path through which Jivandhara goes. Ce. kalaly in pinai konritum enru kacint ilaiyin nilal avvayin inmaiyinan nilayin nila ranatu ninru kotut ulaiyum veyi ninr urukumm uravoy, (Oh, wise one, since there are no shades of leaves, worrying that his sweet mate is suffering, the buck stands suffering in front of the doe (i.e., in between the sun and the doe) in the hot sun in order to cover her in his shadow.) Ge. ...niblesaparnaksayanirvisesasesavitopini... ...karenutapaharanakrte nijakayacchayapradayidantini... ([In a place where) all the trees remain without any leaves on them..the male ele. phant, to protect the she-elephant from the heat, covered her body with shadow of his body.) 21. The description of the incident in which Padma was bitten by a snake, Cc. 21 nankai tan mukattai nakki nokai mati tuv enrenni ankur ai aravu tinti... (A snake who lives there [in that tree] has bitten her, msitaking her face for the shining moon.) Gc. kanyam imam idanim kanyagrhan nirgatya grhodyane svakaravar jita-jalasekena sasneham abhivardhita puspavati jata madhavilateti mahotsavam aracayantim tadvadanagocarakasankasankayeva bhujangamah ko'pyaspraksit.5 (The lady, having gone out of her palace while she was in the garden rejoicing over the blooming of her madhavi creeper, which was watered with love by her, was bitten by a snake which mistook her face for the moon.) 1 Gc. 5 para 149, p. 224. 2 Cc. v. 1188. 3 Gc. 5 para 150, p. 227. 4 Cc. v. 1271. 5 Gc. V para 155, pp. 234-235.

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Study of Civakacintamani 22. The description of the state of Padma when she saw Jivandhara for the first time after recovering from the effect of the poison. Cc. agciy aim poriyalan utampu enum putci ni! kotip purrin akatt urai vai ka nokk enum vai eyirr aralal vaskai nakattin mitun kolappattali (She was again affected by the poison that is spread in the teeth (the look of his sharp eyes) of the snake (desire), which lives in the anthill (Civikan's body which controls the five senses of impelling nature) where the creeper (of determination grows.) Gc. tatas ca sa sakrd avalokanakTtavyasanabhuyastaya bhuyah kumaran aparayanti drastum visavegamisena pascad api nimesanam evatmanah saranam amamsta. 2 (By the pains that arose on seeing him once, she being unable to look at him again, thought that closing her eyes under the pretext of being affected by poison was the only safe way open to her.) 23. The remark about the minds of ladies told by Jivandhara to Bhavadatta. Cc. un niraiy utaiyav allay or ayira manattav akum (A woman) is not pure in her mind and she has a thousand thoughts in her mind). Kc. param sahasradhibhaji strivarge ka pativrata (Who is a devoted wife amongst women who have a thousand thoughts.) 24. The description of the state of mind of Jivandhara after seeing the male monkey give the female monkey a jack fruit and the watchman snatch it away from the latter. Cc. kaip palam ilanta manti kattiyankaran ottat ip palan turantu konta cilatanum ennaiy ottan ip palam inru pokat inpame polum enru meyp patay unarvu ionri mititu kurinane 5 (He realised the truth and said to himself : the monkey which lost its fruit is like Kattiyankaran; the watchman who snatched the fruit from the monkey is like me; and the fruit is like the mundane pleasures.) Gc. sarvatha kasthangarayate karasakhabhrasta phaloh sakhamsgah, asmadyate nunam accho itatatphalah sa vanapalah. phalam tu niyamena bhogayate. gacchatu tucchaphalakank sa ya kycchrayamaneng maya gamitah kalah. 1 Cc. v. 1292. 3 Cc. v. 1597. 5 Cc. v. 2726. 2 Gc. 5 : para 157, pp. 237, 238. 4 Kc. 7: 57. Gc. 11 : para 273, p. 406.

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An attempt to trace the Source 23 (The monkey which lost its fruit is like Kasth angara. The watchman who had snatched the fruit from the monkey is like me. The fruit is the mundane pleasures. My time has been spent on the efforts made to gain the fruit.) 25. The description of the torture given in hell to the people who had union with the wives of other people. Cc. katalal karintu naiyak katiyava kanaintu knnri atilan rara nampiy elit enav ir anta pavatt utulaiy uruka venta ol olar ceppup pavai atakat ennap pulliy alarumal yanai vente, 1 (Oh the king wbo has elephants, the person who went with another man's wife leaving his own wife who was distressed and sneglecting the world's condemnation, will ( in hell ] embrace an idol of copper which was melted in a forge and cry out of pain while onlookers exclaim words of pity) Gc. pare tu paradaresvatikamrams tamramayataptasalabhan jikam 'tava priyangane yam' iti hathad atigadham alingayanti. (The persons who are addicted to the wives of other people are made to embarce tightly the melted copper idols saying that they are their sweethearts.) Apart from the similarity in the manner of description found in the works of Tevar and Vadibhasiimha, and can also notice similarities in the phrases used in descriptions. The following examples illustrate this aspect. 1. The phrase used to describe the state of the cowherds who went to bring back the cows which have been stolen by the hunters in the Cc. is similar to the phrase used to describe the state of the army of Kasthangara who went to retrieve the cows from the hunters in the Gc. Cc. ayar matt eri tayirin ayinara (They were like the curd churned by the churning-stick of the cowherds ) Gc. gokulam amandavartamanthena dadhiva mathyamanam sithilibabhuva. 4 (1 he cowherds dispersed like the curd which was rapidly churned by a churning stick.) 2. The phrase which is used to describe the cowherdesses. Cc. utai tayirp puli moytta to nalar. 5 (The ladies who have the shoulders full of curd spots which were sprinkled when they were churning the curd.) Gc. ...mathitadadhibindudanturapayodhare.. 6 (The ladies who have their breasts spread with churned curd spots.) 1 Cc. V. 2769. 3 Cc. V. 421. 5 Cc. V. 423. 2 Gc. 11 : para 282, p. 416. 4 Gc. 2 : para 77, p. 129. 6 Gc. 2: para 77, p.130.

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24 Study of Civakacintamani ! 3. The phrase used to describe Gunamala in the portarit drawn by Jivandhara. Cc. nekilntu cor pun tukill (The slipped garment of Kunamalai) Gc. ...agalitavasanam.. (The one with slipped garment.) 4. The phrase used to describe the swooned state of Vijaya on hearing from her son's friends the calamity which happened to her son. Cc. itika taval ntitta pata nakam ena vilntals (She fell down like a snake attacked by a thunderbolt.) Ge. irammadaviddhasayor iva...4 ((Her state which is like that of) a snake affected by a thunderbolt.)) 5. The phrase used by Padmamukha, the friend of Jivandhara, when he talks about Jivandhara to his mother Vijaya. Cc. cinti ppavar avalam aru civakan en tolan (Civakay, who removes the troubles of the people who think about him, is my friend.) Gc. ...dinajiva jivator jivakakumaras ya suhtdah kila6 ([We are ) friends of Jivaka, who is the protector of the needy people.) 6. The phrase used to describe Jivandhara who went to the abode of Suramanjari in the disguise of an old man. Cc. cavar totine katitu? (He will die at once if you touch bim.) Gc. sprsto'pyasmabhir ayum nastasur bhavet e (He might die even if we touch him.) From the similarities pointed out above, it is clear that between Tevar and Vadibhasimha, one is considerably influenced by the other. Many authors have noted 1 Cc. V. 1004. . 5 Cc. V. 1797. 2 Gc. 4 : para 133, p. 206 6 Gc. 8 : para 206, p. 306. 3 Cc. V. 1798. 7 Cc. V, 2016. 4 Gc. 8: para 206, p. 306. 8 Gc. 9: para 218, p. 324. 9 i. T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri, The age of Tamil Jivaka cintamani, Indian Antiquary, October, 1907, Vol. XXXVI, p. 285 ff. ii. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, Kaviyakalam, 2nd edition, Madras, March 1962, p. 175. iii. Auvai S. Turaicamippillai, Civakacintamani Araycci, 2nd Edition, Madras, 1948, p. 12. iv. B. Balasubrahmaniyan, Introduction to Civakacintamani published by the Saiva Siddhanta Waba Samajam, Madras, 1941, P, 18 ff. March 1967 alias, 1918, D. Siddhanta

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An attempt to trace the Source the similarities and just from the fact that the two works are similar in many places, have conclude that Vidibhasimha works are the source books for the Cc. But how far is such a conclusion appropriate ? 25 Though the Cc. employs many Sanskrit traditions in the narration of the Jiyaka. episode, it owes a great debt to the Cankam literature, and to a certain extent to the Cilappatikaram and the other Patinenkilkanakku-(eighteen minor works) works, written before it in the ideas, the phrases, the similes etc. Similarly Vadibhasimha follows the style of Bana in his Gc. In many places while describing the same incidents and descriptions, Tevar follows the early Tamil literary works and Vadibhasimha follows the style of the Kadambari and the Harsacarita For example the following lines which describe the city Hemangada in the Gc. contain ideas which are in descriptions found in the Kadambari and the Harsacarita. dhyanapara-yamadaradhyusita-vedikopasobhitalokapadopaccha va-langhana-cakita parahitaniratamunivaraparisad-abhihita bhavyaloka-vakritupradaksinabhramanaih, dharmanukathenakarmatha-sukakulavacalodyan sakhisakhapariskrtaparisaraih.. ([The country of Hemangada shone by the Jaina devotees who go round the Ajoka trees, because of the fear of crossing2 the shadow of these trees, which are beautified by the stages on which the ascetics who do penance dwell, and by the territories surrounded by flower gardens which are full of branches on which are perched the noisy parrots which have the talent of repeating the virtuous discourses which are uttered by the group of ascetics who do good to others) In the Harsacarita, while de-cribing the river Ganges, following which Sarasvati descended to the earth by the curse ef Durvasa, it is stated that on its shores, Vidyadharas ran away in fear that they should not cross the phallic images of Siva made of sand for worship by the Siddhas. In the Kadambari, the description of the hermitage of the ascetic Jabali in the Dandaka forest contains the statement that the parrots there repeat the 'vasatkara' sound. What is stated with reference to the idols of Siva in the Harsacarita has been taken over to the case of the Asoka trees in the Ge. as it is a Jaina text. The entire description of the country of Hemangada in the Gc. has the strong iufluence of the description of Ujjayini in the Kadambari Hemangada country is described in the Cc. and one sees clearly the style. of the Cankam works here. Several places where the descriptions in the Cc. proceed on the lines of Tamil traditions are not found in the Gc. Instances for this are the descriptions of the five 1 Gc, 1: para 1, p. 9. 2 To cross over or tread upon a sacred object is sinful. 3 siddhaviracita valukalingalan ghanatrasavidrutavidyadharam' Bana, Harsacarita, edictd by P. V. Kane, 2nd edition, Delhi, 1965, Ist chapter, p. 8. 4 'Vasat is an exclamation pronounced when offering oblations to the sacred fire. 5 'anavaratairavauagrhitavasankaravacalasukulnm', Bana, Kadambari, edited by M, R. Kale, 4th edition, Bombay, 1968, 1st chapter, p. 70. SC-4

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26 Study of Civakacintamani kinds of lands, the meeting and love episodes of Patumai and Civakar etc. But indirect influence of such descriptions is found in the Gc. An analysis of some of the examples" which are quoted above to explain the similar decriptions found in both books will show Vadibhasimha's indebtedness to the Cc. These are discussed under two sections ; 1. The examples which show that the knowledge of the Cc. is necessary to understand what is said in the Gc. 2. The examples in which one can see the influence of Tamil literary traditions an the Gc. which came thraugh the Cc. 1. In the example no, 8,1 the chief of the cowherds asks Civakan to accept his daughter without considering that she belongs to a lower caste. To support his request Kovintan cites precedents where other illustrious persons had married girls from lower castes. Here he quotes lord Murukan who married Valti as one of the precedents. "According to early Tamil literary thought, Murukan is the deity of Kurinci land, one of the five kinds of landscape, 2 and he is supposed to live on the hill tops, Valli is-the daugnter of one of the Kusavar, the hunting tribes, the, inhabitants of hilly land, 3: The abduction of Valli was considered as one of the sacred sports of lord Murukan. According to Tamil poetical tradition different situations of love and war are attributed to different lands. 4 Kalavu (pre-maritial love) is the love situation appropriate to Kurinci, and tho myth of Murukan and Valli is also based on this tradition. The myth of Murukan and Valli is referred to in the carly Tamil poems. the following examples illustrale this: In the following lines of the 82nd verse of Narrinai, the hero asks the heroine whether she is accompanying him as Valli who went with lord Murukan. vey vanappurra tolai niye ennul varutiyo nan nataik koticci muruku punarnt iyanra valli pola... 5 (Oh the one with shoulders which have the beauty of a bamboo, you are coming with me like Valli 'who was united with Murukan.) Similar references are also found in the later Cankam works like the Paripatal and the Tirumurkarruppatai The following lines from Paripatal show the relat onship between Murukan and Vali 1 Supra, p. 15. 2 Ref. chapter 4, for detailed knowedge about the divisions of land and the aspects conected to it. 3 In South India still the Kuravar are referred to as "Valliammai Kuttam' (the followers of goddess Valiammai). Edgar and Thurstan, Castes and tribes of Southern India, The Govt. Press, Madras, 1909. jii, p. 459. 4. Ref. Chapter 4, 5 Narrinia, published by South India Saiva Siddhanta works, Tinevely, 3rd edition, January, 1962, v. 82,

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An attempt to trace the Source aru mukatt ar iru tolal venti naru malar vallip pi nayantoya .1 (You, the hero who has six faces and twelve shoulders, desired the sweet fragrant flower, Valli,) The following example also mentions Murukau and Vali. oru mukam kuravar matamakal koti pol nucuppin matavaral valliyotunakaly amarnt apra (One face of lord Murukan) which loves to enjoy itself with Valli, whose waist. is like a creeper, the daughter of Kuravars [hunting tribes).) As a result of the Aryan religious influence, the concept of God Murukan fused with the concept of brahmanic God Skanda. As time went on, as Subrahmaniyan says "Muruga got transformed into Subrahmanya carrying with Him His old legends and surrounding Himself with more and more new legends any myths."3 Hurukan acquired six faces and twelve arms and another wife, Devasena, who is supposed to be the wife of Skanda in North India. According to Sanskrit literature, Skanda otherwise called Kartikeya is the general of the army of the ce'estials, Devasena and hence Devasena is personified to be his spouse.5 To our knowledge there is no myth relating the relationship of Skanda with Valli in Sanskrit literature. Even Skanda-Purana, one of the eighteen puranas in Sanskrit which deals with the story of Skanda, does not : contain any references to Skanda marrying a lower caste woman. In this Purana there is no reference for exagamous marriages (asavarna marriages) 6 27 ca The relationship between Valli and Murukan which is cited by Kovintan in the Kovintaiyar ilampakam of the Cc., therefore can be uuderstood only with the help of the knowledge of early Tamil literary trapitions. But to understand the reference "puratanasanmukhamukhavisisanam avisistajatijatangana-samgama-sakatham kathayan" cited by Govinda in the Gc. one has to know the myth of Valli and Murukan which was prevalent in Tamil literary works and specially the context in which it is related in the Cc. Bechert who examined the cult of Skandakumara in the religious history of South India and Ceylon, points out that there is conformity. 1 Paripatal, (Le Paripatal), published by Institut Francais D'Indologie, Pondichery, 1968. 11: line 21 22. See also, 9: 67 and 21: 10. 2 Tirumurukarrupatai, Pattuppattu, edited by U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, 6th edition, Madras, 1961, lines 102-103. 3 N. Subrahmaniyan Sangam polity, Asia Publishing House, London, 1966. p. 354. 4 "man kaiyar kanava maintar ere" (You the husband of (two) ladies (Valli and Devasena) and the bull among the men) Tirumurakarruppatai, Palamutir Colai, line 264. 5 Refer the notes by G. R. Nandargikar on Raghuvamsam of Kalidasa, VII: 1, 3rd Edition, Bombay, 1897, p. 120. 6 A. B. S. Awasthi, Studies in Skandapurana, Lucknow, 1965, Part I, p. 298, 7 Supra, p. 15.

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28 Study of Civakocintamant of early Tamil religion with Sinbalese religion, particulary regarding the cults of Murukan and the God of Kataragama and the legend about his marriage with Valli who was from the jungle folk of South India hills or from the jungle people, the Veddhas. He concludes that these common characteristics are carlier than the identification of Murukan with the north Indian Skandakumara or Karthikeya whose spouse Devasena is nothing but a personification of the army of Gods led by him. 1 2. In the example No. 15,2 we see the anger of Kasthangara described in almost the same way in the Gc. and Cc. While describing the reasons which kindled the anger of Kasthangara in the Gc. it is said that the union of Jivandhara with Anangamala is one of them. This episode of Jivandhara and Anangamala is not mentioned in the Cc. in this context. But it is narrated in detail by the character Nakamalai to Kantotkatan, just before Civakan went to compete with Kantaruvatattai in the fute competition. This episode is not narrated anywhere else in the Kc. or the Gc. This is also not found in the Up. Therefore to understand the reference "sangad anangamataya" in the Kc. and "nijavaravamalocanavargantarangibhavad anangamalangikaranapratuakena" one has to have the knowledge of the Anarkamalai episode in the Cc. 3. In Patumaiyar ilampakam of the Cc.,3 the love story of Civakan and Patumai progresses on the traditional lines of Kalavu (premarital love) in Tamil. Here Patumai who is in love with Civakan is taken to the garden by her friends, where they leave her alone and go away in the pursuit of sports. Patumai stands alone near the house made of madhavi creepers. Civakan comes there and speculates whether she is a celestial being or a human being. Then he notes that the flowers of her garland fade and from such symptoms knows that she is a human being. Then he unites with her in accordance with the tradition of Iyarkaippunarcci (union). He praises her and then leaves her for fear that her friends might come back All these stages of love have been described by Tevar according to the Tamil poetical tradition. This entire section has been omitted by Vadibhasimha in his Gc. and Kc. Yet, the way he has narrated the marriage of Jivaka and Padma makes one fiel that he is aware of the above narration in the Cc. which he has omitted in his works. Thus in the following passage he narrates that Jivaka and Padina once married according to the Gandharva rites in the house made of Madhavi creeper though he has not even mentioned it before. ...gekodyanamandanamadhaviletamandape kusumakodandena pradattam tam mattakasinim gandharvadattapatir gandharvavivaha prakramena ragagni -sak sikam parintya prinargunavati lagne loka palena vitirnam vidhivad upayacchata. (He (Jivandhara), the husband of Gandharvadatta, baving married her (Padma), the one who appears as if she is intoxicated, given by Manmatha and witnessed by 1 Heing Bechert, The cult of Skandapurana in the religious history of South India and Ceylon, paper submitted to the II [rd International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Paris, 1970. 2 Supra. pp. 18, 19. 3 Cc, vv. 1326-1334. 4 Gc. 5 : para 159, p. 242.

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An attempt to trace the Source the fire of love in the house made of Madhavi creeper, which is in the garden, again married her who was given by Lokapala at an auspicious time according to the wedding rites.) Froni these examples which show that the knowledge of the Co. is necessary to understand certain incidents narrated in the Cc and the Kc., one can see that Vadi bhasimba is indebted to Tevar. 2. Next we will consider the example which show the influence of Tamil literary traditions on the Ge. 1. First we will take example No. 20, in which the description of the forest through which Civakan goes to the city Cantirapam. This description in the Cc. is obviously influenced by the eleventh verse of the Kalittokai. In the eleventh verse of the Kalittokai the arid landscape (palai) is described, and thus it is called Palaikkali. The description of the male pigeon embracing its mate with its wings in order to allay the heat,2 the description of the buck standing in the hot sun in order to cover the doe in his shadow3 are described in the same way in both the Cc. and the Kalittokai. Even the words used here are the same. The description of the pigeons is not found in the Gc. But, the description of the deer is narrated in the same way. The only difference he has made is that he has changed deer into elephant. Though Vadibhasimha tries to incorporate the description of the summer in the Rtusamhara of Kalidasa in his description of the forest, this particular description of the deer (elephant in the Gc.) has a strong similarity to the description in the Kalittokai and in the Cc. Thus, the following lines in all the three books show this similarity. Kalittokai : in nilal inmaiyan varunti ya matap pingikkut tan nilalaikkotutt alikkun kalaiy..4 (Since there are ro sheds of leaves the buck gives his shadow to the doe which is suffering (in the hot sun.) Cc. kalaiy in pinai kanrilum enru kacint ilaiy in nilal avvayin inmaiyinan nilaiyin nila zontu ninru kogut ulaiyum veyi niny urukumm uravoys Gc.: ..nihsesaparnaksayanirvisesasesavita pini...korenutapaharo nakste nijaka yacchayupradayidontini...6 This example also shcws that Vadybhasimha is translating the above description from the Cc. 1 Supra, p. 21. 2 Kalittokai, v. 11: Cc. v. 1187. 3 Kalittokai, v. 11: Cc. v. 1188. 4 Kalittokai, v. 11. 5 Cc. v. 1181. For translation see supra p. 21. 6 Gc. 5 : para 150, p. 227. For translation see supra p. 21.

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Study of Civakacintamani 2. Now let us consider example No. 71 from the examples quoted to show the similarity in the manner of description and example Nos. 1 and 22 from the example quoted for the usage of similar phrases. In all these examples which are from the episode of Kovintai, we could see that the object of comparison are all from the objects characteristic of the pastoral land (the Karupporul of Mullai land). The tradition of describing a scene or an action taking place in a particular land with the help of the objects characteristic of that particular landscape is expected according to the carly Tamil poetical tradition. This literary tradition is explained in the fourth chapter by us. Tevar has followed this literary tradition in many places, and he selects most of the objects of comparison from the objects which are found in the type of land he is describing In the above-mentioned examples also one could see that Tevar is using the objects which belong to the pastoral land. This method of description has been followed by Vadibhasimha in the above-mentioned examples. He compares the army which was defeated by the hunters to the curd which was churned by churning stick, and describes the spots of curds on the bodies of the cowherdesses. He also. compares the body, the voice and the tender touch of Govinds with the melted ghee, milk and butter respectively. These descriptions show that Vadibhasimha follows the description of Tevar which is according to Tamil traditions. 30 3. This aspect is also seen in the example No. 93 of the similar descriptions shown earlier. In this example we see that Tevar's description of the seashore, the littoral land, the rolling tides, the wobbling crabs and the gracious swars is elcsely followed by Vadibhasimha. 4. Next let us consider example No. 6 of the similar descriptions in which the army of Kattiyankaran which marched to retrieve the s'olen crws of the cowherds from the hunters is described. The statement in the Ce. that the earth was depressed under the weight of the army strongly reminds one of the description of the armyIn the 23rd verse of the Purananuru. In this verse in Purananuru the army is described as alam neilyav 10tiya viyan patai's (the army which approached causing the earth to bend). In the Cc. also the army is described as the one which causes the earth to be depressed. This is not an isolated incident in which Tevar borrows his phraseology from the earlier works, in particular from Cankam works. He is not only influenced by the phraseology of Cankam works but also by the ideas expressed in them. For example, in the following description of the prosperous state of the city, Iracamapuram, we could see the idea expressed in the description occurring in the Pattinappalai. Cc. : por ciru ter micalp paim por pitakam nar cirar urtali nankaimar virii urravar keli mal erintav onkulal marrat tar urul keta valamat canrava.6 1 Supra, p. 14. 2 Supra, p.23. Supra, pp. 15. 3 4 Supra, p. 14. 5 Purananaru, v 23. 6 Cc. v. 89.

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An attempt to trace the Source (TI (The prosperity of the country was such that the shining earrings which were thrown by the ladies who were watching the paddy, on the heps, blocked the golden chariots with golden elephants on them, which the teautiful children ride.) : Pattinappalai : ner ilai makalir unank unak kavarun koli erinta kogun kar kanan kulai por kal putalvar puraviyinuruttum muk kar ciru ter mun vali vilakkum. 1 (The round and thick ear-studs which were thrown on the fowls which came to feed on the drying grains, block the way of the three wheeled playcart of the little boys with golden anklets.) This sort of description which follow the early Tamil literary works are daliberately omitted by Vadibhasimha and as said before he follows the style of Bana. Yet, this particular incident in which he describes the army of Kasthangara, as causing the earth to bend under its might, shows that he has closely translated the phrase which the Cc. borrowed from Purananuru. From the above discussion one could see the indebtedness of Vad, bhasimha to Tevar. The inference that he had the knowledge of the Cc. is reinforced by the concluding stanza in the Gc. sthe yad odayadevena vadibhaharina kyah / gudyacintamanir loke cintamaair ivaparah/2 (Let this Gadyacintamani, which was composed by Odayadeva, Vadibhasimha, stay in this world for ever like another Cintamani.) Though cintanani refers to the mythical stone which grants one's wishes here the phrse 'cintamanir iva aparah' most probably refers to Tevar's Cintamani. The term Cintamani has been used only by Tevar while referring to Civakan. It is the name by which Vicayai, Civakan's mother, calls him at the time of his birth. cintamaniye kitattiyal : (Cintamani, you are lying here (without speaking to me)). Tevar also refers to Civakan by the word Cintamani when he says that he has narrated the life history of Cintamani (i.e Civakan). cintamaniyin caritam citarnten. - Thus it appears that Vadibhasimha is referring only to the Co. in this phrase 'cintamanir iva aparah'. Vadibhasimmha's works do not contain any references similar to the Cc. which would justify the word 'Cintamani" in his title 'Gadyacintamani' (the prose Cintamani). Further the term 'gadya' in his tittle appears to presuppose the existence of a 'padya' (verse) cintamani. But, since he has given the title Ksatracula. mani to his poetical work, this padya Cintamani is not likely to be the Kc. It is most probably the Cc. . 1 Patrinappalai, lines 22-26. 3 Cc, v. 311. 2 Gc. 11 . v 297, p. 437. 4 Ibid, v. 3144.

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Study of Civakacintamani Thus it is our opinion that the two works of Vadibhasimha are not of earlier origin than Cc. and derive a good deal of inspiration from the Cc. This would mean that the date of Vadybhasimha, if ascertained, could set the lower limit to the date of the Cc. We therefore consider the question of the date of Vadibhasimha next. Vadibhasimha's date has been a problem for scholars and there have been many controversial ideas about it. The references we find about him in other baoks and the references which are found in his books, help to decide that he is the contemporary of the Cola king Rajaraja 1 (A.D. 985-1016). Pandit Bhujabali Sastril is of the opinion that Vadibhasimba must be placed in the latter half of twelfth century A.D. and was the contemporary of Rajaraja Il (A.D. 1146-1173). He comes to this conclusion by analysing some of the inscriptions which are published by Sithala Prasad in his book Madras va Mysore Pranta ka Pracina Jaina Smaraka (The old Jaina monuments of Madras and Mysore states). But, most of the inscriptions he quotes could have been also written after Vadibhasimha's death, as they refer to him as a teacher of some one, or say that there were monuments built in his memory. The earliest dated inscription belongs to A.D. 1077. Therefore it is possible only to say that Vadibhasimha lived before this period. In the last verse of the Kc., a name Rajaraja is mentioned. ra jatam rajara jay'an rajara jo mahodayaih / te jasa vayasa surah ksatracudamanir gunaih 1/2 (May that lord of kings who is an emperor (rajaraja) by his loftiness, warrior by his lustre and his age, best of the kings by virtues, be glorious.) There are three Rajarajas in the history of Colas, Rajari ja I (A.D. 985-1016), Rajan ja II (A.D. 1146-1173), Rajaraja III (A.D. 1218) and there is also Rajaraja Nagendra of Vengi, who was the son-in-law of Cola Rajendra I (A.D. 1022-1963). As Srikantha Sastris says, among these four kings Rajaraja I was the most famous and the one who deserves to be called Ksatracudamani. He further says that "the Tamil inscriptions mention Ksatriyasikhamapipuram probably named after Rajaraja I, who seems to have had the tit's Ksatriya sikhamani". 4 Similary when describing the country Rajapuri is bis work, Vadibhasimha refers to it as a country which served as a model for the creator for the construction of Rajarajapurs. tatra rajapurinama rajadhani vira ja tel rajarajapurissiau srastur ya matskayste//5 There shines a capital name.Rajapuri, which serves as a model for the creator for the construction of Rajarajapuri) 2 K. Bhujabali Sastri, Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Vol. VI, Part 2, 1939 pp. 79 ff. 3 Kc. 11 : 106. 1 Srikantha Sastri, Jaina Antiquary, December 1939, Vol. III; pp. 89-95, 4 Srikantha Sastri, op. cit. p. 91 5 Kc. 1 : 5.

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An attempt tu trace the Source 33 The Rajarajapuri mentioned here may refer to a town named in honour of the Cola king Rajaraja I. Inscriptions indicate that the modern Taracuram was called Rajarajapuram.1 Taracuram is a village near Kumbakonam. The Siva temple which is in that village is referred to as Rajarajeccuram. 2 The architecture of this temple very much resembles the architecture of the great temple at Tanjore, which was built by Rajaraja I. The connection between Rajaraja and Taracuram is explained by the phrase "Rajarajeccuram'. Again, in the book Kongadesa ra jakkalit has been mentioned that a Cola king who was the son of Parantaka named a village originally called Keraiyur in the Talakad4 district of Mysore state as Rajarajapuram. The other historical facts mentioned here about this Cola king strongly support the conclusion that he was the king Rajaraja I. Therefore it is possible that the references to 'Ksatracudamani' and to Rajarajapuri' in the above mentioned stanzas from the Kc. may have been made by the author in an effort to commemorate the ruling sovereign, Rajaraja 1. This would then suggest that Vadibhasimha was a contemporary of Rajaraja J. The following evidence also contributes to this conclusion regarding the date of Vadibhasimha. Srutasagara Suri in his commentary on Somadeva's Yasastilaka campu quotes a verse in which Vadiraja and Vadibhasimha are said to be contemporaries and disciples of Somadeva Suri. Sa vadira jo'pi srisomadevacaryasya sisyah, 'vadibhasimho'pi madiyasisyah srivadira jo'pi madiyasisyah ity uktatvac ca/5 (That Vadinaja also is the disciple of Sri Somadevacarya. Because he says, "Vadibhasimha is also my student. Sri Vadiraja is also my student".) The above statement cannot be traced back to the extant works of Somadevasuri : apart from the fact, neither Vadiraja nor Vadibhasimha claimed Somadeva as his guru in any of their works. But, as Handique says, it is not chronologically impossible to prove that Vadiraja and Vadibhasimha are the disciples of Somadeva. Somadeva's date can be easily decided upon, as it is known that he had completed his campu in A.D. 959.7 The fact that Vadiraja and Vadibhasimha also had lived in the same time is supported by the following evidence. 1 R. P. Sethuppillai, Urum perum, 3rd edition, Madras, 1956, pp. 258, 259. 2 Ibid, p. 259. 3 Kongadesa rajakkal, edited by C. M. Ramachandran Chettiyar, Madras Government Oriental Series, No. VI, Madras 1950, p. 13. 4 This place still exists, under the name of Talakad, on the left bank of the River Kaveri, about 28 miles to the south east of the city Mysore. J. F. Fleet, "The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency". Bombay Gazetteer, 1896, Vol. I, Part II, p. 299. 5 Somadevasuri, Yasastilaka campu, with the commentary of Srutasigara, Kavyamala edition, No. 70, Bombay 1901, Part I; p. 265. 6 K. K. Handique, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, Sholapur, 19:9, p. 9. 7 Ibid, p. 2. SC-5

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Study of Civakocintamani Vadiraja in his Parsvanatha carita says that he had finished his work in A.D. 1025, during the reign of Calukya king Jay isimha II. (A.D. 1015-1042).1 This is also confirmed by the Belgam ve Grant of the Calukya king Jayasimha II Jagadekamilla, to the Lakula Vadirudragana in A.D. 1035 (saka 957).2 In this grant the following titles given to the Saiva saint Vadirudragana show that Vad bhasimha and Vadiraja are contemporaries. ...Vadibhasimha sarabham, vadira ja mukha mudra.. 3 (...a sarabha to the lion Vadiibha (or to Vadibhasimha sealer up of the mouth of Vadiraja ..) This evidence shows that there is a possibility for Vadiraja and Vadibhasimha to be contemporaries and to be disciples of Somadevasuri. Vadiraja in bis Parsvanatha carita mentions Matisagara as his guru.4 This is also corroborated by the elaborate stone inscription in the Parsvanatha basti at Sravana Belgola dated A.D. 1129. In this inscription it is said that Matisagara had two illustrious students, Dayapala Muni, the author of Rupasiddhi and Vadiraja.5 Therefore it is clear that Matisagira was the guru of Vadiraja. Venkataraman identifies Matisagara as the contemporary of Rajaraja 1.6 He bases his argument on an inscription found in Pudukkottai. In Pudukkottai there is a place called 'Samanarmetu' (Jain mound), on the north of the irrigation tank Vennavikkulam. This place was a mound before the excavation and now a whole group of shrines stand there. In this place a number of Jaina images and two inscriptions have been discovered. In one of the inscriptions there are fragments of the Prasasti of Rajaraja I and in the other the following fragment in Tamil is found. udaya natisagara-aruhar-acar yar ippalli..? Venkataraman says that, the Matisagara mentioned in this inscription may be identified with the Matisagara, the guru of Dayapala who composed Hitarupasiddhi and Vadiraja. Therefore if Matisagara was a contemporary of Rajaraja I, Vadibhasimha who was a contemporary of his student, Vadiraja, also can be a contemporary of Rajaraja I. All these above discussed facts contribute to the conclusion that Vadibhasimha was contemporary of Rajaraja 1 (A.D. 985-1015). Since Vadibhasimha had lived in the period between the later part of 10th Cen1 Vadiraja, Parsvanathacarita, edited by Manoharalal Sastri, Bombay, 1953. 2 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. VII, Shikarpur Inscriptions, Inscription No. 126, p. 174. 3 Ibld, p. 174. 4 Vadiraja, op. cit. p. 197. 5 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. II, Inscription No. 54, pp. 43, 44. 6 K. R. Venkataraman, "Jainis.n in Pudukkottai" Journal of the Oriental Research Institute, Madras, Vol. XII, part I, p. 8. 7 Ibid, p. 8.

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An attempt to trace the Source 35 tury, and the earlier part of 11th century, Tevar who had preceded him must have lived some time before this period. The next landmark among Sanskrit works on the story of Jivandhara is the Up. which is the earliest of them. A similar examination of the Up. in comparison with the Cc. should therefore be of considerable interest. The study is however deferred until chapter IN, where we do this in an effort to assess the influence of Sanskrit stories on the story of the Cc. Here we anticipate the conclusion of this comparative study and note that this study dous not enable us to arrive at any definite answer to the question of the date or the source book of the Cc. It seems that the Cc may or may not have been based on the Up. Next we consider the important point that the names of some of the main characters in the Cc. appear to be of Piakrit rather than Sanskrit origin. Examples of these names are shown in the table below : Names in the Sanskrit names in the Up. Prakrit names in Puspadanta's Mp. Cc. 1. Sat yon lhara 2. Rasthangaraka 3. Gandhorkata 4. Garudavega Saccamdharu Kattangarau Gandhukkada Garulaveu Caccantan Kattiyankaran Kantukkatan Kalulavekan This leads one to wonder whether there would have been a Prakrit work dealing with the story of Jivandhara belonging to the period before the 10th Century A.D. from which Tevar has taken his story. The only Prakrit text which belongs to the period before 10th Century A.D, and which deals with the Jivandhara story is the Mp. of Puspadanta. But, the Jivaka story in this text follows that in the Up. without any change and with great brevity. For example, the stories of Vimala and Gunamala (Turamancari in the Cc.) have been narrated only in a few lines. It is unlikely that Puspadanta's Mp. is the source of the Cc. Thus the comparative study of the books dealing with the story of Jivandhara helps us only to specify the lower limit of about 1000 AD. for the date of the Cc. Next we consider two phrases in the Cc. whieh have been interpreted by some authors as providing clues regarding the probable date. Thus the phrase "arincayan kulattuttonri'i applied to Queen Vicayai is explained by Naccinarkkiniyar as 'Arincayan, the grand-father of Vicayai',2 This Arincayan who is mentioned here has been taken as the Cola king Arinjaya (A D. 956-957). 3 We find that in the Up. several kings having this name are mentioned and thus it appears that this was a name of common occurrence in the Jaina lore. Hence this speculation does not strike us as very signifi 1 Cc. v. 201. 2 Naccinarkkiniyar, Commentary written on the Cc. v. 201. 3 T.E. Gnanamurthy, op, cit. p.11.

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36 Study of Civakacintamani cant. Similarly the phrase "Munnir valampuri' has led Naccinarkkiniyar to explain that this is an autobiographical reference by Tevar to his birth in in the Cola family. This reference has not enabled us to trace the identity of the author of the Cc. On the other hand it is of interest to note that in the places Tevar lists the names of the kings from different countries who assemble either to fight in a battle or to compete for the band of a princess, the Pandya and the Pallava kings are mentioned while the Cola king is not. This would seem a significant ommission if the Cc. were to have been written in the heyday of Cola sovereignty, i.e. the later part of the 10th Century A.D. External Evidence We have four references to either the work called Cintamani or to its author. These are found in : (i) Tiruttontar varalaru (ii) The Uraiccirappuppayiram of the Cc. (verse relating the merits of Naccinarkk iniyar's commentary on the Cc.) (iii) The Mallisena Prasasti inscription of Sravana Belgola. (iv) The Tirumakudiu Narasipur Taluq inscription. (i) In the section Cekkilar Putanam of the Tamil work Tiruttontar vapalalu (A.D. 1217-1315)1 it is said that the Cintamani was adored by the king Adapaya. From the following verse, one can see that Cekkilar advised king Anapaya who was adoring the Cintamani that it was a book of false beliefs, and told him to listen to the story of Siva. valavanun kunt aman purattut tiruttuc cintamanik katai yai mey enru varicai kura ula makilntu pala patap parattik katkav upaya kula mani vilakkan cekkilar kant ilavaracan tanai nokkic camanar poy nul itu mar umaikk akat immaikkum arra vala maruvukinra civa kataiy immaikku marumaikkum urutiy ena valavan kettu (When Valavan listened with great pleasure to Cintamani, which is a false story, Cekkilar, the jewelled lamp of the two families, advised him that this Jaina book was a false one and it was of no use for this world and the next. The Siva story; which is worth listening to, is good for this life as well az the next.) Cekkilar lived in the reign of king Anapaya.3 King Avapaya is identified with 1 N.C.C. vol. III, University of Madras, pp. 94-95. 2 Umapaticivaccariyar, Tiruttontar Puraram, edited by P. Ramalinka-Cuvami, Cekkilar niyanar Puranam, v. 11. 3 T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri. Indian Antiquary, XXXVI, 1907, p. 288.

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37 An attempt to truce the Source Kulottunga II (A.D. 1:13-1150). Though the Cintamani referred to here is not explicitly stated to be the Cc. it is most probable that the reference is to the Cc. This makes it clear therefore that by the first half of the 12th Century the Cc. had come to occupy a position of considerable importance. However this reference does not lead to any conclusion regarding the date which should supplement our earlier inferences regarding the same from a comparative study of the Cc. and the Sanskrit works of Vadibhasimha. (is) In the verse written to extol Naccinarkkiniyar's commentary on the Cc. 1 it is mentioned that Tevar was honoured by one Poyyamoli. This reference proceeds as follows: .. . van peru vancip poyfumoli pukal maijaru kateit tiruttaku munivan (Tiruttakumunivan the one with flawless perception who was praised by Poyyamoli of the city of Vanci) We do not know who wrote this verse. Now the question arises regarding the identity of Poyyamoli. It is generally beld that the word Poyyamoli is the Tamil rendering of the Sanskrit epithet Satyavakya' (the one of truthful speech.) It is known that many rulers of the Ganga dynasty flourished in the modern Mysore state, with Talakad (Talavanapura in Sanskrit) as their capitala till about A.D. 1000 when the Cola supremacy put an end to it. Most of the kings of this family are reputed to have been devoted to Jainism. It is difficult to say with certainty which of the Ganga kings holding the title Satyavakya has been referred to as Poyyamoli in the above verse. Certain claims have been made that the reference is to king Satyavakya Kongunivarma Bhutuga Permanadi (A.D. 938-953).3 But, these claims have not been justified clearly and we can only say that it is likely that the author of the Cc. may have been honoured by one of these Satyavakya kings of the Ganga dynasty, We have consulted the book 'Studies in South Indian Jainism' by M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshgiri Rao, in which they have given a geneological table of the Ganga kings and the article written by M.V. Krishna Rao on the 'Ganga kings Talakad. Rajamalla I, the son of Vijayaditya Ranavikrama, appears to have been the first Ganga king who held this title. He succeeded Viyaditya in A.D. 818. This is also corroborated 1 Cc. edited by U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, 6th edition, Madras, 1957, p. 1523. 2 Fleet, op. cit. p. 299. 3 S. Vaiyapuripillai, Kiviya kalam, p. 174; B. Balasubrahmaniyam, op. cit. p. 21, 4 M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and C. Seshagiri Rao, op. cit, p. 155. 5 M. V. Krishna Rao, 'The Gangas of Talakad, Karnataka through the ages, published by the government of Mysor. 1968. pp.116. 127. 6 The book Kongadesa rajakkal refers to one Satyavakya raya, the great grandson of Vijayaditya. who was so called because he was always truthful. It also reports the acts of charity performed by his brother Gunatuttamaraya in Saka year 800 (A.D. 878). We do not know how much we can rely on this date. Kongadesa rajakkal, p. 9.

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38 Study of Civakacintamani by the reference made by a Jaina author Vidyanandi, 1 He also alludes to a contemporary king named Satyavakya in the colophon of four of his works. He also alludes to three other kings in the colophons of his three other works. In one work he refers to sivamara, in another to Marasimha and in another probably to sripurusha.3 All of these people are kings of the Ganga dynasty. Vidyanandi also mentiors the Rastrak uta king Dhruva Dharavarsa (A.D. 780-92)* in his Astasabasri. Thus the Satyavakya alluded to by him appears to be the Ganga king Racamalla I (A.D. 818-837). All the Ganga kings of Talakad who came after Racamalla I seem to have had the title Satyavakya with their names.' Therefore from the phrase 'Poyyamoli pukal tiruttaku munivap' we can only infer that one of the Ganga Satyavakya kings who may bave lived any time from the early ninth century AD. up to about A.D. 10008 would have honoured the author of the Cc. The reference to the city of Vanci in the phrase "vanci cer poyyamoli pukal is not very helpful in arriving at a more exact conclusion. Vanci is said to have been the capital of the Cera kings. T. A. Gopinatha Rao 9 says that a chieftan belonging to Takatur in the Ganga country called himself 'Vanciyar kulapati'. Hence the adjective 'vanci cec' supports the conclusion that the word poyyanoli refers to a Ganga king. (iii) The Mallisena Prasasti inscription of Sravana Belgola refers to two works called Cintamani and Cudamani. This epitaph was composed to perpetuate the memory of the Jaina preceptor Mallisena Maladharideva who committed rejigious suicide on Sunday 10th March A.D. 1129, 10(dark fortnight of Phalguna, the expired Saka year of 1050). In this epitaph the author Mallinatha extols the glory of eminent Jaina ascetics. Though it cannot be said with certainty that these teachers have been listed in strict chronological order, we can say that there are no serious chronological discrepancies. In this inscript on the authors of Cintamani and Cilamani are praised in the following stanzas : dharmartthakama parinirvrticarucintas cintamanih pratiniketam akari yena sa stu yate sarasasaukh yabhu ja su jatas cintamanir minivrsa na kathan janena // culamanih kavinim culamanina(ma)sevyakavyakavih srivarddhadeva eva hi kllapunyah kirttim aharttum // 11 1 Jyoti prasad Jain, The Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India, (100 B.C.-A.D. 900), Delhi, 1964, p. 199. 2 Ibid, p. 199. 3 Ibid, p. 199. 4 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 210 5 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 200. 6 M. V. Krishna Rao, op. cit. p. 124. 7 M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshagiri Rao, op. cit. p. 155. 8 In A.D. 1004 Rajendra Cola suececded in capturing Talakad and extinguishing the Ganga dynasty. M. V. Krishna Rao, op. cit. p. 127. 9 T. A. Gopinatha Rao 'Arunkala vayam, Civakacintamani, Cula mari' Centamil, Vol. V, pp. 95-102. 10 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. III, p. 185. 11 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. III, pp. 190, 191,

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An attempt to trace the Source (How could not men experiencing sweet pleasure, praise that noble chief of sages, Cintamani, who composed [for use in every house, the Cintamani, which contains fine thoughts on virtue, wealth, pleasure and salvation?) (Only srivarddhadeva [who was] the crest-jewel of poets [and] the author of at poem called Culamani, which is worthy of study, has performed [sufficient] pious deeds [in former births] for earning fame.)1 These stanzas are preceded by a reference to sage Kumarasena and followed by a reference to Mahejvara and Akalanka. Reference to the historical facts known about the Jaina teachers of this period throws some light on the dates of Kumarasena and Akalanka. The Harivamsa Purana of Jinasena Punnata which is known to have been completed in A.D. 7839 gives a geneology of teachers which iucludes Kumarasena, Virasena, and Jinasena. Vira-ena is the well-known author of the commentaries Dhavala, Mahadhavala, and Jayadhavala. The date on which he completed the Dhavala has been ascertained by Jyoti Prasad Jain as A D. 780. His Jayadhavala, left unfinished by him, was completed in A.D. 8375 by his disciple, Jinasena, who is also well known as the author of Adipurana. Thus we can with reasonable certainty assign the date of Viresena to the end of the 8th Century A.D. The Mulgund inscription (A.D. 902-03)6 states that Virasena was the senior pupil of Kumarasena. This would place Kumarasena also in the later part of the 8th Century A.D. These dates are also confirmed by the reference made by Vidyanandi to Virasena's recent demise and his statement that he was helped by Kumarasena's advice in the composition of Astasahasri. Vidyanandi has already been noted as the contemporary of the Ragrakuta king, Dhruva (A.D. 780-792). Akalanka is said to have been the contemporary of the Rastrakuta king Krsna I (A.D. 756-775).8 He is reported by the Mallisena Prasasti to have defeated the Buddhists in argument at the court of Himagstala in Kanci in A.D. 778(Saka 700), He is also referred to and quoted by Virasena and praised in the Harivamsapurana. Akalanka's colleague Puspasena10 is said to have had a disciple called Vimalacandra who appears to have lived towards the end of the 8th Century A.D.11 All this evidence would place Akalanka also in the period around the later half of the 8th Century A.D. 1 Translated by E. Hultzsch, Ibid, p. 200. 2 Jyoti Prasad Jain, op. cit. p. 42. 39 3 Harivamsapurana, edited by Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, 1962, 1 : 38, 39, 40. 4 Jyoti Prasad Jain, op. cit. p. 187. 5 Ibid, p. 187. 6 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XIII, pp. 190 ff. 7 Jyoti Prasad Jain, op. cit. p. 199. 8 E. Hultzsch, Epigraphia Indica, Vol. III, pp. 186, 187. 9 Ibid, pp. 186, 187. 10 Ibid, Sravana Belgola Epitaph of Mallisena v. 24. p. 192, 11 M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, p. 88.

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Study of Civakacintamani The Mallisepa Prajasti also contains the following eulogy, supposed to have been. composed by Dandin in praise of Srivardhadeva, the author of the Cadamani. ya evam upilokito dandin jahnoh kanyam jata(gre)-na babhara paranesvarah | irivarddhadeva samdhotse jihvagrena sarasvatim 1 (He was thus praised in verse by Dardin: "Paramelvara Siva] bore Jahnu's daughter (Ganga] on the top of this matted hair. Thou, O Srivarddha ! bearest Sarasvati [the goodess of speech of [thy] tongue.") Though there have been some uncertainties regarding the poet Dandin s date and identity, it is generally believed that he was in the court of King Rajasimha of the Pallava dynasty. This king reigned during the period A.D. 700 to 728. Dandin is also said to have been the great grandson of Damodara, a friend of Bharavi, who is mentioned in the Aihole inscription (A.D. 634). This will put Dandin, and hence Sri arddhadeva mentioned in the Mallisena Prajasti, around A.D. 700 750. However the date of Dandin as well as the authenticity of verses attributed to him are far from being satisfactorily ascertained. 40 (iv) The Tirumakudju Narasipur Taluq inscription of 1183 also refers to the authors. of Cintamani and Cudamapi in the following two stanzas: kritva cintamanim kavyam abhisyartha-samartthanam cintamanir abhan namna bhavya-cinta-manir gguruh] vidvac-cuda-manli cudamani-kavya-krte.. cudamani-samakhys bhul laksya-lakja..laksanah 10 (Having composed the poem Cintamani, able to satisfy all desires was the guru. Cintamani, a wishing-stone (Cintamani) to the blessed (the Jains)) (A head-jewel (Cudamani) of the wise, author of the poem Cadamani, he was called Cadamapi, the exhibitor of all the ornaments of composition.)" It also refers to Kumarasena and Mahesvara and Akalanka before and after them respectively and one more person named Santideva is also mentioned. Nothing appears. to be known about Mahesvara and Santideva. From these two inscriptions, one might roughly take the authors of Cintamani and Culamani referred to in them to helong to the period of Kumarasena and Akalanka (i.e. middle of 8th Century A.D. onwards). This is not far from agreement with the 1 Epigraphia Indica. Vol; III, Sravana Belgola Epitaph of Mallisena, v. 17. p; 191: 2 Translated by E. Hultzsch. Ibid, loc. cit. p. 207. 3 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. op. cit. p. 153; 4 Ibid, p. 153. 5 Ibid, p. 345. 6 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol, III, Part I, Incriptions in the Mysore District, p. 171. 7 Translated by Lewis Rice, Ibid, Translations, p. 89. 8 L. D. Swamikkannu has examined the astrological references which occur in the Cc. in the work An Indian Ephemeris. It is interesting to note that all the references are satisfied for the year A.D. 813 only. An Indian Ephemeris, Vol. I, Part I, Appendix iii, pp. 469-470.

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An attempt to trace the Source conclusion obtained from the reference to Poyyamoli in the verse relating the merits of Naccinarkkiniyar's commentary (uraiccirappuppayiram) of the Cc. The question still remains whether the Cintamani and Culamani referred to in the Epitaph of Mallisena and Tirumakudlu Narasipuc Taluq inscription are the Tamil works bearing these names. In this context T. A. Gopinatha Rao observes that "after sage Gunabhadra there lived one Kumarasena and after him came the author of the Cintamani, and the author of the Calamani".1 This conclusion has been accepted and restated by Vaiyapuri Pillal, a Auvai Turaicamipillai, 3 Balasubrahmaniyam, and T. P. Meenaksisundaran.5 But there is no referenee to Gunabhadra in the above two inscriptions. Balasubrahmaniyam refers to Yapparunkalam Virutti urai (the commentary written on Yapparunkalam) when mentioning Kumarasena. These authors may have had in mind one Kumarasena who appears to have lived around the later part of the 9th Century A.D. Kumarasena and the authors of the Cc, and Culamani are said to have belonged to Arungalanvaya branch of the Nandigana in the Dravida Sangha according to the Tirumakullu Narasipur Taluq inscription. This would make it likely that these are the two Tamil poems calld Cintamani and Culamani. Irrespective of whether they belonged to the Kannada or the Tamil country, the Jaina preceptors of those days appear to have been well versed in Tamil, Kannada and Sanskrit and there was considerable intermingling among the members of Jaina religious order of the Kannada and Tamil speaking regions.9 In his footnotes to the Mallisena Prasasti, Lewis Rice says that Samantabhadra is said to have written a Cintamanitippani or commentary on the Cintamani and AbhinavaManga Raja is said to have written a Cintamani Pratipada or word to word translation of the same. 10 He also refers to a Cintamapi which is a commetary on Sakatayana's grammar. As for Culamani he mentions the reference in Bhatta Akalanka Deva's Karnataka Sabdanusasanam to a commentary by that name on Tattvartha-Maha Sastra. 11 He says that this work is referred to in Rajavali katha and attributed there to Tumbulur-Acaryar. But, the Mallisena Prasasti describes these two works in the following terms: "the epic Cintamani which is capable of yielding all the four ends of life" and "Culamani 1 T. A. Gopinatha Rao, op. cit. pp. 95-102. 2 S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, op. cit. p. 172. 3 Auvai, C. Turaicamipillai, op. cit. p. 11. 4 B. Balasubrahmaniyam, op. cit. p. 19. 5 T. P. Meenaksisundaran, A History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai, 1965, p. 90. 6 Balasubrahmanyam, op. cit. p. 19. 7 Jyoti Prasad Jain. op. cit. p. 160. Footnote 2. 8 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. III, Part I, p. 171 ff. 9 A typical example for this is the word "olliyan' which is used by Tevar to signify a good person. Naccinarkkipiyar points out that this is a Ticaic col' i.e. a word of alien origin and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer indicates that this word is used in this sense in Kannada. Cc. edited by U.V. Swaminatha Iyer, op. cit. p. 372. Cc. v. 741. 10 B. Lewis Rice, Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola, Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. II, p. 135. 11 Ibid, p. 135. SC-6

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Study of Civakocintamani the kavya which should be honoured". These descriptions do not sound very appropriate if they refer to commentaries as suggested by Lewis Rice. In Tamil the Cc. and the Culamani are considered to be two good kavyas and it is believed that the Cajamani came after the Cc. This is illustrated by the phrase in Rajarajan Ula "cintamani tanta cajamaniya" (the Calamani which was given by Cintamani). The author of the Tamil Culamani is usually taken to be one Tolamolittevar. But, it is thought that Tolamoli is a name which the author acquired as result of the phrases "arkkum tolatay" and "tola navir caccutan" found in his work, Hence we do not know what his original name was. From verse 4 in the Culamani3 we see that this book was submitted in the court of a king called Centan who is traditionally believed to be a Pandya king. 42 There is another isolated verse 5 which says that Tolamoli was honoured by a Karvetti king (i.c. Pallava king). We have no means of identifying these kings at present. It has however been suggested that the Pandya king might be the one belonging to the middle of the 7th Century. This would be hard to reconcile with the evidence presented earlier. The problem is yet far from resolved and must necessarily await further evidence for definite conclusions to be made. The evidence presented in this chapter appears to point to the period between the later half of the 8th Century A.D. and the first half of the 9th Century as the most probable date. The one result which seems fairly conclusive to us from the comparative analysis of this chapter is that the Cc. preceded Vadibhasimha's works and is not based on them as it is usually contended. The analysis of the social, religious and literary background in the next chapter is made with the adove period in mind. With the present evidence it is also not possible to indicate the source book of the Cc. As the Up. of Gupabhadra is the earliest among the books written on the Jivandhara story (except the Cc.), we have considered. the similarities and the differences in the plot between the Up. and the Cc. in chapter III in an effort to assess the probable Sanskrit influence on the story of the Cc. 1 S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, op. cit. 2 P. V. Comacuntaran, Culamani, edited by South India Saiva Siddhinta works, Tinnevely, 1962, vol. I, pp. 12, 13. 3 "namanp uraikkun kuraiy en itu nama ven vel teman alankar virumal netuncantan ennun tuman tamilin kijavan cutar ara marpin kaman avaiyu teruntar kolappatatanre. 4 P. V. Comacuntaran and C. A. Iramacamipulavar, 5 Tikk ettum pukalpataitta viral vicayan puyal anaiya kaiyan tevvaik Kaikkotti nakaikkum ikar karveliy araiyan vala natark arppap Commentary written on Culamani v. 4. pokkettum pottum ilan pukalt taruma tirttan malarp patam pucippin corketta varan tolamoli culamaniy unarvor tural kantore. P. K. Comacuntaran, Introduction to Culamani, op. cit. p. 12.

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CHAPTER II THE SOCIAL, RELIGIOUS AND LITERARY BACKGROUND In the previous chapter the question of the date of the Cc. has been discussed, In the following chapters, the interaction of Sanskrit in the Cc. from the point of view of the story, literary traditions, religion and language will be analysed. Before analysing these, there arises a need to consider the following factors in brief : (i) the political. social, religious and literary background in which the Cc. was written, and (ii) the historical development of the interaction of Sanskrit with Tamil literature before the period of the Cc. As the Cc. is a Jain epic (kavya), and the main motiva. tion of the poet to write this epic is the desire to propound Jaina religious doctrine, the developnient of Jaininism in Tamil land will be stressed while analysing the above two aspects. The admixture of Aryan elements in Tamil land can be seen even in the Cankam poems the earliest Tamil literary works. Unlike in North India, where speakers of Indo-Aryan bad to fight and struggle to establish themselves, in South India their entry seems to have been peaceful. Even though the Tamils had a well established culture, a social structure, and literary traditions of their own, there began the steady and gradual infiltration of Aryan influence in the life of the Tamils. This influence, though it was not on anything like the large scale in which it is found in later periods, can be seen to have already begun in Cankam literature. There are poems in the Cankam anthologies which are ascribed to poets having Sanskrit names. Iracamapikkanari points to some authors of verses in the Narrinai whose names are of Sanskrit origin. For example, Catevanar (Skt. Sahadeva), Kapilan (Skt. Kapila), Ukkirapperuvaluti (Skt. Ugra + Tamil peru-valuti), Kacipan (Skt. Kasyapa ), Tevan (Sks. Deva ), etc. Likewise he also quotes about thirty Sanskrit names among the poets who composed the Kuruntokai poems. For example, Uruttiran (Skt. Rudra ), Kulapati (Skt. Kulapati); etc. There are also Sanskrit names among the poets who composed the other Cankam anthologies. Apart from the names of the poets, there are also references in the poems of Cankam literature, in which the names of the kings have titles in Sanskrit which indicate the sacrifices they performed. The names Paotiyan-pal-yaka-calai-mutukutumis (the Pandya who had many sacrificial halls ) and Iracacayam-vetta-perunark-killis 1 M. Iracamanikkanar, "Tamil moli ilakkiya varalaru' (History of Tamil Literature), Madras, 1961, p. 169. 2 M. Iracamanikkanar, op. cit. p 164. 3 Pur ananutu, v. 64. 4 Ibid, v. 367.

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44 Study of Civakacintamani (the Perunarkkilli who performed Rajasuya sacrifice!) serve as good examples. These show the predilection the Tamil kings had for Vedic sacrifices. A detailed description of sacrificial rites can be seen in the 160th poem of the Purananuru. There are also other references to penances and sacrifices in Cankam literature. The introduction of sacrifices and Vedic rituals also brought along with it the Aryan gods like Siva, Visnu, Brahma, Indra, Skanda. etc. to Tamil literature. There are also references in Cankam works to Visnu's several incarnations, the five elemeats (pancabhuta), etc.5 Besides there, these is also 4 multitude of Sanskrit puranic incidents mentioned in poems like the Paripatal and the Kalittokai, which are of late Cankam period, The burning of the three aerial cities by Siva, the battle between Lord Muruga and Surapadma," the plans of Duryodhana to kill Pandavas in the palace of lac,g the churning of the milk ocean,9 Ravana lifting Mount Kailasa, 10 Bhima breaking Duryodhana's thigh, 11 the birth of lord Sanmukba, 13 the story of Ahalya 1 8 etc, are referred to in these works. In addition to the religious and mythological lore and its impact on literary and social life, the day-to-day intermingling of people at all levels of society caused a certain amount of cultural and liaguistic mixture. The linguistic aspects of this have been considered in chapter VI. An inspection of post Cankam works shows definite increase in the extent of Sanskrit interaction. The rise of the Pallava kings in seventh century A.D. led to an increase in Sanskrit influence. Foreign invasions like that of the Kalabhras brought in a lot of changes. During this time Buddhists and Jains migrated into Tamil land in large numbers. We do not know exactly when the Jains first came to Tamil land. The names of poets like Uloccanar14 and Matirttan show the presence of Jaina poets in earlier times, 15 Even though there are a few references to Jains in Cankam literature, Jains do not appear to have attained the importance enjoyed by the Aryan brahmins dur. ing this time, 1 Rajasuya is a great sacrifice or religious ceremony performed at the coronation of a supreme sovereign or universal monarch by the king himself and his tributary princes. Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford, 1964, p. 874, col. 2. 2 Purananuru vv. 397, 361. Kalittokai, v. 130, 36, 119. 3 Perumpanartuppatai, lines 371-73, 402-403. 4 Panca-bhuta, are earth, fire, air, water, and akasa. 5 Ref. K. K. Pillay, "Aryan influence in Tamilabam during Sangam epoch", Tamil Culture, vole XII, Nos. 2 and 3, p. 165 ff. 6 Paripalal, 5. line 25. 10 Kalittokai, 38. 7 Kalittokai, 27. Paripalal, 5. line 4. 11 Ibid, 52. 8 Kalittokai, 25. 12 Paripalal, 5. lines 27-49. 9 Paripatal, 2. lines 71-72; 3. lines 33-34. 13 Ibid, 19. lines 50-52. 14 Tamil, Uloccu, Skt. lunca-Pulling out the hair on one's head with one's own hands. The name Uloccanar would have come from this ritual which is performed by Jains. 15 S. Vaiyapuripillai, History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras, 1965, p. 59.

