Study of Civakacintamani

Author(s): Vijaylaxmi
Publisher: L D Indology Ahmedabad
Catalog link: https://jainqq.org/explore/001579/1

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A STUDY OF CIVAKACINTAMANI
PARTICULARLY FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF INTERACTION OF SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE WITH TAMIL
BY R. VIJAYALAKSHMY
L. D. SERIES 82 GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH
to
(3) L. D. INSTIT
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9

jainglibatyurg

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A STUDY OF CIVAKACINTAMANI
PARTICULARLY FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF INTERACTION OF SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE WITH TAMIL
L. D. SERIES 82 GENERAL EDITORS DALSUKH MALVANIA NAGIN J. SHAH
BY R. VIJAYALAKSHMY
D 1 D. STIUTE Or MBOLOCY AUDAD
be
L. D. INSTITUTE OF INDOLOGY AHMEDABAD-9
THE TONERA

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Printed by K. Bbikbalal Bhavsar Shri Swaminarayan Mudran Mandir 21, Purushottam Nagar, Nava Vadaj Abmedabad-380013
and Published by Nagin J. Shah Director L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad-380009
FIRST EDITION May 1981
PRIMEKS
Revised $64 Price Rs. L. D. dobry
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PREFACE
It is a matter of great pleasure to place before lovers of literature the study of Civakacintamani (Co) (c. 750-825 A.D.), the Tamil poem composed by Tiruttakkatēvar. It deals with the story of Jivaka or Jivandbara, popular among the Jainas.
This study by Dr. Mrs. R. Vijayalakshmy reveals the interaction of Sanskrit language and literature with Tamil language and literature. Chapter I discusses the date and the source of Cc. As the exact date at which Cc was composed is not known, she has tried to fix the date with the help of a comparative analysis of the texts which parrate the story of Jivaka, viz. the Uttarapurana of Gunabhadra (897 A.D), the Mahāpurāņa of Puşpadanta (965 A.D.), the Jivandharacampū of Haricandra, the Kşatracüdāmaņi and the Gad yacintāmaņi of Vādībhasimha. Chapter II examines the social and religious conditions which existed in the Tamil land when the Cc was composed. Chapter III compares the Jivandhara story of the Uttara purāņa with that of Cc and expounds the interaction of the pre-Cc Sanskrit works on Cc from the literary, religious and linguistic viewpoints. Chapter IV briefly discusses Tamil literary tradition as found in the early literature and shows that though the author of Cc follows the Mahākāvya form of the Sanskrit tradition he has not ignored the Tamil poetical tradition. Chapter V demonstrates how the author has used the story of Jivaka to expound the Jaina conception of spiritual progress of soul caught up in the cycle of birth and death. The last chapter enlists Sanskrit loan-words in the Cc and examines the phonetic and semantic changes of these words. Thus the present study is thorough and systematic, and embodies results of strenuous research by Dr. R. Vijayalakshmy who rightly deserves our congratulations.
I am grateful to Prof. T. Burrow for writing a foreword to this work. And I am most thankful to Dr. R. Vijayalakshmy for agreeing to the publication of her thesis which earned her the Ph.D. Degree of the University of Oxford: am sure this publication will prove useful to all interested in comparative studies in the field of classical Indian literature in general and the Jaina literature in particular.
L. D. Institute of Indology Ahmedabad-380 009. 15th April, 1981
Nagin J. Shah
Director

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FOREWORD
This study, by R. Vijayalakshmy, of the Tamil poem Civakacintāmaņi is concern. ed with the relationship of the work to the various Sanskrit and Prakrit works which treat the same story, and more generally with the fusion of Sanskrit and Tamil literary tradition and culture as exemplified by this Tamil poem. It is not known when the story of Jivandhara originated, but it became very popular among the Jains of South India from the ninth century onwards. A large number of works in Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada can be enumerated which deal with this story, but it is only the earliest works of this kind which are relevant to the study of the Civakacintamani and these are subjected in the present work to a detailed analysis in comparison with the Civakacintamani. The works in question are, the Uttarapurāņa of Gumabhadra (897 A.D.), the Apabhramsa Mahā purāņa of Puşpadanta (965 A.D), the Kșatracūda - mani and Gadyacintamani, verse and prose versions of the story by Vadıbhasimha, and the Jivandhara campū of Haricandra. Dr. Vijayalaksbmy's detailed analysis of these texts in comparison with the Civakacintamani produces some interesting conclusions which are convincingly argued on the basis of abundant evidence, and which can be regarded as definitely established. Briefly it is shown that the two works of Vādibhasimha show a knowledge of Civakacintamani, and are therefore later than it. Likewise the Jivandhara cam pū of Haricandra is shown to be later than the works of Vădibhasimha and therefore later than the Civakacintamaņi. A comparison of the story as it appears in the Civakacintamani on the one hand and in Apabh ramsa and Sanskrit Purāpas on the other, shows that though there is general correspondence, differences in detail: are sufficiently numerous to make it clear that these are not the direct source of Tiruttakkatēvar's work. Dr. Vijayalakshmy suggests the possibility of a lost Prakrit original, and in support of this points to the fact that some of the proper names in the Tamil poem appear in Prakrit form. The theory is very likely, since one would expect that the Jains would have had a version of this popular story in Prakrit, and also in a fuller form than in the sunmaries contained in the Purāṇas.
As regards the date of the Civakacintāmaņi no absolutely certain conclucion can be reached in the absence of decisive evidence but the probable date suggested, between the later part of the eighth century and the early part of the ninth ceatury, can be regarded as the most likely. All the material that can contribute to this problem has been carefully collected and the problem has been brought as near a solution as is at present possible
The Civakacintamani has its literary roots both in the native Tamil tradition going back to the Cankam literature, and in the Sanskrit Kāvya traditioa with

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which the author was well acquainted, and the book contains a most interesting section showing how these two strands have been combined. The influence of the poet Kalidasa has been demonstrated by examples, and there is an analysis of the alam. kāras in the work which show the influence of the tradition of Sanskrit poetics.
Being a Jaina work the Civakacintamani contains a good deal of Jaina doctrine in one form or another, and an excellent account is provided of this material. Although Jainism had been under attack for some centuries from Saivaites and Vaishnavaites, it was still a force to be reckoned with in the Tamil land. The poem provides an excellent picture of contemporary Jainism, particularly as it affected the lay community, and all this is clearly brought out in the present work. The wider influence of Aryan cultural traditions, as reflected in the poem is also given its due.
Finally there is a chapter on the loanwords from the Sanskrit and Prakrit which are found in the poem. There are other studies in this subject in respect of earlier literature, but this is the first time that loanwords in this poem have received detailed treatment. It excellently supplements what has been done elsewhere.
University of Oxford England
T. Burrow Emeritus Boden Professor of Sanskrit

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PREFATORY NOTE
Considering the large number of articles and books which have already been the Civakacintamani, the question arises whether there is a need for writing yet another book on the same work. It should therefore be pointed out that most of these works deal with the literary merits of the Civakacintāmaṇi purely as a classic in Tamil literature. What little has been written in the form of a critical study of the work bas not been based on a detailed comparison of the contents of the Civakacintamani, with that of the extensive Sanskrit and Prakrit works dealing with the same theme. On the other hand, scholars who have been who have been engaged in the study of Jaina texts in Sanskrit and Prakrit have not so far taken serious note of works like the Civakacintamani which are in Tamil.
The present work embodies the results of the investigations of the author during 1969-1972 which were submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Oxford, under the able guidance of Professor T. Burrow, the then Boden Professor of Sanskrit. Its main aim has been to study the interaction between Sanskrit and Tamil with special reference to the Civakacintamani. In addition, it examines the linguistic impact of what may be considered as the first serious attempt to pattern a Tamil classic after the Sanskrit Mahakavya traditions. In the process many of the obscure verses in the Muttiyilampakam have also been explained from the point of view of Jaina metaphysical and religious thought.
I am grateful to Professor Burrow who suggested this line of investigation to me and steered my course through it and to Professor K. Kailasanatha Kurukkal of the University of Srilanka who shaped my career right from my student days. The completion of this work would have been impossible but for the active involvement of my husband, Dr. G. Rangarajan. For its inclusion in the L, D. Series of the L. D. Institute, I am indebted to the late Prof. A. N. Upadhye of the University of Mysore. I would be failing in my duty if I have not thanked Pt. Dalsukh Malvania, the former Director of the L. D. Institute of Indology and Dr. Nagin J. Shab, the present Director for bringing out this work in print.
If scholars notice any defects which have been overlooked by me in this first attempt to study a Tamil classic in comparison with other related works in Indian literature, I would be grateful if the same were brought to my attention.
International Institute of Tamil Studies
Adyar May, 1980

R. Vijayalakshmy

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ABBREVIATIONS
Akan Akanānūru Ap. Adipurāna Cc. Civakacintamani Cey. Ceyyuliyal Cut. Cüttiram Ge. Gadyacintāmani Jc. Jivandharacampū Kc. Kşatracūdāmaņi Mey. Meyppastiyal Mp. Mahāpurāņa Por. Poruļatikāram Rk. Ratnakaranda-Śrāvakacåra Tēvar Tiruttakkatēvar Ts. Tatfvārtha Sūtram Up. Uttara puräna
The following abbreviations have been used only in Chapter VI: Aink. Ainkurunāru
Patt. Pattinappalai Cirupanc. Cirupañcamulam
Pkt. Prakrit Cirupāņ. Cirupāņārtuppațai Pur. Puranānūtu Kor. Kuruntokai
Skt. Sanskrit Narr. Narriņai
Tirikat. Tirikațukam Net. Netunalvātai
Tiru. Tirumurukārtup patai Pari. Pari pātal

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lo eoio A. DIOSI E wa H
I

Vowels Consonants
TRANSLITERATION : TAMIL
g. 13. 3. 45. . &. 5. E. 5. 6. 77.29. g. F. 69. Ho sto
$

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TRANSLITERATION : SANSKRIT
Vowels
Consonants
a khu
dh
n
p
#
vy 84 MY
au
द
dh
A
m (Anusvāra) h (Visarga)
MY

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CONTENTS
pages An Attempt to trace the Source of the Civakacintamani and the Period in which it has been written
I
II the Social, Religious and Literary background
III A Comparative Study of the Jīvandhara Story in the Uttara
puräna and the Story of the Civakacintamani and a discussion of the Sanskrit Motifs found in the Civakacintāmaņi
51
IV
The Sanskrit Interaction in the Literary Style of the Civakacint. amani
78
V
The Interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism
123
Vi Sanskrit Loan words in the Civakacintāmaņi
163
Conclusion
198
Select Bibliography
201
Subject Index
209
Author Index
229
Errata
231

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CHAPIER I
AN ATTEMPT TO TRACE THE SOURCE OF THE CĪVAKACINTAMANI
AND THE PERIOD IN WHICH IT HAS BEEN WRITTEN
The first step in evaluating the influence of Sanskrit on th: Civakacintamāņi (CC) involves tracing the source of the Cc. and the period in which it was written. Unfortunately there is no internal evidence in the Ce, which would help one in doing this. In this chapter we attempt to do this by (i) a comparative study of the books which deal with the Jiyaka story and (ii) an analysis of external evidence which contains references to the Cc. or to the author of the Cc., Tiruttakkatēvar (Tēvar).
The Jivaka story has been used as the main theme in many Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kappada works. These texts have been written in different periods and some of Prakrit and Kannada works belong to a much later period. Such works are not considered here. Thus the books we have taken for our study are, (i the story of Jivan. dhara narrated in the Uttatopurūna (Up.) of Guņabhadra (i) the story of Jivandhara narrated in the Mahapurāņa of Puspadanta, (iii) the Kșatraci danioni (Kc) and (iv) the Gadyacintāmaņi (Gc.) of Vadibhasimba, Erd (v) the Jivar dhara campu (Jc.) of Haricandra. We have also consulted the Jįvardhara story narrated in the Srisuranom which is written in Manipravāla style, a style in which Tamil and Sanskrit words are mixed. This is more or less like a translation of the Jivar dhara story in the Up. of Gupabhadra, except for the very few minor changes found in its Gnanamurthya thinks, this can be of a very late period, probably composed somewhere about the 16th century A.D.
Out of the five books mentioned above which ceal with be Jivaka story, the Up. of Guņabhadra is considered to be the tarliest The Up. fcing the later hall of a work called Mahapulāņa (Mp.). The first half of this text is called Adipurana (Ap.) and is written by Jinasena, the teacher of Gunabhadra. Gunab dra opleted the work which was started by his teacher and this work was conse rat d by Unabhadra's student, Lokapāla. The date of this work is known frm the pr śasti at th: end of this 1 Jivandhara-caritra of Suthacardia (Sanvar 13 (tali); check itc of Raichu
(Apabhramsa) (before A.D. 1439); Jivandhara-carite of Bhiska ( Cannada (..D. 1424), Jivandhara-Samgatya of Terakanāmbi Bommarasa (Kannada) e. 1135); Jiyanthar:-satpadi of Koțiśvara (Kannada) (about A.D. 1500); Jivandhara-caritre of Brahmavi (Kannada) The dates of these works are taken from the General Editorial written !o Jivandhara-camp! by A. N. Upadhye and H. L. Jain, edited by Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, July 1958, pp. 3-11.
. 2 T. E. Gnanamurthy, A Critical Stuly of Civakasintanai, Coimbatora, Noven': 1 , p. 33. SC-1

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Study of Civakacintamani
wojk. In this prasasti it is stated that this text was completed on the 820 Šaka year (A.D. 897) called Lir gala, during the reign of the Rāșțrakuța king Akala arsa (Krşņa II)1 (A.D. 850-915)
The whole book of the Mp. deals with the story of sixty three Jain divine personages. 8 Asart from these sixty three divine personages there are also nine Nāradas, eleven Rudras and twenty four Kāma devas. 3 Jivandhaia is one of these Kamadevas and his story is narrated in the seventy fifth chapter of the Sanskrit Mahāpurana in verses 183-691,
The Jivandhara story narrated in the ninety ninth samdhi of the Apabhramsa Mabāpurāņa of Puşpadanta which was completed in A.D). 965 during the reign Kisna III (A.D. 939-966) of the Rāştrakūța dynasty, + follows the Jivandhara story narrated in the Up. to a great extent. The story in Puşpadanta's Mābāpujāņa (Mp.) is very brief compared to the story in the Up., and it just follows the story of the Up.
From the following verse of the introductory stanzas of the Gc. it is known that the Gc was written by Vadībhasimha :
śripuspasenomuniraiha iti pratito divyo manur mama sada hpdi samnidadhyāt / yacchaktitah prurimūdhamatir jano'pi vadibhasimhamunipungavatam upaiti //
[Let the ascetic known as Puspasena, the divine manu, be in my heart always, by whose greatress even the dull headed one becomes the ascetic Vadıbhasimha (the lion to the opponent elephants).]
In the Kc. there is no mention of its author But, from the strong similarities in style and story, it is obvious that both books, the Cc. and the Kc. are written by the same man. It is most conspicuous in the phraseology, the manner of narration, the names of the characters, diction and the scquence of events. The fact that these two works are written hy Vādībbasimha is also supported by the colophons found at the end of each chapter in both the Gc. and the Kc. Each colophon states that
akāla varşabhüpäle pālayaty akhilamilam/ tasminvidh vastanisseşad viņi vidhrayaso juşi// 31
sakanpakalibhyantaravimšaty adhikäştašatamitabdäntel mangalamaharthakarini pingalanămani samasta janasukhade// 35 sripancamyam budhārdräyuji divasamaje mantrivare budhamse
purvāyām simhalagne dhanusi dharanije saimhikeye tulayam/ sūrye sukre kuli'e cavi ca suragurau niştitam bhavyavaryaih
pripte jyam sarvasaram jagati vijay ate punyam etat purāņam // 36 edited by Pt. Pannala) Jain, Uttarapurānam. 2nd edition, Varanasi, 1968, Prasasti, vv. 31-36, p. 577. 2 Twenty four Tirth ankaras, twelve Cakravartins, nine Nārāyanas, nine l'rati-Nārāyanas and nine
Balabhadras are the sixty three divine personages. 3 Ref. Jign in lorlal Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, 2nd edition, Cambridge, 1940, pp. 125-126. 4 P. L. Vaidya, Introduction to Mahapuräna, Mahāpuräna of Puspadanta, Man.kchand Digambare
Jajna Granthamalā, Bombay, 1937, p. xxxi. 5 Gadyacintamani, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, 1968, 1:6, p. 4.

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An attempt to trace the Source
Vadibhasimha had composed the chapters. The Jivandhara story is narrated in verses in the Kc. and in prose in the Gc. In most of the stanzas in the Kc. the story is stated in the first line and in the socond line a moral explanation is given through the Arthāntaranyāsa alamkāra, There is no variation in the sequence of events or in the story. The difference is that in the Gc. the story is described in detail and in the Kc. it is short and simple.
Thyugh the core of the Jivandhara story is the same, these two works and the Cc. differ in many places from the stories narrated in the Up. of Guņabhadra and in the Mp. of Puşpadanta. The Jc. of Haricandra shows the knowledge of the Up. as well as of the Kc., the Gc. and the Cc. The story of this work which is written in prose and verse (campū) follows the story of the Kc, and the Gc. to a great extent with modifications here and there. The Jo. in so ne places follows incidents which are only narrated in the Up. and not in the Kc., the Gc., or the Cc. For example, in the Up. Jivaadhara who meets the ascetic Aryavarmi while he was playing, takes him home to give him food on his request. At home while he is eating with the ascetic he cries and bothers his mother saying that he cannot eat the food as it is all hot.1 The ascetic who watches this incident, asks him why he does so. He explains the advantages of crying like that as follows : "Crying makes the collected phlegm flow out, the eyes get clear and the food cools down.''3 The same incident is described in the Jc. The following passage sh)ws that the answer given by Jivandhara to the ascetic is also the same as in the Up.
śrutva vāņim tasya mandasmitena tanvannir yatkşiradhāreti sankam / ittham vācām acacakşe bhavanvai mocamadhvimadhurimadadhanam // śleşmacchedo nayana yugalinirmalatyam ca nasa
singhäņānām bhuvi nipatanan koşņata bhojyavarge 1 sirşabaddhabhramgkara payodoşabadhanivýttir
anye pyasmin paricitagunā rodane sambhavanti 1/ (Hearing his speech you, with a smile that created the doubt that a stream of nuilk was flowing down, replied as follows in words sweet as the liquor made of bananas.
The breaking of the phleg n, the clearing of the two eyes, falling down of the dirt in the nose, the cooling down of the food, the curing of the cold which produces dizziness in the head, etc. are the advantages of crying.)
In some places the Jc. also follows the Up. with exactitude in the descriptions. For example the description of the cemetery in which Vijayā gave birth to her son Jivandhara is the same in the Up. and the Jc. whereas the way it is described in th: Gc. and the Cc., 4 while being similar between themselves, is different from the way 1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 271-272. 2 Up. loc. cit, v, 275. 3 Jo, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, July, 1953, 201 Lanha, p. 43-47, 4 G. 1 ; para 135, pp. 71-74; Cc. vy. 306-310,

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Study of Civakacintamani
it is described in the Up, and the Sc. In the portrayal of the cemetery the description of the tridents (šūla) on which thieves who were pierced by them lay with oozing blood streaming from their bodies, and the description of the witches who were uragging the haif ourat dead bodies from the funeral pyre and cutting them with sharp knives-ale simar in tue Up. and the Je. These descriptions are not found either in the Co. or in the Geur in the Kc.
Like this the Jc. also follows descriptions which are found only in the Cc. and not in any other abovu said works. For example, in the Cc. while describing the flags hoisted on toe palaces found in the city of Irâcamäpuram, Tēvar describes them as follows:
tiruva niņakarc cem poni nitiya uruvav on kotiy uli nutankuva purului ven katirc celvana pan mayirp
puravi ponk alal arruva põnravē. 3 (The long beautiful golden flags which are swaying on the top of the large wealthy mansions, look as if they are allaying the heat of the hairy horses of the hot rayed sun.)
Here he says that the tlags waver as if they were allaying the heat of the horses : of the sun. The height of the mansions is indiretly expressed by the author. The same idea is expressed in the Jc. in the following description of the palaces in Rājapuri. ambhomukcunbi-saudhudhvaj. patupavunoddhuta saptaśvarathyabränteh
saudaminisriiulitatanulatā-maninimänitäyāḥ.
[(The city Rajapuri) contained mansions which kiss the clouds. The breeze which comes from the wafung flags (hoisted on these mansions) alleviated the fatigue of the horses of the seven-horsed one (the sun) (1 he mansions) were adorned by beautiful girls who equalled the lightning with their shining bodies.
The Jc. also follows some of the incidents which are only narrated in the Cc. For example, after the marriage with Curamañcari, Civakan returns to his home where he meets his parents and then he meets his first wife, Kantaruvatattai. On her request he goes to see his second wife, Kuņamālai. When she saw Civakan she weeps and asks bin not to touch her as she is a sinful woman (It is to be remembered here that Civak.in was imprisoned by Kattiyankāran's servants when he was with Kunamalai). Having heard what she said Civakan consoles her saying that he was able to survive only because of the good deeds she had done.
1 Up. loc. cit. vv, 225-226; Jc. Ist lambha, p. 31. 2 Up. loc. cit. vv. 226-227; Jc. 1st lambha, p. 31. 3 Cc. V. 126. 4 Jc. Ist lambha p. 6.

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An attempt to trace the Source
tivinai y utaiyav ennait tintanmin aţikal venta paviyar enru noniu parint aļut uruki naiyak kaviyank kanniy onrunk kavalal yan uyntat ellam naviya nāru meni nankai nin ravattin enrān. 1
(Oh my lord, do not touch me, the one who is full of demerits. Saying thus she wept. (Civakan coosoled her by saying] "Do not worry; I could survive only by the merits done by you, the one whose body smells of musk.) This same incident is narrated in the Jc, in the following lines :
aryaputra mannimittam khalv etāvad duḥkham anubhutavan asyato mandabhagyam mam ma samspěšeti savişādam ukto jivandharaḥ, taruni taruņärunakiranavikasadambu javadane bhavadiyapūrvakstasuk staprabhavenaivaitadựśaḥ samvpito'nyatha punarbahutaraduḥkhum anubhave yam iti tom samāśvāsya....2
(She said with great grief "Lord, do not touch me, the unfortunate one because of whom you had to undergo all these troubles." (Hearing this) Jivandhara consoled her saying, "Oh, the one whose face is like a lotus which has bloomed by the rays of the sun, I could survive like this, because of the good deeds done by you before. Otherwise I might have undergone many more difficulties.) This incident is not narrated in this way either in the Up. or in the Kc. or the Gc.
The names of the kings who came to participate in the contest to win Ilakkapai and in the war between Civakao and Kațţiyankaran listed in the Cc. and the Jc. are very similar, while the names in the Kc. and the Gc. are different from these.
From these we deduce that Haricandra was also aware of the Co, among other books on the Jivaka story. Though Haricandra was aware of the Up. and the Cc., he follows the Kc, and the Gc. more closely than these books. The story in the Jc. is narrated in eleven lambh is as in Valibhasimha's work. In the Cc. the story of the Jc. is narrated in thirteen Ilampakams. It may be safely said that the story of the Jc. is a brief version of the story narrated in the Kc. and the Gc. The same phrases found in the Gc and the Kc. are freely employed by Haricandra in his work, the Jc. For example, the following phrase which is a part of the advice given by the ministers to the king Satyandhara when he wanted to entrust his kingdom in the hands of his minister Kāştangara, is the same in all these books.
hydayam ca na viśvasyam rajabhiḥ kim paro naraḥ /
the
(Even their hearts should not be trusled by kings; how much more of other man.) 1 Cc. v. 2099. 2 Jc. 10th lambha, pp. 170. 171. .
. 3 Kc, 1:15.

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..deva, svahrdayam api rajña na vikrambhanlyam, kim utapare.1
(Lord, a king should not trust even his own heart. Then what of others ?) ...yan ni juhṛdayam api sarvatha na visvasaniyam kim uta Jusantaram.. (..that even one's own heart should not by all means be trusted, what of other people ?)
The similarities between the Kc., the Ge. and the Jc. have been pointed out by T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri in the introduction to his edition of the Ge., and in the Ke. The indebtedness of Haricandra to Vädibhasimha's works is great and as Handique says, it can be said that "without the latter (Kc. and Gc.) it would not be very easy to follow the story in all its details.."5
Therefore, from the above shown evidence it is clear that the Jc. is later than the Up., the Ke., the G., and the Cc.
Study of Civakacintamani
Out of the remaining books, the Up., the Apabhramia Mp of Puspadanta, and Vadibhasimha's works, the Cc. has a greater affinity to Vädibbasimha's works than to the Up and the Mp. of Puspadanta.
Just as we are unable to say anything about the source of the Cc. we also do not find any reference in Vadibhasim 11's works for their source book. Vadibhasimha, in the introductory stanzas of his two works, says that he is narrating the story which was told by Sudharma on the request of the king Śrenika.
Srenikapraina uddiya sudharmo gaṇanayakaḥ
yathovac mayapy etad ucyate mokşalipsaya//G
(Out of the desire for eternal bliss, I am narrating this, just as it was told by the chief of the ganas, Sudharma, on being asked by Śrenika.)
The above verse is from the Kc. and the same fact is also mentioned in the Gc. In the Up. the entire Jivandhara story is aarrated through the mouth of Sudharma on the question asked by king Srenika. The story starts as follows:
anyada asau maharajaḥ kreṇikakhyaḥ paribhraman/ priya gandhakujibah yabhasvadvanacatuştaye || sthitam pindidrumasyadho jivamdharaunivaram dhyanarüḍham vilokyaitadrapadişu vişaktadhiḥ 1 sakautukaḥ samabhyet ya sudharmagaṇanayakam / bhaktik o'bhyarcya vanditva yathasthanam nivliya tam
1 Gc. 1: Para 9, p. 38.
2 Jc. 1st lambha, p. 15.
3 Gc, edited by T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri, Srirangam, 1916.
4 Kc. edited by T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri, Sarasvativilasa Series, No. III, Tanjore, 1903.
5 K. K. Handiqui, Forward to Jivandhara campu, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, 1958, p. 21. 6 Kc. 1:3

Page #20

An attempt to trace the Source
pranjalir bhagavan eşa yatindraḥ survakarmanal mukto vadyaiva ko veti papraccha prakrayasrayaḥ||1
(Once, while the famous Maharaja Šrenika was joyfully wandering about in the four splendid woods outside the perfumed chamber, he perceived the great ascetic Jivandhara, who was standing under a Pindi-tree, absorbed in meditation. As (the king's) fancy was attracted by his figure, etc., he went up to the chief disciple S dharma, full of curiosity, worshipped him devoutly, saluted him, assigned to him a seat that was suitable to his rank, and asked him respectfully, with outstretched hands: 'Is this venerable one a great ascetic who has just been freed of all (consequences of former) deeds, or who is he??
7
From this one would think that Vadibhasimha could have had the knowledge of the Up. The date of Vadibh. simha which will be discussed later in this chapter shows that Vaibhasimha is later than Gunabhadra. It is very likely that he had the knowledge of the Up Further, the following point also supports this idea.
Though most of the stories in the Kc., the Ge., ard the Cc. are similar, the story of Ksemary in the Gc, and the Kc. shows that Vadibhasimha in this particular story follows the Kṣemasundart story in the Up. According to the Up.. the Kc., and the Ge. the story of Ksemai (Kṣemasundars in the Up.) is as folk ws:
Jivandhara enters the city of Ksema and there be goes to a Jaina temple and praises the lord Jina. Suddenly the doors of the Jina temple open by themselves. Seeing this, the servant of merchant Subhadra comes and greets Jivandhara. When Jivandhara asks who he is, he replies that he is the servant of the merchant Subhadra. Subhadra has a daughter named Kṣemasundari (Kṣemir in the c. and the Ge.). predicted by astrologers that the doors of the Jina temple would cpen to receive the one who would be her husband. When Subhadra comes to know from his servant that the Jina temple doors opened by themselves on the arrival of Jivandhara, he gives his daughter in marriage to him.8
This story is narrated in a different way in the Cc., as follows :
Kemacari was born as the daughter of the; merchant Cupattiran and his wife. Nipputi. Astrologers had predicted at the time of her birth that sh: would marry the one who would cause her to blush in shame on seeing him. Hence Cupattiran used to bring young men to his house every day and feed them. When one day he took Civakan home, Kemacari blushed on seeing him and Cupattiran gave her in marriage to him.

Though Vadibhasimha would have had the knowledge of the Up. the story in the Kc. and the Gc. differs in many aspects from that of the story of the Up. 1 here 1 Up. loc. cit., vv. 183-186.
2 Translated by Hultzch, Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, XXII, 4, p. 320.
3 Up. loc. cit. vv. 401-414; Kc. 6 vv. 32-51; Gc. 6 para 168-177, pp. 254-269. 4 Cc. vv, 1450-1490.

Page #21

Study of Civakacintamani
are mai y new episc des which are rot fourd in the Up. and there are several insta1.Ces v hoe slight variations from the story of the Up. are four.d. There ariations and the new episodes found in Vadithasimha's work have a striking similarity to the story narrated in the Cc. Asart from these there are also places where the same incident is described in the same prar ner in the Kc., The Cc. ard the Cc. 1 here similarities which would be discussed below make (re feel sticngly that ore of these Tuthors follows the other. First we will discuss the similarities between these two
uthis and then ficmite study of these similaritie: ve vill uy to ciclo who is following włcm. Tlese similarities can te classif ed into two sect 'ons : (i) The hew (piscdes ard ircidu is which are rat fourd in ite l'r ard are fcurd in
the Kc , the Gc. and thc (c. Most of these (piscdes pie rarated in the same way
in the works of both these authors. (ii) Similarity in manner and style of descriptions found in the Kc., the Gc. and the
Cc. First we shall list out the episodes and incidents which are rot found in the other three texts :
1. When Gardbotkata finds Jivardhara in the cen etay, he celebrates that he py occasion in his House and the lirg Kāşıkārgāla sends h'm piesents thinking that Gandhotkața is celebrating his victory over king Satyandhara. 1
2. Āiyanandi, the teacher, tells the story of Jivandł ara's parents after imparting education to Jivandhara.a
3. Jivandhara becomes angry on hearing the treacherous murder of his father, and gets ready to kill Kāştbāngāra, His teacher asks him to wait for one year.8
4. After the victory over the hunters who tock the cows of the cowherds, Jivan. dhara returns home and an hearing this news, the ladies in the city come running to see him. The description of this occurs in the Gc. and the Cc. though the manner of the description is different.
5. The episode of Śridatta and his journey to acquire wealth. The shipwreck and his encounter with the celestial king Garudavega, the father of Gandharvadatta. 5
6. After seeing Gunamālā, Jįvandhara is love-stricken and waits in the park drawing the portrait of Gunamala. Guņamāja is also in love with him and sends him a love message through her pet parrot ?
7, Jivandhara before reaching the city Candrābha where he marries Padma, allays the heat of the sun from which a herd of elephants suffer, by causing a shower of rain.8 1 Kc. 1 : 105; Gc. 1 : para 40, p. 80; Cc. v. 330. 2 Kc. 2 3 : 6-37; Gc. 2 : para 53, p. 104; Ce. vv. 384-387. 3 Kc. 2 : 37; Gc. 2 : para 53, p. 104; Cc. vv. 390-393. 4 Gc. 2: para 84. pp. 138-139; Cc, vv. 457-470. 5 Kc. 3: 11 ff.; Gc, 3 : para. 90 ff.; Cc. v. 493 ff. 6 Gc. 4 : para. 133, p. 206; Cc. vv. 1003-1005. 7 Kc. 4 : 38; Gc. 4 : para 132, p. 205; Cc. v. 1423-1437. 8. Kc. 5: 34, Gc. 5 : para 150-151' pp. 130-231, Cc. v. 1237.

Page #22

An attempt to trace the Source
8. Before reaching Kşemapury where he marries Kṣemajri, Jivandhara preaches Jaina doctrine to the ascetics who are performing penance standing in the midst of five fires.1 9. After Jivandhara leaves Kemairi, she is distressed and her mother consoles her. This incident is not narrated in the Kc.
10. Jivandhara offers his ornaments to a wayfarer and preaches to him the right knowledge.
11. The episode of Anangatilaka (Anangamaviņai in the Cc.) who tried to seduce Jivandhara. In this episode Anangatilaka tries to attract the attention of Jivandhara towards her. She tells him a lie that she is the daughter of a celestial king and her cousin kidnapped her and left her alone in that forest. She asks Jivandhara to give her protection. Jivandhara advises her about the unreal nature of the body. At that moment they hear a cry and that turns out to be the cry of Bhavadatta, the husband of Anatgatilaka. According to the Cc. Civakan asks Anankamāviņai to wait and he goes to find out who he is. Then Civakan preaches to him the fickleness of women. In spite of the preachings Pavatattan still wants to see his wife. So Civakan teaches him a mantra which would help him to see his wife. This is slightly different in the Gc. In the Ge., Anangatilaka vanishes from the place where she stands, as soon as she hears her husband cry out for her. Though there are slight differences in the story, this episode which is found in these three books are new to the Up.
12. Suramaajari (Guṇamala in the Up.) goes to the temple of the god of love in order to secure Jivandhara as her husband by offering worship as per the advice given by an old man (who was none other than Jivandhara himself). In the temple, Buddhisena who is hiding there already on the instruction of Jivandhara, tells her that she will obtain Jivandhara. She comes back and finds Jivandhara who has already come out of his disguise and falls in love with him.6.
13. When Jivandhara enters the city of Videha, the ladies of that city come. running to see him. Though this is described in a different way in the Gc. and the Cc., the idea is the same."
14. The king Kasthängara sends a message to king Govinda iuforming him that Satyandhara has been killed by the state elephant and asking Govinda to come to his country and remove the rumour that he had killed king Satyandhara.8
These incidents and episodes which are not found in the Up. are similar in the Kc., the Ge. and the Ce. We will now see the similar descriptions which are found in these books.
1 Kc. 67 ff; Gc. 6: 167, pp. 253-254; Cc. vv. 1423-1437.
2 Gc. 7 para 184, p. 277; Cc. 1533-1537.
3 Kc. 7 4 Kc. 7 5 Gc. 7:
6 Kc. 9 32 ff; Gc. 9: para 225-226; Cc. vv. 2055-2065.
7 Gc. 9 8 Kc. 10
SC-2
8-21; Gc. 7: para 185, pp. 278-279; Cc. vv. 1542-1556. 33 ff.; Gc. 7: para 186 ff, p. 279 ff; Cc. 1167 ff. para 186-190, pp. 279-285; Kc. 7: 34-62; Cc. vv. 1567-1601.
para 234, pp. 342-343; Cc. vv. 2114-2128.
11-14; Gc. 9: para 237, p. 349; Cc. vv. 2143-2148,

Page #23

10
Study of Civakacintamani
1. The advice given by the ministers to king Satyandhara who wanted to entrust the kingdom in hands of his minister Käshängara in the Gc., is similar in the following places to the advice given by the minister Nimittikan to the king Caccantan in the Cc.
Cc.
perum peyarp piraman ennum piținăr periya niran arum piya mulaiyinalukk ani mukam nanku tösra virumply ank avalaly eytan vingakam ilantat aprit tiruntinärk tarukärun ciru collay ninrat apra.1
(The renowned Brahma, who achieved greatness by his penance, and obtained four faces in order to obtain the lady with the bud-like breasts (Tilottamai) lost heaven, but did not gain her Even though he reformed himself, it remains as a blemish upon him.)
kāmami kapri ninra kajutai kant arulinale vamanära cenru küți varuntinir enru valyatt iman car malai pilav iдittilappaltatanre nama var rajakkai vinte nämitu teriyin egran.8
(Oh, king of the fearsome spear, are you troubled by this love which made Buddha to transform himself into a female ass to gratify the lust of a jackass ? To analyse love, it is base just like a garland fallen in a cemetery.)
Gc.
api ca tapai carann atiduicaram aravindasadma sankitavalamathana preşitavarayositviracita vilasavilokana-vigalitadhṛṭir anubhavann aimabhuvas capalam abha jad apahasyatām."
(Lord Brahma who dwells in the lotus while performing severe penance lost his concentration because of the spirited movements of a courtesan sent by the slayer of Vala (Indra) who was afraid, experienced the disturbance caused by the God of love and became an object of ridicule.)
tatha tathagato'pi kadacit kamalarapatanaparavasa-karabhaparisadahamahamikaya parigrahaparyakulam kam api baleyim alokayan karunarasataralitamatir avairbhavad anekalatabhaga-babalitakarabhivejah kyanam asthad iti nästilkacüdamaner mahiyan nanu
kalankas tasya.5
(Even Buddha who once felt sorry for a she-camel who had been troubled by a group of male camels which were overcome by the arrows of Cupid, turned himself into a she-camel with many yonis for a moment and this was indeed the greatest blemish to the reputation of the gem of Nästikas [Buddha]).

1 Cc. v. 207. Refer, Swaminatha Iyer, op. cit. pp. 109, 110.
2 Ibid, v. 210. Refer, notes given by Swaminatha Iyer, op. cit, p. 112.
3 Ibid, v. 210.
4 Gc. 1 para 9, p. 40.
5 Gc. 1 para 9, p. 40.

Page #24

An attempt to trace the Source
2. The reason given by the minister Kāșthāngara for his intention of fighting with the king Satyandhara. Cc.
mannavan pakaiy ayator mā teyvam. ennai vant ițan kontat irāp pakal tunni ninr u cekuttiţu niy enum
ennai yan céyva kurumin nnave. 1 (A deity which is inimical to the king took abode in me. Day and night he stays close to me and urges me to kill the king. Tell me what I can do.)
Gc.
svapne kenāpi parthivapar i panthina daivatena 'nihatya rajanam atmanam raksa iti niranuktośena samāved yate. ka atra pratikriya ? kim vatra prayujyate? yad iha asma bhir vidhiyatje tad abhidhiyatām. 9
(A deity which is inimical to the king tells me always in my dream to kill the king and save him. Is there any remedy for this ? What is to be done ? Tell me what should be done by us in this matter ?) 3. The description of the death of king Satyandhara.
Cc.
vāman8 ațit tâmarai malar cūțit ..
vēntan pöy vinnõrkku viruntayinā nē. (...adorned himself with the lotus of the feet of Arhat... the king went as the guest of the celestials.)
Gc.
svahțdayamaņi pitha-pratişthāpita jinacaranasaro jaħ. kāşthāngārāya kasyapim atissjya tridaśasaukhyam anubhavitum amaralokam àruroha.
(He having placed the lotus of the feet of the Jipa, on the jewelled seat of his heart, leaving the kingdom for Kâşthangāra, ascended to the world of celestials to enjoy the pleasure of heaven.)
4. The lamentation of Vijayā on seeing her son being born in the cemetery.
Cc.
karai pannir ant utan vițumin kamar calai taļi nirumin cirai cey cinkam pon matankic cēra mannar cinam alunkav ur aiyun kötļam uțan cimin on por kunran talai tirantit
iraivan ciruvan pirantan enr @rparkk ürtör uyttimin. 1 Cc. v. 241. 2 Gc. 1: para 24, p. 58. 3 Here the word 'Vaman' is used to call the lord Arhat. 4 Cc. v. 291. 5 Gc. 1 : para 31, p. 69. 6 Cc. v. 306.

Page #25

Study of Civakacintamani
(On your birth the King will ask these things to be done : Exempt the people from tax for twelve years; erect beautiful charitable institutions and temples; destroy at once the prison, where the enemies, whose wrath was suppressed like captured lions, dwell; open wide the dazzling treasure of gold and go to villages and distribute it to all those who are in want, announcing the birth of a son to the king.)
matam önkum vaļa nakarul varampil pantan talai tir antit atai cem pon aạikalankal yāvum jārun kavgrnt eļu na! vital inrik kolap per uvar vilakkal vanța vilntirkkuk köți mūnrot araic cem pon kömā nalkum enav araimin.'
(In the mansion with high terrace, things in bountiful measure will be left unguarded, and for seven days any one can acquire clothes, gold and jewels without any obstruction; do not prevent them. Proclaim that the king will offer three and a half million gold pieces to those who are in want.)
arum por pūnum aramum imaippak kasikal akan köyil orunku kūtic catakañ ceyt ökai aracarkk utan pökkik karunkaik kalirun kampalamun kacun kavikal ko la vici virumpap pirappäy vinai ceytên känav ihtoo pirakkumā. 2
(Your birth would have been happy news for all; the astrologers with dazzling golden ornaments and garlands, would gather together to tabulate the horoscope, the happy news of your birth would be told to all the kings; and the poets would be offered elephants with black trunks, carpets and money; but it is my misfortune to see you born like this.)
vey vay öri muļavākav iļintär imam vilakkaka ovvāc cutukätt uyar arankinilal po nutankip pēyata evväy marunkum irunt irankik kūkai kularip pārāţta ivviārākip pirappatov ituvo mannarkk iyal vēntē.3
(For drums, the howling of cruel-mouthed jackals; for lamps, the fire of the pyre; for dancing, the dancing of vampires like shadows on the stage of the cemetery: for songs of praise, the pitiful cry of owls everywhere; must you be born like this? Is this fit destiny for a king ?)
parra mannan nakarp puramal pāyal pinan ca! cutu kātāl urrår illat tamiyênál otunkal ākāt tünk irulal marrin nálam uțaiyāy ni valarumārum arisēnal errey itu kantakātey iruttiyai enn inn uyira. 4
(Ob, king of the world, the place you are, is the city of the enemy king : your bed is the cemetery surrounded by corpses; I am alone without any relatives; it is pitch dark and I cannot move about; I do not find a way to rear you; Oh my sweet soul. even after seeing this, you are here and not leaving me; Oh it is wicked.) 1 Ibid, v. 307.
3 Ibid, v. 309. 2 Cc. v. 308.
4 Ibid, v. 310.

Page #26

An attempt to trace the Source
Gc.
yasya janmavärtānivedanamukhara harisyanti pürnapätram dhatri jana jananāthebhyah, yasmin ca kstāvatāre kārădhyakşakaratroțitaśşňkhala viśpåkhalagatayaścirakālakstadharanisayanamalinitavopuso vandipuruṣāḥ palāyamānā iva kalisainyāḥ samantato dhāveyuḥ, yasmin ca jātavati jätapiştātakamuşțivarşapiñ jaritaharinmukham unmukhakub javām inahathākssyamāna-narendrābharanam pranayabharapranţtta-varayuvativarga-valgnnaraạitamanibhūşananinadabharita-haridavak āśam nirmaryādamada-paravasapanyayoșid-aśleşalajjamānarä javallabham vardhamana-mānasaparitoșa-parasparaparirabdha-pārthivabhu jāntara-samghattavighațita-harapatitamauktika-sihapuțitāsthānamanikuttimatatam kudmalita-sauvidallanirodhasamlapa-nirankuśapraviştāśeșa jänapada janitasambadham sādaradiyamana-kanakamanimauktikotpidam udghāțitakavățarat nakośapravisad acakitalokalupyamana-vastusartham arthiganagaveşanadeśanirgat anekasatapratiharānitavanipakalokumullokaharşavihitamahārha jinamahamaham ahamahamikapravistavišişta jana-prastūyamānasvastivadam sauvastikavidhiyamanamangalacāram-acũracaturapurānapuramdharipurişadabhyarcy amanagihadaivatam daiva jñaganagļhyamāna-lagnagunaviseșam asesajana-harşatumularavasamkulam rã jakulam avalokyeta, sa tvam ārasad-uśivaśivāvaktra-kuharavisphurad analakana jar jaritatamasi samirapūrita-vivaravācāța-nļkaroţikarpara-kalitabhuvi damuradakinigama-sampatacakitapuruşaparihstaparisare pacyamanasuva-pisitavisragandhakatuke kalyanetaracitabhasmasamkate pretavate jata, katham api jatah kathamanupalakṣitaraksāprakare pranayi janašūnye pratibhaganagaraparisara-paretavase vasan vardhişyase va. 1
(at your birth the nurses, loquacious in conveying the news of your birth, would carry away "Pūrņa pātra" from the kings; at your birth, the prisoners, their bodies dirtied with sleeping on the floor for a long time and shackles unfettered by their jailor's hand, would run about like Kalikāla soldiers; at your birth, in the royal palace, all spots would be yellow with the showers of handfuls of powder; the king's ornaments would be forcibly seized by hunch-backed dwarfs with uplifted faces; the regions would be filled with the noise of jewels made by mincing steps of the courtesans dancing with over. whelming joy; the king's friends would be embarrassed by the embraces of intoxicated courtesans, the paved floor would be made uneven with the pearls fallen through the friction of necklaces worn on the chest of the kings who embrace each other with evergrowing joy; crowds of citizens would have entered unobstructed by the preventive words of the chamberlains (Kancukins'), heaps of gold, jewels and pearls would be given away lavishly; things in bountiful measures would be taken away by the people without fear from the wide open treasury full of gems: mendicants would be brought in by thousands of doorkeepers who would have gone out by the king's) order : special worship would be offered to the venerable Jina with endless joy; words of blessing would be uttered by eminent people who would have arrived eagerly; ausp cious ceremonies would be performed by priests; the household deity would be offered puja by a group of old ladies, skilled in household ritcs; astrologers would tabulate the horoscope; and everywhere there would be noises of happiness made by people. But now) you have been 1 Gc. : 1 para 35, p. 71-74.

Page #27

Study of Civakacintāmaşi
born on a heap of inauspicious ashes; in a place where the darkness has been dispelled by the fire emitted from the open mouths of howling inauspicious jackals; a place filled with human skulls, giving forth the speech of the wind through the holes in them; a place avoided with all its surroundings by people frightened by ghosts which cause tumult and stinking with the stench of burning flesh, Oh, son, when there is no way to rear you here in the cemetery near the enemy's city and in the absence of any relatives, how are you going to grow to manhood) ?) 5. The condition of Vijayā who was in the cemetery.
Ce.
unt enav uraiyir keppar uyir uru pavam ellam kant init teļikav enru kātļuvā! põlavāki vin toța nivanta köyil vinnavar makalir cenrā! ven ţalai payinra kātțul vilankilai tamiyaļānā!. 1
(The lady bedecked with radiant ornaments who dwelt in a mansion which touched the sky, like a divine lady, is now alone in the cemetery full of white skulls, as if to show the evil results of the sin the soul undergoes, about which people have read in books.) Kc.
jivānām papavaicittrim śrutavantaḥ śrutau pură / paśye yur adhunetiva śrikalpābhūd akimcana 1/2
(The lady who is like goddess Lakşmi became helpless, as if she meant to show 2 the world, the manifold outcomes of sins, as they have learnt from books.) 6. The description of the army which went to retrieve the cows of the cowherds which were stolen by the hunters. Cc.
.. .. ..vān ulāp põntata pol nir visai curi cank årp pa nila neļi parantav anya 3
(The army with the sound of conches which were born in the sea, spread all over like the clouds which go on a procession causing the earth to bend.) Gc.
namayanti bhuvam unnamayanti divam vistarayanti ca disam pratasthe. (Having caused the earth to bend and the sky to rise and the quarter to be broadened the army went for war).) 7. The description of the beauty of Govinda, the daughter of Govinda, the chief of the cowherds.
Cc.
venney pönr ūk iniyal mêm päl pör riñ colla! unnav urukkiyav āney pôn mêniya!
1 Gc. v. 303. 2 Kc. 1 : 85. 3 Cc. v. 433.
4 Gc. 2 : para 72, p. 124. 5 Cc. v. 480.

Page #28

An attempt to trace the Source
(She is nice. to touch like butter, her words are sweet like milk and her body [has the brightness of] the ghee which has been melted to eat.)
Gc.
..Kşiramadhurasvarām apanitanavanitamardavadambaram tadātvadrutas arpiḥsamkāśakaya
käntim...1
(She has a voice which is sweet like milk, tenderness which is like butter and the splendour of her body is like the ghee which has just been melted.)
8. The description of the manner in which the chief of the cowherds Govinda asks Jivandhara to accept his daughter.
Cc.
kula ninaiya ampi kojun kayar kaṇ valli nala pukarnian apra naruntär murukan
2
(Nampi, do not consider the (difference in] family. For, Murukan, the one who wears the sweet smelling garlands enjoyed Valli, the beautiful eyed one.)
Gc.
..kumāram abhivandya nandagopaḥ ca.... puratanajanukhamukravišiṣṭānām avilista Jäti jätänganäsangamisamkatham ca kathayan 'bhavadvihitanirhetuko pakārasya pratyapakāram apasyata maya disyamānām pariņayatu me kanyām.3
(Nandagopa, having worshipped Jivaka, told him..about those who like Şapmukha had married girls who were from the lower caste and said that he did not know how to repay him [Jivandhara] for the help he had done and asked him to accept his daughter.) 9. The description of the state of Śridatta who was sitting on the sea shore after his shipwreck.
Cc.
tun tiraikal utaippav urunt urunt atum alavoraiy annam arul ceya nitiya neytalan kana petuntakai vatiy Iruntän varun kala nokka.
15
(Expecting to see a ship, Critattan, waited at the seashore watching the swan being gracious to the wobbling crabs which were pushed by the running tides.),
Gc.
calataranga-taranginipathi-tarangaparamparavilu had
akathorakarkaṭakavalokana-sakautukam kādambakadambakam
apy alokayan kam cana kalakalam gamayambabhiva.5
(He spent some time there watching the group of swans which were engaged in watching the beautiful crabs which were tossed by the tides which rise from the sea full of moving tides.)
1 Gc. 2 para 87, p. 143. 2 Cc. v. 482
3 Gc. 2 para 86, p. 141..

4 Cc. v. 516.
5 Gc. 3 para 91, p. 150.

Page #29

16
Study of Civakocintāman i
10. The description of the hall which was erected for the conducting the lute competition of Gandharvadattā. Cc.
öțu mukil kiriy oļir tinkal cikai vaitta mātam atu vār cațaiya valļalaiyum okkum nāti muka nänkutani nänmukanaiy okkum naţi nimir tanmaiyini nemiyaiyum okkum. 1
(That hall looked like lord Siva by hearing the moon crescent which shines through the clouds, on its top; it looked like Brahma (who has four faces) by reaching every. where with its four faces; and it looked like Vişņu by standing up to reach the upper limit.)
Gc.
...candrasekharam iva sekharikstasitāmśumandalam, vişnum iva vişnu padavyāpinam, Šatanandam iva sadalokasampādinam ...2
(It looked like Siva by bearing the moon on its top; like Vişou by pervading the sky and like brahma by being bright (sad + aloka + sampadinam] (applied to Brahma the phrase sadalokasampādicam should be interpreted as the one who al. ways created the world (sada + loka + sampūdinam) 11. The reason given by the author to explain the capability of a dog to change into a yakşa.
Cc.
colliya nanmaiy illac cunankan iv utampu ninki ell olit tavanākip pirakkum õv enna venta kol ulaiy akattitt ütik kūr irúmp iratan kutta
ellaiyil cem pon akiy eri niram perratanre.3 (Do not wonder whether a dog which did not have any of the said virtues, could leave its body and be born as a luminous celestial. Even the iron melted in the forge turns into gold with a bright colour when mercury is poured on it at the end.) Kc.
yakşendro'jani yakşo'yam aho mantrasya saktitah kalayasam hi kalyāņam kalpate rasayog atah 1/4
(Oh, by the power of mantra, the dog turned into a yakşa. Even the iron can be turned into gold by the effect of alchemy.) 12. The cry from Guņamāla's friend when she saw the state elephant coming to attack Gupamāla.
Cc.
karuntatan kanni tan mēr kamukar ullam pola irun kalit eytav õţac civikai vittilaiyar ēka
arumperal avațkkut toliy ațavar illai yõv enr 1 Cc. v. 598.
3 Cc. v. 960. 7 Gc. 3 para 101, pp. 167, 168. 4 Kc. 4: 9.

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orunku kaiy uccik küppik kalirr etir iraiñci ninrāļ ennaik kont ivaļkaņötum ellaiyil oruvan rönri innuyirivalaik kakkum anrenil enkan mäyntār pinnaittan avatak av enrennippinai ko nokki minnup po nutanki ninra! vitatai por komp oppāļi
(When the mighty black elephant, like the minds of the lusty people, ran towards Kunamālai, the broad and black-eyed one, the palanquin-carriers ran away. Kuņamālai, like a golden branch full of flowers, stood there like a scintillation of lightning. Seeing that, her friend, Vitatai, the fawn-eyed one, thought to herself, “ Having killed me, it will run to kill her, and in the meantime someone might appear and save her life. Otherwise, let anything happen after my death." Thinking thus, with her hands crossed on her head, shouting “Are there no men [to help]?” she stood in front of the elephant leaving Kuņamālai behind her.)
Gc
"prānasamām imām matpränatrāņāja vihāya katham apatrapā prayāmi. prayāntu mama asavak präg etanmstiprekşanāt" iti prsthikstya tām bimboşthim baddhāñjalih kuñjarasya purastād asthāt.3
(How can I abandon the one who is equivalent to my life and go without shame. Let my soul leave me before I see her death." Saying thus she came in front of the red-lipped one and stood before the elephant, with a salutation with añjali.) 13. The description of the incident in which Guņamāla asks her pet parrot to carry a message to Jivandhara with whom she was in love.
Cc.
uyyumăr urai unnaiy allalilen ceyya vāyk kiliyê cirantãy ena naiya naňkaiy in nāļļakatt untenir raiyalāy camalāt urai enrate 3
("Oh, the red-beaked parrot, glory to you! There is no resort other than you." Thus she said; and the parrot replied, “Oh lady, if he is in this country tell me without any worry.")
Gc.
...kridāśukam śokaprahānaye pānau kurvati sarvam asmai samihitam i āvedyate vidyate kim atropāya iti sapranayam saky paņam sānunayam savridam canvayunkta. sa ca kiraḥ, "kim amba kātaryeņa. käryam idam avanau cet päryata eva mayā sādhayitum" iti sadhiram samabhyadatta.
( To cast away her worries, she took her parrot in her hands, and told him all her desires and with love, kindness, courtesy and shyness she asked whether there was 1 Cc. vv. 975, 976.
3 Gc, v. 1000. 2 Gc. 4 : para. 130, pp. 201, 202,
4 Gc, 4 : para 132, p. 205 ŞC-3

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any means by which she could accomplish her desire. The parrot in a clear voice said, "Oh mother, what is gained by worrying ? If the object of your desire is in this world I can accomplish it for you.”) *** 14. The description of Jivandhara who was drawing the portrait of Guhamala sitting in the garden. Cc.
fitinan kili micait tilaka vā nutal vatta mál kalirritai veruvi ninratör natamu natuk kamu nankai vanname. 1
(He, with thoughts about her in mind, drew (the portrait of) the lady with the beautiful forehead adorned with tilaka in the pose he liked, the tremulous state and the eager look, when she stood in front of the elephant.)
Gc.
... tatra kvacit pracchāyasitale mahitale nişanno vişannahrdayah svahşdayaniviştām tām bimboşthim bahir āniyera pratyak şayitukāmah tatkāminirūpam abhirū po'yam akhilakalāsu kvacid ativisankate prakațitatadavasthäm alikhar. 9
( He, who was skilled in all fine arts, with a dejected mind, sat under a cool shady tree, and as if desirous of bringing out and seeing the beauty of the red-lipped one who entered his heart, drew her portrait in the state (in which] he saw her, on a broad board.) 15. The description of the anger of Kāşthangāra on hearing that his state elephant Ašanivega was controlled by Jivandhara and as a result of that it was sick.
Cc.
int alar kutļam põlav eriy elat tiruki nökkik kön taru kur umpar vem por kök kulam venrat ulli mantatil ceykai cūInta vānikan makanai valla antiran kaļaiven otip parrupu tammin enrān. 8
(Like a mass of fire and with a crooked look glowing like fire, (Kasthāngāra] thinking of the victory he (Civakan) had over opposing hunters and the group of kings, said "Capture that son of merchant, who is involved in base deeds and bring him to me. I will destroy his heroism.") Gc.
sa ca śabaracărubhațaśūra-gļhita-godhanapuntrānayana-prakațitaparakrama-pāļavā. hitena ni javäravāmalocanăvargāntarangibhavad-anangamálāngikaraṇaprarūdhena gandharvadattāparinayanasamayasam jätaparibhavaparinatena.. 4
(With his anger, which had been provoked by (Jivaka's) proclamation of his valour by retrieving the stolen cows from the army of clever hunters, increased by the
1 Cc v. 1003. 2 Gc, 4 : para 133, P, 206.
3 Cc. v. 1079. 4 Gc. 5 : para 144, p. 217,

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acceptance of Anangamala who was one of his important courtesans, matured by the insult he had during the marriage of Gandharvadattā...[ordered the men around him to bring Jivandhara to him].)
Kc.
sangad anangamālāyā vi jayac ca vanaukasām viņāvi jayataś casya kopāgnih sthäpito hrdi //
(The union of Jivaka with Anangamala, his victory over hunters and his victory in the viņā (lute) competition, made the inflamed anger in [Kāşthangara's] mind.) 16. Jivandhara's thought when Kasthāngāra ordered his men to kill him.
Cc.
inn uyir avanai unnum ellainál vantatillai ennaiy ik kirumi kont en rölanai ninai ppal enrana
("The time has not come to drink the sweet life of his. What can be gained by killing these worms? 3 I shall think of my friend." Thus he said.) Gc.
...kim ebhir niş phalam nihataiḥ. nāsidati guru janādistaḥ kāşthángäravadhasamayaḥ iti sähasāya samnahyamānam ātmānam nivarya sudarśananāmno devasya sa smara.
('What is gained by killing there people? The suitable hour advised by my teacher to kill Kāşthāngara has not come.' Saying tbus, he controlled himself who was prepared for a rash deed and thought of the celestial Sudarsana.) 17. The description of the state of mind of Jīvāndhara when he was rescued by Sudarsana from the hands of the servants of kāşthangara who wanted to kill him.
Cc.
vilanki vil umilum pūņan viluc ciraip patřapoltum alankal an tärinän vant aruñ cirai vițuita põltum pulampalu makilvu neñcir politalum inrip pon ärnt ulan kalant uyarnta tolan u! vinaiy enru vittän,
(Civakan with lofty and stone-like muscular shoulders, full of golden jewels, was neither distressed when he was imprisoned by Kattiyankāran who wore jewels casting flickering rays, nor happy when released by Cutancañan who wore beautiful dangling garlands. He, with his heart unaffected, considered them as the fruits of deeds in previous births.) Kc.
svāmino na vişādo vã prasado va tada' bhavat / kim tú pūrvakytam karma bhoktavyam iti mānasam 1/6
(The lord was neither happy nor distressed, but he thought that the fruits of deeds done before should be experienced.)
1 Kc. v :4. 2 Cc. v. 1154. 3 Worms here means the insignificant people.
4 Gc. 5 : para. 147, p. 222. 5 Cc. v. 1167. 6 Kc. V: 23.

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18. The description of the honours made to Jivandhara by Sudarśana in his palace.
tinkalait telittittanna pārkațarricai cey ten nir ven kaļ vitt alarnta kanni vinnavan urimai tannál mankala vakaiyin ātti mani y ani kalanka! corttip pankaya netun kaņānaip pavittira kumaran enrän!
(Cutancañan, who wore the garland made of flowers which had bloomed with dripping honey, brought pure water from the milky ocean; made his wives bathe Civakan according to the auspicious rites; adorned him with jewels made of precious stones; and honoured him by the name 'Pavittira kumaran') Kc.
payoväridhipayahpūrair abhisicya yam abravit pavitro'si pavitram mâm śvānam yat kştavan iti //
(He yakşal, having bathed him (Jivandhara] by the water brought from the milky ocean, and said to him 'you who had made me, the dog, into a holy one, are a pure ope'.) Gc.
akārşic ca tatra harşotphullamukhaḥ...jivakasvāminaḥ svabhartmukhapari jñāta-kumāra. mahopakāritätyādarair daraih särdham payoväridhi-payobhir abhişekam 3
(Sudarsana, with a face brightened with happiness, along with his wives who had come to know about the great help rendered by Jivaka to their husband, performed Jivaka's ablution with water brought from the milky ocean.) 19. The description of the three mantras which Sudarsana taught to Jivandhara and their powers. Cc.
katun totaik kavar kanaik kaman kamurap patun kura rarum itu pämpum allavum kafun tira roykalun kețukkum venti ya utamp itu tarum enay unarak kūrinăną
(This will give you a sweet voice, which will be envied even by Kāma who has the quick arrow which attracts (others); this [has the power) to cure the poison of snakes, other poisonous creatures and the unfavourable effects caused by air, wind, fire, water, etc. and diseases; this will give you any desired body.) K.c
kamarūpavidhau gāne vişahane ca śaktimat / yakşendraḥ svamine paścān mantratrayam upadiśat 1/5
(The yakşa taught the lord, three mantras which had the power to give any desired appearance, (skill) in music and cure for poison.) 1 Cc. 1169.
4 Cc. v, 1218. 2 Kc. V: 26.
5 Kc. V: 27. 3 Gc. 5 : para, 148, p. 223.

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Ge.
adac ca tasmai 'ma sma kuruthah kurukulapate tatra presyasya prarthanakadarthanenava jnam' iti yañcapūrvakam sarvavişäpaharaṇe ganavidyavalkaradyakarane kamaripitvakalpane'py analpalaktikam amandadaran mantratrayam.1
(He gave him, out of great respect, three mantras possessing ample powers to cure all poisons, to obtain expert knowledge in music and to assume any desired form, with the request, "Oh lord of the Kurus, do not humiliate your servant by discarding his gift.)
20. The description of the forest through which Jivandhara goes before he reaches the city of Candrabha In the Cc. this description occurs when Cutañcanan describes ths path through which Civakan has to go. In the Ge. the author describes it as the path through which Jivandhara goes.
Ce.
kalaly in pinai konritum enru kacint ilaiyin nilal avvayin inmaiyinän
nilayin nila ranatu ninru kotut
ulaiyum veyi ninr urukumm uravoy,
(Oh, wise one, since there are no shades of leaves, worrying that his sweet mate is suffering, the buck stands suffering in front of the doe (i.e., in between the sun and the doe) in the hot sun in order to cover her in his shadow.)
Ge.
...nibleṣaparnakṣayanirvišeṣāšeṣavițopini...
...kareṇutapaharanakṛte nijakayacchayapradayidantini...
([In a place where) all the trees remain without any leaves on them..the male ele. phant, to protect the she-elephant from the heat, covered her body with shadow of his body.)
21. The description of the incident in which Padma was bitten by a snake,
Cc.
21
nankai tan mukattai nakki nokai mati tuv enrenni
ankur ai aravu tinți...
(A snake who lives there [in that tree] has bitten her, msitaking her face for the shining moon.)
Gc.
kanyam imam idānim kanyagṛhan nirgatya grhodyane svakarävar jita-jalasekena sasneham abhivardhitä puspavati jäta madhavilateti mahotsavam aracayantim tadvadanagocarakašānkasankayeva bhujangamaḥ ko'pyaspraksit.5
(The lady, having gone out of her palace while she was in the garden rejoicing over the blooming of her madhavi creeper, which was watered with love by her, was bitten by a snake which mistook her face for the moon.)
1 Gc. 5 para 149, p. 224.
2 Cc. v. 1188.
3 Gc. 5
para 150, p. 227.

4 Cc. v. 1271.
5 Gc. V para 155, pp. 234-235.

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22. The description of the state of Padmā when she saw Jivandhara for the first time after recovering from the effect of the poison. Cc.
ağciy aim poriyalan utampu enum pütci ni! kotip purrin akatt urai vai ka nõkk enum vai eyirr āralal vaškai nakattin mitun kolappattāļi
(She was again affected by the poison that is spread in the teeth (the look of his sharp eyes) of the snake (desire), which lives in the anthill (Civikan's body which controls the five senses of impelling nature) where the creeper (of determination grows.) Gc.
tataś ca să sakrd avalokanakȚtavyasanabhūyastaya bhūyaḥ kumāran aparayanti draşțum vişavegamisena pascăd api nimeşanam evätmanah saranam amamsta. 2
(By the pains that arose on seeing him once, she being unable to look at him again, thought that closing her eyes under the pretext of being affected by poison was the only safe way open to her.) 23. The remark about the minds of ladies told by Jivandhara to Bhavadatta. Cc.
un niraiy uțaiyav allay or ayira manattav akum
(A woman) is not pure in her mind and she has a thousand thoughts in her mind). Kc.
param sahasradhibhaji strivarge ka pativrată
(Who is a devoted wife amongst women who have a thousand thoughts.)
24. The description of the state of mind of Jivandhara after seeing the male monkey give the female monkey a jack fruit and the watchman snatch it away from the latter.
Cc.
kaip palam ilanta manti kattiyankäran ottat ip palan turantu konța cilatanum ennaiy ottan ip palam inru pokat inpamë põlum enru meyp patay unarvu ionri mititu kūrināne 5
(He realised the truth and said to himself : the monkey which lost its fruit is like Kattiyankāran; the watchman who snatched the fruit from the monkey is like me; and the fruit is like the mundane pleasures.) Gc.
sarvatha kāşthāngarayate karašakhābhrasta phaloh sakhāmşgah, asmadyate nūnam accho
itatatphalah sa vanapalah. phalam tu niyamena bhogayate. gacchatu tucchaphalakańk şa ya
kycchräyamäneng mayä gamitaḥ kalah. 1 Cc. v. 1292.
3 Cc. v. 1597. 5 Cc. v. 2726. 2 Gc. 5 : para 157, pp. 237, 238. 4 Kc. 7: 57.
Gc. 11 : para 273, p. 406.

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23
(The monkey which lost its fruit is like Kāşth angāra. The watchman who had snatched the fruit from the monkey is like me. The fruit is the mundane pleasures. My time has been spent on the efforts made to gain the fruit.)
25. The description of the torture given in hell to the people who had union with the wives of other people. Cc.
kätalal karintu naiyak katiyava kanaintu knnri atilan rara nampiy eļit enav ir anta pavatt ütulaiy uruka venta oļ olar ceppup pāvai atakat ennap pulliy alarumal yānai vēntë, 1
(Oh the king wbo has elephants, the person who went with another man's wife leaving his own wife who was distressed and sneglecting the world's condemnation, will ( in hell ] embrace an idol of copper which was melted in a forge and cry out of pain while onlookers exclaim words of pity) Gc.
pare tu paradăreșvatikamrāms tāmramayataptaśālabhan jikām 'tava priyāngane yam' iti hathăd atigādham alingayanti.
(The persons who are addicted to the wives of other people are made to embarce tightly the melted copper idols saying that they are their sweethearts.)
Apart from the similarity in the manner of description found in the works of Tēvar and Vadibhasiimha, and can also notice similarities in the phrases used in descriptions. The following examples illustrate this aspect.
1. The phrase used to describe the state of the cowherds who went to bring back the cows which have been stolen by the hunters in the Cc. is similar to the phrase used to describe the state of the army of Kāșthāngāra who went to retrieve the cows from the hunters in the Gc.
Cc.
ayar matt eri tayirin ayinara (They were like the curd churned by the churning-stick of the cowherds )
Gc.
gökulam amandāvartamanthena dadhiva mathyamānam śithilibabhūva. 4 (1 he cowherds dispersed like the curd which was rapidly churned by a churning stick.) 2. The phrase which is used to describe the cowherdesses.
Cc.
utai tayirp puļi moytta to nalar. 5
(The ladies who have the shoulders full of curd spots which were sprinkled when they were churning the curd.)
Gc.
...mathitadadhibindudanturapayodhare.. 6
(The ladies who have their breasts spread with churned curd spots.) 1 Cc. V. 2769. 3 Cc. V. 421.
5 Cc. V. 423. 2 Gc. 11 : para 282, p. 416. 4 Gc. 2 : para 77, p. 129. 6 Gc. 2: para 77, p.130.

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Study of Civakacintamani
! 3. The phrase used to describe Guņamālā in the portarit drawn by Jivandhara. Cc.
nekilntu cor pün tukill
(The slipped garment of Kuņamālai) Gc.
...agalitavasanām..
(The one with slipped garment.) 4. The phrase used to describe the swooned state of Vijaya on hearing from her son's friends the calamity which happened to her son. Cc.
iţika țaval ntitta pața nākam ena vilntāls
(She fell down like a snake attacked by a thunderbolt.) Ge.
irammadaviddhaśayor iva...4
((Her state which is like that of) a snake affected by a thunderbolt.)) 5. The phrase used by Padmamukha, the friend of Jivandhara, when he talks about Jivandhara to his mother Vijayā. Cc.
cinti ppavar avalam aru civakan en tölan (Civakay, who removes the troubles of the people who think about him, is my friend.) Gc.
...dinajiva jivātor jivakakumāras ya suhțdah kila6
([We are ) friends of Jivaka, who is the protector of the needy people.) 6. The phrase used to describe Jivandhara who went to the abode of Suramanjari in the disguise of an old man. Cc.
cāvar toţinē kațitu?
(He will die at once if you touch bim.) Gc.
sprsto'pyasmäbhir ayum nastasur bhavet e (He might die even if we touch him.)
From the similarities pointed out above, it is clear that between Tēvar and Vadibhasimha, one is considerably influenced by the other. Many authors have noted 1 Cc. V. 1004. .
5 Cc. V. 1797. 2 Gc. 4 : para 133, p. 206
6 Gc. 8 : para 206, p. 306. 3 Cc. V. 1798.
7 Cc. V, 2016. 4 Gc. 8: para 206, p. 306.
8 Gc. 9: para 218, p. 324. 9 i. T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri, The age of Tamil Jivaka cintamani, Indian Antiquary, October,
1907, Vol. XXXVI, p. 285 ff. ii. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, Kaviyakālam, 2nd edition, Madras, March 1962, p. 175. iii. Auvai S. Turaicamippillai, Civakacintamani Arāycci, 2nd Edition, Madras, 1948, p. 12. iv. B. Balasubrahmaniyan, Introduction to Civakacintamani published by the Saiva Siddhanta
Waba Samājam, Madras, 1941, P, 18 ff.
March 1967 alias, 1918, D. Siddhānta

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the similarities and just from the fact that the two works are similar in many places, have conclude that Vidibhasimha works are the source books for the Cc. But how far is such a conclusion appropriate ?
25
Though the Cc. employs many Sanskrit traditions in the narration of the Jiyaka. episode, it owes a great debt to the Cankam literature, and to a certain extent to the Cilappatikaram and the other Patinenkilkanakku-(eighteen minor works) works, written before it in the ideas, the phrases, the similes etc. Similarly Vädibhasimha follows the style of Bana in his Gc. In many places while describing the same incidents and descriptions, Tévar follows the early Tamil literary works and Vadibhasimha follows the style of the Kadambari and the Harṣacarita For example the following lines which describe the city Hemangada in the Gc. contain ideas which are in descriptions found in the Kadambari and the Harşacarita.
dhyanapara-yamadaradhyusita-vedikopaŝobhitalokapadopaccha va-langhana-cakita
parahitaniratamunivaraparişad-abhihita
bhavyaloka-vakritupradakṣinabhramaṇaiḥ, dharmanukathenakarmatha-sukakulavacalodyan sakhisakhaparişkṛtaparisaraiḥ..
([The country of Hemängada shone by the Jaina devotees who go round the Ajoka trees, because of the fear of crossing2 the shadow of these trees, which are beautified by the stages on which the ascetics who do penance dwell, and by the territories surrounded by flower gardens which are full of branches on which are perched the noisy parrots which have the talent of repeating the virtuous discourses which are uttered by the group of ascetics who do good to others)
In the Harsacarita, while de-cribing the river Ganges, following which Sarasvati descended to the earth by the curse ef Durvasa, it is stated that on its shores, Vidyadharas ran away in fear that they should not cross the phallic images of Šiva made of sand for worship by the Siddhas. In the Kadambari, the description of the hermitage of the ascetic Jabali in the Dandaka forest contains the statement that the parrots there repeat the 'vasatkara' sound. What is stated with reference to the idols of Śiva in the Harṣacarita has been taken over to the case of the Aśoka trees in the Ge. as it is a Jaina text. The entire description of the country of Hemangada in the Gc. has the strong iufluence of the description of Ujjayini in the Kadambari Hemangada country is described in the Cc. and one sees clearly the style. of the Cankam works here.
Several places where the descriptions in the Cc. proceed on the lines of Tamil traditions are not found in the Gc. Instances for this are the descriptions of the five
1 Gc, 1: para 1, p. 9.
2 To cross over or tread upon a sacred object is sinful.
3
siddhaviracita valukalingalan ghanatrasavidrutavidyadharam'
Bana, Harṣacarita, edictd by P. V. Kane, 2nd edition, Delhi, 1965, Ist chapter, p. 8.
4 'Vașat is an exclamation pronounced when offering oblations to the sacred fire.
5 'anavaratairavauagṛhītavaṣaṇkaravacalašukulñm', Bana, Kadambari, edited by M, R. Kale, 4th edition, Bombay, 1968, 1st chapter, p. 70.
SC-4

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kinds of lands, the meeting and love episodes of Patumai and Civakar etc. But indirect influence of such descriptions is found in the Gc. An analysis of some of the examples" which are quoted above to explain the similar decriptions found in both books will show Vadıbhasimha's indebtedness to the Cc. These are discussed under two sections ;
1. The examples which show that the knowledge of the Cc. is necessary to understand what is said in the Gc.
2. The examples in which one can see the influence of Tamil literary traditions an the Gc. which came thraugh the Cc.
1. In the example no, 8,1 the chief of the cowherds asks Civakan to accept his daughter without considering that she belongs to a lower caste. To support his request Kõvintan cites precedents where other illustrious persons had married girls from lower càstes. Here he quotes lord Murukan who married Valți as one of the precedents.
"According to early Tamil literary thought, Murukan is the deity of Kuriñci land, one of the five kinds of landscape, 2 and he is supposed to live on the hill tops, Valli is-the daugnter of one of the Kusavar, the hunting tribes, the, inhabitants of hilly land, 3: The abduction of Valli was considered as one of the sacred sports of lord Murukan. According to Tamil poetical tradition different situations of love and war are attributed to different lands. 4 Kaļavu (pre-maritial love) is the love situation appropriate to Kuriñci, and tho myth of Murukan and Valli is also based on this tradition. The myth of Murukan and Valli is referred to in the carly Tamil poems. the following examples illustrale this:
In the following lines of the 82nd verse of Narrinai, the hero asks the heroine whềther she is accompanying him as Valli who went with lord Murukan.
vēy vanappurra tölai niye ennul varutiyo nan națaik koțicci muruku punarnt iyanra vaļļi pola... 5
(Oh the one with shoulders which have the beauty of a bamboo, you are coming with me like Valli 'who was united with Murukan.)
Similar references are also found in the later Cankam works like the Paripāțal and the Tirumurkārruppatai The following lines from Paripāțal show the relat onship between Murukan and Vali
1 Supra, p. 15. 2 Ref. chapter 4, for detailed knowedge about the divisions of land and the aspects conected to it. 3 In South India still the Kuravar are referred to as "Valliammai Kūţtam' (the followers of goddess
Valiammai). Edgar and Thurstan, Castes and tribes of Southern India, The Govt. Press, Madras,
1909. jii, p. 459. 4. Ref. Chapter 4, 5 Narriņia, published by South India Saiva Siddhanta works, Tinevely, 3rd edition, January, 1962, v. 82,

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aru mukatt är iru tolal venti naru malar vallip pi nayantoya
.1
(You, the hero who has six faces and twelve shoulders, desired the sweet fragrant flower, Valli,)
The following example also mentions Murukau and Vali.
oru mukam
kuravar maṭamakal koți pol nucuppin
matavaral valliyotunakaly amarnt apra
(One face of lord Murukan) which loves to enjoy itself with Valli, whose waist. is like a creeper, the daughter of Kuravars [hunting tribes).)
As a result of the Aryan religious influence, the concept of God Murukan fused with the concept of brahmanic God Skanda. As time went on, as Subrahmaniyan says "Muruga got transformed into Subrahmanya carrying with Him His old legends and surrounding Himself with more and more new legends any myths."3 Hurukan acquired six faces and twelve arms and another wife, Devasena, who is supposed to be the wife of Skanda in North India. According to Sanskrit literature, Skanda otherwise called Kartikeya is the general of the army of the ce'estials, Devasena and hence Devasena is personified to be his spouse.5 To our knowledge there is no myth relating the relationship of Skanda with Valli in Sanskrit literature. Even Skanda-Purana, one of the eighteen puranas in Sanskrit which deals with the story of Skanda, does not : contain any references to Skanda marrying a lower caste woman. In this Purana there is no reference for exagamous marriages (asavarna marriages) 6
27
ca
The relationship between Valli and Murukan which is cited by Kövintan in the Kövintaiyar ilampakam of the Cc., therefore can be uuderstood only with the help of the knowledge of early Tamil literary trapitions. But to understand the reference "puratanaşanmukhamukhavišiṣanam avisistajatijatangana-samgama-sakatham kathayan" cited by Govinda in the Gc. one has to know the myth of Valli and Murukan which was prevalent in Tamil literary works and specially the context in which it is related in the Cc. Bechert who examined the cult of Skandakumara in the religious history of South India and Ceylon, points out that there is conformity. 1 Paripatal, (Le Paripatal), published by Institut Francais D'Indologie, Pondichery, 1968. 11: line 21 22. See also, 9: 67 and 21: 10.
2 Tirumurukärrupatai, Pattuppattu, edited by U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, 6th edition, Madras, 1961, lines 102-103.
3 N. Subrahmaniyan Sangam polity, Asia Publishing House, London, 1966. p. 354.
4 "man kaiyar kaṇava maintar ērē" (You the husband of (two) ladies (Valli and Devasena) and the bull among the men) Tirumurakāṛruppatai, Palamutir Colai, line 264.
5 Refer the notes by G. R. Nandargikar on Raghuvamsam of Kalidasa, VII: 1, 3rd Edition, Bombay, 1897, p. 120.
6 A. B. S. Awasthi, Studies in Skandapuraṇa, Lucknow, 1965, Part I, p. 298, 7 Supra, p. 15.

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28
Study of Civakocintamant
of early Tamil religion with Sinbalese religion, particulary regarding the cults of Murukan and the God of Kataragama and the legend about his marriage with Vaļļi who was from the jungle folk of South India hills or from the jungle people, the Veddhas. He concludes that these common characteristics are carlier than the identification of Murukan with the north Indian Skandakumăra or Karthikeya whose spouse Devasenā is nothing but a personification of the army of Gods led by him. 1
2. In the example No. 15,2 we see the anger of Kāşthängāra described in almost the same way in the Gc. and Cc. While describing the reasons which kindled the anger of Kāşthāngāra in the Gc. it is said that the union of Jivandhara with Anangamālā is one of them. This episode of Jivandhara and Anangamála is not mentioned in the Cc. in this context. But it is narrated in detail by the character Nākamalai to Kantotkatan, just before Civakan went to compete with Kāntaruvatattai in the fute competition. This episode is not narrated anywhere else in the Kc. or the Gc. This is also not found in the Up. Therefore to understand the reference "sangad anangamataya" in the Kc. and "nijaväravamalocanāvargāntarangibhavad anangamálāngikaraṇapratúakena" one has to have the knowledge of the Anarkamālai episode in the Cc.
3. In Patumaiyar ilampakam of the Cc.,3 the love story of Civakan and Patumai progresses on the traditional lines of Kaļavu (premarital love) in Tamil. Here Patumai who is in love with Civakan is taken to the garden by her friends, where they leave her alone and go away in the pursuit of sports. Patumai stands alone near the house made of madhavi creepers. Civakan comes there and speculates whether she is a celestial being or a human being. Then he notes that the flowers of her garland fade and from such symptoms knows that she is a human being. Then he unites with her in accordance with the tradition of Iyarkaippunarcci (union). He praises her and then leaves her for fear that her friends might come back All these stages of love have been described by Tēvar according to the Tamil poetical tradition. This entire section has been omitted by Vadibhasimha in his Gc. and Kc. Yet, the way he has narrated the marriage of Jivaka and Padmā makes one fiel that he is aware of the above narration in the Cc. which he has omitted in his works. Thus in the following passage he narrates that Jivaka and Padina once married according to the Gāndharva rites in the house made of Madhavi creeper though he has not even mentioned it before.
...gękodyanamandanamadhaviletāmandape kusumakodandena pradattām tām mattakašinim gandharvadattăpatir gandharvavivaha prakramena ragāgni -sak şikam parintya prinargunavati lagne loka palena vitirņäm vidhivad upāyacchata.
(He (Jivandhara), the husband of Gandharvadattā, baving married her (Padma), the one who appears as if she is intoxicated, given by Manmatha and witnessed by 1 Heing Bechert, The cult of Skandapurāņa in the religious history of South India and Ceylon,
paper submitted to the II [rd International Conference Seminar of Tamil Studies, Paris, 1970. 2 Supra. pp. 18, 19. 3 Cc, vv. 1326-1334. 4 Gc. 5 : para 159, p. 242.

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the fire of love in the house made of Mādhavi creeper, which is in the garden, again married her who was given by Lokapāla at an auspicious time according to the wedding rites.)
Froni these examples which show that the knowledge of the Co. is necessary to understand certain incidents narrated in the Cc and the Kc., one can see that Vadi bhasimba is indebted to Tēvar.
2. Next we will consider the example which show the influence of Tamil literary traditions on the Ge.
1. First we will take example No. 20, in which the description of the forest through which Civakan goes to the city Cantirāpam. This description in the Cc. is obviously influenced by the eleventh verse of the Kalittokai. In the eleventh verse of the Kalittokai the arid landscape (pālai) is described, and thus it is called Palaikkali. The description of the male pigeon embracing its mate with its wings in order to allay the heat,2 the description of the buck standing in the hot sun in order to cover the doe in his shadow3 are described in the same way in both the Cc. and the Kalittokai. Even the words used here are the same. The description of the pigeons is not found in the Gc. But, the description of the deer is narrated in the same way. The only difference he has made is that he has changed deer into elephant. Though Vadibhasimha tries to incorporate the description of the summer in the Rtusamhāra of Kalidasa in his description of the forest, this particular description of the deer (elephant in the Gc.) has a strong similarity to the description in the Kalittokai and in the Cc. Thus, the following lines in all the three books show this similarity. Kalittokai :
in nilal inmaiyan varunti ya matap pingikkut tan nilaļaikkoțutt aļikkun kalaiy..4
(Since there are ro sheds of leaves the buck gives his shadow to the doe which is suffering (in the hot sun.)
Cc.
kalaiy in pinai kanriļum enru kacint ilaiy in nilal avvayin inmaiyinän nilaiyin nila zontu ninru kogut
ulaiyum veyi niny urukumm uravoys Gc.:
..nihsesaparņakşayanirviseșāśeşavita pini...korenutäpaharo nakşte nijaka yacchayupradayidontini...6
This example also shcws that Vadybhasimha is translating the above description from the Cc. 1 Supra, p. 21. 2 Kalittokai, v. 11: Cc. v. 1187. 3 Kalittokai, v. 11: Cc. v. 1188. 4 Kalittokai, v. 11. 5 Cc. v. 1181. For translation see supra p. 21. 6 Gc. 5 : para 150, p. 227. For translation see supra p. 21.

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Study of Civakacintamani
2. Now let us consider example No. 71 from the examples quoted to show the similarity in the manner of description and example Nos. 1 and 22 from the example quoted for the usage of similar phrases. In all these examples which are from the episode of Kovintai, we could see that the object of comparison are all from the objects characteristic of the pastoral land (the Karupporul of Mullai land). The tradition of describing a scene or an action taking place in a particular land with the help of the objects characteristic of that particular landscape is expected according to the carly Tamil poetical tradition. This literary tradition is explained in the fourth chapter by us. Tevar has followed this literary tradition in many places, and he selects most of the objects of comparison from the objects which are found in the type of land he is describing In the above-mentioned examples also one could see that Tevar is using the objects which belong to the pastoral land. This method of description has been followed by Vadibhasimha in the above-mentioned examples. He compares the army which was defeated by the hunters to the curd which was churned by churning stick, and describes the spots of curds on the bodies of the cowherdesses. He also. compares the body, the voice and the tender touch of Govinds with the melted ghee, milk and butter respectively. These descriptions show that Vadibhasimha follows the description of Tevar which is according to Tamil traditions.
30
3. This aspect is also seen in the example No. 93 of the similar descriptions shown earlier. In this example we see that Têvar's description of the seashore, the littoral land, the rolling tides, the wobbling crabs and the gracious swars is elcsely followed by Vadibhasimha.
4. Next let us consider example No. 6 of the similar descriptions in which the army of Kattiyankaran which marched to retrieve the s'olen crws of the cowherds from the hunters is described. The statement in the Ce. that the earth was depressed under the weight of the army strongly reminds one of the description of the armyIn the 23rd verse of the Purananūru. In this verse in Purananuru the army is described as alam neilyav 10tiya viyan patai's (the army which approached causing the earth to bend). In the Cc. also the army is described as the one which causes the earth to be depressed. This is not an isolated incident in which Têvar borrows his phraseology from the earlier works, in particular from Cañkam works. He is not only influenced by the phraseology of Cankam works but also by the ideas expressed in them. For example, in the following description of the prosperous state of the city, Iracamapuram, we could see the idea expressed in the description occurring in the Pattinappalai. Cc. :
por ciru ter micalp paim por pitakam nar cirar urtali nankaimar virii urravar keli mal erintav onkulal
marrat tar urul keta valamat canrava.6
1 Supra, p. 14.
2 Supra, p.23.

Supra, pp. 15.
3
4 Supra, p. 14.
5 Puranaṇāru, v 23.
6 Cc. v. 89.

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(TI
(The prosperity of the country was such that the shining earrings which were thrown by the ladies who were watching the paddy, on the heps, blocked the golden chariots with golden elephants on them, which the teautiful children ride.) : Pattinappalai :
nër ilai makalir unank unak kavarun koli erinta koğun kar kanan kulai por kal putalvar puraviyinuruttum muk kār ciru tër mun vali vilakkum. 1
(The round and thick ear-studs which were thrown on the fowls which came to feed on the drying grains, block the way of the three wheeled playcart of the little boys with golden anklets.)
This sort of description which follow the early Tamil literary works are daliberately omitted by Vădibhasimha and as said before he follows the style of Bāņa. Yet, this particular incident in which he describes the army of Kasthāngāra, as causing the earth to bend under its might, shows that he has closely translated the phrase which the Cc. borrowed from Puranānūru.
From the above discussion one could see the indebtedness of Vad, bhasimha to Tēvar. The inference that he had the knowledge of the Cc. is reinforced by the concluding stanza in the Gc.
sthe yad odayadevena vadibhahariņā kyaḥ / gudyacintāmaņir loke cintamaạir iväparah/2
(Let this Gadyacintamani, which was composed by Odayadeva, Vādibhasimha, stay in this world for ever like another Cintamani.)
Though cintānani refers to the mythical stone which grants one's wishes here the phrse 'cintāmaņir iva aparaḥ' most probably refers to Tēvar's Cintamani. The term Cintamani has been used only by Tēvar while referring to Civakan. It is the name by which Vicayai, Civakan's mother, calls him at the time of his birth.
cintamaniye kițattiyal : (Cintāmaņi, you are lying here (without speaking to me)).
Tēvar also refers to Civakan by the word Cintamani when he says that he has narrated the life history of Cintāmaņi (i.e Civakan).
cintāmaņiyin caritam citarnten. -
Thus it appears that Vādibhasimha is referring only to the Co. in this phrase 'cintamanir iva aparah'. Vadibhasimmha's works do not contain any references similar to the Cc. which would justify the word 'Cintamani" in his title 'Gadyacintāmani' (the prose Cintāmani). Further the term 'gadya' in his tittle appears to presuppose the existence of a 'padya' (verse) cintamani. But, since he has given the title Kșatracūļā. mani to his poetical work, this padya Cintāmaņi is not likely to be the Kc. It is most probably the Cc. . 1 Patřinappalai, lines 22-26.
3 Cc, v. 311. 2 Gc. 11 . v 297, p. 437.
4 Ibid, v. 3144.

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Study of Civakacintamani
Thus it is our opinion that the two works of Vādībhasimha are not of earlier origin than Cc. and derive a good deal of inspiration from the Cc. This would mean that the date of Vadybhasimha, if ascertained, could set the lower limit to the date of the Cc. We therefore consider the question of the date of Vadıbhasimha next.
Vādibhasimha's date has been a problem for scholars and there have been many controversial ideas about it. The references we find about him in other baoks and the references which are found in his books, help to decide that he is the contemporary of the Cola king Rajaraja 1 (A.D. 985-1016).
Pandit Bhujabali Sastril is of the opinion that Vādıbhasimba must be placed in the latter half of twelfth century A.D. and was the contemporary of Rajaraja Il (A.D. 1146-1173). He comes to this conclusion by analysing some of the inscriptions which are published by Sithala Prasad in his book Madras va Mysore Pränta ka Pracina Jaina Smāraka (The old Jaina monuments of Madras and Mysore states). But, most of the inscriptions he quotes could have been also written after Vadibhasimha's death, as they refer to him as a teacher of some one, or say that there were monuments built in his memory. The earliest dated inscription belongs to A.D. 1077. Therefore it is possible only to say that Vadibhasimha lived before this period.
In the last verse of the Kc., a name Rājarāja is mentioned. rä jatäm rajara jay'an räjarä jo mahodayaih / te jaså vayasā šūraḥ kṣatracūdamanir gunaiḥ 1/2
(May that lord of kings who is an emperor (rājaraja) by his loftiness, warrior by his lustre and his age, best of the kings by virtues, be glorious.)
There are three Rajarājas in the history of Colas, Rajari ja I (A.D. 985-1016), Rajan ja II (A.D. 1146-1173), Rājarāja III (A.D. 1218) and there is also Rajarāja Nagendra of Vengi, who was the son-in-law of Cola Rajendra I (A.D. 1022–1963). As Srikantha Sastris says, among these four kings Rājaraja I was the most famous and the one who deserves to be called Ksatracūdāmaņi. He further says that “the Tamil inscriptions mention Kşatriyașikhāmapipuram probably named after Rājarāja I, who seems to have had the tit's Ksatriya śikhāmaņi". 4
Similary when describing the country Rajapuri is bis work, Vadıbhasimha refers to it as a country which served as a model for the creator for the construction of Rajarājapurs.
tątra rajapurināma räjadhani virä ja tel rajarajapurissiau sraştur yä mātskàyste//5
There shines a capital name.Rajapuri, which serves as a model for the creator for the construction of Rajarajapuri) 2 K. Bhujabali Sastri, Jaina Siddhanta Bhaskara, Vol. VI, Part 2, 1939 pp. 79 ff. 3 Kc. 11 : 106. 1 Srikantha Sastri, Jaina Antiquary, December 1939, Vol. III; pp. 89-95, 4 Srikantha Sastri, op. cit. p. 91 5 Kc. 1 : 5.

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33
The Rájarājapuri mentioned here may refer to a town named in honour of the Cola king Rājarāja I. Inscriptions indicate that the modern Tārācuram was called Rājarajapuram.1 Tārācuram is a village near Kumbakonam. The Siva temple which is in that village is referred to as Rājarājeccuram. 2 The architecture of this temple very much resembles the architecture of the great temple at Tanjore, which was built by Rajaraja I. The connection between Rājarăja and Tārācuram is explained by the phrase "Rājarājeccuram'. Again, in the book Kongadesa rā jākkalit has been mentioned that a Cola king who was the son of Parāntaka named a village originally called Kēraiyūr in the Talakād4 district of Mysore state as Rajarājapuram. The other historical facts mentioned here about this Cola king strongly support the conclusion that he was the king Rājarāja I.
Therefore it is possible that the references to 'Kșatracūdāmaņi' and to Rājarajapuri' in the above mentioned stanzas from the Kc. may have been made by the author in an effort to commemorate the ruling sovereign, Rājarāja 1. This would then suggest that Vadibhasimha was a contemporary of Rājarāja J.
The following evidence also contributes to this conclusion regarding the date of Vadibhasimha. Srutasāgara Suri in his commentary on Somadeva's Yasastilaka campu quotes a verse in which Vadiraja and Vädibhasimha are said to be contemporaries and disciples of Somadeva Sūri.
Sa vädirā jo'pi śrisomadevācāryasya śişyaḥ, 'vādibhasimho'pi madiyasişyah
śrivādira jo'pi madiyaśisyah ity uktatvāc ca/5 (That Vādināja also is the disciple of Sri Somadevācārya. Because he says, "Vādibhasimha is also my student. Sri Vādirāja is also my student”.)
The above statement cannot be traced back to the extant works of Somadevasūri : apart from the fact, neither Vadirāja nor Vādibhasimha claimed Somadeva as his guru in any of their works. But, as Handique says, it is not chronologically impossible to prove that Vādirāja and Vādıbhasimha are the disciples of Somadeva. Somadeva's date can be easily decided upon, as it is known that he had completed his campu in A.D. 959.7 The fact that Vădirāja and Vadibhasimha also had lived in the same time is supported by the following evidence. 1 R. P. Sethuppillai, Urum perum, 3rd edition, Madras, 1956, pp. 258, 259. 2 Ibid, p. 259. 3 Kongadesa rājākkal, edited by C. M. Ramachandran Chettiyar, Madras Government Oriental Series,
No. VI, Madras 1950, p. 13. 4 This place still exists, under the name of Talakad, on the left bank of the River Kaveri, about
28 miles to the south east of the city Mysore. J. F. Fleet, "The Dynasties of the Kanarese Districts
of the Bombay Presidency". Bombay Gazetteer, 1896, Vol. I, Part II, p. 299. 5 Somadevasüri, Yasastilaka campu, with the commentary of Srutasigara, Kavyamālā edition, No.
70, Bombay 1901, Part I; p. 265. 6 K. K. Handique, Yasastilaka and Indian Culture, Sholapur, 19:9, p. 9. 7 Ibid, p. 2. SC-5

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Study of Civakocintāmaņi
Vadiraja in his Parsvanātha carita says that he had finished his work in A.D. 1025, during the reign of Calukya king Jay isimha II. (A.D. 1015-1042).1 This is also confirmed by the Belgam ve Grant of the Cālukya king Jayasimha II Jagadekamilla, to the Lākula Vadirudragana in A.D. 1035 (saka 957).2 In this grant the following titles given to the Saiva saint Vadirudragana show that Vad bhasimha and Vadiraja are contemporaries.
...Vādibhasimha śarabham, vădira ja mukha mudra.. 3 (...a sarabha to the lion Vadiibha (or to Vādibhasimha sealer up of the mouth of Vădirāja ..)
This evidence shows that there is a possibility for Vadirāja and Vadibhasimha to be contemporaries and to be disciples of Somadevasūri.
Vadiraja in bis Parsvanatha carita mentions Matisāgara as his guru.4 This is also corroborated by the elaborate stone inscription in the Pārsvanātha basti at Śravaņa Belgola dated A.D. 1129. In this inscription it is said that Matisagara had two illustrious students, Dayāpala Muni, the author of Rūpasiddhi and Vadirāja.5 Therefore it is clear that Matisagira was the guru of Vadirāja. Venkataraman identifies Matisāgara as the contemporary of Rājarāja 1.6 He bases his argument on an inscription found in Pudukkottai. In Pudukkottai there is a place called 'Samaņarmētu' (Jain mound), on the north of the irrigation tank Vennāvikkuļam. This place was a mound before the excavation and now a whole group of shrines stand there. In this place a number of Jaina images and two inscriptions have been discovered. In one of the inscriptions there are fragments of the Prasasti of Rajaraja I and in the other the following fragment in Tamil is found.
udaya natisāgara-aruhar-ācār yar ippalli..? Venkataraman says that, the Matisāgara mentioned in this inscription may be identified with the Matisāgara, the guru of Dayāpāla who composed Hitarūpasiddhi and Vãdirāja.
Therefore if Matisāgara was a contemporary of Rājarāja I, Vādibhasimha who was a contemporary of his student, Vadirāja, also can be a contemporary of Rājarāja I.
All these above discussed facts contribute to the conclusion that Vadībhasimha was contemporary of Rājarāja 1 (A.D. 985-1015).
Since Vadībhasimha had lived in the period between the later part of 10th Cen1 Vadiraja, Parsvanathacarita, edited by Manoharalal Sastri, Bombay, 1953. 2 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. VII, Shikarpur Inscriptions, Inscription No. 126, p. 174. 3 Ibld, p. 174. 4 Vadirāja, op. cit. p. 197. 5 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. II, Inscription No. 54, pp. 43, 44. 6 K. R. Venkataraman, "Jainis.n in Pudukkottai" Journal of the Oriental Research Institute, Madras,
Vol. XII, part I, p. 8. 7 Ibid, p. 8.

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35
tury, and the earlier part of 11th century, Tēvar who had preceded him must have lived some time before this period.
The next landmark among Sanskrit works on the story of Jivandhara is the Up. which is the earliest of them. A similar examination of the Up. in comparison with the Cc. should therefore be of considerable interest. The study is however deferred until chapter IN, where we do this in an effort to assess the influence of Sanskrit stories on the story of the Cc. Here we anticipate the conclusion of this comparative study and note that this study dous not enable us to arrive at any definite answer to the question of the date or the source book of the Cc. It seems that the Cc may or may not have been based on the Up.
Next we consider the important point that the names of some of the main characters in the Cc. appear to be of Piakrit rather than Sanskrit origin. Examples of these names are shown in the table below :
Names in the
Sanskrit names
in the Up.
Prakrit names in Puspadanta's Mp.
Cc.
1. Sat yon lhara 2. Rāsthāngaraka 3. Gandhorkata 4. Garudavega
Saccamdharu Kattangārau Gandhukkada Garulaveu
Caccantan Kattiyankāran Kantukkatan Kalulavēkan
This leads one to wonder whether there would have been a Prakrit work dealing with the story of Jivandhara belonging to the period before the 10th Century A.D. from which Tēvar has taken his story. The only Prakrit text which belongs to the period before 10th Century A.D, and which deals with the Jivandhara story is the Mp. of Puspadanta. But, the Jivaka story in this text follows that in the Up. without any change and with great brevity. For example, the stories of Vimala and Gunamalā (Turamancari in the Cc.) have been narrated only in a few lines. It is unlikely that Puşpadanta's Mp. is the source of the Cc.
Thus the comparative study of the books dealing with the story of Jivandhara helps us only to specify the lower limit of about 1000 AD. for the date of the Cc.
Next we consider two phrases in the Cc. whieh have been interpreted by some authors as providing clues regarding the probable date. Thus the phrase "ariñcayan kulattuttonri'i applied to Queen Vicayai is explained by Naccinārkkiniyar as 'Arincayan, the grand-father of Vicayai',2 This Ariñcayan who is mentioned here has been taken as the Cola king Arinjaya (A D. 956-957). 3 We find that in the Up. several kings having this name are mentioned and thus it appears that this was a name of common occurrence in the Jaina lore. Hence this speculation does not strike us as very signifi
1 Cc. v. 201. 2 Nacciņārkkiniyar, Commentary written on the Cc. v. 201. 3 T.E. Gnanamurthy, op, cit. p.11.

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36
Study of Civakacintamani
cant. Similarly the phrase "Munnir valampuri' has led Naccinārkkiniyar to explain that this is an autobiographical reference by Tēvar to his birth in in the Cola family. This reference has not enabled us to trace the identity of the author of the Cc.
On the other hand it is of interest to note that in the places Tēvar lists the names of the kings from different countries who assemble either to fight in a battle or to compete for the band of a princess, the Pāndya and the Pallava kings are mentioned while the Cola king is not. This would seem a significant ommission if the Cc. were to have been written in the heyday of Cola sovereignty, i.e. the later part of the 10th Century A.D.
External Evidence
We have four references to either the work called Cintamani or to its author. These are found in :
(i) Tiruttonțar varalāru (ii) The Uraiccirappuppāyiram of the Cc. (verse relating the merits of Naccinārkk
iniyar's commentary on the Cc.) (iii) The Mallisena Prasasti inscription of Sravaņa Belgola. (iv) The Tirumakūdịu Narasipur Taluq inscription.
(i) In the section Cēkkiļār Putānam of the Tamil work Tiruttoņțar vapalāļu (A.D. 1217-1315)1 it is said that the Cintamani was adored by the king Adapāya. From the following verse, one can see that Cēkkilār advised king Anapāya who was adoring the Cintāmani that it was a book of false beliefs, and told him to listen to the story of Siva.
valavanun kunt aman purattut tiruttuc cintamanik katai yai
mey enru varicai kūra uļa makilntu pala patap pārāțţik katkav
upaya kula maņi vilakkāñ cekkiļār kant ilavaracan tanai nokkic camanar poy nul itu mar umaikk
akāt immaikkum arra vaļa maruvukinra civa kataiy immaikku marumaikkum
urutiy ena valavan kēțțu
(When Vaļavan listened with great pleasure to Cintamani, which is a false story, Cēkkiļār, the jewelled lamp of the two families, advised him that this Jaina book was a false one and it was of no use for this world and the next. The Śiva story; which is worth listening to, is good for this life as well az the next.)
Cēkkiļār lived in the reign of king Anapāya.3 King Avapāya is identified with 1 N.C.C. vol. III, University of Madras, pp. 94-95. 2 Umāpaticivāccăriyar, Tiruttontar Purāram, edited by P. Ramalinka-Cuvami, Cekkilar niyanār
Purānam, v. 11. 3 T. S. Kuppuswami Sastri. Indian Antiquary, XXXVI, 1907, p. 288.

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37
An attempt to truce the Source Kulöttunga II (A.D. 1:13-1150). Though the Cintamani referred to here is not explicitly stated to be the Cc. it is most probable that the reference is to the Cc. This makes it clear therefore that by the first half of the 12th Century the Cc. had come to occupy a position of considerable importance. However this reference does not lead to any conclusion regarding the date which should supplement our earlier inferences regarding the same from a comparative study of the Cc. and the Sanskrit works of Vadibhasimha.
(is) In the verse written to extol Naccinārkkiniyar's commentary on the Cc. 1 it is mentioned that Tēvar was honoured by one Poyyāmoli. This reference proceeds as follows:
.. . van peru vancip poyfümoli pukal maijarů kāteit
tiruttaku munivan (Tiruttakumunivān the one with flawless perception who was praised by Poyyāmoli of the city of Vanci)
We do not know who wrote this verse. Now the question arises regarding the identity of Poyyāmoli. It is generally beld that the word Poyyāmoli is the Tamil rendering of the Sanskrit epithet Satyavākya' (the one of truthful speech.) It is known that many rulers of the Ganga dynasty flourished in the modern Mysore state, with Talakad (Talavanapura in Sanskrit) as their capitala till about A.D. 1000 when the Cola supremacy put an end to it. Most of the kings of this family are reputed to have been devoted to Jainism. It is difficult to say with certainty which of the Ganga kings holding the title Satyavākya has been referred to as Poyyāmoli in the above verse. Certain claims have been made that the reference is to king Satyavākya Kongunivarma Bhūtuga Permānadi (A.D. 938-953).3 But, these claims have not been justified clearly and we can only say that it is likely that the author of the Cc. may have been honoured by one of these Satyavākya kings of the Ganga dynasty, We have consulted the book 'Studies in South Indian Jainism' by M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshgiri Rao, in which they have given a geneological table of the Ganga kings and the article written by M.V. Krishna Rao on the 'Ganga kings Talakad. Rajamalla I, the son of Vijayāditya Ranavikrama, appears to have been the first Ganga king who held this title. He succeeded Viyāditya in A.D. 818. This is also corroborated 1 Cc. edited by U. V. Swaminatha Iyer, 6th edition, Madras, 1957, p. 1523. 2 Fleet, op. cit. p. 299. 3 S. Vaiyapuripillai, Kiviya kalam, p. 174; B. Balasubrahmaniyam, op. cit. p. 21, 4 M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and C. Seshagiri Rao, op. cit, p. 155. 5 M. V. Krishna Rao, 'The Gangas of Talakad, Karnataka through the ages, published by the
government of Mysor. 1968. pp.116. 127. 6 The book Kongadesa rājäkkal refers to one Satyaväkya raya, the great grandson of Vijayaditya.
who was so called because he was always truthful. It also reports the acts of charity performed by his brother Gunatuttamaraya in Saka year 800 (A.D. 878). We do not know how much we can rely on this date. Kongadesa rajākkal, p. 9.

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Study of Civakacintamani
by the reference made by a Jaina author Vidyānandi, 1 He also alludes to a contemporary king named Satyavākya in the colophon of four of his works. He also alludes to three other kings in the colophons of his three other works. In one work he refers to śivamāra, in another to Mārasimha and in another probably to śripurusha.3 All of these people are kings of the Ganga dynasty. Vidyanandi also mentiors the Rāştrak uta king Dhruva Dhārāvarsa (A.D. 780-92)* in his Astasabasri. Thus the Satyavākya alluded to by him appears to be the Ganga king Racamalla I (A.D. 818-837).
All the Ganga kings of Talakảd who came after Rācamalla I seem to have had the title Satyavākya with their names.' Therefore from the phrase 'Poyyāmoli pukal tiruttaku munivap' we can only infer that one of the Ganga Satyavākya kings who may bave lived any time from the early ninth century AD. up to about A.D. 10008 would have honoured the author of the Cc.
The reference to the city of Vanci in the phrase "vanci cēr poyyāmoli pukal is not very helpful in arriving at a more exact conclusion. Vanci is said to have been the capital of the Cēra kings. T. A. Gopinatha Rao 9 says that a chieftan belonging to Takatūr in the Ganga country called himself 'Vanciyar kulapati'. Hence the adjective 'vanci cēc' supports the conclusion that the word poyyānoli refers to a Ganga king.
(iii) The Mallişena Prasasti inscription of Sravana Belgola refers to two works called Cintamani and Cudamani. This epitaph was composed to perpetuate the memory of the Jaina preceptor Mallişena Maladharideva who committed rejigious suicide on Sunday 10th March A.D. 1129, 10(dark fortnight of Phalguņa, the expired Saka year of 1050). In this epitaph the author Mallinātha extols the glory of eminent Jaina ascetics. Though it cannot be said with certainty that these teachers have been listed in strict chronological order, we can say that there are no serious chronological discrepancies.
In this inscript on the authors of Cintamani and Cīļamani are praised in the following stanzas :
dharmärtthakāma parinirvrticarucintaś cintamanih pratiniketam akāri yena sa stü yate sarasasaukh yabhu jā su jātaś cintamanir minivrşå na kathan janena // cuļāmaṇiḥ kavinim cuļāmaņinā(ma)sevyakavyakavih
śrivarddhadeva eva hi kļlapunyaḥ kirttim äharttum // 11 1 Jyoti prasad Jain, The Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India, (100 B.C.-A.D. 900), Delhi,
1964, p. 199. 2 Ibid, p. 199. 3 Ibid, p. 199. 4 K. A. Niļakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 210 5 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 200. 6 M. V. Krishna Rao, op. cit. p. 124. 7 M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. Seshagiri Rao, op. cit. p. 155. 8 In A.D. 1004 Rajendra Cola suececded in capturing Talakad and extinguishing the Ganga
dynasty. M. V. Krishna Rao, op. cit. p. 127. 9 T. A. Gopinatha Rao 'Arunkalā vayam, Civakacintamani, Cula mari' Centamil, Vol. V, pp. 95-102. 10 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. III, p. 185. 11 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. III, pp. 190, 191,

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An attempt to trace the Source
(How could not men experiencing sweet pleasure, praise that noble chief of sages, Cintamani, who composed [for use in every house, the Cintamani, which contains fine thoughts on virtue, wealth, pleasure and salvation?)
(Only śrivarddhadeva [who was] the crest-jewel of poets [and] the author of at poem called Culamani, which is worthy of study, has performed [sufficient] pious deeds [in former births] for earning fame.)1
These stanzas are preceded by a reference to sage Kumārasena and followed by a reference to Mahejvara and Akalanka. Reference to the historical facts known about the Jaina teachers of this period throws some light on the dates of Kumārasena and Akalanka. The Harivamsa Puraṇa of Jinasena Punnata which is known to have been completed in A.D. 7839 gives a geneology of teachers which iucludes Kumarasena, Virasena, and Jinasena. Vira-ena is the well-known author of the commentaries Dhavala, Mahādhavala, and Jayadhavala. The date on which he completed the Dhavala has been ascertained by Jyoti Prasad Jain as A D. 780. His Jayadhavala, left unfinished by him, was completed in A.D. 8375 by his disciple, Jinasena, who is also well known as the author of Adipurana. Thus we can with reasonable certainty assign the date of Viresena to the end of the 8th Century A.D. The Mulgund inscription (A.D. 902-03)6 states that Virasena was the senior pupil of Kumarasena. This would place Kumārasena also in the later part of the 8th Century A.D. These dates are also confirmed by the reference made by Vidyanandi to Virasena's recent demise and his statement that he was helped by Kumarasena's advice in the composition of Astasahasri. Vidyanandi has already been noted as the contemporary of the Ragrakūta king, Dhruva (A.D. 780-792).
Akalanka is said to have been the contemporary of the Rastrakūta king Kṛṣṇa I (A.D. 756-775).8 He is reported by the Mallisena Prasasti to have defeated the Buddhists in argument at the court of Himagstala in Kanci in A.D. 778(Šaka 700), He is also referred to and quoted by Virasena and praised in the Harivamsapuraṇa. Akalanka's colleague Puspasena10 is said to have had a disciple called Vimalacandra who appears to have lived towards the end of the 8th Century A.D.11 All this evidence would place Akalanka also in the period around the later half of the 8th Century A.D.
1 Translated by E. Hultzsch, Ibid, p. 200.
2 Jyoti Prasad Jain, op. cit. p. 42.
39
3 Harivamsapuraṇa, edited by Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, 1962, 1 : 38, 39, 40.
4 Jyoti Prasad Jain, op. cit. p. 187.
5 Ibid, p. 187.
6 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XIII, pp. 190 ff.
7 Jyoti Prasad Jain, op. cit. p. 199.
8 E. Hultzsch, Epigraphia Indica, Vol. III, pp. 186, 187.
9 Ibid, pp. 186, 187.
10 Ibid, Śravana Belgola Epitaph of Mallisena v. 24. p. 192, 11 M. S. Ramaswami Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, p. 88.

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Study of Civakacintamani
The Mallisepa Prajasti also contains the following eulogy, supposed to have been. composed by Dandin in praise of Srivardhadeva, the author of the Cadamani. ya evam upilokito dandin
jahnoḥ kanyam jata(gre)-na babhara paranesvaraḥ | irivarddhadeva samdhotse jihvagrena sarasvatim 1
(He was thus praised in verse by Dardin:
"Paramelvara Siva] bore Jahnu's daughter (Ganga] on the top of this matted hair. Thou, O Srivarddha ! bearest Sarasvati [the goodess of speech
of [thy] tongue.")
Though there have been some uncertainties regarding the poet Dandin s date and identity, it is generally believed that he was in the court of King Rajasimha of the Pallava dynasty. This king reigned during the period A.D. 700 to 728. Dandin is also said to have been the great grandson of Damodara, a friend of Bharavi, who is mentioned in the Aihole inscription (A.D. 634). This will put Dandin, and hence Śri arddhadeva mentioned in the Mallisena Prajasti, around A.D. 700 750. However the date of Dandin as well as the authenticity of verses attributed to him are far from being satisfactorily ascertained.
40
(iv) The Tirumaküḍju Narasipur Taluq inscription of 1183 also refers to the authors. of Cintamani and Cudamapi in the following two stanzas:
kritva cintamanim kavyam abhişyartha-samartthanam cintamanir abhän nämna bhavya-cinta-maņir gguruḥ] vidvac-cuda-manli cüdamani-kavya-kṛte.. cudamani-samakhys bhul laksya-lakja..lakṣaṇaḥ 10
(Having composed the poem Cintamani, able to satisfy all desires was the guru. Cintamani, a wishing-stone (Cintamani) to the blessed (the Jains))
(A head-jewel (Cudamani) of the wise, author of the poem Cadamani, he was called Cadamapi, the exhibitor of all the ornaments of composition.)"
It also refers to Kumarasena and Mahesvara and Akalanka before and after them respectively and one more person named Säntideva is also mentioned. Nothing appears. to be known about Maheśvara and Säntideva.
From these two inscriptions, one might roughly take the authors of Cintamani and Culamani referred to in them to helong to the period of Kumarasena and Akalanka (i.e. middle of 8th Century A.D. onwards). This is not far from agreement with the
1 Epigraphia Indica. Vol; III, Sravana Belgola Epitaph of Mallisena, v. 17. p; 191:
2 Translated by E. Hultzsch. Ibid, loc. cit. p. 207.
3 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. op. cit. p. 153;
4 Ibid, p. 153.
5 Ibid, p. 345.
6 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol, III, Part I, Incriptions in the Mysore District, p. 171.
7 Translated by Lewis Rice, Ibid, Translations, p. 89.
8 L. D. Swamikkannu has examined the astrological references which occur in the Cc. in the work An Indian Ephemeris. It is interesting to note that all the references are satisfied for the year A.D. 813 only. An Indian Ephemeris, Vol. I, Part I, Appendix iii, pp. 469-470.

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An attempt to trace the Source
conclusion obtained from the reference to Poyyamoli in the verse relating the merits of Naccinarkkiniyar's commentary (uraiccirappuppāyiram) of the Cc. The question still remains whether the Cintamani and Cūļāmaņi referred to in the Epitaph of Mallisena and Tirumakūdļu Narasipūc Taluq inscription are the Tamil works bearing these names. In this context T. A. Gopinatha Rao observes that "after sage Guņabhadra there lived one Kumārasena and after him came the author of the Cintāmani, and the author of the Calāmaņi".1 This conclusion has been accepted and restated by Vaiyapuri Pillal, a Auvai Turaicamipillai, 3 Balasubrahmaniyam, and T. P. Meenaksisundaran.5 But there is no referenee to Gunabhadra in the above two inscriptions. Balasubrahmaniyam refers to Yāpparunkalam Virutti urai (the commentary written on Yāpparunkalam) when mentioning Kumārasena. These authors may have had in mind one Kumārasena who appears to have lived around the later part of the 9th Century A.D.
Kumārasena and the authors of the Cc, and Cūļāmaņi are said to have belonged to Arungalānvaya branch of the Nandigaņa in the Dravida Sangha according to the Tirumakūļļu Narasipür Taluq inscription. This would make it likely that these are the two Tamil poems calld Cintāmani and Cūlamani. Irrespective of whether they belonged to the Kannada or the Tamil country, the Jaina preceptors of those days appear to have been well versed in Tamil, Kannada and Sanskrit and there was considerable intermingling among the members of Jaina religious order of the Kannada and Tamil speaking regions.9 In his footnotes to the Mallişena Prasasti, Lewis Rice says that Samantabhadra is said to have written a Cintāmaņițippaņi or commentary on the Cintāmaņi and AbhinavaManga Raja is said to have written a Cintamani Pratipada or word to word translation of the same. 10 He also refers to a Cintāmapi which is a commetary on Śākațāyana's grammar. As for Cuļāmaņi he mentions the reference in Bhatta Akalanka Deva's Karnāțaka Śabdanuśāsanam to a commentary by that name on Tattvārtha-Maha Šāstra. 11 He says that this work is referred to in Rājāvali kathā and attributed there to Tumbulur-Ācāryar.
But, the Mallişena Prasasti describes these two works in the following terms: "the epic Cintāmaņi which is capable of yielding all the four ends of life" and "Cūļāmaņi 1 T. A. Gopinatha Rao, op. cit. pp. 95-102. 2 S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, op. cit. p. 172. 3 Auvai, C. Turaicāmipillai, op. cit. p. 11. 4 B. Balasubrahmaniyam, op. cit. p. 19. 5 T. P. Meenaksisundaran, A History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai, 1965, p. 90. 6 Balasubrahmanyam, op. cit. p. 19. 7 Jyoti Prasad Jain. op. cit. p. 160. Footnote 2. 8 Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. III, Part I, p. 171 ff. 9 A typical example for this is the word "olliyan' which is used by Tēvar to signify a good person.
Naccinarkkipiyar points out that this is a Ticaic col' i.e. a word of alien origin and U. V. Swaminatha Iyer indicates that this word is used in this sense in Kannada. Cc. edited by U.V.
Swaminatha Iyer, op. cit. p. 372. Cc. v. 741. 10 B. Lewis Rice, Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola, Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. II, p. 135. 11 Ibid, p. 135.
SC-6

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Study of Civakocintamani the kavya which should be honoured". These descriptions do not sound very appropriate if they refer to commentaries as suggested by Lewis Rice.
In Tamil the Cc. and the Culamani are considered to be two good kavyas and it is believed that the Cajamani came after the Cc. This is illustrated by the phrase in Rajarajan Ula "cintamani tanta cajamaniya" (the Calamani which was given by Cintamani). The author of the Tamil Culamani is usually taken to be one Tolamolittēvar. But, it is thought that Tolamoli is a name which the author acquired as result of the phrases "arkkum tolatay" and "tola nävir caccutan" found in his work, Hence we do not know what his original name was.
From verse 4 in the Culamani3 we see that this book was submitted in the court of a king called Centan who is traditionally believed to be a Pandya king.
42
There is another isolated verse 5 which says that Tolamoli was honoured by a Kärvetti king (i.c. Pallava king). We have no means of identifying these kings at present. It has however been suggested that the Pandya king might be the one belonging to the middle of the 7th Century. This would be hard to reconcile with the evidence presented earlier.
The problem is yet far from resolved and must necessarily await further evidence for definite conclusions to be made. The evidence presented in this chapter appears to point to the period between the later half of the 8th Century A.D. and the first half of the 9th Century as the most probable date. The one result which seems fairly conclusive to us from the comparative analysis of this chapter is that the Cc. preceded Vadibhasimha's works and is not based on them as it is usually contended.
The analysis of the social, religious and literary background in the next chapter is made with the adove period in mind. With the present evidence it is also not possible to indicate the source book of the Cc. As the Up. of Gupabhadra is the earliest among the books written on the Jivandhara story (except the Cc.), we have considered. the similarities and the differences in the plot between the Up. and the Cc. in chapter III in an effort to assess the probable Sanskrit influence on the story of the Cc.
1 S. Vaiyapuri Pillai, op. cit.
2 P. V. Comacuntaran, Culamani, edited by South India Saiva Siddhinta works, Tinnevely, 1962, vol. I, pp. 12, 13.
3 "nämänp uraikkun kuraiy en itu nāma ven vel teman alankar virumal netuñcantan ennun tüman tamilin kijavan cutar ära märpin kaman avaiyu teruntar kolappatatanṛe. 4 P. V. Comacuntaran and C. A. Iramacamipulavar,
5 Tikk ettum pukalpataitta viral vicayan puyal anaiya kaiyan tevvaik Kaikkotti nakaikkum ikar karveliy
araiyan vala natark arppap
Commentary written on Culamani v. 4. pokkettum pottum ilan pukalt taruma tirttan malarp patam pūcippin corketta varan tolamoli culamaniy unarvör tural kantore.
P. K. Comacuntaran, Introduction to Culamani, op. cit. p. 12.

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CHAPTER II
THE SOCIAL, RELIGIOUS AND LITERARY BACKGROUND
In the previous chapter the question of the date of the Cc. has been discussed, In the following chapters, the interaction of Sanskrit in the Cc. from the point of view of the story, literary traditions, religion and language will be analysed. Before analysing these, there arises a need to consider the following factors in brief : (i) the political. social, religious and literary background in which the Cc. was written, and (ii) the historical development of the interaction of Sanskrit with Tamil literature before the period of the Cc. As the Cc. is a Jain epic (kavya), and the main motiva. tion of the poet to write this epic is the desire to propound Jaina religious doctrine, the developnient of Jaininism in Tamil land will be stressed while analysing the above two aspects.
The admixture of Aryan elements in Tamil land can be seen even in the Cankam poems the earliest Tamil literary works. Unlike in North India, where speakers of Indo-Aryan bad to fight and struggle to establish themselves, in South India their entry seems to have been peaceful. Even though the Tamils had a well established culture, a social structure, and literary traditions of their own, there began the steady and gradual infiltration of Aryan influence in the life of the Tamils. This influence, though it was not on anything like the large scale in which it is found in later periods, can be seen to have already begun in Cankam literature. There are poems in the Cankam anthologies which are ascribed to poets having Sanskrit names. Irācamāpikkanāri points to some authors of verses in the Narriņai whose names are of Sanskrit origin. For example, Câtevanār (Skt. Sāhadeva), Kapilan (Skt. Kapila), Ukkirapperuvaluti (Skt. Ugra + Tamil peru-valuti), Kācipan (Skt. Kaśyapa ), Tevan (Skş. Deva ), etc. Likewise he also quotes about thirty Sanskrit names among the poets who composed the Kuruntokai poems. For example, Uruttiran (Skt. Rudra ), Kulapati (Skt. Kulapati); etc. There are also Sanskrit names among the poets who composed the other Cankam anthologies.
Apart from the names of the poets, there are also references in the poems of Cankam literature, in which the names of the kings have titles in Sanskrit which indicate the sacrifices they performed. The names Pāoţiyan-pal-yāka-cālai-mutukuțumis (the Pandya who had many sacrificial halls ) and Irācacayam-vētta-perunark-killis 1 M. Irācamāņikkaņār, "Tamil moli ilakkiya varalaru' (History of Tamil Literature), Madras,
1961, p. 169. 2 M. Iracamāņikkaņār, op. cit. p 164. 3 Pur ananūtu, v. 64. 4 Ibid, v. 367.

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Study of Civakacintāmaņi
(the Perunarkkilli who performed Rājasuya sacrifice!) serve as good examples. These show the predilection the Tamil kings had for Vedic sacrifices. A detailed description of sacrificial rites can be seen in the 160th poem of the Puranānuru. There are also other references to penances and sacrifices in Cankam literature. The introduction of sacrifices and Vedic rituals also brought along with it the Aryan gods like Śiva, Vişnu, Brahma, Indra, Skanda. etc. to Tamil literature. There are also references in Cankam works to Vişnu's several incarnations, the five elemeats (pancabhūta), etc.5
Besides there, these is also 4 multitude of Sanskrit purānic incidents mentioned in poems like the Paripāțal and the Kalittokai, which are of late Cankam period, The burning of the three aerial cities by Siva, the battle between Lord Muruga and Śūrapadma," the plans of Duryodhana to kill Pāndavas in the palace of lac,g the churning of the milk ocean,9 Rāvana lifting Mount Kailāsa, 10 Bhima breaking Duryodhana's thigh, 11 the birth of lord Saņmukba, 13 the story of Ahalyā 1 8 etc, are referred to in these works.
In addition to the religious and mythological lore and its impact on literary and social life, the day-to-day intermingling of people at all levels of society caused a certain amount of cultural and liaguistic mixture. The linguistic aspects of this have been considered in chapter VI.
An inspection of post Cankam works shows definite increase in the extent of Sanskrit interaction. The rise of the Pallava kings in seventh century A.D. led to an increase in Sanskrit influence. Foreign invasions like that of the Kalabhras brought in a lot of changes. During this time Buddhists and Jains migrated into Tamil land in large numbers.
We do not know exactly when the Jains first came to Tamil land. The names of poets like Uloccaņār14 and Mātīrttan show the presence of Jaina poets in earlier times, 15 Even though there are a few references to Jains in Cankam literature, Jains do not appear to have attained the importance enjoyed by the Aryan brahmins dur. ing this time, 1 Rājasūya is a great sacrifice or religious ceremony performed at the coronation of a supreme
sovereign or universal monarch by the king himself and his tributary princes. Monier Williams,
Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford, 1964, p. 874, col. 2. 2 Puranāņūru vv. 397, 361. Kalittokai, v. 130, 36, 119. 3 Perumpāņārtuppatai, lines 371-73, 402-403. 4 Panca-bhūta, are earth, fire, air, water, and akaśa. 5 Ref. K. K. Pillay, “Aryan influence in Tamilabam during Sangam epoch", Tamil Culture,
vole XII, Nos. 2 and 3, p. 165 ff. 6 Paripaļal, 5. line 25.
10 Kalittokai, 38. 7 Kalittokai, 27. Paripāļal, 5. line 4.
11 Ibid, 52. 8 Kalittokai, 25.
12 Paripāļal, 5. lines 27-49. 9 Paripatal, 2. lines 71-72; 3. lines 33-34. 13 Ibid, 19. lines 50-52. 14 Tamil, Uloccu, Skt. lunca-Pulling out the hair on one's head with one's own hands. The name
Uloccaņār would have come from this ritual which is performed by Jains. 15 S. Vaiyapuripillai, History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras, 1965, p. 59.

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The social, religious and literary background
The establishment of the Dravida Sanga in South India is a definite landmark in the introduction of Jainism into Tamil land. In a Jaina religious work, Digambara Darjanasara which was obtained from Anhilwäd Patan, Devasenea (A.D. 853), the author of the work, states that in the year A.D. 470 (525 Vikrama Saka) Vajranandi, the pupil of Pajyapada founded the Dravida sanga in Mathura of the Deccan. 1 S. R. Ayyangar and B.S. Rao, in their work "Studies in South Indian Jainism" point out that the same source also reveals that the sanga was an association of Digambar Jains who migrated to the south with the view of spreading Jainism. This sanga consisted of four divisions, Nandi-ganam, fena-ganam, Sipha-ganam, and Deva-gapam. From the above evidence it is clear that Jainism had a place in Tamil land in the fifth century A.D. Apart from this evidence we have mainly to rely on Tamil literature to deduce the position of Jainism in Tamil . nd.
The Jains and Buddhist who came to Tamil land, unlike Aryan brahmins, mixed freely with the common people. Though the religious rituals, mythological stories and social behaviour of brahmins attracted the Tamil kings and the people, the religious books of the brahmins-the sacred Vedas-were never accessible to the layman. They were considered sacred and the common mass remained in ignorance of the teachings of Vedas. This attitude towards religious doctrines did not exist among Jains. "They believed" as Winternitz says, that "[their]... religion [is] not only for human beings of all races and classes but even for animals, gods and denizans of hell". They always ensured that their religious doctrines and literary works were accessible to the people. It is because of their desire to share their knowledge that they wrote their canonical writings and earliest commentaries in Prakrit dialects (Ardhamagadhi and Maharaṣṭri).4 But in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D. most of the works were written in Sanskrit. When the Jains came to Tamil land they made none of their religious writings unavailable to the layman. The Jains learned Tamil and their religious teachings were imparted in Tamil. This approach in introducing their religion served to attract people towards Jainism and led to the acquisition of royal support and patronage. Though the Buddhists who came to Tamil land were as eager as the Jains in propagating their religion, it cannot be denied that the Jains have had a greater share in Tamil cultural and literary evolution.
45
Most of the literary works which came into being between the end of the Cankam period and the Pallava reign, except the Cilappatikaram and the Manimekalai, were didactic in nature. They are classified as the collection Patinepkilkkrpakku, (eighteen minor works). Of these, the Nalatiyar, the Palamoli naturu, the Cirupancamalam, and the Elati are Jain works. The progresssively increasing influence of Sanskrit can be seen in these Patioenkilkkanakku works. In the Jain works a great number of Sanskrit
1 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay, Vol. XVII, No. XLIV, Peter Petersons's report on the search for Sanskrit Manuscripts in the Bombay circle, p. 74.
2 S. R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, Studies in South Indian Jainism, Madras, 1922, p. 52.
3 M. Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, Calcutta, 1933, Vol. II, p. 425.
4 M. Winternitz, op. cit., p. 427

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Study of Civakacintamani
words came to be used to elaborate the importance of the code of conduct. These will be considered in chapter VI. In these Jaina works, unlike in the Cc. where all the aspects of Jainism are discussed, importance is given mainly to ethical (rather than metaphysical) ideas.
46
The Cilappatikaram, the first Tamil epic (kavya ), contains a good amount of Aryan mythology, ritual, and Sanskrit words. Though there are a few references to Jainism in the Cilappatikaram, there are no religious expositions as found in the Co.; the Manimekalai, which more or, less contains the story of the Cilappatikaram, also has a great number of Sanskrit words. These words are used mostly in the places where Buddhist philosphical ideas are explained. This is explained in the section on Sanskrit loan words in Chapter VI.
The period during which these works were composed was favourable to Buddhists. and Jains. The major reason for this is the patronage of the kings, which they enjoyed along with the public support. Literary works like the Cilappatikaram1 and the Manimekalais furnish evidence that there were religious discourses and debates in the cities. These religious discussions among different religious groups were undertaken with mutual respect. References in these two books also suggest that Jainism enjoyed a stable position in Tamil land. In the tenth chapter of the Cilappatikaram, the Natukan-katai, the Jaina nun Kavunti joins Kövalan and Kannaki on their journey to Madurai, saying that she would like to worship Arivan (Arhat) by listening to the dharma preached by the sinless saints, who had got rid of all their adharma by their purity. There are also references in these works to show that there were wandering ascetics (carapas) who preached Jainism.4
Jainism probably became popular in Tamil land during the reign of the Kalabhras," who came to Tamil some time about A.D. 300 or a little later. These Kalabhras, who were under the influence of the great number of Jains who inhabited Tamil land, even began to persecute the Saiva saints in the country and disregard the whorship of the Hindu gods."
After the Kalabhras, when the Pallavas came into power, Hinduism regained its popularity with the rise of Saiva saints and Vaisnava Ajvars. The prosperous state. of Jainism was soon shaken by this revival of Hinduism. The Saiva saints often condemned the religious practices of the Jains and this fact is clearly seen in their
1 Cilappatikaram, chapter V, Intiravilav-etutta-katai, lines 174-181. 2 Manimekalal, chapter XXVII, Camayakkapakkar-tan-tiran-keta-katai. 3 Cilappatikaram, chapter X, Najukan-katai, lines 55-60.
4 Ibid, X, lines 163, 182, 192. Manimekalai, XI, line 7.
5 S. R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao are of the opinion that these kalabhras came to Tamil land from the Carnatic country. Vide, S. R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, op. cit. p. 55.
6 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 3.
7 S. R. Ayyangar and B. S. Rao, op. cit. pp. 55-56.

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The social, religious and literary background
devotional songs. For example some instances are quoted below :
kuļitt unāv amanar (The Jains who eat without having their bath.)
kurulai eytiya mațavar nirppavē
kuñciyaip parittuttiraļai kaiyil unpavarum2 (The people who pluck their hair from their head, and those who eat their lump of food from their hands in front of young girls..)
In most of the Patikams 3 of the saiva saiat Nanacampantar one can observe that he makes a point of condemning the Jains.
The desire of the Saiva saints and Vaişnava Aļvārs to establish their religion in every possible way led to the Bhakti movement in Tamil land. The devotional hymns of the Saiva saints and Vaisnava Alvārs were set to music and a large amount of Sanskrit purāņic and other mythological stories were freely used. These factors gradually attracted the common mass towards Hinduism, and among them were a large number of Jains.
During this period, religious debates held with a view to establishing the truth of a particular faith were characterised by fanatical fervour rather than tolerance. The Saiva saint Napacampantar, who may have lived in the middle of the seventh century, 4 converted the ruler of the Pandyan kingdom at that time from Jainism to Saivism, This Pandyan king may have been either Māravarman Ayanisulamani (A.D 625-AD. 645)5 or his grandson Arikesari Marāvarman (A.D. 670-A.D. 700). It is knwon from his songs that, Nanacampantar also foiled the conspiracies of Jains and vanquished them in debates. His contemporary and another saiva saint Tirunavukkaracar, who is also known as Appar, has converted the Pallava king Mahendravarman-I (A.D. 580—A.D. 630)8 from Jainism to saivism. Appar was converted to Jainism in his early days and held the name Dharmasena. His name indicates that he belonged to the Sena-ganam of Dravida sangha. He later became a Saivite and contributed many devotional songs to Tamil literature. During this period, there were also two other Saiva saints, Cuntaramūrti and Māņikkavācakar, who contributed the flourishing state of Saivism in Tamil land.
The profusion of Sanskrit mythological stories and words in the devotional songs of the saiva saints and Vaişņava Alvārs indicates the growing influence of Sanskrit. New literary traditions came into vogue and in some of them the distinction between Sanskrit origin and Tamil origin can hardly be distinguished. The mythological
1 Tiru Nanacampanta cuvāmikal Tēvārap-patikan kal Tirumurai, 1, Patikam 114, Tirumárperu,
v.10, Panniru-caivat-tirumurait-tokuti, l'adras 1927, p. 240. 2 Ibid, Tiruvaracilai, v. 10, p. 492. 3 Patikam is a poem in praise of a deity consisting generally of ten stanzas. 4 K. A, Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 415. 5 lbid, p. 152.
7 Ibid, p. 152. 6 Ibid, p. 425.
8 Ibid, p. 150.

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Study of Civakacintamani
episodes in Sanskrit were effectively used to praise the glory of Hindu gods. The introduction of the Pan (melody-type) system of music led to the employment of the Viruttam (vetta) metre. This employment of Viruttam metre also necessitated the use of a large vocabulary consisting of sonorous sounds. Just as the Hindu gods were praised by drawing freely from Sanskrit mythology, so also the musical quality of the songs was heightened by drawing freely from Sanskrit diction.
Though the influence of the Jains waned considerably due to the success of the Bbakti movement, the zeal for religious propaganda could not be extinguished. The different conditions they faced during this period forced a reconsideration of the methods they used to spread Jainism in Tamil land. They begun to realise that it was not possible to attract people towards their religion by mere exposition of righteous religious conduct. Simultaneously there were several transformation coming over the very structure of Jainism. Initially in Jainism the life of a householder was interpreted as just a stage of preparation for the ascetic order or its support and so the code of laws related to the ascetic. But between the fifth century and the thirteenth century A.D., the distinction between the householder and the ascetic came to be recognised and separate laws for the householder were evolved. Books meant for the guidance of the householder like the Adi purana (14th chapter), 2 Rainakarandabrāvakācāra, and Sarvärthasiddhi were written. Jainism, hitherto only a system of philosophy, began to assume the form of a religion. The Jaina monks attempted to evolve new techniques in their works by introducing Hindu mythological stories and religious rites suitably modified according to their religious doctrine. Evidence for Hinduization which took place in this period can be clearly seen in the following works : Adipurāņa of Jinasena, Caritrasāra (C. 1000 ) 3 of Cāmundarāya, and Sāgàradhar māmộta (1240)+ of Āsādhara. 5 The Hindu samskāras were drawn in as kriyās of Jainism. Most of the kriyās like the thread ceremony (upanayana), wedding rituals, etc. are imitated from saņskaras and decked with Jaina symbolism. During the same time, attempts were made to give literary form to the stories of the Jaina saints and their life history. The Mahāpurāņa in Sanskrit exemplifies one such effort.
In Tamil land, Jaina like all the other religious teachers, began to draw their plots from mythological purānic stories. It is also said that Konkuvelir had a Sanskrit version of the Paisāci book of Guņādhya translated by Durviota. As Durvinita's translation is not available now, one is not certain whether the above fact is correct. After Konkuvē ir it was Tēwar who took a Sanskrit story as the theme of his epic (kāvya), Cc.
Tēvar's aim was religious indoctrination. He fitted the abstruse religious doctrine into the form of an ornate epic using the literary form as sugar coating to his religious pill. This was possible because the climate in the country was one of religious 1 A. Williams, Jaina Yoga, A survey of the medieval Sravakācāras, London, 1963, pp. 17-21, 2 14th Chapter of Adipurāna deals with the rituals of a householder, 3 Williams, op. cit. p. 17. 4 Ibid, p. 17. 5 Ibid, p. xxiii.

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The social, religious and literar y background
49
tolerance and co-existence except for the period during which the Jains were severly persecuted. The Cola kings in particular are known to have promoted and safeguarded the interests of non-Hindu communities. There was no distinction drawn between a Jaina village and an Agrahāra, where brahmins lived, and all privileges were given to a Jaina village. During this period Palliccandam lands (lands or village owned exclusively by the Jain and Buddhist religious institutions) were donated by the kings in great number. Even when transactions connected with the administrative authorities of the state were made, special care was taken to safeguard the privileges of these lands. For example, in the Udayendiram plates of Hastimalla records we can see that the Palsiccandam lands of Digambara Jains consisting of two paitis of land were excluded from the gift of the village of Kadaikkottur. This village was granted to the village of Udayendu chaturvēdimangalam by Sembiyan-Māvalivāparāya (i.e. the Ganga-Bāņa king Pịthivipati II) with the permission of his sovereign Parantaka I (A.D. 907-A.D. 955).1
..ip paricu nättaik kūtți nila națappittuk kallum kalliyu nāttip palam paliccantamāna viccātiri pattiyun tēvarpattiyumāna iv iranļu pattiyu nikki...2
(Having assembled accordingly (the inhabitants of) the district (nadu!, having caused (them) to walk over the boundaries of the (granted) land, having planted stones and milk bush (on the boundaries), having excluded the two Pattis called Vichchadiri Patti and Deyar Patti which had been formerly a Pallichchandam..)4
There is also evidence to show that Cola kings and queens built Jaina temples and donated land and wealth for their maintenance.5 Rājarāja I donated the village Anaimangalam to the Buddhist Vihāra called Chulamanivarma vihāra in Nāgapattanam, which was built by the chief of Kaļāram Chùamaņivatman and his son Māravijayotungavarman.
in writing this epic, as we will see in Chapter IV, Tēvár has followed the pattern set by similar pics in Sanskrit. This was facilitated by the popularity of Sanskrit in the conntry. The Pallava kings patronised Sanskrit scholars and poets in their court. We learn that the Pallava king Mahendravarman I (A.D. 580-A.D. 630) composed a delectable farce (prabasana ) Mattavilāsaprahasana in Sanskrit. The impact of Sanskrit on the social life and the culture of the Tamils persisted during the period of the Cola kings. Thus, in the Cola inscriptions also we find a large admixture of Sanskrit.
1 Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 209. 2 South Indian Inscriptions (S.1.1.) Vol. II, Part III, p. 386, Inscription No. 76. 3 Kalli. Euphorbia. 4 Translated by E. Hultzch, p. 387. 5 S.1.1. Vol. I, pp. 67, 68. 6 Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXII, No. 34, pp. 228, 229. 7 K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, op. cit. p. 171.
SC-7

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Study of Civakacintāmaṇi
From the period of the Pallava reign, Tamil land was heading towards a state of progress and stability which culminated in the period of Tamil supremacy during the reign of the Colas in South India. The prosperity of the age was conducive to innovations and novel literary compositions. As trade and commerce flourished, merchants occupied a place next in importance only to that of the kings. The political and social ties which flourished between the merchant community and the royal family could be indicated from the circumstances that four among the eight brides of Civakan hail from the merchant community. The custom prevalent among the Tamil emperors of marrying princesses from various countries for diplomatic reasons could be seen in the narration of Civakan's marriage to the eight girls in the story. The principle that salvation could be achieved even through the normal existence of householder could be also illustrated by the example of Civakau. These presumably are the reasons why Tevar chose the Jivaka story from all the stories of Jaina Saints for his work. He probably had a source book in Sanskrit or Prakrit, as discussed in the first chapter. In chapter III we compare the story of Cc. with that of the earliest available Sanskrit book on the Jivaka story, the Up, in an attempt to assess the Sanskrit influence on the story of Cc.
50

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CHAPTER III
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE JĪVANDHARA STORY IN THE UTTARAPURĀNA AND THE STORY OF THE CIVAKACINTĀMANI AND A DISCUSSION OF THE SANSKRIT MOTIFS FOUND IN
THE CIVAKACINTĀMANI
From very early times Sanskrit episodes appeared in Tamil literature. The Sanskrit purānic and epic stories became popular among the Tamils along with Aryan customs and traditions. Though the Cankam literature appears to be relatively free from the influence of Sanskrit works, there are a few references to the episodes of the two Sanskrit epics, Rāmāyapa and Mahābhārata, and to the other mythological stories. References to these stories are made in eulogies of kings and in descriptions, For example,
alankulaip puraviy aivar oļu cinaii nilan talaik konta polam pun tumpai iraim patinmarum porutu kalast oliyap perunc cörr u miku patam varaiyatu koțuttöy!
(The hundred men (Duryodhana and his brothers) who possessed land fought with the Pandavas, who had the horses adorned with head ornaments. During the fight, you supplied the army with food till the hundred mea were killed.)
Here, the poet Muranciyar Muţinākaņār praises the glory of the Cera king Peruncor rütiyancēralātān by saying that he gave food to the armies of the Pandavas and to Durdodhana and his ninety nine brothers till the latter hundred were killed by the Pandavas. The allusion to the Mahabharata story in praising a southern king alteady shows the liking that the people of Tamil land had for these stories. Similar references to stories from the Mahābhārata are found also in the Cirupāpārruppatai, 9 the Perumpāņārruppatai, 5 the Patirruppattu, 4 the Akanādūru, etc. Like the stories of the Mahabhārata, episodes from the Ranāyana are also mentioned in works like Akadāpuru, the Cirupāņārruppatail and Puranāhūru. For example,
Katunteral irāmanutan puñar citaiyai valitta kaiy arakkan vayviya ñantai nilan cēr mātar aại kanta kurankin cemmukap peruń kilaiy isaip polintanku
..8
1 Pur ananūtu, verse 2, lines 13-16. 2 Cirupāņārt uppaļai, lines 238-241. 3 Perumpānärtuppațai, lines 415-417. 4 Patirt uppattu, verse 14.
5 Akanānūru, verse 233. 6 Ibid, verse 70. 7 Cirupānārr uppațai, lines 119-120. 8 Puranānūru, 378.