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The social, religious and literary background The establishment of the Dravida Sanga in South India is a definite landmark in the introduction of Jainism into Tamil land. In a Jaina religious work, Digambara Darjanasara which was obtained from Anhilwad Patan, Devasenea (A.D. 853), the author of the work, states that in the year A.D. 470 (525 Vikrama Saka) Vajranandi, the pupil of Pajyapada founded the Dravida sanga in Mathura of the Deccan. 1 S. R. Ayyangar and B.S. Rao, in their work "Studies in South Indian Jainism" point out that the same source also reveals that the sanga was an association of Digambar Jains who migrated to the south with the view of spreading Jainism. This sanga consisted of four divisions, Nandi-ganam, fena-ganam, Sipha-ganam, and Deva-gapam. From the above evidence it is clear that Jainism had a place in Tamil land in the fifth century A.D. Apart from this evidence we have mainly to rely on Tamil literature to deduce the position of Jainism in Tamil . nd. The Jains and Buddhist who came to Tamil land, unlike Aryan brahmins, mixed freely with the common people. Though the religious rituals, mythological stories and social behaviour of brahmins attracted the Tamil kings and the people, the religious books of the brahmins-the sacred Vedas-were never accessible to the layman. They were considered sacred and the common mass remained in ignorance of the teachings of Vedas. This attitude towards religious doctrines did not exist among Jains. "They believed" as Winternitz says, that "[their]... religion [is] not only for human beings of all races and classes but even for animals, gods and denizans of hell". They always ensured that their religious doctrines and literary works were accessible to the people. It is because of their desire to share their knowledge that they wrote their canonical writings and earliest commentaries in Prakrit dialects (Ardhamagadhi and Maharastri).4 But in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. most of the works were written in Sanskrit. When the Jains came to Tamil land they made none of their religious writings unavailable to the layman. The Jains learned Tamil and their religious teachings were imparted in Tamil. This approach in introducing their religion served to attract people towards Jainism and led to the acquisition of royal support and patronage. Though the Buddhists who came to Tamil land were as eager as the Jains in propagating their religion, it cannot be denied that the Jains have had a greater share in Tamil cultural and literary evolution. 45 Most of the literary works which came into being between the end of the Cankam period and the Pallava reign, except the Cilappatikaram and the Manimekalai, were didactic in nature. They are classified as the collection Patinepkilkkrpakku, (eighteen minor works). Of these, the Nalatiyar, the Palamoli naturu, the Cirupancamalam, and the Elati are Jain works. The progresssively increasing influence of Sanskrit can be seen in these Patioenkilkkanakku works. In the Jain works a great number of Sanskrit 1 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay, Vol. XVII, No. XLIV, Peter Petersons's report on the search for Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Bombay circle, p. 74. 2 S. R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, Studies in South Indian Jainism, Madras, 1922, p. 52. 3 M. Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, Calcutta, 1933, Vol. II, p. 425. 4 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 427

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Study of Civakacintamani words came to be used to elaborate the importance of the code of conduct. These will be considered in chapter VI. In these Jaina works, unlike in the Cc. where all the aspects of Jainism are discussed, importance is given mainly to ethical (rather than metaphysical) ideas. 46 The Cilappatikaram, the first Tamil epic (kavya ), contains a good amount of Aryan mythology, ritual, and Sanskrit words. Though there are a few references to Jainism in the Cilappatikaram, there are no religious expositions as found in the Co.; the Manimekalai, which more or, less contains the story of the Cilappatikaram, also has a great number of Sanskrit words. These words are used mostly in the places where Buddhist philosphical ideas are explained. This is explained in the section on Sanskrit loan words in Chapter VI. The period during which these works were composed was favourable to Buddhists. and Jains. The major reason for this is the patronage of the kings, which they enjoyed along with the public support. Literary works like the Cilappatikaram1 and the Manimekalais furnish evidence that there were religious discourses and debates in the cities. These religious discussions among different religious groups were undertaken with mutual respect. References in these two books also suggest that Jainism enjoyed a stable position in Tamil land. In the tenth chapter of the Cilappatikaram, the Natukan-katai, the Jaina nun Kavunti joins Kovalan and Kannaki on their journey to Madurai, saying that she would like to worship Arivan (Arhat) by listening to the dharma preached by the sinless saints, who had got rid of all their adharma by their purity. There are also references in these works to show that there were wandering ascetics (carapas) who preached Jainism.4 Jainism probably became popular in Tamil land during the reign of the Kalabhras," who came to Tamil some time about A.D. 300 or a little later. These Kalabhras, who were under the influence of the great number of Jains who inhabited Tamil land, even began to persecute the Saiva saints in the country and disregard the whorship of the Hindu gods." After the Kalabhras, when the Pallavas came into power, Hinduism regained its popularity with the rise of Saiva saints and Vaisnava Ajvars. The prosperous state. of Jainism was soon shaken by this revival of Hinduism. The Saiva saints often condemned the religious practices of the Jains and this fact is clearly seen in their 1 Cilappatikaram, chapter V, Intiravilav-etutta-katai, lines 174-181. 2 Manimekalal, chapter XXVII, Camayakkapakkar-tan-tiran-keta-katai. 3 Cilappatikaram, chapter X, Najukan-katai, lines 55-60. 4 Ibid, X, lines 163, 182, 192. Manimekalai, XI, line 7. 5 S. R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao are of the opinion that these kalabhras came to Tamil land from the Carnatic country. Vide, S. R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, op. cit. p. 55. 6 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 3. 7 S. R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, op. cit. pp. 55-56.

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The social, religious and literary background devotional songs. For example some instances are quoted below : kulitt unav amanar (The Jains who eat without having their bath.) kurulai eytiya matavar nirppave kunciyaip parittuttiralai kaiyil unpavarum2 (The people who pluck their hair from their head, and those who eat their lump of food from their hands in front of young girls..) In most of the Patikams 3 of the saiva saiat Nanacampantar one can observe that he makes a point of condemning the Jains. The desire of the Saiva saints and Vaisnava Alvars to establish their religion in every possible way led to the Bhakti movement in Tamil land. The devotional hymns of the Saiva saints and Vaisnava Alvars were set to music and a large amount of Sanskrit puranic and other mythological stories were freely used. These factors gradually attracted the common mass towards Hinduism, and among them were a large number of Jains. During this period, religious debates held with a view to establishing the truth of a particular faith were characterised by fanatical fervour rather than tolerance. The Saiva saint Napacampantar, who may have lived in the middle of the seventh century, 4 converted the ruler of the Pandyan kingdom at that time from Jainism to Saivism, This Pandyan king may have been either Maravarman Ayanisulamani (A.D 625-AD. 645)5 or his grandson Arikesari Maravarman (A.D. 670-A.D. 700). It is knwon from his songs that, Nanacampantar also foiled the conspiracies of Jains and vanquished them in debates. His contemporary and another saiva saint Tirunavukkaracar, who is also known as Appar, has converted the Pallava king Mahendravarman-I (A.D. 580--A.D. 630)8 from Jainism to saivism. Appar was converted to Jainism in his early days and held the name Dharmasena. His name indicates that he belonged to the Sena-ganam of Dravida sangha. He later became a Saivite and contributed many devotional songs to Tamil literature. During this period, there were also two other Saiva saints, Cuntaramurti and Manikkavacakar, who contributed the flourishing state of Saivism in Tamil land. The profusion of Sanskrit mythological stories and words in the devotional songs of the saiva saints and Vaisnava Alvars indicates the growing influence of Sanskrit. New literary traditions came into vogue and in some of them the distinction between Sanskrit origin and Tamil origin can hardly be distinguished. The mythological 1 Tiru Nanacampanta cuvamikal Tevarap-patikan kal Tirumurai, 1, Patikam 114, Tirumarperu, v.10, Panniru-caivat-tirumurait-tokuti, l'adras 1927, p. 240. 2 Ibid, Tiruvaracilai, v. 10, p. 492. 3 Patikam is a poem in praise of a deity consisting generally of ten stanzas. 4 K. A, Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 415. 5 lbid, p. 152. 7 Ibid, p. 152. 6 Ibid, p. 425. 8 Ibid, p. 150.

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48 Study of Civakacintamani episodes in Sanskrit were effectively used to praise the glory of Hindu gods. The introduction of the Pan (melody-type) system of music led to the employment of the Viruttam (vetta) metre. This employment of Viruttam metre also necessitated the use of a large vocabulary consisting of sonorous sounds. Just as the Hindu gods were praised by drawing freely from Sanskrit mythology, so also the musical quality of the songs was heightened by drawing freely from Sanskrit diction. Though the influence of the Jains waned considerably due to the success of the Bbakti movement, the zeal for religious propaganda could not be extinguished. The different conditions they faced during this period forced a reconsideration of the methods they used to spread Jainism in Tamil land. They begun to realise that it was not possible to attract people towards their religion by mere exposition of righteous religious conduct. Simultaneously there were several transformation coming over the very structure of Jainism. Initially in Jainism the life of a householder was interpreted as just a stage of preparation for the ascetic order or its support and so the code of laws related to the ascetic. But between the fifth century and the thirteenth century A.D., the distinction between the householder and the ascetic came to be recognised and separate laws for the householder were evolved. Books meant for the guidance of the householder like the Adi purana (14th chapter), 2 Rainakarandabravakacara, and Sarvarthasiddhi were written. Jainism, hitherto only a system of philosophy, began to assume the form of a religion. The Jaina monks attempted to evolve new techniques in their works by introducing Hindu mythological stories and religious rites suitably modified according to their religious doctrine. Evidence for Hinduization which took place in this period can be clearly seen in the following works : Adipurana of Jinasena, Caritrasara (C. 1000 ) 3 of Camundaraya, and Sagaradhar mamota (1240)+ of Asadhara. 5 The Hindu samskaras were drawn in as kriyas of Jainism. Most of the kriyas like the thread ceremony (upanayana), wedding rituals, etc. are imitated from sanskaras and decked with Jaina symbolism. During the same time, attempts were made to give literary form to the stories of the Jaina saints and their life history. The Mahapurana in Sanskrit exemplifies one such effort. In Tamil land, Jaina like all the other religious teachers, began to draw their plots from mythological puranic stories. It is also said that Konkuvelir had a Sanskrit version of the Paisaci book of Gunadhya translated by Durviota. As Durvinita's translation is not available now, one is not certain whether the above fact is correct. After Konkuve ir it was Tewar who took a Sanskrit story as the theme of his epic (kavya), Cc. Tevar's aim was religious indoctrination. He fitted the abstruse religious doctrine into the form of an ornate epic using the literary form as sugar coating to his religious pill. This was possible because the climate in the country was one of religious 1 A. Williams, Jaina Yoga, A survey of the medieval Sravakacaras, London, 1963, pp. 17-21, 2 14th Chapter of Adipurana deals with the rituals of a householder, 3 Williams, op. cit. p. 17. 4 Ibid, p. 17. 5 Ibid, p. xxiii.

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The social, religious and literar y background 49 tolerance and co-existence except for the period during which the Jains were severly persecuted. The Cola kings in particular are known to have promoted and safeguarded the interests of non-Hindu communities. There was no distinction drawn between a Jaina village and an Agrahara, where brahmins lived, and all privileges were given to a Jaina village. During this period Palliccandam lands (lands or village owned exclusively by the Jain and Buddhist religious institutions) were donated by the kings in great number. Even when transactions connected with the administrative authorities of the state were made, special care was taken to safeguard the privileges of these lands. For example, in the Udayendiram plates of Hastimalla records we can see that the Palsiccandam lands of Digambara Jains consisting of two paitis of land were excluded from the gift of the village of Kadaikkottur. This village was granted to the village of Udayendu chaturvedimangalam by Sembiyan-Mavalivaparaya (i.e. the Ganga-Bana king Pithivipati II) with the permission of his sovereign Parantaka I (A.D. 907-A.D. 955).1 ..ip paricu nattaik kutti nila natappittuk kallum kalliyu nattip palam paliccantamana viccatiri pattiyun tevarpattiyumana iv iranlu pattiyu nikki...2 (Having assembled accordingly (the inhabitants of) the district (nadu!, having caused (them) to walk over the boundaries of the (granted) land, having planted stones and milk bush (on the boundaries), having excluded the two Pattis called Vichchadiri Patti and Deyar Patti which had been formerly a Pallichchandam..)4 There is also evidence to show that Cola kings and queens built Jaina temples and donated land and wealth for their maintenance.5 Rajaraja I donated the village Anaimangalam to the Buddhist Vihara called Chulamanivarma vihara in Nagapattanam, which was built by the chief of Kalaram Chuamanivatman and his son Maravijayotungavarman. in writing this epic, as we will see in Chapter IV, Tevar has followed the pattern set by similar pics in Sanskrit. This was facilitated by the popularity of Sanskrit in the conntry. The Pallava kings patronised Sanskrit scholars and poets in their court. We learn that the Pallava king Mahendravarman I (A.D. 580-A.D. 630) composed a delectable farce (prabasana ) Mattavilasaprahasana in Sanskrit. The impact of Sanskrit on the social life and the culture of the Tamils persisted during the period of the Cola kings. Thus, in the Cola inscriptions also we find a large admixture of Sanskrit. 1 Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 209. 2 South Indian Inscriptions (S.1.1.) Vol. II, Part III, p. 386, Inscription No. 76. 3 Kalli. Euphorbia. 4 Translated by E. Hultzch, p. 387. 5 S.1.1. Vol. I, pp. 67, 68. 6 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXII, No. 34, pp. 228, 229. 7 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 171. SC-7

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Study of Civakacintamani From the period of the Pallava reign, Tamil land was heading towards a state of progress and stability which culminated in the period of Tamil supremacy during the reign of the Colas in South India. The prosperity of the age was conducive to innovations and novel literary compositions. As trade and commerce flourished, merchants occupied a place next in importance only to that of the kings. The political and social ties which flourished between the merchant community and the royal family could be indicated from the circumstances that four among the eight brides of Civakan hail from the merchant community. The custom prevalent among the Tamil emperors of marrying princesses from various countries for diplomatic reasons could be seen in the narration of Civakan's marriage to the eight girls in the story. The principle that salvation could be achieved even through the normal existence of householder could be also illustrated by the example of Civakau. These presumably are the reasons why Tevar chose the Jivaka story from all the stories of Jaina Saints for his work. He probably had a source book in Sanskrit or Prakrit, as discussed in the first chapter. In chapter III we compare the story of Cc. with that of the earliest available Sanskrit book on the Jivaka story, the Up, in an attempt to assess the Sanskrit influence on the story of Cc. 50

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CHAPTER III A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE JIVANDHARA STORY IN THE UTTARAPURANA AND THE STORY OF THE CIVAKACINTAMANI AND A DISCUSSION OF THE SANSKRIT MOTIFS FOUND IN THE CIVAKACINTAMANI From very early times Sanskrit episodes appeared in Tamil literature. The Sanskrit puranic and epic stories became popular among the Tamils along with Aryan customs and traditions. Though the Cankam literature appears to be relatively free from the influence of Sanskrit works, there are a few references to the episodes of the two Sanskrit epics, Ramayapa and Mahabharata, and to the other mythological stories. References to these stories are made in eulogies of kings and in descriptions, For example, alankulaip puraviy aivar olu cinaii nilan talaik konta polam pun tumpai iraim patinmarum porutu kalast oliyap perunc corr u miku patam varaiyatu kotuttoy! (The hundred men (Duryodhana and his brothers) who possessed land fought with the Pandavas, who had the horses adorned with head ornaments. During the fight, you supplied the army with food till the hundred mea were killed.) Here, the poet Muranciyar Mutinakanar praises the glory of the Cera king Peruncor rutiyanceralatan by saying that he gave food to the armies of the Pandavas and to Durdodhana and his ninety nine brothers till the latter hundred were killed by the Pandavas. The allusion to the Mahabharata story in praising a southern king alteady shows the liking that the people of Tamil land had for these stories. Similar references to stories from the Mahabharata are found also in the Cirupaparruppatai, 9 the Perumpanarruppatai, 5 the Patirruppattu, 4 the Akanaduru, etc. Like the stories of the Mahabharata, episodes from the Ranayana are also mentioned in works like Akadapuru, the Cirupanarruppatail and Puranahuru. For example, Katunteral iramanutan punar citaiyai valitta kaiy arakkan vayviya nantai nilan cer matar aai kanta kurankin cemmukap perun kilaiy isaip polintanku ..8 1 Pur ananutu, verse 2, lines 13-16. 2 Cirupanart uppalai, lines 238-241. 3 Perumpanartuppatai, lines 415-417. 4 Patirt uppattu, verse 14. 5 Akananuru, verse 233. 6 Ibid, verse 70. 7 Cirupanarr uppatai, lines 119-120. 8 Purananuru, 378.

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Study of Civakocintamani (It was like the happiness of the red-faced monkeys who were the relatives of the monkey who found on the ground the ornaments of Citai, the wife of brave Iraman, when she was abducted by the strong-handed arakkan (raksasa)]. in the above lines, the happiness of the relatives of the ferunan (the bard), who received presents from the Cola king Ceruppaliyerinta-Ilancecel ni, is compared to that of the relatives of the monkey who found the ornaments which were dropped by Sita when she was taken by Ravana. Allusions of this kind to Sanskrit itibasa stories and to the puranic stories began to proliferate in works like the Paripatal and the Kalittokai which belong to the later Cankaw period. As we have already seen, the post-Cankam period was marked by the everincreasing popularity of Sanskrit works in Tamil land. There are references to Sanskrit stories in the Cilappatikaram, the first Tamil epic, though such references are con. paratively fewer than in the Cc. For example : pillai nakulam perum piritaka elliya manaiyol ninaintu pin cella vata ticaip peyarum ma maraiyalan katavatancu nin kaitt un valkkai vatamoli vucakam ceyta nili elu katanari mantar kai ni kotukkena .. .. .. .. .. .. 1 (A brahmana, who abandoned his wife because she caused the death of a mongoose (which they were bringing up), started going north. When the wife he had spurned followed him, he said that it was not proper for him to eat food from her hands. He gave her a note containing a Sanskrit verse and asked her to hand it over to people who led a virtuous life.) This stanza is narrated by the character Malalan to Kovalan, in order to praise the noble qualities of Kovalan. The husband of the brahmin lady who had killed the mongoose left her and started going north. Before he left he handed over a note containing a Sanskrit phrase (vatamoli vacakam) and asked her to give that to people who could understand it. She also went round with the note in her hand and met Kovalan. He consoled her and took the note from her. He gave gifts (dana), the merits of which would destroy her sins. He fetched her husband back and gave them enough wealth to maintain them for the rest of their lives. Matalan narrates this incident to praise Kovalan. In this narration the phrase "vatamoli vacakam '8 refers 1 Cilappatikaram, Atajkkalakkatai, lines 54-59. 2 Here, going north means going to have a holy bath in the Ganges. 3 In the Pancatantra written by Visnusarma, there is no mention of the brahmin proceeding towards the north and his wife following him. We do not know whether this sequence is found in any other version of the story. We have also checked this story in the Pancatantra, a Collection of Ancient Hindu tates in the recension, called Pancakhyanaka, and dated A.D. 1199 of the Jaina Monk, Purnabhadra critically edited in the original Sanskrit by Johannes Hertel, Harvard Oriental series, Vol. 11, 1903. In this book we cannot find this particular incident narrated,

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A comparative study of the livandhara story.. to the following verse which is given in the fifth tantra of Pancatantra. 1 a pariksya na kartavyam kartavyam supari ksitam, pascad bhavati samtapo brahmanyam nakularthatah 1/2 (Do not do (anything) without examining. Do what is well examined. (Otherwise) there will be pain as happened to brahminee because of a mongoose.) The Manimekalai, the epic written after the Cilappatikaram, also contains a few references to Sanskrit popular tales For example : kotik kocampikkomakan akiyu vatit tert tanai vattavan-tannai vancam ceytuli van talai vitiiya uncai yir tonriya yuki antanun uruvukku ovva uru noy kantu parivuru makkalil tam pariv eyti ([There gathered around her a crowd, much like the crowd that had collected around Yaugandharayana when he assumed the disgusting disguise of a man suffering from disease, and entered the streets of Ujjain for the purpose of releasing Udayana, his master, from the prison into which Pradyota, the king, had thrown him.)+ Here the poet Cattanar in describing the crowd which gathered around Manimekalai who became a Buddhist nun after receiving instructions from the sage Aravana Atikal, alludes to the similar incident which took place in the story of Udayana. Here the point of the comparison will be missed without a knowledge of the Udayana story referred to. Pradyota, the king of Ujjain, captured Udayana by deceit. His minister Yaugandharayana came to free him, disguised as a person suffering from a deadly disease. The people of Ujjain felt sorry for him when they saw him. Their sorrow is compared to that felt by the people of Pukar when they saw Manimekalai in the garb of a Buddhist nun. The Udayana story from which the above incident is taken was a popular theme in Sanskrit literature. In the later period it is also often alluded to in Tamil literature. This story of Udayana is the first Sanskrit story to have been taken as the source of a Tamil epic. It is used as the main theme of the literary work, the Perunkatai. Before the period of the Perunkatai, only allusions were made to Sanskrit stories in Tamil works, while the plots were always of Tamil origin. Konkuvelir, the author of the Perunkatai, was the forerunner of Tevar in dealing with a Sanskrit story in Tamil. 1 Atiyarkkunallar, commentary on Ataikkalahkatai, Cilappatikaram, Jines 54-75. 2 Visusarman, Pascatantra, Nirnaya Sagara edition, Bombay, 1902, Vth Tantra, verse 18. 3 Manim ekalai, 15, lines 61-66. 4 Translated by S. Krishnaswami Aiyanagar, Manimekalai in its historical setting. London, 1928, p. 149.

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54 Study of Civakacintamani As we have discussed in the first chapter of this thesis, we do not exactly know which was the source for Tevar's work. As the Up. is the earliest available source among the Sanskrit and Prakrit texts which deal with the story of Jivandhara, in this chapter we compare the Jivandhara story of the Up. with the story of the Cc. In the Up. the story of Jivandhara is related in a prosaic manner. We do not find many descriptions or any literary flourish. Stories within the main story sometimes impede the flow of the narrative. One can find in the story of the Cc. many novel features and variations which are not found in the Jivandhara story of the Up. The similarities and the variations found between the story of the Jivandhara in the Up. and the story of the Cc. can be analysed under three headings : 1. Contents of the story 2. Sequence of events 3. Characters The Contents of the Story We shall now see the similarities, the variations and the differences found between the contents of the Jivandhara story of the Up. and the story of the Cc. As the Jivandhara story in the Up. is narrated in one long story without any sub-divisions in it, here we analyse the story according to the chapters found in the Cc. 1. Namaka! Ilampakam (The birth and the education of Civakan) The Jivandhara story in the Up. begins with King Srenika asking the chief disciple Sudharma about the ascetic Jivandhara. The whole story of Jivandhara is related through the mouth of Sudharma, and here the story is related only after the renunciation of Jivandhara. But in the Cc. the story starts from the birth of Civakan and is related up to the renunciation of Civakan. The whole story is aarrated by the author Tevar and the question of the king Cenikan (Srenika) and the answer to it given by the ascetic Cutanmar (Sudharma) is included in the last ilampakam, after the renunciation of Civakan. Here, the reply of Cutanmar contains only the description of the way in which Civakan attained salvation after renouncing the world, and not the whole story.1 The country in which the story takes place is the same in both books and the main characters are also the same. The Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc. In the country Hemangada, the king Satyandhara (Caccantan in the Cc.) ruled in the city called Rajapuram. His queen was Vijaya (Vicayai in the Cc.) and his minister Kasthangaraka ( Kattiyankaran in the Cc. ). One day the queen had two dreams. In one, the king gave her a crowo adorned with eight golden bells, 1 and in the other, an asoka tree under which she was standing was cut off with an axe by 1 Ibid, verses 3059-3086. 2 The variation found in the Cc. about this incident will be discussed later.

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A comparative study of the Jivandhara Story somebody and from the root a young tree grew up. The queen, being anxious to know the results of her dreams, went to the king and asked what they meant. The king explained the good and the bad implications of the dreams. After some days the wicked minister Kasthangaraka came to kill the king. The king, who realised his situation, sent away his wife, who was pregnant, in an aerial car. In the fight between the king and the minister, the minister slew the king. The queen, who went in the aerial car, descended in a cemetery, where she gave birth to a son. She was helped and consoled by a yaksi. In the meantime Gandhotkata (Kantukkatan in the Cc.). a merchant, came there to dispose of the dead body of bis son. Gandhotkaja, hearing the cry of a child, went near him and fetched him. He took the child home, and handed him over to his wife. He pretended to be angry and told his wife that she had given him the child, which was still alive, to be buried. Vijays, after the child had been taken by Gandhotkaca, went to the Dapdaka forest where the ascetics dwell, and resided there. Jivandhara grew into a boy; one day while playing with his friend he met an ascetic and took him home and gave him food. The ascetic conceived an affection for Jivandhara, and undertook the charge of educating him. He told him that he was the king Aryavarma, and imparted khowledge of all the sciences to Jivandhara and his companions. After some days Aryavarma attained salvation. The variations found in the story of the Ce (1) In the story of Jivandhara in the Up., when the characters Satyandhara and Vijays, the parents of Jivandhara, are introduced for the first time, they are married.8 But in the Cc. they are not married when they are first introduced in the story. Their marriage arrangements, wedding and the other celebrations are described in detail. (ii) The two dreams which Vijaya had in the Up. are made into one in the Cc. and there is also variation in the contents of the dream. According to the Cc., an asoka tree fell down with all its flowering branches and from the root of the tree a young sprout came up with a crown adorned with eight garlands on it. Therefore in the Cc., unlike in the Up., the king did not give a diadem to Vicayai and also the tree was not cut by an axe. The crown did not have eight bells but eight garlands. (iii) The portrayal of the character Kattiyankaran is altered in the Cc. According to the Up., Kasthangaraka killed king Satyandhara because he feared his own death. The domestic priest Rudradatta was angry because in the early morning the queen refused him an audience with the king, as the king was still asleep. He went and asked Katthangaraka to kill the king Satyandhara. When Kasthangaraka refused to do so, he predicted that if Kasthangaraka did not kill the king, the son of the king would kill Kasthangaraka. This scared Kasthangaraka and he killed the king. Though he obtained the kingdom, it gave him no happiness. Therefore the only reason he killed the king was to save his own life. In the Co Kaiyankaran is portrayed as a wicked traitor who usurped the kingdom of Caccantan by murdering him. Caccantan 1 Up. loc. cit. v. 189. 2 Cc, vv. 157-198. 55 3 Cc. v. 223. 4 Up. loc. cit. vv. 207-223.

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Study of Civakacintamani entrusted his kingdom to Kaiyankaran in order to enjoy himself with his queen Vicayai. Katiyankaran took this opportunity to kill the king. To gain the support of the other ministers he made up a story that a deity who was angry with the king had been inciting him to kill the king.1 56 (iv) In the Up., after the dream of Vijaya, the event in which Gandhotkata met the ascetic Silagupta is narrated. Gandhotkata asked the ascetic whether he would have any long-lived sons as all his sons were dead. The ascetic predicted that he would obtain a virtuous son who would rule the earth. This event is not narrated in this place in the Cc. But it is narrated by Kantukkatan. in the Kunamalaiyar ilampakam, who consoled Cunantai and Kupamalai when Civakan was punished by Kattiyankaran (v) According to the Up., when Gandhotkaja heard the voice of a child, he went towards the child calling out Jiva, Jiva.' In this context the poet says that he went towards the child calling 'Jiva, Jiva' as if it were the future name of the child, Jivandhara. This is not mentioned in the Cc. Tevar gives another reason for naming the child Civakan. According to the Cc. the child sneezed when Kantukkkatan went to fetch the child, and at that time a voice blessed him saying 'crva' (jiva) 'Live long. It is because of this blessing that the child is named Civakan.5 (vi) In the Up., the queen Vijaya, hearing the voice of Gandhotkata, made herself known to him and handed over her child to him saying, "Bring up my son unknown to others." In the Cc., Vicayai did not come out of her place of hiding. (vii) The introduction of the teacher of Jivandhara in the Up. and in the Cc. are different. In the Up., Jivandhara met his teacher while playing with his friends. On the request of the teacher he took him home and gave him food. After food, the ascetic revealed his past history and expressed his desire to teach Jivandhara. He imparted the knowledge of all sciences to Jivandhara and afterwards he attained salvation by exercising self-control. This part is narrated in a different way in the Cc. The past life of the teacher is related only after the education of Civakan. Before this event, in the Cc. Tevar introduces another important event which is necessary for the growth of the rest of the story, and which is not found in the Up. Accananti. the teacher of Civakan, narrated the story of the birth of Civakan and the story of his parents to Civakan. On hearing this, Civakan was angry and got ready to kill Kaiyankaran. But his teacher pacified him and asked him to wait for one year. Civakan agreed to the condition. This one year is an important period in the life of Civakan, and the whole preparation for the fight with Katiyankaran takes place in this time. 1 Ce. v. 241. 2 Up. loc. cit. vv. 201-204. 3 Cc. vv. 1122-1131. 4 Up. loc. cit v. 243. 5 Cc. vv. 323, 361. 6 7 8 Up. loc. cit. vv. 244, 245. Ibid, loc. cit. v. 274. Cc. vv. 385-390.

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A compurative study of the Jivandhara Story. . 57 In the Up. Jivandhara did not know anything about his parents till he was told by the celestial (khecara). He met the celestial after the marriage of Hemabba (Kanakamalai in the Cc.). Di fferences found between the Up. and the Cc. (i) In the Up. the ascetic Silagupta predicted to Gandhotkata that he would find a son who would rule the earth, in a cemetery where he would go to dispose of the dead body of his own son. This prediction is heard by a yaksi and she went to the royal palace to assist the mother in the birth of that son. This is not narrated in the Cc. (ii) The visit of the ascetic Rudradatta, his request to see king Satyandhara, the refusal of permission by the Queen Vijaya, the anger of Rudradatta, his visit to the house of Kasthangaraka, his request to Kasthangaraka to kill the king and his prediction that the son of the king will kill Kasthangarakal are not narrated in the Cc. 2. Kovintaiyar ilampakam Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc. The hunters approached the cow pen in order to seize the cows in Hemangada. When the king Kasthangaraka was informed about it, he proclaimed that the virtuous virgin Godavari, the daughter of Gopendra and Gopasri, would be given to the one who could recover the cows. On hearing this, Jivandbara went to bring back the cows. He defeated the enemy and brought back the stolen cows. The whole country rejoiced over the victory of Jivandhara. The sons of Vaisyas made the king give Godavari ip marriage to Nandadhya.2 (Patumukan in Cc.) Variations found in the Cc. (i) In the Up. the name of the chief of the forest-dwellers is given as Kalakuta. 3 This name is omitted in the Cc. and it is only said that the cows were stolen by hunters. (ii) in the Up., the king Kasthangaraka proclaimed that the virgin Godavari would be given to him who shall recover the cows. But in the Cc. this has been altered. First, when the cowherds reported to the king Kattiyankaran he sent his army. The king's army failed to recover the cows. Being disappointed, the chief of the cowherds, Kovintan, proclaimed that he would give his daughter to the one who retrieved the cows from the enemy. On the victory of Civakan it was Kovirtan who gave away his daughter to Civakan and not Kattiyankaran. Civakan accepted her to give her in marjiage to Patumukan and not to Nantattiyan as stated in the Up." (iii) In the Up., it is said that Jivandhara accompanied by Kalangaraka (the son of Kasthangaraka) went to fight the enemy. But in the Cc. the character Kalangaraka is not introduced into the story at all. 1 Up. v. 284. 2 Up. v. 296. 3 Up. loc. cit. vv. 284 296. 4 Ibid, loc. cit. v. 288. 5 Cc. v. 440. 6 Ibid, vv. 477-482. 7 lbid, v. 489. Sc-8

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58 Study of Civakacintamani The difference between the Up. and the Cc. (i) The prediction of the astrologers to the hunters who wanted to steal the cows of the cowherds, that there would be evil, and the prediction of the foreteller of the omens to the cowherds that there was going to be evil, which is narrated in the Cc., are not found in the Up. These incidents are narrated in the Cc, according to the Vetci and Karantai war, the two kinds of war found in the early Tamil literary tradition. 1 3. Kaotaruvatattaiyar ilampakam The story of Kantaruvatattai is one of the longest episodes in the Cc. Though the main section of the story is similar to the Up., there are many variations and differences in the rest of the story, and in the sequence of events. Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc. Gandhai vadatta, the daughter of the Vidyadhara king Garudavega and queen Dharini, was taken to Rajapuram by Jinadatta, to get married according to the prediction made earlier. In Rajapuram, Jinadatta erected a ball and proclaimed that Gandharvadatta would be given in marriage to the one who could defeat her in the lute competition. All the people who wanted to marry her came and competed with her. But all of them failed. At last Jivandhara went to the hall and played the lute, and won her. Gandharvadatta who had fallen in love with Jivandhara, garlanded him. The variations found in the Cc. (i) In the Up., Matisagara, the minister of Garudavega (Kalulavekan in the Cc.) came to know all about the future life of Gandharvadatta from the ascetic Vipulamati. Jinadatta (Citattan in the Cc.) and Garudavega were friends and Jinadatta went to visit his friend in his house. This part of the story is not found in the Cc. The introduction of Citattan is effected in an entirely different way. According to the Cc. Cytattan, after a shipwreck in which he lost all his wealth and friends, met a celestial called Taran, who was sent by Kalulavekan (Garudavega). Taran explained to Citattan that the shipwreck was caused deliberately by him in order to bring Citattan to their land. He took Citattan to the court of the king, where the king handed over his daughter to Citattan. The king also told him about the prediction of the astrologers and asked Citattan to give her in marriage to the one who won her in the lute competition. Therefore, the meeting of Kalulavekan and Citattan in the Cc. is narrated in a different way from the Up. (ii) In the Up., after Gandharvadatta had garlanded Jivandhara, Kalangaraka, the son of Kasthangaraka, made an attempt to abduct Gandharvadatta,3 But in the Cc., the character Kalangaraka is never introduced. It was Kattiyankaran who insti. gated other kings to fight against Civakan. 1 Infra, p. 149. 2 Up. loc. cit v. 322 3 Ibid, loc. cit. v. 340. 4 Cc. vv. 741-757.

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A comparative study of the Jivandhara Story... (iii) In the Up., the father of Gandharvadatta knew that his daughter was going to get married to Jivandhara.1 But in the Cc., till Civakan won Kantaruvatattai in the lute competition, nobody knew that she was going to marry Civakan. As the Cc, omits the section in which Matisagara, the minister of Garudavega, related the future of Gandharvadatta, this section is also excluded. Difference found between the Up. and the Ce. (i) According to the Up., Gandharvadatta's father Garudavega, who was skilled. in diplomacy, became the mediator between the parties who were fighting and pacified them. This event is not found in the Cc. Here Civakan fought with his enemies and defeated them. 4. Kupamalaiyar ilampakam As will be shown later in the section about characters, 3 the names Gunamala and Suramanjari are interchanged. The story of Gupamala in the Cc. is narrated as the story of Suramanjari and vice versa in the Up. Except for the change in names, all the other incidents are more or less the same. During the spring the citizens of Rajapuram went to enjoy sports. Two friends. Suramanjari and Gunamala started an argument over their scented powder. Their maids took the powders and went to Jivandhara for judgement. Jivandhara. decided that the powder of Suramanjari (Kunamalai in the Cc.) was the better one. To prove it he took both powders in his hands and scattered them. A swarm of bees, attracted by the sweet smell, ate the powder of Suramanjari. Both girls departed. After this incident, some naughty boys harassed a dog, and the dog out of fear jumped into a pond, and there it was about to die. Jivandhara had it retrieved and spoke into its ears the words of veneration. As soon as it heard the words of veneration it became a yaksa called Sudarjana. Sudarjana asked Jivandhara to think of him whenever he was in any calamity. Having said that he returned to his abode. When Suramanjari was returning home after the sports, the elephant Ajanivega became intoxicated and ran towards the carriage of Suramanjari. Using his skill Jivandhara controlled the elephant. From the time of this incident Suramanjari fell in love with Jivandhara. Her parents, who came to know about her love, gave her in marriage to Jivandhara with the permission of his foster-parents. 59 The wicked king Kasthangaraka attacked Jivandhara with an army for humiliating his elephant. When Jivandhara defeated that army, Kasthangaraka, sent another army,4 As Jivandhara thought that there was no use in fighting and killing the innocent army, he remembered his friend the yaksa and went with him to his abode. Variations found in the Kunamalaiyar ilampakam (i) According to the Up., after hearing the judgement made about the the scented powders by Civakan, the two girls went away without any enmity. But in the Co., 3 Infra. 1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 310-312. 4 This is only narrated in the Up. 2 Up. loc. cit. v. 343. 5 Up. loc. cit. v. 354.

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60 Study of Civakacintamani Curamancari was not at all pleased with the judgement made by Jivandhara. From that day onwards she decided not to see any men until Civakan went back to her. This decision of Curamancari is related in the latter part of the Up., in the story of Gunamala (Curamancari in the Cc.).1 Tevar has made it clear even in the story of Kupamalai. (ii) In the Up., the dog which turned into the yaksa Sudarsana was beaten by a a group of boys. But according to the Cc., it was some brahmins who beat the dog.3, (iii) In the Up., when Kasthangaraka attacked Jivandhara for the second time Jivandhara did not fight, and he thought that it would be of no use to kill the innocent people. But in the Co., Kattiyankaran did not send an army to fight with Civakan. He sent people to arrest him. Civakan did not fight because he had to abide by the promise he had given to his teacher. This is the only reason why he thought of his friend Cutancaqan for help. Differences found between the Up, and the Cc. (i) In the Cc. Kattiyankaran ordered his cousin Matanan to kill Civakan. But when Civakan remembered his friend Cutancanan (Sudarsana in the Up.), the latter caused rain and thunder to take Civakan away without the knowledge of others. Matanan who had missed Civakan in the tumult caused by Cutancapan killed a wayfarer and showed his blood to Kattiyankaran, saying that it was the blood of Civakan wbo had been killed by him. Kattiyan karap thought that it was true and presented him with gifts. 4 This incident is not found in the Up. (ii) In the Cc., when Patumukan, Civakan's friend, heard about the imprisonment of Civakab by Kattiyankaran, he went with Putticenan and other friends to fight with Kattiyankaran.5 This incident is not found in the Up. 5. Patumaiyar ilampakam In this ilampakam only the main story of Padmottama is similar in both books. In most of the other events connected with the main story one can find a number of variations. Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc. Jivandhara, after staying for some time with Sudarsana, expressed his desire to leave his place. Sudarsana gave him a ring which would enable the bearer to assume any desired appearance and to acquire desired objects. Jivandhara went from the palace of Sudarsana to the country Candrabha of King Dhanapati. At that time when Civakan arrived at that country, the daughter of King Dhanapati, Padmottama, was bitten by a snake. Jivandhara by pronouncing a spell freed the princess from the effects of the poison. The king, pleased by the act of Jivandhara, gave his daughter to him in marriage. Jivandhara after staying in the palace of Dhanapati for some days, left it without the knowledge of anyone. 1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 594-595 2 Ibid, loc. cit. vv. 359-360. 3 Cc. vv. 934-946. 4 Ibid, vv. 1161-1165. 5 Cc. w. 1134-1144.

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A comparative study of the livandhara Story.. 61 Variations found in the Patumaiyar ilampakam (i) According to the Up., Sudarsana gave Jivandbara a ring which would help the bearer to gain any desired form or desired object. 1 But in the Cc., Cutancanan taaght Civakan three mantras which could produce the following effects2: (i) to cure poison (ii) to assume any desired form (iii) to make his voice sweet. These mantras are introduced by Tevar, because they are important for the development of the story. In the Patumaiyar ilampakam Civakan used the first mantra, i.e. the mantra which helps to cure the poison. In the Curamancariyar ilampakam he used the other two. He assumed the form of an old man and sang sweet songs to attract the attention of Curamancari. (ii) In the Up., the King Dhanapati, the father of Padmottama, proclaimed when his daughter was bitten by the snake that he would bestow his daughter and half the kingdom to him who freed her from the poison. This proclamation made by the king is not mentioned in the Cc. According to the Cc., when Civakan, entered the country of king Tanapati, he met the prince of the country, Ulokapalan, the brother of Patumai, at a dance recital given by Tecikappavai. The news that Patumai had been bitten by a snake reached Ulokapalan while he was with Civakan. On hearing the news Ulokapalan rushed to see his sister, leaving Civakan. But, later on, when Ulokapalan failed to cure his sister from poison, he asked his servants to bring Civakan. Civakan cured Patumai and the king, being pleased, offered his daughter to Civakan. Differences found in the Patumaiyar ilam pakam (i) In the Cc., when Civakan expressed Cutancaman the desire to leave the house of Cutancanan, the latter told him that Civakan would kill Kattiyankaran and regain the kingdom in twelve months' time. This prediction of Cutancapan is not found is the Up. (ii) According to the Cc. before Civakan reached the city of Captirapam, he preached Jaina doctrine to a hunter who offered him meat and honey. This incident is not narrated in the Up.5 (ii) According to the Cc., Civakan helped a herd of elephants from a forest fire by causing a shower of rain. This incident is not related in the Up. (iv) According to the Cc., Tecikappavai, a dancing girl in whose dance recital Civnkan met Ulokapalan the brother of Patumai for the first time, fell in love with Civakan.? Civakan united with her after his marriage with Patumai in the park. 8 This episode is not found in the Up. 1 Up. loc. cit. v. 388. 2 Cc. v. 1218. 3 Up. loc. cit. vv. 392-393. 4 Cc. vv. 1220-1221. 5 lbid, vv. 1230-1236. 6 Ibid, v. 1237. 7 Ibid, vv. 1253-1261. 8 Ibid, vv. 1355-1357.

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Study of Civakcintamani (v) According to the Cc., Civakan, who had fallen in love with Patumai, when he cured her from the effect of poison, met her in the park afterwards and united with her before she was given in marriage to him by her father, 1 The whole description of the incident which took place in the park is according to the early Tamil literary traditions. This is not narrated in the Up. 62 (vi) According to the Cc., Civa kan after he left Patumai gave all his ornaments. to a traveller. This incident is not narrated in the Up. (vil) According to the Cc.. Civakan told the servants who were sent by King Tanapati to search for Civakan, that Civakan would return to Patumai in nine months' time. This is not found in the Up. 6. Kemacariyar ilampakam The episode of Kemacari in the Cc. is the counterpart of the story of Ksemasundar in the Up. Except for the fact that Civakan married Kemacari, all the other parts of the story are different. Comparatively this is one of the smallest episodes in the Cc. and the Up. According to the Up., an ascetic had predicted that Ksemasundari would get married to the one on whose arrival the doors of the Jaina temple in that country would open automatically, and the campaka flowers and the other kinds of flowers would appear. But this has been changed by Tevar. In the Cc. it is narrated that according to the prediction Kamacari would feel shy for the first time in her life when she met the man who was to be her husband. 7. Kanakamalaiyar lampakam The Kanakamalaiyar ilampakam contains a great number of episodes and new events other than the main story. Most of these episodes are found only in the Cc. Even the main story is very different from the story of the Up. According to the Up., Jivandhara won Hemabha (Katakamalai in the Cc.) by showing his skill in archery. Astrologers had predicted that Hemabha would marry the man who could dispatch an arrow so that it turned round the target and flew back. Jivandhara, who could shoot like that, was offered Hemabha, the daughter of Dridhamitra. The story is different in the Cc. In the Cc. Civakan first met the prince of the country, Vicayan, the brother of Kanakamalai. Civakav helped him to pluck some mangoes. Vicayan, who was astonished by the skill of Civa kau, introduced him to his father Tatamittan, the king of the country Emamapuram. The king asked Civakan to teach archery to his sons, and Civakan agreed to do so. The king, pleased with the skill of Civakan, gave his daughter to him in marriage. After the marriage of Jivandhara and Hemabha Nandadhya went to see Jivandhara with the help of Gandharvadatts. After Nandadhya went to see Jivandhara, his friends also went to see him with the help of Gandharvadatta. On the way Jivandhara's friends met Jivandhara's mother 1 Cc. v. 1329. 2 Ibid, vv. 1115-1137. 3 Ibid, v. 1409. 4 Ibid, vv. 1410-1411

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A comparative study of Jivandhara Story... 63 Vijaya and she, knowing that they were her son's friends, asked them to bring bim with them when they came back. His friends, when they entered Hemabhapuram, plundered the property of the merchants in that country (this incident is described differently in the Cc. and it will be dealt with in the section dealing with the variations) and Jivandhara went to fight with them and bring the lost property. There Jivandhara found the arrows dispatched by the enemy were marked by his own name and recognised that the enemies with whom he fought were his own friends. They all joined Jivandhara and stayed with him for some time. They told him about their encounter with Jivandhara's mother. Hearing the news of his mother Jivandhara started to see his mother in the Dagdaka forest. Variations found in the Story of the Cc. (i) According to the Up. Gandharvadatta visited Jivandhara very often. But in the Cc. Kantaruvatattai did not go to see Civakan at all. She only knew the place. where he was staying by her magical powers.1 (iii) Accarding to the Up. Madhura, the friend of Jivandhara went to visit Jivandhara with his friends 2 But, in the Cc. it is Patumukon who went to see Civakan. (iii) According to the Up. Madhura and his friends plundered the property of the merchants. But in the Cc. Patumukan and his friends stole the cows of the cowherds and the war is described according to the Tamil poetical traditions of the early Tamil literature, 5 Differences found between the Ce and the Up. (i) The episode of Anankamavipai, the lady who tried to seduce Civakan, which is narrated in detail in the Cc. is not found in the Up. In the Cc. Anankam avai's effort to attract the attention of Civakan, his recognition of her intentions, his preaching to her about the impurity of the body, her lover's arrival, her disappearance from the spot where she was standing, the encounter of Civakan with her lover Pavatattan, his advice to him about the unfaithfulness of women, Pavatattan's eagerness to see his lover in spite of the advice given by Civaka and the teaching of a mantra which could help Pavatattan to obtain his wife by Civakans are not narrated in the Up. (ii) According to the Cc., Civakat, before he married Kavakamalai, sent her at garland with a letter in it through a dwarf woman. Having read that letter Kagakamalai fell in love with Crvakan and sent a love letter back to Civakan through Anahkavilacini. Though Civakan did not want to receive that letter, on the persuasion of Anankavilacini he received that letter. This incident is not narrated in the Up. (iii) According to the Cc., before Civakan's friends Patumukan, Putticeoan and others started to steal the cows of the cowherds they heard about the victory of 4 Up. v. 561. 1 Cc. v. 1709. 5 Cc. v. 1856ff. 2 Up. vv. 551ff. 6 Cc. vv. 1567-1601. 3 Cc. v. 1767ff. 7 Cc. 1652ff.

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64 Study of the Civakacintamani Civakan in controlling the intoxicated elephant, Valaiyacuntaram. This event is not narrated in the Up. (iv) According to the Cc., Kantaruvatattai sent a letter through Civakap's friends who went to see him. In that letter Kaotaruvatattai mentioned about the love-lorn condition of Kunamalai.1 (v) According to the Up. after the story of Hemabha, the story of the previous births of Nandadhya and his wife, Sricandra, is narrated. These stories are narrated in the Up. in great detail. None of these stories are found in the Cs. Following these stories, the story of the previous births of Jivandhara is also related in the Up. But this story is not narrated in this context in the Cc. It is told in the Myntiyilampakam by the Carapan Manivannan to Civakan.3 There are many differences in the story of Civakan's previous birth narrated in the Up. and the Cc., and these will be dealt with while dealing with the story related in the Muttiyilampakam. (vi) According to the Up. the yaksa came to visit Jivandhara when he was with his mother and showed respect to them both. This incident is not narrated in the Cc. 8. Vimalaiyar ilampakam In the Vimalaiyar ilampakam the meeting of Civakan and his mother is narrated. After the narration of this incident, the story of Vimalai is told Similar sections found in the Up. and the Cc. As Jivandhara entered the town Rajapuram, many kinds of jewels and other articles which were lying unsold were sold away in the shop of the merchant Sagacadatta. As predicted by the astrologers earlier, Sagaradatta gave his daughter Vimala in marriage to Jivandhara. The story of Vimala in the Up. is comparatively very short; it is narrated in four verses. Variations found in the Story of the Cc. (i) According to the Up., Jivandbara left his mother after meeting ber in the Dandaka forest and told her to stay there till he sent an army under the leadership of Nandadhya to fetch her. But in the Cc. Civakan sent his mother to the palace of his uncle, Kovintan, till the time when he would go there to get ready for the fight with his enemy Kattiyankara. (ii) In the Up., Jivandhara entered Rajamapuram disguised as a merchant. In the Cc. he did not go in disguise. According to the Cc., Civakan met Vimalai before entering the shop of Cakaratattan. She met him when she was playing, and there she fell in love with him. 9. Curamancariyar ilampakam Note: The story of Curamancari in the Ccy is narrated as the story of Gunamala in the Up. 1 Cc. vv. 1767-1768. 2 Up. vv. 438-520. 3 Cc. vy 2856-2890. 4 Ud. vv. 573, 576

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A comparative study of the Jivandhara Story.. Similar sections found in the Up. and the Cc. Jivandhara entered the house of Gunamala (Curamancari in the Cc.) disguised as a wandering ascetic, having decided to win the love of Gunamala, who had taken a vow not to see any men because Jivandhara did not praise her fragrant powder. Because Jivandhara looked old, the maids of Gunamala allowed him to go into the house. There he attracted Gunamala by his sweet music. Entranced by his music, she asked him to teach her the arts. One day Jivandhara showed her his true appearance, and Gunamala fell in love with him. With the consent of her parents she got married to Jivandhara. Variations found in the story of the Cc. (i) According to the Up., the princes who were in the court of the king Kastha. ngaraka asked Jivandhara, who had claimed that he could subject others by the effect of the drugs he had, to win the love of Gunamala, who had decided not to see any men.1 But in the Cc. Civakan 'did not claim anything. But his friends challenged him to win the love of Curamancari, who had taken a decision not to see men. 2 (ii) In the Cc., the incident where Curamancari saw the true appearance of Civakan is related otherwise than in the Up. In the Up., Jivandhara showed his true appearance when they were alone in a secluded place.3 In the Cc. Curamancari, after hearing the song of the old man, went to the temple of Kaman (the god of love) to pray that she should get Civakan. There when she was praying to the god of love, Puttic@nan, a friend of Civakan who was already hiding in the temple at the request of Civakan, told her that she would get Civakan. Curamancari was pleased by the prediction, came back home, and saw Civakan. 4 10. Manmaka! ilampakam In this ilampakam, the victory of Civakan over his enemy Kattiyankaran is described. The entire story related in this ilampakam is different from the story of the Up. According to the Up., Jivandhara killed Kasthangaraka after his marriage with Ratnavati (Ilakkanai in the Cc.) Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc. King Gopendra of Videha took his daughter to Rajapuram and in that country be proclaimed that his daughter would be given to the one who could hit the machine Chandraka. All the suitors who came to the competition failed and at last Jivandhara succeeded in hitting the machine. King Gopendra gave his daughter in marriage to Jivandhara. This victory incited the jealousy of Kasthangaraka and he tried to kidnap 1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 590-595. 3 Up. loc. cit. vv. 629-630. 2 Cc. vy 1999-2001. 4 Cc. v. 2059. Sc-9

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66 Study of Civakacintamani Ratnavati, the wife of Jivandhara (llakkanai in the Co.) Thereupon, Jivandhara declared his identity and with the help of soldiers, high officials and other dependents of King Satyandhara attacked Kasthangaraka and killed him. He thus recovered his father's kingdom. Variations found in the story of the Cc. (i) According to the Up. Ratnavati made a vow that she would only marry the one who could hit the rotating machine Candraka. But in the Cc. Ilakkanai did not make any vow like that which Ratnavati had made in the Up. In the Cc. the proclamation that Ilakkanai would be given to the one who could hit the rotating machine which is in the shape of a pig was made by Kovintan, the father of Ilakkanai. (ii) According to the story in the Up., Gopendra, the father of Ratnavati is not the uncle of Civakan. But in the Cc, the father of Ilakkanai is the uncle of Civakan, Differences found between the stories of the Up. and the Cc. (i) According to the Cc. before the competition in which Civakan won Ilakkanai, Kattiyankaran sent a message to Kovintan in which he asked Koyintan to accept the kingdom of Caccantan, for Caccantap had been killed by the state elephant. In fact the competition which was arranged by Kovintan for the hand of Ilakkanai was a well organised situation where Civakan could meet Kattiyankaran. Kattiyankaran's message in the Cc. is not found in the Up. (ii) According to the Cc. Kattiyankaran did not know that Civakan was alive until he saw him in the competition, where Civakan succeeded in hitting the machine in the shape of a pig. Tevar does not reveal this fact till the moment arrives for Civakan to kill Kattiyarikaran. In the Up. Kasthangaraka recognised Jivandhara after the marriage of Gunamala (Curamancari in the Cc.). Jivandhara, after his marriage with Gunamala, stayed at the abode of Gunamala for some time, and then with his relatives, surrounded by an army of the four arms ( elephants, chariots, cavalry and infantry), went to the house of his foster father Gandhotkata, riding on his elephant Vijayagiri. On seeing that, Kasthangaraka shouted that Jivandhara was mad and not at all scared of him, the king. Then his chief ministers pacified him, saying that Jivandhara had good fate, the help of Gandharvadatta, who was like the goddess of fortune, the company of his unfailing friend the yaksa, his unity with his friends and unshakable courage. They also advised him not to fight with a strong adversary. These sections are not found in the Cc. (iii) According to the Cc, when Kovintan related the identity of Civakan, that he was the son of the king Caccantan, a voice in the sky said that Civakan would kill Kattiyankaran. This incident is not found in the Up. 11. & 12. Pumaka ilampakam and Ilakkanaiyar ilampakam In the Cc. the coronation of Civakan is mentioned in the Pumakal ilampakam, and the marriage of Civakan with Ilakkanai, his reunion with his wives, and his

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A compartive study of the Jivandhara Story.. making Kantaruvatattai, his chief queen, are mentioned in the Ilakkaniayar ilampakam. These incidents are narrated in the Up. in only three verses.1 Tevar describes these incidents in great detail. These provide him with more opportunities to describe the various things necessary for a mahakavya (perunkappiyam). In the three verses of the Up., the coronation of Jivandhara, his marriage with Ratnavati, the crowning of Gandharvadatta as his chief queen, his union with his mother, foster-mother and wives, his attainment of universal sovereignty, and his enjoyment of pleasures are mentioned. 67 The differences found in the Up. and the Cc. The following incidents which are found in the Ilakkanaiyar ilampakam of the Cc. are not narrated in the Up. : (i) Civakan's visit to the temple of Arhat after his marriage with Ilakkanai (ii) Civaka donating gold pieces to the temple. (iii) Civakan honouring his foster parents, his brothers, friends, his uncle and other kings. (iv) Civakan asking the dramatists to write the story of Cutancana as a drama in order to honour him, (v) Civakan honouring the banyan tree under which he played when he was a small boy. (vi) Civaka uniting with Tecikappavai who came with a letter pretending to be a friend of Abankamalai. 13. Mutti ilampakam According to the Up., once when Jivandhara was walking in the park Suramalaya he met the ascetic Vardhamana and accepted his commandments and became. adherent to the Jaina faith. His brother Nandadhya did the same. Another day Jivandhara saw a group of monkeys fighting among themselves. This scene created in him disgust for the world. In the same forest he met a wandering ascetic called Prajastavanka and this ascetic told him about his previous birth as he had heard it already from the celestial (khecara). After this incident he visited the lord of the Jinas (Mahavira), who had arrived in the park Suramalaya. Following this he gave his kingdom to his son Vasundhara, the son born of Gandharvadatts, and renounced the world. His uncle, the other princes, his mother and his wives also renounced the world with him. Having heard all these stories, the king Srenika saluted Jivandhara and praised his glory. @.. Variation found in the story of the Cc. (i) According to the Up. Jivandhara met the ascetic Vardhamana and listened to his religious teachings before the incident in which he saw the monkeys fighting. This 1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 670-673.

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68 Study af Civakacintamani encounter with the ascetic Vardhamana is omitted in the Cc. Even the incident of the fighting monkeys is different. According to the Up., Civakan feels disgusted with the world when he saw the group of monkeys fighting. In the Cc. this incident is narrated as a small episode. According to the Co., Civakan watched two monkeys and saw the male monkey giving a jack fruit to the sulky female monkey, out of love. At that moment the watchman of the garden came there and snatched the jack fruit from them. This incident made Civakan realise the state of this world. He thought that the monkeys and the watchman were celestials who showed him the impermanence of this world and wanted to guide him to salvation.1 (ii) In the Up., a wandering ascetic called Prasastavanka (carana) told Civakan about his previous birth as he had already heard from the celestial (khechara).9 In the Cc. Civakan heard about his previous birth for the first time from the wandering ascetic (carana) Mauivannan in the temple of Arhat, where he went with his wives after being disgusted with the world.3 The story of the previous birth of Jivandhara related in the Up. is found in a slightly different form in the Cc. In the Up., Jivandhara was born in Videha as Jayadratha the son of king Jayandhara and queen Jayavati. One day, Jayadratha separated a young swan from its parents out of curiosity. When the father of the young swan, on seeing his son being taken away, shrieked repeatedly, a servant of Jayadratha killed the parent-swan with his arrow. Jayadratha took the swan home. His mother saw it and asked her son to reunite the young swan with its mother, Jayadratha realised his fault, and reunited the young swan with its mother, after having kept it for sixteen days. After that Jayadratha having enjoyed worldly pleasures for some time, renounced the world and became a god in Sahasrara. 4 Then, when his heavenly enjoyments had come to an end, he was reborn in this world as Jivandhara. The father of the young swan which had been killed by the servant of Jayadratha waz reborn as Kasthangaraka, who killed the father of Jivandhara. Since Jivandhara had separated the young swan from its mother for sixteen days, in this life he was separated from his mother for sixteen years. The following variations are found in the Cc. in the above story of the previous birth of Jivandhara related in the Up.. (a) In the Cc., Acotaran separated the young swap at the request of his wives. The young swan was brought up by the wives of Acotaran. It was the father of Acitaran who asked him to reunite the young swan with its parents, and not his mother as in the Up. In this context, Tevar has taken the opportunity to expound the importance of the five vows of a householder, non-killing, non-stealing, truth, celibacy, and non-possession. 1 Cc. vv. 2720-2729. 2 Up, loc. cit, vy. 533-548. 3 Cc. vv. 2856-2890. 4 Sahasrara is the twelfth of the sixteen heavens which are the parts of Kalpa. Kalpa and Kalpatita are the two parts of the upper world.