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Study of Civakocintamani
(It was like the happiness of the red-faced monkeys who were the relatives of the monkey who found on the ground the ornaments of Citai, the wife of brave Irāman, when she was abducted by the strong-handed arakkan (rākşasa)].
in the above lines, the happiness of the relatives of the ferunan (the bard), who received presents from the Cola king Ceruppaliyerinta-Ilancēcel ni, is compared to that of the relatives of the monkey who found the ornaments which were dropped by Sita when she was taken by Rāvana.
Allusions of this kind to Sanskrit itibāsa stories and to the puranic stories began to proliferate in works like the Paripāțal and the Kalittokai which belong to the later Cankaw period.
As we have already seen, the post-Cankam period was marked by the everincreasing popularity of Sanskrit works in Tamil land. There are references to Sanskrit stories in the Cilappatikāram, the first Tamil epic, though such references are con. paratively fewer than in the Cc. For example :
pillai nakulam perum piritāka elliya manaiyől ninaintu pin cella vata ticaip peyarum mā maraiyalan kațavatancu nin kaitt ūn valkkai vatamoli vūcakam ceyta nıli ēļu kațānari mäntar kai ni kotukkena .. .. .. .. .. .. 1
(A brāhmaṇa, who abandoned his wife because she caused the death of a mongoose (which they were bringing up), started going north. When the wife he had spurned followed him, he said that it was not proper for him to eat food from her hands. He gave her a note containing a Sanskrit verse and asked her to hand it over to people who led a virtuous life.)
This stanza is narrated by the character Māļalan to Kõvalan, in order to praise the noble qualities of Kovalan. The husband of the brahmin lady who had killed the mongoose left her and started going north. Before he left he handed over a note containing a Sanskrit phrase (vatamoli vācakam) and asked her to give that to people who could understand it. She also went round with the note in her hand and met Kovalan. He consoled her and took the note from her. He gave gifts (dana), the merits of which would destroy her sins. He fetched her husband back and gave them enough wealth to maintain them for the rest of their lives. Matalan narrates this incident to praise Kovalan. In this narration the phrase "vatamoli vācakam '8 refers 1 Cilappatikaram, Ațajkkalakkatai, lines 54-59. 2 Here, going north means going to have a holy bath in the Ganges. 3 In the Pancatantra written by Vişnusarma, there is no mention of the brahmin proceeding towards
the north and his wife following him. We do not know whether this sequence is found in any other version of the story. We have also checked this story in the Pañcatantra, a Collection of Ancient Hindu tates in the recension, called Pañcākhyānaka, and dated A.D. 1199 of the Jaina Monk, Purnabhadra critically edited in the original Sanskrit by Johannes Hertel, Harvard Oriental series, Vol. 11, 1903. In this book we cannot find this particular incident narrated,

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A comparative study of the livandhara story..
to the following verse which is given in the fifth tantra of Pancatantra. 1
a parikşya na kartavyam kartavyam supari kșitam, pascad bhavati samtāpo brahmanyam nakulärthataḥ 1/2
(Do not do (anything) without examining. Do what is well examined. (Otherwise) there will be pain as happened to brahminee because of a mongoose.)
The Manimēkalai, the epic written after the Cilappatikāram, also contains a few references to Sanskrit popular tales For example :
koţik kocampikkömakan äkiyu vațit tért tānai vattavan-tannai vañcam ceytuli van talai vițiiya uñcai yir tonriya yūki antaņun uruvukku ovvā uru nõy kantu parivuru makkaļil tam pariv eyti
([There gathered around her a crowd, much like the crowd that had collected around Yaugandharāyaṇa when he assumed the disgusting disguise of a man suffering from disease, and entered the streets of Ujjain for the purpose of releasing Udayana, his master, from the prison into which Pradyota, the king, had thrown him.)+
Here the poet Cattanār in describing the crowd which gathered around Manimēkalai who became a Buddhist nun after receiving instructions from the sage Aravana Atikal, alludes to the similar incident which took place in the story of Udayana. Here the point of the comparison will be missed without a knowledge of the Udayana story referred to. Pradyota, the king of Ujjain, captured Udayana by deceit. His minister Yaugandharāyaṇa came to free him, disguised as a person suffering from a deadly disease. The people of Ujjain felt sorry for him when they saw him. Their sorrow is compared to that felt by the people of Pukār when they saw Maņimēkalai in the garb of a Buddhist nun.
The Udayana story from which the above incident is taken was a popular theme in Sanskrit literature. In the later period it is also often alluded to in Tamil literature. This story of Udayana is the first Sanskrit story to have been taken as the source of a Tamil epic. It is used as the main theme of the literary work, the Perunkatai. Before the period of the Perunkatai, only allusions were made to Sanskrit stories in Tamil works, while the plots were always of Tamil origin. Konkuvēlir, the author of the Perunkatai, was the forerunner of Tēvar in dealing with a Sanskrit story in Tamil. 1 Ațiyārkkunallar, commentary on Ațaikkalahkātai, Cilappatikaram, Jines 54-75. 2 Visušarman, Pascatantra, Nirnaya Sāgara edition, Bombay, 1902, Vth Tantra, verse 18. 3 Manim ēkalai, 15, lines 61-66. 4 Translated by S. Krishnaswami Aiyanagar, Manimekalai in its historical setting. London,
1928, p. 149.

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Study of Civakacintamani
As we have discussed in the first chapter of this thesis, we do not exactly know which was the source for Tēvar's work. As the Up. is the earliest available source among the Sanskrit and Prakrit texts which deal with the story of Jivandhara, in this chapter we compare the Jivandhara story of the Up. with the story of the Cc. In the Up. the story of Jivandhara is related in a prosaic manner. We do not find many descriptions or any literary flourish. Stories within the main story sometimes impede the flow of the narrative. One can find in the story of the Cc. many novel features and variations which are not found in the Jivandhara story of the Up. The similarities and the variations found between the story of the Jivandhara in the Up. and the story of the Cc. can be analysed under three headings :
1. Contents of the story 2. Sequence of events 3. Characters
The Contents of the Story We shall now see the similarities, the variations and the differences found between the contents of the Jivandhara story of the Up. and the story of the Cc. As the Jivandhara story in the Up. is narrated in one long story without any sub-divisions in it, here we analyse the story according to the chapters found in the Cc. 1. Nāmaka! Ilampakam (The birth and the education of Civakan)
The Jivandhara story in the Up. begins with King Śreņika asking the chief disciple Sudharma about the ascetic Jivandhara. The whole story of Jivandhara is related through the mouth of Sudharma, and here the story is related only after the renunciation of Jivandhara. But in the Cc. the story starts from the birth of Cīvakan and is related up to the renunciation of Civakan. The whole story is aarrated by the author Tēvar and the question of the king Cēņikan (Sreņika) and the answer to it given by the ascetic Cutanmar (Sudharma) is included in the last ilampakam, after the renunciation of Civakan. Here, the reply of Cutanmar contains only the description of the way in which Civakan attained salvation after renouncing the world, and not the whole story.1
The country in which the story takes place is the same in both books and the main characters are also the same.
The Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc.
In the country Hemāngada, the king Satyandhara (Caccantan in the Cc.) ruled in the city called Rajapuram. His queen was Vijaya (Vicayai in the Cc.) and his minister Kasthāngāraka ( Kattiyankāran in the Cc. ). One day the queen had two dreams. In one, the king gave her a crowo adorned with eight golden bells, 1 and in the other, an asoka tree under which she was standing was cut off with an axe by
1 Ibid, verses 3059-3086. 2 The variation found in the Cc. about this incident will be discussed later.

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A comparative study of the Jivandhara Story
somebody and from the root a young tree grew up. The queen, being anxious to know the results of her dreams, went to the king and asked what they meant. The king explained the good and the bad implications of the dreams. After some days the wicked minister Kästhängāraka came to kill the king. The king, who realised his situation, sent away his wife, who was pregnant, in an aerial car. In the fight between the king and the minister, the minister slew the king. The queen, who went in the aerial car, descended in a cemetery, where she gave birth to a son. She was helped and consoled by a yaksi. In the meantime Gandhotkata (Kantukkatan in the Cc.). a merchant, came there to dispose of the dead body of bis son. Gandhotkaja, hearing the cry of a child, went near him and fetched him. He took the child home, and handed him over to his wife. He pretended to be angry and told his wife that she had given him the child, which was still alive, to be buried. Vijays, after the child had been taken by Gandhotkaça, went to the Dapdaka forest where the ascetics dwell, and resided there. Jivandhara grew into a boy; one day while playing with his friend he met an ascetic and took him home and gave him food. The ascetic conceived an affection for Jivandhara, and undertook the charge of educating him. He told him that he was the king Äryavarma, and imparted khowledge of all the sciences to Jivandhara and his companions. After some days Aryavarma attained salvation. The variations found in the story of the Ce
(1) In the story of Jivandhara in the Up., when the characters Satyandhara and Vijays, the parents of Jivandhara, are introduced for the first time, they are married.8 But in the Cc. they are not married when they are first introduced in the story. Their marriage arrangements, wedding and the other celebrations are described in detail.
(ii) The two dreams which Vijaya had in the Up. are made into one in the Cc. and there is also variation in the contents of the dream. According to the Cc., an aśoka tree fell down with all its flowering branches and from the root of the tree a young sprout came up with a crown adorned with eight garlands on it. Therefore in the Cc., unlike in the Up., the king did not give a diadem to Vicayai and also the tree was not cut by an axe. The crown did not have eight bells but eight garlands. (iii) The portrayal of the character Kattiyankaran is altered in the Cc. According to the Up., Käsṭhängäraka killed king Satyandhara because he feared his own death. The domestic priest Rudradatta was angry because in the early morning the queen refused him an audience with the king, as the king was still asleep. He went and asked Katthängarāka to kill the king Satyandhara. When Kasthangaraka refused to do so, he predicted that if Kasthängaraka did not kill the king, the son of the king would kill Kasthangaraka. This scared Kasthangaraka and he killed the king. Though he obtained the kingdom, it gave him no happiness. Therefore the only reason he killed the king was to save his own life. In the Co Kaiyankaran is portrayed as a wicked traitor who usurped the kingdom of Caccantan by murdering him. Caccantan
1 Up. loc. cit. v. 189.
2 Cc, vv. 157-198.

55
3 Cc. v. 223.
4
Up. loc. cit. vv. 207-223.

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entrusted his kingdom to Kaiyankaran in order to enjoy himself with his queen Vicayai. Katiyankaran took this opportunity to kill the king. To gain the support of the other ministers he made up a story that a deity who was angry with the king had been inciting him to kill the king.1
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(iv) In the Up., after the dream of Vijaya, the event in which Gandhotkata met the ascetic Silagupta is narrated. Gandhotkata asked the ascetic whether he would have any long-lived sons as all his sons were dead. The ascetic predicted that he would obtain a virtuous son who would rule the earth. This event is not narrated in this place in the Cc. But it is narrated by Kantukkatan. in the Kunamalaiyar ilampakam, who consoled Cunantai and Kupamalai when Civakan was punished by Kattiyankaran
(v) According to the Up., when Gandhotkaja heard the voice of a child, he went towards the child calling out Jiva, Jiva.' In this context the poet says that he went towards the child calling 'Jiva, Jiva' as if it were the future name of the child, Jivandhara. This is not mentioned in the Cc. Tevar gives another reason for naming the child Civakan. According to the Cc. the child sneezed when Kantukkkatan went to fetch the child, and at that time a voice blessed him saying 'crva' (jiva) 'Live long. It is because of this blessing that the child is named Civakan.5
(vi) In the Up., the queen Vijaya, hearing the voice of Gandhotkața, made herself known to him and handed over her child to him saying, "Bring up my son unknown to others." In the Cc., Vicayai did not come out of her place of hiding.
(vii) The introduction of the teacher of Jivandhara in the Up. and in the Cc. are different. In the Up., Jivandhara met his teacher while playing with his friends. On the request of the teacher he took him home and gave him food. After food, the ascetic revealed his past history and expressed his desire to teach Jivandhara. He imparted the knowledge of all sciences to Jivandhara and afterwards he attained salvation by exercising self-control. This part is narrated in a different way in the Cc. The past life of the teacher is related only after the education of Civakan. Before this event, in the Cc. Têvar introduces another important event which is necessary for the growth of the rest of the story, and which is not found in the Up. Accaṇanti. the teacher of Civakan, narrated the story of the birth of Civakan and the story of his parents to Civakan. On hearing this, Civakan was angry and got ready to kill Kaiyankaran. But his teacher pacified him and asked him to wait for one year. Civakan agreed to the condition. This one year is an important period in the life of Civakan, and the whole preparation for the fight with Katiyankaran takes place in this time.
1 Ce. v. 241.
2 Up. loc. cit. vv. 201-204.
3 Cc. vv. 1122-1131.
4 Up. loc. cit v. 243.

5 Cc. vv. 323, 361.
6
7
8
Up. loc. cit. vv. 244, 245.
Ibid, loc. cit. v. 274.
Cc. vv. 385-390.

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In the Up. Jivandhara did not know anything about his parents till he was told by the celestial (khecara). He met the celestial after the marriage of Hemābba (Kanakamālai in the Cc.). Di fferences found between the Up. and the Cc.
(i) In the Up. the ascetic Šilagupta predicted to Gandhotkața that he would find a son who would rule the earth, in a cemetery where he would go to dispose of the dead body of his own son. This prediction is heard by a yakşi and she went to the royal palace to assist the mother in the birth of that son. This is not narrated in the Cc.
(ii) The visit of the ascetic Rudradatta, his request to see king Satyandhara, the refusal of permission by the Queen Vijayā, the anger of Rudradatta, his visit to the house of Kāşthāngaraka, his request to Kāsthangāraka to kill the king and his prediction that the son of the king will kill Kāşthāngārakal are not narrated in the Cc. 2. Kovintaiyār ilampakam Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc.
The hunters approached the cow pen in order to seize the cows in Hemangada. When the king Kāşthāngāraka was informed about it, he proclaimed that the virtuous virgin Godāvari, the daughter of Gopendra and Gopasri, would be given to the one who could recover the cows. On hearing this, Jivandbara went to bring back the cows. He defeated the enemy and brought back the stolen cows. The whole country rejoiced over the victory of Jivandhara. The sons of Vaisyas made the king give Godāvari ip marriage to Nandadhya.2 (Patumukan in Cc.) Variations found in the Cc.
(i) In the Up. the name of the chief of the forest-dwellers is given as Kalakūta. 3 This name is omitted in the Cc. and it is only said that the cows were stolen by hunters.
(ii) in the Up., the king Kāşthāngaraka proclaimed that the virgin Godavari would be given to him who shall recover the cows. But in the Cc. this has been altered. First, when the cowherds reported to the king Kattiyankāran he sent his army. The king's army failed to recover the cows. Being disappointed, the chief of the cowherds, Kõvintan, proclaimed that he would give his daughter to the one who retrieved the cows from the enemy. On the victory of Civakan it was Kövirtan who gave away his daughter to Civakan and not Kattiyankāran. Civakan accepted her to give her in marjiage to Patumukan and not to Nantāttiyan as stated in the Up."
(iii) In the Up., it is said that Jivandhara accompanied by Kalangāraka (the son of Kāşthāngāraka) went to fight the enemy. But in the Cc. the character Kalāngāraka is not introduced into the story at all. 1 Up. v. 284.
2 Up. v. 296. 3 Up. loc. cit. vv. 284 296. 4 Ibid, loc. cit. v. 288. 5 Cc. v. 440. 6 Ibid, vv. 477-482. 7 lbid, v. 489.
Sc-8

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The difference between the Up. and the Cc.
(i) The prediction of the astrologers to the hunters who wanted to steal the cows of the cowherds, that there would be evil, and the prediction of the foreteller of the omens to the cowherds that there was going to be evil, which is narrated in the Cc., are not found in the Up. These incidents are narrated in the Cc, according to the Vetci and Karantai war, the two kinds of war found in the early Tamil literary tradition. 1 3. Kāotaruvatattaiyār ilampakam
The story of Kāntaruvatattai is one of the longest episodes in the Cc. Though the main section of the story is similar to the Up., there are many variations and differences in the rest of the story, and in the sequence of events. Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc.
Gandhai vadattā, the daughter of the Vidyādhara king Garudavega and queen Dhāriņi, was taken to Rajapuram by Jinadatta, to get married according to the prediction made earlier. In Rājapuram, Jinadatta erected a ball and proclaimed that Gandharvadattā would be given in marriage to the one who could defeat her in the lute competition. All the people who wanted to marry her came and competed with her. But all of them failed. At last Jivandhara went to the hall and played the lute, and won her. Gandharvadattā who had fallen in love with Jivandhara, garlanded him. The variations found in the Cc.
(i) In the Up., Matisāgara, the minister of Garudavega (Kaluļavēkan in the Cc.) came to know all about the future life of Gandharvadatta from the ascetic Vipulamati. Jinadatta (Citattan in the Cc.) and Garudavega were friends and Jinadatta went to visit his friend in his house. This part of the story is not found in the Cc. The introduction of Citattan is effected in an entirely different way. According to the Cc. Cytattan, after a shipwreck in which he lost all his wealth and friends, met a celestial called Taran, who was sent by Kalulavēkan (Garudavega). Taran explained to Citattan that the shipwreck was caused deliberately by him in order to bring Citattan to their land. He took Citattan to the court of the king, where the king handed over his daughter to Citattan. The king also told him about the prediction of the astrologers and asked Citattan to give her in marriage to the one who won her in the lute competition.
Therefore, the meeting of Kalulavēkan and Citattan in the Cc. is narrated in a different way from the Up.
(ii) In the Up., after Gandharvadattā had garlanded Jivandhara, Kalangāraka, the son of Kāşthangāraka, made an attempt to abduct Gandharvadattā,3 But in the Cc., the character Kalangāraka is never introduced. It was Kattiyankāran who insti. gated other kings to fight against Civakan. 1 Infra, p. 149. 2 Up. loc. cit v. 322 3 Ibid, loc. cit. v. 340. 4 Cc. vv. 741-757.

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(iii) In the Up., the father of Gandharvadatta knew that his daughter was going to get married to Jivandhara.1 But in the Cc., till Civakan won Kantaruvatattai in the lute competition, nobody knew that she was going to marry Civakan. As the Cc, omits the section in which Matisagara, the minister of Garudavega, related the future of Gandharvadatta, this section is also excluded.
Difference found between the Up. and the Ce.
(i) According to the Up., Gandharvadatta's father Garudavega, who was skilled. in diplomacy, became the mediator between the parties who were fighting and pacified them. This event is not found in the Cc. Here Civakan fought with his enemies and defeated them.
4. Kupamalaiyar ilampakam
As will be shown later in the section about characters, 3 the names Guņamālā and Suramanjari are interchanged. The story of Gupamala in the Cc. is narrated as the story of Suramanjarı and vice versa in the Up. Except for the change in names, all the other incidents are more or less the same.
During the spring the citizens of Rajapuram went to enjoy sports. Two friends. Suramañjarī and Gunamālā started an argument over their scented powder. Their maids took the powders and went to Jivandhara for judgement. Jivandhara. decided that the powder of Suramanjari (Kunamālai in the Cc.) was the better one. To prove it he took both powders in his hands and scattered them. A swarm of bees, attracted by the sweet smell, ate the powder of Suramanjari. Both girls departed. After this incident, some naughty boys harassed a dog, and the dog out of fear jumped into a pond, and there it was about to die. Jivandhara had it retrieved and spoke into its ears the words of veneration. As soon as it heard the words of veneration it became a yakṣa called Sudarjana. Sudarjana asked Jivandhara to think of him whenever he was in any calamity. Having said that he returned to his abode.
When Suramanjari was returning home after the sports, the elephant Ajanivega became intoxicated and ran towards the carriage of Suramanjari. Using his skill Jivandhara controlled the elephant. From the time of this incident Suramanjari fell in love with Jivandhara. Her parents, who came to know about her love, gave her in marriage to Jivandhara with the permission of his foster-parents.
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The wicked king Kaṣṭhāngāraka attacked Jivandhara with an army for humiliating his elephant. When Jivandhara defeated that army, Kasthängaraka, sent another army,4 As Jivandhara thought that there was no use in fighting and killing the innocent army, he remembered his friend the yaksa and went with him to his abode. Variations found in the Kunamalaiyar ilampakam
(i) According to the Up., after hearing the judgement made about the the scented powders by Civakan, the two girls went away without any enmity. But in the Co.,
3 Infra.
1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 310-312.
4 This is only narrated in the Up.
2 Up. loc. cit. v. 343.

5 Up. loc. cit. v. 354.

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Curamancari was not at all pleased with the judgement made by Jivandhara. From that day onwards she decided not to see any men until Civakan went back to her. This decision of Curamancari is related in the latter part of the Up., in the story of Gunamala (Curamancari in the Cc.).1 Tēvar has made it clear even in the story of Kupamālai.
(ii) In the Up., the dog which turned into the yakșa Sudarsana was beaten by a a group of boys. But according to the Cc., it was some brahmins who beat the dog.3,
(iii) In the Up., when Kāşthāngāraka attacked Jivandhara for the second time Jivandhara did not fight, and he thought that it would be of no use to kill the innocent people. But in the Co., Kattiyankāran did not send an army to fight with Civakan. He sent people to arrest him. Civakan did not fight because he had to abide by the promise he had given to his teacher. This is the only reason why he thought of his friend Cutancaqan for help. Differences found between the Up, and the Cc.
(i) In the Cc. Kattiyankāran ordered his cousin Matanan to kill Cıvakan. But when Civakan remembered his friend Cutancanan (Sudarśana in the Up.), the latter caused rain and thunder to take Civakan away without the knowledge of others. Matanan who had missed Civakan in the tumult caused by Cutancapan killed a wayfarer and showed his blood to Kattiyankāran, saying that it was the blood of Civakan wbo had been killed by him. Kattiyan kārap thought that it was true and presented him with gifts. 4 This incident is not found in the Up.
(ii) In the Cc., when Patumukan, Civakan's friend, heard about the imprisonment of Civakab by Kattiyankāran, he went with Putticenan and other friends to fight with Kattiyankaran.5 This incident is not found in the Up. 5. Patumaiyār ilampakam
In this ilampakam only the main story of Padmottama is similar in both books. In most of the other events connected with the main story one can find a number of variations. Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc.
Jivandhara, after staying for some time with Sudarsana, expressed his desire to leave his place. Sudarsana gave him a ring which would enable the bearer to assume any desired appearance and to acquire desired objects. Jivandhara went from the palace of Sudarsana to the country Candrabha of King Dhanapati. At that time when Civakan arrived at that country, the daughter of King Dhanapati, Padmottama, was bitten by a snake. Jivandhara by pronouncing a spell freed the princess from the effects of the poison. The king, pleased by the act of Jivandhara, gave his daughter to him in marriage. Jivandhara after staying in the palace of Dhanapati for some days, left it without the knowledge of anyone.
1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 594-595 2 Ibid, loc. cit. vv. 359-360. 3 Cc. vv. 934-946. 4 Ibid, vv. 1161-1165.
5 Cc. w. 1134-1144.

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Variations found in the Patumaiyār ilampakam
(i) According to the Up., Sudarsana gave Jivandbara a ring which would help the bearer to gain any desired form or desired object. 1 But in the Cc., Cutancanan taaght Civakan three mantras which could produce the following effects2:
(i) to cure poison (ii) to assume any desired form
(iii) to make his voice sweet. These mantras are introduced by Tēvar, because they are important for the development of the story. In the Patumaiyār ilampakam Civakan used the first mantra, i.e. the mantra which helps to cure the poison. In the Curamancariyār ilampakam he used the other two. He assumed the form of an old man and sang sweet songs to attract the attention of Curamancari.
(ii) In the Up., the King Dhanapati, the father of Padmottamā, proclaimed when his daughter was bitten by the snake that he would bestow his daughter and half the kingdom to him who freed her from the poison. This proclamation made by the king is not mentioned in the Cc. According to the Cc., when Civakan, entered the country of king Tanapati, he met the prince of the country, Ulokapalan, the brother of Patumai, at a dance recital given by Tēcikappavai. The news that Patumai had been bitten by a snake reached Ulokapalan while he was with Civakan. On hearing the news Ulokapālan rushed to see his sister, leaving Civakan. But, later on, when Ulokapalan failed to cure his sister from poison, he asked his servants to bring Civakan. Civakan cured Patumai and the king, being pleased, offered his daughter to Civakan. Differences found in the Patumaiyar ilam pakam
(i) In the Cc., when Civakan expressed Cutancaman the desire to leave the house of Cutancanan, the latter told him that Civakan would kill Kattiyankāran and regain the kingdom in twelve months' time. This prediction of Cutancapan is not found iš the Up.
(ii) According to the Cc. before Civakan reached the city of Captirāpam, he preached Jaina doctrine to a hunter who offered him meat and honey. This incident is not narrated in the Up.5
(ii) According to the Cc., Civakan helped a herd of elephants from a forest fire by causing a shower of rain. This incident is not related in the Up.
(iv) According to the Cc., Técikappavai, a dancing girl in whose dance recital Civnkan met Ulokapālan the brother of Patumai for the first time, fell in love with Civakan.? Civakan united with her after his marriage with Patumai in the park. 8 This episode is not found in the Up. 1 Up. loc. cit. v. 388. 2 Cc. v. 1218.
3 Up. loc. cit. vv. 392–393. 4 Cc. vv. 1220-1221.
5 lbid, vv. 1230-1236. 6 Ibid, v. 1237. 7 Ibid, vv. 1253-1261. 8 Ibid, vv. 1355-1357.

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(v) According to the Cc., Civakan, who had fallen in love with Patumai, when he cured her from the effect of poison, met her in the park afterwards and united with her before she was given in marriage to him by her father, 1 The whole description of the incident which took place in the park is according to the early Tamil literary traditions. This is not narrated in the Up.
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(vi) According to the Cc., Civa kan after he left Patumai gave all his ornaments. to a traveller. This incident is not narrated in the Up.
(vil) According to the Cc.. Civakan told the servants who were sent by King Tanapati to search for Civakan, that Civakan would return to Patumai in nine months' time. This is not found in the Up.
6. Kemacariyar ilampakam
The episode of Kêmacari in the Cc. is the counterpart of the story of Ksemasundar in the Up. Except for the fact that Civakan married Kemacari, all the other parts of the story are different. Comparatively this is one of the smallest episodes in the Cc. and the Up. According to the Up., an ascetic had predicted that Kşemasundari would get married to the one on whose arrival the doors of the Jaina temple in that country would open automatically, and the campaka flowers and the other kinds of flowers would appear. But this has been changed by Tevar. In the Cc. it is narrated that according to the prediction Kamacari would feel shy for the first time in her life when she met the man who was to be her husband.
7. Kanakamālaiyār lampakam
The Kanakamalaiyar ilampakam contains a great number of episodes and new events other than the main story. Most of these episodes are found only in the Cc. Even the main story is very different from the story of the Up. According to the Up., Jivandhara won Hemabha (Katakamālai in the Cc.) by showing his skill in archery. Astrologers had predicted that Hemābhā would marry the man who could dispatch an arrow so that it turned round the target and flew back. Jivandhara, who could shoot like that, was offered Hemabha, the daughter of Dridhamitra.
The story is different in the Cc. In the Cc. Civakan first met the prince of the country, Vicayan, the brother of Kanakamalai. Civakaв helped him to pluck some mangoes. Vicayan, who was astonished by the skill of Civa kau, introduced him to his father Tatamittan, the king of the country Emamapuram. The king asked Civakan to teach archery to his sons, and Civakan agreed to do so. The king, pleased with the skill of Civakan, gave his daughter to him in marriage. After the marriage of Jivandhara and Hemabha Nandadhya went to see Jivandhara with the help of Gandharvadatts.
After Nandadhya went to see Jivandhara, his friends also went to see him with the help of Gandharvadatta. On the way Jivandhara's friends met Jivandhara's mother
1 Cc. v. 1329.
2 Ibid, vv. 1115-1137.
3 Ibid, v. 1409.
4 Ibid, vv. 1410-1411

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Vijaya and she, knowing that they were her son's friends, asked them to bring bim with them when they came back. His friends, when they entered Hemābhapuram, plundered the property of the merchants in that country (this incident is described differently in the Cc. and it will be dealt with in the section dealing with the variations) and Jivandhara went to fight with them and bring the lost property. There Jivandhara found the arrows dispatched by the enemy were marked by his own name and recognised that the enemies with whom he fought were his own friends. They all joined Jivandhara and stayed with him for some time. They told him about their encounter with Jivandhara's mother. Hearing the news of his mother Jivandhara started to see his mother in the Dagdaka forest.
Variations found in the Story of the Cc.
(i) According to the Up. Gandharvadattä visited Jivandhara very often. But in the Cc. Kantaruvatattai did not go to see Civakan at all. She only knew the place. where he was staying by her magical powers.1
(iii) Accarding to the Up. Madhura, the friend of Jivandhara went to visit Jivandhara with his friends 2 But, in the Cc. it is Patumukon who went to see Civakan.
(iii) According to the Up. Madhura and his friends plundered the property of the merchants. But in the Cc. Patumukan and his friends stole the cows of the cowherds and the war is described according to the Tamil poetical traditions of the early Tamil literature, 5
Differences found between the Ce and the Up.
(i) The episode of Anankamävipai, the lady who tried to seduce Civakan, which is narrated in detail in the Cc. is not found in the Up. In the Cc. Anańkam avai's effort to attract the attention of Civakan, his recognition of her intentions, his preaching to her about the impurity of the body, her lover's arrival, her disappearance from the spot where she was standing, the encounter of Civakan with her lover Pavatattan, his advice to him about the unfaithfulness of women, Pavatattan's eagerness to see his lover in spite of the advice given by Civaka and the teaching of a mantra which could help Pavatattan to obtain his wife by Civakans are not narrated in the Up.
(ii) According to the Cc., Civakat, before he married Kavakamalai, sent her at garland with a letter in it through a dwarf woman. Having read that letter Kagakamālai fell in love with Crvakan and sent a love letter back to Civakan through Anahkavilacini. Though Civakan did not want to receive that letter, on the persuasion of Anankaviläcini he received that letter. This incident is not narrated in the Up. (iii) According to the Cc., before Civakan's friends Patumukan, Putticéoan and others started to steal the cows of the cowherds they heard about the victory of
4 Up. v. 561.
1 Cc. v. 1709.
5 Cc. v. 1856ff.

2 Up. vv. 551ff.
6 Cc. vv. 1567-1601.
3 Cc. v. 1767ff. 7 Cc. 1652ff.

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Civakan in controlling the intoxicated elephant, Vaļaiyacuntaram. This event is not narrated in the Up.
(iv) According to the Cc., Kantaruvatattai sent a letter through Civakap's friends who went to see him. In that letter Käotaruvatattai mentioned about the love-lorn condition of Kuņamālai.1
(v) According to the Up. after the story of Hemabhā, the story of the previous births of Nandadhya and his wife, Śricandra, is narrated. These stories are narrated in the Up. in great detail. None of these stories are found in the Cs. Following these stories, the story of the previous births of Jivandhara is also related in the Up. But this story is not narrated in this context in the Cc. It is told in the Myntiyilampakam by the Carapan Manivannan to Civakan.3 There are many differences in the story of Civakan's previous birth narrated in the Up. and the Cc., and these will be dealt with while dealing with the story related in the Muttiyilampakam.
(vi) According to the Up. the yaksa came to visit Jivandhara when he was with his mother and showed respect to them both. This incident is not narrated in the Cc. 8. Vimalaiyār ilampakam
In the Vimalaiyār ilampakam the meeting of Civakan and his mother is narrated. After the narration of this incident, the story of Vimalai is told Similar sections found in the Up. and the Cc.
As Jivandhara entered the town Rājapuram, many kinds of jewels and other articles which were lying unsold were sold away in the shop of the merchant Sagacadatta. As predicted by the astrologers earlier, Sāgaradatta gave his daughter Vimalā in marriage to Jivandhara.
The story of Vimalā in the Up. is comparatively very short; it is narrated in four verses. Variations found in the Story of the Cc.
(i) According to the Up., Jivandbara left his mother after meeting ber in the Daņdaka forest and told her to stay there till he sent an army under the leadership of Nandādhya to fetch her. But in the Cc. Civakan sent his mother to the palace of his uncle, Kõvintan, till the time when he would go there to get ready for the fight with his enemy Kațţiyankāra.
(ii) In the Up., Jivandhara entered Rājamāpuram disguised as a merchant. In the Cc. he did not go in disguise. According to the Cc., Civakan met Vimalai before entering the shop of Cakaratattan. She met him when she was playing, and there she fell in love with him.
9. Curamancariyār ilampakam
Note: The story of Curamancari in the Ccy is narrated as the story of Gunamāla in the Up. 1 Cc. vv. 1767-1768. 2 Up. vv. 438-520. 3 Cc. vy 2856-2890. 4 Ud. vv. 573, 576

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Similar sections found in the Up. and the Cc.
Jivandhara entered the house of Gunamālā (Curamancari in the Cc.) disguised as a wandering ascetic, having decided to win the love of Guņamāla, who had taken a vow not to see any men because Jivandhara did not praise her fragrant powder. Because Jivandhara looked old, the maids of Gunamālā allowed him to go into the house. There he attracted Guņamāla by his sweet music. Entranced by his music, she asked him to teach her the arts. One day Jivandhara showed her his true appearance, and Gunamāla fell in love with him. With the consent of her parents she got married to Jivandhara. Variations found in the story of the Cc.
(i) According to the Up., the princes who were in the court of the king Kașthā. ngāraka asked Jivandhara, who had claimed that he could subject others by the effect of the drugs he had, to win the love of Guņamālā, who had decided not to see any men.1 But in the Cc. Civakan 'did not claim anything. But his friends challenged him to win the love of Curamancari, who had taken a decision not to see men. 2
(ii) In the Cc., the incident where Curamancari saw the true appearance of Civakan is related otherwise than in the Up. In the Up., Jivandhara showed his true appearance when they were alone in a secluded place.3 In the Cc. Curamancari, after hearing the song of the old man, went to the temple of Kaman (the god of love) to pray that she should get Civakan. There when she was praying to the god of love, Putticənan, a friend of Civakan who was already hiding in the temple at the request of Civakan, told her that she would get Civakan. Curamancari was pleased by the prediction, came back home, and saw Civakan. 4 10. Manmaka! ilampakam
In this ilampakam, the victory of Civakan over his enemy Kattiyankāran is described. The entire story related in this ilampakam is different from the story of the Up.
According to the Up., Jivandhara killed Kasthāngāraka after his marriage with Ratnavati (Ilakkaņai in the Cc.) Similar sections in the Up. and the Cc.
King Gopendra of Videha took his daughter to Rājapuram and in that country be proclaimed that his daughter would be given to the one who could hit the machine Chandraka. All the suitors who came to the competition failed and at last Jivandhara succeeded in hitting the machine. King Gopendra gave his daughter in marriage to Jivandhara. This victory incited the jealousy of Kāşthāngāraka and he tried to kidnap 1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 590-595.
3 Up. loc. cit. vv. 629-630. 2 Cc. vy 1999-2001.
4 Cc. v. 2059. Sc-9

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Study of Civakacintamani
Ratnāvati, the wife of Jivandhara (llakkaņai in the Co.) Thereupon, Jivandhara declared his identity and with the help of soldiers, high officials and other dependents of King Satyandhara attacked Kasthāngāraka and killed him. He thus recovered his father's kingdom. Variations found in the story of the Cc.
(i) According to the Up. Ratnāvati made a vow that she would only marry the one who could hit the rotating machine Candraka. But in the Cc. Ilakkanai did not make any vow like that which Ratnavati had made in the Up. In the Cc. the proclamation that Ilakkaņai would be given to the one who could hit the rotating machine which is in the shape of a pig was made by Kovintan, the father of Ilakkaņai.
(ii) According to the story in the Up., Gopendra, the father of Ratnāvati is not the uncle of Civakan. But in the Cc, the father of Ilakkaņai is the uncle of Civakan, Differences found between the stories of the Up. and the Cc.
(i) According to the Cc. before the competition in which Civakan won Ilakkaņai, Kațțiyankāran sent a message to Kõvintan in which he asked Köyintan to accept the kingdom of Caccantan, for Caccantap had been killed by the state elephant. In fact the competition which was arranged by Kõvintan for the hand of Ilakkaņai was a well organised situation where Civakan could meet Kattiyankāran. Kattiyankāran's message in the Cc. is not found in the Up.
(ii) According to the Cc. Kattiyankāran did not know that Civakan was alive until he saw him in the competition, where Civakan succeeded in hitting the machine in the shape of a pig. Tēvar does not reveal this fact till the moment arrives for Civakan to kill Kattiyarikāran. In the Up. Kāșthāngāraka recognised Jivandhara after the marriage of Guņamālā (Curamancari in the Cc.). Jivandhara, after his marriage with Guņamālā, stayed at the abode of Guņamālā for some time, and then with his relatives, surrounded by an army of the four arms ( elephants, chariots, cavalry and infantry), went to the house of his foster father Gandhotkața, riding on his elephant Vijayagiri. On seeing that, Kāșthāngāraka shouted that Jivandhara was mad and not at all scared of him, the king. Then his chief ministers pacified him, saying that Jivandhara had good fate, the help of Gandharvadattā, who was like the goddess of fortune, the company of his unfailing friend the yakşa, his unity with his friends and unshakable courage. They also advised him not to fight with a strong adversary. These sections are not found in the Cc.
(iii) According to the Cc, when Kõvintan related the identity of Civakan, that he was the son of the king Caccantan, a voice in the sky said that Civakan would kill Kattiyankāran. This incident is not found in the Up. 11. & 12. Pūmaka ilampakam and Ilakkaņaiyar ilampakam
In the Cc. the coronation of Civakan is mentioned in the Pūmakaļ ilampakam, and the marriage of Civakan with Ilakkaņai, his reunion with his wives, and his

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A compartive study of the Jivandhara Story..
making Kantaruvatattai, his chief queen, are mentioned in the Ilakkaniayar ilampakam. These incidents are narrated in the Up. in only three verses.1 Tēvar describes these incidents in great detail. These provide him with more opportunities to describe the various things necessary for a mahäkävya (peruňkäppiyam). In the three verses of the Up., the coronation of Jivandhara, his marriage with Ratnavati, the crowning of Gandharvadatta as his chief queen, his union with his mother, foster-mother and wives, his attainment of universal sovereignty, and his enjoyment of pleasures are mentioned.
67
The differences found in the Up. and the Cc.
The following incidents which are found in the Ilakkanaiyar ilampakam of the Cc. are not narrated in the Up. :
(i) Civakan's visit to the temple of Arhat after his marriage with Ilakkanai
(ii) Civaka donating gold pieces to the temple.
(iii) Civakan honouring his foster parents, his brothers, friends, his uncle and other kings.
(iv) Civakan asking the dramatists to write the story of Cutañcana as a drama in order to honour him,
(v) Civakan honouring the banyan tree under which he played when he was a small boy.
(vi) Civaka uniting with Técikappävai who came with a letter pretending to be a friend of Abankamalai.
13. Mutti ilampakam
According to the Up., once when Jivandhara was walking in the park Suramalaya he met the ascetic Vardhamana and accepted his commandments and became. adherent to the Jaina faith. His brother Nandadhya did the same. Another day Jivandhara saw a group of monkeys fighting among themselves. This scene created in him disgust for the world. In the same forest he met a wandering ascetic called Prajastavanka and this ascetic told him about his previous birth as he had heard it already from the celestial (khecara). After this incident he visited the lord of the Jinas (Mahavira), who had arrived in the park Suramalaya. Following this he gave his kingdom to his son Vasundhara, the son born of Gandharvadatts, and renounced the world. His uncle, the other princes, his mother and his wives also renounced the world with him. Having heard all these stories, the king Śrenika saluted Jivandhara and praised his glory.
@..
Variation found in the story of the Cc.
(i) According to the Up. Jivandhara met the ascetic Vardhamana and listened to his religious teachings before the incident in which he saw the monkeys fighting. This
1 Up. loc. cit. vv. 670-673.

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Study af Civakacintamani
encounter with the ascetic Vardhamāna is omitted in the Cc. Even the incident of the fighting monkeys is different. According to the Up., Civakan feels disgusted with the world when he saw the group of monkeys fighting. In the Cc. this incident is narrated as a small episode. According to the Co., Civakan watched two monkeys and saw the male monkey giving a jack fruit to the sulky female monkey, out of love. At that moment the watchman of the garden came there and snatched the jack fruit from them. This incident made Civakan realise the state of this world. He thought that the monkeys and the watchman were celestials who showed him the impermanence of this world and wanted to guide him to salvation.1
(ii) In the Up., a wandering ascetic called Prasastavanka (cāraṇa) told Civakan about his previous birth as he had already heard from the celestial (khechara).9 In the Cc. Civakan heard about his previous birth for the first time from the wandering ascetic (cāraṇa) Maụivannan in the temple of Arhat, where he went with his wives after being disgusted with the world.3 The story of the previous birth of Jivandhara related in the Up. is found in a slightly different form in the Cc.
In the Up., Jivandhara was born in Videha as Jayadratha the son of king Jayandhara and queen Jayavati. One day, Jayadratha separated a young swan from its parents out of curiosity. When the father of the young swan, on seeing his son being taken away, shrieked repeatedly, a servant of Jayadratha killed the parent-swan with his arrow. Jayadratha took the swan home. His mother saw it and asked her son to reunite the young swan with its mother, Jayadratha realised his fault, and reunited the young swan with its mother, after having kept it for sixteen days. After that Jayadratha having enjoyed worldly pleasures for some time, renounced the world and became a god in Sahasrāra. 4 Then, when his heavenly enjoyments had come to an end, he was reborn in this world as Jivandhara. The father of the young swan which had been killed by the servant of Jayadratha waz reborn as Kāşthāngāraka, who killed the father of Jivandhara. Since Jivandhara had separated the young swan from its mother for sixteen days, in this life he was separated from his mother for sixteen years.
The following variations are found in the Cc. in the above story of the previous birth of Jivandhara related in the Up..
(a) In the Cc., Acotaran separated the young swap at the request of his wives. The young swan was brought up by the wives of Acötaran. It was the father of Acītaran who asked him to reunite the young swan with its parents, and not his mother as in the Up. In this context, Tēvar has taken the opportunity to expound the importance of the five vows of a householder, non-killing, non-stealing, truth, celibacy, and non-possession.
1 Cc. vv. 2720-2729. 2 Up, loc. cit, vy. 533-548. 3 Cc. vv. 2856-2890. 4 Sahasrara is the twelfth of the sixteen heavens which are the parts of Kalpa. Kalpa and
Kalpatita are the two parts of the upper world.

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69
(b) In the Cc. there is no mention of the incident where the servant of Acötaran killed the father of the young swan, nor is it said that the father of the young swan was born in this world as Kattiyankāran who killed the father of Cîvakan.
IL
Now we shall sce the similarities and the variations and differences in the names of the characters found in the Up. and the Cc. List ‘A’ will show the similar names found in both texts, the Up. and the Cc. list 'B' will show the variations found in the names of some of the characters found in these texts :
Uttarapurana Civaka Cintamani Uttarapurāna Civaka Cintamani 1. Dhanapati
Tanapati 15. Nandādhya
Nantāttiyan 2. Dhanapāla Tanapālan 16. Nirvștti
Nipputi 3 Dhāriņi
Tārini
17. Satyandhara Caccantan 4. Dedhamitra Tatamittan 18. Sāgaradatta
Cākaratattan Gandharvadattā Kantaruvatattai 19. Subhadra
Cupattiran 6. Garudavega Kalulavēkan 20. Sudarsana . Cutancanan 7. Gunamalā Kupamālai 21. Sudharma
Cutanmar 8. Jayavati
Cayamati 22. Sumitra
Cumittiran 9. Jivandhara
Civakan
23. Suramañjari Curamancari 10. Kamala
Kamalai 24. Śrenika
Cēnikan 11. Kāṣṭhāngāraka Kattiyankāran 25. Tilottamā
Tilottamai 12. Kumāradatta Kumāratattan 26. Vijaya
Vicayai 13. Lokapala Ulokapălan 27. Vimala
Vimalai 14. Gandhotkata Kantukkatan
Among the characters listed above, the names of Guņamālā and Suramañjari have been interchanged, i.e., the story of Suramañjari in the Up. has been changed to the story of Gunamalā in the Cc. and vice versa. The character Ratnāyatı in the Up. has been named Ilakkaņai in the Cc. These changes in names have been also followed by Vädibhasimha in his works the Gc. and the Kc.
Uttara purāņa Civaka Cintamani
Remarks 1 Āryavarma Accañanti The word 'Arya' is the same in both texts. Arya.Skt.
Ajja-Pkt. Acca-Tamil. But, instead of the word "Varma' in the Up. the word 'Nanti' has been introduced
in the Cc. 2. Kşemasundari Kēmacari Instead of 'Sundari' in the Up. 'Cari' is found in
the Cc. 3. Gopēndra Kõvintan The word 'Gopa' is the same in both texts and the word
'Indra' has been changed to Intan' in the Cc. The

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Study of Civakacintāmani
Uttarapurāņa Ciraka Cintāmaņi
Remarks Sanskrit word' lodra' becomes 'Imda' in Prakrit. As there is no soft consonant 'd' in Tamil, the 'd' in Prakrit has changed into the hard consonant 't' and following this preceding nasal . m' also has changed
into 'n'. 4. Godāvari Kovintai The word 'Go' is the same in both texts and instead
of 'Dāvari' 'Vintai' is found in the Cc. 5. Gopagri Kötāvari Instead of 'Śri' in the Up. 'tāvari' is found in the Cc. 6. Nandā
Cunantai A prefix 'Cu' is added in the Cc. with the word
'Nanda'. 7. Padmottamā Patumai The word 'Uttama' w! ch is added to the word 'Padma'
in the Up. is not found in the Cc. 8. Hemabhā Kanakamālai The word 'Kanaka' in the Cc. is the synonym of
Hēma' used in the Up. Instead of 'Ābha' in the Up.
Mālai' is found in the Cc. 9. Jinadatta Citattan Instead of "Jina' in the Up, the word 'Ci' is prefixed
to 'Tattan' in the Cc. 10. Jayavati Cayamati The word 'vati' in the Up. occurs as 'mati' in the Cc.
Apart from the variations shown in the list 'B: there are also characters who are named differently in these two texts. They are shown below: The Characters
Their Names in the Up. Their Names in the Cc. 1. The father of Buddhişeņa,
Sāgara
acalan (acala) the friend of Jivandhara 2. The name of Jivandhara
Jayadratha
acotaran (yasodhara) in his previous birth 3. The name of Jivandhara's
Jayandhara
Pavaņamātēvan father
(Pavanamahadeva) 4. The name of the teacher of Āryavarma
ulokāmāpālan Jivandhara, when he was a
(lokamahāpāla) king before his renunciation 5. The father of Suramañjari Vaišravaņadatta Kupēramittiran (Kunamālai in the Cc.)
(Kaberamitra) 6. The mother of Suramanjari Cūtamañjari Vinayamāmālai (Kupamālai in the Cc.)
(Vinayamahāmāla) 7. The maid of Suramañjari Syāmalatā
mälai (Kuņamālai in the Cc.)
(mālā) 1 R. L. Turner, A comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Language, Item 1572, p. 71.

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71
The Characters
Their Names in the Up. Their Names in the Cc. 8. The father of Gunamālā
Kumāradatta
Kubēratattan (Curamañcari in the Cc.)
(Kuberadatta) 9. The mother of Gunamālā
Vimala
Cumati (Curamancari in the Cc.)
(Samati) 10. The maid of Gunamālā
Vidyullata
Kanakapatakai (Curamancari in the Cc.)
(Kanakapatākā) 11. The father of Jinadatta
Vrşabhadatta yavatattan (Citattan in the Cc.)
(yavadatta) 12. The mother of Jinadatta
Padmāvati
Karutattai
(Gurudattā) 13. The mother of Ratnavati
Přthivisundari Putavi (llak kaņai in the Cc.) 14. The son of Gandharvadatta
Vasundhara
Caccantan
(satyandhara) Here we also would like to point out the variations found in the names of the four of the friends of Jivandbara, who were the sons of thc domestic priest, the chief merchant, the king's general and the minister : The names in the Up. The names in the Cc.
Comments The son of domestic priest Domestic priest - Sāgara Acalan (Acala)
Here the name of the Priest's wife -śrīmatta Tilottamai (Tilottamā) priest's son is the same in Priest's son -Buddhişena Putticēgan (Buddhişeņa) both the texts. The son of the chief merchant Chief merchant -Dhanapāla Tanapalan (Dhanapāla) Here the name of the chief Merchant's wife -Śrıdattā Pavittirai (pavitrā) merchant is the same in Merchant's son - Varadatta Patumukan (Pațumukha) both texts. The son of the minister Minister -Matisāgara Cākaran (Sāgara). The name of the minister Minister's wife -Anupamā Kurutattai (Puradatta) in the Cc. can be the shorMinister's son -Madhumukha Citattan (Sridatta) tened form of Matisāgara
(Sagara) The son of the general General
- Vijayamati Vicayatattan (Vijayadatta) Here the first half of the General's wife - Jayavati Pirītimati (Pritimati) names of the general and General's son -Devasena Tēvatattar (Devadatta) his son Vijaya and Deva
are the same in both texts.

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Study of Civakacintamani
Other than these variations found in these two texts there are also some characters which only come in the story of either the Up. or the Cc. These differences are shown below.
72
The characters which are found in the story of Jivandhara in the Up and not in the Cc.
1. Anangapatākā
-one of the younger wives of king Satyandhara
2. Aditya
-the ascetic who predicted that Padmottama would be bitten by a snake.
3. Bakula
4. Bhamarati
5. Bahumitra
6. Dhanamitra
7. Dhetişena
8. Guṇapāla
9. Gunamitra
10. Kalangaraka
11. Ksanti
12. Matisagara
13. Rudradatta
14. Vinayandhara
15. Vipulamati
16. Viranandin
-the son of Anangapatākā.
-one of the younger wives of king Satyandhara.
-one of the brothers of Hemābhā.
-one of the brothers of Hemabhā.
-the son of the king Aryavarma, the king of Simhapura before his renunciation

-an ascetic to whom Vṛsaabhadatta, the father of Jinadatta, went to get religious enlightenment.
-one of the brothers of Hemābhā.
-the son of Kashgaraka.
-a nun from whom Padmavati, the mother of Jinadatta, learnt self-control.
-a minister of King Garudavega.
-the domestic priest of king Satyandhara.
-the ascetic who predicted that on the visit of the wouldbe husband of Kṣemasundari, the Campaka flowers and the other tokens would appear.
-the ascetic from whom Matisagara, the minister of the king Garudavega, learnt about the future of Gandharvadatta. -the ascetic from whom Aryavarma heard the religious doctrine.
The names Kalakuta, the chief of ths forest dwellers, and the name Silagupta, the ascetic from whom Gandhotkata asked about his future sons, are not mentioned in the Cc. But these characters are introduced in the story without mentioning their
names.
The characters which are found in the story of Jivandhara in the Cc. and not in the Up. 1. Ana kamaviņai (Anangamahāviņā) -the lover of Pavatattan, the lady who tried to attract the attention of Civakan. -the friend of Kanakamālai.
2. Ana kavilacini (Anañgavilasini)

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3. Ariccantan (Hariscandra) -one of the ministers of Kattiyaňkāran. 4. Alankāramālai (Alankāramăla) -one of the friends of Ilakkanai. 5. Anan kamālai (Anankamālā) -a harlot. 6. Ulokapālan (Lokapala)
-the son of the king Tanapati, brother of
Patumai. 7. Katampan (Kadamba)
-the son of Tatamittan. 8. Kantukkaan (Gandhotkața). -the son of Kêmacari. 9. Kanakan (Kanaka)
-the son of Tatamitian. 10. Kamukan (Kāmuka)
-a soldier of Kattiyankāran. 11. Kirttitattan (Kirtidatta)
-the father of Pavatattan. 12. Komukan (Gamukha)
-the brother of Kāmukan. 13. Kovintan (Govinda)
-the son of Ilakkaņai. 14. Caccantan (Satyandhara) - the son of Kántaruvatattai. 15. Canpakamālai (Campakanālā) a hunch-back friend of Vicayai, in whose
disguise the goddess of the forest came to help
Vicayai when she was in the cemetery. 16. Calaniti (Calanidhi)
-one of Civakan's soldiers. 17. Cācāran
-an Indra who ruled thy heaven because of his merits, and who was born as Acötaran (Civakan
in this birth). 18. Cinkanāthan (Simhanātha) -a servant of Ulõkapalan. 19. Cittiramāmālai (Citramahamala) the mother of Anarkamāviņai. 20. Ciritattan (Śridatta)
-the son of the king Kõvintan. 21. Cinatatti (Jinadatta)
-the mother of Pavatattan. 22. Cutancanan (Sudařijana) -the son of Kunamālai. 23. Celvanaman
-the father of Anankamāviņai. 24. Taran (Dhara)
-a celestial who took Cītattan to the court of
Kalulavēkan. 25. Tarumatattan (Dharmadatta) -a minister of Kaļķiyankāran. 26. Tēcikappāvai
a courtesan. 27. Napulan
-a brother of Civakan. 28. Narapatitāvan (Narapatideva). -tħe king of the Kēmamāpuram. 29 Nākamālai (Nagamálā)
-one of the maids of Kattiyankāran. 30. Paratan (Bharata)
the son of Curamancari, Sc.-10

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31. Pavatattan (Bhavadatta) 32. Puraviccēnau 33. Matanan (Madana) 34. Matitaran (Matidhara) 35. Vacuntari (Vasundhari) 36. Vamalēkai (Vāmalekhā) 37. Vicayan (Vijaya) 38. Vicayan (Vijaya) 39. Vipulan (Vipula) 40. Viricikan 41 Viņāpati
Study of Civakacintamani --the luver of Anankamāviņai - the son of Tatamittan. -the cousin of Kattiyankāran. -the minister of Tanapati. -a maid of Kanakamālai.
a friend of Anarkamalai. -the son of Kanakamālai -the son of Tatamittan. -a brother of Civakan. -a servant of the king Kõvintan. -a eunuch friend of Kantaruvatattai.
III.
Now we see about the sequence of events in the Up, and in the Cc. The order in which the episodes are narrated and the sequence of events in them are more or less the same in both books, except in some places, which are discussed below. 1. The story of Gandhotkața and the ascetic Silagupta
In the Cc. Kantakkatan is introduced for the first time in the cemetery where queen Vicayai gives birth to her son. But in the Up. Gandhotkața is introduced before this event. Gandhotkața goes to an asectic called Silagupta and asks him whether he will have any sons who will live long. The ascetic predicts that he will have a son who will live long and rule the whole earth.1 The story is narratred in the Cc. in the Kuņamālaiyār ilampakama in the context where the king Kattiyankaran decides to kill Civakan for controlling the state elephant. In this place, Kantukkatan asks his wife not to worry and to believe in thprediction of the ascetic about the life of Civakan. Here the prediction of the ascetic has been narrated in two different places in the two books. 2. Civakan coming to know about his parents
In the Up. Jivandhara comes to know about his parents through the celestial being (khecara) who is guarding a lake.3 The celestial tells him all about his previous birth and abjut his parents for the first time. 4 This incident of meeting the khecara takes place after Jivandhara's marriage with Hemābha and before his meeting his mother. This incident is not found in the Cc., and the information about his parents is given to Civakan by his teacher Accaņunti.Civakan promises Accaņanti that he will not fight with his enemy Kattiyankāran within a year. This situation in the Cc. 1 Up. vv. 198-203. 2 Cc. Kuņamālaiyar ilampakam. v. 1122-1131. 3 Up. loc. cit. v. 526. 4 lbid, vv. 526-548.
5 Cc. vv. 384-390

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A comparative study of the Jivandhara Story.. creates an interval during which Civakan may acquire the military power that is necessary for his conquest over Kattiyankāran.1 3. The story about the previous birth of Civakan
The story of the previous birth of Civakap is related in the Up. for the first time by the celestial who is guarding a lake. In the Up. this story is narrated along with the story of the previous births of Nandādhya and his wife Sricandrā. Tēvar does not deal with the stories about the previous births of Nandāļhya and Sricandrā, and only deals with the story of the previous birth of Civakan. This is only revealed in the last chapter, the Muttiyilampakam, by the cāraṇan Manivaņpan to Civakan. After giving up all worldly pleasures, Civakan goes to the temple of the Arhat with his wiyes. In the temple Caranan Manivannan preaches Jaina doctrine to Civakan and his wives. Along with the religious preachings the cāraṇan also relates the story of the previous birth of Civakan.
The foregoing comparative study makes it clear that, a priori, it is not easy to say between the Up. and the Cc. which preceded which. As shown above the two texts deal with the Jivandhara story roughly on parallel lines. While the story in the Up. is skeletal, the Cc. develops the theme in a more elaborate way. This coupled with the fact that the Up. is in Sanskrit would make it appear that it was the source from which Tēvar has borrowed his theme. But all the differences that are found do not seem to be explainable on the grounds of Tēvar's efforts to impart an epic character to the story. Many of them may well have been the differences arising from a different version of the story. This is also suggested by the fact that the later authors do not take one or the other version of the two but combine both in different ways. The differences in the characters and their names also suggest this possibility. As we have shown earlier, the same character has been named differently in the two texts, the Up. and the Cc. However it is quite certain that Tēvar had one or more Sanskrit and Prakrit sources which strongly influenced the composition of the Cc. It is not easy to decide whether or not the Up. was one among them without knowing the exact period or date in which the Cc. was composed.
Apart from the similarities we find between the stories of the Up. and the Cc., we also see similarity in some incidents and episodes which are found in the other Sanskrit texts and the Cc. For example, the svayamvara of Illakkanai, in which the father of Ilakkaņai proclaims that his daughter will be given to the man who can hit the machine in the form of a rotating pig, strongly resembles the svayamvara of Draupadi in the Mahābhārata.
One can also see similarities between the episodes which are found in the other Sanskrit works and the Cc. Thus the following incident has a striking similarity to a situation in the Ratnāvali of Sriharsa. 1 Ibid, v. 393. 2 Ibid, vv. 2849-2890.
3 Supra, pp. 70, 71,

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Civakan after saving Kuṇamālai from the intoxicated state elephant, goes to the garden. There, out of love. he draws the portrait of Kupamalai and admires her beauty in the picture. In the meantime his first wife Kantaruvatattai comes there and looks at the portrait. She gets angry and leaves the place, in spite of the pleadings and explanations of Civakan,1
76
In the Ratnavali there is a similar incident. King Vatsa falls in love with Sagarika, the disguised Simhala princess. Sagarika draws the portrait of the king on a drawing board and her friend draws the portrait of Sagarika next to him on the drawing board. Because of a commotion created by a monkey which has escaped from its cage, they both leave the drawing board and run away. This board happens to be seen by the king and his friend Vasantaka, and while they are admiring the portraits, the king's wife Vasavadatta comes there. Though Vasantaka tries to hide the drawing board, the queen sees it. She realises the situation and gets angry and leaves the place in spite of all the pleadings and requests of King Vatsa.9
Incidents of this kind are often narrated in the famous Udayana tales, the Malavikagnimitra, etc. These tales have almost the same story; i.e. the lov: intrigue of a king with a disguised princess, the jealousy of the chief queea, and the final accep tance of the young princess.
There are grounds to thinks that Tēvar was indebted to some of the episodes and incidents which might have occurred in the Sanskrit prose romance, based on the Brhatkatha. We are unable to say anything more conclusively about this interesting point since the original Paiśaci version of the Bṛhatkatha written by Gunadhya is not available now. But there are three well known Sanskrit versions of the same. They are Kṣemendra's Bṛhatkathamañjari (11th century A.D.), Somadeva's Kathasaritsagara (12th century A.D.) and Buddhaswamin's Bṛhatkatha-slokasangraha. Somadeva says that he is faithful to the original, adding or changing only for needs of clarity and minimum poetic embellishment and that his version is original itself, but in a different language. Kşemendra's version is an abridged form of the same story. Buddhaswamin's version has been considered by Lacote and others as being perhaps true to the original while they think the other two might have followed an inflated Kashmirian Paiśāci version. Whatever the truth of these theories may be, the present uncertainties regarding the contents of the Brhatkatha have made us limit our attention only to the similarities between the several motifs found in Somadeva's Kathasaritsägara and the motifs of the story of the Cc. The Tamil Perunkatai which is supposed to have followed the Sanskrit translation of Brhatkatha written by King Durvinita (6th century AD.) which is not available now, deals only with the Udayana stories of the Brhatkatha. This does not show striking similarities to any portion of the Cc.
1 Cc. vv. 1014-1019.
3 V. Raghavan, Bhoja's Śrigira prakāśa, Madras, 1963, pp. 816 ff.
2 Sriharṣa, Ratnavali, Act. II.

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77
The following motifs were found to occur in the Kathāsaritsāgar : the aerial chariot, the controlling of a wild elephant. the winning of a girl's love through proficiency in music and by curing poison, a shipwreck causing a character to reach a new land, the transformation of animals into celestial beings, the gāndharva marriage, a king's affair with another girl without the knowledge of his queen, and his discomfort when it is found out by the queen. These motifs have obvious parallels in the theme of the Cc.
Examples of this kind give un an insight into th: knowledge which Tēvar had in Sanskrit stories and literature. Sanskrit stories also have been freely used by Tēvar in his similes and allusions. Illustrations of this will be given in the next chapter which treats of the influence of Sanskrit stories on the literary style of the Co. Like all the other authors' works which had religious motives, he exploits the wealth of folk lore, mythology and episodes narrated in the great epic Mahābhārata and the other kāvyas which prevailed in his time to weave the fabric of his plot.

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CHAPIER IV THE SANSKRIT INTERACTION IN THE LITERARY SIYLE OF THE
CIVAKACINTAMANI
Any new work may contain original ideas or literary techniques of its own. At the same time, however, it will necessarily be influenced by its literary predecessors. Thus the Cc. too owes a great deal to the literature which preceded it, especially to the epics, the Cilappatikāram and the Manimekalai. In addition to these literary traditions and ideas of the ealier Tamil literature, several new elements are also found in this epic. There are many factors responsible for the introduction of these new elements. Our purpose in this chapter is to see the nature and dezree of the interaction of the influence) that Sanskrit literary forms and traditions have had on these novel features. Before examining this influence, a short critical survey will be made of the literary traditions and poetic forms which existed in Tamil before the composition of the Cc.
Tolkāppiyam, the earliest extant grammar text, is the only work from which one can know about the rules regading different literary compositions and poetical conventions observed in early Tamil literature. This text, which is divided into three parts, Eļuttatikāram (chapter on letters), Collatikāram (chapter on words), Poruļatikāram (chapter on matter), deals with the different kinds of poems and poetical con. ventions in the Poruļatikāram. From the Tolkāppiyam we understand that there were established poetical traditions indigenons to Tamil. The most important aspect of these poetical conventions is the distinction made between Akam (inner) and Puram (outer) poems. Akam poems deal with love and Puram poems deal with other aspects of life such as war, victory, the munificence of kings etc.
The nature of ancient Tamil poetry is different from that of early Sanskrit poetry. One of the principal differences is the topography and climatic characteristics which gave rise to poetry. Thus the vast Himalayan Range, the broad plains that seem to have no horizon, watered by rivers which in their mighty expanse seem to have no shores setting limits to them, the tropical forests with their varing creatures, were instrumental in the evolution of Vedic poetry and the sense of wonder and the sense of the Infinite these poems reveal and these natural causes inspired. Man was faced with the uniform sense of the Infinite on all sides; it seemed to overwhelm him and there was no other alternative but to let oneself be absorbed in the Infinite through the medium of contemplation and ecstasy."1 On the other hand, “the physical texture of the South Indian landscape with its dividing mountains and rivers and its clearly defined contours, gave the South of India not only an occasion for its 1 Xavier S. ThaniNayagam, Landscape and Poetry, 2nd edition, Bombay, 1966, p. 11.

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small kingdoms and smaller chieftaincies, but also formed the basis for the division of poetry on geographical regions as for example • mountain poetry' and seaside poetry'."" The Tamil land has been divided into five regions, montane ( kuriñci ), pastoral (mullai), agricultural (marutam), littoral (neytal) and arid (palai). The names kuriñci, mullai, marutam, neytal and pālai refer to the most characteristic flower found in each kind of landscape. These names are also used to denote the psychological and emotional patterns of behaviour suited to each region
Tolkappiyar classifies the objects found in each land under three classes : Mutarporu] (the basic things, the region and time ), Karupporu! (objects characteristic of the particular region), and Uripporu! (the kind of love peculiar to each region).
Mutarporul denotes the basic things, the region and time. Region means the different landscapes explained above. The time is divided according to the seasons of the year, the Perumpoļutu (the major time), and the time of day, the Cirupoļutu (the minor time). The year is divided into six seasons : Kār (the rainy season ), August and September; Kūtir (the cold season), October and November; Munpapi (the early dew season), December and January; Pippani (the late dew season), February and March; Iļavēnil (spring) April and May; and Mutuvenil (Summer), June and July. The day is also divided into six parts: the Vaikarai (the time before sunrise); Vitiyal (sunrise); Naņpakal (mid-day); Erpāțu (sunset); Mālai (early night); and Yamam (midnight). Time always has a connection with Uripporuļ, the kinds of love peculiar to each land. According to the aspect of love the divisions of time, i.e. both the Cirupol utu and the Perumpolutu are laid down. This poetic usage will be explained while dealing with the Uripporul, which deals with the particular objects belonging to each land, is clearly explained by Singaravelu,9 in a chart attached to his work, The Social life of the Tamils. This chart is given on pp. 80-81 here to show in details the particular objects, the inhibitants, animals, birds, flowers, trees, deities, food, the recreation of the people etc, of each landscape.
Thus, in describing the landscape, as Thaninayagam says, the poet had not only to "study the visible phenomena or the several objects (god, flora, fauna, music, occupation) found in or related to these regions, but he had as well to know what changes were introduced into these regions by the annual seasons, and how Nature manifested herself by day and night during these seasons. Thus the Tamil poet could ill afford to neglect the study of landscape as seen during each of the six major divisons of the Tamil day.”8
Mutasporuļ, the place and time, and Karupporu], the objects of a particular region, though fixed for each landscape, can overlap in practice. 4 In other words, the Mutasporuļ aad Karupporuļ of one landscape can also be sometimes used in describing another landscape. But the Uripporu), the kind of love ascribed to one
1 X. S. ThaniNayagam, op cit., p. 11. 2 S. Singaravelu, Social Life of the Tamils, the Classical Period, Kulalampur, 1966, p. 22. 3 Thani Nayagam, op cit, p. 40, 41.
4 Tolkappiyam, por., Akat., cut 13.

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Study af Civakācintamani
CLASSIFICATION OF KARUPPORUL (OBJECTS)
Bear
Regions Phratries Fauna Avifauna Flora | Trees Occupa and Pastimes/ (Inhabitants) (Animals) (Birds) (Flowers)
tions and Festivities Kuravar (m) Tiger
Peacock Kuriñci Bamboo Hunting Veși-atal Montane Kurattiyar (f)
Parrot
(Strobi- Sandal Digging (Kusinci)
(Frenzied Elephant Kānavar (m)
lanthus wood. roots dancing) Venkai Teak
Gathering Bathing in Lion (flower of Aquila
hoey hill stream Ram
Kino tree Acoka Seasonal BirdsGloriosa (Uvria lon-cultivation driving
superba gifolia of hillKatampu Nākam paddy and (Engenia Margosa millet
racemosa) Arid Eyinar (m)
Jackal Eagle
Palai Palai (Palai) Eyirriyar (f) Ass Vulture (Mimu. Omai Soldiering
scops (Salvadara Marauding
Pigeon Maravar (m)
Hexaudrus persica) HighwayMarattiyar (f)
Kurāmpū Truppai Robbery (Webera (Bassia corym
longifolia) bosa)
Uliñai (Oerva
lanater) Pastoral Ayar (m)
Gazelle Wild fowl Jasmine Konrail
Minor cul(Mullai) Āycciyar (f)
Wild hare
(Mullai) Cow
(Cassia)
tivation of Kurayai
crops like
Konrai Jțaiyar (m)
dance Bull
Kāyā
BullIțaicciyar (f)
(Cassia) Kuruntam varaku, Sheep Kullai
cāmai, etc. fighting Goat (Cannabis)
Shepherd - RiverPitavam
Jing Cow. bathing Tonri
| herding Agricul. Ulavar (m) Buffalo Heron Aquatic Marutam tural Ulattiyar (f)
(Termina. Farming RiverOtter
Plants
Swan (Maru-
! Lotus Kātaiyar (m)
bathing
lia alata) Harvesting Fresh Waterfowl Water- tam) Kațaicciyar (f)
Kanci
Threshing Festivals water fish Duck lily) Vanci
agricul - Carp
tural)
Littoral (Neytal)
Shark Fish
Nuļaiyar (m) Nuļaicciyar (f) Aļavar (m) Aļattiyur (f) Paratar (m) Parattiyar (f)
Sea-gull Neytal ! Alexan- Coastal & Salling (Nymphae
drine inland Bird. alba) Laurel
fishing driving Tulampu Mangrove Deep-sea Seabathing (Pandanus)
fishing Playing on Muntakam
Drying the sea-shore Attampam
fish WorshippWater-lily
Pearl- ling of Water
diving skeleton hyacinth
Sellingfish of shark

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CLASSIFICATION OF KARUPPORUL (OBJECTS)
Deity
Foodstuffs Water
Resources Meat Hill Hill
Streams paddy rice and pools Bamboo
rice Millet Honey Roots
Drum | Musical Musical Settlement Titles of Chieftain Instrument Tune
and his Spouse Toptakam Kurinci | Kurinci | Cirukuți Poruppan (m) lyre
Verpan (m) or
Cilampan (m) Kuratti or Kõțicci (f)
Murukan or Cēy
Tuti
Meat Grass
rice Roots
Stagnant water in pits Liquor
Palai lyre Pancuram Kurumpu Vitalai (m)
Kālai (m) or
Mili (m) Eyirri (f)
Turkkai, Kanni, ог Korravai
Erankol
Mullai
Cātäri
Pati
Rivers Tanks
lyre
Varaku Camai Mutirai Milk and
milk products
Kurumporainātan Netumal, (m) or
or Tonral (m) Tirumal Manaivi (1) or Kalatti (f)
Marutam! Pērür
Paddy
rice Sugarcane
River Pond Lake Well
Kinai (For Marutam barvesting) lyre Mulavu (For wedding etc.)
ūran (m) or Intiran,
Makinan (m) Tor Kilatti (f) or I Ventan Manaivi (f)
Vilari
Sevvaļi
Varupan
Pakkam Pattinum
Fish, and Sea ducts Salt lakes obtained Sea-side from canals other regions through barter
Min-köl (For fishing) Nāvay (For sailing)
Cērppan (m) or
Pulampan (m) Paratti (f) Nulaicci ()
Sc-11

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landscape cannot be used as the kind of love of another lindscape. If so used it is known as Tinaimayakkam.
There are five kinds of love, Punartal (union), Pirital (separation), fruttal (waiting), Utal (love quarrel), and Irankal (wailing); they are attributed to Kurinci (montage), Pālai (arid), Mullai (pastoral), Marutam (agricultural) and Neyatal (littoral) respectively. These kinds of love are allotted according to the nature of each landscape. Puņartal is the love of Kuşinci land, for hills afford more opportunities than any region for courtship and clandestine meetings. The Perumpolutu (major time) assigned to this kind of love is Kūtir (the cold season) and the Cirupol utu (minor time) is Yamam (midnight) which is the suitable time for clandestine union. This kind of love has always been described in poems as taking place before marriage. The love ascribed to Neytal, the littoral land, is Irankal (lamenting), for often the women of this region wail for their husbands who have gone to sea to fish in the evening. Erpāļu (sunset) is the minor time for Neytal, since once it is sunset, the roaring of the sea, the returning of beasts and birds to their homes etc. make the lady-love wail for her husband, Ūtal (love quarrel) is the love of Marutam, the agricultural land which is the richest of all lands. Owing to the prosperity of the land, man have enough time to spend on recreations and they often spend their time with harlots. After spending their time with harlots, the men return home and this causes the wives to have love quarrels with them. As this often takes place either in the late night or in the dawn, the minor time allocated to Marutam land is Vaikarai (before sunrise) and Vitiyal (sunrise).1 Pirital (separation) is the love for Pālai, the arid land, where men frequently leave their wives and take up occupations such as highway robbery, soldiering, marauding, etc. Here the separation includes the separation of lovers as well as the separation of couples from their parents when they elope. The major time for Pālai is Vēnil (summer) and the minor time is Nappakal (mid-day), the time suitable for highway robbery etc. Iruttal (waiting) is the kind of love for Mullai, the pastoral land where the lady-love waits patiently for her lover to come back after the successful completion of his errand. As the rainy season is the time when the husband is expected to come back, the major time of Mullai is Kār and the minor time is Mālai.
Whenever a poet wants to describe one of these themes, he also describes the particular natural surroundings. For example, if a poet wants to depict the union of two lovers, he has to select Kuriñci landscape as his background setting.
Apart from these five kinds of love, 3 there are Kaikkilai (one-sided love) and Peruntiņai (unequal love), which are not particularly ascribed to any land. In Kaikkilai, the one-sided or un-reciprocated love, the hero wants to get the love of an immature girl who cannot understand or reciprocate his feelings. Peruntiņai is the unequal or inappropriate love, when a hero takes to the mounting of Matal4 (mounting on a 1 Tolkāppiyam, Por., Akat., cut. 8. 2 lbid, loc. cit. cut. 9, 3 Ibid, loc. cit, cuts. 50, 51,
4 Ibid, loc. cit, cut. 54.

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hobby-horse made of palmyrah stalks) out of love, or love between two people who are not suited to each other. In some of these poems, unlike other Akam poems, in which the names of the characters are not supposed to be mentioned, 1 the names of the characters are mentioned. Considering the nature of these poems some scholars do classify these poems under Puram poems.
As in Akam poems, Puram poems also have seven tiqais (poetic themes), Vetci, Vanci, Uliñai, Tumpai, Vākai, Kāñci, and Pāțāņ, Out of these seven all except Kāñci and Pātān are ascribed to the five different landscapes. All the names of Purattinai except Pațān are names of plants, the flowers of which were worn to symbolize the feelings of those who were engaged in the war during its differerent stages.
The Pusattiņai for Kuriñci is Vetci. Vețci is a red flower (Ixora coccinea) indigenous to the Montane region, which is worn by warriors when they go to raid cattle; the wealth of Mullai land. When the hunters, the people of the Kuriñci, raid their cows, the men of the Mullai land wear Karantai flowers and go to retrieve the cows and this war is called Karantai war. This Karantai war is a 'turai' (a military situation) of Vetci war. Vanci, named after the yellow flower of the Vanci tree (Hiptage madablota) indigenous to Mullai land, is the Purattiņai for Mullai. Garlands made of this flower are worn by warriors of the Mullai land when they are residing in temporary military camps pitched in the jungle to conquer another country. Tumpai is the Purattiņai for Neytal, which is named after the Tumpai flower (Leucass linifolia) worn by soldiers during battles taking place in the open land of maritime tracts. Purattipai of Palai is Vākai (Mimosa flectuosa) which is named after the flower of the Vākai tree. Garlands made of these flowers are worn by warriors when they return from the hattle-field with victory. Uliñai, the Purattiņai for Marutam, denotes the advance of the soldiers to attack the walls of the city of another king. When they are engaged in this military action they wear garlands made of the flowers of Uliñai (Cardiospermum halicacabum) as a sign of derision, i.e. to show the worthlessness and weakness of the fort they want to seize. They people who are inside the wall while defending the attack wear Nocci flowers (Vitex trifolia). Nocci war is a Turai of Tumpai war. The other two Purattiņais, Kāñci and Pāțāņ, are not ascribed to any strategic movements in battle. Kāñcit tiņai generally deals with the impermanence of the world and Paçãn tiņai comprises poems which are eulogistic and panegyrical. In these songs regional interchanges are found, mainly to praise the plurality of regions in a certain kingdom. 8
These rules set out by Tolkāppiyar are peculiar to Tamil literature. Further. unlike the Vedas, which are religious and mythological, the Cankam poems are secular. In these poems importance was given to classes of men and women of all regions. As Thapinayagam correctly observes, the Cankam poets "did not treat only of the kings 1 Matal is a ritual performed by a person whose love is not returned. In Cankam literature
only men performed this ritual. But later works like the devotional songs Aivars deal with
women mounting Matal. One such example is the songs of Tiruman kaiyalvär. 2 ThaniNayagam, op. cit., p. 85.
3 ThaniNayagam, op. cit., p. 91.

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and queens, cities and palaces. They found poetry in fishers' lowly huts and in the dwelling of mountain people. The fisher woman wailing for the fishing boats with the day's haul, or the fisher children watching the fish being dried, the shepherds with their flocks, the lowly at their work, come in for as much poetry as the wealthy heroine of a mountain chief wandering over the hills gathering flowers with a number of maids to attend upon her. Even when they sang of kings or sang to kings, they pleased their hearers most, not by describing the palace, but by describing the people who were privileged to live under the king's protection."1 The personification with which natural phenomena are described in Vedic songs does not occur in the Cankam works. Even the occasional apostrophes to objects in nature found in the Cankam works occur only as rapid outbursts of a soul tense with emotion. The absence of mythology, and the religious element, and the interest in the common man in the Cankam poems meant that the love themes in particular were of a very different nature from Sanskrit. The kavya pattern of kings with large harems, of social acceptance of polygamy, and the diverse opportunities this afforded for describing different kinds of love and different kinds of lovers, runs on lines which are different from the traditions of the Cankam literature.
The realistic approach to nature was the result of emphasis on human interest. The fidelity with which the Cankam poets described nature can be seen in their accurate and beautiful similes. Examples of these will be given later in the discussion of the descriptions in the Cc. There are not hyperbolic conceits, and the similes employed serve to illustrate the particular subject in question and are never allowed to obscure the meaning or obstruct the narration. Graphic descriptions are of common occurrence. Occasionally one find epic similes containing elaborate imagery. They are frequently found in the works like the Kalittokai and the Paripatal. The pathetic fallacy and aphorisms are not all common in the Cankam literature.
Thus the Tamil literature of this period had a personality of its own which was manifested in the literary style, descriptions, figures of speech employed, the themes chosen and the sentiments depicted.
In the Tolkappiyam there are two sections devoted to similes and sentiments which are known as Uvamaiyiyal and Meypptatiyal. It has been suggested by J. R. Marr that both of them may be regarded as being wholly dependent on Sanskrit models in the respective fields of dramatic theory and rhetoric." In the discussion about Uvamaiyiyal he further says that "Uvamaiyiya! is fairly clearly an attempt to apply one of the aspects of rhetoric in Sanskrit namely Upama, to Tamil." He points out the resemblances between the division of Upama in the Tolkappiyam and in the Kavyadarsa of Dapdins and suggests that these two chapters could have been interpolated. Whether they are interpolated or not, it is conceivable that Tolkäppiyar
1 Ibid., pp. 46, 47.
2 ThaniNayagam, op. cit., p. 70.
3 J. R. Marr, The eight Tamil anthologies with special reference to Putanaṇāru and Patirruppattu, A thesis submitted to University of London, 1958, p. 83. 4 Ibid, p. 80.
5 Ibid, pp. 80, 81, 82.

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The Sanskrit interaction in ihe literary style. .
was aware of the conventions and traditions that existed in the Sanskrit literature of his time, and in laying down the rules for literary composition in Tamil, he had not only the vast collection of Tamil works but also an equally good knowledge of the Sanskrit traditions which existed before his time.
The eight meyppatus (the manifest physical expressions of emotion) mentioned by Tolkāppiyar, nakai (laughter), alukai (sorrow), ilivaral (disgust), marutkai (surprise), accam (fear), perumitam (bravery), vekuli (anger), and uvakai (happiness) are the equivalent of the sthāyibhāvas (dominant states) hāsa (laughter), soka (sorrow), jugupsā (disgust), vismaya (surprise), bhaya (fear), utsāha (bravery), krodha (anger) and rati (love) mentioned in the Natyaśāstra. Sthāyibhāvas are the permanent emotions that are manifested in the mind. According to the Nātyaśāstra these sthāyi. bhāvas, rati, hasa, śoka, krodha, utsāha, bhaya, jugupsā, and vismaya develop into the respective rasas, šļrgāra (erotic), hāsya (comic), karuņa (pathetic), raudra (furious), vira (heroic), bhayānaka (terrible), bibhatsa (disgust) and adbhuta (marvellous), when they are united with the other bhāvas (states), vibhāvas (determinants), anubhāvas (consequents), and vyabhicaribhāvas (transitory states). 4 Vibhavas are of two kinds : the ālambana and the uddipana. Alambana vibhāva is the character towards whom the emotion is manifested and the uddipana vibhāvas are the external factors such as spring season, unguents, moonlight etc. which help in manifesting the emotion. Anubhāvas are the physical actions which are expressed through sweet words, side-glances etc. These vibhāvas and anubhāvas are not exhaustively enumerated by Bharata, as they can be of any number. But while discussing each rasa he explains it by showing the possible vibhāvas and anubhāvas. There are thirty three vyabhicāribhavas (transitory states) which also help in developing the dominant state into rasa. Besides these vibhāvas and anubhāvas and vyabhicāribhāvas, Bharata also mentions eight sättvikabhāvas (temperamental states) stambha (paralysis), sveda (perspiration), romāñca (horripilation), svarasada (change of voice), vepathu (trembling), vaivarnya (change of colour), aśru (tears) and pralaya (fainting), which are manifested due to the mental change taking place.
The production of rasa (rasanispattih) is not discussed by Tolkāppiyar though the commentator Peraciriyar deals with it in his commentary. As the date of Perāciriyar cannot be earlier than the tenth century A.D.8 his theories in many ways could have been influenced by the later Sanskrit theories of poetics. Tolkappiyar divides each meyppāțu into four kinds and most of these divisions seem to be made on the basis of his knowledge of the respective vibhāvas (determinants) given by Bharata to each 1 Scholars differ about the date of the Tolkāppiyam. S. Vaiyapurippillai fixes its date as 600
700 A.D. S. Vaiyapuri pillai, Kaviyakalam, op. cit., p. 261. 2 Tolkappiym, Por., Mey., cut. 251. 3 Natyasástra, vi, 17. 4 Natya'sāstra, vi, 31. 5 A. Chidambaranatha Cottiyar, Advanced Studies in Tamit Prosody, p. 12. 6 Tolkāppiyam, Por., Mey., cuts. 247-255.

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sthāyībhāva (dominant state).1 Some divisions are not similar to the divisions in the Nāțyaśāstra and these may be the original thoughts of Tolkāppiyar expressed to suit the Tamil literary tradition.
Apart from the thirty-two divisions of meyppäţus (i.e. the eight meyppātus with four divisions in each) mentioned above, Tolkāppiyar also mentions another set of thirty-two meyppātus, which he thinks can be considered as a different set of meyppātus when they do not come under the category of these thirty-two meyppātus. Among these later meyppatus some are based on the vyabhicāribhāvas (transitory states) and a few on the sāttvikabhāvas 3 (temperamental states), and the rest do not have any equivalent in Bharata's Nātyaśāstra.
In considering the relevance of these two chapters in the Tolkappiyam to an analysis of ancient and later Tamil literature, one should bear in mind the fact that in spite of the resemblance to Sanskrit works of dramaturgy and rhetoric, the treatment of the subjects has the distinct chacteristics of Tamil literature in view.
Besides these literary theories, Tolkappiyar also mentions eight kinds of poetic compositions in the section Ceyyuliyal. This chapter, which is mainly a treatise on prosody, mentions eight kinds of compositions viz. Ammai, Alaku, Tonmai, Tol, Viruntu, Iyaipu, Pulan and Ilaipu. 5 Ammai is a composition which does not exceed five lines, and is made with sweet words but as few as possible. A composition which cotains no dialect (i.e. in standard Tamil) and is full of poetic cbarm is called Alaku.' A composition which deals with popular legends with prose explanations in it is called Tonmai.8 A composition which deals with aram (duty), poru! (wealth), inpam (pleasure, and viţu (salvation), in an attractive style or that which deals with a topic in detail in more than five lines is called Töl. Viruntulo is a composition composed in a novel way, and lyaipuil is a composition in which the last line ends with any
1 P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri in his commentary to meyppättiyal points out the vibhāvas used
by Tolkappiyam in his fourfold division of each ingy ppatu, P. S. Subrahmanya Sastri,
Comnentary on Meyppati iyal, Madras, pp. 2-5. 2 "ivaiyum ulavē avaiyatankalaiy ē"--Tolkappiyam, Por., Mey., cut. 260. 3 Ns. sveda
perspiration
perspiration Tol. viyarttal
Toi. Tol. natukkam/
chun) trembling 4 J. R. Marr, op. cit., pp. 77, 78. 5 Tolkappiyam, Por., Cey., cut. 340. 6 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 517. Par icir yad in his c) a natury 01 Cuttica n 547 explaia 'ați ninirpa
as not exceeding five lines. 7 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 548. 8 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 549. 9 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 550. Perāciriyar in his commentary on cûttiram 550 explains viļumiyatu
nuvalutal' as explaining aram, porul, inpam, and vitu. 10 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 551. 11 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 552.

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of the consonants ñ, p, n m, n, y, r, 1, v, 1. 1. Pulan is a composition which is composed of common words and is clear to the reader. Ijaipu, the last of the eight, is a composion which consists of five types of lines (atis), beginning with Kuralați, which has two feet (cir), and ending with a line which has seven feet. These feet do not combine a surd consonant with anothar surd. Beyond what is said in the Tolka. ppiyam, we cannot be definite about these literary compositions. Later, the commentator Peräcirlyar has cited examples for these literary forms defined by Tolkäppiyar, mostly from later literary works. Thus the Nalatiyar, the Kajavalinärppatu, and other works classed under Patinenkijkkanakku works are cited as instances for Ammai; the Akanamaru and the Ettuttokai for Alaku; the Päratam and the Takatur yattirai for Toumai; the Muttoдäyiram and the Kalampakam works for Viruntu; the Manimekalai and the Peruňkatai for Iyaipu; and folk dramas (kattu) for Pulab.
Later commentators also hold these eight vanappus to be features found in Totarnilaicceyyul works. What is a Tojarnilaicceyyul? It is a long poem with poetic charm which is characterised by the continuity of its subject-matter. In the Cankam literature, in addition to the Tanip-pätals (single stanzas) which are small, there is the Pattup-pu (collection of ten idylls), which consists of long poems in which central theme is developed. It would be legitimate to say that these formed the nucleus for later Totarnilaic-ceyyulas, which develop a story continuously. The elaborate descriptions and figures of speech found in works like the Maturaikkanci, the Malaipajukatām, the Pattinappalai were directly or indirectly borrowed in later epics. These will be detailed later while dealing with the descriptions in the Cc.
87
One can discern three distinct stages in the evolution of the literary form of Totarnilaic-ceyyul. The first stage was that of works like the Pattuppatu referred to earlier, in which a particular theme is developed in the course of long poem in great detail with elaborate descriptions. For example in the Pattinappalai, the situation treated is the sorrow of the spouse of a bard at her impending separation from him. when he will go to Kavirippampattinam, the capital of the Coja king (whom he expects to praise so that he will bestow gifts on him). This serves only as a pretext for the poem, which dwells almost entirely on the glory of the Cola king and the grandeur of his capital. The descriptions of the king and the grandeur of his capital in this poem have inspired the tradition of describing the hero and his country in the later epics.
The second stage in the development of the Totarnilaicceyyu) is that in which the theme of the poem is a story, in particular a story that took place in Tamil country. It is at this stage that the poetical works Cilappatikaram and Mapimekalai were written. The style of these works is similar to that of the earlier Cankam works. One principal reason for this is that they were composed in the same Aeiriyappa metre
1 Tolkäppiyam, Por., Cey., cut. 553.
2 Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 554.
3
Ibid, loc. cit. cut 554
4 No example has been given for Ilaipu and Tol.
5 K. V. Jagannathan, 2nd edition, Tamil Kappiyan kal, Madras, 1955, p. 70.

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wbich was much employed in the Cankam poems. Because of the structure of the metre Aciriyappā, the words used have a dignified simplicity and picturesqueness which does not interfere with the rapid course of the narration. Further, the require. ments expected of the later epics, such as the treatment of the fourfold ends of life, viz. Dharma, Artha, Kāma and Moksa, are not strictly met in these books.
This situation underwent considerable changes at the time when the Cc. was composed. This is the third stage in the development of the Toțarnilaic-ceyyul, and the distinguishing feature of this stage is the preponderance of Sanskrit elements. In the Cc., Tēvar has made a definite attempt to compose an epic styled after the Sanskrit mahākāvyas. Tamil epics which were written after the Cc. followed the pattern set by it. It is with this in mind that the later critics in Tamil who enunciated the definition of a Perunkappiyam ( mahākāvya ) did so by translating or adapting the definition given in the Tantiyalankāram. The definition of the peruńkāppiyam set forth in this treatise is applicable to works like the Cc. and all subsequent perunkappiyams. But to evaluate the earlier works like the Cilappatikāram and the Manimēkalai in accordance with the tenets of such treatises is certainly inappropriate. Thus for example, Ațiyārkkunallar, who wrote a commentary on the Cilappatikāram, has suggested in his commentary that the Cilappatikāram and the Manimëkalai should both be taken together as forming a single peruńkāppiyam, 1 because neither of them deals with all the four ends of life and the structure and story of the Manimekalai make it seem to be the continuation of the Cilappatikāram. These two epics, even without considering them together, have their own merits as epics which follow Tami literary traditions.
The main characteristic of the Cc. is the influence exerted by the Sanskrit literary form, the mahākāvya. It may be said that Naccinārkinkiyar, who is the author of a commentary on this epic, has failed to a certain extent to point out this aspect of the Cc. At the beginning of his commentary he expresses the folllowing opinion about the literary form under which the Cc should be classified. For clear understanding
1 Ațiyarkkunallar, commentary on the Cilappatikāram,"Uraiccirappuppayiram". 2 The following are the passages in which Nacciņārkkiniyar expreresses the ideas mentioned above :
"It toțarnilaic-ceyyu! Tevar ceykinra kālttirkku nül akattyamum Tolkāppiyamum atalanum, 'muntu-nül kantu muraippatav enni' (Tol. Cirappu) enrātanal, Akatt iyattin valinül Tolkappiyam atalāņum, pirar kuriy nūlkaļ nirampiya ilakkanattana anmaiyánum, an nulir kūriya ilakkanamē itarkk ilakkanam enr unarka.
Avv ilakkaņatiis ceyyul iyalinkaņņē āciriyar pā nānkenrum, avrrai aram, poru), inpattās kuruka venrum kurip pippu ammai mutaliya toțarnilaic-ceyyuçkku ilakkaņam enru kusukinruli, "iļumen moliyan vijumiyatu nuvaliņum" (Tol., cey., 238 ) enpatanal, mellenra collan aram, porul, in pam, vit ennum vilamiya porul payappap palayaiyat oru katai mer koccakattās kūirn, atu tõl ensu kūpinamaiyin, ic ceyyul anganam kuriya tolām en unarka.
.. muntu nūlkațir kāppiyam ennu í vatamoliyāl toțarnilaic-ceyyakkup peyar inmaiyum itarkkup pinpu kuriya nūlkaļ itarkku vitiy aạmaiyam unarka." Nacciņārkkiniyar, commentary on the Co., v. 1.

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we have divided his opinion into three points : 1. Akattiyam and Tolkāppiyam are the authoritative treatises on which the Cc. is
based, as there were no other works existing before the period of the Cc. 2. The literary form, the Cc. belongs to is Tol (one of the eight literary forms
discussed by Tolkāppiyar), because it satisfies the requirements for the literary
form Tol. 1 3. The Cc. cannot be called a kāppiyam, because there is no tradition of calling a
Toțarnila ic-ceyyu! by the Sanskrit term kāppiyam before the period of the Cc. and the later treatises on poetics (which call a Toțarnilaic-ceyyul as kāppiyam) cannot be authoritative for the Cc.
If we take his first two points, it is clear that he tries to show that in the Cc. Tevar follows the literary theories of Tolkāppiyam, as it is the 'valioul' ( secondary work) of Akattiyam. It cannot be denied that Tēvar was aware of the Tolkāppiyam and its literary traditions. But at the same time one cannot make the restriction that the Tolkāppiyam is the only work on which Tēvar depends either for his poetical ideas or for his style. A perusal of the Cc. obviously shows his familiarity with the Sanskrit literary works which existed before his age. The examples which will be cited later while analysing the influence of the Sanskrit mahākavya form will furnish proof for this contention.
It is more likely that Tëvar had a knowledge of the treatises written on Sanskrit poetics, and of the works on which they are based. Dandin's Kavyādārša, which was very popular in Tamil land and which was adapted later into Tamil as Tapțiyalankāram (12th century A.D.),3 had a considerable influence on the work of Tēvar. Therefore from the structure and the contents of the Co, (which will be discussed below), it can be seen that it shows not only the impact of the Tolkappiyam and its literary traditions but also the strong influence of Sanskrit literary works and the treatises on Sanskrit poetics which existed before it.
Naccinārkkipiyar's third point, that the Cc. cannot be called a kāppiyam because there was no tradition of calling Toțarnilaic-ceyyuļ a kāppiyam before the time of the Cc., seems somewhat forced. As Ațiyārkkunallar, 4 the commentator on the Cilappatikāram has pointed out, the word kāppiyam was used by authors in Tamil before Tēvar's time. To the Manimekalai Cattapär, while describing the sports of king Killivalavan with his wife Cirtti in a flower garden, says that Killivaļavan enjoyed
1 Sapra, p. 86. 2 Vali-nül is a work which agrees for the most part with its original or Mutanül, and deviates
only in places where the author considers it necessary. 3 K. V. Jagannat han, op. cit., p. 50. 4 Ațiyarkkunallar, commentary on Cilappatikāram, Uraippāyiram.
Sc.-12

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90
Study of Civakacintamani himself in the company of poets who composed dramatic epics (nāțakak kappiyam). The following line :
nătakak kāppiya nūl nunippor 1
(the people who compose dramatic epic) explains it, In the Peruňkatai, the word kappiyam is mentioned in the description of the things which were taken when the queens of the king went to enjoy water sports. The following phrase :
kāppiyak köcamuma
(the books in which kāppiyams were written) shows that they also took books in which kāppiyams were written. In another context in the Perunkatatai, the poet mentions the reading of kāppiyam as "kāppiya vācanai colli". 3
Besides these references in the pre-Ce. works, there is also evidence to show that even Tēvar was aware of the word kāppiyam. In the soliloquy about the nature of women after seeing Anarkamālai, Civakan says that poets who compose kāppiyam describe the lump of flesh (the body of a woman) in such a way as to make it desirable. kāppiyak kavika! kama eriy ela vikar pittitțār4
(The poets who compose kāppiyam have described this lump of flech in such a way as to intensify the glowing lust in the mind )
All these references make one agree with Ațiyārkkunallar in saying that Toțarnilaic- ceyyu! was also called kāppiyam even before the time of the Cc. Still, apart from the literary forms dealt with in the Tolkāppiyam, one does not encounter a clear definition for a kāppiyam or a clear distinction between the different kinds thereof such as perunkāppiyam, cirukāppiyam etc., till the date of Tantiylapkāram. However, from works like the Cilappatikāram and the Manimēkalai one can see that there existed among poets of the Tamil land some conventions as regards the composition of epic which had been derived from earlier Tamil literature. By the time the Cc. was written this situation had changed. Tēvar made the first attempt to modify the Tamil pattern of a kappiyam to conform also to the requirements stated in the definition of a mahākavya in Sanskrit. The concept of mahakāvya has been laid down by Sanskrit rhetoricians like Daņdin,5 Bhāmaha,& Bhoja,? Hemacandra, 8 and Visvanatha. 9 The various definitions of a mahākāvya given by these rhetoricians are very similar. The mahākāvya is considered to be the best form of poetry and in its qualities perfection
1 Manimekalai, canto, 19, line 80. 2 Perunkatai, 1:38, line 167. 3 Ibid, 4:3, line 42. 4. Cc., v. 1585. 5 Dandin, Kavyadarsa, 1, vv. 14-22
6 Bhamaha, Kavyalankāra, 1.19-23. 7 Bhoja, Sarasvati Kanthäbharana, v, 103-104. 8 Hemacandra, Kavyānu'sāsana, vol. 1. VIII. 9 Visvanatha, Sāhityadarpanam, vl. 315-325.

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is expected. Dandin defines mahakavya as follows : 1
sarga-bandho mahakāvyam ucyate tasya lakṣaṇam / āśir namaskriyā vastu-nirdeso vāpi tan mukham ||
itihäsa-kathodbhūtam itarad vä sad-äśrayam catur-varga-phalopetam coturodatta-näyakam /
nagararnava-sailartu-candrārkodaya-varnanzih udyana-salila-krida-madhupāna-ratotsavaiḥ
1
vipralambhair vivahaisca kumărodaya--varnanaiḥ | mantra-dūta-prayānāji-näyakäbhyudayair api //
alankstam asanksi ptam rasa-bhava-nirantaram sargair anativistirnaiḥ śravy avsttaiḥ susandhibhih //
sarvatra bhinna-vīltantair upetam kävyam kalpāntarasthāyi jāyate
lokarañjakam/ sadalamksti /
(A poem made up of cantos is a mahakāvya. Its character sites are given below. It should begin with a benediction, a salutation or an indication of the contents. The plot should be taken either from a story told in Itihāsa or from other proper subject matter and it should deal with the fourfold ends of life (dharma, artha, kāma and mokşa). Its hero should be a person of wisdom and noble qualities. It should be embellished by descriptions of cities, the sea, mountains, the seasons, the rising of the sun and the moon, sports in pleasure gardens and in the water, drinking parties, love scenes, separations of lovers, marriages, birth of sons, consultation with ministers, sending messengers, military expeditions, battles and the successes of the hero. It should not be too short It should be pervaded with rasa and bhāva (sentiment and emotion). It should consist of a number of cantos which are not too long, well formed and with measures pleasing to the ears, everywhere dealing with a variety of topics (ending each chapter in a different metre) so as to make it popular. Such a kavya which has been well embellished with figures will live through the ages.
Many of the aspects which make a mahākāvya are not new to either Tamil kāppiyams or to Tamil literary works. The foreg sing requirments of a mahākāvya can be classified under six points as indicated below :
1. The beginning of the text.
2. The source from which the story is taken and the scope of the entire work, 1 Dandin, Kavyādarsa, vv, 14-19

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3. Characterisation of the hero, the main character through whom the whole aim of
of the text is achieved, and of the characters congected to his life. 4. The descriptions which enbance the beauty of the narration. 5. The depiction of rasa (sentiment) and bhava (emotion) which are expected to
parvade the work. 6. The general structure of the text and the metres used.
1. The first point, regarding the beginning of a mahakāvya, is that it must take the general form of a benediction, a homage, or an indication of the subject matter. These three forms encompass all permissible methods of beginning a work. In Tamil, the general practice of starting the work with a verse of benediction or homage to God (katavul välttu) existed from the early times. But in the benedictory verses found in Tamil there is no well-defined distinction between the above three ways of beginning a work. In Tamil the benediction is sometimes made by the poet to benefit himself and sometimes to benefit other people. These benedictions are also classed as Tēvapāni (benedictory verses with musical rhythm) and Tevarp-paravutal (stanza in which God is praised in the first person). The first verse may also be written praising any one of the following seven objects; gods, ascetics, cows, brahmins, kings, rajn, and the country.3 of these, only those which praise the gods are classed under kațavuị vālţtu and the rest are termed asuvakai valttu (six kinds of homage)
The Cilappatikāram begins with verses which invoke the sun, the moon. the rain and the city of pukār in turn, in accordance with the Tamil custom . noted above (aruvakai välttu). In the Maninjēkalai the opening lines take us straight into the subject of the poem. Tēvar in the Cc. adopts the pattern which is common to both Tamil and Sanskrit by paying homage to the four supreme beings, Dharma, Sadhu, Arhat and Siddha Here the homage is paid to the four supreme beings as the Cc is a Jaina epic. The choice of this method of beginning the poem is perhaps governed by his attempt to conform to the Sanskrit mahākavya pattern wherever it does not run contrary to Tamil practice. Perhaps it is also due to the religious character of this work.
The next novel feature to be found in the beginning of the Cc.; and which is not found in the Cilappatikāram or the Manimēkajai, is that of avaiyațakkam (apologia). Even though reference is made in the Tolkāppiyam to the custom of introducing verses of avaiyațakkam, this practice is not commonly observed in Tamil literture prior to the Cc. After the initial propitiatory verses, Tévar dwells on the loftiness of the subject he is about to deal with and his own incompetence to treat it 1 Tanakkup-payanpața-västtal-Periciriyar, Commentary on Tolkāppiyam, Por, Cey. Cut 109. 2 Pirarkkup-payagpata-vālttal - Ibid, loc. cit. cnt. 109. 3 Pērāciriyar, Ibid, loc. cit. cut. 109. 4 Tolkāppiyam, Por., Ccy., cut. 419.

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The Sanskrit interaction in the literary style.. properly, and entreats scholars to bear with the consequent flaws which may be found in the work. Poets who came after Tēvar like Tolāmolit-tēvar and Kampar also adopted this convention of avaiyaţakkam, following the pattern set up by Tēvar. Tēvar may have drawn his inspiration for this from the Raghuvamsa of Kalidāsa. 1 This conjecture is strengthened by the fact that Tëvar has been inspired by the Raguvamsa in other ways also, as we shall see in the course of this chapter. This convention of avaiyațakkam has later also been incorporated by the author of the Mārapalankārama as a feature of a kāppiyam.
Another feature which is common in the Cilappatikāram, the Manimēkajai and the Cc. is the patikam, a series of verses giving a summary of the entire work. A somewhat parallel instance is to be seen in the Valmiki Rāmāyaṇa in Sanskrit, where the story of Rāma is narrated to Valmiki by Nárada at the beginning of the epic. 3 • 2 The second point concerns the story which forms the subject matter of the mahākāvya. As shown in the previous chapter, Tēvar has taken the story of Jivaka from a Sanskrit or Prakrit poem. Earlie epics like tbe Cilappatikāram and the Manimēkalai, which deal with stories of the Tamil country, have the characteristic flavour of the life and the culture of the Tamil land. The shortness of the story which Iļanko has selected is responsible to a great extent for the unity, continuity and corrence of his epic. The Cilappatikāram deals with the story of Kovalan and Kannaki who are from the merchant community. The Manimēkalai, which almost continues the story of the Cilappatikācam, narrates the story of Manimëkalai, the daughter of Kõvalan and Malavi, the courtesan. When one comes to the Perunkatai, the tradition of taking a story from Sanskrit for the subject of a poem begins. The story taken is that of Udayana as told in Durvinita's Sanskrit translation of the Brhatkathā written in the Paisāci dialect by Gupādhya.4 So far no-one has analysed how much of this has been taken from the Sanskrit original story and how much the original has been changed. Further, parts of this work at the beginning and at the end are missing. The Co., which comes after the Perun katai, is the first epic now available in complete form which has borrowed its story from Sanskrit. Almost all epics in Tamil written after the Cc. borrow their stories from Sanskrit.
The requirement regarding the source for a mahākāvya is stated by Dandin in the phrase 'itibāsa-kathodbhūta'. It must be a story which enjoys fame and popularity, and this explains why Tēvar chose the story of Jivaka for his epic. The story of Jivaka, who is one of the religious leaders, occupies a place in Jaina religious lore which is comparable to that of Rāma and Krşņa in Hinduism and of Buddha in Buddhism
1 Kalidasa, Raghuvamsa, canto 1, vv, 2-4, 2 K. V. Jagannathan, op. cit., p. 140. 3 Valmiki Rāmāyaṇa, Balakāndam, chapter 1. 4 Saminatha Iyar, U. V. Introduction to Perunkatai, op. cit. P. xxvii, Footnote 7.

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In the treatment of this story he has also taken into consideration the requirement that it must expound the four purujärthas Dharma, Artha, Käma and Moksa.
In both Sanskrit and Tamil literature, works on poetics have emphasised the importance of dealing with the four aims of life. Dharma deals with the duties and rules of social conduct and the values and ideals of the society. Artha is concerned with the particular rules governing the various varpas and asramas, and the acquisition and distribution of riches and other good things of life one enjoys; and mokşa deals with the efforts and ways through which one attains liberation after death. In Sanskrit, Manu's Dharmasastra, Kautilya's Arthagästra and Vatsyayana's Kamasutra set forth the details of the three pursuits Dharma, Artha, and Kama. Moksa is mainly dealt with in philosophical and religious works. In Tamil didactic works like Thirukkural and the Nalatiyar the three aims Dharma (aram), Artha (poru) and Kama (inpam) are dealt with in detail. The Pajamojinänaru deals with all the four aims whereas the other works which are classified under the Patinegkijkkanakku deal with one or more than one of them. The "Titijataka, the Vairagyajataka, and the Sigarajataka of Bhartrhari in Sanskrit form a tripartite colllection of gnomic verses which deal with the materialistic, the sensous and the spiritual aspects of life in accordance with the above classification of the ends of life.
Later, the authors of ornate epics recognised that a still more effective way of treating these was to trace the course of events in the lives of outstanding characters and to show how they exemplified all that was considered best in the four pursuits of life. This explains why commentators like Atiyarkkunallar discuss the question of how these treated in the Tamil epics. Têver is the first Tamil author who attempted to compose an epic whose contents embraced all the four ends of life.
Now we shall trace how the story of Civakan's life has been developed by Têvar from this point of Virtuous (dhärmic) deeds are done by Cinvakan throughout his life. Ahimsa (non-killing). one of the basic principles of Jainism, is practised by Civakan, at times even in battle. The battle he fights against the hunters who drove away the cows of the cow-herds is a battle in which complete ahimsa is observed, as Civacan wins the battle without any violence. 1 He saves the dying dog which is beaten by the brahmins and utters the pañcanamaskara mantra which makes the dog. turn into a yakṣa. He also saves the elephants which were caught in a fire. He gives religious advice to the ascetics in Cittiraktam, Cittirakūtam, to a hunter and to a traveller. 6
He shows kindness to all and his kingdom. He is compassionate towards
1. Cc. vv. 448-455. 2. Ibid, vv. 984-960. 3. Idid, v. 1237.

generosity. increases after he acquires the the wounded warriors and looks after the
4. Ibid, vv. 1426-1437. 5. Ibid, vv. 1230-1237. 6. Ibid, vv. 1543-1566.

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needs of the women who were in his enemy's palace,1 Every marriage of his brings him wealth, but he does not in any way misuse it. On becoming king, he distributes all his wealth in such a way that all his subjects are well looked after. He demolishes all the prison buildings and exempts all his subjects from paying tax for sixteen years, He does not levy any tax on the lands of temples, astrologers, or brahmins. He donates gifts and helps the blind, the diseased, and women deserted by their husbands,
The enjoyment of pleasures (kama) by Crvakan can be seen throughout the story. His marriages with his eight wives and his sexual pleasures with them dealt with in detail in the Cc. The treatment of love in the Cc. bears the influence of the Tolkappiyam and early Tamil literary works as well as of Sanskrit literary works. These will be discussed in detail while analysing the descriptions of love. scenes and marriages.
The aspect of salvation (moksşa) is explained in the last ilampakam. the Muttiyilampakam. From the beginning of the story Tevar prepares Civakan to attain salvation. The last chapter explains the stages through which Civakan attained moksa. As these facts are explained in detail in the chapter on Jainism, they are not discussed here.
3. Coming now to the discussion of the hero of Cc.; we note that the Cc. does not have good precedents in Tamil for the development of the hero's character. In the Cilappatikaram everything else is subordinated to the interest in the characterisation of Kannaki. Kovalan is thus reduced to a kind of shadow designed to accentuate the characterisation of the heroine by contrast. Similarly in the Maņimekalai Utayakumaran is introduced in such a way as to enhance the spirituality of Manimékalai. CivakaB's character has been cast by Tevar in a fundamentlly different way. To understand this it would be necessary to briefly discuss the definition of a kavya nayaka as laid down by Sanskrit rhetoricians. Four types of hero have deen recog nised in Sanskrit All of them are noble and self-controlled, For this reason all of them are called Dhira, but they are distinguished as udatta (exalted), uddhata (haughty), lalita (light hearted) and santa (calm). The Dhira-udatta hero is a person of great excellence, exceedingly serious, forbearing, not boastful, resolute, without. self-assertion, and firm of purpose. The Dhiroddhata hero is dominated by pride.
1. Cc, v. 2372.
2. Ibid, vv. 2345-48.
3. Ibid, vv. 2372-2373.
4. Ibid, v. 2376.
95
5. mahāsattvo' tigambhiraḥ kṣamā vān avikatthanaḥ
sthiro nigūḍhāhamkaro dhirodatto drdhavrataḥ
Dhanamjaya, The Dasarūpa, 2,5 Indo-Iranian series, vol. 7, New York, 1912
6. darpamätsaryabhūyişṭho may&chadmapriyaṇaḥ dhiroddhatast vahamkari calas cando vikatthanaḥ Ibid, 2:3.

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and jealousy and devoted to magic practices and deceit, self-assertive, fick le, irascible and boastful. The Dhira-lalital hero is one who is free from anxiety, fond of arts and gentle. 2 The Dhira-śānta hero, who is a brahmin or the like, possesses all the qualities necessary for a good hero.
This kind of classification is not found in early Tamil literature. Though the Cankam poems deal with the valour, glory, munificence, compassion and charm of the hero, it has not been possible to fuse these characteristics into the personality of a single hero since they are all short isola ed verses. This is also true of longer poems like the Patt uppāțțu and the Cirupāņārruppațai.
We have already mentioned the absence of vivid characterisation of the hero in epics like the Cilappatikāram and the Manimekalai. In the Cc, however the story turns around the character of Civakan. Tēvar has delineated his character on the lines of a Dhịrodatta type of hero as defined by Sanskrit rhetoricians and depicted in Sanskrit literary works. He has also contrasted the character of Caccantan, his father, with Civakan's, by making the former a Dhira--lalita hero. Cıvakan's conscientiousness and steadfastness are lacking in the character of Caccantan. Though he is good to his subjects and noble in character he falls a prey to his passion. He faces death as a result of his dereliction of his regal duties. The qualities which bring death to Caccantā are carefully omitted in the characterisation of Civakan. Civakan is always alert in his actions and aware of what is happening around him. None of his actions bring blemish to his noble, upright character. He enjoys pleasure but at the same time he does not neglect his duty and fall a prey to his passions, Till he regains the kingdom lost by his father he does not stay with any of his wives for more than a few days, He is well versed in all arts and these talents help him to acquire some of his wives. He wios Kāntaruvatattai by showing his skill in Viņai (lute), Kunamalai by controlling the intoxicated elephant which was going to attack her, Patumai by curing her from snake-bite, Kanakamāsai and llakkaņai by showing his talent in archery, and Curamancari by his mellifluous musical talent.
In the Cc, these noble qualities are depicted by Tēvar in the form of descriptions, in the speech of his enemy Kaţtiya kāran and through the expressions of the other characters connected with Civakan. His balance of mind is weil expressed by Tēvat in the following verse, which explains the state of Civakan after being helped by Cutancapan to escape from the death sentence imposed by Kattiyankāran for pride o his Acapivēkam.
viļanki villumi sum pūņān viļuc ciraip pattapöllum alankal an tārinān vant arunc cirgi vituttapoltum pulampu makilvu nêncir politalum inrip pon arnt
ulankalant uyarnta töļān al vinaiy enru vitļāna 1. niścinto dhiralalitah kalăsaktaḥ sukhi mặdah Ibid, 2.3. 2. sāmānyaguņayuktas tu dhiraśānto dvijādikah. Dhanamjaya, op. cit. 2.4: 3, Cc. vv. 370-373. 4. Ibid, v. 1167,

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(Civakan with lofty and stone-like round (muscular and well fleshed) shoulders full of colden jewels, was neither distressed when he was imprisoned by Kattiyankāran who wore jewels casting flickering rays, nor happy when he was released by Cutancanan who wore beautiful dangling garlands. His heart unaffecte 1, he considered both as the fruits
of previous births). The following verse shows how his excellent qualities are even praised by his enemy Kațsiyankāran :
arul valiyāņmai kalviy alak ariv ilamaiy ükkam tiru maliy ikai pēkan tin pukal nanpu curram oruvar iv ulakil yarë civakan okku nirar
perit arit ivanaik konrāy perukenac cirappuc ceytan 1 (In this world who can be compared with Civakan in his compassion, strength, prowess, knowledge, beauty, wisdom, youth, perseverence, charity, indulgence, undying fame, and in having worthy friends and well wishers. It is great that you killed him. Accept these presents. Thus praised Kattiyarkāran)
Civakan is also often praised by his friends for his excellent qualities. The attributes they give him such as 'kuņattoțu malintavan'a ( he who is full of good qualities) and 'vapakk aruñ cilaiyinān')3 (he who has a bow which cannot be bent (by his enemies) ), show his reputation among his friends in all respects. Thus, Civakan is elevated to be a Dhirodātta type of hero.
It is of interest to notice that the characters of Caccantan and Kattiyakāran have also been developed on the lines indicated in Sanskrit works. Caccantan is depicted as a Dhira-laita. Though the character of Kovalan in the Cilappatikāram has a certain resemblance to that of Cacantan the way two characters are depicted is different. Kývalan is introduced in the Cilappatikáram for the first time with the following lines :
man täytta pukalinān mati muka mațavār tam pan täytta moliyinar ayattup pārättik kantattum cevvēl enr icai pökkik kätalar koņtēttun kilamaiyan kövalan enpān manno
Kovalan's expanding fame made the earth all too small to bear it. Moonfaced maidens, skilled in song and sweet voice, fondly said to each other, 'O, He is Subfahmanya incarnate!' and revealed their excessive love for him when they spoke in praise of him in their own gatherings.) 5
1 Cc. v. 1165. 2 Ibid, v. 1817. 3 Ibid, v. 1817. 4 Cilappatikāram, Munkala-vālttup-pāțal, lines 36-39. 5 Translated by V. R Ramchandra Diksitar, "The Silappadikaram", Oxford, 1939, p. 89. Sc-13

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Here reference to his popularity among women has been made deliberately to indicate the tragic flaw which made him lose all his wealth and later on his life itself. But in the Cc., though Caccantan also meets his end as a result of his passion for Vicayai, he is introduced differently. The description of Caccantan, which proceeds in five verses, reminds us strongly of Kālidāsa's description of Dasaratha in the Raghuvamsa. The idea expressed in the following verse is similar to the verse in the Cc. which sets forth the relationship between Caccantan and his vassal kings.
Raghuvamsa
udayam astamayam ca raghūdvahād ubhayam inaśire vasudhādhipāḥ / sa hi nideśam alangha yatăm abhūt suhțd ayohțdayaḥ pratigar jatām 1/1
(Through the head of the family of Raghu, th: vassal kings experienced both rise and set, for he had a kind heart towards those who did not violate his commands and a heart made of steel towards his enemies.)
naccu nākattin ar alar cirruttan accam urr ațaintārkk amirt annavan
(To his enemies his anger is like that of the fiery venom of the poisonous cobra and to the people wh surrender themselves out of fear he is like ambrosia.) The verse
samataya vasu-vrsti-visar janair niyamanad asatăm ca naradhipah / anuyayau yama-punya jan svarau savaruņāyaruņāgrasaram ruca 1/3
(The lord of the people imitated Yama in equitability; the lord of the yaksas (Kubera) in raining showers of wealth; Varuņa in punishing the wicked; and the
sun, whom the dawn precedes in his bright splendour.) also is similar to the verse in the Cc.
tarumın rannaliyār ranat ikaiyal varunan kurr uyir marr alin vamanē arumaiyal alakir kanaiy aintutait
tiromakan riru mā nila mannane + (He, the king of the prosperous city, is Dharma (the eldest of Pandavas) through his benevolence, Varunan through his generosity; Yama through taking lives (punishing evil people); Arhat through his greatness; and Kaman (the God of love) through his beauty.) The third verse in Caccantan's description runs as follows:
kötai nittilañ cūl kulir ven kuțai öra nir ulakoppa nilarralar rātaiyèy avan ta nilar rankiya
kātalār kalikkinrat iv vai yamē5 1 Raghuvam sa, 9:9. 2 Cc. v. 157. 3 Raghuvamsa, 9.6. 4 Cc. v. 160. 5 Cc. v. 159.

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(In giving equal protection to the world surrounded by the ocean under his white cold umbrella which has flower garlands and pearl garlands around it, he is indeed the father to his subjects, who are hence very happy under his rule.) It reminds us of the description of Dilipa in the Raghuvamsa.
prajänām vinayādhanad rakṣanād bharaṇad api /
sa pita pitaras tüsām kevalam janmahetavaḥ 1/1 (He by imparting education, by protection and by support to them, he (Dilspa) was the real father to the subjects. Their (own) fathers were only the cause of their birth).
The noble aspects of his personality are again stressed later on in the story. In spite of his infatuation with Vicayai he anticipates his death at the hands of Kattiyankāran and therefore orders an aerial car to be made to enable Vicayai to get away from the palace in an emergency. He also displays remarkable tranquility, maturity and philosophical erudition when he consoles Vicayai by pointirg out the transience of human existence and the effect of Karma on one's life. The overall picture of Caccantan is thus one of a great and heroic personality who has the tragic flaw of beiog susceptible to the charms of his wife. He still richly deserves to be called a Dhira nāyaka, in particular a Dhira-lalita.
Kațțiyankāran is portrayed as typical pratināyaka, who is required to be a Dhiroddhata type of hero. Thus we find in him the avarice, conceit, cruelty and viciousness characteristic of this type of hero. Thus we find that Tēvar's characterisation of Kattiyankārau is very different from the portrayal of the character of Kāšțhāngāraka in the Up. The introduction of a character like Rudradatta in the Up, takes away much of the cruelty, cunning and greed from the character of Kāşthāngāraka. Unlike in the Up., where Kāšķhāngāraka kills Satyandharā because of the prediction made by Rudradatta, in order to save his own life, in the Cc. Kattiyankāran kills the king out of sheer avarice. So he invents a lie to justify his action to his ministers. For his subsequent attempts to kill Civakan and Kõvintan he has no reasons except his vanity and vaulting ambition.
In passing we note Gnanamurthy's contention about the characterisation of Kattiyankäran. He refers to Tolkāppiyam :
nimpiri koțumai viyap poțu puramoli vancor poccāppu mațimai yoțu kuțimai, inpural ēlamai marapoț oppumai ya
enr ivaiy inmaiy enmanâr pulavar.2 (Learned men say that the following should be avoided : jealousy, cruelty, pride, back-biting, hard words, irresoluteness, sluggishness, haughtiness on account of heredity, lowering one's dignity, forgetfulness, and misplaced love on account of
likeness.)3 1 Raghuvamsa, 1:24.
2 Tolkāppiyam, Por., Mey., cut, 26. 3 Translated by P. S Subrabmanya Sastri, op. cit., p. 12.

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and says that "since Tolkāppiyar prescribes that these undesirable dualities should be eschewed by the hero or the heroine of poem, we may take it for granted that they are the attributes of a villainous character."
However, considering the fact that this cuttiram is in the meyppättiyal of the Tolkāppiyam, where the qualities of the ideal lover have been described, we feel that generalising this to indicate the characteristics not to be found in a hero and hence to be found in a villain, according to Gnanamurthy) is to read too much into this verse.
4. We have seen the prescription of Danļin for descriptions in a mahākāvya. He also says that the omission of a few of these items will not diminish the beauty of a mahākāvya. Tēvar, who is keen on perfecting his epic in accordance with these prescriptions, tries to include all of them except drinking scenes, which are against his religious code of behaviour.
A study of the descriptions in the Cc. shows a great of intermixture of Tamil and Sanskrit poetical traditions. Tēvar's knowledge of both literatures makes him borrow ideas, phrases and techniques from the literature of both the languages. The great inclination which Sanskrit mabākāvyas had for alankāras has left its stamp on the Cc. As we have pointed out at the beginning of this chapter, the descriptions found in works composed in Tamil before the Cc. were more realistic and very much less exaggerated than the descriptions in Sanskrit works of the same period. The descriptions are integrated with the theme in the Tamil poems. But in the Cc. most of the descriptions have been introduced with the aim of embellishment-a poetical attitude advocated by Dandin. For example, one of the Sanskrit conventions in such descriptions is to describe a lady from head to toe if she is human and from toe to bead if she is a Goddess. We see this in the description of Vicayai, 3 which proceeds from head to toe (kešādipādāntavarṇanā) in sixteen verses. However, this description contains both Tamil and Sanskrit poetical traditions. One can discern the iufluence of the portrayal of the Virali (the wife of the bard) in the Porüparārruppațai, 4 one of the Cankam works, as well as that of Umā, in the Kumārasambhava of Kalidasa.The clear, placid style of the Porunararruppațai is not seen here : instead the exaggerated and detailed style of Sanskrit mahakāvyas is followed. The standards of comparisons are borrowed from both the sources. In the Porunararruppatai the ears and the earings of Virali are described as follows:
ma yir kurai karuvi munkațaiy annu pūnkulai ūcar porai cal kātin
...8
1 T. E. Gnanamurthy, op. cit. pp. 154, 155. 2 "devatānam rūpam padangustaprabhịti varnyate. manusaņām keśad ära bhyeti dbärmikāh.."
Mallinatha, commentary on the Kumarasambhava, 1:33. 3 Cc. 164-179. 4 Porunarärrupp tai, lines 25-45. 5 Kumarasambhava, 1:33-48. 9 Porunararruppațai, lines 29-30.

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(Her ears in which her pendants dangling shine Resemble well-shaped loops of scissors used To trim the hair...
..) Here the ears and the earrings on it together are compared to a pair of scissors which trim the hair. The same object of comparison, the pair of scissors, is used in describing Vicayai in the following lines ;
mayir eri kattarikaiy anaiyavā y vallai văț uyir cekutlu mun onrip pin përát uruvamainta ceyir makara kuntalamun tilaipp äna vār katum
(The beautiful earrings which are in the shape of a Makara fish and the immovable ears, which destroyed the beauty of a fatigued Vaļļai creeper, looked like a pair of scissors which are used to trim the hair.) The fingers are compared to the Kānta flower in both works. Kāntal mel viral... 3
--Porunarärtuppațai. (ths fingers like Kāntal flower (Gloriosa superba)).
Viral cenkāntal... 4 (the fingers like the red Kāntaj flower). In describing the thighs of the queen Tēvar follows Kalidāsa. The latter compares the trunk of the elephant Airāvata and the stem of the plantain tree to the thighs of Umā and says that though they were considered in the world to be beautiful, through their toughness and coldness they could not be compared to the thighs of Umā. Tēvar does not use the same alankāra vyatireka in his description, but uses the trunk of Airāvata and the stem of a young plantain as the standards of comparison for the thighs of Vicayai, in the following lines :
vela ven tira țațakkai verutti marr ilan kanni
vā.ait tant epat tirantu ... ... .. ... ... 6 (Her (Vicaiyai's) thighs had the beauty which scares (surpasses) (the beauty of) the trunk of white elephant (Airāvata), and they were plump like a young plantain tree.)
In the description of Kõvintai, the daughter of Kõvintan, the chief of the cowherds, Tēvar follows the Tamil tradition completely. Since, she is a cowherdess all the comparisons are to the products of milk.
venney ponr Uriniyal mem pal pör riñcolla! unna urukkiya a ney pòl mēniya!
1 Translated by J. V. Chelliah, Pattupattu, Madras, 1962, p. 63. 2 Cc. v. 168.
5 Kumarasambhava, 1:36. 3 Porunarārruppațai, line 33.
6 Cc. v. 174. 4 Co. v. 370.
7 Ibid, v. 480.

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(She is nice to touch like butter. Her sweet words are like delicious milk, Her body is like the cow ghee which has been melted to be eaten.)
Tēvar starts his epic with a detailed descripton of the country Emankatam, with its villages, 1 town, the interior of the town 3 the moat, the walls, the interior of the fortified city with the descriptions of the harlot street, market street, the living apartments of the servants of the king, and the palace of the king. 9 Some of these descriptions are even found in earlier Tamil works such as the Pattinappalai and the Cilappatikāram. As in these poems, Tēvar faithfully follows the Tamil tradition of describing the country. Yet Tēvar's method of description is one of extreme exaggeration, and he liberally uses the figures of speech Utprekşā and Udātta.
The following verse composed with udatta alankāra expresses the fertility of the land in the country of Emāńkatam :
pāvaiy annavar pantu putaitialir kūviy annam veriit tunaiy enru poyk kõvai nittila māțak kuļamicai
mēvi ven mati tannot innkkumē To (The swans which are frightened by the (noise) of the balls played with the ladies who are (beautiful) like images, go and sit with the men on the top of of the mansions which are adorned by pearl garlands, thinking that it is their companion.)
In this verse it is indirectly said that mansions are so high that their tops touch even the moon.
Tēvar also uses atiśayokti (hyperbole) in his descriptions and the following verse is a good example:
ten ula matuc cey kötai tēm pukai kamalav ütļa van ulāñ cutarkan mūți mă nakar iravu ceyyap pa nilāc corintu nallar anikalam pakalaic ceyya
vēnilän vilainta ceri mēļulak anaiyat onra.11 (In that city the smoke which arises when perfumming the garlands which are surrounded by bees, hides the rays of the sun which moves in the sky, and converts the day into night. The jewels of the ladies cast rays of moonlight like milk and make the night look th: day. This city which is desired by the God
of love appears like heaven.)
To give a different touch to the facts he narrates he also often uses utpreksā alankāra, which is called "tarkurippërram” in Tamil. The following verse serves
1 2 3 4
Ibid, vv. 64-77. Jbid, vv. 79-84. Ibid, vv. 85-93. Ibid, vy. 94-99.
5 Cc. vv. 100-105. 6 Ibid, vv. 106-111. 7 Ibid, vy. 112-117. 8 Ibid, vv, 118-124,
9 Ibid, vv. 125-156 10 Ibid, v. 125. 11 Cc. v. 111.

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as a good example for the many verses in which he uses utpreksā alankāra :
tiruva ninakarc cem poni nitiya uruvay on kotiy uli nutankuva paravai ven katirc celvana pan mayirp
puravi ponk alal arruva põnr ave1 (The long beautiful golden flags which are swaying on the top of the large wealthy mansions, look as if they are allaying the heat of the hairy horses of the hot rayed sun.)
In this verse also the height of the mansions is expressed. The flags are imagined as fans for the tired horses of the sun.
In some verses he uses bhrantimat alankara, which is called 'mayakkani' in the Tantiyalankäram. In the following two verses this alan kāra is used to show the fertility of the country.
vaļa muți națupavar varampil kampalai ila malai mulakkena maññai ēnkalin alamaru kuyilinam alunkip pūm polil
ula meli makaļirin oțunkum enpavē.2 (The peacocks shout in joy, thinking the limitless noise made by the people who transplant the heap of flourishing youug paddy to be the roaring of the new clouds (which appear in the beginning of the rainy season), and the koels, being sad like women who are distressed (by the separation of their lovers), resort to the flower garden).
kan enak kuvalai yum kattal ömpinär vanna vän mukam ena marai yinulpukar pann eļutt iyalpatap parappiyittanar
tan vayal ulavar tan tonmaiy innate, 3 (They would not go near lotuses, thinking that they were the bright beautiful faces of their lovers. They refrained from weeding the blue lilies, thinking that they were the eyes of their lovers, and they sang the songs pronouncing the syllables clearly. This was the nature of the farmers who were in the cool fields.)
In all epics which were written after the Cc., the tradition of beginning the work with descriptions of country, capital city, etc, is followed. Kampar, who came after Tēvar, has included whole sections named Nātțuppațalam and Nakarppatalam in the Irāmāyaṇam.- In the Cūļāmaņi, there are chapters devoted to the descriptions of the country and the capital city,
The following verse in the Nilakeci makes it clear that this way of describing the country, the city, etc., came to be regarded by later poets as an important feature
1 Ibid, v. 126. 2 Cc v. 49. 3 Ibid, v. 51. 4 Kamparāmāyanam, Pāla Kantam, Chapters 2 and 3.

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of the kāvya tradition :
vāta valattān malar ñálam matippin mikka nātāvat ihtām atan nan nalam con nalattår kūtat eninum cila kūralum vențum anre
pāțaviruntar poriy añcum pați yatanra I (This country is celebrated as the best country in the world by its ever flourishing nature. Though its fine features cannot be encompassed by (our) words (of praise), it is necessary to say a few things. Because, the one who leaves it unsung would suffer fearsome consequences.)
Tēvar has also described forests, mountains etc. and such natural phenomena as sunrise and moonrise, as laid down by Dandin. Though such descripions arise ovt of the mabakāvya tradition in Sanskrit, the way in which the fauna and flora are described is in accordance with the Tamil conventions. For example, the route taken by Civakan when he leaves Kēmacari is described, and Tēvar gives importance to the different kinds of landscapes. 2 Before Civakan meets Anankamāvīņai in the garden, he travels through four kinds of landscape. Here descriptions include all the landscapes mentioned in Tamil literature except Neytal (littoral). The landscape of all five kinds is also depicted in the Maņmakal ilampakam when describing the journey of Civakan to the country Vitēkam. The sunrise is described in verse 1406 and the moon rise in verse 1541.
In a few descriptions Tēvar has used almost exactly the same idea as found in Sanskrit poems. While describing the prosperity of Iracamāpuram, Tēvar borrows the exact incident from one of the verses in the Meghadüta of Kalidasa :
nivibandhocchvasitaśithilam yatra bimbadharānām kşaumam râgād onibhstakareșv akşipatsu priyeșu arcis tungan abhimukham api präpya ratnapradipān
hrimūdhānām bhavati viphalapreranā cūrņamuştih3 (Where the handful of powder flung by women having bimba (a kind of fruit) like lips and confused with shame when their garments, loosened by the untying of their knots, are snatched away by their husbands through passion with their quick moving hands, is flung in vain although it reaches the jewel lamps powerfully blazing with their flames.) 4
kar cunañ ceyta ton maintar katalàl nar cuņap pattutai parra nāņinär por cunattal viļakk avi p pap ponkiya
por cunam purampaņai tavalum por pirra 1 Nilakeci, v. 11. 2 Cc. vv 1556-1566. 3 Meghadüta, Uttara megha, v. 5. 4 Translated by Kale. Meghaduta edited by Kale, M, R, Bombay, 1916. 5 Cc, v, 91,

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(The city is characterised by agricultural tracts (rich with) golden dust that is excess after (being used to) extinguish the light, out of shyness when youths with (muscular) shoulders (as if) made of powdered stones, pulled the scented silk. garment (of their beloved) out of love.)
In the description of the moonrise mentioned earlier, Tévar expresses exactly the same idea expressed in the description of a moonrise in the Carudattam, and says that the white rays of the moon amid the darkness are like streams of milk on dried up mire.
Cc.
udayati hi jalankaḥ klinna-khar jura-pandur yuvati janasahāyo rajamargapradipaḥ timiranicayamadhye rasmayo yasya gaura hrtajala iva panke kşiradhāraḥ patanti
(The moon which is pale as moist dates, friend to young women and the light of the royal road, has risen. His white rays which descend in the midst of the darkness look like streams of milk falling on dried up mire.)
(As if pouring into black mud sweet milk from a ray-emitting gemstudded pot, the moon God, who is like the pale faces of ladies, by his shower of cool rays dispelled the pitch darkness spread everywhere and arose in the sea around.) The familiarity of Tevar with the Raghuvamia makes him sometimes use the same similes in his work, For example, the simile used to describe the Pandya king in the Raghuvarpia has been used to describe Crvakan in the Cc.
Raghuvamia
kalakac carrut timpal katir manikkutattin anti vi tarac corivare pål vilank olit tinkat putu!
cil irut foluti mukat tik kotir corintu nallar
mālai kon mukattir tonri valal kajan mulaittat ana
pandyo'yam amsarpitalambahāraḥ kiptahgarago haricandanena | abhati balataparaktasänuḥ sanir jharodgara ivadrirajah 1/8
(Here sits the king Pandya with his body smeared with red sandal paste and with his shoulders from which pearl garlands hang, shines like the king of the mountains whose summits are reddened with the rays of the morning sun and which has rivulets flowing downwards.)

ilave yin mani varaiy erittit! annator alavaru kunkumatt akanra măr pinay
1 Cărudattam, Act 1. v. 29. Selected from the thirteen Trivandrum plays attributed to Bhasa, critically edited by C. R. Devadhar, Poona, 1962. This verse is also seen in the Mṛcchakatika, chap. 1.57.
2 Cc. v. 1541.
3 Raghuvamsa, 6:60.
Sc-14

4 Cc. v. 1182.

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(Oh, the one with broad chest, smeared with a thick layer of kunkumam (a red powder), like a mountain of gems on which the morning sunrays are falling ...)
In the above description Tēvar omits the comparison of pearl garlands worn by the Pandya king to the rivulets flowing from the mountain. He has only taken the comparison made to the smearing or sandal paste on the body of the Pandya king to the morning sun rays falling on a mountain. The same comparison is also found in the description of King Sūdraka in the Kādambari of Baņa.
atisurabhicandananulepanadhavalitorah sthalam uparivinyastakunkumasthāsakamantarantarānipatitabalatapăcchadamiva kşilasasikharinam......räjänam adraksit.1
(He saw a king...whose chest was whitened with exceedingly fragrant sandal paste, with marks of saffron made over it, and who looked like the (white) Kailāsa mountain with patches of (reddish) morning sunlight falling on it here and there.)
The descriptions of various seasons are seen in the Kuņamālaiyār ilampakam and the Muttiyilampakam.
Besides these descriptions of kings and queens, natural scenery and cities, Tēvar has also tried to include all the other descriptions required by Daņdin. In the Patumaiyār ilampakam, Patumai who is in love with Civakan is taken to play in the garden by her friends. Their sports in the garden are described in six verses. 4 Similarly in the Muttiyilampakam Civakan is described laying with his wives in the garden. Water sports are portrayed in great detail in the Kunamālaiyar ilampakam.8 Again, Civakan engaged in water sports with his wives provides the poet with a chance to elaborate on water sports in sixteen verses in the Muttiyilampakam.
All the eight heroines fall in love with Civakan before marrying him. Some of these love scenes are described in detail. The scene in which Kunamalai sends a message to Civakan through the parrot and Cīņakan draws her portrait, and the scene in which Kāntaruvatattai gets angry because of Civakan's attention to Kunamalai, are described with both Tamil and Sanskrit traditions in mind, In the story of Potumai the Tamil erotic traditions of Ițantalaippāțu (rendezvous), Iyarkkaippuparcci (union), Nalampārāļļal (praising) and Pankiyar küțam (the company of girl friends) are elaborated with great accuracy. 6
In Sanskrit kavyas like the Buddhacarita and the Raghuvamsa there are scenes depicting the state of girls who fall in love with the hero when he comes in procession through the streets. The lirukkailāya-ñāna-ula of Ceramāpperumal (8th Century A.D.),? is perhaps the earliest work (except the Cc.) in which there are descriptions of girls in the seven stages, the Pētai, Petumpat; Mankai, Maţantai, Arivai, Terivai, Pēriļampen, 1 Bảna, Kadambari, Edited by Kale, 1968, p. 19.
2 Cc. v. 851 ff. 3 Ibid, vv. 2668--2698. 4 Ibid, vv. 1316-1321 5 Ibid, vv. 2652-2667 6 Ibid, vv. 1317--1334. 7 T. P. Meenakshisundaran, A History of Tamil Literature, p. 142

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who are infatuated with lord Siva when they see him coming in a procession. Though in later Tamil literature the theme of ulā gave rise to a whole class of poetry, with its own characteristics, such poems are not found in the earlier Tamil literature. There are four such situations described in the Cc. 1 Of these, in the Kuņamālaipăr ilampakam some of the descriptions resemble the ones found in the Raghuvamsa. a Thus the actions of ladies mentioned in the following verses of the Cc. ;
cem pon dlai viļavun cey kalankaļ cintavum am pon mälaiyot acaint avi Intu kūntal cõravum nampan urrat ennenā nāțakam matakam mafantai yar
vempi vitiy bținar minninanna nunmaiyar 8 (The dancing girls, who had waists like lightning, being distressed by the trouble Civakan had, with their golden earrings falling from their ears, ornaments scattering, and golden garlands dropping from their loosened tresses of hair, ran to the streets to see what was happening to him.)
matarakal karpinukk uțainta ma manikkaļait titilara nür peyvār citarntu pökac cintuvar potulam alankalan mun pöntu pun terivaiyar
atakatenak kalankiy avvayir atukkinär. (The ladies who were making flawless necklaces with thread and gems which are defeated by the chastity of ladies, ran in front of Civakan who was wearing flower garlands and beat their bellies saying that this is not proper while the gems scattered around.)
The following verses of the Raghuvamsa, in which the prince Aja is shown coming in a procession, are similar :
älókamargam sahasā vra jantya kayācit udvestana-vànta-mălyaḥ / baddhum na sambhāvita eva tāvat karena ruddho pi hi kesapaśah //
(A certain lady while suddenly hastening to the window (lit. a passage to look through) did not at all think of binding the braid of hair though she held it in her hand and from the folds of which the flowers were dropping down on account of its being made loose through her haste, till she has reached the door of the window.)
ardhacită satvaram utthitāyāḥ pade durnamite galanti / kas yaścid asid rašana tadanim angusthu-mūlärpita-sūtra-seșä //'
(The half-stringed girdle of some other lady risen up in haste, the jewels of which were dropping down at her every faltering step, had at the time the string
fastened only to the root of her foot-toe ) 8 1 Cc. vv. 457-470; 2114-2122; 2529-2540; 1099-1107.
2 Raghuvamsa, 7:6 and 7: 10, 3 Cc. v. 1103.
4 lbid, v, 1106. 6 Translated by Nandargikar. Raghuvamsa of Kalidāsa, Bombay, 1897.
of Kalidasa. Bombay SeoRaghuvamsa, 7:6. 7 Raghuvamsa, 7:10.
8 Translated by Nandargik är. Raghuvamsa, 7:10.