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A comparative study of the Jivandhara Story.. 69 (b) In the Cc. there is no mention of the incident where the servant of Acotaran killed the father of the young swan, nor is it said that the father of the young swan was born in this world as Kattiyankaran who killed the father of Civakan. IL Now we shall sce the similarities and the variations and differences in the names of the characters found in the Up. and the Cc. List 'A' will show the similar names found in both texts, the Up. and the Cc. list 'B' will show the variations found in the names of some of the characters found in these texts : Uttarapurana Civaka Cintamani Uttarapurana Civaka Cintamani 1. Dhanapati Tanapati 15. Nandadhya Nantattiyan 2. Dhanapala Tanapalan 16. Nirvstti Nipputi 3 Dharini Tarini 17. Satyandhara Caccantan 4. Dedhamitra Tatamittan 18. Sagaradatta Cakaratattan Gandharvadatta Kantaruvatattai 19. Subhadra Cupattiran 6. Garudavega Kalulavekan 20. Sudarsana . Cutancanan 7. Gunamala Kupamalai 21. Sudharma Cutanmar 8. Jayavati Cayamati 22. Sumitra Cumittiran 9. Jivandhara Civakan 23. Suramanjari Curamancari 10. Kamala Kamalai 24. Srenika Cenikan 11. Kasthangaraka Kattiyankaran 25. Tilottama Tilottamai 12. Kumaradatta Kumaratattan 26. Vijaya Vicayai 13. Lokapala Ulokapalan 27. Vimala Vimalai 14. Gandhotkata Kantukkatan Among the characters listed above, the names of Gunamala and Suramanjari have been interchanged, i.e., the story of Suramanjari in the Up. has been changed to the story of Gunamala in the Cc. and vice versa. The character Ratnayati in the Up. has been named Ilakkanai in the Cc. These changes in names have been also followed by Vadibhasimha in his works the Gc. and the Kc. Uttara purana Civaka Cintamani Remarks 1 Aryavarma Accananti The word 'Arya' is the same in both texts. Arya.Skt. Ajja-Pkt. Acca-Tamil. But, instead of the word "Varma' in the Up. the word 'Nanti' has been introduced in the Cc. 2. Ksemasundari Kemacari Instead of 'Sundari' in the Up. 'Cari' is found in the Cc. 3. Gopendra Kovintan The word 'Gopa' is the same in both texts and the word 'Indra' has been changed to Intan' in the Cc. The

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70 Study of Civakacintamani Uttarapurana Ciraka Cintamani Remarks Sanskrit word' lodra' becomes 'Imda' in Prakrit. As there is no soft consonant 'd' in Tamil, the 'd' in Prakrit has changed into the hard consonant 't' and following this preceding nasal . m' also has changed into 'n'. 4. Godavari Kovintai The word 'Go' is the same in both texts and instead of 'Davari' 'Vintai' is found in the Cc. 5. Gopagri Kotavari Instead of 'Sri' in the Up. 'tavari' is found in the Cc. 6. Nanda Cunantai A prefix 'Cu' is added in the Cc. with the word 'Nanda'. 7. Padmottama Patumai The word 'Uttama' w! ch is added to the word 'Padma' in the Up. is not found in the Cc. 8. Hemabha Kanakamalai The word 'Kanaka' in the Cc. is the synonym of Hema' used in the Up. Instead of 'Abha' in the Up. Malai' is found in the Cc. 9. Jinadatta Citattan Instead of "Jina' in the Up, the word 'Ci' is prefixed to 'Tattan' in the Cc. 10. Jayavati Cayamati The word 'vati' in the Up. occurs as 'mati' in the Cc. Apart from the variations shown in the list 'B: there are also characters who are named differently in these two texts. They are shown below: The Characters Their Names in the Up. Their Names in the Cc. 1. The father of Buddhisena, Sagara acalan (acala) the friend of Jivandhara 2. The name of Jivandhara Jayadratha acotaran (yasodhara) in his previous birth 3. The name of Jivandhara's Jayandhara Pavanamatevan father (Pavanamahadeva) 4. The name of the teacher of Aryavarma ulokamapalan Jivandhara, when he was a (lokamahapala) king before his renunciation 5. The father of Suramanjari Vaisravanadatta Kuperamittiran (Kunamalai in the Cc.) (Kaberamitra) 6. The mother of Suramanjari Cutamanjari Vinayamamalai (Kupamalai in the Cc.) (Vinayamahamala) 7. The maid of Suramanjari Syamalata malai (Kunamalai in the Cc.) (mala) 1 R. L. Turner, A comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Language, Item 1572, p. 71.

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A compara tive study of the Jivandhara Story.. 71 The Characters Their Names in the Up. Their Names in the Cc. 8. The father of Gunamala Kumaradatta Kuberatattan (Curamancari in the Cc.) (Kuberadatta) 9. The mother of Gunamala Vimala Cumati (Curamancari in the Cc.) (Samati) 10. The maid of Gunamala Vidyullata Kanakapatakai (Curamancari in the Cc.) (Kanakapataka) 11. The father of Jinadatta Vrsabhadatta yavatattan (Citattan in the Cc.) (yavadatta) 12. The mother of Jinadatta Padmavati Karutattai (Gurudatta) 13. The mother of Ratnavati Prthivisundari Putavi (llak kanai in the Cc.) 14. The son of Gandharvadatta Vasundhara Caccantan (satyandhara) Here we also would like to point out the variations found in the names of the four of the friends of Jivandbara, who were the sons of thc domestic priest, the chief merchant, the king's general and the minister : The names in the Up. The names in the Cc. Comments The son of domestic priest Domestic priest - Sagara Acalan (Acala) Here the name of the Priest's wife -srimatta Tilottamai (Tilottama) priest's son is the same in Priest's son -Buddhisena Putticegan (Buddhisena) both the texts. The son of the chief merchant Chief merchant -Dhanapala Tanapalan (Dhanapala) Here the name of the chief Merchant's wife -Sridatta Pavittirai (pavitra) merchant is the same in Merchant's son - Varadatta Patumukan (Patumukha) both texts. The son of the minister Minister -Matisagara Cakaran (Sagara). The name of the minister Minister's wife -Anupama Kurutattai (Puradatta) in the Cc. can be the shorMinister's son -Madhumukha Citattan (Sridatta) tened form of Matisagara (Sagara) The son of the general General - Vijayamati Vicayatattan (Vijayadatta) Here the first half of the General's wife - Jayavati Piritimati (Pritimati) names of the general and General's son -Devasena Tevatattar (Devadatta) his son Vijaya and Deva are the same in both texts.

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Study of Civakacintamani Other than these variations found in these two texts there are also some characters which only come in the story of either the Up. or the Cc. These differences are shown below. 72 The characters which are found in the story of Jivandhara in the Up and not in the Cc. 1. Anangapataka -one of the younger wives of king Satyandhara 2. Aditya -the ascetic who predicted that Padmottama would be bitten by a snake. 3. Bakula 4. Bhamarati 5. Bahumitra 6. Dhanamitra 7. Dhetisena 8. Gunapala 9. Gunamitra 10. Kalangaraka 11. Ksanti 12. Matisagara 13. Rudradatta 14. Vinayandhara 15. Vipulamati 16. Viranandin -the son of Anangapataka. -one of the younger wives of king Satyandhara. -one of the brothers of Hemabha. -one of the brothers of Hemabha. -the son of the king Aryavarma, the king of Simhapura before his renunciation -an ascetic to whom Vrsaabhadatta, the father of Jinadatta, went to get religious enlightenment. -one of the brothers of Hemabha. -the son of Kashgaraka. -a nun from whom Padmavati, the mother of Jinadatta, learnt self-control. -a minister of King Garudavega. -the domestic priest of king Satyandhara. -the ascetic who predicted that on the visit of the wouldbe husband of Ksemasundari, the Campaka flowers and the other tokens would appear. -the ascetic from whom Matisagara, the minister of the king Garudavega, learnt about the future of Gandharvadatta. -the ascetic from whom Aryavarma heard the religious doctrine. The names Kalakuta, the chief of ths forest dwellers, and the name Silagupta, the ascetic from whom Gandhotkata asked about his future sons, are not mentioned in the Cc. But these characters are introduced in the story without mentioning their names. The characters which are found in the story of Jivandhara in the Cc. and not in the Up. 1. Ana kamavinai (Anangamahavina) -the lover of Pavatattan, the lady who tried to attract the attention of Civakan. -the friend of Kanakamalai. 2. Ana kavilacini (Anangavilasini)

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A comparative study of the Jivandhara Story.. 3. Ariccantan (Hariscandra) -one of the ministers of Kattiyankaran. 4. Alankaramalai (Alankaramala) -one of the friends of Ilakkanai. 5. Anan kamalai (Anankamala) -a harlot. 6. Ulokapalan (Lokapala) -the son of the king Tanapati, brother of Patumai. 7. Katampan (Kadamba) -the son of Tatamittan. 8. Kantukkaan (Gandhotkata). -the son of Kemacari. 9. Kanakan (Kanaka) -the son of Tatamitian. 10. Kamukan (Kamuka) -a soldier of Kattiyankaran. 11. Kirttitattan (Kirtidatta) -the father of Pavatattan. 12. Komukan (Gamukha) -the brother of Kamukan. 13. Kovintan (Govinda) -the son of Ilakkanai. 14. Caccantan (Satyandhara) - the son of Kantaruvatattai. 15. Canpakamalai (Campakanala) a hunch-back friend of Vicayai, in whose disguise the goddess of the forest came to help Vicayai when she was in the cemetery. 16. Calaniti (Calanidhi) -one of Civakan's soldiers. 17. Cacaran -an Indra who ruled thy heaven because of his merits, and who was born as Acotaran (Civakan in this birth). 18. Cinkanathan (Simhanatha) -a servant of Ulokapalan. 19. Cittiramamalai (Citramahamala) the mother of Anarkamavinai. 20. Ciritattan (Sridatta) -the son of the king Kovintan. 21. Cinatatti (Jinadatta) -the mother of Pavatattan. 22. Cutancanan (Sudarijana) -the son of Kunamalai. 23. Celvanaman -the father of Anankamavinai. 24. Taran (Dhara) -a celestial who took Citattan to the court of Kalulavekan. 25. Tarumatattan (Dharmadatta) -a minister of Kalkiyankaran. 26. Tecikappavai a courtesan. 27. Napulan -a brother of Civakan. 28. Narapatitavan (Narapatideva). -the king of the Kemamapuram. 29 Nakamalai (Nagamala) -one of the maids of Kattiyankaran. 30. Paratan (Bharata) the son of Curamancari, Sc.-10

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31. Pavatattan (Bhavadatta) 32. Puraviccenau 33. Matanan (Madana) 34. Matitaran (Matidhara) 35. Vacuntari (Vasundhari) 36. Vamalekai (Vamalekha) 37. Vicayan (Vijaya) 38. Vicayan (Vijaya) 39. Vipulan (Vipula) 40. Viricikan 41 Vinapati Study of Civakacintamani --the luver of Anankamavinai - the son of Tatamittan. -the cousin of Kattiyankaran. -the minister of Tanapati. -a maid of Kanakamalai. a friend of Anarkamalai. -the son of Kanakamalai -the son of Tatamittan. -a brother of Civakan. -a servant of the king Kovintan. -a eunuch friend of Kantaruvatattai. III. Now we see about the sequence of events in the Up, and in the Cc. The order in which the episodes are narrated and the sequence of events in them are more or less the same in both books, except in some places, which are discussed below. 1. The story of Gandhotkata and the ascetic Silagupta In the Cc. Kantakkatan is introduced for the first time in the cemetery where queen Vicayai gives birth to her son. But in the Up. Gandhotkata is introduced before this event. Gandhotkata goes to an asectic called Silagupta and asks him whether he will have any sons who will live long. The ascetic predicts that he will have a son who will live long and rule the whole earth.1 The story is narratred in the Cc. in the Kunamalaiyar ilampakama in the context where the king Kattiyankaran decides to kill Civakan for controlling the state elephant. In this place, Kantukkatan asks his wife not to worry and to believe in thprediction of the ascetic about the life of Civakan. Here the prediction of the ascetic has been narrated in two different places in the two books. 2. Civakan coming to know about his parents In the Up. Jivandhara comes to know about his parents through the celestial being (khecara) who is guarding a lake.3 The celestial tells him all about his previous birth and abjut his parents for the first time. 4 This incident of meeting the khecara takes place after Jivandhara's marriage with Hemabha and before his meeting his mother. This incident is not found in the Cc., and the information about his parents is given to Civakan by his teacher Accanunti.Civakan promises Accananti that he will not fight with his enemy Kattiyankaran within a year. This situation in the Cc. 1 Up. vv. 198-203. 2 Cc. Kunamalaiyar ilampakam. v. 1122-1131. 3 Up. loc. cit. v. 526. 4 lbid, vv. 526-548. 5 Cc. vv. 384-390

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A comparative study of the Jivandhara Story.. creates an interval during which Civakan may acquire the military power that is necessary for his conquest over Kattiyankaran.1 3. The story about the previous birth of Civakan The story of the previous birth of Civakap is related in the Up. for the first time by the celestial who is guarding a lake. In the Up. this story is narrated along with the story of the previous births of Nandadhya and his wife Sricandra. Tevar does not deal with the stories about the previous births of Nandalhya and Sricandra, and only deals with the story of the previous birth of Civakan. This is only revealed in the last chapter, the Muttiyilampakam, by the caranan Manivanpan to Civakan. After giving up all worldly pleasures, Civakan goes to the temple of the Arhat with his wiyes. In the temple Caranan Manivannan preaches Jaina doctrine to Civakan and his wives. Along with the religious preachings the caranan also relates the story of the previous birth of Civakan. The foregoing comparative study makes it clear that, a priori, it is not easy to say between the Up. and the Cc. which preceded which. As shown above the two texts deal with the Jivandhara story roughly on parallel lines. While the story in the Up. is skeletal, the Cc. develops the theme in a more elaborate way. This coupled with the fact that the Up. is in Sanskrit would make it appear that it was the source from which Tevar has borrowed his theme. But all the differences that are found do not seem to be explainable on the grounds of Tevar's efforts to impart an epic character to the story. Many of them may well have been the differences arising from a different version of the story. This is also suggested by the fact that the later authors do not take one or the other version of the two but combine both in different ways. The differences in the characters and their names also suggest this possibility. As we have shown earlier, the same character has been named differently in the two texts, the Up. and the Cc. However it is quite certain that Tevar had one or more Sanskrit and Prakrit sources which strongly influenced the composition of the Cc. It is not easy to decide whether or not the Up. was one among them without knowing the exact period or date in which the Cc. was composed. Apart from the similarities we find between the stories of the Up. and the Cc., we also see similarity in some incidents and episodes which are found in the other Sanskrit texts and the Cc. For example, the svayamvara of Illakkanai, in which the father of Ilakkanai proclaims that his daughter will be given to the man who can hit the machine in the form of a rotating pig, strongly resembles the svayamvara of Draupadi in the Mahabharata. One can also see similarities between the episodes which are found in the other Sanskrit works and the Cc. Thus the following incident has a striking similarity to a situation in the Ratnavali of Sriharsa. 1 Ibid, v. 393. 2 Ibid, vv. 2849-2890. 3 Supra, pp. 70, 71,

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Study of Civakacintamani Civakan after saving Kunamalai from the intoxicated state elephant, goes to the garden. There, out of love. he draws the portrait of Kupamalai and admires her beauty in the picture. In the meantime his first wife Kantaruvatattai comes there and looks at the portrait. She gets angry and leaves the place, in spite of the pleadings and explanations of Civakan,1 76 In the Ratnavali there is a similar incident. King Vatsa falls in love with Sagarika, the disguised Simhala princess. Sagarika draws the portrait of the king on a drawing board and her friend draws the portrait of Sagarika next to him on the drawing board. Because of a commotion created by a monkey which has escaped from its cage, they both leave the drawing board and run away. This board happens to be seen by the king and his friend Vasantaka, and while they are admiring the portraits, the king's wife Vasavadatta comes there. Though Vasantaka tries to hide the drawing board, the queen sees it. She realises the situation and gets angry and leaves the place in spite of all the pleadings and requests of King Vatsa.9 Incidents of this kind are often narrated in the famous Udayana tales, the Malavikagnimitra, etc. These tales have almost the same story; i.e. the lov: intrigue of a king with a disguised princess, the jealousy of the chief queea, and the final accep tance of the young princess. There are grounds to thinks that Tevar was indebted to some of the episodes and incidents which might have occurred in the Sanskrit prose romance, based on the Brhatkatha. We are unable to say anything more conclusively about this interesting point since the original Paisaci version of the Brhatkatha written by Gunadhya is not available now. But there are three well known Sanskrit versions of the same. They are Ksemendra's Brhatkathamanjari (11th century A.D.), Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara (12th century A.D.) and Buddhaswamin's Brhatkatha-slokasangraha. Somadeva says that he is faithful to the original, adding or changing only for needs of clarity and minimum poetic embellishment and that his version is original itself, but in a different language. Ksemendra's version is an abridged form of the same story. Buddhaswamin's version has been considered by Lacote and others as being perhaps true to the original while they think the other two might have followed an inflated Kashmirian Paisaci version. Whatever the truth of these theories may be, the present uncertainties regarding the contents of the Brhatkatha have made us limit our attention only to the similarities between the several motifs found in Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara and the motifs of the story of the Cc. The Tamil Perunkatai which is supposed to have followed the Sanskrit translation of Brhatkatha written by King Durvinita (6th century AD.) which is not available now, deals only with the Udayana stories of the Brhatkatha. This does not show striking similarities to any portion of the Cc. 1 Cc. vv. 1014-1019. 3 V. Raghavan, Bhoja's Srigira prakasa, Madras, 1963, pp. 816 ff. 2 Sriharsa, Ratnavali, Act. II.

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A comparntive study of the Jivandhara Story.. 77 The following motifs were found to occur in the Kathasaritsagar : the aerial chariot, the controlling of a wild elephant. the winning of a girl's love through proficiency in music and by curing poison, a shipwreck causing a character to reach a new land, the transformation of animals into celestial beings, the gandharva marriage, a king's affair with another girl without the knowledge of his queen, and his discomfort when it is found out by the queen. These motifs have obvious parallels in the theme of the Cc. Examples of this kind give un an insight into th: knowledge which Tevar had in Sanskrit stories and literature. Sanskrit stories also have been freely used by Tevar in his similes and allusions. Illustrations of this will be given in the next chapter which treats of the influence of Sanskrit stories on the literary style of the Co. Like all the other authors' works which had religious motives, he exploits the wealth of folk lore, mythology and episodes narrated in the great epic Mahabharata and the other kavyas which prevailed in his time to weave the fabric of his plot.

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CHAPIER IV THE SANSKRIT INTERACTION IN THE LITERARY SIYLE OF THE CIVAKACINTAMANI Any new work may contain original ideas or literary techniques of its own. At the same time, however, it will necessarily be influenced by its literary predecessors. Thus the Cc. too owes a great deal to the literature which preceded it, especially to the epics, the Cilappatikaram and the Manimekalai. In addition to these literary traditions and ideas of the ealier Tamil literature, several new elements are also found in this epic. There are many factors responsible for the introduction of these new elements. Our purpose in this chapter is to see the nature and dezree of the interaction of the influence) that Sanskrit literary forms and traditions have had on these novel features. Before examining this influence, a short critical survey will be made of the literary traditions and poetic forms which existed in Tamil before the composition of the Cc. Tolkappiyam, the earliest extant grammar text, is the only work from which one can know about the rules regading different literary compositions and poetical conventions observed in early Tamil literature. This text, which is divided into three parts, Eluttatikaram (chapter on letters), Collatikaram (chapter on words), Porulatikaram (chapter on matter), deals with the different kinds of poems and poetical con. ventions in the Porulatikaram. From the Tolkappiyam we understand that there were established poetical traditions indigenons to Tamil. The most important aspect of these poetical conventions is the distinction made between Akam (inner) and Puram (outer) poems. Akam poems deal with love and Puram poems deal with other aspects of life such as war, victory, the munificence of kings etc. The nature of ancient Tamil poetry is different from that of early Sanskrit poetry. One of the principal differences is the topography and climatic characteristics which gave rise to poetry. Thus the vast Himalayan Range, the broad plains that seem to have no horizon, watered by rivers which in their mighty expanse seem to have no shores setting limits to them, the tropical forests with their varing creatures, were instrumental in the evolution of Vedic poetry and the sense of wonder and the sense of the Infinite these poems reveal and these natural causes inspired. Man was faced with the uniform sense of the Infinite on all sides; it seemed to overwhelm him and there was no other alternative but to let oneself be absorbed in the Infinite through the medium of contemplation and ecstasy."1 On the other hand, "the physical texture of the South Indian landscape with its dividing mountains and rivers and its clearly defined contours, gave the South of India not only an occasion for its 1 Xavier S. ThaniNayagam, Landscape and Poetry, 2nd edition, Bombay, 1966, p. 11.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style... small kingdoms and smaller chieftaincies, but also formed the basis for the division of poetry on geographical regions as for example * mountain poetry' and seaside poetry'."" The Tamil land has been divided into five regions, montane ( kurinci ), pastoral (mullai), agricultural (marutam), littoral (neytal) and arid (palai). The names kurinci, mullai, marutam, neytal and palai refer to the most characteristic flower found in each kind of landscape. These names are also used to denote the psychological and emotional patterns of behaviour suited to each region Tolkappiyar classifies the objects found in each land under three classes : Mutarporu] (the basic things, the region and time ), Karupporu! (objects characteristic of the particular region), and Uripporu! (the kind of love peculiar to each region). Mutarporul denotes the basic things, the region and time. Region means the different landscapes explained above. The time is divided according to the seasons of the year, the Perumpolutu (the major time), and the time of day, the Cirupolutu (the minor time). The year is divided into six seasons : Kar (the rainy season ), August and September; Kutir (the cold season), October and November; Munpapi (the early dew season), December and January; Pippani (the late dew season), February and March; Ilavenil (spring) April and May; and Mutuvenil (Summer), June and July. The day is also divided into six parts: the Vaikarai (the time before sunrise); Vitiyal (sunrise); Nanpakal (mid-day); Erpatu (sunset); Malai (early night); and Yamam (midnight). Time always has a connection with Uripporul, the kinds of love peculiar to each land. According to the aspect of love the divisions of time, i.e. both the Cirupol utu and the Perumpolutu are laid down. This poetic usage will be explained while dealing with the Uripporul, which deals with the particular objects belonging to each land, is clearly explained by Singaravelu,9 in a chart attached to his work, The Social life of the Tamils. This chart is given on pp. 80-81 here to show in details the particular objects, the inhibitants, animals, birds, flowers, trees, deities, food, the recreation of the people etc, of each landscape. Thus, in describing the landscape, as Thaninayagam says, the poet had not only to "study the visible phenomena or the several objects (god, flora, fauna, music, occupation) found in or related to these regions, but he had as well to know what changes were introduced into these regions by the annual seasons, and how Nature manifested herself by day and night during these seasons. Thus the Tamil poet could ill afford to neglect the study of landscape as seen during each of the six major divisons of the Tamil day."8 Mutasporul, the place and time, and Karupporu], the objects of a particular region, though fixed for each landscape, can overlap in practice. 4 In other words, the Mutasporul aad Karupporul of one landscape can also be sometimes used in describing another landscape. But the Uripporu), the kind of love ascribed to one 1 X. S. ThaniNayagam, op cit., p. 11. 2 S. Singaravelu, Social Life of the Tamils, the Classical Period, Kulalampur, 1966, p. 22. 3 Thani Nayagam, op cit, p. 40, 41. 4 Tolkappiyam, por., Akat., cut 13.

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80 Study af Civakacintamani CLASSIFICATION OF KARUPPORUL (OBJECTS) Bear Regions Phratries Fauna Avifauna Flora | Trees Occupa and Pastimes/ (Inhabitants) (Animals) (Birds) (Flowers) tions and Festivities Kuravar (m) Tiger Peacock Kurinci Bamboo Hunting Vesi-atal Montane Kurattiyar (f) Parrot (Strobi- Sandal Digging (Kusinci) (Frenzied Elephant Kanavar (m) lanthus wood. roots dancing) Venkai Teak Gathering Bathing in Lion (flower of Aquila hoey hill stream Ram Kino tree Acoka Seasonal BirdsGloriosa (Uvria lon-cultivation driving superba gifolia of hillKatampu Nakam paddy and (Engenia Margosa millet racemosa) Arid Eyinar (m) Jackal Eagle Palai Palai (Palai) Eyirriyar (f) Ass Vulture (Mimu. Omai Soldiering scops (Salvadara Marauding Pigeon Maravar (m) Hexaudrus persica) HighwayMarattiyar (f) Kurampu Truppai Robbery (Webera (Bassia corym longifolia) bosa) Ulinai (Oerva lanater) Pastoral Ayar (m) Gazelle Wild fowl Jasmine Konrail Minor cul(Mullai) Aycciyar (f) Wild hare (Mullai) Cow (Cassia) tivation of Kurayai crops like Konrai Jtaiyar (m) dance Bull Kaya BullItaicciyar (f) (Cassia) Kuruntam varaku, Sheep Kullai camai, etc. fighting Goat (Cannabis) Shepherd - RiverPitavam Jing Cow. bathing Tonri | herding Agricul. Ulavar (m) Buffalo Heron Aquatic Marutam tural Ulattiyar (f) (Termina. Farming RiverOtter Plants Swan (Maru- ! Lotus Kataiyar (m) bathing lia alata) Harvesting Fresh Waterfowl Water- tam) Kataicciyar (f) Kanci Threshing Festivals water fish Duck lily) Vanci agricul - Carp tural) Littoral (Neytal) Shark Fish Nulaiyar (m) Nulaicciyar (f) Alavar (m) Alattiyur (f) Paratar (m) Parattiyar (f) Sea-gull Neytal ! Alexan- Coastal & Salling (Nymphae drine inland Bird. alba) Laurel fishing driving Tulampu Mangrove Deep-sea Seabathing (Pandanus) fishing Playing on Muntakam Drying the sea-shore Attampam fish WorshippWater-lily Pearl- ling of Water diving skeleton hyacinth Sellingfish of shark

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. CLASSIFICATION OF KARUPPORUL (OBJECTS) Deity Foodstuffs Water Resources Meat Hill Hill Streams paddy rice and pools Bamboo rice Millet Honey Roots Drum | Musical Musical Settlement Titles of Chieftain Instrument Tune and his Spouse Toptakam Kurinci | Kurinci | Cirukuti Poruppan (m) lyre Verpan (m) or Cilampan (m) Kuratti or Koticci (f) Murukan or Cey Tuti Meat Grass rice Roots Stagnant water in pits Liquor Palai lyre Pancuram Kurumpu Vitalai (m) Kalai (m) or Mili (m) Eyirri (f) Turkkai, Kanni, og Korravai Erankol Mullai Catari Pati Rivers Tanks lyre Varaku Camai Mutirai Milk and milk products Kurumporainatan Netumal, (m) or or Tonral (m) Tirumal Manaivi (1) or Kalatti (f) Marutam! Perur Paddy rice Sugarcane River Pond Lake Well Kinai (For Marutam barvesting) lyre Mulavu (For wedding etc.) uran (m) or Intiran, Makinan (m) Tor Kilatti (f) or I Ventan Manaivi (f) Vilari Sevvali Varupan Pakkam Pattinum Fish, and Sea ducts Salt lakes obtained Sea-side from canals other regions through barter Min-kol (For fishing) Navay (For sailing) Cerppan (m) or Pulampan (m) Paratti (f) Nulaicci () Sc-11

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82 Study of Civakacintamani landscape cannot be used as the kind of love of another lindscape. If so used it is known as Tinaimayakkam. There are five kinds of love, Punartal (union), Pirital (separation), fruttal (waiting), Utal (love quarrel), and Irankal (wailing); they are attributed to Kurinci (montage), Palai (arid), Mullai (pastoral), Marutam (agricultural) and Neyatal (littoral) respectively. These kinds of love are allotted according to the nature of each landscape. Punartal is the love of Kusinci land, for hills afford more opportunities than any region for courtship and clandestine meetings. The Perumpolutu (major time) assigned to this kind of love is Kutir (the cold season) and the Cirupol utu (minor time) is Yamam (midnight) which is the suitable time for clandestine union. This kind of love has always been described in poems as taking place before marriage. The love ascribed to Neytal, the littoral land, is Irankal (lamenting), for often the women of this region wail for their husbands who have gone to sea to fish in the evening. Erpalu (sunset) is the minor time for Neytal, since once it is sunset, the roaring of the sea, the returning of beasts and birds to their homes etc. make the lady-love wail for her husband, Utal (love quarrel) is the love of Marutam, the agricultural land which is the richest of all lands. Owing to the prosperity of the land, man have enough time to spend on recreations and they often spend their time with harlots. After spending their time with harlots, the men return home and this causes the wives to have love quarrels with them. As this often takes place either in the late night or in the dawn, the minor time allocated to Marutam land is Vaikarai (before sunrise) and Vitiyal (sunrise).1 Pirital (separation) is the love for Palai, the arid land, where men frequently leave their wives and take up occupations such as highway robbery, soldiering, marauding, etc. Here the separation includes the separation of lovers as well as the separation of couples from their parents when they elope. The major time for Palai is Venil (summer) and the minor time is Nappakal (mid-day), the time suitable for highway robbery etc. Iruttal (waiting) is the kind of love for Mullai, the pastoral land where the lady-love waits patiently for her lover to come back after the successful completion of his errand. As the rainy season is the time when the husband is expected to come back, the major time of Mullai is Kar and the minor time is Malai. Whenever a poet wants to describe one of these themes, he also describes the particular natural surroundings. For example, if a poet wants to depict the union of two lovers, he has to select Kurinci landscape as his background setting. Apart from these five kinds of love, 3 there are Kaikkilai (one-sided love) and Peruntinai (unequal love), which are not particularly ascribed to any land. In Kaikkilai, the one-sided or un-reciprocated love, the hero wants to get the love of an immature girl who cannot understand or reciprocate his feelings. Peruntinai is the unequal or inappropriate love, when a hero takes to the mounting of Matal4 (mounting on a 1 Tolkappiyam, Por., Akat., cut. 8. 2 lbid, loc. cit. cut. 9, 3 Ibid, loc. cit, cuts. 50, 51, 4 Ibid, loc. cit, cut. 54.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. hobby-horse made of palmyrah stalks) out of love, or love between two people who are not suited to each other. In some of these poems, unlike other Akam poems, in which the names of the characters are not supposed to be mentioned, 1 the names of the characters are mentioned. Considering the nature of these poems some scholars do classify these poems under Puram poems. As in Akam poems, Puram poems also have seven tiqais (poetic themes), Vetci, Vanci, Ulinai, Tumpai, Vakai, Kanci, and Patan, Out of these seven all except Kanci and Patan are ascribed to the five different landscapes. All the names of Purattinai except Patan are names of plants, the flowers of which were worn to symbolize the feelings of those who were engaged in the war during its differerent stages. The Pusattinai for Kurinci is Vetci. Vetci is a red flower (Ixora coccinea) indigenous to the Montane region, which is worn by warriors when they go to raid cattle; the wealth of Mullai land. When the hunters, the people of the Kurinci, raid their cows, the men of the Mullai land wear Karantai flowers and go to retrieve the cows and this war is called Karantai war. This Karantai war is a 'turai' (a military situation) of Vetci war. Vanci, named after the yellow flower of the Vanci tree (Hiptage madablota) indigenous to Mullai land, is the Purattinai for Mullai. Garlands made of this flower are worn by warriors of the Mullai land when they are residing in temporary military camps pitched in the jungle to conquer another country. Tumpai is the Purattinai for Neytal, which is named after the Tumpai flower (Leucass linifolia) worn by soldiers during battles taking place in the open land of maritime tracts. Purattipai of Palai is Vakai (Mimosa flectuosa) which is named after the flower of the Vakai tree. Garlands made of these flowers are worn by warriors when they return from the hattle-field with victory. Ulinai, the Purattinai for Marutam, denotes the advance of the soldiers to attack the walls of the city of another king. When they are engaged in this military action they wear garlands made of the flowers of Ulinai (Cardiospermum halicacabum) as a sign of derision, i.e. to show the worthlessness and weakness of the fort they want to seize. They people who are inside the wall while defending the attack wear Nocci flowers (Vitex trifolia). Nocci war is a Turai of Tumpai war. The other two Purattinais, Kanci and Patan, are not ascribed to any strategic movements in battle. Kancit tinai generally deals with the impermanence of the world and Pacan tinai comprises poems which are eulogistic and panegyrical. In these songs regional interchanges are found, mainly to praise the plurality of regions in a certain kingdom. 8 These rules set out by Tolkappiyar are peculiar to Tamil literature. Further. unlike the Vedas, which are religious and mythological, the Cankam poems are secular. In these poems importance was given to classes of men and women of all regions. As Thapinayagam correctly observes, the Cankam poets "did not treat only of the kings 1 Matal is a ritual performed by a person whose love is not returned. In Cankam literature only men performed this ritual. But later works like the devotional songs Aivars deal with women mounting Matal. One such example is the songs of Tiruman kaiyalvar. 2 ThaniNayagam, op. cit., p. 85. 3 ThaniNayagam, op. cit., p. 91.

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84 Study of Civakacintamani and queens, cities and palaces. They found poetry in fishers' lowly huts and in the dwelling of mountain people. The fisher woman wailing for the fishing boats with the day's haul, or the fisher children watching the fish being dried, the shepherds with their flocks, the lowly at their work, come in for as much poetry as the wealthy heroine of a mountain chief wandering over the hills gathering flowers with a number of maids to attend upon her. Even when they sang of kings or sang to kings, they pleased their hearers most, not by describing the palace, but by describing the people who were privileged to live under the king's protection."1 The personification with which natural phenomena are described in Vedic songs does not occur in the Cankam works. Even the occasional apostrophes to objects in nature found in the Cankam works occur only as rapid outbursts of a soul tense with emotion. The absence of mythology, and the religious element, and the interest in the common man in the Cankam poems meant that the love themes in particular were of a very different nature from Sanskrit. The kavya pattern of kings with large harems, of social acceptance of polygamy, and the diverse opportunities this afforded for describing different kinds of love and different kinds of lovers, runs on lines which are different from the traditions of the Cankam literature. The realistic approach to nature was the result of emphasis on human interest. The fidelity with which the Cankam poets described nature can be seen in their accurate and beautiful similes. Examples of these will be given later in the discussion of the descriptions in the Cc. There are not hyperbolic conceits, and the similes employed serve to illustrate the particular subject in question and are never allowed to obscure the meaning or obstruct the narration. Graphic descriptions are of common occurrence. Occasionally one find epic similes containing elaborate imagery. They are frequently found in the works like the Kalittokai and the Paripatal. The pathetic fallacy and aphorisms are not all common in the Cankam literature. Thus the Tamil literature of this period had a personality of its own which was manifested in the literary style, descriptions, figures of speech employed, the themes chosen and the sentiments depicted. In the Tolkappiyam there are two sections devoted to similes and sentiments which are known as Uvamaiyiyal and Meypptatiyal. It has been suggested by J. R. Marr that both of them may be regarded as being wholly dependent on Sanskrit models in the respective fields of dramatic theory and rhetoric." In the discussion about Uvamaiyiyal he further says that "Uvamaiyiya! is fairly clearly an attempt to apply one of the aspects of rhetoric in Sanskrit namely Upama, to Tamil." He points out the resemblances between the division of Upama in the Tolkappiyam and in the Kavyadarsa of Dapdins and suggests that these two chapters could have been interpolated. Whether they are interpolated or not, it is conceivable that Tolkappiyar 1 Ibid., pp. 46, 47. 2 ThaniNayagam, op. cit., p. 70. 3 J. R. Marr, The eight Tamil anthologies with special reference to Putananaru and Patirruppattu, A thesis submitted to University of London, 1958, p. 83. 4 Ibid, p. 80. 5 Ibid, pp. 80, 81, 82.

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The Sanskrit interaction in ihe literary style. . was aware of the conventions and traditions that existed in the Sanskrit literature of his time, and in laying down the rules for literary composition in Tamil, he had not only the vast collection of Tamil works but also an equally good knowledge of the Sanskrit traditions which existed before his time. The eight meyppatus (the manifest physical expressions of emotion) mentioned by Tolkappiyar, nakai (laughter), alukai (sorrow), ilivaral (disgust), marutkai (surprise), accam (fear), perumitam (bravery), vekuli (anger), and uvakai (happiness) are the equivalent of the sthayibhavas (dominant states) hasa (laughter), soka (sorrow), jugupsa (disgust), vismaya (surprise), bhaya (fear), utsaha (bravery), krodha (anger) and rati (love) mentioned in the Natyasastra. Sthayibhavas are the permanent emotions that are manifested in the mind. According to the Natyasastra these sthayi. bhavas, rati, hasa, soka, krodha, utsaha, bhaya, jugupsa, and vismaya develop into the respective rasas, slrgara (erotic), hasya (comic), karuna (pathetic), raudra (furious), vira (heroic), bhayanaka (terrible), bibhatsa (disgust) and adbhuta (marvellous), when they are united with the other bhavas (states), vibhavas (determinants), anubhavas (consequents), and vyabhicaribhavas (transitory states). 4 Vibhavas are of two kinds : the alambana and the uddipana. Alambana vibhava is the character towards whom the emotion is manifested and the uddipana vibhavas are the external factors such as spring season, unguents, moonlight etc. which help in manifesting the emotion. Anubhavas are the physical actions which are expressed through sweet words, side-glances etc. These vibhavas and anubhavas are not exhaustively enumerated by Bharata, as they can be of any number. But while discussing each rasa he explains it by showing the possible vibhavas and anubhavas. There are thirty three vyabhicaribhavas (transitory states) which also help in developing the dominant state into rasa. Besides these vibhavas and anubhavas and vyabhicaribhavas, Bharata also mentions eight sattvikabhavas (temperamental states) stambha (paralysis), sveda (perspiration), romanca (horripilation), svarasada (change of voice), vepathu (trembling), vaivarnya (change of colour), asru (tears) and pralaya (fainting), which are manifested due to the mental change taking place. The production of rasa (rasanispattih) is not discussed by Tolkappiyar though the commentator Peraciriyar deals with it in his commentary. As the date of Peraciriyar cannot be earlier than the tenth century A.D.8 his theories in many ways could have been influenced by the later Sanskrit theories of poetics. Tolkappiyar divides each meyppatu into four kinds and most of these divisions seem to be made on the basis of his knowledge of the respective vibhavas (determinants) given by Bharata to each 1 Scholars differ about the date of the Tolkappiyam. S. Vaiyapurippillai fixes its date as 600 700 A.D. S. Vaiyapuri pillai, Kaviyakalam, op. cit., p. 261. 2 Tolkappiym, Por., Mey., cut. 251. 3 Natyasastra, vi, 17. 4 Natya'sastra, vi, 31. 5 A. Chidambaranatha Cottiyar, Advanced Studies in Tamit Prosody, p. 12. 6 Tolkappiyam, Por., Mey., cuts. 247-255.

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86 Study of Civakacintamani sthayibhava (dominant state).1 Some divisions are not similar to the divisions in the Natyasastra and these may be the original thoughts of Tolkappiyar expressed to suit the Tamil literary tradition. Apart from the thirty-two divisions of meyppatus (i.e. the eight meyppatus with four divisions in each) mentioned above, Tolkappiyar also mentions another set of thirty-two meyppatus, which he thinks can be considered as a different set of meyppatus when they do not come under the category of these thirty-two meyppatus. Among these later meyppatus some are based on the vyabhicaribhavas (transitory states) and a few on the sattvikabhavas 3 (temperamental states), and the rest do not have any equivalent in Bharata's Natyasastra. In considering the relevance of these two chapters in the Tolkappiyam to an analysis of ancient and later Tamil literature, one should bear in mind the fact that in spite of the resemblance to Sanskrit works of dramaturgy and rhetoric, the treatment of the subjects has the distinct chacteristics of Tamil literature in view. Besides these literary theories, Tolkappiyar also mentions eight kinds of poetic compositions in the section Ceyyuliyal. This chapter, which is mainly a treatise on prosody, mentions eight kinds of compositions viz. Ammai, Alaku, Tonmai, Tol, Viruntu, Iyaipu, Pulan and Ilaipu. 5 Ammai is a composition which does not exceed five lines, and is made with sweet words but as few as possible. A composition which cotains no dialect (i.e. in standard Tamil) and is full of poetic cbarm is called Alaku.' A composition which deals with popular legends with prose explanations in it is called Tonmai.8 A composition which deals with aram (duty), poru! (wealth), inpam (pleasure, and vitu (salvation), in an attractive style or that which deals with a topic in detail in more than five lines is called Tol. Viruntulo is a composition composed in a novel way, and lyaipuil is a composition in which the last line ends with any 1 P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri in his commentary to meyppattiyal points out the vibhavas used by Tolkappiyam in his fourfold division of each ingy ppatu, P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri, Comnentary on Meyppati iyal, Madras, pp. 2-5. 2 "ivaiyum ulave avaiyatankalaiy e"--Tolkappiyam, Por., Mey., cut. 260. 3 Ns. sveda perspiration perspiration Tol. viyarttal Toi. Tol. natukkam/ chun) trembling 4 J. R. Marr, op. cit., pp. 77, 78. 5 Tolkappiyam, Por., Cey., cut. 340. 6 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 517. Par icir yad in his c) a natury 01 Cuttica n 547 explaia 'ati ninirpa as not exceeding five lines. 7 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 548. 8 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 549. 9 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 550. Peraciriyar in his commentary on cuttiram 550 explains vilumiyatu nuvalutal' as explaining aram, porul, inpam, and vitu. 10 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 551. 11 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 552.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. of the consonants n, p, n m, n, y, r, 1, v, 1. 1. Pulan is a composition which is composed of common words and is clear to the reader. Ijaipu, the last of the eight, is a composion which consists of five types of lines (atis), beginning with Kuralati, which has two feet (cir), and ending with a line which has seven feet. These feet do not combine a surd consonant with anothar surd. Beyond what is said in the Tolka. ppiyam, we cannot be definite about these literary compositions. Later, the commentator Peracirlyar has cited examples for these literary forms defined by Tolkappiyar, mostly from later literary works. Thus the Nalatiyar, the Kajavalinarppatu, and other works classed under Patinenkijkkanakku works are cited as instances for Ammai; the Akanamaru and the Ettuttokai for Alaku; the Paratam and the Takatur yattirai for Toumai; the Muttodayiram and the Kalampakam works for Viruntu; the Manimekalai and the Perunkatai for Iyaipu; and folk dramas (kattu) for Pulab. Later commentators also hold these eight vanappus to be features found in Totarnilaicceyyul works. What is a Tojarnilaicceyyul? It is a long poem with poetic charm which is characterised by the continuity of its subject-matter. In the Cankam literature, in addition to the Tanip-patals (single stanzas) which are small, there is the Pattup-pu (collection of ten idylls), which consists of long poems in which central theme is developed. It would be legitimate to say that these formed the nucleus for later Totarnilaic-ceyyulas, which develop a story continuously. The elaborate descriptions and figures of speech found in works like the Maturaikkanci, the Malaipajukatam, the Pattinappalai were directly or indirectly borrowed in later epics. These will be detailed later while dealing with the descriptions in the Cc. 87 One can discern three distinct stages in the evolution of the literary form of Totarnilaic-ceyyul. The first stage was that of works like the Pattuppatu referred to earlier, in which a particular theme is developed in the course of long poem in great detail with elaborate descriptions. For example in the Pattinappalai, the situation treated is the sorrow of the spouse of a bard at her impending separation from him. when he will go to Kavirippampattinam, the capital of the Coja king (whom he expects to praise so that he will bestow gifts on him). This serves only as a pretext for the poem, which dwells almost entirely on the glory of the Cola king and the grandeur of his capital. The descriptions of the king and the grandeur of his capital in this poem have inspired the tradition of describing the hero and his country in the later epics. The second stage in the development of the Totarnilaicceyyu) is that in which the theme of the poem is a story, in particular a story that took place in Tamil country. It is at this stage that the poetical works Cilappatikaram and Mapimekalai were written. The style of these works is similar to that of the earlier Cankam works. One principal reason for this is that they were composed in the same Aeiriyappa metre 1 Tolkappiyam, Por., Cey., cut. 553. 2 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 554. 3 Ibid, loc. cit. cut 554 4 No example has been given for Ilaipu and Tol. 5 K. V. Jagannathan, 2nd edition, Tamil Kappiyan kal, Madras, 1955, p. 70.

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88 Study of the Civakacintamani wbich was much employed in the Cankam poems. Because of the structure of the metre Aciriyappa, the words used have a dignified simplicity and picturesqueness which does not interfere with the rapid course of the narration. Further, the require. ments expected of the later epics, such as the treatment of the fourfold ends of life, viz. Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa, are not strictly met in these books. This situation underwent considerable changes at the time when the Cc. was composed. This is the third stage in the development of the Totarnilaic-ceyyul, and the distinguishing feature of this stage is the preponderance of Sanskrit elements. In the Cc., Tevar has made a definite attempt to compose an epic styled after the Sanskrit mahakavyas. Tamil epics which were written after the Cc. followed the pattern set by it. It is with this in mind that the later critics in Tamil who enunciated the definition of a Perunkappiyam ( mahakavya ) did so by translating or adapting the definition given in the Tantiyalankaram. The definition of the perunkappiyam set forth in this treatise is applicable to works like the Cc. and all subsequent perunkappiyams. But to evaluate the earlier works like the Cilappatikaram and the Manimekalai in accordance with the tenets of such treatises is certainly inappropriate. Thus for example, Atiyarkkunallar, who wrote a commentary on the Cilappatikaram, has suggested in his commentary that the Cilappatikaram and the Manimekalai should both be taken together as forming a single perunkappiyam, 1 because neither of them deals with all the four ends of life and the structure and story of the Manimekalai make it seem to be the continuation of the Cilappatikaram. These two epics, even without considering them together, have their own merits as epics which follow Tami literary traditions. The main characteristic of the Cc. is the influence exerted by the Sanskrit literary form, the mahakavya. It may be said that Naccinarkinkiyar, who is the author of a commentary on this epic, has failed to a certain extent to point out this aspect of the Cc. At the beginning of his commentary he expresses the folllowing opinion about the literary form under which the Cc should be classified. For clear understanding 1 Atiyarkkunallar, commentary on the Cilappatikaram,"Uraiccirappuppayiram". 2 The following are the passages in which Naccinarkkiniyar expreresses the ideas mentioned above : "It totarnilaic-ceyyu! Tevar ceykinra kalttirkku nul akattyamum Tolkappiyamum atalanum, 'muntu-nul kantu muraippatav enni' (Tol. Cirappu) enratanal, Akatt iyattin valinul Tolkappiyam atalanum, pirar kuriy nulkal nirampiya ilakkanattana anmaiyanum, an nulir kuriya ilakkaname itarkk ilakkanam enr unarka. Avv ilakkanatiis ceyyul iyalinkanne aciriyar pa nankenrum, avrrai aram, poru), inpattas kuruka venrum kurip pippu ammai mutaliya totarnilaic-ceyyuckku ilakkanam enru kusukinruli, "ilumen moliyan vijumiyatu nuvalinum" (Tol., cey., 238 ) enpatanal, mellenra collan aram, porul, in pam, vit ennum vilamiya porul payappap palayaiyat oru katai mer koccakattas kuirn, atu tol ensu kupinamaiyin, ic ceyyul anganam kuriya tolam en unarka. .. muntu nulkatir kappiyam ennu i vatamoliyal totarnilaic-ceyyakkup peyar inmaiyum itarkkup pinpu kuriya nulkal itarkku vitiy aamaiyam unarka." Naccinarkkiniyar, commentary on the Co., v. 1.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style... we have divided his opinion into three points : 1. Akattiyam and Tolkappiyam are the authoritative treatises on which the Cc. is based, as there were no other works existing before the period of the Cc. 2. The literary form, the Cc. belongs to is Tol (one of the eight literary forms discussed by Tolkappiyar), because it satisfies the requirements for the literary form Tol. 1 3. The Cc. cannot be called a kappiyam, because there is no tradition of calling a Totarnila ic-ceyyu! by the Sanskrit term kappiyam before the period of the Cc. and the later treatises on poetics (which call a Totarnilaic-ceyyul as kappiyam) cannot be authoritative for the Cc. If we take his first two points, it is clear that he tries to show that in the Cc. Tevar follows the literary theories of Tolkappiyam, as it is the 'valioul' ( secondary work) of Akattiyam. It cannot be denied that Tevar was aware of the Tolkappiyam and its literary traditions. But at the same time one cannot make the restriction that the Tolkappiyam is the only work on which Tevar depends either for his poetical ideas or for his style. A perusal of the Cc. obviously shows his familiarity with the Sanskrit literary works which existed before his age. The examples which will be cited later while analysing the influence of the Sanskrit mahakavya form will furnish proof for this contention. It is more likely that Tevar had a knowledge of the treatises written on Sanskrit poetics, and of the works on which they are based. Dandin's Kavyadarsa, which was very popular in Tamil land and which was adapted later into Tamil as Taptiyalankaram (12th century A.D.),3 had a considerable influence on the work of Tevar. Therefore from the structure and the contents of the Co, (which will be discussed below), it can be seen that it shows not only the impact of the Tolkappiyam and its literary traditions but also the strong influence of Sanskrit literary works and the treatises on Sanskrit poetics which existed before it. Naccinarkkipiyar's third point, that the Cc. cannot be called a kappiyam because there was no tradition of calling Totarnilaic-ceyyul a kappiyam before the time of the Cc., seems somewhat forced. As Atiyarkkunallar, 4 the commentator on the Cilappatikaram has pointed out, the word kappiyam was used by authors in Tamil before Tevar's time. To the Manimekalai Cattapar, while describing the sports of king Killivalavan with his wife Cirtti in a flower garden, says that Killivalavan enjoyed 1 Sapra, p. 86. 2 Vali-nul is a work which agrees for the most part with its original or Mutanul, and deviates only in places where the author considers it necessary. 3 K. V. Jagannat han, op. cit., p. 50. 4 Atiyarkkunallar, commentary on Cilappatikaram, Uraippayiram. Sc.-12

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90 Study of Civakacintamani himself in the company of poets who composed dramatic epics (natakak kappiyam). The following line : natakak kappiya nul nunippor 1 (the people who compose dramatic epic) explains it, In the Perunkatai, the word kappiyam is mentioned in the description of the things which were taken when the queens of the king went to enjoy water sports. The following phrase : kappiyak kocamuma (the books in which kappiyams were written) shows that they also took books in which kappiyams were written. In another context in the Perunkatatai, the poet mentions the reading of kappiyam as "kappiya vacanai colli". 3 Besides these references in the pre-Ce. works, there is also evidence to show that even Tevar was aware of the word kappiyam. In the soliloquy about the nature of women after seeing Anarkamalai, Civakan says that poets who compose kappiyam describe the lump of flesh (the body of a woman) in such a way as to make it desirable. kappiyak kavika! kama eriy ela vikar pittittar4 (The poets who compose kappiyam have described this lump of flech in such a way as to intensify the glowing lust in the mind ) All these references make one agree with Atiyarkkunallar in saying that Totarnilaic- ceyyu! was also called kappiyam even before the time of the Cc. Still, apart from the literary forms dealt with in the Tolkappiyam, one does not encounter a clear definition for a kappiyam or a clear distinction between the different kinds thereof such as perunkappiyam, cirukappiyam etc., till the date of Tantiylapkaram. However, from works like the Cilappatikaram and the Manimekalai one can see that there existed among poets of the Tamil land some conventions as regards the composition of epic which had been derived from earlier Tamil literature. By the time the Cc. was written this situation had changed. Tevar made the first attempt to modify the Tamil pattern of a kappiyam to conform also to the requirements stated in the definition of a mahakavya in Sanskrit. The concept of mahakavya has been laid down by Sanskrit rhetoricians like Dandin,5 Bhamaha,& Bhoja,? Hemacandra, 8 and Visvanatha. 9 The various definitions of a mahakavya given by these rhetoricians are very similar. The mahakavya is considered to be the best form of poetry and in its qualities perfection 1 Manimekalai, canto, 19, line 80. 2 Perunkatai, 1:38, line 167. 3 Ibid, 4:3, line 42. 4. Cc., v. 1585. 5 Dandin, Kavyadarsa, 1, vv. 14-22 6 Bhamaha, Kavyalankara, 1.19-23. 7 Bhoja, Sarasvati Kanthabharana, v, 103-104. 8 Hemacandra, Kavyanu'sasana, vol. 1. VIII. 9 Visvanatha, Sahityadarpanam, vl. 315-325.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. is expected. Dandin defines mahakavya as follows : 1 sarga-bandho mahakavyam ucyate tasya laksanam / asir namaskriya vastu-nirdeso vapi tan mukham || itihasa-kathodbhutam itarad va sad-asrayam catur-varga-phalopetam coturodatta-nayakam / nagararnava-sailartu-candrarkodaya-varnanzih udyana-salila-krida-madhupana-ratotsavaih 1 vipralambhair vivahaisca kumarodaya--varnanaih | mantra-duta-prayanaji-nayakabhyudayair api // alankstam asanksi ptam rasa-bhava-nirantaram sargair anativistirnaih sravy avsttaih susandhibhih // sarvatra bhinna-viltantair upetam kavyam kalpantarasthayi jayate lokaranjakam/ sadalamksti / (A poem made up of cantos is a mahakavya. Its character sites are given below. It should begin with a benediction, a salutation or an indication of the contents. The plot should be taken either from a story told in Itihasa or from other proper subject matter and it should deal with the fourfold ends of life (dharma, artha, kama and moksa). Its hero should be a person of wisdom and noble qualities. It should be embellished by descriptions of cities, the sea, mountains, the seasons, the rising of the sun and the moon, sports in pleasure gardens and in the water, drinking parties, love scenes, separations of lovers, marriages, birth of sons, consultation with ministers, sending messengers, military expeditions, battles and the successes of the hero. It should not be too short It should be pervaded with rasa and bhava (sentiment and emotion). It should consist of a number of cantos which are not too long, well formed and with measures pleasing to the ears, everywhere dealing with a variety of topics (ending each chapter in a different metre) so as to make it popular. Such a kavya which has been well embellished with figures will live through the ages. Many of the aspects which make a mahakavya are not new to either Tamil kappiyams or to Tamil literary works. The foreg sing requirments of a mahakavya can be classified under six points as indicated below : 1. The beginning of the text. 2. The source from which the story is taken and the scope of the entire work, 1 Dandin, Kavyadarsa, vv, 14-19

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Study of Civakacintamani 3. Characterisation of the hero, the main character through whom the whole aim of of the text is achieved, and of the characters congected to his life. 4. The descriptions which enbance the beauty of the narration. 5. The depiction of rasa (sentiment) and bhava (emotion) which are expected to parvade the work. 6. The general structure of the text and the metres used. 1. The first point, regarding the beginning of a mahakavya, is that it must take the general form of a benediction, a homage, or an indication of the subject matter. These three forms encompass all permissible methods of beginning a work. In Tamil, the general practice of starting the work with a verse of benediction or homage to God (katavul valttu) existed from the early times. But in the benedictory verses found in Tamil there is no well-defined distinction between the above three ways of beginning a work. In Tamil the benediction is sometimes made by the poet to benefit himself and sometimes to benefit other people. These benedictions are also classed as Tevapani (benedictory verses with musical rhythm) and Tevarp-paravutal (stanza in which God is praised in the first person). The first verse may also be written praising any one of the following seven objects; gods, ascetics, cows, brahmins, kings, rajn, and the country.3 of these, only those which praise the gods are classed under katavui valttu and the rest are termed asuvakai valttu (six kinds of homage) The Cilappatikaram begins with verses which invoke the sun, the moon. the rain and the city of pukar in turn, in accordance with the Tamil custom . noted above (aruvakai valttu). In the Maninjekalai the opening lines take us straight into the subject of the poem. Tevar in the Cc. adopts the pattern which is common to both Tamil and Sanskrit by paying homage to the four supreme beings, Dharma, Sadhu, Arhat and Siddha Here the homage is paid to the four supreme beings as the Cc is a Jaina epic. The choice of this method of beginning the poem is perhaps governed by his attempt to conform to the Sanskrit mahakavya pattern wherever it does not run contrary to Tamil practice. Perhaps it is also due to the religious character of this work. The next novel feature to be found in the beginning of the Cc.; and which is not found in the Cilappatikaram or the Manimekajai, is that of avaiyatakkam (apologia). Even though reference is made in the Tolkappiyam to the custom of introducing verses of avaiyatakkam, this practice is not commonly observed in Tamil literture prior to the Cc. After the initial propitiatory verses, Tevar dwells on the loftiness of the subject he is about to deal with and his own incompetence to treat it 1 Tanakkup-payanpata-vasttal-Periciriyar, Commentary on Tolkappiyam, Por, Cey. Cut 109. 2 Pirarkkup-payagpata-valttal - Ibid, loc. cit. cnt. 109. 3 Peraciriyar, Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 109. 4 Tolkappiyam, Por., Ccy., cut. 419.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. properly, and entreats scholars to bear with the consequent flaws which may be found in the work. Poets who came after Tevar like Tolamolit-tevar and Kampar also adopted this convention of avaiyatakkam, following the pattern set up by Tevar. Tevar may have drawn his inspiration for this from the Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa. 1 This conjecture is strengthened by the fact that Tevar has been inspired by the Raguvamsa in other ways also, as we shall see in the course of this chapter. This convention of avaiyatakkam has later also been incorporated by the author of the Marapalankarama as a feature of a kappiyam. Another feature which is common in the Cilappatikaram, the Manimekajai and the Cc. is the patikam, a series of verses giving a summary of the entire work. A somewhat parallel instance is to be seen in the Valmiki Ramayana in Sanskrit, where the story of Rama is narrated to Valmiki by Narada at the beginning of the epic. 3 * 2 The second point concerns the story which forms the subject matter of the mahakavya. As shown in the previous chapter, Tevar has taken the story of Jivaka from a Sanskrit or Prakrit poem. Earlie epics like tbe Cilappatikaram and the Manimekalai, which deal with stories of the Tamil country, have the characteristic flavour of the life and the culture of the Tamil land. The shortness of the story which Ilanko has selected is responsible to a great extent for the unity, continuity and corrence of his epic. The Cilappatikaram deals with the story of Kovalan and Kannaki who are from the merchant community. The Manimekalai, which almost continues the story of the Cilappatikacam, narrates the story of Manimekalai, the daughter of Kovalan and Malavi, the courtesan. When one comes to the Perunkatai, the tradition of taking a story from Sanskrit for the subject of a poem begins. The story taken is that of Udayana as told in Durvinita's Sanskrit translation of the Brhatkatha written in the Paisaci dialect by Gupadhya.4 So far no-one has analysed how much of this has been taken from the Sanskrit original story and how much the original has been changed. Further, parts of this work at the beginning and at the end are missing. The Co., which comes after the Perun katai, is the first epic now available in complete form which has borrowed its story from Sanskrit. Almost all epics in Tamil written after the Cc. borrow their stories from Sanskrit. The requirement regarding the source for a mahakavya is stated by Dandin in the phrase 'itibasa-kathodbhuta'. It must be a story which enjoys fame and popularity, and this explains why Tevar chose the story of Jivaka for his epic. The story of Jivaka, who is one of the religious leaders, occupies a place in Jaina religious lore which is comparable to that of Rama and Krsna in Hinduism and of Buddha in Buddhism 1 Kalidasa, Raghuvamsa, canto 1, vv, 2-4, 2 K. V. Jagannathan, op. cit., p. 140. 3 Valmiki Ramayana, Balakandam, chapter 1. 4 Saminatha Iyar, U. V. Introduction to Perunkatai, op. cit. P. xxvii, Footnote 7.