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In these verses, the loosening of hair with the falling flowers and the Jewels dropping from the string are described in the same way. But both in the Kupama. laiyār ilampakam and in the Ilakkanaiyar ilampakam the girls are classified into seven different kinds according to their age and maturity, in accordance with Tamil tradition,
The marriages of Civakan with his eight wives are described. Special attention is paid to the wedding ritual in the marriage of Ilakkaņai.l The marital pleasures of Civakan receive detailed descriptions in several places. It has been claimed that Tēvar shows his knowledge of Sanskrit as well as Tamil works, both Vatsyāyana's Kāmasūtra and the Cankam literature in these descriptions.
The birth of Civakan's children is dealt with in the Muttiyilampakam. 2
Details of battles and descriptions of the counsel held before war3 and the despatch of a messenger 4 have all been included by Tēvar. The descriptions of war contain details about the strength of the army, the valour of the soldiers, their victory etc. The seizure of the cows and their retrieval involve battles, which are set forth in accordance with the Tamil conventions of Vetci 5 and Karantail war in the Kõvintaiyār ilampokam 7 and in the Kanakamālaiyār ilampakam. 8 The final battle between Civakan and Kattiyankāran, and the victory of Civakan in the battle, are elaborately described in the Manmaka! ilampakam..
Thus we see that every opportunity has been used by Tēver to include descriptions as required by the Sanskrit rhetoricians' definition of a mahākāvya. A few words in particular about the several figures of speech used in these descriptions are necessary at this point because the proliferation of figures of speech is one major result of the effort to adopt the Sanskirt pattern. As we have seen, earlier Cankam poetry mainly employs similes, grapbic descriptions and, in the later period, epic similes. One is struck with the purposefulness with which these similes are employed in these poems. They are never used in such a way as to obscure the meaning of the poem. They are precisely phrased and short. The objects of comparison are chosen from everyday experience, and hence illustrate the idea cleariy. Nature serves as a background for depicting human emotions. The kind of simile called Ullurai always suggests some kind of human relationship through the description of nature. This is often used through the address of a friend of the heroine to the hero, suggesting the state of his lover. Mythological allusions were seldom introdnced before the Kalittokai and the Paripāțal. Most of the similes have only one point of comparison.
Thus for example the gems that shine on the girdles of ladies are compared to the dew shining on the boughs of a konrai tree. The teeth of an angry dog are compared to bamboo shoots. 1. This is the tradition followed in the Cilappatikāram and to a lesser extent in the Manimekalai. Sabiālankāras ( embellishments involving sounds) were of relatively rare occurrence and when found were never long
1 Cc. v. 2385 ff. 2 Ibid, vv. 2701-2706. 5 Supra, p. 149. 6 Supra, p. 149. 9 Porunarärruppaļai, lines 327-328.
3 Ibid, v. 2143-2149. 7 Ch. v. 413 ff. 10 Kur incippattu, line 131.
4 8
Ibid, v. 2143. Ibid, v. 1845 ff.

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or artificial, they were merely the outcome of a mastery of diction serving without effort to beautify powerful thoughts.
Coming to the Cc., one encounters a different situation. As we have seen in the foregoing examples, a good number of figures of speech have bcen borrowed from Sanskrit literature. The personification of nature and inanimate objects, hyperbole and fanciful expressions, obscure similes involving mythological and philosophical allusions, and Sabdālan karas, puns etc. are found in plenty here. The verse describing the plight of Vicayai in the burial ground runs as follows:
puran kattuļ vantà tamiyay ena maranka!
cintit iranki aļuvana pòl pani cēr kannir corintanava 1 (The trees shed tears mixed with dew drops as if they were crying at the thought, "Oh, you (Vicayai) bave come alone to the cemetery”.)
This method of attributing emotions to inanimate objects closely resembles the description in the Meghadūta.
paśyantinām na khalu bahuśo na sthalidevatānām
muk tasthulas tarukisalayeșvasruleśaḥ patantis (The local deities shed tear drops as big as pearls on the shoots of the trees when they see me (throwing out my arms into space to embrace you).)
The figure of speeeh here is Utprekşā or Poetic fancy, instances of which have already been indicated in particular in the descriptions of the country and the eapital city. In the above example Utprekşā one also finds a pun (Śleşa). The word Kannir can be read in two ways with the word 'panicēr.
(i) panicër ka! + nir corintanave.
(ii) panicër kannir corintanave. Here if one reads "Panier ka[+nir corintanavē. then the meaning is the trees shed honey with dew (as tears)', and if one reads 'panicēr kannir corintahavē', then the meaning is the trees cried with the tears of dew drops.'
Tēvar also attempts to employ the different kinds of similes set forth by the rhetoricians. Thus Mālopamā is employed in describing the growth of Civakan.
pal püm poykait tamarai ponrum panivānatt ellar kannum inpuray ūrum mati põntum kolluñ cinkak kuţtiyum põnr iv ulakettac
cellum manno civakan teyyap pakai venre. 3 (Civakan grew without being affected by the diseases which affect small children (tey vappakai), like a lotus which is in the pond full of lotuses, like a moon which moves in the cold sky giving pleasure to the eyes of all people,
and like the cub of a lion.) 1 Cc. v. 312.
2 Meghadūta, Uttaramegha, v. 43. 3 Cc. v. 364.

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Examples of similes involving allasions to Sanskrit mythology, epics, and other works in Sanskrit can be seen in the following cases.
(i) ... ilankal aliyinān kalict ittam pôl
Kalonku ten tirai mayntu. I (Like the herd of elephants of the king (Bharateśvara) who had a shiping orb, they (clouds) drank water from the sea ...)
Here the elephants of Bharateśvara kiog, 8 a Jaina mythological figure, is compared to the clouds.
(ii) ...arumaņi marakatatt ankanāriya
eri nirap ponn ital éntu tāmarait
tirumakaļ ival erat ,..... 3 (She jooked as if she was the Lakşmi who was born in the golden lotus which had golden petals, which was born in (a pond in) the mountain made of emerald.
(iii) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
për amarul anru perun tätaiy oțum pêrop
por amaru ninray isaiyönit polivurran.* (He shone like Abhimanyu who fought without turning his back in the battlefield against his uncle Karņa in the great war (The Bhārata war).)
Here the king Caccanatn is compared with Abhimanyu who was opposing Karņa in the Bhārata war.
(iv) toţ ani makaļir pönra tunar malark kom par kompi
ățavar põla ranțum ațaintanav aļi yirkk olki utiya makaļir pilav ocintanav üța zikkum
cetarit cenru pulli cirupuran talliya tumpi. (The bees, like lovers, went to the branches full of clusters of flowers, which were like ladies adorned with flowers. The branches hent down (with the weight of the bees) like ladies who are sulky towards their lovers. The dragon-flies which were like the Cetas went and sat on the higher parts of the branches as if they were helping to appease the ladies by embracing them on the back.)
Here the branches with clusters of flowers are compared to the sulky ladies and the bees to thier lovers. The branches are bending and the dragon-flies are sitting on theni like Cētas who help the lovers to remove their ladies' anger.
The character Cēta occurs in Sankrit dramas. He serves as intermediary between lovers and their angry sweethearts. In these examples one cannot understand the simile unless one is familiar with the relevant ideas in Sanskrit literature. 1 Ibid, v. 32. 2 Refer, notes given by U. V. Saminatha Iyer to the Cc. v. 32 in his edition for details of this story. 3 Cc. v. 183. Refer, notes by U. V. Saminatha Iyer to the Cc. v. 183 in his edition for details. 4 Cc. v. 288. 5 Ibid, v 852
6 Vidvānätha, Prataparudriya, 39.

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Tevar also employs the figure of speech yamaka in his work. The first seven stanzas of the Pamakal ilampakam contain the figure of speech yamaka. For instance in the following verse,
kitar puliyu mulaik kõlarly arum orna kitar mejiyak kolai ven ninaintanaiy ettik kutara målaik kuvi men mulaik kötal mallar küçära māja mayil põlak kulliyinara.1
(The ladies who wore pearl garlands on their round breasts, gathered like peacocks on balconies and domes to praise the one (Civakan) who wielded his oppressive murderous spear against his enemies, who were like male lions and tigers in a cage.)
The first word in all the four lines is 'Küear' and this word has to be analysed in different ways to give different meanings. Thus in the first line 'Kur should be separated as katu+ar (the one in the cage); in the second line as kütar (the enemies) in the third line as katu+aram (with pearl necklace) and in the fourth line as kutaram (dome).
In such places, one is reminded of examples from the works of Bharavi, Magha and the later Sanskrit kavya writers.
There are many places where the figure of speech employed obscures the meaning and is thus at best an adornment of doubtful value to the poem. The following verse, which describes the wall of the city Iracamapuram, serves as a good example
of this.
vayira varai kan vilippa pénru malaly ukaļum vayira manit talk katavu väyin mukamāka
vayira mani hayin mulai van por kotik kintal
vayirak kitonk aṭai matir kanniyatu kavine.1
(The beauty of the lady wall was such that her face was the door that looked like a mountain with its eyes open with the diamond bolt, and on which the clouds lay, her breasts were the bastion, her hair was the golden flag, and her diamondwhite dress was the moat.).
To describe the beauty of the wall, he uses the figure of speech Rupaka, and portrays the wall as a lady. Here to understand the beauty of the wall, the reader has first to understand the figure of speech he has employed and the ideas he tries to explain. Only after that can the reader understand the beauty which the author is trying to explain
5. The discussion of the descriptions in the Cc. leads on to the depiction of sentiments, which is achieved mainly through these descriptions and through the speeches and actions of the characters. The importance of Rasa or sentiment has been recognised in Sanskrit in the statement 'vakyam rasatmakam kavyam'. The concept of the importance given to the sentiment may be traced to the popularity enjoyed by driya
1 Cc. v. 2328.
2 Cc. v. 105.

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kavyas such as drama (nātaka). In Sanskrit the rasa theory was first propounded by Bharata in his Nātyaśāstra. He deals with rasa in order to indicate how the actors in a drama or a dancer must portray the sentiments on the stage in such a way as to captivate and keep the audience en rapport with what is going on, on the stage. He also deals with the rules regarding what must and what must not be shown on the stage and the combination of sentiments are allowed. As we have seen earlier there is a great resemblance between the rasa theory of Bharata and the Meyppättiyal of Tolkāppiyar.
But unlike in Sanskrit where the later rhetoricians evolved clear-cut definitions about rasa, dhvani etc., based on the ideas of Bharata, there has been on similar effort in Tamil. The rhetoricians in Sanskrit extended the ideas about rasa to the Śravya kavyas as well and this resulted in the stress on sentiment placed by authors like Dandin, Bhāmaha, Vāmana, Udbhata and Rudrața. Tēvar appears to have been well versed in these doctrines unlike the earlier authors in Tamil who wrote epics spontaneously and not in cooformity with rigid rules of poetics.
It was the convention in Sanskrit that a mabākāvya would portray one predominant sentiment and contain other sentiments which must be depicted in such a way as to enhance the main sentiment. Tēvar chooses the śrngāra rasa as the main sentiment of his work. He names every canto of the poem to indicate one marriage of the hero Civakañ. In some cantos the names are based on actual marriages and in some the names indicate his union with knowledge (ñānam), earth (maņmaka!), coronation (pumakal) and salvation (mutti). Thus naming all his chapters after the weddings of Civakan, Tēvar makes the Cc. a poem of weddings (maņa nal).
The wedding and the marital life of Civakan 'receive descriptions throughout the book. The love in union known as 'kūtal' in Tamil and as sambhoga śțngāra in Sanskrit is portrayed elaborately both in accordance with Tamil and Sanskrit literary traditions. Tēvar dwells on subtle details as amorous glances, dalliance, honeymoon etc. and in describing them makes full use of his artillery in figures of speech, lilting melody and alliterative phrases. Sometimes his erudition in the later Sanskrit mabakavyas which are full of these figures of speech reaches the point of tedium and detracts from the beauty of the poem. They hamper the delineation of the exact sentiment he wants to convey through his verse. For example:
ațciy aim poriyalan utampenum pūļci niļ kotip purrin akatturai
vāt ka ņökk enum vai eyicr ār alal • vēțkai nākattin mittun kolap pattal, 1
(She was again affected by the poison that is spread in the teeth (the look of his sharp eyes) of the snake (desire), which lives in the hill (Givakan's body which controls the five senses of impelling nature) where the creeper (of
determination) grows), 1 Cc. v. 1292,

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This verse which describes the scene in which Patumai who is revived from the effects of the poison due to the snake bite by Civakan, faints away on seeing the face of Civakan, is full of metaphors. Tēvar wants to describe the glance of Civakan as a second snake which bit Patumai again and thereby to bring out Srngāra rasa. But, the elaborate imagery serves more to show off the cleverness of the poet than to lend clarity and charm to the narration which delineate the rasa.
As we have seen earlier, the union of Patumai with Civakan in the garden is described in accordance with the early Tamil traditions as seen in Cankam poems. Her friends arrange the meeting between the two by bringing her to the garden after decking her with garlands, saffron, pearls, etc. They leave her in the garden in a lonely place and go away on the pretext of several errands. When Civakan sees Patumai alone he wonders whether she is a goddess and this wonderment is described according to the early Tamil postical traditions. The union which takes place between Patumai and Civakan in the garden is narrated in the lines of Iyarkkaip puņarcci (natural union) deseribed in earlier Tamil love poems. After their marriage, Tēyar continues to deseribe their marital pleasure in nine verses, Civakan's union with Tēcikappavai and her episode seems to have included to facilitate another description of erotic sentiment.
in his manner of describing the union of lovers, Tēvar differs markedly from the earlier poets like Jlanko. For example, llaoko even when he describes the state of Kõvalan, who was intoxicated by the love of Mātavi, says
mana manai pukku mātavi tannoțu anaivuru vaikalin ayarntanan mayanki
vițuta! asiya viruppinan ayinan1 (He (Kovalan) entered the bridal chamber with Matavi. As he embraced her, he was captivated by her, and became fond of her and did not like to part from her.)
Here in these three lines, he explains the pleasures Kovalan had and his constant presence with Matavi. A closely similar situation is discussed in the Cc. when Caccantap is infatuated with Vicayai. But here, Tēvar takes this opportunity to depict the erotic sentiment and describe their pleasures with all details.2 The same kind of description can be found in the verses in which he narrates the marital pleasures Civakan bad with Kāntaruyatattai3 and with his other wives.
The love in separation called 'pirital in Tamil and Vipralmabha sigara in Sanskrit is also delineated by Tēvar while describing the states of Kāntaruvatattai, Kunamalai, Patumai. and Kemacari when Civakan leaves them and goes. Particu. larly the lamentation of Patumai, after Civakan leaves her in the night while she was asleep, proceeds in fourteen verses. She goes to the pet parrot and myna and
•
1 Cilapatikaram, Arankērrukätai, lines 171-174 2 Gc. vv. 188-198. 3 Cc, vv. 838-841,
Sc-15

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speaks with indignation that they had let bim go; asks the swan why it would not bring Civakan back, entreats the peacock to tell his whereabouts and addresses inanimate objects like the lamp, the mansions etc. One recalls here the famous observation of Kalidasa in his Meghadüta,
Kāmärta hi prakti-kr panās cetanacetaneşul ( Those who in love are incapable of discriminatng between animate and inanimate objects.)
This lamentation of Patumải reminds one of the famous scenes in the Rāmāyaṇa and in the Vikramorvasiya where Rāma and Vikrama lament when separated from Sitā and Urvasi respectively.
The theme which Tevar has chosen afforded him plenty of opportunities to depict almost all the other sentiments also. This and his eagerness to deal elaborately with such situations contrast sharply with the methods adopted in works like the Cilappatikāram. Jļanko does not depend upon any source book and build up the plot steadily towards the climax of the murder of Kõvalan and the grief and anger of Kasnaki in Madurai. In the case of Tēvar, his idea is to describe the history of Civakan which provides him a broad Kāvya tract in which he could cultivate all the sentiments. A typical situation which occurs in common in all the three works the Cilappatikāram, the Manimēkalai and the Cc. is that of the hero controlling an intoxicated elephant. The incident is related in all these poems to bring out the heroism of the heroes, Kõvalan, Utayakumāran and Civakan. In the Cilappatikāram this incident is related by Matalan in the following lines :
.. atan kaiy akam pukkup poy poru mutanku kai ven kott ațanki maiy iTun kunrin viñcaiyan eyppap pitart falai iruntu perun cinam piralāk
kațak kaļir ațak kiya karuņai maraya2 (You the kind hearted one, entered its trunk, and remaining between the white curved tusks, stood on its nape like a Vidyadhara on a dark hill, and controlled the furious elephant.)
The description here is picturesque, but still is relegated to the status of a small incident recollected by a minor character, Māțal in. It the Maninēkalai, Udayakumāran controls the wild elephant in Pukar and this is narrated by Cāttaņār in the following way;
viļu parik kutiraiyin viraintu cenru eyti
kotunkan yanaiyin kațāt tiram ațakki 3 ((He) went on a fast horse and controlled the strength of the elephant which has furious eyes.) 1 Kalidasa, Meghadūta, Purvamegha, v. 5. 2 Cilappariküram, Ațaikkala katai, lines 49-52. 3 Ma imekalai, Pajikkarai pukka kätai, lines 45-46.

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The incident is just used by the poet to introduce the hero into the story with a suggestion regarding his valour. But in the Cc, seven verses in the Kuņamālaiyar ilampakam describe the encounter which Civakan had with the wild elephant 1 Though the incident has the significance of making Civakan and Kunamalai meet under circumstances calculated to cause love in their hearts, this has been exploited by Tēvar for a skilful delineation of the heroic sentiment.
The three battle scenes in which Civakan conquers the hunters who stole the cows of the cowherds, the kings who fought against him after the svayamvara of Kāntaruvatattai and Kattiyankāran are places in which Tēvar has evoked the sentiment of heroism by a skilful use of rhymes, alliterations and assonance. The dexterous use of weapons, the anger in the hearts of the warriors, the sternness shown in killing the enemy etc. are described in detail in such a way as to bring out the sentiment vividly.
The battle scene also gives rise to the sentiment of the odious, viz. bibhatsa. The following verse is a good example of a verse depicting this sentiment:
kuţar vāňku kuru narikal ko!u ninap pular cērrut totar rānku kata nay por ronrina toțittin to! patar tirak kon elunta paravaikal pața nākam
utana kontelukinruv uvanappulottarave.2 (The foxes which were pulling the intestines among the mud of fat, looked like the dogs which were pulling the chain The birds which took the shoulders (of the dead body) in the sky in order to be relieved from the thought of searching for food, looked like garudas up with hoodecobra.) The verses of this kind remind one of the poems in th: Paraņi literature in Tamil.
In the scene in which Vicayai gives birth to Civakan in the burial ground Tēvar scales the peak of Karuņa rasa. Her desolation is well described in the follo. wing stanza:
parra manna nakarppuramār påyal piņañc cul cuțu katal urrår illat tamiyanál otunkal ākat iünk truļal marriñ ñalam uțaijāy ni valaru marum ariyênál
erräy itu kant ēkātēy irittiyāl en in uyira. 3 Adbhuta rasa is brought into play in scenes involving magic spells and in other super natural incidents. The scene in which Nantaţtan fights with his enemies in his chariot which is flying in th: sky, the scene in which Kāntaruvatattai uses Ankamani mantra (a mantra which enables one to fly in the sky) to enable Nantatgan to go
1 Cc. vv. 977-983. 2 Cc. v, 2242. 3 Cc. v. 310. For the translation of this verse refer supra p. 12. 4 Cc. vv. 793-796.

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to Civakan who is with his wife Kanakamalai, the transformation of the dog into the celestial Cutañcanal by Civakan on pronouncing the Pañcanamaskara mantra and the scene in which Crvakan is taken away in the sky in the background of an artificial thunderstorm from MataDan, who was taking Civakan to be executeds are instances where adbhuta rasa is well brought out.
Bhayanaka rasa (terror) is portrayed in the description of the burial ground where Civaka is born.
The speech of Matanan, the cousin of Kattiyankaran when he heard the advice of Uruttiratattan given to Kattiyankaran asking him not to start a war against the Caccantan depicts the sentiment of anger (raudra rasa).5 Following the speech of Matanan. Kattiyankaran expresses his anger in the next three verses.6 Thus in the following verse, perspiration, reddening of the eyes, derisive laughter etc. which are the symptoms of the sentiment of anger are described graphically.
vevväy ōri mu lavakav ilintar imam vilakkaka ovvac cutukat uyar aranki nilal po nuțankip payața
evvey marunkik irunt irankik kükai kularip pāraiṭṭa ivvarakap piroppatuvo ituvo mannarkk iyal venta.+
1 Cc. vv. 1713.
nun muttam arriyahku mey ellam viyarttu noytin van mutta nirai ko nerri var muri puruvam äkkik
(Perspiring all over the body and (looking) as though he was studded with pearls, and with a curved eyebrow on the forehead full of (perspiration in the form of) pearls, and with eyes full of the fire of anger, and having broken the gem studdded bangles on his hand, thus said Kattiyankaran with boisterous langhter.). Civakan's challenge to the kings after winning Käntaruvtauttai in the lute competition is worded in a verse full of appropriate rhymes and hard consonantal sounds. The following verse is a good example:
kann eri tavala van kai mani naku kaṭakam erra
ven pakai vekunju nakkuk kattiyankaran connan.T

(I will first see that you all run away on seeing me like the darkness which is dispelled on the appearance of the sun, and then I will embrace the breasts of the maiden who has beautiful tresses. Otherwise, let my name vanish from this world where the sun and moon revolve.)
erl cutarp paruti munnar iru! ena ujaintu ninkap poru paļai manṇar nunkaļ purak kojal kantu marr im murukutaik kalalind fan muki mulai kalappal anal iru cutar valankum vaiyatt en peyar ketukar erran.8
2
Cc. vv. 645-952,
3 Cc. vv. 1157-1158.
4 Cc. v. 309. For translation refer supra, p. 12.
5 Cc. v. 257.
6 Cc. vv. 258-260.
7 Cc. v. 258.
8 Ibid, v. 773.

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The actions and speeches of Civakan when he assumes the form of an old in the Curamañcariy är ilampakam, are replete with the comic sentiment (hasya rasa).
The above survey makes it clear that Tevar has taken great pains to mould the events in the story and his descriptions to bring out all the various sentiments. Though his delineation is very effective in most places, his tendency to put in evidence of his scholarship sometimes detracts from the spontaneity of the poem. A typical instance is the situation where Civakan tries to cure Patumai from the effects of the snake's poison.1 Here Têvar brings out all his knowledge about various snakes and symptoms seen in the body when those snakes bite a person. This is definitely an inappropriate digression which spoils the sentiment and the atmosphere of the situa tion. The repetition of similar scenes in different places and in some instances, the deliberate introduction of situations to depict a certain sentiment are flaws which mar the overall effect of the delineation of sentiments in the poem.
Now we shall proceed to consider the last point regarding the general structure, the arrangement of the chapters and the metres used in the epic Co.
117
The Cc. has been divided into thirteen chapters, named as 'ilampakams'. This division into 'ilampakams' occurs for the first time in this work. Naccinärkkiniyar points out in his commentary at the end of the Namakaj ilampakam of the Cc. that the word 'ilampakym' is a 'vata col i e, a Sanskrit word. This division into 'ilampakams' by Tevar is one of the significant features arising from the interaction of Sanskrit.
In Sanskrit literature, the words 'Lambha' 'Lamba' and 'Lambaka' (vv. 11. 'Lambhaka') are used. The word 'Lambha' (vv. 11 'Lamba') occurs in the Kavyadaria of Dandin. The words 'Lambha' and 'Lamba' appear in the Śrigära Praksia. The word 'Lambaka' is used in the meaning of 'Pendant' as the name of sections in the Kathasaritsagara of Somadeva. V. Raghavan in the discussion of the word 'Lambha' in his work Bhoaj's Sṛngara Prakāja says that the word Lambha occurs in the work of Architecture and Painting (Visnudhar mottara) to name the sections.5 Further, Lacote in his work "Essai sur Gupadhya Et La Brhatkatha" suggests a new meaning to the word 'Lambha'. This strikes us as being particularly appropriate and relevant to our discussion here.6 According to Lacote 'Lambha' means 'conquest', specially the conquest of women'. He says that this word. Lambha is the Prakrit version of the Sanskrit word 'Labha' meaning 'gain'. As Lacote points out, we also come across the word 'Lambha' in the meaning of 'gain' in Mahabhartata. For example, the word 'rajyalambha' means 'the gaining of a kingdom.' It
1 Cc. vv. 1285-1288
2 Naccinarkkiṇiyar, Commentary on Cc v. 408.
3 Dandin, Kavyadarśa, 1 27.
4 V. Raghavan, Bhoja's Śrngara Prakāśa, Madras, 1963, p. 844.
5 V. Raghavan, op. cit., p. 844.
6 F. Lacote, Essai sur Gunnḍhya et la Bṛhatkatha, Paris, 1908, pp. 220 ff.
7 Ibid., p. 222.
8 ..vidurigamanañcaiva-rajya lambhastataiva ca.' Mahabharata, 1:2, v. 362.

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is Lacote's contention that in the Brhatkatha, the original intent of the author must have been to name only these chapters relating to Naravahanadatta's conquests of his numerous wives as 'Lambhas', whereas other chapters dealing with the history of Udayana etc.might have been named by him differently. Thus it would appear that the indiscriminate use of the term 'Lambha' denoting a chapter of any prose work (kathā) is an abuse originating at a later period. This can also be seen from the way Dapdin dismisses the distinction between Katha and Akhyayika on the basis of the division into lambhas and ucchväsas as something trivial 1
As for the origin of the word 'Lambhaka' Lacote suggests that the adjectival form of 'Lambhaka' is obtained by the addition of the suffix 'ka' to get 'Lambha' and thus each chapter might have been called as ". . . . . lambhaki nama sargaḥ." By dropping out the portion common to all such titles, i.e. nama sargah, one is simply left with 'Lambhaka',2
Lacote's suggestion appears to be very apt in the case of the Cc. where as we have already seen, the entire story of Civakan, i.e. his education, marriages, attainment of kingdom, coronation and his salvation, has been narrated in the form of a succession of marriages with the bride called Learning, his various queens, with the bride called Kingdom, with the bride called Earth, and with the bride called Salvantion. From this it is clear that Tevar has borne in mind the Sanskrit tradition described above and has named his chapters relating each of these conqustes by Civakan as ilampakams'. Vadibhasimha also follows this pattern in his works by naming his chapters as Sarasvati lambha etc.
The metres used by Tevar in his work mostly come under the class of verses known as 'pavinams' (supplementary metres) in Tamil. To examine any possible element of Sanskrit influence in the selection and use of these verse patterns and the appositeness of Dandin's remark concerning 'metres pleasing to the cars' (ravya-vrttaib) to the metres found in the Cc., a discussion of the metrical patterns commonly used in Sanskrit and Tamil becomes necessary.
In Sanskrit, the class of verses called 'Padya', which are of common occurrence, is defined as one that has four lines. It is divided into two kinds, the vṛtta and the jati. The basic unit which determines the vṛtta is the syllable and in the jati it is the syllabic instant. A jati metre is determined by the number of syllabic instants used in each line of the verse. In the vṛtta metres, the syllables are divided into guru (long) and laghu (short). Each line is scanned into 'ganas' or syllabic groups. There are on the whole ten gapás, viz. ma, ya, ra, sa, ta, ja, bha, na, ga and la. Of these the first eight have three syllables each; one long syllable is designated as 'ga' and one short as 'la'. The different gaņas are distinguished by different combinations of the short and long syllables. The kind of metre is determined by the combinations of
1 Dandin, Kavyadarśa 1:27.
2 Locate, op. cit., p. 222.
3 Supra. pp. 201, 202.

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these groups occurring in the four lines of the verse. According to the occurrence of these ganas in the verse, the vṛtta metre is divided into three groups, sama (even) ardhasama (semi-even) and viṣama (uneven). In the sama-vṛtta metre all the lines in the verse have the same combinations of the syllabic groups; in the ardhasama kind, the first and the third and the second and the fourth lines have the same combinations of the syllabic groups; in the visama kind of metre each line has a different group of syallabic combination.
119
In Tamil, four basic verse forms were employed in the earlier days and these are called the Veopa, the Aciriyappa, the Kalippa and the Vañcippa. In these metres there is no specific requirement that they must have only four lines as in Sanskrit. The required number of lines in cach of these verse forms are different. The basic unit of the metre is however determined on the same principle of long and short syllables and their combinations. Still the method by which they are combined is different from that of Sanskrit. The three main elements of the metre are 'cir' (foot), the 'talai' (the link between two feet) and the 'ati" (the line). The cir (foot) is determined by the number of syllables it contains. There are two main kinds of syllables (acai) called 'ner' and 'nirai'. These syllables occur either singly or in groups of two, three, four or sometimes even five to constitute a cir. A 'ner' syllable group can be either a long syllable or a long syllable followed by a consonant or a short syllable or a short syllable followed by a consonant. A 'nirai' syllable group can be either two short syllables, or two short syllables followed by a consonant or one short and one long syllable or one short and one long syllable followed by a consonant. The first requirement in a kind of verse form is the kind and the number of feet occurring in the lines. Thus Aciriyappa kind of verse should have mostly feet made of two syllables (iyar-cir). The penultimate line of the verse should have three feet (cintaţi) whereas the other lines can be of four feet (alavați). The final syallable of the final syllable should be one of the following sounds, 'e, ō, en, i, ā, āy, or 'ai'.
The other feature which is peculiar to Tamil prosody concerns the 'talai', the link between two feet. It determines the relation between the syllables (acai) occurring at the end of one foot and the beginning of th: following foot. Thue the aciriyattaļai' (the link which comes in the verse 'aciriyappa') is made up of foot which consists of two syllables followed by another foot of two or three syllables (if it is a foot made of three syllable the last syllable should be 'ner' acai) with the restriction that the last syllable of a foot and the first syllable of the following foot are of the same kind of 'acai'.
The third feature determining the verse form is the number of lines occurring in it. Thus in an 'aciriyappa' which must contain mostly 'iyar-cir' the feet made of two syllables and ciriyattalai must also have a minimum of three lines. It can be of any number of lines which are more than three with the restriction in the penultimate line and on the final syllable of the final line. A verse cannot be identified as an 'aciriyappa' if it lacks any of these features. Likewise the other main metres, venpå, kalippa, and vañcippă are also identified by similar criteria.

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When these criteria are fulfilled these four metres produse characteristic musical tones ('ocai') of their own when read. For example, the ‘āciriyappa' always has a narrative tone (akaval-ocai'), the 'veņpā' has a conversational tone ('ceppal-ocai'), the *kalippa' has a jumping and trotting tone ("tu]ļal ocai') and the 'vancippa' has got a swinging tone (“tūrkal ocai').
Apart from these four main metres, there is also a metre called 'marutpa' which combines the tones the 'venpå' and the faciriyappa' at the end respectively. This is not very common in the early Tamil literature.
It is apparent that such conditions place severe restrictions on the composer, and it was but natural that there arose a good many deviations from the rules. This gave rise to supplementary categories of verses known as “pāvinams'. It is not known at what stage this began or whether Sanskrit elements influenced their evolution in any way. These supplementary metres are classified under the three heads, the 'tālicai', the 'turai' and the 'viruttam'. All of them are subject to rule: similar to those governing the original 'pa' metres ( the main metres ) in regard to the feet and the lines. But the rigid and cumbersome restrictions on the links between the feet are mostly lifted in the new verse patterns. This meant considerable freedom for the authors to introduce syllables so as to depict various moods, to set the verse to music and rhythm or to produce desired sound effects. The main requirement for a 'viruttam' is that it should have four lines. We do not know whether this is anything more than an accidental coincidence with the Sanskrit 'catuspadi' (stanza with four lines). Alliteration (etukai) and assonance (monai) are essential for this verse form. The relaxation of restrictions on the links meant that the characteristics sound (ocai) of the earlier metres were lost. But, this was only an advantage. In the earlier poems, a particular kind of verse could echo only a corresponding mood and conversely, to describe a particular mood only the metre appropriate to it could be employed. With metres like the 'viruttams' this was no longer the case and much was left to the inge. nuity of the poet.
In Tamil, the Cilappat ikaram, the Magimēkalai and the Peru á katai are all in the 'aciriyappa' metre. But we find some parts of the Cilappatikāram where the supplementary metres have been employed I The supplementary metres are greatly used in the devotional songs of Saiva saints and Vaisnava alvārs. The Cc. is the first epic in Tamil with verses couched in the 'pāvinam' metres. Out of the 3145 verses found in the Cc., except 271 verses which are in the 'tupai' metre, the rest of the verses are in the viruttam metre 2 The following chart given by Gnanamurthy in his work clearly shows us the various kinds of metres use and their numbers in each chapter.3 Tēvar who was aware of the requirement ‘sravyavsttaih' (metres pleasing to the ears) for a mahākavya made effective use of the freedom afforded by the melodious 'viruttam' verses. 1 A Chidambaranātha Chettiyar, Advanced Studies in Tamil Prosody, 3rd edition, Annamalai 1957,
pp. 98 ff. 2 T. E. Gnanamurthy, op. cit. p. 266.
3 Ibid., p. 266. See next page for Chart.

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The Sanskrit interaction of the literary style
$2121
Serial No.
Ilampakam
Kali Viruttam
Kalitturai
Arucir Aciriya
Viruttam
Elucir Aciriya
Viruttam
Encir Aciriya
Viruttam
Aciriyatturai
Vancitturai
Oratimikku vanta
kali Viruttam*
Total
1. Namakaļ llampakam'
205
99
-379
2. Kõvintaiyār Ilampakam
25
10
1:49
484
3. Kāntarvatattaiyār
Ilampakam
126
4
202
16
358
34315
246
-
-
-
-
-
145
332
106
107
4. Kuņamālaiyār llampakam ,147 26 5. Patumaiyār llampakam 127 6 6. Kēmacariyar llampakam 743 7. Kanakamālaiyar llampakam 131 26 8. Vimālayiār llampakam 46 18 9. Curamañcariyar llampakam 38 - 10. Maņmakaļ llampakam 67 15 11. Pumakaļ llampakem 3 33 12. Ilakkaņaiyar Ilampakam 41 13. Mutti Ilampakam 246 35 14. Kațavu! Vālttu
- 3 15. Avaiyațakkam
- 2 16. Patikam
- 24
142 113 68 175
35 59 128
15 93 262
- - -
7 8 15 -
. 2 - -
- - -
225
- -
- -
51
221
-
-
-
547
1 - - -
3 - - -
- -
- -
- -
24
Total... 1317
255 1498
40
16
1
16
2
3145
Naccinarkkiniyar calls this verse as "Oraţimikku vanta koccaka oru poku." This classification of verses is based on th> forms of verses found in th> V Edition of Civakacintamani by Dr. U. V. Saminatha Aiyar.
Sc-16

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The phrase 'bhinnavṛttäntaiḥ in Dandin's definition has been interpreted in two ways as follows: bhinna+vṛttantaib, meaning 'with rich variety of topics' or bhinnavitta + antaib, i.e. 'ending in verses composed in a different metre.
122
The tradition of ending each canto with a verse of a different metre has accordingly been observed by authors of such works in Sanskrit. We find that this practice has not been followed by Têvar except when such a change is also accompanied by a change in the subject matter or the mood of the narrative. His manipulation of the metres is dictated mainly by the need to make the sound echo or depict the sense. His remarkable success in doing this has been dealt with in considerable detail by T. E. Gnanamurthy in his chapter on metre.1
To sum up, it is clear from the foregoing analysis that Tevar has been markedly. influenced by Sanskrit literary patterns. It appears that he has made a conscious attempt to follow the principles governing the composition of a mahakavya set forth by Sanskrit rhetoricians, in the composition of his epic. In doing so, he has however taken care not to depart from the established literary traditions and characteristics peculiar to Tamil. The result of such an effort has been a harmonious blending of the two literary traditions,
1 T. E. Gnanamurthy, op. cit. pp. 258-281.

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A chapter on Jainism is relevant to this thesis as Jainism provided an important channel for the interplay of Sanskritic elements with features characteristic of Tamil in the Cc. But the question immediately arises whether it is possilbe to detect a similar interaction of Sanskrit on all Jaina works in Tamil. If not, how does the Cc. differ from the other works in this respect? For that one may ask why the references to Jainism in the Cc. cannot be traced back to the earlier Jain works in Tamil. In other words is it necessary to invoke the interaction of Sanskrit works with the Cc. at all?
CHAPTER V
THE INTERACTION OF SANSKRIT THROUGH JAINISM
The literary endeavours of Jains in Tamil date back to the post Cankam period. Among the Patinepkilkkapakku works (eighteen minor poems) the Nalatiyar, the Elati, the Cirupancamalam and the Tipaimalai-nurraimpatu were composed by Jain authors. These works are mainly didactic in nature and deal with rules of good conduct and the transience of material objects and worldly existence. They presumably had a moral purpose i.e. of guiding people and evolving serial conventions. We also find Jain references in the Cilappatikaram and the Perupkatai. In spite of the references to the Jain religious practices etc. found in Cilappatikaram, it was not written primarily as a religious work. The Perupkatai though written by the Jaina author Konkuvējir, contains only a few references to Jainiam and there is no detailed exposition of religious ideas. The Cc. differs from all these earlier poems both by virtue of the period in which it was composed and its subject-matter. It was a time during which Tamil and Sanskrit enjoyed equal importance and the Jains were engaged in religious propaganda. One of their principal means of doing this was through literary works which contained Jain doctrines borrowed freely from works in Sanskrit and Prakrit. The Cc. stands foremost among works of this kind. It can be stated without hesitation that it is a Jain religious work garbed in Kavya form. It contains the whole body of Jain philosophy, especially in the Muttiyilampakam. To understand these ideas of Jainism as related in the Cc. a knowledge of the earlier Jain works in Tamil and Jain traditions in Tamil land alone is not adequate. It is here that the ideas have to be traced back to sources in Sanskrit and Prakrit.
In some places Tevar has derived his inspiration from the earlier Jain works in Tamil which deal mainly with Jain ethical ideas. For example in the stanza,
1
Cc. v. 1583.

pototu nana mülkip püm pukai tava!ntu mullaik Kitai kan patukkun kuntal kurai vali pitto aiyey itak cey malaika neyttir iraicciyen pirun mulai kotan cey kutarkaļ purro narampoļu valumpit erran1

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(Oh, the one who has hair which is smeared with musk, smoked (with aloe) and adorned with flowers! This body is full of pain giving air, bile, mucous, dirt, blood, flesh, bones, liver, brain and trouble giving intestines, nerves, skin and fat.y!
Tēvar is expressing the same idea which is contained in the following verse in the Nalaţiyār ;
kutarůn koluvun kurutiyum enpum totarun narampotu tölum itaiyitaiya vaitta tatiyum valumpumām marrivarrul
ettirattal irnkötaiyāļi (iThe body is entrails and marrow, and blood, and bone, and connecting tendons, and skin, and here and there flesh interposed, and fat. In the midst of thèse, "' what sort of a being is she who wears the fresh garlands ?)2
Both these verses deal with the general theme of the unclean nature of the human body and 4t 'is uot necsssary to refer to any other source to understand this. In contrast to this let us consider another stanza from Cc.
teliv aruit eluvar pattår ir enmar tilaittu vilniar kaļiru kāl utaip pavemmar kaviļntanar kaļattinulle pilir ivi: pēți pen nõy asuvakaittuvarppum pēcin
āļi 'paļu cintai ennum" aļi vāy viļntavan, .3
(In the battle field, seven people fell down unconscious. Sixteen of them felt down after fighting. Eight people were overthrown when the elephant kicked with its leg. If one talks about the neuter sex, which fell down shouting, the female sex and the six noo-passions, they fell under the wheel of kind thought.)
This deals with a particular stage (gunastbāna) in the spiritual progress of Civakara stage in which his soul is engaged in destroying his karmas. References such as "elavår viļntār", "ir eņmar tiļaittu vilntār" cannot be understood except with reference to the Jaina treatises in Sanskrit and Prakrit. There is no evidence available to indicate that there were Tamil books prior to the Cc. which dealt with the philosophical (as distinguished from the ethical and moral) tenets of Jainism Hence Tēvar would have had to rely on Sanskrit or Prakrit works for such philosophical ideas.
As Tēvar was a Digambara Jain he must have written Cc. only on the basis of earlier Digambara Jaina books. Thus in tracing the influence of Sanskrit Jaina works on Cc. we have consulted only the Digambara Jaina Sanskrit and Prakrit works and their commentaries written before the tenth century A.D. These are (i) the Samayasāra of Kundakuņda (2nd century A.D. (?) )4 (ii) Ratnakarandaka-șrāvakācāia of Samantabhadra (C.450 (?) )5 (iii) Tattvārtha sūtra of Umāsvāmin (3rd century A.D. (?) )8 (iv)) Sarvārthasiddhi of Pujyapāda (6th century A.D. (?))? (v) Adipurāņa of Jinasena (9th century A.D.). 1 Nalaţiyar, v. 46, 2 Translated by G. U. Pope, Náladiyār, Oxford, 1893, p. 323 Cc. v. 3076. 4 A Williams, Jaina Yoga, A survey of the medieval Srāvakācāras, London, 1963, p. 17. 5 lbid., p. 17. 6 Ibid., p. 17.
7 lbid., p. 17.

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125
The ideas from these works are borrowed in the Cc. in two ways, religious and linguistic. We restrict ourselves to the religious section in this chapter. The linguistic aspects will be dealt with in Chapter Six.
In most instances it is not easy to find the exact source in Sanskrit from which a particular passage or idea in Cc. originates. But as these ideas are new to Tamil one may conclude that they are from Sanskrit and Prakrit works on Jajna philosophy. There are however a few instances in which the ideas can be traced to RatanakarandakaŚrāvakācāra (Rk.), the Sanskrit work which deals with the duties of a householder. In these cases the passages be a striking resemblance to the corresponding original Sanskrit passages.
As the example quoted earlier illustrates, it is difficult if not impossible to understand many verses in the Cc. containing references to Jainism withont a grasp of these Jain doctrines themselves. Hence we shall discuss the fundamental principles of Jainism with reference to their treatment in the Cc. here.
The soul and its relation to the universe form the central theme of Jainism. According to Jainism universe has no beginning or end. It is not created by any God or higher being. Its essential character is never changed though there may be changes in its component parts. It is only subject to its own law (lokasthiti). This universe con tains the souls and the non-souls. The soul intrinsically does not have a material pature. Through its actions during the various births it assimilates karmas and thereby acquires material characteristics. The Jain religion envisages that the soul should avoid the inflow of the karmic matter and destroy karmas already acquired. When the karmas are thus destroyed the soul ascends to the top of the universe and there it experiences infinite knowledge, perception, potency and bliss. No other bigher being can help the soul to attain the state of perfection. It has to do this only through its own efforts. The souls thus liberated are called Siddhas. They are praised by the Jains not because they have any influence over worldly matters but because they stand as ideals for the others. Therefore the whole idea of Jaina doctrine is to guide the soul fettered with karmas towards freedom from its karmas and to move towards perfection.
The Jaina religious doctrine explained in the Cc. will be discussed under three divisions :
(i) metaphysical ideas-the relationship between the soul and the non-soul.
(ii) ethical and ritualistic ideas and the rules which are intended to pave the way for the soul towards salvation, and the rituals practised.
(iii) theological teachings - the relationship between the soul and the liberated soul.
Most of the metaphysical, ethical ideas and the conduct of a Jaina ascetic are explained in the teachings of the Caranan, Manivannan, the religious advice given by Civakan to his wives and Cutapmar's answer to king Cëņikans question in the Muttiyilampakam. The conduct of a householder is discussed chiefly tbrough the lay

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life of Civakan and the characters connected with his life. These are explained by Tēvar through scories, similes, teachings given by characters, allegorical expressions and sometimes through religious discourses. In the analysis of the Jaina doctrine as treated in Cc. the techniques which Tēvar has employed will also be mentioned.
Metaphysical ideas
Metaphysics deals with the connection between man and the universe. According to Jainism the universe is divided into the soul and the non-soul (jiva and ajiva). The complete liberation of the soul from the non-soul is the ultimate goal. In this process of the liberation of the soul seven main substances (tattvas) are involved. These seven principles as Tattvārthasutram (Ts.) says are
jivā jiväsravabandhasamvaranir jarămokṣās tattvami
(1 he soul [jiva), non-soul (ajiva), inflow of karmic matter into the soul lásrava], bondage of the soul by kārmic matter bandha), prevention of the inflow of kārmic matter into the soul (samvara), shedding of the karmic matter (nirjarā] and liberation of soul from matter (mokşaj are the seven principles.)
These seven tattvas together with merit (punya) and demerit (pāpa) are called Navapadārtbas. Both merit (punya) and demerit (pāpa) bind the soul and obstruct its progress towards salvation
Soul
Soul is of two kinds, immobile (sthāvara) and mobile (trasa). The souls of mineral bodies of water, of living beings in fire, of air, and of the vegetable kingdom are immobile souls. All souls which have more than one senses organs are mobile soul and unlike immobile souls, can move to an extent determined by the capacity of each soul. All mobile souls have two or more sense organs.
The soul has nine qualities. These are (i) it lives (jiva) (ii) it has cognitions, the power of perceiving (darśana) and knowing (jñāna) (iii) it is immaterial (amūrta) (iv) it is the doer of all actions (karta) (v) it completely fills the size of the body (svadehaparimāņa) (vi) enjoyer of the fruit of its actions (bhoktā) (vii) located in the changing world (samsārastha) (viii) it is siddha when it attains perfection (Siddha) (ix) it is of an upward tendency (ürdhvagati).
The soul has limitless powers. But these powers are veiled when matter binds it. Matter (pudgala) is one of the non-souls, the object which prevents the soul from its knowledge, perception and bliss.
1 Tattvärthadhigama sūtra of Umāswāmin, ed. by J. L. Jaini, Arrah, 1920, 1: 4.

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Non-souls
According to Jainism these are five non sentient substances: medium of motion (dharma), medium of rest (adharma), space (akaja), matter (pudgala) and time (kala).1 Of the five non-soul substances the principle of motion (dharma), the principle of rest (adharma), space (akaja) are motionless and are indivisible. They are devoid of taste, colour, smell and touch.
127
Space (kasa) is the substance which gives the other substances their place. It can be divided into two parts, this universe ((loka) and the universe beyond (aloka). In this universe, soul, matter, space, time, principle of motion and principle of rest find their places and in the universe beyond there is nothing except endless space.
The principle of motion (dharma) helps the moving soul and matter and the principle of rest (adharma) helps them when they are inactive and cease work. These occupy the entire space of the universe. Beyond the universe no object can move as these two substances are absent. The presence of these two substances defines the limit of the universe.
The non-soul, time (kala), is the substance which causes the modification of the soul and other substances in this universe. Time is also innumerable like the soul. The time is divided into two eras, the ascending era (utsarpiņt) and the descending era (avasarpin). Each of these oras is divided into six periods of unequal lengths according to the good and bad elements existing in that period. In the ascending era the first period is duḥṣama-duḥṣama. This is a period of great chaos and misery. The second period is dubṣama which has less misery than the previous period. The third is dubṣama-susama, which has more misery and a little happiness. The fourth is susama-duḥṣama, in which there is more happiness, and some misery. The fifth is suzama, the age of happiness, and the sixth is susama-sujama, the age of great happiness. The order of the periods of the descending era is the reverse of the above.
Matter (pudgala) consists of an infinite number of minute indivisible atoms called paramãou. Thus matter is also innumerable like the soul and the time. Each paramāņu possesses taste, smell, colour and touch.
sparlarasagandhavarṇavantaḥ pudgalah
These atoms according to certain laws can unite themselves with one or more. This matter other atoms and the atoms in aggregate condition are called skandha. is found in two conditions, sthala (macroscopic) and saksma (microscopic) and each of these is of three kinds, thus constituting six kinds of matter altogether. This matter forms the basis of the bodies, speech, mind, and respiration of the sous.
1 Ts. V 1.
2 Jagmanderlal Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, 2nd edition, Cambridge, 1940, Introduction, p. xxvi. 3 Ibid., p. xxvi.
4
Ts. V 23.
5 Jaini, op. cit, pp. 21, 89.
6 Ts V. 19.

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The finest of all matter is that of karmas. These form the kārmic body which binds the soul. The karmic matter fills the entire cosmos and gets united with the soul when the soul is set into motion, i.e. in its material activities.
The above said five divisions of non-souls and the soul together compose the whole universe. These six substances together are called saddravyas (six substances). The characteristic of a substance (dravya) is 'sat' i.e. that it exists,
saddravyalakşanam1 Sat is the simultaneous possession of the three aspects, the birth (utpäda), the decay (vyaya), and the permanence or the continuous sameness of existence (dhrauvya) a The first two aspects refer to the modifications of the substances whereas the third aspect relates to their nature. The nature of these substances is never changed, only the conditions under which they exist change. For example, if we take the substance soul its essential qualities are never changed. It can be veiled by the contact with other substances, but can never be destroyed or changed. To explaio this more clearly we quote Dayananda Bhargava :
though the substance changes in, appearance, it remains the same in essence, just as a piece of gold is permanent with regard to its substratum, even though it may be changing with regard to its modification like necklace, anklet, car-rings etc., just as the ocean is permanent with regards to its water but it is ever-changing with regard to its waves rising within it 3
Among the six substances all except the time (kāla) have constituent parts which we are called pradeśas. A unit of space occupied by, an atom of matter is called a no padesa. The substance which has more than one pradeša is called body (kaya).
Time has only, one pradeśa, thus it does not have a body. All the other substances namely soul, matter, space, principle of motion, principle of rest, which have innumerable pradegast are called astikāyas (asti + kāya). Since they are five they are often referred to as pañcāstikāyas in Jaina doctrine,
w The rela:ionship between the soul and karmas
As seen earlier the fine karmic matters which fill the entire cosmos get attracted to the soul through its activities of body, speech and min 1,6 This attraction is known as asraya, the inflow of karmic matter. The inflow of karmic matter can be due to both good and bad deeds. These karmas remains in the soul until they are destroyed by the soul. The results of the karmas of the soul should be experienced in one birth, or another. Till it is completely free from karmas the soul goas on taking differnt bodies one after the another, according to the nature and the effect of karmas in it. Therefore the soul has to undergo numberless births until it reaches perfection. 1: Ibid, V: 29.
2 lbid, V: 30 3 Davanand Bhargava, Jaina ethics, Delhi, 1968, pp. 51, 52 4 Ts. V: 8-10.
5 Ts. V: 1-2.

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Each of the karmas has four aspects. These aspects are : (i) the manner of their effect on the soul (prakrti) (ii) the duration of their effect (sthiti) (iii) the intensity of their effect (rasa) (iv) their quantity (pradeśas)
Once the karma has penetrated the soul, it transforms into eight kinds of karmas, singly or severally as Jacobi says “just like the food when it is digested gets transformed into various fluids". 1 These consist of four destructive karmas and four nondestructive karmas (ghātiya and aghātiya karmas). The four destructive karmas are : (i) jñānāvdraniya karma, the karma which obscures the knowledge of the soul. (ii) darśanāvaraniya karma, the karma which obscures the perception of the soul. (iii) mohaniya karma, the karma which obscures the right belief and conduct of the soul. (iv) antarāya karma, the karma which prevents the progress or the success of the soul.
The four non-destructive karmas are : (i) ayus karma, the karma which determines the duration of life. (ii) näma karma, the karma which determines the factors of individuality such as
body, its height, weight, complexion, etc. (iii) gotra karma, the karma which determines the family and the surrounding. (iv) vedaniya karma, the karma which gives pleasure and pain in life.
These destructive and non-destructive karmas are called 'aşta karmas'. When the soul is free of these eight karmas, it enjoys its natural qualities of infinite perception (ananta darśana), infinite knowledge (ananta jñāna), infinite power (anan'a virya) and infinite bliss (ananta sukha). In other words, when these karmas occupy the soul they prevent the soul from enjoying its natural qualities.
We shall now discuss the nature of the dectructive karınas. The first two of the destructive karmas namely the knowledge and the perception obscuring karmas are attracted by the soul by the following sinful acts: the depreciation of those who are learned in the scriptures (pradoşa), the concealment of knowledge (nihnava), jealousy or envy (mātsarya), the hindrance of the progress of knowledge (antarāya), denying the truth proclaimed by others (asādana), the deliberate refutation of truth (upaghāta). When a man does these things he automatically gathers the knowleage and the perception obscuring karmas. The knowledge can be obscured in five ways ; (i) the obscurațion of the knowledge which is transmitted throgh the senses (mati
jñanāvaraniya karma). (ii) the obscuration of the knowledge which is acquired by reading or hearing
sculptures or by the words of an authority (śruta-jñanavarani ya karma). (iii) the obscuration of the transcendental knowledge of material things.
(avadhi--jñānāvaraniya karma). 1 Jacobi, H., Studies in Jainism, part I, Ahmedabad, 1946, p. 25. Sc-17

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Study of Civakacintamani (iv) the obscuration of the transcendental knowledge of other's mind (nanahparyaya
jñānīvaraniya karma) (v) the obscuration of the infinite knowledge which is inherent in the soul
(kevala-jñānüraraniya karma).
This last karma completely obscures the infinite knowledge of the soul whereas the other four produce only disturbances of different degrees. 1
The obscuration of the perception of the soul can occur in nine ways. The first four kinds of the obscuration occur when the soul is psychologically and physically active and the other five when the sense organs of the soul are not active, i.e. when the soul is not in a state to perceive anything. The first four are (i) the obscuration of the physical sight through which the perception is made called
cak şur-darsanärara niya karma. (ii) the obscuration of the perception which is made through the other four senses
and the organ of thinking. known as acakşur-darsanāvaraniya karma. (iii) the obscuration of the perception of the past and material things, called
avadhi-darśanīvarani ya karma. (iv) the obscuration of complete perception known as kevala-darśanāvaraniya karma.
This obscures the perception completely whereas the other four only cause disturbances in the perception..
The other five karmas are : (i) light sleep which obscures perception (nidra-karma) (ii) deep sleep which obscures perception (nidra-nidrā karma) (iii) sound Jeep which occurs while sitting or standing (pracala-karma) (iv) intensive sleep which overcomes the soul while walking (pracala-pracalā karma) (v) somnambulistic condition of the soul in which no perception can take place
(styānagrddhi-karma).
The third kind of ghātiya karma the mohani ya karma deludes right belief and right conduct. These are called darśana-mohaniya2 and caritra-mohaniya karmas. The right belief-deluding karma enters the soul when it performs acts such as defaming the liberated souls (like Arhat), the scripture (śruta), the Jaina religious order, the religion or the celestial beings. 3 The right conduct deluding karma enters the soul due to its acts of intense passion.
The karma which deludes right belief disturbs the soul in three ways; (i) the delusion which affects the perfect belie! (samyak tva) (ii) the delusion which leads the soul to false belief or hetrodoxy (mithyātva) 1 Helmuth Von Glasenapp, The Doctrine of Karman in Jain philosophy, Bombay, 1942, p. 6. 2 Darsana in this context refers to faith 3 Ts. VI : 13.

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(iii) the delusion which arises through a mixture of the above two, i.e. having some
degree of truth and some of falsity. (mišra or samyag-mith yätva)
Caritra-mohaniya karma obscures right conduct and obstructs the soul from per. forming acts mentioned in religious prescription. This disturbance of the right conduct is caused through the sixteen passions (kaṣāyas), six non-passions (nokaşayas), three sexes (vedas).
There are four fundamental pussions, anger (krodha), pride (māna), deceitfulness (māyā), and greed (lobha), each of which is divided into the following four groups according to its intensity in the soul : (i) Anantānubandhin - this exists in the soul for the whole of its life and completely
binders the right belief and the conduct of a soul. (ii) Apratyakh yānivarana - this remains in the soul for one year. It hinders renun.
ciation but allows the soul to attain right belief. (iii) Pratyakhyānāvarana-this lasts in the soul for only four months. It only hinders
the beginning of complete renunciation but does not obscure right belief and
allows the soul to attain partial self discipline. (iv) Sam jvalanu - this rules in the soul for only a fortnight. It allows complete self
discipline of the soul but hinders the attainment of complete right conduct.
The six non-passions (nokaşājās) are (i) Acts like laughing and joking (has ya) (ii) Sentiments of liking towards a certain object, whether proper or improper (rati) (iii) Sentiments of dislike towards a certain object, whether proper or improper
(arati). (iv) Sorrow (soka). (v) Fear (bhaya.) (vi) Disgust (jugupsa).
The three vedas are karmas which produce sexual passions and obscure the soul from practising self discipline. They are : (i) Puruşa veda - this karma produces a desire in a man for union with a woman. (ii) Stri veda - this causes the desire in a woman for union with a man. (iii) Na pusmaka veda - the sex desire which arises in all those beings who are neither
male nor femal is produced by this.
The fourth ghātıya karma, the antarāya karma, flows into the soul as a result of acts such as obstructing others from doing charity (dāna), from achieving gain (lābha), from enjoying things which can be taken only once (bhoga), from enjoying things which can be taken repeatedly (upabhoga), and making use of their capacities

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Study of Civakacintā mani (virya). 1 As a result of these acts the power of the soul is disturbed in five ways : (i) Dānāntarāya karma - this prevents the soul from dispensing alms. (ii) Labhäntarāya karma - this binders the soul from receiving things. (iii) Bhogantar aya karma - this hinders the enjoyment of something which can be
enjoyed once, like eating, drinking, etc. (iv) U pabhogāntarāya karma - this hinders the enjoyment of something which can be
enjoyed repeatedly like clothing, dwelling, etc. (v) Viryantarāya karma - this hinders the will power of the soul.
These four ghātiya karmas lead the soul to the worldly miseries and at the same time retard its progruss by obscuring its eternal characteristics. Once the soul sheds these four karmas it can easily attain salvation as aghātiya karmas do not stand in the way of liberation. But when these four aghātiya karmas are in the soul it has its bodily existence. The four aghātiya karmas are : Āyuş karma, Nāma karma, Gotra karma and Vedaniya karma.
Ayuş karma determines th: ages of existence of the four kinds of beings. These are Deva-āyuş (karma which determines the age of the celestial), Manuşya-āyuş (karma which determines the age of human being), Tiryag-ayus (karma which determines the age of animal), and Naraka-āyuş (karma which determines the age of infernal beings). The inflow of manusya-āyuş karma is caused by slight worldly activities and by attachment to a few worldly objects. The inflow of tiryagāyuş karma is due to deceit and that of naraka-āyuş karma is due to an excess of sinful activities and attachments.
Nāma karma determines the individuality of the soul. The bad body determining karmas (leading to infernal and animal bodies) come into contact with the soul because of the distortions of mind, body and speech whereas the good body determining karma (leading to humao and celestial bodies) flows into the soul because of straightforward attitudes of body, mind and speech. The nama karma has one hundred and three sub species which are mainly divided into four groups. They are : Pinda-prakịtis, Pratyeka-prakrtis, Trasa-dasaka and Sthāvara-dasaka.
Pind-praksti karmas are sixty five in number :
Four karmas which determine the state of existence, of celestial, human, animal, and infernal beings.
Five karmas which determine the classes of being, the one sensed, two sepsed, three sensed, four sensed, and five sensed beings.
Five karmas which determine the bodies,
Three karmas which determine the chief and secondary parts of the body. 1 Ts. VII: 13

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13 Fifteen bandbana nāma karmas which bind the newly seized matter with the accumulated karmas of the soul.
Five samghātana-nāma karmas which bind the scattered matter into one. Six samhanana-nāma karmas which unite the bones of the physical body. Six samsthāna-nāma karmas which determine the stature of the body.
Five karmas which determine the colour of the soul, black, blue, red, yellow or white.
Two karmas which determine the two odours, good and bad.
Five karmas which determine the five tastes, bitter, sour, acidic, sweet and astringent.
Eight karmas which determine the eight touches, soft, hard, light, heavy, cold, hot, smooth and rough.
Four ānupūrvi-nāma karmas which cause the soul to go from the place of death to its new birth according to the four states of existence (gati) celestial, human, animal and infernal.
Two vihāyogati-nāma karmas which determine the pleasant gait and the ugly gait of the soul.
Other than the above pindaprakstis there are eight pratyeka-prakstis, ten trasaprakrtis and ten sthavara prakệtis 1 and all these together make one hundred and three sub species of the nāma karma.
Gotra karma determines the low or high family, etc. in which the soul is born. The inflow of low family (infernal and anima!) determining karmas takes place when the soul indulges itself in the following actions: speaking ill of others (paranindā). self praise (ātmaprasaṁsā), concealing the good qualities of others (sadguṇācchadana) and proclaining in oneself the good qualities which one does not have (asad-güpodbhāvana).The high family (human and celestial) determining karmas flow into the soul through the opposite of the above mentioned acts.
Vedani ya Karma induces the feeling of pleasure and pain in the soul. The karma which causes the pleasure is called sätā-vedaniya karma and its opposite is asåtavadaniya karma. In gods and human beings the sā!a-vedaniya is predominent. Gods experience pain when their stay in heaven is exhausted and human beings experience pain due to cold, heat, death, accident, etc. Asāta-vedaniya karma is predominant in animals and denizens of hell and they rarely experience pleasure.
The concepts outlined above of saddravyas, navapadārthas, pañcāstikāyas and eight karmas and their effects on the soul are frequently alluded to by Tēvar in his poem. For example in several places where the Jaina deities are praised, the praises are couched in terms which involve the deepest understanding of these philosophical ideas. Thus Tēvar refers to pincāstikayas as 'poruka! or aintu' in the context 1 Glassennap, op.cit. pp. 16, 17, 18.
2 Ts. VI : 25.

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where the cāranan Manivannan praises the lord Arhat before preaching the Jaina doctrine to Civakan.
perumän uravāli vêutan viri pün tamarai mir cenra tiruvar ațiy attit teliyum poruļkaļ or aintum anriy arum onpanum akum enpat aravöral
(The saints say that those who worship the feet of the lord who wields dharma cakra which rests on the lotus in full bloom, are able to obtain clear knowledge of five astikāyas, šix dravyas, and nine padārthas.)
The freed souls are referred to in the Cc. as the souls which have defeated the eight karmas. For example,
.. en vinaiyum akarri inpak katalakkitt
taru mālaiya allati yān ralaiyir rāļniu panivēno3
(Will I bow to any one with my head other than the Lord Jina who destroys the eight karmas and gives the ocean of joy.) Civakan while praying to the Lord Jina refers to the eight karmas.
kätalál envipai yun kalipay enr iy ak ka kätal átalal en vinaiyun kaliyay enrum araitiyar
(You expound that the eight karmas will be eradicated by love placed in you and that if the same love is placed in another object they cannot be removed.)
Lord Arhat is referred to as the one who has overcome the ghātiya karmas in two other places. Thus,
Kati Kannarinta kāc il tani mutir kațavu! 5 (The unique old god who has won his ghātiya karmas.)
and
käti kannarintu venta ulakunar katavu! 6 (The god who defeated the ghātiya karmas and realised the world.)
In the Muttiyilampakam, when Civakan pays homage to Jina, the king of saints, he refers to him as the one who has overcome the four ghātiya karmas.
.. .. kati nalum utanēy arintu nārmai varampakik
kalam oru mūnrum uțanë y unarnta katuvult 1 Cc. v. 2814. 2 Though the name "mal" usually refers to Vişnu in Tamil literature, here it refers to Arhat,
the Lord of Jainas. According to Ja na mythological stories, Arhat is supposed to be the God for the five activities like creation, destruction, etc., the ainto lilkat'. Therefore the word
"mal" here refers to Arhat.-U. V. Saminatha, Iyer, Cintamani, op. cit. p. 483. 3 Cc. v. 961. 4 Ibid, v. 1420. 5 Cc. v. 2713. 6 Ibid, v. 1240. 7Ibid, v. 3092.

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(You, the god who destroyed the four ghattya karmas and made the four eternal attributes, infinite knowledge, perception, power and bliss as your limit and saw the past, present and future simultaneously.)
The way in which Caccantan, the father of Civakan, entrusts his kingdom into the hands of Kattiyankaran and as a result meets his end provides Tevar with an opportunity to explain in several places these ideas regarding the influence of karmas the human soul. When Uruttiratattan advises Caccantan not to leave the kingdom in the care of Kattiyaṇkäran the latter says,
over
alantu tan konta arun tavam uṭaiya nirärkk alantana pikam ellam avar avarkk arrai na alantana valu nalum atuv enakk uraiyal enran
(For the people who had followed strict penance the amount of pleasures they enjoy and the extension of their life span have been measured even at the time of birth.)
Here he indirectly says that according to the nature of karmas the soul will enjoy pleasures and the extension of its life span. The poet comments on the ignor ance of Caccantan when he did not listen to the advice of his ministers and says that this was the effect of his karmas.
inamam enr uraippinum atam ennän munamākiya panmai mulaitt elalar
2
(Though he was advised that his desires were just like the desires in the previous cases [these are explained in the previous verses? he did not consider the danger he would face, as the bad karmas of his previous births were present.)
When Caccantan has to face the war against Kattiyankaran he tries to send Vicayai, his queen, away in the flying machine. She is grieved by the situation. He consoles her saying that everything happens according to karmas.

catalum pirataranum tam vinaip payettiṇakum ātalum alivum ellam avai porukku iyalpu kantay notalum parivum ellam nunnunarv ismaiy apre
(Death and birth are due to one's own karmas. Creation and destruction are also in the nature of things. Therefore being worried and anxious over them is due to lack of right knowledge.)
He explains to Vicayai, before she leaves in the flying machine, how all human relationships are merely temporary and how the soul has to go through numerous. births till it reaches perfection.
1 Cc. v. 213 2 Ibid, v. 215.
g
3 Cc. v. 269.

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tollai nam piravi eņņir toļu katal manalum ārrā ellaiy avv avarrul ellām ētilan pirantu ninkic cellum ak katika tammut cēralan cērntu ninra
illinul iranțu nālaic currame irankal venta /
(If we count the number of our previous births they are even more than the grains of sand in the ocean. We did not have any connection in those births, We are not going to bave any connection in the births we are going to get after this birth. Therefore do not worry over the relationship we had only for two days [i.e. for short period)).
Having considered the interplay of the soul and its karmas and how Tēvar has developed the ideas regarding this poem, we shall now consider the process by which the soul sheds these karmas to achieve salvation. This clearly is the whole theme of the Cc. in which the successive stages of the soul's progress towards salvation are outlined through the life story of Civakan. These stages, fourteen in number, are called gumasthānas. These fourteen stages are : 1. Mithya-drsti (misbeliever) 2. Sāsvādana-sa-nyagdssţi (having taste of faith in downfall) 3. Samyag-mithyadsști (Mixture of Right and Wrong helief) 4. Avrata-samyagdísti (vowless right belief) 5. Dešavirata-samyagdsști (partial vow) 6. Framatta-samyata (imperfect vows) 7. Apramutta-samyata (perfect vows) 8. Apārva-karaņa (new thought activity) 9. Anivștti-bādara-sam parāya (advanced thought activity - a stage in which gross
passions still remain) 10, Sükşma-samparāya (slightest delusion) 11. Upaśāntu-kaşāya-vitarāga-chadmastha (subsided delusion) 12. Kșina-kaşã ya-vitarāga-chadmastha (delusionless) 13. Sa yogi-kevalin (omniscience with vibration) 14. Ayogi-kevalin (omniscience without activity)
During the first five stages the soul remains in the householder's stage. Then it ascends to the stage of an ascetic from where it attains salvation.
The birth of Civakan in this world is due to his karmas which were acquired in his previous birth. In his previous birth he separated a young swan from its parents for sixteen days and the karmas he acquired from this action cause his separation from his mother for sixteen years in his next birth.2 Most of his acitons in this birth 1 Ibid, v. 270.
2 Cc, vv. 2859-2888.