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94 Study of Civakacintamani In the treatment of this story he has also taken into consideration the requirement that it must expound the four purujarthas Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa. In both Sanskrit and Tamil literature, works on poetics have emphasised the importance of dealing with the four aims of life. Dharma deals with the duties and rules of social conduct and the values and ideals of the society. Artha is concerned with the particular rules governing the various varpas and asramas, and the acquisition and distribution of riches and other good things of life one enjoys; and moksa deals with the efforts and ways through which one attains liberation after death. In Sanskrit, Manu's Dharmasastra, Kautilya's Arthagastra and Vatsyayana's Kamasutra set forth the details of the three pursuits Dharma, Artha, and Kama. Moksa is mainly dealt with in philosophical and religious works. In Tamil didactic works like Thirukkural and the Nalatiyar the three aims Dharma (aram), Artha (poru) and Kama (inpam) are dealt with in detail. The Pajamojinanaru deals with all the four aims whereas the other works which are classified under the Patinegkijkkanakku deal with one or more than one of them. The "Titijataka, the Vairagyajataka, and the Sigarajataka of Bhartrhari in Sanskrit form a tripartite colllection of gnomic verses which deal with the materialistic, the sensous and the spiritual aspects of life in accordance with the above classification of the ends of life. Later, the authors of ornate epics recognised that a still more effective way of treating these was to trace the course of events in the lives of outstanding characters and to show how they exemplified all that was considered best in the four pursuits of life. This explains why commentators like Atiyarkkunallar discuss the question of how these treated in the Tamil epics. Tever is the first Tamil author who attempted to compose an epic whose contents embraced all the four ends of life. Now we shall trace how the story of Civakan's life has been developed by Tevar from this point of Virtuous (dharmic) deeds are done by Cinvakan throughout his life. Ahimsa (non-killing). one of the basic principles of Jainism, is practised by Civakan, at times even in battle. The battle he fights against the hunters who drove away the cows of the cow-herds is a battle in which complete ahimsa is observed, as Civacan wins the battle without any violence. 1 He saves the dying dog which is beaten by the brahmins and utters the pancanamaskara mantra which makes the dog. turn into a yaksa. He also saves the elephants which were caught in a fire. He gives religious advice to the ascetics in Cittiraktam, Cittirakutam, to a hunter and to a traveller. 6 He shows kindness to all and his kingdom. He is compassionate towards 1. Cc. vv. 448-455. 2. Ibid, vv. 984-960. 3. Idid, v. 1237. generosity. increases after he acquires the the wounded warriors and looks after the 4. Ibid, vv. 1426-1437. 5. Ibid, vv. 1230-1237. 6. Ibid, vv. 1543-1566.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary siyle.. needs of the women who were in his enemy's palace,1 Every marriage of his brings him wealth, but he does not in any way misuse it. On becoming king, he distributes all his wealth in such a way that all his subjects are well looked after. He demolishes all the prison buildings and exempts all his subjects from paying tax for sixteen years, He does not levy any tax on the lands of temples, astrologers, or brahmins. He donates gifts and helps the blind, the diseased, and women deserted by their husbands, The enjoyment of pleasures (kama) by Crvakan can be seen throughout the story. His marriages with his eight wives and his sexual pleasures with them dealt with in detail in the Cc. The treatment of love in the Cc. bears the influence of the Tolkappiyam and early Tamil literary works as well as of Sanskrit literary works. These will be discussed in detail while analysing the descriptions of love. scenes and marriages. The aspect of salvation (mokssa) is explained in the last ilampakam. the Muttiyilampakam. From the beginning of the story Tevar prepares Civakan to attain salvation. The last chapter explains the stages through which Civakan attained moksa. As these facts are explained in detail in the chapter on Jainism, they are not discussed here. 3. Coming now to the discussion of the hero of Cc.; we note that the Cc. does not have good precedents in Tamil for the development of the hero's character. In the Cilappatikaram everything else is subordinated to the interest in the characterisation of Kannaki. Kovalan is thus reduced to a kind of shadow designed to accentuate the characterisation of the heroine by contrast. Similarly in the Manimekalai Utayakumaran is introduced in such a way as to enhance the spirituality of Manimekalai. CivakaB's character has been cast by Tevar in a fundamentlly different way. To understand this it would be necessary to briefly discuss the definition of a kavya nayaka as laid down by Sanskrit rhetoricians. Four types of hero have deen recog nised in Sanskrit All of them are noble and self-controlled, For this reason all of them are called Dhira, but they are distinguished as udatta (exalted), uddhata (haughty), lalita (light hearted) and santa (calm). The Dhira-udatta hero is a person of great excellence, exceedingly serious, forbearing, not boastful, resolute, without. self-assertion, and firm of purpose. The Dhiroddhata hero is dominated by pride. 1. Cc, v. 2372. 2. Ibid, vv. 2345-48. 3. Ibid, vv. 2372-2373. 4. Ibid, v. 2376. 95 5. mahasattvo' tigambhirah ksama van avikatthanah sthiro nigudhahamkaro dhirodatto drdhavratah Dhanamjaya, The Dasarupa, 2,5 Indo-Iranian series, vol. 7, New York, 1912 6. darpamatsaryabhuyistho may&chadmapriyanah dhiroddhatast vahamkari calas cando vikatthanah Ibid, 2:3.

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96 Study of Civakucintamani and jealousy and devoted to magic practices and deceit, self-assertive, fick le, irascible and boastful. The Dhira-lalital hero is one who is free from anxiety, fond of arts and gentle. 2 The Dhira-santa hero, who is a brahmin or the like, possesses all the qualities necessary for a good hero. This kind of classification is not found in early Tamil literature. Though the Cankam poems deal with the valour, glory, munificence, compassion and charm of the hero, it has not been possible to fuse these characteristics into the personality of a single hero since they are all short isola ed verses. This is also true of longer poems like the Patt uppattu and the Cirupanarruppatai. We have already mentioned the absence of vivid characterisation of the hero in epics like the Cilappatikaram and the Manimekalai. In the Cc, however the story turns around the character of Civakan. Tevar has delineated his character on the lines of a Dhirodatta type of hero as defined by Sanskrit rhetoricians and depicted in Sanskrit literary works. He has also contrasted the character of Caccantan, his father, with Civakan's, by making the former a Dhira--lalita hero. Civakan's conscientiousness and steadfastness are lacking in the character of Caccantan. Though he is good to his subjects and noble in character he falls a prey to his passion. He faces death as a result of his dereliction of his regal duties. The qualities which bring death to Caccanta are carefully omitted in the characterisation of Civakan. Civakan is always alert in his actions and aware of what is happening around him. None of his actions bring blemish to his noble, upright character. He enjoys pleasure but at the same time he does not neglect his duty and fall a prey to his passions, Till he regains the kingdom lost by his father he does not stay with any of his wives for more than a few days, He is well versed in all arts and these talents help him to acquire some of his wives. He wios Kantaruvatattai by showing his skill in Vinai (lute), Kunamalai by controlling the intoxicated elephant which was going to attack her, Patumai by curing her from snake-bite, Kanakamasai and llakkanai by showing his talent in archery, and Curamancari by his mellifluous musical talent. In the Cc, these noble qualities are depicted by Tevar in the form of descriptions, in the speech of his enemy Kattiya karan and through the expressions of the other characters connected with Civakan. His balance of mind is weil expressed by Tevat in the following verse, which explains the state of Civakan after being helped by Cutancapan to escape from the death sentence imposed by Kattiyankaran for pride o his Acapivekam. vilanki villumi sum punan viluc ciraip pattapollum alankal an tarinan vant arunc cirgi vituttapoltum pulampu makilvu nencir politalum inrip pon arnt ulankalant uyarnta tolan al vinaiy enru vitlana 1. niscinto dhiralalitah kalasaktah sukhi madah Ibid, 2.3. 2. samanyagunayuktas tu dhirasanto dvijadikah. Dhanamjaya, op. cit. 2.4: 3, Cc. vv. 370-373. 4. Ibid, v. 1167,

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The Sanskrit interactiun in the literary style.. (Civakan with lofty and stone-like round (muscular and well fleshed) shoulders full of colden jewels, was neither distressed when he was imprisoned by Kattiyankaran who wore jewels casting flickering rays, nor happy when he was released by Cutancanan who wore beautiful dangling garlands. His heart unaffecte 1, he considered both as the fruits of previous births). The following verse shows how his excellent qualities are even praised by his enemy Katsiyankaran : arul valiyanmai kalviy alak ariv ilamaiy ukkam tiru maliy ikai pekan tin pukal nanpu curram oruvar iv ulakil yare civakan okku nirar perit arit ivanaik konray perukenac cirappuc ceytan 1 (In this world who can be compared with Civakan in his compassion, strength, prowess, knowledge, beauty, wisdom, youth, perseverence, charity, indulgence, undying fame, and in having worthy friends and well wishers. It is great that you killed him. Accept these presents. Thus praised Kattiyarkaran) Civakan is also often praised by his friends for his excellent qualities. The attributes they give him such as 'kunattotu malintavan'a ( he who is full of good qualities) and 'vapakk arun cilaiyinan')3 (he who has a bow which cannot be bent (by his enemies) ), show his reputation among his friends in all respects. Thus, Civakan is elevated to be a Dhirodatta type of hero. It is of interest to notice that the characters of Caccantan and Kattiyakaran have also been developed on the lines indicated in Sanskrit works. Caccantan is depicted as a Dhira-laita. Though the character of Kovalan in the Cilappatikaram has a certain resemblance to that of Cacantan the way two characters are depicted is different. Kyvalan is introduced in the Cilappatikaram for the first time with the following lines : man taytta pukalinan mati muka matavar tam pan taytta moliyinar ayattup parattik kantattum cevvel enr icai pokkik katalar kontettun kilamaiyan kovalan enpan manno Kovalan's expanding fame made the earth all too small to bear it. Moonfaced maidens, skilled in song and sweet voice, fondly said to each other, 'O, He is Subfahmanya incarnate!' and revealed their excessive love for him when they spoke in praise of him in their own gatherings.) 5 1 Cc. v. 1165. 2 Ibid, v. 1817. 3 Ibid, v. 1817. 4 Cilappatikaram, Munkala-valttup-patal, lines 36-39. 5 Translated by V. R Ramchandra Diksitar, "The Silappadikaram", Oxford, 1939, p. 89. Sc-13

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98 Study of Civakacintamani Here reference to his popularity among women has been made deliberately to indicate the tragic flaw which made him lose all his wealth and later on his life itself. But in the Cc., though Caccantan also meets his end as a result of his passion for Vicayai, he is introduced differently. The description of Caccantan, which proceeds in five verses, reminds us strongly of Kalidasa's description of Dasaratha in the Raghuvamsa. The idea expressed in the following verse is similar to the verse in the Cc. which sets forth the relationship between Caccantan and his vassal kings. Raghuvamsa udayam astamayam ca raghudvahad ubhayam inasire vasudhadhipah / sa hi nidesam alangha yatam abhut suhtd ayohtdayah pratigar jatam 1/1 (Through the head of the family of Raghu, th: vassal kings experienced both rise and set, for he had a kind heart towards those who did not violate his commands and a heart made of steel towards his enemies.) naccu nakattin ar alar cirruttan accam urr ataintarkk amirt annavan (To his enemies his anger is like that of the fiery venom of the poisonous cobra and to the people wh surrender themselves out of fear he is like ambrosia.) The verse samataya vasu-vrsti-visar janair niyamanad asatam ca naradhipah / anuyayau yama-punya jan svarau savarunayarunagrasaram ruca 1/3 (The lord of the people imitated Yama in equitability; the lord of the yaksas (Kubera) in raining showers of wealth; Varuna in punishing the wicked; and the sun, whom the dawn precedes in his bright splendour.) also is similar to the verse in the Cc. tarumin rannaliyar ranat ikaiyal varunan kurr uyir marr alin vamane arumaiyal alakir kanaiy aintutait tiromakan riru ma nila mannane + (He, the king of the prosperous city, is Dharma (the eldest of Pandavas) through his benevolence, Varunan through his generosity; Yama through taking lives (punishing evil people); Arhat through his greatness; and Kaman (the God of love) through his beauty.) The third verse in Caccantan's description runs as follows: kotai nittilan cul kulir ven kutai ora nir ulakoppa nilarralar rataiyey avan ta nilar rankiya katalar kalikkinrat iv vai yame5 1 Raghuvam sa, 9:9. 2 Cc. v. 157. 3 Raghuvamsa, 9.6. 4 Cc. v. 160. 5 Cc. v. 159.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. 99 (In giving equal protection to the world surrounded by the ocean under his white cold umbrella which has flower garlands and pearl garlands around it, he is indeed the father to his subjects, who are hence very happy under his rule.) It reminds us of the description of Dilipa in the Raghuvamsa. prajanam vinayadhanad raksanad bharanad api / sa pita pitaras tusam kevalam janmahetavah 1/1 (He by imparting education, by protection and by support to them, he (Dilspa) was the real father to the subjects. Their (own) fathers were only the cause of their birth). The noble aspects of his personality are again stressed later on in the story. In spite of his infatuation with Vicayai he anticipates his death at the hands of Kattiyankaran and therefore orders an aerial car to be made to enable Vicayai to get away from the palace in an emergency. He also displays remarkable tranquility, maturity and philosophical erudition when he consoles Vicayai by pointirg out the transience of human existence and the effect of Karma on one's life. The overall picture of Caccantan is thus one of a great and heroic personality who has the tragic flaw of beiog susceptible to the charms of his wife. He still richly deserves to be called a Dhira nayaka, in particular a Dhira-lalita. Kattiyankaran is portrayed as typical pratinayaka, who is required to be a Dhiroddhata type of hero. Thus we find in him the avarice, conceit, cruelty and viciousness characteristic of this type of hero. Thus we find that Tevar's characterisation of Kattiyankarau is very different from the portrayal of the character of Kasthangaraka in the Up. The introduction of a character like Rudradatta in the Up, takes away much of the cruelty, cunning and greed from the character of Kasthangaraka. Unlike in the Up., where Kaskhangaraka kills Satyandhara because of the prediction made by Rudradatta, in order to save his own life, in the Cc. Kattiyankaran kills the king out of sheer avarice. So he invents a lie to justify his action to his ministers. For his subsequent attempts to kill Civakan and Kovintan he has no reasons except his vanity and vaulting ambition. In passing we note Gnanamurthy's contention about the characterisation of Kattiyankaran. He refers to Tolkappiyam : nimpiri kotumai viyap potu puramoli vancor poccappu matimai yotu kutimai, inpural elamai marapot oppumai ya enr ivaiy inmaiy enmanar pulavar.2 (Learned men say that the following should be avoided : jealousy, cruelty, pride, back-biting, hard words, irresoluteness, sluggishness, haughtiness on account of heredity, lowering one's dignity, forgetfulness, and misplaced love on account of likeness.)3 1 Raghuvamsa, 1:24. 2 Tolkappiyam, Por., Mey., cut, 26. 3 Translated by P. S Subrabmanya Sastri, op. cit., p. 12.

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100 Study of the Civakacintamani and says that "since Tolkappiyar prescribes that these undesirable dualities should be eschewed by the hero or the heroine of poem, we may take it for granted that they are the attributes of a villainous character." However, considering the fact that this cuttiram is in the meyppattiyal of the Tolkappiyam, where the qualities of the ideal lover have been described, we feel that generalising this to indicate the characteristics not to be found in a hero and hence to be found in a villain, according to Gnanamurthy) is to read too much into this verse. 4. We have seen the prescription of Danlin for descriptions in a mahakavya. He also says that the omission of a few of these items will not diminish the beauty of a mahakavya. Tevar, who is keen on perfecting his epic in accordance with these prescriptions, tries to include all of them except drinking scenes, which are against his religious code of behaviour. A study of the descriptions in the Cc. shows a great of intermixture of Tamil and Sanskrit poetical traditions. Tevar's knowledge of both literatures makes him borrow ideas, phrases and techniques from the literature of both the languages. The great inclination which Sanskrit mabakavyas had for alankaras has left its stamp on the Cc. As we have pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, the descriptions found in works composed in Tamil before the Cc. were more realistic and very much less exaggerated than the descriptions in Sanskrit works of the same period. The descriptions are integrated with the theme in the Tamil poems. But in the Cc. most of the descriptions have been introduced with the aim of embellishment-a poetical attitude advocated by Dandin. For example, one of the Sanskrit conventions in such descriptions is to describe a lady from head to toe if she is human and from toe to bead if she is a Goddess. We see this in the description of Vicayai, 3 which proceeds from head to toe (kesadipadantavarnana) in sixteen verses. However, this description contains both Tamil and Sanskrit poetical traditions. One can discern the iufluence of the portrayal of the Virali (the wife of the bard) in the Porupararruppatai, 4 one of the Cankam works, as well as that of Uma, in the Kumarasambhava of Kalidasa.The clear, placid style of the Porunararruppatai is not seen here : instead the exaggerated and detailed style of Sanskrit mahakavyas is followed. The standards of comparisons are borrowed from both the sources. In the Porunararruppatai the ears and the earings of Virali are described as follows: ma yir kurai karuvi munkataiy annu punkulai ucar porai cal katin ...8 1 T. E. Gnanamurthy, op. cit. pp. 154, 155. 2 "devatanam rupam padangustaprabhiti varnyate. manusanam kesad ara bhyeti dbarmikah.." Mallinatha, commentary on the Kumarasambhava, 1:33. 3 Cc. 164-179. 4 Porunararrupp tai, lines 25-45. 5 Kumarasambhava, 1:33-48. 9 Porunararruppatai, lines 29-30.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style... 101 (Her ears in which her pendants dangling shine Resemble well-shaped loops of scissors used To trim the hair... ..) Here the ears and the earrings on it together are compared to a pair of scissors which trim the hair. The same object of comparison, the pair of scissors, is used in describing Vicayai in the following lines ; mayir eri kattarikaiy anaiyava y vallai vat uyir cekutlu mun onrip pin perat uruvamainta ceyir makara kuntalamun tilaipp ana var katum (The beautiful earrings which are in the shape of a Makara fish and the immovable ears, which destroyed the beauty of a fatigued Vallai creeper, looked like a pair of scissors which are used to trim the hair.) The fingers are compared to the Kanta flower in both works. Kantal mel viral... 3 --Porunarartuppatai. (ths fingers like Kantal flower (Gloriosa superba)). Viral cenkantal... 4 (the fingers like the red Kantaj flower). In describing the thighs of the queen Tevar follows Kalidasa. The latter compares the trunk of the elephant Airavata and the stem of the plantain tree to the thighs of Uma and says that though they were considered in the world to be beautiful, through their toughness and coldness they could not be compared to the thighs of Uma. Tevar does not use the same alankara vyatireka in his description, but uses the trunk of Airavata and the stem of a young plantain as the standards of comparison for the thighs of Vicayai, in the following lines : vela ven tira tatakkai verutti marr ilan kanni va.ait tant epat tirantu ... ... .. ... ... 6 (Her (Vicaiyai's) thighs had the beauty which scares (surpasses) (the beauty of) the trunk of white elephant (Airavata), and they were plump like a young plantain tree.) In the description of Kovintai, the daughter of Kovintan, the chief of the cowherds, Tevar follows the Tamil tradition completely. Since, she is a cowherdess all the comparisons are to the products of milk. venney ponr Uriniyal mem pal por rincolla! unna urukkiya a ney pol meniya! 1 Translated by J. V. Chelliah, Pattupattu, Madras, 1962, p. 63. 2 Cc. v. 168. 5 Kumarasambhava, 1:36. 3 Porunararruppatai, line 33. 6 Cc. v. 174. 4 Co. v. 370. 7 Ibid, v. 480.

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102 Study of Civakacin tam ani (She is nice to touch like butter. Her sweet words are like delicious milk, Her body is like the cow ghee which has been melted to be eaten.) Tevar starts his epic with a detailed descripton of the country Emankatam, with its villages, 1 town, the interior of the town 3 the moat, the walls, the interior of the fortified city with the descriptions of the harlot street, market street, the living apartments of the servants of the king, and the palace of the king. 9 Some of these descriptions are even found in earlier Tamil works such as the Pattinappalai and the Cilappatikaram. As in these poems, Tevar faithfully follows the Tamil tradition of describing the country. Yet Tevar's method of description is one of extreme exaggeration, and he liberally uses the figures of speech Utpreksa and Udatta. The following verse composed with udatta alankara expresses the fertility of the land in the country of Emankatam : pavaiy annavar pantu putaitialir kuviy annam veriit tunaiy enru poyk kovai nittila matak kulamicai mevi ven mati tannot innkkume To (The swans which are frightened by the (noise) of the balls played with the ladies who are (beautiful) like images, go and sit with the men on the top of of the mansions which are adorned by pearl garlands, thinking that it is their companion.) In this verse it is indirectly said that mansions are so high that their tops touch even the moon. Tevar also uses atisayokti (hyperbole) in his descriptions and the following verse is a good example: ten ula matuc cey kotai tem pukai kamalav utla van ulan cutarkan muti ma nakar iravu ceyyap pa nilac corintu nallar anikalam pakalaic ceyya venilan vilainta ceri melulak anaiyat onra.11 (In that city the smoke which arises when perfumming the garlands which are surrounded by bees, hides the rays of the sun which moves in the sky, and converts the day into night. The jewels of the ladies cast rays of moonlight like milk and make the night look th: day. This city which is desired by the God of love appears like heaven.) To give a different touch to the facts he narrates he also often uses utpreksa alankara, which is called "tarkuripperram" in Tamil. The following verse serves 1 2 3 4 Ibid, vv. 64-77. Jbid, vv. 79-84. Ibid, vv. 85-93. Ibid, vy. 94-99. 5 Cc. vv. 100-105. 6 Ibid, vv. 106-111. 7 Ibid, vy. 112-117. 8 Ibid, vv, 118-124, 9 Ibid, vv. 125-156 10 Ibid, v. 125. 11 Cc. v. 111.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style... 103 as a good example for the many verses in which he uses utpreksa alankara : tiruva ninakarc cem poni nitiya uruvay on kotiy uli nutankuva paravai ven katirc celvana pan mayirp puravi ponk alal arruva ponr ave1 (The long beautiful golden flags which are swaying on the top of the large wealthy mansions, look as if they are allaying the heat of the hairy horses of the hot rayed sun.) In this verse also the height of the mansions is expressed. The flags are imagined as fans for the tired horses of the sun. In some verses he uses bhrantimat alankara, which is called 'mayakkani' in the Tantiyalankaram. In the following two verses this alan kara is used to show the fertility of the country. vala muti natupavar varampil kampalai ila malai mulakkena mannai enkalin alamaru kuyilinam alunkip pum polil ula meli makalirin otunkum enpave.2 (The peacocks shout in joy, thinking the limitless noise made by the people who transplant the heap of flourishing youug paddy to be the roaring of the new clouds (which appear in the beginning of the rainy season), and the koels, being sad like women who are distressed (by the separation of their lovers), resort to the flower garden). kan enak kuvalai yum kattal ompinar vanna van mukam ena marai yinulpukar pann elutt iyalpatap parappiyittanar tan vayal ulavar tan tonmaiy innate, 3 (They would not go near lotuses, thinking that they were the bright beautiful faces of their lovers. They refrained from weeding the blue lilies, thinking that they were the eyes of their lovers, and they sang the songs pronouncing the syllables clearly. This was the nature of the farmers who were in the cool fields.) In all epics which were written after the Cc., the tradition of beginning the work with descriptions of country, capital city, etc, is followed. Kampar, who came after Tevar, has included whole sections named Nattuppatalam and Nakarppatalam in the Iramayanam.- In the Culamani, there are chapters devoted to the descriptions of the country and the capital city, The following verse in the Nilakeci makes it clear that this way of describing the country, the city, etc., came to be regarded by later poets as an important feature 1 Ibid, v. 126. 2 Cc v. 49. 3 Ibid, v. 51. 4 Kamparamayanam, Pala Kantam, Chapters 2 and 3.

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104 Study of Civakacintamani of the kavya tradition : vata valattan malar nalam matippin mikka natavat ihtam atan nan nalam con nalattar kutat eninum cila kuralum ventum anre pataviruntar poriy ancum pati yatanra I (This country is celebrated as the best country in the world by its ever flourishing nature. Though its fine features cannot be encompassed by (our) words (of praise), it is necessary to say a few things. Because, the one who leaves it unsung would suffer fearsome consequences.) Tevar has also described forests, mountains etc. and such natural phenomena as sunrise and moonrise, as laid down by Dandin. Though such descripions arise ovt of the mabakavya tradition in Sanskrit, the way in which the fauna and flora are described is in accordance with the Tamil conventions. For example, the route taken by Civakan when he leaves Kemacari is described, and Tevar gives importance to the different kinds of landscapes. 2 Before Civakan meets Anankamavinai in the garden, he travels through four kinds of landscape. Here descriptions include all the landscapes mentioned in Tamil literature except Neytal (littoral). The landscape of all five kinds is also depicted in the Manmakal ilampakam when describing the journey of Civakan to the country Vitekam. The sunrise is described in verse 1406 and the moon rise in verse 1541. In a few descriptions Tevar has used almost exactly the same idea as found in Sanskrit poems. While describing the prosperity of Iracamapuram, Tevar borrows the exact incident from one of the verses in the Meghaduta of Kalidasa : nivibandhocchvasitasithilam yatra bimbadharanam ksaumam ragad onibhstakaresv aksipatsu priyesu arcis tungan abhimukham api prapya ratnapradipan hrimudhanam bhavati viphalaprerana curnamustih3 (Where the handful of powder flung by women having bimba (a kind of fruit) like lips and confused with shame when their garments, loosened by the untying of their knots, are snatched away by their husbands through passion with their quick moving hands, is flung in vain although it reaches the jewel lamps powerfully blazing with their flames.) 4 kar cunan ceyta ton maintar katalal nar cunap pattutai parra naninar por cunattal vilakk avi p pap ponkiya por cunam purampanai tavalum por pirra 1 Nilakeci, v. 11. 2 Cc. vv 1556-1566. 3 Meghaduta, Uttara megha, v. 5. 4 Translated by Kale. Meghaduta edited by Kale, M, R, Bombay, 1916. 5 Cc, v, 91,

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. 105 (The city is characterised by agricultural tracts (rich with) golden dust that is excess after (being used to) extinguish the light, out of shyness when youths with (muscular) shoulders (as if) made of powdered stones, pulled the scented silk. garment (of their beloved) out of love.) In the description of the moonrise mentioned earlier, Tevar expresses exactly the same idea expressed in the description of a moonrise in the Carudattam, and says that the white rays of the moon amid the darkness are like streams of milk on dried up mire. Cc. udayati hi jalankah klinna-khar jura-pandur yuvati janasahayo rajamargapradipah timiranicayamadhye rasmayo yasya gaura hrtajala iva panke ksiradharah patanti (The moon which is pale as moist dates, friend to young women and the light of the royal road, has risen. His white rays which descend in the midst of the darkness look like streams of milk falling on dried up mire.) (As if pouring into black mud sweet milk from a ray-emitting gemstudded pot, the moon God, who is like the pale faces of ladies, by his shower of cool rays dispelled the pitch darkness spread everywhere and arose in the sea around.) The familiarity of Tevar with the Raghuvamia makes him sometimes use the same similes in his work, For example, the simile used to describe the Pandya king in the Raghuvarpia has been used to describe Crvakan in the Cc. Raghuvamia kalakac carrut timpal katir manikkutattin anti vi tarac corivare pal vilank olit tinkat putu! cil irut foluti mukat tik kotir corintu nallar malai kon mukattir tonri valal kajan mulaittat ana pandyo'yam amsarpitalambaharah kiptahgarago haricandanena | abhati balataparaktasanuh sanir jharodgara ivadrirajah 1/8 (Here sits the king Pandya with his body smeared with red sandal paste and with his shoulders from which pearl garlands hang, shines like the king of the mountains whose summits are reddened with the rays of the morning sun and which has rivulets flowing downwards.) ilave yin mani varaiy erittit! annator alavaru kunkumatt akanra mar pinay 1 Carudattam, Act 1. v. 29. Selected from the thirteen Trivandrum plays attributed to Bhasa, critically edited by C. R. Devadhar, Poona, 1962. This verse is also seen in the Mrcchakatika, chap. 1.57. 2 Cc. v. 1541. 3 Raghuvamsa, 6:60. Sc-14 4 Cc. v. 1182.

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206 Study of Civakacintamani (Oh, the one with broad chest, smeared with a thick layer of kunkumam (a red powder), like a mountain of gems on which the morning sunrays are falling ...) In the above description Tevar omits the comparison of pearl garlands worn by the Pandya king to the rivulets flowing from the mountain. He has only taken the comparison made to the smearing or sandal paste on the body of the Pandya king to the morning sun rays falling on a mountain. The same comparison is also found in the description of King Sudraka in the Kadambari of Bana. atisurabhicandananulepanadhavalitorah sthalam uparivinyastakunkumasthasakamantarantaranipatitabalatapacchadamiva ksilasasikharinam......rajanam adraksit.1 (He saw a king...whose chest was whitened with exceedingly fragrant sandal paste, with marks of saffron made over it, and who looked like the (white) Kailasa mountain with patches of (reddish) morning sunlight falling on it here and there.) The descriptions of various seasons are seen in the Kunamalaiyar ilampakam and the Muttiyilampakam. Besides these descriptions of kings and queens, natural scenery and cities, Tevar has also tried to include all the other descriptions required by Dandin. In the Patumaiyar ilampakam, Patumai who is in love with Civakan is taken to play in the garden by her friends. Their sports in the garden are described in six verses. 4 Similarly in the Muttiyilampakam Civakan is described laying with his wives in the garden. Water sports are portrayed in great detail in the Kunamalaiyar ilampakam.8 Again, Civakan engaged in water sports with his wives provides the poet with a chance to elaborate on water sports in sixteen verses in the Muttiyilampakam. All the eight heroines fall in love with Civakan before marrying him. Some of these love scenes are described in detail. The scene in which Kunamalai sends a message to Civakan through the parrot and Cinakan draws her portrait, and the scene in which Kantaruvatattai gets angry because of Civakan's attention to Kunamalai, are described with both Tamil and Sanskrit traditions in mind, In the story of Potumai the Tamil erotic traditions of Itantalaippatu (rendezvous), Iyarkkaippuparcci (union), Nalamparallal (praising) and Pankiyar kutam (the company of girl friends) are elaborated with great accuracy. 6 In Sanskrit kavyas like the Buddhacarita and the Raghuvamsa there are scenes depicting the state of girls who fall in love with the hero when he comes in procession through the streets. The lirukkailaya-nana-ula of Ceramapperumal (8th Century A.D.),? is perhaps the earliest work (except the Cc.) in which there are descriptions of girls in the seven stages, the Petai, Petumpat; Mankai, Matantai, Arivai, Terivai, Perilampen, 1 Bana, Kadambari, Edited by Kale, 1968, p. 19. 2 Cc. v. 851 ff. 3 Ibid, vv. 2668--2698. 4 Ibid, vv. 1316-1321 5 Ibid, vv. 2652-2667 6 Ibid, vv. 1317--1334. 7 T. P. Meenakshisundaran, A History of Tamil Literature, p. 142

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style... 117 who are infatuated with lord Siva when they see him coming in a procession. Though in later Tamil literature the theme of ula gave rise to a whole class of poetry, with its own characteristics, such poems are not found in the earlier Tamil literature. There are four such situations described in the Cc. 1 Of these, in the Kunamalaipar ilampakam some of the descriptions resemble the ones found in the Raghuvamsa. a Thus the actions of ladies mentioned in the following verses of the Cc. ; cem pon dlai vilavun cey kalankal cintavum am pon malaiyot acaint avi Intu kuntal coravum nampan urrat ennena natakam matakam mafantai yar vempi vitiy btinar minninanna nunmaiyar 8 (The dancing girls, who had waists like lightning, being distressed by the trouble Civakan had, with their golden earrings falling from their ears, ornaments scattering, and golden garlands dropping from their loosened tresses of hair, ran to the streets to see what was happening to him.) matarakal karpinukk utainta ma manikkalait titilara nur peyvar citarntu pokac cintuvar potulam alankalan mun pontu pun terivaiyar atakatenak kalankiy avvayir atukkinar. (The ladies who were making flawless necklaces with thread and gems which are defeated by the chastity of ladies, ran in front of Civakan who was wearing flower garlands and beat their bellies saying that this is not proper while the gems scattered around.) The following verses of the Raghuvamsa, in which the prince Aja is shown coming in a procession, are similar : alokamargam sahasa vra jantya kayacit udvestana-vanta-malyah / baddhum na sambhavita eva tavat karena ruddho pi hi kesapasah // (A certain lady while suddenly hastening to the window (lit. a passage to look through) did not at all think of binding the braid of hair though she held it in her hand and from the folds of which the flowers were dropping down on account of its being made loose through her haste, till she has reached the door of the window.) ardhacita satvaram utthitayah pade durnamite galanti / kas yascid asid rasana tadanim angusthu-mularpita-sutra-sesa //' (The half-stringed girdle of some other lady risen up in haste, the jewels of which were dropping down at her every faltering step, had at the time the string fastened only to the root of her foot-toe ) 8 1 Cc. vv. 457-470; 2114-2122; 2529-2540; 1099-1107. 2 Raghuvamsa, 7:6 and 7: 10, 3 Cc. v. 1103. 4 lbid, v, 1106. 6 Translated by Nandargikar. Raghuvamsa of Kalidasa, Bombay, 1897. of Kalidasa. Bombay SeoRaghuvamsa, 7:6. 7 Raghuvamsa, 7:10. 8 Translated by Nandargik ar. Raghuvamsa, 7:10.

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108 Study of Civakacintamani In these verses, the loosening of hair with the falling flowers and the Jewels dropping from the string are described in the same way. But both in the Kupama. laiyar ilampakam and in the Ilakkanaiyar ilampakam the girls are classified into seven different kinds according to their age and maturity, in accordance with Tamil tradition, The marriages of Civakan with his eight wives are described. Special attention is paid to the wedding ritual in the marriage of Ilakkanai.l The marital pleasures of Civakan receive detailed descriptions in several places. It has been claimed that Tevar shows his knowledge of Sanskrit as well as Tamil works, both Vatsyayana's Kamasutra and the Cankam literature in these descriptions. The birth of Civakan's children is dealt with in the Muttiyilampakam. 2 Details of battles and descriptions of the counsel held before war3 and the despatch of a messenger 4 have all been included by Tevar. The descriptions of war contain details about the strength of the army, the valour of the soldiers, their victory etc. The seizure of the cows and their retrieval involve battles, which are set forth in accordance with the Tamil conventions of Vetci 5 and Karantail war in the Kovintaiyar ilampokam 7 and in the Kanakamalaiyar ilampakam. 8 The final battle between Civakan and Kattiyankaran, and the victory of Civakan in the battle, are elaborately described in the Manmaka! ilampakam.. Thus we see that every opportunity has been used by Tever to include descriptions as required by the Sanskrit rhetoricians' definition of a mahakavya. A few words in particular about the several figures of speech used in these descriptions are necessary at this point because the proliferation of figures of speech is one major result of the effort to adopt the Sanskirt pattern. As we have seen, earlier Cankam poetry mainly employs similes, grapbic descriptions and, in the later period, epic similes. One is struck with the purposefulness with which these similes are employed in these poems. They are never used in such a way as to obscure the meaning of the poem. They are precisely phrased and short. The objects of comparison are chosen from everyday experience, and hence illustrate the idea cleariy. Nature serves as a background for depicting human emotions. The kind of simile called Ullurai always suggests some kind of human relationship through the description of nature. This is often used through the address of a friend of the heroine to the hero, suggesting the state of his lover. Mythological allusions were seldom introdnced before the Kalittokai and the Paripatal. Most of the similes have only one point of comparison. Thus for example the gems that shine on the girdles of ladies are compared to the dew shining on the boughs of a konrai tree. The teeth of an angry dog are compared to bamboo shoots. 1. This is the tradition followed in the Cilappatikaram and to a lesser extent in the Manimekalai. Sabialankaras ( embellishments involving sounds) were of relatively rare occurrence and when found were never long 1 Cc. v. 2385 ff. 2 Ibid, vv. 2701-2706. 5 Supra, p. 149. 6 Supra, p. 149. 9 Porunararruppalai, lines 327-328. 3 Ibid, v. 2143-2149. 7 Ch. v. 413 ff. 10 Kur incippattu, line 131. 4 8 Ibid, v. 2143. Ibid, v. 1845 ff.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. 109 or artificial, they were merely the outcome of a mastery of diction serving without effort to beautify powerful thoughts. Coming to the Cc., one encounters a different situation. As we have seen in the foregoing examples, a good number of figures of speech have bcen borrowed from Sanskrit literature. The personification of nature and inanimate objects, hyperbole and fanciful expressions, obscure similes involving mythological and philosophical allusions, and Sabdalan karas, puns etc. are found in plenty here. The verse describing the plight of Vicayai in the burial ground runs as follows: puran kattul vanta tamiyay ena maranka! cintit iranki aluvana pol pani cer kannir corintanava 1 (The trees shed tears mixed with dew drops as if they were crying at the thought, "Oh, you (Vicayai) bave come alone to the cemetery".) This method of attributing emotions to inanimate objects closely resembles the description in the Meghaduta. pasyantinam na khalu bahuso na sthalidevatanam muk tasthulas tarukisalayesvasrulesah patantis (The local deities shed tear drops as big as pearls on the shoots of the trees when they see me (throwing out my arms into space to embrace you).) The figure of speeeh here is Utpreksa or Poetic fancy, instances of which have already been indicated in particular in the descriptions of the country and the eapital city. In the above example Utpreksa one also finds a pun (Slesa). The word Kannir can be read in two ways with the word 'panicer. (i) panicer ka! + nir corintanave. (ii) panicer kannir corintanave. Here if one reads "Panier ka[+nir corintanave. then the meaning is the trees shed honey with dew (as tears)', and if one reads 'panicer kannir corintahave', then the meaning is the trees cried with the tears of dew drops.' Tevar also attempts to employ the different kinds of similes set forth by the rhetoricians. Thus Malopama is employed in describing the growth of Civakan. pal pum poykait tamarai ponrum panivanatt ellar kannum inpuray urum mati pontum kollun cinkak kuttiyum ponr iv ulakettac cellum manno civakan teyyap pakai venre. 3 (Civakan grew without being affected by the diseases which affect small children (tey vappakai), like a lotus which is in the pond full of lotuses, like a moon which moves in the cold sky giving pleasure to the eyes of all people, and like the cub of a lion.) 1 Cc. v. 312. 2 Meghaduta, Uttaramegha, v. 43. 3 Cc. v. 364.

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110 Study of Civakacintamani Examples of similes involving allasions to Sanskrit mythology, epics, and other works in Sanskrit can be seen in the following cases. (i) ... ilankal aliyinan kalict ittam pol Kalonku ten tirai mayntu. I (Like the herd of elephants of the king (Bharatesvara) who had a shiping orb, they (clouds) drank water from the sea ...) Here the elephants of Bharatesvara kiog, 8 a Jaina mythological figure, is compared to the clouds. (ii) ...arumani marakatatt ankanariya eri nirap ponn ital entu tamarait tirumakal ival erat ,..... 3 (She jooked as if she was the Laksmi who was born in the golden lotus which had golden petals, which was born in (a pond in) the mountain made of emerald. (iii) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. per amarul anru perun tataiy otum perop por amaru ninray isaiyonit polivurran.* (He shone like Abhimanyu who fought without turning his back in the battlefield against his uncle Karna in the great war (The Bharata war).) Here the king Caccanatn is compared with Abhimanyu who was opposing Karna in the Bharata war. (iv) tot ani makalir ponra tunar malark kom par kompi atavar pola rantum ataintanav ali yirkk olki utiya makalir pilav ocintanav uta zikkum cetarit cenru pulli cirupuran talliya tumpi. (The bees, like lovers, went to the branches full of clusters of flowers, which were like ladies adorned with flowers. The branches hent down (with the weight of the bees) like ladies who are sulky towards their lovers. The dragon-flies which were like the Cetas went and sat on the higher parts of the branches as if they were helping to appease the ladies by embracing them on the back.) Here the branches with clusters of flowers are compared to the sulky ladies and the bees to thier lovers. The branches are bending and the dragon-flies are sitting on theni like Cetas who help the lovers to remove their ladies' anger. The character Ceta occurs in Sankrit dramas. He serves as intermediary between lovers and their angry sweethearts. In these examples one cannot understand the simile unless one is familiar with the relevant ideas in Sanskrit literature. 1 Ibid, v. 32. 2 Refer, notes given by U. V. Saminatha Iyer to the Cc. v. 32 in his edition for details of this story. 3 Cc. v. 183. Refer, notes by U. V. Saminatha Iyer to the Cc. v. 183 in his edition for details. 4 Cc. v. 288. 5 Ibid, v 852 6 Vidvanatha, Prataparudriya, 39.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. 111 Tevar also employs the figure of speech yamaka in his work. The first seven stanzas of the Pamakal ilampakam contain the figure of speech yamaka. For instance in the following verse, kitar puliyu mulaik kolarly arum orna kitar mejiyak kolai ven ninaintanaiy ettik kutara malaik kuvi men mulaik kotal mallar kucara maja mayil polak kulliyinara.1 (The ladies who wore pearl garlands on their round breasts, gathered like peacocks on balconies and domes to praise the one (Civakan) who wielded his oppressive murderous spear against his enemies, who were like male lions and tigers in a cage.) The first word in all the four lines is 'Kuear' and this word has to be analysed in different ways to give different meanings. Thus in the first line 'Kur should be separated as katu+ar (the one in the cage); in the second line as kutar (the enemies) in the third line as katu+aram (with pearl necklace) and in the fourth line as kutaram (dome). In such places, one is reminded of examples from the works of Bharavi, Magha and the later Sanskrit kavya writers. There are many places where the figure of speech employed obscures the meaning and is thus at best an adornment of doubtful value to the poem. The following verse, which describes the wall of the city Iracamapuram, serves as a good example of this. vayira varai kan vilippa penru malaly ukalum vayira manit talk katavu vayin mukamaka vayira mani hayin mulai van por kotik kintal vayirak kitonk atai matir kanniyatu kavine.1 (The beauty of the lady wall was such that her face was the door that looked like a mountain with its eyes open with the diamond bolt, and on which the clouds lay, her breasts were the bastion, her hair was the golden flag, and her diamondwhite dress was the moat.). To describe the beauty of the wall, he uses the figure of speech Rupaka, and portrays the wall as a lady. Here to understand the beauty of the wall, the reader has first to understand the figure of speech he has employed and the ideas he tries to explain. Only after that can the reader understand the beauty which the author is trying to explain 5. The discussion of the descriptions in the Cc. leads on to the depiction of sentiments, which is achieved mainly through these descriptions and through the speeches and actions of the characters. The importance of Rasa or sentiment has been recognised in Sanskrit in the statement 'vakyam rasatmakam kavyam'. The concept of the importance given to the sentiment may be traced to the popularity enjoyed by driya 1 Cc. v. 2328. 2 Cc. v. 105.

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112 Study of the Civakacintamani kavyas such as drama (nataka). In Sanskrit the rasa theory was first propounded by Bharata in his Natyasastra. He deals with rasa in order to indicate how the actors in a drama or a dancer must portray the sentiments on the stage in such a way as to captivate and keep the audience en rapport with what is going on, on the stage. He also deals with the rules regarding what must and what must not be shown on the stage and the combination of sentiments are allowed. As we have seen earlier there is a great resemblance between the rasa theory of Bharata and the Meyppattiyal of Tolkappiyar. But unlike in Sanskrit where the later rhetoricians evolved clear-cut definitions about rasa, dhvani etc., based on the ideas of Bharata, there has been on similar effort in Tamil. The rhetoricians in Sanskrit extended the ideas about rasa to the Sravya kavyas as well and this resulted in the stress on sentiment placed by authors like Dandin, Bhamaha, Vamana, Udbhata and Rudrata. Tevar appears to have been well versed in these doctrines unlike the earlier authors in Tamil who wrote epics spontaneously and not in cooformity with rigid rules of poetics. It was the convention in Sanskrit that a mabakavya would portray one predominant sentiment and contain other sentiments which must be depicted in such a way as to enhance the main sentiment. Tevar chooses the srngara rasa as the main sentiment of his work. He names every canto of the poem to indicate one marriage of the hero Civakan. In some cantos the names are based on actual marriages and in some the names indicate his union with knowledge (nanam), earth (manmaka!), coronation (pumakal) and salvation (mutti). Thus naming all his chapters after the weddings of Civakan, Tevar makes the Cc. a poem of weddings (mana nal). The wedding and the marital life of Civakan 'receive descriptions throughout the book. The love in union known as 'kutal' in Tamil and as sambhoga stngara in Sanskrit is portrayed elaborately both in accordance with Tamil and Sanskrit literary traditions. Tevar dwells on subtle details as amorous glances, dalliance, honeymoon etc. and in describing them makes full use of his artillery in figures of speech, lilting melody and alliterative phrases. Sometimes his erudition in the later Sanskrit mabakavyas which are full of these figures of speech reaches the point of tedium and detracts from the beauty of the poem. They hamper the delineation of the exact sentiment he wants to convey through his verse. For example: atciy aim poriyalan utampenum pulci nil kotip purrin akatturai vat ka nokk enum vai eyicr ar alal * vetkai nakattin mittun kolap pattal, 1 (She was again affected by the poison that is spread in the teeth (the look of his sharp eyes) of the snake (desire), which lives in the hill (Givakan's body which controls the five senses of impelling nature) where the creeper (of determination) grows), 1 Cc. v. 1292,

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. 113 This verse which describes the scene in which Patumai who is revived from the effects of the poison due to the snake bite by Civakan, faints away on seeing the face of Civakan, is full of metaphors. Tevar wants to describe the glance of Civakan as a second snake which bit Patumai again and thereby to bring out Srngara rasa. But, the elaborate imagery serves more to show off the cleverness of the poet than to lend clarity and charm to the narration which delineate the rasa. As we have seen earlier, the union of Patumai with Civakan in the garden is described in accordance with the early Tamil traditions as seen in Cankam poems. Her friends arrange the meeting between the two by bringing her to the garden after decking her with garlands, saffron, pearls, etc. They leave her in the garden in a lonely place and go away on the pretext of several errands. When Civakan sees Patumai alone he wonders whether she is a goddess and this wonderment is described according to the early Tamil postical traditions. The union which takes place between Patumai and Civakan in the garden is narrated in the lines of Iyarkkaip punarcci (natural union) deseribed in earlier Tamil love poems. After their marriage, Teyar continues to deseribe their marital pleasure in nine verses, Civakan's union with Tecikappavai and her episode seems to have included to facilitate another description of erotic sentiment. in his manner of describing the union of lovers, Tevar differs markedly from the earlier poets like Jlanko. For example, llaoko even when he describes the state of Kovalan, who was intoxicated by the love of Matavi, says mana manai pukku matavi tannotu anaivuru vaikalin ayarntanan mayanki vituta! asiya viruppinan ayinan1 (He (Kovalan) entered the bridal chamber with Matavi. As he embraced her, he was captivated by her, and became fond of her and did not like to part from her.) Here in these three lines, he explains the pleasures Kovalan had and his constant presence with Matavi. A closely similar situation is discussed in the Cc. when Caccantap is infatuated with Vicayai. But here, Tevar takes this opportunity to depict the erotic sentiment and describe their pleasures with all details.2 The same kind of description can be found in the verses in which he narrates the marital pleasures Civakan bad with Kantaruyatattai3 and with his other wives. The love in separation called 'pirital in Tamil and Vipralmabha sigara in Sanskrit is also delineated by Tevar while describing the states of Kantaruvatattai, Kunamalai, Patumai. and Kemacari when Civakan leaves them and goes. Particu. larly the lamentation of Patumai, after Civakan leaves her in the night while she was asleep, proceeds in fourteen verses. She goes to the pet parrot and myna and * 1 Cilapatikaram, Arankerrukatai, lines 171-174 2 Gc. vv. 188-198. 3 Cc, vv. 838-841, Sc-15

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114 Study of Civakacintamani speaks with indignation that they had let bim go; asks the swan why it would not bring Civakan back, entreats the peacock to tell his whereabouts and addresses inanimate objects like the lamp, the mansions etc. One recalls here the famous observation of Kalidasa in his Meghaduta, Kamarta hi prakti-kr panas cetanacetanesul ( Those who in love are incapable of discriminatng between animate and inanimate objects.) This lamentation of Patumai reminds one of the famous scenes in the Ramayana and in the Vikramorvasiya where Rama and Vikrama lament when separated from Sita and Urvasi respectively. The theme which Tevar has chosen afforded him plenty of opportunities to depict almost all the other sentiments also. This and his eagerness to deal elaborately with such situations contrast sharply with the methods adopted in works like the Cilappatikaram. Jlanko does not depend upon any source book and build up the plot steadily towards the climax of the murder of Kovalan and the grief and anger of Kasnaki in Madurai. In the case of Tevar, his idea is to describe the history of Civakan which provides him a broad Kavya tract in which he could cultivate all the sentiments. A typical situation which occurs in common in all the three works the Cilappatikaram, the Manimekalai and the Cc. is that of the hero controlling an intoxicated elephant. The incident is related in all these poems to bring out the heroism of the heroes, Kovalan, Utayakumaran and Civakan. In the Cilappatikaram this incident is related by Matalan in the following lines : .. atan kaiy akam pukkup poy poru mutanku kai ven kott atanki maiy iTun kunrin vincaiyan eyppap pitart falai iruntu perun cinam piralak katak kalir atak kiya karunai maraya2 (You the kind hearted one, entered its trunk, and remaining between the white curved tusks, stood on its nape like a Vidyadhara on a dark hill, and controlled the furious elephant.) The description here is picturesque, but still is relegated to the status of a small incident recollected by a minor character, Matal in. It the Maninekalai, Udayakumaran controls the wild elephant in Pukar and this is narrated by Cattanar in the following way; vilu parik kutiraiyin viraintu cenru eyti kotunkan yanaiyin katat tiram atakki 3 ((He) went on a fast horse and controlled the strength of the elephant which has furious eyes.) 1 Kalidasa, Meghaduta, Purvamegha, v. 5. 2 Cilapparikuram, Ataikkala katai, lines 49-52. 3 Ma imekalai, Pajikkarai pukka katai, lines 45-46.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. 115 The incident is just used by the poet to introduce the hero into the story with a suggestion regarding his valour. But in the Cc, seven verses in the Kunamalaiyar ilampakam describe the encounter which Civakan had with the wild elephant 1 Though the incident has the significance of making Civakan and Kunamalai meet under circumstances calculated to cause love in their hearts, this has been exploited by Tevar for a skilful delineation of the heroic sentiment. The three battle scenes in which Civakan conquers the hunters who stole the cows of the cowherds, the kings who fought against him after the svayamvara of Kantaruvatattai and Kattiyankaran are places in which Tevar has evoked the sentiment of heroism by a skilful use of rhymes, alliterations and assonance. The dexterous use of weapons, the anger in the hearts of the warriors, the sternness shown in killing the enemy etc. are described in detail in such a way as to bring out the sentiment vividly. The battle scene also gives rise to the sentiment of the odious, viz. bibhatsa. The following verse is a good example of a verse depicting this sentiment: kutar vanku kuru narikal ko!u ninap pular cerrut totar ranku kata nay por ronrina totittin to! patar tirak kon elunta paravaikal pata nakam utana kontelukinruv uvanappulottarave.2 (The foxes which were pulling the intestines among the mud of fat, looked like the dogs which were pulling the chain The birds which took the shoulders (of the dead body) in the sky in order to be relieved from the thought of searching for food, looked like garudas up with hoodecobra.) The verses of this kind remind one of the poems in th: Parani literature in Tamil. In the scene in which Vicayai gives birth to Civakan in the burial ground Tevar scales the peak of Karuna rasa. Her desolation is well described in the follo. wing stanza: parra manna nakarppuramar payal pinanc cul cutu katal urrar illat tamiyanal otunkal akat iunk trulal marrin nalam utaijay ni valaru marum ariyenal erray itu kant ekatey irittiyal en in uyira. 3 Adbhuta rasa is brought into play in scenes involving magic spells and in other super natural incidents. The scene in which Nantattan fights with his enemies in his chariot which is flying in th: sky, the scene in which Kantaruvatattai uses Ankamani mantra (a mantra which enables one to fly in the sky) to enable Nantatgan to go 1 Cc. vv. 977-983. 2 Cc. v, 2242. 3 Cc. v. 310. For the translation of this verse refer supra p. 12. 4 Cc. vv. 793-796.

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116 Study of Civakacintamani to Civakan who is with his wife Kanakamalai, the transformation of the dog into the celestial Cutancanal by Civakan on pronouncing the Pancanamaskara mantra and the scene in which Crvakan is taken away in the sky in the background of an artificial thunderstorm from MataDan, who was taking Civakan to be executeds are instances where adbhuta rasa is well brought out. Bhayanaka rasa (terror) is portrayed in the description of the burial ground where Civaka is born. The speech of Matanan, the cousin of Kattiyankaran when he heard the advice of Uruttiratattan given to Kattiyankaran asking him not to start a war against the Caccantan depicts the sentiment of anger (raudra rasa).5 Following the speech of Matanan. Kattiyankaran expresses his anger in the next three verses.6 Thus in the following verse, perspiration, reddening of the eyes, derisive laughter etc. which are the symptoms of the sentiment of anger are described graphically. vevvay ori mu lavakav ilintar imam vilakkaka ovvac cutukat uyar aranki nilal po nutankip payata evvey marunkik irunt irankik kukai kularip paraitta ivvarakap piroppatuvo ituvo mannarkk iyal venta.+ 1 Cc. vv. 1713. nun muttam arriyahku mey ellam viyarttu noytin van mutta nirai ko nerri var muri puruvam akkik (Perspiring all over the body and (looking) as though he was studded with pearls, and with a curved eyebrow on the forehead full of (perspiration in the form of) pearls, and with eyes full of the fire of anger, and having broken the gem studdded bangles on his hand, thus said Kattiyankaran with boisterous langhter.). Civakan's challenge to the kings after winning Kantaruvtauttai in the lute competition is worded in a verse full of appropriate rhymes and hard consonantal sounds. The following verse is a good example: kann eri tavala van kai mani naku katakam erra ven pakai vekunju nakkuk kattiyankaran connan.T (I will first see that you all run away on seeing me like the darkness which is dispelled on the appearance of the sun, and then I will embrace the breasts of the maiden who has beautiful tresses. Otherwise, let my name vanish from this world where the sun and moon revolve.) erl cutarp paruti munnar iru! ena ujaintu ninkap poru palai mannar nunkal purak kojal kantu marr im murukutaik kalalind fan muki mulai kalappal anal iru cutar valankum vaiyatt en peyar ketukar erran.8 2 Cc. vv. 645-952, 3 Cc. vv. 1157-1158. 4 Cc. v. 309. For translation refer supra, p. 12. 5 Cc. v. 257. 6 Cc. vv. 258-260. 7 Cc. v. 258. 8 Ibid, v. 773.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style The actions and speeches of Civakan when he assumes the form of an old in the Curamancariy ar ilampakam, are replete with the comic sentiment (hasya rasa). The above survey makes it clear that Tevar has taken great pains to mould the events in the story and his descriptions to bring out all the various sentiments. Though his delineation is very effective in most places, his tendency to put in evidence of his scholarship sometimes detracts from the spontaneity of the poem. A typical instance is the situation where Civakan tries to cure Patumai from the effects of the snake's poison.1 Here Tevar brings out all his knowledge about various snakes and symptoms seen in the body when those snakes bite a person. This is definitely an inappropriate digression which spoils the sentiment and the atmosphere of the situa tion. The repetition of similar scenes in different places and in some instances, the deliberate introduction of situations to depict a certain sentiment are flaws which mar the overall effect of the delineation of sentiments in the poem. Now we shall proceed to consider the last point regarding the general structure, the arrangement of the chapters and the metres used in the epic Co. 117 The Cc. has been divided into thirteen chapters, named as 'ilampakams'. This division into 'ilampakams' occurs for the first time in this work. Naccinarkkiniyar points out in his commentary at the end of the Namakaj ilampakam of the Cc. that the word 'ilampakym' is a 'vata col i e, a Sanskrit word. This division into 'ilampakams' by Tevar is one of the significant features arising from the interaction of Sanskrit. In Sanskrit literature, the words 'Lambha' 'Lamba' and 'Lambaka' (vv. 11. 'Lambhaka') are used. The word 'Lambha' (vv. 11 'Lamba') occurs in the Kavyadaria of Dandin. The words 'Lambha' and 'Lamba' appear in the Srigara Praksia. The word 'Lambaka' is used in the meaning of 'Pendant' as the name of sections in the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva. V. Raghavan in the discussion of the word 'Lambha' in his work Bhoaj's Srngara Prakaja says that the word Lambha occurs in the work of Architecture and Painting (Visnudhar mottara) to name the sections.5 Further, Lacote in his work "Essai sur Gupadhya Et La Brhatkatha" suggests a new meaning to the word 'Lambha'. This strikes us as being particularly appropriate and relevant to our discussion here.6 According to Lacote 'Lambha' means 'conquest', specially the conquest of women'. He says that this word. Lambha is the Prakrit version of the Sanskrit word 'Labha' meaning 'gain'. As Lacote points out, we also come across the word 'Lambha' in the meaning of 'gain' in Mahabhartata. For example, the word 'rajyalambha' means 'the gaining of a kingdom.' It 1 Cc. vv. 1285-1288 2 Naccinarkkiniyar, Commentary on Cc v. 408. 3 Dandin, Kavyadarsa, 1 27. 4 V. Raghavan, Bhoja's Srngara Prakasa, Madras, 1963, p. 844. 5 V. Raghavan, op. cit., p. 844. 6 F. Lacote, Essai sur Gunndhya et la Brhatkatha, Paris, 1908, pp. 220 ff. 7 Ibid., p. 222. 8 ..vidurigamanancaiva-rajya lambhastataiva ca.' Mahabharata, 1:2, v. 362.

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118 Study of Civak acintamani is Lacote's contention that in the Brhatkatha, the original intent of the author must have been to name only these chapters relating to Naravahanadatta's conquests of his numerous wives as 'Lambhas', whereas other chapters dealing with the history of Udayana etc.might have been named by him differently. Thus it would appear that the indiscriminate use of the term 'Lambha' denoting a chapter of any prose work (katha) is an abuse originating at a later period. This can also be seen from the way Dapdin dismisses the distinction between Katha and Akhyayika on the basis of the division into lambhas and ucchvasas as something trivial 1 As for the origin of the word 'Lambhaka' Lacote suggests that the adjectival form of 'Lambhaka' is obtained by the addition of the suffix 'ka' to get 'Lambha' and thus each chapter might have been called as ". . . . . lambhaki nama sargah." By dropping out the portion common to all such titles, i.e. nama sargah, one is simply left with 'Lambhaka',2 Lacote's suggestion appears to be very apt in the case of the Cc. where as we have already seen, the entire story of Civakan, i.e. his education, marriages, attainment of kingdom, coronation and his salvation, has been narrated in the form of a succession of marriages with the bride called Learning, his various queens, with the bride called Kingdom, with the bride called Earth, and with the bride called Salvantion. From this it is clear that Tevar has borne in mind the Sanskrit tradition described above and has named his chapters relating each of these conqustes by Civakan as ilampakams'. Vadibhasimha also follows this pattern in his works by naming his chapters as Sarasvati lambha etc. The metres used by Tevar in his work mostly come under the class of verses known as 'pavinams' (supplementary metres) in Tamil. To examine any possible element of Sanskrit influence in the selection and use of these verse patterns and the appositeness of Dandin's remark concerning 'metres pleasing to the cars' (ravya-vrttaib) to the metres found in the Cc., a discussion of the metrical patterns commonly used in Sanskrit and Tamil becomes necessary. In Sanskrit, the class of verses called 'Padya', which are of common occurrence, is defined as one that has four lines. It is divided into two kinds, the vrtta and the jati. The basic unit which determines the vrtta is the syllable and in the jati it is the syllabic instant. A jati metre is determined by the number of syllabic instants used in each line of the verse. In the vrtta metres, the syllables are divided into guru (long) and laghu (short). Each line is scanned into 'ganas' or syllabic groups. There are on the whole ten gapas, viz. ma, ya, ra, sa, ta, ja, bha, na, ga and la. Of these the first eight have three syllables each; one long syllable is designated as 'ga' and one short as 'la'. The different ganas are distinguished by different combinations of the short and long syllables. The kind of metre is determined by the combinations of 1 Dandin, Kavyadarsa 1:27. 2 Locate, op. cit., p. 222. 3 Supra. pp. 201, 202.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style these groups occurring in the four lines of the verse. According to the occurrence of these ganas in the verse, the vrtta metre is divided into three groups, sama (even) ardhasama (semi-even) and visama (uneven). In the sama-vrtta metre all the lines in the verse have the same combinations of the syllabic groups; in the ardhasama kind, the first and the third and the second and the fourth lines have the same combinations of the syllabic groups; in the visama kind of metre each line has a different group of syallabic combination. 119 In Tamil, four basic verse forms were employed in the earlier days and these are called the Veopa, the Aciriyappa, the Kalippa and the Vancippa. In these metres there is no specific requirement that they must have only four lines as in Sanskrit. The required number of lines in cach of these verse forms are different. The basic unit of the metre is however determined on the same principle of long and short syllables and their combinations. Still the method by which they are combined is different from that of Sanskrit. The three main elements of the metre are 'cir' (foot), the 'talai' (the link between two feet) and the 'ati" (the line). The cir (foot) is determined by the number of syllables it contains. There are two main kinds of syllables (acai) called 'ner' and 'nirai'. These syllables occur either singly or in groups of two, three, four or sometimes even five to constitute a cir. A 'ner' syllable group can be either a long syllable or a long syllable followed by a consonant or a short syllable or a short syllable followed by a consonant. A 'nirai' syllable group can be either two short syllables, or two short syllables followed by a consonant or one short and one long syllable or one short and one long syllable followed by a consonant. The first requirement in a kind of verse form is the kind and the number of feet occurring in the lines. Thus Aciriyappa kind of verse should have mostly feet made of two syllables (iyar-cir). The penultimate line of the verse should have three feet (cintati) whereas the other lines can be of four feet (alavati). The final syallable of the final syllable should be one of the following sounds, 'e, o, en, i, a, ay, or 'ai'. The other feature which is peculiar to Tamil prosody concerns the 'talai', the link between two feet. It determines the relation between the syllables (acai) occurring at the end of one foot and the beginning of th: following foot. Thue the aciriyattalai' (the link which comes in the verse 'aciriyappa') is made up of foot which consists of two syllables followed by another foot of two or three syllables (if it is a foot made of three syllable the last syllable should be 'ner' acai) with the restriction that the last syllable of a foot and the first syllable of the following foot are of the same kind of 'acai'. The third feature determining the verse form is the number of lines occurring in it. Thus in an 'aciriyappa' which must contain mostly 'iyar-cir' the feet made of two syllables and ciriyattalai must also have a minimum of three lines. It can be of any number of lines which are more than three with the restriction in the penultimate line and on the final syllable of the final line. A verse cannot be identified as an 'aciriyappa' if it lacks any of these features. Likewise the other main metres, venpa, kalippa, and vancippa are also identified by similar criteria.