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are to prevent the inflow of karmic matter (samvara) and to shed the karmas he acquired in his previous birth (oir jarā). A soul cannot shed its karmas at once. It has to prepare itself on the path of renunciation where it withdraws from all the attachments of the material world and abandons all its desires. To reach the path of renunciation religion serves as a ladder in the shape of injunctions and rules of conduct. Jaina religion is made up of right belief (samyag-darśana), right knowledge (samyag-jñāna) and right conduct (samyag-cāritra), which are together known as a ratnatraya or gunatraya. These three as Ts. says are the paths to liberation.
samyagdarasan ajñānacāritrāņi mokşamärgaḥ1 (Right belief, right knowledge and right conduct are the path to liberation.)
This ratnatraya is often referred to in Cc. Accañanti, the teacher of Civakan, when imparting knowledge to Civakap says that the souls must have these three characteristics.
ko neri taļuvi ninra kunattoļu punarin māto
nå neri vakaiyi ninra naleuyirkk amirtam enrāna
(He said that the ambrosia for the four kinds of souls is the possession of the three guņas which form the path of Lord Jina).
Before attempting an analysis of Tevar's explanation of these "three gems" in his work, it is necessary to know what constitutes right faith, right knowledge and right conduct and how these are acquired.
Right faith
Right faith is the cause of right knowledge and right conduct. 3 Samantabhadra in his Ratnakaraşda (Sravakācāra Rk.) defines right faith as follows:
śraddhanam paramārthanam apta-agama-tapobhytäm/
trimūdha podham aştangam samyagdarśanam asmayam // (Right faith consists in believing the true ideal, scriptures, and teachers. It is free from three follies and has eight aspects. It is devoid of eight prides.)
Right faith is of two kinds, right faith from the practical point of view (vyava - hära-samyag-darśana) and right faith ftom the real point of view (niscaya-samyag-darsana). Right faith from the practical point of view is to have faith in the fundamental principles in Jainism and right faith from the real point of view is selfrealisation,
1 Ts. 1:1 2 Cc. v. 374 3 Samanta Bhadra, Ratnakaranda-Śrāvakācāra, The library of Jajna Literature, Vol. IX. Arrah,
1917, v. 31. 4 Rk. 4. Sc-18

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The three follies which should be avoided in the cultivation of right faith are the devotion to the false divinity, place and teacher. The eight aspects which are necessary to have right faith are :1
139
1. Nihankita-absence of doubt about scriptures.
2. Niskaksita-abstinence from worldly pleasures.
3. Nirvicikitsita-to love the person who possesses three jewels without feeling disgust to his body (because Jaina monks are always unclean)
4. Amudhadreti-non-recognition of the authority of the false creeds.
5. Upaguhana-removal of the ridicule raised by incompetent people on the path of
Jainism.
6. Sthitikaraṇa-re-establishing the people who deviate from the truth.
7. Vatsalya-respecting and loving the co-religionists.
8. Prabhavana-establishing the glory of Jainism in all suitable ways. The eight types of prices which the soul should avoid to have the right faith are:
jñānam pūjām kulam jātim balam ṛddhim tapo vapuḥ
...//2
The pride about learning, worship, family, tribe power, accomplishments, religious austerity and body. When the soul gets rid of these eight prides and the three follies and has the eight aspects of right faith and belief in the true ideals, scriptures and teacher, it attains the right faith. These things can be achieved by intuition (nisarga) or by tuition (adhigama) i.e. by nature or through the teachings of others or by reading scriptures,
Right knowledge reveals things exactly as they are with certainty - neither insufficiently nor with exaggeration nor falsely. With the aid of right knowledge the soul prevents the inflow of karmic matter and sheds the acquired karman. It is of five kinds. They are:
1. Matljana-the knowledge acquired by the five senses.
2. Śrutajñāna knowledge acquired by reading scriptures.
3. Avadhi Jnana-the transcendental knowledge of material things.
4. Manaḥ paryaya Jadna-the transcendental knowledge of the thoughts and feelings of others.
5. Kevala-jana-the perfect knowledge which the soul attains when it is entirely liberated from destructive karmas.
With the knowledge of the right faith and right conduct one should follow the right conduct. Right conduct" must be such" as Jaini says "as to keep the body down and elevate the soul." These rules of right conduct form the main part of the Jaina
1 Ibid, 11-18. 2 Rk. 25 3 Ts. 1:3 4 Rk. 42 5 Jaini, op. cit. p. 65

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139 ethics Before dealing with what right conduct is and how this is explained in the Co., we shall describe how right faith and right knowledge have been discussed in the Cc.
When the poet describes Civakan, who has attained knowledge from his teacher, he describes bis condition through an allegorica] expression.
katci nan nilaiyin ñānak katir manik katavu certtip pūļci cal olukkam ennum va yirat tål koļuvip polla māțciy il katikal ellām ațaitta pin varampil inpatt ağci il ulakam erat tirantanan alarnta tarani
(After having locked the door against the bad courses of actions which do not destroy birth, by fixing the jewelled door of right knowledge on the door step of right faith and bolting it with the lock of right conduct, he, the one who wears the full-bloomed flower garland, opened the ways to climb into the bound lessly happy world which is not ruled by anyone.)
Here the poet describes the right faith as the door-step, the right knowledge as the jewelled door, and the right conduct as the lock. He says that Civakan has acquired all these after receiving instruction from his teacher.
In Kēmacariyār ilampakam, Civakan explains what is right faith, right knowledge and right conduct to the brabmin ascetics in the following verse :
mey vakai terital ñanam viļankiya poruļka ļammaip poy vakaiy inrit tëral kāciy aim poriyum vátti uy vakai uyirait teyat olukutal olukka münrum
iv vakai nirainta poltey iru vinai kuliyum enrān?
(He said that (right) faith is to know the truth, (right) knowledge is to know the right things without false ideas and the (right) conduct is to prevent the soul from getting destroyed by torturing the five senses. When the soul is filled with these three, the two karmas 3 will be destroyed.)
In Muttiyilampakam, the right faith is taught to Civakan by the Cáranab Mapi. vannan when the former requests to be instructed. Before teaching the right faith, the Caranan preaches to him about the rare acquisition of the human body, 4 its uncertainty, and its perishing nature.5 He also explains the misery of the four gatis, hell, animal, human and deva. 8 Carañan explains about these miseries first and then about the right faith, for one can only avoid these miseries by having the right faith. To have the right faith as explained earlier, faith in a true ideal is important. To stress this aspect the
1 2 3 4 5 6
Cc. v. 381. Cc. v. 1436 The two karmas are the ghātiya and aghātiya karmas. Cc. vv. 2749-2753 Ibid, vv. 2754-2761 Ibid, vv. 2762-2811

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Study of Civakacintāmaņi Caranan praises the lord Jina and his superior qualities in the following verse first before explaining the right faith.
ilanku cem pon eyin münr um eri pon muttak kuțai mūnrum valan kont alar tūuy ațiy éttum vaiya mūnrum patui münrum kalankat uyarntay aticayankan mūnrun kamar nūn mūnrum
nalan ko țimpår kunak kalalum uțaiyar uanmaiy utai yaral
(He who possesses the three golden bands of light, glistening gold triple umbrellas, the three worlds which worship his feet with flowers, the three weapons, the three high unshakeable wondrous glories, the three books, and the good milklike ocean of virtue, is the one who possesses us.)
Here the three bands of light are Udayatara, Prititara and Kalyanatara and these together are called Prabhāvalaya 2 The three umbrellas are Candrāditya, Nityavinoda and Sakalabhāṣaṇa, and these indicate the suzerainity of the three worlds. The three worlds are Nāga-loka, Bhū-loka and Svarga-loka.3 The three spiritual weapons are, right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. The three wondrous glories are Sahajātisaya (wonderful qualities born with him), Karmakṣayātiśaya (wonderful qualities which come as a result of the destruction of karmas), Daiyikātisaya (the wonderful qualities which are created by Devendra). These four qualities are connected with the four infinite qualities which are referred to as "kuņakkatal”. The three āgamas are, Angagama, Purvāgama, and Bahusrutyāgama. After explaining the qualities of the Lord Jina the Carañan also says that the knowledge of five astikāyas, 6 şaddravyas,' and navapadārthas 8 are achieved when one worsbips at the feet of Jina.
.. tiruvar ațiy attit teļiyum poruļkaļ oraintum anriy är um onpānum akum enpar atarorzo
(......... the learned say that by worshipping the feet of Jina, one can get the knowledge about the five things, six things and nine things [astikāyas, şaddravyas and navapadārthas ] ).
Following this explanation, Cāraṇan teaches the nature of the people who realised the knowledge in the sacred scriptures.
periyav inpati intiranum petta ceykaic ciru kurankum uriya ceykai vinai p payattaiy unnum enavay unarntavanai ariyar enna maki atum eļiyar enrav ikalātum
irucār vinaiyun teļintärēy iraiva nūlun teļintāra.1 1 Cc. v. 2813 2 A. Cakravarti, "Jivaka Cintamani", "The Jaina Antiquary', Vol. XXI, No. 11, p. 28. 3 Ibid, p. 28 4 Ibid, p. 28 5 Supra, p. 129 6 Supra, 128 7 Supra, p. 128 8 Supra, p. 126 9 Cc. v. 2814 10 lbid, v. 2815

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141 (Those who realise the fact that, Intiran who enjoys happiness and the capricious monkey are only enjoying the fruits of their karmas and those who do not praise lotiran because he is happy and despise the monkey because it is fickle, are people who understood the āgamas of the Lord (Jina).)
After explaining the nature of the people who understand the agamas of the lord Jina, the Caranan expounds the eight essentials of the right faith and the necessity of overcoming pride, to have the right faith.
uruvarp penal uvarpp inmaiy ulaiyāy in pan talāi nirral arivar cirappirkk etir virumpal alintor niruttal aram pakartal ciriyår inattuc carvinmai ciran kai vițutal cerukk avittal
iraivan arattulārkk ellām iniyar atal itu teliva 1
(The following are the results of understanding the scriptures and realising their truth : to be devoid of aversion, to have the desire to attend on great saints and to achieve liberation and honour the wise, to be ready to restore the fallen in the right path, to preach dharma to others, to avoid ignorant people, to destroy anger and pride, and to be friendly with co-religionists.)
Having explained the right faith, the Cāranan deals with the results of having the right faith. Tēvar borrows these ideas from Rk, and explains them.
Samyagdarśanasuddha närakatiryannapunsakastritvani /
duşkulavikytalpā yurdaridratām ca vrajanti nap yavratikāḥ 1/3 (The people whose minds are purified with the right faith will not observe vows. They will not be reborn in hells or as animals or as neuter or female sexes or in low families. They will also not have physical deformities or short lives or poverty.)
The Cāraṇan expounds this idea found in Rk. in the following lines of the Cc. :
ceriyac conna poru țeļintar cērär vilankir pennäkar kurukär narakam or a lum kil mnt tēvar kulān tingar
(People who had realised the facts explained above, i.e. about right faith, will neither be born in the animal world nor as a woman. They will neither go to any of the seven hells nor will take birth as any of the three kinds of devas.)
1 Cc. v. 2816 2 Rk. 35 3 Cc. v. 2817 4 The seven hells and their description and the details about the denizens in the hells are
explained in Ts, Chapter III,

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The glory of the right faith is explained through the story of the dog changing into a yakşa in the Cc. Rk. says, even a dog becomes a deva and vice versa from virtue and vice respectively.
svapi devo'pi devaḥ śvā jāyate dharmakilbişåt /
In the Cc. the dog which was beaten by brahmins turns into a yakṣa when Civakan whispers pancanamaskāra mantra in its ears. It had its knowledge of the right faith and since it had the right faith, though it was a dog it turned into a yaksa.
Ethics
Following the discussion of the right faith and right knowiedge, right conduct which is the result of the above two will now be discussed. The rules for right conduct form the main part of Jaina ethics. Jaina ethical rules are intended to pave the way for the soul towards salvation. It is difficult for an aspirant to highest ideal of right conduct at once. These rules are evolved in such a way that one can gradually train himself to do this. "Initially" as Williams says, "the lay estate was admitted by the Jina only in deference to human frailty and was regarded in theory as a stage of preparation for the ascetic life.''3 But as days want on, one notices that more importance was given to the lay life in the medieval period than in the early ages. This can be seen in the Cc. which is a work of the medieval period. Here both the householder's and the ascetic's life have been clearly explained through the life story of Civakan and the other eharacters associated with him.
Among the fourteen gupasthānas, the stages through which the soul passes on its way to salvation, the first five belong to the householder's stage and the soul prepares itself for the ascetic's life in these stages. In the first stage-mithyadrsti guṇasthāna, wrong belief, passion, lack of self discipline etc, which bind the soul to karmas are in action. When right belief is achieved the soul reaches the fourth stage, the avirata samyagdsști 4 (vowless right belief) stage. The second and third stages, sāsvādana samyagdīşti (downfall), and samyag-mithyād;sti (the mixture af Right and Wrong belief) are stages through which the soul falls down to the first stage from the fourth stage, it manifests the four anantānubandhikaşayas due to wrong belief when it is in the fourth stage.
From the fourth stage in which the soul conquers its faith-obscuring karmas (darśana-mohaniya karmas) and subdues the anantānubandhi category of passion, and attains right faith, it proceeds to the fifth stage, the desa-virata-samyagdrșți stage. In this stage the householder destroys the apratyākhyāna karmas and tries to conquer his character obstructing karma (căritra-mohanıya-karma). To overcome these 1. RK. 29.
4. Bhargava, op. cit. p. 214. 2. Cc. vy. 934-960.
5. Ibid. pp. 213, 214. 3. A. Williams, op. cit. Introduction, p. XVI. 6. Ibid, pp. 211, 212,

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karmas the householder observes twelve vows. Samantabhadra defines them as follows:
grhinam tredha tisthaty anuguṇašikṣāvratātmakam caraṇam | pañcatricaturbhedam trayam yathasankhyam akhyātam //1
(The conduct prescribed for the householder is of three kinds. They are vratas in the form of aņu, guna, and sikṣa. They consist of five, three and four divisions respectively.)
1. The five partial vows (anuvratas) which are prescribed for a house-holder are:
(i) non-violence (ahimsa)
(ii) truth (satya)
(iii) non-stealing (asteya)
(iv) celibacy (brahma)
(v) non-possession (aparigraha)
143
These five partial vows are parallel to the absolute vows (mahāvratas) of an ascetic. Along with these five partial vows, a householder is also expected to renounce wine, meat and honey,2
2. These five partial vows are supplemented by the three guna vratas, the digivrata, anarthadapdavrata, bhogopabhoga- parimäna-vrata. These three vows are related to the limitation of daily work, food and enjoyment.
3. The third kind of vow, the fiksa-vrata, is of four kinds, the dešavakašika, samayika, proladhopavasa and valyavṛtya. These emphasise the inner purity of the heart. *
Dešavakäsikavrata is to limit the sphere of one's activity from day to day and for fixed periods.
Samayika-vrata is to refrain from the five kinds of sin for a particular period of time every day. This vow consits of --
(i) pratikramana (thinking about the sins committed and repenting for them)
(ii) pratyakhyana (to determine to avoid doing sins in future)
(iii) samayika karman (to renounce personal attachments and to develop a common feeling to all)
(iv) stuti (to praise the twenty four Tirthankaras)
(v) vandana (to show devotion towards a particular Tirthankara) and
(vi) kayotsarga (to withdraw attention about body and contemplate on the spiritual self).
1 RK. 51.
2 RK. 66
3 RK. 67, Ts. 7:21,
4 Bhargava, op. cit. p. 102.

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Study of Civakacintamani Poşadhopavāsa-vrata is fasting for the whole day on the eighth and fourteenth days of every fortnight.
Vaiyávrtya-vow is distributing gifts (dāna) without expecting anything in return, to ascetics of excellent qualities, treating them well and giving comfort to those who are in trouble. This gift (dana) can be given in four ways : giving food, medicine, means (or means to acquire knowledge, i.e. books) and shelter. Samantabhadra in his Rk. explains vaiyāvștya-vow as follows :
ahārauşadhayor apy upakaraṇāvāsayos ca danena /
vai yavrtyam bruvate caturātmatvena caturasrāḥ 113 (Those who have four kinds of knowledge (mati-jñāna, śruta-jñāna, avadhi. jñāna and manahparyāya-jñāna ) say that giving food, medicine, means to get knowledge and shelter are the four kinds of vaiyāvstya vow.)
The fifth gupasthāna, the dešavirata-samyagdrsti gunasthāna, in which the soul remains in the stage of a householder, has also been divided into eleven stages from the viewpoint of the spiritual progress of a householder's life. These stages are called 'pratimās'. They are : 1. Darsana - the first stage in which the householder gets his faith in Jainism, its
doctrines, and their observance in practical life. Vrata - the stage in which the householder starts to observe all the twelve vows -
the five aņu-vratas (partial vows), the three guộavratas and the four sikşa-vratas. 3. Sāmāyika - the stage in which the householder performs sāmāyika+ three times a day
and therefore he is called a sāmāyika śrāvaka. 4. Prosadhanasana - the stage in which the householder regularly fasts twice a fort
night and thereby applies himself to holy meditation. 5. Sa-citta-virata - the stage in which the householder gives up eating all unripe
things, for he is merciful not to kill them. 6. Rātri-bhuktivirata - the stage in which the householder gives up taking food at
night, as eating in nights causes killing of minute living beings, 8 7. Brahmacarya - in this stage the householder gives up all his sexual indulgences. 8. Arambhavinivytta - the stage in which the householder gives up all worldly
engagements and occupations. 1° 9-11. The last three stages, paricitta-parigraha-virata, 11 Anumati-virata1, aud
Uddista-tyāga18 are mainly preparatory stages to the ascetic life.
1 Rk. 106. 4 Supra, p. 143. 7 Ibid, 141 10 Ibid. 144. 13 Ibid, 147.
2 Ibid, 111, 112, 113. 5 Rk. 139. 8 Ibid, 142, 11 Ibid. 145.
3 6 9 12
Ibid, 117. Ibid, 140. Ibid, 143. Ibid, 143.

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145
In the Paricitta-parigraha--virata stage, the householder gives up the possession of the ten kinds of worldly goods1 (i) land, (ii) houses, (iii) silver, (iv) gold, (v) cattle, (vi) grain, (vii) maid servants, (viii) man servants, (ix) clothes, and (x) utensils.
In the Anumati-virata stage, the householder gives up giving advice on worldly matters.
In the Uddişța-tyäga stage, the householder renounces all worldly attachments and goes to a guru (spiritual teacher), per forms austerities and leads an ascetic life.
In the Cc. all these stages are clearly developed through the story of Civakan. These stages are so closely knitted with the story of Civakan, that one does not even realise that the life history of Civakan is only an example through which Tēvar explains the doctrines of Jainism.
Civakan attains the first stage, the Darsanika śrāvaka stage, through the teachings of his teacher Accañanti. The teaching of Accañanti gives Civakan the right faith, right knowledge and right conduct. He becomes an ideal householder who is anxious to attain liberation. In this state the poet describes Civakan as a person who has opened the door to climb into the boundlessly happy world, after having closed the door against bad karmas, by fixing the door of knowledge on the door step of faith and bolting it with conduct. 9
The next tive pratimās are explained through his life history, starting from the time after his education up to the time he achieved his kingdom and lived as king. Apart from the life history of Civakan in this birth, the poet also explains the importance of five partial vows (anu-vratas) through the story about his previous birth. These are explained through the preachings of Pavapamātēvan (the father of Civakan in his previous birth) to Acötaran (Civakan in his previous birth), when he came to know that his son has separated a young swan from its mother. He expounds non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and non-possession in the following verses : Non-violence
aram periya kūrin alankal ani vēlöy maram puri ko ņeñcam vaļiyāp pukut antintic cerum periya tivinaikaļ cenzu kațit oți
urum periya tunyam uyirk kolaiyum vanta.8
(Oh, the one who wears garland and holds the spear, coming to talk of the nature of the bad karmas, they are karmas which enter through the heart of the soul which likes adharma and get accumulated and remain in the soul. When the soul has these karmas in it, it suffers. Therefore killing
Thiņsā] which is the basic factor for bad karma is not suitable for you.) 1 Rk. 145
2 Cc. v. 381, supra, p. 137 ff 3 Cc. v. 2868 Sc-19

•

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Truth
meyy urai vilanku mani mēl ulaka kopuranka! aiyam ilai ninra pukal vai yokattu mannum mai yal viļai mā naraka kõpurankaļ kanţir
poyy uraiyum vēnța purattițumin enrun.1
( If you speak the truth, your fame will ever be in this world and in your next birth you will acquire the jewelled temples of heaven. Do not speak lies which give you the confusing temples of hell. (Therefore] give up speaking lies.)
Non-Stealing
mulari muka naka mulaiy eyir uçutu kira aļavi ruyar cey vari van mannar atanälum viļaiv ariya ma tuyaram vil katiyul uykkum kalavu katanakak katintițutal cūta. 2
( It would be best to give up stealing immediately because, ( when one does it ] in this world, the king will kill by piercing him with the tusk of the elephant which has a face like a lotus. [ It will also cause one to fall into hell where one undergoes hardship.)
Celibacy
mațattakaiya nallar manan kariya märrär pițart talai ol val por pirar manaikal cerin ețupp ariya tunpatt ițaip patuvar innā națukk utai ya kāmam vițuttițuta nanre. 8
( If one goes to the wife of another man thus placing a sword on his own neck, and causes his wife who is innocent ( matamai ) to worry, he brings on himself unbearable worries. (Therefore, ) it is better to renounce his lustful inconstancy.)
Non-Posesssion
teruļir porul vānulakam er utarkkuc cempon iruļil pațukāl puka! vittilaiyenin ella arulu naka vaiya nokay aimporiyu naiyap poruļu nakav itfum porul yatum porul anrē.
(If one realises [this, he will know that) the wealth, which is achieved while the world, the grace, and the wealth itself laugh at it and the five senses suffer without enjoying it, is not the real wealth. The real wealth will give one fame in the world and it will also serve as a ladder to reach the
golden world in the next birth.) 1 Cc. v. 2869 2 Ibid, v. 2870 3 lbid, 2871
4 Cc. v. 2872

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147
In this life Civaka strictly observe ahimsa (non-killing) wherever possible. When he goes to retrieve the cows which were stolen by the hunters from the cowherds, he does not hurt or kill anyone. He controls the elephant which came to kill Kunamalai without killing it. In certain circumstances he fights with his enemies either to safeguard himself or to save his country.
Civakan observes the different kinds of sâmäyika vratas in several instances, After the fight with the kings to win Kantaruvatattai, Civakan makes a golden image of Lord Arhat. He offers dana and worships the lord Jina who destroys sins. The following lines where this incident is narrated shows that he repents over his sins. (pratikramapa) and determines to avoid sins in future (pratyakhyana).
pirkeju kalattup pävam pulam potu pokkinana
(He removes the sins committed in the battlefield and the aversion caused in the mind after committing sins.)
ceytav ap pavam ellan tirttipun tirtan patam
eytiya catan kvitt Iraincupu tolutu vältti. .4
(He worshipped the lord Arhat, who removes all the sins committed in all births, after obtaining the offerings placed on the feet of Arhat..)
to
Civakan performs vandana and stuti in a mountain before going Cittirakotam and in the temple in Araṇapātam. In these two places he praises the attributes of lord Arhat.
The aspects of vaiyävrtya vow are also explained through the deeds of Civakan. Civaka imparts knowledge (gift of knowledge) to a hunter and converts hunters. who are flesh-eaters to lead a moral life. He explains to them the results of eating flesh and the pains in hell etc. When imparting knowledge to the brahmin ascetics in Cittirakūtam, Civakan explains to them that even right conduct will not save the soul, if it is not accompanied by the right faith. The ascetics in Cittirakatam live with their wives as brahmanical faith allows them to lead that kind of life. Civakan tells them that one cannot attain salvation when one has wordly attachments, such as having wives. He further says that their efforts to attain liberation are like swimming in the sea with the stone tied around the neck. 8 In addition he explains that even the physical tortures in performing tapas are ineffective and futile without the right faith and right knowledge. He says to them, "if you think that sleeping on hanging swings and eating fruits will destroy the bad karmas, then the bats which hang on the trees and feed on fruits also should be able to eradicate their bad karmas. 9 If you think that feeding on Alli seeds and grass grains and standing in the midst of five kinds of fire (pancagni) will help to
1 Ibid, vv. 453, 454
4 Ibid, v. 821
7 Ibid, vv. 1233-1236

2 Ibid, vv. 983, 984
5
Ibid, vv. 1418-1420
8 Cc. v. 1426

3 Cc. v. 820
6 Ibid, vv, 1242-1247
9 Ibid, v. 1429

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Study of Cirakacintamani eradicate the karmas, then the doves which feed on pebbles and live in the hot desert will also be able to destroy their karmas. 1 If you believe that you can achieve the highest goal by growing long matted hair, bathing in water and sleeping on floors, then the bears in the forest will also attain salvation when they bathe in water. If you think that giving up a luxurious bed and living in huts and sleeping on the floor can eradicate karmas, then the karmas of the hunters who live in mountains under the same living canditions also will be destroyed. 3 ” After elucidating these, Civakan explains to them what is right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct and how 'they assist in the destruction of karmas.
Apart from giving dāna of knowledge, Civakan also does other kinds of dānas (gifts). Civakan gives auşadha dāna (gift of medicine) to Patumai who was bitten by a snake. 5 After acquiring his kingdom, he also donates gifts to the temple. He gives hundred villages to burn the lamp in the Jaina temple and four million gold pieces for making pūjā in the temple. After all these, he also gives a hundred elephants and a hundred chariots for the service of temples. The nature of gifts, their importance and the results of giving gifts are also explained by the cāraṇan who preaches Jaina doctrine to Civakan. He says that the best kind of gift is like sowing seeds in a fertile land which yields a bumper harvest and the bad kind of gift is like sowing seeds in a useless land. The best kind of gift is the gift given to the ascetics and the other kind is the gift given to the people of ordinary merit. He condemns giving gifts to sinful people. The cāraṇan also explains the vaiyāvịtya vow in detail. Through the explanation of the cārapan Tēvar brings out the explanation he borrowed from Rk. Rk says that the hospitality shown to an ascetic should be as follows ;
navapunyaih pratipattiḥ saptagunasamähitena śuddhena /
apasūna-ārambhāņām äryäņām isyate dänam // 9
(The welcoming of (and the offering good to) holy saints, who do not engage themselves in the householder's work (crushing, grinding, kindling fire and the like), having received them with the nine-fold ceremonies (i) prostrating oneself at his feet, (ii) offering him a high seat, (iii) washing his feet and applying the 'washing' to one's forehead in token of reverence, (iv) worshipping him, (v) saluting him, (vi-viii) preserving one's own mind, speech and body in a state of purity and (ix) offering him pure suitable food ) by a layman excelling in the seven (well known) virtues (i) faith, (ii) contentment, (iii) devotion, (iv) jñana (wisdom) (v) con rol of greed, (vi) forgiveness and (vii) sakti (energy or assiduity)
is called dada).1 1 Ibid, v. 1430 2 Ibid. v. 1431
3 Ibid, v. 1432 4 Ibid, v. 1436 5 Cc. v. 1290
6 Ibid, v. 2564 7 Ibid, v. 2823 8 Ibid, v. 2828
9 Rk. 113 10 Champat Rai Jain, translation for Rk., Arrah, 1917, pp. 52, 53.

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149
Tēvar explains the above through the preaching of the carañan as follows:
toţikk kaiyār roļutu vāļttit tūmaņi nilattu! ērrip poțip punai tukili nikkip pukalnt ați kaliya pinyai ațulla cant akilin aviy ay malar aruccittānār koțuppar ualamirta mūnrir kuņam purint atahkinärkkal
(If the ascetic (comes to his house), the householder will worship him with bands wearing armlet (the ornament 'toți') and praise him. He will make the ascetic sit on the jewelled floor. Then he will wipe the dust on the feet of the ascetic with a fine garment and wash them with water. After that he will worship his feet with sandalwood, aloe, fragrant things and flowers and give him four kinds of food with the three qualities.)3
The cāraṇan also explains the fruits of giving gifts. The gift offered to a holy saint will cause the soul to be born in the land of enjoyment (bhogabhūmi), 4 where it can enjoy all its desires. The gift given to ordinary people will cause the soul to be born in the Karmabhūmi, where the men are expected to live by doing various occupations. The gifts offered to people who had not controlled their five senses will cause the soul to be born in various islands, with human body and animal face.
The seventh stage, the Brahmacarya pratimā, co nes in Civakan's life after he realises the transient nature of the worldly life. Soon after watching the scene where the gardener snatches a jack fruit from a female monkey which got the fruit from its mate, 6 Civakan ponders about the unreal nature of this world. He gives up all his desires and enjoyments. The poet describes this stage of renouncing enjoyments and pleasures as follows:
vēkaimaiy ennu nāvir kāma ventêran manti matci onrānum inri mayankinērk irulai ninkak kattinar tērar avar kalvilakk atanai entu
1õttiyar roțak kappatta cori matak kalirrin mințän?
(Having decided that they (the gardener, the female monkey and the male monkey) must be celestials who showed him the guiding light of renunciation in order that the darkness may be dispelled, the one who was enjoying intemperately the exhilerating drink of Just with the tongue of passion abjuring all good deeds, rejected the enjoyment of pleasures like a rut-flowing intoxicated elephant who has been goaded into the right direction)).
1 Cc. v. 2827. 2 Here, making the ascetic sit on the jewelled floor means to give him a high seat. 3 The three qualities are purity in throught, word and deed. Naccinărkkiniyar, commentary on
Cc. v. 2827. 4 Cc, vv. 2830-2840. 5 Cc. v. 2841 6 Ibid, vv. 2721-2725
7 Cc. v. 2729

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Though the ladies in the palace try to attract him, he decides to renounce the world. After rejecting the desires in pleasures he goes to the temple where he meets. the two carapas who instruct him in the Jaina doctrine and tell him the story about his previous birth.
In the last three pratimas Civakan prepares himself for the life of an ascetic. He renouces all his passions and his kingdom and goes to his spiritual guide Crivartamāna cuvamikal and performs penance.
The ascetic life of Civakan and the attainment of his liberation are mainly explained through the answer of the ascetic Cutanmar to the questions put to him by the king Cênikan abont Civakan. The rules an ascetic should observe preached by the carapan who instructed Jaina doctrine to Civakan.
When one renounced all worldly attachments, he reaches the sixth gupasthana, the pramatta samyata gupasthäna and the ascetic's life starts from here. He is expected to observe five maha-vratas (absolute vows) which correspond to the five aṇuvratas (partial vows) of a householder. The five aqu-vratas are made as Bhargava says, "keeping in view the social obligations of a householder", but, maha-vratas are unconditional and absolute. Non-violence, truth, non-stealing, celibacy and nonpossession are expected to be observed without any restriction by an Malacara, the basic text dealing with the conduct of digambara monks, gives the following twenty eight qualities which a monk should be endowed with."
ascetic.
1-5. 6-10, 11-15.
16-21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
Five absolute vows (Pañca-mahā-vratas) Five-fold path of vigilance (Pañcasamitis)
Control of five senses (indriya jaya) Six essential duties (adavalyakas) Pulling out of the hair (kebaluncana) Nudity
Non-bathing
Sleeping on the ground
Not cleaning the teeth.

Taking food in standing posture
Eating only once in twenty four hours (Ekabhakta)
Observing all these twenty eight qualities, an ascetic is also expected to perform penance in order to get rid of his accumulated karmas and to check the inflow of the new karmas. 6 These penances are of two kinds, external and internal. In external
1 Cc. v. 2732
2 Ibid, vv. 2925-2952
3 Ibid, v. 3040. Ref. also the commentary of Naccinaṛkkiniyar on the Cc. v. 3040. 4 Bhargava, op.cit. p. 152
5
pp. 150, 151
6 Ts. 9:3
7 Ibid, 9, 19-20
"1

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151
penanes the ascetic undergoes physical endurance whereas in internal penances he controls his mind.1 There are six external penances and six internal penances which an ascetic performs before he attains his salvation. The external penances are :
1. Anasana (fasting) - not taking any food for a limited period or till death. 2. Avamodarya - eating less than what one wants and this helps the ascetic to overcome the senses and the sleep.
3. Vrtti-parisankhyana taking a mental vow to accept food from a householder on certain condition. If the condition is too difficult, the monk will be without food for a long period and thereby he uproots the desire for food. renouncing one or more of the six delicacies, milk, curd, ghee,
4. Rasa-parityäga
oil, sugar and salt. This tapas is also to overcome the senses, the sleep, and to study without any disturbance.
5. Vivikta-layyasana- residing and sleeping in a lonely place.
6. Kaya-klesa - mortification of the body.
The six internal penances are :
1. Prayalcitta-observing expiation of any sin committed consciously or unconsciously. 2. Vinaya showing reverence and having belief in right faith, right knowledge, right conduct and paying respect to superiors.
3. Vaiyavṛtya - offering services to saints.
4. Svadhyaya learning the holy texts, 5. Vyutsarga
6. Dhyana meditation.
renouncing the attachment to the body.
Of all these twelve kinds of penances, dhyana holds the most important place in asceticism. It is through dhyana that the concentration of the mind is achieved. Ts. defines dhyana as follows:
Uttamasamhananasyaikagracintanirodho dhyanam a antarmuhürttat.
(Dhyana, the concentration of mind, is only possible up to forty eight minutes (antarmuhurta) and it can be only practised by a man with a good constitution.)
This dhyana is classified into four kinds, the arta dhyana (painful concentration), rudra dhyana (concentration on terrible things in order to achieve unrighteous gains), dharma dhyana (righteous concentration) and śukla dhyana (pure concentration).
1 Pajyapada, Sarvärthasiddhi, Commentary on Ts. 9: 19-20.
2 Ts. 9: 19
3 Ts. 9:27
4 Ibid, p. 202

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The arta dhyāna and rudra dhyāna do not help an aspirant to attain salvation, instead they give bad results and these two are only found in the soul up to the fifth gupasthāna.
The dharma and śukla dhyāna lead the soul to liberation. By performing dharma dhyāna the soul burns away all the eight karmas and attains the four infinite qualities. While observing dharma, dhyāna the ascetic should feel that his body is different and he should give up all his attachments to his body. Dharma dhyāna leads the soul to heavenly pleasures and indirectly to liberation. The difference between dharma-dhyāna and sukla-dhyāna is as Bhargava says, “in dharmadhyāna, the consciousness of the distinction between subject and object of knowlege persists; whereas in sukla dhyāna all conceptual thinking ceases gradually ”. 2
With the help of śukla-dhyāna the soul finally leaves the body and attains liberation.
Now, we shall see how the soul progresses towards salvation from the sixth guṇasthana, the pramatta-samyata guṇasthāna, where the ascetic life starts.
In the sixth stage, though the ascetic observes complete restraint, still he is open to such negligence such as pride, enjoyment of senses, passions and sleep. In the four gunasthānas starting from the fourth gunasthāna, avirata-samyagdrsti guņasthāna, the soul destroys the four anantānubandhi kaşayas (anantānubandhikrodha, anantānu. bandbi māna, anantānubandhs māya, and anantānubandhi lobha) and the three darśana mohaniya karmas (mithyātva karma, samyagmithyātva karma and samyaktva karma). From the seventh guṇastbāna, the apramatta-samyata guṇasthāna, when the soul ascends to the next guṇasthāna, the apūrva-karana guṇasthāna, it ascends to either the kşapaka sreņi or the upašama sreņi. These two, the kşapaka sreni and the upasama sreņi, are two spiritual ladders which help the soul to either destroy all the karmas or to subside them.
If a soul ascends upasama śreņi it could only subside its karmas and it cannot attain the highest state, the mokşa, for, the subsided karmas once disturbed come up to the surface and hence the soul falls from the height of spirituality it has reached. Even if the soul suc:eeds in following the upašama sreņi it cannot climb beyond the eleventh gunastāna which is the highest guṇastāna for the soul which follows upasama śreņi. If a soul follows ksapaka śreni it can climb up to the highest goal, the mokşa, by annihilating all its karmas.
As in the Cc. Civakan follows the kşapaka śreņi, we here explain the progress of a soul which follows kşapaka sreņi. The soul which has ascended on the kşapaka sreni to the eighth gunasthāna reaches the next gunasthana, the anivetti - badarasamparāya gunasthāna. In this stage the soul first destroys the following sixteen 1 Bhargava, op.cit. p. 202 2 Ibid, p. 202

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karmas: (i) nidranidra karma, (ii) pracalapracala karma, (iii) styänagrddhi karma, (iv) tirvag-gati-nama-karma, (v) naraka-gati-nama-karma, (vi) ekendriya-namakarma, (vii) dvindriya-nama-karma, (viii) trindriya-nama-karma, (ix) caturindriya nama-karma, (x) tiryagānupärvi nama-karma, (xi) narakanuparvi näma-karma, (xii) sthavara nama-karma, (xiii) sükṣma nama-karma. (xiv) sädhäraṇa näma-karma, (xv) atapa nama-karma, and (xvi) uddyota näma-karma. After destroying the above said. sixteen karmas the soul destroys the eight passions, the four pratyakhyanavarana karmas (pratyakhyanavarapa krodha, pratyakhyanavarapa mana, pratyäkhyanavaraņa māyā, and pratyakhyänävarana lobha) and the four apratyakhyānävarana karmas (apratyakhyanavarapa krodha, apratyäkhyänävaraṇa mäna, apratyäkhyanavaraṇā maya, and apratyakhyanavaraṇa lobha). Then the napumsaka veda and the striveda are destroyed. In the end of this ninth gunasthana, the soul also destroys the purusa veda samjvalana-krodha, samjvalana-mana, and samjvalanamaya karmas. From here the soul ascends to the tenth guyasthana, the sukṣmasamparaya gunasthana, and in here the soul annihilates its samjvalana-lobha karma. After this the soul ascends to the next gunasthana, the upaiantakaṣaya-vitaraga-chadmastha gunasthana, and from there it proceeds to the twelfth gupasthana, the kṣipa-kasaya-vitaraga-chadmastha gunasthana, where the soul first destroys the two kinds of sleep (nidrākarma and pracală karma). Then the soul destroys the five jnnävaraniya karmas (matijnKnävaraniya, Arutajnanavarapiya, avadhijnanävaraniya, manaḥparyaya-janavarapiya and kevalajaanavarapiya karmas), the four darjanavaraniya karmas (cakṣur-darjanavaraniya), acakṣur -darśanavaraniya, avadhi-darśanavaraṇiya and kevala-darśanavaraniya), and the five antaraya karmas (dänäntaraya, labhäntaraya, bhogantaraya, upabhogântaraya and viryantaraya). After destroying these karmas the soul ascends to the thirteenth gunasthana, the sayogi-kevali-gupasthana where the soul becomes a sayogi-kevalin. From here the soul next ascends to the final stage, the ayogi-kevali-gunasthana, in which the soul completely annihilates the seventy two karmas1 which are not hitherto destroyed. In the last moment of this gupasthäna the soul destroys all the thirteen remaining karmas. Once all the karmas are destroyed, the soul attains liberation, the highest goal of the soul.
153
The way Civaka attained salvation following ksapaka-greni is depicted through allegorical expressions in the verses starting from 3076 to 3082 in Cc. Though Têvar does not mention the names of the different gunasthanas, the order in which the karmas are eradicated by Civakan strictly follows the order of the eradication of Karmas by a soul which follows Kṣapaka śreņi. The whole process is described as a war between Civakan and his karmas. Civakan started the war against his foes, the karmas, having right knowledge as his chariot, the idea of saving his soul as his horse, right faith as his elephant, kindness as his infantry, right conduct as the support for his body and the touch as his sword and shield. When he, with
1 Pujyapada, op. cit. commentary on Ts. 10:2.
2 Cc. v. 3074.
Sc-20

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his army, surrounded the walls of the city of his enemies, the karmas, they came out ready for a war, having sleep as their elephant, food as their chariot, forgetfulness as their horses and diseases with vāta, pitta and śleşman as their infantry 2 The army of the karmas is described as a big ocean full of sharks. In this fight Civakan kills the karmas and ascends towards salvation.
The progress of the soul of Civakan up to the ninth gunasthāna, the anivettibadara-samparāya gunasthana is explained through allegorical expression in the following verse :
teliv arutt eluvar pattár ir enmar tiļaittu vilntar kaliru kāl utaippav enmar kaviln'anar kalattin ulle piļiri vil rēți pen noy ar uvakuit tuvarppum pēcin
aļi pațu cintaiyennum ali vāy viļntav anra3
(In the battle fiel i seven people fell down unconscious. Sixteen of them fell down after fighting. Eight people were overthrown when the elephant kicked with its leg. If one talks about the neuter sex which fell down shouting, the female sex and the six non-passions, they all fell under the wheel of kind thought.)
Here, by the expression "eluvar pattār" (seven people fell down) the annihilation of the seven karmas, i, e. the four anantānubandhi kaşāyās anii the three darsana mohaniya karmas, 4 is shown. The sixteen people who fell down after fighting are the sixteen karmas which are supposed to be destroyed in the beginning of the ninth gunasthāna, the anivștti-bādara-samparāva guṇasthāna. The eight people who were kicked by the leg of the elephant are the eight passions, the four pratyākhyānāvarpa karmas and the four apratyakhyānāvaraṇa karmas e In the same guņasthāna, Civakan also destroys the female sex and the neuter sex and the six nokaṣāyas. At the end of this gunasthāna Civakan annihilates the purusa veda, and the three samjvalana kaşāyas. 9 After that he ascends to the tenth guṇasthāna, the sūksma-samparāya gunathāna in which he eradicates also the fourth samjvalana kaşāya, the samjvalana lobha. This is explained in the following lines :
kur tanë mūnan māyan kūrpp utaiy ulopan en par virätittu viralir cutti veru varat takka viran nirotanoiy ampir konrān. .. ..10
(Kurotan (krodha), Mānan (māna), Mayap (māyā) and Ulopan (lobha) who is covetous, came opposing with pointed fingers. (Civakan) killed them with the help of (his mind full of) control over passions.)
1 Cc. v 3075 2 Ibid, v. 3075 3 Ibad, v. 3076 4 Supra, p. 152 5 Supra, p. 153
6 Supra, p. 153 7 Cc. v. 3076 8 Ibid, 3077 9 Supra, p. 153. Cc, v. 3079 10 Ibid, v. 3080

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After this Cıvakan ascends to the next guṇasthāna, the upaśānta-kaņāya-vitarăga -chadmastha and from there he ascends to the twelfth guṇasthana, the kşiņakaṣāyavītaräga-chadmastha gupasthana. In this stage he annihilates the two kinds of sleep, the nidrā karma and the pracala karma. 1 In the same gunasthana, he with the help of sukla-dhyāna, 2 eradicates the five jñānāvarinya karmas, 5 four darśanavaraniya karmas, and the five antaraya karmas 5 This stage is explained in the following verse :
punari pör ciru pun kelvip pațaiyoțu pukaintu ponki unarvotu käțci për enr ițaiyuru kokkal érrär inar ēri mulakkam anna cukkilat tiyānam ennum kanaiy erint ukaippa vilntu kār pațai cũlappatļāro
(The kings Uñarvu, Kāțci, and Pēru (jñānāvaraniya karmas, darsanāvaraniya karmas and Antarāya karmas) come blazing with anger, with their army' which had inferior knowledge and fought (with Civakan). They all fell down when attacked by the roaring flames of Cukkilattiyānam (śukladhyāna) and lay on the ground surrounded by their infantry.)
At the end of this guņashāna Civakan completely destroys all the ghātiya karmas and ascends to the thirteenth gunasthāna, the sayogikevali gumasthāna. After destroying all the ghātiyā karmas, the soul of Civakan attains the four infinite qualities and surpasses the three lokas and the aloka and achieves godship. This progress is described in the following verse :
katip pör mannar viļak kanaiy eri citari veyyön ötiya vakaiyin onriy ulak ucci mulaittate pol viti pöy ulaka mūnrum viļuńkiyitt aloka nunki ātiy ant akarra nänmaik koțiy ețutt iraimai kontän."
(Having dispersed the arrows of fire everywhere so that the kāti kings (ghātiya karmas) who were fighting (against him) were destroyed, he the one who is like a sun as mentioned in the agamas, (spread his lustre all over) as if he had sprung up on the top of the loka. Then he surpassed the three lokas and the aloka and attained godship by taking the flag of four (ananta jñāna, ananta darsana, ananta-virya and anana-sukha) which has no beginning and end.)
In this Arhat stage, the qucens of Civakan come to worship him and on their request he preaches the Jaina doctrine to them. 8
After this stage the soul of Civakan ascends to the final guṇasthana, where it destroys all the remaining aghātiya karmas and attains liberation. Tēvar describes this final stage as follows:
.... Vitu perrän viļanki näl vinaiyum vente. 9 1 Ibid, v. 3080
6 Cc. 3081 2 Cc. v. 3081
7 Co. 3082 3 Supra, pp. 129, 130; Cc. v. 3081
8 Ibid, vv, 3105-3111 pp. 130; 5 pp. 131, 132; .
9 lbid. v. 3114

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(He attained liberation (mokşa) by overcoming the four karmas (the aghātiya karmas)).
The soul which is completely free from karmas and which has attained the four infinite qualities and which has no body is called as siddha. According to Digambara Jains this stage of siddha cannot be attained by women and can be only attained by men. First the women have to get rid of their woman-hood and then only can attain salvation. This is explained in the Cc. through the characters, Vicayai, the mother of Civakan and the queens of Civakan. Vicayai renounced the world before Civakan and did penance, but there is no reference in the Cc. to show that she attained liberation. When describing the queens of Civakan Tēvar says that after they renounced the worldly affairs, they performed penance, in order to get rid of their life as women.
...pen pirapp ițiyac cintitlär 1 (They meditated to get rid of their birth as women).
As a result of this meditation they gained pure knowledge and destroyed their birth as women and attained the state of Indras.
All the souls which have attained siddhahood are equal. There is no god beyond these souls. The relationship between these souls and the souls which have not attained liberation will be discussed under the sub section "Theological ideas". Before dealing with the theological ideas, it is als) necessary to discuss the ritualistic ideas found in the Cc.
Ritualistic Ideas
In the early canons of Jainism no importance was given to rituals The first descriptive mention of Jaina rituals is found in the Adipurāpa of Jin 152 11.3 It is not known whether these rituals mentioned in the Adipurāņa (Ap.) were prevalent among Jainas earlier than the period of the Ap. or whether they were framed by Jinasena in a way similar to the Hindu samskāras. 4
The Ap. deals with fifty thre: kriyās, in its chapter thirty eight.8 Although all the ritual mentioned in the Ap. are not found in the Cc., there are references to a few rituals. The kriyās which are found in the Cc. are discussed below.
The kriyā which is performed when naming a child is called Nánakarman. This kriya is done on the twelfth day after the child's birth.. In the Cc, this kriya is per. formed when naming the children of Cvjakan. The astrologers draw their horoscopes calculating the position of the stars with their highest positions, their lowest positions and their relationship with each other. After calculating the horoscopes they named the children on the twelfth day. 8 1 Cc. v. 3120
5 Ap. chapter XXXVIII, 50-311 2 Ibid, v. 31 21
6 Ibid, XXXVIII, 57-59 3 Williams, op. cit. p. 274
7 Cc. v. 2703 4 Ibid. p. 274
8 Naccipārkkiniyar, the commentary written on Cc. v. 2703

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Lipisamkhyāna kriya is the kriya which is made at the age of five when a child starts his education first time. 1 This kriyă is performed when Civakan started his education first and this is explained in the following verse :
arum ponnum maniyu mut tum kāņamun kuruni yakap parant eläp pirappum vaittup paim pon cey tavicin ucci iruntu pon õlai cem pon ūciyal elutiy er ppat
tiruntu por kaņņiyarkkuc celviyaic cerrtinare. 2
YHaving placed the trays of rice on which gold, jewels and pearls are being kept to the amount of a Kuruni 3 and having sat on the golden seat, the teacher united the young lady (goddess of education) with Civakan who wore golden garland, by writing on the golden leaf with the golden needle.)
The rituals performed in marriage are mentioned in the Cc. in the description of the marriage between Ilakkanai and Civakan. Though Civakan marries eight girls, only the wedding which took place between Ilakkaņai and Civakan is described with full details of wedding rituals. According to the Ap. a young man should marry a
girl from a suitable family with the permission of his guru. The marriage should be perlormed in front of the holy fire after making pūjā to Jina, 5 After the wedding for seven days the couple should have no sexual relationship and they should go to a place of pilgrimage if possible. When they return home on proper time they should indulge themselves in sexual pleasures for the procreation of children.8
Tēvar follows some of these rules in describing the wedding of Civakan with Jlakka nai and also borrows some of the ideas expressed in the gļhya sūtras. Ilakkanai whom Civakan married was from a suitable family as she was his cousin, the daughter of his uncle Kovintan. In the wedding, the officiating priests made the altar with newly spread sand, sacred grass (darbha) and sacrificial fuel. They also placed two vessels of water, a pot of incense and a vessel of ghee, in the proper places. These detailed descriptions about making the altar and placing the water, incense, and ghee are not mentioned in the Ap. The water and ghee which are placed in the vessels are for the ceremony of madhuparka. Madhuparka is tbe first honour that the father-in-law bestows upon the bridegroom. The two vessels of water are, one for the wasbing the feet of the bridegroom and the other the arghya water,
1 Ap. loc. cit. 102-103 2 Cc. v. 369 3 'Kuruņi' is a grain measure equal to one marakkāl or eight measures, Madras Tamil lexicon,
Vol. II, Madras, 1962, p. 1054. 4 Ap. loc. cit. v. 127 5 ,
v. 128 6 ..
vv, 131-134 7 Nacciņārkkiniyar, commentary on the Cc. v. 2464 8 R. B. Pandey, Hindu Samskāras, 2nd Edition, Delhi, 1969, p. 211

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The priests also placed a golden pot full of fried rice grains, a grinding stone and sacred fuel.1 The pot full of rice grains is kept for the ceremony of lāja-homa. This ceremony is performed as a symbol of fertility and prosperity. The brother of the bride pours fried grain mixed with şamı leaves (prosopis spicigera) into the hands of the bride and she offers them with the joined hands into sacrificial fire while the bridegroom recites verses to bring prosperity and unity.3 Though this is not described in the Cc. in detail the idea of placing a pot of fried rice grains explains the purpose for which it is kept. The grinding stone was kept to perform the ceremony of aśmärobaņa or the mounting of the stone. This ceremony is performed to make the wife firm in her devotion and loyalty to her husband. 4
Civakan married Ilakkaņai in front of the sacred fire. There is no mention of Civakan going to a sacred place for seven days with his wife or observing celibacy for seven day as mentioned in Ap.
The renunciation of worldly attachments after leading a lay life is called grhatyāga. According to the Ap. when a lay man wants to renounce the world, he has to perform pūjā to Jira and after that he should entrust his property to his son and should ask the son to preserve it.7 Civakau did this ceremony before going to do penance. He called all his sons and made Caccantay king and divided his other possessions among his other children.
Theological ideas
According to Jainism all the souls which are free from karmas attain godhood. There is no god beyond these gods. These gods in no way help the souls with karmas. Each soul should shed its karmas with its own efforts and attain godhood. Though these gods do not help the other souls in the path of salvation, still in Jainism prayer and meditation have an important place. The souls with karmas pray and meditate upon the attributes of the freed souls, not in order to paise them or flatter them, but to awaken the latent potentialities of godhood in them,
In the Cc., there are a few places where Civakan praises lord Arhat. He praises lord Arhat before he goes to the mountain Cittira-kūtam. 8 In this prayer, Civakan by praising the attributes of lord Arhat tries to see the goal which a soul should reach. The following verse which is one of the verses in his prayers serves as a good example :
katalal en vinaiyun kalipay enriy ak katal à talal en vinaiyun kaliyāv enrum araitiyar potulayt tên kulittup palintu vanļu tivant ulam kötai tal pinţik koma ninnait tolutē nē. 9
1 Cc. v. 2464 4 Ibid. p. 219 7 Ibid, p. 285
2 Pandey, op. cit p. 218 5 Cc. v. 2468 8 Cc. v. 1426 ff
3 Ibid, p. 218 6 Williams, op.cit. p. 285 9 Cc, v. 1420

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(You tell me that eight karmas will be eradicated by the love placed on you and at the same time you also tell that if the same love is placed on another object, the eight karmas cannot be removed. Therefore I pray you, the lord, who sits under the pinți tree which is lowered with the swaying flower garlands made of honey dropping blossoms surrounded by bees.)
In the above verse one can see how Civakan is trying to realise the necessity of getting rid of karmas, by praising the lord Arhat who has got rid of his karmas,
Most of the prayers we find in the Cc. are prayers which extol the glories and qualities of freed souls. According to Jainism the freed souls are of two kinds, the disembodied and the embodied souls. The disembodied souls are called Siddhas and the embodied souls are called Arhats or Jinas. The Siddhas are of two kinds, the Tirthankara Siddhas and the Samanya Siddhas. Tirthankara Siddhas are the Siddhas who preached the doctrine of Jainism to the people in their embodied condition after shedding their karmas. The others are Samanya Siddhas. The Arhats or Jinas are souls who are embodied though they have attained perfection. They are called Arhats as they are worthy of adoration and worship1 and called Jina as they had overcome all the five senses and the eight karmas. Jina is also called a Tirthankara, because, he by preaching the Jaina doctrine helps the human beings to cross the ocean of samsara. Since these souls have human body, the human beings find it easy to worship them. Siddhas who are without any human body can be understood only by yogic contemplation. To perform yogic contemplation the individual must be fit and spiritually qualified.
Apart from Siddhas and Arhats, there are other saints and ascetics who are in their embodied state, but respected and worshipped. They are the Acaryas, the head. of the saints, the Upadhyaya, the teaching saint, and the Sadhu, an ascetic.
These five souls, the Siddha, the Arhat, the Acarya, the Upädyāya and the Sadhu are called Pancaparamesthin. The prayer made to these five classes of people are called Panca-namaskara or Pañca-parameşthi-stuti. It runs as follows:
159
namo arihantanam, namo siddhāṇam, namo ayariyaṇam, namo uvajjhayanam, namo loe savvasahinam 5
(I bow to the Arhats, I bow to the Siddhas, I bow to the Acaryas, I bow to the teaching saints, 1 bow to all the Sadhus in the world-)
This Pañca-namaskara mantra is mentioned in a few places in the amalaiyar ilampakam, the dog which was beaten by the angry brahmins a deva when Civaka pronounced Pancanamaskara mantra in its ears.
2-3 Ibid, p. cxv
4 J. Jaini, op. cit. pp. 2, 80
5 Williams,
P. 185
1 A. Chakravarti, Introduction to Samayasara, Jñanapitha Moorti Devi Granthamala, English series, I, First edition, 1950, p. cxv.
*
در
6 Cc. vv. 945-947
7 Ibid, v. 945

Co. In Kunturned into Tēvar refers

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to the Pañcanamaskāra mantra as 'aimpatam'. The following lines relate the incident in which the dog after hearing the Pancanamaskāra mantra turns to be a deva destroying all its karmas.
katrav aimpatanka nirak karu vinai ka! uvappatļu marravan tēva nāki.. .. .. 1
(He became deva after having wasbed all the bad deeds (karu vinai) by the water of the aimpatam (Papicanamaskāra mantra) which he had learnt ..)
In the Cc. in some instances, the benediction to lord Arhat alone is mentioned. Caccantan, the father of Civakan before sending his wife Vicayai in the flying machine pronounces the benediction to god. Here the god to whom he prays is lord Arhat.
in pa mikk uțaiya cirttiy iraivanat āņai kūrit
tunpam il paravai ürti carttinān .. .. ..3
(He after pronouncing the benediction to lord Arhat, put [her] in the harmless vehicle which was in the shape of a bird.)
A part from pañcanamaskāra, the Jains also say catuḥ-sarana (four goings for refuge). This is the recourse to the four refuges of the Arhats, the Siddhas, the Ācāryas and the law (of the Jinas) (dhamma). This catuhsarana runs as follows:
ashamte saranam pavaj jami, siddhe saranain pavaj jami, sahi saranam pavajjami, kevali-pannattam dhammam saranam pavajjami.3
(I go to the Arhat for refuge, I go to the Siddha for refuge, I go to the Sadhu for refuge and I go to the religion which is pronounced by the souls which attained omniscience for refuge )
This catuh-sarapa is found in the Cc. in the benedictory stanzas. The first verse is the recourse to the lord Arbat, the second to Siddha, the third to the Sadhu and to the Dhamma.4
Thus in the course of the discussions in this chapter we have seen how Tēvar has struck a new line in the comsitioa of a paru kāppiyam in Tamil with a religious motive. His literary predecessors, Iļanko, and Korkuvēlir , though they were Jains dealt with themes which did not have a religious motive. Accordingly here ale only a few references scattered here and there in the Cilappatikāram and the Perunkatai to Jainism which serve as reflections of the social status accorded to the religion in their times rather than as manifest religious propaganda. In the Manimek alai of Cättanār this is no more the case and his poem is full of religious debates employing highly Sanskritised and specialised Buddhist philosophical jargon. The Cc. is a book written with similar motive from the hands of a Jaina author. As we have seen in the course of this chapter, the Cc. displays the erudition of the author in 1 Ibid, v. 951
3 Williams, op. cit. p. 186 2 lbid.v. 273
4 Cc. v. 1-3

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The interaction of Sanskrit through Jainism
161
the authentic treatises of Jaina philosophy which were all written originally in Sanskrit and Prakrit. The concepts and vocabulary peculiar to the Jain philosophical system have been appropriately adapted by Tēvar to suit his narration and the Tamil language and culture. He has transformed a mere skeleton of Jajna Puranic story into an elaborate 'magnum opus' of Jaina doctrine. The religious and conceptual aspects of the transformation have been explained in this chapter. The linguistic aspect will be dealt with in the next chapter.
Aghatiya karmas
Nama karma-103
Āyus karma-4 Deva-āyus Manuşya-āyus Tiryag-ayus Naraka-āyus
Apinda-Prakytis
Pratyeka Trasa Sthävara Prakrtis-8 dasaka-10 dašaka-10
Pinda-Prakstis Gatis-4 Jātis-5 Sarıras-5 Angopāngas-3 Sthāna-2 Bandhana-15 Sanghāta-5 Samsthāna-6 Samhanana-6 Varna-5 Gandha-2 Rasa -5 Sparsa-8 Anupurvi-4
Gotra karma--2 Uccair-gotra Nicair-gotra
Vedaniya karma-2 Sāta-vedaniya Asāta-vedaniya
Sc-21

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Jñānāvaraṇiya karma-5
Mati-jñānāvaraṇiyaŚruta-jñānāvaraniyaAvadhi-jñānāvaraṇiya
Dar sanavaraniya-9
cakṣur-darśanavaraṇīyaAcakṣur-darśanavaraṇiyaAvadhi-darśanavaraniya
Manaḥparyaya-jñanavaraniya- Kevala-darjanavaraniya
Kevala-jñānāvaraniya
Nidrä
Nidra-nidra
Pracala
Ghatiya karmas
Pracala-pracala Styanagṛddhi
Kaşaya
Māna
Anantanubandhi-māna
Krodha Anantanubandhi-krodha Apratyakhyanavaraṇa-krodha Apratyākhyānāvaraṇa-māna Pratyakhyanavarana-krodha Samjvalana-krodha
Mohaniya-28
Darsanamohaniya
SamyaktvaMithyātva-Miśra
Māyā
Anantanubandhi
māyā
Caritramohaniya
māyā
māyā
Antaraya-5
Dana-antaraya
Labha-antaraya Bhoga-antaraya Upabhoga
Arati
Šoka
Bhaya
Pratyakhyanavarana-mana Apratyākhyānāvaraṇa- Apratyākhyanavaraṇa- Jugupsā Samjvalana-mana
lobha
Purușa
Pratyakhyanavaraṇa- Pratyakhyānāvaraṇa
Somjvalana-maya
Samjvalana-lobha
Virya-antaraya
Lobha Anantänubandhi
antarāya
lobba
lobha
No-kaşaya
Hasya Rati
veda
Stri-veda
Napumsakaveda
162

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CHAPTER VI
SANSKRIT LOAN WORDS IN THE CIVAKACINTAMANI
As the Cc. is a religious work written in an epic form it has two kinds of loan words in it. One, the Jaina technical terms and the other the non-religious terms. We treat these two kinds of loan words under separate sections. Before starting to analyse the Skt. loan words in the Cc, it is necessary to have a brief knowledge of the growth of Skt. loan words in Tamil literature before the period of the Cc.
From the linguistic point of view the growth of the Tamil language can be divided into three major periods. 1
(i) Old Tamil (ii) Middle Tamil period
(iii) Modern Tamil period In these three main periods the Cc. was composed in the Middle Tamil period. We trace here the developments in the Skt. loan words in the Tamil literature from the very early time to the period in which the Cc. was composed.
In identifying the loan words, as M. B. Emeneau says, “ details of morphology, and of meaning, as well as of phonology must be brought into play.."9 It is easy to make out a Skt. loan word, for the Indo-European vocabulary of Skt. has been long worked out and established. 8 Therefore, the words which cannot be explained by Dravidian phonetic and etymological phenomena, and which can be traced back to IndoAryan etymology, can be noted as Skt. loan words. There are also a few words which appear in the etymology of both the groups of languages, Indo-European and Dravidian and these have discussed by philologists like Burrow and Emeneau.
In the Cankam period when the two different cultures, Aryan and Dravidian, got intermingled, many words which the Aryans used in their social life found their
1 S. Vaidyanathan, Indo-Aryan loan-words in the Civakacintāmaņi", Journal of the
American Oriental Society, 87.4, 1967, p. 430. 2 M. B. Emeneau, India and Historical Grammar, Annamalai University Publications in
Linguistics, No. 5, 1965, p. 13 3 T. Burrow, Transactions of the Philological Society, London, 1946, p. 13. 4 T. Burrow and M. B. Emeneau, Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1961.
Dravidian borrowing from Indo-Aryan, University California Publications in Linguistics, Vol. 26, 1962. T. Burrow. "Loan words in Sanskrit", Transactions of the Philological Society, 1946, pp. 1-30; "Some Dravidian Words in Sanskrit," ibid, 1945, pp. 79–120; Sanskrit Language, 2nd edition, London, 1965, pp. 372–388.

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164
Study of Civakacintamani
Skt.
Aink. 16
way into the Tamil language.1 For example :
Tamil 1. Anjana Ancanam
(The black dye
applied to the eyes) 2. Kumari Kumari
(a virgio) 3. Disa Ticai
(directions) 4. Nidhi Niti
(wealth) 5. Nemi Nemi
(wheel) 6. Sakata Cakatam
(a vehicle)
Pur, 301 Aiņk. 98 Akam. 60 Kur; 189 Kur. 5; Pur. 102
(a vehi
Skt.
AKU
These words which are used in the social life had equivalent words in Tamil befor ethey came in vogue in Tamil. But, apart from these words, another class of words came into Tamil which included words not prevalent in Tamil before the migration of the Aryans into the Tamil country. These are words which are related to Aryan religion. For example :
Tamil 1. Amarāh Amarar
(the devas)
Patt. 184, 200 2. Ampta Amiltam
(food containing six
Kur. 83, 201
tastes) 3. Asura Acurar
(demons)
Pur. 174 4. Ahuti Äkuti
(oblation)
Pur. 99 5. Ārādhadā Ārātanai (the food offered to
Pari, 6 the gods) Ulkā Urkam (fire-brand)
Kur. 41 7. Daiva Teyvam
(God)
Aink. 76, 4 8. Tapasyin Tapaciyar (ascetics)
Nar 141 9. Natha Natan
(Rudra the God of
Pari. 8
Ātirai asterism) 10. Pungava Punkavam (the bull, the Śiva's Pari. 8
mount) 11. Bhūta Pütam
(element)
Pur. 369, 17 12. Mantra Mantiram
(sacred and esoteric
Tirumur. 95
chantings) 13. Mithuna Mitunam
(Gemini)
Pari. 11, 12 14. Yaksa Iyakkan
(a yaksa)
Pur. 71 15. Yüpa Yupam
(sacrificial pillar) Pur, 40, 15 16. Rohiņi Urokiņi (Thę asterism
Neț. 163 found in conjunction
with the moon) 17. Capa Căpam
(bow)
Nar. 228 18. Sandhi Anti
(evening)
Pur. 2
1 A collection of the Sanskrit loan-words in the Cankam works are given by M.
Iracamanikkanar in his Tamil moli-Ilakkiya Varalaru, Madras, January, 1963.

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintāmaņi
165
These Skt. loan-words when borrowed in Tamil are always made of phonemes which are found in Tamil. Tolkappiyar divides these Skt. words into two kinds. 1 The first kind of loan-words are the words which are made of phonemes which are common to Skt. For example: Skt.
Tamil 1. Kamalam (lotus)
Kamalam
(lotus) 2. vanam (forest)
vanam
(forest)
The second kind of words are the words which are originally made of phonemes which are not found in Tamil, but when borrowed from Skt. were altered according to the Tamil grammatical rules. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1. Sutra (aphorism) Cuttiram (aphorism) 2. Yakşa (a yakşa)
Iyakkan
(a yakşa) 3. Bhuta (element)
Pūtam
(element)
In the middle Tamil period the number of Skt. loan-words used in Tamil literature increased in number. The introduction of Buddhism and Jainism in Tamil land, the Bhakti movement of the Saiva Saints and the Vaişpava Aļvārs, the encouragement and patronage given by the kings who were ruling Tamil land for Skt. and Pkt. studies and the great interest shown by the poets in borrowing Skt. ideas and stories from Skt. literature are the main reasons which caused the increase of Skt. loanwords in Tamil
The literary works which were composed in the Middle period before the period of the Cc. can be classified into three categories :
(i) The didactic works (The eighteen minor works (Patinenkilkaņakku works)) (ii) The devotional hymns of the Saiva saints and Vaisnavs Alvars (iii) The epics, the Cilappatikāram, the Maşimēkalai and the Peruňkatai
Tiruva]ļuvar, the author of the Tirukkural, one of the eighteen minor works, has freely borrowed ideas from Skt. works such as the Manudharma Šāstra, the Niti Šāstra, the Ayurvedic treatises and the Kāma 'sūtra and these ideas are very often expressed with the help of Pkt. and Skt. works, hybrid forms and translations of Skt. phrases. According to S. Vaiyapuri Piliai, out of seven hundred and fifty words used in the Tirukkural, one hundred and fifty are of Skt. and Prakritic origin.a
1 (i) vaļa-cor kițavi vațav elutt orii
elattoļu punarnta collākumma (ii) citaintana varinum iyaintana variyār. Tolkappiyam, Collatikūram, Eccaviyal, Sutras, 401, 402 2 S, Vaiyapuri Pillai, Kaviyakālam, p. 51.

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166
The following are some of the loan-words found in the Tirukkural.
Pkt.
Tamil
Amacca
Skt.
1. Amatya
2. Acara
3. A
4. Kāma
5. Kārikā
6. Nāma
7. Pūjana
8. Bhagavan
9. Bhagya
Skt.
1. Udarata
2. Gati
3. Šisa
4. Divya
5. Duhkha
6. Pramana
7. Dana
8. Jääna
9. Svarga
Amaiccan
Acaram
Acai
Kaman
Karikai
Namam
Pucanai
Pakavan
Pakkiyam
Kati
Ciṭṭan
Tippiyam
Tukkam
Piramanam

Tanam
NanamCuvarkkam
(liberality)
(way, path)
Study of Civakacintamani
(minister)
(conduct)
(desire)
(God of love)
(acting as agent)
(name)
(offering)
(knowledge)
(heaven)
1 S. Vijayapuri Pillai, Kaviyakalam, p. 51.
2 Ibid, p. 88
(god)
(luck)
Since the Kural deals with almost all the aspects of life, love, politics, ethics etc., Skt. loan-words in all these fields were borrowed and these words enriched Tamil language and made it more flexible and resilient. Some of the Skt. words found in the Tirukkural are first introduced only in this book. 1
Ver. 381
1075
266
1197
571
360
18
1
1141
As Vaiyapuri Pillai says, "the inspiration kindled by Valluvar (the author of the Tirukkura) produced a few works very much on the same lines as the Tirukkural."9 The other works classified under the eighteen minor works are also indebted to Sanskrit literature in their ideas and as a result of it, the number of Sanskrit words in Tamil also increased. We give below some examples which are taken from the Tirikajukam and the Cirupaficamalam.
Tamil Utaratai

39
Cirupan, 12
Cirupan. 94
23
""
39
99
(disciplined man) Cirupañ. 96
(divine)
Tirikat. 43.
(worry)
Tirika. 60
(measure)
Tirikat. 7
(gift)
Cirupan. 36
Cirupan. 36
Cirupan, 36
66.92
In their devotional songs, the Saiva saints and the Vaisnava Alvars tried to use the language of the masses to which Skt. diction added richness. For example the
39
رو

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167
Sanskrit lone words in the Civakacintāmaņi following line wchich is taken from one of the Tēvārams of Appar has three Skt. words out of five words used in the line.
kala păcam pišitt elu tūtuvar (The messengers with the noose of Yama (the god of death}). The three words in italics are Skt. Joan-words.
The Cilappatikāram, the earliest eqic in Tamil literature contains many Skt.words and a few Skt. stories. As this epic does not have religous motif we do not find many religious words. The following are some examples taken from the large number of Skt. words used in the Cilappatikāram.
Skt. Tamil 1. Ankuga Ankucam (goad)
XXII : 49. 2. Iga Ican
(the wealthy one) X : 186 3. Udaya (giri) Utaye (mal (the hill of the V: 5 varai)
rising sun) 4. Kavi Kavi
(the poet)
111 : 33 5. Gapa Kaņam
(the eighteen V : 176
Deva ganas) 6. Gaņikā Kaņikaiyar (professional actor XI : 183, XV : 25,
and dancer, pro- XXII : 106
stitute) 7. Sapa Capam (curse)
VỊ: 23, X: 233
XXIII : 169 8 Śilātala Cilatalam (rock seats) X: 25,161 XV : 154 9, Sankha Cankam (conch)
XI;47 10. Sankara Cankaran (He that gives)
bliss)
X:186 11. Sundara Cuntaram (beauty) 12. Nagara Nakaram (city) IV:84,V, 200
VI 129 13, Madhukara Matukaram (honey bee) XXV:20.
The Buddhist epic, the Manimekalai, which deals with Buddhist doctrine in most of its chapters has imbibed a large number of Sanskrit and Prakrit words and in some parts where the Buddhist philosophy is expounded there seem to be more Skt. words than Tamil words. In the following pissage the words in italics are Buddhist philosophical terms. 1 Appar Tirumurai, 5, Pangirutirumuraip peruntirattu, collected by P. Iramanathapillai, 1961,
verse 608, p. 156.