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120 Study of Civakacintamani When these criteria are fulfilled these four metres produse characteristic musical tones ('ocai') of their own when read. For example, the 'aciriyappa' always has a narrative tone (akaval-ocai'), the 'venpa' has a conversational tone ('ceppal-ocai'), the *kalippa' has a jumping and trotting tone ("tu]lal ocai') and the 'vancippa' has got a swinging tone ("turkal ocai'). Apart from these four main metres, there is also a metre called 'marutpa' which combines the tones the 'venpa' and the faciriyappa' at the end respectively. This is not very common in the early Tamil literature. It is apparent that such conditions place severe restrictions on the composer, and it was but natural that there arose a good many deviations from the rules. This gave rise to supplementary categories of verses known as "pavinams'. It is not known at what stage this began or whether Sanskrit elements influenced their evolution in any way. These supplementary metres are classified under the three heads, the 'talicai', the 'turai' and the 'viruttam'. All of them are subject to rule: similar to those governing the original 'pa' metres ( the main metres ) in regard to the feet and the lines. But the rigid and cumbersome restrictions on the links between the feet are mostly lifted in the new verse patterns. This meant considerable freedom for the authors to introduce syllables so as to depict various moods, to set the verse to music and rhythm or to produce desired sound effects. The main requirement for a 'viruttam' is that it should have four lines. We do not know whether this is anything more than an accidental coincidence with the Sanskrit 'catuspadi' (stanza with four lines). Alliteration (etukai) and assonance (monai) are essential for this verse form. The relaxation of restrictions on the links meant that the characteristics sound (ocai) of the earlier metres were lost. But, this was only an advantage. In the earlier poems, a particular kind of verse could echo only a corresponding mood and conversely, to describe a particular mood only the metre appropriate to it could be employed. With metres like the 'viruttams' this was no longer the case and much was left to the inge. nuity of the poet. In Tamil, the Cilappat ikaram, the Magimekalai and the Peru a katai are all in the 'aciriyappa' metre. But we find some parts of the Cilappatikaram where the supplementary metres have been employed I The supplementary metres are greatly used in the devotional songs of Saiva saints and Vaisnava alvars. The Cc. is the first epic in Tamil with verses couched in the 'pavinam' metres. Out of the 3145 verses found in the Cc., except 271 verses which are in the 'tupai' metre, the rest of the verses are in the viruttam metre 2 The following chart given by Gnanamurthy in his work clearly shows us the various kinds of metres use and their numbers in each chapter.3 Tevar who was aware of the requirement 'sravyavsttaih' (metres pleasing to the ears) for a mahakavya made effective use of the freedom afforded by the melodious 'viruttam' verses. 1 A Chidambaranatha Chettiyar, Advanced Studies in Tamil Prosody, 3rd edition, Annamalai 1957, pp. 98 ff. 2 T. E. Gnanamurthy, op. cit. p. 266. 3 Ibid., p. 266. See next page for Chart.

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The Sanskrit interaction of the literary style $2121 Serial No. Ilampakam Kali Viruttam Kalitturai Arucir Aciriya Viruttam Elucir Aciriya Viruttam Encir Aciriya Viruttam Aciriyatturai Vancitturai Oratimikku vanta kali Viruttam* Total 1. Namakal llampakam' 205 99 -379 2. Kovintaiyar Ilampakam 25 10 1:49 484 3. Kantarvatattaiyar Ilampakam 126 4 202 16 358 34315 246 - - - - - 145 332 106 107 4. Kunamalaiyar llampakam ,147 26 5. Patumaiyar llampakam 127 6 6. Kemacariyar llampakam 743 7. Kanakamalaiyar llampakam 131 26 8. Vimalayiar llampakam 46 18 9. Curamancariyar llampakam 38 - 10. Manmakal llampakam 67 15 11. Pumakal llampakem 3 33 12. Ilakkanaiyar Ilampakam 41 13. Mutti Ilampakam 246 35 14. Katavu! Valttu - 3 15. Avaiyatakkam - 2 16. Patikam - 24 142 113 68 175 35 59 128 15 93 262 - - - 7 8 15 - . 2 - - - - - 225 - - - - 51 221 - - - 547 1 - - - 3 - - - - - - - - - 24 Total... 1317 255 1498 40 16 1 16 2 3145 Naccinarkkiniyar calls this verse as "Oratimikku vanta koccaka oru poku." This classification of verses is based on th> forms of verses found in th> V Edition of Civakacintamani by Dr. U. V. Saminatha Aiyar. Sc-16

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Study of Civakacintamani The phrase 'bhinnavrttantaih in Dandin's definition has been interpreted in two ways as follows: bhinna+vrttantaib, meaning 'with rich variety of topics' or bhinnavitta + antaib, i.e. 'ending in verses composed in a different metre. 122 The tradition of ending each canto with a verse of a different metre has accordingly been observed by authors of such works in Sanskrit. We find that this practice has not been followed by Tevar except when such a change is also accompanied by a change in the subject matter or the mood of the narrative. His manipulation of the metres is dictated mainly by the need to make the sound echo or depict the sense. His remarkable success in doing this has been dealt with in considerable detail by T. E. Gnanamurthy in his chapter on metre.1 To sum up, it is clear from the foregoing analysis that Tevar has been markedly. influenced by Sanskrit literary patterns. It appears that he has made a conscious attempt to follow the principles governing the composition of a mahakavya set forth by Sanskrit rhetoricians, in the composition of his epic. In doing so, he has however taken care not to depart from the established literary traditions and characteristics peculiar to Tamil. The result of such an effort has been a harmonious blending of the two literary traditions, 1 T. E. Gnanamurthy, op. cit. pp. 258-281.

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A chapter on Jainism is relevant to this thesis as Jainism provided an important channel for the interplay of Sanskritic elements with features characteristic of Tamil in the Cc. But the question immediately arises whether it is possilbe to detect a similar interaction of Sanskrit on all Jaina works in Tamil. If not, how does the Cc. differ from the other works in this respect? For that one may ask why the references to Jainism in the Cc. cannot be traced back to the earlier Jain works in Tamil. In other words is it necessary to invoke the interaction of Sanskrit works with the Cc. at all? CHAPTER V THE INTERACTION OF SANSKRIT THROUGH JAINISM The literary endeavours of Jains in Tamil date back to the post Cankam period. Among the Patinepkilkkapakku works (eighteen minor poems) the Nalatiyar, the Elati, the Cirupancamalam and the Tipaimalai-nurraimpatu were composed by Jain authors. These works are mainly didactic in nature and deal with rules of good conduct and the transience of material objects and worldly existence. They presumably had a moral purpose i.e. of guiding people and evolving serial conventions. We also find Jain references in the Cilappatikaram and the Perupkatai. In spite of the references to the Jain religious practices etc. found in Cilappatikaram, it was not written primarily as a religious work. The Perupkatai though written by the Jaina author Konkuvejir, contains only a few references to Jainiam and there is no detailed exposition of religious ideas. The Cc. differs from all these earlier poems both by virtue of the period in which it was composed and its subject-matter. It was a time during which Tamil and Sanskrit enjoyed equal importance and the Jains were engaged in religious propaganda. One of their principal means of doing this was through literary works which contained Jain doctrines borrowed freely from works in Sanskrit and Prakrit. The Cc. stands foremost among works of this kind. It can be stated without hesitation that it is a Jain religious work garbed in Kavya form. It contains the whole body of Jain philosophy, especially in the Muttiyilampakam. To understand these ideas of Jainism as related in the Cc. a knowledge of the earlier Jain works in Tamil and Jain traditions in Tamil land alone is not adequate. It is here that the ideas have to be traced back to sources in Sanskrit and Prakrit. In some places Tevar has derived his inspiration from the earlier Jain works in Tamil which deal mainly with Jain ethical ideas. For example in the stanza, 1 Cc. v. 1583. pototu nana mulkip pum pukai tava!ntu mullaik Kitai kan patukkun kuntal kurai vali pitto aiyey itak cey malaika neyttir iraicciyen pirun mulai kotan cey kutarkal purro narampolu valumpit erran1

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124 Study of Civakacintamani (Oh, the one who has hair which is smeared with musk, smoked (with aloe) and adorned with flowers! This body is full of pain giving air, bile, mucous, dirt, blood, flesh, bones, liver, brain and trouble giving intestines, nerves, skin and fat.y! Tevar is expressing the same idea which is contained in the following verse in the Nalatiyar ; kutarun koluvun kurutiyum enpum totarun narampotu tolum itaiyitaiya vaitta tatiyum valumpumam marrivarrul ettirattal irnkotaiyali (iThe body is entrails and marrow, and blood, and bone, and connecting tendons, and skin, and here and there flesh interposed, and fat. In the midst of these, "' what sort of a being is she who wears the fresh garlands ?)2 Both these verses deal with the general theme of the unclean nature of the human body and 4t 'is uot necsssary to refer to any other source to understand this. In contrast to this let us consider another stanza from Cc. teliv aruit eluvar pattar ir enmar tilaittu vilniar kaliru kal utaip pavemmar kavilntanar kalattinulle pilir ivi: peti pen noy asuvakaittuvarppum pecin ali 'palu cintai ennum" ali vay vilntavan, .3 (In the battle field, seven people fell down unconscious. Sixteen of them felt down after fighting. Eight people were overthrown when the elephant kicked with its leg. If one talks about the neuter sex, which fell down shouting, the female sex and the six noo-passions, they fell under the wheel of kind thought.) This deals with a particular stage (gunastbana) in the spiritual progress of Civakara stage in which his soul is engaged in destroying his karmas. References such as "elavar vilntar", "ir enmar tilaittu vilntar" cannot be understood except with reference to the Jaina treatises in Sanskrit and Prakrit. There is no evidence available to indicate that there were Tamil books prior to the Cc. which dealt with the philosophical (as distinguished from the ethical and moral) tenets of Jainism Hence Tevar would have had to rely on Sanskrit or Prakrit works for such philosophical ideas. As Tevar was a Digambara Jain he must have written Cc. only on the basis of earlier Digambara Jaina books. Thus in tracing the influence of Sanskrit Jaina works on Cc. we have consulted only the Digambara Jaina Sanskrit and Prakrit works and their commentaries written before the tenth century A.D. These are (i) the Samayasara of Kundakunda (2nd century A.D. (?) )4 (ii) Ratnakarandaka-sravakacaia of Samantabhadra (C.450 (?) )5 (iii) Tattvartha sutra of Umasvamin (3rd century A.D. (?) )8 (iv)) Sarvarthasiddhi of Pujyapada (6th century A.D. (?))? (v) Adipurana of Jinasena (9th century A.D.). 1 Nalatiyar, v. 46, 2 Translated by G. U. Pope, Naladiyar, Oxford, 1893, p. 323 Cc. v. 3076. 4 A Williams, Jaina Yoga, A survey of the medieval Sravakacaras, London, 1963, p. 17. 5 lbid., p. 17. 6 Ibid., p. 17. 7 lbid., p. 17.

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 125 The ideas from these works are borrowed in the Cc. in two ways, religious and linguistic. We restrict ourselves to the religious section in this chapter. The linguistic aspects will be dealt with in Chapter Six. In most instances it is not easy to find the exact source in Sanskrit from which a particular passage or idea in Cc. originates. But as these ideas are new to Tamil one may conclude that they are from Sanskrit and Prakrit works on Jajna philosophy. There are however a few instances in which the ideas can be traced to RatanakarandakaSravakacara (Rk.), the Sanskrit work which deals with the duties of a householder. In these cases the passages be a striking resemblance to the corresponding original Sanskrit passages. As the example quoted earlier illustrates, it is difficult if not impossible to understand many verses in the Cc. containing references to Jainism withont a grasp of these Jain doctrines themselves. Hence we shall discuss the fundamental principles of Jainism with reference to their treatment in the Cc. here. The soul and its relation to the universe form the central theme of Jainism. According to Jainism universe has no beginning or end. It is not created by any God or higher being. Its essential character is never changed though there may be changes in its component parts. It is only subject to its own law (lokasthiti). This universe con tains the souls and the non-souls. The soul intrinsically does not have a material pature. Through its actions during the various births it assimilates karmas and thereby acquires material characteristics. The Jain religion envisages that the soul should avoid the inflow of the karmic matter and destroy karmas already acquired. When the karmas are thus destroyed the soul ascends to the top of the universe and there it experiences infinite knowledge, perception, potency and bliss. No other bigher being can help the soul to attain the state of perfection. It has to do this only through its own efforts. The souls thus liberated are called Siddhas. They are praised by the Jains not because they have any influence over worldly matters but because they stand as ideals for the others. Therefore the whole idea of Jaina doctrine is to guide the soul fettered with karmas towards freedom from its karmas and to move towards perfection. The Jaina religious doctrine explained in the Cc. will be discussed under three divisions : (i) metaphysical ideas-the relationship between the soul and the non-soul. (ii) ethical and ritualistic ideas and the rules which are intended to pave the way for the soul towards salvation, and the rituals practised. (iii) theological teachings - the relationship between the soul and the liberated soul. Most of the metaphysical, ethical ideas and the conduct of a Jaina ascetic are explained in the teachings of the Caranan, Manivannan, the religious advice given by Civakan to his wives and Cutapmar's answer to king Cenikans question in the Muttiyilampakam. The conduct of a householder is discussed chiefly tbrough the lay

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126 Study of Civakacintamani life of Civakan and the characters connected with his life. These are explained by Tevar through scories, similes, teachings given by characters, allegorical expressions and sometimes through religious discourses. In the analysis of the Jaina doctrine as treated in Cc. the techniques which Tevar has employed will also be mentioned. Metaphysical ideas Metaphysics deals with the connection between man and the universe. According to Jainism the universe is divided into the soul and the non-soul (jiva and ajiva). The complete liberation of the soul from the non-soul is the ultimate goal. In this process of the liberation of the soul seven main substances (tattvas) are involved. These seven principles as Tattvarthasutram (Ts.) says are jiva jivasravabandhasamvaranir jaramoksas tattvami (1 he soul [jiva), non-soul (ajiva), inflow of karmic matter into the soul lasrava], bondage of the soul by karmic matter bandha), prevention of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul (samvara), shedding of the karmic matter (nirjara] and liberation of soul from matter (moksaj are the seven principles.) These seven tattvas together with merit (punya) and demerit (papa) are called Navapadartbas. Both merit (punya) and demerit (papa) bind the soul and obstruct its progress towards salvation Soul Soul is of two kinds, immobile (sthavara) and mobile (trasa). The souls of mineral bodies of water, of living beings in fire, of air, and of the vegetable kingdom are immobile souls. All souls which have more than one senses organs are mobile soul and unlike immobile souls, can move to an extent determined by the capacity of each soul. All mobile souls have two or more sense organs. The soul has nine qualities. These are (i) it lives (jiva) (ii) it has cognitions, the power of perceiving (darsana) and knowing (jnana) (iii) it is immaterial (amurta) (iv) it is the doer of all actions (karta) (v) it completely fills the size of the body (svadehaparimana) (vi) enjoyer of the fruit of its actions (bhokta) (vii) located in the changing world (samsarastha) (viii) it is siddha when it attains perfection (Siddha) (ix) it is of an upward tendency (urdhvagati). The soul has limitless powers. But these powers are veiled when matter binds it. Matter (pudgala) is one of the non-souls, the object which prevents the soul from its knowledge, perception and bliss. 1 Tattvarthadhigama sutra of Umaswamin, ed. by J. L. Jaini, Arrah, 1920, 1: 4.

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism Non-souls According to Jainism these are five non sentient substances: medium of motion (dharma), medium of rest (adharma), space (akaja), matter (pudgala) and time (kala).1 Of the five non-soul substances the principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (akaja) are motionless and are indivisible. They are devoid of taste, colour, smell and touch. 127 Space (kasa) is the substance which gives the other substances their place. It can be divided into two parts, this universe ((loka) and the universe beyond (aloka). In this universe, soul, matter, space, time, principle of motion and principle of rest find their places and in the universe beyond there is nothing except endless space. The principle of motion (dharma) helps the moving soul and matter and the principle of rest (adharma) helps them when they are inactive and cease work. These occupy the entire space of the universe. Beyond the universe no object can move as these two substances are absent. The presence of these two substances defines the limit of the universe. The non-soul, time (kala), is the substance which causes the modification of the soul and other substances in this universe. Time is also innumerable like the soul. The time is divided into two eras, the ascending era (utsarpint) and the descending era (avasarpin). Each of these oras is divided into six periods of unequal lengths according to the good and bad elements existing in that period. In the ascending era the first period is duhsama-duhsama. This is a period of great chaos and misery. The second period is dubsama which has less misery than the previous period. The third is dubsama-susama, which has more misery and a little happiness. The fourth is susama-duhsama, in which there is more happiness, and some misery. The fifth is suzama, the age of happiness, and the sixth is susama-sujama, the age of great happiness. The order of the periods of the descending era is the reverse of the above. Matter (pudgala) consists of an infinite number of minute indivisible atoms called paramaou. Thus matter is also innumerable like the soul and the time. Each paramanu possesses taste, smell, colour and touch. sparlarasagandhavarnavantah pudgalah These atoms according to certain laws can unite themselves with one or more. This matter other atoms and the atoms in aggregate condition are called skandha. is found in two conditions, sthala (macroscopic) and saksma (microscopic) and each of these is of three kinds, thus constituting six kinds of matter altogether. This matter forms the basis of the bodies, speech, mind, and respiration of the sous. 1 Ts. V 1. 2 Jagmanderlal Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, 2nd edition, Cambridge, 1940, Introduction, p. xxvi. 3 Ibid., p. xxvi. 4 Ts. V 23. 5 Jaini, op. cit, pp. 21, 89. 6 Ts V. 19.

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128 Study of Civakacintamani The finest of all matter is that of karmas. These form the karmic body which binds the soul. The karmic matter fills the entire cosmos and gets united with the soul when the soul is set into motion, i.e. in its material activities. The above said five divisions of non-souls and the soul together compose the whole universe. These six substances together are called saddravyas (six substances). The characteristic of a substance (dravya) is 'sat' i.e. that it exists, saddravyalaksanam1 Sat is the simultaneous possession of the three aspects, the birth (utpada), the decay (vyaya), and the permanence or the continuous sameness of existence (dhrauvya) a The first two aspects refer to the modifications of the substances whereas the third aspect relates to their nature. The nature of these substances is never changed, only the conditions under which they exist change. For example, if we take the substance soul its essential qualities are never changed. It can be veiled by the contact with other substances, but can never be destroyed or changed. To explaio this more clearly we quote Dayananda Bhargava : though the substance changes in, appearance, it remains the same in essence, just as a piece of gold is permanent with regard to its substratum, even though it may be changing with regard to its modification like necklace, anklet, car-rings etc., just as the ocean is permanent with regards to its water but it is ever-changing with regard to its waves rising within it 3 Among the six substances all except the time (kala) have constituent parts which we are called pradesas. A unit of space occupied by, an atom of matter is called a no padesa. The substance which has more than one pradesa is called body (kaya). Time has only, one pradesa, thus it does not have a body. All the other substances namely soul, matter, space, principle of motion, principle of rest, which have innumerable pradegast are called astikayas (asti + kaya). Since they are five they are often referred to as pancastikayas in Jaina doctrine, w The rela:ionship between the soul and karmas As seen earlier the fine karmic matters which fill the entire cosmos get attracted to the soul through its activities of body, speech and min 1,6 This attraction is known as asraya, the inflow of karmic matter. The inflow of karmic matter can be due to both good and bad deeds. These karmas remains in the soul until they are destroyed by the soul. The results of the karmas of the soul should be experienced in one birth, or another. Till it is completely free from karmas the soul goas on taking differnt bodies one after the another, according to the nature and the effect of karmas in it. Therefore the soul has to undergo numberless births until it reaches perfection. 1: Ibid, V: 29. 2 lbid, V: 30 3 Davanand Bhargava, Jaina ethics, Delhi, 1968, pp. 51, 52 4 Ts. V: 8-10. 5 Ts. V: 1-2.

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 129 Each of the karmas has four aspects. These aspects are : (i) the manner of their effect on the soul (prakrti) (ii) the duration of their effect (sthiti) (iii) the intensity of their effect (rasa) (iv) their quantity (pradesas) Once the karma has penetrated the soul, it transforms into eight kinds of karmas, singly or severally as Jacobi says "just like the food when it is digested gets transformed into various fluids". 1 These consist of four destructive karmas and four nondestructive karmas (ghatiya and aghatiya karmas). The four destructive karmas are : (i) jnanavdraniya karma, the karma which obscures the knowledge of the soul. (ii) darsanavaraniya karma, the karma which obscures the perception of the soul. (iii) mohaniya karma, the karma which obscures the right belief and conduct of the soul. (iv) antaraya karma, the karma which prevents the progress or the success of the soul. The four non-destructive karmas are : (i) ayus karma, the karma which determines the duration of life. (ii) nama karma, the karma which determines the factors of individuality such as body, its height, weight, complexion, etc. (iii) gotra karma, the karma which determines the family and the surrounding. (iv) vedaniya karma, the karma which gives pleasure and pain in life. These destructive and non-destructive karmas are called 'asta karmas'. When the soul is free of these eight karmas, it enjoys its natural qualities of infinite perception (ananta darsana), infinite knowledge (ananta jnana), infinite power (anan'a virya) and infinite bliss (ananta sukha). In other words, when these karmas occupy the soul they prevent the soul from enjoying its natural qualities. We shall now discuss the nature of the dectructive karinas. The first two of the destructive karmas namely the knowledge and the perception obscuring karmas are attracted by the soul by the following sinful acts: the depreciation of those who are learned in the scriptures (pradosa), the concealment of knowledge (nihnava), jealousy or envy (matsarya), the hindrance of the progress of knowledge (antaraya), denying the truth proclaimed by others (asadana), the deliberate refutation of truth (upaghata). When a man does these things he automatically gathers the knowleage and the perception obscuring karmas. The knowledge can be obscured in five ways ; (i) the obscuration of the knowledge which is transmitted throgh the senses (mati jnanavaraniya karma). (ii) the obscuration of the knowledge which is acquired by reading or hearing sculptures or by the words of an authority (sruta-jnanavarani ya karma). (iii) the obscuration of the transcendental knowledge of material things. (avadhi--jnanavaraniya karma). 1 Jacobi, H., Studies in Jainism, part I, Ahmedabad, 1946, p. 25. Sc-17

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130 Study of Civakacintamani (iv) the obscuration of the transcendental knowledge of other's mind (nanahparyaya jnanivaraniya karma) (v) the obscuration of the infinite knowledge which is inherent in the soul (kevala-jnanuraraniya karma). This last karma completely obscures the infinite knowledge of the soul whereas the other four produce only disturbances of different degrees. 1 The obscuration of the perception of the soul can occur in nine ways. The first four kinds of the obscuration occur when the soul is psychologically and physically active and the other five when the sense organs of the soul are not active, i.e. when the soul is not in a state to perceive anything. The first four are (i) the obscuration of the physical sight through which the perception is made called cak sur-darsanarara niya karma. (ii) the obscuration of the perception which is made through the other four senses and the organ of thinking. known as acaksur-darsanavaraniya karma. (iii) the obscuration of the perception of the past and material things, called avadhi-darsanivarani ya karma. (iv) the obscuration of complete perception known as kevala-darsanavaraniya karma. This obscures the perception completely whereas the other four only cause disturbances in the perception.. The other five karmas are : (i) light sleep which obscures perception (nidra-karma) (ii) deep sleep which obscures perception (nidra-nidra karma) (iii) sound Jeep which occurs while sitting or standing (pracala-karma) (iv) intensive sleep which overcomes the soul while walking (pracala-pracala karma) (v) somnambulistic condition of the soul in which no perception can take place (styanagrddhi-karma). The third kind of ghatiya karma the mohani ya karma deludes right belief and right conduct. These are called darsana-mohaniya2 and caritra-mohaniya karmas. The right belief-deluding karma enters the soul when it performs acts such as defaming the liberated souls (like Arhat), the scripture (sruta), the Jaina religious order, the religion or the celestial beings. 3 The right conduct deluding karma enters the soul due to its acts of intense passion. The karma which deludes right belief disturbs the soul in three ways; (i) the delusion which affects the perfect belie! (samyak tva) (ii) the delusion which leads the soul to false belief or hetrodoxy (mithyatva) 1 Helmuth Von Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karman in Jain philosophy, Bombay, 1942, p. 6. 2 Darsana in this context refers to faith 3 Ts. VI : 13.

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the interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 13 (iii) the delusion which arises through a mixture of the above two, i.e. having some degree of truth and some of falsity. (misra or samyag-mith yatva) Caritra-mohaniya karma obscures right conduct and obstructs the soul from per. forming acts mentioned in religious prescription. This disturbance of the right conduct is caused through the sixteen passions (kasayas), six non-passions (nokasayas), three sexes (vedas). There are four fundamental pussions, anger (krodha), pride (mana), deceitfulness (maya), and greed (lobha), each of which is divided into the following four groups according to its intensity in the soul : (i) Anantanubandhin - this exists in the soul for the whole of its life and completely binders the right belief and the conduct of a soul. (ii) Apratyakh yanivarana - this remains in the soul for one year. It hinders renun. ciation but allows the soul to attain right belief. (iii) Pratyakhyanavarana-this lasts in the soul for only four months. It only hinders the beginning of complete renunciation but does not obscure right belief and allows the soul to attain partial self discipline. (iv) Sam jvalanu - this rules in the soul for only a fortnight. It allows complete self discipline of the soul but hinders the attainment of complete right conduct. The six non-passions (nokasajas) are (i) Acts like laughing and joking (has ya) (ii) Sentiments of liking towards a certain object, whether proper or improper (rati) (iii) Sentiments of dislike towards a certain object, whether proper or improper (arati). (iv) Sorrow (soka). (v) Fear (bhaya.) (vi) Disgust (jugupsa). The three vedas are karmas which produce sexual passions and obscure the soul from practising self discipline. They are : (i) Purusa veda - this karma produces a desire in a man for union with a woman. (ii) Stri veda - this causes the desire in a woman for union with a man. (iii) Na pusmaka veda - the sex desire which arises in all those beings who are neither male nor femal is produced by this. The fourth ghatiya karma, the antaraya karma, flows into the soul as a result of acts such as obstructing others from doing charity (dana), from achieving gain (labha), from enjoying things which can be taken only once (bhoga), from enjoying things which can be taken repeatedly (upabhoga), and making use of their capacities

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132 Study of Civakacinta mani (virya). 1 As a result of these acts the power of the soul is disturbed in five ways : (i) Danantaraya karma - this prevents the soul from dispensing alms. (ii) Labhantaraya karma - this binders the soul from receiving things. (iii) Bhogantar aya karma - this hinders the enjoyment of something which can be enjoyed once, like eating, drinking, etc. (iv) U pabhogantaraya karma - this hinders the enjoyment of something which can be enjoyed repeatedly like clothing, dwelling, etc. (v) Viryantaraya karma - this hinders the will power of the soul. These four ghatiya karmas lead the soul to the worldly miseries and at the same time retard its progruss by obscuring its eternal characteristics. Once the soul sheds these four karmas it can easily attain salvation as aghatiya karmas do not stand in the way of liberation. But when these four aghatiya karmas are in the soul it has its bodily existence. The four aghatiya karmas are : Ayus karma, Nama karma, Gotra karma and Vedaniya karma. Ayus karma determines th: ages of existence of the four kinds of beings. These are Deva-ayus (karma which determines the age of the celestial), Manusya-ayus (karma which determines the age of human being), Tiryag-ayus (karma which determines the age of animal), and Naraka-ayus (karma which determines the age of infernal beings). The inflow of manusya-ayus karma is caused by slight worldly activities and by attachment to a few worldly objects. The inflow of tiryagayus karma is due to deceit and that of naraka-ayus karma is due to an excess of sinful activities and attachments. Nama karma determines the individuality of the soul. The bad body determining karmas (leading to infernal and animal bodies) come into contact with the soul because of the distortions of mind, body and speech whereas the good body determining karma (leading to humao and celestial bodies) flows into the soul because of straightforward attitudes of body, mind and speech. The nama karma has one hundred and three sub species which are mainly divided into four groups. They are : Pinda-prakitis, Pratyeka-prakrtis, Trasa-dasaka and Sthavara-dasaka. Pind-praksti karmas are sixty five in number : Four karmas which determine the state of existence, of celestial, human, animal, and infernal beings. Five karmas which determine the classes of being, the one sensed, two sepsed, three sensed, four sensed, and five sensed beings. Five karmas which determine the bodies, Three karmas which determine the chief and secondary parts of the body. 1 Ts. VII: 13

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 13 Fifteen bandbana nama karmas which bind the newly seized matter with the accumulated karmas of the soul. Five samghatana-nama karmas which bind the scattered matter into one. Six samhanana-nama karmas which unite the bones of the physical body. Six samsthana-nama karmas which determine the stature of the body. Five karmas which determine the colour of the soul, black, blue, red, yellow or white. Two karmas which determine the two odours, good and bad. Five karmas which determine the five tastes, bitter, sour, acidic, sweet and astringent. Eight karmas which determine the eight touches, soft, hard, light, heavy, cold, hot, smooth and rough. Four anupurvi-nama karmas which cause the soul to go from the place of death to its new birth according to the four states of existence (gati) celestial, human, animal and infernal. Two vihayogati-nama karmas which determine the pleasant gait and the ugly gait of the soul. Other than the above pindaprakstis there are eight pratyeka-prakstis, ten trasaprakrtis and ten sthavara praketis 1 and all these together make one hundred and three sub species of the nama karma. Gotra karma determines the low or high family, etc. in which the soul is born. The inflow of low family (infernal and anima!) determining karmas takes place when the soul indulges itself in the following actions: speaking ill of others (paraninda). self praise (atmaprasamsa), concealing the good qualities of others (sadgunacchadana) and proclaining in oneself the good qualities which one does not have (asad-gupodbhavana).The high family (human and celestial) determining karmas flow into the soul through the opposite of the above mentioned acts. Vedani ya Karma induces the feeling of pleasure and pain in the soul. The karma which causes the pleasure is called sata-vedaniya karma and its opposite is asatavadaniya karma. In gods and human beings the sa!a-vedaniya is predominent. Gods experience pain when their stay in heaven is exhausted and human beings experience pain due to cold, heat, death, accident, etc. Asata-vedaniya karma is predominant in animals and denizens of hell and they rarely experience pleasure. The concepts outlined above of saddravyas, navapadarthas, pancastikayas and eight karmas and their effects on the soul are frequently alluded to by Tevar in his poem. For example in several places where the Jaina deities are praised, the praises are couched in terms which involve the deepest understanding of these philosophical ideas. Thus Tevar refers to pincastikayas as 'poruka! or aintu' in the context 1 Glassennap, op.cit. pp. 16, 17, 18. 2 Ts. VI : 25.

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134 Study of Civakacintamani where the caranan Manivannan praises the lord Arhat before preaching the Jaina doctrine to Civakan. peruman uravali veutan viri pun tamarai mir cenra tiruvar atiy attit teliyum porulkal or aintum anriy arum onpanum akum enpat aravoral (The saints say that those who worship the feet of the lord who wields dharma cakra which rests on the lotus in full bloom, are able to obtain clear knowledge of five astikayas, six dravyas, and nine padarthas.) The freed souls are referred to in the Cc. as the souls which have defeated the eight karmas. For example, .. en vinaiyum akarri inpak katalakkitt taru malaiya allati yan ralaiyir ralniu paniveno3 (Will I bow to any one with my head other than the Lord Jina who destroys the eight karmas and gives the ocean of joy.) Civakan while praying to the Lord Jina refers to the eight karmas. katalal envipai yun kalipay enr iy ak ka katal atalal en vinaiyun kaliyay enrum araitiyar (You expound that the eight karmas will be eradicated by love placed in you and that if the same love is placed in another object they cannot be removed.) Lord Arhat is referred to as the one who has overcome the ghatiya karmas in two other places. Thus, Kati Kannarinta kac il tani mutir katavu! 5 (The unique old god who has won his ghatiya karmas.) and kati kannarintu venta ulakunar katavu! 6 (The god who defeated the ghatiya karmas and realised the world.) In the Muttiyilampakam, when Civakan pays homage to Jina, the king of saints, he refers to him as the one who has overcome the four ghatiya karmas. .. .. kati nalum utaney arintu narmai varampakik kalam oru munrum utane y unarnta katuvult 1 Cc. v. 2814. 2 Though the name "mal" usually refers to Visnu in Tamil literature, here it refers to Arhat, the Lord of Jainas. According to Ja na mythological stories, Arhat is supposed to be the God for the five activities like creation, destruction, etc., the ainto lilkat'. Therefore the word "mal" here refers to Arhat.-U. V. Saminatha, Iyer, Cintamani, op. cit. p. 483. 3 Cc. v. 961. 4 Ibid, v. 1420. 5 Cc. v. 2713. 6 Ibid, v. 1240. 7Ibid, v. 3092.

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 135 (You, the god who destroyed the four ghattya karmas and made the four eternal attributes, infinite knowledge, perception, power and bliss as your limit and saw the past, present and future simultaneously.) The way in which Caccantan, the father of Civakan, entrusts his kingdom into the hands of Kattiyankaran and as a result meets his end provides Tevar with an opportunity to explain in several places these ideas regarding the influence of karmas the human soul. When Uruttiratattan advises Caccantan not to leave the kingdom in the care of Kattiyankaran the latter says, over alantu tan konta arun tavam utaiya nirarkk alantana pikam ellam avar avarkk arrai na alantana valu nalum atuv enakk uraiyal enran (For the people who had followed strict penance the amount of pleasures they enjoy and the extension of their life span have been measured even at the time of birth.) Here he indirectly says that according to the nature of karmas the soul will enjoy pleasures and the extension of its life span. The poet comments on the ignor ance of Caccantan when he did not listen to the advice of his ministers and says that this was the effect of his karmas. inamam enr uraippinum atam ennan munamakiya panmai mulaitt elalar 2 (Though he was advised that his desires were just like the desires in the previous cases [these are explained in the previous verses? he did not consider the danger he would face, as the bad karmas of his previous births were present.) When Caccantan has to face the war against Kattiyankaran he tries to send Vicayai, his queen, away in the flying machine. She is grieved by the situation. He consoles her saying that everything happens according to karmas. catalum pirataranum tam vinaip payettinakum atalum alivum ellam avai porukku iyalpu kantay notalum parivum ellam nunnunarv ismaiy apre (Death and birth are due to one's own karmas. Creation and destruction are also in the nature of things. Therefore being worried and anxious over them is due to lack of right knowledge.) He explains to Vicayai, before she leaves in the flying machine, how all human relationships are merely temporary and how the soul has to go through numerous. births till it reaches perfection. 1 Cc. v. 213 2 Ibid, v. 215. g 3 Cc. v. 269.

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136 Study of Civakacintamani tollai nam piravi ennir tolu katal manalum arra ellaiy avv avarrul ellam etilan pirantu ninkic cellum ak katika tammut ceralan cerntu ninra illinul irantu nalaic currame irankal venta / (If we count the number of our previous births they are even more than the grains of sand in the ocean. We did not have any connection in those births, We are not going to bave any connection in the births we are going to get after this birth. Therefore do not worry over the relationship we had only for two days [i.e. for short period)). Having considered the interplay of the soul and its karmas and how Tevar has developed the ideas regarding this poem, we shall now consider the process by which the soul sheds these karmas to achieve salvation. This clearly is the whole theme of the Cc. in which the successive stages of the soul's progress towards salvation are outlined through the life story of Civakan. These stages, fourteen in number, are called gumasthanas. These fourteen stages are : 1. Mithya-drsti (misbeliever) 2. Sasvadana-sa-nyagdssti (having taste of faith in downfall) 3. Samyag-mithyadssti (Mixture of Right and Wrong helief) 4. Avrata-samyagdisti (vowless right belief) 5. Desavirata-samyagdssti (partial vow) 6. Framatta-samyata (imperfect vows) 7. Apramutta-samyata (perfect vows) 8. Aparva-karana (new thought activity) 9. Anivstti-badara-sam paraya (advanced thought activity - a stage in which gross passions still remain) 10, Suksma-samparaya (slightest delusion) 11. Upasantu-kasaya-vitaraga-chadmastha (subsided delusion) 12. Ksina-kasa ya-vitaraga-chadmastha (delusionless) 13. Sa yogi-kevalin (omniscience with vibration) 14. Ayogi-kevalin (omniscience without activity) During the first five stages the soul remains in the householder's stage. Then it ascends to the stage of an ascetic from where it attains salvation. The birth of Civakan in this world is due to his karmas which were acquired in his previous birth. In his previous birth he separated a young swan from its parents for sixteen days and the karmas he acquired from this action cause his separation from his mother for sixteen years in his next birth.2 Most of his acitons in this birth 1 Ibid, v. 270. 2 Cc, vv. 2859-2888.

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 137 are to prevent the inflow of karmic matter (samvara) and to shed the karmas he acquired in his previous birth (oir jara). A soul cannot shed its karmas at once. It has to prepare itself on the path of renunciation where it withdraws from all the attachments of the material world and abandons all its desires. To reach the path of renunciation religion serves as a ladder in the shape of injunctions and rules of conduct. Jaina religion is made up of right belief (samyag-darsana), right knowledge (samyag-jnana) and right conduct (samyag-caritra), which are together known as a ratnatraya or gunatraya. These three as Ts. says are the paths to liberation. samyagdarasan ajnanacaritrani moksamargah1 (Right belief, right knowledge and right conduct are the path to liberation.) This ratnatraya is often referred to in Cc. Accananti, the teacher of Civakan, when imparting knowledge to Civakap says that the souls must have these three characteristics. ko neri taluvi ninra kunattolu punarin mato na neri vakaiyi ninra naleuyirkk amirtam enrana (He said that the ambrosia for the four kinds of souls is the possession of the three gunas which form the path of Lord Jina). Before attempting an analysis of Tevar's explanation of these "three gems" in his work, it is necessary to know what constitutes right faith, right knowledge and right conduct and how these are acquired. Right faith Right faith is the cause of right knowledge and right conduct. 3 Samantabhadra in his Ratnakarasda (Sravakacara Rk.) defines right faith as follows: sraddhanam paramarthanam apta-agama-tapobhytam/ trimudha podham astangam samyagdarsanam asmayam // (Right faith consists in believing the true ideal, scriptures, and teachers. It is free from three follies and has eight aspects. It is devoid of eight prides.) Right faith is of two kinds, right faith from the practical point of view (vyava - hara-samyag-darsana) and right faith ftom the real point of view (niscaya-samyag-darsana). Right faith from the practical point of view is to have faith in the fundamental principles in Jainism and right faith from the real point of view is selfrealisation, 1 Ts. 1:1 2 Cc. v. 374 3 Samanta Bhadra, Ratnakaranda-Sravakacara, The library of Jajna Literature, Vol. IX. Arrah, 1917, v. 31. 4 Rk. 4. Sc-18

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Study of Ctvakacintamani The three follies which should be avoided in the cultivation of right faith are the devotion to the false divinity, place and teacher. The eight aspects which are necessary to have right faith are :1 139 1. Nihankita-absence of doubt about scriptures. 2. Niskaksita-abstinence from worldly pleasures. 3. Nirvicikitsita-to love the person who possesses three jewels without feeling disgust to his body (because Jaina monks are always unclean) 4. Amudhadreti-non-recognition of the authority of the false creeds. 5. Upaguhana-removal of the ridicule raised by incompetent people on the path of Jainism. 6. Sthitikarana-re-establishing the people who deviate from the truth. 7. Vatsalya-respecting and loving the co-religionists. 8. Prabhavana-establishing the glory of Jainism in all suitable ways. The eight types of prices which the soul should avoid to have the right faith are: jnanam pujam kulam jatim balam rddhim tapo vapuh ...//2 The pride about learning, worship, family, tribe power, accomplishments, religious austerity and body. When the soul gets rid of these eight prides and the three follies and has the eight aspects of right faith and belief in the true ideals, scriptures and teacher, it attains the right faith. These things can be achieved by intuition (nisarga) or by tuition (adhigama) i.e. by nature or through the teachings of others or by reading scriptures, Right knowledge reveals things exactly as they are with certainty - neither insufficiently nor with exaggeration nor falsely. With the aid of right knowledge the soul prevents the inflow of karmic matter and sheds the acquired karman. It is of five kinds. They are: 1. Matljana-the knowledge acquired by the five senses. 2. Srutajnana knowledge acquired by reading scriptures. 3. Avadhi Jnana-the transcendental knowledge of material things. 4. Manah paryaya Jadna-the transcendental knowledge of the thoughts and feelings of others. 5. Kevala-jana-the perfect knowledge which the soul attains when it is entirely liberated from destructive karmas. With the knowledge of the right faith and right conduct one should follow the right conduct. Right conduct" must be such" as Jaini says "as to keep the body down and elevate the soul." These rules of right conduct form the main part of the Jaina 1 Ibid, 11-18. 2 Rk. 25 3 Ts. 1:3 4 Rk. 42 5 Jaini, op. cit. p. 65

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 139 ethics Before dealing with what right conduct is and how this is explained in the Co., we shall describe how right faith and right knowledge have been discussed in the Cc. When the poet describes Civakan, who has attained knowledge from his teacher, he describes bis condition through an allegorica] expression. katci nan nilaiyin nanak katir manik katavu certtip pulci cal olukkam ennum va yirat tal koluvip polla matciy il katikal ellam ataitta pin varampil inpatt agci il ulakam erat tirantanan alarnta tarani (After having locked the door against the bad courses of actions which do not destroy birth, by fixing the jewelled door of right knowledge on the door step of right faith and bolting it with the lock of right conduct, he, the one who wears the full-bloomed flower garland, opened the ways to climb into the bound lessly happy world which is not ruled by anyone.) Here the poet describes the right faith as the door-step, the right knowledge as the jewelled door, and the right conduct as the lock. He says that Civakan has acquired all these after receiving instruction from his teacher. In Kemacariyar ilampakam, Civakan explains what is right faith, right knowledge and right conduct to the brabmin ascetics in the following verse : mey vakai terital nanam vilankiya porulka lammaip poy vakaiy inrit teral kaciy aim poriyum vatti uy vakai uyirait teyat olukutal olukka munrum iv vakai nirainta poltey iru vinai kuliyum enran? (He said that (right) faith is to know the truth, (right) knowledge is to know the right things without false ideas and the (right) conduct is to prevent the soul from getting destroyed by torturing the five senses. When the soul is filled with these three, the two karmas 3 will be destroyed.) In Muttiyilampakam, the right faith is taught to Civakan by the Caranab Mapi. vannan when the former requests to be instructed. Before teaching the right faith, the Caranan preaches to him about the rare acquisition of the human body, 4 its uncertainty, and its perishing nature.5 He also explains the misery of the four gatis, hell, animal, human and deva. 8 Caranan explains about these miseries first and then about the right faith, for one can only avoid these miseries by having the right faith. To have the right faith as explained earlier, faith in a true ideal is important. To stress this aspect the 1 2 3 4 5 6 Cc. v. 381. Cc. v. 1436 The two karmas are the ghatiya and aghatiya karmas. Cc. vv. 2749-2753 Ibid, vv. 2754-2761 Ibid, vv. 2762-2811

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140 Study of Civakacintamani Caranan praises the lord Jina and his superior qualities in the following verse first before explaining the right faith. ilanku cem pon eyin munr um eri pon muttak kutai munrum valan kont alar tuuy atiy ettum vaiya munrum patui munrum kalankat uyarntay aticayankan munrun kamar nun munrum nalan ko timpar kunak kalalum utaiyar uanmaiy utai yaral (He who possesses the three golden bands of light, glistening gold triple umbrellas, the three worlds which worship his feet with flowers, the three weapons, the three high unshakeable wondrous glories, the three books, and the good milklike ocean of virtue, is the one who possesses us.) Here the three bands of light are Udayatara, Prititara and Kalyanatara and these together are called Prabhavalaya 2 The three umbrellas are Candraditya, Nityavinoda and Sakalabhasana, and these indicate the suzerainity of the three worlds. The three worlds are Naga-loka, Bhu-loka and Svarga-loka.3 The three spiritual weapons are, right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The three wondrous glories are Sahajatisaya (wonderful qualities born with him), Karmaksayatisaya (wonderful qualities which come as a result of the destruction of karmas), Daiyikatisaya (the wonderful qualities which are created by Devendra). These four qualities are connected with the four infinite qualities which are referred to as "kunakkatal". The three agamas are, Angagama, Purvagama, and Bahusrutyagama. After explaining the qualities of the Lord Jina the Caranan also says that the knowledge of five astikayas, 6 saddravyas,' and navapadarthas 8 are achieved when one worsbips at the feet of Jina. .. tiruvar atiy attit teliyum porulkal oraintum anriy ar um onpanum akum enpar atarorzo (......... the learned say that by worshipping the feet of Jina, one can get the knowledge about the five things, six things and nine things [astikayas, saddravyas and navapadarthas ] ). Following this explanation, Caranan teaches the nature of the people who realised the knowledge in the sacred scriptures. periyav inpati intiranum petta ceykaic ciru kurankum uriya ceykai vinai p payattaiy unnum enavay unarntavanai ariyar enna maki atum eliyar enrav ikalatum irucar vinaiyun telintarey iraiva nulun telintara.1 1 Cc. v. 2813 2 A. Cakravarti, "Jivaka Cintamani", "The Jaina Antiquary', Vol. XXI, No. 11, p. 28. 3 Ibid, p. 28 4 Ibid, p. 28 5 Supra, p. 129 6 Supra, 128 7 Supra, p. 128 8 Supra, p. 126 9 Cc. v. 2814 10 lbid, v. 2815

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 141 (Those who realise the fact that, Intiran who enjoys happiness and the capricious monkey are only enjoying the fruits of their karmas and those who do not praise lotiran because he is happy and despise the monkey because it is fickle, are people who understood the agamas of the Lord (Jina).) After explaining the nature of the people who understand the agamas of the lord Jina, the Caranan expounds the eight essentials of the right faith and the necessity of overcoming pride, to have the right faith. uruvarp penal uvarpp inmaiy ulaiyay in pan talai nirral arivar cirappirkk etir virumpal alintor niruttal aram pakartal ciriyar inattuc carvinmai ciran kai vitutal cerukk avittal iraivan arattularkk ellam iniyar atal itu teliva 1 (The following are the results of understanding the scriptures and realising their truth : to be devoid of aversion, to have the desire to attend on great saints and to achieve liberation and honour the wise, to be ready to restore the fallen in the right path, to preach dharma to others, to avoid ignorant people, to destroy anger and pride, and to be friendly with co-religionists.) Having explained the right faith, the Caranan deals with the results of having the right faith. Tevar borrows these ideas from Rk, and explains them. Samyagdarsanasuddha narakatiryannapunsakastritvani / duskulavikytalpa yurdaridratam ca vrajanti nap yavratikah 1/3 (The people whose minds are purified with the right faith will not observe vows. They will not be reborn in hells or as animals or as neuter or female sexes or in low families. They will also not have physical deformities or short lives or poverty.) The Caranan expounds this idea found in Rk. in the following lines of the Cc. : ceriyac conna poru telintar cerar vilankir pennakar kurukar narakam or a lum kil mnt tevar kulan tingar (People who had realised the facts explained above, i.e. about right faith, will neither be born in the animal world nor as a woman. They will neither go to any of the seven hells nor will take birth as any of the three kinds of devas.) 1 Cc. v. 2816 2 Rk. 35 3 Cc. v. 2817 4 The seven hells and their description and the details about the denizens in the hells are explained in Ts, Chapter III,

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142 Study of Civakacintamani The glory of the right faith is explained through the story of the dog changing into a yaksa in the Cc. Rk. says, even a dog becomes a deva and vice versa from virtue and vice respectively. svapi devo'pi devah sva jayate dharmakilbisat / In the Cc. the dog which was beaten by brahmins turns into a yaksa when Civakan whispers pancanamaskara mantra in its ears. It had its knowledge of the right faith and since it had the right faith, though it was a dog it turned into a yaksa. Ethics Following the discussion of the right faith and right knowiedge, right conduct which is the result of the above two will now be discussed. The rules for right conduct form the main part of Jaina ethics. Jaina ethical rules are intended to pave the way for the soul towards salvation. It is difficult for an aspirant to highest ideal of right conduct at once. These rules are evolved in such a way that one can gradually train himself to do this. "Initially" as Williams says, "the lay estate was admitted by the Jina only in deference to human frailty and was regarded in theory as a stage of preparation for the ascetic life.''3 But as days want on, one notices that more importance was given to the lay life in the medieval period than in the early ages. This can be seen in the Cc. which is a work of the medieval period. Here both the householder's and the ascetic's life have been clearly explained through the life story of Civakan and the other eharacters associated with him. Among the fourteen gupasthanas, the stages through which the soul passes on its way to salvation, the first five belong to the householder's stage and the soul prepares itself for the ascetic's life in these stages. In the first stage-mithyadrsti gunasthana, wrong belief, passion, lack of self discipline etc, which bind the soul to karmas are in action. When right belief is achieved the soul reaches the fourth stage, the avirata samyagdssti 4 (vowless right belief) stage. The second and third stages, sasvadana samyagdisti (downfall), and samyag-mithyad;sti (the mixture af Right and Wrong belief) are stages through which the soul falls down to the first stage from the fourth stage, it manifests the four anantanubandhikasayas due to wrong belief when it is in the fourth stage. From the fourth stage in which the soul conquers its faith-obscuring karmas (darsana-mohaniya karmas) and subdues the anantanubandhi category of passion, and attains right faith, it proceeds to the fifth stage, the desa-virata-samyagdrsti stage. In this stage the householder destroys the apratyakhyana karmas and tries to conquer his character obstructing karma (caritra-mohaniya-karma). To overcome these 1. RK. 29. 4. Bhargava, op. cit. p. 214. 2. Cc. vy. 934-960. 5. Ibid. pp. 213, 214. 3. A. Williams, op. cit. Introduction, p. XVI. 6. Ibid, pp. 211, 212,

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism karmas the householder observes twelve vows. Samantabhadra defines them as follows: grhinam tredha tisthaty anugunasiksavratatmakam caranam | pancatricaturbhedam trayam yathasankhyam akhyatam //1 (The conduct prescribed for the householder is of three kinds. They are vratas in the form of anu, guna, and siksa. They consist of five, three and four divisions respectively.) 1. The five partial vows (anuvratas) which are prescribed for a house-holder are: (i) non-violence (ahimsa) (ii) truth (satya) (iii) non-stealing (asteya) (iv) celibacy (brahma) (v) non-possession (aparigraha) 143 These five partial vows are parallel to the absolute vows (mahavratas) of an ascetic. Along with these five partial vows, a householder is also expected to renounce wine, meat and honey,2 2. These five partial vows are supplemented by the three guna vratas, the digivrata, anarthadapdavrata, bhogopabhoga- parimana-vrata. These three vows are related to the limitation of daily work, food and enjoyment. 3. The third kind of vow, the fiksa-vrata, is of four kinds, the desavakasika, samayika, proladhopavasa and valyavrtya. These emphasise the inner purity of the heart. * Desavakasikavrata is to limit the sphere of one's activity from day to day and for fixed periods. Samayika-vrata is to refrain from the five kinds of sin for a particular period of time every day. This vow consits of -- (i) pratikramana (thinking about the sins committed and repenting for them) (ii) pratyakhyana (to determine to avoid doing sins in future) (iii) samayika karman (to renounce personal attachments and to develop a common feeling to all) (iv) stuti (to praise the twenty four Tirthankaras) (v) vandana (to show devotion towards a particular Tirthankara) and (vi) kayotsarga (to withdraw attention about body and contemplate on the spiritual self). 1 RK. 51. 2 RK. 66 3 RK. 67, Ts. 7:21, 4 Bhargava, op. cit. p. 102.

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141 Study of Civakacintamani Posadhopavasa-vrata is fasting for the whole day on the eighth and fourteenth days of every fortnight. Vaiyavrtya-vow is distributing gifts (dana) without expecting anything in return, to ascetics of excellent qualities, treating them well and giving comfort to those who are in trouble. This gift (dana) can be given in four ways : giving food, medicine, means (or means to acquire knowledge, i.e. books) and shelter. Samantabhadra in his Rk. explains vaiyavstya-vow as follows : aharausadhayor apy upakaranavasayos ca danena / vai yavrtyam bruvate caturatmatvena caturasrah 113 (Those who have four kinds of knowledge (mati-jnana, sruta-jnana, avadhi. jnana and manahparyaya-jnana ) say that giving food, medicine, means to get knowledge and shelter are the four kinds of vaiyavstya vow.) The fifth gupasthana, the desavirata-samyagdrsti gunasthana, in which the soul remains in the stage of a householder, has also been divided into eleven stages from the viewpoint of the spiritual progress of a householder's life. These stages are called 'pratimas'. They are : 1. Darsana - the first stage in which the householder gets his faith in Jainism, its doctrines, and their observance in practical life. Vrata - the stage in which the householder starts to observe all the twelve vows - the five anu-vratas (partial vows), the three guoavratas and the four siksa-vratas. 3. Samayika - the stage in which the householder performs samayika+ three times a day and therefore he is called a samayika sravaka. 4. Prosadhanasana - the stage in which the householder regularly fasts twice a fort night and thereby applies himself to holy meditation. 5. Sa-citta-virata - the stage in which the householder gives up eating all unripe things, for he is merciful not to kill them. 6. Ratri-bhuktivirata - the stage in which the householder gives up taking food at night, as eating in nights causes killing of minute living beings, 8 7. Brahmacarya - in this stage the householder gives up all his sexual indulgences. 8. Arambhavinivytta - the stage in which the householder gives up all worldly engagements and occupations. 1deg 9-11. The last three stages, paricitta-parigraha-virata, 11 Anumati-virata1, aud Uddista-tyaga18 are mainly preparatory stages to the ascetic life. 1 Rk. 106. 4 Supra, p. 143. 7 Ibid, 141 10 Ibid. 144. 13 Ibid, 147. 2 Ibid, 111, 112, 113. 5 Rk. 139. 8 Ibid, 142, 11 Ibid. 145. 3 6 9 12 Ibid, 117. Ibid, 140. Ibid, 143. Ibid, 143.

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 145 In the Paricitta-parigraha--virata stage, the householder gives up the possession of the ten kinds of worldly goods1 (i) land, (ii) houses, (iii) silver, (iv) gold, (v) cattle, (vi) grain, (vii) maid servants, (viii) man servants, (ix) clothes, and (x) utensils. In the Anumati-virata stage, the householder gives up giving advice on worldly matters. In the Uddista-tyaga stage, the householder renounces all worldly attachments and goes to a guru (spiritual teacher), per forms austerities and leads an ascetic life. In the Cc. all these stages are clearly developed through the story of Civakan. These stages are so closely knitted with the story of Civakan, that one does not even realise that the life history of Civakan is only an example through which Tevar explains the doctrines of Jainism. Civakan attains the first stage, the Darsanika sravaka stage, through the teachings of his teacher Accananti. The teaching of Accananti gives Civakan the right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. He becomes an ideal householder who is anxious to attain liberation. In this state the poet describes Civakan as a person who has opened the door to climb into the boundlessly happy world, after having closed the door against bad karmas, by fixing the door of knowledge on the door step of faith and bolting it with conduct. 9 The next tive pratimas are explained through his life history, starting from the time after his education up to the time he achieved his kingdom and lived as king. Apart from the life history of Civakan in this birth, the poet also explains the importance of five partial vows (anu-vratas) through the story about his previous birth. These are explained through the preachings of Pavapamatevan (the father of Civakan in his previous birth) to Acotaran (Civakan in his previous birth), when he came to know that his son has separated a young swan from its mother. He expounds non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession in the following verses : Non-violence aram periya kurin alankal ani veloy maram puri ko nencam valiyap pukut antintic cerum periya tivinaikal cenzu katit oti urum periya tunyam uyirk kolaiyum vanta.8 (Oh, the one who wears garland and holds the spear, coming to talk of the nature of the bad karmas, they are karmas which enter through the heart of the soul which likes adharma and get accumulated and remain in the soul. When the soul has these karmas in it, it suffers. Therefore killing Thinsa] which is the basic factor for bad karma is not suitable for you.) 1 Rk. 145 2 Cc. v. 381, supra, p. 137 ff 3 Cc. v. 2868 Sc-19 *

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146 Study of Civakacintamani Truth meyy urai vilanku mani mel ulaka kopuranka! aiyam ilai ninra pukal vai yokattu mannum mai yal vilai ma naraka kopurankal kantir poyy uraiyum venta purattitumin enrun.1 ( If you speak the truth, your fame will ever be in this world and in your next birth you will acquire the jewelled temples of heaven. Do not speak lies which give you the confusing temples of hell. (Therefore] give up speaking lies.) Non-Stealing mulari muka naka mulaiy eyir ucutu kira alavi ruyar cey vari van mannar atanalum vilaiv ariya ma tuyaram vil katiyul uykkum kalavu katanakak katintitutal cuta. 2 ( It would be best to give up stealing immediately because, ( when one does it ] in this world, the king will kill by piercing him with the tusk of the elephant which has a face like a lotus. [ It will also cause one to fall into hell where one undergoes hardship.) Celibacy matattakaiya nallar manan kariya marrar pitart talai ol val por pirar manaikal cerin etupp ariya tunpatt itaip patuvar inna natukk utai ya kamam vituttituta nanre. 8 ( If one goes to the wife of another man thus placing a sword on his own neck, and causes his wife who is innocent ( matamai ) to worry, he brings on himself unbearable worries. (Therefore, ) it is better to renounce his lustful inconstancy.) Non-Posesssion terulir porul vanulakam er utarkkuc cempon irulil patukal puka! vittilaiyenin ella arulu naka vaiya nokay aimporiyu naiyap porulu nakav itfum porul yatum porul anre. (If one realises [this, he will know that) the wealth, which is achieved while the world, the grace, and the wealth itself laugh at it and the five senses suffer without enjoying it, is not the real wealth. The real wealth will give one fame in the world and it will also serve as a ladder to reach the golden world in the next birth.) 1 Cc. v. 2869 2 Ibid, v. 2870 3 lbid, 2871 4 Cc. v. 2872

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 147 In this life Civaka strictly observe ahimsa (non-killing) wherever possible. When he goes to retrieve the cows which were stolen by the hunters from the cowherds, he does not hurt or kill anyone. He controls the elephant which came to kill Kunamalai without killing it. In certain circumstances he fights with his enemies either to safeguard himself or to save his country. Civakan observes the different kinds of samayika vratas in several instances, After the fight with the kings to win Kantaruvatattai, Civakan makes a golden image of Lord Arhat. He offers dana and worships the lord Jina who destroys sins. The following lines where this incident is narrated shows that he repents over his sins. (pratikramapa) and determines to avoid sins in future (pratyakhyana). pirkeju kalattup pavam pulam potu pokkinana (He removes the sins committed in the battlefield and the aversion caused in the mind after committing sins.) ceytav ap pavam ellan tirttipun tirtan patam eytiya catan kvitt Iraincupu tolutu valtti. .4 (He worshipped the lord Arhat, who removes all the sins committed in all births, after obtaining the offerings placed on the feet of Arhat..) to Civakan performs vandana and stuti in a mountain before going Cittirakotam and in the temple in Aranapatam. In these two places he praises the attributes of lord Arhat. The aspects of vaiyavrtya vow are also explained through the deeds of Civakan. Civaka imparts knowledge (gift of knowledge) to a hunter and converts hunters. who are flesh-eaters to lead a moral life. He explains to them the results of eating flesh and the pains in hell etc. When imparting knowledge to the brahmin ascetics in Cittirakutam, Civakan explains to them that even right conduct will not save the soul, if it is not accompanied by the right faith. The ascetics in Cittirakatam live with their wives as brahmanical faith allows them to lead that kind of life. Civakan tells them that one cannot attain salvation when one has wordly attachments, such as having wives. He further says that their efforts to attain liberation are like swimming in the sea with the stone tied around the neck. 8 In addition he explains that even the physical tortures in performing tapas are ineffective and futile without the right faith and right knowledge. He says to them, "if you think that sleeping on hanging swings and eating fruits will destroy the bad karmas, then the bats which hang on the trees and feed on fruits also should be able to eradicate their bad karmas. 9 If you think that feeding on Alli seeds and grass grains and standing in the midst of five kinds of fire (pancagni) will help to 1 Ibid, vv. 453, 454 4 Ibid, v. 821 7 Ibid, vv. 1233-1236 2 Ibid, vv. 983, 984 5 Ibid, vv. 1418-1420 8 Cc. v. 1426 3 Cc. v. 820 6 Ibid, vv, 1242-1247 9 Ibid, v. 1429

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148 Study of Cirakacintamani eradicate the karmas, then the doves which feed on pebbles and live in the hot desert will also be able to destroy their karmas. 1 If you believe that you can achieve the highest goal by growing long matted hair, bathing in water and sleeping on floors, then the bears in the forest will also attain salvation when they bathe in water. If you think that giving up a luxurious bed and living in huts and sleeping on the floor can eradicate karmas, then the karmas of the hunters who live in mountains under the same living canditions also will be destroyed. 3 " After elucidating these, Civakan explains to them what is right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct and how 'they assist in the destruction of karmas. Apart from giving dana of knowledge, Civakan also does other kinds of danas (gifts). Civakan gives ausadha dana (gift of medicine) to Patumai who was bitten by a snake. 5 After acquiring his kingdom, he also donates gifts to the temple. He gives hundred villages to burn the lamp in the Jaina temple and four million gold pieces for making puja in the temple. After all these, he also gives a hundred elephants and a hundred chariots for the service of temples. The nature of gifts, their importance and the results of giving gifts are also explained by the caranan who preaches Jaina doctrine to Civakan. He says that the best kind of gift is like sowing seeds in a fertile land which yields a bumper harvest and the bad kind of gift is like sowing seeds in a useless land. The best kind of gift is the gift given to the ascetics and the other kind is the gift given to the people of ordinary merit. He condemns giving gifts to sinful people. The caranan also explains the vaiyavitya vow in detail. Through the explanation of the carapan Tevar brings out the explanation he borrowed from Rk. Rk says that the hospitality shown to an ascetic should be as follows ; navapunyaih pratipattih saptagunasamahitena suddhena / apasuna-arambhanam aryanam isyate danam // 9 (The welcoming of (and the offering good to) holy saints, who do not engage themselves in the householder's work (crushing, grinding, kindling fire and the like), having received them with the nine-fold ceremonies (i) prostrating oneself at his feet, (ii) offering him a high seat, (iii) washing his feet and applying the 'washing' to one's forehead in token of reverence, (iv) worshipping him, (v) saluting him, (vi-viii) preserving one's own mind, speech and body in a state of purity and (ix) offering him pure suitable food ) by a layman excelling in the seven (well known) virtues (i) faith, (ii) contentment, (iii) devotion, (iv) jnana (wisdom) (v) con rol of greed, (vi) forgiveness and (vii) sakti (energy or assiduity) is called dada).1 1 Ibid, v. 1430 2 Ibid. v. 1431 3 Ibid, v. 1432 4 Ibid, v. 1436 5 Cc. v. 1290 6 Ibid, v. 2564 7 Ibid, v. 2823 8 Ibid, v. 2828 9 Rk. 113 10 Champat Rai Jain, translation for Rk., Arrah, 1917, pp. 52, 53.