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Study of Civakacintamaņi
Cattiya tanma vikalam avatu kāțțappațța tittāntattil căttiya tanmam kuraivupațutal; “cattam nittam, amūrttam ātalāl; yātonru yātonru amūrttam atu nittam. pulti pool” enrāl tițțāntamakak kātappatta putti amūritam āki ninre anittam átalan, cātana amūrtattuvam
nirampi, cattiya nittattuvam kuraiyum.' T. Cattiya tanma vikalam --Skt. Sadhya dharma vi-kala (defective major term) ? T. Cattam-Skt. Sabda (sound) T. Nittam-Skt. Nitya (eternal) T. Amūrttam-Skt. Amūrta (non-corporeal) T. Tittantam-Skt. Drşțānta (example) Besides Buddhist Philosophical terms, there are also other Skt. words and Skt. names.
Skt Tamil 1. Udyāna Uyyānam
(royal gardens) 111 : 52. 2. Citra Cittiram
(Painting)
111 : 168. 3. Jala Calam (Water)
XXIV : 47. 4. Tirtha Tirttan
(name of Buddha) V: 98. 5. Turaga Turakam
(horse)
VII:, 99 XI: 134 6. Nakula Nakulam
(mongoosē)
XIX: 96. 7 Bhagavan Pakavan
(Lord Buddha) III:61,XXI11:174 8. Purāņa Purāṇag.
(the ancient one) V:98 9. Yojana Yöcanai
(a distance equal to)
four Kādams) VI:211, Ix:21 10. Varna Varuņam
(Class)
V:87, VI:56 The Perunkatai, the first work in which a Skt. story is used as the theme, contains a good number of Skt, words. For exampleSkt
Tamil 1. Antah-pura Ancappuram (the female apartment) 41:3, line 31 2. Arava Aravam (Noise)
2:10, Jine 45 3. Vrata Viratam (Observance)
2:3, lines 130 4. Kurkuma Kunkumam (saffron)
1:46, line 256 5. Nirmita Nirumitam (produced)
2:13, line 16
1 Manimē kalai, Tavattiram pūņtu tarum am kēta kātai, lines 349-358. 2 Krishnazwami Ayangır. Manakala in its Historical Settings, London, 1927. p. 216.

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
169
The number of Skt. words found in the Perunkatai is comparatively very much smaller than what we find in the Cc.
There are two main reasons which necessitated the use of a larger number of Skt. words by Tevar in the Co.
(i) As in the case of the Manimekalai, the need to explain religious ( Jaina religious terms in the case of the Cc.) concepts involving Skt. technical terms resulted in many of these terms being used as such or in a translated form.
of the Virutta metre
os of the 'pavara
vllables, with
(ii) The employment of the Virutta metre so as to enable the poem to be set to music. The viruttam metre unlike the metres of the 'pa' variety found in the earlier Tamil literature, is governed by the scansion of the lines into syllables, with appropriate use of alliteration (etukai) and assonance (mõnai) which place relatively more severe constraints on the metrical composition. Thus it became necessary for the author to draw from a much larger vocabulary. This vocabulary included words from Skt. along with their equivalents in Tamil.
The following examples from the Cc. show how one word borrowed from Skt. is used in two or more forms in Tamil :
Skt.
Tamil 1. Kșema Cēmam (safe) 670 Emam
(prosperous) 988 2. Amrta Amirtam (ambrosia) 2827, 1178, 1731 Amirtu
(ambrosia) 222, 350 3. Hingulika Inkulikam (vermilion) 2239
Kulikam 4. Pratima (Pkt. Padinā) Patimai (image) 2752
paţimam (image) 2642
Pațivam (form) 395, 1166 Now we will analyse the phonological and semantic changes of the words which are not Jain religious technical terms.
Before starting the analysis of the phonological changes in the Skt. loan-words in the Cc., one thing must be borne in mind. The gender system in Tamil and in Skt. are entirely different from one another. Tamil has a natural gender whereas Skt. has a grammatical gender. Therefore when Tamil borrowed Skt. words in it, as a general rule, the Tamil personal endings -n, or -t, or the neuter endings -ai,-m, or i are added 1 1 Vaidyanath in Loc.cit., p. 430
Sc-22

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Study of Civakaointamani
The vowel changes :
Since Tamil has most of the counterparts for Skt. vowels, except si, si, Isi and lri, the phonological changes which take place is vowels are comparatively less than in the consonants. According to the phonetic system of Tamil, any vowel can begin a word.
Therefore, vowels in the initial position, hardly undergo any changes, unless the letter which follows it exercises influence on it. This is true of the medial vowel also, but they often undergo changes by the influence of the preceding or the following letter, always a consonant or a consonant cluster.
Initial 'a': The initial a' in Skt usually remains unchanged in Tamil words. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1. agada atakam
(medicine)
403 2. anjana ancanam
(collyrium)
1632, 2357 atiśaya at icayam
(pre-eminence)
2813 4. adhvan attam (path)
1185 anta antam (end)
3082 6. abhaya apayam
(safety)
2999 7. amsta amirtam (ambrosia)
851 8. alakta arattakam (red lac)
2459 9. ayana ayanam (road, path)
851 10. asta (Pkt. attha) attam
(western mountain) 18, 1733, 2022, 2211 11. astra attiram (arrow)
815 (i) 'a' in the first syllable, though often remaining unchanged, sometimes changes into 'e'. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1. gandha Kentam (fragrant smell)
3115 2. garuda kelulan (vulture)
1926 3. yantra entiram (machine)
1614 (Here the initial 'y' has been dropped.)
wat
(ii) 'a' in the first syllable, if continued by a conjunct consonant, sometimes changes into a'. For example : skt.
Tamil 1. Kāncukin Kāñcuki (clad in armour)
2862 2. Nandaka Nāntakam (sword)
815

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
(iii) There is one case in the Cc. where the 'a' in the initial syllable has been lengthened after the elision of the following 'h'. For example:
Skt. maharastra, Pkt. marahatta; Tam. maraṭṭam. 2161.
Medial 'a'
The medial 'a' normally does not undergo any changes, but sometimes changes into 'i'. For example:
Skt.
1. Nimittaka
2. Pippali
3. Mandala
Skt. Alaya
Final 'a'
(i) The final 'a' often changes into 'ai'. For example:
Skt.
1. Camara
2. Nirodhana
3. Darbha
Skt.
1. Amyta
2. leja
3. sphatika)
Tamil
Nimittikan
Tippili Mantilam
In some cases medial 'a' also changes into 'ai' when it is followed by 'y'. For
example :
Tam. Alaiyam abode
Pkt. phaliha)
4. palaja
(astrologer)
(long pepper)
(circle)
Tamil
Camarai
Nirotanai
Taruppai
palikku
palăcu

(ii) In some neuter nouns the final 'a' changes into 'u'. For example:
Tamil
amirtu
ilēcu
(ambrosia)
(easy)
(crystal)
(a kind of tree.
Butea Frondosa)
(message)
5. duta1
tūtu
(iii) In one case the final 'a' has become 'i'. For example: Skt. stupa Tam. tūvi
(pinnacle)
539
(a chowry)
(control over the passions) 3080 (sacred grass)
2464
(iv) In some words the final 'a' is dropped. For example: Skt. nagara Tam. nakar (city)
2703
1771
897

429, 2412
222
770
171
192
834
1876
531
701
1 'Data' in Skt. means messenger. The equivalent of Skt. 'düta' in Tamil is 'Tutan'. Here the word 'tutu' which is used in the sense of 'message' in Tamil is not used in the same sense in Skt.

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Study of Civuk acintamani
*** (v) 'a' which comes as the final letter of the word 'hanta' always changes into
o'. For example : Skt. banta Tam. anto
1036, 1806
a
Initial al
The initial 'a' has always remained unchanged. Skt.
Tamil 1. akula
akulam (confusion)
1104 2. ācāra
ācāram (good conduct)
2889 3. ajña(Pkt. ānā) anai (command)
1087 4. ādara
ätaram (regard)
189 5. ādi
āti (beginning)
366 Medial'a'
The medial 'a' often remains unchanged, sometimes shortens to 'a'. For example (i) Skt. Tamil 1. salākā calākai (iron rod)
669 2. kalapa- kalāpam (women's zone of 2069
beads consisting of
sixteen strands) 3. ācāra ācāram (good conduct) 2889 (ii) Skt. Tamil 1. Kumāri kumari (virgin)
368 2. Kalāna kalavam (peacock's tail) 1558, 1982, 2922 3. pātaka (sin.) patakar (sinners)
2783 Final'a'
As a general rule the final 'a' is always changed into 'ai'. For example :
Skt. Tamil 1. cinta cintai (thought)
913, 1124, 1304, 1701 In the following two cases the final 'a' has been changed into 'i'. Here the a' is preceded by a conjunct consonant in which the second member is 'y'. After the elision of y, the first member of the conjunct consonant has doubled :
Tamil 1. Kanya- Kanni (virgin) 2. Ayodhyā Ayotti (a name of a city) 614
Skt.
98

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Sanskrit loon words in the Civakacintamani
Initial 'i'
'i' in the first syllable of the word always remains unchanged. For example:
Skt.
Tamil
1. indragopa
2. kinnara
Skt.
1. gamini
Medial 'i'
The medial 'i' often remains unchanged, but in one case it has changed into "u". For example:
2. samidha
camitai
3. paridhi1- paruti
Initial 'i'
1.
2.
intiraköpam kinnaram
Final 'i'
The final 'i' always remains unchanged For example:
Skt.
1. jakti
2. chavi
Tamil
kamini
gita
la
Skt.
1. dvipa 2. khalina

(cochineal insect)
(A class of demi-gods)
Tamil
catti
cavi
(a mantra which repeatedly 1719 pronounced enables one to
fly through air) (sacrificial fuel)
(sun)
in the first syllable also remains unchanged. For cample:
Skt.
Tamil
kitam
cilar
tipam
kalinam
(a spear) (beauty)
1819
660
(song) (conduct
Medial 'i'
Normally the medial i remains unchanged, but in one case the medial bas shortened to 'i'. For example
Tamil
(island)
(a bit of horse's bridle)
2237
144
2484

1241, 2480
1545, 2392
173
503
784
1 In Skt. 'paridhi' means a halo round the Sun. In Tamil 'paruti', which has come from Skt. 'paridhi', is used as a word for Sun.
2 Khalina-This word has come from Greek.

Page #187

17%
Study of Civakacintamani
Final 'i' The final 'i' always shortens to 'i'. For example : Skt.
Tamil kumāri- kumari
(virgin) 2. dasitāci
(a maid servant)
368
2002
1.
The vowel 'u' remains unchanged, be it initial, medial or final. For example : Skt.
Tamil uttama- uttamam
(best)
753 2.upadhyāya- uvātti
(teacher)
1090 3. akula- akulam
(confusion)
1104 4. kuțumiba- kuțumpam- (family)
1437 5. madhu- matu
(sweet intoxicating drink)
190
In one case the 'u' in the first syllable, 1 has changed into '0'; this word has beeu borrowed through Pali.
Skt. pustaka- Pali. potthaka- Tam. pottakam- (book) 2009 The medial 'u' has changed into 'i' in one case. Skt. mānuşa
Tam, mānițan (man) , 1900 “”
The vowel 'u' also, like 'u', often remains unchanged whether it is initial or medial. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1. Sūciūci(needle)
369 2. karpura- karuppuram (camphor)
1645 Sometimes 'ü' becomes short whether it is initial or medial. For example : Skt.
Tamil karpura
kappuram - (camphor) 197 (Pali & Pkt. kappūra) cūrņa Pkt. cuņņa cuņņam
(powder)
2369 3. tulikā
tukilikaia . (painters' brush) 180, 1107 4. rapauruvam
(form)
1571 1 'U' in the first syllable of a Skt, word sometimes changes into 'o' in dravidian languages. This is noticeable even in the other dravidian languages like Kanarese and Telugu. For example Skt. guņa-
Telugu. gonamu. bhujanga - Kan. bojanga2 The insertion of 'k' in Tanil (Tukilikai) is difficult to explain.
in the other dita vilian Dansünces like Kabalese und Teruglui. For Sumos e his

Page #188

Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
"I'
Since Tamil has no r in its vowel system, when Skt. words with rare borrowed in Tamil, the letter undergoes three kinds of changes, i.e. the Skt. r changes into ir, iru, or i in Tamil. For example:
Skt.
Tamil
1. ameta2. hrdaya
'e
3. drdha
4. krmi
amirtu
itayam(Here the
initial h
is dropped)
Kan. hidaya titab
kirumi
1. revati
2. videha
In one word the has changed into a, and this word has been borrowed in .Tamil from Pkt. e.g.:
Skt. vtta
Pkt. vaṭṭa Tam. vaṭṭam (circle, round) Pali. vatţa
(ambrosia) (heart)

(firm) (worm)
ēkam -
ētam1
vēkam
Skt. 'e', h: it initial or medial, often remains unchanged. For example:
Skt.
Tamil
Tamil
iraivati
vitaiyam
1. eka
2. kheda -
3. vega
The medial 'e' sometimes changes into 'ai'. For example:
Skt.
(alone)
(trouble)
(poison)
Tamil
kaivalam kaitavam
teyvam
222 3.123
1546
1154
(name of a nakṣatra) (a name of a country)
677
2326
1097
1274
The initial 'ai' sometimes changes into ayi'. For example:
Skt. airavana Tam ayiravapam

506
162
'ai' in the first syllable often remains unchanged, but in one word it has changed to 'ey. For example:
Skt.
1. kaivalya
2. kaitavam3. daiva
175
(final emancipation) 2741 (deceit)
2873 241
(God)
1 The word ētam would have also come from the Skt. word 'cheda'. Whether the Skt. word has come is kheda or cheda the initial letter is dropped here. letters is difficult to explain.
from which the Tamil 'etam' This dropping of the initial

Page #189

176
Study of Cirakacintamani
'ai in the initial syllable sometimes also changes into 'e'. For example: Tam. Vēmānikar (one who moves about in a heavenly car)
Skt. vaimanika
2455
The change of ai' into 'e' ore is also found in other dravidian languages and in Pkt. For example:
Skt. saindhava
vaisakha
39
23
This change is also common in Pkt. (Pischel. Rule No. 60)
Skt. aiśvarya
airavana
Skt.
1. yojana
2. dosa
Pkt. dosa
The vowel 'o', whether it is initial or medial often remains unchanged.
For example:
Kan. sendava
bisage
3. rohini
Skt. loka
(horse)
(name of the second lunar month)
(Pkt.) Amg. esajja (Sauraseni) eravaņa
Tamil
ōcanai
tocam

urōņi
In one case, the 'o' in the first syllable, which is preceded by 'I', has changed
into a.
(distance)
(fault)
Tam. ulakam (world)
338, 1901, 1192
1784
198
The consonants
Tamil does not have counterparts for most of the Skt. consonants and in most cases these letters are altered according to the Tamil phonetic system. The four kinds of consonants in Skt., the hard, the hard aspirate, the soft, and the soft aspirate are represented only by the hard consonant in Tamil and sometimes even in this consonant changes take place in order to adjust itself according to the Tamil grammatical system. The following are the consonantal changes occuring in the Cc.

2812
The gutturals, k, kh, g, ard gh:
The Skt. letters kh, g, and gh, whether initial or medial are replaced by 'k' in Tamil and 'k' remains unchanged.

Page #190

Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
177
784
369
784
Skt.
Tamil 1 kalyaņa
kalyānam (marriage) sakata
cakațam (cart) 2 khalina
kalinam (a bit of horse's bridle) sankha
cankam (conch) 3 gāminikāmini (a mantra which helps to fly
throigh air) svagata
cuvākatam (welcome) ghana
kanam
(heavy) megha
mëkam (cloud) In one word, the initial kh has elided; e.g. : Skt. kheda
Tam. ētam (trouble)
701 1713
1021
922
2476
2988
In the word niyamam' the Skt. 'g' has changed into 'y'. Tamil must have borrowed this word from old Sinhalese.
Skt. nigama- (market place) Pkt. nigama- (, )
2601 Palj. nigama (
Tam. niyamam (village)
town) 0.Sinh, piyama ( , place)
The consonant n always remains unchanged. For example : Skt. hingulika Tam. inkulikam (vermilion)
2239
The palatals c, ch, j, and jb :
The palatals c, ch, j and jh are replaced by 'c' and 'c' remains unchanged in Tamil. For example :
Skr. Tamil 1 cakracakkaram (wheel)
2761 kūrcakuccu (weaver's brush)
615 2 chavi - cavi
(beauty)
2484 pincha- piccam (peacock's tail)
2524 3 janacanam (people)
828, 1841 añjana - ancanam (collyrium)
1632 The consonant ñ always remains unchanged. For example : Skt.
Tamil panca
panca (five)
1896 kunjarakuncaram (elephant)
1840, 2230
Sc-2200

Page #191

178
The cerebrals t, th, d, and dh :
The cerebrals in Skt, th, d and dh, are replaced by t. and remains unchanged. For example:
Skt.
1 jakata
2 pithika
3 bhinḍipalapinda
4 drdha
garuda
caḍāmaņi
Skt.
1 tapasnimitta
2 sthandila
tirtha
Tamil
cakaṭam
pitikai
The cerebral d has changed into in the word calamaṇi and to in the word kelujan.
Skt.
3 dūta

pippipalam (a missile)
pintam
titan
nandaka
4 dhumanirodhana
Tamil
kelujan
cujamapi
(vulture)
(an ornament)
The cerebral has changed into 1 in the word 'pajikku'. This word in Tamil has come through Pkt.
(cart)
(seat)
Skt. Sphatika Pkt. Phaliha1 Tamil Palikku
The consonant n always remains unchanged. For example:
Skt. curna
Tam. cunnam
(powder)
(a morsel)
(firm)
The Skt. denta's t, th, d, and dh :
The Skt. dental t always remains unchanged and the other dentals th, d, and dh are replaced by t. For example:
Tamil
tavam
nimittam
tanţilam
tirttam
tūtu nāntakam
tūmam nirötanai
Study of Civak acintamani
(penance)
(omen)
(place designed for the sacrificial fire)
(a doctrine)
(message)
(sword
363
2213
2269
1844
1546
(crystal)
(smoke)
(control over passions)

1926
786
1545, 2555
1129
2426
1247
1876
815
1 Ref. R. Pischel, Comparative Grammar of the Prakrit Languages, 2nd edition, 1965, para 238.
847
3080

Page #192

Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
179
The consonant n usually remains unchanged in the initial and medial and the final n very often drops. For example : Skt.
Tamil nidhiniti (treasure)
402 nandaka - nāndakam (sword)
815 Sometimes the dental n changed to cerebral n. 1 Skt. -ayana Pkt. Ayaņa Tam, Ayana (walking)
851 Pal. ayana 2 „sunaga Pkt. suņaga cuñankan (dog)
960 This change always happens in Pkt Therefore this could have been
an influence of Pkt. The Skt. labials, p, ph, b, and bh :
The Skt. labials p often remains unchanged and the other palatals ph, b and bh are replaced by p. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1 patta
Pattam
(a head ornament) dvipa. Tipam
(an island) 2 sphatika- paļikku
(crystal)
192 Pkt phaļiha3 bodhi -
(wisdom)
306 kuțumba- kuțumpam
(family)
1437 4 bharani paraņi
(the second naksatra)
1813 darbha- taruppai
(sacred grass)
2464 p, and b sometimes also changes into v. This kind of change is common in Pkt. dialects. 1
poti
P-V
Tam, pāvi
(sinner)
761
1 Skt. pāpin
Pkt. pāvi 2 Ski. tapas
Pkt. tava
Tam. tavam
(penance)
77, 1545, 2555
B-V
(hunters)
1655
1 Skt. sabara- Tam, cavarar
Pkt, savara 2 Skt. kabandha- Tam. kavantam
Pali. kavandha .O.Sinh. kavandha
(a headless trunk)
1310
1 R. Pischel, op. cit. Paras. 147-148.

Page #193

081
Study of Civakacintamani
The consonant m usually remains unchanged. For example :
Skt. māna Tam, mānam (sulk)
, vimāna- Tam. vimāŋam self moving aerial car) In one case m had also changed to v, like the other p and b.
Skt. pratimā- Pkt, padimā- Tam. pațivam (form)
2382 564
395, 1166
The consonants y, r, I, and v: The consonant y often remains unchanged. For example : Skt.
Tamil yāmayamam (night)
1269 ayaņaayanam
(path) Very often the initial y is preceded by a prothetic vowel i. Skt, yaksi- Tam. iyakki (Famale yakşa) 1015, 596, 1178
1590, 1600, 1658 The initial y has dropped in the word ocanai.
Skt. yojanā - Tam. ācarai (distance) 336, 1901, 1142
851
an inthe ope ratione Tamin, limaremain prontbane Columbus since no debe
Skt.
The consonant r normally remains unchanged, but sincer can not be an initial letter in Tamil, always a prothetic vowel a, i, or u is added. For example :
Tamil Irangaarankam (stage)
2112 rava
aravam (sound)
2526 ravi
iravi (sun)
2496 revati
irēvati (name of a naksatra)
506 rasa
iratam (mercury)
960 romauioniam (hair)
2426 jūpauruvam (shape)
1571 robiņi uroni (name of a star)
198 In one instance the r in the medial has changed to I. Skt. garuda Tam. kalulan (vulture)
405
VET
The Skt. l' also often remains unchanged. But the initial 'l' is always preceded by a prothetic vowel 'i' or u!, since in Tamil 'l' cannot stand in the beginning of a word. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1 lakşya
ilakkam (target)
188 layailayam (a musical note)
1269, 682 lesa - ile u
(a small amount) 727, 1258, 770 2 loka
ulakam (world)
2812

Page #194

Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
181
The Skt. 'v' in most cases remains unchanged, be it initial or medial. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1 vajravacciram (hard)
2732 2 varņaPkt. vaņņa
vaņņam (paint)
1107 3 vrata
vatam (religious observance)
378 Pkt. vata4 pavitrapavittiram (pure)
2311 In the word pariyāļam, the Skt. 'v' has changed to 'y'. Skt. parivāra Pkt. pariyaļa) )
949 Tam. pariyāļam (followers) The sibilants :
Since Tamil has no sibilants in its consonant system, when Skt. words with sibilants ś, ş and s, are borrowed, these letters undergo certain changes to be adaped to the Tamil consonantal system. The following changes in the sibilants can be noted from the words used in the Cc. The sibilants' The palatal 's normally changes to 'c' in Tamil. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1 sunaka
cuñankan (dog)
960 2 sibika - civikai (a palanquin)
2379, 2628 3 sikha
cikai (hair)
195 Sometimes the medial ś changes to y and this change is also common in Malayalam. For example : Skt. smaśāna
Tam, mayābam (burial ground) Pkt, maśāņa The initial s is sometimes dropped. For example : Skt. sarana Tam, aranam (protection)
Mal. arap Skt. gmaśāna- Tam. mayānam (burial ground)
Mal, masāna The sibilant 's': The sibilant 's' normally changes to 'c'. For example:
Skt. dosaPkt. dosa - Tam. tocam (fault)
1784 Pal dosa

Page #195

182
In some words 's' has also changed to 't'. For example:
Skt. manuṣa- Tam. māniṭam (human being)
The sibilant 's'
The dental sibilant 's', also like the other sibilants, normally changes to 'c'. For example :
Skt.
1 Sürya
2 Sundara
3 Sindura
1
2
Skt.
1 havis
2 manas
Tamil
Cüriyan Cuntaram
Cinturam
The aspirant 'h':
Sometimes the initial 's' which is followed by a vowel elides. For example:
Skt.
Tamil
sūci
samara
ūci
amar
(Sun)
(goodness)
(vermilion)

Tamil
avi
Study of Civakacintamani
(needle) (war)
Sometimas the medial 's' changes to 't', and this change is also very common in Malayalam. For example:
Skt.
Tamil
1 rasa
iratam Mal. iratam
(mercury)
In the word kuppayam the medial 's' has changed to y.
Skt. kurpasa Tam. kuppayam (jacket)
The final 's' in Skt. words is always dropped in Tamil.
The initial 'h' is always dropped in Tamil. For example: Skt.
Tamil
1 havis
avi
2 hära
āram inkulikam
3 hingulika
4 hiranya
iraniyan
1900
(oblation) (mind)
manam
(Here the neuter ending 'm' is substituted.)
(oblation) (necklace of pearls) (vermilion)
(a name of an asura)
(lion)
2208
121
86

369
777
960
431
1604 367
The medial 'h' very often changes to 'k' and sometimes it assimilates the preceding nasal also. For example:
Skt. smhai- Tam, cinkam
1601
349
2239
1813
237

Page #196

Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
183
The medial 'h' is sometimes elided. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1 rõhiņi
uropi
(name of the third star) 2 vřihi
virji
(rice)
198
503
Conjunct Consonants :
Initially, the consonant clusters of the Skt, loan words always become a single consonant or broken up by intrusive vowels, i, or u, or a in Tamil. For example : Skr.
Tamil 1 sthandila tanțilam
(place designed for
2466
sacrificial fire) 2 sthāla
tālam (plate)
398 3 sthāna
tanam (place)
542, 1567, 2823 4 sphatikaPkt. phaliha palikku (crystal)
1921 Mal, patikam 5 dvipatipam
(island) 6 kramuka kamuku
(arecanut)
68, 1616 7 svagata cuvākatam (welcome)
1021 ( here the intrusive vowel 'u' has been introduced
and the initial 's' has changed to 'c'.) If the consonant cluster has 'y', 'r', or l' as the second member in a Skt. word, generally it takes 'i' as the intrusive vowel in Tami) If the first member is 'k', 'c', 'e', or 'p' it doubles. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1 astra
attiram (arrow)
815 2 yantra
entiram (machine)
1614 3 Surya cūriyan (sun)
2208 4 hiranya iraniyan (a name of an asura)
1813 5 sukla cukkija (pure)
3081 In some cases before the 'r' an 'a' is included. For example : Skt. cakra Tam. cakkaram (wheel)
2761 If 'r' is the first member of the consonant cluster it takes a prothetic 'u' in Tamil. For example:
Skt. karpūra Tam, karuppuram (here 'p' is also doubled.)
There are instances where in a consonant cluster either progressive assimilation or regressive assimilation takes place.

Page #197

184
Progressive assimilation
Skt.
1 guhya
2 carna Pkt. cunoa
>
3 alaktaka
4 pustakam Pkt. potthaka
Tamil
kuyyam
cunnam
arattakam
potthakam
Skt. 1. lakṣya ilakkam catuşka catukkam
Skt anjana (collyrium)
2. attarakku-468.

(hypocrisy)
(powder)
(red lac)
(book)
In a consonant cluster if the first letter is a nasal it changes into a consonant of the group to which the second letter belongs. For example;
Skt. simha Tamil.
cinkam
(lion)
237
The sibilant '' is very often assimilated when it comes in a combination with voiceless stops; or sometimes undergoes changes. For example:
Tamil.
cēmam or emam (a sacred place)
(target)
(junction where four roads meet)
Tam. atta (melted)
Study of Civak acintamani
2. kema
Hybrid forms in the Cc,
The term hybrid form is used for the terms constructed with Tamil and Skt. words, and these forms often function like compounds. In early Middle Tamil period there are only a few hybrid forms. For example:
oruvantam (Tirukkural-563, 593)
Tam. oru+ Skt. anta oruvantam⚫ certainly'.
This word oruvantam corresponds to the Skt. word ekanta, but the word oruvantam here gives the meaning certainty.
Tam. kōl (stick)
253
2369
2459
In the Cc. the number of hybrid forms is comparatively high. The following are some of the hybrid forms found in the Cc.
1. ancanakkol -1894.
+
Skt. lakta (lac, wax)
2009

188
a pencil to paint the eyelashes with collyrium.
1. In Prakrit before consonant groups 'u' may become 'o'. 'sta' and 'stha' become 1tha'. R. Pischel, op. cit. paras. 125-207.
112 670
= melted lac

Page #198

Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
3. anantananmai - 2846
+
Skt. ananta (endless)
4. arankakkutti - 1557
Skt. ranga
(stage)
5. aravattirai - 1766
Skt. rava
(noise)
6. aruntavar
Tam. arun
1895
-
7. akulapptical Skt. akula
(confused)
8. inkitakkalippu Skt. ingita (interpretation of
internal sentiments by external gestures) 9. intiravil-86, 121 Skt. indra (indra)
10. urunēmi-2237.
1095

+
145
Tam. urul (whirl round)
+
11. ulakamannavan-1558
Skt. Joka (world)
12. entiravocal-2774
+
+
+
Skt. yantra (machine)
13. ekavippam-855, 1657
+
+
+
Tam, nanmai (four)
Tam. kutti (a female dancer, prostitute)
Tam. tirai (waves)
Skt. tapas1 (those who do
great penance)
Tam. pocal
(cry)
Tam, kalippu (pleasure)
Tam, vil (bow)
Skt. nemi
(wheel)
Tam. mannavan
(king)
the four divine attributes obtained by the soul in the final state of liberation.
Tam. ucal
(swing)
- a prostitute
-
the waves which make. noise
great ascetics
to cry out in confusion.
- pleasure indulging in amorous thoughts.

- a swing that swings
with the help of a machine.
pleasure which is unique.
Skt. ēka (one)
Tam. inpam (pleasure)
1 In Skt. tapas' means penance. In Tamil the word tavar' has come from Skt. tapas' meaning the people who perform penance.
Sc-24
-rainbow.
-wheel of a chariot.
emperor.
185

Page #199

186
Study of Civakacintamani
- tke ocean of the fruits
of deeds
- enemies in the form
of fruit of deeds.
+
- a residence of virgrin
princess.
- looking over the shoulders with neck turned as a lion.
- the vessel of desire.
of
14. karumakkatal-2741 Skt. karman
Tam. katal (deeds)
(ocean) 15. karumattevvar-3074
Skt. karman + Tam. tevvar (deeds)
(enemies) 16. kannimātam-585 Skt. Kanya
Tam. mātam (virgin)
(residence) 17. cinkanūkku-1569 Skt. simha
+ Tam, nokku (lion)
(look) 18. kamakkalam-929
Skt, kāma + Tam. kalam (desire)
(vessel) 19. kāmakkalavi-921
Skt. kama + Tam. kulavi (desire)
(child) 20. kamapappaņai-2505
Skt. kama + Tam. appaņai (the God of (the bed of love)
arrows) 21. kurkumakkatirkal-2153
Skt. kunkuma + Tam. katirkal (saffron)
(rays) 22. kunakkața) -2813 Skt. guņa
Tam, katal (virtue)
(sea) 23. kumarippor-806
Skt. kumāri + Tam. por (virgin)
(war) 24. kumariyāțal-2020.
Skt. kumari + Tam. āțal (virgin)
(play)
- desire in the form
child.
- the bed of flowers.
- red colour rays.
- the sea of virtue
- the first military engage
ment of a prince.
- (i) to perform sacred
ablutions at Cape
Comarin. (ii) to unite with a virgin
25. kocikanir-1673
Skt. kausika (silk)
+
Tam. nir (water)
- water dropping from a
silk cloth.

Page #200

187
Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintamani
26. kocika atai-1650 Skt. kausika + Tam, ātai1
- a dress made of silk cloth. (silk)
(cloth, dress) 27. cilavēli-379
Skt. sila + Tam, vēli - a fence made of good (good conduct) (fence)
conduct 28. taranikavalap-1813.
Skt. dharaņi + Tam, kāvalan - the king. (earth)
(protector) 29. tavappalli347 Skt. tapa
Tam. palji - hermitage Pkt. tava (penance)
(residence) 30. tāpatappalli-337
Skt. tāpasah + Tam. palli - hermitage (ascetics)
(residence) 31. tayaviļakku-2850 Skt. tapas
Tam. viļakku - the lamp of penance. Pkt. tava(penance)
(lamp) 32. tūpamutti-558.
Skt, dhapa + Tam, mutti - a thurible of incense (incense)
(pot) 33. tēcikamuti-2549
Skt. taijasika + Tam, mut: - a bright crown, (bright)
(crown) 34. pocitavam-1132 Tam. noci
Skt. tapas - a little penance.
Pkt. tava(little)
(penance) 35. patāļa-mu-t-ti-2462
Skt. patala + Tam. mu+t+ 13 - the submarine fire.
(lower world) (three) (fire) 1 There is also an opinion that the word 'ātai' in Tamil could have come from Skt. 'śāta(ka).'
Here śwould have been elided and the final a would have changed to ai. Note :-This word is found only in Malayalam out of all the other Dravidian languages. 2 The word mutti' in Tamil is made like the word 'muynir'. This idea of three fires is not
found in Skt. As there are only three oceans according to the Tamil literary tradition, the fire also would bave been numbered as three.

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Study of Civakacintamągi
36. puņniyanampi-1639
Skt. punya (merit)
- a person of great merit.
Tam. nampi (best one among men)
37. pēkamakaļir-2173
Skt. bhoga- + Tam, makaļir - courtesans (pleasure)
(ladies) 38. pokam-inra-puņniyan-362 Skt, bhoga + Tam. inra + Skt. punya
- the one who is of great religious
merit which produces enjoyment. 39. maņikkai-839.
Skt. mani + Tam. kai - a handle inade of precious stone. (jewel, stone) (hand)
+
- a bamboo tube for holding liquor.
Tam. tanțu (stick)
40. matuttanțu-863.
Skt. madhu
(wine) 41, vācaney-622.
Skt. vāsa (fragrant)
+
- fragrant ointment.
Tam. ney (oil)
Skt, compounds in the Cc.
Apart from the hybrid forms, Tēvar has used also many compounds made of Skt. words in his work. In forming the compounds he has often followed the rules of Tamil euphonic combination. For example, in the compound ekavāņai, the semi vowel y has been inserted in between the two words to bring them together. In Skt. this compound will take the form ekājáā. But in some places he has also followed the Skt. rules of euphonic combinations. For example :
tevätitevan - tēva-ati-tēvan cantirotayam - cantira + utayam.
According to Tamil rules it should have become captiravutayam. Though there are one or two cases like this, very often Tamil reles of euphonic combinations are followed in making compounds even with two Skt. words. There are two kinds of compounds made of Skt. words in the Cc :
(i) The compounds which are common to both Skt. and Tamil.
(ii) The compounds which are not found in Skt. though they are made of Skt. words and are found in Tamil.

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189
Compounds which are used both in Skt. and in Tamil : 1. ațța-mankaļam - 629, 2410, 2428, 2484 aşța + mangaļa - a collection of eight lucky things : (a lion, a
bull, an elephant, a water jug, a fan, a flag, a trumpet, and a lamp) or (a brahmin, a cow,
a fire, gold, ghee, the sun, water and a king). 2. a-lokam-3082 a-loka
- portion lying outside loka (Jaina) 3. āti-y-antam-3082 ādi + anta
- beginning and end 4. āvana-viti -2118 āpāņa (Skt.)
+ vithi - bazaar āvaņa (Pkt) 5. intira-kumāran - 1253
indra + kumāra - the son of Indra 6. irāca-ma-nakam - 1276
raja + mahā + nāga - king of cobras 7. eka-ma-nakar - 2398
eka + maha + nagara - the city which is unique and big. 8. ēka-v-āņai - 141 ēka + ājñā (Skt.) . - sole dominion
āņā (Pkt.) 9. tēva-kitam - 2052 deva + gita
- celestial music 10. tēva-tuntupi - 2367
deva + dundubhi - drums of the gods 11. teva-ati-tēvan
deva + adhi + deva - god of the gods, an Arhat 12. nara-pati - 1617 nara + pati
- the king 13. muka-vācam - 1055 mukba + vāsa
- fragrant spices (In Sanskrit, the compound ‘mukhavāsa' and 'mukhavāsana' are used. Since this mouth perfume is made of five aromatics, the word 'panca' is also added to the word 'mukhavāsa'. In some instances the word 'mukha'
is elided and is used as 'panca vācam' in Tamil.) 14. panca-muka-vācam - 2026
panca + mukha + vāsa - the five aromatics

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Duu
15. pañca-vacam - 1896 panca + vāsa
- the five aromatics 16, pata-mulam - 511 pāda + mula
- feet 17. pioţi-p-pakavan - 957 piņdi + bhagavān - the one who is seated under the Asoka tree
(Arhat). 18. pūmi-tēvi - 2233 bhumi + devi
- the goddess of earth 19. pāka-pūmi - 2580
bhoga + bhūmi - heaven 20. mani-mekalai - 2384
maņi + mekhala - a girdle of gems 21. matana-kitam - 1211 madana + gita
love song 22. mā-tavar - 1195 mahā + tapas
- ascetics 23. kala-c-cakkaram - 1839 kāla + cakra
- the wheel of time 24. kuru-kulam-290, 1805, 2605, 3015 kuru + kula
- the Kuru dynasty 25. cantirotayam - 455
candra + udaya - moonrise 26. cala-n-cayanam - 1673 jala + śayana
- a bed in water 27. cittira-ma-mantapam-2370
citra + maha + mantapa - a beautiful hall 28. cukkila-t-tiyanam - 3081
śukla + dhyānam - meditation on pure spirit 29. cuka-tā - 3096 sukha + da
- one wbo gives comfort. 30. tik-kayankaļ - 1794 dig + gajāh
- the elephants guarding the eight directions 31. kåma-pumi
kama + bhūmi - the world of enjoyment.

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191
Compounds which are not found in Skt, though they are made of words from Skt. and are found only in Tamil :
1. antara-kumaran - 1264 antara + kumāra - a demigod who is in the
intermediate space. This may be the counterpart of the Skt. compound 'vyantara'. 2. uruva-c-cātakam - 1571 rūpa + jātaka
- science of the shape 3. kappakam-kama-valli - 1129 kalpaka + kāma + valli - the creeper Kāmavalli on the tree
Kalpaka 4. kāppiya-k-kavika! - 1585
kāvya + kavika! - the poets who compose kāvyas 5. kama-malai - 1357
kāma + mala - a garland of desire 6. kita-viti - 2039 gita + vithi
- an avenue of music 7. catu-muka - 766
catur + mukha - four divisions (of army) 8. tava-virar - 3104
(Skt.) tapas - virth - sages heroic in performing austerities.
(Pkt.) tava 9. matu-p-pali - 471 madhu + bali
- the oblation of wine 10. viņai-vittakan - 1002 vina + vidagdha
- the expert in playing on the (vīņa) lute There are also a few Tamil translations of the Skt. compounds in the Cc. For example :
Tamil 1. grhadevatā illurai teyvam - the domestic deity 2. dvijaomānah iru pirappāļar - brahmins
kawavalli ippak koți - a creeper found in svarga awakarma i enviņai
- a fruit of deeds accumulattng in eight ways brdayakamala akappa
- heart 6. sataghni nurruvaraikkolli - a deadly machine which kills a hundred
people at a time, 7. pancāgni alalaintu
- the five fires: the dakşina, gārhapatya,
ābavaniya, sabhya, avasathya
Skt.

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Study of Civakacintāmani
There are also several Skt. verhal roots borrowed from Skt. and used according to the Tamil conjugational rules. For example : Tamil
Skt. Verbal root 1. aci-ppa
has--laughing
(659) 2. jlak-ittu
Jikh-- having written
(180) 3. ilankittițţān langh
- jumped
(2191) 4. layasm-a laya-- (11) -to disappear
(1256) 5. kani-tta
gan -calculated, decided
(2518) 6. uti
udi -to rise
(1340) 7. kunci-ttu
kunc---haying bent
(341) civa jiva (imperative) - live!
(9) 9. cēvi sey--having served
(633) 10. mantiri-ttu mantra
--having said the mantra (2465) 11. vanci-ttu
vanc-having deceived
(1756) 12. vanni-ttal varna
-describe
(2458) 13. vāci-kkinļān vac--reading
(669) 14. vitāni-ttatu vitama.
---extended
(861) 15. viroti
viruddha-opposed
(3080)
ൽ
Semantic changes :
When words with the same meaning are borrowed from a different language, and are used side by side, a distinction of meaning tends to develop between these words. In some cases, this distinction in meaning seems to be even totally different from the original meaning. A study of the loan-words in the Cc. enables one to observe two kinds of semantic changes in it; one, the development of new meaning which is also common to some of the other Dravidian languages, and the other, the changes which are only peculiar to Tamil. The study of the following words which have undergone certain semantic changes will explain the different kinds of changes. 1. kalyāṇam-984 :
The Skt. word kalyānı from which the Tamil word kalyāņam is derived has the meaning beautiful, excellence, prosperous, luck, etc. This word when borrwed in Tamil, the meaning has been restricted and it specially meant only wedding or marriage. The entrance of this word in Tamil can even be seen in the early Middle Tamil period. For example ;
kalliyanan tavar pitir vila... (Acarakkövai, 48;1.) (The marriage, the rituals observed for Tevar, the ceremony for mane people....)

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193
This change is also common in Malayalam and there though the word is used in the sense of fine, lucky, etc., it also has the meaning wedding or marriage.
2. kāmini-1713
The word kāmini is derived from the Skt. word gamin which means 'the one who goes' (pal. gamika, Pkt. gami-one who goes). In the Cc. the word kamini is restricted only to a certain mantra which helps one to fly through the air when repeatedly pronounced. This restriction in meaning is not found in the other dravidian languages, but it is already in use in the Skt. Jaina texts. Tēvar also must have borrowed this word from the Jaina texts written in Skt. and, Pkt.
3. calam-3003 :
The word cũlam is obviously derived from the Skt, word süla which means the trident. Generally it is connected with God Siva, and considered as his weapon. There are references to this word in the early Middle Tamil texts too. For example ; vaļaiy uțaik kaiyil cūlam enti
(Cilap. XII. 60) (bearing the trident in her hand adorned with bangles. ) toțutta pācattu pititta cūlattu...
(Mani. VI. 46) (with a noose which was tied and holding a trident ... ) In Silp. XI. 73 the branched routes are compared with the trident of Śiva,
pirai muţik kaņnip periyon éntiyav
arai vāy cūlat aru neri kavarkkum... (The routes which are branched like the forked mouthed trident held by the Lord Siva who has worn the crescent moon in his matted hair as a garland )
It is clear from these references that originally the word culam was used for the trident. In the Cc. the lightning rod is denoted by the word calam.
cūla nerriya kopurat förramum ..3003 (the appearance of pyramidal towers with lightning rods fixed on them ... ) This usage is not common either in Skt. or in Tamil. The lightning rod must have been in the shape of a trident and that would have made Tēvar call the lightning rod cūlam. This usage of cūlam in the sense of lightning rod is only found in the Cc.
4. tirttam-1247 :
Tirttam is derived from the Skt. word tirtha and it is generally used to denote holy water, a way, a sacred place, bathing place, etc. etc. When this word was borrowed in the Cilappatikāram it is also used in the same sense, i. e. a place of a ceremonial bathing. tirttakk karaiyum tēvar köttamum...
XII. 27 (The banks of the sacred ceremonial bathing place and the temples of the gods.) Sc-25

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Study of Civakacintamani
In the Cc. this word has been used to denote the sacred āgamās and this is the first time in Tamil this word is used in this sense. In Skt. also it is never used to denote äganıās, but, since the word tirtha has a sense of holiness, Tēvar must have used this word for the holy agamās of Jains.
Later on and in modern usage too, tirttan is very often used to denote water.
5. nântakam-815 ; ,
The word nantakam is derived from the Skt, word nandaka, which denotes the sword of Krsna. In Tamil, this word though specifically denotes the sword of Krşpa, generally it is used for all swords. In Malayalam too this word is often used for swords, and it is always used with the first syllable of the word lengthened, i.e. nāntakam. In Tamil both forms nantakam and nāntakam are common. In the Cc. nāntakam is used in a general sense to denote swords. For example : nallavai puriyu mantar nāntakam pilaittu vilā...
815 ( The sword will never fall from the hands of people who do good deeds, even under accidental circumstances. ) in modern Tamil both forms nāntakam and nantakam are in use.
6. parati-2237 :
The word paruti is derived from the Skt. word paridhi which generally means the halo round the sun or moon. It also means a fence, a circle, circumference of a circle, etc. In Tamil, though being used in the original sense as in Sanskrit, very often it is also used to denote the sun. Apart from the word pariti, the word paruti with the medial i being changed to u, is also used. Even in the Cankam literature there are references to these two words paruti and pariti in the sense of sun. For example :
vin poru negu varaip paritiyil toțutta. . 1
(Like the sun on lofty hills which reach the sky..) There are also references to pariti and paruti in Aham. 379: 7,229 : 1, 360 : 2, kalit. 26: 2, puram. 224 : 7, 358 : 1, perumpān. 2, Kajavali 4 : 2 in the meaning sun.
Tēvar has used this word paruti in both meanings, the halo of the sun and the sun. For example :
0]] alar paruti mēlor paruti ninratapaiyottān. 2203 (he stood like a bright flaming sun over its halo.)
7. vekam-1274;
The word vēkam is obviously derived from the Sanskrit word vēga which means fast, speed, passion, etc. In Tamil also it is often used in the same sense except for the usage we find in Cc. 1274. Here this word has been used to denote poison, aravu kānra vēkam mikkittat alsē.
1274 (Alas! the effect of thc poison emitted by the snake was great.) 1 Tirumurakarsappațai - line 299.

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195
Tēvar must have used this word for poison since the effect of the poison is very quick. There is also a reference to vega in the Cc. in the sense of quickness. For example: matiyipukk ivarnta vēka mamapi nākam..
982 (the quick snake which tries to catch the moon..)
Linguistic influence through Jainism :
The Cc. is the first Tamil literary work in which most of the Jaina religious and philosophical ideas are elaborately discussed. As discussed earlier in the Vth chapter, Tēvar had to borrow words from Skt and Pkt. Jaina treatises to explain these religious and philosophical ideas. In this effort le has used Skt. terms, Skt. compounds, and compounds made of Skt, and Tamil. In some instances he has translated the Skt. and Pkt. terms and Skt. compounds in Tamil. In a few places he has explained the Jaina philosophical terms in Tamil phrases. These various forms will be analysed below, Sanskrit words : Skt.
Tamil 1. krodha- kurötan (Here the samjvalana-krodha 3080
karma is expressed by the word kurotan) 2. māna -
mānan (the samjvalana-mana is expressed by the word mānan)
3080 3. māyā
mayan (the samjvalana-māyā karma is
expressed by the word mayan) 4, lobba
ulopan (the samjvalana-lobha karma is
expressed by the word ulopan) 3080 In this word ‘ulopan' the initial u is added as I cannot be the initial letter in Tamil.
In the above four words, Tēvar has added the masculine ending n. Though in Sanskrit these words except māyā belong to masculine gender, when borrowed in Tamil they usually take neuter endings, as krotam, mānam, and lopam. The word māya is used with feminine ending, i.e. māya in Sanskrit will become māyai in Tamil. Here Tēvar would have added the masculine ending n as he
potrays these four karmas as soldiers who came to fight against Civakan. 5. nirodhana- nirõtapai. (obstruction)
3080 6. virāgavirākam (passionless)
3030 7. ghātiya
kāti (the four ghātiya karmas) 3082, 1240 I
2713 8. dana
tānam (gift)
2632 9. gamini
kamini (a mantra which helps one to fly
in the sky)
1713

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Study of Civakacintamani
Skt.
Tamil lo. guna
kupam
(the three guņas, samyag-darsana,
samyag-jñāpa, and samyag caritra
are denoted by the word kuņam) 11. jnana
pānam (here the word jñānam means samyagjñāna)
381 12. śrutam cutam (sacred knowledge)
3038 In this word, as a consonant cluster cannot come at the beginning of a word in Tamil, tbe letter 'r' in 'r' has been elided and 's' has
changed into 'c'. 13. tirtham tirttam (the sacred texts)
1247 14. tirthan tırttan (1 ord Arhat)
821 There are two instances where Tēvar uses Indo-Aryan forms. They are : 1. Skt Pracalā Tam. pacalai (pracalā karma)
3080 Pali. pacalā 2. Skt. nidrā Tam, nittai (nidrā karma)
3030 Pali, nidda Sanskrit compounds : 1. aloka (Skt.) alokam (Tamil)
3082 a + loka
(Lord
Hybrid Forms:
1. anantana mai Skt. ananta + Tam. nänmai (the infinite four)
2846 2. karumattevvar Skt. karma + Tam. tevvar (the karmas who
3074
are the enemies) 3. karumakketal
Skt. karma + Tam, katal (the ocean of karmas) 2741 4. kaivalaccelvan Skt. kaivalya + Tam. celvan (the one who has
2741
attained emancipation) Apart from these words and compounds Tevar has also used Tamil phrases to express the meaning of the Jaina philosophical terms in Sanskrit. For example : Skt.
Tamil 1. astikāya poruļkal or aintu (the five astikayas)
2814 2. anantasukha ițaiyilā inpam (the infinite bliss)
2847 3. Sațkaşāya aruvakait tuvarppu (the six kaşāyas)
3076 4. pancanamaskāra aimpatav amirtam (the pancana maskāra mantra) 941, 947

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Sanskrit loan words in the Civakacintämaņi
197
In the Cc. there are also words which have gained new meanings by the influence of Jainism. These are translations of the Jaina philosophical techanical terms. But these words were already existing in Tamil language with a different meaning. For example : The word 'nanmai' in Tamil means four. But this word is used in the Cc. in the meaning of the four infinite intrinsic qualities which a soul attains when it completely destroys all its karmas. Here the word 'nanmai'i is the translation of the Skt, word 'Catusţaya'.
The word 'venravan' in Tamil means the one who has won. In Jainism, the one who has won all his karmas is called a 'Jina' (tbe overcomer of all things) and the word 'vetravan is used as the translation of it. Therefore here in the Cc, the word “vepravar' 2 specially means the Siddhas,
The word 'kätci' in Tamil means a vision, a sight. In the Cc, kāțci'8 has been used as the translation of the Sanskrit word 'darśana-", and it is used to express the
darśanamohaniya karmas', which deludes the right|belief. Likewise, the word 'unarvu'' which is used in the Cc, gives the meaning of the knowledge obscuring karmas (jnänāvaranıya karmas) in the Jaina philosophy.
Therefore as a result of the Jaina influence in the Cc., many new words came into Tamil, and also some words which were already existing gained new meanings.
1 Cc. v, 3082. 2 lbid, v. 956.
3 4
lbid, v. 3082 Ibid. v. 3082,

Page #211

CONCLUSION
The investigations described in conclusions :
the foregoing chapters lead to the following
The questions regarding the source and the date of the Cc. have been discussed in the first chapter of this thesis. A comparative study of the Cc. with earlier texts which deal with the story of Jivaka showed a remarkable similarity between the Cc. and the works of Vadibhasimha, the Gc. and Kc. The similarities between these works have been listed and from an analysis of these similarities it is concluded that Vadıbhasimha has consulted the Cc. By fixing the date of Vādıbhasimha as the period between the latter half of the 10th century A.D. and the beginning of the 11th century A.D., the lower limit of the date of the Cc. is also determined. Among the other texts, the Up. of Gunabhadra and the Mp. of Puspadanta are earlier than the works of Vädjbhasimha. It is found that Jivaka story narrated in the Mp. of Puşpadanta follows the story of Jivaka narrated in the Up. of Guņabhadra. As the date of the Up. of Guņabbadra (A.D. 897) is earlier than that of the Mp. of Puşpadanta (A.D. 965) a comparative study of the Jivaka story narrated in the Up. with the story of the Cc. is described in chapter 3. This comparative study does not provide evidence to definitely fix the Up. as the original source for the Cc. From the Prakrit origin of some of the names of the characters in the Cc. there are grounds to suspect that there could have been a Prakrit version of the Jivaka story which is not available now and dated earlier than the Up. and the Cc. However, regarding the source of the Cc. there is no doubt that a Sanskrit or Prakrit version of the story, either in a book form or existing in the form of oral tradition, must have inspired Tēvar. Next, an analysis of available external evidence which could help to determine the date of the Cc. is carried out. From this study it appears that the probable date of the Cc. may lie between the latter half of the 8th century A.D. and the early 9th century A,D.
In the fourth chapter we have traced the influence of Sanskrit on the literary style of the Cc. It is pointed out here that definition laid down by Sanskrit rhetoricians for a mahakavya hase xerted a great influence on the composition of the Cc. This can be clearly seen in the way in which Tēvar handles the theme, his versification, the figures of speech and allusions, the descriptions, the structure and the division of the story and the other features such as the invocation, the apologia (avaiy-ațakkam) etc. It has also been indicated how, in spite of this influence of Sanskrit, Tēvar has not given up established poetical traditions of earlier Tamil poems. He combines the two traditions very effectively.

Page #212

Conclusion
199
In chapter V it is shown that the primary aim of the Cc. is to preach the gradual development of a soul towards salvation according to Jainism. This is illustrated through the life history of Civakan and Tēvar explains the metaphysical, ethical, and ritualistic concepts of Jainism in the course of his narration. The treatment of the Jaina religious doctrines in the Cc. differs from that found in the earlier didactic works by Jaina authors or in the Buddhistic epic, the Maşimēkalai. Our discussion in this chapter emphasises how Tēvar's treatment of Jainism in the Cc. is based on a sound knowledge of the original canons in Sanskrit and Prakrit.
The linguistic analysis of the last chapter makes it clear that Sanskrit words have been imported by Tēvar in the Cc. to facilitate his use of the supplementary metres (pavinams) and his treatment of the Jaina philosophical tenets. The semantic changes which occur in the Cc, are also shown. The linguistic influence of the Sanskrit on the Cc. is quite considerable and we have listed in our analysis all the Sanskrit loan words and their phonetic and semantic changes.

Page #213

Page #214

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY
The books which are written in the European languages are listed by arranging the authors' names in alphabetical order. The Tamil and Sanskrit books are listed by arranging the names of the books in alphabetical order.
Reference Books: Burrow, T. and Emeneau, M.B., Dravidian Etymological Dictionary, Oxford, 1961. Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. VII, edited by Hastings, J.,
Edinburgh, 1914. Jaini, J.L. , Jaina Gem Dictionary, The Library of Jaina Literature, Vol. IX,
Arrab, 1918. Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, Oxford, 1964. New Catalogus Catalogorum, Vol. 1-5, University of Madras, 1966-69. Palantamil Nür Collataivu, Vol. 1-2 Institut Francasis d'Indologie, Pondichery
1967-68. Subramoniyam, V. I., Index of 'Purananuru' University of Kerala, 1962. Subrahmaniyan, N., Pre-Pallavan Tamil Index, Madras University Historical
Series, No. 23, Madras, 1966. Tamil Lexicon, Madras, University, 1926–39. Turner, R. L., A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages, Oxford,
1962-66.
Books in European Languages : Anavaratavinayagampillai, S., The Sanskrit element in the vocabularies of the
Dravidian languages, Dravidic studies, No. 3, University of Madras, 1919. Andronov, M. S., Materials for a Bibliography of Dravidian Linguistics,
Kulalampur, 1966. Awasthi, A. B. C.; Studies in Skandapurāņa, Part I, Lucknow, 1965. Barodia, U.D., History and Literature of Jainism, Bombay, 1909. Bhargava Dayand, Jaina Ethics, Delhi, 1968. Bombay Gazetteer, Bombay, Vol. 1, Part I, 1896. Burrow, T., The Sanskrit Language, 2nd edition, London, 1965.
- Collected Papers on Dravidian Lingiustics, Annamalai University, Annamalai, 1968. Sc-26

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Study of Civakacintamani
Caldwell, R., A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian or South - Indian Family
Languages, London, 1875. Chatterji Suniti Kumar, The Origin and Development of the Bengali Language,
Calcutta University, Calcutta, 1926. Chidambaranatha Cettiyar, Advanced Studies in Tamil Prosody, 3rd edition,
Annamalai, 1957. Deo, S. B., History of Jaina Monachism from Inscriptions and Literature, Poona, 1956. Desai, P. B., Jainism in South India and some Jaina Epigraphs, Sholapur, 1957. Emeneau, M. B., India and Historical Grammar, Annamalai University Publications
in Linguistics, No. 5, Annamalai Nagar, 1965. Glassenap, H. V., Doctrine of Karaman in Jain Philosophy, Translated into English by
Gifford, G.B., Bombay, 1942. Gnanamurthy, T. E., A Critical Study of Civakacintāmaņi, Coimbatore, November, 1966. Handiqui, K. K., Yaśastilaka Campu and Indian Culture, Sholapur, 1949. Ilakkuvanar, S., Tamil Language, South Indian Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing
Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1961. Jacobi, Herman, Studies in Jainism, Part 1, Edited by Jina Vijaya Muni,
Ahmedabad, 1946. Jain, Champat Rai, Translation for Ratnakaranda-śrāvakavacara, Arrah, 1917. Jain, Jyoti Prasad, The Jaina Sources of the History of Ancient India,
(100 B.C.-A.D. 900), Delhi, 1964. Jain, S. A., Reality (An English Translation of Pūjyapāda's Sarvārtha-siddhi),
Calcutta, 1960, Jaini Jagmanderlal, Outlines of Jainism, 2nd edition, Cambridge, 1940, Jesudasan, C. and Jesudasan, H., A History of Tamil Literature, Calcutta. 1961. Kailasapathy, K. Tamil Heroic Poetry, Oxford, 1968. Kalghatgi, T. G., Jaina View of Life, Sholapur, 1969. Kapadia, H. R., A History of the canonical literature of the Jains, Surat, 1941. Karnataka Through the Ages, Published by the Government of Mysore, 1968. Keith, A. B., Sanskrit Literature, 1928. Krishnaswami Ayyangar, S., Manimekalai in its Historical Settings, London, 1928. Lacote, F., Essai sur Gunādhya et la BỊhatkathā, Paris, 1908. Law, B. C., India as depicted in early texts of Buddhism and Jainism, London, 1941. Meenakshisundaran, T. P., A History of Tamil Literature, Annamalai, 1965.
_
, A History of Tamil Language, Poona, 1965.

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203
Nilakanta Sastri, K. A., Cholas, Vol. I-II, Madras, 1935-37.
-, A History of South India, from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar, 3rd edition, Oxford, 1966. The Fañcutantara. A collection of ancient Hindu tales in the recension called
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_ , ,Bhoja's Śrngaraprakāša, Madras, 1963. Ramachandra Dikshitar, V. R., The Sila ppadikāram, Oxford, 1939. Ramaswami Ayyangar, M. S., and Seshagiri Rao, B. Studies in South Indian
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204
Study of Civakacintamani Vaidyanathan, S., Indo-Aryan Loan-words in Old Tumil, November, 1971. Vaiyapuri Pilliai, S., History of Tamil Language and Literature, Madras, 1965. Varadarajan, M., Ilango Adiga! (Makers of Indian Literature), New Delhi, 1967. Williams, R., Jaina Yoga, A Survey of the Medieval Śrāvakācāras, London, 1963. Winternitz, M., A History of Indian Litereture (English translation), Calcutta,
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1951,

Page #218

ZOS
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1968. Pattuppattu, edited by U. V. Saminatha Iyer, 6th edition, Madras, 1961. Pattup paffu, (Ten Tamil Idylls, translated by Coelliah, 2nd edition. Published by
South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras 1962 Periyapur ä nam, Tiruttonțarpurāṇam, Umāpaticivaccariyar, edited by Arumukattampi
rân Cuvāmi, completed by Ramalinga Cuvāmi, Madras, 1888. Perunkatai, Konguvēļir, edited by Saminatha Iyer, 2nd edition, December, Madras.
1935. Puranānūru, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society,
Tinnevely, Madras, Vol. I, 2nd edition, 1952, Vol. II, 1951, Tantiyalankāram, with the commentary of Cuppiramaniya Tecikar, edited by Rama
lingattampirān, Sth edition, Madras, 1956. Tamil K. V. Jagannathan Kāppi vankal, 2nd edition, Madras, 1955. Tamil Moli nul, Subrahmanya Sastri, Trichinopoli, 1938. Tamil Moli Ilakkiya Varalaru, Iracamanikkanar, M., Madras, January, 1963. Tirikatukam, Cfru pañcamalam, edited by Vaiyapuri Pillai, University of Madras,
Madras, 1944 Tolkāppiyam, Tolkappiyar, text with the commentary in English by Subrahmanya
Sastri, Madras Oriental Series, No. 3, Madras, 1928.

Page #219

26
Study of Civakacintamani
Tolkä ppiyam, Tolkāppiyar, Collatikaram, with the English commentary of
Subrahmanya Sastri, Annamalai University Tamil Series, No. 9, Annamalai
Nagar, 1945. Tolkappiyam, Toikappiyar, Poruļatikaram, with the commentary of Perāciriyar, 2nd
edition, Published by South India Saiva Sidhanta Works Publishing Society,
Tinnevely, Madras, 1955. Tolkāppiyam, Porulatikāram, (Kalaviyal, Karppiyal, and Poruliyal) Naccinārkkiniyam,
2nd edition, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works publishing Society,
Tinnevely, Madras, 1958. Tolkāp piyam, Porulatikāram (Akattinaiyiyal and Purattiņa iyiyal), Naccinārkkiniyam,
3rd edition, Publishad by South India Saiva Siddha Works Publishing Society,
Tinnevely, Madras, 1963. ūrum Perum, Sethuppillai, R. P., 3rd edition, Madras, 1956. Yapparunkalak Karikai, Amitacākarar, with the commentary of Kunacākarar, 2nd
edition, Published by South India Saiva Siddhanta Works Publishing Society, Tinnevely, Madras, 1944.
Sanskrit and Prakrit books Adi purāna, Jinasena, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Banares, 1953. Carudattam, Selected from the thirteen Trivandrum plays attributed to Bhāsa,
critically edited by Devadhar, C. R., Poona, 1962. Chandoman jari, Gangādāsa, edited by Kanjilal, K., 2nd edition, Calcutta, 1970. Dasarūpa, Dhanamjaya. Indo-Iranian Series, Vol. 7, New York, 1912. Gadyacintamani, Vadībhasimha, edited by Kuppuswami Sastri, Srirangam, 1916. Gadyacintāmani, Vadıbhasimha, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Varanasi, 1968, Gadyacintamani, Vādıbhasimha, edited by Kuppuswami Sastri, T. S., and Subrah
manya Sastri, Sarasvati Vilasa Series, No. 1, Madras, 1902. Harivamsa Purāņa, Jinasena Punnata, edited by Pt. Pannalal Jain, Varanasi. 1962. Har sacarita, Bāņa, edited by Kane, P. V., 2nd edition, Delhi, 1965. Jivandhara-Campu, Haricandra, edited by Pannalal Jain, Varnasi, July; 1958. Badambari, Bāņa, edited by Kale, M. R., 4th edition, Bombay, 1968, Kävyadarśa, Dandin, with English translation of Belvalkar, S. K., Poona, 1924. Kavyalankära, Bhamaha, edited with English translation by Sastry, P. V. N., Delhi,
1970. Kāryānusäsana, Hemacandra, edited by Sivadatta and Kasinath Pandurang Parab,
Bombay, 1934. Kșgtracüdāmaņi, Vadıbhasimha, edited by Kuppuswami Sastri, T. S., Sarasvati Vilasa
Series, No. III, Tanjore, 1903.