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 149 Tevar explains the above through the preaching of the caranan as follows: totikk kaiyar rolutu valttit tumani nilattu! errip potip punai tukili nikkip pukalnt ati kaliya pinyai atulla cant akilin aviy ay malar aruccittanar kotuppar ualamirta munrir kunam purint atahkinarkkal (If the ascetic (comes to his house), the householder will worship him with bands wearing armlet (the ornament 'toti') and praise him. He will make the ascetic sit on the jewelled floor. Then he will wipe the dust on the feet of the ascetic with a fine garment and wash them with water. After that he will worship his feet with sandalwood, aloe, fragrant things and flowers and give him four kinds of food with the three qualities.)3 The caranan also explains the fruits of giving gifts. The gift offered to a holy saint will cause the soul to be born in the land of enjoyment (bhogabhumi), 4 where it can enjoy all its desires. The gift given to ordinary people will cause the soul to be born in the Karmabhumi, where the men are expected to live by doing various occupations. The gifts offered to people who had not controlled their five senses will cause the soul to be born in various islands, with human body and animal face. The seventh stage, the Brahmacarya pratima, co nes in Civakan's life after he realises the transient nature of the worldly life. Soon after watching the scene where the gardener snatches a jack fruit from a female monkey which got the fruit from its mate, 6 Civakan ponders about the unreal nature of this world. He gives up all his desires and enjoyments. The poet describes this stage of renouncing enjoyments and pleasures as follows: vekaimaiy ennu navir kama venteran manti matci onranum inri mayankinerk irulai ninkak kattinar terar avar kalvilakk atanai entu 1ottiyar rotak kappatta cori matak kalirrin mintan? (Having decided that they (the gardener, the female monkey and the male monkey) must be celestials who showed him the guiding light of renunciation in order that the darkness may be dispelled, the one who was enjoying intemperately the exhilerating drink of Just with the tongue of passion abjuring all good deeds, rejected the enjoyment of pleasures like a rut-flowing intoxicated elephant who has been goaded into the right direction)). 1 Cc. v. 2827. 2 Here, making the ascetic sit on the jewelled floor means to give him a high seat. 3 The three qualities are purity in throught, word and deed. Naccinarkkiniyar, commentary on Cc. v. 2827. 4 Cc, vv. 2830-2840. 5 Cc. v. 2841 6 Ibid, vv. 2721-2725 7 Cc. v. 2729

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150 Study of Civakacintamani Though the ladies in the palace try to attract him, he decides to renounce the world. After rejecting the desires in pleasures he goes to the temple where he meets. the two carapas who instruct him in the Jaina doctrine and tell him the story about his previous birth. In the last three pratimas Civakan prepares himself for the life of an ascetic. He renouces all his passions and his kingdom and goes to his spiritual guide Crivartamana cuvamikal and performs penance. The ascetic life of Civakan and the attainment of his liberation are mainly explained through the answer of the ascetic Cutanmar to the questions put to him by the king Cenikan abont Civakan. The rules an ascetic should observe preached by the carapan who instructed Jaina doctrine to Civakan. When one renounced all worldly attachments, he reaches the sixth gupasthana, the pramatta samyata gupasthana and the ascetic's life starts from here. He is expected to observe five maha-vratas (absolute vows) which correspond to the five anuvratas (partial vows) of a householder. The five aqu-vratas are made as Bhargava says, "keeping in view the social obligations of a householder", but, maha-vratas are unconditional and absolute. Non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and nonpossession are expected to be observed without any restriction by an Malacara, the basic text dealing with the conduct of digambara monks, gives the following twenty eight qualities which a monk should be endowed with." ascetic. 1-5. 6-10, 11-15. 16-21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Five absolute vows (Panca-maha-vratas) Five-fold path of vigilance (Pancasamitis) Control of five senses (indriya jaya) Six essential duties (adavalyakas) Pulling out of the hair (kebaluncana) Nudity Non-bathing Sleeping on the ground Not cleaning the teeth. Taking food in standing posture Eating only once in twenty four hours (Ekabhakta) Observing all these twenty eight qualities, an ascetic is also expected to perform penance in order to get rid of his accumulated karmas and to check the inflow of the new karmas. 6 These penances are of two kinds, external and internal. In external 1 Cc. v. 2732 2 Ibid, vv. 2925-2952 3 Ibid, v. 3040. Ref. also the commentary of Naccinarkkiniyar on the Cc. v. 3040. 4 Bhargava, op.cit. p. 152 5 pp. 150, 151 6 Ts. 9:3 7 Ibid, 9, 19-20 "1

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 151 penanes the ascetic undergoes physical endurance whereas in internal penances he controls his mind.1 There are six external penances and six internal penances which an ascetic performs before he attains his salvation. The external penances are : 1. Anasana (fasting) - not taking any food for a limited period or till death. 2. Avamodarya - eating less than what one wants and this helps the ascetic to overcome the senses and the sleep. 3. Vrtti-parisankhyana taking a mental vow to accept food from a householder on certain condition. If the condition is too difficult, the monk will be without food for a long period and thereby he uproots the desire for food. renouncing one or more of the six delicacies, milk, curd, ghee, 4. Rasa-parityaga oil, sugar and salt. This tapas is also to overcome the senses, the sleep, and to study without any disturbance. 5. Vivikta-layyasana- residing and sleeping in a lonely place. 6. Kaya-klesa - mortification of the body. The six internal penances are : 1. Prayalcitta-observing expiation of any sin committed consciously or unconsciously. 2. Vinaya showing reverence and having belief in right faith, right knowledge, right conduct and paying respect to superiors. 3. Vaiyavrtya - offering services to saints. 4. Svadhyaya learning the holy texts, 5. Vyutsarga 6. Dhyana meditation. renouncing the attachment to the body. Of all these twelve kinds of penances, dhyana holds the most important place in asceticism. It is through dhyana that the concentration of the mind is achieved. Ts. defines dhyana as follows: Uttamasamhananasyaikagracintanirodho dhyanam a antarmuhurttat. (Dhyana, the concentration of mind, is only possible up to forty eight minutes (antarmuhurta) and it can be only practised by a man with a good constitution.) This dhyana is classified into four kinds, the arta dhyana (painful concentration), rudra dhyana (concentration on terrible things in order to achieve unrighteous gains), dharma dhyana (righteous concentration) and sukla dhyana (pure concentration). 1 Pajyapada, Sarvarthasiddhi, Commentary on Ts. 9: 19-20. 2 Ts. 9: 19 3 Ts. 9:27 4 Ibid, p. 202

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152 Study of Civakacintamani The arta dhyana and rudra dhyana do not help an aspirant to attain salvation, instead they give bad results and these two are only found in the soul up to the fifth gupasthana. The dharma and sukla dhyana lead the soul to liberation. By performing dharma dhyana the soul burns away all the eight karmas and attains the four infinite qualities. While observing dharma, dhyana the ascetic should feel that his body is different and he should give up all his attachments to his body. Dharma dhyana leads the soul to heavenly pleasures and indirectly to liberation. The difference between dharma-dhyana and sukla-dhyana is as Bhargava says, "in dharmadhyana, the consciousness of the distinction between subject and object of knowlege persists; whereas in sukla dhyana all conceptual thinking ceases gradually ". 2 With the help of sukla-dhyana the soul finally leaves the body and attains liberation. Now, we shall see how the soul progresses towards salvation from the sixth gunasthana, the pramatta-samyata gunasthana, where the ascetic life starts. In the sixth stage, though the ascetic observes complete restraint, still he is open to such negligence such as pride, enjoyment of senses, passions and sleep. In the four gunasthanas starting from the fourth gunasthana, avirata-samyagdrsti gunasthana, the soul destroys the four anantanubandhi kasayas (anantanubandhikrodha, anantanu. bandbi mana, anantanubandhs maya, and anantanubandhi lobha) and the three darsana mohaniya karmas (mithyatva karma, samyagmithyatva karma and samyaktva karma). From the seventh gunastbana, the apramatta-samyata gunasthana, when the soul ascends to the next gunasthana, the apurva-karana gunasthana, it ascends to either the ksapaka sreni or the upasama sreni. These two, the ksapaka sreni and the upasama sreni, are two spiritual ladders which help the soul to either destroy all the karmas or to subside them. If a soul ascends upasama sreni it could only subside its karmas and it cannot attain the highest state, the moksa, for, the subsided karmas once disturbed come up to the surface and hence the soul falls from the height of spirituality it has reached. Even if the soul suc:eeds in following the upasama sreni it cannot climb beyond the eleventh gunastana which is the highest gunastana for the soul which follows upasama sreni. If a soul follows ksapaka sreni it can climb up to the highest goal, the moksa, by annihilating all its karmas. As in the Cc. Civakan follows the ksapaka sreni, we here explain the progress of a soul which follows ksapaka sreni. The soul which has ascended on the ksapaka sreni to the eighth gunasthana reaches the next gunasthana, the anivetti - badarasamparaya gunasthana. In this stage the soul first destroys the following sixteen 1 Bhargava, op.cit. p. 202 2 Ibid, p. 202

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism karmas: (i) nidranidra karma, (ii) pracalapracala karma, (iii) styanagrddhi karma, (iv) tirvag-gati-nama-karma, (v) naraka-gati-nama-karma, (vi) ekendriya-namakarma, (vii) dvindriya-nama-karma, (viii) trindriya-nama-karma, (ix) caturindriya nama-karma, (x) tiryaganuparvi nama-karma, (xi) narakanuparvi nama-karma, (xii) sthavara nama-karma, (xiii) suksma nama-karma. (xiv) sadharana nama-karma, (xv) atapa nama-karma, and (xvi) uddyota nama-karma. After destroying the above said. sixteen karmas the soul destroys the eight passions, the four pratyakhyanavarana karmas (pratyakhyanavarapa krodha, pratyakhyanavarapa mana, pratyakhyanavarana maya, and pratyakhyanavarana lobha) and the four apratyakhyanavarana karmas (apratyakhyanavarapa krodha, apratyakhyanavarana mana, apratyakhyanavarana maya, and apratyakhyanavarana lobha). Then the napumsaka veda and the striveda are destroyed. In the end of this ninth gunasthana, the soul also destroys the purusa veda samjvalana-krodha, samjvalana-mana, and samjvalanamaya karmas. From here the soul ascends to the tenth guyasthana, the suksmasamparaya gunasthana, and in here the soul annihilates its samjvalana-lobha karma. After this the soul ascends to the next gunasthana, the upaiantakasaya-vitaraga-chadmastha gunasthana, and from there it proceeds to the twelfth gupasthana, the ksipa-kasaya-vitaraga-chadmastha gunasthana, where the soul first destroys the two kinds of sleep (nidrakarma and pracala karma). Then the soul destroys the five jnnavaraniya karmas (matijnKnavaraniya, Arutajnanavarapiya, avadhijnanavaraniya, manahparyaya-janavarapiya and kevalajaanavarapiya karmas), the four darjanavaraniya karmas (caksur-darjanavaraniya), acaksur -darsanavaraniya, avadhi-darsanavaraniya and kevala-darsanavaraniya), and the five antaraya karmas (danantaraya, labhantaraya, bhogantaraya, upabhogantaraya and viryantaraya). After destroying these karmas the soul ascends to the thirteenth gunasthana, the sayogi-kevali-gupasthana where the soul becomes a sayogi-kevalin. From here the soul next ascends to the final stage, the ayogi-kevali-gunasthana, in which the soul completely annihilates the seventy two karmas1 which are not hitherto destroyed. In the last moment of this gupasthana the soul destroys all the thirteen remaining karmas. Once all the karmas are destroyed, the soul attains liberation, the highest goal of the soul. 153 The way Civaka attained salvation following ksapaka-greni is depicted through allegorical expressions in the verses starting from 3076 to 3082 in Cc. Though Tevar does not mention the names of the different gunasthanas, the order in which the karmas are eradicated by Civakan strictly follows the order of the eradication of Karmas by a soul which follows Ksapaka sreni. The whole process is described as a war between Civakan and his karmas. Civakan started the war against his foes, the karmas, having right knowledge as his chariot, the idea of saving his soul as his horse, right faith as his elephant, kindness as his infantry, right conduct as the support for his body and the touch as his sword and shield. When he, with 1 Pujyapada, op. cit. commentary on Ts. 10:2. 2 Cc. v. 3074. Sc-20

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154 Study of Civakacintamani his army, surrounded the walls of the city of his enemies, the karmas, they came out ready for a war, having sleep as their elephant, food as their chariot, forgetfulness as their horses and diseases with vata, pitta and slesman as their infantry 2 The army of the karmas is described as a big ocean full of sharks. In this fight Civakan kills the karmas and ascends towards salvation. The progress of the soul of Civakan up to the ninth gunasthana, the anivettibadara-samparaya gunasthana is explained through allegorical expression in the following verse : teliv arutt eluvar pattar ir enmar tilaittu vilntar kaliru kal utaippav enmar kaviln'anar kalattin ulle piliri vil reti pen noy ar uvakuit tuvarppum pecin ali patu cintaiyennum ali vay vilntav anra3 (In the battle fiel i seven people fell down unconscious. Sixteen of them fell down after fighting. Eight people were overthrown when the elephant kicked with its leg. If one talks about the neuter sex which fell down shouting, the female sex and the six non-passions, they all fell under the wheel of kind thought.) Here, by the expression "eluvar pattar" (seven people fell down) the annihilation of the seven karmas, i, e. the four anantanubandhi kasayas anii the three darsana mohaniya karmas, 4 is shown. The sixteen people who fell down after fighting are the sixteen karmas which are supposed to be destroyed in the beginning of the ninth gunasthana, the anivstti-badara-samparava gunasthana. The eight people who were kicked by the leg of the elephant are the eight passions, the four pratyakhyanavarpa karmas and the four apratyakhyanavarana karmas e In the same gunasthana, Civakan also destroys the female sex and the neuter sex and the six nokasayas. At the end of this gunasthana Civakan annihilates the purusa veda, and the three samjvalana kasayas. 9 After that he ascends to the tenth gunasthana, the suksma-samparaya gunathana in which he eradicates also the fourth samjvalana kasaya, the samjvalana lobha. This is explained in the following lines : kur tane munan mayan kurpp utaiy ulopan en par viratittu viralir cutti veru varat takka viran nirotanoiy ampir konran. .. ..10 (Kurotan (krodha), Manan (mana), Mayap (maya) and Ulopan (lobha) who is covetous, came opposing with pointed fingers. (Civakan) killed them with the help of (his mind full of) control over passions.) 1 Cc. v 3075 2 Ibid, v. 3075 3 Ibad, v. 3076 4 Supra, p. 152 5 Supra, p. 153 6 Supra, p. 153 7 Cc. v. 3076 8 Ibid, 3077 9 Supra, p. 153. Cc, v. 3079 10 Ibid, v. 3080

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 155 After this Civakan ascends to the next gunasthana, the upasanta-kanaya-vitaraga -chadmastha and from there he ascends to the twelfth gunasthana, the ksinakasayavitaraga-chadmastha gupasthana. In this stage he annihilates the two kinds of sleep, the nidra karma and the pracala karma. 1 In the same gunasthana, he with the help of sukla-dhyana, 2 eradicates the five jnanavarinya karmas, 5 four darsanavaraniya karmas, and the five antaraya karmas 5 This stage is explained in the following verse : punari por ciru pun kelvip pataiyotu pukaintu ponki unarvotu katci per enr itaiyuru kokkal errar inar eri mulakkam anna cukkilat tiyanam ennum kanaiy erint ukaippa vilntu kar patai culappatlaro (The kings Unarvu, Katci, and Peru (jnanavaraniya karmas, darsanavaraniya karmas and Antaraya karmas) come blazing with anger, with their army' which had inferior knowledge and fought (with Civakan). They all fell down when attacked by the roaring flames of Cukkilattiyanam (sukladhyana) and lay on the ground surrounded by their infantry.) At the end of this gunashana Civakan completely destroys all the ghatiya karmas and ascends to the thirteenth gunasthana, the sayogikevali gumasthana. After destroying all the ghatiya karmas, the soul of Civakan attains the four infinite qualities and surpasses the three lokas and the aloka and achieves godship. This progress is described in the following verse : katip por mannar vilak kanaiy eri citari veyyon otiya vakaiyin onriy ulak ucci mulaittate pol viti poy ulaka munrum vilunkiyitt aloka nunki atiy ant akarra nanmaik kotiy etutt iraimai kontan." (Having dispersed the arrows of fire everywhere so that the kati kings (ghatiya karmas) who were fighting (against him) were destroyed, he the one who is like a sun as mentioned in the agamas, (spread his lustre all over) as if he had sprung up on the top of the loka. Then he surpassed the three lokas and the aloka and attained godship by taking the flag of four (ananta jnana, ananta darsana, ananta-virya and anana-sukha) which has no beginning and end.) In this Arhat stage, the qucens of Civakan come to worship him and on their request he preaches the Jaina doctrine to them. 8 After this stage the soul of Civakan ascends to the final gunasthana, where it destroys all the remaining aghatiya karmas and attains liberation. Tevar describes this final stage as follows: .... Vitu perran vilanki nal vinaiyum vente. 9 1 Ibid, v. 3080 6 Cc. 3081 2 Cc. v. 3081 7 Co. 3082 3 Supra, pp. 129, 130; Cc. v. 3081 8 Ibid, vv, 3105-3111 pp. 130; 5 pp. 131, 132; . 9 lbid. v. 3114

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156 Study of Civakacintamani (He attained liberation (moksa) by overcoming the four karmas (the aghatiya karmas)). The soul which is completely free from karmas and which has attained the four infinite qualities and which has no body is called as siddha. According to Digambara Jains this stage of siddha cannot be attained by women and can be only attained by men. First the women have to get rid of their woman-hood and then only can attain salvation. This is explained in the Cc. through the characters, Vicayai, the mother of Civakan and the queens of Civakan. Vicayai renounced the world before Civakan and did penance, but there is no reference in the Cc. to show that she attained liberation. When describing the queens of Civakan Tevar says that after they renounced the worldly affairs, they performed penance, in order to get rid of their life as women. ...pen pirapp itiyac cintitlar 1 (They meditated to get rid of their birth as women). As a result of this meditation they gained pure knowledge and destroyed their birth as women and attained the state of Indras. All the souls which have attained siddhahood are equal. There is no god beyond these souls. The relationship between these souls and the souls which have not attained liberation will be discussed under the sub section "Theological ideas". Before dealing with the theological ideas, it is als) necessary to discuss the ritualistic ideas found in the Cc. Ritualistic Ideas In the early canons of Jainism no importance was given to rituals The first descriptive mention of Jaina rituals is found in the Adipurapa of Jin 152 11.3 It is not known whether these rituals mentioned in the Adipurana (Ap.) were prevalent among Jainas earlier than the period of the Ap. or whether they were framed by Jinasena in a way similar to the Hindu samskaras. 4 The Ap. deals with fifty thre: kriyas, in its chapter thirty eight.8 Although all the ritual mentioned in the Ap. are not found in the Cc., there are references to a few rituals. The kriyas which are found in the Cc. are discussed below. The kriya which is performed when naming a child is called Nanakarman. This kriya is done on the twelfth day after the child's birth.. In the Cc, this kriya is per. formed when naming the children of Cvjakan. The astrologers draw their horoscopes calculating the position of the stars with their highest positions, their lowest positions and their relationship with each other. After calculating the horoscopes they named the children on the twelfth day. 8 1 Cc. v. 3120 5 Ap. chapter XXXVIII, 50-311 2 Ibid, v. 31 21 6 Ibid, XXXVIII, 57-59 3 Williams, op. cit. p. 274 7 Cc. v. 2703 4 Ibid. p. 274 8 Nacciparkkiniyar, the commentary written on Cc. v. 2703

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 157 Lipisamkhyana kriya is the kriya which is made at the age of five when a child starts his education first time. 1 This kriya is performed when Civakan started his education first and this is explained in the following verse : arum ponnum maniyu mut tum kanamun kuruni yakap parant elap pirappum vaittup paim pon cey tavicin ucci iruntu pon olai cem pon uciyal elutiy er ppat tiruntu por kanniyarkkuc celviyaic cerrtinare. 2 YHaving placed the trays of rice on which gold, jewels and pearls are being kept to the amount of a Kuruni 3 and having sat on the golden seat, the teacher united the young lady (goddess of education) with Civakan who wore golden garland, by writing on the golden leaf with the golden needle.) The rituals performed in marriage are mentioned in the Cc. in the description of the marriage between Ilakkanai and Civakan. Though Civakan marries eight girls, only the wedding which took place between Ilakkanai and Civakan is described with full details of wedding rituals. According to the Ap. a young man should marry a girl from a suitable family with the permission of his guru. The marriage should be perlormed in front of the holy fire after making puja to Jina, 5 After the wedding for seven days the couple should have no sexual relationship and they should go to a place of pilgrimage if possible. When they return home on proper time they should indulge themselves in sexual pleasures for the procreation of children.8 Tevar follows some of these rules in describing the wedding of Civakan with Jlakka nai and also borrows some of the ideas expressed in the glhya sutras. Ilakkanai whom Civakan married was from a suitable family as she was his cousin, the daughter of his uncle Kovintan. In the wedding, the officiating priests made the altar with newly spread sand, sacred grass (darbha) and sacrificial fuel. They also placed two vessels of water, a pot of incense and a vessel of ghee, in the proper places. These detailed descriptions about making the altar and placing the water, incense, and ghee are not mentioned in the Ap. The water and ghee which are placed in the vessels are for the ceremony of madhuparka. Madhuparka is tbe first honour that the father-in-law bestows upon the bridegroom. The two vessels of water are, one for the wasbing the feet of the bridegroom and the other the arghya water, 1 Ap. loc. cit. 102-103 2 Cc. v. 369 3 'Kuruni' is a grain measure equal to one marakkal or eight measures, Madras Tamil lexicon, Vol. II, Madras, 1962, p. 1054. 4 Ap. loc. cit. v. 127 5 , v. 128 6 .. vv, 131-134 7 Naccinarkkiniyar, commentary on the Cc. v. 2464 8 R. B. Pandey, Hindu Samskaras, 2nd Edition, Delhi, 1969, p. 211

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158 Study of Civakacintamani The priests also placed a golden pot full of fried rice grains, a grinding stone and sacred fuel.1 The pot full of rice grains is kept for the ceremony of laja-homa. This ceremony is performed as a symbol of fertility and prosperity. The brother of the bride pours fried grain mixed with sami leaves (prosopis spicigera) into the hands of the bride and she offers them with the joined hands into sacrificial fire while the bridegroom recites verses to bring prosperity and unity.3 Though this is not described in the Cc. in detail the idea of placing a pot of fried rice grains explains the purpose for which it is kept. The grinding stone was kept to perform the ceremony of asmarobana or the mounting of the stone. This ceremony is performed to make the wife firm in her devotion and loyalty to her husband. 4 Civakan married Ilakkanai in front of the sacred fire. There is no mention of Civakan going to a sacred place for seven days with his wife or observing celibacy for seven day as mentioned in Ap. The renunciation of worldly attachments after leading a lay life is called grhatyaga. According to the Ap. when a lay man wants to renounce the world, he has to perform puja to Jira and after that he should entrust his property to his son and should ask the son to preserve it.7 Civakau did this ceremony before going to do penance. He called all his sons and made Caccantay king and divided his other possessions among his other children. Theological ideas According to Jainism all the souls which are free from karmas attain godhood. There is no god beyond these gods. These gods in no way help the souls with karmas. Each soul should shed its karmas with its own efforts and attain godhood. Though these gods do not help the other souls in the path of salvation, still in Jainism prayer and meditation have an important place. The souls with karmas pray and meditate upon the attributes of the freed souls, not in order to paise them or flatter them, but to awaken the latent potentialities of godhood in them, In the Cc., there are a few places where Civakan praises lord Arhat. He praises lord Arhat before he goes to the mountain Cittira-kutam. 8 In this prayer, Civakan by praising the attributes of lord Arhat tries to see the goal which a soul should reach. The following verse which is one of the verses in his prayers serves as a good example : katalal en vinaiyun kalipay enriy ak katal a talal en vinaiyun kaliyav enrum araitiyar potulayt ten kulittup palintu vanlu tivant ulam kotai tal pintik koma ninnait tolute ne. 9 1 Cc. v. 2464 4 Ibid. p. 219 7 Ibid, p. 285 2 Pandey, op. cit p. 218 5 Cc. v. 2468 8 Cc. v. 1426 ff 3 Ibid, p. 218 6 Williams, op.cit. p. 285 9 Cc, v. 1420

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism (You tell me that eight karmas will be eradicated by the love placed on you and at the same time you also tell that if the same love is placed on another object, the eight karmas cannot be removed. Therefore I pray you, the lord, who sits under the pinti tree which is lowered with the swaying flower garlands made of honey dropping blossoms surrounded by bees.) In the above verse one can see how Civakan is trying to realise the necessity of getting rid of karmas, by praising the lord Arhat who has got rid of his karmas, Most of the prayers we find in the Cc. are prayers which extol the glories and qualities of freed souls. According to Jainism the freed souls are of two kinds, the disembodied and the embodied souls. The disembodied souls are called Siddhas and the embodied souls are called Arhats or Jinas. The Siddhas are of two kinds, the Tirthankara Siddhas and the Samanya Siddhas. Tirthankara Siddhas are the Siddhas who preached the doctrine of Jainism to the people in their embodied condition after shedding their karmas. The others are Samanya Siddhas. The Arhats or Jinas are souls who are embodied though they have attained perfection. They are called Arhats as they are worthy of adoration and worship1 and called Jina as they had overcome all the five senses and the eight karmas. Jina is also called a Tirthankara, because, he by preaching the Jaina doctrine helps the human beings to cross the ocean of samsara. Since these souls have human body, the human beings find it easy to worship them. Siddhas who are without any human body can be understood only by yogic contemplation. To perform yogic contemplation the individual must be fit and spiritually qualified. Apart from Siddhas and Arhats, there are other saints and ascetics who are in their embodied state, but respected and worshipped. They are the Acaryas, the head. of the saints, the Upadhyaya, the teaching saint, and the Sadhu, an ascetic. These five souls, the Siddha, the Arhat, the Acarya, the Upadyaya and the Sadhu are called Pancaparamesthin. The prayer made to these five classes of people are called Panca-namaskara or Panca-paramesthi-stuti. It runs as follows: 159 namo arihantanam, namo siddhanam, namo ayariyanam, namo uvajjhayanam, namo loe savvasahinam 5 (I bow to the Arhats, I bow to the Siddhas, I bow to the Acaryas, I bow to the teaching saints, 1 bow to all the Sadhus in the world-) This Panca-namaskara mantra is mentioned in a few places in the amalaiyar ilampakam, the dog which was beaten by the angry brahmins a deva when Civaka pronounced Pancanamaskara mantra in its ears. 2-3 Ibid, p. cxv 4 J. Jaini, op. cit. pp. 2, 80 5 Williams, P. 185 1 A. Chakravarti, Introduction to Samayasara, Jnanapitha Moorti Devi Granthamala, English series, I, First edition, 1950, p. cxv. * dr 6 Cc. vv. 945-947 7 Ibid, v. 945 Co. In Kunturned into Tevar refers

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160 Study of Civakacintamani to the Pancanamaskara mantra as 'aimpatam'. The following lines relate the incident in which the dog after hearing the Pancanamaskara mantra turns to be a deva destroying all its karmas. katrav aimpatanka nirak karu vinai ka! uvappatlu marravan teva naki.. .. .. 1 (He became deva after having wasbed all the bad deeds (karu vinai) by the water of the aimpatam (Papicanamaskara mantra) which he had learnt ..) In the Cc. in some instances, the benediction to lord Arhat alone is mentioned. Caccantan, the father of Civakan before sending his wife Vicayai in the flying machine pronounces the benediction to god. Here the god to whom he prays is lord Arhat. in pa mikk utaiya cirttiy iraivanat anai kurit tunpam il paravai urti carttinan .. .. ..3 (He after pronouncing the benediction to lord Arhat, put [her] in the harmless vehicle which was in the shape of a bird.) A part from pancanamaskara, the Jains also say catuh-sarana (four goings for refuge). This is the recourse to the four refuges of the Arhats, the Siddhas, the Acaryas and the law (of the Jinas) (dhamma). This catuhsarana runs as follows: ashamte saranam pavaj jami, siddhe saranain pavaj jami, sahi saranam pavajjami, kevali-pannattam dhammam saranam pavajjami.3 (I go to the Arhat for refuge, I go to the Siddha for refuge, I go to the Sadhu for refuge and I go to the religion which is pronounced by the souls which attained omniscience for refuge ) This catuh-sarapa is found in the Cc. in the benedictory stanzas. The first verse is the recourse to the lord Arbat, the second to Siddha, the third to the Sadhu and to the Dhamma.4 Thus in the course of the discussions in this chapter we have seen how Tevar has struck a new line in the comsitioa of a paru kappiyam in Tamil with a religious motive. His literary predecessors, Ilanko, and Korkuvelir , though they were Jains dealt with themes which did not have a religious motive. Accordingly here ale only a few references scattered here and there in the Cilappatikaram and the Perunkatai to Jainism which serve as reflections of the social status accorded to the religion in their times rather than as manifest religious propaganda. In the Manimek alai of Cattanar this is no more the case and his poem is full of religious debates employing highly Sanskritised and specialised Buddhist philosophical jargon. The Cc. is a book written with similar motive from the hands of a Jaina author. As we have seen in the course of this chapter, the Cc. displays the erudition of the author in 1 Ibid, v. 951 3 Williams, op. cit. p. 186 2 lbid.v. 273 4 Cc. v. 1-3

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism 161 the authentic treatises of Jaina philosophy which were all written originally in Sanskrit and Prakrit. The concepts and vocabulary peculiar to the Jain philosophical system have been appropriately adapted by Tevar to suit his narration and the Tamil language and culture. He has transformed a mere skeleton of Jajna Puranic story into an elaborate 'magnum opus' of Jaina doctrine. The religious and conceptual aspects of the transformation have been explained in this chapter. The linguistic aspect will be dealt with in the next chapter. Aghatiya karmas Nama karma-103 Ayus karma-4 Deva-ayus Manusya-ayus Tiryag-ayus Naraka-ayus Apinda-Prakytis Pratyeka Trasa Sthavara Prakrtis-8 dasaka-10 dasaka-10 Pinda-Prakstis Gatis-4 Jatis-5 Sariras-5 Angopangas-3 Sthana-2 Bandhana-15 Sanghata-5 Samsthana-6 Samhanana-6 Varna-5 Gandha-2 Rasa -5 Sparsa-8 Anupurvi-4 Gotra karma--2 Uccair-gotra Nicair-gotra Vedaniya karma-2 Sata-vedaniya Asata-vedaniya Sc-21

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Jnanavaraniya karma-5 Mati-jnanavaraniyaSruta-jnanavaraniyaAvadhi-jnanavaraniya Dar sanavaraniya-9 caksur-darsanavaraniyaAcaksur-darsanavaraniyaAvadhi-darsanavaraniya Manahparyaya-jnanavaraniya- Kevala-darjanavaraniya Kevala-jnanavaraniya Nidra Nidra-nidra Pracala Ghatiya karmas Pracala-pracala Styanagrddhi Kasaya Mana Anantanubandhi-mana Krodha Anantanubandhi-krodha Apratyakhyanavarana-krodha Apratyakhyanavarana-mana Pratyakhyanavarana-krodha Samjvalana-krodha Mohaniya-28 Darsanamohaniya SamyaktvaMithyatva-Misra Maya Anantanubandhi maya Caritramohaniya maya maya Antaraya-5 Dana-antaraya Labha-antaraya Bhoga-antaraya Upabhoga Arati Soka Bhaya Pratyakhyanavarana-mana Apratyakhyanavarana- Apratyakhyanavarana- Jugupsa Samjvalana-mana lobha Purusa Pratyakhyanavarana- Pratyakhyanavarana Somjvalana-maya Samjvalana-lobha Virya-antaraya Lobha Anantanubandhi antaraya lobba lobha No-kasaya Hasya Rati veda Stri-veda Napumsakaveda 162

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CHAPTER VI SANSKRIT LOAN WORDS IN THE CIVAKACINTAMANI As the Cc. is a religious work written in an epic form it has two kinds of loan words in it. One, the Jaina technical terms and the other the non-religious terms. We treat these two kinds of loan words under separate sections. Before starting to analyse the Skt. loan words in the Cc, it is necessary to have a brief knowledge of the growth of Skt. loan words in Tamil literature before the period of the Cc. From the linguistic point of view the growth of the Tamil language can be divided into three major periods. 1 (i) Old Tamil (ii) Middle Tamil period (iii) Modern Tamil period In these three main periods the Cc. was composed in the Middle Tamil period. We trace here the developments in the Skt. loan words in the Tamil literature from the very early time to the period in which the Cc. was composed. In identifying the loan words, as M. B. Emeneau says, " details of morphology, and of meaning, as well as of phonology must be brought into play.."9 It is easy to make out a Skt. loan word, for the Indo-European vocabulary of Skt. has been long worked out and established. 8 Therefore, the words which cannot be explained by Dravidian phonetic and etymological phenomena, and which can be traced back to IndoAryan etymology, can be noted as Skt. loan words. There are also a few words which appear in the etymology of both the groups of languages, Indo-European and Dravidian and these have discussed by philologists like Burrow and Emeneau. In the Cankam period when the two different cultures, Aryan and Dravidian, got intermingled, many words which the Aryans used in their social life found their 1 S. Vaidyanathan, Indo-Aryan loan-words in the Civakacintamani", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 87.4, 1967, p. 430. 2 M. B. Emeneau, India and Historical Grammar, Annamalai University Publications in Linguistics, No. 5, 1965, p. 13 3 T. Burrow, Transactions of the Philological Society, London, 1946, p. 13. 4 T. Burrow and M. B. Emeneau, Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1961. Dravidian borrowing from Indo-Aryan, University California Publications in Linguistics, Vol. 26, 1962. T. Burrow. "Loan words in Sanskrit", Transactions of the Philological Society, 1946, pp. 1-30; "Some Dravidian Words in Sanskrit," ibid, 1945, pp. 79-120; Sanskrit Language, 2nd edition, London, 1965, pp. 372-388.

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164 Study of Civakacintamani Skt. Aink. 16 way into the Tamil language.1 For example : Tamil 1. Anjana Ancanam (The black dye applied to the eyes) 2. Kumari Kumari (a virgio) 3. Disa Ticai (directions) 4. Nidhi Niti (wealth) 5. Nemi Nemi (wheel) 6. Sakata Cakatam (a vehicle) Pur, 301 Aink. 98 Akam. 60 Kur; 189 Kur. 5; Pur. 102 (a vehi Skt. AKU These words which are used in the social life had equivalent words in Tamil befor ethey came in vogue in Tamil. But, apart from these words, another class of words came into Tamil which included words not prevalent in Tamil before the migration of the Aryans into the Tamil country. These are words which are related to Aryan religion. For example : Tamil 1. Amarah Amarar (the devas) Patt. 184, 200 2. Ampta Amiltam (food containing six Kur. 83, 201 tastes) 3. Asura Acurar (demons) Pur. 174 4. Ahuti Akuti (oblation) Pur. 99 5. Aradhada Aratanai (the food offered to Pari, 6 the gods) Ulka Urkam (fire-brand) Kur. 41 7. Daiva Teyvam (God) Aink. 76, 4 8. Tapasyin Tapaciyar (ascetics) Nar 141 9. Natha Natan (Rudra the God of Pari. 8 Atirai asterism) 10. Pungava Punkavam (the bull, the Siva's Pari. 8 mount) 11. Bhuta Putam (element) Pur. 369, 17 12. Mantra Mantiram (sacred and esoteric Tirumur. 95 chantings) 13. Mithuna Mitunam (Gemini) Pari. 11, 12 14. Yaksa Iyakkan (a yaksa) Pur. 71 15. Yupa Yupam (sacrificial pillar) Pur, 40, 15 16. Rohini Urokini (The asterism Net. 163 found in conjunction with the moon) 17. Capa Capam (bow) Nar. 228 18. Sandhi Anti (evening) Pur. 2 1 A collection of the Sanskrit loan-words in the Cankam works are given by M. Iracamanikkanar in his Tamil moli-Ilakkiya Varalaru, Madras, January, 1963.

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 165 These Skt. loan-words when borrowed in Tamil are always made of phonemes which are found in Tamil. Tolkappiyar divides these Skt. words into two kinds. 1 The first kind of loan-words are the words which are made of phonemes which are common to Skt. For example: Skt. Tamil 1. Kamalam (lotus) Kamalam (lotus) 2. vanam (forest) vanam (forest) The second kind of words are the words which are originally made of phonemes which are not found in Tamil, but when borrowed from Skt. were altered according to the Tamil grammatical rules. For example : Skt. Tamil 1. Sutra (aphorism) Cuttiram (aphorism) 2. Yaksa (a yaksa) Iyakkan (a yaksa) 3. Bhuta (element) Putam (element) In the middle Tamil period the number of Skt. loan-words used in Tamil literature increased in number. The introduction of Buddhism and Jainism in Tamil land, the Bhakti movement of the Saiva Saints and the Vaispava Alvars, the encouragement and patronage given by the kings who were ruling Tamil land for Skt. and Pkt. studies and the great interest shown by the poets in borrowing Skt. ideas and stories from Skt. literature are the main reasons which caused the increase of Skt. loanwords in Tamil The literary works which were composed in the Middle period before the period of the Cc. can be classified into three categories : (i) The didactic works (The eighteen minor works (Patinenkilkanakku works)) (ii) The devotional hymns of the Saiva saints and Vaisnavs Alvars (iii) The epics, the Cilappatikaram, the Masimekalai and the Perunkatai Tiruva]luvar, the author of the Tirukkural, one of the eighteen minor works, has freely borrowed ideas from Skt. works such as the Manudharma Sastra, the Niti Sastra, the Ayurvedic treatises and the Kama 'sutra and these ideas are very often expressed with the help of Pkt. and Skt. works, hybrid forms and translations of Skt. phrases. According to S. Vaiyapuri Piliai, out of seven hundred and fifty words used in the Tirukkural, one hundred and fifty are of Skt. and Prakritic origin.a 1 (i) vala-cor kitavi vatav elutt orii elattolu punarnta collakumma (ii) citaintana varinum iyaintana variyar. Tolkappiyam, Collatikuram, Eccaviyal, Sutras, 401, 402 2 S, Vaiyapuri Pillai, Kaviyakalam, p. 51.

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166 The following are some of the loan-words found in the Tirukkural. Pkt. Tamil Amacca Skt. 1. Amatya 2. Acara 3. A 4. Kama 5. Karika 6. Nama 7. Pujana 8. Bhagavan 9. Bhagya Skt. 1. Udarata 2. Gati 3. Sisa 4. Divya 5. Duhkha 6. Pramana 7. Dana 8. Jaana 9. Svarga Amaiccan Acaram Acai Kaman Karikai Namam Pucanai Pakavan Pakkiyam Kati Cittan Tippiyam Tukkam Piramanam Tanam NanamCuvarkkam (liberality) (way, path) Study of Civakacintamani (minister) (conduct) (desire) (God of love) (acting as agent) (name) (offering) (knowledge) (heaven) 1 S. Vijayapuri Pillai, Kaviyakalam, p. 51. 2 Ibid, p. 88 (god) (luck) Since the Kural deals with almost all the aspects of life, love, politics, ethics etc., Skt. loan-words in all these fields were borrowed and these words enriched Tamil language and made it more flexible and resilient. Some of the Skt. words found in the Tirukkural are first introduced only in this book. 1 Ver. 381 1075 266 1197 571 360 18 1 1141 As Vaiyapuri Pillai says, "the inspiration kindled by Valluvar (the author of the Tirukkura) produced a few works very much on the same lines as the Tirukkural."9 The other works classified under the eighteen minor works are also indebted to Sanskrit literature in their ideas and as a result of it, the number of Sanskrit words in Tamil also increased. We give below some examples which are taken from the Tirikajukam and the Cirupaficamalam. Tamil Utaratai 39 Cirupan, 12 Cirupan. 94 23 "" 39 99 (disciplined man) Cirupan. 96 (divine) Tirikat. 43. (worry) Tirika. 60 (measure) Tirikat. 7 (gift) Cirupan. 36 Cirupan. 36 Cirupan, 36 66.92 In their devotional songs, the Saiva saints and the Vaisnava Alvars tried to use the language of the masses to which Skt. diction added richness. For example the 39 rw

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167 Sanskrit lone words in the Civakacintamani following line wchich is taken from one of the Tevarams of Appar has three Skt. words out of five words used in the line. kala pacam pisitt elu tutuvar (The messengers with the noose of Yama (the god of death}). The three words in italics are Skt. Joan-words. The Cilappatikaram, the earliest eqic in Tamil literature contains many Skt.words and a few Skt. stories. As this epic does not have religous motif we do not find many religious words. The following are some examples taken from the large number of Skt. words used in the Cilappatikaram. Skt. Tamil 1. Ankuga Ankucam (goad) XXII : 49. 2. Iga Ican (the wealthy one) X : 186 3. Udaya (giri) Utaye (mal (the hill of the V: 5 varai) rising sun) 4. Kavi Kavi (the poet) 111 : 33 5. Gapa Kanam (the eighteen V : 176 Deva ganas) 6. Ganika Kanikaiyar (professional actor XI : 183, XV : 25, and dancer, pro- XXII : 106 stitute) 7. Sapa Capam (curse) VI: 23, X: 233 XXIII : 169 8 Silatala Cilatalam (rock seats) X: 25,161 XV : 154 9, Sankha Cankam (conch) XI;47 10. Sankara Cankaran (He that gives) bliss) X:186 11. Sundara Cuntaram (beauty) 12. Nagara Nakaram (city) IV:84,V, 200 VI 129 13, Madhukara Matukaram (honey bee) XXV:20. The Buddhist epic, the Manimekalai, which deals with Buddhist doctrine in most of its chapters has imbibed a large number of Sanskrit and Prakrit words and in some parts where the Buddhist philosophy is expounded there seem to be more Skt. words than Tamil words. In the following pissage the words in italics are Buddhist philosophical terms. 1 Appar Tirumurai, 5, Pangirutirumuraip peruntirattu, collected by P. Iramanathapillai, 1961, verse 608, p. 156.

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168 Study of Civakacintamani Cattiya tanma vikalam avatu kattappatta tittantattil cattiya tanmam kuraivupatutal; "cattam nittam, amurttam atalal; yatonru yatonru amurttam atu nittam. pulti pool" enral tittantamakak katappatta putti amuritam aki ninre anittam atalan, catana amurtattuvam nirampi, cattiya nittattuvam kuraiyum.' T. Cattiya tanma vikalam --Skt. Sadhya dharma vi-kala (defective major term) ? T. Cattam-Skt. Sabda (sound) T. Nittam-Skt. Nitya (eternal) T. Amurttam-Skt. Amurta (non-corporeal) T. Tittantam-Skt. Drstanta (example) Besides Buddhist Philosophical terms, there are also other Skt. words and Skt. names. Skt Tamil 1. Udyana Uyyanam (royal gardens) 111 : 52. 2. Citra Cittiram (Painting) 111 : 168. 3. Jala Calam (Water) XXIV : 47. 4. Tirtha Tirttan (name of Buddha) V: 98. 5. Turaga Turakam (horse) VII:, 99 XI: 134 6. Nakula Nakulam (mongoose) XIX: 96. 7 Bhagavan Pakavan (Lord Buddha) III:61,XXI11:174 8. Purana Puranag. (the ancient one) V:98 9. Yojana Yocanai (a distance equal to) four Kadams) VI:211, Ix:21 10. Varna Varunam (Class) V:87, VI:56 The Perunkatai, the first work in which a Skt. story is used as the theme, contains a good number of Skt, words. For exampleSkt Tamil 1. Antah-pura Ancappuram (the female apartment) 41:3, line 31 2. Arava Aravam (Noise) 2:10, Jine 45 3. Vrata Viratam (Observance) 2:3, lines 130 4. Kurkuma Kunkumam (saffron) 1:46, line 256 5. Nirmita Nirumitam (produced) 2:13, line 16 1 Manime kalai, Tavattiram puntu tarum am keta katai, lines 349-358. 2 Krishnazwami Ayangir. Manakala in its Historical Settings, London, 1927. p. 216.

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 169 The number of Skt. words found in the Perunkatai is comparatively very much smaller than what we find in the Cc. There are two main reasons which necessitated the use of a larger number of Skt. words by Tevar in the Co. (i) As in the case of the Manimekalai, the need to explain religious ( Jaina religious terms in the case of the Cc.) concepts involving Skt. technical terms resulted in many of these terms being used as such or in a translated form. of the Virutta metre os of the 'pavara vllables, with (ii) The employment of the Virutta metre so as to enable the poem to be set to music. The viruttam metre unlike the metres of the 'pa' variety found in the earlier Tamil literature, is governed by the scansion of the lines into syllables, with appropriate use of alliteration (etukai) and assonance (monai) which place relatively more severe constraints on the metrical composition. Thus it became necessary for the author to draw from a much larger vocabulary. This vocabulary included words from Skt. along with their equivalents in Tamil. The following examples from the Cc. show how one word borrowed from Skt. is used in two or more forms in Tamil : Skt. Tamil 1. Ksema Cemam (safe) 670 Emam (prosperous) 988 2. Amrta Amirtam (ambrosia) 2827, 1178, 1731 Amirtu (ambrosia) 222, 350 3. Hingulika Inkulikam (vermilion) 2239 Kulikam 4. Pratima (Pkt. Padina) Patimai (image) 2752 patimam (image) 2642 Pativam (form) 395, 1166 Now we will analyse the phonological and semantic changes of the words which are not Jain religious technical terms. Before starting the analysis of the phonological changes in the Skt. loan-words in the Cc., one thing must be borne in mind. The gender system in Tamil and in Skt. are entirely different from one another. Tamil has a natural gender whereas Skt. has a grammatical gender. Therefore when Tamil borrowed Skt. words in it, as a general rule, the Tamil personal endings -n, or -t, or the neuter endings -ai,-m, or i are added 1 1 Vaidyanath in Loc.cit., p. 430 Sc-22

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170 Study of Civakaointamani The vowel changes : Since Tamil has most of the counterparts for Skt. vowels, except si, si, Isi and lri, the phonological changes which take place is vowels are comparatively less than in the consonants. According to the phonetic system of Tamil, any vowel can begin a word. Therefore, vowels in the initial position, hardly undergo any changes, unless the letter which follows it exercises influence on it. This is true of the medial vowel also, but they often undergo changes by the influence of the preceding or the following letter, always a consonant or a consonant cluster. Initial 'a': The initial a' in Skt usually remains unchanged in Tamil words. For example : Skt. Tamil 1. agada atakam (medicine) 403 2. anjana ancanam (collyrium) 1632, 2357 atisaya at icayam (pre-eminence) 2813 4. adhvan attam (path) 1185 anta antam (end) 3082 6. abhaya apayam (safety) 2999 7. amsta amirtam (ambrosia) 851 8. alakta arattakam (red lac) 2459 9. ayana ayanam (road, path) 851 10. asta (Pkt. attha) attam (western mountain) 18, 1733, 2022, 2211 11. astra attiram (arrow) 815 (i) 'a' in the first syllable, though often remaining unchanged, sometimes changes into 'e'. For example : Skt. Tamil 1. gandha Kentam (fragrant smell) 3115 2. garuda kelulan (vulture) 1926 3. yantra entiram (machine) 1614 (Here the initial 'y' has been dropped.) wat (ii) 'a' in the first syllable, if continued by a conjunct consonant, sometimes changes into a'. For example : skt. Tamil 1. Kancukin Kancuki (clad in armour) 2862 2. Nandaka Nantakam (sword) 815

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani (iii) There is one case in the Cc. where the 'a' in the initial syllable has been lengthened after the elision of the following 'h'. For example: Skt. maharastra, Pkt. marahatta; Tam. marattam. 2161. Medial 'a' The medial 'a' normally does not undergo any changes, but sometimes changes into 'i'. For example: Skt. 1. Nimittaka 2. Pippali 3. Mandala Skt. Alaya Final 'a' (i) The final 'a' often changes into 'ai'. For example: Skt. 1. Camara 2. Nirodhana 3. Darbha Skt. 1. Amyta 2. leja 3. sphatika) Tamil Nimittikan Tippili Mantilam In some cases medial 'a' also changes into 'ai' when it is followed by 'y'. For example : Tam. Alaiyam abode Pkt. phaliha) 4. palaja (astrologer) (long pepper) (circle) Tamil Camarai Nirotanai Taruppai palikku palacu (ii) In some neuter nouns the final 'a' changes into 'u'. For example: Tamil amirtu ilecu (ambrosia) (easy) (crystal) (a kind of tree. Butea Frondosa) (message) 5. duta1 tutu (iii) In one case the final 'a' has become 'i'. For example: Skt. stupa Tam. tuvi (pinnacle) 539 (a chowry) (control over the passions) 3080 (sacred grass) 2464 (iv) In some words the final 'a' is dropped. For example: Skt. nagara Tam. nakar (city) 2703 1771 897 429, 2412 222 770 171 192 834 1876 531 701 1 'Data' in Skt. means messenger. The equivalent of Skt. 'duta' in Tamil is 'Tutan'. Here the word 'tutu' which is used in the sense of 'message' in Tamil is not used in the same sense in Skt.

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172 Study of Civuk acintamani *** (v) 'a' which comes as the final letter of the word 'hanta' always changes into o'. For example : Skt. banta Tam. anto 1036, 1806 a Initial al The initial 'a' has always remained unchanged. Skt. Tamil 1. akula akulam (confusion) 1104 2. acara acaram (good conduct) 2889 3. ajna(Pkt. ana) anai (command) 1087 4. adara ataram (regard) 189 5. adi ati (beginning) 366 Medial'a' The medial 'a' often remains unchanged, sometimes shortens to 'a'. For example (i) Skt. Tamil 1. salaka calakai (iron rod) 669 2. kalapa- kalapam (women's zone of 2069 beads consisting of sixteen strands) 3. acara acaram (good conduct) 2889 (ii) Skt. Tamil 1. Kumari kumari (virgin) 368 2. Kalana kalavam (peacock's tail) 1558, 1982, 2922 3. pataka (sin.) patakar (sinners) 2783 Final'a' As a general rule the final 'a' is always changed into 'ai'. For example : Skt. Tamil 1. cinta cintai (thought) 913, 1124, 1304, 1701 In the following two cases the final 'a' has been changed into 'i'. Here the a' is preceded by a conjunct consonant in which the second member is 'y'. After the elision of y, the first member of the conjunct consonant has doubled : Tamil 1. Kanya- Kanni (virgin) 2. Ayodhya Ayotti (a name of a city) 614 Skt. 98

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Sanskrit loon words in the Civakacintamani Initial 'i' 'i' in the first syllable of the word always remains unchanged. For example: Skt. Tamil 1. indragopa 2. kinnara Skt. 1. gamini Medial 'i' The medial 'i' often remains unchanged, but in one case it has changed into "u". For example: 2. samidha camitai 3. paridhi1- paruti Initial 'i' 1. 2. intirakopam kinnaram Final 'i' The final 'i' always remains unchanged For example: Skt. 1. jakti 2. chavi Tamil kamini gita la Skt. 1. dvipa 2. khalina (cochineal insect) (A class of demi-gods) Tamil catti cavi (a mantra which repeatedly 1719 pronounced enables one to fly through air) (sacrificial fuel) (sun) in the first syllable also remains unchanged. For cample: Skt. Tamil kitam cilar tipam kalinam (a spear) (beauty) 1819 660 (song) (conduct Medial 'i' Normally the medial i remains unchanged, but in one case the medial bas shortened to 'i'. For example Tamil (island) (a bit of horse's bridle) 2237 144 2484 1241, 2480 1545, 2392 173 503 784 1 In Skt. 'paridhi' means a halo round the Sun. In Tamil 'paruti', which has come from Skt. 'paridhi', is used as a word for Sun. 2 Khalina-This word has come from Greek.

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17% Study of Civakacintamani Final 'i' The final 'i' always shortens to 'i'. For example : Skt. Tamil kumari- kumari (virgin) 2. dasitaci (a maid servant) 368 2002 1. The vowel 'u' remains unchanged, be it initial, medial or final. For example : Skt. Tamil uttama- uttamam (best) 753 2.upadhyaya- uvatti (teacher) 1090 3. akula- akulam (confusion) 1104 4. kutumiba- kutumpam- (family) 1437 5. madhu- matu (sweet intoxicating drink) 190 In one case the 'u' in the first syllable, 1 has changed into '0'; this word has beeu borrowed through Pali. Skt. pustaka- Pali. potthaka- Tam. pottakam- (book) 2009 The medial 'u' has changed into 'i' in one case. Skt. manusa Tam, manitan (man) , 1900 "" The vowel 'u' also, like 'u', often remains unchanged whether it is initial or medial. For example : Skt. Tamil 1. Suciuci(needle) 369 2. karpura- karuppuram (camphor) 1645 Sometimes 'u' becomes short whether it is initial or medial. For example : Skt. Tamil karpura kappuram - (camphor) 197 (Pali & Pkt. kappura) curna Pkt. cunna cunnam (powder) 2369 3. tulika tukilikaia . (painters' brush) 180, 1107 4. rapauruvam (form) 1571 1 'U' in the first syllable of a Skt, word sometimes changes into 'o' in dravidian languages. This is noticeable even in the other dravidian languages like Kanarese and Telugu. For example Skt. guna- Telugu. gonamu. bhujanga - Kan. bojanga2 The insertion of 'k' in Tanil (Tukilikai) is difficult to explain. in the other dita vilian Dansunces like Kabalese und Teruglui. For Sumos e his

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani "I' Since Tamil has no r in its vowel system, when Skt. words with rare borrowed in Tamil, the letter undergoes three kinds of changes, i.e. the Skt. r changes into ir, iru, or i in Tamil. For example: Skt. Tamil 1. ameta2. hrdaya 'e 3. drdha 4. krmi amirtu itayam(Here the initial h is dropped) Kan. hidaya titab kirumi 1. revati 2. videha In one word the has changed into a, and this word has been borrowed in .Tamil from Pkt. e.g.: Skt. vtta Pkt. vatta Tam. vattam (circle, round) Pali. vatta (ambrosia) (heart) (firm) (worm) ekam - etam1 vekam Skt. 'e', h: it initial or medial, often remains unchanged. For example: Skt. Tamil Tamil iraivati vitaiyam 1. eka 2. kheda - 3. vega The medial 'e' sometimes changes into 'ai'. For example: Skt. (alone) (trouble) (poison) Tamil kaivalam kaitavam teyvam 222 3.123 1546 1154 (name of a naksatra) (a name of a country) 677 2326 1097 1274 The initial 'ai' sometimes changes into ayi'. For example: Skt. airavana Tam ayiravapam 506 162 'ai' in the first syllable often remains unchanged, but in one word it has changed to 'ey. For example: Skt. 1. kaivalya 2. kaitavam3. daiva 175 (final emancipation) 2741 (deceit) 2873 241 (God) 1 The word etam would have also come from the Skt. word 'cheda'. Whether the Skt. word has come is kheda or cheda the initial letter is dropped here. letters is difficult to explain. from which the Tamil 'etam' This dropping of the initial

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176 Study of Cirakacintamani 'ai in the initial syllable sometimes also changes into 'e'. For example: Tam. Vemanikar (one who moves about in a heavenly car) Skt. vaimanika 2455 The change of ai' into 'e' ore is also found in other dravidian languages and in Pkt. For example: Skt. saindhava vaisakha 39 23 This change is also common in Pkt. (Pischel. Rule No. 60) Skt. aisvarya airavana Skt. 1. yojana 2. dosa Pkt. dosa The vowel 'o', whether it is initial or medial often remains unchanged. For example: Kan. sendava bisage 3. rohini Skt. loka (horse) (name of the second lunar month) (Pkt.) Amg. esajja (Sauraseni) eravana Tamil ocanai tocam uroni In one case, the 'o' in the first syllable, which is preceded by 'I', has changed into a. (distance) (fault) Tam. ulakam (world) 338, 1901, 1192 1784 198 The consonants Tamil does not have counterparts for most of the Skt. consonants and in most cases these letters are altered according to the Tamil phonetic system. The four kinds of consonants in Skt., the hard, the hard aspirate, the soft, and the soft aspirate are represented only by the hard consonant in Tamil and sometimes even in this consonant changes take place in order to adjust itself according to the Tamil grammatical system. The following are the consonantal changes occuring in the Cc. 2812 The gutturals, k, kh, g, ard gh: The Skt. letters kh, g, and gh, whether initial or medial are replaced by 'k' in Tamil and 'k' remains unchanged.

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 177 784 369 784 Skt. Tamil 1 kalyana kalyanam (marriage) sakata cakatam (cart) 2 khalina kalinam (a bit of horse's bridle) sankha cankam (conch) 3 gaminikamini (a mantra which helps to fly throigh air) svagata cuvakatam (welcome) ghana kanam (heavy) megha mekam (cloud) In one word, the initial kh has elided; e.g. : Skt. kheda Tam. etam (trouble) 701 1713 1021 922 2476 2988 In the word niyamam' the Skt. 'g' has changed into 'y'. Tamil must have borrowed this word from old Sinhalese. Skt. nigama- (market place) Pkt. nigama- (, ) 2601 Palj. nigama ( Tam. niyamam (village) town) 0.Sinh, piyama ( , place) The consonant n always remains unchanged. For example : Skt. hingulika Tam. inkulikam (vermilion) 2239 The palatals c, ch, j, and jb : The palatals c, ch, j and jh are replaced by 'c' and 'c' remains unchanged in Tamil. For example : Skr. Tamil 1 cakracakkaram (wheel) 2761 kurcakuccu (weaver's brush) 615 2 chavi - cavi (beauty) 2484 pincha- piccam (peacock's tail) 2524 3 janacanam (people) 828, 1841 anjana - ancanam (collyrium) 1632 The consonant n always remains unchanged. For example : Skt. Tamil panca panca (five) 1896 kunjarakuncaram (elephant) 1840, 2230 Sc-2200

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178 The cerebrals t, th, d, and dh : The cerebrals in Skt, th, d and dh, are replaced by t. and remains unchanged. For example: Skt. 1 jakata 2 pithika 3 bhindipalapinda 4 drdha garuda cadamani Skt. 1 tapasnimitta 2 sthandila tirtha Tamil cakatam pitikai The cerebral d has changed into in the word calamani and to in the word kelujan. Skt. 3 duta pippipalam (a missile) pintam titan nandaka 4 dhumanirodhana Tamil kelujan cujamapi (vulture) (an ornament) The cerebral has changed into 1 in the word 'pajikku'. This word in Tamil has come through Pkt. (cart) (seat) Skt. Sphatika Pkt. Phaliha1 Tamil Palikku The consonant n always remains unchanged. For example: Skt. curna Tam. cunnam (powder) (a morsel) (firm) The Skt. denta's t, th, d, and dh : The Skt. dental t always remains unchanged and the other dentals th, d, and dh are replaced by t. For example: Tamil tavam nimittam tantilam tirttam tutu nantakam tumam nirotanai Study of Civak acintamani (penance) (omen) (place designed for the sacrificial fire) (a doctrine) (message) (sword 363 2213 2269 1844 1546 (crystal) (smoke) (control over passions) 1926 786 1545, 2555 1129 2426 1247 1876 815 1 Ref. R. Pischel, Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit Languages, 2nd edition, 1965, para 238. 847 3080

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 179 The consonant n usually remains unchanged in the initial and medial and the final n very often drops. For example : Skt. Tamil nidhiniti (treasure) 402 nandaka - nandakam (sword) 815 Sometimes the dental n changed to cerebral n. 1 Skt. -ayana Pkt. Ayana Tam, Ayana (walking) 851 Pal. ayana 2 ,,sunaga Pkt. sunaga cunankan (dog) 960 This change always happens in Pkt Therefore this could have been an influence of Pkt. The Skt. labials, p, ph, b, and bh : The Skt. labials p often remains unchanged and the other palatals ph, b and bh are replaced by p. For example : Skt. Tamil 1 patta Pattam (a head ornament) dvipa. Tipam (an island) 2 sphatika- palikku (crystal) 192 Pkt phaliha3 bodhi - (wisdom) 306 kutumba- kutumpam (family) 1437 4 bharani parani (the second naksatra) 1813 darbha- taruppai (sacred grass) 2464 p, and b sometimes also changes into v. This kind of change is common in Pkt. dialects. 1 poti P-V Tam, pavi (sinner) 761 1 Skt. papin Pkt. pavi 2 Ski. tapas Pkt. tava Tam. tavam (penance) 77, 1545, 2555 B-V (hunters) 1655 1 Skt. sabara- Tam, cavarar Pkt, savara 2 Skt. kabandha- Tam. kavantam Pali. kavandha .O.Sinh. kavandha (a headless trunk) 1310 1 R. Pischel, op. cit. Paras. 147-148.

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081 Study of Civakacintamani The consonant m usually remains unchanged. For example : Skt. mana Tam, manam (sulk) , vimana- Tam. vimaNGam self moving aerial car) In one case m had also changed to v, like the other p and b. Skt. pratima- Pkt, padima- Tam. pativam (form) 2382 564 395, 1166 The consonants y, r, I, and v: The consonant y often remains unchanged. For example : Skt. Tamil yamayamam (night) 1269 ayanaayanam (path) Very often the initial y is preceded by a prothetic vowel i. Skt, yaksi- Tam. iyakki (Famale yaksa) 1015, 596, 1178 1590, 1600, 1658 The initial y has dropped in the word ocanai. Skt. yojana - Tam. acarai (distance) 336, 1901, 1142 851 an inthe ope ratione Tamin, limaremain prontbane Columbus since no debe Skt. The consonant r normally remains unchanged, but sincer can not be an initial letter in Tamil, always a prothetic vowel a, i, or u is added. For example : Tamil Irangaarankam (stage) 2112 rava aravam (sound) 2526 ravi iravi (sun) 2496 revati irevati (name of a naksatra) 506 rasa iratam (mercury) 960 romauioniam (hair) 2426 jupauruvam (shape) 1571 robini uroni (name of a star) 198 In one instance the r in the medial has changed to I. Skt. garuda Tam. kalulan (vulture) 405 VET The Skt. l' also often remains unchanged. But the initial 'l' is always preceded by a prothetic vowel 'i' or u!, since in Tamil 'l' cannot stand in the beginning of a word. For example : Skt. Tamil 1 laksya ilakkam (target) 188 layailayam (a musical note) 1269, 682 lesa - ile u (a small amount) 727, 1258, 770 2 loka ulakam (world) 2812

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 181 The Skt. 'v' in most cases remains unchanged, be it initial or medial. For example : Skt. Tamil 1 vajravacciram (hard) 2732 2 varnaPkt. vanna vannam (paint) 1107 3 vrata vatam (religious observance) 378 Pkt. vata4 pavitrapavittiram (pure) 2311 In the word pariyalam, the Skt. 'v' has changed to 'y'. Skt. parivara Pkt. pariyala) ) 949 Tam. pariyalam (followers) The sibilants : Since Tamil has no sibilants in its consonant system, when Skt. words with sibilants s, s and s, are borrowed, these letters undergo certain changes to be adaped to the Tamil consonantal system. The following changes in the sibilants can be noted from the words used in the Cc. The sibilants' The palatal 's normally changes to 'c' in Tamil. For example : Skt. Tamil 1 sunaka cunankan (dog) 960 2 sibika - civikai (a palanquin) 2379, 2628 3 sikha cikai (hair) 195 Sometimes the medial s changes to y and this change is also common in Malayalam. For example : Skt. smasana Tam, mayabam (burial ground) Pkt, masana The initial s is sometimes dropped. For example : Skt. sarana Tam, aranam (protection) Mal. arap Skt. gmasana- Tam. mayanam (burial ground) Mal, masana The sibilant 's': The sibilant 's' normally changes to 'c'. For example: Skt. dosaPkt. dosa - Tam. tocam (fault) 1784 Pal dosa

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182 In some words 's' has also changed to 't'. For example: Skt. manusa- Tam. manitam (human being) The sibilant 's' The dental sibilant 's', also like the other sibilants, normally changes to 'c'. For example : Skt. 1 Surya 2 Sundara 3 Sindura 1 2 Skt. 1 havis 2 manas Tamil Curiyan Cuntaram Cinturam The aspirant 'h': Sometimes the initial 's' which is followed by a vowel elides. For example: Skt. Tamil suci samara uci amar (Sun) (goodness) (vermilion) Tamil avi Study of Civakacintamani (needle) (war) Sometimas the medial 's' changes to 't', and this change is also very common in Malayalam. For example: Skt. Tamil 1 rasa iratam Mal. iratam (mercury) In the word kuppayam the medial 's' has changed to y. Skt. kurpasa Tam. kuppayam (jacket) The final 's' in Skt. words is always dropped in Tamil. The initial 'h' is always dropped in Tamil. For example: Skt. Tamil 1 havis avi 2 hara aram inkulikam 3 hingulika 4 hiranya iraniyan 1900 (oblation) (mind) manam (Here the neuter ending 'm' is substituted.) (oblation) (necklace of pearls) (vermilion) (a name of an asura) (lion) 2208 121 86 369 777 960 431 1604 367 The medial 'h' very often changes to 'k' and sometimes it assimilates the preceding nasal also. For example: Skt. smhai- Tam, cinkam 1601 349 2239 1813 237

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 183 The medial 'h' is sometimes elided. For example : Skt. Tamil 1 rohini uropi (name of the third star) 2 vrihi virji (rice) 198 503 Conjunct Consonants : Initially, the consonant clusters of the Skt, loan words always become a single consonant or broken up by intrusive vowels, i, or u, or a in Tamil. For example : Skr. Tamil 1 sthandila tantilam (place designed for 2466 sacrificial fire) 2 sthala talam (plate) 398 3 sthana tanam (place) 542, 1567, 2823 4 sphatikaPkt. phaliha palikku (crystal) 1921 Mal, patikam 5 dvipatipam (island) 6 kramuka kamuku (arecanut) 68, 1616 7 svagata cuvakatam (welcome) 1021 ( here the intrusive vowel 'u' has been introduced and the initial 's' has changed to 'c'.) If the consonant cluster has 'y', 'r', or l' as the second member in a Skt. word, generally it takes 'i' as the intrusive vowel in Tami) If the first member is 'k', 'c', 'e', or 'p' it doubles. For example : Skt. Tamil 1 astra attiram (arrow) 815 2 yantra entiram (machine) 1614 3 Surya curiyan (sun) 2208 4 hiranya iraniyan (a name of an asura) 1813 5 sukla cukkija (pure) 3081 In some cases before the 'r' an 'a' is included. For example : Skt. cakra Tam. cakkaram (wheel) 2761 If 'r' is the first member of the consonant cluster it takes a prothetic 'u' in Tamil. For example: Skt. karpura Tam, karuppuram (here 'p' is also doubled.) There are instances where in a consonant cluster either progressive assimilation or regressive assimilation takes place.

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184 Progressive assimilation Skt. 1 guhya 2 carna Pkt. cunoa > 3 alaktaka 4 pustakam Pkt. potthaka Tamil kuyyam cunnam arattakam potthakam Skt. 1. laksya ilakkam catuska catukkam Skt anjana (collyrium) 2. attarakku-468. (hypocrisy) (powder) (red lac) (book) In a consonant cluster if the first letter is a nasal it changes into a consonant of the group to which the second letter belongs. For example; Skt. simha Tamil. cinkam (lion) 237 The sibilant '' is very often assimilated when it comes in a combination with voiceless stops; or sometimes undergoes changes. For example: Tamil. cemam or emam (a sacred place) (target) (junction where four roads meet) Tam. atta (melted) Study of Civak acintamani 2. kema Hybrid forms in the Cc, The term hybrid form is used for the terms constructed with Tamil and Skt. words, and these forms often function like compounds. In early Middle Tamil period there are only a few hybrid forms. For example: oruvantam (Tirukkural-563, 593) Tam. oru+ Skt. anta oruvantam certainly'. This word oruvantam corresponds to the Skt. word ekanta, but the word oruvantam here gives the meaning certainty. Tam. kol (stick) 253 2369 2459 In the Cc. the number of hybrid forms is comparatively high. The following are some of the hybrid forms found in the Cc. 1. ancanakkol -1894. + Skt. lakta (lac, wax) 2009 188 a pencil to paint the eyelashes with collyrium. 1. In Prakrit before consonant groups 'u' may become 'o'. 'sta' and 'stha' become 1tha'. R. Pischel, op. cit. paras. 125-207. 112 670 = melted lac

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 3. anantananmai - 2846 + Skt. ananta (endless) 4. arankakkutti - 1557 Skt. ranga (stage) 5. aravattirai - 1766 Skt. rava (noise) 6. aruntavar Tam. arun 1895 - 7. akulapptical Skt. akula (confused) 8. inkitakkalippu Skt. ingita (interpretation of internal sentiments by external gestures) 9. intiravil-86, 121 Skt. indra (indra) 10. urunemi-2237. 1095 + 145 Tam. urul (whirl round) + 11. ulakamannavan-1558 Skt. Joka (world) 12. entiravocal-2774 + + + Skt. yantra (machine) 13. ekavippam-855, 1657 + + + Tam, nanmai (four) Tam. kutti (a female dancer, prostitute) Tam. tirai (waves) Skt. tapas1 (those who do great penance) Tam. pocal (cry) Tam, kalippu (pleasure) Tam, vil (bow) Skt. nemi (wheel) Tam. mannavan (king) the four divine attributes obtained by the soul in the final state of liberation. Tam. ucal (swing) - a prostitute - the waves which make. noise great ascetics to cry out in confusion. - pleasure indulging in amorous thoughts. - a swing that swings with the help of a machine. pleasure which is unique. Skt. eka (one) Tam. inpam (pleasure) 1 In Skt. tapas' means penance. In Tamil the word tavar' has come from Skt. tapas' meaning the people who perform penance. Sc-24 -rainbow. -wheel of a chariot. emperor. 185

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186 Study of Civakacintamani - tke ocean of the fruits of deeds - enemies in the form of fruit of deeds. + - a residence of virgrin princess. - looking over the shoulders with neck turned as a lion. - the vessel of desire. of 14. karumakkatal-2741 Skt. karman Tam. katal (deeds) (ocean) 15. karumattevvar-3074 Skt. karman + Tam. tevvar (deeds) (enemies) 16. kannimatam-585 Skt. Kanya Tam. matam (virgin) (residence) 17. cinkanukku-1569 Skt. simha + Tam, nokku (lion) (look) 18. kamakkalam-929 Skt, kama + Tam. kalam (desire) (vessel) 19. kamakkalavi-921 Skt. kama + Tam. kulavi (desire) (child) 20. kamapappanai-2505 Skt. kama + Tam. appanai (the God of (the bed of love) arrows) 21. kurkumakkatirkal-2153 Skt. kunkuma + Tam. katirkal (saffron) (rays) 22. kunakkata) -2813 Skt. guna Tam, katal (virtue) (sea) 23. kumarippor-806 Skt. kumari + Tam. por (virgin) (war) 24. kumariyatal-2020. Skt. kumari + Tam. atal (virgin) (play) - desire in the form child. - the bed of flowers. - red colour rays. - the sea of virtue - the first military engage ment of a prince. - (i) to perform sacred ablutions at Cape Comarin. (ii) to unite with a virgin 25. kocikanir-1673 Skt. kausika (silk) + Tam. nir (water) - water dropping from a silk cloth.

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187 Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 26. kocika atai-1650 Skt. kausika + Tam, atai1 - a dress made of silk cloth. (silk) (cloth, dress) 27. cilaveli-379 Skt. sila + Tam, veli - a fence made of good (good conduct) (fence) conduct 28. taranikavalap-1813. Skt. dharani + Tam, kavalan - the king. (earth) (protector) 29. tavappalli347 Skt. tapa Tam. palji - hermitage Pkt. tava (penance) (residence) 30. tapatappalli-337 Skt. tapasah + Tam. palli - hermitage (ascetics) (residence) 31. tayavilakku-2850 Skt. tapas Tam. vilakku - the lamp of penance. Pkt. tava(penance) (lamp) 32. tupamutti-558. Skt, dhapa + Tam, mutti - a thurible of incense (incense) (pot) 33. tecikamuti-2549 Skt. taijasika + Tam, mut: - a bright crown, (bright) (crown) 34. pocitavam-1132 Tam. noci Skt. tapas - a little penance. Pkt. tava(little) (penance) 35. patala-mu-t-ti-2462 Skt. patala + Tam. mu+t+ 13 - the submarine fire. (lower world) (three) (fire) 1 There is also an opinion that the word 'atai' in Tamil could have come from Skt. 'sata(ka).' Here swould have been elided and the final a would have changed to ai. Note :-This word is found only in Malayalam out of all the other Dravidian languages. 2 The word mutti' in Tamil is made like the word 'muynir'. This idea of three fires is not found in Skt. As there are only three oceans according to the Tamil literary tradition, the fire also would bave been numbered as three.

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188 Study of Civakacintamagi 36. punniyanampi-1639 Skt. punya (merit) - a person of great merit. Tam. nampi (best one among men) 37. pekamakalir-2173 Skt. bhoga- + Tam, makalir - courtesans (pleasure) (ladies) 38. pokam-inra-punniyan-362 Skt, bhoga + Tam. inra + Skt. punya - the one who is of great religious merit which produces enjoyment. 39. manikkai-839. Skt. mani + Tam. kai - a handle inade of precious stone. (jewel, stone) (hand) + - a bamboo tube for holding liquor. Tam. tantu (stick) 40. matuttantu-863. Skt. madhu (wine) 41, vacaney-622. Skt. vasa (fragrant) + - fragrant ointment. Tam. ney (oil) Skt, compounds in the Cc. Apart from the hybrid forms, Tevar has used also many compounds made of Skt. words in his work. In forming the compounds he has often followed the rules of Tamil euphonic combination. For example, in the compound ekavanai, the semi vowel y has been inserted in between the two words to bring them together. In Skt. this compound will take the form ekajaa. But in some places he has also followed the Skt. rules of euphonic combinations. For example : tevatitevan - teva-ati-tevan cantirotayam - cantira + utayam. According to Tamil rules it should have become captiravutayam. Though there are one or two cases like this, very often Tamil reles of euphonic combinations are followed in making compounds even with two Skt. words. There are two kinds of compounds made of Skt. words in the Cc : (i) The compounds which are common to both Skt. and Tamil. (ii) The compounds which are not found in Skt. though they are made of Skt. words and are found in Tamil.

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 189 Compounds which are used both in Skt. and in Tamil : 1. atta-mankalam - 629, 2410, 2428, 2484 asta + mangala - a collection of eight lucky things : (a lion, a bull, an elephant, a water jug, a fan, a flag, a trumpet, and a lamp) or (a brahmin, a cow, a fire, gold, ghee, the sun, water and a king). 2. a-lokam-3082 a-loka - portion lying outside loka (Jaina) 3. ati-y-antam-3082 adi + anta - beginning and end 4. avana-viti -2118 apana (Skt.) + vithi - bazaar avana (Pkt) 5. intira-kumaran - 1253 indra + kumara - the son of Indra 6. iraca-ma-nakam - 1276 raja + maha + naga - king of cobras 7. eka-ma-nakar - 2398 eka + maha + nagara - the city which is unique and big. 8. eka-v-anai - 141 eka + ajna (Skt.) . - sole dominion ana (Pkt.) 9. teva-kitam - 2052 deva + gita - celestial music 10. teva-tuntupi - 2367 deva + dundubhi - drums of the gods 11. teva-ati-tevan deva + adhi + deva - god of the gods, an Arhat 12. nara-pati - 1617 nara + pati - the king 13. muka-vacam - 1055 mukba + vasa - fragrant spices (In Sanskrit, the compound 'mukhavasa' and 'mukhavasana' are used. Since this mouth perfume is made of five aromatics, the word 'panca' is also added to the word 'mukhavasa'. In some instances the word 'mukha' is elided and is used as 'panca vacam' in Tamil.) 14. panca-muka-vacam - 2026 panca + mukha + vasa - the five aromatics

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190 Study of Civakacintamani Duu 15. panca-vacam - 1896 panca + vasa - the five aromatics 16, pata-mulam - 511 pada + mula - feet 17. pioti-p-pakavan - 957 pindi + bhagavan - the one who is seated under the Asoka tree (Arhat). 18. pumi-tevi - 2233 bhumi + devi - the goddess of earth 19. paka-pumi - 2580 bhoga + bhumi - heaven 20. mani-mekalai - 2384 mani + mekhala - a girdle of gems 21. matana-kitam - 1211 madana + gita love song 22. ma-tavar - 1195 maha + tapas - ascetics 23. kala-c-cakkaram - 1839 kala + cakra - the wheel of time 24. kuru-kulam-290, 1805, 2605, 3015 kuru + kula - the Kuru dynasty 25. cantirotayam - 455 candra + udaya - moonrise 26. cala-n-cayanam - 1673 jala + sayana - a bed in water 27. cittira-ma-mantapam-2370 citra + maha + mantapa - a beautiful hall 28. cukkila-t-tiyanam - 3081 sukla + dhyanam - meditation on pure spirit 29. cuka-ta - 3096 sukha + da - one wbo gives comfort. 30. tik-kayankal - 1794 dig + gajah - the elephants guarding the eight directions 31. kama-pumi kama + bhumi - the world of enjoyment.

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 191 Compounds which are not found in Skt, though they are made of words from Skt. and are found only in Tamil : 1. antara-kumaran - 1264 antara + kumara - a demigod who is in the intermediate space. This may be the counterpart of the Skt. compound 'vyantara'. 2. uruva-c-catakam - 1571 rupa + jataka - science of the shape 3. kappakam-kama-valli - 1129 kalpaka + kama + valli - the creeper Kamavalli on the tree Kalpaka 4. kappiya-k-kavika! - 1585 kavya + kavika! - the poets who compose kavyas 5. kama-malai - 1357 kama + mala - a garland of desire 6. kita-viti - 2039 gita + vithi - an avenue of music 7. catu-muka - 766 catur + mukha - four divisions (of army) 8. tava-virar - 3104 (Skt.) tapas - virth - sages heroic in performing austerities. (Pkt.) tava 9. matu-p-pali - 471 madhu + bali - the oblation of wine 10. vinai-vittakan - 1002 vina + vidagdha - the expert in playing on the (vina) lute There are also a few Tamil translations of the Skt. compounds in the Cc. For example : Tamil 1. grhadevata illurai teyvam - the domestic deity 2. dvijaomanah iru pirappalar - brahmins kawavalli ippak koti - a creeper found in svarga awakarma i envinai - a fruit of deeds accumulattng in eight ways brdayakamala akappa - heart 6. sataghni nurruvaraikkolli - a deadly machine which kills a hundred people at a time, 7. pancagni alalaintu - the five fires: the daksina, garhapatya, abavaniya, sabhya, avasathya Skt.

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192 Study of Civakacintamani There are also several Skt. verhal roots borrowed from Skt. and used according to the Tamil conjugational rules. For example : Tamil Skt. Verbal root 1. aci-ppa has--laughing (659) 2. jlak-ittu Jikh-- having written (180) 3. ilankittittan langh - jumped (2191) 4. layasm-a laya-- (11) -to disappear (1256) 5. kani-tta gan -calculated, decided (2518) 6. uti udi -to rise (1340) 7. kunci-ttu kunc---haying bent (341) civa jiva (imperative) - live! (9) 9. cevi sey--having served (633) 10. mantiri-ttu mantra --having said the mantra (2465) 11. vanci-ttu vanc-having deceived (1756) 12. vanni-ttal varna -describe (2458) 13. vaci-kkinlan vac--reading (669) 14. vitani-ttatu vitama. ---extended (861) 15. viroti viruddha-opposed (3080) Semantic changes : When words with the same meaning are borrowed from a different language, and are used side by side, a distinction of meaning tends to develop between these words. In some cases, this distinction in meaning seems to be even totally different from the original meaning. A study of the loan-words in the Cc. enables one to observe two kinds of semantic changes in it; one, the development of new meaning which is also common to some of the other Dravidian languages, and the other, the changes which are only peculiar to Tamil. The study of the following words which have undergone certain semantic changes will explain the different kinds of changes. 1. kalyanam-984 : The Skt. word kalyani from which the Tamil word kalyanam is derived has the meaning beautiful, excellence, prosperous, luck, etc. This word when borrwed in Tamil, the meaning has been restricted and it specially meant only wedding or marriage. The entrance of this word in Tamil can even be seen in the early Middle Tamil period. For example ; kalliyanan tavar pitir vila... (Acarakkovai, 48;1.) (The marriage, the rituals observed for Tevar, the ceremony for mane people....)

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakucintamani 193 This change is also common in Malayalam and there though the word is used in the sense of fine, lucky, etc., it also has the meaning wedding or marriage. 2. kamini-1713 The word kamini is derived from the Skt. word gamin which means 'the one who goes' (pal. gamika, Pkt. gami-one who goes). In the Cc. the word kamini is restricted only to a certain mantra which helps one to fly through the air when repeatedly pronounced. This restriction in meaning is not found in the other dravidian languages, but it is already in use in the Skt. Jaina texts. Tevar also must have borrowed this word from the Jaina texts written in Skt. and, Pkt. 3. calam-3003 : The word culam is obviously derived from the Skt, word sula which means the trident. Generally it is connected with God Siva, and considered as his weapon. There are references to this word in the early Middle Tamil texts too. For example ; valaiy utaik kaiyil culam enti (Cilap. XII. 60) (bearing the trident in her hand adorned with bangles. ) totutta pacattu pititta culattu... (Mani. VI. 46) (with a noose which was tied and holding a trident ... ) In Silp. XI. 73 the branched routes are compared with the trident of Siva, pirai mutik kannip periyon entiyav arai vay culat aru neri kavarkkum... (The routes which are branched like the forked mouthed trident held by the Lord Siva who has worn the crescent moon in his matted hair as a garland ) It is clear from these references that originally the word culam was used for the trident. In the Cc. the lightning rod is denoted by the word calam. cula nerriya kopurat forramum ..3003 (the appearance of pyramidal towers with lightning rods fixed on them ... ) This usage is not common either in Skt. or in Tamil. The lightning rod must have been in the shape of a trident and that would have made Tevar call the lightning rod culam. This usage of culam in the sense of lightning rod is only found in the Cc. 4. tirttam-1247 : Tirttam is derived from the Skt. word tirtha and it is generally used to denote holy water, a way, a sacred place, bathing place, etc. etc. When this word was borrowed in the Cilappatikaram it is also used in the same sense, i. e. a place of a ceremonial bathing. tirttakk karaiyum tevar kottamum... XII. 27 (The banks of the sacred ceremonial bathing place and the temples of the gods.) Sc-25

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194 Study of Civakacintamani In the Cc. this word has been used to denote the sacred agamas and this is the first time in Tamil this word is used in this sense. In Skt. also it is never used to denote aganias, but, since the word tirtha has a sense of holiness, Tevar must have used this word for the holy agamas of Jains. Later on and in modern usage too, tirttan is very often used to denote water. 5. nantakam-815 ; , The word nantakam is derived from the Skt, word nandaka, which denotes the sword of Krsna. In Tamil, this word though specifically denotes the sword of Krspa, generally it is used for all swords. In Malayalam too this word is often used for swords, and it is always used with the first syllable of the word lengthened, i.e. nantakam. In Tamil both forms nantakam and nantakam are common. In the Cc. nantakam is used in a general sense to denote swords. For example : nallavai puriyu mantar nantakam pilaittu vila... 815 ( The sword will never fall from the hands of people who do good deeds, even under accidental circumstances. ) in modern Tamil both forms nantakam and nantakam are in use. 6. parati-2237 : The word paruti is derived from the Skt. word paridhi which generally means the halo round the sun or moon. It also means a fence, a circle, circumference of a circle, etc. In Tamil, though being used in the original sense as in Sanskrit, very often it is also used to denote the sun. Apart from the word pariti, the word paruti with the medial i being changed to u, is also used. Even in the Cankam literature there are references to these two words paruti and pariti in the sense of sun. For example : vin poru negu varaip paritiyil totutta. . 1 (Like the sun on lofty hills which reach the sky..) There are also references to pariti and paruti in Aham. 379: 7,229 : 1, 360 : 2, kalit. 26: 2, puram. 224 : 7, 358 : 1, perumpan. 2, Kajavali 4 : 2 in the meaning sun. Tevar has used this word paruti in both meanings, the halo of the sun and the sun. For example : 0]] alar paruti melor paruti ninratapaiyottan. 2203 (he stood like a bright flaming sun over its halo.) 7. vekam-1274; The word vekam is obviously derived from the Sanskrit word vega which means fast, speed, passion, etc. In Tamil also it is often used in the same sense except for the usage we find in Cc. 1274. Here this word has been used to denote poison, aravu kanra vekam mikkittat alse. 1274 (Alas! the effect of thc poison emitted by the snake was great.) 1 Tirumurakarsappatai - line 299.

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 195 Tevar must have used this word for poison since the effect of the poison is very quick. There is also a reference to vega in the Cc. in the sense of quickness. For example: matiyipukk ivarnta veka mamapi nakam.. 982 (the quick snake which tries to catch the moon..) Linguistic influence through Jainism : The Cc. is the first Tamil literary work in which most of the Jaina religious and philosophical ideas are elaborately discussed. As discussed earlier in the Vth chapter, Tevar had to borrow words from Skt and Pkt. Jaina treatises to explain these religious and philosophical ideas. In this effort le has used Skt. terms, Skt. compounds, and compounds made of Skt, and Tamil. In some instances he has translated the Skt. and Pkt. terms and Skt. compounds in Tamil. In a few places he has explained the Jaina philosophical terms in Tamil phrases. These various forms will be analysed below, Sanskrit words : Skt. Tamil 1. krodha- kurotan (Here the samjvalana-krodha 3080 karma is expressed by the word kurotan) 2. mana - manan (the samjvalana-mana is expressed by the word manan) 3080 3. maya mayan (the samjvalana-maya karma is expressed by the word mayan) 4, lobba ulopan (the samjvalana-lobha karma is expressed by the word ulopan) 3080 In this word 'ulopan' the initial u is added as I cannot be the initial letter in Tamil. In the above four words, Tevar has added the masculine ending n. Though in Sanskrit these words except maya belong to masculine gender, when borrowed in Tamil they usually take neuter endings, as krotam, manam, and lopam. The word maya is used with feminine ending, i.e. maya in Sanskrit will become mayai in Tamil. Here Tevar would have added the masculine ending n as he potrays these four karmas as soldiers who came to fight against Civakan. 5. nirodhana- nirotapai. (obstruction) 3080 6. viragavirakam (passionless) 3030 7. ghatiya kati (the four ghatiya karmas) 3082, 1240 I 2713 8. dana tanam (gift) 2632 9. gamini kamini (a mantra which helps one to fly in the sky) 1713

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196 Study of Civakacintamani Skt. Tamil lo. guna kupam (the three gunas, samyag-darsana, samyag-jnapa, and samyag caritra are denoted by the word kunam) 11. jnana panam (here the word jnanam means samyagjnana) 381 12. srutam cutam (sacred knowledge) 3038 In this word, as a consonant cluster cannot come at the beginning of a word in Tamil, tbe letter 'r' in 'r' has been elided and 's' has changed into 'c'. 13. tirtham tirttam (the sacred texts) 1247 14. tirthan tirttan (1 ord Arhat) 821 There are two instances where Tevar uses Indo-Aryan forms. They are : 1. Skt Pracala Tam. pacalai (pracala karma) 3080 Pali. pacala 2. Skt. nidra Tam, nittai (nidra karma) 3030 Pali, nidda Sanskrit compounds : 1. aloka (Skt.) alokam (Tamil) 3082 a + loka (Lord Hybrid Forms: 1. anantana mai Skt. ananta + Tam. nanmai (the infinite four) 2846 2. karumattevvar Skt. karma + Tam. tevvar (the karmas who 3074 are the enemies) 3. karumakketal Skt. karma + Tam, katal (the ocean of karmas) 2741 4. kaivalaccelvan Skt. kaivalya + Tam. celvan (the one who has 2741 attained emancipation) Apart from these words and compounds Tevar has also used Tamil phrases to express the meaning of the Jaina philosophical terms in Sanskrit. For example : Skt. Tamil 1. astikaya porulkal or aintu (the five astikayas) 2814 2. anantasukha itaiyila inpam (the infinite bliss) 2847 3. Satkasaya aruvakait tuvarppu (the six kasayas) 3076 4. pancanamaskara aimpatav amirtam (the pancana maskara mantra) 941, 947

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani 197 In the Cc. there are also words which have gained new meanings by the influence of Jainism. These are translations of the Jaina philosophical techanical terms. But these words were already existing in Tamil language with a different meaning. For example : The word 'nanmai' in Tamil means four. But this word is used in the Cc. in the meaning of the four infinite intrinsic qualities which a soul attains when it completely destroys all its karmas. Here the word 'nanmai'i is the translation of the Skt, word 'Catustaya'. The word 'venravan' in Tamil means the one who has won. In Jainism, the one who has won all his karmas is called a 'Jina' (tbe overcomer of all things) and the word 'vetravan is used as the translation of it. Therefore here in the Cc, the word "vepravar' 2 specially means the Siddhas, The word 'katci' in Tamil means a vision, a sight. In the Cc, katci'8 has been used as the translation of the Sanskrit word 'darsana-", and it is used to express the darsanamohaniya karmas', which deludes the right|belief. Likewise, the word 'unarvu'' which is used in the Cc, gives the meaning of the knowledge obscuring karmas (jnanavaraniya karmas) in the Jaina philosophy. Therefore as a result of the Jaina influence in the Cc., many new words came into Tamil, and also some words which were already existing gained new meanings. 1 Cc. v, 3082. 2 lbid, v. 956. 3 4 lbid, v. 3082 Ibid. v. 3082,

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CONCLUSION The investigations described in conclusions : the foregoing chapters lead to the following The questions regarding the source and the date of the Cc. have been discussed in the first chapter of this thesis. A comparative study of the Cc. with earlier texts which deal with the story of Jivaka showed a remarkable similarity between the Cc. and the works of Vadibhasimha, the Gc. and Kc. The similarities between these works have been listed and from an analysis of these similarities it is concluded that Vadibhasimha has consulted the Cc. By fixing the date of Vadibhasimha as the period between the latter half of the 10th century A.D. and the beginning of the 11th century A.D., the lower limit of the date of the Cc. is also determined. Among the other texts, the Up. of Gunabhadra and the Mp. of Puspadanta are earlier than the works of Vadjbhasimha. It is found that Jivaka story narrated in the Mp. of Puspadanta follows the story of Jivaka narrated in the Up. of Gunabhadra. As the date of the Up. of Gunabbadra (A.D. 897) is earlier than that of the Mp. of Puspadanta (A.D. 965) a comparative study of the Jivaka story narrated in the Up. with the story of the Cc. is described in chapter 3. This comparative study does not provide evidence to definitely fix the Up. as the original source for the Cc. From the Prakrit origin of some of the names of the characters in the Cc. there are grounds to suspect that there could have been a Prakrit version of the Jivaka story which is not available now and dated earlier than the Up. and the Cc. However, regarding the source of the Cc. there is no doubt that a Sanskrit or Prakrit version of the story, either in a book form or existing in the form of oral tradition, must have inspired Tevar. Next, an analysis of available external evidence which could help to determine the date of the Cc. is carried out. From this study it appears that the probable date of the Cc. may lie between the latter half of the 8th century A.D. and the early 9th century A,D. In the fourth chapter we have traced the influence of Sanskrit on the literary style of the Cc. It is pointed out here that definition laid down by Sanskrit rhetoricians for a mahakavya hase xerted a great influence on the composition of the Cc. This can be clearly seen in the way in which Tevar handles the theme, his versification, the figures of speech and allusions, the descriptions, the structure and the division of the story and the other features such as the invocation, the apologia (avaiy-atakkam) etc. It has also been indicated how, in spite of this influence of Sanskrit, Tevar has not given up established poetical traditions of earlier Tamil poems. He combines the two traditions very effectively.

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Conclusion 199 In chapter V it is shown that the primary aim of the Cc. is to preach the gradual development of a soul towards salvation according to Jainism. This is illustrated through the life history of Civakan and Tevar explains the metaphysical, ethical, and ritualistic concepts of Jainism in the course of his narration. The treatment of the Jaina religious doctrines in the Cc. differs from that found in the earlier didactic works by Jaina authors or in the Buddhistic epic, the Masimekalai. Our discussion in this chapter emphasises how Tevar's treatment of Jainism in the Cc. is based on a sound knowledge of the original canons in Sanskrit and Prakrit. The linguistic analysis of the last chapter makes it clear that Sanskrit words have been imported by Tevar in the Cc. to facilitate his use of the supplementary metres (pavinams) and his treatment of the Jaina philosophical tenets. The semantic changes which occur in the Cc, are also shown. The linguistic influence of the Sanskrit on the Cc. is quite considerable and we have listed in our analysis all the Sanskrit loan words and their phonetic and semantic changes.

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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY The books which are written in the European languages are listed by arranging the authors' names in alphabetical order. The Tamil and Sanskrit books are listed by arranging the names of the books in alphabetical order. Reference Books: Burrow, T. and Emeneau, M.B., Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1961. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VII, edited by Hastings, J., Edinburgh, 1914. Jaini, J.L. , Jaina Gem Dictionary, The Library of Jaina Literature, Vol. IX, Arrab, 1918. Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford, 1964. New Catalogus Catalogorum, Vol. 1-5, University of Madras, 1966-69. Palantamil Nur Collataivu, Vol. 1-2 Institut Francasis d'Indologie, Pondichery 1967-68. Subramoniyam, V. I., Index of 'Purananuru' University of Kerala, 1962. Subrahmaniyan, N., Pre-Pallavan Tamil Index, Madras University Historical Series, No. 23, Madras, 1966. Tamil Lexicon, Madras, University, 1926-39. Turner, R. L., A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages, Oxford, 1962-66. Books in European Languages : Anavaratavinayagampillai, S., The Sanskrit element in the vocabularies of the Dravidian languages, Dravidic studies, No. 3, University of Madras, 1919. Andronov, M. S., Materials for a Bibliography of Dravidian Linguistics, Kulalampur, 1966. Awasthi, A. B. C.; Studies in Skandapurana, Part I, Lucknow, 1965. Barodia, U.D., History and Literature of Jainism, Bombay, 1909. Bhargava Dayand, Jaina Ethics, Delhi, 1968. Bombay Gazetteer, Bombay, Vol. 1, Part I, 1896. Burrow, T., The Sanskrit Language, 2nd edition, London, 1965. - Collected Papers on Dravidian Lingiustics, Annamalai University, Annamalai, 1968. Sc-26

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202 Study of Civakacintamani Caldwell, R., A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South - Indian Family Languages, London, 1875. Chatterji Suniti Kumar, The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language, Calcutta University, Calcutta, 1926. Chidambaranatha Cettiyar, Advanced Studies in Tamil Prosody, 3rd edition, Annamalai, 1957. Deo, S. B., History of Jaina Monachism from Inscriptions and Literature, Poona, 1956. Desai, P. B., Jainism in South India and some Jaina Epigraphs, Sholapur, 1957. Emeneau, M. B., India and Historical Grammar, Annamalai University Publications in Linguistics, No. 5, Annamalai Nagar, 1965. Glassenap, H. V., Doctrine of Karaman in Jain Philosophy, Translated into English by Gifford, G.B., Bombay, 1942. Gnanamurthy, T. E., A Critical Study of Civakacintamani, Coimbatore, November, 1966. Handiqui, K. K., Yasastilaka Campu and Indian Culture, Sholapur, 1949. Ilakkuvanar, S., Tamil Language, South Indian Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1961. Jacobi, Herman, Studies in Jainism, Part 1, Edited by Jina Vijaya Muni, Ahmedabad, 1946. Jain, Champat Rai, Translation for Ratnakaranda-sravakavacara, Arrah, 1917. Jain, Jyoti Prasad, The Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India, (100 B.C.-A.D. 900), Delhi, 1964. Jain, S. A., Reality (An English Translation of Pujyapada's Sarvartha-siddhi), Calcutta, 1960, Jaini Jagmanderlal, Outlines of Jainism, 2nd edition, Cambridge, 1940, Jesudasan, C. and Jesudasan, H., A History of Tamil Literature, Calcutta. 1961. Kailasapathy, K. Tamil Heroic Poetry, Oxford, 1968. Kalghatgi, T. G., Jaina View of Life, Sholapur, 1969. Kapadia, H. R., A History of the canonical literature of the Jains, Surat, 1941. Karnataka Through the Ages, Published by the Government of Mysore, 1968. Keith, A. B., Sanskrit Literature, 1928. Krishnaswami Ayyangar, S., Manimekalai in its Historical Settings, London, 1928. Lacote, F., Essai sur Gunadhya et la BIhatkatha, Paris, 1908. Law, B. C., India as depicted in early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, London, 1941. Meenakshisundaran, T. P., A History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai, 1965. _ , A History of Tamil Language, Poona, 1965.

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Select bibliography 203 Nilakanta Sastri, K. A., Cholas, Vol. I-II, Madras, 1935-37. -, A History of South India, from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar, 3rd edition, Oxford, 1966. The Fancutantara. A collection of ancient Hindu tales in the recension called Panchakhyanaka, Purnabhadra, edited by Johannes Hartel, Harvard Oriental Series, Vol. II, Cambridge, Massachussetts, 1908. Pandey, R. B., Hindu Samskaras, 2nd edition, Delhi, 1969, Pillay, K. K., A Social History of the Tamils, Part I, University of Madras, 1969. Pischel, R., Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit Languages, translated from German by Subhadra Jha Delhi, 1957. Raghavan, V., The Number of Rasas, Adyar Library, Adyar, 1940. _ , ,Bhoja's Srngaraprakasa, Madras, 1963. Ramachandra Dikshitar, V. R., The Sila ppadikaram, Oxford, 1939. Ramaswami Ayyangar, M. S., and Seshagiri Rao, B. Studies in South Indian Jainism, Madras, 1922. Saletore, B. A., Medieval Jainism with special reference to the Vijayanagara Empire, Bombay, 1938. Sangave, V. A., Jaina Community, a social survey, Bombay, 1959. Schubring, W., The Doctrine of the Jains ( described after the old sources ), Translated from thr revised German edition by Wolfgang Beurlen, Delhi, 1962. Sharma, S. R. , Jainism and Karnataka Culture, Dharvar 1940. Singarvelu, S., Sacial Life of the Tamils, the Classical Period, Kualalampur, 1966. Sivarajampillai, K. N., The Chronology of the Early Tamils, Madras. 1932. Sogani, K. C. , Ethical Doctrines in Jainism, Sholapur, 1967. Srinivasa Iyengar, P. T., History of the Tamils-from the earliest times to 600 A. D. Madras University, Madras, 1929. Stevenson, S. (Mrs), The Heart of Jainism, Oxford, 1915. Subrahmaniyan, N., Sangam Polity, Asian Publishing House, London, 1966. Swamikkannu Pillai, L. D., An Indian Ephemeris, A. D. 700 to A.D. 1798, Vol. I. Part 1, Madras, 1922. Tatia. Nathmal, Studies in Jaina Philosophy, Jaina Cultural Research Society. Banares, 5, 1951. Tawney. C. H., The Ocean Story, Translation of Somadya's Kathasaritsaar * T, London, 1924-28. ThaniNayagam, Xavier S. , Landscape and Poetry, 2nd edition, Bombay, 1966. Thurston, E., Castes and Tribes of Southern India, Vol. III, Madras, 1909.

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204 Study of Civakacintamani Vaidyanathan, S., Indo-Aryan Loan-words in Old Tumil, November, 1971. Vaiyapuri Pilliai, S., History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras, 1965. Varadarajan, M., Ilango Adiga! (Makers of Indian Literature), New Delhi, 1967. Williams, R., Jaina Yoga, A Survey of the Medieval Sravakacaras, London, 1963. Winternitz, M., A History of Indian Litereture (English translation), Calcutta, Vol. I, 1927, Vol. II, 1923, Vol. III, Part 1, Delhi, 1963. Zvelebil, Kamil, A Comparative Dravidian Phonology, The Hague &c., 1970. Unpublished Theses : Mair, J. R., The Eight Tamil Anthologies with special referance to Purananiru and Patirruppattu, A thesis submitted to the University of London, 1958. Vithiananthan, S., The Pattuppattu, A Historical, Social and Linguistic Study, A thesis submitted to the University of London, 1956. Tamil Books : Camanat Tamil Ilakkiya Varalatu, Meenakshisundaran, T. P., Coimbatore, 1961. Cilapparikaram, llanko, with the commentary of Venkatacami Nattar, 7th edition, South India Saiva Siddhanta Publishing Society works, Tinnevely, Madras 1963 Cirupancamalam, Kariyasan. Published by the South India Savia Siddhanta works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, 6th edition, Madras, .963. Civukacintamani, Tiruttakkatevar, Edited by Balasubramaniam, B., 2nd ed India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publisbing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1941. Civakacintamani, Tiruttak katevar, edited by U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, 6th edition, Madras, 1957. Civakacintamani Araycci, Auvai S. Turaicamipillai, 2nd edition, Madras, 1948. Civakacintamani Corpolivu Ninaivu Malar, Edited by Venugopalapillai, Published by Jaina Tamil Nakkiya Manram, Kanchipuram, 1952, Part I. Culamani, Published South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, February, 1962. Culamanic Curuk kam, Auvai S. Turaicam ippillai, 2nd edition, Madras, 1955. Ilakkana Vilakkam, Yappiyal, Rajagopalaccariyar, K., Madras, 1963. Kalittokai, edited by Kasivisvanathan Cettiyar, 3rd edition, Madras, 1949. Kaviya Kalom, Vaiyapurippillai, S., 2nd edition, Madras, March, 1962. Kongudesa Rajakkal, edited by Ramachandran Chettiyar, C. M, Madras Government Oriental Series, No. VI., Madras, 1950. Manimekalai, Cattanar, edited by Kasivisvanatha Cettiyar, 2nd edition, Madras, 1951,

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ZOS Select bibliography Molinul Kolkaiyum Tamil Moli Amaip pum, Cuppiramaniyapillai, Celam, '1939. Nalatiyar, edited by G. U. Pope, Oxford, 1893. Nunnul, Pavananti, with Cankaranamaccivayar's commentary, 146-15), edited by Saminatha lyer, U, V., 2nd edition, Madras, 1955, Nariviruttam, Tiruttakkatevar. edited by Arumukancervai, Madras, 1923. Narrinai, 3rd edition, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, January, 1962. Pa.amoli Nanuru, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1948. Panniru-Caivat-tirumurait-tokuti, Tirunapacampanta cuvamika! Tevarap patikanka), Madras, 1927. Pannirupattiyal, 2nd edition, with the commentary of Kovintaraca Mutaliyar, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1949. Panniru-tirumuraip. perutirallu, edited by P. Irrmanathapillai, Madras, 1961. Paripatal, (Le Paripatal), Published by Institut Francais d'Indologie, Pondichery, 1968. Pattuppattu, edited by U. V. Saminatha Iyer, 6th edition, Madras, 1961. Pattup paffu, (Ten Tamil Idylls, translated by Coelliah, 2nd edition. Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras 1962 Periyapur a nam, Tiruttontarpuranam, Umapaticivaccariyar, edited by Arumukattampi ran Cuvami, completed by Ramalinga Cuvami, Madras, 1888. Perunkatai, Konguvelir, edited by Saminatha Iyer, 2nd edition, December, Madras. 1935. Purananuru, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, Vol. I, 2nd edition, 1952, Vol. II, 1951, Tantiyalankaram, with the commentary of Cuppiramaniya Tecikar, edited by Rama lingattampiran, Sth edition, Madras, 1956. Tamil K. V. Jagannathan Kappi vankal, 2nd edition, Madras, 1955. Tamil Moli nul, Subrahmanya Sastri, Trichinopoli, 1938. Tamil Moli Ilakkiya Varalaru, Iracamanikkanar, M., Madras, January, 1963. Tirikatukam, Cfru pancamalam, edited by Vaiyapuri Pillai, University of Madras, Madras, 1944 Tolkappiyam, Tolkappiyar, text with the commentary in English by Subrahmanya Sastri, Madras Oriental Series, No. 3, Madras, 1928.

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26 Study of Civakacintamani Tolka ppiyam, Tolkappiyar, Collatikaram, with the English commentary of Subrahmanya Sastri, Annamalai University Tamil Series, No. 9, Annamalai Nagar, 1945. Tolkappiyam, Toikappiyar, Porulatikaram, with the commentary of Peraciriyar, 2nd edition, Published by South India Saiva Sidhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1955. Tolkappiyam, Porulatikaram, (Kalaviyal, Karppiyal, and Poruliyal) Naccinarkkiniyam, 2nd edition, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1958. Tolkap piyam, Porulatikaram (Akattinaiyiyal and Purattina iyiyal), Naccinarkkiniyam, 3rd edition, Publishad by South India Saiva Siddha Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1963. urum Perum, Sethuppillai, R. P., 3rd edition, Madras, 1956. Yapparunkalak Karikai, Amitacakarar, with the commentary of Kunacakarar, 2nd edition, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1944. Sanskrit and Prakrit books Adi purana, Jinasena, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Banares, 1953. Carudattam, Selected from the thirteen Trivandrum plays attributed to Bhasa, critically edited by Devadhar, C. R., Poona, 1962. Chandoman jari, Gangadasa, edited by Kanjilal, K., 2nd edition, Calcutta, 1970. Dasarupa, Dhanamjaya. Indo-Iranian Series, Vol. 7, New York, 1912. Gadyacintamani, Vadibhasimha, edited by Kuppuswami Sastri, Srirangam, 1916. Gadyacintamani, Vadibhasimha, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, 1968, Gadyacintamani, Vadibhasimha, edited by Kuppuswami Sastri, T. S., and Subrah manya Sastri, Sarasvati Vilasa Series, No. 1, Madras, 1902. Harivamsa Purana, Jinasena Punnata, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Varanasi. 1962. Har sacarita, Bana, edited by Kane, P. V., 2nd edition, Delhi, 1965. Jivandhara-Campu, Haricandra, edited by Pannalal Jain, Varnasi, July; 1958. Badambari, Bana, edited by Kale, M. R., 4th edition, Bombay, 1968, Kavyadarsa, Dandin, with English translation of Belvalkar, S. K., Poona, 1924. Kavyalankara, Bhamaha, edited with English translation by Sastry, P. V. N., Delhi, 1970. Karyanusasana, Hemacandra, edited by Sivadatta and Kasinath Pandurang Parab, Bombay, 1934. Ksgtracudamani, Vadibhasimha, edited by Kuppuswami Sastri, T. S., Sarasvati Vilasa Series, No. III, Tanjore, 1903.

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Select bibliography 207 Kumarasambhova, Kalidasa, edited by Telang, 3rd Edition, Benares, 1957 Mahabharata, published by the Education Committee, Calcutta, 1834-1839. Mahapurana, Puspadanta, edited by Vaidya, P. L., Bombay, 1937. Meghaduta, Kalidasa, edited by Kale, M. R., Bombay, 1916. Mecsakatika - Sudraka, edited by Kale, M. R., Bombay, 1924. Natyasastra, Bharata, with the commentary of Abhinavagupta, edited by Manavalli Ramakrishna Kavi, Vols. I-IV. Gaekwad Oriental Series, Baroda, 1926-1954. Parsvanathacarita, Vadiraja, edited by Manoharlal Sastri, Bombay, 1916. Prataparudriya, Vidyanatha, published by Institut Francais d'Indologie, Pondichery, 1963. Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa, edited by Nandargikar, G. R., 3rd edition, Bombay, 1897. Ramayana, Valmiki, Bala Kandam, edited by Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1960-66. Ratnakaranda-sravakacara, Samantabhadra Acarya, The Library of Jaina Literature, Vol 1x, Arrh, 1917. Sahityadarpana, Visvanatha, edited by Kane, P. V., Bombay, 1910. Samayasara, Kundkunda, Jaana-pitha Moorti Devi Jaina Granthamala, English Series I, Banares, 1950. Sarasvati Kanthabharana, Bhoja, edited by Shastri, K. S., Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, 117. Trivandrum, 1935. Sarvarthasiddhi, Pujyapada, edited by Phoolchandra Siddhant Shastri, Varanasi, May, 1955. Tattvartha Sutram, Umaswami, edited by Shantiraya Sastri, University of Mysore, Mysore, 1944, Yasastilaku campu, Somadevasuri, Part 1, with commentary of srutasagar, Kavyamala edition, No. 70, Bombay, 1901, Periodicals : Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1920 Centamil, Madras. Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. 1-14, Bangalore. 1894-1934. Epigraphia Indica, Calcutta, 1891. Indian Antiquary, Bombay, 1872-1933. Indian Historical Quarterly, Caicutta, 1925Indian Linguistics, Lahore, 1931. Jaina Antiquary, Arrah, 1935Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Arrah, 1935

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208 Journal of the American Oriental Society, New Haven, 1843. Journal of the Oriental Research Institute of the Madras University, Madras, 1927Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay, 1831 Journal of Tamil Studies, 1969 Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, Bangalore, 1909Siddhanta Deepika, Vol. 1-14, Madras, 1897-1914. South Indian Inscriptions, Madras, 1892 Tamil Culture, Madras, 1952-57. Study of Civak acintamani Transactions of the Philological Society, London, 1944. University of California Publications in Linguistics, Berkeley, 1943

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Abha 70 Abhaya 170 Abhimanyu 110 Absolute vows 150 Acai 119, 166 Acaksur-darsanavaran iya 130, 162 Acalam 70, 71 Acara 166, 172 Acca 69 Accam 85 Accapanti 56,69, 74, 137, 145 Acippa 192 Aciriyattalai 119 Aciriyatturai 121 Acotaran 90, 145 Acurar 164 Adara 172 Adbhuta 85 Adharma 127, 145 Adhi 189 Adhigama 138 Adhvan 170 Adi 172, 189 Adipurana 1, 39, 48, 124, 156 Aditya 72 Aerial car 55 Agada 170 Agamas 141, 195, 194 Aghatiya karmas 129, 139, 155, 156, 166 Agrahara 49 Agricultural (marutam) 79 Ahalya 44 68,69,70,73, SUBJECT INDEX Aham 194 Ahimsa 94, 143, 147 Ahuti 164 Aihole 40 Aimpatam 160 Aimpatavamirtam 196 Aimpori 134, 146 Ainkurunuru 164 Airavana 175, 176 Airavata 101 Aisvarya 176 Aja 107 Ajiva 126 Ajja 69 Ajna 172 Akalanka 39, 40 Akalavarsa 2 Akam 78, 83, 164 Akannuru 51 Akappu 191 Akasa 127 Akattiyam 88, 89 Akaval-ocai 120 Akhyayika 118 Akula 172, 174, 185 Akulam 172, 174 Akulapucal 185 Akuti 164 Alaiyam 171 Alakta 170 Alaktaka 184 Ajaku 86 Alalaintu 191 Alambana 85 Alankaras 100 Alankaramalai 73 Alaya 171 Alliteration 120, 169 Aloka 127, 155, 189, 196 Alokam 189, 196 Ajukai 85 Alvars 46, 83 Amacca 166 Amaiccan 166 Amar 182 Amarah 164 Amarar 164 Amatya 166 Amiltam 164 Amirtam 169 Amirtu 169, 171, 175 Ammai 86, 88 Amrta 164, 169, 170, 171, 175 Amudhadrsti 138 Amurta 126, 168 Amurttam 168 Anaimangalam 49 Anangamahavina 72 Anahgamala 18, 19. 28, 73 Anangapataka 72 Anangatilaka 9 Anangavilasini 92 Anankamalai 23, 28, 90 Anankam vinai 9, 63, 72, 73, 74, 104 Anankavilacini 63, 72 Ananta 185, 196 Ananta darsana 129, 155 Ananta Jnana 129 Anantan umai 185, 196 Anant nubandhi 131, 142, 154

Page #223
210 Study of Civakacintamani Anantanubandhikasaya 142 Anantanubandhikrodha 152 Anantanubandhin 131 Anantasukha 155, 196 Anantavirya 129, 155 Anapaya 36 Anartbadandavrata 143 Ancanakkol 184 Ancapam 164, 176, 177 Ancient Tamil 164 Angagama 140 Angopangas 161 Anhilwad Patan 45 Anivstti-badara-Sam paraya 136 Anivittibadara-Samp araya-gunasthana 154 Anjana 164, 170, 177 Ankucam 167 Ankusa 167 Anta 170, 189 Antah-pura 168 Antam 170 Antappuram 168 Antara 191 Antara-kumaran 191Antaraya karma 129, 131, 155 Antarmuhurta 151 Apti 164 Anto 172 Anu 143 Anubhavas 85 Anumati-vrata 144, 145 Anupama 71 Anupurvi 161 Anupurvi-nama-karma Apana 189 Aparigraha 143 Apinda-prakrti 161 Apologia 92 Appanai 186 Appar 47, 147, 167 Appar-tirumurai 167 Apramatta-samyata 136 Apratyakhana 142 Apratyakhyanavarana 131, 153 Apratyakhyanavarana krodha 153 Apratyakhyanavarana lobha 153 Apurva karma 136 Aradhana 164 Arakkan 52 Aram 86, 94, 140, 180. Arambhavinivitta 144 Aranam 181 Aranapatam 147 Arankam 180 Arenkerrukatai 113 Aratanai 164 Arati 131 Arattakam 170, 184 Arava 168, 194 Aravam 53, 168, 180 Aravattirai 185 Ardhamagadhi 45 Ardhasama 119 Arghya water 157 Arhat 11, 46, 67, 68, 75, 92, 130, 134, 158, 159, 190, 196 Ariccantan 73 Arid (palai) 29, 79, 82 Arikesari 47 Arincayan 35 Arinjaya 35 Arivai 106 Arivar 141 Arka 91 Arkkum tolatay 42 Arnava 91 Arta dhyana 151, 152 Artha 88, 94 Arthantaranyasa 3 Arthasastra 94 Arucir aciriya viruttam 121 Arunkalanvayam 38 Aruntavar 185 Aravakai valttu 52 Aruvakaittuvarppu 196 Arya 69 Aryan 44, 51 Aryavarma 3, 55, 69, 70, 72. Asadana 129 Asad-gunod-bhavana 133 Asanivega 18, 59 Asavarna marriage 27 Ascetics 159 Asih 91 Asoka tree 25, 54, 55. Asramas 94 Asrava 126, 128 Assonance 120, 169 Asta 170 Asta karma 129 Astakarmani 191 Astasahasri 38, 39 Astikaya 128, 196 Astra 183 Asura 164, 182 Ataikkalakkatai 52, 53 114 Atakam 170 Atal 186 Atapa-nama-karma 153 Ataram 172 Ati, 87, 119 133 Anuvratas 143, 145

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Subject-Index 211 Aticayam 170 Atika! 53 Atisaya 170 Atisayokti 102 Atiyantam 189 Atmaprasamsa 133 Attam 170 Atta man kalam 189 Attarakku 184 Attiram 170, 183 Ausadha dana 148 Avadhi-darsanavaraniya 153, 162 Avaiyatakkam 92, 93, 121, 198 Avamodarya 151 Avana 189 Avana-viti 189 Avanisulamani 47 Avasarpini 127 Avifauna 80 Avirata 142 Avrata-samyagdesti 136 Ayana 170, 179, 180 Ayanam 170, 180 Ayiravanam 175 Ayodhya 172 Ayogi-kevalin 136 Ayogi-kevali-gunastbana 153, 157 Ayotti 172 Ayurvedic treatises 165 Ayus karma 129, 132, 161 Bahumitra 72 Bahusrutyagama 140 Bakula 72 Balabhadras 2 Balakandam 93 Bali 191 Bandhana 161 Bandhananama karma 133 Belgamve grant 34 Belgola 34 Besage 176 Bhagavan 166, 168 Bhagya 166 Bhakti 165 Bhakti movement 47, 48 Bharata war 110 Bharatesvara 110 Bhava 92 Bhavadatta 9, 22, 74 Bhaya 131 Bhayanaka 85, 116 Bhima 44 Bhindipala 178 Bhoga 131, 188, 190 Bhogabhumi 149 Bhogantaraya 153, 162 Bhogantaraya karma 132 Bhogopabhoga 143 Bhokta 126 Bhrantimat 103 Bhujanga 174 Bhu-loka 140 Bhumi 190 Bhuta 164 Bibhatsa 85 Bimba 104 Bliss 125, 135 Bodhi 179 Bojanga 174 Brahma 10, 16, 44, 143 Brahmacarya 144 Brahmacarya pratima 149 Brhatkatha 76, 93, 117 118 Bphatkathamanjari 76 Bhatkathaslokasangraha Buddhism 93, 165 Buddhist 49, 53 Buddhist vihara 49 Cacaran 75 Caccantan 35, 42, 54, 55, 66, 69, 71, 73, 96, 97, 98, 99, 110, 113, 135, 158 Cakaratattan 64, 69 Cakaran 71 Cakatam 164, 177, 178 Cakkaram 177, 183 Cakra 177, 183 Cakravartin 2 Caksur-darsanavaraniya 162 Caksur-darsanavaraniya karma 130 Calakai 172 Calam 168 Calancayanam 190 Calaniti 73 Calanidhi 73 Calukya king Jayasimha 34 Camai 81 Camara 171 Camayakkanakkar tan tiram ketta katai 46 Camati 173 Campaka 62 Campakamalai 73 Canam 177 Candra 91, 190 Candrabha 21, 60 Candraditya 140 Candrasekhara 16 Cankam 25, 30, 43, 44 52, 84, 100, 113, 123, 167, 177, 194 Cankam literature 25, 51, 108 76 Buddha 10, 93 Buddhacarita 106 Buddhisena 70, 71