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207 Kumārasambhova, Kalidasa, edited by Telang, 3rd Edition, Benares, 1957 Mahabharata, published by the Education Committee, Calcutta, 1834-1839. Mahapurana, Puşpadanta, edited by Vaidya, P. L., Bombay, 1937. Meghadūta, Kalidasa, edited by Kale, M. R., Bombay, 1916. Męcсakatika - Śūdraka, edited by Kale, M. R., Bombay, 1924. Națyaśāstra, Bharata, with the commentary of Abhinavagupta, edited by Manavalli
Ramakrishna Kavi, Vols. I-IV. Gaekwad Oriental Series, Baroda, 1926-1954. Parsvanāthacarita, Vădirāja, edited by Manoharlal Sastri, Bombay, 1916. Pratāparudriya, Vidyanātha, published by Institut Francais d'Indologie, Pondichery,
1963. Raghuvamsa, Kalidāsa, edited by Nandargikar, G. R., 3rd edition, Bombay, 1897. Rāmāyana, Vālmiki, Bāla Kaņdam, edited by Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1960-66. Ratnakaranda-śrävakācāra, Samantabhadra Ācarya, The Library of Jaina Literature,
Vol 1x, Arrh, 1917. Sahityadarpaņa, Visvanātha, edited by Kane, P. V., Bombay, 1910. Samayasära, Kundkunda, Jääna-pitha Moorti Devi Jaina Granthamala, English Series
I, Banares, 1950. Sarasvati Kanthabharana, Bhoja, edited by Shastri, K. S., Trivandrum Sanskrit Series,
117. Trivandrum, 1935. Sarvärthasiddhi, Pujyapada, edited by Phoolchandra Siddhant Shastri, Varanasi, May,
1955. Tattvärtha Sūtram, Umāswāmi, edited by Shantiraya Sastri, University of Mysore,
Mysore, 1944, Yašastilaku campu, Somadevasuri, Part 1, with commentary of śrutasägar, Kāvyamala
edition, No. 70, Bombay, 1901,
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208
Journal of the American Oriental Society, New Haven, 1843.
Journal of the Oriental Research Institute of the Madras University, Madras, 1927Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Bombay, 1831
Journal of Tamil Studies, 1969
Quarterly Journal of the Mythic Society, Bangalore, 1909Siddhanta Deepika, Vol. 1-14, Madras, 1897-1914.
South Indian Inscriptions, Madras, 1892
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Study of Civak acintāmaṇi
Transactions of the Philological Society, London, 1944. University of California Publications in Linguistics, Berkeley, 1943

Page #222

Abha 70
Abhaya 170 Abhimanyu 110
Absolute vows 150 Acai 119, 166 Acakṣur-darsanavaran
iya 130, 162
Acalam 70, 71
Acara 166, 172 Acca 69
Accam 85
Accapanti 56,69, 74, 137, 145
Acippa 192
Aciriyattalai 119
Aciriyatturai 121 Acōtaran 90, 145
Acurar 164
Adara 172
Adbhuta 85
Adharma 127, 145
Adhi 189 Adhigama 138
Adhvan 170
Adi 172, 189 Adipurana 1, 39, 48,
124, 156 Aditya 72
Aerial car 55 Agada 170
Agamas 141, 195, 194 Aghatiya karmas 129, 139, 155, 156, 166 Agrahara 49 Agricultural (marutam)
79 Ahalya 44
68,69,70,73,

SUBJECT INDEX
Äham 194
Ahimsa 94, 143, 147
Ahuti 164
Aihole 40 Aimpatam 160 Aimpatavamirtam 196
Aimpori 134, 146
Ainkurunuru 164
Airavana 175, 176
Airavata 101
Aiśvarya 176
Aja 107
Ajiva 126 Ajja 69
Ajñā 172
Akalanka 39, 40
Akalavarṣa 2 Akam 78, 83, 164 Akannuru 51
Akappu 191
Ākāśa 127
Akattiyam 88, 89 Akaval-öcai 120 Akhyāyika 118 Akula 172, 174, 185 Akulam 172, 174 Akulapucal 185 Akuti 164
Alaiyam 171
Alakta 170
Alaktaka 184 Ajaku 86
Alalaintu 191
Alambana 85
Alankaras 100 Alankaramālai 73 Alaya 171 Alliteration 120, 169

Aloka 127, 155, 189, 196
Alokam 189, 196 Ajukai 85
Älvārs 46, 83 Amacca 166
Amaiccan 166
Amar 182
Amarah 164
Amarar 164
Amatya 166
Amiltam 164
Amirtam 169
Amirtu 169, 171, 175 Ammai 86, 88
Amṛta 164, 169, 170, 171, 175
Amudhadrṣṭi 138 Amurta 126, 168 Amurttam 168 Anaimangalam 49
Anangamahāviņa 72 Anahgamala 18, 19. 28, 73
Anangapatākā 72
Anangatilaka 9
Anangavilasini 92 Anankamalai 23, 28, 90
Anankam viņai 9, 63,
72, 73, 74, 104 Anankavilacini 63, 72 Ananta 185, 196 Ananta darśana 129, 155 Ananta Jñana 129 Anantan umai 185, 196
Anant nubandhi 131, 142, 154

Page #223

210
Study of Civakacintamani
Anantānubandhikaşāya
142 Anantānubandhikrodha
152 Anantānubandhin 131 Anantasukha 155, 196 Anantavīrya 129, 155 Anapāya 36 Anartbadandavrata
143 Añcanakkol 184 Añcapam 164, 176, 177 Ancient Tamil 164 Angāgama 140 Angopāngas 161 Anhilwad Patan 45 Anivștti-badara-Sam
parāya 136 Anivịttibādara-Samp
araya-gunasthāna 154 Anjana 164, 170, 177 Ankucam 167 Ankusa 167 Anta 170, 189 Antah-pura 168 Antam 170 Antappuram 168 Antara 191 Antara-kumaran 191Antarāya karma 129,
131, 155 Antarmuhurta 151 Apti 164 Anto 172 Anu 143 Anubhāvas 85 Anumati-vrata 144, 145 Anupama 71 Anupūrvi 161 Anupūrvi-nāma-karma
Apaņa 189 Aparigraha 143 Apinda-prakrti 161 Apologia 92 Appaņai 186 Appar 47, 147, 167 Appar-tirumurai 167 Apramatta-samyata 136 Apratyakhāna 142 Apratyākhyānāvarana
131, 153 Apratyākhyānāvarana
krodha 153 Apratyākhyānāvarana
lobha 153 Apūrva karma 136 Ārādhana 164 Arakkan 52 Aram 86, 94, 140, 180. Arambhavinivịtta 144 Aranam 181 Aranapatam 147 Arankam 180 Arenkērrukātai 113 Arātanai 164 Arati 131 Arattakam 170, 184 Arava 168, 194 Aravam 53, 168, 180 Aravattirai 185 Ardhamāgadhi 45 Ardhasama 119 Arghya water 157 Arhat 11, 46, 67, 68,
75, 92, 130, 134,
158, 159, 190, 196 Ariccantan 73 Arid (palai) 29, 79, 82 Arikesari 47 Ariñcayan 35 Ariñjaya 35 Arivai 106
Arivar 141 Arka 91 Ārkkum tölātay 42 Arnava 91 Ārta dhyāna 151, 152 Artha 88, 94 Arthāntaranyāsa 3 Arthaśāstra 94 Arucir aciriya viruttam
121 Arunkalānvayam 38 Aruntavar 185 Aravakai vāļttu 52 Aruvakaittuvarppu 196 Arya 69 Āryan 44, 51 Aryavarma 3, 55, 69,
70, 72. Āsādana 129 Asad-gunod-bhāvana 133 Ašanivega 18, 59 Asavarņa marriage 27 Ascetics 159 Asiḥ 91 Asoka tree 25, 54, 55. Aśramas 94 Aśrava 126, 128 Assonance 120, 169 Asta 170 Aşța karma 129 Aştakarmaņi 191 Astasahasri 38, 39 Astikāya 128, 196 Astra 183 Asura 164, 182 Ataikkalakkātai 52, 53
114
Atakam 170 Atal 186 Atapa-nāma-karma 153 Ataram 172 Ați, 87, 119
133
Aņuvratas 143, 145

Page #224

Subject-Index
211
Aticayam 170 Aţika! 53 Atisaya 170 Atisayokti 102 Ātiyantam 189 Ātmaprasamsa 133 Attam 170 Atta man kaļam 189 Attarakku 184 Attiram 170, 183 Auşadha dāna 148 Avadhi-darsanāvaraniya
153, 162 Avaiyatakkam 92, 93,
121, 198 Avamodarya 151 Avaņa 189 Avana-vīti 189 Avanisūlāmaņi 47 Avasarpiņi 127 Avifauna 80 Avirata 142 Avrata-samyagdęsti 136 Ayana 170, 179, 180 Ayaņam 170, 180 Ayirāvanam 175 Ayodhya 172 Ayogi-kevalin 136 Ayogi-kevali-gunastbāna
153, 157 Ayotti 172 Ayurvedic treatises 165 Āyuş karma 129, 132,
161 Bahumitra 72 Bahuśrutyāgama 140 Bakula 72 Balabhadras 2 Bālakāņdam 93 Bali 191 Bandhana 161 Bandhananāma karma
133
Belgamve grant 34 Belgola 34 Besage 176 Bhagavan 166, 168 Bhāgya 166 Bhakti 165 Bhakti movement 47, 48 Bharata war 110 Bharatesvara 110 Bhāva 92 Bhavadatta 9, 22, 74 Bhaya 131 Bhayānaka 85, 116 Bhima 44 Bhindipāla 178 Bhoga 131, 188, 190 Bhogabhūmi 149 Bhogāntarāya 153, 162 Bhogāntarāya karma 132 Bhogopabhoga 143 Bhoktā 126 Bhrāntimat 103 Bhujanga 174 Bhū-loka 140 Bhūmi 190 Bhūta 164 Bibhatsa 85 Bimba 104 Bliss 125, 135 Bodhi 179 Bojanga 174 Brahma 10, 16, 44, 143 Brahmacarya 144 Brahmacarya pratimā 149 Brhatkathā 76, 93, 117
118 Bphatkathāmañjari 76 Bhatkathāślokasangraha
Buddhism 93, 165 Buddhist 49, 53 Buddhist vihāra 49 Cacaran 75 Caccantan 35, 42, 54,
55, 66, 69, 71, 73, 96, 97, 98, 99, 110, 113,
135, 158 Cakaratattan 64, 69 Cakaran 71 Cakatam 164, 177, 178 Cakkaram 177, 183 Cakra 177, 183 Cakravartin 2 Cakşur-darsanävaraniya
162 Cakşur-darsanāvaraniya
karma 130 Calākai 172 Calam 168 Calañcayanam 190 Calaniti 73 Calanidhi 73 Cālukya king Jayasimha
34 Camai 81 Câmara 171 Camayakkanakkar tan
tiram kețța kātai 46 Camati 173 Campaka 62 Campakamālai 73 Canam 177 Candra 91, 190 Candrābhā 21, 60 Candrāditya 140 Candrasekhara 16 Cankam 25, 30, 43, 44
52, 84, 100, 113, 123,
167, 177, 194 Cankam literature 25,
51, 108
76
Buddha 10, 93 Buddhacarita 106 Buddhisena 70, 71

Page #225

212
Study of Civakacintamani
Cankam poem 96 Cankaran 167 Cantirāpam 29, 61 Cantiravautayam 188 Cantirotayam 188, 190 Căpam 164, 167 Carana 68 Caraṇap 64, 139, 140,
141, 148, 149, 150 Cardiospermum halica
cabum 87 Cari 69 Caritra-mohaniya 130,
131, 162 Caritra-mohaniya karma
142 Caritrasära 48 Cărudattam 105 Catāri 81 Catēvanar 43
attam 168 Catti 173 Cattiya 168 Catuh-saraņa 168 Catur 191 Catur-mukha 191 Caturindriya-năma
karma 153 Catur-varga-phalopeta
91 Catuspadı 120 Catuştaya 197 Cavarar 179 Cavi 173, 177 Cayamati 69 Cekkisar Puranam 36 Celestial 57, 68, 77, 132 Celibacy 143, 146, 145, Celvan 196 Celvanaman 73 Cēmam 169, 184 Cēņikan 54, 69, 125, 150
Centanil 38 Centan 42 Ceppal-Ocai 120 Cēra 51 Cerppan 81 Ceruppāliyerinta-ilanc
ētcenni 52 Cevi 192 Ceylon 28 Ceyyuliyal 86 Chavi 173, 177 Cheda 175 Chalāmapivarma Vihāre
49 Cikai 181 Cilappatikāram 25, 45,
46, 52, 53, 78, 87, 88
90, 92, 93 Cilampan 81 Cilatalam 167 Cinatatlai 73 Cinta 172 Cintai 119, 172 Cintāmaņi 31, 36, 37.
38. 39, 40, 41, 42 Cintāmaņiţippani 41 Cinturam 182 Cir 87 Ciritattan 15, 73 Cirukāppiyam 90, 96 Cirukli 81 Cirupānārrupatai 51,
96, 166 Cirupañcamulam 3, 12,
45, 166 Cirupolutu 79, 82 Citai 51, 52 Citattan 58, 70, 71, 73 Citra 168, 190 Citramahāmalā 73 Cițțan 166 Cittirakūtam 94, 147,
Cittiram 168 Cittiramāmālai 72 Cittiramāmanțapam .96 Civa 56, 192 Civakacintamani 1, 5,
38, 51 etc. Civakan 4,7,9, 19, 20,
21, 22, 24, 26, 28, 29, 31, 50, 54, 56, 57, 59,
69, 118 Civikai 181 Clandestine 82 Col 41 Cola 35, 36, 49, 50 Cold season 79 Collatikāram 78, 165 Collyrium 184 Contentment 148 Control of greed 148 Crivartamāna 150 Cūdāmani 38, 40, 41,
128, Cukatā 190 Cukkila 183 Cukkilattiyānam 155, Culam 193 Culāmaņi 39, 40, 41, 42,
103, 178 Cumati 71 Cunarkan 179, 181 Cunantai 56, 70 Cunna(Pkt) 174, 184 Cuņnam 174, 178, 184 Cuntaram 162, 182 Cuotaramurti 47 Cupattiran 7, 59, Curamancari 4, 9, 61, 64, 65, 66, 71, 73,
96, 117 Curamancariyar llampakam 41, 44, 61, 64,
121,
158

Page #226

Subject-Index
Cūrņa 174, 178, 184 Cūriyan 182, 183 Cutamañjari 70 Cutancaņan 19, 20, 21,
60, 61, 67, 69, 73, 96 Cutanmar 54, 69, 175,
150 Cuttiram 165 Cuvākatam 177, 183 Cuvarkkam 166 Daiva 164, 175 Dāmodara 40 Dāna 131, 144, 148,
166, 195 Dānāntarāya 153, 162 Dandaka forest 25, 43,
55, 64 Darbhā 171, 179, 157, Darśana 144, 197 Darsanamohaniya 130,
162 Darsanamohaniya
Karma 142, 197 Darsanasāra 45 Daršanāvaraniya 162 Darsanavarņiya karma
129 Darsanika Srāvaka 145 Dagaratha 98 Dasarūpa 95 Dasi 174 Dāvari 70 Deccan 45 Delusionless 136 Desavirata-Samyagdęsti
136, 142 Deśavirata Samyagdrșți
guṇasthāna 144 Deva 43, 71 Deva-āuyuş 132, 141 Deva-ganam 45 Dēvarpațți 49
Devasena 27, 28, 45,
71, 140 Devotion 148 Devotional hymns 145 Dhanamjaya 95, 96 Dhanamitra 72, Dhanapati 60, 61, 69 Dharana 98 Dharani 187 Dbārini 58, 69 Dharma 94 Dharma dhayāpa 151,
152 Dharmasena 47 Dhavala 39 Dhira 95 Dhira-lalita 96, 99 Dhira nāyaka 99 Dhira-śānta 96 Dbira-udātta 95 Dhiroddhata 96, 97 Dhrauvya 128 Dhștisena 72 Dhruva 39 Dhūma 178 Dhūpa 187 Dhvani 112 Dbyāna 151, 190 Didactic works 145 Dig 190 Digambara 45, 124 Digambara Jains 49,
156 Digambara monks 150 Digvrata 153 Dilipa 99 Disa 164 Divya 166 Doşa 176, 181 Drāvida sangha 41,45,47 Dļāvidian 163 Draupadi 75
Dịąha 175, 178 Dșidhamitra 62 Drsya 111 Duhsamā-duhşama 127 Duh sama-Suşamā 127 Dukkha 146 Durvāsa 25 Data 171, 178 Duryodhana 44, 51 Dvijanmānah 191 Dvindriya
Nāmakarma 153 Dvipa 175, 179, 189 Eight karma 152, 159 Ekam 175 Ekabhakta 150 Ekajñā 188 Eka-ma-nakar 189 Ekānta 184 Ekavāņai 188 Ekavippam 185 Ekendriya-nama
karma 153 Elali 45, 123 Elucir-Aciriya
viruttam 45, 123 Eluttatikāram 78 Eļuvar 124, 154 Eluvar patřār 154 Emam 161, 184 Emamāpuram 62 Ē mānkatam 102 Embodied souls 159 Eņcir Aciriya virutam
121
Enmar 154 Entiram 170, 183 Entiravūcal 185 Envinai 191 Erankol 81 Erāvana 176 Erpāțau 79, 82

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214
Siudy of Civakacintamani
Esajja 176 Etam 175, 177 Ethical 125, 199 Ettuttokal 87 Etukai 120, 161 Euphorbia 49 Eyirri 81 False divinity 138 Fanciful expressions 109 Fauna 79 Female monkey 68 Fifty three kriyas 154 Five absolute vows 150 Five antarāya karma
155 Five astikāyas 134, 140 Five senses 138, 149 Flora 79 Freed souls 158 Flying machine 135 Four darśanīvaraniya
karma 155 Four infinite qualities
152 Four pratyākhyāgāva
rana karmas 154 Fourteen guṇasthānās
142 Gadya 31 Gadyacintāmaņi 1, 2,
4, 5, 8, 9, 31 Gajah 190 Gāmi 193 Gamika 193 Gāmin 193 Gāmini 173, 177, 195 Gana 6, 19, 167 Gandha 161, 170
Gandharva 77 Gandharvadattā 8, 16
18, 19, 28, 58, 59, 62, 63, 66, 67, 71, 72
Gandharva rite 28, 56 Gandhotkata 8, 33, 55,
66, 69, 73, 74 Gandhukkada 35 Ganga 40 Ganga dynasty 37 Ganges 25, 52 Ganika 167 Gar 192 Garuda 170, 178, 180 Garudavega 8, 35, 58,
59, 69, 72 Garuțaveu 35 Gati 133, 139, 141, 166 Gender system 169 Ghana 177 Ghātiya 129. 139, 195 Gbātiya-karma 131, 132,
134, 155, 161, 195 Gita 173, 191 Glories 140 Gloriosa Superba 101 Godavari 57, 70 Gomukha 73 Gonamu (Telugu) 174 Gopa 69 Gopasri 57, 70 Gopendra 53, 65, 66,
Gunatraya 137 Gunavratas 143 Guru 118 Gurudatta 71, 91 Halo 194 Hara 182 Hariva mgapurāna 39 Harişacarita 25 Hāsa 85 Hastimalla 49 Hāsya 131 Havis 182 Hell 139 Hema 70 Hemābhā 64, 62, 57,
70, 74 Hemābhapuram 63 Hemacandra 90 Hemangada 25, 54, 57 Hetrodoxy 130 Hidaya 175 Himalayan 78 Himašitala 39 Hindu 48 Hinduism 47 Hindu Samskāras 156 Hingulika 169, 177, 182 Hiptage Madablota 83 Hiranya 182 Hitarūpasiddhi 34 Hşdaya 175 Hțdayakamala 191 Hybrid forms 184 Hyperbole 109, 102 Hyperbolic conceits 84 Ican 167 Ilak-ittu 192 llaipu 87 Ilakkam 180, 184 Ilakkaņai 5, 65, 67, 69,
71, 73, 75. 96. 108, 157, 158
69
Gotra Karma 129, 132,
133, 161 Govinda 9, 14, 15, 30,
73
Ghadevatā 191 Grhatyåga 158 Gphya sūtra 157 Guhya 184 Guna 143, 186, 196 Guņamālā 8. 16, 17, 18,
24, 35, 59, 69 Guņamitra 7? Guņasthāna 124, 150,
152

Page #228

Subject-Index
215
Ilakkaņaiyār Ilampakam
66, 67, 108, 121 Ilampakam 5, 56, 65,
67, 117 Ilankittitān 192 Ilarko 93, 113, 114 Ilayamā 192 Ilēcu 171 Ilesu 180 Illurai teyvam 191 Iļivaral 85 Imperfect vows 136 Immobile 126 Imda 70 Indra 10, 44, 69, 70 Indras 156 Indragopa 173 Indriyajaya 150 Ingita 185 Infinite 78 Infinite bliss 196 Infinite perceptton 129 Infinite qualities 140 Inhabitants 79 Inkulikam 169, 177, 182 Inpakkoţi 191 Inpam 86, 94, 185 Intan 69 Internal penances 151 Intirakopam 173 Intira-kumāran 189 Intiran 81, 141 Intiravil 185 Intravilav-ur-ețutta-kā
tai 46 Irācacüyam-veţta-peru
narak killi 43 Irācamā-nakam 189 Iracamāpuram 4, 30,
104, 111 Iraivati 175 Irāman 52
Iramāyaṇam 103 Iraniyan 182, 183 Irankal 82 Iratam 180, 182 Iravi 180 Irēvati 180 Iru-pirappaļar 191 Iruttal 82 Isa 167 Ițaiyila inpam 195 Ițantalaippātu 106 Itayam 175 Itihāsa 91 Ixora coccinca 83 Iyakkan 164, 165 Iyakki 180 Iyaipu 86, 87 Iyar-cir 119 Iyarkkaippuộarcci 28,
104, 113 Jabali 25 Jagadekamalla 34 Jahnu 40 Jaina 43, 92, 124, 125,
126 Jaina doctrine 75 Jaina ethical ideas 123 Jaina faith 67, 124 Jaina philosophy 161 Jaina-Purāņic story 161 Jaina smāraka 32 Jainism 43, 47, 48, 95,
123, 124, 125, 137,
165, Jainas 48, 49 Jala 190 Jana 191 Jati 118, 161 Jayad havala 39 Jayadratha 68, 70 Jayandhara 68, 70 Jayasimha 34
Jayavati 69. 68, 71 Jina 13, 70, 157, Jinadatta 58, 70-73 Jina sena 1 Jiva 56, 126, 192 Jivaka 1, 15, 18, 19,
20, 25, 28, 35, 50,
93, 198 etc. Jivakacintamani 24 Jivandhara 1, 3, 5-9,
15, 20, 21, 22, 24, 28, 35, 42, 51, 54-62, 67, 70, 71 etc Jivandhara campu 1,
3, 4 Jivandhara carita 1 Jivandhara Samghatya 1 Jivandhara Satpadi 1 Jñana 148, 166 Jñānāvaraniya Karma
129, 162 Jugupsã 85, 131 Kācipan 43 Kadaikköttür 49 Kādambari 25, 106 Kādams 168 Kaļāram 49 Kaikkiļai 82 Kailasa 106 Kaitavam 175 Kaivalaccelyan 194 Kaivalya 194 Kāla 127, 128 Kalabhras 44, 46 Kala-c-cakkaram 190 Kalai 81 Kālakūța 57, 72 Kalampakam 87 Kalan 86 Kālangaraka 57, 58, 72 Kalaya 172 Kālapācam 167

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216
Study of Civakacintāmani
191
Kalāpam 172 Kalatti 81 Kaļavali 194 Kaļavaļinārppatu 87 Kalāyam 172 Kalavu 26, 28 Kalinam 173, 177 Kalippa 119, 185 Kali 194 Kalittokai 29, 44, 52,
84, 108 Kalitturai 121 Kaliviruttam 121 Kalli 49 Kalpa 68 Kalpaka 191 Kalpātita 68 Kalulan 180 Kalulavēkan 8, 35, 58,
69, 73 Kalyāna 177 Kalyā ņam 177, 192 Kalyāṇatara 140 Kāma 20, 88, 94, 96,
166, 190 Kāmadevas 2 Kaman 20 Kamakkalam 186 Kamakkulayi 184 Kamalā 69 Kamalam 165 Kāmamālai 191 Kaman 65, 98, 166 Kāmanappaņai 184 Kampūmi 190 Kāma Sūtra 108, 165 Kāmavalli 191 Kāmini 172, 177, 193,
195 Kamparāmāyaṇam 103 Kāmuka 73, 183 Kāmukan 73
Kapaka 70; 73 Kanakamalai 57, 62, 63,
70, 72, 74, 114 Kanakamālaiyar Ilam
pakam 6., 108, 121 Kaņam 167, 177 Kāñci 39, 83 Kāñcuki 176 Kaņi-tta 192 Kanikaiyar 161 Kannada 1, 41 Kaņņaki 46, 93, 95, 114 Kanni 81, 172 Kannimātam 186 Kāntarvatattai 4, 28,
58, 59, 63, 64, 67.
73, 74, 76 Kantaruvatattaiyār 69,
106, 113, 116, 147 Kāntaruvatattaiyār lla
mpakam 121 Kāntal 101 Kantotkatan 28 Kantukkatan 35, 55,
56, 69, 73 Kanyā 172, 186 Kapila 43 Kapilan 43 Kāppiya-k-kavikal 191 Kāppiyam 88, 89, 90,
93, 174 Kār 79 Karāntai 58, 83, 108 Kārikai 166 Karmabhūmi 149 Karmakṣayātisayas 140 Karman 186 Karmas 99, 125, 128,
129, 137, 141, 158 Karmic 125 Kārmic body 128 Karmic Matter 126, 128
137
Karpa 110 Karnātaka sabdāuuśā.
sanam 41 Karpakam kāma-valli Karpūra 174, 183 Kartā 126 Kārtikeya 27, 28 Karumak katal 186, 196 Karumattevar 196 Karunā 85 Karupporul 30, 79 Karappuram 174, 183 Kārvetti 42 Kaşaya 131, 162 Kashmirian paisāci 76 Kasthāngāra 8-11, 18.
19, 22, 23, 28, 31, 35 Kāşthāngāraka 35, 54,
55, 57–59. 65, 72, Kaśyapa 43 Katal 186 Katampan 73 Kataragama 28 Katavu! vāļttu 92, 121 Kāțci 139, 155, 197 Katha 118 Kathāsaritsāgara 76,
77, 117 Kati 166, 195 Kaţtangārau 35 Kattiyankāran 4, 19,
22, 30, 35, 51, 54-55, 65, 69, 73-75, 96, 97,
108, 116 Kausi 33 Kausika 186, 187 Kavaļam 52 Kavandha 179 Kaveri 33 Kavi 167 Kavika! 191

Page #230

Subject-Index
212
Korravai 81 Kātā vasi 70 Košicci 26, 81 Koțiśvara 1 Kātam 193 Kõvalan 46, 52, 63, 187 Kõvintai 27, 30, 70, 101 Kovintaiyār 128 Kovintaiyār Ilampakam
57 Kõvintan 26, 57, 57.
64, 69, 73, 74, 99,
121, 157 Kramuka 183 Kriyas 48 Krmi 175 Krodha 85, 131, 154,
162, 195 Krsna 2 Krsņā 39, 93, 194 Kșanti 72 Kşapaka-śreqi 153 Ksatracudamaņi (KC)
1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 31, 32,
33 etc. Ksatriya śikhamani 32 Ksatriyasikhāmaņi-puram
Kulavi 186 Kulikan 169 Kulottunga 37 Kumāra 191 Kumāradatta 71 Kumārasambhava 100,
101 Kumāri 172, 174 Kuarippor 196 Kumariyāšal 180 Kumbakonam 33 Kupakkatal 140, 186 Kuņam 196 Kuņamālai 4, 17, 24, 60, 64, 69, 73, 76,
96, 113, 147 Kuņamālaiyār 56, 106,
Kāvirippumpattinam 81 Kviyakalam 24, 65, 166 Kāvunti 46 Kavya 42, 123 191, Kavyādarsa 117, 89,
90, 84, 118 Kāvyālaj kāras 90, 95 Kāvyānušāsana 90 Kaya-Klesa 151 Kāyotsarga 143 Kelulan 177, 178 Kēmacari 7, 62, 104 Kēmacar iyār llampakam
62, 121, 139 Kemamāpuram 73 Kentam 170 Keraiyur 33 Kegādipadāntavarnanā
100 Kesaluñcana 150 Kevala-darśanāyaraniya
162 Kevala-jñāna 138 Kevala-jānāvaraņiya
Karma 130, 153, 162 Khalina 173, 177 Khecara 157, 67, 68, 7 Kheda 175, 177 Kiņai 81 Kinnara 173 Kinnaram 173 Kirtidatta 73 Kirttitattan 73 Kirumi 175 Kitam 173 Kita-viti 191 Kocamum 90 Kocikanir 176 Kocika atai 177 Kõmukan 73 Kongudega rājākkal 33 Konrai 108
C-28
107
32
Ksema 169, 184 Ksemapuri 9 Ksemasri 79 Ksemasundari 7, 62,
69, 72 Kşemendra 76 Kșiņakaṣāya-vitarāga
chadmastha-gunast
hana 155 Kubera 98 Kuberamitra 70 Kubēratattan 71 Kucca 177 Kulam 35 Kulapati 43
Kuņamālaiyār llampa
kam 59, 74, 108,
121, 159 Kunc 192 Kuncaram 177 Kunci-ttu 192 Kundakunda 124 Kunjara 177 Kurkuma 168, 188 Kunkumakkatirka 186 Kunkumam 168 Kupēramittiram 70 Kuppāyam 182 Kūr 164 Kuraļați 87 Kuratti 81 Kūravar 26, 27 Kürca 177 Kuriñci 26, 82 Kuriñciyar 81 Kurotan 154, 195 Karpāsa 182 Kuru 21, 190 Kuru Kulam 190

Page #231

218
Study of Civakacintamani
Kurumpa 81 Kurumporatinātan 81 Kuruni 157 Kuruntokai 43 Kurutatti 71 Kutal 112 Kutir 82 Kuttam 106 Kütti 185 Kūțumba 174, 179 Kuțumpam 174, 179 Kuyyam 184 Labha 117, 131, 162 Lābba-antarāya 153, 162 Labhāntaraya Karma
132 Laghu 118 Lāja-homa 158 Lakşa 184 Lakşmi 13, 110 Laksya 180, 184 Lakula Vadirudragana
Loan-words 165 Lobha 131 Loka 127, 186 Lokapāla 1, 29, 69, 79 Lokamahāpāla 70 Lokastbiti 125 Lord Arhat 134, 147 Lord Jina 134, 137, 140 Lord Muruga 44 Lord of the Jinas 67 Lower world 187 Lunca 44 Lute 191 Madana 190 Madhavi Creeper, 28, Madhu 174, 188, 191 Madhukara 167 Madhumukha 71 Madhuram 91 Madhuparka 157 Madhufa 63 Maduri 46, 114 Maha 189, 190 Mahābhārata 51, 75,
77, 117 Mahadhavalā 39 Mabākāvya 67, 89, 91,
92, 93, 100, 104, 112 Mabapurāņa 1, 2, 35,
48, 198 Mahārāşgra 171 Mahārāştri 45 Mahāvīra 67 Mahāvratas 143, 150 Mahendravarman 47, 49 Mahesvara 39, 40 Major time 79 Makaļir 188 Makara 101 Makilnan 81 Mal 134 Māla 191
Malaebärideva 38 Mālai 70, 79 Malaipatukațām 87 Malavikāgnimitra 76 Malayalam 181, 193, 194 Mallişana 36, 38, 40, 41 Mallisena prasasti 36,
39, 41 Mālopamā 109 Mamaņi 195 Måna 131, 162, 180,
195 Manahparyaya jáāna
138, 144 Manahparyāya jõānā
yaraniya 130, 162 Mapaivi 181 Manam 154, 180, 182,
195 Mapanal 112 Mapas 182 Mandala 171 Mangala 189 Manikkai 188 Manikkvācakar 47 Manimëkalai 45, 46,
53, 78, 87, 88, 90,
92, 93 etc. Manipravāla style 1 Măpitan 174, 182 Manivaạnal 64, 68,
75, 125, 139 Mankai 106 Mapmaka! 104, 108, 112 Manmaka! Ilampakam
65, 121 Manmatha 28 Mannavan 185 Maņķapa 190 Mañțilan 171 Mantiram 164 Mantiri-ttu 192
34
Lalita 95 Lambaka 117 Lambha 3, 4, 5, 117
118, 126 Lambhaka 117, 118 Lamenting (Irankal) 82 Langh 192 Laya 180, 192 Lesa 171, 180 Leucass 83 Lewis Rice 40-42 Lightening rod 193 Likh 192 Linga 25 Linifulia 83 Lipisamkhyāba 157 Literary traditions 62 Littoral (Neytal) 30,
79, 104

Page #232

Subject-Index
219
Mantra 20, 21, 61, 164,
192, 193, 195 Manu 2 Manudbarmaśāstra 94,
165 Mănuşa 174, 182 Manusya-āyus 132, 161 Marahatta 171 Maranalankāram 93 Mārasimha 38 Marātam 171 Marauding 82 Māravaraman 47 Māravijayaturgavarman
Mula 190 Mulācāra 150 Mulavu 81 Mulgund 39 Mullai 30, 82 Munnir 36 Muppani 79 Muntu-nal 88 Murañciyūr Mutinakapar
51
49
Marutam 82 Marutam lyre 81 Mārutkai 85 Marutpā 120 Masana 181 Matal 83 Matalan 52, 114 Matam 186 Matana-kitam 190 Matanam (madana) 60,
74, 116 Maçantai 106 Matavi 93, 113 Mathura 45 Mati-jñāna 138, 144 Matijñānāvaramıya 153,
162 Mātirttan 44 Matisāgara 34, 58, 59,
71, 72 Matitaram (matidhara)
74 Mātsarya 129 Mattavilāsa prakarana
49 Matu 174 Matukaram 167
Matu-p-pali 191 Maturaikkānci 87 Matuttaņķu 188 Māya 131, 162, 195 Mayakkam 103 Mayan 195 Mayānam 181 Meditation 158 Mēgha 177 Meghadata 104, 109,
114 Mēkam 177 Metaphysical 199 Metaphysical ideas 125 Meyppāțiyal 86, 100,
112 Meyppāļus 85, 86 Meyppattiyal 84 Middle Tamil 163 Mii 81 Millet 81 Minor time 79 Misra 162 Mithyā-dršți 136 Mithyātva 139, 162 Mithuna 164 Mitunam 164 Modern Tamil 163 Mohaniya 162 Mohoniya karma 129,
130, 154 Mokşa 88, 94, 95, 126,
156 Monai 120, 159 Morphology 163 Mountain poetry 79 Mount Kailasa 44 Mrochakațika 105 Muka-vācam 189 Mukha 191 Mukham 91 Mukhavāsa 189
Murukan 15, 26-28, 81 Mutarporu 1 79 Mutirai 81 Mutti 112, 187 Mutti Ilampakam 67,
75, 121 Muttiyilampakam 64,
75, 95, 106, 108, 123,
125, 134 Muttollāyiram 87 Mysore 33 Mysore state 37 Naciņārkkiniyar 35, 36,
37, 41, 89, 117, 121 Nāga 189 Nāga-loka 140 Nagara 91, 167, 171, 189 Nagamālā 73 Nagapattanam 49 Nakai 85 Nakam 195 Nākamālai 28, 73 Nakaram 167 Nakula 168 Nakulam 52, 168 Nālatiyar 45, 87, 94,
123, 124 Nali 52 Namākaj llampakam 54
117, 121 Nāmam 166 Nama karma 129, 132
156, 161

Page #233

220
Siudy of Civakacintamani
Namaskriyā 91 Nampi 5, 189 Nānacampantar 47 Nánam 112, 139, 166,
196 Nandā 70 Nandadhya 57, 62, 64
67, 69, 75 Nandagopa 15 Nandaka 170, 178, 179,
194 Nandakam 179 Nandiga a 41, 45 Nānmai 134, 185, 196,
197 Naņpakal 79, 82 Napulan 73 Nântakam 170, 178, 194 Nantāttiyan 57, 69 Nanti 69 Napumsaka veda 131,
153 Narada 2, 93 Naraka-āyuş 142, 161 Naraka-gati-Dāma-ka
rma 153 Narakam 141 Narakānupurvi-nāma
karma 153 Narapati 189 Narapatitevan 73 Naravakanadatta 118 Narāyanas 2 Narriņai 26, 43 Nāstikacūļāmaņi 10 Nāțaka 112 Nāțakam 90 Nāțan 164 Nātha 164 Nattuppațalam 103 Nātukan-kātai 46 Natukkam 86
Natyaśāstra 85, 86, 112 Navapadārthās 126,
133, 140, 146 Nemi 164 Nēr 119 Nețumal 81 Nețuńcentar 42 Neuter 141 Neuter endings 169 Neuter sex 154 Neytal 82, 93, 104 Nidda 196 Nidhi 164, 179 Nidrā 162, 196 Nidrā karma 130, 155
196 Nidra-nidra-karma 130,
153 Nigama 177 Nihsankita 138 Nihnava 126 Nilakeci 103, 104 Nimitta 178 Nimittaka 171 Nimittam 178 Nipputi 69 Nir 186 Nira 119 Nirjară 126, 137 Nirmita 168 Nirodhanā 161, 178 Nirotapai 171, 178, 195 Nirumitam 168 Nirvicikitsita 138. Nirvrtti 59 Nisarga 138 Niscaya Samyag-dars.
ana 137 Nişkānkşita 138 Niti 179 Nitigataka 94 Nattai 196
Nittam 168 Nityavinoda 140 Niyamam 177 Noci 187 Nocci 83 Nokasāyas 131 Nokku 186 Non-souls 126, 127 Non-violence 143, 145 Nudity 150 Nulaicci 81 Nurruvaraikolli 191 Obstsucting karma 142 Ocai 120 Ocanai 179, 180 Odayadeva 31 Old tamil 163 Olliyan 41 One sensed 132 Onpanum 140 Oruvantan 184 Pacalai 196 Pacan 193 Pada 190 Paļimā 169, 180 Padmā 8, 21, 22, 28,
70 Padmavati 71, 72 Padmamukha 24 Padmottamā 60, 61 Padya 31 Paisāci 48, 76, 93 Pakavān 166, 168 Pakkam 81 Pākkiyam 166 Palacu 171 Pālaikkali 29 Palamoļināņuru 45, 96 Palamutircolai 27 Palāsa 171 Palatal 177, 181 Palikku 171, 178, 179

Page #234

Subject-Index
221
Pavatattan 9, 63, 7-2
74 Pāvi 179 Pāviņam 118, 120 Pavitra 181 Pavittirai 71 Pavittira Kumaran 20 Pavittiram 181 Perilampen 106 Personal endings 169 Pēru 155 Perumãn 134 Perumitam 85 Perumpañarşuppațai 44, 51, 194 Perumpolutu 79 Peruncorrutiyancēralātan
51
Pallava 44, 46 Pallava king 42, 49 Pallava reign 50 Palți 187 Palliccandam 49 Patumaiyār llampakam
61 Patumukan 60 Paņ 48 Panca 177, 189 Pancāgni 147, 191 Pancākhyānaka 52 Panca-mahā-vratas 150 Pancanamaskāra 116,
141, 159, 160, 196 Pancanamaskara mantra
94 Panca-muka-vācam 189 Pañcaparameşhistuti 159 Pancasamitis 150 Pancastikāyas 128, 133 Pancatantra 52, 53 Pancavācam 190 Pancuram 81 Pāņdavas 44, 51, 98 Pāndya 42, 105, 106 Pānkiyar 106 Panniru caivat tirum
urait tokuti 47 Papnirutirumurai 167 Pānțiyan-pal-yāka-cālai.
mutukuțumi 43 Pāpa 126 Paiu 179 Pramāpa 127 Paramesvara 40 Parani 179 Paranindā 133 Parāntaka 33, 49 Paratan 73, 87 Paratti 81 Paricitta-parigraha virata
144, 145
Paridhi 194 Parimāņa-vrata 143 Paripāțal 26, 44, 52, 84
108 Pariti 194 Parivāra 181 Pariyaļa 181 Pariyāļam 181 Pārsvanātha 39 Pārsuanātha basti 34 Pārsvanātha carita 34 Partial vows 173 Paruti 173 Passion 136, 142 Pastoral (mullai) 30,
79, 82 Pātāla-mut-tí 187 Pāți 81 Patikam 47, 93, 121,
183 Pațimai 169 Pațimam 169 Patineņkilkaņakku 25,
45, 87, 94, 165 Patirruppattu 51 Pațivam 169, 180 Patta- 179 Pattam 179 Pattinappālai 30, 31,
64, 87, 102 Pațținum 81 Patti 43, 49 Pattuppāțțu 27, 87, 96 Patumai 26, 28, 61, 62,
70, 73, 96, 106, 113,
114 Patumaiyār Ilampakam
28, 60, 61, 121 Patumukan 57, 60, 63,
71 Pavanamahādeva 70 Pavanamātēvap 70, 145
Perunarkkilli 44 Peruňkāppiyam 67, 88,
90, 160 Perunkatai 53, 82, 90,
93, 123, 168 Pēru 81 Peruvaluti 43 Pētai 106 Pēți 124 Petumpai 106 Phalika 171, 179, 183 Phallic 25 Phonology 163 Piccam, 177 Pinca 177 Pinda 178 Piņda-prakstis 13?, 161 Pindi 6, 7, 190 Pingala 2 Pinpani 79 Pintam 178 Pinti 159 Piņķi palam 178 Piņti-ppakavan 190

Page #235

Study of Civokacintamani
Prakřti 2 Pralaya 85 Pramatta-Samyata gu
ņasțhāna 150, 152 Prasasti 1, 2, 36 Prasastāvanka 67, 68 Pratāparudriya 110 Pratikramaņa 143, 147 Pratimā 144, 145, 150
169, 180 Prati-pārāyana 2 Pratināyaka 99 Pratipada 41 Pratyākhyāna 143, 147 Pratyākhyānāyarana
131
Pippali 171 Pithikā 178 Piţikai 178 Piraman 10 Piramāņām 166 Pirital 82, 113 Piritimati 71 Pitir 192 Pitta 154 Play cart 31 Poetic fancy 109 Poetry 78 Pokamakalir 188 Pokan-igra-puņniyan
188 Poka-pumi 190 Polygamy 84 Poruļ 86, 88, 94 Porulkatikāram 78 Poruļkal or aintu 140,
196 Porunararruppațai 100,
101 Poruppan 81 Poşadhopavasa-vrata 144 Poti 179 Potthaka 174, 184 Pottakam 174, 184 Poyyāmoļi 37, 38, 41 Prahasana 49 Prabhavalaya 140 Prabhāvana 138 Pracala 196 Pracalā Karma 130 Pracala-praccala 162 Pracala-pracala Karma
130, 153 Pradesa 129 Pradyota 55 Prahasana 49 Prakrit 1, 35, 54, 117
124, 129, 165
Pratyākhyānāvaraņa
Karma 153 Pratyeka-prakịtis 132
133, 161 Prāyagcitta 151 Prayāpa 91 Premarital love 26 Pritimati 71 Prititara 140 Proşadhānasana 144 Proşdhopavāsa 143 Pșthivipati 49 Prthivisundari 71 Pūcal 185 Pūcapai 166 Pudgala 126, 127 Pudukkottai 34 Pūja 148 Pūjanā 166 Pukār 53, 114 Pulampan 81 Pulay 86, 87 Pūmakal 112 Pūmakal Ilampakam
66, 111, 121 Pumi-tēvi 190
Punartal 82 Pungava 164 Punkevam 164. Punniyanampi 188 Puns 109 Punya 126, 188 Puram 78, 83 Purāna 168 Purāņa 168 Puranānūru 30, 31, 43,
44, 51 Puranic 44 Purattipai 83 Puraviccen 74 Pūrņabhadra 52 Pürņa pätra 13 Puruşārthas 94 Puruşa-veda 131 Purvāgama 140 Puspasena 2, 39 Pustaka 174 Pustakam 184 Putam 164, 165 Putavi 71 Putti 168 Putticēnan 60, 63, 65,
66, 71 Racamalla 38 Raghu 98 Raghuvamsa 93, 98, 99,
105, 106, 107 Rainy season 79 Rajamalla 37 Rājamāpuram 54, 58,
59, 64, 65 Rajapuri 4, 32 Rajarāja 32, 33, 34, 49 Rājarājapuram 33 Rājarājapuri 32, 33 Rājarajan ula 42 Rājarā jeccuram 33 Rājasimha 40

Page #236

Subject-Index
223
Rajavali Katha 41 Rajendra 32 Rakşasa 52 Rāma 114 Rāmāyana 51 Ranga 180, 185 Rasa 91, 92, 111, 112,
113, 129 Rasanişpattiḥ 85 Rasaparityāga 151 Rāstrakūta 2 Rati 131 Ratnakaranda 137 Ratnaka andaśrävaka
cāra 48, 124, 125, 148 Ratnatraya 137 Ratnavali 75, 76 Ratnavati 65, 66, 67
69, 71 Rātri-bhuktivrata 144 Raudra 85 Rava 180 Rāvana 44, 52 Ravi 180 Region 79 Regressive assimilation
183 Revati 175, 180 Right conduct 139 Ritualistic ideas 125, 146 Ritualistic concept 199 Robiņi 164, 180, 183 Roma 180 Rtusaṁbāra 29 Rudra 2, 43 Rudradatta 55, 57, 72, 99 Rudradhyāna 151, 152 Rudraga 112 Rupa 180, 191 Rūpasiddhi 34 Śabara 179 Sabadalamkāras 108, 109
Saccamdharu 35 Sa-citta-vrata 144 şadāvagyakas 150 saddravyas 133, 140 Sadguṇācchādana 133 Sadharananāmakarma
135 Sadhu 92, 159 Sadhya dharma 168 Sāgara 71 Sāgaradatta 64 Sāgaradharmämsta 48 Sāgārika 76 Sāhadeva 43 Sahajātijaya 140 Sahasrāra 68 Sahityadarpaņa 90 Śaila 91 Saiva 46 Saiva Saints 47, 120,
125 Gaivism 47 Saindhava 176 Saints 159 Sakalabhasaņa 140 Sakața 164, 177, 178 Sākatāyana 41 Śakti 173 Šajākā 172 Salyation 55, 95, 136 Sama 119 Samati 71 Samanar Metu 34 Samantabbadra 41, 124
137, 143, 144 Sāmāoya Siddhas 159 Samsārastha 120 Samayasara 124, 159 Sāmāyika 143, 144, Samāyika Śrāvaka 144 Sambhoga 112 Samghatana-nāma
karma 133
Samahramana nama
karma 133 Sami 158 Samidha 173 Samjvalana 131 Samjvalana Kaşāyas
154 Samjvalaha Krodha 1996 Saṁjvalana lobha 153 Samjvalana-maya
Karma 195 Samara 182 Sam parāya gunasthana
154 Saṁskāras 48 Samsthāna. Nāma
Karma 133, 161 Samvara 126 Samyag-Cáritra 137, 19 Samyag-darśana 137,
196 Samyag-drsţi 142 Samyag-jñana 137, 196 Samyag-Mithyādņšți
136, 142 Samyag-Mithyatva 131 Samyakva 130, 162 Sāmayika Karman 143 Sandhi 91, 164 Sanghata 161 Sankara 167 Sankha 177 şanmukha 27, 44 Sanskrit 1, 35, 48, 49,
51, 52, 53, 54, 78,
110, 117, 124, 125 etc, Santa 65 Sāptideva 40 Śapa 167 Sarga-bandb 9b Śarana 181 Sarasvati 25, 30, 40

Page #237

224
Sarasvatikanthabharana
90
Šarira 161
Sarvarthasiddhi 48, 124 Sarvadana-Samyagdṛṣṭi
136
Śatagni 191
Sata-Vedaniya 133, 161 Satkaṣaya 196
Sattvikabhavas 85, 86 Satya 143
Satyandhara 5, 9, 10,
11, 35, 54, 55, 57, 66, 71, 72, 73, 99 etc. Satyavakya 37, 38 Satyavakya Konguni. varma Bhutuga
Permanadi 37 Sauraseni 176
Savara 179
Śayana 190 Sayogi-kevalin 136 Sayogi-kevali-gunas
thana 155
Sea side poetry 79 Sembian-mavali
vanarāja 49
Semi vowel 188 Sena gaṇam 45, 47
Sendava 176
Sentiment 91
Separation 82
Sev 192
Seven hills 141 Sevvali 81
Sholapur 33 Šibika 181
Sibilant 181, 182
Siddha 25, 92, 125, 126,
156, 159, 160 Siddhahood 156 Sikhs 181

Siksa 143
Sila 173 Silagupta 56, 57, 72,
74
Šilatala 167
Simha 184, 186
Simha ganam 45 Simhala princess 76
Simha pura 72 Sindură 182
Sinhalese 28 Śista 166
Sita 52, 114
Śiva 16, 25, 44, 107 Śivamara 38
Six dravyas 134
Six essential duties 150 Six external penances 151
Six internal penances 151 Six nokaşayas 154 Six non-passions 174
Skanda 27, 44 Skanda kumāra 28
Skanda purana 27, 28 Ślejma 109
Śmaśāna 181 Soldiering 82
Somadeva 33, 76, 117 Somadeva suri 33, 34 Šoka 131
Soul 125, 126, 132,
147, 149, 156, 197
South India 27, 28, 78 Sparia 161
Sphatika 171, 179, 183 Śravakacaras 48, 124 Śrāvana 34
Śravana Belgola 34,
36, 39, 40 Śravya 112 Sravya-vyttaḥ 118

Study of Civakacintamani
Śrenika 6, 7, 77
Śri 46, 70 Śricandra 64, 75
Śridatta 8, 71
Śribar a 75
Śrimatta 71 Śripańcami 2 Śripuranam 1 Śrivardhadeva 38, 39,
40
Sigara 85, 112, 113 Śṛngaraprakāśa 11 Śṛngaraśataka 94 Śruta-jñana 114
Śrutajaänava raniya 153 162
Śrutajnanavaranıya
Karma 129 Śrutam 196 Śrutasagara 33 Stambha 85
Sthala 183
Sthana 161, 183 Sthandila 171, 183 Sthavara 126 Sthavara dajaka 132, 161
Sathavara prakṛtis 133 Sthayibbava 85, 86 Sthita 129
Sthiti Karma 138
Sthula 127 Striveda 131, 153 Stuti 147
Styänag ddhi 162 Styanagddhi Karma 130, 153
Subhacandra 1 Subhadra 7
Subramanya 27, 97 Suri 174, 182 Sadanjana 73

Page #238

Subject-Index
Sudarjana 19, 20, 59
Sudharma 6, 54
Śudraka 106 Sukra 2
Sukha 183, 190 Sukla-dhyana 151, 152, 155
Saksma 154
Sukṣma nama kaima 153
Suksma samparaya 136 Šula 193
Sun 194
Sunaga 179
Sunaka 181
Sundara 167, 182
Sundari 69
Suraguru 2
Suramalaya 67
Suramanjar 24, 35, 59,
70 Sarapadma 44 Surya 2
Susama-sutama 127
Sutra 165
Svadehaparimaṇa 126
Svadhyaya 151
Svagata 177, 183
Svarasada 85
Svarga 166 Svargaloka 140
Sveda 85, 86
Syamalata 70
Taci 174
Taijasika 187
Tajai 119
Takatar 38
Takataryattirai 87
Talakad 33, 37, 38 Tsjam 183 Talavanapura 37
C-29

Tamil 51, 53, 62, 125 Tanam 183, 195
Tanapalan 71
Tanapati 61, 62, 73, 74 Tanip-pătal 87
Tanjore 33
Tanilam 178, 183 Taptiyalamkram 83, 89, 90, 103
Tapa 187 Tapaciyar 164
Tapas 147, 173, 179, 185, 187, 191
Tapasah 187
Tapasvin 164 Tapatappalli 187
Tāracuram 33
Taran 58
Taranikavalan 187 Tanapati 61
Tarkuripperram 102
Tarumatattan 73
Taruman 98
Taruppai 171, 179
Tatamittan 62
Tatan 171
Tajamittan 73, 74 Tathāgata 10 Tattan 70
Tattvärthadhigama 126 Tattvärtha-Mahastra 41
Tattvärthasutra 124, 126,150, 151
Tattvas 126
Tava 179, 187
Tavam 175, 178, 179 Tavappalli 187
Tavari 70
Tavavilakku 187 Tava-virar 191
Tacikappavai 61, 67, 73, 113

225
Teva-ati-tavan 189 Tēva-kitam 189 Tévan 43 Tēvapani 92 Tēvar 23, 25, 28, 31,
35, 36. 37, 48, 49, 53, 54, 56, 6062, 66, 75, 89, 113 Tēvaram 167 Tevarp-Paravutal 92 Tēvatitevan 71, 188 Teva-tuntupi 189 Tevvar 186
Teyvam 164, 175
Teyvappakai 109
Theological ideas 158 Theological teachings
125
Thirukkural 94
Three bands of light 140
Three gems 137
Three gunas 196 Three kinds of devas 141
Three wondrous 140 Three-worlds 140 The vowel changes 170 Tical 41, 164 Tik-kayankal 190 Tilöttamai 10, 71 Time 79
Tinai 83
Tinaimalai nurraimpatu 123
Tipaimayakkam 82 Tipam 173, 179, 183 Tippili 171
Tippiyam 166 Tirtha 168, 178
Tirtham 193, 194, 196

Page #239

Study of Civakacintamani
226
Trasa-daşaka 132, 161 Trasa-prakstis 133 Trident 193 Trindriya nāma karma
157
Tirtban 196 Tırtbankaras 2, 143 Tirthankara siddhas 149
193, 194 Tirttam 178, 196 Tirttan (Name of Bu.
ddba) 168 Tiruvaracila 47 firukkural 165, 184 Tirumukkudlu Narasipur
Taluk 36, 40, 41 Tirumal 42, 81 Tirumurukarruppațai
26, 164, 194 Tirunānacampanta cu.
vamikal 47 Tirunāvakkaracar 47 Tiruttakkamunivar 1,
4, 37. etc Tiruttakkatēvar 1 Tiruttonțar-Purāņam 36 Tiruttontar-vara Lāsu 36 Tiryagānupurvi näma
Karma 157 Tiryaga ayus 132, 161 Tiryag-gati-nāma-Kar
ma 153 Titap 175, 178 Titantam 168 Tocam 176, 181 Tolāmoli 42 Tolgmolittevar 42, 93 Tolkāppiyam 78, 82, 83
87, 89, 95, 100, 112
Trivandrum plays 105 Tulika 174 Tulikai 174 Tukkam 166 Tamam 178 Tumbalur Accāryar 41 Tumpai 51, 83 Turaga 168 Turai 83, 120 Turkkai 81 Tuta 171 Turakam 168 Tuti 81 Tatu 178 Tavi 171 Uccair gotra 161 Ucchvāsas 118 Udarată 166 Udatta 85, 102 Udaya 167, 190 Udayana 53, 76, 93,
118 Udayatara 140 Udayendiram 49 Udayendu 49 Udbhata 112 Uddbata 95 Uddipana 85 Uddista-tyāga 144, 145 Udi 192 Udyāna 91, 158 Udyota-nāma-Karma
153 Ujjain 25, 53 Ukkirapperuvaluti 43 Ula 107
Ulakam 176, 180 Ulakamapbavan 185 Ulokapālag 61 Ulinai 83 Ulka 164 Ullurai 108 Uloccanar 44 Uloccu 44 Ulokamāpalan 70 Ulokapālaj 61, 73 Ulūpas 154 Uma 101 Umāpaticivāccariyar 36 Umaswāmin 124, 126 Uparvu 1 97 Unreciprocated love 82 Upabhoga 131 Upabhogāntarāya 153,
126 Upabhogāntarāya karma
132 Upagbāta 129 Upagubana 138 Upama 84 Upapayana 48 Upaśānta-kaşāya -Vita
rāga chadmastha 136,
155 Upaśānta-kaşāya vita.
rāga chadmastha gu
pasthāna 153 Uraiccirappuppāyiram
36, 41 Urap 81 Urdhvagati 121 Uripporu! 79 Urkam 164 Urokiņi 164 Uroman 180 Uropi 176, 180, 183 ūrumpērum 33 Uruņēmi 185
165
Toomai 86, 87 Tõbral 81 Toņţakam 81 Totarpilaicceyyu! 87, 90 Transcendental
knowledge 130 Trasa 126

Page #240

221
Subject-Index
Uruttirap 43 Uruttiratattan 135 Uruvac-cātakam 191 Uruvam 180 Utaratai 166 Utayakumaran 95, 114 Utaya 167 Uli 192 Utpreksā 10., 103, 109 Utsarpiņi 127 Uttama 70, 174 Uttarapurāṇam 1, 2, 4,
6, 8, 9, 28, 35, 51,
54, 62, 64, 75 etc. Uvakai 85 Uvamaiyiyal 84 Uvātti 174 Uyyanam 168 Vac 192 Vācaney 188 Vacciram 181 Vācikkioran 192 Vacuntari (Vasundhari)
74 Vadibhasimba 1, 3, 5,
8, 23, 25, 29, 31, 34, 37, 42, 69, 118, 198 etc Vadiraja 33, 34 Vādirudragana 34 Vaikarai 82 Vaimabika 176 Vairāgyagataka 94 Vaigākha 176 Vaişpava 46, 166 Vaişnava alvars 47,
120, 165 Vaisravanadatta 70 Vaišya 57 Vaivarnya 85 Vaiyāvětya 143, 147, 151 Vaiyāvrtya vow 144 Vajta 181
Vajranandi 45, S . Vākai 83 Vala (Indira) 10 Valaiyacuntaram 64 Valvag 36 Vali 15, 26, 27, 28, 191 Vaļinul 89 Valjai 101 Valliammai 26 Valliammai kuţtam 26 Valmiki 93 Valmiki Rāmāyana 93 Valtu 92 Valavan 36 Vāmalēkai 74 Vaman 10, 11 . . Vāmana 112 Vanc 192 Vanci 37, 38, 81, 83 Vancippa 119, 120 Vancittu 192 Vapappu 87 Vandana 143, 147 Vanna 181 Vaņņam 181 Varadatta 71 Varalaru 36 Varaku 81 Vardhamāoa 67, 68 Varma 69 Varņa 94, 161. 168,
181, 192 Varuņa 98 Varuņao 81, 98, 168 Varunittal 192 Vasantaka 76 Vaşatkāra 25 Vasavadatta 76 Vastunirdesa 91 Vasundharā 67, 71 Vata 154, 181
Vațamolivācakam 52 Vati 70 Vatsa 76 Vatsalya 138 Vatsyāyana 94, 108 Vatta 175 Vedaniya karma 129,
132 Vedas 83, 131 Veddhas 28 Vedic poetry 78 Vedic songs 84 Vega 175 Vēkam 175, 194, 195 Vekuļi 85 Vēli 187 Vēmanikan 176 Vengi 32 Vepil 82 Vennāvikkulam 34 Venpa 119, 120 Venravas 197 Vēntag 81. Vepathu 85 Veţci 58, 83 Verpap 81 Vibhāvas 85 Vicayai 31, 35, 55, 56
74, 98, 99, 100, 101
109, 113, 156, 160 Vicayap (Viyaya) 42,
62, 14 Vicayatattap 71 Vichchadiri Pați 49 Vidagdba 191 Videha 9, 65, 68, 175 Vidyādbara 25, 114 Vidyullata 71 Vihayogati-nāma-karma
133 Vijayā 3, 11, 14, 24,
54, 55, 57, 63, 71

Page #241

228
Study of Civakacintamuni
Vajaya giri 66
Vijayamati 71 Vikalam 168 Vikramorvasiya 114 Vilanku 141 Vimala 35, 77 Vimalai 64 Vimalacandra 39 Vimalaiyār llampakam
64, 121 Vimana 180 Vimanam 180 Vipa 191 Vinai 96 . Viņai-vittakao 191 Vivāpati 74 Vintai 70 Vinaya 150 Vinayamamahalai 70 Vinaya mahămåla 70 Vinayandhara 72 Vipulamati 58, 72 Vipralambha 91, 113 Vipulam (Vipula) 74 Viraga 195 Virali 100, 191 Virākam 195.
Viranandin 72 Virasena 39 Viratam 168 Viricikan 74 Virii 183 Viruddha 192 Viruntu 86, 87 Viruttam 48, 120 Viryantaraya karma
132, 162 Virama 119 Vismaya 85 Vişnu 16, 44 Vişnusarma 52, 53 Visvanātha 90, HO Vitaiyam 175 Vitalai 81 Vitāna 192 Vitānittu 192 Vitatai 17 Vitekam 104 Vithi 189, 191 Vitiyal 82 Vivikta sayyāsana 151 Vrata 143, 146, 168,
181 Vrihi 183 Vritha 91
Vịşabhadatta 71, 72 Vștta 118, 119, 175 Vrttiparisamkhyana 151 Vyabh icāribhavas 85, 86 Vyatireka 101 Vyavahārasamyagdat
śana 137 Vijayāditya Raņávik
rama 37 Vyutsarga 151 Yaka 16, 20, 59, 64
66, 98, 142, 164, 166 Yakşendra 16, 20 Yakşi 55, 57, 180 Yama 98, 167, 180 Yamaka 111 Yamam 79, 82, 180 Yantra 176, 183 Yaugandharāyaṇa 53 Yapparunkala viritti 41 Yagodbara 70 Yavadatta 71 Yocanai 169 Yojana 168, 176, 180 Yūpa 164

Page #242

Abhinavamanga Raja
Atiyarkkunallar 53, 88 89, 90, 94
41
Awasthi A.B.S. 27 Ayyangar S. R. 45 Balasubramaniyam. B 41
Bāṇa 25
Bechart Heinz 28
Bhamaha 90, 112 Bhargava Dayananda
142, 143, 150, 152 Bharata 73, 85, 86, 112 Bharavi 40, 111, 174 Bhāsa 105
Bhaskara 1
Bharthari 94
Bhatta Akalan kadeva
41
Bhoja 90, 117
Bhujabali Sastri 32
Budhaswamin 76
Burrow. T 193
Catta är 53
Cekkilar 101
Centan 42
Chakravarti A. 159 Chellaiah J.V. 101 Chidambaranatha Cettiyar A. 85, 120 Comacuntaram.P.V. 42 Dapdin 40, 84, 89, 90, 91, 93, 100, 104 106 112, 117, 122, 100 Dayapala Munl 34 Devadhar C.R. 105 Dhananjaya 95, 96

AUTHOR INDEX
Durvinita 48, 76, 93 Edgar 26 Emeneau.M.B. 163 Fleet J.F. 33 Glassenapp W. V. 130 Gnanamurthy T.E. 35 100, 120, 122 Gopinatha Rao T.A. 38, 41
Gunabhadra 41, 42, 48, 198
Guṇāḍhya 76, 93, 117 Handique K.K. 33 Hari candra 73 Hertel Johnnes 52 Hultzsch, E. 39, 40 Iracamanikkanar M. 43, 164 Iramacamippulavar C.A. 42
Iramanathapillai P.
167
Jacobi 129
Jagannathan K. V. 87, 89,93
Jain Jyoti Prasad
38, 39
Jain Pannalal 39 Jaini Jagmanderlal 127, 159 Jinasena 48, 156 Jinasena Punnata 39 Kale M. R. 104 Kalidasa 93, 98, 100, 107, 114 Kampar 93, 103 Kane P. V. 47

Kautilya 94 Kenkuvējir 48, 53, 123, 160 Krishna Rao 58 Grishnaswamy
Ayyangar 53
Kuppuswamamy Sastri. T. S. 36 Lacote Felix 76, 117,
118 Magha 111 Mahejvara 39, 40 Marr J. R. 84, 86 Meenakshisundaram T. P. 41, 106 Naccinarkkiniyar 36, 37, 41, 88, 117, 121 Nandargikar 107 Nilakanta Sastri K. A. 38, 40
Pandey R. B. 157, 158 Peraciriyar 85, 87 Pope G. U. 124 Pajyapada 45, 124 Pūrṇabhadra 52
Puspadanta 35, 198 Puspasena 39 Raghavan V. 76, 117 Ramchandra Diksitar V. R. 97 Ramchandran
Cettiyar. C. M. 33 Ramalinkacuvami 36 Ramaswami Ayyangar
M. S. 38, 39 Rao. B. Seshgiri 45 Rice Lewis 40, 41, 42

Page #243

230
Rudrata 112
Samanta Bhadra 137 Sethuppillai R. P. 33 Singaravela S. 79 Sithala Prasad 32 Srikantha Sastri 60 Subramanian N. 27, 86, 99
Swamikkannuppillai L.D. 40
Swaminath Iyer, U. V. 41, 93, 110, 121, 134 Tanti 188
Thaninayagam
Xavier S. 84, 89

Tiruttakkatevar
1, 37, etc. Tolamilittevar 42, 93 Tolkappiyar 79, 85, 86, 89, 100, 112, 165 Turner R C. 70 Udbhaja 112 Umapaticivaccariyar
36
Umäsvamin 124, 126
Vadibhasimha 33, 34, 37, 42, 69, 118, 198, etc. Vadiraja 33, 34

Study of Civakacintamani
Vaidyanathan S. 163, 169 Vaiyapuripillai. S. 41, 42, 86, 165, 166 Venkataraman, K. R. 34
Vidyanandi 38, 39
Viśvanatha 90
Williams Monier 44
Williams A. 142, 156,
159, 160 Winternitz, M. 45

Page #244

ERRATA
Read For Page Line Read
For Page Line reighn of Kạna reign Kļļņa 2 10 rajarajo'yam rajarajayam 32 19 XII XXII
7 Fn.2 1. K. Bhujabali 2.K. Bhujabali 32 Fn,2 new hew
8 10
2. Kc, 11:106 3. Kc, 11.106 32 Fo.3 which are not found which are not 8 14 3. Srikantha 1. Srikantha 32 Fn. 1 in the Up and are found in the other
title
titls
32 29 found in the other three texts
in his
is his 32 24 three texts 2:36-37 23:6-37
(A.D. 985-1016) (A.D.985-1015) 34 8 Fn.2
31 130-231
Curamanjari - pp. 130-131
8 Fn.8
Turamanjari 35 26
- delete 'in' Zvairbhavad 10 29
36 āvirbhavad
2 delete; and insert,
36 34 nastikacadāmaņir nāstilkacudāmaner 10 30 kurumin enpavē kūruminnnvē 117
B. Seshagiri Rao C.Seshagiri Rao 37 Fn.4 vidhiyate vidhiyatie 11 13
Insert 'of' after “Ganga kings' 37 30
Delete 'also ivvārākip
ivviārākip 12 26
38 1 elements
14 10 urayir uraiyir
447
elemeats Disregarding Discarding
21 7 these
there 44 8 mistaking msitaking 21 31
patinenkilkka akku patinenkil 45 34
kkroakku touri
ionri
22 30 continues
contains - 46 5 kapri
knori
23 7 worship
whorship 46 27 alar
olar
23 9 p. 425
p. 415 47 Fn.4 one can also and can also 23 2
began
begin 48 10 Mahā samājam Waha sa mājam 24 Fool
country
conntry 49 28
9 iv have concluded have conclude 25 2
Duryodhana
Durdodhana 51 22 25 23 nall ētu
Dali ētu 52 19 tales
26 through
tates 9 thraugh
52 Fn.3, kuravars
line 4 kuravar 26 16 Narripai
Ataikkalakkātai Ațaikkalabkátai 53 Fn. 1 Narriņia 26 Fp.5
Insert hyphen between 284 and 296 57 Fn.3 and
any
27 15 Murukan
p. 149 27 15
5 8 Fn.1 Hurukan
vv. 934-946 60 Fn.3 traditions
vv. 934-936 traptions 27 26
(vii)
(vil) 29 10
8 Captirapam occurs Cantirapam
62 Cc. v. 1188
63 15 Cc. v. 1181
(ii)
29 Fn.5 deliberately daliberately 31 12
according
accarding 63 15 Patumukan
Patumukon 63 16 phrase
phrse 31 25
Ud.
64 Fn.4 books and inscrip- books and the 32 6,7 tions and the references
Kötavari
Kovintai 70 7 references
tāyari'
"vintai' 70 8
of
ef
P. 83
(iii)
Up.

Page #245

232
Read
Kovintai
'vintai'
Kuberamitra
KuperatattaD
(Sumati)
Kurutattai
(Gurudatta)
Cinatattai
(Sudarjana)
Kantukkatab
'mountain poetry' and pasture land poetry and sea side poetry Karupporul each of the six seasons of the Tamil year and duringthe six major divisions of the Tamil day. Kiattil Drying the fish making salt fish and products the people Puṛanānūru p. 82
cut. 247.
Tamil
characteristics
contains
composition
another
Aciriyappa
Tamil
expresses
küriya
avarrai

Page Line
70 9
70 9
Kaberamitra 70 31
Kuberatattan 71 2 (Samati) 71 5 Karutattai 71 10 (Puradatta) 71 30 Cinatatti (Sudañjana) 73 23 Kantakkajan 74 17 mountain 79 2 poetry and
73 23
sea side poetry
For
Kotavari
'tavari'
Uripporul each of the six major divisions of the Tamil day
81 17
Kalatti drying the 8 35 fish fish and ducts 81 36
they people 83 28 Putanäpäru 84 Fn.3 p. 83
84 Fn.3
cut. 251
85 Fn.2
79 23
Tamit 85 Fn.5 chacteristics 86 14
cotains 86 20 composion 87 3
anothar 87 5 Aeriyappa 87 37 Tami 88 22 expreresses 88 Fr. 2
line 1
kuriy
avrri
88 Fn.2.
line 4
88 Fn.2
line 6
Read
palaiyat
influence
nannul
Cc.
flesh
embellished
will live
indication
cut. 109
Matavi things oflife in
conformity with these rules. Kama encompa sses the desires and pleasures of life one enjoys; now these are
treated point of view. Virtuous
Civakan vv 934-960
mayachadmaparāyaṇah
Dhira-lalita
tirumakab
Study of Civakacintamani
great amount of perfuming look like the day Kailasasikhariņām
Patumai Kupamalaiyar
Petumpai matararkal

For
Page Line
palayaiyat 88 Fn 2, line 9 influcence 89 18 90 8
nul
Ce
90 13
flech
90 19
embellished 91 28 with
figures will
indicatlon 92 3
cnt. 109 Malavi things of life one
enjoys;
how these 94 32
treated
point of
Ibid.2:6
pulampalu makilvu pulampu
makilvu
Virtuous
Cinvakan
92 Fn.2
93 22 94 7
94 26
vv. 984-960 94 Fn.2
94 26
mayachadma 95 Fn.6
prayanah
Ibid 2:3
96 37
Dhira-laita 97 2 tiromakan 98 28 great of 100 13 perfumming 102 24 look the day 102 32 Ksilasasi 106 10 khariņām
Potumai 106 27 Kupamiaipar 107 4
Petumpat 106 35
mätaraka 107 15

Page #246

Errata
Read
For pade pade durnamite pude
supra p. 83
ilampakam
speech
capital
panicēr
their
kitapk
kavine 2
Civakat's
ilampokam 108 16 speeeh 109 19 capital 109 20 panier 109 25
thier
110 31
111 25
111 16
112 25
Teyar
113 38
Tēvar describe
describe 113 16
Cc.vv. 188-198 Gc.vv. 188-198 113 Fn,2
marunkum
pārāṭṭa
mukil malai
ilampakam
Lacote
salvation
syllable
final foot
sleeping tone
possible
pitart pitart garudas rising up garudas up 945 645
social
Jainism
necessary
influence
bear
souls
other
destructive
knowledge
through
scriptures female
durnamite supra 149 108 Fn. 5 & 6

kitoņk
kavine 1
Givakan's
Page Line
107 32
necsssary
influence
114 26
115 23
116 Fn.2
maruńkik 116 10 paraiṭṭa 116 10 muki mulail 116 31 ilampakyam 117 19 Locate 118 Fn.2 salvantion 118 19 syallable 119 26
final syllable 119 27 swinging tone 120 5 possilbe
123 3
serial
123 15
Jainaim
123 19
124 15
124 33
125 9
Read
Pinda-prakṛti
proclaiming
ventan
räintu
ak katal
nālē
this in his poem
actions
nalluyirkk
prides
nammaiy
makijatum
mut
went
characters
tuppam
conditions
nalamirta
kaivilakk
about
penances concentration)*
ananta-sukha
praise
cittirakujam pampintik
cērttingn
For
Page Lin
Pind-prakrti 132 30
2
proclaining 133 25 veutan
134 3
rālniu
ak ka kajal nōlē
this poem
acitus
naleuyirkk
prices
uanmajy
maki atum
mnt
want
eharacters
9.28
karmas
shield
Ibid. commentary on Cc.v. 3074 T.S. 10.2
came

233
134 12
134 16
135 10
136 11
136 36
142 21
tunyam 145 33 canditions 148 7 ualamirta 149 5 kalvijakk 149 26 abont 150 10 penanes 151 1 concentration) 151 32 151 Fn.4
p. 202 karmas
153 29
shields
153 39 153 Fn.
137 15
138 14
140 6
140 30
141 27
142 17
have
come 155 12 anana-sukha 155 30 paise 158 26 cittlra-katam 158 29 pintik
158 36
certtipan
be
sous
127 35
have been
another
ethey
128 35 they dectructive 129 25 Middle Tamil period Middle period 165 knowleage 129 31 which
167 1
throgh
epic
129 33 129 34
wchich eqic remaining
sculptures
remains
femal
131
32
para 248
160 12
163 21
164 10
167 6 170 32
paras 147-148 179 Fn.1

Page #247

234
Study of Civakacintamani
Read
For
For
Page Line
sabara 2310 female Kalusan adapted 1604
sābara
310 famale Kalulan ada petd 1601
Page Line Read
179 32 Simha 17934 virah 180 12 3080 180 29 374,2813 181 17 nānam 182 28 karumakkatal
Smhai 182 34 virah 191 19 3030 195 3
1965 nanam
197 2 karumakketal 196 26

Page #248