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212 Study of Civakacintamani Cankam poem 96 Cankaran 167 Cantirapam 29, 61 Cantiravautayam 188 Cantirotayam 188, 190 Capam 164, 167 Carana 68 Caranap 64, 139, 140, 141, 148, 149, 150 Cardiospermum halica cabum 87 Cari 69 Caritra-mohaniya 130, 131, 162 Caritra-mohaniya karma 142 Caritrasara 48 Carudattam 105 Catari 81 Catevanar 43 attam 168 Catti 173 Cattiya 168 Catuh-sarana 168 Catur 191 Catur-mukha 191 Caturindriya-nama karma 153 Catur-varga-phalopeta 91 Catuspadi 120 Catustaya 197 Cavarar 179 Cavi 173, 177 Cayamati 69 Cekkisar Puranam 36 Celestial 57, 68, 77, 132 Celibacy 143, 146, 145, Celvan 196 Celvanaman 73 Cemam 169, 184 Cenikan 54, 69, 125, 150 Centanil 38 Centan 42 Ceppal-Ocai 120 Cera 51 Cerppan 81 Ceruppaliyerinta-ilanc etcenni 52 Cevi 192 Ceylon 28 Ceyyuliyal 86 Chavi 173, 177 Cheda 175 Chalamapivarma Vihare 49 Cikai 181 Cilappatikaram 25, 45, 46, 52, 53, 78, 87, 88 90, 92, 93 Cilampan 81 Cilatalam 167 Cinatatlai 73 Cinta 172 Cintai 119, 172 Cintamani 31, 36, 37. 38. 39, 40, 41, 42 Cintamanitippani 41 Cinturam 182 Cir 87 Ciritattan 15, 73 Cirukappiyam 90, 96 Cirukli 81 Cirupanarrupatai 51, 96, 166 Cirupancamulam 3, 12, 45, 166 Cirupolutu 79, 82 Citai 51, 52 Citattan 58, 70, 71, 73 Citra 168, 190 Citramahamala 73 Cittan 166 Cittirakutam 94, 147, Cittiram 168 Cittiramamalai 72 Cittiramamantapam .96 Civa 56, 192 Civakacintamani 1, 5, 38, 51 etc. Civakan 4,7,9, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 31, 50, 54, 56, 57, 59, 69, 118 Civikai 181 Clandestine 82 Col 41 Cola 35, 36, 49, 50 Cold season 79 Collatikaram 78, 165 Collyrium 184 Contentment 148 Control of greed 148 Crivartamana 150 Cudamani 38, 40, 41, 128, Cukata 190 Cukkila 183 Cukkilattiyanam 155, Culam 193 Culamani 39, 40, 41, 42, 103, 178 Cumati 71 Cunarkan 179, 181 Cunantai 56, 70 Cunna(Pkt) 174, 184 Cunnam 174, 178, 184 Cuntaram 162, 182 Cuotaramurti 47 Cupattiran 7, 59, Curamancari 4, 9, 61, 64, 65, 66, 71, 73, 96, 117 Curamancariyar llampakam 41, 44, 61, 64, 121, 158

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Subject-Index Curna 174, 178, 184 Curiyan 182, 183 Cutamanjari 70 Cutancanan 19, 20, 21, 60, 61, 67, 69, 73, 96 Cutanmar 54, 69, 175, 150 Cuttiram 165 Cuvakatam 177, 183 Cuvarkkam 166 Daiva 164, 175 Damodara 40 Dana 131, 144, 148, 166, 195 Danantaraya 153, 162 Dandaka forest 25, 43, 55, 64 Darbha 171, 179, 157, Darsana 144, 197 Darsanamohaniya 130, 162 Darsanamohaniya Karma 142, 197 Darsanasara 45 Darsanavaraniya 162 Darsanavarniya karma 129 Darsanika Sravaka 145 Dagaratha 98 Dasarupa 95 Dasi 174 Davari 70 Deccan 45 Delusionless 136 Desavirata-Samyagdesti 136, 142 Desavirata Samyagdrsti gunasthana 144 Deva 43, 71 Deva-auyus 132, 141 Deva-ganam 45 Devarpatti 49 Devasena 27, 28, 45, 71, 140 Devotion 148 Devotional hymns 145 Dhanamjaya 95, 96 Dhanamitra 72, Dhanapati 60, 61, 69 Dharana 98 Dharani 187 Dbarini 58, 69 Dharma 94 Dharma dhayapa 151, 152 Dharmasena 47 Dhavala 39 Dhira 95 Dhira-lalita 96, 99 Dhira nayaka 99 Dhira-santa 96 Dbira-udatta 95 Dhiroddhata 96, 97 Dhrauvya 128 Dhstisena 72 Dhruva 39 Dhuma 178 Dhupa 187 Dhvani 112 Dbyana 151, 190 Didactic works 145 Dig 190 Digambara 45, 124 Digambara Jains 49, 156 Digambara monks 150 Digvrata 153 Dilipa 99 Disa 164 Divya 166 Dosa 176, 181 Dravida sangha 41,45,47 Dlavidian 163 Draupadi 75 Diaha 175, 178 Dsidhamitra 62 Drsya 111 Duhsama-duhsama 127 Duh sama-Susama 127 Dukkha 146 Durvasa 25 Data 171, 178 Duryodhana 44, 51 Dvijanmanah 191 Dvindriya Namakarma 153 Dvipa 175, 179, 189 Eight karma 152, 159 Ekam 175 Ekabhakta 150 Ekajna 188 Eka-ma-nakar 189 Ekanta 184 Ekavanai 188 Ekavippam 185 Ekendriya-nama karma 153 Elali 45, 123 Elucir-Aciriya viruttam 45, 123 Eluttatikaram 78 Eluvar 124, 154 Eluvar patrar 154 Emam 161, 184 Emamapuram 62 E mankatam 102 Embodied souls 159 Encir Aciriya virutam 121 Enmar 154 Entiram 170, 183 Entiravucal 185 Envinai 191 Erankol 81 Eravana 176 Erpatau 79, 82

Page #227
214 Siudy of Civakacintamani Esajja 176 Etam 175, 177 Ethical 125, 199 Ettuttokal 87 Etukai 120, 161 Euphorbia 49 Eyirri 81 False divinity 138 Fanciful expressions 109 Fauna 79 Female monkey 68 Fifty three kriyas 154 Five absolute vows 150 Five antaraya karma 155 Five astikayas 134, 140 Five senses 138, 149 Flora 79 Freed souls 158 Flying machine 135 Four darsanivaraniya karma 155 Four infinite qualities 152 Four pratyakhyagava rana karmas 154 Fourteen gunasthanas 142 Gadya 31 Gadyacintamani 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 31 Gajah 190 Gami 193 Gamika 193 Gamin 193 Gamini 173, 177, 195 Gana 6, 19, 167 Gandha 161, 170 Gandharva 77 Gandharvadatta 8, 16 18, 19, 28, 58, 59, 62, 63, 66, 67, 71, 72 Gandharva rite 28, 56 Gandhotkata 8, 33, 55, 66, 69, 73, 74 Gandhukkada 35 Ganga 40 Ganga dynasty 37 Ganges 25, 52 Ganika 167 Gar 192 Garuda 170, 178, 180 Garudavega 8, 35, 58, 59, 69, 72 Garutaveu 35 Gati 133, 139, 141, 166 Gender system 169 Ghana 177 Ghatiya 129. 139, 195 Gbatiya-karma 131, 132, 134, 155, 161, 195 Gita 173, 191 Glories 140 Gloriosa Superba 101 Godavari 57, 70 Gomukha 73 Gonamu (Telugu) 174 Gopa 69 Gopasri 57, 70 Gopendra 53, 65, 66, Gunatraya 137 Gunavratas 143 Guru 118 Gurudatta 71, 91 Halo 194 Hara 182 Hariva mgapurana 39 Harisacarita 25 Hasa 85 Hastimalla 49 Hasya 131 Havis 182 Hell 139 Hema 70 Hemabha 64, 62, 57, 70, 74 Hemabhapuram 63 Hemacandra 90 Hemangada 25, 54, 57 Hetrodoxy 130 Hidaya 175 Himalayan 78 Himasitala 39 Hindu 48 Hinduism 47 Hindu Samskaras 156 Hingulika 169, 177, 182 Hiptage Madablota 83 Hiranya 182 Hitarupasiddhi 34 Hsdaya 175 Htdayakamala 191 Hybrid forms 184 Hyperbole 109, 102 Hyperbolic conceits 84 Ican 167 Ilak-ittu 192 llaipu 87 Ilakkam 180, 184 Ilakkanai 5, 65, 67, 69, 71, 73, 75. 96. 108, 157, 158 69 Gotra Karma 129, 132, 133, 161 Govinda 9, 14, 15, 30, 73 Ghadevata 191 Grhatyaga 158 Gphya sutra 157 Guhya 184 Guna 143, 186, 196 Gunamala 8. 16, 17, 18, 24, 35, 59, 69 Gunamitra 7? Gunasthana 124, 150, 152

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Subject-Index 215 Ilakkanaiyar Ilampakam 66, 67, 108, 121 Ilampakam 5, 56, 65, 67, 117 Ilankittitan 192 Ilarko 93, 113, 114 Ilayama 192 Ilecu 171 Ilesu 180 Illurai teyvam 191 Ilivaral 85 Imperfect vows 136 Immobile 126 Imda 70 Indra 10, 44, 69, 70 Indras 156 Indragopa 173 Indriyajaya 150 Ingita 185 Infinite 78 Infinite bliss 196 Infinite perceptton 129 Infinite qualities 140 Inhabitants 79 Inkulikam 169, 177, 182 Inpakkoti 191 Inpam 86, 94, 185 Intan 69 Internal penances 151 Intirakopam 173 Intira-kumaran 189 Intiran 81, 141 Intiravil 185 Intravilav-ur-etutta-ka tai 46 Iracacuyam-vetta-peru narak killi 43 Iracama-nakam 189 Iracamapuram 4, 30, 104, 111 Iraivati 175 Iraman 52 Iramayanam 103 Iraniyan 182, 183 Irankal 82 Iratam 180, 182 Iravi 180 Irevati 180 Iru-pirappalar 191 Iruttal 82 Isa 167 Itaiyila inpam 195 Itantalaippatu 106 Itayam 175 Itihasa 91 Ixora coccinca 83 Iyakkan 164, 165 Iyakki 180 Iyaipu 86, 87 Iyar-cir 119 Iyarkkaippuoarcci 28, 104, 113 Jabali 25 Jagadekamalla 34 Jahnu 40 Jaina 43, 92, 124, 125, 126 Jaina doctrine 75 Jaina ethical ideas 123 Jaina faith 67, 124 Jaina philosophy 161 Jaina-Puranic story 161 Jaina smaraka 32 Jainism 43, 47, 48, 95, 123, 124, 125, 137, 165, Jainas 48, 49 Jala 190 Jana 191 Jati 118, 161 Jayad havala 39 Jayadratha 68, 70 Jayandhara 68, 70 Jayasimha 34 Jayavati 69. 68, 71 Jina 13, 70, 157, Jinadatta 58, 70-73 Jina sena 1 Jiva 56, 126, 192 Jivaka 1, 15, 18, 19, 20, 25, 28, 35, 50, 93, 198 etc. Jivakacintamani 24 Jivandhara 1, 3, 5-9, 15, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 35, 42, 51, 54-62, 67, 70, 71 etc Jivandhara campu 1, 3, 4 Jivandhara carita 1 Jivandhara Samghatya 1 Jivandhara Satpadi 1 Jnana 148, 166 Jnanavaraniya Karma 129, 162 Jugupsa 85, 131 Kacipan 43 Kadaikkottur 49 Kadambari 25, 106 Kadams 168 Kalaram 49 Kaikkilai 82 Kailasa 106 Kaitavam 175 Kaivalaccelyan 194 Kaivalya 194 Kala 127, 128 Kalabhras 44, 46 Kala-c-cakkaram 190 Kalai 81 Kalakuta 57, 72 Kalampakam 87 Kalan 86 Kalangaraka 57, 58, 72 Kalaya 172 Kalapacam 167

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216 Study of Civakacintamani 191 Kalapam 172 Kalatti 81 Kalavali 194 Kalavalinarppatu 87 Kalayam 172 Kalavu 26, 28 Kalinam 173, 177 Kalippa 119, 185 Kali 194 Kalittokai 29, 44, 52, 84, 108 Kalitturai 121 Kaliviruttam 121 Kalli 49 Kalpa 68 Kalpaka 191 Kalpatita 68 Kalulan 180 Kalulavekan 8, 35, 58, 69, 73 Kalyana 177 Kalya nam 177, 192 Kalyanatara 140 Kama 20, 88, 94, 96, 166, 190 Kamadevas 2 Kaman 20 Kamakkalam 186 Kamakkulayi 184 Kamala 69 Kamalam 165 Kamamalai 191 Kaman 65, 98, 166 Kamanappanai 184 Kampumi 190 Kama Sutra 108, 165 Kamavalli 191 Kamini 172, 177, 193, 195 Kamparamayanam 103 Kamuka 73, 183 Kamukan 73 Kapaka 70; 73 Kanakamalai 57, 62, 63, 70, 72, 74, 114 Kanakamalaiyar Ilam pakam 6., 108, 121 Kanam 167, 177 Kanci 39, 83 Kancuki 176 Kani-tta 192 Kanikaiyar 161 Kannada 1, 41 Kannaki 46, 93, 95, 114 Kanni 81, 172 Kannimatam 186 Kantarvatattai 4, 28, 58, 59, 63, 64, 67. 73, 74, 76 Kantaruvatattaiyar 69, 106, 113, 116, 147 Kantaruvatattaiyar lla mpakam 121 Kantal 101 Kantotkatan 28 Kantukkatan 35, 55, 56, 69, 73 Kanya 172, 186 Kapila 43 Kapilan 43 Kappiya-k-kavikal 191 Kappiyam 88, 89, 90, 93, 174 Kar 79 Karantai 58, 83, 108 Karikai 166 Karmabhumi 149 Karmaksayatisayas 140 Karman 186 Karmas 99, 125, 128, 129, 137, 141, 158 Karmic 125 Karmic body 128 Karmic Matter 126, 128 137 Karpa 110 Karnataka sabdauusa. sanam 41 Karpakam kama-valli Karpura 174, 183 Karta 126 Kartikeya 27, 28 Karumak katal 186, 196 Karumattevar 196 Karuna 85 Karupporul 30, 79 Karappuram 174, 183 Karvetti 42 Kasaya 131, 162 Kashmirian paisaci 76 Kasthangara 8-11, 18. 19, 22, 23, 28, 31, 35 Kasthangaraka 35, 54, 55, 57-59. 65, 72, Kasyapa 43 Katal 186 Katampan 73 Kataragama 28 Katavu! valttu 92, 121 Katci 139, 155, 197 Katha 118 Kathasaritsagara 76, 77, 117 Kati 166, 195 Kattangarau 35 Kattiyankaran 4, 19, 22, 30, 35, 51, 54-55, 65, 69, 73-75, 96, 97, 108, 116 Kausi 33 Kausika 186, 187 Kavalam 52 Kavandha 179 Kaveri 33 Kavi 167 Kavika! 191

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Subject-Index 212 Korravai 81 Kata vasi 70 Kosicci 26, 81 Kotisvara 1 Katam 193 Kovalan 46, 52, 63, 187 Kovintai 27, 30, 70, 101 Kovintaiyar 128 Kovintaiyar Ilampakam 57 Kovintan 26, 57, 57. 64, 69, 73, 74, 99, 121, 157 Kramuka 183 Kriyas 48 Krmi 175 Krodha 85, 131, 154, 162, 195 Krsna 2 Krsna 39, 93, 194 Ksanti 72 Ksapaka-sreqi 153 Ksatracudamani (KC) 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 31, 32, 33 etc. Ksatriya sikhamani 32 Ksatriyasikhamani-puram Kulavi 186 Kulikan 169 Kulottunga 37 Kumara 191 Kumaradatta 71 Kumarasambhava 100, 101 Kumari 172, 174 Kuarippor 196 Kumariyasal 180 Kumbakonam 33 Kupakkatal 140, 186 Kunam 196 Kunamalai 4, 17, 24, 60, 64, 69, 73, 76, 96, 113, 147 Kunamalaiyar 56, 106, Kavirippumpattinam 81 Kviyakalam 24, 65, 166 Kavunti 46 Kavya 42, 123 191, Kavyadarsa 117, 89, 90, 84, 118 Kavyalaj karas 90, 95 Kavyanusasana 90 Kaya-Klesa 151 Kayotsarga 143 Kelulan 177, 178 Kemacari 7, 62, 104 Kemacar iyar llampakam 62, 121, 139 Kemamapuram 73 Kentam 170 Keraiyur 33 Kegadipadantavarnana 100 Kesaluncana 150 Kevala-darsanayaraniya 162 Kevala-jnana 138 Kevala-janavaraniya Karma 130, 153, 162 Khalina 173, 177 Khecara 157, 67, 68, 7 Kheda 175, 177 Kinai 81 Kinnara 173 Kinnaram 173 Kirtidatta 73 Kirttitattan 73 Kirumi 175 Kitam 173 Kita-viti 191 Kocamum 90 Kocikanir 176 Kocika atai 177 Komukan 73 Kongudega rajakkal 33 Konrai 108 C-28 107 32 Ksema 169, 184 Ksemapuri 9 Ksemasri 79 Ksemasundari 7, 62, 69, 72 Ksemendra 76 Ksinakasaya-vitaraga chadmastha-gunast hana 155 Kubera 98 Kuberamitra 70 Kuberatattan 71 Kucca 177 Kulam 35 Kulapati 43 Kunamalaiyar llampa kam 59, 74, 108, 121, 159 Kunc 192 Kuncaram 177 Kunci-ttu 192 Kundakunda 124 Kunjara 177 Kurkuma 168, 188 Kunkumakkatirka 186 Kunkumam 168 Kuperamittiram 70 Kuppayam 182 Kur 164 Kuralati 87 Kuratti 81 Kuravar 26, 27 Kurca 177 Kurinci 26, 82 Kurinciyar 81 Kurotan 154, 195 Karpasa 182 Kuru 21, 190 Kuru Kulam 190

Page #231
218 Study of Civakacintamani Kurumpa 81 Kurumporatinatan 81 Kuruni 157 Kuruntokai 43 Kurutatti 71 Kutal 112 Kutir 82 Kuttam 106 Kutti 185 Kutumba 174, 179 Kutumpam 174, 179 Kuyyam 184 Labha 117, 131, 162 Labba-antaraya 153, 162 Labhantaraya Karma 132 Laghu 118 Laja-homa 158 Laksa 184 Laksmi 13, 110 Laksya 180, 184 Lakula Vadirudragana Loan-words 165 Lobha 131 Loka 127, 186 Lokapala 1, 29, 69, 79 Lokamahapala 70 Lokastbiti 125 Lord Arhat 134, 147 Lord Jina 134, 137, 140 Lord Muruga 44 Lord of the Jinas 67 Lower world 187 Lunca 44 Lute 191 Madana 190 Madhavi Creeper, 28, Madhu 174, 188, 191 Madhukara 167 Madhumukha 71 Madhuram 91 Madhuparka 157 Madhufa 63 Maduri 46, 114 Maha 189, 190 Mahabharata 51, 75, 77, 117 Mahadhavala 39 Mabakavya 67, 89, 91, 92, 93, 100, 104, 112 Mabapurana 1, 2, 35, 48, 198 Maharasgra 171 Maharastri 45 Mahavira 67 Mahavratas 143, 150 Mahendravarman 47, 49 Mahesvara 39, 40 Major time 79 Makalir 188 Makara 101 Makilnan 81 Mal 134 Mala 191 Malaebarideva 38 Malai 70, 79 Malaipatukatam 87 Malavikagnimitra 76 Malayalam 181, 193, 194 Mallisana 36, 38, 40, 41 Mallisena prasasti 36, 39, 41 Malopama 109 Mamani 195 Mana 131, 162, 180, 195 Manahparyaya jaana 138, 144 Manahparyaya joana yaraniya 130, 162 Mapaivi 181 Manam 154, 180, 182, 195 Mapanal 112 Mapas 182 Mandala 171 Mangala 189 Manikkai 188 Manikkvacakar 47 Manimekalai 45, 46, 53, 78, 87, 88, 90, 92, 93 etc. Manipravala style 1 Mapitan 174, 182 Manivaanal 64, 68, 75, 125, 139 Mankai 106 Mapmaka! 104, 108, 112 Manmaka! Ilampakam 65, 121 Manmatha 28 Mannavan 185 Mankapa 190 Mantilan 171 Mantiram 164 Mantiri-ttu 192 34 Lalita 95 Lambaka 117 Lambha 3, 4, 5, 117 118, 126 Lambhaka 117, 118 Lamenting (Irankal) 82 Langh 192 Laya 180, 192 Lesa 171, 180 Leucass 83 Lewis Rice 40-42 Lightening rod 193 Likh 192 Linga 25 Linifulia 83 Lipisamkhyaba 157 Literary traditions 62 Littoral (Neytal) 30, 79, 104

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Subject-Index 219 Mantra 20, 21, 61, 164, 192, 193, 195 Manu 2 Manudbarmasastra 94, 165 Manusa 174, 182 Manusya-ayus 132, 161 Marahatta 171 Maranalankaram 93 Marasimha 38 Maratam 171 Marauding 82 Maravaraman 47 Maravijayaturgavarman Mula 190 Mulacara 150 Mulavu 81 Mulgund 39 Mullai 30, 82 Munnir 36 Muppani 79 Muntu-nal 88 Muranciyur Mutinakapar 51 49 Marutam 82 Marutam lyre 81 Marutkai 85 Marutpa 120 Masana 181 Matal 83 Matalan 52, 114 Matam 186 Matana-kitam 190 Matanam (madana) 60, 74, 116 Macantai 106 Matavi 93, 113 Mathura 45 Mati-jnana 138, 144 Matijnanavaramiya 153, 162 Matirttan 44 Matisagara 34, 58, 59, 71, 72 Matitaram (matidhara) 74 Matsarya 129 Mattavilasa prakarana 49 Matu 174 Matukaram 167 Matu-p-pali 191 Maturaikkanci 87 Matuttanku 188 Maya 131, 162, 195 Mayakkam 103 Mayan 195 Mayanam 181 Meditation 158 Megha 177 Meghadata 104, 109, 114 Mekam 177 Metaphysical 199 Metaphysical ideas 125 Meyppatiyal 86, 100, 112 Meyppalus 85, 86 Meyppattiyal 84 Middle Tamil 163 Mii 81 Millet 81 Minor time 79 Misra 162 Mithya-drsti 136 Mithyatva 139, 162 Mithuna 164 Mitunam 164 Modern Tamil 163 Mohaniya 162 Mohoniya karma 129, 130, 154 Moksa 88, 94, 95, 126, 156 Monai 120, 159 Morphology 163 Mountain poetry 79 Mount Kailasa 44 Mrochakatika 105 Muka-vacam 189 Mukha 191 Mukham 91 Mukhavasa 189 Murukan 15, 26-28, 81 Mutarporu 1 79 Mutirai 81 Mutti 112, 187 Mutti Ilampakam 67, 75, 121 Muttiyilampakam 64, 75, 95, 106, 108, 123, 125, 134 Muttollayiram 87 Mysore 33 Mysore state 37 Nacinarkkiniyar 35, 36, 37, 41, 89, 117, 121 Naga 189 Naga-loka 140 Nagara 91, 167, 171, 189 Nagamala 73 Nagapattanam 49 Nakai 85 Nakam 195 Nakamalai 28, 73 Nakaram 167 Nakula 168 Nakulam 52, 168 Nalatiyar 45, 87, 94, 123, 124 Nali 52 Namakaj llampakam 54 117, 121 Namam 166 Nama karma 129, 132 156, 161

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220 Siudy of Civakacintamani Namaskriya 91 Nampi 5, 189 Nanacampantar 47 Nanam 112, 139, 166, 196 Nanda 70 Nandadhya 57, 62, 64 67, 69, 75 Nandagopa 15 Nandaka 170, 178, 179, 194 Nandakam 179 Nandiga a 41, 45 Nanmai 134, 185, 196, 197 Nanpakal 79, 82 Napulan 73 Nantakam 170, 178, 194 Nantattiyan 57, 69 Nanti 69 Napumsaka veda 131, 153 Narada 2, 93 Naraka-ayus 142, 161 Naraka-gati-Dama-ka rma 153 Narakam 141 Narakanupurvi-nama karma 153 Narapati 189 Narapatitevan 73 Naravakanadatta 118 Narayanas 2 Narrinai 26, 43 Nastikaculamani 10 Nataka 112 Natakam 90 Natan 164 Natha 164 Nattuppatalam 103 Natukan-katai 46 Natukkam 86 Natyasastra 85, 86, 112 Navapadarthas 126, 133, 140, 146 Nemi 164 Ner 119 Netumal 81 Netuncentar 42 Neuter 141 Neuter endings 169 Neuter sex 154 Neytal 82, 93, 104 Nidda 196 Nidhi 164, 179 Nidra 162, 196 Nidra karma 130, 155 196 Nidra-nidra-karma 130, 153 Nigama 177 Nihsankita 138 Nihnava 126 Nilakeci 103, 104 Nimitta 178 Nimittaka 171 Nimittam 178 Nipputi 69 Nir 186 Nira 119 Nirjara 126, 137 Nirmita 168 Nirodhana 161, 178 Nirotapai 171, 178, 195 Nirumitam 168 Nirvicikitsita 138. Nirvrtti 59 Nisarga 138 Niscaya Samyag-dars. ana 137 Niskanksita 138 Niti 179 Nitigataka 94 Nattai 196 Nittam 168 Nityavinoda 140 Niyamam 177 Noci 187 Nocci 83 Nokasayas 131 Nokku 186 Non-souls 126, 127 Non-violence 143, 145 Nudity 150 Nulaicci 81 Nurruvaraikolli 191 Obstsucting karma 142 Ocai 120 Ocanai 179, 180 Odayadeva 31 Old tamil 163 Olliyan 41 One sensed 132 Onpanum 140 Oruvantan 184 Pacalai 196 Pacan 193 Pada 190 Palima 169, 180 Padma 8, 21, 22, 28, 70 Padmavati 71, 72 Padmamukha 24 Padmottama 60, 61 Padya 31 Paisaci 48, 76, 93 Pakavan 166, 168 Pakkam 81 Pakkiyam 166 Palacu 171 Palaikkali 29 Palamolinanuru 45, 96 Palamutircolai 27 Palasa 171 Palatal 177, 181 Palikku 171, 178, 179

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Subject-Index 221 Pavatattan 9, 63, 7-2 74 Pavi 179 Pavinam 118, 120 Pavitra 181 Pavittirai 71 Pavittira Kumaran 20 Pavittiram 181 Perilampen 106 Personal endings 169 Peru 155 Peruman 134 Perumitam 85 Perumpanarsuppatai 44, 51, 194 Perumpolutu 79 Peruncorrutiyanceralatan 51 Pallava 44, 46 Pallava king 42, 49 Pallava reign 50 Palti 187 Palliccandam 49 Patumaiyar llampakam 61 Patumukan 60 Pan 48 Panca 177, 189 Pancagni 147, 191 Pancakhyanaka 52 Panca-maha-vratas 150 Pancanamaskara 116, 141, 159, 160, 196 Pancanamaskara mantra 94 Panca-muka-vacam 189 Pancaparameshistuti 159 Pancasamitis 150 Pancastikayas 128, 133 Pancatantra 52, 53 Pancavacam 190 Pancuram 81 Pandavas 44, 51, 98 Pandya 42, 105, 106 Pankiyar 106 Panniru caivat tirum urait tokuti 47 Papnirutirumurai 167 Pantiyan-pal-yaka-calai. mutukutumi 43 Papa 126 Paiu 179 Pramapa 127 Paramesvara 40 Parani 179 Paraninda 133 Parantaka 33, 49 Paratan 73, 87 Paratti 81 Paricitta-parigraha virata 144, 145 Paridhi 194 Parimana-vrata 143 Paripatal 26, 44, 52, 84 108 Pariti 194 Parivara 181 Pariyala 181 Pariyalam 181 Parsvanatha 39 Parsuanatha basti 34 Parsvanatha carita 34 Partial vows 173 Paruti 173 Passion 136, 142 Pastoral (mullai) 30, 79, 82 Patala-mut-ti 187 Pati 81 Patikam 47, 93, 121, 183 Patimai 169 Patimam 169 Patinenkilkanakku 25, 45, 87, 94, 165 Patirruppattu 51 Pativam 169, 180 Patta- 179 Pattam 179 Pattinappalai 30, 31, 64, 87, 102 Pattinum 81 Patti 43, 49 Pattuppattu 27, 87, 96 Patumai 26, 28, 61, 62, 70, 73, 96, 106, 113, 114 Patumaiyar Ilampakam 28, 60, 61, 121 Patumukan 57, 60, 63, 71 Pavanamahadeva 70 Pavanamatevap 70, 145 Perunarkkilli 44 Perunkappiyam 67, 88, 90, 160 Perunkatai 53, 82, 90, 93, 123, 168 Peru 81 Peruvaluti 43 Petai 106 Peti 124 Petumpai 106 Phalika 171, 179, 183 Phallic 25 Phonology 163 Piccam, 177 Pinca 177 Pinda 178 Pinda-prakstis 13?, 161 Pindi 6, 7, 190 Pingala 2 Pinpani 79 Pintam 178 Pinti 159 Pinki palam 178 Pinti-ppakavan 190

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Study of Civokacintamani Prakrti 2 Pralaya 85 Pramatta-Samyata gu nasthana 150, 152 Prasasti 1, 2, 36 Prasastavanka 67, 68 Prataparudriya 110 Pratikramana 143, 147 Pratima 144, 145, 150 169, 180 Prati-parayana 2 Pratinayaka 99 Pratipada 41 Pratyakhyana 143, 147 Pratyakhyanayarana 131 Pippali 171 Pithika 178 Pitikai 178 Piraman 10 Piramanam 166 Pirital 82, 113 Piritimati 71 Pitir 192 Pitta 154 Play cart 31 Poetic fancy 109 Poetry 78 Pokamakalir 188 Pokan-igra-punniyan 188 Poka-pumi 190 Polygamy 84 Porul 86, 88, 94 Porulkatikaram 78 Porulkal or aintu 140, 196 Porunararruppatai 100, 101 Poruppan 81 Posadhopavasa-vrata 144 Poti 179 Potthaka 174, 184 Pottakam 174, 184 Poyyamoli 37, 38, 41 Prahasana 49 Prabhavalaya 140 Prabhavana 138 Pracala 196 Pracala Karma 130 Pracala-praccala 162 Pracala-pracala Karma 130, 153 Pradesa 129 Pradyota 55 Prahasana 49 Prakrit 1, 35, 54, 117 124, 129, 165 Pratyakhyanavarana Karma 153 Pratyeka-prakitis 132 133, 161 Prayagcitta 151 Prayapa 91 Premarital love 26 Pritimati 71 Prititara 140 Prosadhanasana 144 Prosdhopavasa 143 Psthivipati 49 Prthivisundari 71 Pucal 185 Pucapai 166 Pudgala 126, 127 Pudukkottai 34 Puja 148 Pujana 166 Pukar 53, 114 Pulampan 81 Pulay 86, 87 Pumakal 112 Pumakal Ilampakam 66, 111, 121 Pumi-tevi 190 Punartal 82 Pungava 164 Punkevam 164. Punniyanampi 188 Puns 109 Punya 126, 188 Puram 78, 83 Purana 168 Purana 168 Purananuru 30, 31, 43, 44, 51 Puranic 44 Purattipai 83 Puraviccen 74 Purnabhadra 52 Purna patra 13 Purusarthas 94 Purusa-veda 131 Purvagama 140 Puspasena 2, 39 Pustaka 174 Pustakam 184 Putam 164, 165 Putavi 71 Putti 168 Putticenan 60, 63, 65, 66, 71 Racamalla 38 Raghu 98 Raghuvamsa 93, 98, 99, 105, 106, 107 Rainy season 79 Rajamalla 37 Rajamapuram 54, 58, 59, 64, 65 Rajapuri 4, 32 Rajaraja 32, 33, 34, 49 Rajarajapuram 33 Rajarajapuri 32, 33 Rajarajan ula 42 Rajara jeccuram 33 Rajasimha 40

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Subject-Index 223 Rajavali Katha 41 Rajendra 32 Raksasa 52 Rama 114 Ramayana 51 Ranga 180, 185 Rasa 91, 92, 111, 112, 113, 129 Rasanispattih 85 Rasaparityaga 151 Rastrakuta 2 Rati 131 Ratnakaranda 137 Ratnaka andasravaka cara 48, 124, 125, 148 Ratnatraya 137 Ratnavali 75, 76 Ratnavati 65, 66, 67 69, 71 Ratri-bhuktivrata 144 Raudra 85 Rava 180 Ravana 44, 52 Ravi 180 Region 79 Regressive assimilation 183 Revati 175, 180 Right conduct 139 Ritualistic ideas 125, 146 Ritualistic concept 199 Robini 164, 180, 183 Roma 180 Rtusambara 29 Rudra 2, 43 Rudradatta 55, 57, 72, 99 Rudradhyana 151, 152 Rudraga 112 Rupa 180, 191 Rupasiddhi 34 Sabara 179 Sabadalamkaras 108, 109 Saccamdharu 35 Sa-citta-vrata 144 sadavagyakas 150 saddravyas 133, 140 Sadgunacchadana 133 Sadharananamakarma 135 Sadhu 92, 159 Sadhya dharma 168 Sagara 71 Sagaradatta 64 Sagaradharmamsta 48 Sagarika 76 Sahadeva 43 Sahajatijaya 140 Sahasrara 68 Sahityadarpana 90 Saila 91 Saiva 46 Saiva Saints 47, 120, 125 Gaivism 47 Saindhava 176 Saints 159 Sakalabhasana 140 Sakata 164, 177, 178 Sakatayana 41 Sakti 173 Sajaka 172 Salyation 55, 95, 136 Sama 119 Samati 71 Samanar Metu 34 Samantabbadra 41, 124 137, 143, 144 Samaoya Siddhas 159 Samsarastha 120 Samayasara 124, 159 Samayika 143, 144, Samayika Sravaka 144 Sambhoga 112 Samghatana-nama karma 133 Samahramana nama karma 133 Sami 158 Samidha 173 Samjvalana 131 Samjvalana Kasayas 154 Samjvalaha Krodha 1996 Samjvalana lobha 153 Samjvalana-maya Karma 195 Samara 182 Sam paraya gunasthana 154 Samskaras 48 Samsthana. Nama Karma 133, 161 Samvara 126 Samyag-Caritra 137, 19 Samyag-darsana 137, 196 Samyag-drsti 142 Samyag-jnana 137, 196 Samyag-Mithyadnsti 136, 142 Samyag-Mithyatva 131 Samyakva 130, 162 Samayika Karman 143 Sandhi 91, 164 Sanghata 161 Sankara 167 Sankha 177 sanmukha 27, 44 Sanskrit 1, 35, 48, 49, 51, 52, 53, 54, 78, 110, 117, 124, 125 etc, Santa 65 Saptideva 40 Sapa 167 Sarga-bandb 9b Sarana 181 Sarasvati 25, 30, 40

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224 Sarasvatikanthabharana 90 Sarira 161 Sarvarthasiddhi 48, 124 Sarvadana-Samyagdrsti 136 Satagni 191 Sata-Vedaniya 133, 161 Satkasaya 196 Sattvikabhavas 85, 86 Satya 143 Satyandhara 5, 9, 10, 11, 35, 54, 55, 57, 66, 71, 72, 73, 99 etc. Satyavakya 37, 38 Satyavakya Konguni. varma Bhutuga Permanadi 37 Sauraseni 176 Savara 179 Sayana 190 Sayogi-kevalin 136 Sayogi-kevali-gunas thana 155 Sea side poetry 79 Sembian-mavali vanaraja 49 Semi vowel 188 Sena ganam 45, 47 Sendava 176 Sentiment 91 Separation 82 Sev 192 Seven hills 141 Sevvali 81 Sholapur 33 Sibika 181 Sibilant 181, 182 Siddha 25, 92, 125, 126, 156, 159, 160 Siddhahood 156 Sikhs 181 Siksa 143 Sila 173 Silagupta 56, 57, 72, 74 Silatala 167 Simha 184, 186 Simha ganam 45 Simhala princess 76 Simha pura 72 Sindura 182 Sinhalese 28 Sista 166 Sita 52, 114 Siva 16, 25, 44, 107 Sivamara 38 Six dravyas 134 Six essential duties 150 Six external penances 151 Six internal penances 151 Six nokasayas 154 Six non-passions 174 Skanda 27, 44 Skanda kumara 28 Skanda purana 27, 28 Slejma 109 Smasana 181 Soldiering 82 Somadeva 33, 76, 117 Somadeva suri 33, 34 Soka 131 Soul 125, 126, 132, 147, 149, 156, 197 South India 27, 28, 78 Sparia 161 Sphatika 171, 179, 183 Sravakacaras 48, 124 Sravana 34 Sravana Belgola 34, 36, 39, 40 Sravya 112 Sravya-vyttah 118 Study of Civakacintamani Srenika 6, 7, 77 Sri 46, 70 Sricandra 64, 75 Sridatta 8, 71 Sribar a 75 Srimatta 71 Sripancami 2 Sripuranam 1 Srivardhadeva 38, 39, 40 Sigara 85, 112, 113 Srngaraprakasa 11 Srngarasataka 94 Sruta-jnana 114 Srutajaanava raniya 153 162 Srutajnanavaraniya Karma 129 Srutam 196 Srutasagara 33 Stambha 85 Sthala 183 Sthana 161, 183 Sthandila 171, 183 Sthavara 126 Sthavara dajaka 132, 161 Sathavara prakrtis 133 Sthayibbava 85, 86 Sthita 129 Sthiti Karma 138 Sthula 127 Striveda 131, 153 Stuti 147 Styanag ddhi 162 Styanagddhi Karma 130, 153 Subhacandra 1 Subhadra 7 Subramanya 27, 97 Suri 174, 182 Sadanjana 73

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Subject-Index Sudarjana 19, 20, 59 Sudharma 6, 54 Sudraka 106 Sukra 2 Sukha 183, 190 Sukla-dhyana 151, 152, 155 Saksma 154 Suksma nama kaima 153 Suksma samparaya 136 Sula 193 Sun 194 Sunaga 179 Sunaka 181 Sundara 167, 182 Sundari 69 Suraguru 2 Suramalaya 67 Suramanjar 24, 35, 59, 70 Sarapadma 44 Surya 2 Susama-sutama 127 Sutra 165 Svadehaparimana 126 Svadhyaya 151 Svagata 177, 183 Svarasada 85 Svarga 166 Svargaloka 140 Sveda 85, 86 Syamalata 70 Taci 174 Taijasika 187 Tajai 119 Takatar 38 Takataryattirai 87 Talakad 33, 37, 38 Tsjam 183 Talavanapura 37 C-29 Tamil 51, 53, 62, 125 Tanam 183, 195 Tanapalan 71 Tanapati 61, 62, 73, 74 Tanip-patal 87 Tanjore 33 Tanilam 178, 183 Taptiyalamkram 83, 89, 90, 103 Tapa 187 Tapaciyar 164 Tapas 147, 173, 179, 185, 187, 191 Tapasah 187 Tapasvin 164 Tapatappalli 187 Taracuram 33 Taran 58 Taranikavalan 187 Tanapati 61 Tarkuripperram 102 Tarumatattan 73 Taruman 98 Taruppai 171, 179 Tatamittan 62 Tatan 171 Tajamittan 73, 74 Tathagata 10 Tattan 70 Tattvarthadhigama 126 Tattvartha-Mahastra 41 Tattvarthasutra 124, 126,150, 151 Tattvas 126 Tava 179, 187 Tavam 175, 178, 179 Tavappalli 187 Tavari 70 Tavavilakku 187 Tava-virar 191 Tacikappavai 61, 67, 73, 113 225 Teva-ati-tavan 189 Teva-kitam 189 Tevan 43 Tevapani 92 Tevar 23, 25, 28, 31, 35, 36. 37, 48, 49, 53, 54, 56, 6062, 66, 75, 89, 113 Tevaram 167 Tevarp-Paravutal 92 Tevatitevan 71, 188 Teva-tuntupi 189 Tevvar 186 Teyvam 164, 175 Teyvappakai 109 Theological ideas 158 Theological teachings 125 Thirukkural 94 Three bands of light 140 Three gems 137 Three gunas 196 Three kinds of devas 141 Three wondrous 140 Three-worlds 140 The vowel changes 170 Tical 41, 164 Tik-kayankal 190 Tilottamai 10, 71 Time 79 Tinai 83 Tinaimalai nurraimpatu 123 Tipaimayakkam 82 Tipam 173, 179, 183 Tippili 171 Tippiyam 166 Tirtha 168, 178 Tirtham 193, 194, 196

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Study of Civakacintamani 226 Trasa-dasaka 132, 161 Trasa-prakstis 133 Trident 193 Trindriya nama karma 157 Tirtban 196 Tirtbankaras 2, 143 Tirthankara siddhas 149 193, 194 Tirttam 178, 196 Tirttan (Name of Bu. ddba) 168 Tiruvaracila 47 firukkural 165, 184 Tirumukkudlu Narasipur Taluk 36, 40, 41 Tirumal 42, 81 Tirumurukarruppatai 26, 164, 194 Tirunanacampanta cu. vamikal 47 Tirunavakkaracar 47 Tiruttakkamunivar 1, 4, 37. etc Tiruttakkatevar 1 Tiruttontar-Puranam 36 Tiruttontar-vara Lasu 36 Tiryaganupurvi nama Karma 157 Tiryaga ayus 132, 161 Tiryag-gati-nama-Kar ma 153 Titap 175, 178 Titantam 168 Tocam 176, 181 Tolamoli 42 Tolgmolittevar 42, 93 Tolkappiyam 78, 82, 83 87, 89, 95, 100, 112 Trivandrum plays 105 Tulika 174 Tulikai 174 Tukkam 166 Tamam 178 Tumbalur Accaryar 41 Tumpai 51, 83 Turaga 168 Turai 83, 120 Turkkai 81 Tuta 171 Turakam 168 Tuti 81 Tatu 178 Tavi 171 Uccair gotra 161 Ucchvasas 118 Udarata 166 Udatta 85, 102 Udaya 167, 190 Udayana 53, 76, 93, 118 Udayatara 140 Udayendiram 49 Udayendu 49 Udbhata 112 Uddbata 95 Uddipana 85 Uddista-tyaga 144, 145 Udi 192 Udyana 91, 158 Udyota-nama-Karma 153 Ujjain 25, 53 Ukkirapperuvaluti 43 Ula 107 Ulakam 176, 180 Ulakamapbavan 185 Ulokapalag 61 Ulinai 83 Ulka 164 Ullurai 108 Uloccanar 44 Uloccu 44 Ulokamapalan 70 Ulokapalaj 61, 73 Ulupas 154 Uma 101 Umapaticivaccariyar 36 Umaswamin 124, 126 Uparvu 1 97 Unreciprocated love 82 Upabhoga 131 Upabhogantaraya 153, 126 Upabhogantaraya karma 132 Upagbata 129 Upagubana 138 Upama 84 Upapayana 48 Upasanta-kasaya -Vita raga chadmastha 136, 155 Upasanta-kasaya vita. raga chadmastha gu pasthana 153 Uraiccirappuppayiram 36, 41 Urap 81 Urdhvagati 121 Uripporu! 79 Urkam 164 Urokini 164 Uroman 180 Uropi 176, 180, 183 urumperum 33 Urunemi 185 165 Toomai 86, 87 Tobral 81 Tontakam 81 Totarpilaicceyyu! 87, 90 Transcendental knowledge 130 Trasa 126

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221 Subject-Index Uruttirap 43 Uruttiratattan 135 Uruvac-catakam 191 Uruvam 180 Utaratai 166 Utayakumaran 95, 114 Utaya 167 Uli 192 Utpreksa 10., 103, 109 Utsarpini 127 Uttama 70, 174 Uttarapuranam 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 28, 35, 51, 54, 62, 64, 75 etc. Uvakai 85 Uvamaiyiyal 84 Uvatti 174 Uyyanam 168 Vac 192 Vacaney 188 Vacciram 181 Vacikkioran 192 Vacuntari (Vasundhari) 74 Vadibhasimba 1, 3, 5, 8, 23, 25, 29, 31, 34, 37, 42, 69, 118, 198 etc Vadiraja 33, 34 Vadirudragana 34 Vaikarai 82 Vaimabika 176 Vairagyagataka 94 Vaigakha 176 Vaispava 46, 166 Vaisnava alvars 47, 120, 165 Vaisravanadatta 70 Vaisya 57 Vaivarnya 85 Vaiyavetya 143, 147, 151 Vaiyavrtya vow 144 Vajta 181 Vajranandi 45, S . Vakai 83 Vala (Indira) 10 Valaiyacuntaram 64 Valvag 36 Vali 15, 26, 27, 28, 191 Valinul 89 Valjai 101 Valliammai 26 Valliammai kuttam 26 Valmiki 93 Valmiki Ramayana 93 Valtu 92 Valavan 36 Vamalekai 74 Vaman 10, 11 . . Vamana 112 Vanc 192 Vanci 37, 38, 81, 83 Vancippa 119, 120 Vancittu 192 Vapappu 87 Vandana 143, 147 Vanna 181 Vannam 181 Varadatta 71 Varalaru 36 Varaku 81 Vardhamaoa 67, 68 Varma 69 Varna 94, 161. 168, 181, 192 Varuna 98 Varunao 81, 98, 168 Varunittal 192 Vasantaka 76 Vasatkara 25 Vasavadatta 76 Vastunirdesa 91 Vasundhara 67, 71 Vata 154, 181 Vatamolivacakam 52 Vati 70 Vatsa 76 Vatsalya 138 Vatsyayana 94, 108 Vatta 175 Vedaniya karma 129, 132 Vedas 83, 131 Veddhas 28 Vedic poetry 78 Vedic songs 84 Vega 175 Vekam 175, 194, 195 Vekuli 85 Veli 187 Vemanikan 176 Vengi 32 Vepil 82 Vennavikkulam 34 Venpa 119, 120 Venravas 197 Ventag 81. Vepathu 85 Vetci 58, 83 Verpap 81 Vibhavas 85 Vicayai 31, 35, 55, 56 74, 98, 99, 100, 101 109, 113, 156, 160 Vicayap (Viyaya) 42, 62, 14 Vicayatattap 71 Vichchadiri Pati 49 Vidagdba 191 Videha 9, 65, 68, 175 Vidyadbara 25, 114 Vidyullata 71 Vihayogati-nama-karma 133 Vijaya 3, 11, 14, 24, 54, 55, 57, 63, 71

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228 Study of Civakacintamuni Vajaya giri 66 Vijayamati 71 Vikalam 168 Vikramorvasiya 114 Vilanku 141 Vimala 35, 77 Vimalai 64 Vimalacandra 39 Vimalaiyar llampakam 64, 121 Vimana 180 Vimanam 180 Vipa 191 Vinai 96 . Vinai-vittakao 191 Vivapati 74 Vintai 70 Vinaya 150 Vinayamamahalai 70 Vinaya mahamala 70 Vinayandhara 72 Vipulamati 58, 72 Vipralambha 91, 113 Vipulam (Vipula) 74 Viraga 195 Virali 100, 191 Virakam 195. Viranandin 72 Virasena 39 Viratam 168 Viricikan 74 Virii 183 Viruddha 192 Viruntu 86, 87 Viruttam 48, 120 Viryantaraya karma 132, 162 Virama 119 Vismaya 85 Visnu 16, 44 Visnusarma 52, 53 Visvanatha 90, HO Vitaiyam 175 Vitalai 81 Vitana 192 Vitanittu 192 Vitatai 17 Vitekam 104 Vithi 189, 191 Vitiyal 82 Vivikta sayyasana 151 Vrata 143, 146, 168, 181 Vrihi 183 Vritha 91 Visabhadatta 71, 72 Vstta 118, 119, 175 Vrttiparisamkhyana 151 Vyabh icaribhavas 85, 86 Vyatireka 101 Vyavaharasamyagdat sana 137 Vijayaditya Ranavik rama 37 Vyutsarga 151 Yaka 16, 20, 59, 64 66, 98, 142, 164, 166 Yaksendra 16, 20 Yaksi 55, 57, 180 Yama 98, 167, 180 Yamaka 111 Yamam 79, 82, 180 Yantra 176, 183 Yaugandharayana 53 Yapparunkala viritti 41 Yagodbara 70 Yavadatta 71 Yocanai 169 Yojana 168, 176, 180 Yupa 164

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Abhinavamanga Raja Atiyarkkunallar 53, 88 89, 90, 94 41 Awasthi A.B.S. 27 Ayyangar S. R. 45 Balasubramaniyam. B 41 Bana 25 Bechart Heinz 28 Bhamaha 90, 112 Bhargava Dayananda 142, 143, 150, 152 Bharata 73, 85, 86, 112 Bharavi 40, 111, 174 Bhasa 105 Bhaskara 1 Bharthari 94 Bhatta Akalan kadeva 41 Bhoja 90, 117 Bhujabali Sastri 32 Budhaswamin 76 Burrow. T 193 Catta ar 53 Cekkilar 101 Centan 42 Chakravarti A. 159 Chellaiah J.V. 101 Chidambaranatha Cettiyar A. 85, 120 Comacuntaram.P.V. 42 Dapdin 40, 84, 89, 90, 91, 93, 100, 104 106 112, 117, 122, 100 Dayapala Munl 34 Devadhar C.R. 105 Dhananjaya 95, 96 AUTHOR INDEX Durvinita 48, 76, 93 Edgar 26 Emeneau.M.B. 163 Fleet J.F. 33 Glassenapp W. V. 130 Gnanamurthy T.E. 35 100, 120, 122 Gopinatha Rao T.A. 38, 41 Gunabhadra 41, 42, 48, 198 Gunadhya 76, 93, 117 Handique K.K. 33 Hari candra 73 Hertel Johnnes 52 Hultzsch, E. 39, 40 Iracamanikkanar M. 43, 164 Iramacamippulavar C.A. 42 Iramanathapillai P. 167 Jacobi 129 Jagannathan K. V. 87, 89,93 Jain Jyoti Prasad 38, 39 Jain Pannalal 39 Jaini Jagmanderlal 127, 159 Jinasena 48, 156 Jinasena Punnata 39 Kale M. R. 104 Kalidasa 93, 98, 100, 107, 114 Kampar 93, 103 Kane P. V. 47 Kautilya 94 Kenkuvejir 48, 53, 123, 160 Krishna Rao 58 Grishnaswamy Ayyangar 53 Kuppuswamamy Sastri. T. S. 36 Lacote Felix 76, 117, 118 Magha 111 Mahejvara 39, 40 Marr J. R. 84, 86 Meenakshisundaram T. P. 41, 106 Naccinarkkiniyar 36, 37, 41, 88, 117, 121 Nandargikar 107 Nilakanta Sastri K. A. 38, 40 Pandey R. B. 157, 158 Peraciriyar 85, 87 Pope G. U. 124 Pajyapada 45, 124 Purnabhadra 52 Puspadanta 35, 198 Puspasena 39 Raghavan V. 76, 117 Ramchandra Diksitar V. R. 97 Ramchandran Cettiyar. C. M. 33 Ramalinkacuvami 36 Ramaswami Ayyangar M. S. 38, 39 Rao. B. Seshgiri 45 Rice Lewis 40, 41, 42

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230 Rudrata 112 Samanta Bhadra 137 Sethuppillai R. P. 33 Singaravela S. 79 Sithala Prasad 32 Srikantha Sastri 60 Subramanian N. 27, 86, 99 Swamikkannuppillai L.D. 40 Swaminath Iyer, U. V. 41, 93, 110, 121, 134 Tanti 188 Thaninayagam Xavier S. 84, 89 Tiruttakkatevar 1, 37, etc. Tolamilittevar 42, 93 Tolkappiyar 79, 85, 86, 89, 100, 112, 165 Turner R C. 70 Udbhaja 112 Umapaticivaccariyar 36 Umasvamin 124, 126 Vadibhasimha 33, 34, 37, 42, 69, 118, 198, etc. Vadiraja 33, 34 Study of Civakacintamani Vaidyanathan S. 163, 169 Vaiyapuripillai. S. 41, 42, 86, 165, 166 Venkataraman, K. R. 34 Vidyanandi 38, 39 Visvanatha 90 Williams Monier 44 Williams A. 142, 156, 159, 160 Winternitz, M. 45

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ERRATA Read For Page Line Read For Page Line reighn of Kana reign Kllna 2 10 rajarajo'yam rajarajayam 32 19 XII XXII 7 Fn.2 1. K. Bhujabali 2.K. Bhujabali 32 Fn,2 new hew 8 10 2. Kc, 11:106 3. Kc, 11.106 32 Fo.3 which are not found which are not 8 14 3. Srikantha 1. Srikantha 32 Fn. 1 in the Up and are found in the other title titls 32 29 found in the other three texts in his is his 32 24 three texts 2:36-37 23:6-37 (A.D. 985-1016) (A.D.985-1015) 34 8 Fn.2 31 130-231 Curamanjari - pp. 130-131 8 Fn.8 Turamanjari 35 26 - delete 'in' Zvairbhavad 10 29 36 avirbhavad 2 delete; and insert, 36 34 nastikacadamanir nastilkacudamaner 10 30 kurumin enpave kuruminnnve 117 B. Seshagiri Rao C.Seshagiri Rao 37 Fn.4 vidhiyate vidhiyatie 11 13 Insert 'of' after "Ganga kings' 37 30 Delete 'also ivvarakip ivviarakip 12 26 38 1 elements 14 10 urayir uraiyir 447 elemeats Disregarding Discarding 21 7 these there 44 8 mistaking msitaking 21 31 patinenkilkka akku patinenkil 45 34 kkroakku touri ionri 22 30 continues contains - 46 5 kapri knori 23 7 worship whorship 46 27 alar olar 23 9 p. 425 p. 415 47 Fn.4 one can also and can also 23 2 began begin 48 10 Maha samajam Waha sa majam 24 Fool country conntry 49 28 9 iv have concluded have conclude 25 2 Duryodhana Durdodhana 51 22 25 23 nall etu Dali etu 52 19 tales 26 through tates 9 thraugh 52 Fn.3, kuravars line 4 kuravar 26 16 Narripai Ataikkalakkatai Ataikkalabkatai 53 Fn. 1 Narrinia 26 Fp.5 Insert hyphen between 284 and 296 57 Fn.3 and any 27 15 Murukan p. 149 27 15 5 8 Fn.1 Hurukan vv. 934-946 60 Fn.3 traditions vv. 934-936 traptions 27 26 (vii) (vil) 29 10 8 Captirapam occurs Cantirapam 62 Cc. v. 1188 63 15 Cc. v. 1181 (ii) 29 Fn.5 deliberately daliberately 31 12 according accarding 63 15 Patumukan Patumukon 63 16 phrase phrse 31 25 Ud. 64 Fn.4 books and inscrip- books and the 32 6,7 tions and the references Kotavari Kovintai 70 7 references tayari' "vintai' 70 8 of ef P. 83 (iii) Up.

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232 Read Kovintai 'vintai' Kuberamitra KuperatattaD (Sumati) Kurutattai (Gurudatta) Cinatattai (Sudarjana) Kantukkatab 'mountain poetry' and pasture land poetry and sea side poetry Karupporul each of the six seasons of the Tamil year and duringthe six major divisions of the Tamil day. Kiattil Drying the fish making salt fish and products the people Purananuru p. 82 cut. 247. Tamil characteristics contains composition another Aciriyappa Tamil expresses kuriya avarrai Page Line 70 9 70 9 Kaberamitra 70 31 Kuberatattan 71 2 (Samati) 71 5 Karutattai 71 10 (Puradatta) 71 30 Cinatatti (Sudanjana) 73 23 Kantakkajan 74 17 mountain 79 2 poetry and 73 23 sea side poetry For Kotavari 'tavari' Uripporul each of the six major divisions of the Tamil day 81 17 Kalatti drying the 8 35 fish fish and ducts 81 36 they people 83 28 Putanaparu 84 Fn.3 p. 83 84 Fn.3 cut. 251 85 Fn.2 79 23 Tamit 85 Fn.5 chacteristics 86 14 cotains 86 20 composion 87 3 anothar 87 5 Aeriyappa 87 37 Tami 88 22 expreresses 88 Fr. 2 line 1 kuriy avrri 88 Fn.2. line 4 88 Fn.2 line 6 Read palaiyat influence nannul Cc. flesh embellished will live indication cut. 109 Matavi things oflife in conformity with these rules. Kama encompa sses the desires and pleasures of life one enjoys; now these are treated point of view. Virtuous Civakan vv 934-960 mayachadmaparayanah Dhira-lalita tirumakab Study of Civakacintamani great amount of perfuming look like the day Kailasasikharinam Patumai Kupamalaiyar Petumpai matararkal For Page Line palayaiyat 88 Fn 2, line 9 influcence 89 18 90 8 nul Ce 90 13 flech 90 19 embellished 91 28 with figures will indicatlon 92 3 cnt. 109 Malavi things of life one enjoys; how these 94 32 treated point of Ibid.2:6 pulampalu makilvu pulampu makilvu Virtuous Cinvakan 92 Fn.2 93 22 94 7 94 26 vv. 984-960 94 Fn.2 94 26 mayachadma 95 Fn.6 prayanah Ibid 2:3 96 37 Dhira-laita 97 2 tiromakan 98 28 great of 100 13 perfumming 102 24 look the day 102 32 Ksilasasi 106 10 kharinam Potumai 106 27 Kupamiaipar 107 4 Petumpat 106 35 mataraka 107 15

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Errata Read For pade pade durnamite pude supra p. 83 ilampakam speech capital panicer their kitapk kavine 2 Civakat's ilampokam 108 16 speeeh 109 19 capital 109 20 panier 109 25 thier 110 31 111 25 111 16 112 25 Teyar 113 38 Tevar describe describe 113 16 Cc.vv. 188-198 Gc.vv. 188-198 113 Fn,2 marunkum paratta mukil malai ilampakam Lacote salvation syllable final foot sleeping tone possible pitart pitart garudas rising up garudas up 945 645 social Jainism necessary influence bear souls other destructive knowledge through scriptures female durnamite supra 149 108 Fn. 5 & 6 kitonk kavine 1 Givakan's Page Line 107 32 necsssary influence 114 26 115 23 116 Fn.2 marunkik 116 10 paraitta 116 10 muki mulail 116 31 ilampakyam 117 19 Locate 118 Fn.2 salvantion 118 19 syallable 119 26 final syllable 119 27 swinging tone 120 5 possilbe 123 3 serial 123 15 Jainaim 123 19 124 15 124 33 125 9 Read Pinda-prakrti proclaiming ventan raintu ak katal nale this in his poem actions nalluyirkk prides nammaiy makijatum mut went characters tuppam conditions nalamirta kaivilakk about penances concentration)* ananta-sukha praise cittirakujam pampintik certtingn For Page Lin Pind-prakrti 132 30 2 proclaining 133 25 veutan 134 3 ralniu ak ka kajal nole this poem acitus naleuyirkk prices uanmajy maki atum mnt want eharacters 9.28 karmas shield Ibid. commentary on Cc.v. 3074 T.S. 10.2 came 233 134 12 134 16 135 10 136 11 136 36 142 21 tunyam 145 33 canditions 148 7 ualamirta 149 5 kalvijakk 149 26 abont 150 10 penanes 151 1 concentration) 151 32 151 Fn.4 p. 202 karmas 153 29 shields 153 39 153 Fn. 137 15 138 14 140 6 140 30 141 27 142 17 have come 155 12 anana-sukha 155 30 paise 158 26 cittlra-katam 158 29 pintik 158 36 certtipan be sous 127 35 have been another ethey 128 35 they dectructive 129 25 Middle Tamil period Middle period 165 knowleage 129 31 which 167 1 throgh epic 129 33 129 34 wchich eqic remaining sculptures remains femal 131 32 para 248 160 12 163 21 164 10 167 6 170 32 paras 147-148 179 Fn.1

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234 Study of Civakacintamani Read For For Page Line sabara 2310 female Kalusan adapted 1604 sabara 310 famale Kalulan ada petd 1601 Page Line Read 179 32 Simha 17934 virah 180 12 3080 180 29 374,2813 181 17 nanam 182 28 karumakkatal Smhai 182 34 virah 191 19 3030 195 3 1965 nanam 197 2 karumakketal 196 26

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